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INTRODUCTION 


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f  ^      .  I  TO    THE  \T# 

CRITICAL   STUDY  AND   KNOWLEDGE 


I 


OF    THE 


HOLT  SCRIPTURES. 


BY 


nA\ 


THOMAS  HARTWELL  HORNE,  B.D. 

OF  SAINT  John's  college,  Cambridge  ; 


aacion  of  the  united  parishes  of  saint  edmund  the  kino  and  martvr  and  saint  Nicholas  acons, 


'     I 


LOMBARD    street;    PREBENDARY    OF    SAINT    PAULS. 


xr. 


NEW  EDITION, 

PfROM    the    eighth    LONDON    EDITION,    CORRECTED     AND     ENLARGED 

ILLUSTRATED    WITH    NUMEROUS    MAPS    AND    FAC-SIMILES    OF    BIBLICAL    MANUSCRIPTS. 


<  /   1 


I  ^ 


'J^iTVC^L. 


vm  "My 


I 


,Uju>JHJ       — 


VOLUME  II. 


I 


N  E  W    Y  O  R  K  : 

PUBLISHED  BY  ROBERT  CARTER,  58  CANAL  STREET. 

PITTSBURG:— THOMAS  CAR-TER. 


3.    W.    BENEOrCT    AND    CO.    PRINTtKS. 


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n»  I  ii  f^mm< 


1844 


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t 


i 


i 


CONTENTS 


OF 


THE    SECOND   VOLUME. 


SUMMARY  OF  BIBLICAL  GEOGRAPHY  AND  ANTI- 
QUITIES. 


PART  I. 


A    SKETCH    OF    THE    HISTORICAI.    AND    PHYSICAL    GEOGHAPHV 
OF    THE    HOLT    LAND. 


('■fjAPTER  L  Historical  Geography  of  the  Holy  Land, 


I.  Naijfies 

IF.  Boundaries 

Id.  Inhabitants  before  the  Conquest  of  Canaan  by  the 

Israelites 

IV.  Division  by  Joshua. — Allotments  of  the  Twelve 

Tribes  

V.  The  Kingdom  under  David  and  Solomon 
VI.  The  Kingdoms  of  Judah  and  Israel 
VII.  Divisions  in  the  Time  of  Jesus  Christ     . 
VIII.  Account  of  the  City  of  Jerusalem  : — 

1.  Names 

2.  Situation 

3.  Fortifications  and  Walls 

4.  State  of  the  City  before  the  fat.il  War  of  the 

Jews  with  the  Romans 

5.  Remarkable  Buildings 

6.  Notice  of  the  successive  Captures  of  the  City 

7.  Sketch  of  its  present  Stale    . 
IX.  Later  Divisions  of  Palestine  : — 

1.  Under  the  Romans         .... 

2.  In  the  Time  of  the  Crusades 

3.  Modern  Divisions  under  the  Turkish  Govern 

ment    . 


PAGE 


13 

14 

14 

15 

IG 

17 

17 

ih. 

17, 

18 

18 

19 

19 

19 

20 

20 

21 

il. 

«! 

,22 

22 

ib. 

ih. 


Chapter  II.  Fhyaical  Geography  nf  the  Holy  Land. 

Section-  I.   Climate,  Seaso?is,  and  Physical  Appear- 
ance of  the  Coantry.  \ 

T.  Climate 23 

II.  Seasons ih. 

1.  Seed-time il). 

2.  Winter            23, 24 

3.  The  Cold  Season,  or  Winter  Solstice   .        .  2-4 

4.  Harvest ih. 

6.  Summer ih. 

6.  The  Hot  Season. — Heavy  Dews           .        .  24,  25 

tll.  Rivers.  Lakes,  Wells,  and  Fountains. — Cisterns  and 

Pools  of  Solomon 25-29 

IV    Mouniains 29-31 

V.  Valleys 31,32 

VI.  Caverns 32 

Vli.  Plains 33 

Mil.  Deserts 34 

Horrors  and  Dangers'  of  Travelling  in  the  Great 

Desert  of  Arabia 34, 35 

Section  II.    On  the  Fertility  and  Productions  of  the 
Holy  Land. 

I.  Fertility  of  the  Holy  Land 35 

II.  Its  Productions  : — 

1.  Vegetables 35-37 

2.  Catile 37 

3.  Mines jj. 

III.  Testimonies  of  Ancient  and  Modern  Authors  to  its 

Fertility  and  Populousness                    .         .         .  37, 38 

IV.  Calamities  with  which  this  Country  was  visited : — 

1.  The  Plague    .......  38 

2.  Earthquakes ih. 

3.  Whirlwinds    .                                 .  ib. 


4.  The  Devastations  of  Locusts 

6.  Famine 

6.  The  Simoom,  or  Pestilential  Blast  of  the 
Desert 


I.  Powers  and  Functions  of  the  Roman  Procurators  . 

II.  Political  and  Civil  State  of  the  Jews  under  their 

A'lminisiration 

III.  Account  (if  Pontius  Pilat«        .         .         .         .        . 

IV.  And  of  the  Procurators,  Felix,  Festus,  and  Gessius 

Flor'is 


FACE 
?9 

40 
ib 


PART  II. 

POLITICAL    AXTIQ.UITIES    OF    THE    JEWS. 

Chapter  I.  different  Forms  of  Government,  and 
Folilicul  State  of  the  Hehreios,  on-  Jews,  from  the 
Patriarchal  Times  to  the  Babylonian  Captivity. 

I.  Patriarchal  Government 4'> 

II.  Government  under  Moses, — a  Theocracy  ;  its  Na- 
ture and  Design            41 

1.  Heads,  or  Princes  of  Tribes  and  Families  41,  42 

2.  Jethronian  Prefects,  or  Judges  appointed  by 

Moses 42 

3.  The  Senate,  or  Council  of  Seventy  Assessors  ib. 

4.  Scribes            ,  ib. 

III.  Covernment  of  the  Judges i'' 

IV.  .Ucgal  Government  instituted           .        •        .        ■  42, 43 

1.  Functions  and  Privileges  of  the  Kings          .  43,44 

2.  Inauguration  of  the  Kings     ....  44 

3.  Chief  Distinctions  of  Majesty       .         .  ib 

4.  Scriptural  Allusions  to  the  Courts  of  Sove- 

reigns and  Princes  explained      .         .         .  45, 46 

V.  Revenues  of  the  Kings  of  Israel      .         .         .         .  ,        46 

VI.  Magistrates  under  the  Monarchy    .        .        .        •  46. 4** 

VII.  Officers  of  til e  Palace 47 

Vlll.  The  Royal  Harem     .......  ib. 

IX.  Promulgation- of  Laws 47,48 

X.  The  Kingdoms  of  Judah  and  Israel  founded          .  48 
Schism  between  the  Twelve  Tribes ;  its  la{ent 

Causes ih. 

XI.  Reasons   why    the   Kingdom  of  Jiid.ih   subsisted 

longer  than  that  of  Israel 49 

XII.  State  of  the  Hebrews  during  the  Babylonish  Cap- 
tivity                     .        .  49, 50 

Chapter  II.  Political  State  of  the  Jews,  from  their 
Return  from  the  Babylonish  Captivity  to  the  Sub- 
version of  their  Civil  and  Ecclesiastical  Polity. 

Section  I.  Political  State  of  the  Jeius  n7ider  the  .Mac- 
cabees, arid  the  Sovereigns  of  the  Herodian  Family. 

I.  Brief  Account  of  the  Maccabees      ....  50 

II.  Sovereigns  of  the  Herodian  Family; — 

1.  Herod  the  Great — St.  Matthew's  Narrative 

of  his  Murder  of  the  Infants  at  Bethlehem 
confirmed 50, 51 

2.  Archclaus 51 

3.  Herod  Anlipas 52 

4.  Philip ih, 

5.  Herod  Agrippa ib 

6.  Agrippa, Junior ih. 

7.  Bernice  and  Drusilla      .....  ih. 

Sectiox  II.  Political  State  of  the  .Tews  under  the 
Roman  Procurators,  to  the  Subversion  of  their 
Civil  and  Ecclesiastical  Polity. 


52,53 
53 

ib 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Chapter  111.  Courts  of  Judicature,  Legal  Proceed- 
ings^ and  Criminal  Law  of  the  Jews. 

Section  I.  Jewish  Courts  of  Judicature  and  Le^al 
Proceedings. 

I.  Seat  oC  Justice b-i 

II.  Interior  Tribunals ib. 

III.  Appeals. — Constitution  of  the  Sanhedrin  or  Great 

Council 54, 55 

IV.  Time   of   Trials.  —  Form  of  Legal    Proceedings 

amonj;  the  Jews 55 

1.  Citation  of  the  Parties  ....  ib. 

2,  'i.  Form  of  Pleading  iu  Civil  and  Criminal 

Cases 56 

4.  Witnesses. — Oaths ib. 

5.  The  Lot,  in  what  Cases  used  judicially        .  ib. 

6.  Forms  of  Acquittal ib. 

7.  Summary  Justice  somolimes  clamorously  de- 

manded        56, 57 

V.  Executions  of  Sentenco^^,  by  whom  and  in  what 

manner  performed         .  ....  57 

Sectio;?  ir.  Of  the  Roman  Judicature,  JVIanner  of 
Trial,  Treatment  of  Prisoners,  and  other  Tribu- 
nals  mentioned  in  the  J\'ew  Testament. 

I.  Judicial  Proceedings  of  the  Romans        .         .         .         57,58 
II.  Privileges  and  Treatment  of  Roman  Citizens  when 

Prisoners 58, 59 

III.  Appeals  to  the  Imperial  Tribunal    ....  59 

IV.  The   Roman  Method  of  fettering   and    confining 

Prisoners 59, 60 

V.  The  Roman  Tribunals GO 

VI.  Other  Tribunals   mentioned   in   the  New  Testa- 
ment : — 

1.  The  Areopagus  at  Athens     .        .        .        .  60, 61 

2.  The  Assembly  at  Epliesus     ....  61 

Sectiox  IIL   On  the  Criminal  Law  of  the  Jews, 

51.  Crime-s  A'i.\iNST  God: — 

1.  Idolatry            .......  61 

2.  Blasphemy 62 

3.  Fiilsely  prophesying ib. 

4.  Divination ib. 

5.  Perjury .         .  ib. 

ir.  Cki.mks  AOAi.Nsr  Parknt.s  a.vd  Maolstrates      .  ib. 

HI     CrIMKS   AGAI.N:>1'   Proi'Ertv  : — 

1.  Theft 62 

2.  Manstealing 63 

3.  The  Crime  of  denying  any  Thing  taken  in 

trust  or  found ib. 

4.  Regulations  concerning  Debtors    .         .         .  ib. 
IV.  Chime.s  agai.nst  the  Perso.n  : — 

1.  Murder 63 

2.  Homicide ib. 

3.  Corporeal  Injuries 63,  64 

4    Crimes  of  Lust 64 

v.  Crimes  of  Malice ib. 

yEiTiox  IV.  On  the  Punishments  mentioned  in  the 
Scriptures. 


Deitign  of  Punishments. — Classification  of  Jewish 
Punishnu'iiLs  .         .         .         .         . 

I.    Pu.MSIIME.NTS,   NOT  CAPITAL: — 

1.  S;ourging       .... 

2.  Rci.iliation      .... 

3.  H('.>titiition. — Pecuniary  Fines 

4.  Off'-rni^js  in  the  i\:iture  of  Piini.sliment 

5.  IiDpriKoiiment. — Oriental   Alodo  of  treating 

Prisoners     .... 

6.  n.'iniHiiinpiil     .... 

7.  Depriving  them  of  Sinbt 

8.  ('uiiin(;  or  plucking  olf  the  Hair 

9.  KxroiMmnnicaiioii 
II.  C'AriTAr,  PrMsn.Mr..NTs  : — 

1.  .Siriyint;  with  the  Sword 
<)(li.."(if  the  Goel   . 

2.  Sioinng  ..... 

3.  liiirniiig  to  Death  . 

4.  Decapiintion 

5.  Precipitation 

6.  Drowning        .... 

7.  Bruising  in  a  Mortar 

8.  Dichotfuny,  or  (fitting  aHiinder 

9.  TuM'"">rf-i,'>T  Beating  to  De;ith 
ID.  Kxposini;  to  Wild  Itcusts 
11.  Crucifixion     .... 


64 

64,  65 

65,  66 
65 
ib. 

65,  66 
f.f. 
ib. 
ih. 
ib. 

67 
ih. 
ih. 
68 
ib. 
ib. 
ih. 
ib. 
ih. 
ib. 
ib. 
69 


(1.)  Prevalence  of  this  Mode  of  Punish- 
ment among  the  Ancients 

(2.)  Ignominy  of  Crucifixion  . 

(3.)  The  Circumstances  of  our  Saviour's 
Crucifixion  considered  and  illustrated 

Chapter  IV.  On  the  Jewish  and  Roman  Modes  of 
computing  Time,  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures. 

I.  Days  .      ' 

II.  Hours.— Watches  of  the  Night        .... 

HI.  Weelvs 

IV.  Months 

V.  Year,  Civil,  Ecclesiastical,  and  Natural 

Jewish  Calendar 

VI.  Parts  of  Time  taken  for  the  Whole 
VII.  Remarkable  /E,ma  of  the  Jews        .... 

Chapter  V.  On  the  Tributes  and  Taxes  mentioned 
in  the  Scriptures. 

I.  Annual  Payments  made  by  the  Jews  for  the  Sup- 

port of  their  Sacred  Worship        .... 
II.  Tributes  paid  to  their  own  Sovereigns    . 

III.  Tributes  and  Customs   paid   by  them  to  Foreigiv 

Powers. — Notice  of  the  Money-changers 

IV.  .\ccount  of  the  Publicans  or  Tax-gatherers 

Chapter  VL  On  the  Genealogical  Tables  of  the  He- 
brews, and  Public  Memorials  of  Events. 

I.  On  the  Genealogical  Tables  of  the  Hebrews 

II.  Public  Memorials  of  Events   .  ... 

Chapter  VIL   On  the  Treaties  or  Covenmifs,  Con- 
tracts, and  Oaths  of  the  Jews. 

I.  Whether  the  Jews  were  prohibited  from  conclud- 
ing Treaties  with  Heathen  Nations 
II.  Treaties,  how  made  and  ratified      .... 

Covenant  of  Salt 

HI.  Contracts  fur  the  Sale  and  Cession  of  alienable 

Property,  how  made 

IV.  Of  Oaths 

Chapter  V^III.  Latvs   respecting   Strangers,  .^ged, 
Blind,  Deuf,  and  Poor  Persons. 


I.  Of  Strangers      .        .        .         . 

II.  Of  the  Aged,  Blind,  and  Deaf 

HI.  Of  the  Poor       .        .        .        . 


$1.  Divisions  of  the  Roinnn  Army,  and  Roman  Mili- 
tary OlTiciTx,  inciitioiKMl  ill  ihe  New  TosUimont 

II.  Allii.oiiiiiH  to  the  Armour  of  till'  Rimaim 

HI.  AlliiHioiiN  to  their  .Miliinrv  F)i>«-i|ilini'. — Strict  Siib- 
ordiiiiitioii. — l(ew:irdK  of  the  Soldiern  who  ilis- 
tini^iiixhcd  ihrinselNCM  ...... 

I\'.  AlluMoii.s  to  ilic  Koiimii  Triumphu 


PAGE 
69 

ib. 
70-72 


72 

72,73 

73 

73,  74 

74,  75 
76.7ft 
76,77 

77 


78 
.A 

ib. 
78,  79 


79 
79,80 


m 

so,  Ml 
81 

ib. 
ft,  82 


82 
ib. 
83 


Chapter  IX.   Of  the  Military  Jlffairs  of  the  Jews, 
and  ot/ter  Nations  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures. 

Sectio-X  1.   On  the  Military  Discipline  of  the  Jews. 

I.  The  earliest  Wars,  predatory  Excursions         .         .  83 

II.  Character  of  the  Wars  of  the  Israelites   .         .         .  83,84 

Their  Lcvi<^,  how  raised H4 

Mosaic  Statutes  concerning  the  Israelitihli  Soldiers  84,85 

HI.  Divisions  and  Officers  of  the  Jewish  Army     .         .  85 

IV.  Eiicampincnis 86,87 

V.  Military  Schools  and  Training         ....  87 

VI.  Defensive  .\rms 87, 88 

VII.  Olfonsive  .Xrms 8S 

VIH.  Foriilicaiions 88, 8i» 

I.X.  Mo<lc  of  declaring  War H'J 

X.   Military  Tactics. — Order  of  Battle           .                   .  89,90 
Treatment  of  the  Slain,  of  captured  Cities,  and  of 

t'aptivea 90,91 

XI.  Triiiniphniit  Reception  of  the  Conquerors       .         .  91 

XH.   Distribution  of  the  S|>oil if,. 

Military  Honours  coiilcrred  on  eminent  Warriura. — 

A  .Milit-iry  Order  pstablislied  by  David        .         .  92 

XHI.  Trojihios it, 

Sbctio>   II.  .'Illusions  in  the  ,\'rw  Testament  to  t/ie 
JMilitary  Dincipline  and  Triumphs  nf  tlie  Jiomans. 


92,93 
93 


93.  94 

94,  yr. 


CONTENTS. 


PART  III. 

SACRED    AXTiaUITIES   OF   THE   JEWS,  AUD    OF    OTHER    NATIONS 
INCIDENTALLY    MENTIONED    IN    THE    SCRIPTURES. 

PAGE 

Chapter  I.  Of  Sacred  Places        ....  95 

Section  I.   Of  the  Tabernacle, 

I.  Different  Tabernacles  in  use  among  the  Israelites  96 
II.  The  Tabernacle  so  called  by  way  of  eminence,  not 

of  Egyptian  Origin. — Its  Materials       ...  ih. 
III.  Form  and  Construction  of  the  Tabernacle. — lis 

Contents 96,97 

£V.  Its  Migrations 97 

Section  IT.   Of  the  Temple. 

I.  The  Temple  of  Solomon 98 

II.  The  Second  Temple        .        .        .        .        .        .  98, 99 

Its  various  Courts 99, 100 

Reverence  of  the  Jews  for  it 100, 101 

III.  Notice  of  the  Temples  at  Heliopolis  and  Gerizim  101 

Section  III.   On  the  High  Places,  and  Pro seuchx  or 
Oratories  of  the  Je-ws. 


I.  On  the  High  Places 
II.  On  the  Prose  uchae  or  Oratories 


Section  IV.   On  the  Synagogues. 


101. 102 

102. 103 


I.  Nature  and  Origin  of  Synagogues    ....  103 

The  Synagogue  of  the  Libertines  explained   .        .  ih. 

II.  Form  of  the  Synagogues 104 

III.  The  Officers  or  Ministers ih. 

IV.  The  Service  performed  in  the  Synagogues     .  104-106 
V.  Ecclesiastical  Power  of  the  Synagogues         .        .  107 

VI.  The  Shemoneh  Ezreh,  or  Nineteen  Prayers  used 

in  the  Synagogue  Service 106, 107 


Chapter  II.  Sacred  Persons, 

Section  I.  On  the  Jewish  Church  and  its  Members. 

I.  The  whole  Nation  accounted  holy          .        .        .  108 
II.  Members  of  the  Jewish  Church. — ^Hebrews  of  the 

Hebrews ih. 

III.  Proselytes 108,  109 

IV.  Jews  of  the  Dispersion 109 

V.  Hellenists 110 

VI.  Libertines ih. 

VII.  Devout  Men ih. 

VIIL  Circumcision 110,  111 

Section  II.   On  the  Ministers  of  the  Temple  and 
other  Ecclesiastical  or  Sacred  Persons. 


I. 
II. 

III. 


IV, 

V. 

VI, 

VII. 


Of  the  Levites  .        .......  111,112 

The   Priests,   their  Functions,  Maintenance,  and 

Privileges 112,113 

The  High-priest,  his  Functions,  Dress,  and  Pri- 
vileges    113,114 

Succession  to  the  Pontifical  Dignity        .        .        .  114, 115 

Officers  of  the  Synagogue 115 

The  Nazarites ;  Nature  of  their  Vows     .        .        .  116 

The  Rechabites ih. 

The  Prophets ih. 


Chapter  III.  Sacred  Things, — On  the  Sacrifices  and 
other  Offerings  of  the  Jews. 

General  Classification  of  Sacrifices  and  Oflferings  . 
"  "     "      ~     ■        ~  ■  in  of 


I.  Bloody  Offerings,  and   the  Divine  Orig 
Sacrifices       .... 

1.  Different  Kinds  of  Victims 

2.  Selection  of  Victims 

3.  Manner  of  presenting  them 

4.  Immolation  of  the  Sacrifice 

5.  The  Place  and  Time  appointed  for  Sacri 

fieing 

6   DiflTerent  Kinds  of  Fire  Sacrifices 
i.  Burnt-Oflferings 
ii    Peace-Offerings    . 
iii    Sin-Offerings         .        . 
iv   Trespass-Offerings 


116 

117 

ih. 

ih. 

ih. 

Ill,  118 

118 
ih. 
ih. 
ih. 
ih. 
ih. 


PAGE 

IL  National,  regular.  Weekly,  Monthly,  and  Annual 

Sacrifices lig 

III.  Unbloody  Offerings ib. 

IV.  Drink-Offerings ib. 

V.  Other  Oblations  made  by  the  Jews. 

1.  Ordinary  Oblations: — 

(1.)  The  Show-Bread ih. 

(2.)  Incense ih. 

2.  Voluntary  Oblations — Korban        .       .  ib. 

3.  Prescribed  Oblations  : — 

(1.)  First-Fruits 119, 120 

(2.)  Tithes 120 

VI.  Fimess  and  Utility  of  the  Jewish  Sacrifices  .        .    120, 121 

Chapter  IV.  Sacred  l^imes  and  Seasons,  observed  by 
the  Jews. 

I.  The  Sabbath. 

1.  How  observed 121 

2.  Jewish  Worship  on  that  Day;  particularly 

their  Manner  of  worshipping  in  the  Temple  1C2 

II.  New  Moons Hj. 

III.  Annual  Festivals. — Their  important  Design   .        .  122, 123 

IV.  The  Passover  ;  when  celebrated,  and  with  what 

Ceremonies 123-125 

Its  Mystical  or  Typical  Reference  ....  125, 126 

V.  The  Day  of  Pentecost 126 

VI.  The  Feast  of  Tabernacles 126, 127 

VII.  Other  Annual  Festivals,  viz. 

1.  The  Feast  of  Trumpets       ....  127 

2.  The  Day  of  Expiation          ...  ih, 
VIII.  Annual  Festivals  instituted  by  the  Jews  in  later 

times : — 

1.  The  Feast  of  Purim 128 

2.  The  Feast  of  Dedication     ....  ih. 
IX.  Other  Festivals  observed  at  stated  intervals : — 

1.  The  Sabbatical  Year         ....  ib. 

2.  The  Year  of  Jubilee 128,129 

Chapter  V.  Sacred  Obligations  and  Duties. 
Section  I.   Of  Vows. 


I.  Nature  of  Vows 129 

II.  Requisites  essential  to  the  Validity  of  a  Vow         .     129,130 
III.  Different  Sorts  of  Vows : — 

1.  The  Cherem  or  irremissible  Vow         .        .  130 

2.  Other  Vows  that  might  be  redeemed  : — 

i.  Vows  of  Dedication     ....  ib. 

ii.  Vows  of  Self-Interdiction,  or  Absti- 
nence.— Of  the  Nazareate         .        .  ib 

Section  II.   On  the  Prayers  and  Fasts  of  the  Jews. 

I.  Various  Appellations  given  to  Prayers    ...  13] 

II.  Public  Prayers ib. 

III.  Private  Prayers. — Attitudes  of  the  Jews  during 

Prayer ...     131,139 

IV.  Forms  of  Prayer  in  use  among  the  Jews        ,        .  133 
V.  Fasts  of  the  Jews  : — 

1.  Public  Fasts (bk 

2.  Private  Fasts ib. 

3.  Solemnities  of  the  Jewish  Fasts    ...  ibk 

Section  III.   On  the  Purifications  of  the  Jews. 

I.  Materials  with  which  the  Purifications  of  the  Jews 

were  performed 131 

II.  Ceremonies  of  Purification ib. 

III.  Of  the  Persons  lustrated ib. 

IV.  Account  of  the  different  Kinds  of  legal  Impurities, 

particularly 

1.  The  Leprosy  of  the  Person   ....  133,131 

2.  The  Leprosy  of  Clothes         .        .'     .        .  134 

3.  The  House-Leprosy ib. 

V.  Minor  legal  Impurities  and  their  Lustrations         .  ih. 

Chapter  VI.  On  the  Corruptions  of  Religion  by  the 
Jews. 

Section  I.   On  the  Idolatry  of  the  .Tews, 

I.  Origin  and  Progress  of  Pagan  Idolatry    ...  135 

Sketch   of  its   History   and   Progress  among   the 
Israelites  and  Jews 135, 136 

II.  Idols  worshipped  by  the  Israelites  alone        .        .     136, 137 

III.  Idols  of  the  Ammonites,  worshipped  by  the  Israel- 

1  ites IS'' 


CONTENTS. 


'.y.  Idols  >f  the  Canaanites  or  Syrians  .        .        .        ■ 

V'.  Phoenician  Idols 

VI.  Bahyloiiiiin  and  Assyrian  Idols         .... 

\'II.  Idols  \vi)rshipped   in  Sarnaria  during  the  Captivity 

Ilieroglyphic  Stones,  why  prohibited  to  the  Jews  . 

\  III.  Idols  ol  the  CJreeks  and  Romans  mentioned  in  the 

New  Testament 

IX.  Allusions  in  the  Scriptures  to  the  Idolatrous  Wor- 
ship of  the  Heathen  Nations      .        .        .        . 
X.  Different  Kinds  of  Divination  .         . 

Prevalence  of  Sorcery  and  Magic  .... 

Si-CTrov  II.   On  the   Slate  of  Jleligion  amov^   tlie 
Jevjs  in  the  Time  of  Jesua  Christ. 

^  1.  Account  of  the  Jewish  Sects  mentioned  in  the 
J\'cii/  Testament. 


PAGE 

137,138 
138 
139 

ib. 

ib. 

ib. 

139-142 

142, 143 

143 


I.  The  Pharisees  . 
11.  The  Sadducees 
The  Kssenes 
Tlio  Scribes 
The  La^^•ycr8    . 
The  SaiKiirilQua 
The  Ilerodians 
VIII.  Tiie  GalilKans 
IX.  The  Zealots      . 
X.  The  Sicarii       . 


1!I. 

IV. 

V. 

\i. 
VII. 


144,  145 

145, 14G 

146 

ib. 
ib. 
147, 148 
148 
ib. 
ib. 
ib. 


§  2.  On  the  e.rlreme  Corruption  of  the  Jetvish  Peo- 
pie,  both  in  Religion  anil  Morals,  at  the  Time  of 
Christ's  Birth. 

General  Corruption  of  the  Leaders  of  the  Jewisli 
Nation. — Of  their  Chief  Priests  and  other  Minis- 
ters of  Religion. — lis  deplorable  Kflects  on  tho 
People. — Slate  of  the  Jews  not  resident  in  Pales- 
tine          


H8-150 


PART  i\ . 


FO'IKSTIC   AXTTa'  ITir.S  OF  TIIE  JEWS,  AM«   Of  OTHKU  NATIONS 
IXCIUKXT.VLLI    MEXTIOSED    IX    TlIK    Si'iUPTUniiS. 


('h.kptkr  I.  On  the  Dwellings  nf  (he  Jeivs. 

I.  Caves .        . 

II.  Tents 

HI.  Houses — their  Arrangement — Materials  and  Con 

venience.s 

JV.  Fiiniitiirc 

V.  Cities,  Markets,  and  Gates       .... 


CfiAi^TEu  II.   On  thf  Dress  of  the  Jews. 

T.  Dref^s  in  the  early  Ages   .        ;        .        .        . 
II.  Tunic        .        .        .      * 

III.  Ipper  CJarment — Other  An  itlcB  of  Apparel   . 

IV.  Coverintra  for  the   Head. — Mode  r)f  dressing   ihe 

Hair    ' 

V.  Sandals 

Vi.  .Seals,  or  Signets,  nnd  llingr)     .... 

\'^1.  Swne  .\rticlcs  of  Kcinfilc  Apparel  elucidated 

Complexion  of  the  Women       .... 

VIII.  Rending  of  Gnrnienis,  a  Sign  of  Mourning 

IX.   •S'umeroii.s  Clinngos  of  Ap|Kircl  deeuicd  a  ncees 

sary  Pari  of  their  Treasure  .... 


150 
150, 151 

l.-)l-151 

I.-.I.  155 

155 


I  .')5, 


1.56 

I.5f. 

ib. 


156, 157 
157 

ib. 
159 
1.59 

ib. 


ib. 


158, 


C'n\i'Tt:n  III.  Jewish  Custom-' relating  to  Matriaife. 

I.  Marriage  accounted  a  Sacred  Obligation   by  tho 

Jfw.s .  160 

II.  Potyifamv  tolerated. — Condition  of  Concubines      .  /         I'l. 

HI.   Nuptial  ('ontra<  I  and  Kspou.sah       ....  160,  161 

IV.   Nuptial  (-'<'rfmonicH 161,  162 

V.  Divorto 162,  103 


C'i<.»<»TEK  IV.  Birth,  Nurture,  Is'c.  of  Children. 

I    (^hilJ-binh. — Cireimocinion. — N'an)iM«»  of  ilih  Child 
J'    Privilejjtfn  oif  the  First-boiij 


IC.tl 

ih. 


PAGE 

III.  Nurture  of  Children 163,164 

IV.  Power  of  the  F'ather  over  his  Children. — Disposi- 

tion of  his  Property 164 

V.  Adoption 164, 165 

Chapter  V.  On  t/ie  Condition  of  Slaves  and  of  Ser-  - 
vanfs,  and  the  Cu.Hoins  relating  to  them,  mentioned 
or  alluded  to  in  the  New  Testament. 


I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 


V. 


Slaves,  how  acquired       .... 

Their  Condition  among  the  Hebrews 

And  .among  other  Nations 

Of  hired  .Servants. — Customs  relating  to 
and  to  Slaves,  alluded  to  in  the  New 
ment      ....  ... 

Different  Kinds  of  Slaves  or  Servants  mentioned 
in  the  Scriptures 167, 168 


them, 
Testa- 


165 
165, 166 
166,  167 


167 


Chapter  VI. 
Jews. 


I. 


Domestic  Customs  and  Usages  of  ihe 


.     1C8, 

169 

.     169, 

170 

, 

170 

.     171- 

-173 

173 
ib 

Forms  of  Salutation  and  Politeness. — Reverence  to 

Superiors 

II.  Mode  of  receiving  Guests  or  Visitors 

III.  Conversation  and  Bathing 

IV.  Food  and  Kntcrtainmcnls 
V.  Mode  of  Travelling  .... 

VI.  Hospitality,  a  Sacred  Duty  among  the  Jews 

Account  of  the  Tesserae  Hospitalee  of  the  Greeks 

and  Romans 173, 174 


Chapter  VII.  On  the  Occupations,  Literature,  Stu- 
dies, and  Sciences  of  the  Hebrews. 

Skctiox  I.  Rural   and   Domestic   Economy   of  the 
Jeivs. 

I.  Management  of  Cattle  by  the  Jews. — Various 

Animals  reared  by  them 174-176 

II.  Laws  of  Moses  respecting  AcniCDi.TLRE       .        .  176 
III.  Manures  known  and  used  by  the  Jews  .         .              176,177 
I\'.  Their   Mode   of  Ploughing,   Sowing,   and    Reap- 
ing                      177 

V.  Dillerent  Ways  of  threshing  out  Com      .        .        .  178 

VI.  Vinevards,  and  the  Culture  of  the  Vine  nnd  Olive- 

Gaidons 178-180 

VII.  Allusions  in  the  Scriptures  to  the  Rural  and  Domes- 
tic Economy  of  the  Jew.s 180 

Section  II.   Oti  the  Arts  cultivated  by  the  Hebrews 
or  Jews. 

I.  Origin  of  the  Arts. — State  of  them  from  the  Deluge 

to  the  Time  of  Moses 180,  181 

II.  Slate  of  the  Arts  from  the  Time  of  Moses  until  the 

Captivity 181 

III.  State  of  the  Art-s  after  the  Paplivity        .        .        .  ih. 

W.  Account  of  some   of  the  Arts   practised    by  the. 
Jews : — 

1.  VN'riiing:  Materials  used  for  this  Purjwse    .     .81-18:t 
Lcitors:  Form  of  Btwjlis         ....  183 

2.  F.ngraving il>. 

3.  Painting  ib. 

V.  Music  and  Musical  Inslrumenls      ....     183, 184 

VI.  Dancing J84 


Section  III.   On  the  Literature  and  Sciences  of  Ihe 
Jli-brews. 

I.  Schools 184 

On  the  Schools  of  the  Prophets  in  particular  .         .     184, 185 
II.  .^ppolluiions    given    to    the   Jcwihli    Doctors    or 

Teachers 185 

III.  Their  Method  of  Teaching ih. 

IV.  Sludies  of  the  Jews: — 

1.  Ilistorv 18.5,186 

2.  Poetry 186 

3.  Oratory ib. 

4.  Kthics |V>. 

5.  Physics »6. 

§.  .Arithmetic .  ib. 

7.  Mtitheniaiics ib, 

8.  Astronomy I't 

9.  Astrology it). 

10.  Sorveyuig 187 

11.  Mci-hanic  Arls ib 

12   l^eography               .                 .        ,                 .  i6 


CONTENTS. 


PAG£ 


187 
ib. 


187. 188 

188. 189 
189 


189 
190 

ib. 

190, 191 

192 

ib. 
ib. 
ib. 

193-194 


Sectiow  IV.  0}i  the  Commerce  and  J^avi^ation  of 
the  Hebrews. 

I.  Commerce  of  the  Midianites,  Egyptians,  and  Phoe- 
nicians   

II.  Mode  of  transporting  Goods 

III.  Commerce  of  the  Hebrews,  particularly  under  Solo- 

mon and  his  Successors 

IV.  Notice  of  Ancient  Shipping     .        .        .'      . 
W.  Money,  Weights,  and  Measures       .... 

Chapter  VIII.  .Amusements  of  the  Jeios. — Mlusimis 
to  the  Theatres,  to  Theatrical  Performances,  and  to 
the  Crrecian  Games,  in  the  New  Testament, 

I.  Recreations  of  the  Jews  in  Domestic  Life 

II.  Military  Sports 

II.  Introduction  of  Gymnastic  and  Theatrical  Exhibi- 
tions among  the  Jews 

IV.  Allusions  to  the  Theatres  and  to  Theatrical  Per- 
formances in  the  New  Testament 
X.  Allusions  to  the  Grecian  Games,  particularly  the 
Olympic  Games : — 

1.  Qualifications  of  the  Candidates    . 
Preparatory  Discipline  to  which  they  were 

subjected 

2.  Foot-Race 

3.  Rewards  of  the  Victors  .... 

4.  Beautiful  Allusions  to  these  Games,  in  the 

New  Testament,  explained 

C  HAPTER  IX.  On  the  Diseases  mentioned  in  the  Scrip- 
tures, Treatment  of  the  Dead,  and  Funeral  Rites. 

Sr.CTiox  I.  On  the  Diseases  mentioned  in  the  Scrip' 

tures. 

I.  Origin  and  Progress  of  the  Art  of  Medicine  in  the 

East 194, 195 

II.  Notice  of  Remedies  in  use  among  the  Jews   .        .  195 
III.  Account  of  some  particular  Diseases  mentioned  in 
he  Scriptures,  viz. 

1.  The  Leprosy  .        .        .        .        .        .        .  195, 196 

2.  Elephantiasis,  the  Disease  of  Job          .        .  196 

3.  Disease  of  the  Philistines       ....  ib. 

4.  Disease  of  King  Saul ib. 

5.  Disease  of  King  Jehoram      ....  ib. 

6.  Disease  of  King  Hezekiah    ....  ih. 

7.  Disease  of  Nebuchadnezzar         .        .        .  196, 197 

8.  Palsy 197 

9.  Issue  of  Blood        ......  ib. 

10.  Blindness ib. 

11.  Reality  of  Demoniacal  Possessions  proved  .  ib. 

Skctios  II.  Treatment  of  the  Dead. — Funeral  Rites, 

I.  Joirt'ish  Notions  of  Death 198 

II.  Mosaic  Laws  relating  to  the  Dead  ....  ib. 

III.  Preparations  for  Interment 198, 199 

IV.  Rites  of  Sepulture. — Lamentations  for  the  Dead    .  199,  200 

V.  Notice  of  the  Tombs  of  the  Jews    ....  200,  201 
Monumental  Inscriptions 202 

M.  Funeral  Feasts. — Duration  of  Mourning         .        .  ib. 


7 


ON    THE    ANALYSIS    OF    SCRIPTURE. 
PART  V. 

ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 

Chapter  I.  On  the  Pentateuch,  or  Five  Books  of 
Moses. 

SfiCTioH-  I.  General  Observations  on  the  Pentateuch. 

I.  Title.— II.  Argument  of  the  Pentateuch.— IIL  No- 
tice of  other  Writings  ascribed  to  Moses    .        .        .  203 

Skctiow  n.  0«  the  Book  of  Genesis. 

I.  Title.— ir.  Author  and  Date.— III.  General  Argu- 
raent. — IV.  Scope. — V.  Types  of  the  Messiah.— 
VJ.  Synopsis. — Vll.  Literal  Sense  of  the  first  three 
Chapters  of  Genesis  vindicated 203-206 


206, 207 


207, 203 


208-210 


210-212 
212,211* 


Section  III.  On  the  Book  of  Exodus. 

I.  Title. — II.  Author  and  Date.— IIL  Occasion  and 
Subject-matter. — IV.  Scope. — V.  Types  of  the  Mes- 
siah.— VI.  Synopsis  of  its  Contents. — VII.  Remarks 
on  the  Plagues  inflicted  upon  the  Egyptians 

Section  IV.  On  the  Book  of  Leviticus. 

1.  Title,  Author,  and  Date. — II.  Scope. — III.  Synopsis 
of  its  Contents .        , 

Section  V.  On  the  Book  of  J\l'umbers. 

I.  Title,  Author,  Date,  and  Argument. — II.  Scope. — 
III.  Types  of  the  Messiah. — IV.  Prediction  of  the 
Messiah. — V.  Chronology. — VI.  Synopsis  of  its  Con- 
tents.— VII.  Observations  on  the  Book  of  the  Wars 
of  the  Lord,  mentioned  in  Numbers  xxi.  14. 

Section  VI.  On  the  Book  of  Deuteronomy. 

I.  Title,  Date,  and  Chronology. — II.  Scope. — III.  Pre- 
diction of  the  Messiah. — IV.  Synopsis  of  its  Con 
tents. — V.  Observations 

Table  or  Harmony  of  the  entire  Jewish  Law 

Chapter  II.  On  the  Historical  Books. 

Section  I.   General  Observations  on  the  Historical 

Books 213,214 

Section  II.   On  the  Book  of  .Toshua. 

I.  Author  and  Genuineness  of  this  Book. — II.  Argu- 
ment.— III.  Scope. — IV.  Synopsis  of  its  Contents. — 
V.  Observations  on  the  Book  of  Jasher,  mentioned  in 
Josh.  X.  13 214-21G 

Section  III.   On  the  Book  of  Judges. 

I.  Title. — II.  Date  and  Author. — III.  Scope,  Chrono- 
logy, and  Synopsis  of  its  Contents. — IV.  Observations 
on  some  difficult  Passages  in  this  Book     .        .        .    215, 217 

Section  IV.  On  the  Book  of  Ruth. 

I.  Title  and  Argument. — II.  Chronology. — III.  Author. 
— IV.  Scope. — V.  Synopsis  of  its  Contents        .        .  21cl 

Section  V.  On  the  Two  Books  of  Samuel. 

I 
I.  Title. — II.  Authors. — HI.  Argument,  Scope,  and  Ana- 
lysis of  the  First  Book  of  Samuel. — IV.  Argument, 
-    Scope,  and  Analysis  of  the  Second  Book  of  Samuel. 
— V.  General  Observations  on  these  two  Books        .    218-22IJ 

Section  VI.   On  the  Two  Books  of  Kings, 

I.  Order  and  Title  of  these  Books. — II.  Author. — 
III.  Argument  and  Synopsis  of  the  First  Book  of 
Kings. — IV.  Argument  and  Synopsis  of  the  Second 
Book  of  Kings. — V.  General  Observations  on  these 
Books y     .       .        .        .    220-222 

Section  VII.  On  the  Books  of  Chronicles. 

I.  Title. — II.  Author  and  Date. — III.  Scope  and  Analy- 
sis of  the  two  Books  of  Chronicles. — IV.  Observations 
on  them 222-4i2t 

Section  VIII.  On  the  Book  of  Ezra. 

I.  Title  and  Author. — II.  Argument,  Scope,  and  Synop- 
sis of  its  Contents. — III.  Observations  on  a  spurious 
Passage  ascribed  to  Ezra 224, 2*^ 

Section  IX.   On  the  Book  ofJVehemiah. 

I.  Title  and  Author. — II.  Argument  and  Synopsis  of 
its  Contents 225 

Section  X.  On  the  Book  of  Esther. 

I.  Title.  II.  Author.— III.  Argument— IV.  Synopsia 
of  ite  Contents     .        .* 225.22b 


8 


Chapter  111.  On  the  Poetical  Bootes. 

Section  I.   On  the  Book  of  Job. 

I.  Title  of  the  Book. — II.  Reality  of  Job's  Person. — 
III.  Age  in  which  he  lived. — IV.  Scene  of  the 
Foem  of  Job. — V.  Author  and  Canonical  Authority. 
— VI.  Structure  of  the  Poem. — VII.  Arcumenl  and 
Scope. — VIII.  Spurious  Addition  to  this  Book  in  the 
Septuagint  Version. — IX.  Rules  lor  studying  this 
Book  to  advantage. — X.  Synojigis. — XI.  Idea  of  the 
Patriarchal  Theology,  as  contained  in  the  Book  of 
Job 

Sectios  II.  On  the  Book  of  Psalms. 

I.  General  Title  of  this  Book.— II.  Structure  of  the 
Psalms. — III.  Their  Canonical  Authority. — IV.  Au- 
thors to  whom  they  are  ascribed  : — I.  Moses. — 
2.  David. — 3.  Asaph.— 4.  Tlie  Sons  of  Korah. — 5.  Je- 
duthun.  —  6.  Heman  and  Ethan. — 7.  Solomon. — 
8.  Anonymous  P.salms. — V.  Chronological  Arrange- 
ment of  the  Psalms  by  Calmct. — VI.  Collection  of 
of  the  Psalms  into  a  Volume. — VII.  The  Inscriptions 
or  Titles  prefixed  to  the  different  Psalms. — VIII.  Pro- 
bable meaning  of  the  Word  Stlah. — IX.  Scope  of  tlie 
Book  of  Psalms. — X.  Rules  for  better  understanding 
them. — XI.  A  Table  of  the  Psalms,  classed  according 
to  their  several  Subjects 

Sectioh  ni.   On  the  Book  of  Proverbs. 

I.  Title,  Author,  and  Canonical  Authority. — II.  Scope. 
— III.  Synopsis  of  its  Contents. — IV.  Observations  on 
its  Style 

^^ECTIox  IV.   On  the  Book  of  Ecclesiastes. 

J.  Title,  Author,  and  Canonical  Authority. — II.  Scope 
and  Synopsis. — III.  Observations        .... 

Section  V.  On  the  Song  of  Solomon. 

I.  Author. — n.  Canonical  Authority. — III.  Structure  of 
the  Poem — its  Subject  and  Scope — the  Song  of  Solo- 
mon, a  sublime  mystical  Allegory      .... 

(^'hapter  IV.  On  the  Propliets. 

Section  I.   General  Observations   on   the  Prophets 
and  their  Writings. 

I.  The  Prophetical  Books,  why  so  called. — II.  Different 
Kinds  ol  Prophets  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures. — 
III.  Situation  of  the  Prophets,  and  their  Maimer  of 
Living. — IV.  Mo.saic Statutes  concerning  Proplieus. — 
Evidences  of  a  Divine  Missiim. — V.  Qualifications 
of  the  Prophets. — VI.  Nature  of  the  Prophetic  Insj)i- 
ration. — VII.  Antiquity  and  Succession  of  the  Pro- 
phets.— VIII.  Collection  of  their  Writings,  and  Mode 
of  announcing  their  Predictions. — IX.  iVumber  and 
Order  of  the  Prophetic  Books 

Sectio-V  II.   Of  the  Prophets  who  flourished  before 
the  Babylonian  Captivity. 

%  \.   On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Jonah, 

•I.  Title  and  Author. — II.  Occasion  of  the  Prophecy  of 
Jonah. — HI.  Scope. — IV.  Synopsis  of  its  Contents 

^  2.   On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  ,imos. 

I.  Author. — II.  Occasion  of  his  Prophecy- — III.  It* 
Scope. — IV.  Synopsis  of  iOi  Conicnta. — V.  Olwcrva- 
tions  on  its  Stylo 

^  n.   On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Hosea. 

I.  Author  and  Date. — II.  Occasion  and  Scope  of  the 
Prophecy.- III.  Synopsis  of  its  ConlcntH.— IV.  Ob- 
servation on  iui  Stylo 

^  4,   On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Isaiah. 

I.  Author  and  Date. — If.  flcnuincnefis  of  In'ii  Predic- 
tionn. — HI.  S<;ope. — IV.  AnalyxiH  of  the  (.'onlcniA  of 
this  Book. — V.  Observations  on  \{»  Style  . 


CONTENTS. 

FACE 


227-237 


237-245 


245-247 


247-249 


249-253 


253-259 


259 


259, 2C0 


260-2C2 


§  5.   On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Joel. 

I.  Author  and  Date.  —  II.  Occasion  and  Scope. — 
III.  Analysis  of  the  Book. — IV.  Observations  on  its 
Style    

§  6.   On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Jilicah. 

1.  Author  and  Date. — II.  Occasion  and  Scope. — III.  Sy- 
nopsis of  its  Contents. — 1\'.  Prophecies  concerning 
the  Messiah. — V.  Observations  on  its  Style 

§  7.   On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  JVahum. 

I.  Author  and  Date. — II.  Scope  and  Synopsis  of  its 
Contents. — III.  Observations  on  its  Style  . 

§  8.   On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Zephaniah. 

I.  Author  and  Date. — II.  Scope  and  Analysis  of  this 
Book 


FAGS 


270 


270, 271 


271 


272 


Section  III.   Of  the  Prophets -who  flourished  near  to 
and  diwing  the  Babylonian  Captivity. 

%  I.   On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Jeremiah. 

I.  Author  and  Date. — II.  Occasion  of  his  Prophecies. — 
Different  Collections  of  them. — III.  Synopsis  of  their 
Contents. — IV.  Prophecies  concerning  the  Messiah. 
— V.  Observations  on  their  Style       ....    272-276 

§  2.   On  the  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah. 

I.  Author,  Date,  and  Argument  of  the  Book. — II.  Sy- 
nopsis of  its  Contents.-^III.  Observations  on  its  Style 
and  Structure 276, 277 

§  3.  On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Ilabakkuk. 

I.  Author  and  Date. — II.  Analysis  of  his  Prophecy. — 
III.  Observations  on  his  Style 277 


§  4.   On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Daniel. 

I.  Author  and  Date. — II.  Analysis  of  its  Contents. — 
III.  Observations  on  its  Canonical  Authority  and 
Style. — IV.  Account  of  the  spurious  Additions  made 
to  it      .        .        .  -  277- 


28a 


2C2-269 


§  5.  On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Obadiah. 
I.  Author  and  Date.— II.  Synopsis  of  its  Contents       .    2(^2, 283 

§  6.   On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Ezekiel. 

I.  Author  and  Date. — II.  Canonical  Authority  of  the 
Prophecies  of  Ezekiel. — HI.  Their  Scope. — IV.  Ana- 
lysis of  them. — V.  Observations  on  the  Style  of  Eze- 
kiel          263-287 

Section  IV.   Of  the  Prophets  ivho  flourished  after 
the  lieturn  of  the  Jeius  from  Babylon. 

§  I .   On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  JIaggai, 

I.  Author  and  Date.  —  II.  Argument  and  Sco|)c. — 
HI.  Analysis  of  its  Contents. — IV.  Observations  on 
its  Stylo 287 

§  2.   On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Zechariah. 

I.  Author  and  Date. — H.  AnnlyHis  of  its  Contents. — 
HI.  Olwcrvations  on  its  Style.— IV.  The  last  six 
Chaptore  proved  10  bo  genuine 287,288 

§  3.  On  the  Book  of  the  Prophet  Malachi. 

1.  Author  nnd  Dale. — II.  Occasion  and  Scope  of  this 

Proj>hecy.— HI.  AimlysiB  of  its  Contents.— IV.  Style    288,269 

Chapter  V.  On  the  Jipocrypha. 

I.  Anroiint  of  the  Finit  Book  of  Esdras. — H.  Of  the 
.*<rrond  B<Kjkof  Etidra*. — HI.  Of  the  BookofTobiu — 
I\'.  Of  Uie  Book  of  Judith.— V.  Of  tlie  rest  of  the 


CONTENTS. 


9 


Chapters  of  Esther.— VI.  Of  the  Book  of  Wisdom— 
VII.  Of  theBookof  Ecclesiasticus.— VIII.  Of  Baruch. 
—IX.  Of  the  Song  of  the  Three  Children.— X.  Of  the 
History  of  Susanna.— XI.  Of  Bel  and  the  Dragon. — 
XII.  Of  the  Prayer  of  Manasses.— XIII.  Of  the  Books 
of  Maccabees •        • 


PAGE 


28^-293 


294, 295 


PART  VI. 

ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 

Chapter  I.  On  the  Classification  of  the  Books  of  the 

jNaw  Testament 293, 294 

Chapter  II.  On  the  Historical  Books  of  the  New 
lament. 

Section  I.   On  the  J^ame  and  J^Tumber  of  the  Cano- 
nical Gospels. 

I.  Observations  on  the  General  Appellation  of  Gospel, 
as  applied  to  the  Histories  of  Jesus  Christ. — II.  Gene- 
ral Scope  of  the  Gospels. — III.  Their  Number. — 
IV.  Importance  of  the  Gospels  ..'... 


Section  II.  On  the  Gospel  by  Saint  Matthew. 

I.  Author. — II.  Date. — III.  In  what  Language  written. 
— IV.  Genuineness  and  Authenticity  of  Saint  Mat- 
thew's Gospel  in  general. — V.  The  Authenticity  of 
the  first  two  Chapters  examined  and  substantiated. — 

VI.  Scope  of  this  Gospel. — VII.  Synopsis  of  its  Con- 
tents — VIII.  Observations  on  its  Style       .        .        , 

Sectiox  IIL   On  the  Gospel  by  Saiiit  Mark. 

I.  Title. — II.  Author. — III.  Genuineness  and  Authenti- 
city of  this  Gospel. — IV.  Probable  Date.— V.  Occa- 
sion and  Scope. — VI.  In  what  Language  written. — 

VII.  Synopsis  of  its  Contents. — VIII.  Examination 
of  the  Question,  w"hether  Mark  transcribed  or  abridg- 
ed the  Gospel  of  Matthew. — IX.  Observations  on  his 
Style    

Section  IV.   On  the  Gospel  by  Saint  Luke. 


295-304 


304-307 


I.  Title. — II.  Author. — III.  General  Proofs  of  the  Genu- 
ineness and  Authenticity  of  this  Gospel. — 1.  Vindica- 
tion of  its  Genuineness  from  the  Objections  of  Mi- 
chaelis  in  particular. — 2.  Genuineness  of  the  first  two 
Chapters,  and  of  Chapters  viii.  27 — 39.  and  xxii.  43, 
44. — IV.  Date,  and  where  written. — V.  For  whom 
written. — VI.  Occasion  and  Scope  of  this  Gospel. — 
VII.  Synopsis  of  its  Contents. — VIII.  Observations 
on  this  Gospel ,      .        . 

Sectios  V.  071  the  Gospel  by  Sai?it  John. 

I.  Title. — II.  Author. — III.  Date. — IV.  Genuineness  and 
Authenticity  of  this  Gospel,  particularly  of  Chaptc* 
XXI.  and  Chapter  VII.  53.  and  VIII.  1— 11.— V.  Its 
Occasion  and  Design. — Account  of  the  Tenets  of 
Cerinthus. — Analysis  of  its  Contents. — VI.  The  Gos- 
pel of  John  a  Supplement  to  the  other  Three. — 
VII.  Observations  on  its  Style 

r^ECTioN  VL  On  the  Acta  of  the  .apostles. 

1.  Title. — II.  Author. — III.  Genuineness  and  Authen- 
ticity.— IV.  Scope. — V.  Chronology. — VI.  Analysis 
of  the  Contents  of  this  Book. — VII.  Observations  on 
ite  Style. — VIII.  On  the  Importance  of  this  Book,  as 
an  Evidence  for  the  Truth  of  Christianity 


307-313 


313-318 


PAGE 

third  Visit  to  Jerusalem,  and  subsequent  Labours,  to 
his  fourth  Visit  to  Jerusalem. — IV.  His  Journeys  and 
Labours,  to  his  fifth  Visit  to  Jerusalem. — V.  To  his 
first  Imprisonment  at  Rome. — VI.  His  subsequent 
Journeys,  second  Imprisonment,  and  Martyrdom. — 
VII.  Character  of  Paul. — VIII.  Observations  on  the 
Style  of  his  Writings 321-329 

Sectiox  II.    Observations  on  the  Apostolical  Epistles 
in  general,  and  those  of  Saint  Paul  in  partictUar. 

I.  Importance  of  the  Epistles. — Nature  of  these  Writ- 
ings.— II.  Number  and  Order  of  the  Epistles,  particu- 
larly those  of  Paul. — III.  Of  the  Catholic  Epistles, 
and  their  Order. — IV.  General  Plan  of  the  Apostolic 
Epistles. — V.  Causes  of  their  obscurity  considered 
and  explained. — Observations  on  the  Phraseology  of 
Paul  in  particular 329-331 

Section  HI.  On  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans, 

I.  Date,  and  where  written. — II.  Genuineness  and  Au- 
thenticity of  this  Epistle. — III.  The  Church  at  Rome, 
when  and  by  whom  founded.— IV.  Occasion  and 
Scope. — V.  Internal  Stale  of  the  Church  at  Rome. — 
VI.  Scope.— VII.  Synopsis  of  its  Contents.- VIII.  Ob- 
servations on  this  Epistle 331-334 

Section  IV.  On  the  First  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians. 

I.  State  of  the  Corinthian  Church. — H.  Occasion  of  this 
Epistle. — III.  Its  Scope  and  Analysis. — IV.  Date  and 
Genuineness. — V.  Examination  of  the  Question,  how 
many  Epistles  Paul  wrote  to  the  Corinthians    .        .    334, 335 

Section  V.  On  the  Second  Epistle  to  the  C'orinthians. 

I.  Date,  and  where  written. — II.  Occasion  of  this  Epis- 
tle.— III.  Scope. — IV.  Synopsis. — V.  Observations  on 
this  Epistle. — VI.  A  supposed  Chronological  Diffi- 
culty elucidated 335-337 

Section  VI.  On  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians. 

I.  Notice  of  the  Christian  Church  in  Galatia. — II.  Date. 
— III.  Genuineness  and  Authenticity  of  this  Epistle. 
— IV.  lis  Occasion  and  Scope. — V.  Synopsis  of  its 
Contents. — VI.  Observations  on  this  Epistle      .        .    337   338 

Section  VII.  On  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians. 

I.  Account  of  the  Church  at  Ephesus. — II.  Genuine- 
ness and  Authenticity  of  this  Epistle,  which  was  ad- 
dressed to  the  Ephesians,  and  not  to  the  Church  at 
Laodicea. — III.  Date. — IV.  Occasion  and  Scope. — 
V.  Synopsis  of  its  Contents. — VI.  Observations  on  its 
Style 338,339 

Section  VIII.  On  the  Epistle  to  the  Philippians. 


I.  Account  of  the  Church  at  Philippi. — H.  Date. — 
III.  Occasion. — IV.  Scope  and  Synopsis  of  its  Con- 
tents      

Section  IX.   On  the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians, 


340 


318-321 


Chapter  III.  On  the' Epistolary  or  Doctrinal  Writ' 
ings  of  the  New  Testament,  particularly  those  of 
Saint  Paul. 

Section  I.  Account  of  the  Apostle  Paul. 

I.  The  Birth  and  Education  of  Paul — his  persecution 
of  the  Disciples  of  Christ — and  his  Conversion. — Ob- 
servations upon  it. — II.  His  subsequent  Travels  and 
Labours,  to  his  second  Visit  to  Jerusalem. — III.  His 

Vol.  U.  B 


I.  Account  of  the  Church  at  Colossae. — ^11.  Date. — 
III.  Occasion  of  this  Epistle. — IV.  Scope  and  Analy- 
sis         340,341 

Section  X.  On  the  First  Epistle  to  the  Thessalo- 
nians. 

I.  Account  of  the  Christian  Church  there. — ^11.  Genu- 
ineness of  this  Epistle. — III.  Its  Occasion  and  Scope. 


— ^IV.  Synopsis  of  its  Contents 

Section  XI.   On  the  Second  Epistle  to  the  Thesaa- 
lonians. 

f.  Date,  Occasion,  and  Scope  of  this  Epistle. — II.  Ana- 
lysis of  its  Contents. —  III.  Observations  on  this 
Lpistle 

Section  XII.  On  the  First  Epistle  to  Timothy. 

I.  Account  of  Timothy. — II.  Date  of  this  Epistle.— 
III.  Genuineness  and  Authenticity  of  the  Two  Epis- 
tles to  Timothy. — IV.  Scope  and  Synopsis  of  the  First 


341,  342 


zr 


10 


CONTENTS. 


Hpistle. — V.  Observations  on  ihe  Uae  which  the 
Church  is  to  make,  in  every  Age,  of  Paul's  Epistles 
to  Tiniolhy  and  T iius 

SficTioN  XIIT.   On  the  Second  Epistle  to  Timothy. 

I.  Date. — II.  Of  the  Place  where  Timothy  was,  when 
Saint  Paul  wrote  this  Kpistlc  to  him. — III.  Its  Scope. 
— IV.  Synopsis  of  its  Contents. — \.  Observations  on 
this  Epistle 

Section-  XIV.   On  the  Epistle  to  Titus. 

Account  of  Titus. — II.  Christianity,  when  planted 
in  Crete. — III.  Date. — 1\'.  Scope  and  Analysis  of  tiiis 
Epistle. — V".  Observations  on  it 

Skctiox  XV.   On  the  Epistle  to  Philemon. 

I.  Account  of  Philemon. — IT.  Dale. — III.  Genuincnes.s 
and  Authenticity. — IV'.  Occasion  and  Scope  of  this 
Epistle. — V.  Observations  on  it 

Skctiox  XVI.    On  the  Epiatle  to  the  Hebre-.vs. 

\.  To  whom  written. — II.  In  what  Language. — III.  Ite 
Genuineness  and  Authenticity. — Proofs  that  it  was 
written  by  Saint  Paul. — IV.  Its  Date. — V.  Occasion 
and  Scope  of  this  Epistle. — VI.  Synopsis  of  its  Con- 
tents  


Ch.vpter  IV.  On  the  Catholic  Epistles. 

Sr.cTios  I.  On  the  Genuineness  and  Authenticity  of 
tlie  Catholic  Epistles. 

1.  Origin  of  the  Appellation,  Catholic  Epistles. — II.  Its 
Anti(|uity. — Observation.s  on  ilieir  Authenticity. — 
HI.  On  tlic  Order  in  which  they  are  usually  placed 


Kectios  II.   On  the  General  Epistle  of  James. 

I.  Account  of  the  Author  of  this  Epistle. — II.  Its  Genu- 
ineness and  Authenticity. — III.  To  whom  addressed. 
— IV.  Its  Scope. — V.  Synopsis  of  its  Contents. — 
VI.  Observations  on  this  Episllo         .... 

Section  III.   On  the  First  General  Epistle  of  Peter. 


PAGE 


343-345 


345, 34G 


I.  Account  of  the  Apostle  Peter. — II.  Genuineness  and 
Canonical  Authority  of  this  Epistle. — III.  To  whom 
written. — IV.  Of  the  Place  whence  it  was  sent. — 
Date. — V.  Its  De.sign  and  Contents. — VI.  Observa- 
tions on  the  Style  of  Saint  Peter's  two  Epistles 

Sectios  IV.  On  the  Second  General  Epistle  of  Peter. 

I.  Its  Genuineness  and  Canonical  Authority. — II.  Date. 
— III.  Scope  and  Synopsis  of  its  Contents 

Bectioit  V.   On  the  First  General  Epistle  of  John. 

I.  Genuineness  and  Canonical  Authority- — II.  Date. — 
III.  Of  the  Persons  to  whom  this  Epistle  was  written. 
— IV.  Its  Occa.sion  and  Scope. — Account  of  the  fiilso 
Teacher  whose  Principles  are  refuted  by  the  Apostle. 
— V.  Synopsis  of  its  Contents. — VI.  'fhe  Question 
concerning  the  Autlientieity  of  the  disputed  Clause 
in  1  Jolin  v.  7,  8.  considered 


34G.  347 


347-349 


349-357 


358 


358-360 


360-3C2 


362-304 


364-370 


Sectiox 
John. 


VI.   Ok  the  Second  and  Third  Episihs  of 


rAGE 


1.  Genuineness,  Authenticity,  and  Date  of  these  Epis- 
tles.— II.  T!»e  Second  Epistle,  to  whom  addrcs.«ed. — 
III.  Its  Scope. — IV.  The  Third  Epistle,  to  whom  ad- 
dressed.— \'.  lis   Scope. — VI.  Observations  on    this 


Epistle 


Section  VII.   On  the  General  Epistle  of  Jude. 

I.  Account  of  the  Author. — II.  Genuineness  and  Au- 
thenticity.— III.  Date. — IV.  Of  the  Persons  to  whom 
this  Epistle  was  addressed. — V.  lis  Occasion  and 
Scope. — VI.  Observations  on  its  Stylo 


Chapter  V.  On  the  lievelatiun  of  Saint  John  the 
Divine. 

I.  The  Genuineness  of  this  Book  fhown,  1.  From  Ex- 
ternal Evidence;  2.  From  Internal  Characters. — 
II.  Its  Date. — lil.  Occasion  and  Scope. — IV.  Synopsis 
of  its  Contents. — V.  Observations  on  this  Book. 


APPENDIXES. 

1.  On  the  Sources  of  the  first  three  Gos- 
pels. 

I.  Different  Hypotheses  stated. — 11.  Examination  of  the 
Hypothesis,  that  the  Evangelists  abridged  or  copied 
from  each  other. — III.  Examination  of  the  Hypothe- 
sis, that  the  Evangelists  derived  their  Information 
from  a  primary  Greek  or  Hebrew  Document. — 
IV.  Examination  of  the  Hypothesis,  that  they  con- 
sulted several  Documents. — V.  And  of  the  Hypothe- 
sis, that  Oral  Tradition  was  the  Source  of  the  first 
three  Gospels. — VI.  That  the  only  Document  con- 
sulted by  the  first  three  Evangelists  was  the  Preach- 
ing of  our  Saviour  himself 

II.  Tables  of  Weights,  Measures,  and  Money, 

MENTIONED    IN    THE    BlBLE         .... 


III.  A  Chronological  Table  of  the  Principal 


376, 377 


377,378 


378-383 


385-393 


394 


Events  recorded  in  the  Bible 


.  305-391* 


IV. 


Bibliographical  Appendix,  containing  a 
Concise  Accou?*t  of  the  Principal  Editions 
OF  THE'HoLV  Scriptures,  and  of  the  Princi- 
pal Philologers,  Critics,  and  Commenta- 
tors who  have  elucidated  the  Text,  His- 
tory, AND  Antiquities  of  the  Bible  . 

Addenda  to  the  Bibliographical  Appendix 


1-1 G5 
166 


INDEXES. 
I.  An  HisTonirAt,  BiofjRAriiicAi.,   Axn    Geoor.v- 
PHicAL    Im)k\    of   tiif.    PniNcii'*L    Nations, 
Peiisons,    ami    Places,    mentioneii    in     the 

ScniPTUiiKs 

Addenda  to  the  HrsTonicAt,  &c.  Index  . 

InDKX  of  TlIK  Sv.MBOLICAL  LaNCUAKE  OF  ScRIP- 
TUllE  ........ 

GENr.itAi.  I\i)EX  OF  Matters   .         .         .         . 
Index  of  the  PnixcirAL  Texts  Illvbtrated 
V.  Index  to  the  Biiii.ioGnAPiiirAL  ArrEXDtx 
Index  to  the  Aduen'ua  to  tue  Biulioorapiii- 
CAL  Appendix  ....... 


n 

III 
IV 


40i-4r>(; 

457-459 

461-470 
471-480 
481-493 
183-195 

197-198 


I 


A  TABLE 

OF 

THE  ORDER  AND  DATES 

OF  THE 

BOOKS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT- 

AND 

OF    THE    PLACES    WHERE    THEY    ARE    SUPPOSED    TO    HAVE    BEEN    WRITTEN  ;    AS 
ESTABLISHED    IN    THE    SIXTH   PART    OF    THIS    VOLUME. 


GOSPELS. 

Matthew  (Hebrew) 

(Greek) 

Mark 


Luke  (Gospel)  ? 
(Acts  of  the  Apostles)  $ 


John 


I.  THE  HISTORICAL  BOOKS. 

PLACES. 

.  Judaea  .  .  •  • 
Home  .  .  *  • 
Greece  .... 
Ephesus        .         •        « 


A.D 

^37  or  38 

•     I  61 

between  60  and  63 


63  or  64 
97  or  98 


II.  THE  EPISTLES  OF  PAUL. 


EFiSTLES. 

1  Thessalonians 

2  Thessalonians 

Galatians  . 

1  Corinthians 
Romans     . 

2  Corinthians 
Ephesians 
Philippians 
Colossians 
Philemon 

Hebrews    . 

1  Timothy 
Titus 

2  Timothy 


PLACES. 

Corinth 
Corinth 

Corinth 

Ephesus 

Corinth 

Macedonia 
(perhaps  from  Philippi) 
Rome     . 


i)^ 


Rome 
Rome 
Rome 


Italy 
t  (perhaps  from  Rome) 
Macedonia 
Macedonia 
Rome    . 


}■ 


A.D. 

52 
62 

C  At  the  close  of  52 

tor^arlyin         53 

56 

C  About    the   end   of  57 

i  or  the  beginning  of  58 

....  5o 

61 

C  Before  the  end  of  62 

C  or  the  beginning  of  63 

62 

C  About  the  end  of  62 

Z  or  early  in        .         63 

C  About  the  end  of  62 

i  or  early  in        .         63 

.      -.        64 

64 

65 


HI.  THE  CATHOLIC  OR  GENERAL  EPISTLES. 


EPISTLES. 

James 

1  Peter      . 

2  Peter 

1  John 


.         *         .         .         .      ^ 


2  and  3  John 
Jude 


PLACES  A.D. 

Judaea    .........        61 

Rome 64 

Rome About  the  beginning  of  65 

Unknown        "}  C  68 

(perhaps  Ephesus)  3 d  or  early  in  69 

Ephesus I  oj  early  jn^^g 

Unknown .        64  or  65 


The  Revelation  of  Saint  John 


Ephesus 


96  or  97 


11 


INTRODUCTION 


TO  THE 


CRITICAL    STUDY  AND  KNOWLEDGE 


OF 


THE  HOLY   SCRIPTURES. 


SUMMARY  OF  BIBLICAL  GEOGRAPHY  AND  ANTIQUITIES. 


PART  I. 

A  SKETCH   OF  THE   HISTORICAL   AND   PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE   HOLY   LAN 

CHAPTER  L 


HISTORICAL    GEOGRAPHY    OF    THE    HOLY    LAND. 

I.  J\''ames. — II.  Bowidaries. — III.  Inhabitants  before  the  Conquest  of  Canaan  by  the  Israelites. — IV.  Division  by  Joshua. — 
Allotments  of  the  Twelve  Tribes. — V.  The  Kingdom  tinder  David  and  Solomon. — VI.  The  Kiiigdoms  of  Judah  and  Israel. 
— VII.  Divisions  in  the  Time  of  Jesus  Christ. — VIII.  Account  of  the  City  of  Jerusalem  : — 1.  Its  Situation  ; — 2.  JVawies  ; 
— 3.  Fortifications  and  Walls  ; — 4.  State  of  the  City  before  the  fatal  War  of  the  Jeivs  -with  the  Romans; — 5.  Remarkable 
Buildings  ; — 6.  JSTotice  of  the  successive  Captures  of  the  City  ; — 7.  Sketch  of  its  Present  State. — IX.  Later  Divisions  of 
Palestine: — 1.  Under  the  Romans ; — 2.  In  the  Time  of  the  Crusades; — 3.  Modern  Divisions  under  the  Turkish 
Government. 


I.  This  country  has  in  different  ages  been  called  by  various 
Names,  which  have  b^^en  derived  either  from  its  inhabitants, 
or  from  the  extraordinary  circumstances  attached  to  it.  Thus, 
in  Ruth  i.  1.  and  Jer.  iv'.  20.  it  is  termed  generally  ike  land: 
and  hence,  both  in  the  Old  and  New  Testament,"  the  word 
r«,  which  is  sometimes  rendered  earth,  is  by  the  context  in 
many  places  determined  to  mean  the  promised  land  of  Israel ; 
as  in  Josh.  ii.  3.  Thty  be  come  to  search  out  all  the  country 
rSept.  TKv  yw)  ;  Matt.  v.  5.  The  meek  shall  inherit  the  earth 
{yxv,  the  land) ;  and  in  Luke  iv.  25.  where  a  great  famine  is 
said  to  have  prevailed  throughout  all  the  land  (im  7r'xa-u.v  tuv 
ym).  In  like  manner,  owiy/^syn,  which  primarily  means  the  in- 
habited world,  and  is  often  so  rendered,  is  by  the  connection 
of  the  discourse  restrained  to  a  particular  country,  as  in  Isa. 
xiii.  5.  (Sept.) ;  and  to  the  land  of  .Tudoea,  as  in  Luke  ii.  1. 
xxi.  26.  Acts  xi.  28.  and  James  v.  17.  But  the  country  occu- 
pied by  the  Hebrews,  Israelites,  and  Jews,  is  in  the  sacred 
volume  more  particularly  called, 

1.  The  Land  of  Canaan,  from  Canaan,  the  youngest  son 
of  Ham,  and  grandson  of  Noah,  w^ho  settled  here  after  the 
confusion  of  Babel,  and  divided  the  country  among  his  eleven 
childre.'i,  each  of  whom  became  the  head  of  a  numerous 
tribe,  that  ultimately  became  a  distinct  nation.  (Gen.  x.  15. 
ef  sei^.) 

•2.  The  Land  of  Israel,  from  the  Israelites,  or  posterity  of 
Jacob,  liaving  settled  themselves  there.  This  name  is  of 
most  frequent  occurrence  in  the  Old  Testament :  it  is  also  to 
be  found  in  the  New  Testament  (as  in  Matt.  ii.  20,  21.) ;  and 
in  its  larger  acceptation  comprehended  all  that  tract  of  ground 
on  each  side  the  river  .Tordan,  which  God  gave  for  an  inherit- 
ance to  the  children  of  Israel.  Within  this  extent  lay  all 
the  provinces  or  countries  visited  by  Jesus  Christ,  except 
Egypt,  and,  consequently,  almost  all  the  places  mentioned  or 
referred  to  in  the  lour  Gospels. 

3.  The  Land  of  Jehovah,  or,  the  Lord's  Land  (Hos.  ix. 
3.);  that  is,  the  land  which  the  Lord  sware to  Abra- 
ham, to  Isaac,  and  to  Jacob,  to  give  them  (Deut.  xxx.  20.);  and 
which  he  did  accordingly  give  to  the  Israelites,  their  descend- 
ants, still  reserving  the  ownership  of  it  unto  himself.    (See 

«  As  this  portion  of  the  present  work  is  designed  to  exhibit  only  an  out- 
line of  the  Geography  of  the  Holy  Land,  and  not  a  complete  system  of  Bib- 
lical Geography ;  the  reader  will  find,  in  the  Historical,  Biographical,  and 
Geographical  Index,  annexed  to  this  volume,  a  concise  notice  of  the  princi- 
pal countries  and  places,  boih  in  and  out  of  Palestine,  which  are  mentioned 
in  the  Scriptures, 


Lev.  XXV.  23. )2  With  reference  to  this  circumstance,  we 
meet  witli  the  appellation  of  the  land  of  God,  in  various 
parts  of  the  Old  Testament. 

4.  The  Land  of  Promise  (Heb.  xi.  9.),  from  the  promise 
made  by  Jehovah  to  Abraham,  that  his  posterity  should  pos- 
sess it  (Gen.  xii,  7.  and  xiii.  15.);  who  being  termed  Hebrews, 
this  region  was  thence  called  the  Laud  of  tne  Hebrews.^  (Gen. 
xl.  15J 

5.  The  Holy  Land  ;  which  appellation  is  to  this  day  con- 
ferred  on  it  by  all  Christians,  because  it  was  chosen  by  God 
to  be  the  immediate  seat  of  his  worship,  and  was  consecrated 
by  the  presence,  actions,  miracles,  discourses,  and  sufferings 
of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  also  because  it  was  the  resi. 
dence  of  the  holy  patriarchs,  prophets,  and  apostles.  This 
name  does  not  appear  to  have  been  used  by  the  Hebrews 
themselves,  until  after  the  Babylonish  Captivity,  when  we 
find  the  prophet  Zechariah  applying  it  to  his  country,  (ii.  12.) 
After  this  period  it  seems  to  have  become  a  common  appella- 
tion: we  meet  with  it  in  the  apocryphal  book  of  Wisdom 
(xii.  3.),  and  also  in  the  second  booK.  of  Maccabees,  (i.  7.) 
The  whole  world  was  divided  by  the  ancient  Jews  into  two 
general  parts,  the  land  of  Israel,  and  the  land  out  of  Israel, 
that  is,  all  the  countries  inhabited  by  the  nations  of  the 
world,  or  the  Gentiles :  to  this  distinction  there  seems  to  ba 
an  allusion  in  Matt.  vi.  32.  All  the  rest  of  the  world,  to- 
gether with  its  inhabitants  (Judiea  excepted),  was  accounted 
as  moiwie,  polluted  mxdi  unclean  (see  Isa.  xxxv.  8.  lii.  1.  with 
Joel  iii.  17.  Amos  vii.  17.  and  Acts  x.  14.)  ;  but  though  the 
whole  land  of  Israel  was  regarded  as  holy,  as  being  the  place 
consecrated  to  the  worship  of  God,  and  the  inheritance  of  his 
people,  whence  they  are  collectively  styled  saints,  zuA.  a  holy 
nation  or  people  in  Exod.  xix.  6.  Deut.  vii.  6.  xiv.  2.  xxvi.  19. 
xxxiii.  3.  2  Chron.  vi.  41.  Psal.  xxxiv.  9.  1.  5.  7.  and  Ixxix. 
2. ;  yet  the  Jews  imagined  particular  parts  to  be  vested  with 
more  than  ordinary  sanctity  according  to  their  respective  situ- 
ations. Thus  the  parts  situated  beyond  Jordan  were  con- 
sidered to  be  less  holy  than  those  on  this  side  :  walled  towns 
were  supposed  to  be  more  clean  and  holy  than  other  places, 
because  no  lepers  were  admissible  into  them,  and  the  dead 

«  Dr.  Pocock,  on  Hos.  ix.  3. 

3  This  appellation  (the  Land  of  the  Hebrews)  is  recognised  by  Pausanias 
(lib.  vi.  c.  24.  in  fine).  By  heathen  writers  the  Holy  Land  is  variously 
termed,  Syrian  Palestine,  Syria,  and  Phoenicia ;  but  as  these  appellations 
are  not  applied  generally  in  the  Scriptures  to  that  country,  any  further  no. 
tice  of  them  is  designedly  omitted. 


14 


HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LA>i'D. 


[Part  L 


were  not  allowed  to  be  buried  there.  Even  the  very  dust  of 
the  land  of  Israel  was  reputed  to  possess  such  a  peciliar  de- 
gree of  sanctity,  that  when  the  Jews  returned  from  any 
heathen  country,  they  stopped  at  its  borders,  and  wiped  the 
dust  of  it  from  their  shoes,  lest  the  sacred  inheritance  should 
be  polluted  with  it :  nor  would  they  suffer  even  herbs  to  be 
brought  to  them  from  the  ground  of  their  Gentile  neighbours. 
Jest  they  should  bring  any  of  the  mould  with  them,  and  thus 
defile  their  pure  land,  lo  this  notion  our  Lord  unquestion- 
ably alludea  when  he  commanded  his  disciples  to  shake  off 
the  dust  of  their  feet  (Matt.  x.  14.)  on  returning  from  any 
house  or  city  that  would  neither  receive  nor  hear  them ; 
thereby  intimating  to  them,  tliat  when  the  Jews  had  rejected 
the  Gospel  they  were  no  longer  to  be  regarded  as  the  people 
of  God,  but  were  on  a  level  with  heathens  and  idolaters.' 

6.  The  Land  of  Judah.  Under  this  appellation  was  at 
first  comprised  only  that  part  of  the  region  wliich  was  al- 
lotted to  the  tribe  of  Judah ;  though  the  whole  land  of  Is- 
rael appears  to  have  been  occasionally  thus  called  in  subse- 
•juent  times,  when  that  tribe  excelled  all  the  others  in  dignity. 
After  the  separation  of  the  ten  tribes,  that  portion  of  the  land 
which  belonged  to  the  tribes  of  Judah  and  Benjamin,  wlio 
formed  a  separate  kingdom,  was  distinguished  by  the  appel- 
fcition  of  the  land  of  Judah  (Psal.  Ixxvi.  1.)  or  of  Judaea; 
which  last  name  the  whole  country  retained  during  the  exist- 
I  :ice  of  the  second  temple,  and  undfer  the  dominion  of  the 
Romans. 

7.  The  appellation  of  Palestine,  by  which  the  whole  land 
appears  to  have  been  called  in  the  days  of  Moses  (Exod-.  xv. 
H.),  is  derived  from  the  Philistines,  a  people  who  mi- 
grated from  Eg>'pt,  and  having  expelled  the  aboriginal  in- 
habitants, settled  on  the  borders  of  the  Mediterranean ;  where 
they  became  sf>  considerable  as  to  give  their  name  to  the 
whole  country,  though  they,  in  fact,  possessed  only  a  small 
part  of  it.  Herodotus^  called  the  whole  tract  of  country  from 
Syria  to  Egypt,  b}"^  the  name  of  Palestine  ;  and  Philo,  in  his 
book  concerning  Abraham,  expressly  says,  that  the  region  in- 
habited by  the  'Canaanites  was,  by  the  Syrians,  termed  Pa- 
lestine. The  sp.me  region  is  also  called  the  Syrian  Palestine 
{•Syria  Palwstina)  by  Tacitus^  and  other  ancient  geogra- 
phors.^ 

II.  The  ancient  geographers  placed  the  Holy  Land  in  the 
centre  of  the  then  known  world.  Its  extent  has  been  va- 
riously estimated  ;  some  geographers  making  it  not  to  exceed 
one  b'undTcd  and  seventy  or  eighty  miles  in  length,  from 
north  to  south,  and  one  hundred  and  forty  miles  from  east 
to  went  in  its  broadest  parts  (or  towards  the  south),  and 
about  seventy  miles  in  breadth,  where  narrowest,  towards  the 
north.  From  the  latest  and  most  accurate  maps,  however,  it 
appears  to  have  extended  nearly  two  hundred  miles  in  length, 
and  to  have  boon  about  eighty  miles  in  breadth  about  tiie 
middle,  and  ten  or  fifteen  more  or  less,  v.iicre  it  widens  or 
'■ontracls.  • 

I5y  the  Abrahamic  covenant  recorded  in  Gen.  xv.  18.  the 


xxxiv.  1 — IC),  before  the  Israelites  entered  mto  it:  "  ^^7/e« 
ye  come  into  the  land  of  Canaan  {this  is  the  land  that  shall  full 
unto  you  for  an  inheritance,  even  the  land  of  Canaan,  with  the 
ro'iits  thn-eof),  your  south  quarter  f^hall  Ijc  fiom  the  wilder- 
ness of  Zin,  along  hy  the  coast  of  Edum,''^  or  Idumcea.  Tiiis 
was  Its  general  description.  The  boundary  itself  is  next 
traced  :  "  .^indyour  south  border  shall  be  the  utmost  coast  of  the 
Suit  Sea  eastward;''''  or,  as  explained  by  Joshua's  description 
afterwards  (xv.  2 — ^1.),  "  the  south  border  of  the  tril)e  of  Judoh 
l)egan  from  the  bay  of  the  Salt  Sea  that  loohclh  southward ,-'''' 
or,  by  combining  l)olh,  from  the  south-east  corner  of  the  Salt 
Sea,  or  Asphaltite  I-akc.  "  From  thence,  your  bordtr  shall  turn 
southwards  to  the  asrrnt  (f  Jlkrabbim,"  or  the  mountains  of 
Accaba  (sinrnifyincr  "  ascent"'  in  Arabic),  which  run  towards 
the  head  o?  the  iVlanitic,  or  Eastern  gulf  of  the  Ked  Sea ; 
passino-  (we  may  presume)  through  thr;  sea-ports  of  Elath 
and  Eziongebcr,  on  the  Ked  Sea,  which  belonged  to  Solomon 

•  I.ighlfoot,  Ilor.  Ilcb.  in  Malt.  x.  14. ;  Rcliuid,  Antifinitntca  Ilnliraicte,  pp. 
1.  17.  Ik'.iusuliio'.s  liitroclurtiun  to  Ihc  New  Ti-Hlatiirnt.  (Hp.  Wiitwin's  rol- 
I'Tlion  of  TlKdlocioal  Trartn,  vol.  Hi.  p.  MIO  This  cliHtliiriion  of  lioly  utnl 
unholy  I.I..  ■•<  ■ii!  pcrHoiiH  lliro-v.s  consiili'ral>l>'  llRlit  on  1  Cor.  i.  !3<.  whrrc 
llic  A|'  -iiiig  of  iIk!  ralline  of  the  Oonti!e«  and  Ihc  rejection  of  llie 
Jsws,  -  '■'od  halli  elio.iri  hoHP.  Ihiiigs  of  Ihr  trurld,  and  thin  ex  Ifidl 
are  dcujiCn'.it,  yen,  aiul  thiny,ii  which  are  not  (that  is,  the  Ocnliles),  /o 
I  ring  tonoughl  (iir.  t't  nhnUsh)  lUingn  that  are  ;  in  other  woril>4,  to  l>ccoiiic 
ff  Jod's  church  nnd  people,  and  so  to  cause  the  Jewish  church  and  economy 
Jo  rcaRC.    See  Wl\it!iy  in  luc. 

»  Iliist.  lib.  viii.  c.  K).  •  Annul,  hb.  ii.  c.  42. 

•  Alber,  Ilcnnencutica  Vet.  Test  torn.  i.  p.  60. 


(1  Kings  ix.  26.),  though  they  are  not  noticed  in  this  place. 
"  Thence  it  shall  pass  on  to  [the  wilderness  of]  Z/n,"  on  the 
east  side  of  Mount  Hor,  including  that  whole  mountainous 
region  within  the  boundar}' ;  "  and  the  going  frrlh  thereof 
shall  be  to  Kadesh  Barnea  southwards ;  and  it  shall  go  on  to 
Ilazar  Jddar,^  and  pass  on  to  .^mon."  "  And  the  border  shall 
fetch  a  compass,"  or  form  an  angle,  "  from  Azmon,"  or  turn 
westwards  "  towards  the  river  of  Egypt,"  or  Peluaiac  branch 
of  the  Nile ;  "  and  its  outgoings  shall  be  at  the  sea,"  the 
Mediterranean.^ 

"  Jnd  as  for  the  western  border,  ye  shall  have  the  Great 
Sea  for  a  bordci;  This  sltiill  be  your  west  border.''''  The  Great 
vSea  is  the  iMediterranean,  as  contrasted  with  the  smaller  seas 
or  lakes,  the  Red  Sea,  the  Salt  Sea,  and  the  Sea  of  Tiberias, 
or  Galilee. 

And  this  shall  be  your  north  border  :  from  the  Great  Sea 
you  shall  point  out  Hor  horhor,  (not  "  Blount  Hor,"  as  ren- 
dered in  our  English  Bible,  confounding  it  with  that  on  the 
southern  border,  but)  "  the  mountain  of  the  mountain,''''''  or 
"  the  double  7nountain,"  or  Mount  Lebanon,  which  formed 
the  northern  frontier  of  Palestine,  dividing  it  from  Syria ; 
consisting  of  two  great  parallel-  ranges,  called  Libanus  and 
Antilibanus,  and  running  eastwards  from  the  neighbourhood 
of  Sidon  to  that  of  Dam.ascus. 

"  From  Hor  ha-hor  ye  shall  point  your  border  to  the  entrance 
of  Hamaih,''''  which  Joshua,  speaking  of  the  yet  unconquered 
land,  describes,  "  M  Lebanon,  towards  the  sun-rising,  from 
(the  valley  of)  Baal  Gad,  under  Mount  Herman,  unto  the  en- 
trance  of  Hamath.^'  (Josh.  xiii.  5.)  This  demonstrates,  that 
Hor  ha-hor  corresponded  to  all  Lebanon,  including  Mount 
Hermon,  as  judiciously  remarked  by  'Wells,^  who  observes, 
that  it  is  not  decided  which  of  the  two  ridges,  the  northern  or 
the  southern,  was  properly  Libanus ;  the  natives  at  present 
call  the  southern  so,  but  the  Septuagint  and  Ptolemy  called 
it  Antilibanus. — "  From  Hamath  it  shall  go  on  to  Zcaad,  and 
from  thence  to  Ziphron,  and  the  goings  out  of  it  shall  be  at  Ha- 
zar  Enan''''  (near  Damascus,  Ezek.  xlviii.  I).  Tlris  shall  be 
your  north  border. 

^^And  ye  shall  point  out  your  east  border  from  Hazar 
Enan  to  Shephan,  and  the  coast  shall  go  down  to  jRiblah  on  the 
east  side  of  Ain  ("  the  fountain"  or  springs  of  the  river 
Jordan),  and  the  border  shall  descend,  ana  shun  reach  unto  the 
['east]  side  of  the  sea  of  Chinnereth.  And  the  border  shall  go 
down  to  Jordan  on  the  east  side,  and  the  goings  out  of  it  shall  be  at 
the  Salt  Sea."  lliere  it  met  the  southern  border,  at  the  south- 
east comer  of  that  sea,  or  the  Asphaltite  Lake. 

"  I'his  shall  be  your  land  with  the  coasts  thereof  round 
about"  in  circuit.^    - 

Such  was  the  admirable  geographical  chart  of  the  Land  of 
Promise,  dictated  to  Moses  by  the  God  of  Israel,  and  de- 
scribed with  all  the  accuracy  of  an  eye-witness.  Of  this 
region,  however,  the  Israelites  were  not  put  into  immediate 
possession.  In  his  first  expedition,  Joshua  subdued  all  the 
southern  department  of  the  Promised  Land,  and  in  his  second 
the  northrrn,  having  spent  five  years  in  botli  (Josh.  xi.  18.): 
what  Joshua  left  unfinished  of  the  conquest  of  the  whole, 
was  afterwards  completed  by  David,  and  Solomon.  (-2  Sam. 
viii.  3 — 14.  2  Chron.  ix.  26.)  In  the  reipn  of  the  latter  was 
realized  the  Abrahamic  covenant  in  its  full  extent.  And  Sulo- 
nion  reigned  over  all  the  kingdoms  from  the  rinr  (Euphrates) 
unto  the  land  of  the  Philistines,  and  the  bordei-  of  Egypt : — 
fir  he  had  dominion  over  all  the  region  on  this  side  the  river 
(Euphrates)  from  TipsaJi  (or  Thapsacus  situated  thereon^ 
even  to  Azzuh  (ox  Gaza  with  her  towns  and  village.-;),  "  unto 
the  river"  of  Egj'pt,  southward,  "  and  the  Great  Sr.a,"  tvnt- 
tvard  (Josh.  xv.  47.),  even  over  all  the  kings  on  this  side  the 
river  (Euphrates).     1  Kings  iv.  21.  2L"' 

But  the  Israelites  did  not  always  retain  pop^essicn  of  this 
tract,  as  is  shown  in  the  succeeding  pages.  It  lies  far  within 
the  temperate  zone,  and  between  .31  and  3.3  degrees  of  north 
latitude,  and  was  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  .Mediterranean 
or  (ireat  Sea,  as  it  is  often  called  in  the  Scriptures ;  on  the 
east  by  Ar.iliia;  on  the  soutii  by  the  river  of  Egypt  (or  the 
river  Nile,  whose  eastern  bnmcli  was  reckoned  the  boundary 

•  Jo.shua  (xv.  3.)  Intcn^JHCs  two  ailditionni  stations,  Ilczron  and  Knrkaa, 
b'.'foro  and  nfier  Addar,  or  Hazar  Addar,  which  are  not  noticed  by  .Moses. 

•  Thi.s  ttTinin.ition  of  tlie  Foiiilii-rn  border  westwards,  la  exactly  con- 
forinablc  to  the  ncronnlri  of  HpriMJotiis  and  I'liiiy  :  the  former  represent* 
Mount  Casius  King  between  t'eluxiiim  aiid  the  Sirbonic  lake,  as  the  boun- 
dary betwrin  K|iypl  and  I'alr.xline  Syrin  (iii.  5.);  the  latter  reckoned  the 
Sirbonic  lake  itscll  bm  the  boundary.     (Nat.  Hist.  v.  IH.) 

1  The  Si'ptiiajsinI  Version  has  judiciously  rendered  it,  vxf%  to  ejsj  t« 
iftf,  "  th''  nmuiilain  benide  the  mountain." 

•  Harrfd  (Jcography,  vol.  ii.  p.  271. 

»  Dr.  Hale's  Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  i.  PP-  414— 41C. 
«•  Ibid.  pp.  410, 4f7. 


i 


Chap.  I.] 


ANCIENT  INHABITANTS  OF  CANAAN. 


15 


lies 

or 

the 


of  Egypt,  towards  the  great  Desert  of  Shur,  which  li 
between  Egypt  and  Palestine,)'  and  by  the  desert  of  Sin, 
Beersheba,  the  southern  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  t 
river  Arnon ;  and  on  the  north  by  the  chain  of  mountains 
termed  Antilibanus,  near  which  stood  the  city  of  Dan  :  hence 
in  the  Sacred  Writing  we  frequently  meet  with  the  ex- 
pression, frorr  Dan  to  Beersheba,  in  order  to  denote  the  whole 
length  of  the  land  of  Israel.^ 

III.  The  Land  of  Canaan,  previously  to  its  conquest  by 
tl>3  Israelites,  was  possessed  by  the  descendants  of  Canaan, 
the  youngest  son  of  Ham,  and  grandson  of  Noah;  who 
divided  the  country  among  his  eleven  sons,  each  of  whom 
was  the  head  of  a  numerous  clan  or  tribe.  (Gen.  x.  15 — 19.) 
Here  they  resided  upwards  of  seven  centuries,  and  founded 
numerous  republics  and  kingdoms.  In  the  days  of  Abraham, 
this  reoion  was  occupied  by  ten  nations ;  the  Kenites,  the 
KenizzTtes,  and  the  Kadraonites,  to  the  east  of  Jordan ;  and 
westward,  the  Hittites,  Perizzites,  Rephaims,  Amorites, 
Canaanites,  Girgashites,  and  the  Jebusites.  (Gen.  xv.  18 — 
21.)  These  latter  in  the  days  of  Moses  were  called  the 
Hittites,  Girgashites,  Amorites,  Canaanites,  Perizzites, 
Hivites,  and  Jebusites  (Deut.  vii.  1.  Josh.  iii.  10.  xxiv.  11.) ; 
the  Hivites  being  substituted  for  the  Rephaims.  These  seven 
nations  were  thus  distributed : — 

The  Hittites  or  sons  of  Heth,  the  Perizzites,  the  Jebusites, 
and  the  Amorites,  dwelt  hi  the  mountains,  or  hill  country  of 
Judaea,  southward ;  the  Canaanites  dwelt  in  the  midland 
by  the  sea,  westward,  and  by  the  coast  of  Jordan  eastward  ; 
and  the  Girgashites,  or  Gergesenes,  along  the  eastern  side 
of  the*  Sea  of  Galilee ;  and  the  Hivites  in  Mount  Lebanon, 
under  Hermon,  in  the  land  of  Mizpeh  or  Gilead,  northward. 
(Compare  Num.  xiii.  29.  Josh.  xi.  3.  Judges  iii.  3.  and 
Matt.  viii.  28.)  Of  all  these  nations  the  Amorites  became 
the  most  powerful,  so  as  to  extend  their  conquests  beyond 
the  river  Jordan  over  the  Kadmonites ;  whence  they  are 
sometimes  put  for  the  whole  seveii  nations,  as  in  Gen.  xv.  16. 
Josh.  xxiv.  15.  and  2  Sam.  xxi.  2. 

Tliese  nations  were  the  people  whom  the  children  of  Israel 
were  commanded  to  exterminate.  Within  the  period  of 
seven  years  Moses  conquered  two  powerful  kingdoms  on  the 
east,  and  Joshua  thirty-one  smaller  kino;doms  on  the  west 
of  Jordan,  and  gave  their  land  to  the  Israelites ;  though  it 
appears  that  some  of  the  old  inhabitants  were  permitted  by 
Jehovah  to  remain  there,  to  prove  their  conquerors,  whether 
they  would  hearken  to  the  commandments  of  the  Lord,  which 
he  commanded  their  fathers  by  the  hand  of  Moses ,-  and  the 
nations  thus  spared  were  afterwards  suflfered  to  oppress  the 
Israelites  with  great  severitJ^  (Num.  xxi.  21 — 35.  xxxii. 
and  xxxiv.  Deut.  ii.  26 — 37.  iii.  1 — 20.  Josh.  vi.  21.  Judges 
i.  4.)  Nor  were  they  finally  subdued  until  the  reigns  of 
David  and  Solomon,  who  reduced  them  to  the  condition  of 
slaves  :  the  latter  employed  153,600  of  them  in  the  most 
servile  parts  of  his  work,  in  building  his  temple,  palace,  &c. 
(3  Sam.  V.  6—8.  1  Chron.  xi.  4—8.  1  Kings  ix.  20. 
2  Chron.  ii.  17,  18.  and  viii.  7,  8.) 

Besides  these  devoted  nations  there  were  others,  either 
settled  in  the  land  at  the  arrival  of  the  Israelites,  or  in  its 
immediate  environs,  with  whom  the  latter  had  to  maintain 
many  severe  conflicts  :  they  were  six  in  number. 

1.  The  Philistines  were  the  descendants  of  Mizraim,  the 
second  son  of  Ham ;  who,  migrating  from  Caphtor  or  the 
north-eastern  part  of  Egypt,  very  early  settled  in  a  small 
strip  of  territory  along  the  sea-shore,  in  the  south-west  of 
Canaan,  having  expelled  the  Avites,  who  had  before  pos- 
sessed it.  (Deut.  ii.  23.  Amos  ix.  7.  Jer.  xlvii.  4.)  The 
district  occupied  by  the  Philistines  was  in  the  time  of  Joshua 
distinguished  into  five  lordships,  denominated,  from  the 
chief  towns,  Gaza,  Ashdod,  Askelon,  Gath,  and  Ekron. 
They  were  the  most  formidable  enemies  perhaps  whom  the 
children  of  Israel  had  to  encounter:  and  of  the  inveteracy 
of  their  enmity  against  the  latter,  we  have  abundant  evi- 
dence in  the  Sacred  Writings.  Though  they  were  subdued 
by  David,  and  kept  in  subjection  by  some  succeeding 
monarchs,  yet  they  afterwards  became  so  considerable,  that 
from  them  the  Holy  Land  was  called  by  the  Greeks 
Palestine,  which  appellation  it  retains  to  this  day.  The 
country  was  finally  subdued  about  the  year  of  the  world 

«  It  is  a  point,  much  in  dispute  among  writers  on  the  geography  of  the 
Bible,  whether  the  "  river  of  Egypt"  means  the  Nile,  or  the  Sichor  men- 
tioned in  Josh.  xiii.  3.  and  Jer.  li.  18.  Dr.  Hales,  however,  has  shown  at 
length  that  the  Nile  is  the  river  intended  ;  and  upon  his  authority  we  have 
considered  "  the  river  of  Egypt,"  and  the  Nile,  as  the  same  river.  See  his 
Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  i.  pp.  413, 414. 

»  For  a  full  investigation  of  the  boundaries  of  the  promised  land,  sec 
Michaelis's  Commentaries  on  the  Law  of  Moses,  vol.  i.  pp.  55—97. 


3841  (b.  c.  159)  by  the  illustrious  general  Judas  Maccabaeus : 
and  about  sixty-five  years  afterwards  Jannaeus  burnt  their 
city  Gaza,  and  incorporated  the  remnant  of  the  Philistines 
with  such  Jews  as  he  placed  in  their  country. 

2.  The  MiDiANiTES  were  the  descendants  of  Midian,  the 
fourth  son  of  Abraham  by  Keturah.  (Gen.  xxv.  2.)  In  the 
Scriptures  two  different  places  are  assigned  as  the  territory 
of  the  Midianites  :  the  one  almost  the  north-east  point  of  the 
Red  Sea,  where  Jethro,  the  father-in-law  of  Moses,  was  a 
prince  or  priest.  These  western  or  southern  Midianites  were 
also  called  Cushites,  because  they  occupied  the  country  that 
originally  belonged  to  Cush.  They  retained  the  knowledge 
of  the  true  God,  which  appears  to  have  been  lost  among  the 
eastern  or  northern  Midianites  who  dwelt  on  the  east  of  the 
Dead  Sea.  (Gen.  xxv.  2 — 6.  xxxvii.  28.  Exod.  ii.  iii.  xvjii.) 
These  northern  Midianites  were  either  subject  to  or  allied 
with  the  Moabites ;  and  their  women  were  particulariy  in- 
strumental in  seducing  the  Israelites  to  idolatry  and  other 
crimes ;  which  wickedness  was  punished  by  Jehovah  with 
the  almost  total  destruction  of  their  nation  ("Num.  xxii.  4 — 
7.  xxv.  xxxi.  Josh.  xiii.  21.);  although  they  afterwards  re 
covered  so  much  of  their  former  strength  as  to  render  the  Is- 
raelites their  tributaries,  and  for  seven  years  greatly  oppressed 
them.  From  this  bondage,  Gideon  delivered  his  countrymen 
with  a  very  inferior  force,  and  almost  annihilated  the  Midian- 
ites, whose  surviving  remnants  are  supposed  to  have  been  in- 
corporated with  the  Moabites  or  Ammonites. 

3,  4.  The  Moabites  and  Ammonites  were  the  descendants 
of  the  incestuous  offspring  of  Lot.  (Gen.  xix.  30 — 38.)  The 
Moabites  dwelt  on  the  east  of  the  Jordan,  in  a  tract  whence 
they  had  expelled  the  Emims,  a  gigantic  aboriginal  race. — 
The  Ammonites  had  their  residence  north-east  of  the  Moab- 
ites, which  territory  they  had  wrested  from  the  Zamzummim, 
another  gigantic  tribe.  The  countrv^  occupied  by  these  two 
tribes  was  exceedingly  pleasant  and  fertile  ;  they  were  vio- 
lently hostile  to  the  Israelites,  whom  they  at  different  times 
terribly  oppressed.  They  were  conquered  by  David,  and  for 
about  150  years  continued  in  subjection  to  the  Israelites.  On 
the  division  of  the  kingdom  they  fell  to  the  share  of  the  ten 
tribes  ;  and  after  several  attempts  to  regain  their  liberty  under 
succeeding  kings  of  Israel  (some  of  whom  severely  chas- 
tised them,  and  imposed  heayjr  tributes  upon  them),  they  are 
supposed  to  have  effected  their  complete  liberation  during  the 
unhappy  reign  of  Ahaz. 

5.  The  Amalekites  Vv'ere  descended  from  Amalek  the  son 
of  Ham,  and  grandson  of  Noali,  and  were  very  formidable 
enemies  to  the  Israelites.  They  were  settled  on  the  south 
coast  westward  of  Jordan,  and  first  opposed  the  Israelites 
after  their  departure  from  Egypt,  but  were  defeated  and 
doomed  to  destruction  (Exod.  xvii.  8 — 16.  Deut.  xxv.  17 — 
19.);  which  was  commenced  by  Saul,  and  finished  by  David. 

6.  The  Edomites  were  the  descendants  of  Esau  or  Edom : 
they- possessed  themselves  of  tlie  country  southward  of  Ju- 
daea and  the  Red  Sea,  which  was  originally  occupied  by  the 
Horites,  who  are  supposed  to  have  been  finally  blended  with 
their  conquerors.  It  was  a  mountainous  tract,  including  the 
mountains  of  Seir  and  Hor,  and  the  provinces  of  Dedan, 
Teman,  &c.  They  were  governed  by  dukes  or  princes,  and 
afterwards  by  their  own  kings.  (Gen.  xxxvi.  31.)  Inveterate 
foes  to  Israel,  they  continued  independent  until  the  time  of 
David,  by  whom  they  were  subdued  and  rendered  tributary, 
in  completion  of  Isaac's  prophecy,  that  Jacob  slionld  rule 
Esau.  (Gen.  xxvii.29.)  The  Edomites  bore  their  subjection 
with  great  impatience;  and  at  the  end  of  Solomon's' reign, 
Hadad  the  Edomite,  who  had  been  carried  into  Egypt  durilig 
his  childhood,  returned  into  his  own  country,  where  he  pro- 
cured himself  to  be  acknowledged  king,  (1  Kings  xi.  21, 
22.)  It  is  probable,  however,  that  he  reigned  only  in  the 
eastern  part  of  Edom ;  for  that  part,  which  lay  directly  to 
the  south  of  Judcea,  continued  subject  to  the  kings  of  Judah 
until  the  reign  of  Jehoram,  against  whom  the  Edomites  re- 
belled. (2  Chron.  xxi.  8 — 10.)  They  were  also  discomfited 
by  Amaziah  king  of  Judah,  who  slew  one  thousand  men, 
and  cast  ten  thousand  more  from  a  precipice.  But  their  con- 
quests were  not  permanent.  When  Nebuchadnezzar  besieged 
Jerusalem,  the  Edomites  joined  him,  and  encouraged  hini  to 
raze  the  very  foundations  of  the  city  (Ezek.  xxv.  12 — 14. 
XXXV.  3 — 5.  Obad.  10 — 16.  Psal.  cxxxvi.  7.  Lam.  iv.  21.): 
but  their  cruelty  did  not  continue  long  unpunished.  Fi\e 
years  after  the  capture  of  Jerusalem,  Nebuchadnezzar  Inuu- 
bled  all  the  states  around  Judeea,  and  particularly  the  territory 
of  the  Edomites.' 

3  See  an  interesting  and  accurately  compiled  history  of  the  Edomites  in 
the  Biblical  Repository,  vol.  iii.  pp.  250— 2b<j.   Andover,  Massachusetts,  1S.?3, 


16 


HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


[Part  I 


IV.  On  the  conquest  of  Canaan  by  the  children  of  Israel, 
Joshua  divided  it  into  twelve  parts,  which  the  twelve 
tribes  drew  by  lot,  according  to  thoir  families  :  so  that,  in 
this  division,  every  tribe  and  every  family  received  their  lot 
and  share  by  themselves,  distinct  from  all  the  other  tribes. 
Thus,  each  tribe  remained  a  distinct  province,  in  which  all 
the  freeholders  were  not  only  Israelites,  but  of  the  same 
tribe,  or  descendants  from  the  same  patriarch :  and  the  seve- 
ral families  were  placed  together  in  the  same  neighbourhood, 
receiving  their  inheritance  in  the  same  part  or  subdivision  of 
the  tribe?  Or,  each  tribe  may  be  said  to  live  together  in  one 
and  the  same  county,  and  each  family  in  one  and  the  same 
hundred  :  so  that  the  inhabitants  of  every  neighbourhood 
were  relations  to  each  other,  and  of  the  same  family.  Nor 
was  it  permitted  that  an  estate  in  one  tribe  should  become 
the  property  of  any  person  belonging  to  another  tribe. 

In  order  to  preserve  as  nearly  as  possible  the  same  balance, 
not  only  between  the  tribes,  but  between  the  heads  of  families 
and  the  families  of  the  same  tribes,  it  was  further  provided 
that  every  man's  possession  should  be  unalienable. 

The  wisdom  of  this  constitution  had  provided  for  a  release 
of  all  debts  and  servitudes  every  seventh  year  (Deut.  xv.  1, 
2.  12.),  that  the  Hebrew  nation  might  not  moulder  away 
from  so  great  a  number  of  free  subjects,  and  be  lost  to  the 

Eublic  in  the  condition  of  slaves.  It  was  moreover  provided, 
y  the  law  of  jubilee,  which  was  every  fiftieth  year,  that  then 
all  lands  should  be  restored,  and  the  estate  of  every  family, 
being  discharged  from  all  incumbrances,  should  return  to  the 
family  a^ain.  For  this  there  was  an  express  law.  (Lev.  xxv. 
10.)  Ye  shall  hallow  the  fiftieth  year,  and  proclaim  liberty 
throughout  all  tJie  land,  unto  all  the  inhabitants  thereof:  it  shall 
be  a  jubilee  unto  you,  and  ye  shall  return  every  man  to  his  pos- 
session, and  ye  shall  return  every  man  unto  his  family.  It  is 
further  enacted,  ^ind  the  land  shall  not  be  sold  for  ever  (or,  as 
in  the  margin,  be  quite  cut  off,  or  alienated  from  the  family)  ; 
fi/r  the  land  is  inine,foiye  are  !<t rangers  and  sojourners  with  me. 

By  this  agrarian  law  of  the  Hebrews,  all  estates  were  to  be 
kept  in  the  same  families,  as  well  as  the  same  tribes  to  which 
they  originally  belonged  at  the  first  division  of  the  land  by 
Joshua;  so  that  how  often  soever  a  man's  estate  had  been 
sold  or  alienated  from  one  jubilee  to  another,  or  through  how 
many  hands  soever  it  had  passed,  yet  in  fifty  years  every 
estate  must  return  to  the  heirs  of  the  persons  who  were 
oriij^nally  possessed  of  it.  " 

It  was  at  first  an  excellent  constitution,  considering  the  de- 
sign of  this  government,  to  make  so  equal  a  division  of  the 
land  among  the  whole  Hebrew  nation,  according  to  the  poll ; 
it  made  provision  for  settling  and  maintaining  a  numerous 
and  a  brave  militia  of  six  hundred  thousand  men,  which,  if 
their  force  was  rightly  directed  and  used,  would  be  a  suffi- 
cient defence  not  only  against  any  attempts  of  their  less 
fiowerful  neighbours,  to  deprive  them  of  tncir  liberty  or  re- 
igion  ;  but  considering  moreover  the  natural  security  of  their 
country,  into  which  no  inroads  could  be  made,  but  through 
very  difficult  passes,  it  was  a  force  sufficient  to  defend  them 
against  the  more  powerful  empires  of  Egypt,  Assyria,  or 
Babylon. 

The  wisdom  of  this  constitution  is  yet  further  observable, 
as  it  provided  against  all  ambitious  designs  of  private  persons, 
or  persons  in  authority,  against  the  public  liberty  ;  for  no  per- 
son in  any  of  the  tribes,  or  throughout  the  whole  Hebrew  na- 
tion, had  such  estates  and  possessions,  or  were  allowed  by 
the  constitution  to  procure  them,  that  could  give  any  hopes 
of  success  in  oppressing  their  brethren  and  fellow-subji'cts. 
They  had  no  ricnes  to  bribe  indigent  persons  to  assist  them, 
nor  could  there  at  any  time  be  any  considerable  number  of 
indigent  persons  to  be  corrupted.  They  could  have  no  power 
to  force  tnoir  fellow-subjects  into  a  tame  submission  to  any  of 
their  ambitious  views.  Tlie  power  in  the  hands  of  so  many 
freeholders  in  each  tribe,  was  so  uns]»eakably  superior  to  any 
power  in  the  hands  of  one  or  of  a  fc^w  mon,  tliat  it  is  impos- 
sible to  conceive  how  any  such  ambitious  designs  should 
succeed,  if  any  person  should  have  been  found  so  weak  as  to 
attempt  them.  Besides,  this  enual  and  moderate  provision  for 
every  person  wisely  cut  olT  ilin  means  of  luxury,  with  the 
temptitions  to  it  from  example.  It  almost  necessarily  induced 
the  whole  Hebrew  nation  to  be  both  industrious  and  frugal, 
and  yet  gave  to  every  one  such  a  property,  with  such  an  easy 
state  of  liberty,  that  they  had  sutticicnt  reason  to  esteem  and 
value  them,  and  endeavour  to  preserve  and  maintain  them.' 

In  this  division  of  the  land  into  twelve  portions,  the  pos- 
terity of  Ephraim  and  Manasseh  (the  two  sons  of  Joseph), 

i  Lowman  on  th6  Tivi)  GoTecnment  of  the  Hebrnws.  nn.  46—49. 


had  their  portions,  as  distinct  tribes,  in  consequence  of  Jacob 
having  adopted  them.  The  northern  parts  of  the  country 
were  allotted  to  the  tribes  of  Asher,  Naphtali,  Zebulon,  and 
Issachar;  the  middle  parts  to  that  of  Ephraim  and  one  half 
of  the  tribe  of  Manasseh  ;  the  southern  parts  to  those  of  Ju- 
dah,  Benjamin,  Dan,  and  Simeon ;  and  the  country  beyona 
Jordan,  (which  was  first  conquered  by  the  Israelites,  before 
the  subjugation  of  the  whole  land  of  Canaan),  was  allotted  to 
the  tribes  of  Reuben,  Gad,  and  the  other  half  tribe  of  Ma- 
nasseh. The  tribe  of  Levi,  indeed  (which  formed  in  effect  a 
thirteenth  tribe),  possessed  no  lands.  By  divine  command 
there  were  assigned  to  the  Levites,  who  were  appointed  ta 
minister  in  holy  things,  without  any  secular  incumorance,  the 
tenths  and  fijrst-fruits  of  the  estates  of  their  brethren.  Forty- 
eight  cities  were  appropriated  to  their  residence,  thence  called 
Levitical  cities  :  these  were  dispersed  among  the  twelve 
tribes,  and  had  their  respective  suburbs,  with  land  surround- 
ing them.  Of  these  cities  the  Kohathites  received  twenty- 
three,  the  Gershonites  thirteen,  and  the  Merarites  twelve ; 
and  six  of  them,  three  on  each  side  of  Jordan,'  were  appoint- 
ed to  be  Cities  of  Refuge,  whither  the  inadvertent  man- 
slayer  might  flee,  and  find  an  asylum  from  his  pursuers,  and 
be  secured  from  the  effects  of  private  revenge,  until  cleared 
by  a  legal  process.  (Num.  xxxv.  6 — 15.  Deut.  xix.  4 — 10. 
Josh.  XX.  7,  8.)'  The  way  to  these  cities  the  Israelites  were 
commanded  to  make  good,  so  that  the  man-slayer  might  flee 
thither  without  impediment,  and  with  all  imaginable  expedi- 
tion :  and  according  to  the  Rabbins,  there  was  an  inscription 
set  up  at  every  cross  road — "  Asylum,  Asylum."  It  has  been 
thought  that  there  is  an  allusion  to  this  practice  in  Luke  iii. 
4 — 6.,  where  John  the  Baptist  is  described  as  the  voice  of  one 
crying  in  the  wilderness,  Prepare  ye  the  way  (f  the  Lord,  make 
his  paths  straight.  He  was  the  Messiah's  forerunner,  and  in 
that  character  was  to  remove  the  obstacles  to  men  fleeing  to 
him  as  their  asylum,  and  obtaining  the  salvation  of  God.'' 

It  is  remarkable  that  all  the  sacerdotal  cities  lay  within  the 
southern  tribes,  eight  belonging  to  Judah  and  four  to  Benja- 
min, and  only  one  to  Simeon,  which  is  supposed  to  have 
been  situated  on  the  frontier  of  Judah,  and  to  have  remaineil 
under  the  control  of  the  latter  tribe.  This  was  wisely  ai:d 
providentially  designed  to  guard  against  the  evils  of  schisjn 
between  ti\e  southern  and  northern  tribes.  For,  by  this  ar- 
rangement all  the  sacerdotal  cities  (except  one)  lay  in  the 
faithful  tribes  of  Judah  and  Benjamin,  to  maintain  the  nation- 
al worship  in  them,  in  opposition  to  the  apostacy  of  the  other 
tribes.  Otherwise  the  kingdom  of  Judah  might  have  expe- 
rienced a  scarcity  of-priests,  or  have  been  burtliened  with  the 
maintenance  of  those  who  fled  from  the  kingdom  of  Israel  (ij 
Chron.  xi.  13,  14.),  when  the  base  and  wicked  policy  of 
Jeroboam  made  priests  of  the  lowest  of  the  people  to  officiate 
in  their  room. 

Of  the  country  beyond  Jordan,  which  was  given  by  Mo- 
ses to  the  tribes  of  Reuben  and  Gad,  and  to  the  half  tribe  ot 
Manasseh  (Deut.  iii.  12 — 17.  Josh.  xii.  1 — fi.  xiii.),  the  triho 
of  Reuben  obtained  the  southern  part,  which  was  bounded 
on  the  south  from  Midian  by  the  river  Arnon ;  on  the  north, 
by  another  small  river ;  on  the  east,  by  the  Ammonites  and 
Moabites;  and  on  the  west  by  the  river  Jordan.  Its  principal 
cities  were  Ashdod-Pizgah,  Bethabara,  Beth-peor,  Bezer, 
Heshbon,  Jahaz,  Kedemoth,  Medeba,  Mephaath,  and  Midian.^ 
The  territory  of  the  tribe  of  Gad  was  bounded  by  the  river 
Jordan  on  the  west,  by  the  canton  of  the  half  tribe  of  Ma- 
nasseh on  the  north,  by  the  Ammonites  on  the  east,  and  by  the 
tribe  of  Reuben  on  the  south.  Its  chief  cities  were  Betharan 
(afterwards  called  Julias),  Debir,  Jazer,  Mahanaim,  Mizpeh, 
Penuel,  Rabbah,  or  Rabboth  (afterwards  called  Philadelphia), 
Snccoth,  and  Tishbeth.  The  region  allotted  to  the  halk 
tribe  of  Manasseh,  on  ih  eastern  side  of  the  Jordan,  was 
bounded  on  the  south  by  the  territory  of  the  tribe  of  Gad  ;  by 
the  sea  of  Cinnereth  (afterwards  called  the  lake  of  Gennesa- 
reth  and  the  sea  of  Galilee),  and  the  course  of  the  river  Jor- 
dan from  its  source  towards  that  sea,  on  the  west;  by  Mount 
Lebanon,  or  more  properly  Mount  Hermon,  on  the  north  and 
northnvast ;  and  by  Mount  Gilead  on  the  east.  Its  principal 
cities  were  Ashtaroth-Carnaim,  Auran,   Beeshteran,  Beth- 

»  Tlie  cities  of  refiiue  on  tlifi  ftislrrn  side  of  Jonlan  were  Bezer,  in  the 
tribnof  Roulien;  Kniimlh  Gilend,  in  lliat  of  Gad ;  and  Golan,  in  tlio  liaU 
(ril)e  of  MaiiasMi'h.  Those  on  tin-  irrntcrn  side  of  Jordan  were,  Hobron, 
in  tlin  tribe  of  Jndah;  cilicclieni,  in  tliat  of  Ephraim  ;  and  KedeshNaphtall, 
in  lliat  of  NaplitAli. 

»  MoBl  of  ttie  North  American  nations  had  similar  places  of  refuga 
(eitbcT  a  liouso  or  a  town),  wliicli  afforded  a  safe  a«ylum  to  a  man-slayer, 
who  (led  to  it  from  the  revenger  of  blood.  Adaii'sUiBtory  of  the  Aiuencaa 
Indians,  pp.  l.'>'^,  IM.  4lt;.  .        .       ,_     , 

*  Godwin's  Moses  and  Aa^ron,  p.  78.    Jenniiig's  Jewish  Antiquutiea,  booK 

t 


ii.  rh.  5.  0.20.    Ediiib.  1908. 


t 


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^J'fcjaK'i'.!*!  !*■«■'"»' 


1 


ac  IS  as  loiiows  ■  A  ceriaiu  woman  iiiieiiUKU  lo  any  unuto 

(1-  a  peculiar   officer.     These  districts,   together  '  with   the  \  the  in^l"Mii  Lord,  I  had  a  picture,  ivhich  they  stole;  and  U  was  so  great 
Vol.  II.  C 


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Lowman  on  ttaft  Civil  QoTenunent  of  Ibe  HebrAWi.  nn.  46—40.  I  ii.  rh.  5.  n.  293.    Ediub.  1B08. 


C'hap.  I.] 


KINGDOMS  OF  JUDAH  AND  OF  ISRAEL. 


17 


saida,  Gadara,  Gerasa,  Geshur,  and  Jabesh-Gilead.  I'his 
tribe  was  greatly  indebted  to  the  bravery  of  Jair,  who  took 
threescore  c/.^ees,  besides  soveral  small  towns  or  villages,  which 
he  called  Havoth-Jair,  or  the  BioelUngs  of  Jair.  (1  Chron.  ii. 
23.  Num.  xxxii.  41.) 

The  remaining  nine  tribes  and  a  half  were  settled  on  the 
western  side  of  the  Jordan. 

The  canton  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  was  boimded  on  the  east 
by  the  Dead  Sea ;  on  the  west,  by  the  tribes  of  Dan  and 
Simeon,  both  of  which  lay  between  i;  and  the  Mediterranean 
Sea;  on  the  north,  by  the  canton  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  ; 
and  on  the  south,  by  Kadesh-Bamea,  and  the  Desert  of  Paran 
or  Zin.  Judah  was  reckoned  to  be  the  largest  and  most  popu- 
lous of  all  the  twelve  tribes ;  and  its  inhabitants  were  the 
most  valiant;  it  was  also  the  chief  and  royal  tribe,  from 
which,  in  subsequent  times,  the  whole  Ifingdom  was  denomi- 
nated. The  most  renaarkable  places  or  cities  in  this  tribe 
were  AduUam,  Azekah,  Bethlehem,  Bethzor,  Debir  or  Kiri- 
ath-sepher,  Emmaus,  Engedi,  Kiriatharba  or  Hebron,  Lib- 
nah,  Makkedah,  Maon,  Massada,  Tekoah,  and  Ziph. 

The  inheritance  of  the  tribes  of  Dan  and  of  Simeon  was 
within  the  inheritance  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  or  was  taken  out 
of  the  portion  at  first  allotted  to  the  latter.  The  boundaries 
of  these  two  tribes  are  not  precisely  ascertained ;  though 
they  are  placed  by  geographers  to  the  north  and  south-west 
of  the  canton  of  Judah,  and  consequently  bordered  on  the 
Mediterranean  Sea.  The  principal  cities  in  the  tribe  of  Dan, 
were  Ajalon,  Dan  or  Lesham,  Eltekeh,  Eshtaol,  Gath-rim- 
mon,  Gibbetiion,  Hirshemesh,  Joppa,  Modin,  Timnath,  and 
Zorah.  The  chief  cities  in  the  tribe  of  Simeon,  were  Ain, 
Beersheba,  Hormah,  and  Ziklag. 

The  canton  allotted  to  the  tribe  of  Benjamin  lay  between 
the  tribes  of  Judah  and  Joseph,  contiguous  to  Samaria  on  the 
north,  to  Judah  on  the  south,  and  to  Dan  on  the  west,  which 
last  parted  it  from  the  Mediterranean.  It  did  not  contain 
many  cities  and  towns,  but  this  defect  was  abundantly  sup- 
plied by  its  possessing  the  most  considerable,  and  the  metro- 
polis of  all — the  city  of  Jerusalem.  The  other  places  of 
note  in  this  tribe  were  Anathoth,  Beth-el,  Gibeah,  Gibeon, 
Gilgal,  Hal,  Mizpeh,  Ophrah,  and  Jericho. 

lo  the  north  of  the  canton  of  Benjamin  lay  that  allotted  to 
the  tribe  of  Ephraim,  and  that  of  the  other  half  tribe  of 
Manasseh.  The  boundaries  of  these  two  districts  cannot  be 
ascertained  with  precision.  The  chief  places  in  Ephraim, 
were  Bethoron  the  Nether  and  Upper,  Gezer,  Lydda,  Mich- 
mash,  Naioth,  Samaria,  Shechem,  Shiloh,  and  Timnath- 
Serah.  After  the  scliism  of  the  ten  tribes,  the  seat  of  tlie 
kingdom  of  Israel  being  in  Ephraim,  this  tribe  is  frequently 
used  to  signify  the  whole  kingdom.  The  chief  places  in  the 
half  tribe  of  Manasseh,  were  Abel-raeholath,  Bethabara, 
Bethsham, (afterwards  called  Scythopolis),  Bezek,  Endor, 
Enon,  Gath-rimmon,  Megiddo,  Salim,  Ophrah,  and  Tirzah. 

To  the  north,  and  more  particularly  to  the  north-east  of  the 
half  tribe  of  Manasseh,  lay  the  canton  of  Issachar,  which 
was  bordered  by  the  celebrated  plain  of  Jezreel,  and  its 
northern  boundary  was  Mount  Tabor.  The  chief  cities  of 
Issachar,  were  Aphek,  Bethshemesh,  Dotlian,  Kishon,  Jez- 
reel, Nairn  or  Naia,  Ramoth,  and  Shunem. 

On  the  north  and  west  of  Issachar  resided  the  tribe  of 
Zebulun.  Its  chief  places  were  Bethlehem,  Cinnereth  or 
Chinnereth,  Gatli-hepher,  Jokneam,  Remmon-Methoar,  and 
Shimroncheron. 

The  tribe  of  Asher  was  stationed  in  the  district  to  the 
north  of  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh,  and  west  of  Zebulun ; 
consequently  it  was  a  maritime  country.  Hence  it  was  said 
(Judg.  V.  17.)  \h.dX  Asher  continued  on  the  sea-shore,  and  abode 
in  his  creeks.  Its  northern  boundary  was  Mount  Libanus  or 
Lebanon ;  and  on  the  south  it  was  bounded  by  Mount  Car- 
mel,  and  the  canton  of  Issachar.  Its  principal  cities  were 
Abdon,  Achshaph,  Helkath,  INIishal,  and  Rchob.  This  tribe 
never  possessed  the  whole  extent  of  district  assigned  to  it, 
which  was  to  reach  to  Libanus,  to  Syria,  and  Phoenicia,  and 
included  the  celebrated  cities  of  Tyre  and  Sidon. 

Lastly,  the  tribe  of  Naphtali  or  Nephtali  occupied  that 
district  in  the  northern  part  of  the  land  of  Canaan,  which  lay 
between  Mount  Lebanon  to  the  north,  and  the  sea  of  Cinner- 
eth (or  Gennesareth)  to  the  south,  and  between  Asher  to  the 
west,  and  the  river  Jordan  to  the  east.  Its  chief  places  were 
Abel  or  Abel-Beth-Maachah,  Hammoth-dor,  Harosheth  of  the 
Gentiles,  Kedesh,  and  Kiriathaim. 

V.  The  next  remarkable  division  was  made  by  king  Solo- 
mon, who  divided  the  kingdom,  which  he  had  received  from 
his  father  David,  into  twelve  provinces  or  districts,  each  un- 
d'T  a  peculiar  officer.     These  districts,  together  with  the 
VSl.H.  C 


names  of  their  respective  presidents,  are  enumerated  in  1 
Kings  iv.  7 — 19.  From  the  produce  of  these  districts  every 
one  of  these  officers  was  to  supply  the  king  with  provisions 
for  his  household,  in  his  turn,  that  is,  each  for  one  month  in 
the  year.  The  dominions  of  Solomon  extended  from  the 
river  unto  the  land  of  the  Philistines,  and  unto  tlie  border  of 
Egypt,  they  brought  presents,  and  served  Solomon  all  the  days 
of  his  life.  (1  Kings  iv.  21.)  Hence  it  appears  that  the 
Hebrew  monarch  reigned  over  all  the  provinces  from  the 
river  Euphrates  to  the  land  of  the  Philistines,  even  to  the 
frontiers  of  Egypt.  The  Euphrates  was  the  eastern  boun- 
dary of  his  dominions ;  the  Philistines  were  westward,  on 
the  Meditterranean  Sea ;  and  Egypt  was  oij  the  south.  Solo- 
mon therefore  had,  as  his  tributaries,  the  kingdoms  of  Syria, 
Damascus,  Moab,  and  Ammon ;  and  thus  he  appears  to  nave 

Eossessed  all  the  land  which  God  had  covenanted  with  Abra- 
am  to  give  to  his  posterity. 

VI.  Under  this  division  the  Holy  Land  continued  till  after 
the  death  of  Solomon,  when  ten  tribes  revolted  from  his  son 
Rehoboam,  and  erected  themselves  into  a  separate  kingdom 
under  Jeroboam,  called  the  Kingdom  of  Israel.  Tlie  two 
other  tribes  of  Benjamin  and  Judah,  continuing  faithful  to 
Rehoboam,  formed  the  Kingdom  of  Judah,  This  kingdom 
comprised  all  the  southern  parts  of  the  land,  consisting  of 
the  allotments  of  those  two  tribes,  together  with  so  much  of 
the  territories  of  Dan  and  Simeon  as  were  intermixed  with 
that  of  Judah  :  its  royal  city  or  metropolis  was  Jerusalem,  in 
the  tribe  of  Benjamin.  The  kingdom  of  Israel  included  all 
the  northern  and  middle  parts  of  the  land,  occupied  by  the 
other  ten  tribes  ;  and  its  capital  was  Samaria,  in  the  tribe  of 
Ephraim,  situated  about  thirty  miles  north-east  of  Jerusalem. 
But  this  division  ceased,  on  the  subversion  of  the  kingdom 
of  Israel  by  Shalmaneser,  king  of  Assyria,  after  it  haasub- 
sisted  two  hundred  and  fifty-four  years. 

VII.  The  Holy  Land  fell  successively  into  the  hands  of 
the  Syrian  kings,  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  In  the  time  of 
Jesus  Christ  it  was  divided  into  five  separate  provinces,  viz. 
Galilee,  Samaria,  Judaea,  Peraea,  and  Idumaja. 

1.  Galilee. — This  portion  of  the  Holy  Land  is  very  fre- 
quently mentioned  in  the  New  Testament :  its  limits  seem 
to  have  varied  at  diffisrent  times.  It  comprised  the  country 
formerly  occupied  by  the  tribes  of  Issachar,  Naphtali,  and 
Asher,  and  by  part  of  the  tribe  of  Dan ;  and  is  divided  by 
Josephus  into  Upper  and  Lower  Galilee. 

Upper  Galilee  abounded  in  mountains ;  and  from  its  vicinity 
to  the  cities  of  Tyre  and  Sidon,  it  is  called  the  Coasts  of  Tyre 
and  Sidbn.  (Mark  vii.  31.)  The  principal  city  in  this  region 
was  Cffisarea  Philippi ;  through  which  the  main  road  lay  to 
Damascus,  Tyre,  and  Sidon. 

Lower  Galilee  was  situated  in  a  rich  and  fertile  plain,  be- 
tween the  Mediteranean  Sea  and  the  Lake  of  Gennesareth : 
according  to  Josephus,  this  district  was  very  populous,  con- 
taining upwards  of  two  hundred  cities  and  tovnis.  The 
principal  cities  of  Lower  Galilee,  mentioned  in  the  New 
Testament,  are  Tiberias,  Chorazin,  Bethsaida,  Nazareth, 
Cana,  Capernaum,  Nain,  Caesarea  of  Palestine,  and  Ptole- 
mais. 

Galilee  was  most  honoured  by  our  Saviour's  presence. 
"  Hither  Joseph  and  Mary  returned  with  him  out  of  Egypt, 
and  here  he  resided  until  his  baptism  by  John.  (Matt.  ii.  22, 
23.  Lukeii.  39 — 51.  Matt.  iii.  13.  Luke  iii.  21.)  Hither  he  re- 
turned after  his  baptism  and  temptation  (Luke  iv.  14.):  and, 
after  his  entrance  on  his  public  ministry,  though  he  often 
went  into  other  provinces,  yet  so  frequent  were  his  visits  to 
this  country,  that  he  was  called  a  Gaulean.  (Matt.  xxvi.  69.) 
The  population  of  Galilee  being  very  great,  our  Lord  had 
many  opportunities  of  doing  good ;  and  being  out  of  the 
power  of  the  priests  at  Jerusalem,  he  seems  to  have  preferred 
It  as  his  abod^.  To  this  province  our  Lord  commanded  his 
apostles  to  come  and  converse  with  him  after  his  resurrection 
(Matt,  xxviii.  7.  IG.):  and  of  this  country  most,  if  not  the 
whole,  of  his  apostles  were  natives,  whence  they  are  all  styled 
by  the  angels  men  of  Galilee."^  (Acts  i.  11.) 

The  Galileans  spoke  an  unpolished  and  conupt  dialect  of 
the  Syriac,  confounding  and  using  y  (ain)  or  m  {aleph),  3 
{caph)  for  a  (beth),  n  {tau)  for  t  {daleth) ;  and  also  frequents 
ly  changed  the  gufturals.2  This  probably  proceeded  from 
their  great  communication  and  intermixture  with  the  neigh- 
bouring nations.    It  was  this  conupt  dialect  that  led  to  the 

1  Well's  Geography  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  vol.  ii.  p.  137. 

a  Dr.  Li 'htfoot,  lo  whom  we  are  indebted  for  the  above  remark,  has 
given  several  instances  in  Hebrew  and  English,  which  are  sufficiently  amus- 
ing. One  of  the.'se  is  as  follows  :  A  certain  woman  intended  to  say  before 
the  judge,  My  Lord,  I /lad  a  picture,  which  they  stole;  andtt  teas  sogreat 


18 


HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


[Paht  1 


detection  of  Peter  as  one  of  Christ's  disciples.  (Mark  xiv. 
70.)  The  Galileans  are  repeatedly  mentioned  by  Josephus 
as  a  turbulent  and  rebellious  people,  and  upon  all  occasions 
ready  to  disturb  the  Roman  authority.  They  were  particu- 
larly forward  in  an  insurrection  against  Pilate  himself,  who 
proceeded  to  a  summary  mode  of  punishment,  causing  a 
party  of  them  to  be  treacherously  slain,  during  one  of  the 
great  festivals,  when  they  came  to  sacrifice  at  Jerusalem.' 
This  character  of  the  Galileans  explains  the  expression  in 
8t.  Luke's  Gospel  (xiii.  1.),  whose  ulnod  Pilate  mingled  icith 
their  sacrifices,-  and  also  accounts  for  his  abmpt  question, 
%vhen  he  heard  of  Galilee,  and  asked  if  Jesus  were  a  Galilean  ? 
(Luke  xxiii.  6.)  Our  Redeemer  was  accused  before  him  of 
seditious  practices,  and  of  exciting  the  people  to  revolt ; 
■R-hen,  therefore,  it  was  stated,  among  other  things,  that  he 
had  been  in  Galilee,  Pilate  caught  at  the  observation,  and  in- 
ouired  if  he  were  a  Galilean;  having  been  prejudiced  against 
tne  inhabitants  of  that  district  by  their  frequent  commotions, 
and  being  on  this  account  the  more  ready  to  receive  any 
charge  which  might  be  brought  against  any  one  of  that  ob- 
noxious communUy.2 

Galilee  of  the  Nations,  or  of  the  Gentiles,  mentioned  in  Isa. 
ix.  1.  and  Matt.  iv.  15.,  is  by  some  commentators  supposed 
to  be  Upper  Galilee,  either  because  it  bordered  on  Tyre  and 
Sidon,  or  because  the  Phoenicians,  Syrians,  Arabs,  &c.  were 
to  be  found  among  its  inhabitants.  Others,  however,  with 
better  reason,  suppose  that  the  ichole  of  Galilee  is  intended, 
and  is  so  called,  because  it  lay  adjacent  to  idolatrous  na- 
tions.' 

2.  Samaria. — ^The  division  of  the  Holy  Land  thus  denomi- 
nated, derives  its  name  from  the  city  of  Samaria,  and  comprises 
the  tract  of  country  which  was  originally  occupied  by  the 
two  tribes  of  Ephraim  and  Manasseh  within  Jordan,  lying 
exactly  in  the  middle  between  Judaea  and  Galilee ;  so  that  it 
was  absolutelj'^  necessary  for  persons  who  were  desirous  of 
going  expeditiously  from  Galilee  to  Jerusalem,  to  pass 
through  this  country.  This  sufficiently  explains  the  remark 
of  St.  John  (iv.  4.),  which  is  strikingly  confirmed  by  Jose- 
phus.-*  The  three  chief  places  of  this^^district,  noticed  in  the 
Scriptures,  are  Samaria,  Sichem,  or  Schechem,  and  Anti- 
patris. 

3.  Jl'd^a. — Of  the  various  districts,  into  which  Palestine 
was  divided,  Judoea  was  the  most  distinguished.  It  com- 
prised the  territories  which  liad  formerly  belonged  to  the 
tribes  of  Judah,  Benjamin,  Simeon,  and  to  part  of  the  tribe 
of  Dan ;  being  nearly  coextensive  with  the  ancient  kingdom 
of  Judah.  Its  metropolis  was  Jerusalem  :  and  of  the  other 
towns  or  villages  of  note  contained  in  this  region,  the  most 
remarkable  were  Arimathea,  Azotus  or  Ashdod,  Bethany, 
Bethlehem,  Bethphage,  Einmaus,  Ephraim,  Gaza,  Jericho, 
Joppa,  Lydda,  and  Rama. 

4.  The  district  of  PerjEA  comprised  the  six  cantons  of 
Abilene,  Trachonitis,  Ituraea,  Gaulonitis,  Batanaia,  and  Persa, 
strictly  so  called,  to  which  some  geographers  have  added 
Decapolis. 

p.)  Abilene  was  the  most  northern  of  these  provinces, 
being  situated  between  the  mountains  of  Libanus  and  Anti- 
Libanus,  and  deriving  its  name  from  the  city  Abila,  or  Abela. 
It  is  supposed  to  have  been  within  the  borders  of  the  tribe  of 
Naphtali,  although  it  was  never  subdued  by  them.  This  can- 
ton or  territory  had  formerly  been  governed  as  a  kingdom 
(.Sisrixitet)  by  a  certain  Lysanias,  the  son  of  Ptolemy  and 
grandson  of  .Menna?u.s;  but  he  being  put  to  death  it.  c.  3G, 
through  tlic  intrigues  of  Cleopatni,  Augustus  i)laced  over  it 
another  Lysanias,  a  descendant  (as  it  appears)  of  the  former, 
with  the  title  of  tetrarch.  (Luke  iii.  1.)  Tlie  emperor  Clau- 
dius afterwards  made  a  present  of  this  district  to  king  Agrip- 
pa,  or  at  least  confinncd  him  in  the  possession  of  it.^ 

(2.)  Tkachonitis  was  bounde«l  by  the  Desert  Arabia  on 
the  east,  Batansea  on  the  west,  Itursea  on  the  south,  and  the 

that  if  you  had  been  placed  in  it,  ymir  fed  leotitd  not  have  touched  thr 
groiintC.  But  bIib  so  npoilcd  the  biisinrss  with  her  pronunrintion,  thai,  as 
the  glo.iHer  intcrprrts  it,  her  word*  had  thifi  Kr.nitc.  .—Sir,  sinre.  I  hud  ii 
tirtim,  and  Ih'-i/  nlole  thee  atrai/  ;  and  it  traa  sn  great,  that  if  thry  lidd 
ti'ng  titr.r  on  il,  thy  ffl  tronlii  nut  have  Imirhi  'I  the  f,'roiiiiil.  '  l-ijrhlfoot's 
Chnrographir.il  rvmury  ofthf  l.ftii(l  r)f  Israi-I,  ch.  IxxVvii.  (Work.-".  vdI.  ii 
p.  79.)  See  aililitional  examples  in  DuxtorPi  Lexicon  C'haldalcuin,  Taliriu- 
dicum  ct  K.ibbiniciiin,  p.  m. 

>  Jo!!epbu!i,  Antiq.  book  xvlil.  c.  3.  i  2.  and  Mr.  Wliiston's  note  iberc.  In 
another  place,  (book  xvii.  c.  10  42.1,  nfter  dcsrribini;  n  popular  tiiiiiull,  he 
Viy9,A  r'-  ■'■'  -••--'--<■/■-       -     c  , ,  ■  ' ' 

« «5iti>  .1,  p.  rKs. 

„•  Kiiiii-   _  ,:,  .  i;    1..     L..^ :....,.....  ...  ihc  New 

Teslainent,  vore  i  xKiKut». 

•Aniiq.  book  xx.  c.  5.  i  1.    Dc  nell.  Jtid.  nook  ii.  c.  12.  t  3. 

»  Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xiv.  c.  13.  xv.  c.  4.  xix.  c.  5.  BcU.  Jud.  lib.  I. 
t.  13. 


country  rf  Damascus  on  the  north.    It  abounded  with  rocks, 
which  afforded  shelter  to  numerous  thieves  and  robbers. 

(3.)  IturjEa  anciently  belonged  to  the  half  tribe  cf  Ma- 
nr.sspn,  who  settled  on  the  east  of  Jordan  :  it  stf;od  to  the  east 
of  Batanaea  and  to  the  south  of  Trachonitis.  Of  these  two 
cantons  Philip  the  son  of  Herod  the  Great  was  tetrarch  at 
the  time  John  the  Baptist  commenced  his  ministry.  (Luke 
iii.  1.)  It  derived  its  name  from  Jetur  the  son  of  Ishmael 
(1  Chron.  i.  31.),  and  was  also  called  Auianitis  from  the  city 
of  Hauran.  (Ezek.  xlvii.  16.  18.)  This  region  exhibits  ves- 
tiges of  its  former  fertility,  and  is  most  beautifully  wooded 
and  picturesque.5  The  Itura;ans  are  said  to  have  been  skil 
ful  archers  and  dexterous  robbers. 

(4.)  Gaulonitis  was  a  tract  on  the  east  side  of  the  lake  o! 
Gennesarcth  and  the  river  Jordan,  which  derived  its  name 
from    Gaulan   or  Golcffi  the  city   of  Og,  kinw  of   Bashan 
(Josh.  XX.  8.)     This  canton  is  not  mentioned  in  the  New 
Testament. 

(5.)  Batan^ea,  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Bashan,  was  situat- 
ed to  the  north-east  of  Gaulonitis,  and  was  celebrated  for  ita 
excellent  breed  of  cattle,  its  rich  pastures,  and  for  its  stately 
oaks :  the  precise  limits  of  this  district  are  not  easy  to  be  de- 
fined. A  part  of  it  is  now  called  the  Belka,  and  affords  the 
finest  pasturage,  being  every  where  shaded  with  groves  of 
noble  oaks  and  pistacliio  trees.  It  was  part  of  the  territory 
given  to  Herod  Antipas,  and  is  not  noticed  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament. 

(6.)  Per.ea,  in  its  restricted  sense,  includes  the  southern 
part  of  the  country  beyond  Jordan,  lying  south  of  Ituraea, 
east  of  Judaea  and  Samaria  ;  and  was  anciently  possessed  by 
the  two  tribes  of  Reuben  and  Gad.  Its  principal  place  was 
the  strong  fortress  of  Machaerus,  erected  for  tne  purpose  of 
checking  the  predatory  incursions  of  the  Arabs.  This  fort- 
ress, though  not  specified  by  name  in  the  New  Testament,  is 
memorable  as  the  place  where  John  the  Baptist  was  put  to 
death.  (Matt.  xiv.  3 — 1:2.) 

(7.)  The  canton  of  Decapolis  (Matt.  iv.  25.  Mark  v.  20. 
ana  vii.  31.),  which  derives  its  name  from  the  ten  cities  it 
contained,  is  considered  by  Reland  and  other  eminent  author- 
ities as  part  of  the  region  of  Peraea.  Concernir.g  its  limits, 
and  the  names  of  its  ten  cities,  geographers  are  by  no  means 
agreed;  but,  according  to  Josephus  (whose  intimate  know- 
ledge of  the  country  constitutes  him  an  unexceptionable  au- 
thority), it  contained  the  cities  of  Damascus,  Otopos,  Phila- 
delphia, Raphana,  Scythopolis  (the  capital  of  the  district), 
Gadara,  Hippos,  Dios,  Peila,  and  Gerasa. 

5.  Idum;ea. — ^This  ^►rovince  was  added  by  the  Romans,  on 
their  conquest  of  Palestine.  It  comprised  the  extreme  south- 
em  part  of  Judaea,  together  with  some  small  part  of  Arabia.' 
During  the  Babylonish  captivity,  being  left  destitute  of  in- 
habitants, or  not  sufficiently  inhabited  by  its  natives,  jt  seems 
to  have  been  seized  by  tne  neighbourincr  lduina;ans;  and 
though  they  were  afterwards  subjugated  by  the  powerful 
arms  of  the  Maccabees  and  Asmona-an  princes,  and  embraced 
Judaism,  yet  the  tract  of  courttrj',  cf  which  they  had  thi'.s 

Iossessed  themselves,  continued  to  retain  the  appellation  of 
duinaja  in  the  time  of  Christ,  and,  indeed,  for  a  considerable 
subsequent  period.  Ultimately  the  Idumaans  became  min- 
gled with  the  Ishmaelites,  ana  they  were  jointly  called  Na- 
bathai-ans,  from  Nebaioth,  a  son  of  lshniael.8 

Vlll.  Of  the  whole  coiinlrj'  thus  described,  Jerusalem 
was  the  metropolis  during  the  reigns  of  David  and  Solomon  : 
'.'.ft'  r  tiic  sect  .ssion  of  th<;  ten  trilics,  it  was  the  capital  of 
tlic  kingdom  of  Judah,  but  (hiring  the  lime  of  (-hrist  and 
until  the  subversion  of  the  Jewish  polity,  it  was  the  me- 
tropolis of  Palestine. 

1.  Jerusalem  is  frequently  styled  in  the  Scriptures  thr 
//(//y  6V/y  (Isa.  xlviii.  2,    Dan.  ix.  21.  Neh.xi.  1.  MatU  iv 
5.  Rev.  xi.  2.),  because  the  lAird  chose  it  out  of  nil  the  triles 
of  Israil  to  jjluce  his  name  there,  his  temple  and  his  worship 

•  Ducl^ingha^^'s  Travels  in  Taleiline,  pp.  408,  IW.  London,  1821. 4to.  Mr. 
Burr.khardt,  who  visited  this  region  In  ihc  years  1810  and  ISl'J,  has  dr- 
scribcil  iiH  i)r('8eiit  stale,  together  with  the  various  antiqiiitii'S  wtiirh  Mill 
remain.  See  bis  Travels  in  Syria  and  the  Holy  Land,  pp.  Cl— IIU.  ;ill— 310. 
London,  18i'.  "llo. 

•>  Fur  a  copious  anfl  intcre.sling  illiislralion  of  llic  riilfilnienl  of  pmphcry 
roiicerninff  idiiina-a,  from  the  Hlatcmenls  of  modorn  Iravidlers,  see  Mr 
Kcitli's  Evidence  of  the  Trutli  of  the  Chriiitian  Huligion  from  Propheiy,  pp. 
17-'-  220. 

"  Bosi.les  the  aniborltles  incidentally  cited  In  Iho  proccdinit  pnees,  the 

fclL.v  ■     '         '  "rd  fur  this  chapter,  viz.  R'' '   v  >T-3ti. 

na,  ■  I  -Uen.  1714);   Anrirnt  Uni^  ly. 

vfil.  I,    ,.,.,-     ,..,.;.      ..     ,1 :l.  I7!H);  I'rilii  Inlrodiirti"        '  utin 

Novi  Tcslameiitl,  pp.  4'.'7— &!'<  ;  llcausobre's  and  LTnfaiU's  Introduction  lo 
Ihc  N'W  Tetrtainenl  (Up.  Watson's  (.'olleclion  of  Thcolojriral  Tracts,  vol. 
Iii.  pp.  2t;2— 27H.) ;  Parean,  Antiquilas  Ilcbrnica  broviter descripla,  pp.41— 
02.  i  £*panbeiuii  LuUoductiu  adCicofiraiiliiauifcj.-icroin,  pp.  1—81. 


II 


JB.1P, 


I-] 


ACCOUNT  OF  JERUSALEM. 


19 


(Deut.  xii.  5.  xiv.  23.  xvi.  2.  xxvi.  2.) ;  and  to  be  the  centre 
of  union  in  religion  and  government  for  all  the  tribes  of  the 
common'vvealth  of  Israel.  It  is  held  in  the  highest  veneration 
by  Christians  for  the  miraculous  and  important  transactions 
which  happened  there,  and  also  by  the  Mohammedans,  who 
to  this  day  never  call  it  by  any  other  appellation  than  El- 
Kods,^  or  El  Khoudes,  that  is.  The  Holy,  sometimes  adding 
the  epithet  Al-Sherif,  or  The  Noble.  The  most  ancient  name 
of  the  city  was  Salem,  or  Peace  (Gen.  xiv.  18.):  the  import 
of  Jerusalem  is,  the  visimi  or  mheritance  of  peace  ;^  zna  to 
this  it  is  not  improbable  that  our  Saviour  alluded  in  his  beau- 
tiful and  pathetic  lamentation  over  the  city.  (Luke  xix.  41.) 
It  was  also  formerly  called  Jebus  from  one  of  the  sons  of 
Canaan.  (Josh,  xviii.  28.)  After  its  capture  by  Joshua 
(Josh.  X.)  it  was  jointly  innabited  both  by  Jews  and  Jebus- 
ites  (Josh.  XV.  63.)  for  about  five  hundred  j^ears,  until  the 
time  of  David;  who  having  expelled  the  Jebusites,  made  it 
his  residence  (2  Sam.  v.  6 — 9.),  and  erected  a  noble  palace 
there,  together  with  several  other  magnificent  buildings, 
whence  it  is  sometimes  styled  the  City  of  David  (1  Chron. 
xi.  5.)'  By  the  prophet  Isaiah  (xxix.  1.)  Jerusalem  is  termed 
driel,  or  the  Lion  of  God  ;  but  the  reason  of  this  name,  and 
its  meaning,  as  applied  to  Jerusalem,  is  very  obscure  and 
doubtful.  It  may  possibly  sigmfy  the  strength  of  the  place, 
by  which  the  inhabitants  were  enabled  to  resist  and  overcome 
their  enemies  ;^  in  the  same  manner  as  the  Persians  term 
one  of  their  cities  Skirdz,  or  the  Devouring  Lion.  Being 
situated  on  the  confines  of  the  two  tribes  of  Benjamin  and 
Judah,  Jerusalem  sometimes  formed  a  part  of  the  one,  and 
Bometimes  of  the  other ;  but,  a,fter  Jehovah  had  appointed  it 
to  be  the  place  of  his  habitation  and  temple,  it  was  consi- 
dered as  the  metropolis  of  the  Jewish  nation,  and  the  commcn 
property  of  the  children  of  Israel.  On  this  account  it  was, 
that  the  houses  were  not  let,  and  all  strangers  of  the  Jewish 
nation  had  the  liberty  of  lodging  there  gratis,  by  riofht  of 
hospitality.  To  this  custom  our  Lord  probably  alludes  in 
Matt.  xxvi.  18.  and  the  parallel  passages.* 

2.  The  name  of  the  whole  mountain,  on  the  several  hills 
and  hollows  of  which  the  city  stood,  was  called  Moriah,  or 
vision ;  because  it  was  high  land,  and  could  be  seen  afar  off, 
especially  from  the  south  (Gen.  xxii.  2 — 4.)  ;  but  afterwards 
that  name  was  appropriated  to  the  most  elevated  part  on 
which  the  temple  was  erected,  and  where  Jehovah  appeared 
to  David.  (2  Chron.  iii.  1.  2  Sam.  xxiv.  16,  17.)  This 
mountain  is  a  rocky  limestone  hill,  steep  of  ascent  on  every 
side,  except  the  north  ;  and  is  surrounded  on  the  other  sides 
by  a  group  of  hills,  in  the  form  of  an  amphitheatre  (Psal. 
cxxv.  2.^,  which  situation  rendered  it  secure  from  the  earth- 
quakes tliat  appear  to  have  been  frequent  in  the  Holy  Land 
(Psal.  xlvi.  2,  3.),  and  have  furnished  the  prophets  with 
many  elegant  allusions.  On  the  east,  stands  the  Mount  of 
Olives,  tronting  the  temple,  of  which  it  commanded  a  noble 
prospect  (IMatt.  xxiv.  2,  3.  Luke  xix.  37 — 41.),  as  it  does  to 
this  day  of  the  whole  city,  over  whose  streets  and  walls  the 
eye  roves  as  if  in  the  survey  of  a  model.  This  mountain, 
which  is  frequently  noticed  in  the  evangelical  history,  stretches 
from  north  to  south,  and  is  about  a  mile  in  length.  The 
olive  is  still  found  growing  in  patches  at  the  foot  of  this 
mountain,  to  which  it  wives  its  name.  Its  summit  commands 
a  view  as  far  as  the  Dead  Sea,  and  the  mountains  beyond 
Jordan.  On  the  descent  of  this  mountain  our  Saviour  stood 
when  he  beheld  the  city  and  wept  over  it ;  on  this  mountain 
it  was  that  he  delivered  his  prediction  concerning  the  down- 
fall of  Jerusalem  (Luke  xix.  41 — 44.);  and  the  army  of  Ti- 
tus encainped  upon  the  very  spot  where  its  destruction  had 
been  foretold.'^     Dr.  Clarke  discovered  some  Pagan  remains 

»  This  is  a  contraction  from  Medinet-el-KADBSs,  that  is,  the  Sacred  City. 
CapL  Light's  Travels  in  Egypt,  Nubia,  &c.  p.  177.  Burckhardt  in  his  map 
terms  Jerusalem  Khodess. 

1  Relandi  Palajstina,  tom.  ii.  p.  833.    Schulzii  Archreologia  Biblica,  p.  20. 

»  Beausobre  and  L'Enfant,  in  Bp.  Watson's  Tracts,  vol.  iii.  p.  142. 

«  Bp.  Lovvth,  on  Isaiah,  vol.  ii.  p.  206. 

»  Schulzii  Archaeologia  Uiblica,  p.  21.  Beausobre  and  L'Enfant,  in  Bp. 
Watson's  Tracts,  vol.  iii.  p.  143. 

«  Josephus,  de  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  vi.  c.  5.  "It  is  not  difBcult  to  conceive," 
says  the  Rev.  W.  Jowett,  who,  in  December,  1823,survcyed  Jerusalem  from 
this  mountain,  "  observing  from  this  spot  the  various  undulations  and  slopes 
of  the  ground,  that  when  Mount  Zion,  Acra,  and  Mount  Moriah,  constituted 
the  bulk  of  the  city,  with  a  deep  and  steep  valley  surrounding  the  greater 
part  of  it,  it  must  have  been  considered  by  the  people  of  that  age  as  nearly 
impregnable.  It  stands  beautiful  for  sitttatioji !  It  is,  indeed,  builded  as  a 
sily  that  is  compact  together.  (Ps.  cxxii.  3.)  The  kings  of  the  earth,  and 
alt  the  inhabitants  of  the  world  would  not  have  believed,  that  the  adversary 
and  the  enemy  should  have  entered  into  the  gates  of  Jerusalem.  (Lam.  iv. 
12.  B.  c.  5S8.)  This  was  said  nearly  two  thousand  four  hundred  years  ago. 
Ind  when,  650  years  after,  Titus  besieged  and  took  this  devoted  city,  he  ex- 
claimed on  viewing  the  vast  strength  of  the  place,  '  Wc  have  certainly  had 
Sod  for  our  assistant  in  tliis  war :  and  it  was  no  other  than  God  who  ejected 
ttie  Jews  out  of  these  fortifications :  for  what  could  the  hands  of  men,  or 


on  this  mountain;  and  at  its  foot  he  visited  an  olive  ground, 
always  noticed  as  the  garden  of  Gethsemane.  "  This  place," 
says  he,  "  is,  not  without  reason,  shown  as  the  scene  of  our 
SaAriour's  agony  the  night  before  his  crucifixion  (Matt.  xxvi. 
Mark  xiv.  Luke  xxii.  John  xviii.),  both  from  the  circum 
stance  of  the  name  it  still  retains,  and  its  situation  with  re- 
gard to  the  city."  Here  he  found  a  grove  of  olives  of  im- 
mense size  covered  with  fruit,  almost  in  a  mature  state.' 
Between  Olivet  and  the  city  lies  the  deep  valley  of  Kedror 
through  which  floAvs  the  brook  of  that  name  which  is  noticed 
in  a  subsequent  page. 

On  the  south  side  stood  the  Mount  of  Corruption,  where 
Solomon,  in  his  declining  years,  built  temples  to  Moloch, 
Chemosh,  and  Ashtaroth  (1  Kings  xi.  7.  2  Kings  xxiii.  13.)  : 
it  was  separated  from  the  city  by  the  narrow  valley  of  Hin 
nom  (Josn.  xviii.  16.  Jer.  xix.  2.),  where  the  Israelites  burnt 
their  children  in  the  fire  to  Moloch  (Jer.  vii.  31.  and  xxxii. 
35.) :  thence  made  the  emblem  of  hell,  Gehenna,  or  the 
place  of  the  damned.    (Matt.  v.  22.  xxiii.  33.  IMark  ix.  43.) 

Towards  the  north,  according  to  Eus'"l)ius  and  Jerome,  and 
without  the  walls  of  the  city,  agreeably  to  the  law  of  Moses? 
(Lev.  iv.),  lay  Calvary  or  Golgotha,  that  is,  the  place  of 
a  skull  (Matt,  xxvii.  33.),  so  called  by  some  from  its  fancied 
resemblance  to  a  skull,  but  more  probably  because  criminals 
were  executed  there.^  Calvary,  which  now  groans  beneath 
the  weight  of  monastic  piles,  was  probably  open  ground, 
cultivated  for  gardens  (Jonn  xix.  41.),  at  the  time  when  He, 
luho  suffered  vjithout  the  gate  (Heb.  xiii.  12.),  there  poured  out 
his  soul  unto  deaths'' 

The  southern  quarter,  originally  "the  city  of  David,' 
built  on  Mount  Zion,^^  Josephus  calls  the  upper  city ,-  and 
the  house  of  Millo  was  what  he  calls  the  upper  markct.^^ 

3.  We  have  no  particulars  recorded  concerning  the  nature 
of  the  fortifications  of  Jerusalem,  previously  to  the  time  of 
the  pious  and  patriotic  governor,  Nehemiah;  though  such 
there  undoubtedly  must  Have  been,  from  the  importance  and 
sanctity  of  the  city,  as  the  metropolis  of  the  country,  and  the 
seat  01  the  Jewish  worship.  After  the  return  of  the  Jews 
from  the  Babylonish  captivity,  they  rebuilt  Jerusalem,  which 
had  been  destroyed  by  the  Cnaldseans;  and  in  the  account  of 
the  r<  building  of  the  wall,  under  the  direction  of  Nehemiah, 
ten  gates  are  distinctly  enumerated,  viz.  three  on  the  south, 
four  on  the  east,  and  three  on  the  western  side  of  the  wall. 

The  three  gates  on  the  south  side  were,  1 .  The  Sheep  Gate 
(Neh.  iii.  1.),  which  was  probably  so  called  from  the  vic- 
tims, intended  for  sacrifice,  oeing  conducted  through  it  to  the 
second  temple.  Near  this  gate  stood  the  towers  of  Mesh 
and  Hanaueel.  The  pool  of  Bethesda  was  at  no  great  dis- 
tance from  this  gate,  which  was  also  called  the  Gate  of  Ben- 
jamin.— 2.  The  Eish  Gate  (Neh.  iii.  3.  xii.  39.),  which  was 
also  called  the  First  Gate. — 3.  The  Old  Gate,  also  called  tha 
Corner  Gate.  (Neh.  iii.  6.  xii.  39.  2  Kings  xiv.  13.  Jer.  xxxi, 

The  gates  on  the  eastern  side  were,  1.  The  Water  Gait 

any  machines  do,  towards  overthrowing  these  towers  V"  Josephus,  da 
Bell.  Jud.  lib.  vi.  c.  9.  (Jowett's  Christian  Researches  in  Syria,  &c.  p.  256. 
London,  1S25.  Svo.) 

I  Dr.  Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  iv.  pp.  365,  366.  Svo.  edit.  In  1818,  however, 
the  gardens  of  Gethsemane  were  of  a  miserable  description,  surrounded 
with  a  dry  stone  fence,  and  provided  with  a  few  olive  trees,  without  either 
potherbs  or  vegetables  of  any  kind.  Richardson's  Travels  along  the  Medi- 
terranean and  Parts  adjacent,  in  1816-17-18.  vol.  ii.  p.  366.  London,  1822. 
Svo.  Mr.  Came,  who  visited  Palestine  a  few  years  later,  de.scribesthis  spot 
as  being  "  of  all  gardens  the  most  interesting  and  haUowed,but  how  neglected 
and  decayed  !  It  i^  surrounded  by  a  kind  of  low  hedge,  but  the  soil  is  bare  : 
no  verdure  grows  on  it,  save  six  fine  venerable  olive  trees,  which  have  stoca 
here  for  many  centuries."    Letters  from  the  East,  p.  290. 

8  To  this  St.  Paul  delicately  alludes  in  his  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (xiii. 
12,  13.),  where  he  says  that  Christ,  as  a  sacrifice  for  s\n,  .st/JTered  with  ■  I 
the  gate  ;  and  when  he  exhorts  the  Hebrew  Christians  to  go  forth  unto  hint 
irithotU  the  camp,  that  is.  out  of  Jerusalem,  this  city  being  regarded  by  tha 
Jews  as  the  camp  of  Israel.    (Bp.  Watson's  Tracts,  vol.  iii.  p.  156.) 

s  Schulzii  Archffiologia  Biblica,  p.  23.    Relandi  Palffistina,  torn  ii.  p.  SCO. 

«o  Jowett's  Christian  Researches  in  Syria,  &c.  p.  255.  '• 

'«  When  Dr.  Richardson  visited  this  sacred  spot  in  1818,  he  found  one 
part  of  Mount  Zion  supporting  a  crop  of  barley,  another  was  undergoiiiij 
the  labour  of  the  plough;  and  the  soil  turned  up  consisted  of  stone  and  lime 
mixed  with  earth,  such  as  is  usually  met  with  in  the  foundation  of  ruined 
cities.  "  It  is  nearly  a  mile  in  circumference,  is  highest  on  the  west  side, 
and  towards  the  east  falls  down  in  broad  terraces  on  the  upper  part  of  thu 
mountain,  and  narrow  ones  on  the  side,  as  it  slopes  down  towards  the  brook 
Kcdion.  Each  terrace  is  divided  from  the  one  above  it  by  a  low  wall  of 
dry  stone,  builtof  the  ruins  of  this  celebrated  spot.  The  terraces  near  the 
bottom  of  the  hill  are  still  used  as  gardens,  and  are  watered  from  the  pool 
of  Siloam.  They  belong  chiefly  to  the  small  village  of  Siloa,  immediately 
opposite.  We  have  here  another  remarkable  instanceof  the  special  fulfil- 
ment of  prop 
field,  and  Jerusalem  > 

Travels  along  the  Me( ,      ^      -         ^ 

of  Zion  have  a  pleasing  aspect,  as  they  possess  a  few  olive  trees  and  riKle 
gardens  ;  and  a  crop  of  corn  was  growing  there."    Carne's  Letters,  p.  265. 

II  Dr.  Halcs's  Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  i.  pp.  426-429.  Josephus,  de 
BeU.  Jud.  lib.  t.  «.  4. 


20 


HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLi  LAND. 


[Part  I 


(Neh.  iii.  26.)»  near  which  the  waters  of  Etam  passed,  after 
having  been  used  in  the  temple  service,  in  tlieir  way  to  the 
brook  Kedron,  into  wliich  they  discharged  themselves. — 2. 
The  Hurse  Gale  (Neh.  iii.  28.  Jer.  xxxi.  10.),  which  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  so  called,  because  horses  went  through  it 
in  order  to  be  watered. — 3.  The  Prison  Gate  (xii.  39.),  pro- 
bably so  called  from  its  vicinity  to  the  prison 1.  The  Gate 

Mlphkud.  (i\eh.  iii.  31.) 

The  gates  on  the  ivestern  side  were,  1.  The  Valley  Gate 
(Neh.  iii.  13.),  also  termed  the  Gate  of  Ephraim,  above 
which  stood  the  lower  of  Furnaces  (Neh.  iii.  11.  xii.  38.); 
and  near  it  was  the  Dragmi  Well  (Neh.  ii.  13.),  which  may 
have  derived  its  name  from  the  representation  of  a  dragon, 
out  of  whose  mouth  the  stream  flowed  that  issued  from  the 
well. — 2.  The  Dung  Gate  (Neh.  iii.  13.),  which  is  supposed 
to  have  received  its  name  from  the  iilth  of  the  beasts  that 


were  sacrificed,  being  carried  from  the  temple  through  this 

if  gate.— 3.  The  Gate  of  the  Fountain  (Neh.  iii.  15.\  had  its,  ^.^,, 

name  eilhp'  fr"^'!!  its  proximity  to  the  fountain  of  Gihon,  or  i  Jerusalem 


to  the  spot  where  the  fountain  of  Siloam  took  its  rise.  We 
have  no  account  of  any  gates  being  erected  on  the  northern 
side.' 

4.  Previously  to  the  fatal  war  of  the  Jews  with  the  Ro- 
mans, we  learn  from  Josei)hus,2  that  the  city  of  Jerusalem 
was  erected  on  two  hills,  opposite  to  one  another,  with  a  vjj- 
ley  between  them,  which  he  subsequently  calls  the  Valley  of 
the  Cheesemongers.  The  loftiest  of  these  hills  contained  the 
Upper  City  (h  li-mTrihti) ;  and  the  other  called  Acra,  contained 
the  Lower  City  (»  xaT*  ;rd\/f),  which  seems  to  have  been  the 
most  considerable  part  of  the  whole  city.  Over  against  this 
was  a  third  hill,  lower  than  Acra,  and  formerly  divided  from 
the  other  by  a  broad  valley  ;^  which  was  hlled  up  with  earth 
during  the  reign  of  the  Asmonaeans  or  Maccab^an  princes,  in 
order  to  join  the  city  to  the  temple.  As  population  increased, 
and  the  city  crept  beyond  its  old  limits,  Agrippa  joined 
to  it  a  fourth  hill  (which  was  situated  to  the  north  of  the 
temple),   called   Be^etha,    and   thus   still   further   enlarged 


'"j,       y^'flmnrrmH^ 


Hebrew  Cubits. 
I     I     I     I     [     ' 


c:!4£i,S^^ 


100  4U0 

Jen-lih  S(ai]ia. 


800 


Piaii  of  .Icrasalcin,  in  the  time  of  the  Uoiiians,  from  D'AiiviUc. 


At  tliis  time  the  city  was  surrounded  by  Ihree  wall<  on 
such  parts  as  were  not  encompassed  with  impassable  val!  ys, 
where  there  was  only  one  wall.  The  first  wall  began  on 
the  north  side,  at  the  tower  called  Ilippicus,  whence  it  ex- 
tended to  the  place  called  the  Xistus,  and  to  the  council- 
house,  and  it  terminated  at  the  western  cloister  of  the  tnnple. 
Hut,  proceeding  westward,  in  a  contrary  direction,  ihe  histo- 
rian says,  that  it  began  at  the  same  place,  and  extended 
through  a  place  called  Betliso,  to  the  gate  of  the  Essenes, 
tlien  taking  a  turn  towards  the  south,  it  reached  to  the  place 
called  Onhlas,  where  it  was  joined  to  the  eastern  cloister  of 
tlie  temple.  The  second  wall  commenced  at  the  gate  Gcn- 
natli,  and  encompassed  only  the  northern  quarter  ofthe  city, 
as  far  as  the  tower  Antonia.  The  l/iird  wall  began  at  the 
tower  Hippicus,  whence  it  reacht;d  as  far  as  the  north  <|uarter 
of  the  city,  passed  by  the  tower  Psephinus,  till  it  came  to 
the  monument  of  Helena,  queen  of  Adiabene.  Thence  it 
passed  by  the  sepulchres  of  the  kings;  and,  taking  a  direc- 
tion round  the  south-west  comer,  passed  the  Fulli-r  s  Monu- 
ment, and  joined  the  old  wall  at  the  valley  of  Krdron.  Tliis 
third  wall  was  commenced  by  Agrippa,  to  defend  the  newly 
erected  part  of  the  city  called  13ezct!ia ;  but  he  did  not  fuiisli 

•  Observationea  Phllologicto  ac  Geographies).  A  nutela;daini,  1747.  6vo. 
pj)  31—29. 

■»  Do  Bell.  JuJ.  lib.  vi.  c.  G. 

»  IIX.KTii;<  Qxfxyyt  itifye/mif  Si>.Xr,  Trprif.v^  KtC  ihc  WOrJs  of  Jo.i^c- 
iihus ;  which  I'rilius  renilerB  alia  lata  vatle  aiitt  dirisus  (Inlrod.  ml  N'-v. 
Tea,  p.  ^'Zi-X  "  formerly  cllvirlcd  ty  anoihcr  broac)  v.-IIcy."  'f  ho  renderhig 
ebovo  civen  ib  that  of  Mr.  Whiston. 


it,  from  apprehension  of  incurring  the  displeasure  of  the  em- 
peror Claudius.  His  int*^nlion  was  to  have  erected  it  with 
stones,  twenty  cubits  in  length  by  ten  cubits  in  breadth  ;  so 
that  no  iron  tools  or  engines  could  make  any  impression  on 
them.  What  Agrippa  could  not  accomplish,  the  Jews  subse- 
aucntly  attempted  :  and,  when  Jerusalem  was  besieged  by 
tne  Romans,  this  wall  was  twenty  cul)its  high,  above  which 
were  battlements  of  two  cubits,  and  turrets  of  three  cubits, 
making  in  all  an  altitvule  of  twenty-live  cubits.  Numerous 
towers,  constructed  of  solid  masonry,  were  erected  at  certain 
distances  :  in  the  third  wall,  there  were  ninety ;  in  the  middle 
wall,  there  were  forty  ;  and  in  the  old  wall,  sixty.  The 
towers  of  Hippicus,  Phasachis,  and  Mariamne,  erected  by 
Herod  the  Great,  and  dedicated  to  the  memories  of  his  friend, 
his  brother,  and  his  wife,  were  nre-eniinent  for  their  height, 
their  massive  architecture,  their  beauty,  and  the  convenienceo 
with  which  they  were  furnished.  According  to  Josephus  the 
circumference  of  Jenisalem,  previously  to  its  siege  and  de- 
struction by  the  Romans,  was  thirty-three  furlongs,  or  nearly 
four  miles  and  a  half:  and  the  wall  of  eircumvallalion,  con- 
structed liy  order  of 'i'itus,  he  states  to  liave  been  thirty-nine 
furlongs,  or  four  miles  eiglil  hundred  and  seventy-live  paces.* 

•  M  D'Anvillc  has  claboratfily  InvcsllRalcd  Ihc  cMcnt  of  .torusnlcnn,  oa 

di'iir.ribcil  liy  JoKf'phiiH,  In  hi.M  Icnnicd  "  I)l.-;8crlatlon  .siirlTteiuhic  (l«  I'an- 
cit'imc  .Tpru.^alciii  cl  ilc  ncn  Ti'inplc,"  Ihc  accuracy  of  wliojjcdntniJH  Vig. 
count  Chateaubriand  haa  atlcslinlli)  his  Ilincrary  to  and  from  .(iTiiisalein, 
Tliia  very  rare  dissertation  ol  l»'Auville  la  reprinted  in  the  IJJblc  dc  Vcnce, 
toni.  VI.  pp.  43— 81.  6th  edition. 


Chap.  I.] 


ACCOUNT  OF  JERUSALEM. 


21 


At  present,  a  late  traveller  states  that  the  circumference  of 
Jerusalem  cannot  exceed  three  miles.' 

5.  During  the  time  of  Jesus  Christ,  Jerusalem  was  adorned 
with  numerous  edifices,  both  sacred  and  civil,  some  of  which 
are  mentioned  or  alluded  to  in  the  New  Testament.  But  its 
chief  glory  was  the  temple,  described  in  a  subsequent  part 
of  this  volume ;  which  magnificent  structure  occupied  the 
nortlifern  and  lower  top  of  Sion,  as  we  learn  from  the  Psalm- 
ist fxlviii.  2.)  ;  Beautiful  for  situation,  the  Joy  (or  delight) 
of  the  whole  earth,  is  Mount  Sion.  On  her  north  side  is  the  city 
of  the  great  king.  Next  to  the  temple  in  point  of  splendour, 
was  the  very  superb  palace  of  Herod,  which  is  largely  de- 
scribed by  Josephus  ;^  it  afterwards  became  the  residence  of 
the  Roman  procurators,  who  for  this  purpose  generally 
claimed  the  royalpalaces  in  those  provinces  wiiich  were  sub- 
ject to  kings. 3  Thes^  dwellings  of  the  Roman  procurators 
in  the  provinces  were  called  Fraatoria  :^  Herod's  palace 
therefore  was  Pilate's  praetorium  (Matt,  xxvii.  27.  John 
xviii.  28._):  and  in  some  part  of  this  edifice  was  the  armoury 
or  barracKS  of  the  Roman  soldiers  that  garrisoned  Jerusalem,^ 
whither  Jesus  was  conducted  and  mocked  by  Ihem.  (Matt. 
xxvii.  27.  Mark  xv.  16.)  In  the  front  of  this  palace  was  the 
tribunal,  where  Pilate  sat  in  a  judicial  capacity  to  hear  and 
determine  weighty  causes  ;  being  a  raised  pavement  of  mo- 
saic work  {Ki^-og-fKercv),  the  evangelist  informs  us  that  in  the 
Hebrew  language  it  was  on  this  account  termed  Gahbalka 
(John  xix.  13.),  i.  e.  an  elevated  place.     In  this  tribunal  the 

Srocurator  Florus  sat,  a.  d.  66 ;  and,  in  order  to  punish  the 
ews  for  their  seditious  behaviour,  issued  orders  for  his 
soldiers  to  plunder  the  upper  market-place  in  Jerusalem,  and 
to  put  to  death  such  Jews  as  they  met  with ;  which  com- 
mands were  executed  with  savage  barbarity ."^ 

On  a  steep  rock  adjoining  tlie  north-west  corner  of  the 
temple  stood  the  Tower  of  Antonia,  on  the  site  of  a  citadel 
that  had  been  erected  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes''  in  order  to 
annoy  the  Jews  ;  and  which,  after  being  destroyed  by  them,8 
was  rebuilt  by  the  Maccabfean  prince  John  Hyrcanus,  b.  c. 
135.3  Herod  the  Great  repaired  it  with  great  splendour,  uniting 
in  its  interior  all  the  conveniences  of  a  magnificent  palace,  vmn 
ample  accommodations  for  soldiers.  This  citadel  (in  which 
a  Roman  legion  was  always  quartered)  overlooked  the  two 
outer  courts  of  the  temple,  and  communicated  v/ith  its  clois- 
ters by  means  of  secret  passages,  through  which  the  military 
could  descend  and  quell  any  tumult  that  might  arise  during 
the  great  festivals.  This  was  the  guard  to  which  Pilate  al- 
luded, as  already  noticed.  (Matt,  xxvii.  65.)  The  tower  of 
Antonia  was  thus  named  by  Herod,  in  honour  of  his  friend 
Mark  Antony  :  and  this  citadel  is  "  the  castle"  into  which 
St.  Paul  was  conducted  (Actsxxi.  34,  35.),  and  of  which 
mention  is  made  in  Acts  xxii.  24.  As  the  temple  was  a  fort- 
ress that  guarded  the  whole  city  of  Jerusalem,  so  the  tower 
of  Antonia  was  a  fortress  that  entirely  commanded  the 
temple.'" 

Besides  the  preceding  edifices,  Josephus  mentions  a  house 
or  palace  at  the  extremity  of  the  upper  city,  which  had  been 
erected  by  the  princes  of  the  Asmonaean  family,  from  whom 
it  was  subsequently  called  the  Asmonaean  Palace.  It  ap- 
pears to  have  been  the  residence  of  the  princes  of  the  Hero- 
dian  family  (after  the  Romans  had  reduced  Judaea  into  a  pro- 
vince of  the  empire),  whenever  they  went  up  to  Jerusalem. 
In  this  pala"^",  Josephus  mentions  Berenice  and  Agrippa  as 
residing,"  and  it  is  not  improbable  that  it  was  the  residence 
of  Herod  the  tetrarch  of  Galilee  when  he  went  to  keep  the 
solemn  festival*  at  that  city  ;  and  that  it  was  here  that  our 
Saviour  was  exposed  to  the  wanton  mockery  of  the  soldiers, 
who  had  accompanied  Herod  thither,  either  as  a  guard  to  his 
person,  or  from  ostentation.  (Luke  xxiii.  7 — 11.)'- 

There  were  several  pools  at  Jerusalem  (jtoxt/z/^M&p*/),  two 
of  which  are  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament,  viz. 

(1.)  The  Poo/  of  Bethesda,  which  was  situated  near  the 
sheep-gate  or  sheep-market  (John  v.  2.),  not  far  from  the 
temple.  It  had  five  porticoes,  for  the  reception  of  the  sick ; 
and  it  was  most  probably  called  Bethesda,  or  the  house  of 
mercy,  from  the  miraculous  cures  there  mercifully  vouchsafed 


»  Jolliffe's  Letters  from  Talestine,  p.  103 
•»  Antiq.  Jud.  lib.  xv.  c.  9.  §  i.    De  Bell. 


1.  5  .3. 


Jud.  lib.  i.  c  21.  §  1.  et  lib.  v.  c. 


1.  1  o. 

'  Cicero  contra  Verrem,  action,  ii.  lib.  v.  c.  12.  (op.  torn.  iv.  p.  96.  ed. 
Biponi.) 
*  Ibid.  lib.  V.  c.  35.  et  41.  (torn.  iv.  pp.  125.  142.) 
»  Compare  Josephus,  de  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  v.  c.  15.  §  5.  c.  17.  §  S. 
0  Josephus,  de  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  ii.  c.  14.  §8. 

'  Ibid.  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xii.  c.  5.  §4.  8  Ibid.  lib.  xiii.  c.  G.  §  6. 

»  Ibid.  lib.  XV.  c.  11.  §  4.  »o  De  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  v.  c.  5.  §  8. 

«'  De  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  ii.  c.  15.  §  1.  and  c.  16.  §  3. 
»»  Schulzii  Archseolo^a  Biblica,  pp.  27—30. 


by  God  to  persons  labouring  under  the  most  desperate  dis- 

eases.'3 

(2.)  The  Fool  of  Siloam  (John  ix.  7.)  was  two-fold,  viz. 
Upper  and  Lower.  The  Upper  Reservoir  or  Pool  (Isa.  vii. 
3.),  called  the  King's  Pool  in  Neh.  ii.  14.,  probably  watered 
the  king's  gardens  (Neh.  iii.  15.),  while  the  Lower  Pool 
seems  to  have  been  designed  for  the  use  of  the  inhabitants. 
Both  these  reservoirs  were  supplied  from  the  fountain  of  Si- 
loam  :  but  which  of  them  is  to  be  understood  in  John  ix.  7. 
it  is  now  impossible  to  determine.''' 

6.  During  the  reigns  of  David  and  Solomon.  Jerusalem 
was  the  metropolis  of  the  land  of  Israel ;  but  after  the  defec- 
tion of  the  ten  tribes  under  Jeroboam,  it  was  the  capital  ot 
the  kings  of  Judah,  during  whose  government  it  underwent 
various  revolutions.  It  was  captured  four  times  without 
being  demolished,  viz.  by  Shishak,  sovereign  of  Egypt,  (2 
Chron.  xii.),  from  whose  ravages  it  never  recovered  its  former 
splendour ;  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  who  treated  the  Jews 
with  singular  barbarity ;  by  Pompey  the  Great,  who  rendered 
the  Jews  tributary  to  Rome  ;  and  by  Herod,  with  the  assist- 
ance of  a  Roman  force  under  Sosius.  It  was  first  entirely 
destroyed  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  again  by  the  Emperor 
Titus,  the  repealed  insurrections  of  the  turbulent  Jews  having 
tilled  up  the  measure  of  their  iniquities,  and  drawn  down 
■ipon  them  the  implacable  vengeance  of  the  Romans.  Titus 
ineffectually  endeavoured  to  save  the  temple  :  it  was  involved 
in  the  same  ruin  with  the  rest  of  the  city,  and,  after  it  had 
been  reduced  to  ashes,  the  foundations  of  that  sacred  edifice 
were  ploughed  up  by  the  Roman  soldiers.  Thus  literally 
was  fulfilled  the  prediction  of  our  Lord,  that  not  one  .stone 
should  be  left  upon  another  that  should  not  be  thrown  down. 
(Matt.  xxiv.  2.)'=  On  his  return  to  Rome,  Titus  was  honoured 
with  a  triumph,  and  to  commemorate  his  conquest  of  Judaea, 
a  triumphal  arch  was  erected,  which  is  still  in  existenct?.  Nu- 
merous medals  of  Judaja  vanquished  were  struck  in  honour 
of  the  same  event.  The  Emperor  Adrain  erected  a  city  on 
part  of  the  former  site  of  Jerusalem,  which  he  called  ^lia 
Capitolina:  it  was  afterwards  greatly  enlarged  and  beautified 
by  Constantine  the  Great,  who  restored  its  ancient  name. 
During  that  emperor's  reign  the  Jews  made  various  efforts  to 
rebuild  their  temple;  which,  however,  were  always  frustrat- 
rd  :  nor  did  better  success  attend  the  attempt  made,  a.  d.  363, 
by  the  apostate  emperor  Julian.  An  earthquake,  a  whirlwind, 
and  a  fiery  eruption,  compelled  the  workmen  to  abandon 
their  design. 

From  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Romans  to  the 
present  time,  that  city  has  remained,  for  the  most  part,  in  a 
state  of  ruin  and  desolation  ;  "  and  has  never  been  under  the 
government  of  the  Jews  themselves,  but  oppressed  and 
broken  down  by  a  succession  of  foreign  masters — the  Ro- 
mans, the  Saracens,  the  Franks,  the  Mamelukes,  and  last  by 
the  Turks,  to  whom  it  is  still  subject.  It  is  not,  therefore, 
only  in  the  history  of  Josephus,  and  in  other  ancient  writers, 
that  we  are  to  look  for  the  accomplishment  of  our  Lord's 
predictions :  we  see  them  verified  at  this  moment  before  our 
eyes,  in  the  desolate  state  of  the  once  celebrated  city  and 
temple  of  Jerusalem,  and  in  the  present  condition  of  the 
Jewish  people,  not  collected  together  into  any  one  country, 
into  one  political  society,  and  under  one  form  of  government, 
but  dispersed  over  every  region  of  the  globe,  and  every  where 
treated  with  contumely  and  scorn.""^ 

7.  The  modern  city  of  Jerusalem  contains  within  its  walls 
several  of  the  hills,  on  which  the  ancient  city  is  supposed  to 
have  stood ;  but  these  are  only  perceptible  by  the  ascent  and 
descent  of  the  streets.  When  seen  from  the  Mount  of  Olives, 
on  the  other  side  of  the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat,  it  presents  an 
inclined  plane,  descending  from  west  to  east.  An  embattled 
wall,  fortified  with  towers  and  a  Gothic  castle,  encompasses 
the  city  all  round,  excluding,  however,  part  of  Mount  Sion, 
which  it  formerly  enclosed.  Notwithstanding  its  seemingly 
strong  position,  it  is  incapable  of  sustaining  a  severe  assault, 
because,  on  account  of  the  topography  of  the  land,  it  has  no 
means  of  preventing  the  approaches  of  an  enemy  ;  and,  on 
the  other  hand,  it  is  commanded,  at  the  distance  of  a  gun- 
shot, by  the  Djebel  Tor,  or  the  Mount  of  Olives,  from  which 

>'  Parkhurst's  Le.xicon  voce.  Bp.  Pearce  (and  after  him,  Dr.  Booth- 
royd),  Jahn,  Bosenniiiller,  Kuinoel,  and  other  modern  commentators,  have 
supposed  the  pool  of  Bethesda  to  have  been  a  medicinal  batli.  The  reader 
will  find  a  ijrief  statement,  and  satisfactory  refutation  of  this  notion  in  Dr 
Bloomfield's  Annotations  on  the  New  Testament,  vol.  iii.  pp.  14s— 156. 

i«  Robinson's  Gr.  Lexicon  to  the  New  Test,  voce  i^'*.!"*^. 

>6  For  a  full  view  of  the  predictions  of  Jesus  Christ  concerning  the  de 
struction  of  Jerusalem  and.  their  literal  fulfilment,  see  vol.  i.  Appendix, 
No.  VI.  chap.  ii.  sect.  iii.  .    ,  „  .      ,.,  „,  ,  ..       „,- 

»«  Bp.  Porteus's  Lectures  on  the  Gospel  of  Samt  Matthew,  vol.  ii.  p.  215 


23 


HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


[Pabt  L 


it  is  seen  to  the  best  advantage.'  Imposing,  however,  as  the 
appearance  of  Jerasalem  is,  when  viewed  from  that  moun- 
tain,— and  exhibiting  a  compactness  of  structure  like  that 
alluded  to  by  the  Psalmist  (cxxii.  3.)  the  illusion  vanishes 
On  entering  the  town.  No  "  streets  of  palaces  and  walks  of 
state" — no  high-raised  arches  of  triumph — no  fountains  to 
cool  the  air,  or  porticoes — not  a  single  vestige  meets  the 
traveller,  to  announce  its  former  military  greatness  or  com- 
mercial opulence :  but  in  the  place  of  these,  he  finds  himself 
encompassed  by  walls  of  rude  masonry,  the  dull  uniformity 
of  which  is  only  broken  by  the  occasional  protrusion  of  a 
small  grated  window.  All  the  streets  are  wretchedness,  and 
the  houses  of  the  Jews,  more  especially,  are  as  dunsrhills. 
From  the  daughter  of  Zion  all  her  beauty  is  d. parted.  (Lam. 
i.  G.)  The  finest  section  of  the  city  is  that  inhabited  by  the 
Arm.enians ;  in  tlie  other  quarters,  the  streets  are  much  nar- 
rower, being  scarcely  wide  enough  tc  admit  three  camels  to 
Bland  abreast.  In  the  western  quarter  and  in  the  centre  of 
ierusakm,  towards  Calvary,  the  low  and  ill-built  houses 
(which  have  flat  terraces  or  domes  on  the  top,  but  no  chim- 
neys or  windows)  stand  very  close  together ;  but  in  the  east- 
ern part,  along  the  brook  Kedron,  the  eye  perceives  vacant 
spaces,  and  amongst  the  rest  that  which  surrounds  the 
mosque^  erected  by  the  Khalif  Omar,  a.  d.  637,  on  the  site 
of  the  temple,  and  the  nearly  deserted  spot  where  once  stood 
the  tower  of  Antonia  and  the  second  palace  of  Herod. 

The  modern  population  of  Jerusalem  is  variously  estimated 
by  different  travellers.  The  late  Professor  Carlyle,  at  the 
commencement  of  the  nineteenth  century,  computed  it  at  about 
15,000;  and  Capt.  Li'^ht,  who  visited  Jerusalem  in  1814, 
estimated  it  at  twelve  thousand.  Mr.  Buckingham,  who  was 
there  in  1816,  from  the  best  information  he  could  procure, 
states,  that  the  fixed  residents  (more  than  one  half  ot  whom 
are  Mohammedans)  are  about  eight  thousand  :  but  the  con- 
tinual arrival  and  departure  of  strangers  make  the  total  num- 
ber of  persons  present  in  the  city  from  ten  to  fifteen  thousand 
generally,  according  to  the  season  of  the  year.  The  propor- 
tions which  the  numbers  pf  persons  of  different  sects  bear 
to  each  otlier  in  this  estimate,  he  found  it  difficult  to  ascer- 
tain. The  Mohammedans  are  unquestionably  the  most  nu- 
merous. Next,  in  point  of  numbers,  are  the  Greek  Christians, 
who  are  chiefly  composed  of  the  clergy,  and  of  devotees. 
The  Armenians  follow  next  in  order  ae  to  numbers,  but  their 
body  is  thoufrhtto  exceed  that  of  the  Greeks  in  influence  and 
in  wealth.  t)f  Europeans  there  are  only  the  few  monks  of 
the  Convent!)  delta  Terra  Santa,  and  the  Latin  pilgrims  '\\  l:o 
occasionally  visit-thorn.  The  Copts,  Abyssiiiians,  Nestoriaus, 
&c.  arc  scarcely  perceptible  in  the  crowd;  and  even  the  Jews 
are  more  remarkable  from  the  striking  peculiarity  of  their 
features  and  dress,  than  from  their  numbers  as  contrasted 
Avith  other  bodies.  Mr.  Jolliffe,  who  visited  Jerusalem  in 
1817,  states  that  the  highest  estimate  makes  the  total  number 
amount  to  twenty-five  thousand.  Dr.  Richardson,  who  was 
at  Jerusalem  in  1818,  computed  the  population  at  20,000 
persons;  Dr.  Scholz,  in  1^21,  at  18,000;  and  the  Rev.  Mr. 
risk,'  an  Anglo-American  Missionary  in  Palestine,  in  1823, 
at  20,000.  The  Rev.  William  Jowett,  who  was  at  Jerusalem 
in  December,  1823,  is  of  opinion  that  15,000  are  the  utmost 
which  the  city  would  contain  in  ordinary  circumstances,  that 
is,  exclusive  of  the  pilgrims,  who  are  crowded  into  the  con- 
vents, and  fill  up  many  spaces  in  the  convents  which  are  va- 
cant nine  months  in  the  year,  thus  augmenting  the  popula- 
tion by  some  few  thousands;  and  he  is  disposed  to  estimate 
the  resident  population  at  12,000. 

Upon  the  whole,  it  does  not  appear  that  the  number  of  the 
wdinary  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem  can  be  rated  higher  than 

«  Travels  of  Ali  Dey,  in  Morocco,  Egypt,  Arabia,  Syria,  &c.  between  1803 
und  1807,  vol.  ii.  p.  215. 

»  In  the  travels  of  Ali  Boy  (vol.  ii.  pp.  2M— 227.)  there  is  a  minute 
description.  Illustrated  with  three  large  plates^  of  this  mosque,  or  ralli«r 
(iroup  of  mosfpies,  erected  at  diflnrent  periods  of  IslamiKm,  and  exhibilin); 
the  pri-vailing  tastf  of  the  varii'ii.s  ages  when  they  were  severally  cunstnict- 
ed.  Tliis  travrllei- sutcs  that  they  form  a  very  hariiionioui  wliole  :  tlie 
edifice  i.s  colleclivoly  tormed,  in  Arabic,  Alllaram,  or  the  Temple. 

»  Missionary  Register  for  l821,  p.  303, 


from  12  to  14,000.  This  is,  indeed,  a  very  slender  aggregate, 
compared  with  the  flourishing  population  which  the  city  once 
supported ;  but  the  numerous  sieges  it  has  undergone,  and 
their  consequent  spoliations,  have  left  no  vestige  of  its  origi- 
nal power.  "  Jerusalem,  under  the  government  of  a  Turkish 
aga,  is  still  more  unlike  Jerusalem,  as  it  existed  in  the  reign 
of  Solomon,  than  Athens  during  the  administration  of  Peri- 
cles, and  Athens  under  the  dominion  of  the  chief  of  the  black 
eunuchs.  We  have  it  upon  judgment's  record,  that  before  a 
marching  army,  a  land  has  been  as  the  garden  of  Eden,  behind 
it  a  desolate  wilderness.  (Joel  ii.  3.)  The  present  appearance 
of  Judsea  has  embodied  the  awful  warnings  of  the  prophet  in 
all  their  terrible  reality."'' 

IX.  Later  Divisions  of  Palestine. 

1.  LENDER  THE  RoMANS,  Palestine  was  dependent  on  the 
government  of  Sjnria ;  and  about  the  commencement  of  the 
fifth  century,  was  divided  into  three  parts  ;  viz. 

(1.)  Palxstina  Prima  comprised  the  ancient  regions  of  Ju- 
dfea  and  Samaria.  It  contained  thirty-five  ej)iscopal  cities, 
and  its  metropolis  was  Caesarea-Palaestina.  In  this  division 
were  Jerusalem  and  Sychar  or  Neapolis. 

{2.)  Palsestiiia  Secunda  included  the  ancient  districts  of 
Galilee  and  Trachonitis.  Scythopolis  or  Bethshan  was  its 
ca])ital ;  and  it  contained  twenty-one  episcopal  cities. 

(3.)  Palsestina  Tertia,  or  Satutaris,  comprised  the  ancient 
Peraea  and  Idumaea,  strictly  so  called:  its  metropolis  was 
Petra,  and  it  contained  eighteen  episcopal  cities.*  Most  of 
these  bishoprics  were  destroyed  in  the  seventh  century,  Avhen 
the  Saracens  or  Arabs  conqiiered  Palestine  or  Sj'ria. 

2.  In  the  time  of  the  Crusades,  after  the  Latins  had  con- 
quered Jerusalem  from  the  Saracens,  they  established  a  patri- 
arch of  their  own  communion  in  that  city,  and  gave  him  three 
suffragan  bishops,  whose  sees  were  at  Bethlehem,  Hebron, 
and  Lydda.  They  also  re-established  the  ancient  capitals, 
viz.  Cajsarea,  with  a  suffragan  bishop  at  Sebaste  or  Samaria ; 
Scythopolis,  and  afterwards  Nazareth,  with  a  suffragan 
bisliop  at  Tiberias ;  Petra,  with  a  suffragan  bishop  at  Moun' 
Sinai ;  and  for  Bostra,  the  suffragan-episcopal  sees  weri 
established  at  Ptolemais  or  Acre,  Seyde  or  Sidon,  and 
Beyroot  or  Berytus  in  the  northern  part  of  Phoenicia." 

3.  Modern  Divisions  of  Palestine  under  the  Turkish 
government. 

At  present,  Palestine  does  not  form  a  distinct  country. 
The  1  urks  include  it  in  Sham  or  Syria,  and  have  divided  it 
into  pachaliks  or  governments.  "  That  of  Acre  or  Akka 
extends  from  Djebail  nearly  to  Jufia ;  that  of  Gaza  compre 
hends  Jaffa  and  the  adjacent  plains;  and,  these  two  being 
now  united,  all  the  coast  is  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
pacha  of  Acre.  Jerusalem,  Hebron,  Nablous,  Tiberias,  and, 
in  fact,  the  greater  part  of  Palestine,  are  included  in  the 
pachalik  of  Damascus,  now  held  in  conjunction  with  that  ot 
Aleppo,  which  renders  the  present  pacha,  in  effect,  the  vice 
roy  of  Syria.  Though  both  pachas  continue  to  be  dutiful 
subjects  of  the  grand  seignior  in  appearance,  they  are  to  be 
considered  as  tributarios  rather  than  as  subjects  of  the  Porte ; 
and  it  is  supposed  to  be  the  religious  supremacy  of  the  sul- 
tan, as  caliph  and  vicar  of  Mohammed,  more  than  any  appre- 
hension of  his  power,  which  prevents  them  from  declaring 
themselves  independent."' 

*  .loIlilTe's  Letters  from  Palestine,  %vritten  in  1S17,  Lend.  1820.  8vo.  p.  102. 
The  sketch  of  llie  modern  slate  of  .Tprusalem,  above  given,  !ia.s  bteii  drawn 
up,  from  a  cartful  comparison  of  this  intelligent  writer's  remarks,  with  th« 
observationsof  Professor  Carlyle  (Walpolc's  Menioirs,  p.  187.);  ofM.  Cha 
teaul>riand,  Uiad.,-  in  IH06  (Travels,  vol.  ii.  pp.  53.  83,  84.  179,  180),  of  AlJ 
Bey,  made  in  1803—1807  (Travels,  vol.  ii.  pp.  240—215.),  of  Cnpi.  Li^ht, 
made  in  1814  (Travels  in  Eirypl,  <Scc.  pp.  178--187.);  i*il  of  Mr  Huckmg 
haul,  made  in  1816.  (Travels  in  Palestme,  pp.  260—262.)  See  also  Dr.  Rich- 
ardscm's  Travels  aluni;  the  Mediterranean,  4:c.  vol.  ii.  pp.  2:iS— 368. ; 
.lowetl's  Cliristian  Researches  in  dyria,  pp.  233.  290.,  and  Mr.  Carne's 
Lelier.s  from  tlie  East,  p.  62. 

'  Rolaudi  Paltestina,  torn.  1.  pp.  204—214. 

«  .\hr<-t;i'  delaCcoj^raphie  Sacn-c,  p.  41.  (Paris,  1827.  12mo.) 

1  Modern  Traveller:— Pale,=itinc,  p.  (>.  In  the  Ahr^gt  de  la  GcorrspWa 
Sacri>c  (pp.  42—44.)  there  is  an  account  of  the  Turkish  Divisions  of  Pales- 
tine, professing  to  be  drawn  from  aTurkijh  treatise  printed  at  Couslanti- 
nopie.  and  somewhat  ditlcrent  from  the  divi.-l.  ns  aliovc  noticed;  which 
have  been  preferably  adopted,  because  lliey  ejchibil  the  actual  government 
of  Palestine,  as  described  by  the  uiost  recent  travellers. 


Sect,  1.J 


CLIMATE  AND  SEASONS  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


23 


Mount  Tabor,  as  seen  from  tlic  Tlain  of  Esdraelon. 


CHAPTER  II. 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY    OF   THE    HOLY   LAND. 


SECTION  I. 


CLIMATE,    SEASONS,    AND    PHYSICAL    APPEARANCE    OF    THE    COUNTRY. 

Climate. — 11.  Seasons. — 1.  Seed-lime. — 2.  Winter. — 3,  The  Cold  Season,  or  Winter  Solstice. — 4.  Harvest. — 5.  Summer. 
6.  The  Hot  Season. — Heavy  Deivs. — III.  Rivers,  Lakes,  Wells,  and  Fountains.-— Cisterns,  and  Pools  of  Solomon. — IV. 
Mountains. — V.  Valleys. — \1.  Caves. — VII.  Plains. — VIII.  Deserts. — Horrors  and  Dangers  of  travelling  in  the  Great 
Desert  of  Arabia.^ 


I.  The  surface  of  the  Holy  Land  being  diversified  with 
mountains  and  plains,  its  Climate  varies  in  different  places; 
though  in  general  it  is  more  settled  than  in  our  westerly 
countries.  From  Tripoli  to  Sidon,  the  country  is  much  colder 
than  the  rest  of  the  coast  further  to  the  north  and  to  the 
touth,  and  its  seasons  are  less  regular.  The  same  remark 
applies  to  the  mountainous  parts  of  Judeea,  where  the  vege- 
table productions  are  much  later  than  on  the  sea-coast,  or  in 
the  vicinity  of  Gaza.  From  its  lofty  situation,  the  air  of 
Saphrt  in  Galilee  is  --o  fresh  and  cool,  that  the  heats  are 
scarcely  felt  there  during  the  summer ;  though  in  the  neigh- 
bouring country,  particularly  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Tabor  and 
in  the  plain  of  Jericho,  the  heat  is  intense.^  Generally  speak- 
ing, howevfr,  the  atmosphere  is  mild ;  the  summers  are 
commonly  dry,  and  extremely  hot  '.^  intensely  hot  days, 
however,  are  frequently  succeeded  by  intensely  cold  nights ; 
and  these  sudden  vicissitudes,  which  an  Arab  constitution 
alone  can  endure,  together  with  their  consequent  effects  on 
the  human  frame,  verify  the  words  of  the  patriarch  Jacob  to 
his  father-in-law,  tltat  in  the  day  the  drought  consumed  him, 
and  the  frost  by  night.  (Gen.  xxxi.  40.)^ 

II.  Six  several  Seasons  of  the  natural  year  are  indicated 
in  Gen.  viii.  22.  viz,  seed-time  and  harvest,  cold  and  heat,  sum- 
mer and  winter ,-  and  as  agriculture  constituted  the  principal 
employment  of  the  Jews,  we  are  informed  by  the  rabbinical 
writers,  that  they  adopted  the  same  division  of  seasons,  with 
reference  to  their  rural  work.*  These  divisions  also  exist 
among  the  Arabs  to  this  day.^     A  brief  statement  of  the 

«  Besides  the  researches  of  modem  travellers  and  the  other  authorities, 
cited  for  particular  facts,  the  following  treatises  have  been  consulted  for  the 
present  section,  viz.  Rekndi  Palaestina,  torn.  i.  pp.  234 — 379. ;  Jahn,  et  Ack- 
erman,  Archaiologia  Biblica,  §^  14 — 21.  ;  Schulzii  ArchaeologiaHebraica,  pp. 
4 — 9. ;  Pareau,  Antiquitas  Hebraica,  pp.  57 — 64. ;  and  Alber,  Heruioneutica 
Sacra,  torn.  i.  pp.  64—72. 

a  Hariner's  Observations,  vol.  i.  pp.  2—4.  London,  160S. 

s  Of  the  intensity  of  tlip  heat  in  Palestine,  during  the  sunimer,  some  idea 
may  be  formed,  when  it  i?:  known  that  the  mercury  of  Dr.  E.  D.  Clarlis 
thermometer,  in  a  subterraneous  recess  perfectly  shaded  (.Vae  scale  bemg 
placed  so  as  not  to  touch  the  rock),  remained  at  one  hundred  degrees  of 
Falirenheit.    Travels,  vol.  iv.  p.  100.  Svo.  edit. 

*  The  same  vicissitudesof  temperature  exist  to  this  day  at  Smyrna  (Emer- 
son's Letters  from  the  Mgean,  vol.  i.  p.  94.),  also  in  tbe  Desert  of  Arabia 
(Capt.  Keppel's  Narrative  of  a  Jburney  from  India  to  England,  vol.  i.  p.  140. 
London,  1S27.  8vo.),  in  the  Desert  between  Damascus  arid  the  ruins  of  Pal- 
myra (Game's  Letters  from  the  East,  p.  K5.),  in  Persia  (Morier's  Second 
Journey,  p.  97.  London,  1313.  4to.),  and  in  Egypt.  (Capt.  Light's  Travels, 

fi.  20.  ;  Dr.  Richardson's  Travels  along  the  M'editterranean,  &c.  vol.  i.  pp. 
81, 182.  London,  1822.  Svo.)  Harmer  has  collected  several  testimonies  to 
the  same  effect,  from  the  earlier  travellers  in  the  East.  Observations  on 
Scripture,  vol.  i.  pp.  61—63.  London,  1808. 

^  Bava  Metsia,  fol.  100.  cited  by  Dr.  Lightfoot,  in  his  Hebrew  andTalmu- 
dical  Exercitations  on  John  iv.  35.  (Works,  vol.  ii.  p.  543.) 

•  See  Golius's  Lcsicoa  Arabicum,  col.  934. 


natural  phenomena  occurring  ift  these  several  seasons,  will 
enable  us  to  form  a  tolerably  correct  idea  of  the  climate  and 
weather  of  the  Holy  Land. 

1.  Seed-time,  by  the  rabbins  termed  pit  (zcro),  comprised 
the  latter  half  of  the  Jewish  month  Tisri,  the  whole  ot  Mar- 
chesvan,  and  the  former  half  of  Kisleu  or  Chisleu,  that  is, 
from  the  beginning  of  October  to  the  beginning  of  December. 
During  this  season  the  weather  is  various,  very  often  misty, 
cloud)"^,  with  mizzling  or  pouring  rain.  Towards  the  close 
of  October  or  early  m  November,  the  former  or  early  au- 
tumnal rains  begin  to  fall ;  when  they  usually  ploughed  their 
land,  and  sowed  their  wheat  and  barley,  and  gafliered  the 
latter  grapes.  The  rains  last  for  three  or  four  days ;  they  do 
not  fall  without  intermission,  but  in  frequent  showers,  llie 
air  at  this  season  is  frequently  warm,  sometimes  even  hot ; 
but  is  much  refreshed  by  cold  in  the  night,  which  is  so  in- 
tense as  to  freeze  the  very  hea'vy  dews  uiat  fall.  Towards 
the  close  it  becomes  cooler,  and  at  the  end  of  it  snow  begins 
to  fall  upon  the  mountains.  The  channels  of  the  rivulets  are 
sometimes  dry,  and  even  the  large  rivers  do  not  contain  much 
water.  In  the  latter  part  of  November  the  leaves  lose  their 
foliage.  Towards  the  end  of  that  month  the  more  delicate 
light  their  fires  (Jer.  xxxvi.  22.),  which  they  continue,  almost 
to  the  month  of  April ;  while  others  pass  the  whole  winter 
without  fire. 

2.  Winter,  by  the  rabbins  termed  t|->in  (chorcp),  included 
the  latter  half  of  Chisleu,  the  Avhole  of  Tebeth,  and  the 
former  part  of  Sebat,  that  is  from  the  beginning  of  Decem- 
ber to  the  beginning  of  February.  In  the  commencement  of 
this  season,  snows  rarely  fall,  except  on  the  mountains,  but 
they  seldom  continue  a  whole  day ;  the  ice  is  thin,  and  melts 
as  soon  as  the  sun  ascends  above  the  horizon.  As  the  season 
advances,  the  north  wind  and  the  celd,  especially  on  the  lofty 
mountains,  which  are  now  covered  with  snow,  is  intensely 
severe,  and  sometimes  even  fatal :  the  cold  is  frequently  so 
piercing,  that  persons  bom  in  our  climate  can  scarcely  endure 
it.  The  roads  become  slippery,  and  travelling  becomes  both 
laborious  and  dangerous,  especially  in  the  steep  mountain- 
paths  (Jer.  xiii.  16.  xxiii.  12.) ;  and  on  this  account  our 
Lord,  when  predicting  the  calamities  that  Avere  to  attend 
the  siege  at  Jerusalem,  told  his  disciples  to  pray  that  their 
flight  might  not  be  in  the  winter.  (Matt.  xxiv.  20.)  The  cold 
however  varies  in  severity  according  to  the  local  situation  of 
the  country.  On  high  mountains  (as  we  have  just  remarked) 
it  is  extreme ;  but  in  tlie  plain  of  Jericho  it  is  scarcely  felt, 
the  winter  there  resembling  spring ;  yet,  in  the  vicinity  of 
Jerusalem,  the  vicissitudes  of  a  "winter  in  Palestine  were  i 
experienced  by  the  crusaders  at  the  close  of  the  twelfth  cen- 


u 


SEASONS  OF  THE  KOLY  LAND. 


[Chaf.  ir. 


tury,  in  all  its  horrors.  Mariy  persons  of  both  sexes  perished 
in  consequence  of  want  of  food,  the  intenseness  of  tlie  cold, 
and  tlie  heaviness  of  the  rains,  which  kept  thera  wet  for  four 
successive  days.  The  ground  was  alternately  deluged  with 
rain,  or  encmsted  with  ice,  or  loaded  with  snow  ;  the  beasts 
of  burthen  were  carried  away  by  the  sudden  torrents,  that 
descended  (as  they  still  do)  from  the  mountains,  and  filled 
the  rivers,  or  sank  into  the  bogijy  ground.  So  vehement 
were  the  rains,  storms  of  hail,  and  winds,  as  to  tear  up  the 
stakes  of  the  tents,  and  carry  them  to  a  distance.  The 
extremity  of  the  cold  and  Avet  killed  the  horses,  and  spoiled 
their  provisions. i 

The  hail-stones  which  fall  during  the  severity  of  the  win- 
ter season  are  very  large,  and  sometimes  fatal  to  man  and 
oeast.  Such  was  the  storm  of  hail  that  discomfited  the 
Amorites  (Josh.  x.  10.)  ;  and  such  also  the  very  /grievous  hail 
that  destroyed  the  cattle  of  the  Egyptians.  (Exod.  ix.  18. 
23,  21.)  A  similar  hail-storm  fell  upon  the  British  fleet  in 
Marmorice  bay,  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  in  the  year  1801,2  whicli 
affords  a  fine  comment  on  that  expression  of  the  psalmist, 
He  custeth  forth  his  ice  like  morsels ,-  who  can  stand  before  his 
cold?  (Psal.  cxlvii.  17.)  The  snow  which  falls  in  Judaea 
is  by  the  same  elegant  inspired  writer  compared  to  wool 
(Psal.  cxlvii. 16.);  and  we  are  informed  that  in  countries  which 
are  at  no  great  distance  from  Palestine,  the  snow  falls  in 
flakes  as  large  as  walnuts :  but  not  being  very  hard  ©r  very 
compact,  it  does  no  injury  to  the  traveller  whom  it  covers.^ 

But,  however  severe  the  cold  weatlier  sometimes  is  in 
these  countries,  there  are  intervals  even  in  the  depth  of  win- 
ter when  the  sun  shines  and  there  is  no  wind,  and  when  it  is 
perfectly  warm — sometimes  almost  hot — in  the  open  air.  At 
such  seasons  the  poorer  classes  in  tlie  East  enjoy  the  conver- 
sation of  their  friends,  sauntering  about  in  the  air,  and  sitting 
under  the  walls  of  their  dwellings ;  while  the  houses  of  the 
more  opulent  inhabitants,  having  porches  or  gateways,  with 
benches  on  each  side,  the  master  of  the  family  receives 
visitors  there,  and  despatches  his  business — few  persons  (not 
even  the  nearest  relations)  having  further  admission  except 
on  extraordinary  occasions.''  These  circumstances  materially 
illustrate  a  difficult  passage  in  the  prophet  Ezekiel  (xxxiii. 
30.) — Also,  thou  son  of  man,  the  children  of  thy  people  are  still 
talking  concerning  thee,^  by  the  wali-s  and  in  the  doors  of  the 
houses,  and  speak  one  to  another,  every  one  to  his  brother,  saying 
Come,  I  pray  you,  and  hear  ivhat  is  the  word  that  comefh  fortJi 
from  the  Lord.  It  appears  from  Ezek.  xxxiii.  21.  that  these 
things  were  transacted  in  the  tenth  month,  corresponding  witii 
the  close  of  our  December  or  the  commencement  of  January. 
The  poorer  people,  tlierefore,  sat  under  their  vralls  for  the 
benent  of  the  sun,  while  those  in  better  circumstances  sat  in 
their  porchways  or  gateways  to  enjoy  its  genial  rays.s 

It  appears,  therefore,  tliat  one  part  of  the  winter  is,  by  the 
inhabitants  of  the  East,  distinguished  from  the  rest  by  the 
severity  of  the  cold,  wliich  may  be  denominated  the  depth  of 
their  winter. 

3.  The  Cor,D  Season  or  Winter  Solstice,  by  the  rabbins 
termed  ip  (kob),  comprises  the  latter  half  of  Sebat,  the 
whole  of  Adar,  and  the  former  half  of  Nisan,  from  the  be- 
ginning of  February  to  the  beginning  of  April.  At  the  com- 
mencement of  this  season,  t!ie  ground  is  i^refjuently  covered 
with  a  tliick  hoar-frost,  and  the  weather  is  cold ;  but  it 
gradually  becomes  warm  and  even  hot,  particularly  in  the 
plain  of  Jericho.  Thunder,  lightning,  and  hail  f>ro  frequent. 
Vegetable  nature  now  revives;  tlie  almond  trru  blossoms, 
ana  the  gardens  assume  a  dcliirhtfnl  appeanmce.  I3arlcy  is 
ripe  at  Jericho,  though  but  little  wheat  is  in  the  ear.  The 
latter  rains  sometimes  begin  to  fall  in  the  end  of  this  season, 
swelling  the  rising  crops,  with  which  the  valleys  are  covered. 

»  Ilarmcr's  Observaiions,  vol.  i.  pp.  36 — 42. 

'  "On  ttie  8lh  of  February  (;omii)ciiceflihe  mopt  violent  thunder  and  hail- 
storm ever  roiiii'KibcP'd,  ami  which  continued  two  dayn  and  ni^lits  Inlor- 
mittlngly.  The  hail,  or  rather  Ihe  icn-ntimes,  wore  as  U\g  iis  large  wahiu's. 
The  camps  were  deluged  with  a  torrent  of  llinni  two  feet  deep,  wliii-li, 
pourinj;  from  the  inountainH,  swept  every  thing  before  It.  The  scene  of 
confusion  on  shore,  by  the  hornes  breakins;  loose,  auil  the  men  being 
unable  to  face  the  storm,  or  remain  still  in  the  freezini;  dcliije,  surpa.sso.s 
description.  It  is  not  in  Ihe  power  of  laimiiaKc  lo  convey  an  iidennale  Idea 
of  «uch  a  tei!i;)esL"  Sir  Robert  Wil  ioii's  IliSlory  of  the  Hriiiali  Expedition 
lo  Ezypi,  vol.  I.  p.  "?.  8vo.  edit.  Hail  storms  are  so  viob-iii  in  some  parts  of 
Persia,  as  Irerpiently  to  destroy  the  cattle  in  llio  flelJs.  Kinnci/s  Geo- 
grapliicul  Memoir,  p.  \:A. 

•  Harmer's  Obnervations,  vol.  i.  p.  HT\  note. 

«  The  name  imaie  Htill  ol)[ain3  at  Smyrna.  Emerson's  Letters  frotn  th' 
JEgean,  vol.  i.  pp.  96,  97. 

•  In  our  outhori7,cd  version,  the  preposition  13(dik)1«  rendered  a^ninsl 
llip.e,  which  is  crroneou.s,  as  tho  context  shows  that  the  Jews  were  lalkinn 
oj  or  concurmnt;  Ihe  prophet,  and  ho  ii  is  prop.-rly  rendered  in  Psal. 
Utjrx<-il.  3.  Oloriiini  Ihini^i  am  aptikmi  op  thu:,  OQily  of  Ood. 

•  Uariner's  Observations,  vol.  I.  pp.  50—03. 


4.  The  Harvest,  by  the  rabbins  denominated  Txp  (kctsir), 
includes  the  latter  half  of  Nisan,  the  whole  of  Jyar  (or  Zif), 
and  the  former  half  of  Sivan,  that  is,* from  the  beginninor  of 
April  to  the  beginning  of  June.  In  the  first  fortnight  of  this 
season,  the  latter  rains  are  frequent,  but  cease  towards  tlio 
end  of  April,  when  the  sky  is  generally  fair  and  serene.  In 
the  plain  of  Jericho  the  heat  of  the  sun  is  excessive,  thouorh 
in  other  parts  of  Palestine  the  weather  is  most  delightful ; 
and  on  the  sea-coast  the  heat  is  tempered  by  morning  and 
evening  breezes  from  the  sea.  As  the  liarvest  depends  on  the 
duration  of  the  rainy  season,  the  ea7-ly  or  autumnal  rains,  and 
the  latter  or  spring  rains  are  absolutely  necessary  to  the  sup- 
port of  vegetation,  atid  were  consequently  objects  greatly 
desired  by  the  Israelites  and  Jews.'  These  rains,  however, 
were  always  chilly  (Ezra  x.  9.  and  Sol.  Song  ii.  11.),  and 
often  preceded  by  whirlwinds  (2  Kings  iii.  IG,  17.)  that 
raised  such  quantities  of  sand  as  to  darken  the  sky,  or,  in 
the  words  of  the  sacred  historian,  to  make  the  heavens  black 
tuith  clouds  and  wirul.  (1  ICings  xviii.  45.)  In  Egypt  the 
barley  harvest  precedes  the  summer.  This  may  explain  Jer. 
viii.  20.  where  the  harvest  is  put  first  in  the  description,— 
The  harvest  is  past,  the  summer  is  ended,  and  we  are  not  saved  J 

The  rains  descend  in  Palestine  with  great  violence ;  and 
as  whole  villages  in  the  East  are  con-iMcted  only  with  palm 
branches,  mud,  and  tiles  baked  in  tin  sufi  (perhaps  corres- 
ponding to  and  explanatory  of  tlit  nnttiapered  mortar  noticed 
in  Ezek.  xiii.  11.),  these  rains  not  unfrequently  dissolve  the 
cement,  such  as  it  is,  and  the  houses  fall  to  the  ground.  To 
these  effects  our  Lord  probably  alludes  in  Matt.  vii.  25 — 27. 
Very  small  clouds  are  likewise  the  forerunners  of  violent 
storms  and  hurricanes  in  the  east  as  well  as  in  the  west : 
they  rise /lAd  a  man's  hand  {I  Kings  xviii.  44.),  until  the 
whole  sky  becomes  black  with  rain,  which  descends  in  tor- 
rents, that  rush  down  the  steep  hills,  and  sweep  every  thing 
before  them.9  In  our  Lord's  time,  this  phenomenon  seems 
to  have  become  a  certain  prognostic  of  wet  weather.  He  said 
to  the  people.  When  ye  see  me,  cloud  {THiA  tit^i^jivy^  rise  out 
if  the  west,  straightway  ye  say,  There  cometh  a  shower ;  and 
so  IT  IS.  (Luke  xii.  54.) 

5.  The  SuMMEii,  by  the  rabbins  termed  ^jvp  (kvits),  com- 
prehends the  later  half  of  Sivan,  the  whole  of  Thammuz, 
and  the  former  half  of  Ab,  that  is,  fr^jm  the  beginning  of 
June  to  the  beginning  of  August.  The  heat  of  the  weather 
increases,  and  the  nights  are  so  warm  that  the  inhabitants 
sleep  on  their  house-tops  in  tlie  open  air. 

6.  The  Hot  Season,  by  the  rabbins  called  oin  (chum),  or 
the  great  heat,  includes  the  latter  half  of  Ab,  the  Mhole  of 
Elul,  and  the  former Jialf  of  Tisri,  that  is,  from  the  begiii- 
ninij  of  Autrust  to  the  beeinning  of  October.  Duriny;  the 
chief  part  of  this  season  the  heat  is  intense,  though  less  so 
at  Jerusalem  than  in  the  plain  of  Jericho :  there  is  no  cold, 
not  even  in  the  night,  so  tliat  travellers  pass  whole  nights  in 
the  open  air  without  inconvenience.  Lebanon  is  for  the  most 
part  tree  from  snow,  except  in  the  caverns  and  defiles  where 
the  sun  cannot  penetrate.  During  the  hot  season,  it  is  not 
uncommon  in  the  East  Indies  for  persons  lo  die  suddenly,  in 
consequence  of  the  extreme  heat  of  the  solar  ravs  (whence 
the  necessity  of  being  carried  in  a  j)alanquin).  This  is  now 
commonly  termed  a  coup-dc-solcil,  or  stroke  of  the  sun.  The 
son  of  the  woman  of  Shunem  appears  to  have  died  in  conse- 
quence of  a  coup-de-soleil  (2  Kings  iv.   19,  20.);"  and  to 

'  The  followinc  are  a  few  anioru;  the  many  allusions  in  the  .Scripture  lo 
the  importance  of  Ihe  early  and  litter  rains,  and  the  earnestness  with 
which  they  were  de.-iired.  Ueut.  xi.  U.  Job  xxix.  23.  Prov.  xvi.  15.  Jer. 
\\\.3.\.2A.  IIus.  vi.  3.  Joel  ii.  23.  Zech.  x.  1.  "From  these  bountiful 
showers  of  heaven,  indeed,  the  fertility  of  every  land  spriii/ii :  but  how 
dri'.'idl'ul  in  lhn  country  would  be  .«uch  a  three  years'  (hoii^hl,  as  was  in- 
Ihcted  upon  Israel  in  ilie  days  of  Aliab,  may  easily  be  conceived,  when  it  is 
remembered  that  In  suiiuner  tho  richest  ^'oil  is  burnt  lo  dust  ;  so  that  a 
traveller,  ridinR  tlirou!;h  the  plain  of  I^sdraelon  in  July  or  Auifusl,  WQuld 
imagine  liimself  to  be  cro.4sini;  a  desert."  (Jowetl's  Christian  Ucseai^hes 
ill  Syria,  p.  300.  London,  1S25.  8vo.) 

•  Jowelt's  Christian  Researches  in  tho  Meililerranean,  Ac.  p.  144.  Lon- 
dim,  lt*J2.  ^\o. 

ti  A  similar  phenomenon  i.s  noticed  by  Homer  (Iliad,  lih.  iv.  275— arS), 
lI  also  lakes  place  in  Abyssinia.  Mr.  iiriiee,  Kpeaking  of  ilic'  phenomena 
aUcndinK  the  inundation  of  the  Nile,  says,— Rvery  morning,  "about  nine, 
a  small  cloud,  not  above  four  feel  broad,  apjiears  in  the  east,  whirlin';  vio- 
lently round.  n<  if  upon  an  axis  ;  l>ut,  arrived  near  the  zenith,  It  first  nliatcs 
its  molion,  then  loses  its  form,  and  extends  itself  •ircatly,  and  seems  to  call 
upvapourH  from  all  opposite  ipinrters.  Th'esr  clouds, liaviintattulned  nearly 
the  same  hciuhl,  rush  against  each  other  wiili  great  violence,  and  pt  t  niu 
always  in  mind  of  Elijah  foretelling  rain  on  Mount  Curinel."  Traveli ,  vol. 
v.  p.  .130.  Svo. 

lo  The  article  hero  is  unquestionahlv  demonstrative.  Sec  Up.  Mi  'die- 
ton's  Uoctrino  of  the  Greek  Article,  p.  .1v;7.  (first  edit.) 

>■  Lgmont  and  lloyman  (who  travelled  in  Palestine  in  the  beiilnnin,  of 
the  eiehleentli  century)  ftmiid  the  air  about  Jericho  extreni<iy  hot,  >n'J 
say  that  it  destroyed  several  neLsons  the  year  before  they  were  tin  re. 
Tlie  army  of  King  Ualdwin  1  v.  sulTercd  considerably  from  lhi«  circu.  n  - 


Sect.  I.] 


RIVERS,  LAKES,  WELLS,  AND  FOUNTAINS. 


25 


this  fatal  effect  of  the  solar  heat  the  psalmist  alludes  (Psal. 
cxxi.  6.),  as  he  also  does  to  the  effect  of  the  lunar  rays,  which 
in  Arabia  (as  well  as  in  Egypt)  are  singularly  injurious  to 
the  eyes  of  those  who  sleep  in  the  open  air.  "  'I'he  moon 
here  really  strikes  and  affects  the  sight  when  you  sleep  ex- 
posed to  it  much  more  than  the  sun  :  indeed,  the  sight  of  a 
person,  who  should  sleep  with  his  face  exposed  at  night, 
would  soon  be  utterly  impaired  or  destroyed."' 

From  the  time  of  harvest,  that  is,  from  the  middle  of  April 
to  the  middle  of  September,  it  neither  rains  nor  thunders. 
(Prov.  xxvi.  1.  1  Sam.  xii.  17.)  During  the  latter  part  of 
April,  or  about  the  middle  of  the  harvest,  the  morning  cloud 
is  seen  early  in  the  morning,  which  disappears  as  the  sun 
ascends  aljove  the  horizon.  (Hos.  vi.  4.  xiii.  3.)  These  light 
fleecy  clouds  are  without  water  {ya^ikdu  awSfict)  ;  and  to  them 
the  apostle  Jude  (verse  12.)  compares  the  false  teachers,  who 
even  then  began  to  contaminate  the  church  of  Christ.  In 
Deut.  xxxii.  2.  the  doctrine  of  Jehovah  is  compared  to  the 
rain,  and  clouds  are  the  instruments  by  which  rain  is  dis- 
tilled upon  the  earth.  In  arid  or  parched  countries,  the  very 
appearance  of  a  cloud  is  delightful,  because  it  is  a  token  of 
reireshing  showers  ;  but  when  sudden  winds  arise,  and  dis- 
perse these  clouds,  the  hope  of  the  husbandman  and  shepherd 
is  cut  off.  The  false  teachers  alluded  to,  are  represented  as 
clouds ;  they  have  the  fonn  and  office  of  teachers  of  right- 
eousness, and  from  such  appearances  pure  doctrine  maj"^ 
naturally  be  expected.  But  these  are  clouds  without  water ; 
they  distil  no  refreshing  showers,  because  they  contain  none; 
and  they  are  carried  about  by  their  passion,  as  those  light  and 
fleecy  clouds  in  question  are  carried  by  the  winds.^ 

From  the  Jewish  month  Sivan,  through  the  entire  months 
of  Tammuz,  Ab,  and  the  former  part  of  Elul,  corresponding 
with  our  mouths  of  May,  June,  July,  and  August,  not  a 
single  cloud  is  la  be  seen  ;  but  during  the  night,  the  earth  is 

.  moistened  by  a  copious  dew,  which  \i\  the  sacred  volume  is 
frequently  made  a  symbol  of  the  divine  goodness.  (Compare 
Gen.  xxvii.  28.  and  xlix.  25.  where  the  blessing  from  above  \s 
equivalent  with  dew,  Deut.  xxxii.  2.  xxxiii.  13.  Job  xxix. 
ly.  iMic.  V.  7.)  In  Arabia  Pelraja  the  dews  are  so  heavy,  as 
to  wet  to  the  skin  those  who  are  exposed  to  them  :  but  as 
soon  as  the  sun  arises,  and  the  atmosphere  becomes  a  little 
warmed,  the  mists  are  quickly  dispersed,  and  the  abundant 
moisture,  which  the  dews  had  communicated  to  the  sands,  is 
entirely  evaporated.  What  a  forcible  description  is  this  of 
the  transiently  good  impressions,  felt  by  many,  to  which  the 
prophet  Hosea  alludes !  (vi.  4.)  Other  references  to  the 
refreshing  nature  of  the  dews  of  Palestine  occur  in  Psal. 
cxxxiii.  3.  and  Hos.  xiv.  5.^     These  dews  fall,  as  in  other 

.  countries,  very  fast  as  well  as  very  suddenly,  upon  every 
blade  of  grass  and  every  spot  of  earth  :  whence  an  active 
and  expeditious  soldiery  is  in  2  Sam.  xvii.  12.  by  a  beautiful 
figure  compared  to  dew.  But,  however  copious  tlie  dews 
are,  they  nourish  only  the  more  robust  or  hardy  plants ;  and 
as  the  season  of  heat  advances,  the  grass  withers,  the  flowers 
fade,  ever}'  green  herb  is  dried  up  by  the  roots  and  dies, 
unless  watered  by  the  rivulets  or  by  the  labour  of  man.""  To 
this  appearance  of  the  fields,  during  an  eastern  summer,  the 

stance  near  Tiberias.  The  heat  at  the  time  was  so  unusally  great,  that  as 
many  died  by  that  as  by  tlie  sword.  Alter  the  battle,  in  their  return  to 
their  former  encampment,  a  certain  ecclesiastic,  of  some  distinction  in  the 
church  and  in  the  array,  not  being  able  to  bear  the  vehemence  of  the  heat, 
was  carried  in  a  litter,  but  expired  under  Mount  Tabor. — Harmer's  Obser- 
vations, vol.  i.  p.  4. 

»  Carne's  Letters  from  the  East,  p.  77.  A  nearly  similar  account  is 
given  bv  Mr.  R.  R.  Madden,  who  travelled  in  the  East,  between  the  vears 
1824  and  18-.>7.  Travels  in  Turkey,  &c.  vol.  ii.  pp.  197,  193.  The  deadly 
influence  of  the  moon  is  equally  felt  in  the  East  and  West  Indies.  Thus, 
in  Bengal,  meat  hung  up,  if  exposed  to  moonlight,  will  not  lake  the  seilt,  but 
taints  and  spoils  speedily :  whereas  the  same  kind  of  meat,  if  kept  from 
the  moonlight,  will  take  salt,  and  keep  good  for  some  time.  (Extract  of  a 
letter  from  India,  in  the  Christian  Observer  for  1808,  p.  754.)  And  at  De- 
nierara  the  moon  strikes  (similarly  to  the  sun)  with  a  coup-de-lune  ;so  that 
people  walk  out  at  night  with  umbrellas  or  paraltines.  Such  indeed  are 
the  effects  of  the  lunar  rays  upon  fi^h,  as  to  make  it  part  from  the  bones. 
(From  information  communicated  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Elliott,  missionary  at 
Dcmerara.) 

a  Dr.  A.  Clarke,  on  Jude  12. 

3  Shaw's  Travels,  vol.  ii.  p.  .32.5.  The  very  heavy  dews  which  fall  in  the 
Holy  Land,  are  noticed  by  almost  every  one  who  has  travelled  in  that  coun- 
try. We  shall  adduce  the  testimonies  of  two  or  three.  Maundrell,  travel- 
ling near  Mount  Ilermon,  iff  the  year  lt;97,  says,  "  We  were  instructed  by 
experience,  what  the  Psalmist  means  by  the  dew  of  Hermon  (Psal.  cxxxiii. 
3.),  our  tents  being  as  ttet  with  it,  as  if  it  had  rained  all  night."  (Travels 
from  Aleppo  to  Jerusalem,  p.  77.)  Dr.  E.  D.  Clarke,  when  on  his  journey 
from  Aboukir  to  Pvosetta,  in  1801,  says,  "We  had  a  tent  allotted  to  us  for 
the  night ;  it  was  double  lined  ;  yet  so  copious  are  the  detcs  of  Egypt"  (the 
climate  of  which  country  is  similar  to  that  of  the  Holy  Land),  "  after  sun- 
set that  the  water  run  copiously  doicn  the  tent-pole."  (Travels,  vol.  iii.  p. 
3G5.  8vo.)  Mr.  Carne  says,  "The  dews  had  fallen  heavily  for  some  nights, 
and-the  clothes  that  covered  us  were  quite  wet  in  the  morning."  Letters 
from  tlie  East,  p.  17S. 

♦  Harmer's  Observations,  vol.  l.p.  6. 

Vol..  n.  D 


royal  psalmist  alludes.  (Psal.  xxxii.  4.)  If,  at  this  season, 
a  single  spark  falls  upon  the  grass,  a  conflagration  immediate- 
ly ensues,  especially  if  there  should  be  any  briers  or  thorns,  ^ 
low  shrubs  or  woods  contiguous,  (Psal.  Ixxxiii.  14.  Isa. 
ix.  18.  X.  17,  18.  Jer,  xxi.  14.  Compare  also  Exod.  xxii.  6. 
and  Joel  i.  19,  20.)  The  face  of  the  country  becomes  en- 
tirely changed  ;  the  fields,  so  lately  clothed  with  the  richest 
verdure  and  adorned  with  the  loveliest  flowers,  are  converted 
into  a  brown  and  arid  wilderness ;  the  grass  withereth,  the 
flower  fadeth  (Isa.  xl.  6,  7.)  ;•>  the  fountains  and  rivulets  are 
dried  up  ;  and  the  soil  becomes  so  hard  as  to  exhibit  large 
fissures  or  clefts.  These  effects  are  accelerated  if  the  east 
wind  blow  for  a  few  days ;  which,  being  usually  dry  and 
producing  a  blight,  becomes  fatal  to  the  com  and  vines  (Job 
XV.  2.  Gen.  xli.  6. 23.  Ezek.  xvii.  10.  xix.  12.  Hos.  xiii.  15. 
Jonah  iv.  8.  Psal.  ciii.  15,  16.)  ;  and  is  particularly  dan- 
gerous to  navigators  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  This  is 
alluded  to  in  Psla.  xlviii.  7.  and  Ezek.  xxvii.  26.  The  people 
of  the  East  generally  term  everj'  wind  an  east  wind,  that 
blows  between  the  east  and  north  and  the  east  and  south. 
The  Euroclydon,  which  caused  the  wreck  of  the  vessel  in 
which  Paul  was  sailing  to  Rome,  was  one  of  these  tempes- 
tuous east  W'inds,  a.n{ji.'.t  nfcviK^^,  that  drove  every  thing  before 
it.  (Acts  xxvii.  14.)  Such  winds  are  common  in  the  Medi- 
terranean to  this  day,  where  they  are  called  Levanters,  the 
term  Levant  meaning  that  country  which  lies  at  the  eastern 
extremity  of  that  sea.^ 

III.  In  consequence  of  the  paucity  of  showers  in  the  East, 
water  is  an  article  of  great  importance  to  the  inhabitants. 
Hence,  in  Lot's  estimation,  it  was  a  principal  recommenda- 
tion of  the  plain  of  Jordan  that  it  was  well  watered  every 
where  (Gen.  xiii.  10.) ;  and  the  same  advantage  continued  in 
later  ages  to  be  enjoyed  by  the  Israelites,  whose  country  was 
intersected  by  numerous  brooks  and  streams ;  whence  it  is 
not  more  emphatically  than  beautifully  described  as  a  hmd 
of  brooks  of  water,  of  fountains  and  depths,  that  spri7ig  out  of 
valleys  and  hills.  And  the  same  preference  is  given  to  this 
day  by  the  Eelauts  (a  Tartar  tribe  occupying  a  district  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  Persian  empire),  w-Iio  carry  their 
flocks  to  the  highest  parts  of  the  mountains,  where  the  bless- 
ings of  pasturage  and  of  good  water  are  to  be  found  in 
abundance.  The  knowledge  of  this  circumstance  will,  per- 
haps, impart  new  force  to  the  promises  made  to  the  Gentiles 
by  the  evangelical  prophet.  'Llteir  pastures  shall  be  in  all  high 
places,  they  shall  not  hunger  nor  thirst ;  neither  shall  the  sun  or 
heat  smite  them ,-  for  he  that  hath  merrcy  on  them  shall  lead  them, 
even  by  the  springs  of  water  shall  he  guide  them.  (Isa.  xlix.  9 — 
11.)"    See  also  "Rev.  vii.  16,  17. 

Although  Rivers  are  frequently  mentioned  in  the  vSacred 
Writings,  yet,  strictly  speaking,  the  only  river  in  the  Holy 
Land  is  the  Jordan,  which  is  sometimes  designated  in  the 
Scripture  as  the  river  without  any  addition ;  as  also  is  the 
Nile  (Gen.  xli.  1.  Exod.  i.  23.  ii.  5.  iv.  9.  vii.  18.  and  viii. 
3.9.  ll.)j  and,  occasionally,  the  Euphrates  (as  in  Jer.  ii. 
18.)  ;  in  these  cases,  the  tenor  of  the  discourse  must  deter- 
mine which  is  the  river  actually  intended  by  the  sacred  wri- 
ters. The  name  of  river  is  also  given  to  inconsiderable 
streams  and  rivulets,  as  to  the  Kishon  (Judges  iv.  7.  and  v. 
21.)  and  the  Anion.  (Deut.  iii.  16.)? 

1.  The  principal  river  which  waters  Palestine  is  the  Jor- 
dan or  Yar-Dan,  i,  e.  the  river  of  Dan,  so  called  because  it 
takes  its  rise  in  the  vicinitj'  of  the  little  '.ity  of  Dan.  Its 
true  source  is  in  two  fountains  at  Paneas  (a  city  better  known 
by  its  subsequent  name  of  Ca'sarea  Pliilippi),  at  the  foot  of 
Anti-Libanus  ;  its  apparent  source  flows  irom  beneath  a  cave 
at  the  foot  of  a  precipice,  in  the  sides  of  which  are  several 
niches  with  Greek  inscriptions.^  During  several  hours  of 
its  course,   it  continues  to   be   a  small  and   insignificant 

'  "The  very  affecting  images  of  Scripture,  which  cofhpare  the  short- 
living  existence  of  man  to  the  decay  of  the  vegetable  creation,  are  scarcely 
under.stood  in  this  country.  The  verdure  is  pci-petual  in  England,  it  is 
difficult  to  discover  a  time  when  it  can  be  said,  'the  grass  icilherelh.' 
But,  let  the  traveller  visit  tlie  beautiful  plain  of  Smyrna,  or  any  other  part 
of  the  East,  in  the  month  of  May,  and  revisit  it  towards  the  end  of  June, 
and  he  will  perceive  the  force  and  beauty  of  these  allusions.  In  May,  an 
appearance  of  fr.-sh  verdure  and  of  rich  luxuriance  every  where  meets 
the  eve  ;  the  face  of  nature  is  adorned  with  a  carpet  of  Uowers  and  herb-  • 
age,  of  the  most  elegant  kind.  But  a  month  or  six  weeks  subsequently, 
how  changed  is  the  entire  scene  !  The  beauty  is  gone  ;  the  grass  is  with- 
ered ;  the  flower  is  faded  ;  a  brown  and  dusty  desert  has  taken  place  of  a 
delicious  garden.  It  is  doubtless  to  this  rapid  transformation  of  nature 
that  the  Scriptures  compare  the  fate  of  man."  Hartley's  llescaixhes  in 
Greece,  p.  237. 

f  Shaw's  Travels  in  Barbary,  &c.  vol.  ii.  pp.  127—133. 

'  Morier'3  Second  Journey  through  Persia,  p.  121. 

»  In  a  few  instances,  the  sea  is  called  a  river,  as  in  Hab  iii.  8.  where  the 
Red  Sea  is  intended.  „„    .„ 

s  Capt.  Irby'8  and  Mangle's  Travels  in  Egypt,  &c.  pp.  3S7— 289. 


26 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


[Part  L  Cuap.  II. 


rivulet.'  It  flows  due  south  through  the  centre  of  the  coun- 
try, intersecting  the  lake  Merom  and  the  sea  or  lake  of  Gali- 
lee, and  (it  is  said)  wifhout  mintjling  with  its  waters  ;  and 
it  loses  itself  in  the  lake  Asphallites  or  the  Dead  Sea,  into 
which  it  rolls  a  considerable  volume  of  deep  water,  with  such 
rapidity  as  to  prevent  a  strong,  active,  and  expert  swimmer 
from  swimming  across  it.  The  course  of  the  Jordan  is  about 
one  hundred  miles  ;  its  breadth  and  depth  are  various.  Dr. 
Shaw  computed  it  to  be  about  thirty  yards  broad,  and  three 
yards  or  nine  foot  in  depth  ;  and  states  that  it  discharges 
daily  into  the  Dead  Sea  about  6,090,000  tuns  of  waler.^ 
Viscount  Chateaubriand  (who  travelled  nearly  a  century  after 
him)  found  the  Jordan  to  be  six  or  seven  feet  deep  close  to 
the  shore,  and  about  fifty  paces  in  breadth.  The  late  count 
Volney  asserts  it  to  be  scarcely  sixty  paces  wide  at  its  em- 
bouchure. Messrs.  Banks  and  Buckingham,  who  crossed  it 
in  January,  1S16,  pretty  nearly  at  the  same  ford  over  which 
the  Israelites  passed  on  their  first  entering  the  promised  land, 
found  the  stream  extremely  rapid  ;  and  as  it  nowed  at  that 
part  over  a  bed  of  pebbles,  its  otherwise  turbid  waters  were 
tolerably  clear,  as  well  as  pure  and  sweet  to  the  taste.^  It  is 
here  fordable,  being  not  more  than  four  feet  deep,  with  a 
rapid  current.^ 

Anciently  the  Jordan  overflowed  its  banks  about  the  time 
of  barley  harvest  (Josh.  iii.  15.  iv.  18.  1  Chron.  xii.  15. 
Jer.  xlix.  19.),  or  the  feast  of  the  passover;  when,  the  snows 
being  dissolved  on  the  mountains,  the  torrents  discharged 
themselves  into  its  channel  with  great  impetuosity.  When 
visited  by  ]Mr.  Maundrell,  at  the  beginning  of  the  last  cen- 
tury, he  coul4  discern  no  sign  or  prooability  of  such  inunda- 
tions, though  so  late  as  the  30th  of  March ;  and  so  far  was 
the  river  from  overflowing,  that  it  ran  almost  two  yards 
below  the  brink  of  its  channel.  It  may  be  said  to  have  two 
banks, — the  first,  that  of  the  river  in  its  natural  state ;  the 
second,  that  of  its  overflowincrs.  After  descending  the  outer- 
most bank,  the  traveller  proce  ds  about  a  furlong  iijion  a  level 
strand,  before  he  comes  to  the  immediate  bank  of  the  river. 
This  second  bank  is  now  (as  it  anciently  was)  so  beset  with 
Dushes,  reeds,  tamarisks,  willows,  oleanders,  and  other 
shrubs  and  trees,  which  form  an  asylum  for  various  wild 
animals,  that  no  water  is  perceptible  until  the  traveller  has 
made  his  way  through  them.*  In  this  thicket  several  kinds 
of  wild  beasts  used  lormerly  to  conceal  themselves,  until  the 
swelling  of  the  river  drove  them  from  their  coverts.  To  this 
fact  the  prophet  Jeremiah  alludes,  when  he  compares  the 
impatience  of  Edom  and  Babylon  under  the  divine  judg- 
ments, to  the  romlngup  af  a  lion  from  I  he  mi'cl/iugs  of  Jurdftn, 
(Jer.  xlix.  19.)  On  the  level  strand  above  noticed,  it  proba- 
bly was,  that  John  the  Baptist  stood,  and  pointed  to  the 
stones  of  which  it  was  composed,  when  he  exclaimed,  I  say 
unto  you,  that  God  is  uhle  of  these  stones  to  raise  up  child- 
ren unto  Abraham  :  and  turning  to  the  second  bank,  which 
was  overgrown  with  various  shrubs  and  trees  that  had  been 
suffered  to  grow  wild  for  ages,  he  added,  and  now  also  the 
axe  is  laid  unto  the  root  of  the  trees  :  thcrtfure  every  tree, 
which  bringcth  not  forth  good  fruit,  is  heion  down  and  cast 
into  the  fire.  (Matt.  iii.  9,  10.)  The  passage  of  this  deep  and 
rapid  river  by  the  Israelites,  at  the  most  unfavourable  season, 
when  augmented  by  the  dissolution  of  the  winter  snows,  was 
more  manifestly  miraculous,  if  possible,  than  that  of  the  Red 
Sea ;  because  here  was  no  natural  agency  whatever  employed  ; 
no  mighty  winds  to  sweep  a  passage  as  in  the  former  case ; 
no  reflux  in  the  tide  on  which  minute  philosophers  might 
fasten  to  depreciate  the  miracle.  It  seems,  therefbre,  to  have 
been  providentially  designed,  to  silence  cavils  respecting  the 
former :  it  was  dojie  at  noonday,  in  the  presence  oi  the  neigh- 
bouring inhabitants  :  and  it  struck  terror  into  the  kings  of 
the  Amoritcs  and  Canaanitrs  westward  of  the  river,  W'/;wr 
hearts  melted,  neither  n'os  there  any  spirit  in  them  any  more, 
because  of  the  children  of  Israel.  (Josh.  v.  1.)  The  place 
where  the  Israelites  thus  miraculously  passed  this  river, 
is  supposed  to  be  the  fords  of  Jordan  mentioned  in  Judg. 
iii.  2(). 

The  other  remarkable  streams  or  rivulets  of  Palestine  are 
the  following : — 

•  Carne's  Uocolleclinn.q  of  Travels  in  the  E«3t,  p.  38.  London,  1630.  8vo. 

»  Hhaw'rt  Traveln,  vol.  h.  pp.  l.Vi,  107. 

»  Biickinihain'n  Travcln,  p.  315.  <  Tlirce  Wcpka  in  PalpHtinr.  p.  W. 

»  Mauiiilr.-ll's  Journoy,  p.  110.  Dr.  Marinlcinpl'H  Travi-ln  from  Mosrnw 
to  Conwanlinople  In  the  ynarH  1917,  1818,  p.  191.  (Loml.  1R19.  4to  )  The 
.ToriJan  l.s  annually  frequented  hy  many  thmisand  pilifrims,  rhie/ly  of  the 
Grer-k  church,  unilur  tin;  protection  of  ihe  MooDiUmi,  or  TurkJHh  novernor 
of  Jerii«.ilpm,  and  a  strong  military  curort.  Ihid  pp,  I'JI,  \'>i.  Kichurdsori's 
Travels,  vol.  ii.  p.  387.     Irby's  and  MangloH'  Travel*,  pp.  329,  330. 


2.  The  Arnon,  which  descends  from  the  mountains  of  the 
same  name,  and  discharges  itself  into  the  Dead  Sea. 

3.  Tiie  SiHOR  (the  Belus  of  ancient  geographers,  at  pre- 
sent called  the  Kardanah),  has  its  source  about  four  miles  to 
the  east  of  the  head  of  the  river  Kishon.  It  waters  the  plains 
of  Acre  and  Esdraelon,  and  falls  into  the  sea  at  the  gulph  of 
Keilah.^ 

4.  The  brook  Jabbok  takes  its  rise  in  the  same  mountains, 
and  falls  into  the  river  Jordan.  It  is  a  rapid  stream,  flowing 
over  a  rocky  bed  ;  its  waters  are  clear,  and  agreeable  to  the 
taste,  and  its  banks  are  very  thickly  wooded  with  oleander 
and  plane  trees,  wild  olives,  wild  almonds,  and  numerous 
other  trees.  By  the  Arabs  it  is  now  termed  NaJir-el-ZerkaJi, 
or  the  river  of  Korkah,  from  a  neighbouring  station  or  vil- 
lage of  that  name.' 

5.  The  Kanah,  or  Brook  of  Reeds,  springs  from  the  moun- 
tains of  Judah,  but  only  flows  during  the  winter,  and  it  falls 
into  the  Mediterranean  Sea  near  Csesarf  a  :  it  foriirierly  sepa- 
rated the  tribe  of  Ephraim  from  that  of  Manasseh.  (Josh, 
xvii.  8,  9.) 

6.  The  brook  Besor  (1  Simi,  xxx.  9.)  falls  into  the  same 
sea  between  Gaza  and  Rhinocorura. 

7.  The  KiSHON,  now  called  the  Moukattoua,  issues  from 
the  mountains  of  Carmel,  at  the  foot  of  which  it  forms  two 
streams ;  one  flows  eastward  into  the  sea  of  Galilee,  and  the 
other,  taking  a  westerly  course  through  the  i)lain  of  Jezretl 
or  Esdraelon,  discharges  itself  into  the  Mediterranean  Sea, 
at  a  short  distance  to  the  south  of  Aero  or  Acre.  This  is  the 
stream  noticed  in  1  Kings  xviii.  40. :  when  swollen  by  heavy 
rains  it  is  impassable.s 

8.  The  Kedron,  Kidron,  or  Cedron,  as  it  is  variously 
termed  (-i  Sam.  xv.  23.  1  Kings  xv.  13.  2  Kings  xxiii.  G. 
12.  2  Chron.  xxix.  16.  Jer.  xxxi.  40.  John  xviii.  1.),  runs 
in  the  valley  of  Jehoshaphat,  eastward  of  Jerusalem,  between 
that  city  and  the  Mount  of  Olives.  Except  during  the  win- 
ter, or  after  heavy  rains,  its  channel  is  generally  dry,  but, 
when  swollen  by  torrents,  it  flows  with  great  impetuosity  ;* 
its  waters  are  said  to  become  dark  and  turbid,  probably  be- 
cause it  collects  the  waste  of  the  adjacent  hills;  and,  like 
other  brooks  in  cities,  it  is  contaminated  with  the  filth,  of 
which  it  is  the  receptacle  and  common  sewer.  The  blood 
and  offal  of  the  victims  sacrificed  in  the  temple  are  said,  in 
later  times,  to  have  been  carried  off  by  a  dram  into  the  Ke- 
dron.'o  As  no  mention  is  made  of  bridges  in  Palestine,  it  is 
probable  that  the  inhabitants  forded  the  rivers  and  brooks 
wherever  it  was  practicable,  (in  the  same  manner  as  persons 
of  both  sexes  do  to  this  day  in  Bengal),  which  is  alluded  to 
in  Isa.  xlvii.  2. 

Of  the  Lakes  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures,  three  are  particu- 
larly worthy  of  notice ;  that  of  Galilee  or  Gcnnesareth,  the 
Txike  Merom,  and  the  Leike  of  Sodn,n,  both  of  which  are 
termed  seas,n  agreeably  to  the  Hebrew  phraseology,  which 
gives  the  name  of  sea  to  any  large  body  of  water. 

1.  'ITie  Sea  ok  Galilee  (so  called  from  its  situation  on  the 
eastern  borders  of  that  division  of  Pal,  stine),  through  which 
the  Jordan  flows,  was  anciently  called  the  Sea  of  L'hinnercth 
(Num.  xxxiv.  11.")  or  Chinneroth  (Josh.  xii.  3.),  from  its 
vicinity  to  the  town  of  that  name;  afterwards  Gennesar  (1 
Mace.  xi.  67.),  and  in  the  time  of  Jesus  Christ  Geni-'^oreth  or 
Gennesareth  (Luke  v.  1.),  from  the  neighbouring  land  of  the 
same  name  (Matt.  xiv.  34.  Mark  vi.  5.?.)  ;  and  also  the  Sea 
of  Tiberias  (John  vi.  1.  xxi.  1.),  from  the  contiguous  city  of 
1'iberias.  This  capacious  lake,  almost  equal  in  tht;  grandeur 
of  its  appearance  to  that  of  Geneva,  spreads  its  transparent 
waters  over  all  the  lower  territory,  exttiiditig  from  the  north- 
east to  the  south-west.  The  waters  of  the  northern  part  of 
tliis  lake  aboimd  with  fisli :  this  circunistanct;  marks  the 
propriety  of  our  Lord's  parable  of  the  net  east  into  the  sea 
(Matt.  xiii.  47,  48.),  which  was  delivered  by  him  from  a 
vessel  near  the  shore.  The  fish  are  said  to  be  most  delicious. 
There  is  not  much  variety,  but  the  best  sort  is  the  most  com- 
mon ;  it  isaspeciesof  breain,  etj^ual  to  the  finest  perch.  It  is 
remarkable,  that  there  is  not  a  single  boat  of  any  description 

•  Shaw's  Travels,  vol.  ii    p  .?3. 

1  Huckingliatn'HTravclH,  p.  3vi5. 

•  C'amc's  l.flterR,  p.  U."iO  Kichter'ii  Pilerlnajtes  in  the  Eartjn  1615— 
1816.  (f'al)inel  of  Koreiifn  VoyaReg,  vol.  i.  pp.  150,  lOO.  f.on(lori,  V<f\) 

•  In  like  manner  the  rivers  of  (Cyprus  (which  It  land  lies  to  thcnorth-weM 
iif  the  Hidy  Land)  arc  dry  durhif!  the  sinnmer  moiith.-J,  and  are  swollen 
inio  torrents  i)y  sudden  rains.     Dr.  Clarke's  Travela,  vol.  Iv.  p.  75. 

■0  Lighlfoot'*  Chorographical  Century,  on  Matlliew,  chap.  38.  fine. 
(Works,  vol.  i.  p.  Ml.) 

"  This  appellation  is  retained  hy  the  modern  Inhaliilanla,  wlio  reside  in 
its  vicinity,  ''  who,  like  the  earliest  ones,  call  ttielr  water  a  «ca,  and  reckon 
it  and  tlie  Dead  Sea  to  the  south  of  them  to  be  the  two  largest  known  except 
lUo  great  ocean."    Buckingham's  Travels,  p.  171. 


Sect.  I.] 


THE  DEAD  SEA. 


27 


on  the  lake  at  present ;  and  the  fish  are  caught,  partly  by  the 
fishermen  going  into  the  water,  up  to  their  waist,  ana  throw- 
ing in  a  hand  net,  and  partly  with  casting  nets  from  the 
beach  :  a  method  which  must  yield  a  very  small  quantity, 
compared  to  what  they  would  get  with  boats.i 

Pliny  states  this  lake  to  be  sixteen  miles  in  length  by  six 
miles  in  breadth.  Josephus,  whose  intimate  knowledge  of 
his  country  gives  his  descriptions  a  high  claim  to  attention, 
says  that  "  its  breadth  is  forty  furlongs,  and  its  length  one 
hundred  and  fortj\  Its  waters  are  sweet  and  very  agreeable 
for  drinking,  for  they  are  finer  than  the  thick  waters  of  other 
fens.  The  lake  is  also  pure,  and  on  every  side  ends  directly 
at  the  shores,  and  at  the  sand :  it  is  also  of  a  temperate  na- 
ture, when  drawn  up,  and  softer  than  river  or  fountain  water  : 
and  it  is  so  cold,  that  the  people  of  the  place  cannot  warm  it 
by  setting  it  in  the  sun,  in  the  hottest  season  of  the  year. 
I  here  are  several  kinds  of  fish  in  it,  different  both  to  the 
taste  and  sight  from  those  elsewhere.  It  is  divided  into  two 
parts  by  the  river  Jordan."^ 

The  fidelity  of  Josephus's  description  is  attested  by  two 
learned  and  acute  modern  travellers.  Mr.  Buckingham,  who 
beheld  it  in  1816,  observes  that  "  all  these  features  are  drawn 
with  an  accuracy  that  could  only  have  been  attained  by  one 
resident  in  the  country.  The  size  is  still  nearly  the  same, 
the  borders  of  the  lake  still  end  at  the  beach  or  the  sands, 
at  the  feet  of  the  mountains  which  environ  it.  Its  waters  are 
still  as  sweet  and  temperate  as  ever,  and  the  lake  abounds 
with  great  numbers  of  fish  of  various  sizes  and  kinds.  The 
appearance  of  the  lake  as  seen  from  Capernaum,"  Mr. 
Buckingham  states,  "  is  still  grand  ;  its  greatest  length  runs 
nearly  north  and  south  from  twelve  to  fifteen  miles ;  and  its 
breadth  seems  to  be,  in  general,  from  six  to  nine  miles.  The 
barren  aspect  of  the  mountains  on  each  side,  and  the  total 
absence  of  wood,  give,  however,  a  cast  of  dulness  to  the  pic- 
ture ;  and  this  is  increased  to  melancholy  by  the  dead  calm 
of  its  waters  and  the  silence  which  reigns  throughout  its 
whole  extent,  where  not  a  boat  or  vessel  of  any  kind  is  to  be 
found."3 

Dr.  Clarke,  by  whom  this  lake  was  visited  a  few  years 
before  Mr.  Buckingham's  arrival,  describes  it  as  longer  and 
finer  than  our  Cumberland  and  Westmorland  lakes,  although 
it  yields  in  majesty  to  the  stupendous  features  of  Loch  Lo- 
mond in  Scotland :  like  our  Windermere,  the  lake  of  (Jen- 
nesareth  is  often  greatly  agitated  by  winds.  (Mal^  viii.  23 — 
27.)  A  strong  current  marks  the  passage  of  the  Jordan 
through  the  middle  of  this  lake ;  and  when  this  is  opposed  by 
contrary  winds,  which  blow  here  with  the  force  oi  a  hum- 
cane  from  the  south-east,  sweeping  into  the  lake  from  the 
mountains,  a  boisterous  sea  is  instantly  raised  :  this  the  small 
vessels  of  the  country  are  ill  qualified  to  resist.  "  The 
wind,"  says  he,  "  rendered  its  surface  rough,  and  called  to 
mind  the  situation  of  our  Saviour's  disciples ;  \\  hen,  in  one 
of  the  small  vessels,  which  traversed  these  waters,  they  were 
tossed  in  a  storm,  and  saw  Jesus  in  the  fourth  watch  of  the 
night  walking  to  them  upon  the  waves."  (Matt.  xiv.  24 — 
2G.)  These  agitations,  however,  do  not  last  for  any  length 
of  time. — Its  broad  and  extended  surface,  covering  the  bot- 
tom of  a  profound  valley,  environed  by  lofty  and  precipitous 
eminences  (excepting  only  the  narrow  entrance  and  outlets 
at  the  Jordan  at  each  extremity),  added  to  the  impression  of 
a  certain  reverential  awe  under  which  every  Christian  pil- 
grim approaches  it,  give  it  a  character  of  dignity  unparal- 
leled by  any  similar  scenery.''  When  not  agitated  by  tem- 
pests, the  water  is  stated  to  be  as  clear  as  the  purest  crystal, 
sweet,  cool,  and  most  refreshing  to  the  taste. 

2.  The  Waters  of  Mero:u,  mentioned  in  Josh.  xi.  5.  7., 
are  generally  supposed  to  be  the  lake,  afterwards  called  Sa- 
mochonitis,  which  lies  between  the  head  of  the  river  Jordan 
and  the  Sea  of  Tiberias.  Its  modern  name  is  Houle.  Ac- 
cording to  Josephus,  it  is  thirty  furlongs  broad,  and  sixty 
furlongs  in  length  ;  and  its  marshes  extend  to  the  place  called 
Daphne,'  where  the  Jordan  issues  from  it.    Though  its 

«  Travels  in  Egypt,  &c.  by  Captains  Irby  and  Mangles,  p.  295.  Madden's 
Travels  inTurkey,  &c.  vol.  ii.  p.  3i2.  See  also  Game's  Letters  from  the  Ea.st, 
pp.  251—363.  Richter's  Pilgrimages  in  the  East  (Cabinet  of  Foreign 
Voyages,  vol.  i.  p.  157.) 

»  .Josephus  de  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  iii.  c.  10.  §  7.  Pritii  Introd.  in  Nov. 
Test.  p.  503. 

»  Buckingham's  Travels,  pp.  470,  471.  Mr.  Jowett's  estimate  nearly 
coincides  with  that  of  Mr.  Buckingham  (Christian  Researches  in  Syria, 
p.  175.),  as  also  does  that  of  Mr.  Rae  Wilson.  (Travels  in  the  Holy  Land, 
vol.  ii.  pp.  13,  14,3d  edition.) 

«  Dr.  Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  iv.  pp.  209,  210.  225.  Buckingham's  Travels, 
pp.  468.  471. 

'  De  Boll.  Jud.  lib.  iv.  c.  1.  §  1.  Reland  conjectures  that,  for  Daphne, 
in  this  passage  of  Josephus,  we  ought  to  read  Dan,  as  there  is  no  mention 


waters  are  no  longer  bitter,  this  lake  derives  no  small  interest 
from  the  illustrations  and  allusions  so  often  made  to  it  by  the 
prophets.^ 

3.  The  Lake  or  Sea  of  Sodom,  or  the  Dead  Sea,  has 
been  celebrated  not  only  by  the  sacred  writers,  but  also  by 
Josephus,  and  several  profane  authors.'  It  was  anciently 
called  in  the  Scriptures  the  Sea  of  the  Plain  (Deut.  iii.  17. 
iv.  49.),  being  situated  in  a  valley,  with  a  plain  lying  to  the 
south  of  it,  where  once  flourished  the  cities  of  Sodom  and 
Gomorrah,  with  the  other  cities  of  the  plain ; — the  Salt  Sea 
(Deut.  iii.  17.  Josh.  xv.  5.)  from  the  extremely  saline,  and 
bitter,  .taste  of  its  waters; — the  Salt  Sea  eastward  (Num. 
xxxiv.  3.) — and  the  East  Sea  (Ezek.  xlvii.  18.  Joel  ii,  20.), 
from  its  situation  relatively  to  Judaea,  By  Josephus  and 
other  writers  it  was  called  the  Lake  Asphaltiies,  from  the 
abundance  of  bitumen  found  in  it ;  and  by  Jerome,  the  Dead 
Sm,  that  is,  the  Bituminous  Lake,  from  ancient  traditions, 
erroneously  though  generally  received,  that  no  living  crea- 
ture can  exist  in  its  stagnant  and  hydro-sulphuretted  waters, 
which,  though  they  look  remarkably  clear  and  pure,  are  in 
the  highest  degree  salt,  bitter,  and  nauseous  in  tne  extreme, 
and  of  such  a  degree  of  specific  gravity  as  will  enable  a  man 
to  float  on  their  surface  without  motion.^  The  acrid  saltness 
of  its  waters  is  much  grq^ter  than  that  of  the  sea ;  and  the 
land,  which  surrounds  this  lake,  being  equally  impregnated 
with  that  saltness,  refuses  to  produce  any  plants  except  a 
few  stunted  thorns,  which  wear  the  brown  garb  of  the  desert. 
To  this  circumstance  Moses  alludes  in  Deut.  xxix.  23. — The 
ivhole  land  thereof  is  brimstone  and  salt."9  The  air  itself, 
which  is  by  evaporation  loaded  with  it,  and  which  is  im- 
pregnated with  the  sulphureous  and  bituminous  vapours,  is 
fatal  to  vegetation :  hence  arises  the  deadly  aspect  which 
reigns  around  the  lake.'"  Here  formerly  stood  the  cities  of 
Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  which,  with  three  other  cities  of  the 
plain,  were  consumed  by  fire  from  heaven ;  to  this  destruc- 
tion there  are  numerous  allusions  in  the  Scriptures,  as  dis- 
playing most  signally  the  certainty  and  sudtfenness  of  the 
divine  anger  which  sooner  or  later  overtakes  the  impenitently 
wicked.  Viewing  this  sea  (which  has  never  been  navigated 
since  those  cities  were  engulphed)  from  the  spot  where  the 
Jordan  disch;^rges  its  waters  into  it,  this  body  of  water  takes 

of  any  place  called  Daphne  in  this  vicinity,  and  Daphne  near  Antioch  waa 
far  distant  from  the  waters  of  Merom.     Palesliua,  torn.  i.  p.  263. 
•  Game's  Recollections  of  the  East,  p.  39. 

'  Josephus  de  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  iv.  c.  8.  §  4. ;  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  lib.  v.  c.  16. ; 
Tacitus,  Hist.  lib.  v.  c.  6. ;  Justin,  lib.  xxxvi.  c.  3. ;  Strabo,  lib.  xvi.  pp.  1037, 
10S3.  edit.  O.von. 

8  Irby's  and  Mangles'  Travels,  p.  330.  Quailerly  Journal  of  Science. 
Literature,  and  the  Arts,  vol.  viii.  p.  164.  An  analysis  of  the  water  of  tlie 
Dead  Sea  (a  phial  of  which  had  been  brought  to  England  by  Mr.  Gordon 
of  Clunie,  at  the  request  of  the  late  Sir  Joseph  Banks),  conducted  by  Dr. 
Marcet,  gave  the  following  results  : — This  water  is  perfectly  transparent, 
and  does  not  deposit  any  crystals  on  standing  in  close  vessels. — Its  tasta 
is  peculiarly  bitter,  saline,  and  pungent. — The  application  of  tests  or  re« 
agents  pi'oves  that  it  contains  the  muriatic  and  sulphuric  acids.  Tliere  i4 
no  alumina  in  it,  nor  does  it  appear  to  be  saturated  witli  marine  salt  oi 
muriate  of  soda. — ( )n  summing  up  the  contents  of  150  grains  of  the  water, 
they  were  found  to  hold  in  solution  the  following  substances,  and  in  tha 
under-mentioned  proportions : — 

Salts.  Acid. 

Muriate  of  lime 5,83  grains       3,89  grains.  ' 

Muriate  of  magnesia 15,37      "  8,61 

Muriate  of  soda 15,54      "  7,15 

Selenite 0,08      "  


36,87 


18,65 


And,  consequently,  the  proportions  of  these  salts  in  100  grains  of  thi 
water  would  be : — 

Grains. 

Muriate  of  lime 3,920 

Muriate  of  magnesia 10,246 

Muriate  of  soda 10,360 

Sulphate  of  lime 0,054 

24,580 


Philosophical  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  for  1807, 
part  ii.  pp.  298—312.  Another  analysis,  made  by  tlie  eminent  FrencS 
chemist,  M.  Gav-Lussac  in  1819,  ga\e  nearly  similar  results.  (See  Quarterly 
Journal  of  Science,  <fec.  vol.  viii.  p.  165.)  "Hence  it  appears  that  the  Deed 
Sea  water  mow  contains  about  one-fourth  of  its  weight  of  ealt  supposed  in 
a  stale  of  perfect  desiccation ;  or,  if  they  be  desiccated  at  the  temperature 
of  ISO  degrees  on  Fahrenheit's  scale,  they  will  amount  to  forty-one  per 
cent,  of  the  water.  If  any  person  wish  for  a  stronger  confirmation  of  the 
Scripture  account  of  the  origin  of  the  Dead  Sea  than  this  furnishes,  we 
can  only  pity  the  miserable  state  of  incredulity  to  which  he  is  reduced, 
and  commit  him  to  the  influencesof  that  Power  which  can  cause  the  'wil- 
derness to  blossom  as  the  rose,'  and  from  'stones  raise  up  children  unto 
Abraham.'  "    Eclectic  Review  for  1809,  vol.  v.  part  i.  p.  134. 

9  In  the  vicinity  of  this  sea  Captains  Irby  and  Mangles  collected  lumps 
of  nitre  and  fine  sulphur,  from  the  size  of  a  nutmeg  to  that  of  a  small  hen's 
egg,  which  had  been  brought  down  from  the  surrounding  cliffs  by  the  rain. 
Travels  in  Egypt,  &c.  p.  453.  -      j-      »■. 

»''  Volney's  Travels  in  Egypt  and  Syria,  voL  i.  p.  2S8.  8vo.  3d  edit.;  TtUf- 
ner's  Tour'in  the  Levant,  voL  ii.  p.  227. 


28 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


[Paut  I.  CuAP.  ir. 


a  south-easterly  direction  visible  for  ten  or  fifteen  miles, 
when  it  disappears  in  a  curve  towards  the  east.  Its  sur- 
face is  CT-enerall)'  unruffled,  from  the  hollow  of  the  basin  in 
which  it  lies,  scarcely  admitting  the  free  passage  neces- 
sary for  a  strong  breeze  ;  it  is,  however,  for  the  same  reason, 
subject  to  whirlwinds  or  squalls  of  short  duration.'  The  ex- 
panse of  water  at  this  point  has  been  supposed  not  to  exceed 
five  or  six  miles ;  though  the  mountains,  which  skirt  each 
side  of  the  valley  of  the  Dead  Sea,  are  apparently  separated 
by  a  distance  of  eight  miles. ^  These  mountains  present  to 
the  eye  of  the  spectator  granite,  and  those  other  rocks,  which 
(according  to  the  Wernerian  system  of  geology)  characterize 
the  oldest  or  primitive  formation.  It  is  probable  that  this 
region,  at  a  remote  period,  was  the  theatre  of  immense  vol- 
canoes, the  effects  of  which  nay  still  be  traced  along  the 
banks  of  the  Lower  Jordan,  and  more  especially  on  the  lake 
itself,  on  the  shores  of  which  bitumen,  lava,  and  pumice 
stones  contmue  to  be  thrown  by  the  waves.^  As  the  Dead 
Sea  advances  towards  the  south,  it  evidently  increases  in 
breadth.^  Pliny  states  the  total  length  to  be  one  hundred 
miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  twenty-five.  But  Dr.  Shaw 
and  other  modem  travellers,  who  appear  to  have  ascertained 
its  dimensions  with  accuracy,  have  estimated  its  length  to  be 
about  seventy-two  English  miles^and  its  greatest  breadth  to 
;ic  iiLtrly  nineteen.^  A  profound  silence,  awful  as  death, 
hangs  over  the  lake  :  not  u  ripple  is  to  be  seen  on  its  surface  ; 
and  "  its  desolate  though  majestic  features  are  well  suited  to 
the  tales  related  concerning  it  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  coun- 
try, who  all  speak  of  it  with  terror."^ 

4.  The  Great  Sea,  mentioned  in  Num.  xxxiv.  6.  and 
elsewliere  in  the  Sacred  Volume,  is  the  Mediterranean  Sea, 
so  called  by  way  of  eminence :  in  Exod.  xxii.  31.  it  is  called 
the  Sea  of  the  Philistines,  because  their  country  bordered  on 
its  shores. 

5.  The  Red  Sea,  so  often  noticed,  is  now  known  by  the 
appellation  of  the  Arabian  Gulph.^ 

Besides  the  preceding  rivers  and  lakes,  the  Scriptures 
mention  several  Fountains  and  Wells.  In  a  country  where 
these  are  of  rare  occurrence,  it  is  no  wonder  that  they  should 
anciently  have  given  rise  to  strife  and  contention.''  (Gen. 
xxi.  25.  xxvi.  20.)  The  most  remarkable  of  these  fountains 
and  wr!ls  are  the  Fountain  or  Pool  of  Siloam,  and  Jacobus  Well. 

1.  Siloam  was  a  fountain  under  the  walls  of  Jerusalem, 
east,  between  the  city  and  the  brook  Kedron :  it  is  supposed 
to  be  the  same  as  the  fountain  En-Rogel,  or  the  I'uUer's 
Fountain  (Josh.  xv.  7.  and  xviii.  IG.  2  Sam.  xvii.  17.  and 
1  Kings  i.  9.),  and  also  the  Gflion.  (1  Kings  i.  33.)  The 
spring  issues  from  a  rock,  and  runs  in  a  silent  stream,  ac- 
cording to  the  testimony  of  Isaiah,  (viii.  6.)     The  modern 

>  Buckingham's  Travels  in  Talestine,  p.  293. 

»  "  Tl>e  inou[itain.s  on  the  Juclaean  side  are  lower  than  those  of  the  Ara- 
bian, and  also  of  a  lighter  colour ;  the  latter  chain,  at  its  southern  exire- 
mitv,  is  said  to  consist  of  dark  granite,  and  of  various  colours.  The  hills, 
which  branch  off  from  the  western  end,  are  composed  entirely  of  white 
chalk  :  bitumen  abounds  most  on  the  opposite  shore.  There  is  no  outlet 
to  this  lake,  though  the  Jordan  llow.s  into  it,  a.^  did  formerly  the  Kedron, 
and  the  Arnon  to  the  south.  It  is  not  known  that  thcrr;  liris  been  any 
visible  increase  or  decrease  of  its  waters.  Some  have  supposed  that  it 
finds  a  subterraneous  passage  to  the  Mediterranean,  or  that  there  is  a  con- 
Bidorable  suction  in  the  plain  which  forms  its  western  boundary."  (Game's 
Letters,  pp.  317,  3is.)  Hut  the  uniform  level  of  its  waters  is  sufficiently 
accounted  for  by  the  (juantily  which  is  cvajiorated.  (See  l)r.  Shaw's 
Travels,  vol.  ii.  pp.  137,  15S.) 

•  Volney's  Travel  in  Syria,  vol.  i.  pp.  281,  292.  Travels  of  Ali  Bey  (M. 
Badhia),  vol.  ii.  p.  303.  Buckingham's  Travels,  pp.  413.  448.  Russell's 
PaU'slInc,  p.  112. 

«  Jo|litT.;'s  Letters  from  Palestine,  p.  US. 

»  .Shaw's  Travels,  vol.  i.  p.  157.  Mr.  Carno,  however,  who  visited  the 
Dead  Sea  in  1825,  estimates  its  length  to  be  about  sixty  miles,  and  its  gene- 
ral  breadth  eight.  On  his  arrival  at  its  shore,  where  tht  waters  lav  like 
lead,  there  wa.s  not  -i  brrath  of  wind.  "Whoever,"  says  this  intelligent 
traveller,  "  has  seen  the  Dead  Sea,  will  ever  after  have  ilsaspert  impressed 
Ulion  his  meinnry  ;  it  i.s,  in  truth,  auloomy  and  fearful  spectacle.  The  pre- 
cipices, in  eeneral,  de.scend  abruptly  into  the  lake,  and  on  account  of  tlicir 
lieipht  it  is  seldom  nfiitateil  bv  the  winds.  Its  shores  are  not  visited  by  anv 
foolste|i,  save  that  of  the  wifd  Arab,  and  he  holils  it  in  superstitious  dread. 
No  unploa.iant  eflluvia  ijrc  perceptible  round  it,  and  birds  are  seen  occa- 
sionally llyui>!  across. .  ...\  lew  iiichi's  beneath  the  surface  of  the  miid  are 
found  those  black  sulphureous  stones,  out  of  which  crosses  are  made, 
and  sold  to  the  pil:;rims.  The  water  lia.s  an  abominable  taste,  in  which 
that  of  salt  predominates;  and  wc  observed  incrustations  ol  salt  on  the 
surface  of  tninie  of  the  rocks."     Letters  from  the  KasI,  pp.  310,317. 

•  For  an  account  and  refutation  of  the  ancient  InuliliouH  concerning  the 
Dead  Sea,  sre  Dr.  <;i.irkc's  Travels,  vol.  iv.  pp  IK) — 1U»J.  8vo.  A  compre- 
hensive dige.-it  of  nearly  all  that  has  been  written  concerning  this  sea  will 
be  foiuid  in  tilt;  Modem  Traveller,  Palestine,  pp.  2(H— 2-Jl. 

'<  See  tho  article  Rkd  ^ba,  In  the  Historical  and  Geographical  Index, 
Infra 

"  WhcnCapt.  Light  descfiidedin  1811,  into  the  beaiUiful  plain  of  Sephorn, 
or  Sejdioury,  at  a  ahort  dLslaiice  from  Nazareth,  he  saw  In  the  centre  a 
baml  of  herdsmen,  «rtnf(Zwith  naukets,  walerins  their  cattle  in  a  larce 
stone  rcser^'oi^.  VV'iUi  them  he  was  oblii;od  to  have  an  altercation  before 
they  would  neroiit  him  tf)  water  hi.s  horse,  without  paying  for  the  privilege. 
Travels,  p.  196.    Thrco  Weeks  in  Palestine,  p.  6at 


descent  to  this  fountain  is  by  fifteen  or  sixteen  steps.  Being 
defended  from  the  sun,  it  is  deliciously  cool,  ancf  clear  as 
crystal :  it  has  a  kind  of  ebb  and  flood,  sometimes  discharg- 
ing its  current  like  the  fountain  of  Vaucluse ;  at  others,  re- 
taining and  scarcely  suflering  it  to  run  at  all.  The  pool  or 
rather  the  two  pools  of  the  same  name  are  quite  close  to  the 
spring.  They  are  still  used  for  washing  liifen  as  formerly.s 
Anciently,  its  waters  were  conducted  into  the  two  large  reser- 
voirs or  pools,  already  noticed  in  page  21.  Modern  travel- 
lers relate  that  people  still  bathe  their  eyes  vvith  the  waters 
of  this  fountain,  in  memory  of  the  miracle  performed  on  the 
man  who  had  been  bom  blind..  At  this  fountain,  the  ancient 
Jews  were  Avont  to  draw  water  with  great  solemnity  on  the 
last  day  of  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  :  an  account  of  this  cere- 
mony will  be  found  in  Part  III.  chap.  iv.  §  vii.  of  this 
volume. 

2.  Jacob's  Well  or  fountain  is  situated  at  a  small  distance 
from  Sichem  or  Scchem,  also  called  Sychar,  and  at  present 
Napolose ;  it  was  the  residence  of  Jacob  before  his  sons  slervv 
the  Shechemites.  It  has  been  visited  hj  pilgrims  of  all  ages, 
but  especially  by  Christians,  to  whom  it  has  become  an  ob- 
ject of  veneration  from  the  memorable  discourse  of  our  Sa- 
viour with  the  woman  of  Samaria.'"     (John  iv.  5 — 30.) 

In  consequence  of  the  scarcity  of  water  in  the  East,  travel- 
lers are  careful  to  stop  as  often  as  possible  near  some  river, 
fountain,  or  well :  this  will  probably  account  for  Jacob's  halt- 
ing with  his  family  at  the  ford  Jabbok  (Gen.  xxxii.  22.) ;  for 
the  Israelites  assembling  their  forces  near  the  fountains  of 
Jezreel  (1  Sam.  xxix.  1.),  as  the  celebrated  Moslem  warrior 
Saladin  afterwards  did;"  and  for  David's  men  that  were  un- 
able to  march  with  him,  waiting  for  him  by  the  brook  Besor. 
( 1  Sam.  XXX.  21 .)  It  is  not  improbable  that  the  ancient  wells, 
mentioned  in  Gen.  xvi.  14.  xxiv.  20.  and  Exod.  ii.  15.,  were 
furnished  with  some  conveniences  for  drawing  water  to  re- 
fresh the  fainting  traveller,  and  with  troughs  or  other  contri- 
vances for  supplying  cattle  with  water,  similar  to  those  which 
are  to  this  day  found  in  Persia,  Arabia,  and  other  countries  in 
the  East. '2  In  Eccl.  xii.  6.  Solomon  alludes  to  a  wheel  as 
being  employed  for  the  purpose  of  raising  water,"'  Great  pre- 
cautions were  taken,  anciently  as  well  as  in  modern  times,  to 
prevent  the  moving  sands  from  choking  up  their  wells,  by 
placing  a  stone  over  the  month  (Gen.  xxix.  2 — 8.)  after  the 
r(?<|uisite  supply  had  been  drawn  up;  or  by  lockitis;  them  up, 
which  Sir  .lonn  Chardin  thinks  was  done  at  Laban's  well, 
of  which  Rachel,  perhaps,  kept  the  key.  (Gen.  xxix.  G.  9.) 
The  stopping  up  of  wells  is  to  this  day  an  act  of  hostility  in 
the  East,  a&  it  was  in  the  days  of  Abraham  and  Isaac  (Gen. 
xxvi.  15 — 18.),  and  of  Hezekiah  (2  Chron.  xxxii.  3,  }.),  and 
also  long  after  among  several  ancient  nations.  Thus,  the 
Scythians,  in  their  retreat  before  the  Persians,  under  Darius, 
filled  up  the  wells  and  fountains  which  lay  in  their  way  :'^ 
and  Arsaces  ordered  the  wells  to  l)e  broken  and  filled  up, 
upon  the  advance  of  Antiochus  from  Ecbatana;  while  the 
latter,  who  was  fully  aware  of  their  consequence  to  himsell 
and  his  army,  sent  a  detachment  of  a  thousand  horse,  to  drive 
away  the  Persian  cavalry  who  were  employed  upon  this  ser- 

•  Chateaubriand's  Travels,  vol.  ii-pp.34.  36.  Mr.  Buckinsham,  who  visited 
the  fountain  of  Siloam  in  1816,  describes  it  as  a  dirty,  little  brook  ;  which 
even  in  the  rainy  sea.son  is  said  to  be  an  iublKnitirant  muddy  stream. 
Travels  in  Palestine,  p.  1P8.    Sec  also  Richardson's  Travels,  vol.  ii.  p.  3&7. 

'<>  Dr.  Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  iv.  ,.p.  278 — 2s(i.  i^ome  learned  men  have 
conjectured  that  Jacob's  well  was  only  a  cistern  or  reservoir  lor  rain 
water;  hut  the  whole  of  tho  surrounding  Fcenery  confirms  tho  evange- 
list's narrative,  and  the  anli(|uity  of  the  well.  .*uch  cisterns.  Indeed,  are 
common  in  the  oriental  deserts  to  this  day  :  and  it  is  I'erhaps  to  conve- 
niences of  this  kmd,  made  or  renewed  by  the  devout  Israelites,  in  tho 
valley  of  Baca,  to  facilitate  their  going  up  to  Jerusalem,  that  the  Psalmist 
refers  (Ixxxiv.  6,7.)  where  he  speaks  of  (joing  from  strenRth  to  strencth 
till  they  appeared  in  'Awn.  Ilaruier's  Obsrrviitions,  vol.  ii.  p.  I'^l.  To 
prevent  accidents  by  the  owners  of  such  rislorns  leaving  them  uncovered, 
flioses  enacted  various  regulations.     See  Kxnd.  xxi.  33,  34. 

«i  Ilarmer's  Observations,  vol.  iii.  p.  101.  The  Christian  kings  of  Jerusa- 
lem, in  the  close  of  the  twelfth  century,  also  assembled  their  forces  at  a 
fountain  between  Nazareth  luul  Seplmris.     Ibid. 

'•»  In  the  villiincsotKlhii'pia,  Messrs  Waddmijlon  nnilllnnbury  frequently 
met  with  huts  by  the  roiid  side,  cnnlainlng  large  jars  of  water  for  travellers. 
wiiiMi  there  is  no  hut,  the  jar  is  generally  placed  under  a  pine  tree. 
J.Hirnal  of  a  Visit  to  Klhiopi.i.  p.  3.'>. 

•  »  In  Smyrna  and  niaiiy  other  places  in  the  East,  a  largo  wheel  is  fixed 
over  tin'  mouth  of  a  well  in  a  vertical  [losilion  :  to  this  wheel  a  iiiunher  of 
pitchers  is  atlncluil  in  such  a  inannrr,  that  by  means  of  its  re\olulion, 
which  Is  clTocted  by  a  horse,  they  are  continually  desccndmg  and  filling, 
and  ascending  imd  disrhnrging  themselves..  (Hartley's  ReseHrches  In 
Greece,  pp  '.235,  230.)  In  the  Russian  (Jovcrnment  of  Ivor,  Dr.  IlrnilerHon 
was  Btriick  with  the  number  of  wells  which  he  saw,  over  each  of  which  is 
built  a  lorg'-  wondi  n  apparatu.;,  consisting  chielly  of  a  windlass,  with  a  wheel 
about  six  feet  in  diaineier,  which  is  turned  round  by  the  hand,  and  thus 
the  water  Is  drawn  up  in  a  bucket.  lie  is  of  opinion  tluit  it  is  obviously  to 
a  machine  of  this  kiml  that  Solomon  refers  in  his  highly  figurative  picture 
of  old  age.     Uibhral  Researches,  p.  32. 

M  Herodotus,  Ub.  iv.  c.  121).  torn.  I.  p.  292.    Oxon.  1S09. 


Bkct.  I.] 


MOUTS'TAINS  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


29 


vice.i  Wells  and  fountains  were  also  lurking-  places  of  rob- 
bers and  assassins,  and  enemies  were  accusiomed  to  lie  in 
ambush  at  them  as  they  are  now.  To  this  Deborah  alludes 
in  her  song.  (Judg.  v.'ll.)  The  Crusaders  suffered  much 
from  the  Saracens,  who  lay  in  ambush  for  them  in  like  man- 
ner; and  Dr.  Shaw  mentions  a  beautiful  v/ell  in  Barbary,  the 
water  of  which  is  received  into  a  large  basin  for  the  accom- 
modation of  travellers  ;  and  which  is  called  Shrub  ive  krub, 
that  is,  Brink  and  away,  from  the  danger  which  they  incur 
of  meeting  with  assassins  there.^ 

In  our  own  time  it  is  the  custom  for  the  oriental  women, 
particularly  those  who  are  unmarried,  to  fetch  water  from  the 
wells,  in  the  mornings  and  evenings ;  at  which  times  they 
go  forth  adorned  with  their  trinkets.  This  will  account  for 
Rebecca's  fetching  water  (^Gen.  xxiv.  15.),  and  will  further 
prove  that  there  was  no  impropriety  in  Abraham's  servant 
presenting  her  with  more  valuable  jewels  than  those  she  had 
oefore  on  lier  hands.  (Gen.  xxiv.  22 — 47.)^ 

3.  As  the  cities  were  mostly  erected  on  eminences,  and  (as 
we  have  already  seen)  the  rams  fall  only  in  the  spring  and 
autumn,  the  inhabitants  of  Palestine  constructed  Cisterns, 
or  reservoirs  for  water,  both  in  cities  and  in  private  houses. 
Allusions  to  the  latter  occur  in  2  Kings  xvii.  31.  Prov.  v.  15. 
and  Isa.  xxxvi.  16.     Uzziah  king  of  Judah  cut  out  many  cis- 
terns (2  Chron.  xxvi.  10.)  for  the  supply  of  his  cattle.     Cis- 
terns of  very  large  dimensions  exist,  at  this  day,  in  Palestine. 
In  the  vicinity  of  Bethlehem,  in  particular,  there  are  three 
capacious  pools,  known  by  the  name  of  Solojion's  Pools. 
They  are  in  the  shape  of  a  long  gquare,  covered  with  a  thick 
coat  of  plaster  in  the  inside,  and  supported  by  abutments : 
the  worlvmanship  throughout,  like  every  thing  Jewish,  is 
more  remarkable  for  strength  than  beauty.     They  are  situated 
at  the  south  end  of  a  small  valley ;  and,  from  the  slope  of  the 
ground,  the  one  falls  considerably  below  the  level  of  the 
other.     That  on  the  west  is  nearest  the  source  of  the  spring, 
and  is  the  smallest,  being  about  four  hundred  and  eighty  feet 
long ;  the  second  is  about  six  hundred  feet,  and  the  third, 
about  six  hundred  and  sixty  feet  long.     The  breadth  of  them 
all  is  nearly  the  same,  about  two  hundred  and  seventy  feet. 
The  fountains  communicate  freely  with  each  other,  and  are 
capable  of  holding  a  great  quantity  of  water ;  which  they 
discharge  into  a  small  aqueduct,  that  conveys  it  to  Jerusalem. 
Both  fountains  and  aqueduct  are  said  to  have  been  made  by 
Solomon  the  son  and  successor  of  David,  and  the  antiquity 
of  their  appearance  bears  testimony  to  the  truth  of  the  state- 
ment.^ 

IV.  Palestine  is  a  mountainous  country,  especially  that 
part  of  it  which  is  situated  between  the  Mediterranean  or 
Great  Sea  and  the  river  Jordan.  The  principal  Mountains 
are  those  of  Lebanon,  Carmel,  Tabor,  the  mountains  of  Israel, 
and  of  Gilead :  those  which  are  either  within  the  limits,  or 
in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Jerusalem,  have  been  noticed  in 
p.  19.  supra. 

1.  Lebanon,  by  the  Greeks  and  Latins  termed  Libanus,  is 
a  long  chain  of  limestone  mountains,  on  the  summits  of  which 
fossilized  antediluvian  fishes  were  formerly  discovered  ;5  ex- 
tending from  the  neighbourhood  of  Sidon  on  the  west  to  the 

>  Polybius,  lib.  x.  c.29.  torn.  iii.  p.  253.  edit.  Schweifrhaeaser. 

'  Harmer's  Observations,  vol.  iii.  p.  409.  Bhaw's  Travels,  vol.  i.  p.  63. 
8vo.  Burckhardl's  Travels  in  Syria,  &c.  p.  627.  Captains  Irby  and  Mangles 
stopped  at  sortie  wells  of  fresh  water,  where  they  found  a  great  assem- 
blage of  camels  and  many  Arabs,  who  appeared  to  stop  all  passengers. 
They  entered  into  a  violent  dispute  with  the  conductors  of  those  gentle- 
man :  and  presently  levied  a  contribution  on  the  Arabs  who  accompanied 
tliem.  A  similar  fate  would  certainly  have  awaited  them,  b^d  it  not  been 
for  the  appearance  of  their  arms ;  as  the  chief  followed  them  all  the  way 
toElArish,  surveying  their  baggage  "with  the  most  thieving  inquisitive- 
ness."    Travels  in  Egypt,  <fcc.  pp.  173,  174. 

»  Harmer's  Observations,  vol.  i.  pp.  198,  199.  vol.  ii.  pp.  125.  181. 193.  vol.  iii. 
p.  401,  "  In  the  valley  of  Nazareth,"  says  Dr.  Clarke,"  appeared  one  of  those 
fountains,  which,  from  time  immemorial,  have  been  the  haltingplace  of  cara- 
vans, and  sometimes  the  scene  of  contention  and  bloodshed.  The  women  of 
Nazareth  were  passing  to  and  from  the  town,with  pitchers  upon  their  heads. 
We  stopped  to  view  the  group  of  camels  with  their  drivers,  who  were 
there  reposing;  and  calling  to  mind  the  manners  of  the  most  remote  ages, 
we  renewed  the  solicitations  of  Abraham's  servant  unto  Rebecca,  by  the 
Well  of  Nahor.  Gen.  xxiv.  17."  (Travels,  vol.  iv.  p.  165.)  A  similar 
custom  was  observed  by  the  same  traveller  in  the  Isle  of  Syros.  (vol.  vi. 
pp.  152,  1.53.)  And  by  Mr.  Emerson.  (Letters  from  the  ..Egean,  vol.  ii.  p.  45.) 
At  Cana  Mr.  Rae  Wilson,  (Travels  in  the  Holy  Land,  vol.  ii.  pp.  3, 4.),  and  also 
Mr.  Came,  observed  several  of  the  women  bearing  stone  watering-pots  on 
their  heads  as  they  returned  from  the  well.  (Letters  from  the  East,  p.  253.) 
In  Bengal  it  is  the  universal  practice  for  the  women  to  go  to  pools  and 
nvers  to  fetch  water.  Companies  of  four,  six,  ten,  or  more,  may  be  seen  in 
every  town,  daily,  going  to  fetch  water,  with  the  pitchers  resting  on  their 
Kdea.  (Ward's  View  of  the  History,  &c.  of  the  Hindoos,  vol.  ii.  p.  316.) 
IK  '"V®'*"''  ofCioza,  which  is  eighteen  miles  from  Malta,  Mr.  Jowett  says, 
that  the  women,  as  they  go  to  the  wells  for  wafer,  carry  their  empty 
Ijitchers  horizontally  on  their  heads,  with  the  mouth  looking  backward.^. 
(Missionary  Kegister  foj  1818,  p.  297.)    May  not  this  illustrate  Jer.  xiv.  3.1 

*  Dr.  Richardson's  Travels,  vol.  ii.  pp.  379,  380. 

••  ^eo  tl>*  authorili,es  in  Relaiid's  I'alffistina,  torn.  i.  p.  321. 


vicinity  of  Damascus  eastward,  and  fcrming  the  extreme 
northern  boundary  of  the  Holy  Land.  Anciently,  it  abounded 
with  odoriferous  trees  of  various  descriptions,  from  which  the 
most  curious  gums  and  balsams  were  extracted.'' 

It  is  divided  into  two  principal  ridges  or  ranges  parallel  to 
each  other,  the  most  westerly  of  which  is  known  by  the 
name  of  Libanus,  and  the  opposite  or  eastern  ridge  by  the 
appellation  of  Anti-Libanus :  but  the  Hebrews  do'not  make 
this  distinction  of  names,  denominating  both  summits  by  the 
common  name  of  Lebanon.     These  mountains  may  be  seen 
from  a  very  considerable  distance,  and  some  part  or  other  of 
them  is  covered  with  snow  throughout  the  year.     On  the 
loftiest  summit  of  all.  Dr.  Clarke  observed  the  snow  lying, 
not  in  patches,  as  he  had  seen  it  during  the  summer  upon  the 
tops  of  very  elevated  mountains,  but  investing  all  the  higher 
part  with  tnat  perfect  white  and  smooth  velvet-like  appear- 
ance which  snow  only  exhibits  when  it  is  very  deep — a  strik- 
ing spectacle  in  such  a  climate,  where  the  beholder,  seeking 
protection  from  a  burning  sun,  almost  considers  the  firma- 
ment to  be  on  fire.^     These  mountains  are  by  no  means  bar- 
ren, but  are  almost  all  well  cultivated,  ana  well  peopled : 
their  summits  are,  in  many  parts,  level,  and  form  extensive 
plains,  in  which  are  sown  corn,  and  all  kinds  of  pulse.    They 
are  watered  by  numerous  cold  flowing  springs,  rivulets,  and 
streams  of  excellent  water,  which  diffuse  on  all  sides  a  fresh- 
ness and  fertility  even  in  the  most  elevated  regions.     To 
these  Solomon  has  a  beautiful  allusion.  (Song  iv.  15.)    Vine- 
yards, and  plantations  of  mulberry,  olive,  and  fig  trees  are 
also  cultivated  on  terraces  formed  by  walls,  which  support 
the  earth  from  being  washed  away  by  the  rains  from  the 
sides  of  the  acclivities.s     The  soil  of  the  declivities  and  of 
the  hollows  that  occur  between  them  is  most  excellent,  and 
produces  abundance  of  com,  oil,  and  wine ;  which  is  as  much 
celebrated  in  the  East  in  the  present  day  as  it  was  in  the  time 
of  the  prophet  Hosea,  who  particularly  alludes  to  it.  (Hos. 
xiv.  7.)     Lebanon  was  anciently  celebrated  for  its  stately 
cedars,  which  are  now  less  numerous  than  in  former  times ;» 
they  grow  among  the  snow  near  the  highest  part  of  the  moun- 
tain, and  are  remarkable,  as  well  for  their  age  and  size,  as 
for  the  frequent  allusions  made  to  them  in  the  Scriptures. 
(See  1  Kings  iv.  33.    Psal.  Ixxx.  10.  and  xcii.  12,  &c.  &c.) 
These  trees  form  a  little  grove  by  themselves,  as  if  planted 
by  art,  and  are  seated  in  a  hollov/  amid  rocky  eminences  all 
around  them,  and  form  a  small  wood,  at  the  foot  of  the  ridge, 
which  forms  the  highest  peak  of  Lebanon.     The  number  of 
the  largest  trees  has  varied  at  different  times.     To  omit  the 
varying  numbers  stated  by  the  earlier  travellers  : — the  Rev. 
Henry  Maundrell,  who  travelled  in  this  region  in   1696, 
reckoned  sixteen  of  the  largest  size,  one  of  which  he  mea- 
sured, and  found  it  to  be  twelve  yards  and  six  inches  in  girth, 
and  yet  sound ;  and  thirty-seven  yards  in  the  spread  of  the 
boughs.     The  celebrated  oriental  traveller,  Mr.  Burckhardt, 
who  traversed  Mount  Libanus  in  1810,  counted  eleven  or 
twelve  of  the  oldest  and  best  looking  trees,  twenty-five  very 
large  ones,  about  fifty  of  middling  size,  and  more  than  three 
hundred  smaller  and  young  ones.     Mr.  Buckingham,  in 
1816,  computed  them  to  be  about  two  hundred  in  number, 
twenty  of  which  were  very  large.'"     In  1817-18  Captains 
Irby  and  Mangles  stated  that  there  might  be  about  fifty  of 
them,  not  one  of  which  had  much  merit  either  for  dimensions 
or  beauty;  the  largest  among  them  appearing  to  be  the  junc- 
tion of  four  or  five  trunks  into  one  tree."     Dr.  Richardson,  in 
1818,  stated  the  oldest  trees  to  be  no  more  than  seven.'^    The 
oldest  trees  were  distinguished  by  having  the  foliage  and 
small  branches  at  the  top  only,  and  by  four,  five,  or  even 
seven  trunks  springing  from  one  base;  the  branches  and 
trunks  of  the  others  were  lower:  the  trunks  of  the  old  trees 
were  covered  with  the  names  of  travellers  and  other  persons 
who  have  visited  them,  some  of  Which  are  dated  as  tar  back 
as  1640.     The  trunks  of  the  oldest  trees  (the  wood  of  which 
is  of  a  gray  tint)  seemed  to  be  quite  dead.'^    These  cedars 
were  the  resort  of  eagles  (Ezek.  xvii.  3.) ;  as  the  lofty  smn- 

«  The  heights  of  oDOROvs  Lebanon  are  eulogized  by  Musaeus  : — AijSsn(tw 
juojvTc;  ev<  jrTtpuysa-Ti.     Good's  Sacred  Idyls,  p.  122. 

1  Dr.  Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  iv.  p.  201,  202. 

8  Light's  Travels,  p.  219. 

'  Mr.  Kinneir,  who  visited  this  country  at  the  close  of  the  year  1813,  says, 
that  the  once  celebrated  cedars  are  now  only  to  be  found  in  one  particular 
spot  of  the  great  mountainous  range  which  bears  the  name  of  Libanus,  and 
that  in  so  scanty  a  number  as  not  to  exceed  four  or  five  hundred.  Journey 
through  Asia  Minor,  &c.  p.  172.  Svo.  1818. 

10  Buckingham's  Travels  among  the  Arab  Tribes,  pp.  475, 476. 

'»  Irby's  and  Mangles'  Travels,  pp.  209,  210. 

»»  Maundrell's  Journey,  p.  191.  La  Roque,  'Voyage  de  Syrle  et  du  Mont 
Liban,  p.  88.    See  also  Dr.  Richardson's  Travels,  vol.  ii.  pp.  512,  513. 

'»  Burckhardt's  Travels  in  Syria  and  the  Holy  Land,  pp.  20,  21.  London, 
1522. 4to. 


30 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


[Paht  L  Chap.  II 


mils  of  the  mountains  were  the  haunts  of  lions  and  other 
beasts  of  prey  (Sol.  Song  iv.  8.),  which  used  to  doacend  and 
surprise  the  unwary  traveller.  13ut  instead  of  tliose,  the  tra- 
veller may  now  frcfjucntly  see  tb.e  hart  or  the  deer  issue  from 
his  covert  to  slake  his  thirst  in  the  streams  that  issue  from 
the  mountains.  To  this  circumstance  David  beautit'ully  al- 
ludes in  Psal.  xlii.  1.,  which  was  composed  when  he  was 
driven  from  Jerusalem  by  the  rebellion  of  Absalom,  and  was 
wandering  among  these  mountains.  Finally,  Mr.  Carne,  in 
1825,  states  that  the  forests,  the  cedar  trees,  the  glory  of 
Lebanon,  have  in  a  great  measure  disappeared,  to  make  way 
for  innumerable  plantations  of  vines.' 

Anti-Libanus  or  Anti-Lebanon  is  the  more  lofty  ridge  of 
the  two,  and  its  summit  is  clad  with  almost  perpetual  snow, 
which  was  carried  to  the  neighbouring  towns  for  the  purpose 
of  coolinrr  liquors  (Prov.  xxv.  13.  and  perhaps  .Ter.  xviii.  11.); 
a  practice*  which  has  obtained  in  the  east  to  the  present  day. 
Its  rock  is  primitive  calcareous,  of  a  fine  grain,  with  a  sandiy 
slate  upon  the  higher  parts :  it  affords  gnod  pasturage  in 
many  spots  where  the  Turkmans  feed  theii  cattle,  but  the 
western  declivity  towards  the  district  of  Baalbec  is  quite 
barren.^  The  most  elevated  summit  of  this  ridge  was  by  the 
Hebrews  called  Hermon  ;  by  the  vSidonians,  Sirion  ;  and  by 
the  Amorites,  Shenir  (Deut.  iii.  9.) :  it  formed  the  northern 
boundary  of  tlie  country  beyond  Jordan.  Very  copious  dews 
fall  here,'  as  they  also  did  in  the  days  of  the  Psalmist.  (See 
Psal.  cxxxiii.  3.)  Li  Deut.  iv.  48.  this  mountain  is  called 
Sion,  which  has  been  supposed  to  be  either  a  contraction,  or 
a  faulty  reading  for  Sirion :  but  Bishop  Pococke  thinks  it 
probable  that  Hermon  was  the  name  of  the  highest  summit 
of  this  mountain,  and  that  a  lower  part  of  it  had  the  narne  cf 
Sion.  This  obviates  the  geographical  difficulty  which  some 
interpreters  have  imagined  to  exist  in  Psal.  cxxxiii.  3.,  where 
Mount  Sion  is  mentioned  in  connection  with  Hermon,  and 
is  generally  understood  to  be  Mount  vSion  in  Jerusalem, 
which  was  more  than  thirty  miles  distant.  According  to  the 
bishop's  supposition,  the  dew  falling  from  the  top  of  Hermon 
down  to  the  lower  parts,  migiit  well  be  compared  in  every 
respect  to  the  precious  ointment  upon  the  head  thai  ran  dmvn 
unto  tlie  beard,  even  Aaron^s  beard,  and  went  d/jwn  to  the  sl'irts 
nf  liis  garments  (Psal.  cxxxiii.  2.),  and  that  both  of  them, 
in  this  sense,  are  very  proper  emblems  of  the  blessings  of 
unity  and  friendship,  whicn  diffuse  themselves  throughout 
tlie  whole  society.' 

Both  Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon  are  computed  to  be  about 
fifteen  or  sixteen  hundred  fathoms  in  height,  and  offer  a 
grand  and  magnificent  prospect  to  the  beholocr;  from  which 
many  elegant  metaphors  are  derived  by  the  sacred  writers. 
(See  Isa.'x.  34.  xxix.  17.  and  xxxv.  2.)  Lebanon  was  justly 
considered  as  a  very  strong  barrier  to  the  Land  of  Promise, 
and  opposing  an  almost  insurmountable  obstacle  to  the  move- 
ments of  cavalry  and  to  chariots  of  war.  "  When,  therefore, 
Sennacherib,  in  the  arrogance  of  his  heart,  and  the  pride  of 
his  strengtii,  wished  to  express  the  ease  with  which  he  had 
subdued  the  greatest  difficulties,  and  how  vain  was  the  re- 
sistance of  Hezekiah  and  his  people,  he  says,  /?//  the  miilti- 
tudc  nf  my  chariots  have  I  come  to  the  height  of  the  nioitntuiiis, 
to  the  sides  of  Lebanon  !  and  1  will  cut  down  the  tall  cedars 
thereof,  and  the  choice  fir  trees  thereof;  and  I  will  enter  into 
the  fieight  of  his  br/rder,  and  the  forest  of  his  ('armrl.  (Isa. 
xxxvii.  24.)  What  others  accomplish  on  foot,  with  much 
labour  and  the  greatest  difficulty,  by  a  winding  path  cut  into 
steps,  which  no  beast  of  bunh'ii.  except  the  cautious  and 
sure-footed  mule  can  tread,  that  haugiity  monarch  vaunted 
he  could  perform  with  horses  and  a  multitude  of  chariots."* 
During  the  latter  period  of  the  Roman  empire,  Tichanon  af- 
forded an  asylum  to  numerous  robbers,  who  infested  the 
neighbouring  regions,  so  that  the  eastern  emperors  found  it 
necessary  to  cstai)lish  garrisons  there,' 

2.  Mount  Carmel  is  situaU^d  about  ten  miles  to  the  south 
of  Acre  or  Ptolemais,  on  the  shore  of  tlm  Mediterranean  sea: 
it  is  a  range  of  hills  extending  six  or  ei<iiil  miles  nearly  north 
and  south,  coming  from  the  plain  of  Ksdraelon,  and  ending 
in  the  promontory  or  capo  wnifh  fonns  the  hay  of  Accho  or 
Acre.  It  is  very  rocky,  and  is  composed  of  a  whitish  stone, 
with  flints  imbedded  in  it.  On  the  east  iu  a  fine  plain  watered 

•  I.ollrr»  from  llir  E,ist,  p.  111. 
»  Harnif  r'3  OhscrvalioriK,  vol.  II.  pp.  VA,  157. 

•  lliirikli.inll's  Travila  iii  Hyria  ainl  Ihc  Holy  Land,  pp.  70,  21. 

cription  nf  ihr  Ensl,  vol.  li.  part  i.  pp.  74,  76.     Dp.  Po- 


»    PorOCkf! 


*  M.inri'lrcll,  p.  77. 

tfi'H  DcBcrtptlon  of  Vt\f  Ensl,  vol.  H.  part  i-  PP- 
cocku'ii  explanation  Is  approved  l>y  Mr.  nucklnehoin.    Travels  among  the 
ArabTrilici,  p.  396 

«  Pnxton's  ni 


luHtrnllonn  ofRcrlpliirr,  vol.  I.  p.  134.    FlrRt  edition. 
'  (JtyriK  Annal.  lib.   xiv.   p.  91.     I'r(iro|ilin  ilo  ndl.  Pcrs.  lib 
Hb.  U.  c.  IC.  19.  cUod  in  Relaod'a  Paitestina,  (ou.  1.  p.  322. 


13 


by  the  river  Ki.shon;  and  on  the  west  a  narrower  plain  de- 
scending to  the  sea.  Its  greatest  height  does  not  exceed 
litleen  hundred  feet.e  The  summits  of  this  mountain  aie 
said  to  abound  with  oaks,  i>ines,  and  other  trees  ;  and,  amon^ 
brambles,  Avild  vines  and  olive  trees  are  still  to  be  founcf, 
proving  that  industry  had  formerly  been  employed  on  this 
ungrateful  soil :  nor  is  there  any  deficiency  ot  fountains  and 
rivulets,  so  grateful  to  the  inhabitants  cf  the  cast.  There 
are  many  caves  in  this  mountainous  range,  particularly  on 
the  western  side,  the  largest  of  which,  called  the  school  of 
Elijah,  is  much  venerated  both  by  Mohammedans  and  Jews. 
On  the  summit,  facing  the  sea,  tradition  says,  that  the  pro- 
phet stood  when  he  prayed  for  rain,  and  beheld  the  cloud 
arise  out  of  the  sea :'  and  on  the  side  next  the  sea  is  a  cave, 
to  which  some  commentators  have  su]iposed  that  the  prophet 
lOlijah  desired  Ahr.b  to  bring  Baal's  i)rophets,  when  celestial 
tire  descended  on  his  sacrifice.  (1  Kings  xviii.  19 — 40.) 
Carmel  ^pjiears  to  liave  been  the  name,  not  of  the  hill  only 
distinguished  as  Mount  Carmel,  en  the  top  of  which  the 
faithful  prophet  Elijah  offered  sacrifice,  but  also  of  the  whole 
district,  which  afi'orded  the  richest  pasture :  and  shepherds 
with  their  flocks  are  to  be  seen  on  its  long  grassy  slopes, 
which  at  present  afford  as  rich  a  pasture  ground,  as  in  the 
days  when  Nabal  fed  his  numerous  herds  on  Carmel.'"  Tliis 
was  the  excellency  of  Carmel  which  Isaiah  (xxxv.  2.)  opposes 
to  the  barren  desert.  It  is  mentioned  by  Amos  (i,  2.)  as  the 
hubilatinns  of  the  shephcnh.  The  expression  forest  of  his 
Carmel  {2  Kings  xix,  23,  Isa.  xxxvii.  24.),  implies  that  it 
aboundeu  at  one  time  with  wood  :  but  its  remotf^ness,  as  the 
border  country  of  Palestine,  and  the  wilderness  characteristic 
of  pastoral  highlands,  rather  than  its  loftiness  or  its  inacces- 
sibility, must  be  alluded  to  by  the  prophet  Amos,  (ix,  2,  3,) 
There  was  another  Mount  Carmel,  with  a  city  of  the  same 
name,  situated  in  the  tribe  of  Judah,  and  mentioned  in 
Joshua  XV.  55.   1  Sam.  xxv.  2.  and  2  Sam.  iii,  3, 

3.  Tabor  or  Thabor  is  a  calcareous  mountain  of  a  conical 
form,  entirely  detached  from  any  neighbouring  mountain,  and 
stands  on  one  side  of  the  great  plain  of  Esdraelon  :  the  sides 
are  rugged  and  precipitous,  but  clothed  with  luxuriant  trees 
and  brushwood,  except  on  the  southern  side  of  the  mountain. 
Here  Bar;".k  was  encamped,  when,  at  the  suggestion  of  Debo- 
rah, he  descended  with  ten  thousand  men,  and  discomfited 
the  host  of  Sisera.  (Jud^.  iv.)  The  mountain  is  computed 
to  be  nearly  one  mile  in  height;  to  a  person  standing  at  its 
foot,  it  appears  to  terminate  in  a  point;  but  when  arrived  at 
the  top,  he  is  agreeably  surprised  to  find  an  oval  plain  of 
about  a  quarter  or  a  mile  in  its  greatest  length,  covered  with 
a  bed  of  fertile  soil  on  the  west,  and  having  on  its  eastern 
side  a  mass  of  ruins,  seemingly  the  vestiges  of  churches, 
grottoes,  and  strong  walls,  all  decidedly  orsome  anticpiity, 
and  a  few  appearing  to  be  the  works  ot  a  very  remote  age." 
The  prospects  from  this  mountain  are  singularly  delightful 
and  extensive.  To  the  south  lie  the  Mou.ntains  ok  Enoedda 
AND  Sa.-uaria;  to  the  north-east,  about  six  miles  off,  appears 
MuuNT  Hkrmon,  beiicath  which  were  Nain  and  Endor.  To 
the  north  lie  tlie  Mount  of  the  Be.vtiti'dep,'^  where  Christ 
delivered  his  divine  sermon  to  the  multitude  (who  were  mi- 
raculously fed  in  its  vicinity),  and  the  Mountains  of  Gii.boa 
so  fatal  to  Saul.  The  latter  are  still  called  by  the  natives 
DJcbel  Gilho,  or  JNIount  (Jilbo.  They  are  a  Icnj^thened  ridge, 
rising  up  in  peaks  about  eight  hundred  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  road,  probably  about  one  thousand  feet  above  the  level 
of  tlie  Jnrdan,  aud  al)out  twelve  hiiudred  above  that  of  the 
sea;  and  bounding  the  plain  of  the  Jordan  on  the  west.  Utter 
solitude  is  on  every  .fide  of  these  mountains,  which  afford  no 
(KreHing  places  for  men,  except  for  the  wandering  siiepherd, 
whose  search  for  jnisturage  must  often  bo  in  vain;  as  a  little 
withered  grass  and  a  few  scanty  shrubs,  dispersed  in  different 
places,  constitute  the  whole  produce  of  the  mountains  of 
Gilboa.'^    The  sea  of  Tiberias  is  clearly  discovered  towards 

•  ISiickiiigliniii'.s  Tiavrls  in  I'llisliiii.-,  \>\t,  11'.'.  li.0.  Mr.  Rae  U  il.xon, 
liowcvc-r,  esdiiiulos  ilH  luislit  ut  two  lliutixaiid  feci.  TravulH  in  llio  Holy 
LiincI,  vol.  il.  i>.  51.    Tliiril  (.ilition. 

•  Hcl>oi/.':i  TravL'lu  in  r.^ypi,  iVcr-  cileil  in  (he  Urit.  Cril.  and  Tlico).  lie- 
view,  vdI.  I.  p.  37'-'.     Carne'ti  I.illors,  p.  'iii*. 

>°  Cariio'H  KccijlIoction.H  of  tlic  Ivi.st,  p.  43. 

'1  Jolliirc's  I.citrrn  from  I'lUiMlni',  p.  HO.     liiickinftliain'a  TrnvcIs  in  ' 
ralcxtiac,  p.  101.    Uurtklmnll'B  Tiavrln  in  f<>riii,  ic.  p.  ;<!l.    The  \iKnetto 
orililn  uioiiiiluin  in  p.  'Zi.  \*  cuploil  I'roni  Dr.  K.  I>.  <'laiK>''.s  Travels,  vol.  iv. 
p.  '.^(1.    Il  n  prcscata  ibc  niouiitiiin  an  uccu  iu  crosaiug  lliu  plain  of  Juzrccl 
or  KH(lrai:Ion. 

'*  Tlii.i  hill  limy  have  an  elevation  of  from  two  to  three  hundred  feet. 
The  prospocl  I'loin  iu  summit,  which  is  an  area  of  mcny  nrrcs  rontaining 
vcaltrrctl  rwlns,  Is  both  nxtonsive  and  hcauiiful.  VVilbon'a  Travels  m 
Ejtypt  mill  the  Holy  I.nti(l,  p.  ;V13      (I/indon,  \^<2,  Svo.) 

>>  Kk-h.irilson's  TruvdM,  vol.  li.  p.  <U&.  Carnc'a  RccoUcctiona  of  (h* 
East,  p.  19.    (Ixjudoo,  1630,  Bvo.) 


Sect.  I.] 


VALLEYS  IN  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


31 


the  north-east,  terminated  by  the  snow-capped  Ilermon.'  On 
the  eastern  side  of  Tabor  there  ia  a  small  height,  which  by 
ancient  tradition  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  scene  of  our 
Lord's  transfig-uraticn.^  (Matt.  xvii.  1 — 8.  Mark  ix.  2 — 9.) 
During  the  ^eatcr  part  oi  the  summer,  the  mountain  is  co- 
vered in  the  morning  with  thick  clouds,  which  disperse 
towards  mid-day.  Mount  Carmel  is  to  the  south-west,  and 
conceals  the  Mediterranean  from  view:  and  at  the  foot  of 
this  mountain  the  spacious  and  cultivated  plain  of  Esdraelon 
spreads  itself. 

4.  The  Mountains  of  Israel,  also  called  the  Mountains 
OF  Ephraim,  were  situated  in  the  very  centre  of  the  Holy 
Land,  and  opposite  to  the  Mountains  of  Judah.  The  soil 
of  both  ridges  is  fertile,  excepting  those  parts  of  the  moun- 
tains of  Israel  which  approach  the  region  of  the  Jordan,  and 
which  are  both  rugged  and  difficult  of  ascent,  and  also  Avith 
the  exception  of  the  chain  extending  from  the  Mount  of  Olives 
near  Jerusalem  to  the  plain  of  Jericho,  which  has  always 
afforded  lurking  places  to  robbers.  (Luke  x.  30.)  The  most 
elevated  summit  of  this  ridge,  which  appears  to  be  the  same 
that  was  anciently  called  the  Rock  of  Ilimmon  (Judg.  xx.  45. 
47.),  is  at  present  known  by  the  name  of  Quarcmlunia,  and 
is  supposed  to  have  been  the  scene  of  our  Saviour's  tempta- 
tion. (Matt.  iv.  8.)  It  is  described  by  Maundrell,^  as  situ- 
ated in  a  mountainous  desert,  and  being  a  most  miserably 
dry  and  barren  place,  consisting  of  high  rocky  mountains, 
torn  and  disordered,  as  if  the  earth  had  here  suffered  some 
j^eat  convulsion.  The  celebrated  Mountains  of  Ebal  (some- 
times written  Gebal)  and  Gerizim  (Deut.  xi.  29.  xxvii.  4.  12. 
Josh.  viii.  30 — 35.)  are  separated  from  each  other  merely  by 
an  intervening  valley:  they  are  situate,  the  former  to  the 
north,  and  the  latter  to  the  south  cf  Sichem  or  Napolose, 
whose  streets  run  parallel  to  the  latter  mountain,  which 
overlooks  the  town.  In  the  Mountains  of  Judah  there  are 
numerous  caves,  some  of  a  considerable  size :  the  most  re- 
markable of  these  is  the  cave  of  Adullam,  mentioned  in 
1  Sam.  xxii.  1, 2. — "There  is  a  kind  of  sublime  horror  in  the 
lofty,  craggy,  and  barren  aspect  of  these  two  mountains, 
which  seem  to  face  each  other  with  an  air  of  defiance ;  espe- 
cially as  they  stand  contrasted  with  the  rich  valley  beneath, 
where  the  city  [of  Shechem  or  Napolose]  appears  to  be  em- 
bedded on  either  side  in  green  gardens  and  extensive  olive 
grounds, — rendered  more  verdant  by  the  lengthened  periods 
of  shade  which  they  enjoy  from  the  mountains  on  each  side. 
Of  the  two,  Gerizim  is  not  wholly  without  cultivation."^ 

5.  The  Mountains  of  Gilead  are  situated  beyond  the  Jor- 
dan, and  extend  from  Anti-Libanus  or  Mount  Hermon  south- 
ward into  Arabia  Petraea.  The  northern  part  of  them,  known 
by  the  name  of  Bashan,  was  celebrated  for  its  stately  oaks,' 
and  numerous  herds  of  cattle  pastured  on  its  fertile  soil,  to 
which  there  are  many  allusions  in  the  Scriptures.  (See, 
among  other  passages,  Deut.  xxxii.  14.  Psal.  xxii.  12.  and 
Ixviii.  15.  Isa.  ii.  13.  Ezek.  xxxix.  18.  Amos  iv.  1.)  The 
hair  of  the  goats  that  browsed  about  Mount  Gilead,  appears 
from  Cant.  iv.  1.  to  have  been  as  fine  as  that  of  the  oriental 
goat,  which  is  well  known  to  be  possessed  of  the  fineness  of 
the  most  delicate  silk,  and  is  often  employed  in  modern  times 
for  the  manufacture  of  muffs.  The  middle  part  of  this  moun- 
tainous range,  in  a  stricter  sense,  was  termed  Gilead,-  and  in 
all  probability  is  the  mountain  now  called  Bjebel  Bjelaad  or 
D/eoel  Djelaoud,  on  which  is  the  ruined  town  of  Dielaad, 
which  may  be  the  site  of  the  ancient  city  Gilead  (Hos.  vi. 
8.),  elsewhere  called  Ramoth  Gilead,  In  the  southern  part 
of  the  same  range,  beyond  the  Jordan,  were, — 

6.  The  Mountains  of  Abarim,^  a  range  of  rugged  hills, 
forming  the  northern  limits  of  the  territory  of  Moab,  which 

«  Light's  Travels,  p.  200. 

»  From  the  silence  of  the  evangelists  as  to  the  mountain  of  transfigura- 
tion, and  from  the  circumstance  of  Jesus  Christ  being  just  before  at 
Caesarea  Philippi,  some  learned  men  have  contended  that  Tabor  could  not 
have  been  the  scene  of  that  great  event.  No  mountain,  it  is  true,  is  speci- 
fied by  Ihe  evangelist,  nor  is  the  fact  of  Tubor  bein;:  a  mountain  apan  by 
itself  any  argument  in  point ;  but,  as  the  sacred  writers  e.\prossly  state  it 
to  have  happi.^ned  six  days  after  our  Saviour's  discourse  at  Ca;sarea  Phi- 
lippi, he  had  time  enough  to  return  into  Galilee,  which  was  not  above 
twenty-five  leagues'  distance  from  Tabor.  It  is,  therefore,  not  improbable 
that  this  mountain  was  the  scene  of  his  transfiguration.  Beausobve  and 
L'Enfant's  Introduction.    (Bp.  Watson's  Tracts,  vol.  iii.  pp.  271,  272.) 

»  Maundrell,  pp.  106,  107.  A  later  traveller,  however,  (Mr.  Jolliffe)  is 
of  opinion  that  the  view  from  this  mountain  is  not  euflBcicntly  extensive. 
Letters  from  Palestine,  p.  129. 

«  Jowett's  Christian  Researches  in  Syria,  &c.  p.  102.  (London,  1825.  8vo.) 

»  The  oak,  which  in  ancient  times  supplied  theTyrians  with  oars  (Ezek. 
Mvii,  6.)  is  still  frequently  to  be  found  here  ;  the  soil  is  most  lu.xuriantly 
fertile  ;  and  the  nomadic  Arab  inhabitants  are  as  robu.st  and  comely  as  we 
may  conceive  its  ancient  possessors  to  have  been,  according  to  the  notices 
which  incidentally  occur  in  the  Sacreil  Volume.  See  Mr.  Buckingham's 
mtercsting  description  of  this  region.    Travels,  pp.  325— -329 

•  AOarim  denutes  passes  or  passages. 


are  conjectured  to  have  derived  their  name  from  the  passes 
between  the  hills,  of  which  they  were  formed,  or  perhaps, 
from  the  Israelites  having  passed  the  river  Jordan  into  the 
])roinised  land,  opposite  to  these  mouutains.  According  to 
Dr.  Shaw,  they  are  a  long  ridge  of  frightful,  rocky,  and  pre- 
cipitous hills,  which  are  continued  all  along  the  eastern  coast 
of  the  Dead  Sea,  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach.  Near  these 
mountains  the  Israelites  had  several  encampments.  The 
most  eminent  among  them  are  Pisgah  and  Nebo,  which  form 
a  continued  chain,  and  command  a  view  of  the  whole  land  of 
Canaan.  (Deut.  iii.  27.  xxxii.  48 — 50.  xxxiv.  1,  2,  3.) 
From  Mount  Nebo  Moses  surveyed  the  promised  land,  before 
he  was  gathered  to  his  people.  (Num.  xxvii.  12,  13.)  The 
Hebrews  frequently  give  the  epithet  of  everlasting  to  their 
mountains,  because  they  are  as  old  as  the  earth  itself.  See, 
among  other  instances,  Gen.  xlix.  2G.  and  Deut.  x.Kxiii.  15, 

The  mountains  of  Palestine  were  anciently  places  of  refuge 
to  the  inhabitants  when  defeated  in  war  (Gen.  xiv.  10.);  and 
modern  travellers  assure  us  that  they  are  still  resorted  to  for 
the  same  purpose.'  The  rocky  summits  found  on  many  of 
them  appear  to  have  been  not  imfrequently  employed  as 
altars,  on  which  sacrifices  were  offered  to  Jehovah  (Judg.  vi. 
19 — 21.  and  xiii.  15 — 20.)  ;  although  they  were  afterwards 
converted  into  places  for  idol  worship,  for  which  the  prophets 
Isaiah  (Ivii.  7.)  and  Ezekiel  (xviii.  6.)  severely  reprove  their 
degenerate  countrymen.  And  as  many  of  the  mountains  of 
Palestine  were  situated  in  desert  places,  the  shadow  they 
project  has  furnished  the  prophet  Isaiah  with  a  pleasing 
image  of  the  security  that  shall  be  enjoyed  under  the  kingdom 
of  Messiah.8  (xxxii.  2.) 

From  the  mountains,  the  transition  to  the  Valleys  is 
natural  and  easy.  Of  those  which  are  mentioned  in  the 
Sacred  W ri tings,  the  following  are  the  most  celebrated ;  viz. 

1.  The  Valley  of  Blessing  (in  Hebrew,  the  Valley  of 
Berachah),  in  the  tribe  of  Judah,  on  the  west  side  of  the  lake 
of  Sodom,  and  in  the  wilderness  cf  Tekoah.  It  derived  its 
name  from  a  signal  victory  which  God  granted  to  the  pious 
king  Jehoshaphat  over  the  combined  forces  of  the  Moabites, 
Edomites,  and  Ammonites.  (2  Chron.  xx.  22 — 26.) 

2.  The  Vale  of  Siddim,  memorable  for  the  overthrow  of 
Chedorlaomer  and  his  confederate  emirs  or  kings,  f  Gen. 
xiv.  2 — 10.)  In  this  vale  stood  the  cities  of  Sodom  ana  Go- 
morrah, which  were  afterwards  destroyed  by  fire  from 
heaven,  on  which  account  this  vale  is  also  termed  the  Salt 
Sea.  (Gen.  xiv.  3.) 

3.  The  Valley  of  Shaveh,  also  called  the  King's  Dale 
(Gen.  xiv.  17.  2  Sam.  xviii.  18.),  derived  its  name  from  a 
city  of  the  same  name  that  stood  in  it.  Here  Melchisedek, 
king  of  Salem,  met  the  victorious  Abraham  after  the  defeat 
of  the  confederate  kings.     (Gen.  xiv.  18.) 

4.  The  Vale  of  Salt  is  supposed  to  have  been  in  the  land 
of  Edom,  east  of  the  Dead  Sea,  between  Tadmor  and  Bozrah. 
Here  both  David  and  Amaziah  discomfited  the  Edomites. 
(2  Sam.  viii.  13.  2  Kings  xiv.  7.) 

5.  The  Valley  of  M!amre  received  its  name  from  Mamre 
an  Amorite,  v/ho  was  in  alliance  with  Abraham  :  it  was  cele- 
brated for  the  oak  (or  as  some  critics  render  it  terebinth)  tree, 
under  which  the  patriarch  dwelt  (Gen.  xiii.  18.),  in  the 
vicinity  of  Hebron. 

6.  The  Valley  of  Ajalon  is  contiguous  to  the  city  of  the 
same  name,  in  the  canton  allotted  to  the  tribe  of  Dan:  it  is 
memorable  as  the  scene  of  the  miracle  related  in  Josh.  x.  12. 
It  is  said  to  be  of  sufficient  Ijreadth  and  compass  to  allow  a 
numerous  host  to  engawe  thereon.  "  This  valley  is  better 
inhabited  and  cultivatea  than  most  other  places  in  the  terri- 
tory, and  seems  to  enjoy  a  more  equal  and  healthful  tempera- 
tuTe."'J 

7.  The  Valley  of  the  Rephaim  (or  the  Giant's  Valley) 
was  so  called  from  its  gigantic  inhabitants :  it  was  situated 
on  the  confines  of  the  territories  allotted  to  the  tribes  of  Judah 
and  Benjamin.  It  was  memorable,  as  oftentimes  being  the 
field  of  battle  between  the  Philistines  and  the  Jews  under 
David  and  his  successors.     (2  Sam.  v.  18.  22.  xxiii.    13. 

» 

'  Harmer's  Observations,  vol.  iii.  pp.  429,  430. 

e  "  Ascending  a  sand  hill  that  overlooked  the  plain,  we  saw  Jericho,  con- 
trary to  our  hopes,  at  a  great  distance  ;  and  the  level  tract  we  must  pass  to 
arrive  at  it  was  exposed  to  a  sultry  sun,  without  a  single  tree  to  afTord  us  a 
temporary  shade.  The  simile  of  'the  shadow  of  a  great  rock  in  a  weary 
land'  was  never  more  forcibly  felt."  (Carne's  Letters,  p.  320.)— "The 
shadow  of  a  great  projecting  rock  is  the  most  refreshing  that  is  possible  in 
a  hot  country,  not  only  as  most  perfectly  excluding  the  rays  of  the  sun,  but 
also  having  in  itself  a  natural  coolness,  which  it  reflects  and  communicates 
to  every  thing  about  it."  Bishop  Lowth's  Isaiah,  vol.  ii.  p.  221.  See  also 
Ur.  Henderson's  Travels  in  Iceland,  vol.  i.  p.  206.,  and  Di.  Richardson's 
Travels  along  the  Mediterranean,  &c.  vol.  ii.  p.  ISO. 

»  Carne's  Recollections  of  the  East,  pp.  137. 140, 


32 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


[Part  1.  OflAP.  II 


ICLron.xi.  15.  and  xiv.  9.)  This  valley  also  appears  anciently 
to  have  been  distinguished  for  its  abundant  harvests.  (Isa. 
xvii.  5.)  Like  all  the  country  about  Jerusalem,  it  is  now 
stony,  and  scantily  furnished  with  patches  of  light  red  soil." 

8.  The  Vallky  of  Bochim  (or  of  IFeepini^)  was  thus 
denominated  from  the  universal  mourning  of  the  Israelites, 
on  account  of  the  denunciations  there  made  against  them, 
for  their  disobedience  to  the  divine  commands  respecting  the 
nations  whom  they  had  invaded.  (Judg.  ii.  5.) 

9.  Three  miles  from  Bethlehem,  on  the  road  to  Jaffa,  lies 
the  celebrated  Terchinthine  Vale,  or  Valley  of  Elah,  not 
above  half  a  mile  in  breadth,  and  memorable  as  the  field  of 
the  victory  gained  by  the  youthful  David  over  the  uncircum- 
cised  cliampion  of  the  Philistines,  wlio  had  dejicd  the  armies 
of  the  livinir  Go>/.  (1  Sam.  xvii.  2,  3.)  "  It  is  a  pretty  and 
interesting  looking  spot ;  the  bottom  covered  with  olive  trees. 
hs  present  appearance  answers  exactly  to  the  description 
given  in  Scripture  :  for  nothino:  has  ever  occurred  to  alter  the 
appearance  of  the  country.  Flic  two  hills,  on  which  the 
armies  of  the  Israelites  and  Philistines  stood,  entirely  confme 
it  on  the  right  and  left.  The  very  brook,  w-hence  David  chose 
kirn  Jive  smooth  stones  (which  has  been  noticed  by  many  a 
thirsty  pilgrim,  journeying  from  Jaffa  to  Jerosalem),  still 
flows  through  the  vale,  which  is  varied  with  banks  ana  undu- 
lations. The  ruins  of  goodly  edifices  attest  the  religious 
veneration  entertained  in  later  periods  for  the  hallowed  spot : 
but  even  these  are  now  become  so  insignificant,  that  they  arc 
scarcely  discernible ;  and  nothing  can  be  said  to  interrupt 
the  native  dignity  of  this  memorable  scene."- 

10.  The  narrow  Valley  of  Hinnom  lies  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Zion,  just  south  of  Jerusalem  :  it  was  well  watered, 
and  in  ancient  times  w-as  most  verdant  and  delightfully 
shaded  with  trees.  This  valley  is  celebrated  for  the  inhuman 
and  barbarous,  as  well  as  idolatrous  worship,  here  paid  to 
Moloch ;  to  which  deity  parents  sacrificed  tneir  smiling  off- 
spring by  making  them  pass  through  the  fire.  (3  Kings  xxiii. 
10.  2  Chron.  xxviii.  3.)  To  drown  the  lamentable  shrieks 
of  the  cliildren  thus  immolated,  musical  instruments  (in  He- 
brew termed  Tuph)  were  played;  whence  the  spot,  where 
the  victims  were  burnt,  was  called  Ti>phet.  After  the  cap- 
tivity, the  Jews  regarded  this  spot  with  abhorrence  on  account 
of  the  abominations  which  had  been  practised  there:  and, 
following  the  example  of  Josiah  (2  Kings  xxiii.  10.),  they 
threw  into  it  every  species  of  filth,  as  well  as  the  carcasses 
of  animals,  and  the  dead  bodies  of  malefactors,  &c.  To 
prevent  the  pestilence  which  such  a  mass  would  occasion,  if 
left  to  putrefy,  constant  fires  were  maintained  in  the  valley, 
in  order  to  consume  the  whole  :  hence  the  place  received  the 
appellation  of  Vmia.  tcu  ttumc  (Matt.  v.  26.)  By  an  easy 
metaphor,  the  Jews,  who  could  imagine  no  severer  torment 
than  that  of  fire,  transferred  this  name  to  the  infernal  fire^ — 
to  that  part  of  " hSw;  or  the  Invisible  World,  in  which  thcj' 
supposed  that  demons  and  the  souls  of  wicked  men  were 
punished  in  eternal  fire.  The  place  now  shown  as  the  Val- 
ley of  Hinnom  "  is  a  deep  ravine,  closed  in  on  the  right  by 
the  steep  acclivity  of  Mount  Zion,  and  on  the  left  by  a  line 
of  cliffs  more  or  less  elevated.  From  some  point  in  these  cliffs 
tradition  relates  that  the  apostate  betrayer  of  our  Lord  sought 
his  desperate  end:  and  the  position  of  the  trees,  which  in 
various  parts  overhang  the  brow  of  the  cliff,  accords  with 
the  manner  of  his  death."' 

11.  The  Vale  of  Sharon  (Song  of  Sol.  ii.  1.  Isa.  Ixv. 
10.^  was,  as  it  is  to  this  day,  a  spacious  and  fertile  plain  of 
araolo  land,  extending  from  Caesarea  to  Joppa.  How  valu- 
able this  land  must  have  been  to  Solomon  when  he  made  his 
engagement  with  Hiram  king  of  Tyre, — and  to  Herod  when 
he  marked  his  displeasure  aj^ainst  them  of  Tyre  and  Sldun, 
may  be  inferred  from  1  Kings  v.  7 — 11.  and  Acts  xii.  20.' 
At  present,  this  plain  is  only  parli'illy  cultivated  :  the  grind- 
ing exactions  ol  the  Turk,  and  the  predatory  incursions  of 
the  Arab,  prevent  the  wrfct<;hcd  inh<d)itants  from  tilling  more 
than  is  absolutely  necessary  for  their  support.' 

12.  The  Valley  of  Jkhoshaphat  mentioned  in  Joel  iii. 
2 — 12.,  is  situated  a  short  (iistancc  to  the  east  of  Jerusalem  ; 
it  has  also  l)een  called  the  Valhy  of  the  Kedron,  because  the 
brook  Kedron  flows  thro\igh  it.  Al)en  Ivzra,  however, 
imagines  it  to  be  the  Valley  of  Blessing  above  noticed  :  and 
some  commentators  consider  the  word  to  be  symbolical,  sig- 

»   Diickinghiim'i  Travclii,  p.  210. 

»  Dr  <:i?.rkL'K  Tr;vvclM,  vol.  iv.  p.  422.    Carnc'B  Letters,  pp.  290,  300. 
»  Uobliisnn's  fJr.  Lf-x.  to  New  Tctlament,  voce.  Tiinva.    Jowelt's  Chris- 
tian Rcsc^irclics  in  Syria,  Stc.  p.  2C2. 
*  .I.iwcrt'R  ResearctiPd.  p.  3(1>. 
»  Three  Weelia'  Ucsidcncc  in  Pale»llne,  p.  11. 


nifying  the  judgment  of  God  ;  cr.  Jehovah  judgeth.  They 
are  of  opinion,  that  it  may  mean  ionie  place  where  Nebu 
chadnezzar  should  gain  a  great  battle,  wnich  would  utterly 
discomfit  the  ancient  enemies  of  the  Jews,  and  rtstnd)!e  the 
victory  obtained  by  Jehcshaphat  over  the  Ammonites,  Moa 
bites,  and  Edomites.®  This  narrow  valley  has,  from  a  very 
early  period,  served  as  a  burial  place  for  the  inhabitants  of 
Jerusalem  ;  as  we  may  inllr  from  the  account  of  the  destruc- 
tion of  idolatry  in  Judah  and  of  the  vessels  made  for  Baal, 
when  the  bones  of  the  priests  were  burned  to  ashes  at  the 
brook  Kedron,  and  were  cast  upon  the  graves  of  the  children 
of  the  people.  (1  Kings  xiii.  2.  2  Kin<Ts  xxiii.  (5.  2  Chron. 
xxxiv.  4.  J  The  Hebrew  .population  of  Jerusalem  still  inter 
their  dead  in  this  valley,  in  which  there  are  numerous  tomb- 
stones :  and  as  a  strong  inclination  still  exists  among  the 
Jews  to  have  their  remains  entombed  in  the  country  of  their 
ancestors,  many  of  them  arrive  here  with  this  view,  in  the 
course  of  the  year,  from  the  most  distant  lands.'  One  day 
in  the  year  the  Jews  purchase  from  their  oppressors  the  per- 
mission to  assemble  in  this  place,  which  they  pass  in  weep- 
ing and  mourning  over  the  desolation  of  Jerusalem,  and  their 
lengthened  captivity.8  It  was  on  this  side,  that  the  city  was 
carried  by  assault  by  the  besiegers  in  the  first  crusade. 

VI.  The  country  of  Juda-a,  being  mountainous  and  rocky, 
is  full  of  Caverns  ;  to  whicli  the  inhabitants  were  accus- 
tomed to  flee  for  shelter  from  the  incursions  of  their  enemies. 
(Josh.  x.  16.  Judg.  vi..2.  1  Sam.  xiii.  6.  xiv.  11.)  Some 
of  these  appear  to  have  been  on  low  grounds,  and  liable  to 
inundations,  when  the  rivers,  swollen  hy  torrents  or  dissolv- 
ing snov^s,  overflowed  their  banks,  and  carried  all  before 
them  with  resistless  fury.  To  the  sudden  destruction  thus 
produced  Isaiah  probably  alludes,  (xxxviii.  17.)  There- 
fore, to  enter  into  the  holes  of  the  rocks,  and  into  the  caves  of 
the  earth,  for  fear  of  the  Lord  {Isa.  ii.  19.),  was  to  the  Jews 
a  very  proper  image  to  express  terror  and  consternation.  The 
prophet  Hosea  has  carried  the  same  image  further,  and  added 
great  strength  and  spirit  to  it  (x.  8.) ;  which  image,  together 
with  these  of  Isaiah,  is  adopted  by  the  sublime  author  of  the 
Revelation  (vi.  15, 16.'),  who  frequently  borrows  his  imagery 
from  the  prophet  Isaian.^ 

Some  of  tliese  caves  were  very  capacious  :  that  of  Adul- 
LAM  afforded  an  asylum  to  David  and  four  hundred  men, 
including  his  family,  who  resorted  thither  to  him.  (1  Sam. 
xxii.  1,  2.)  The  cave  of  Enoedi  was  so  large,  that  David 
and  six  hundred  men  concealed  themselves  in  its  sides  ;  and 
Saul  entered  tlic  mouth  of  the  cave  without  perceiving  that 
any  one  was  there.  "  At  first,  it  appears  neither  lofty  nor 
spacious,  but  a  low  passage  on  the  left  leads  into  apartments, 
where  a  party  could  easily  remain  concealed  from  those 
without.  The  face  of  theliill  around  it  corresponds  to  the 
description, — he  came  to  the  rocks  of  the  wild  ^ouls.''^  (\  Sam. 
xxiv.  2.)'°  Bishop  Pococke  has  described  a  cave,  which  he 
thinks  may  be  this  of  Engedi ;  concerning  which  there  is  a 
tradition,  that  thirty  thousand  people  retired  into  it  to  avoid 
a  bad  air."  Josephus'-  has  taken  particular  notice  of  similar 
caverns,  which  in  his  time  were  the  abode  of  robbers. 
Maundrell'3  has  described  a  large  cavern  under  a  hijrh  reeky 
mountain  in  the  vicinity  of  Sidon,  containing  two  hundred 
smaller  caverns,  which  are  supposed  to  have  been  the  resi- 
dence of  the  original  inhabitants.  Numerous  caves  were 
noticed  by  Mr.  Buckingham"  in  the  rock  to  the  south  of 
Naxareth  ;  several  of  which  now,  as  anciently,  serve  as 
dwellings  to  the  Nazarenes.  Mr.  Hartley  has  described  a 
similar  cavern,  capable  of  holding  one  thousand  men  by 
actual  enumeration,  whither  the  t.reeks  fled,  and  found  a 
secure  asylum  from  their  Mohammedan  enemies.'*  Captain 
Lvon  has  described  similar  residences  occupied  by  a  tribe 
otTroglodytes  in  northern  Africa.'"  It  was  probably  in  some 

•  Archbp.  Ncwcoinc,  and  Dr.  A.  ClarUc,  on  .Ii-cl  iii.  2. 

1  Mr.  Kac  Wilson's  Travels  in  tlir  Holy  Land,  vol  I.  p.  220.  The  same 
intclligcnl  traveller  continues:— "  Oli^icrvliip  many  Jews,  whom  1  could 
cariily  recopnisc  by  their  yellow  tuihans,  Mack  cyrlirows,  and  hushy 
hoards,  walklnij  about  the  place,  ami  reposing  alonR  the  brook  Kedron 
in  a  pensive  mood,  the  pathetic  languafieof  the  I'salini.st  occurred  to  me, 
aa  exprcsglni;  the  subject  of  their  iiuMlitalion,— jUv  the  riven  xfc  gat  dtiirn 
and  wept,  ir/icn  irr  rcmemhered  Xion.  Tpon  froquenlly  inuuiriiiR  tlio 
motive  that  prompted  them  in  attempting  to  po  to  Jtrusalein,  the  anBWcr 
was,  'To  die  in  the  lanrl  of  our  fathers  '  "     Ibid. 

•  Three  Weeks'  Residence  in  Palestine,  p.  39. 

•  Hishop  I.<iwlh's  Isaiah,  vol.  ii.  p.  37. 

•  0  Carne's  I^'Uers,  p.  307. 

•  •  Pococke's  Travels  vol.  ii.  part  i.  p.  41. 
■»  Antiq  lib.  xiv.  c.  15.  S5. 

u  Travels,  pp.  VA  \'0 
•»  Tmvi-Is  in  Palestine,  p.  113. 

»•  JotinialofaTour  in  Greccft,  1803.  (Mission.  RpRifitfi''.  Mav,IH.30,  p. 231.) 

i»  "Ad  the  natives  live  under  ground,  a  person  unacquainted  willj  the 

circumstance  might  cross  the  mountain  without  one*  BUBpecting  ihat  it 


fiiiCT.  I.] 


PLAINS  AND  DESERTS. 


33 


such  cave  that  Lot  and  his  two  daughters  dwelt  after  the  de- 
struction of  Sodom  (Gen.  xix.  30.) ;  and  in  similar  caverns, 
excavated  by  primeval  shepherds  as  a  shelter  from  the  scorch- 
ing beams  of  the  sun,  Dr.  Clarke  and  his  fellow-travellers 
found  a  grateful  protection  from  the  intense  heat  of  the  solar 
rays  ;'  as  Captains  Irby  and  Mangles  subsequently  did,  from 
a  violent  storm.^  These  caves  were  sometimes  the  haunts 
or  strongholds  of  robbers  (as  the  excavations  in  the  rocks 
near  Bethlehem  are  to  this  day),'  and  to  them  our  Lord 
probably  alludes  in  Matt.  xxi.  13.,  where  he  reproaches  the 
Jews  with  having  profaned  the  temple  of  God,  and  made  it 
a  den  of  thieves. 

VIL  Numerous  fertile  and  level*  tracts  are  mentioned  in 
the  Sacred  Volume,  under  the  title  of  Plains.  Three  of 
these  are  particularly  worthy  of  notice ;  viz. 

1.  The  Plain  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  which  reached 
from  the  river  of  Egypt  to  Mount  Carmel.  The  tract  be- 
tween Gaza  and  Joppa  was  simply  called  the  Plain ,-  in  this 
stood  the  five  principal  cities  of  the  Philistine  satrapies, 
Ascalon,  Gath,  Gaza,  Ekron  or  Accaron,  and  Azotus  or 
Ashdod.  The  tract  from  Joppa  to  Mount  Carmel  was  called 
Saron  or  Sharon ,-  which  however  is  a  different  place  from 
the  Sharon  that  lies  between  Mount  Tabor  and  the  sea  of 
Tiberias,  and  from  another  place  of  the  same  name,  which 
was  celebrated  for  its  pastures,  and  was  situated  in  the  tribe 
of  Gad  beyond  Jordan. 

2.  The  Plain  of  Jezreel,  or  of  Esdraelon,  also  called 
the  Great  Plain  (the  Armageddon  of  the  Apocalypse), 
extends  from  Mount  Carmel  and  the  Mediterranean  to  the 
place  where  the  Jordan  issues  from  the  sea  of  Tiberias, 
through  the  middle  of  the  Holy  Land.  Here,  in  the  most 
fertile  part  of  the  land  of  Canaan,  the  tribe  of  Issachar 
rejoiced  171  their  tents,  (Deut.  xxxiii.  18.)  Li  the  first  ages 
of  Jewish  history,  as  well  as  during  the  Roman  empire  and 
the  crusades,  and  even  in  later  times,  it  has  been  the  scene 
of  many  a  memorable  contest.  "  Here  it  was  that  Barak, 
descending  with  his  ten  thousand  men  from  Mount  Tabor, 
discomfited  Sisera  and  all  Ids  chariots,  even  nine  hundred 
chariots  of  iron,  and  all  the  people  that  were  ivith  him,  gathered 
from  Harosheth  of  the  Gentiles  unto  the  river  of  Kishon  ,•  when 
all  the  host  of  Sisera  fell  upon  the  sword,  and  there  was  not  a  man 
left;  when  the  kings  came  and  fought,  the  kings  of  Canaan  in 
'Taanach  by  the  waters  of  Megiddo.  (Judg.  iv.  13. 15,  16.  v. 
19.)  Here  also  it  was  that  Josiah,  king  of  Judah,  fought  in 
disguise  against  Necho  king  of  Egypt,  and  fell  by  the 
arrows  of  his  antagonist.  (2  Kings  xxiii.  29.)  So  great 
were  the  lamentations  for  his  death,  that  the  mourning  of 
Josiah  became  an  ordinance  in  Israel  (2  Chron.  xxxv.  24, 
25.)  :  and  the  great  mourning  in  Jerusalem,  foretold  by  Zecha- 
riah  (xii.  11.),  is  said  to  be  as  the  lamentations  in  the  plain 
of  Esdraelon,  or,  according  to  the  prophet's  language,  as 
the  mourning  of  Hadadrimmon  in  the  valley  of  Megiadon.  Jo- 
sephus  often  mentions  this  very  remarkable  part  of  the  Holy 
Land,  and  always  under  the  appellation  of  the  Great  Plain  .■ 
and  under  the  same  name  it  is  also  mentioned  by  Eusebius 
and  by  Jerome.  It  has  been  a  chosen  place  for  encampment 
in  every  contest  carried  on  in  this  country,  from  the  days  of 
Nabuchadoncsor  king  of  the  Assjnians,  in  the  history  of 
whose  war  with  Arphaxad  it  is  mentioned  as  the  Great  Plain 
of  Esdrelom,^  until  the  disastrous  march  of  the  late  Napo- 

was  inhabited.  All  the  dwelling  places  being  formed  in  the  same  manner, 
a  description  of  the  schoik's  may  suffice  for  the  rest.  The  upper  soil  is 
Bandy  earth  of  about  four  feet  in  depth  ;  under  this  sand,  and  in  some 
places  lime-stone,  a  large  hole  is  dug  to  the  depth  of  twenty-five  or  thirty 
feet,  and  its  breadth  in  every  direction  is  about  the  same,  being  as  nearly 
as  can  be  made,  a  perfect  squai-e.  The  rock  is  then  smoothed,  so  as  to 
form  perpendicular  sides  to  this  space,  in  which  doors  are  cut  through, 
and  arched  chambers  excavated,  so  as  to  receive  their  light  from  the  doors : 
tliese  rooms  are  sometimes  three  or  four  of  a  side,  in  others,  a  wtiole  side 
composes  one  :  the  arrangements  depending  on  the  number  of  the  inhabi- 
tants. In  the  open  court  is  generally  a  well,  water  being  found  at  about 
ten  or  twelve  feet  below  the  base  of  the  square.  The  entrance  to  the 
house  is  about  thirty -six  yards  from  the  pit,  and  opens  above  ground.  It  is 
arched  overhead ;  is  generally  cut  in  a  winding  direction,  and  is  perfectly 
dark.  Some  of  these  passages  are  sufficiently  large  to  admit  a  loaded 
camel.  The  entrance  has  a  strong  wall  built  over  it,  something  resem- 
bling an  ice-house.  This  is  covered  overhead,  and  has  a  very  strong  heavy 
door,  which  is  shut  at  night,  or  in  cases  of  danger.  At  about  ten  yards 
from  the  bottom  is  another  door  equally  stronz,  so  that  it  is  almost  impos- 
sible to  enter  these  houses,  should  the  inhabitants  determine  to  resist. 
Few  Arab  attacks  last  long  enough  to  end  in  a  siege.  All  their  sheep  and 
poultry  being  confined  in  the  house  at  night,  the  bashaw's  army,  when 
here,  had  recourse  to  suffocating  the  inmates,  being  unable  to  starve  them 
cut."— See  Capt.  Lyon's  Travels  in  Northern  Africa,  p.  25. 

'  Travels  in  Greece,  .fee.  vol.  iv.  pp.  1.59,  190.  »  Travels,  p.  217. 

=  Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  iv.  p.  421.  See  also  Sir  R.  K.  Porter's  Travels 
in  Georgia,  Persia,  &c.  vol.  ii.  pp.  510 — 554.  for  a  description  of  the  caves 
m  the  mountain  of  Kerefto  (in  the  province  of  eastern  Courdiatan),  wliich 
tradition  states  to  have  beeo  anciently  used  for  the  same  purpose. 

*  Judith  i.  8. 

Vol..  II.  E 


leon  Bonaparte  from  Egypt  into  Syria,  Jews,  Gentiles. 
Saracens,  Christian  crusaders,  and  anti-christian  Frenchmen, 
Egyptians,  Persians,  Druses,  Turks,  and  Arabs,  warriors 
out  of  every  nation  which  is  under  heaven,  have  pitched  their 
tents  in  the  Plain  of  Esdraelon,  and  have  beheld  the  various 
banners  of  their  nation  wet  with  the  dews  of  Tabor  and  ot 
Hermon."^  This  plain  is  enclosed  on  all  sides  by  mountains  • 
the  hills  of  Nazareth  to  the  north, — those  of  Samaria  to  the 
south, — to  the  east,  the  mountains  of  Tabor  and  Herraon, 
and  Carmel  to  the  south-west.  The  Rev.  Mr.  Jowett,  in 
November,  1823,  counted  in  liis  road  across  this  plain  only 
five  very  small  villages,  consisting  of  WTetched  mud  hovels, 
chiefly  in  ruins,  and  only  a  very  few  persons  moving  on  the 
road  ;  so  that  to  this  scene  the  words  of  Deborah  might  again 
be  truly  applied  : — The  highways  were  unoccupied,-  the  in- 
habitants of  the  villages  ceased ,- — they  ceased  in  Israel.  (Judo-. 
V.  6,  7.)  The  soil  is  stated  to  be  extremely  rich ;  and  m 
every  direction  are  the  most  picturesque  views.^  The  plain 
of  Esdraelon  now  bears  the  name  of  Fooli,  and  has  been 
celebrated  in  modern  times  by  the  victory  which  Murat 
gained  over  the  Mamelukes  and  Arabs,  in  their  attempt  to 
relieve  Acri  or  Acre,  in  April,  1799.''  Mr.  Jowett  computes 
this  plain  to  be  at  least  fifteen  miles  square,  making  allow- 
ances for  some  apparent  irregularities.  Though  it  bears  the 
title  of  "  Plain,"  yet  it  abounds  with  hills,  which  in  the 
view  of  it  from  the  adjacent  mountains  shrink  into  nothing.* 

3.  The  Region  round  about  Jordan  (Matt.  iii.  5.)  com- 
prised the  level  country  on  both  sides  of  that  river,  from  the 
lake  of  Gennesareth  to  the  Dead  Sea.  Of  this  district  the 
Plai)i  of  Jericho,  celebrated  for  its "  fertility  and  the  intense* 
heat  that  prevails  there  during  the  hot  season,  forms  a  part ; 
as  also  do  the  Valley  of  Salt  near  the  Salt  or  Dead  Sea 
(where  David  defeated  the  Syrians  (1  Chron.  xviii.  3 — 8.) 
and  Amaziah  discomfited  the  Edomites),^  and  the  Plains  of 
Moab  where  the  Israelites  encamped,'"  and  which  are  also 
called  Shittim  in  Num.  xxv.  1.  Josh.  ii.  1.  and  iii.  1.,  the 
Plains  of  Shittim,  in  Num.  xxxiii,  49.  (marginal  rendering), 
and  the  Valley  of  Shittim,  in  Joel  iii.  18. 

VIII.  Frequent  mention  is  made  in  the  Scriptures  of 
Wildernesses  or  Deserts,  by  which  we  usually  understand 
desolate  places,  equally  devoid  of  cities  and  inhabitants. 
The  deserts  noticed  in  the  Bible,  however,  are  of  a  different 
description ;  as  the  Hebrews  were  accustomed  to  give  the 
name  of  desert  or  wilderness  to  all  places  that  were  not  cul- 
tivated," but  which  were  chiefly  appropriated  to  the  feeding 
of  cattle,  and«n  many  of  them  trees  and  shrubs  grew  wild. 
Hence  this  term  is  frequently  applied  to  the  commons  (as 
they  would  be  called  in  England)  which  were  contiguous  to 
cities  or  villages,  and  on  which  the  plough  never  came.  The 
wildernesses  or  deserts  of  Palestine,  therefore,  are  two-fold : 
some  are  mountainous  and  well  watered,  while  others  are 
sterile  sandy  plains,  either  destitute  of  water,  or  aflTording  a 
veiy  scanty  supply  from  the  few  brackish  springs  that  are 
occasionally  to  be  found  in  them;  yet  even  these  afford  a 
grateful  though  meagre  pasturage  to  camels,  goats,  and 
sheep. 

The  Deserts  of  the  Hebrews  frequently  derive  their  appel- 
lations from  the  places  to  whicn  they  were  contiguous. 
Thus, 

1.  The  Desert  or  Wilderness  of  Shur  lay  toward^  the 
northeastern  point  of  the  Red  Sea.  In  this  wilderness, 
Hagar  Avandered,  when  unjustly  driven  from  Abraham's 
house  by  the  jealousy  of  Sarah  (Gen.  xvi.  7.):  and  the 
Israelites  marched  through  this  wilderness  after  they  had 
miraculously  crossed  the  Red  Sea  (Exod.  xv.  22.)^ as'  they 
also  did  subsequently  through, 

2.  The  Wilderness  or  Desert  of  Paran,  which  lay  con- 
siderably more  to  the  south.  (Num.  x.  12.)  In  this  desert 
(which  was  situated  in  Arabia  Petraea,  near  a  city  of  the 
same  name),  Ishmael  resided  :  and  hence  Moses  sent  out 
spies  to  bring  intelligence  concerning  the  promised  land. 
(Num.  xiii.  3.)  The  Desert  of  Paran  "is  in  many  parts 
intersected  by  numerous  ravines  and  glens,  and  broken  by 
lofty  barriers.  Among  these,  the  noble  mountain  of  Paran, 
with  its  enormous  precipices,  is  only  a  long  day's  journey 

»  Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  iv.  pp.  255—258. 

0  Jowett's  Christian  Researches  in  Syria,  pp.  191,  1!S.  A  later  traveller 
estimates  the  length  of  the  valley  of  Esdraelon  at  twenty-four  miles,  aivl 
its  breadth  from  ten  to  twelve  miles.  Madden's  Travels  in  Turkey,  Sk- 
vol.  ii.  p.  305. 

'  Light's  Travels,  p.  201. 

8  Jowett's  Researches  iu  Syria,  pp.  301,  302.  .        . 

s  2  Kings  xiv.  7.   2  Chron.  xxv.  11.  >»  Num.  xxu.  1.  xxvi.3. 

«'  The  Arabs  to  this  day  give  the  appellation  of  Desert  to  any  eolittide, 
whether  barren  or  fertile.    Clarke's  Travels,  vol,  iv.  p.  422. 


34 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


[Paiit  I.  Chap.  II. 


distant,  and  always  in  sight  from  the  ncighhoiirhood  :  it  is 
capable  of  ascent  only  on  the  farthest  side,  and  that  not 
without  difficulty.  Around  its  base  are  flat  nlains  of  sand, 
well  adapted  to  large  encampments  :  here  ana  there,  at  long 
intervals,  a  clump  of  palm  trees  is  seen,  and  in  their  vicinity 
water  is  generally  found. "i 

3.  The  Dgsert  of  Sinai  was  that  in  tiie  vicinity  of  Mount 
Sinai  in  Arabia :  Jiere  the  Israelites  were  for  a  loner  time  en- 
camped, and  rccefved  the  chief  part  of  the  laws  delivered  to 
them  by  Jehovah  through  the  ministry  of  Moses. 

4.  The  Wilderness  of  Ziph  was  contiguous  to  a  town 
or  village  of  the  same  name,  and  here  David  concealed  him- 
self for  some  time.  (I  Sam.  xxiii.  M,  15.)  But  the  most 
celebrated  of  all  is, 

5.  The  Wilderness  or  Desert  of  Judah.  (Psal.  Ixiii. 
title.)  The  Desert  of  Juda-a  in  wliich  .lohn  the  Baptist 
abode  till  the  day  of  his  showing  wAo  Israel  (Luke  i.  PO.), 
and  where  he  first  taught  his  countrymen  (Matt.  iii.  1.  Mark 
i.  4.  John  X.  39.),  was  a  mountainous,  wooded,  and  thinly 
inhabited  tract  of  country,  but  abounding  in  pastures;  it  was 
situated  adjacent  to  the  Dead  Sea,  and  the  river  Jonlvin.  In 
the  time  of  Joshua  it  had  six  cities,  with  their  villages. 
fJosh.  XV.  61,  62.)  It  is  now  one  of  the  most  dreary  and 
desolate  regions  of  the  whole  country. 

6.  The  vast  Desert  of  Arabia,  reaching  from  the  eastern 
side  of  the  Red  Sea  to  the  confines  of  the  land  of  Canaan,  in 
which  the  children  of  Israel  sojourned  after  their  departure 
from  Egypt,  is  in  the  Sacred  Writings  particularly  called 
The  Desert  ;  very  numerous  are  the  allusions  matle  to  it, 
and  to  the  divine  protection  and  support  which  were  extended 
to  them  during  their  migration.  Moses,  when  recapitulating 
their  various  deliverances,  terms  this  desert  a  desert  laud  and 
woite  howling  wilderness  (Deut.  xxxii.  10.) — and  that  great 
and  terrible  wilderness,  wherein  were  Jieri/  serpents,  scorpions,^ 
and  dro'ight,  luhere  there  was  no  water.  (Deut.  viii.  15.) 
The  prophet  Hosea  describes  it  as  a  land  (f  great  drought 
(Hos.  xiii.  5.)  ;  but  the  most  minute  description  is  that  in 
.ler.  ii.  6. — a  hind  of  deserts  and  nf  pits,  a  land  of  drought, 
and  of  the  shadow  of  death, ^  a  land  that  no  man  pasted  through, 
and  where  rw  man  dwelt.  These  characteristics  of  the  desert, 
particularly  the  w^ant  of  water,  will  account  for  the  repeated 
murmurings  of  the  Israelites  both  for  food  and  water  (espe- 
cially the  latter) : '  and  the  extremity  of  their  suiferings  is 
thus  concisely,  but  most  emphatically  portrayed  by  the 
Psalmist,  (cvii.  5.)* 

Hungry  and  thirstu,  their  souis  FAiNTEi  in  them. 

In  this  our  temperate  climate,  surrounded  as  we  are  wilh 
perpetual  verdure  and  with  every  object  that  can  delight  the 
eye,  we  can  scarcely  conceive  the  horrors  encountered  by  the 
hapless  traveller  when  crossing  the  trackless  sands,  and  ex- 
posed to  all  tl'.e  ardours  of  a  vertical  sun.  The  most  recent 
as  well  as  tlie  most  graphic  descrii)tion  of  a  desert  (which 
admirably  illustrates  the  passages  above  cited)  is  that  given 
by  the  enterprising  traveller,  M.  Belzoni,  whose  researches 
have  contributed  so  much  to  the  elucidation  of  the  Sacred 
Writings.  Speaking  of  a  desert  crossed  by  him  in  Upper 
Egypt,  on  the  western  side  of  the  Red  Sea,  and  which  is 
parallel  with  the  great  desert  traversed  by  the  Israelites  on 
the  taslem  side  of  that  sea,  he  says,  "  It  is  diincnlt  to  form 
a  correct  idea  of  a  desert,  without  having  been  in  one  :  it  is 
an  endless  plain  of  sand  and  stones,  sometimes  intermixed 

«  Carne's  Recollections  of  the  East,  p.  278. 

'  Scoqilons  arc  numerous  in  the  desert  as  well  as  in  all  the  .iiljaccnl 
p.^rts  of  Pal>?«(inc  :  (lie  iiialiirnity  of  llirir  venom  is  in  prnporllon  to  llioir 
Mize  ;  anil  8er[ii?iit.s  of  lii  ry  biles  (as  tlio  Ariiliic.  vithIou  ri-ndura  Doiit.  viii. 
1.^.)  are  not  unfrcfiucnl.     Itiircklii'.ntt'K  Truvi.Is  in  Syria,  &.c.  |>|>.  I'JO,  .'iOO. 

'  This  cxprcBsion  lias  exercised  lli<:  ingenuity  of  coinnicnlators,  wliose 
<)|>inlons  arc  rerited  1)/  Mr.  Ilarmcr  ((Jbservationg,  vol.  iv.  p|>.  ll.'i,  \U>.); 
but  the  correctness  ol  llie  proplieiic  description  i.i  confirmed  by  tlie  exi.st- 
ence  of  a  tdmilar  clc.4ert  in  Persia.  It  is  a  tract  of  land  liroiccn  into  deep 
ravinfa,  ikslitnte  of  w/itp.r,  and  of  drenrinnna  without  entmplr.  The 
JVrfiims  have  nivr-n  to  it  tlie  extraordinary  but  fiiii'lialir.  iippcllalion  of 
Malek-cl-Mualri':rch,  or  thf.  Valley  of  the  An/^el  of  Death.  (Moricr's  Second 
Journey,  p.  1G6.)  At  four  lioiir.s'  distance  from  Die  promoiilory  of  Caiiuel. 
keeping  alotii;  the  roast,  Mr.  liuckin^hain  enlered  ii  dreary  pns.s  cut  out  of 
Ilii;  rock,  calliMl  Wimd-tlAjal,  literally,  the  Valley  nf  the  tihadnw  of  Death. 
Here  were  the  appearances  of  a  gate  bavin;;  onre  closed  it,  as  places  for 
hiUijes  were  huH  vImIjIc  ;  and  wluli;  ttie  centre  was  just  brond  enoiiKh  to 
aijniit  a  wheeled  carriage  or  loaded  camel,  there  were  on  each  side  raised 
causeways  liewn  out  of  the  rock,  as  if  for  benches  of  repose,  or  for  foot 
I»a8seng''rs.  (Buckingham's  Travels,  p.  122.)  It  was,  in  all  pnibablllly,  from 
some  similar  iiass  llial  the  son  of  Jcs^e  borrowed  the  figure  of  which  he 
makes  eo  .oiiblime  a  ii.sc  in  the  twenlv  third  pruilni. 

*  Sec  particularly  Niitii.  xx.  2— .5.  .-ind  xxi.  t. 

•  In  the  Christian  Observer  forlRIO,  pp.  1—9.  there  is  a  new  and  elegant 
version  of  tlie  bundml  and  seventh  psalm,  accompanied  wilh  critical  and 
explanatory  notes,  from  the  pen  of  Dishod  Jebb. 


with  mountains  of  all  sizes  and  heights,  without  roads  or 
shelter,  without  any  sort  of  produce  for  food.  The  few  scat- 
tered trees  and  shrubs  of  thorns,  that  only  appear  when  the 
rainy  season  leaves  some  moisture,  barely  serve  to  feed  wild 
animals,  and  a  few  birds.  Everything  is  left  to  nature;  the 
wandering  inhabitants  do  not  care  to  cultivate  even  these 
few  plants,  and  when  there  is  no  more  of  them  in  one  place 
they  go  to  another.  When  these  trees  become  old  and  lose 
their  vegetation,  the  sun,  which  constantly  beams  upon  them, 
burns  and  reduces  them  to  ashes.  I  have  seen  many  of  them 
entirely  burnt.  The  other  smaller  plants  have  no  sooner 
risen  out  of  the  earth  than  they  are  dried  up,  and  all  take  the 
colour  of  straw,  with  the  exception  of  the  plant  harrack;  this 
falls  oil  before  it  is  dry. 

"  Generally  speaking,  in  a  desert,  there  are  few  springs  of 
water,  some  of  them  at  the  distance  of  Lur,  six,  and  eight 
days'  journey  frnm  one  another,  and  not  all  of  sweet  water : 
on  the  contrary,  it  is  generally  salt  or  bitter ;  so  that  if  the 
thirsty  traveller  drinks  of  it,  it  increases  his  thirst,  and  he 
suffers  more  than  before.  But,  when  the  calamity  happens, 
that  the  next  well,  which  is  so  anxiously  sought  for,  isi^ounci 
dry,  the  misery  of  such  a  situation  cannot  be  well  described. 
The  camels,  which  afford  the  only  means  of  escape,  are  so 
thirsty,  that  they  cannot  proceed  to  another  well :  and,  if  the 
travellers  kill  them,  to  extract  the  little  liquid  which  remains 
in  their  stomachs,  they  themselves  cannot  advance  any  far- 
ther. The  situation  must  be  dreadful,  and  admits  of  no  re- 
source. Many  perish  victims  of  the  most  horrilde  thirst.  It 
is  then  that  the  value  of  a  cup  of  water  is  really  felt.  He  that 
has  a  zcnzabia  of  it  is  the  ricliest  of  all.  In  such  a  case  there 
is  no  distinction.  If  the  master  has  none,  the  servant  will 
not  give  it  to  him ;  f-r  very  few  are  the  instances  where  a 
man  v/ill  voluntarily  lose  hi-s  life  to  save  that  of  another,  par- 
ticularly in  a  caravan  in  the  desert,  where  people  are  stran- 
gers to  each  other.  IVhat  as'tuation  for  a  man,  though  a  rich 
one,  perhaps  the  owner  of  all  the  caravans  !  lie  is  di/ing  for  a 
cup  of  water — ito  one  gives  it  to  him — he  offers  all  he  possesses 
— ?io  one  hears  him — they  are  all  dying — though  by  walking 
a  few  hours  farther  they  might  be  saved. — If  the  camels  are 
lying  down,  and  cannot  be  made  to  rise — no  one  has  strength 
to  wal.'i — only  he  that  has  a  glass  of  that  precious  liquor  lives 
to  walk  a  mile  farther,  and,  perhaps,  dies  too.  If  the  voyages 
on  sens  are  dangerous,  so  are  those  in  the  deserts.  At  sea, 
the  provisions  very  often  fail ;  in  the  desert  it  is  worse  :  at 
sea,  storms  are  met  with ;  in  the  desert  there  cannot  be  a 
greater  storm  than  to  find  a  dry  well :  at  sea,  one  meets  with 
pirates — we  escape — we  surrender — we  die  ;  in  the  desert 
they  rob  the  traveller  of  all  his  property  and  water ;  they 
let  him  live  perhaps,  but  what  a  life !  to  die  the  most  barba- 
rous and  agonizing  death.  In  short,  to  be  thirsty  in  a  desert,, 
without  water,  exposed  to  tlie  burning  sun  without  shelter,  and 
NO  HOPES  of  finding  either,  is  the  most  terrible  situation  that  a 
man  can  be  placed  in,  and  one  of  the  greatest  sufferings  that  a 
human  being  can  sustain  .•  the  eyes  grow  inflamed ,-  the  tongue 
and  lips  swell ,-  a  hollow  sound  is  heard  in  the  cars,  which  Ijrings 
ini  deafness,  and  the  brains  appear  to  grotv  thick  and  injlamea  : 
all  these  feelintrs  arise  from  the  want  of  a  little  water.  In 
the  midst  of  allthis  misery  the  deceitful  morasses  appear  be- 
fore the  traveller  at  no  great  distance,  something  liKe  a  lake 
or  river  of  clear  fresh  water."  If,  perchance,  a  traveller  is 
not  undeceived,  he  hastens  his  pace  to  reach  it  sooner;  the 
more  he  advances  towards  it,  the  more  it  recedes  from  him, 
till  at  last  it  vanishes  entirely,  and  the  deluded  passenger 
often  asks,  where  is  the  water  he  saw  at  no  great  distance? 
He  can  scarcely  believe  that  he  was  so  deceived  ;  he  protests 
that  he  saw  the  waves  running  before  the  wind,  and  the  re- 
flection of  till!  high  rocks  in  the  water. 

"  If  unfortunately  any  one  falls  sick  on  the  road,  there  is 
no  alt(  rnative ;  lie  must  endure  the  fatigue  of  travelling  on  a 
camel,  which  is  troublesome  even  to  healthy  people,  or  he 
must  be  left  behind  on  the  sand,  without  any  assistance,  and 
remain  so  till  a  slow  death  come  to  relieve  him.  What  hor- 
ror !     What  a  bruUil  proceeding  to  an  unfortunate  sick  man ! 

•  Terrific  s.s  Iho  above  description  is,  It  is  confirmed  in  most  of  its  details  by 
Quint.  CurUuR;  who,  dc.srrihing  Ihi'pnssnge  of  Ale.vnnder  the  Great  and  his 
army  across  the  dcHrrtsofHogdiiina,  lliiisgiapliically  delineates  its  horrors: 
"AniidHt  a  dearth  of  water,  drspair  of  ol>lainlnB  any  kiiKlb-d  lliirtt  before 
nature  excited  it.  Tliroiichout  four  hundred  stadia  not  a  drop  ol  moistura 
springs.  As  soon  ns  the  fire  of  suiiiiiier  pervailes  the  sands,  every  ll>!n|l 
is  dried  up.  as  in  a  kiln  always  Ijurning.  Steaming  from  the  fervid 
erjianse,  irhirh  npptar.t  like  a  surface  of  sen,  a  cloiiihj  rapotn  diLikena 

the  day 77;e  hriit,  whirh  comiiirnces  "/  i/uif ",  exhausts  the  animal 

juire.1,  hliiler.i  the  sl;in,  ami  rauM's  iiilrrrial  injlavimalinn.  The  soldieri 
sunk  under  depression  of  .»pirits  caused  by  boJily  debility."  ttuint.  Curt, 
lib.  vil.  c.  5. 


Sbct.  II.] 


PRODUCTIONS  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


35 


No  one  remains  with  him,  not  even  his  old  and  faithful  ser- 
vant; no  one  will  stay  and  die  with  him ;  all  pity  his  fate, 
but  no  one  will  be  his  companion."' 

The  phenomenon,  here  described,  is  produced  by  a  dimi- 
nution of  the  density  of  the  lower  stratum  of  the  atmosphere, 
which  is  caused  by  the  increase  of  heat,  arising  from  that 
communicated  by  the  rays  of  the  sun  to  the  sand  with  which 
this  stratum  is  in  immediate  contact.  This  phenomenon  ex- 
isted in  the  great  desert  of  Judaea,  and  is  expressly  alluded  to 
by  the  sublime  and  elegant  Isaiah,^  wlio,  when  predicting 
the  blessings  of  the  Messiah's  spiritual  kingdom,  says, — 
The  gloiviiig  sand^  shall  become  a  pool, 
Jliid  the  thirsty  soil  bubbling'  springs. 

And  it  is  not  improbable  that  Jeremiah  refers  to  the  serab 
or  mirage  when,  in  pouring  forth  his  complaint  to  God  for 
mercies  deferred,  he  says,  fViU  thou  be  aliugdher  unto  me  as 
waieis  that  he  not  sure?  (marginal  rendering  of  Jer.  xv.  18.) 
that  is,  wKich  have  no  reality,  as  the  Septuagint  translators  have 
rendered  it,  iScep  -^wSk  ovk  «;^:v  ir/r/c 

Frightful  as  the  horrors  of  the  deserts  are,  they  are  aug- 
mented beyond  description,  should  the  traveller  be  overtaken 
by  one  of  those  sand-storms,  which  prevail  during  the  dry 
seasons.  Sometimes  the  high  winds  raise  into  the  air  thicK 
clouds  of  dust  and  sand,  which,  descending  like  a  shower  of 
rain,  most  grievously  annoy  all  among  whom  they  fall,  and 
penetrate  the  eyes,  nostrils,  ears,  in  short,  every  part  of  the 
numan  frame  that  is  exposed  to  it.  At  other  times  the  sands 
are  drifted  into  such  heaps,  so  that,  if  any  storm  of  wind 
should  arise,  the  track  is  lost,  and  whole  caravans  perish  in 
tlie  inhospitable  wilderness.  Such  are  the  showers  oi powder 
and  dust,  with  which  Moses  denounced  that  God  would 
scourge  the  disobedient  Israelites,  in  Deut.  xxviii.  24.'' 


SECTION  II. 

ON  THE  FERTILITY  AND  PRODUCTIONS  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 

I.  Fertility  of  the  Holy  Land. — II.  Its  productions  ; — 1.  Vege- 
tables; — 2.  Cattle  ; — 3.  j\Iines. — III.  Testimonies  of  ancient 
and  modern  axithors  to  its  fertility  and  popnlousness. — IV. 
Calamities  tvith  ivhich  this  country -vas  visited; — 1.  The 
Plagne ; — 2.  Earthquakes; — 3.  Whirlwinds; — 4.  The  de- 
vastations of  locusts  ; — 5.  Famine  ; — 6.  The  Simoom,  or 
pestilential  blast  of  the  desert.^ 

I.  MosES,  addressing  the  Israelites  a  short  time  before  his 
death,  characterized  the  country  whither  they  were  going  to 

«  Belzoni's  Narrative  of  liis  Operations  and  Researches  in  Esrypt,  &c. 
(4to.  London,  18v!0),  pp.  341 — 3-13.  In  anotlier  part  of  his  volume,  Mr.  B. 
more  particularly  describe.s  the  tniragc  (for  such  is  the  appellation  by 
whicli  this  plienomenon  is  now  commonly  known),  in  the  following  terms  : 
— "  It  generally  appears  like  a  still  lake,  so  unmoved  by  the  wind,  that 
every  tiling  above  is  to  be  seen  most  distinctly  reflected  by  it.  If  the  wind 
agitate  any  of  the  plants  that  rise  above  the  horizon  of  the  mirage, 
the  motion  is  seen  perfectly  at  a  great  distance.  If  the  traveller  "stand 
elevated  much  above  the  mirage,  the  apparent  water  seems  less  united 
and  less  deep  ;  for,  as  the  eyes  look  down  upon  it,  there  is  not  thick- 
ness enough  in  the  vapour  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  to  conceal 
the  earth  from  the  sight ;  but,  if  the  traveller  be  on  a  level  with  the  hori- 
zon of  the  mirage,  he  cannot  see  through  it,  so  that  it  appears  to  him  clear 
water.  By  putting  my  head  first  to  the  ground,  and  then  mounting  a  cairiel, 
the  height  of  which  from  the  ground  might  have  been  about  ten  feet  at 
tiie  most,  I  found  a  great  difTerence  in  the  appearance  of  the  mirage.  On 
approaching  it,  it  becomes  thinner,  and  appears  as  if  agitated  by  the  wind, 
like  a  field  of  ripe  corn.  It  gradually  vanishes,  as  the  traveller  approaches, 
and  at  last  entirely  disappears,  when  he  is  on  the  spot."  (p.  106.)  Dr. 
Clarke  has  described  the  mirage,  as  it  appeared  to  him  on  his  journey  to 
Rosetta,  in  \W\..  (Travels,  vol.  iii.  p.  371.)  Similar  descriptions,  but  none 
so  full  as  that  of  Mr.  Belzoni,  may  be  seen  in  Sir  J.  Malcolm's  Hist,  of 
Persia,  vol.  ii.  p.  .512.  ;  in  Elphinstone's  Account  of  the  Kingdom  of  Caubul 
(p.  16.  4to.  London,  1S15) ;  Kinneir's  Geographical  Memoir  of  the  Persian 
Empire  (p.  'S3.  4to.  London,  1813) ;  Lieut.  Pottinger's  Travels  in  Beloochis- 
tan  and  Simle  (p.  185.  4to.  London,  1816) ;  in  Dr.  Delia  Cella's  Narrative  of 
the  Bey  of  Tripoli's  Expedition,  in  1817,  to  the  Western  Frontier  of  Egypt, 
(p.  58.  London,  1822.  8vo.);  in  Mr.  Madden's  Travels  in  Turkey,  &c.  vol. 
ji.  pp.  199, 200.  London,  1829 ;  and  Mr.  Rae  Wilson's  Travels  in  the  Holy 
Land,  Egypt,  &c.  vol.  i.  p.  67.  Dr.  Henderson  has  described  the  Serab  as 
it  appeared  on  his  journey  towards  Kherson  in  the  Crimea,  Biblical  Re- 
searches,  pp.  278,  279.    (London,  1826.  8vo.) 

a  Lsa.  -xxxv.  7.   Bp.  Lowtl>'s  translation. 

3  The  phenomenon  referred  to  by  Isaiah,  is  termed  by  the  Arabs,  as 
well  as  by  the  Hebrews  aitf  (SeRaE) ;  and  to  this  day  the  Persians  and 
Arabs  make  use  of  it,  by  an  elegant  metaphor,  to  express  disappointed 
hope. 

♦  Frt^rments  supplementary  to  Calmet's  Dictionary,  No.  172.  In  the 
London  Weekly  Review,  No.  1.  (.June  9th,  1827),  there  is  an  animated  and 
graphic  delineation  of  one  of  these  terrific  sandstorms  in  the  desert,  ex- 
tracted from  the  manuscript  Jounial  of  the  intelligent  traveller  Mr.  Buck- 
ingham, who  was  exposed  to  its  fury  for  several  hours,  and,  with  his 
companions,  was  providentially  preserved  from  destruction. 

•  Besides  the  authorities  cited  in  the  course  of  this  section,  the  follow- 
ing works  have  been  consulted  lor  it ;  viz.  Relandi  Palffistina,  torn.  I.  pp. 
373—391. ;  sichulzii  Archoeologia  Hebraica,  pp.  9—16.  j  Pareau,  Antiquitas 


reside,  as  a  good  land — a  land  of  brooks  of  water,  of  foun- 
tains and  depths  that  spring  out  of  valleys  and  hills.  How 
justly  this  corresponded  with  the  actual  state  of  the  country, 
the  preceding  pages  have  shown : — Moses  further  added,  that 
it  was  a  land  of  wheat  and  barley,  and  vines  and  fig  trees,  and 
pomegranates,  a  land  of  oil,  olive,  and  honey,  whose  stones  ivere 
iron,  and  out  of  whose  hills  they  might  dig  brass.  The  enemi(!S 
of  Revelation,  forming  their  notions  of  its  former  exuberant 
fertility  from  the  prestnt  state  of  the  Holy  Land  under  the 
Turkish  government,  have  insinuated  that  it  never  could  have 
been  the  lovely  and  fertile  spot  which  the  Sacred  Writings 
affirm  it  to  have  been  :  but  a  concise  statement  of  its  produc- 
tions, as  we  may  collect  them  from  the  Scriptures,  together 
with  the  attestations  of  ancient  profane  writers,  as  well  as  of 
modern  voyagers  and  travellers,  will  all  concur  to  establish 
the  unimpeachable  veracity  of  the  inspired  writers. 

II.  The  Holy  Land  is  said  to  have  exceeded  even  the  very 
celebrated  land  of  Egypt,  in  the  abundance  of  its  Produc- 
tions. To  this  wonderful  fertility  many  circumstances  are 
supposed  to  have  contributed ;  such  as  the  generally  excel- 
lent temperature  of  the  air,  which  was  never  subject  to  ex- 
cessive heats  (except  in  the  plain  of  Jericho)  or  colds ;  the 
regularity  of  its  seasons,  especially  of  the  former  and  the 
latter  rain :  and  the  natural  richness  of  the  soil,  which  is  a 
fine  mould  without  stones,  and  almost  without  a  pebble. 

1.  A  plenty  of  Wheat  was  promised  to  tlie  Israelites  on 
their  obedience  (Psal.  Ixxxi.  16.  and  cxlvii.  14.) ;  and  so  abun- 
dant was  the  produce  of  the  wheat  and  barley,  that  sixty  and 
a  hundred  fold  xewaxdeA  the  toil  of  the  cultivator.  (Gen.  xxvi. 
12.  and  Matt.  xiii.  8.)  This  was  sometimes  stored  in  sub- 
terraneous granaries,  which  in  1  Chroii.  xxvii.  25.  are  termed 
storehouses  in  the  fields.  Such  granaries  are  still  in  use 
among  the  Moors.^  The  wheat  of  Minnith  and  Pannag  was 
particularly  celebrated,  and  so  plentiful  that  it  was  exported 
to  Tyre.  (Ezek.  xxvii.  17.)  In  the  treaty  concluded  between 
Solomon  and  Hiram  king  of  Tyre,  for  the  building  of  the 
temple,  the  Hebrew  monarch  was  to  supply  the  latter  annu- 
ally with  twenty  thousand  measures  of  wheat  for  food  to  his 
household  (1  Kings  v.  11.),  and  the  same  quantity  for  the  hew- 
ers that  cut  timber  (2  Chron.  ii.  10.),  together  with  an  equal 
number  of  measures  of  barley.  More  than  a  thousand  years 
after  this  time,  the  coasts  ot  Ti're  aud  Sidon  were  supplied 
with  corn  from  Palestine.  (Acts  xii.  20.) 

This  country  also  abounded  with  Honey,  not  only  that  made 
by  the  domesticated  or  hived  bees,  but  also  with  honey  made 
by  bees  in  a  wild  state,  and  deposited  on  rocks  and  in  the  hol- 
lows of  trees  (1  Sam.  xiv.  25.  Deut,  xxxii.  13.  Psal.  IxxxL 
16.),  which  formed  a  part  of  the  food  of  John  the  Baptist  in 
the  wilderness.  (Matt.  iii.  4.)  The  Mount  of  Olives  and 
other  districts  in  Judaea  and  Galilee  produced  the  finest  Olives  ; 
and  the  red  wines  of  Lebanon  were  particularly  celebrated  foi 
their  fragrance.  (Hos.  xiv.  7.)  The  wines  of  Helbon  fur- 
nished a  profitable  article  of  export  to  Damascus  (Ezek.  xxvii. 
18.) :  and  modem  travellers  attest  the  size  and  weight  of  tha 
clusters  of  Grapes  still  produced  in  Palestine,  wich  will 
account  for  the  spies  carrying  the  cluster  of  grapes  cut  down 
in  the  valley  of  Eshcol  (Num.  xiii.  23.)  between  two  upon 
a  staff. 

Various  herbs,  shrubs,  and  trees  imparted  beauty  and  fra- 
grance to  this  highly-favoured  land.  Among  the  herbs  and 
shrubs,  the  aloe  (Psal.  xiv.  8.  Prov.  vii.  17,  Sol.  Song  iv. 
14.),  the  hyssop''  (1  Kings  iv.  33.  Matt,  xxvii.  48.  Mark  xv. 
3G.),  the  rose,  especially  the  rose  of  Sharon  (Sol,  Song  ii,  1.), 
the  lily  (Ibid.  ii.  16.  iv.  5.  v.  13.  Matt.  vi.  28.),8  the  spike* 

Hebraica,  pp.  C3 — 66. ;  Jahn  et  Ackermann,  Archeeologia  Biblica,  §§  16.  22, 
23.  ;  Hassolquist's  Travels  ;  Dr.  Shaw's  Travels,  vol.  fi.  pp.  1.38—153. ;  anJ 
Volney's  Travels  in  Egypt  and  Syria,  vol.  i.  pp.  290—297.  The  testimony 
of  Volney  is  the  more  valuable,  as  he  was  through  life  an  inveterate  enemy 
of  the  Bible,  and  directed  his  great  talents  to  the  fruitless  task  of  destroy- 
ing its  credibility.  To  these  are  to  be  added  the  "  Economical  Calendar  of 
Pale.stiue,"  translated  from  the  Latin  of  John  Gottlieb  Buhle  by  the  editor 
of  Calmet's  Dictionary,  and  inserted  in  the  Fragments  supplementary  to 
that  work.  See  also  an  elaborate  and  pleasing  Disquisition  on  the  Agricul- 
ture of  the  Israelites,  by  the  Rev.  J.  Plumptre,  in  Nos.  I.  II.  and  IV.  of  Uie 
Investigator. 

6  Chenier,  Recherches  Historiques  surles  Maures,  torn.  iii.  p.  219. 

1  The  hyssop  is  a  low  shrubby  plant,  growing  in  the  east,  and  also  in  the 
south  of  Europe,  the  stem  of  which  usually  rises  to  about  a  foot  and  a  half  in 
height.  In  Palestine,  its  altitude  sometimes  exceeds  two  feet.  This  plant 
was  much  used  in  the  ancient  Hebrew  ritual  for  ceremonial  sprinkliii^s, 
&c.  (Heb.  ix.  16.  compared  with  Exod.  xii.  22.  and  Num.  xix.  18.)  The 
sponge  filled  with  vinegar,  which  was  presented  to  Jesus  Christ  upon  the 
cross  (John  xix.  29.),  was  most  probably  fastened  around  a  rod  of  hys.sop, 
two  or  more  feet  in  length,  which  was  sufficiently  long  to  enable  a  person 
to  reach  the  mouth  of  a  man  upon  the  cross.    Robinson's  Lexicon,  voce 

«  In  this  passage  Jesus  Christ  is  commonly  supposed  to  have  referred  to 
the  white  lily  or  to  the  tulip ;  but  neither  of  these  grows  wild  in  Palestine. 
It  is  natural  to  presume  that,  according  to  hie  usual  custom,  he  called  the 


3G 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


[Part  L  Chap.  U. 


mrA  (Mark  xiv,  3.  5.  Sol.  Sonir  i.  12.)  the  carob  treo  (x^tkv, 
Luke  XV.  G.),'  the  .^pina  Chriati  or  tliorn  of  Christ,-  the  man- 
srake  (a  species  of  melon),  (Gen.  XXX.  14.  Sol.  Song  vii.  13.), 
the  myrtle  (Isa.  xli.  19.  and  Iv.  13.  Zech.  i.  8.),'  and  the 
mustard  tree  (Matt.  xiii.  31,  3-2.),  may  be  distinctly  no- 
ticed.^ 

Although  modem  travellers  do  not  mention  the  existence 
of  any  woods  or  forests,  or,  indeed,  any  consideral)le  number 
of  trees,  yet  it  appears  that,  anciently,  the  Holy  Land  was 
veil  covered  with  wood.  We  read  of  several  Forests  and 
Woods  in  the  Sacred  Writings,  particularly, — 

(I.)  The  Forest  of  Cedars  on  Mount  Lebanon.  See 
1  Kings  vii.  2.  2  Kings  xix.  23.  Hos.  xiv.  5,  6.  Tliese  noble 
and  beautiful  trees,  which  are  unrivalled  in  grandeur  and 
beauty  in  tlie  vegetable  kingdom,  have  furnished  the  insnired 
Avriters  with  numerous  exquisite  similitudes.  "  To  break  the 
cedars,  and  shake  the  enormous  mass  in  which  they  grow, 
occur  among  the  figures  which  David  selects  to  express  the 
power  and  majest)'  of  Jehovah  (Psal.  xxix.  1,  5.),  to  the  full 
understanding  of  which  their  countless  number  at  one  period, 
and  vast  bulk,  ought  to  be  kept  in  view.  By  the  planting  of 
a  cedar  the  prophet  (Ezek.  xvii.  22.  24.)  has  described  the 
kingdom  of  Christ :  the  growth  and  extent  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament cliurch,  and  the  prodigious  increase  of  her  converts, 
are  also  beautifully  set  forth  by  the  Psalndst  under  this  em- 
blem. (Psal.  xcii.  12.)     Of  this  particular  wood,  we  find 

that  Solomon  made  himself  a  chariot.     (Song  iv.  11.) 

The  prosperity  of  the  righteous  is  compared  to  the  cedar ;  and 
it  is  further  employed  to  denounce  the  judgments  of  God  on 
men  of  proud  and  high  minds.  (Psal.  xxix.  4.)  The  conver- 
sion of  the  Gentiles  also  to  the  worship  of  the  true  God  is  ex- 
pressed in  terms  highly  beautiful  (Isa.  xxix.  17.  xxxii.  15.), 
as  also  the  prosperity  of  the  kingdom  of  Christ.  (Isa.  ii.  2.) 
Those  who  encompassed  the  priests  at  the  tltar  are  also  com- 
pared to  them,  as  also  the  glory  of  wisdom.  (Kcclus.  xxiv. 
la.)  It  may  be  further  added,  that  cedar  trees,  uniting  so 
many  qualities  well  adapted  for  building,  afforded  ample  ma- 
terials for  the  structure  of  the  temple,  and  v\'ere  sent  by  king 
Hiram  to  Solomon  for  that  purpose.  (I  Kings  v.  10 — 15.)'*-" 
Ever)'  thing  about  the  cedar  tree  has  a  strong  balsamic  odour : 
this  probably  is  the  smell  of  Lebanon^  mentioned  in  Sol.  Song 
iv.  11.  and  Hos.  iv.  IG. 

(2.)  The  Forest  ok  Oaks  on  the  mountains  cf  Bashan 
(Zech.  xi.2.)  :  we  may  judge  of  the  high  estimation  in  whicli 
tiiese  oaks  were  held,  from  an  incidental  exj)ression  of  the 


were  the  scenes  of  idohitrj'  in  those  remote  times,  on  account 
of  the  grateful  shelter  whicii  they  afforded  to  the  deluded 
worshippers.  The  prophet  Ezekiel  expressly  alludes  to  this 
practice.  (Ezek.  vi.  13.^ 

(3.)  The  Forest  or  \Vood  af  Ephraim,  which  the  children 
of  Ephraim  began  to  cut  down  (Josh.  xvii.  15.),  was  still 
standing  in  the  time  of  David  :  here  .Vbsalom  was  suspended 
from  an  oak,  and  was  slain.  (2  Sam.  xviii.  tj.  8.  17.)  The 
wood  in  the  vicinity  of  Betliel  mentioned  in  2  Kings  ii.  21. 
appears  to  have  been  part  of  the  wood  of  Ephraim. 

(4.)  Tiie  spacious  Forest  nf  Ihrdk  in  the  tribe  of  Judah, 

a'.tPiKion  of  his  lioarcrs  to  gome  otijoct  at  liand;  and  a.«  tho  ficMs  of  the 
Levant  are  «vi;rrun  witli  ilic  amanjlli't  liiftij,  whoKo  k"I<'cii  hh.icnou.s 
Uijwers,  hi  auliiuiii,  afTonl  one  ofihc  most  hiilliaiit  and  (ji'ijj;t?<)iis  ohjicis  hi 
nature,  the  ex|>reHHion  of  Holowun  in  all  liln  ^lunj  not  /ir.in^  arrnijeil  li/ir 
oriK  of  lliKnc,  is  pf-cuharly  appropriate.  Hhould  this  corijoclure  prove  cor- 
rect, wc  learn  aclironolopical  fact  reopeciing  tlicitcasun  of  the  year  wlieii 
t.'iciSeriuon  on  the  Mount  waHdehvered. 

•  "The  ino<lernfJri;eks  HliU  call  this  friiil  hy  the  Kanie name,  xipxria,  and 
sell  theiu  in  the  ni:'.rkeli.  They  an;  given  in  swine,  hut  notnjcctcdas  loud 
even  hy  man."    (Ilarlh-y'.s  ResearcheH  in  Greece,  p.  -.ill.) 

*>  'I'liis  shriih  in  Hii|i|Mi.s('d,  and  not  wilhont  reaHoii,  to  In;  Ihe  plant  which 
Bupplied  tlie  crown  ol  Ihnrns,  will;  which  nioekr-ry  decked  the  Suvionr'.s 
hrow  hcforc  hix  crucifixion.  For  Ihin  purj)0»e  it  must  have  hi.-en  very  lit; 
a.1  its  ihornii,  which  arc  an  inch  in  Icnirih,  are  very  altowji  and  Nliarp.  It  ii- 
no!  imlike  a  willow  in  growth  and  lle.xihiilly ;  and  a.s  the  leaves  (jrently  re. 
••'fulile  those  of  the  ivy,  it  is  not  improhuhie  lh.it  the  eni'iiiies  of  ChriKt 
Chose  it,  on  account  of  its  Kimilarily  lothe  plant  with  which  il  was  uhuhI  to 
crown  einiierors  and  senerid.i :  wo  that  c  iluiiiny,  iiiHult,  and  d'Tision  iiii;;hl 
be  meditated  in  the  verv  act  of  ])iiiiishmenl.  Ilassclcjuist's  Voyages  in  the 
Levant,  p.  2S8.     Three  Weeks  in  Palestine,  p.  Ki. 

*  From  the  passase  above  referred  to,  it  ciionld  aeom  that  the  myrtle  tree 
attained  a  r<insii|erahle  «i«e.  In  the  Morea,  nn  intellif;ent  traveller  (Mr. 
Kiiierson)  slUcH  Hint  lie  travelled  for  hours  llirongh  an  uncullivaieil  track, 
while  the  groves  of  myrllo  formeil  an  aliiio.>!t  contlniioiis  arhour  o\erhead, 
"covereil  here  and  there  with  its  delicate  while  l!owcrn,  and  e.xhaling  at 
every  motion  the  most  delicious  perfume,  whilsl  its  dark  jwiliKhed  leaveii 
conifjined  coolness  with  l)eanty."     I^etlera  from  the  JKgf^nn,  vol.  i.  p.  113. 

*  I'orcopiiMH  account.'  of  these  nndoiher  ve|;elalile«,  as  wtdKT'of  |!ie  ani- 
mul  ntid  mineriil  productions  iin'iitioneil  in  the  .''criptMres  (many  of  which 
i"  full.i  not  wiihiii  the  limits  of  this  work  to  notice),  the  reuUor  In  referred 
%o  Dr.  Harris's  Natural  History  of  the  Ilihie. 

•  lUc  Wilson'n  Travels  in  the  IIoI/  Uind,  <S:c.  vol.  ii.  p.  105.  3d  edition. 


to  which  David  withdrew  to  avoid  the  fury  of  Saul.  (1  Sam. 
xxii.  5.)     To  these,  perhaps,  may  be  added, — 

(5.)  The  Thickets  on  the  banks  of  the  .Jordan,  in  Zech. 
xi.  3.  termed  the  pride  of  Jwdan,  which  anciently  were  the 
coverts  of  wild  beasts,  and  are  to  this  day  composed  of  olean- 
ders, tamarisks,  and  other  shrubs. 

Among  the  trees,  which  adorn  Palestine,  the  Palm  tree 
claims  the  precedence  of  notice,  on  account  of  its  singular 
utility ;  it  alTords  a  grateful  shelter,  an  agreeable  fruit,  and  a 
most  delicious  wine.^  The  finest  palm  trees  grew  in  the 
vicinity  of  Jordan  and  Engeddi ;  and  they  still  flourish  in  the 
plain  of  Jericho,  which  city  was  anciently  termed  by  way  of 
distinction  the  City  (f  Palm  Trees.  In  1818,  however,  it« 
plantation  of  palm  trees  were  reduced  to  a'jout  one  dozen ;' 
and,  in  1825,  the  "  City  of  Palms"  could  not  boast  of  one  oi 
these  beautiful  trees  around  it.8  The  palm  trees  of  Judaea 
are  celebrated  by  Strabo,'-*  and  by  Josephus,'"  who  has  parti- 
cularly noticed  the  palm  trees  of  Jericho.  The"  palm  tree 
was  the  common  symbol  of  Palestine,  many  coins  of  Vespa- 
sian and  other  emperors"  being  extant,  in  which  Judaa  is 
personified  by  a  disconsolate  woman  sitting  under  a  palm 
tree.  A  vignette  of  one  of  these  is  given  in  p.  91.  supra. 
As  the  momentary  prosperity  of  the  wicked  is  frequently 
compared  to  the  transient  verdure  of  grass;  so  the  durable 
felicity  of  the  righteous  is  in  Psalm  xcii.  12.  likened  to  the 
lasting  strength  and  beauty  of  the  jialm  tree.  "  But  chiefly 
is  the  comparison  applicable  to  that  Just  One,  the  King  of 
Righteousness  and  Irec  of  Life;  eminent  and  upright;  ever 
verdant  and  fragrant;  uiulcr  the  greatest  pressure  and  weight 
of  sufferings,  still  ascending  towards  Heaven ;  alTording  both 
fruit  and  protection;  incorruptible  and  immortal. "'^ 

Besides  the  palm  trees,  Jericho  was  celebrated  for  its  fra- 
grant balsam,  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures  under  the  name  of 
the  Bal.m  of  GiLtAD.  (Jer.  viii.  22.  xlvi.  11.  Ii.  8.)  This 
balsam,  which  exudes  from  the  opobalsamnni  cr  halsam 
tree,  was  mentioned  by  Strabo;'-''  and  two  plantations  of  it 
existed  during  the  last  war  of  the  Jews  with  the  Romans,  for 
which  both  parties  fought  desperately, — the  Jews,  that  they 
might  destroy  them  ; — -the  Romans,  that  they  might  prevent 
them  from  destruction.  Since  the  country'  has  been  under  the 
government  of  the  Turks,  tho  Ijalm  cf  Gilead  has  ceased  to 
Ijo  cultivated  in  Palestine,  though  it  is  found  in  differt-nt  parts 
of  Arabia  and  I'-gypt.  At  present,  it  is  collected  chiefly  in 
Arabia,  between  Mecca  and  Medina,  and  is  therefore  some- 
times called  the  balm  of  Mecca.  Its  odour  is  exquisitely  fra- 
grant and  pungent.  It  is  very  costly,  and  is  still  in  the  highest 
esteem  among  the  Turks  and  other  oriental  nations,  both  as  a 
cosmetic  and  as  a  medicine  for  the  cure  of  external  wounds. 

Olive  trees  are  now,  as  anciently,  abundant  and  fruitful  ; 
and  the  culture  of  them  continues  to  form  a  particular  object 
of  attention.  'J'he  exi)ression — Oil  out  if  the  flint i/  rack 
(Deut.  xxxii.  13.)  plainly  denotes,  that  it  was  not  in  rich 
land  only  that  this  most  valuable  tree  should  grow;  but  that 
even  the  tops  of  the  rocks  would  aflbrd  sufficient  support  for 
olive  trees,  from  which  they  should  extract  abundance  of  oiL 
Accordingly  we  are  informed  tliat,  although  tlie  immediate 
vicinity  ot  .lerusalem  is  rugged  and  uncompromising,  yet  even 
there  the  olive  and  vine  might  flourish  untfer  proper  culture.'* 
V^arious  similitudes  are  derived  from  the  olive  tree  ])y  the 
inspired  writers  ;  as  well  as  from  the  vine,  which  aflords  a 
triple  produce  in  each  year. 

Po.megha.natk  and  Ai'pi.k  trees  were  likewise  cultivatetl 
to  a  considerable  extent  (Num.  xiii.  23.  Deiit.yiii.  8.  JoeK 
i,  12.),  as  also  was  the  aliufuul  tree,  whose  fruit  is  ripe  and 
fit  to  gather  about  the  middle  of  April.  The  citron  tree  was 
in  great  request  for  its  fragrant  and  refreshing  shade,  as  well 
as  ?or  its  delicious  fruit.  (Sol.  Song  ii.  3.  where  it  is  mis- 
translated ai)ple  tree.) 

Fui  trees  are  vt  r}-  common  in  Palestine,  and  flourisii  in  a 
dry  and  sandy  soil:  altliough  in  our  climate  they  are  little 
more  than  shrubs,  yet  in  the  East  they  attain  a  considerable 
iuight,  and  some  oV  them  are  capable  of  affording  shelter  to 
a  hu-ge  number  of  horsemen.  The  shade  of  the  fig  tree  is  very 
pleasant;  and  to  .^^7  tintlir  it  is  an  emblem  of  security  amf 
|)eace.  (Mic  iv.  4.)  Fig  trees  begin  to  sprout  at  the  tiii^ 
of  the  vernal  etjuinox.  (Luke  xxi.  21>,  30.    Matt.  xxiv.  32.) 

•  On  tho  varioua  pioduct«  of  the  palm  tree,  sec  Ktcmpfer's  Amceoilates 

Exotica-,  p.  Cil'i!'^ 

I  I>r.  Macrnirhaers  Travels  from  Moscow  to  Constantinople,  p.  306.  note. 

•  t^arne'h  l.eliers,  p.  '.tZ3. 

•  l,ll».  xvi  vol.  ii.  p.  lOte.  Oxon.  1H07.  folio. 

i«  !».•  lU  II  .lud.  hb.  I.  c.  6.  5  G.  lili  iv.  r..  H.  i3. 
.  •!  I)r.  Sliawhas  i-i.iimeraledUiein.     Travels,  vol.  ii.  p.  ITd. 
•»  Hn.  Home's  <  ouimenlary  on  TkbI.  xcii.  l-i.    (Works,  vol.  ii.  p.  I4C.) 

II  I.lb.  xvi  vol.  ii.  p.  lOsO. 

i«  Jowell'sKe«carclic6  in  Syria,  p.  300.  Dr.  A.  Clarke  on  Dcul.  xxxii.  U 


Sect.  II.] 


PRODUCTIONS  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


37 


The  fruit  makes  its  appearance  before  the  leaves  and  flowers, 
and  the  foliage  expands  about  the  end  of  March.  The  fig 
trees  of  Palestine  are  of  three  kinds  : — 1.  The  Untimely  fig, 
wliich  puts  forth  at  the  vernal  equinox,  and  before  it  is  ripe 
is  called  the  green  fig,  but  when  it  is  ripe  the  untimely  fig. 
(Sol.  Song  ii.  13.  Jer.  xxiv.  2.  Hos.  ix.  3.)  It  comes  to  ma- 
turity towards  the  end  of  June  (Matt.  xxi.  19.  Mark  xi.  13.), 
and  in  flavour  surpasses  the  other  kinds. — 2.  The  Summer  or 
dry  fig:  it  appears  about  the  middle  of  June,  and  is  ripe  in 
August. — 3.  The  Winter  fig,  which  germinates  in  August, 
ana  does  not  ripen  until  about  the  ena  of  November  :  it  is 
longer  and  of  a  browner  colour  than  the  others.  All  figs, 
when  ripe,  but  especially  the  untimely,  fall  spontaneously. 
(Nahum  iii.  12.)  The  early  figs  are  eaten,  but  some  are  dried 
in  the  sun,  and  preserved  in  masses,  which  are  called  cakes  of 
figs  in  1  Sam.  xxv.  18.  xxx.  12.  1  Chron.  xii.  40.  It  is  well 
known  that  the  fruit  of  these  prolific  trees  always  precedes 
the  leaves :  consequently,  when  Jesus  Christ  saw  one  of  them 
in  full  vigour  having  leaves  (Mark  xi.  13.),  he  might,  accord- 
ing to  the  common  course  of  nature,  very  justly  look  for  fruit, 
and  haply  find  some  boccores  or  early  figs,  if  not  some  winter 
figs  likewise  upon  it.  The  parable  in  Luke  xiii.  6 — 9.  is 
founded  on  the  oriental  mode  of  gardening  :  and  the  method 
of  improving  the  palm  (whose  bareness  may  be  remedied  in 
the  way  there  mentioned)  is  transferred  to  the  fig  tree. 

The"  Sycamore  tree  flourished  in  Palestine  as  well  as  in 
Egypt :  its  leaves  are  like  those  of  the  mulberry  tree ;  and  its 
sweetish,  watery,  but  somewhat  aromatic  and  not  disagree- 
able fruit,  comes  to  maturity  several  times  in  the  year,  with- 
out observing  any  certain  seasons.  It  resembles  that  of  the 
fig  tree  in  appearance,  but  differs  from  it  in  having  no  seeds 
within.  This  tree  does  not  grow  from  the  seed,  but  is  pro- 
pagated by  the  branch  :  it  produces  abundance  of  fruit,  which 
grows  in  a  peculiar  manner, — not  on  the  extremities  of  the 
boughs  as  in  other  trees,  but  near  the  trunk.  It  is  a  large 
tree,  attaining  a  considerable  height,  which  circumstance  will 
account  for  Zacchajus's  climbing  up  into  a  sycamore  tree  in 
order  that  he  might  see  Jesus.  Its  timber  appears  to  have 
been  anciently  used  in  building.  (Isa.  ix.  10.)  It  affords  a 
very  grateful  shade.  From  its  fruit  the  Arabs  extract  an  oil, 
which  they  sell  to  travellers,  who  keep  it  among  their  other 
holy  things,  and  pretend  that  it  possesses  a  singular  virtue  in 
curing  wounds,  for  which  reason  they  call  it  the  oil  of  Zac- 
chseus,  attriliuting  its  virtue  to  the  stay  which  Zacchseus 
made  upon  the  tree  !    (Luke  xix.  4.) 

The  Prickly  pear,  wluch  most  probably  is  the  thorns 
mentioned  in  Hos.  ii.  6.,  is  a  cumbrous  shrub,  which  grows 
to  a  prodigious  size,  and  affords  one  of  the  firmest  and  most 
secure  fences  imaginable.' 

2.  But  the  Holy  Land  was  eminently  distinguished  for  its 
abundance  of  Cattle,  to  the  management  and  rearing  of 
which  the  inhabitants  chiefly  applied  themselves.^  The  hilly 
country  not  only  afforded  them  variety  and  plenty  of  pasture, 
but  also  of  water,  which,  descending  thence,  carried  fertility 
into  the  low  lands  and  valleys.  The  most  celebrated  pasture 
grounds  were  on  each  side  of  the  river  Jordan,  besides  those 
of  Sharon,  the  plains  of  Lydda,  Jamnia,  and  some  others  of 
less  note.  The  breed  of  cattle  reared  in  Bashan,  and  on  the 
mountains  of  Gilead  and  Carmel,  were  remarkable  for  their 
size,  their  strength,  and  fatness,  to  which  there  are  frequent 
allusions  in  the  Scriptures.  The  cattle  of  the  Israelites  com- 
prised every  sort  of  animal  that  afforded  either  food  or  cloth- 
ing, or  was  applicable  to  other  useful  purposes,  as  sheep, 
oxen,  goats,  camels,  and  asses.  The  last-mentioned  animals 
were  of  a  more  handsome  form  than  are  seen  in  our  colder 
climate  ;  hence  they  were  chiefly  used  in  travelling  in  this 
hilly  country,  even  by  persons  of  rank.  Horses  do  not  appear 
to  have  been  in  use,  until  after  the  establishment  of  the 
monarchy.  The  various  rivers,  especially  the  Jordan,  the 
Lake  of  Tiberias,  and  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  afforded  great 
variety  and  plenty  of  Fish,  vast  quantities  of  which  were 

>  Rae  Wilson's  Travels  in  the  Holy  Land,  &c.  vol.  i.  p.  177.  o(\  edition.  For 
a  particular  account  of  the  vegetable  productions  of  the  Holy  Land,  the 
reader  is  referred  to  the  Hiero-Bolanicon  of  Celsius  (Upsalae,  1745— 1747,  in 
two  parts  or  vols.  8vo.) ;  and  for  its  zoology  to  the  Hierozoicon  of  Bochart 
(folio,  Lug.  Bat.  1714,  or  in  three  vols.  4to.  Lipsia;,  1793,  and  following 
years.)  The  reader  who  may  not  be  able  to  consult  these  elaborate  works, 
will  find  much  useful  information  concerning  the  plants  and  animals  of  the 
Holy  Land,  in  Professor  Paxton's  Illustrations  of  .Scripture,  part  ii.  vol.  i. 
pp.  297—567.  vol.  ii.  pp.  1—359. ;  and  particularly  in  Dr.  Harris's  Natural 
llistory  of  the  Bible,  already  referred  to. 

«  "The  whole  of  the  scenery  (says  Dr.  Richardson),  since  we  entered 
Palestine,  amply  confirms  the  language  of  Scripture,  that  this  is  aland  flow- 
ing with  milk  and  honey, — a  land  for  Hocks,  and  herds,  and  bees,  and  fitted 
for  the  residence  of  men,  whose  trade,  like  the  patriarchs  of  old,  was  in 
cattle."    Travels  along  the  Mediterranean,  «Ssc.  voL  ii.  p.  374. 


carried  Ho  Jerusalem,  and,  according  to  Jerome,  one  of  the 
gates  of  that  city  was  from  this  circumstance  denominated 
the  Fish-gate.  'I  he  Dead  Sea  furnished  abundance  of  salt  for 
curing  theii  fish,  for  which  purpose  it  was  said  to  be  superior 
to  every  other  kind  of  salt. 

3.  Although  we  have  no  evidence  that  the  Jews  WTOught 
any  Mines  of  iron  or  copper ;  yet  the  researches  of  modern 
travellers  have  ascertained  that  the  mountains  of  Palestine 
contain  iron,  particularly  those  whose  summits  and  sides  are 
occupied  by  the  industrious  Druses.  A  vein  of  coal  has  also 
been  discovered  :  but  there  is  no  one  to  sink  a  mine.  Report 
says,  that  there  was  anciently  a  copper-mine  at  Aleppo, 
which  (M.  Volney  is  of  opinion)  must  have  long  since  been 
abandoned.  These  facts,  however,  substantiate  the  accuracy 
of  IMoses  in  his  description  of  the  Promised  Land, — as  a 
land  whose  stones  are  iron,  and  out  of  whose  mountains  thou 
mayest  dig  copper  (Deut.  viii.  9.),  as  the  Hebrew  ought  to  be 
rendered,  there  being  no  such  thing  in  nature  as  a  brass  miue. 

III.  In  perusing  the  Scripture  accounts  of  this  highly- 
favoured  country  it  ought  to  be  considered  that  it  was  thea 
inhabited  by  an  industrious  people,  who  knew  how  to  improve 
every  inch  of  their  land,  and  by  their  good  husbandry  had 
made  even  the  most  desert  and  Darren  places  to  yield  some 
kind  of  production ;  so  that  the  very  rocks,  which  now  appear 
quite  naked,  then  yielded  either  corn,  pulse,  or  pasture. 
Every  man  had  his  own  land  to  improve  ;  and  when,  in  ad- 
dition to  these  facts,  it  is  considered  that  a  Avarm  country  will 
support  more  people  than  a  ccld  one,  the  people  in  southern 
climates  being  satisfied  with  less  food  than  in  northern ;  and 
that  the  dominions  of  David  and  Solomon  comprised  a  greater 
extent  of  territory  than  many  apprehend ;  we  can  be  at  no 
loss  to  account  for  the  vast  multitude  of  inhabitants,'  which 
the  Scriptures  assert  that  Palestine  anciently  supported,  espe- 
cially when  their  statements  of  its  fertilitj'^  and  population  are 
confirmed  by  the  testimonies  of  profane  historians. 

Thus,  Tacitus  describes  the  climate  as  dry  and  sultry ;  the 
natives  as  strong  and  patient  of  labour  ;  the  soil  as  fruitful, 
exuberant  in  its  produce,  like  that  of  Italy,  and  yielding  the 
palm  and  balm  tree.  Libanus  or  Lebanon  is  stated  to  be  ihe 
loftiest  mountain  in  the  country,  and  to  rise  to  a  great  height, 
affording  a  grateful  shade  under  its  verdant  groves,  and  even 
in  the  ardent  heat  of  that  sultry  region  as  being  covered  at 
the  top  with  perpetual  snow.^  Justin  confirms  the  account 
of  Tacitus,  respecting  the  exuberant  produce  of  Palestine,  it.s 
beautiful  climate,  its  palm  and  fragrant  balsam  trees.*  The 
palms  of  Judaea  are  celebrated  by  tlie  elder  Pliny  f  and  Am- 
mianus  Marcel) inus  commends  the  beauty  of  the  country,  and 
its  large  and  handsome  cities.''  But  the  most  memorable 
testimony  is  that  of  Josephus  the  Jewish  historian,  which 
appears  in  various  parts  of  his  ^Tilings.  Not  to  multiply 
unnecessary  examples,  we  may  state  briefly,  that  after  describ- 
ing the  boundaries  of  the  regions  of  Upper  and  Lower  Gali- 
lee, of  Peraea  and  Samaria,  he  speaks  of  their  fertility  and 
produce  in  the  following  terms : — 

The  two  Galilees  have  always  been  able  to  make  a  strong 
resistance  on  all  occasions  of  war :  for  the  Galileans  are 
inured  to  war  from  their  infancy,  and  have  always  been  very 
numerous.  Their  soil  is  universally  rich,  and  fruitful,  ana 
full  of  plantations  of  all  sorts  of  trees;  so  that  its  fertility  in- 
vites the  most  slothful  to  take  pains  in  its  cultivation.  Ac- 
cordingly the  whole  of  it  is  cultivated  by  its  inhabitants,  and 
no  part  of  it  lies  idle.  Although  the  greater  part  of  Peraea, 
he  continues,  is  desert  and  rough,  and  much  less  disposed  for 
the  production  of  the  milder  sorts  of  fruits,  yet  in  otner  parts 
it  has  a  moist  soil,  and  produces  all  kinds  of  fruits.  Its  plains 
are  planted  with  trees  of  all  sorts  ;  the  olive  tree,  the  vine, 
and  the  palm  trees  are  principally  cultivated  there.  It  is  also 
sufficiently  watered  with  torrents,  that  issue  from  the  moun- 
tains, and  with  springs  which  never  fail  to  run,  even  when 
the  torrents  fail  them,  as  they  do  in  the  dog-days.  Samaria 
is  entirely  of  the  same  nature  with  Judaea.  Both  countries 
are  composed  of  hills  and  vallej^s  ;  they  are  moist  enough  for 
agriculture,  and  are  very  fertile.  They  have  abundance  of 
trees,  and  are  full  of  autumnal  fruit,  both  of  that  which  grows 
wild,  and  also  of  that  which  is  the  effect  of  cultivation. 
They  are  not  naturally  watered  by  many  rivers,  but  derive 
their  chief  moisture  from  rain  water,  of  which  they  have  no 
want.     The  waters  of  such  rivers  as  they  have,  are  exceed- 

'  On  the  population  of  the  Holy  Land,  see  Michaelis's  Commentaries  on 
the  Laws  of  Moses,  vol.  i.  pp.  9&---U0. 
*  Taciti  Historia,  lib.  v.  c.  6. 

'  Justin.  Hist.  Philipp.  lib.  xxxvi.  c.  3.  e  Hist.  Nat.  lib.  xiii.  c.  (5. 

'  Lib.  .\iv.  c.  8.  vol.  i.  p.  29.  edit.  Bi.oont. 


38 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  HOLY  LAND. 


[Pabt  1.  Chap.  IT. 


injTly  sweet ;  and  in  consequence  of  the  excellence  of  their 
grass,  the  cattle  reared  in  these  countries  yield  more  milk 
than  do  those  of  other  places.' 

On  tlie  division  of  the  land  of  Canaan,  we  are  informed 
(Josh.  XV.  20 — 02.)  that  not  fewer  than  one  hundred  and  twelve 
walled  cities  fell  to  the  lot  of  the  tribe  of  Judah.  Many  cen- 
turies after^vards,  Josephus  states  that  the  ro^ions  of  Samaria 
and  Judaea  were  very  mil  of  people,  which  he  notices  as  the 
greatest  sign  of  their  excellency  ',-  that  in  the  two  Galilees 
the  villages  were  extremely  numerous  and  thickly  inhabited  ; 
and  that  there  also  were  groat  numhers  of  the  larger  cities, 
the  smallest  of  which  contained  a  population  of  fifteen  thou- 
sand souls.'  From  the  two  small  provinces  of  Upper  and 
Lower  (Jaliloe  alone,  Josephus  collected  an  army  of  more 
than  one  hundred  thousand  men.'  These  statements  abun- 
dantly confirm  the  narratives  of  the  sacred  historian  relative 
to  the  fertility  and  vast  population  of  the  Holy  Land.  Com- 
pare Num.  xi.  21.  Judg.  xx.  17.  1  Sam.  xv.  4,  1  Chron. 
xxvii.  4 — 15.  2  Sam.  xxiv.  9,  and  2  Chron.  xvii.  14 — 19. 
Nor  are  the  testimonies  less  satisfactory,  which  have  been 
given  by  Maundrell,  Shaw,  Hasselquist,  and  other  modern 
travellers,*  who  have  visited  this  countrj',  and  especially  by 
Dr.  Clarke,'^  who  thus  describes  its  appearance  between  Na- 
polose  or  Sichem  and  Jerusalem  ; — "  The  road,"  says  he, 
♦'  was  mountainous,  rocky,  and  full  of  loose  stones  ;  yet  the 
cultivation  was  every  where  marvellous  :  it  afforded  one  of 
the  most  striking  pictures  of  human  industry  which  it  is  pos- 
sible to  behold.  The  limestone  rocks  and  valleys  of  Juda:a 
Avere  entirely  covered  with  plantations  of  figs,  vines,  and  olive 
trees ;  not  a  single  spot  seemed  to  be  neglected.  The  hills, 
from  their  bases  to  their  upmost  summits,  were  entirely 
covered  with  gardens:  all  of  these  were  free  from  weeds,  and 
in  the  highest  state  of  agricultural  perfection.  Even  the  sides 
of  the  most  barren  mountains  had  been  rendered  fertile  by 
being  divided  i;ito  terraces,  like  steps  rising  one  above  an- 
other, whereon  soil  had  been  accumulated  with  astonishing 
labour.  Und<  r  a  wise  and  beneficial  government,  the  produce 
of  the  Holy  Land  v.-ould  exceed  all  calculation.  Its  perennial 
harvest ;  the  salubrity  of  its  air ;  its  limpid  springs ;  its  rivers, 
lakes,  and  matchless  plains  ;  its  hills  and  vales  :  all  these, 
added  to  the  serenity  of  its  climate,  nrove  this  land  to  be  in- 
deed a  yield  which  the  Lord  hatk  blessed  (Gen.  xxvii.  27.)  : 
God  hath  given  it  of  the  d-w  of  heaven,  and  the  fatness  of  the 
earth,  and  p lent i/  of  u>rn  and  wine.''''' 

Sueh  bejng  the  state  of  the  Holy  Land,  at  least  of  that 
part  of  it  which  is  properly  cultivated,  we  can  readily  account 
for  the  vast  population  it  anciently  supported  :  and  although 
this  country,  generally  speaking,  by  no  means  corresponds 
with  the  statements  we  have  of  its  former  exuberant  fertility 
and  population,  yet  this  is  no  contradiction  to  the  narrative 
of  the  sacred  writers.  The  devastations  of  the  Holy  Land 
by  the  Assyrians.  Chaldces,  Syrians,  Romans,  Saracens,  the 
Kuropean  crusaders,  and  Turks, — togeliier  with  the  oppres- 
sions of  the  inhabitants  by  the  Turks  in  our  own  tim<^  (who 
not  only  do  not  encourage  agricultural  industrj',  but  also  ex- 
tort to  the  uttermost  from  the  husbandmen)," — to  which  are 
to  be  added  the  depredations  of  robbers,  and  the  predatory  in- 
cursions of  the  Arabs. — all  crnicur  satisfactorily  to  account 
for  the  present  state  of  this  country  ;  and,  so  far  is  it  from 
contradicting  the  assertions  of  the  Sacr<  d  Writings,  that  it 
confirms  their  authority  ;  for,  in  the  event  of  the  Israelites 
proving  unfaithful  to  their  covenant  engairements  with  Jeho- 
vah, all  these  judgments  were  predicted  and  denounced 
against  them  (Lev.  xxvi.  32.  Deut.  xxix.  22.  et  w/.);  and 
the  exact  accomplishment  of  these  prophecies  alTords  a  ]ier- 
rnaiient  comment  on  the  declaration  of  the  myal  Psalmist, 
tiiat  a  rigiiteous  God  turneth  a  fruitful  land  into  barrenness, 

>  JoRcptiusdo  RpII.  Juil.  lib.  iii.  c.  3.  ii2,  3,  4. 

•  Iljifl.  III.,  iii.  c.  3.  }  4.  •  Ibid  lib.  Iii.  c.  3.  5  a 

•  Ibid.  lib.  il.  c.  20,  i6. 

•  Tlif  mom  iniporf.-.iil  I'ariB  rrlalivp  toth<>  frrtiliiv  of  P.ilcsline,  reconlod 
hy  Miiiixlrrll  niiil  Dr.  Sfi.iw,  riri'  rollfctcil  by  Dr.  M;irkrii;{bl  in  (liscoursi";) 
VI  mill  vij  pri'li.\c(l  lo  liio  lirnl  vdlutiio  ol  Iiih  H.-iriiiotiy,  nml  (ho  tnsliinoiiics 
r>r  U«.-iHi-li|iii^i  1111(1  oiliisrs  art-  i:iiIIii;|im|  by  Mr.  llariiM'i'.  (OlmiTvaiitiiiH,  vdI. 
'.  pp.  21  1— i'lO.)  Their  at'cnunlH  arc  i-orroborultil  l>y  Mr  lliirkinpbiiin,  in 
hill  rravi'lii  arnung  the  Arab  Tribes,  p.  Ml. 

•  Travels,  vol.  iv.  i)n.  2Si— VSTi. 

'  "  In  the  norlli  of  I'ali'Htinp,"  pays  a  roront  tr.ivrllor,  "  lliirr  nrc  rii.iny 
bcaiiliful  and  fRrlilc  Kpotx,  biil  not  »n  in  Jiidn-a.  Tin-  broalh  of  Jelinvih's 
vvra'ti  'lociim  in  a  ponili.ir  riianni.'r  lo  bav(>  blislcd  and  witliiucd  ilif  ii'rri- 
lory  ofltii;  (l.ini,'hl.r  of  y.i<t\\.  What  a  rlian^i!  Iia.<  bivn  vironaht  in  lb''  laiirl, 
once  llowin;;  wilb  milk  and  honey  !"—Sei'  llir  Jonnial  of  ihi;  Rpv  .(  Con- 
nor (who  was  In  Pab'xlirio  in  the  Hnring  of  the  year  l^an),  in  Ihc  Appendix 
lo  the  Rev.  Mr.  JowcU'a  Chriiitiun  RuscarchcainthcMrdilcrranunn,  p.  441. 
(London,  X'fO.   Svo  ) 

•  Vohiey  has  ({Iven  iomc  painfnilv  infroBtinK  dclniU  on  the  opprcsiiion 
oflhe  agriiMilicira!  inhabilnnt*  of  Palealiiie,  bv  their  barbarous  masters,  the 
Turks.    Travels  in  Egypii  &c.  vol.  ii.  pp.  311—317 


for  the  luichedness  of  them  that  dimll  therein.  (Psal.  cvii.  34.) 
"But  it  has  been  through  the  instrumentality  of  this  very 
wickedness, — the  increasing  wickedness  of  the  inhabitants, 
— that  the  awful  change  nas  been  effected.  \Vere  good 
government,  good  faith,  and  good  manners  to  flourish  in  this 
land  for  half  a  century,  it  would  literally  become  again  a 
land  Jloiving  with  milk  arid  hunei/  :  the  proper  iruits  of  the 
mountains,  honey  and  wax,  would  be  collected  by  the  indus- 
trious bee  from  myriads  of  fragrant  plants  :  the  plains,  the 
valleys,  and  the  upland  slopes,  would  yield  corn  for  man, 
and  pasturage  for  innumoranle  flocks  and  herds.  Such  a 
stupendous  and  delightful  change  might  well  gladden  not 
only  every  child  of  Israel,  but  the  heart  of  eVery  Christian."* 
IV.  Yet  lovely  as  Palestine  confessedly  was,  its  beauty 
and  the  comforts  it  aflbrded  were  not  unalloyed  :  among  the 
CALAMITIES  of  various  kinds,  which  at  different  times  visited 
the  inhabitants,  the  pestilence,  earthnuukes,  whirlwinds,  the 
devastations  of  locusts,  famines,  and  tne  pestilential  Simoom, 
demand  to  be  distinctly  noticed. 

1.  Palestine  is  now,  as  it  anciently  was,  often  afilicted 
with  the  Plague  ;  which  makes  its  entrance  from  Egypt 
and  the  neigl-.bouring  countries.  This  tremendous  scourge 
is  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Sacred  Writings.  From  the 
insidious  manner  in  which  it  is  first  introduced  into  a  coun- 
try, it  is,  perhaps,  termed  the  pejitilence  that  walketh  in  dark- 
nefts.  (Psal.  xci.  6.') 

2.  This  region,  being  mountainous  and  near  the  sea,  is 
often  shaken  by  Karthquakes,'"  from  which,  however,  Jeru- 
salem seems  to  have  suffered  little  if  at  all.  (Psal.  xlvi.  2 — 
5.)  Sometimes  thcFe  earthquakes  were  accompanied  by 
land-slips,  in  which  pieces  of  crround,  lying  on  a  declivity, 
are  removed  from  their  place.  To  these  (which  occasionally 
happen  in  the  present  day."  and  which  are  not  uncommon  in 
Baroary)'^  the  Psalmist  alludes  when  he  speaks  of  th.e  motm- 
taiiiis  bew^  carried  into  the  midft  of  the  sea  (Psal.  xlvi.  2.), 
of  their  skipping  like  rams,  and  the  little  hills  like  young  sheep 
(Ps.  cxiv.  4.  ().) ;  and  also  the  prophet  Isaiah  f  xxiv.  20.) 
when  ho  says  that  the  earth  shall  reel  to  end  fro  liKe  a  drunk- 
ard, and  shall  be  rerncved  like  a  cottage.  Tiiese  terrible  con- 
cussions have  supplied  tlie  sacred  prophets  and  poets  with 
numerous  figures,  by  which  they  have  represented  the  con- 
cussions and"-  subversions  of  states  and  empires.  See  par- 
tioularlv  Isa.  xxix.  G.  liv.  10.  Jer.  iv.  24.  Hag.  ii.  G,  7.  22. 
Matt.  xxiv.  7. 

3.  Tornadoes  or  Whirlwinds,  followed  by  thunder,  light- 
ning, and  rains,  were  also  very  frequent  diiring  the  win- 
ter and  cold  seasons.  Whirlwinds  often  preceded  rain.  In 
the  figurative  language  of  the  Scriptures,  these  are  termed 
the  commandment  and  the  toord  of  God  (Psal.  cxlvii,  15, 
18.)  ;'3  and,  as  they  are  sometimes  fatal  to  travellers  who  are 
overwhelmed  in  the  deserts,  the  rajiidity  of  their  advance  is 
elegantly  employed  by  Solomon  to  show  the  certainty  as  well 
as  the  suddenness  of  that  destruction  which  will  befall  the 
impenitently  wicked.  (Prov.  i.  27.)  They  arc  alluded  to  by 
Isaiah,  as  occurring  in  the  deserts  which  border  on  the  south 
of  Judaia  (Isa.  xxi.  1.);  and  they  appear  to  blow  from  vari- 
ous points  of  the  compass.  The  nrophet  Ezekiel  speaks  of 
one  that  came  from  the  north  (K/.ek.  i.  4.);  but  more  fre- 
quently it  blows  from  the  south  (Job  xx.xvii.  9.),  in  which 
case  it  is  generally  attended  with  the  most  fatal  consequences 
to  the  hapless  traveller.  Mr.  Morier,  describing  the  wliirl- 
wiiids  of  Per.-ia,  says,  that  they  swept  along  the  country  in 
different  directions,  iii  a  manner  truly  terrific.  "They  carried 
away  in  their  vortex  sand,  branches,  and  the  stubble  of  the 
fields,  and  really  appeared  to  make  a  coinmunication  between 
the  earth  and  the  clouds.  The  correctness  of  the  imagery 
used  by  the  prophet  Isaiah,  when  he  alludes  to  this  pheno- 
menonl  is  very  striking.  'J'he  wh:rlwind  shall  take  them  tnvai/ 
as  stubble.  (Isa.  xl.  24.)  Chased  as  the  chajf  if  the  mountains 
before  the  wind,  and  like  a  rolling  thing  before  the  whirlwind. 
(Isa.  xvii.  13.)  In  the  Psalms  (Ixxxiii.  13.)  wo  read.  Make 
thrill  like  a  wheel,-  as  the  sluhblr  l/ifuri  the  wind.  'I'his  is  hap- 
pily illustrated  by  the  rotatory  action  of  Uie  whirlwind,  which 

•  Jowpll'sJ-'liristian  Researches  In  Syria,  p.  3(0. 

'0  The  coaKi  in  Reneral,  aiid  imleed  the  whole  of  Asia  Minor,  in  still  sub- 
ject In  earlhi|tiakeH.  In  I7.V.I  there  happened  one,  which  rnimeil  the  Krealeot 
raVBires,  de«lroyiii»;  npwanl^  of  oil.ttHi  persons  in  the  valley  of  llalhee.  Kor 
three  months  tlie  bhiM'kK  of  it  ternlii  d  the  inliit>Ptant«of  J.eh.indn  vo  mhiiIi, 
that  lliey  abaiiiloned  Ihiir  hoiine«  and  ilwill  uniler  li-nl'i.  (Vihn  y'."  1 1  ;<• 
vein,  vol.  i.  p.  2.0  )  In  the  iitilnmn  of  |f*vSi  anolhiT  tremendous  earihipiaKc, 
or  riither  a  micce.tKioii  of  earthquakes,  desolaled  this  reyion. 

•  >  See  n  dewriptionof  one  in  Ihc  same  work,  vol.  i.  p.  278. 
•»  Hhaw'd  Travel.'i  in  llarbary,  Ac.  vol.  I.  pp.  'S7,  278. 

"  The  Arabs,  to  thi*  day,  call  Ihein  gnod  luwa  or  mr»»tnt;T»  :  and  in  the 
Koran  Ibey  are  (enncU  ihc  tent  of  God,  c.  77.  p.  477.  of  Sole'*  trauilatiou, 
4to.  edit. 


Sect.  II.] 


WHIRLWINDS,  AND  LOCUSTS, 


SO 


frequently  impels  a  bit  of  stubble  over  a  waste,  just  like  a 
wheel  set  in  a  rapid  motion."'  From  these  phenomena,  the 
sacred  writers  have  borrowed  many  very  expressive  figures 
and  allusions.  Compare  Psal.  xviii.  8 — 15.  xxix.  1 — 10. 
Iv.  8.  Ixxxiii.  15.  Isa.  v.  30.  viii.  7,  8.  xi.  15.  xxdii.  2.  xxix. 
6.  Jer.  xxiii.  19.  Matt.  vii.  25, 

What  tornadoes  are  on  land  water-spouts  are  at  sea,  the 
vacuum  being  filled  with  a  column  of  water,  instead  of  earth, 
sand,&c. — To  this  phenomenon  the  Psalmist  refers,  (xlii.  7.) 

4.  Frequently  the  country  was  laid  waste  by  vast  bodies 
of  migrating  Locusts,  whose  depredations  are  one  of  the  most 
terrible  scourges  with  which  mankind  can  be  afflicted.  By 
the  prophet  Joel  (ii.  11.)  they  are  termed  the  army  of  (lie 
Lord,  from  the  military  order  which  they  appear  to  observe : 
disbanding  themselves  and  encamping  in  the  evening,  and  in 
the  morning  resuming  their  flight  in  the  direction  of  the  wind, 
unless  they  meet  with  food.  (Nah.  iii.  17.  Prov.  xxx.  27.) 
They  lly  in  countless  hosts  (Jer,  xlvi.  23.  Judg.  vi.  5.),  so 
as  to  obscure  the  sun,  and  bring  a  temporary  darkness  upon 
the  land.  (Joel  ii.  2.  10.  Exod.  x.  15.)  The  noise  made  by 
them  is  compared  to  the  noise  of  chariots  (Joel  ii.  5.)  :  and 
wherever  they  settle,  they  darken  the  land.  (Exod.  x.  15.) 
If  the  weather  be  cold,  they  encamp  in  the  hedi^es,  until  the 
sun  rises,  when  they  resume  their  progress  (Nah.  iii.  17.), 
climbing  or  creeping  in  perfect  order.  Regardless  of  every 
obstacle,  they  mount  the  walls  of  cities  and  houses,  and  enter 
the  very  apartments.  (Joel  ii.  7 — 9.y  They  devour  every 
green  herb,  and  strip  the  bark  off  every  tree  (Exod.  x,  12. 
15,  Joel  i.  4.  7. 10.  12.  16.  18.  20.\  so  as  to  render  the  land, 
which  before  was  as  the  warden  of  Eden,  a  desolate  wilder- 
ness, as  if  it  had  been  laid  waste  by  fire.  (Joel  ii.  3.)  The 
noise  made  by  them,  when  committing  their  ravages,  is  com- 
pared to  the  cracklinff  noise  of  fire  among  the  dry  stubble,  or 
a  mighty  host  set  in  Dattle  array.  (Ibid.  5.)  So  fearful  are 
the  effects  of  their  devastations,  that  every  one  was  filled 
with  dismay  (Ibid.  6.),  and  vainly  attempted  to  prevent 
them  from  settling  on  their  grounds  by  making  loud  shouts 
rJer.  Ii.  14.),  as  the  inhabitants  of  Egypt,^  and  the  Nogai 
Tartars^  do  to  this  day.  What  aggravates  this  tremendous 
calamity  is,  that  when  one  host  is  departed,  it  is  succeeded 
by  a  second,  and  sometimes  even  by  a  third  or  a  fourth,  by 
which  every  thing  that  has  escaped  the  ravages  of  the  pre- 
ceding is  inevitably  consumed  by  the  last  company.  As 
Arabia  is  generally  considered  as  the  native  country  of  these 
depredators,  they  were  carried  thence  into  Egypt  by  an  east 
wind  (Exod.  x.  13.),  and  were  removed  by  a  westerly  wind 
(19.)  which  blew  from  the  Mediterranean  Sea  (that  lay  to 
the  north-west  of  that  countr)r)i  and  wafted  them  into  the  Red 
Sea,  where  they  perished.  On  their  departure  from  a  coun- 
try, they  leave  their  fetid  excrements  behind  them,  which 
pollute  the  air,  and  myriads  of  their  eggs  deposited  in  the 
ground,  whence  issues  in  the  following  year  a  new  and  more 
numerous  army.  They  are  generally  carried  oft'  by  the  wind 
into  the  sea,  where  they  perish  ;  and  their  dead  bodies,  putre- 
fying on  the  shore,  emit  a  most  offensive,  and  (it  is  said) 
sometimes  even  fatal  smell.  The  plague  of  locusts,  pre- 
dicted by  Joel,  entered  Palestine  from  llamath,  one  of  the 
northern  boundaries,  whence  they  are  called  the  northern 
army,  and  were  carried  away  by  the  wind,  some  into  the 

'  Moricr's  Second  Journey,  p.  202.  Mr.  Bruce,  in  his  Travels  to  discover 
the  source  of  the  Nile,  was  surprised  by  a  wliirlwind  in  a  plain  near  that 
•Mver,  which  lifted  up  acaniel  and  threw  it  to  a  considerable  distance,  witli 
6uch  violence  as  to  break  several  of  its  ribs  ;  whirled  himself  and  twoof  his 
servants  off  their  feet,  and  threw  them  violently  to  the  ground  ;  and  partly 
demolished  a  hut,  the  materials  of  which  were  dispersed  all  over  the  plain, 
leaving  the  other  half  standing.  Mr.  B.  and  his  attendants  were  literally 
plastered  with  mud;  if  dust  and  sand  had  risen  with  the  whirlwind  in  the 
same  proportion,  instead  of  mud,  they  would  inevitably  have  been  suffo- 
cated (Travels,  vol.  vi.  p.  346.); — a  disaster  which  the.1ate  enterprising  tra- 
veller Mr.  Park  with  difficulty  escaped,  when  crossing  the  great  desert  of 
Sahara  in  his  way  to  explore  the  sources  of  the  Niger.  Destitute  of  provi- 
sions and  water,  his  throat  pained  with  thirst,  and  his  strength  nearly  ex- 
hausted, he  heard  a  wind  sounding  from  the  east,  and  instinctively  opened 
his  parched  mouth  to  receive  the  drops  of  rain  which  he  confidently  ex- 
pected, but  il  was  instantly  filled  with  sand  drifted  from  the  desert.  So  im- 
mense was  the  quantity  raised  into  the  air  and  wafted  upon  the  wings  of 
the  wind,  and  so  great  the  velocity  with  which  it  flew,  that  he  was  compelled 
to  turn  his  face  to  the  west  to  prevent  suffocation,  and  continued  motion- 
less till  it  had  passed.    Park's  Travels,  p.  178. 

1  The  Rev.  Mr.  Hartley,  an  English  clergyman,  v?ho  visited  Thyatira  in 
June,  1.S2C,  thus  describes  the  ravages  of  these  destructive  insects: — "lam 
perfectly  astonished  at  their  multitudes.  They  are,  indeed,  as  a  strong 
people,  set  in  hat  lie  array  :  they  run  like  viighlij  men  ;  they  climh  the  walls 
like  men  of  war.  I  actually  saw  them  run  to  andfro  in  the  city  of  Thyatira ; 
they  ran  upon  the  wall ;  they  climbed  up  upon  the  hmises ;  they  entered  into 
the'jcindows  like  a  thief.  (Joel  ii.  5.  7. 9.)  This  is,  however,  by  no  means 
one  of  the  most  formidable  armies  of  locusts  which  are  known  in  these 
countries."  Missionary  Register,  July,  1827,  p.  328. 
>  Light's  Travels,  p.  56.     Belzoni's  Narrative,  p.  197.  f 

*  Baron  De  Toll's  Memoirs,  extracted  in  Harmer's  Observations;  vol.  iii. 
p.  319. 


dreary  plain  on  the  coast  of  the  East  (or  Dead)  Sea,  and 
others  into  the  utmoit  (or  Mediterranean)  Sea.  (Joel  ii.  20.) 
These  predatory  locusts  are  larger  than  those  which  some- 
times visit  the  southern  parts  of  Europe,  being  five  or  six 
inches  long,  and  as  thick  as  a  man's  finger.  From  their 
heads  being  shaped  like  that  of  a  horse,  the  prophet  Joel 
says,  that  they  have  the  appearance  of  horses  ,■  and  on  account 
of  their  celerity  they  are  compared  to  horsemen  on  full  gal- 
lop (ii.  4.),  and  also  to  horses  prepared  for  battle.  (Rev.  ix. 
7.)  The  locust  has  a  large  open  mouth  ;  and  in  its  two  jaws 
it  nas  four  incisive  teeth,  which  traverse  each  other  like  scis- 
sors, and  from  their  mechanism  are  calculated  to  grasp  and 
cut  every  thing  of  v.liich  they  lay  hold.  These  teeth  are  so 
sharp  and  strong,  that  the  prophet,  by  a  bold  fio^ure,  terms 
them  the  teeth  of  a  great  lion.  (Joel  i.  6.)  In  order  to  mark 
the  certaint}^,  variety,  and  extent  of  the  depredations  of  the 
locusts,  not  fewer  than  eight  or  nine  different  appellations,  ex- 
pressive of  their  nature,  are  given  to  them  in  the  Sacred 
Writings. 

Such  are  the  Scripture  accounts  of  this  tremendous  scourge, 
which  are  corroborated  by  every  traveller  who  has  visited  the 
East.  The  quantity  of  these  insects  (to  whose  devastations 
Syria,  Egypt,  and  Persia,  together  with  the  whole  middle 

Eart  of  Asia,  are  subject)  is  incredible  to  any  person  who 
as  not  himself  witnessed  their  astonishing  numbers.    Their 
numerous  swarms,  like  a  succession  of  clouds,  sometimes 
extend  a  mile  in  length,  and  half  as  much  in  breadth,  darken 
the  horizon,  and  intercept  the  light  of  the  sun.     Should  the 
wind  blow  briskly,  so  that  the  swarms  are  succeeded  by 
others,  they  afford  a  lively  idea  of  that  similitude  of  the 
Psalmist  (cix.  23._)  of  being  tossed  up  and  drjwn  as  the  l^Kiists. 
Wherever  they  alight,  the  land  is  covered  with  them  for  the 
space  of  several  leagues,  and  sometimes  they  form  a  be4  six 
or   seven   inches   thick.     The   noise    which   they  make   in 
browsing  on  the  trees  and  herbage  may  be  heard  at  a  great 
distance,  and  resembles  that  of  an  army  foraging  in  secret, 
or  the   rattling   of  hail-stones :    and,   whilst   employed   in 
devouring  the  produce  of  the  land,  it  has  been  observed,  that 
they  uniformly  proceed  one  way,  as  regularly  as  a  disciplined 
army  upon  its  march.    The  Tartars  themselves  are  a  less 
destructive   enemy   than   these  little   animals ;   one   would 
imagine  that  fire  had  followed  their  progress.     Fire  itself, 
indeed,  consumes  not  so  rapidly.     Wherever  their  myriads' 
spread,  the  verdure  of  the  country  disappears  as  if  a  covering 
had  been  removed ;  trees  and  plants,  stripped  of  their  leaves 
and  reduced  to  their  naked  Doughs  and  stems,  cause  the 
dreary  image  of  winter  to  succeed,  in  an  instant,  to  the  rich 
scenery  of   the  spring.     They  have  a  government  among 
them,  similar  to  that  of  the  bees  and  ants  ;  and,  when  their 
king  or  leader  rises,  the  whole  body  follow  him,  not  one 
solitary  straggler  being  left  behind  to  witness  the  devastation. 
When  these  clouds  of  locusts  take  their  flight,  to  surmount 
any  obstacle,  or  to  traverse  more  rapidly  a  desert  soil,  the 
heavens  may  literally  be  said  to  be  obscured  by  them.     In 
Persia,  as  soon  as  they  appear,  the  gardeners  and  husband- 
men make  loud  shouts,  to  prevent  them  from  settling  on  their 
grounds.     To   this  custom  the  prophet  Jeremiah,  perhaps, 
alludes,  when  he  says, — Surely  1  will  fill  thee  vdth  men  as 
with  locusts,  and  they  shall  lift  up  their  voice  against 
THEE.    (Jer.  Ii.  14.)     Should  the  inhabitants  dig  pits  and 
trenches,  and  fill  them  with  water,  or  kindle  fires  of  stubble, 
therein,  to  destroy  them,  rank  presses  on  rank,  fills  up  the 
trenches,  and  extinguishes  the  fires.     Where  these  swarms 
are  extremely  numerous,  they  climb  over  every  thing  in  their 
way,  entering  the  inmost  recesses  of  the  houses,  adhering  to 
the  very  clothes  of  the  inhabitants,  and  infesting  their  food.'^ 
Pliny  relates  that,  in  some  parts  of  Ethiopia,  the  inhabitants 
lived  upon  nothing  but  locusts  salted,  and  dried  in  the  smoke  ; 
and  that  the  Partnians  also  accounted  them  a  pleasant  article 
of  food. 5  The  modern  Arabs  catch  great  quantities  of  locusts, 
of  which  they  prepare  a  dish  by  boiling  them  with  salt,  and 
mixing  a  little  oil,  butter,  or  fat ;  sometimes  they  toast  them 
before  a  fire,  or  soak  them  in  warm  water,  and  without  any 
other  culinary  process,  devour  almost  every  part  except  the 
wings.'     They  are  also  said  to  be  sometimes  pickled  in 

5  Volney's Travels  in  Egypt  and  Syria,  vol.  i.  p.  286.  Harmer's  Observa- 
tions, vol.  iii.  p.  319.  Shaw's  Travels,  vol.  i.  pp.  340—343.  Morier's  Second 
Jotuney,  p.  100.  Sir  Wm.  Ouseley's  Travels  in  Persia  from  ISIO  to  1312, 
vol.  i.  pp.  195—200.  (4;o.  London,  1819.)  Mr.  Dodwell  has  given  an  interest- 
ing account  of  the  ravages  of  the  locusts  in  Greece;  where,  however,  they 
are  smaller  than  those  of  the  Levant.  See  his  Classical  and  Topographical 
Tour,  vol.  i.  pp.  214,  215. 

«  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  lib.  vi.  c.  30.  and  lib.  x.  c.  28. 

1  At  Busheher  [or  Bushire]  in  Persia,  Mr.  Price  saw  "  many  Arab  women 
employed  in  filling  bags  with  locusts,  to  be  preserved  and  eaten  like 
shrimps."  Journal  of  the  British  Embassy  to  Persia,  p.  6.  London,  1825.  fol 


40 


GOVERNMENT  FROM  THE  PATRIARCHAL  TIMES 


[Part  II. 


vinesfar.  The  locusts  which  formed  part  of  John  the  Baptist's 
food  (Mark  i.  6.)  were  these  iasecls,  and  not  the  fruit  of  the 
locust  tree.' 

5.  The  devastations  caused  by  the  locusts,  together  with 
the  absence  of  the  former  and  latter  rains,  were  generally 
followed  b\'  a  scarcity  of  provisions,  and'  not  unfrequently  by 
absolute  Famine,  which  also  often  prevailed  in  besieged 
i;itics  to  such  a  degree,  that  the  starving  inhabitants  have 
been  reduced  to  the  necessity  of  devouring  not  only  unclean 
animals,  but  also  human  flesh.  Compare  Deut.  xxviii.  22 — 
12.  56,  57.  2  Sam.  \xi.  1.  2  Kings  vi.  25 — 28.  xxv.  3.  .Ter. 
\iv.  15.  xix.  9.  xlii.  17.  Lam.  ii.  20.  iv.  10.  Ezek.  v.  10— 
12.  16.  vi.  12.   vii.  15. 

6.  But  the  greatest  of  all  the  calamities  that  ever  visited 
this  highly  favoured  country  is  the  pestilential  blast,  by  the 
Arabs  termed  the  Sam  wind,  by  the  Persians,  Samoun,  by 
the  Turks,  Simoom  or  Samiel,  and  by  the  prophet  Jeremiah, 
A  dry  wind  nf  the  high  places  in  the  wi/de7-7iess,  (Jer.  iv.  11.) 
It  blows  in  Persia,  Arabia,  and  the  deserts  of  Arabia,  during 
the  months  of  June,  July,  and  August;  in  Nubia  durin«' 
March  and  April,  and  also  in  September,  October,  and 
\ovember.  It.rarely  lasts  more  than  seven  or  eight  minutes, 
hut  so  poisonous  are  its  effects,  that  it  instantly  sufi'ocatcs 
those  wno  are  unfortunate  enough  to  inhale  it,  particularly  if 
It  overtake  them  when  standing  iniright.  Thevenot  mentions 
such  a  wind,  which  in  1658  suffocated  twenty  thcmsmid  men 
in  one  night;  and  another,  which  in  1655  sutfocated  four 
tknusand  persons.  As  the  principal  stream  of  this  pestilen- 
tial blast  always  moves  in  a  line,  about  twenty  yards  in 


breadth,  and  twelve  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  eartb, 
travellers  in  the  desert,  when  they  perceive  its  approacli, 
throw  themselves  on  the  ground,  witli  their  faces  close  to 
the  burning  sands,  and  wraj)  their  heads  in  tiieir  robes,  or  in 
a  piece  of  carpet,  till  the  wind  has  passed  over  Xhem.  The 
least  mischief  which  it  produces  is  the  drying  up  their  skins 
of  water,  and  thus  exposing  them  to  perish  with  tliirst  in  the 
deserts.  "V\'hen  this  destructive  wind  advances,  which  it 
does  with  great  rapidity,  its  approach  is  indicated  by  a  red- 
ness in  the  air;  ana,  when  sufficiently  near  to  admit  of  being 
observed,  it  appears  like  a  haze,  in  colour  resembling  the 
purple  part  of  the  rainbow,  but  not  so  compressed  cr  thick. 
vVlien  travellers  are  exposed  lo  a  second  or  third  attack  of 
this  terrible  blast  it  proauces  a  desperate  kind  of  indifference 
for  life,  and  an  almost  total  prostration  of  strength.  Camels 
and  other  animals  instinctively  perceive  its  approach,  and 
bury  their  mouths  and  nostrils  in  the  ground.  The  effects 
of  this  blast  on  the  bodies  of  those  whom  it  destroys  are 
peculiar.  At  first  view,  its  victims  appear  to  be  asleep  :  but 
if  an  arm  or  leg  be  smartly  shaken  or  lifted  up,  it  separates 
from  the  body,  which  soon  after  becomes  black.2  In  Per- 
sia, in  the  district  of  Dashlistan  a  sam  or  simoom  blew 
during  the  summer  months,  which  so  totally  burnt  up  all  the 
corn  (then  near  its  maturity^,  that  no  animal  would  eat  a 
blade  of  it,  ir  touch  any  oi  its  grain. ^  The  image  of  corn 
blasted  befin-c  it  be  grown  up,  used  by  the  sacred  historian  in 
2  Kings  xix.  26.,  was  most  probably  taken  from  this  or  some 
similar  cause.  The  Psalmist  evidently  alludes  (Psal.  ciii 
15,  16.)  to  the  desolating  influence  of  the  simoom. 


PART  II. 

POLITICAL    ANTIQUITIES    OF    THE    JEWS. 
CHAPTER  I. 

DIFFERENT  FORMS  OF  GOVERNMENT,  AND  POLITICAL  STATE  OF  THE  HEBREWS,  OR  JEWS,  FROM  THE 

PATRIARCHAL  'i'lMES  TO  THE  BABYLONIAN  CAPTIVITY. 

I.  Patriarchal  Government, — II.  Goveriimejit  vnder  Moses — a  Theocracy  ; — its  Mature  and  Design. — I.  J^'otices  of  the  Heads 
or  Princes  of  Tribes  and  Families. — 2.  Of  thp  .Tethronian  Prefects  or  Judges  appointed  by  JMoscs. — 3.  Of  the  Senate  or 
Council  of  Seventy  Assessors. — i.  Scribes. — HI.  Government  of  the  Judges. — IV.  Regal  Government  instituted ; — 1.  The 
Functions  and  Privileges  of  the  Kings  ; — 2.  Inauguration  of  the  Kings  ; — 3.  Chief  Distinctions  of  J\fajesty ; — 4.  Scriptural 
.illusions  to  the  Courts  of  ,Sovereig7is  and  Princes  explained. — V,  Pevenues  of  the  Kings  of  Israel. — VI.  Magistrates 
under  the  ^Monarchy. — VII.  Officers  of  the  Palace. — VIII.  The  royal  Harem. — IX.  Promulgation  of  Paws. — X.  Schism 
bet-ween  the  twelve  Tribes  ; — its  latent  Causes  ; — the  Kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Judah  founded ; — their  Duration  and  End. 
— XI.  Reasons  why  the  Kingdom  of  Judah  subsisted  longer  than  that  of  Ijriiel. — XII.  Stale  of  the  Hebrews  during  the 
Habylonish  Captivity. 

L  Of  the  forms  of  government  which  obtained  among   (Gen.  xxi.  14.)  Further,  the  patriarchs  could  pronounce  a  so- 


mankind  from  the  earliest  ages  to  the  time  of  Moses,  we 
have  but  little  information  communicated  in  the  Scriotures. 
The  simplicity  of  manners  which  then  prevailed  would  ren- 
der any  complicated  form  of  government  unnecessary-;  and 
accordingly  we  find  that  the  Patiuarchs,  that  is,  the  Heads 
or  Founuurs  of  Families,  exercised  the  chief  power  and  com- 
mand over  their  families,  children,  and  domestics,  without 
being  responsible  to  any  superior  authority.  Such  was  the 
government  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  rnd  Jacob.  So  long  as  tliey 
resided  in  the  land  of  Canaan,  they  were  siibjcct  to  no  foreign 
power,  but  tended  their  flocks  and  herds  vvlier(!ver  i\\v.y  chose 
to  go  (Gen.  xiii.  (>^12.),  and  vindicated  their  wrongs  by 
arms  whensoever  they  had  sustained  any  injury.  (Gen.  xiv.) 
They  treated  with  the  petty  kings  who  reigned  in  different 
parts  of  Palestine  as  their  efpials  in  dignity,  ami  concliKh^d 
treaties  witii  them  in  their  own  right,  ((un.  xiv.  13.  18 — 21. 
xxi.  22—32.  xxvi.  16.  27—33.  xxxi.  44— 5t.) 

The  patriarchal  power  was  a  sovereign  dominion  :  so  that 
parents  may  be  consi(U'red  as  the  first  kingn,  and  childrin 
the  first  subjects.  They  had  the  power  of  disinln'riling  their 
children  (Gen.  xlix.  3,  4.  1  Cnron.  v.  1.),  and  also  of 
punishing  them  with  death  (Gen.  xxxviii.  2t.),  or  of  dis- 
m  ssing   them   from   home  without   assigning   any  reason. 

t  8ir  Wm.  Ouselcy'ii  Travpla,  vol.  I.  p.  197  Dortwell'iiTnur,  vol.  i.  p.  215. 
Dr.  Delia  felltt'H  Travis  from  Barlmry  to  tliR  Wcdtrrn  rronlier  of  Egypt, 
p.  78.    Jacktfon's  Account  of  ilie  Empire  of  Marocco,  pp.  61— M. 


lemn  blessing  or  curse  upon  their  children,  which  at  that  time 
was  regardea  as  a  high  privilege  and  of  great  consequence. 
Thus  Noah  cursed  his  son  Canaan  ((^cn.  ix.  25.);  Isaac 
blessed  Jacob  (Gen.  xxvii.  2R,  29.  33.) ;  and  Jacob  blessed 
his  sons.  (Gen.  xlix.)  On  the  decease  of  the  father,  the 
eldest  son,  by  a  natural  right  of  succession,  inherited  the 
paternal  power  and  dominion,  which  in  those  days  was  one 
of  the  rignts  of  primogeniture.     To  this  right  the  sacerdotal 


I  the  rights  ot  primogemtui 
ignity,  in  the  first  ages,  sc 
iiat   the  heads  of  families 


dignity,  in  tiie  first  ages,  seems  to  have  been  annexed  ;  so 
that  the  heads  of  families  not  only  possessed  a  secular 
power,  but  also  officiated  as  priests  in  tne  families  to  which 
they  belonj^ed.    ((Jen.A-iii.  20.   xii.  7,  i^.   xxxv.  1 — 3.) 

Although  the  sons  of  Jacob  exercised,  each,  the  supremo 
power  in  iiia  own  family,  during  their  father's  life  (Gen. 
xxxviii.  21.),  yet  the  latter  aj)pears  to  have  retained  some 
authority  over  them.  fGen.  xlii.  1 — 1.  37,  38.  xliii.  1 — 13. 
1.  15 — 17.)  Afterwards,  however,  as  the  posterity"  of  Jacob 
increased,  in  l''gyi>t,  it  became  mcessary  to  have  magistrates 
or  governors,  invested  with  nuirc  extensive  authority;  these 
are  termed  Elders  (Kxod.  iii.  16.),  being  probably  chosen  on 
account  of  their  age  and  wisdom.  'I'he  shottrim  or  "  officers 
of  the  children  of  Israel"  (Exod.  v.  14,  15.  19.)  have  been 

»  Bnicc's  TravrU,  vol.  vi.  pp.  iK.  1C3.  I'M.  Iljirmor's  01.spr^•allon!^,  vol. 
Lpp.  iH— 96.  Sir  H.  K.  Porter's  TiaTils  in  Georgia,  Persia,  &c.  vol.  IL 
f.  230. 

>  Morier's  Second  Journey,  p.  43. 


CUAP,  I.] 


TO  THE  BABYLONIAN  CAPTIVITY. 


41 


conjectured  to  be  a  kind  of  magistrates  elected  by  them;  but, 
Jrom  the  context  of  the  sacred  historian,  they  rather  appear 
to  have  been  appointed  by  the  Egyptians,  and  placed  over 
the  Israelites  in  order  to  oversee  their  labour.' 

II.  On  the  departure  of  the  Israelites  from  the  land  of 
their  oppressors,  under  the  guidance  of  Moses,  Jehovah  was 
pleased  to  institute  a  new  form  of  government,  which  has 
been  rightly  termed  a  Theocracy  ;  the  supreme  legislative 
power  beino-  exclusively  vested  in  God  or  in  his  oracle,  who 
alone  coulcf  enact  or  repeal  laws.  The  Hebrew  government 
appears  not  only  designed  to  subserve  the  common  and  gene- 
ral ends  of  all  good  governments ; — viz.  the  protection  of  the 
property,  liberty,  safety,  and  peace  of  the  several  members 
of  the  community  (in  which  the  true  happiness  and  prospe- 
rity of  states  will  always  consist),  but  also  to  set  apart  the 
Hebrews  or  Israelites  as  a  hohj  people  to  Jehovah,  nnd  a  king- 
dom of  jyrieifs.  For  thus  Moses  is  directed  to  tell  the  chil- 
dren of  Israel,  Ye  have  seen  what  Ididunfo  the  Egyptians, 
and  how  I  bore  ysu  on  eagles'  wings,  and  brought  you  unto 
myself.  Now,  therefore,  if  ye  ivill  hear  my  voice  indeed,  and 
litep  mv  covenant,  then  ye  shall  be  a  peculiar  treasure  unto  me 
above  cill people,-  for  all  the  earth  is  mine,  and  ye  ghall  he  unto 
me  a  kingdom  of  priests  and  an  holy  nation.  (Exod,  xix.  3,  4, 
5,  G.)  We  learn  what  this  covenant  was  in  a  further  account 
of  it.  Ye  stand  this  day  all  of  you.  before  the  Lord  your  God, 
your  captains  of  your  tribes,  your  elders  and  your  officers,  and 
all  the  men  of  Ivrael;  that  you  slwuld  enter  into  covenant  ivith 
the  Lord  thy  God,  and  into  his  oath  which  the  Lord  thy  God 
raaketh  with  thee  this  day ,-  that  he  may  establish  thee  to-day  for 
a  people  unto  himself,  and  that  he  may  be  unto  thee  a  God,  as 
he  hath  said  unto  thee,  and  as  he  hath  sworn  unto  thy  fathers, 
to  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  to  Jacob :  for  ye  know,  adds  Moses, 
how  ive  have  dwelt  in  the  land  of  Egypt,  end  how  we  came 
through  the  nations  which  ye  passed  by ,-  and  ye  have  seen  their 
abominations  and  their  idols,  icood  and  stogie,  silver  arid  gold, 
which  loere  among  them,  lest  there  should  be  among  you,  man, 
or  tuoman,  or  family,  or  tribe,  whose  heart  turneth  away  this 
day  from  the  Lord  "our  God  to  go  and  serve  the  gods  of  these 
natiiins.  (Deut.  xxix.  10 — 18.) 

From  these  passages  it  is  evident  that  the  fundamental 

Srinciple  of  the  Mosaic  Law  was  the  maintenance  of  the 
octrine  and  worship  of  one  true  God,  and  the  prevention,  or 
rather  the  proscription  of  polytheism  and  idolatry.  The  cove- 
nant of  Jehovah  with  the  Hebrew  people,  and  their  oath  by 
which  they  bound  their  allegiance  to  Jehovah,  their  God  and 
Kinrr,  was,  that  they  should  receive  and  obey  the  laws  which 
he  sTiould  appoint  as  their  supreme  governor,  with  a  particu- 
lar engagement  to  keep  themselves  from  the  idolatry  of  the 
nations  round  about  them,  whether  the  idolatiy  they  had  seen 
while  they  dwelt  in  the  land  of  Egypt,  or  that  which  they 
had  observed  in  the  nations  by  Avhich  they  passed  into  the 
promised  land.  In  keeping  this  allegiance  to  Jehovah,  as 
their  immediate  and  supreme  Lord,  they  were  to  expect  the 
blessings  of  God's  immediate  and  "particular  protection  in  the 
security  of  their  liberty,  peace,  and  prosperity,  against  all 
attempts  of  their  idolatrous  neighbours;  but  if  they  should 
break  their  allegiance  to  Jehovah,  or  forsake  the  covenant 
of  Jehovah,  by  going  and  serving  other  gods,  and  worship- 
ping them,  then  they  should  forfeit  these  blessings  of  God's 
protection,  and  the  anger  of  Jehovah  should  be  kindled 
against  the  land,  to  bring  upon  it  all  the  curses  that  are  writ- 
ten in  the  book  of  Deuteronomy,  (xxix.  25 — 27.)  The  sub- 
stance, then,  of  this  solemn  transaction  between  God  and  the 
Israelites  (which  may  be  called  the  original  contract  of  the 
Hebrew  government)  was  this : — If  the  Hebrews  would  vo- 
luntarily consent  to  receive  Jehovah  as  their  Lord  and  King, 
to  keep  his  covenant  and  laws,  to  honour  and  worship  him 
as  the  one  true  God,  in  opposition  to  all  idolatry;  then, 
though  God  as  sovereign  of  the  world  rules  over  all  the  na- 
tions of  the  earth,  and  all  nations  are  under  the  general  care 
of  his  providence,  he  would  govern  the  Hebrew  nation  by 
peculiar  laws  of  his  particular  appointment,  and  bless  it  with 
a  more  immediate  and  particular  protection ;  he  would  secure 
to  them  the  invaluable  privileges  of  the  true  religion,  together 
with  liberty,  peace,  and  prosperity,  as  a  favoured  people 
above  all  other  nations.  This  constitution,  it  will  oe  ob- 
served, is  enforced  chiefly  by  temporal  sanctions,  and  with 
singular  wisdom ;  for  temporal  blessings  and  evils  were  at 
that  time  the  common  and  prevailing  incitements  to  idolatry: 
but  by  thus  taking  them  into  the  Hebrew  constitutiori,  as 
rewards  to  obedience  and  punishments  for  disobedience,  they 


»  Pareau  Antiquitas  Hobraica,  pp.  231- 
VoL.  II.  F 


-233. 


became  motives  to  continuance  in  the  true  religion,  instead 
of  encouragements  to  idolatry.^ 

In  the  theocracy  of  the  Hebrews,  the  laws  were  given  to 
them  by  God,  through  the  mediation  of  Moses,  and  they 
were  to  be  of  perpetual  force  and  obligation  so  long  as  their 
polity  subsisted.  The  judges  by  whom  these  laws  were 
administered  were  represented  as  holy  persons,  and  as  sitting 
in  the  place  of  God  (Deut.  i.  17.  xix.  17.)  :  they  were  usually 
taken  from  the  tribe  of  Levi ;  and  the  chief  expounder  of  the 
law  was  the  high-priest.  In  this  there  was  a  singular  pro- 
priety ;  for  the  Levites,  being  devoted  to  the  study  of  the 
taw,  were  (as  will  be  shown  in  a  subsequent  page)  the  literati 
among  the  Israelites.  In  difficult  cases  of  law,  however,"" 
relating  both  to  government  and  war,  God  was  to  be  con- 
sulted Dy  Urim  and  Thummim;  and  in  matters,  which  con- 
cerned the  welfare  of  the  state,  God  frequently  made  known 
his  will  by  prophets  whose  mission  was  duly  attested,  and 
the  people  were  bound  to  hearken  to  their  voice.  In  all  these 
cases,  Jehovah  appears  as  sovereign  king,  ruling  his  people 
by  his  appointed  ministers. ^ 

A  subordinate  design  of  this  constitution  of  the  Hebrew 
government  was,  the  prevention  of  intercourse  between  the 
Israelites  and  foreign  nations.  The  prevalence  of  the  most 
abominable  idolatry  among  these  nations,  and  the  facility 
with  which  the  Israelites  had,  on  more  than  one  occasion, 
adopted  their  idolatrous  rites,  during  their  sojourning  in  the 
wilderness,  rendered  this  seclusion  necessary,  in  order  to 
secure  the  fundamental  principle  of  the  Mosaic  law  above 
mentioned :  and  many  of  the  peculiar  laws  will,  on  this  prin- 
ciple, be  found  both  wisely  and  admirably  adapted  to  secure 
this  design.^ 

The  form  of  the  Hebrew  republic  was  unquestionably  de- 
mocratical ;  its  head  admitted  of  change  as  to  the  name  and 
nature  of  his  office,  and  at  certain  times  it  could  even  subsist 
without  a  general  head.  When  Moses  promulgated  his  laws, 
he  convened  the  whole  congregation  oi  Israel,  to  whom  he  is 
repeatedly  said  to  have  spmen;  but  as  he  could  not  possibly 
be  heard  by  six  hundred  thousand  men,  we  must  conclude 
that  he  only  addressed  a  certain  number  of  persons  who  were 
deputed  to  represent  the  rest  of  the  Israelites.  Accordingly 
in  Num.  i.  16.  these  delegates  or  representatives  are  tevmeJl 
mjjn  'Nnp  (kcruay  HOfDan),  that  is,  those  ivmt  to  be  called 
the  convention;  in  our  version  called  the  renowned  of  the  con- 
gregation,-  and  in  Num.  xvi.  2.  they  are  denominated  ijj^d 
'^it^-\p  mj7  ^KTJ  (NfsiAY  ED«H  KCRUAY  muocd),  that  is,  chicfs 
of  th^community,  or  congregation,  that  are  called  to  the  con- 
vention, in  our  version  termed,  famotcs  in  the  congregation^ 
men  of  renown.  By  comparing  Deut.  xxix.  10.'  with  Josh. 
xxiii.  2.  it  appears  that  these  representatives  were  the  heads 
oi  tribes  or  families,  ai\d  judges  and  officers;  and  Michaelis  is 
of  opinion  that,  like  the  members  of  our  British  House  of 
Commons,  they  acted  in  the  plenitude  of  their  own  power, 
without  taking  instruction  from  their  constituents.^ 

1.  Heads  or  Princes  of  Tribes  and  Families. — All  the 
various  branches  of  Abraham's  descendants,  like  the  ancient 
Germans  or  the  Scottish  clans,  kent  together  in  a  body  ac- 
cording to  their  tribes  and  families;  each  tribe  forming  a 
lesser  commonwealth,  with  its  own  peculiar  interests,  and 
all  of  them  at  last  uniting  into  one  great  republic.^  The 
same  arrangement,  it  is  well  known,  obtained  among  the 
Israelites,  who  appear  toliave  been  divided  into  twelve  great 
tribes,  previously  to  their  departure  from  Egypt.  By  Moses, 
however,  they  were  subdivided  into  certain  greater  families, 
which  are  called  ninoro  (M/sHPacHoxH)  or  families,  by  way 
of  distinction,  and  pun  \n3  (botcy  abotii)  or  houses  of  fathers 
(Num.  i.  2.  Josh.  vii.  14.);  each  of  whom,  again,  h'ad  their 
heads,  which  are  sometimes  called  heads  of  houses  Sf  fathers, 
and  sometimes  simply  heads.  These  are  likewise  the  same 
persons  who  in  Josh,  xxiii.  2.  and  xxiv.  1.  are  called  Elders. 
(Compare  also  Deut.  xix.  12.  and  xxi.  1 — 9.)     It  does  not 


«  Lowman  on  the  Civil  Government  of  the  Hebrews,  pp.  8—10.  See  also 
Dr.  Graves's  Lectures  on  Uie  I'entateuch,  vol.  li.  pp.  ill— 185.  for  some 
masterly  observations  on  the  introduction  of  temporal  sanctions  into  the 
Mosaic  law. 

'  .Michaelis's  Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of  Moses,  vol.  i  pp.  190—196. 

»  Ibiil.  vol.  i.  pp.  20-2-225.  Bvuning's  Aniiq.  Heb.  pp.  91—93.  Mr.  Low- 
man  (Civil  Government  of  the  Hebrews,  pp.  17— 31.)  has  illustrated  the  wis- 
dom of  this  second  design  of  tlie  Jewish  theocracy  by  several  pertinent  ex- 
amples. 

s  Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of  Moses,  vol.  i.  p.  231. 

"  In  this  manner  were  the  Ishmaelites  governed  by  twelve  princes  accord- 
ing to  the  number  of  Ishmacl's  sons  (Gen.  xxv.  16.) ;  and  the  Bedouins  their 
descendants  have  always  preserved  some  traces  of  this  patriarchal  govern- 
ment. Their  families  continue  together;  and  under  the  name  of  Dmir,  one 
is  prince  among  people,  who  are  all  his  kindred  within  a  certain  degree  of 
affinity.    Michaelis's  Commentaries,  vol.  i.  p.  232. 


42 


GOVERNMENT  FROM  THE  PATRIARCHAL  TIMES 


[Paiit  H 


appear  in  what  manner  these  heads  or  elders  of  families  were 
cnosen,  wlien  any  of  them  died.  The  princes  of  tribes  do 
not  seem  to  liave  ceased  with  the  commpncenient,  at  least, 
of  the  monarchy:  from  I  Chron.  xxvii.  Itj — 2-3.  it  is  evident 
that  they  subsisted  in  the  time  of  David ;  and  tlioy  must  have 
proved  a  powerful  restraint  upon  the  power  of  the  king. 

It  will  now  be  readily  conceived  how  the  Israelitisli  state 
mifjht  have  subsisted  not  only  without  a  king,  but  even  occa- 
sionally without  that  magistrate  who  was  called  a  Judge, 
flihough  we  read  of  no  supremo  council  of  the  nation.  Every 
tribe  had  always  its  own  mdepcrident  cliief  magistrate,  who 
may  not  inaptly  be  compared  to  the  lords-lieutenants  of  our 
British  counties;  subordinate  to  them,  again,  were  the  heads 
of  families,  who  may  be  represented  as  their  deputy-lieute- 
nants :  and,  if  there  were  no  general  ruler  of  the  whole  people, 
yet  there  were  twelve  smaller  commonwealths,  who  in  cer- 
tain cases  united  together,  and  whose  general  convention 
would  take  measures  for  their  common  interest.  In  many 
cases  particular  tribes  acted  as  distinct  and  independent  re- 
publics, not  only  when  there  was  neither  king  nor  judge,  but 
even  during  the  times  of  the  kings.  Instances  of  v/ars  being 
carried  on  by  one  or  more  particular  tribes,  both  ht  fore  and 
after  the  establishment  of  the  regal  government,  may  be  seen 
in  Josh.  xvii.  15 — 17.  .Tudg.  iv.  10.  and  xviii — xx.  1  (^hrcn. 
V.  18 — 23.  41 — 43.  It  appears  from  1  Chron.  xxiii.  11.  that 
a  certain  number  of  persons  was  necessary  to  constitute  a 
family,  and  to  empower  such  a  family  to  have  a  rejjresenta- 
tive  head ;  for  it  is  there  said  that  the  four  sons  of  Shimei 
had  not  a  numerous  progeny,  and  were  therefore  reckoned 
only  as  one  family.  Hence  we  may  explain  why,  according 
to  ^licah  V.  2.,  Bethlehem  may  have  been  too  small  to  be 
reckoned  among  the  families  oi  .Tudah.  It  is  impossible  to 
ascertain,  at  this  distance  of  time,  what  number  of  individuals 
was  recjuisite  to  constitute  a  house  or  family;  but  probably 
the  number  was  not  always  unifonn.' 

2.  The  Judges,  who  were  a])pointed  by  Moses,  had  also 
a  right,  by  virtue  of  their  office,  to  be  present  in  the  congre- 
gation, or  convention  of  the  state.  After  the  departure  of  the 
Israelites  from  Egypt,  ]\loses,  for  some  time,  was  their  sole 
judge.  Jethro,  his  father-in-law,  observing  that  the  daily 
duties  of  this  office  were  too  heavy  for  him,  suggested  to  him 
(subject  to  the  approbation  of  Jehovali)  the  institution  of 
Judges  or  rulers,  cf  fens,  of  fiflief,  of  hundreds,  and  of  thmt- 
iandx,  who  determined  every  aiTair  of  little  importance  among 
themselvi  s,  but  brought  the  hard  causes  to  Moses.  (Exod. 
xviii.  14 — 2(i.)  Of  the  judges  oitens,  therefore,  thera^must 
have  been  sixlij  tlicnuund;  of  the  judges  of  Jif/ies,tii(lve 
thousand;  of  the  judges  of  hundreds,  six  ihousund;  and  of 
the  judges  of  thousands,  six  hundred.  These  judges,  or 
Jethronian  prefects  (as  they  have  been  called),  seem  to  have 
been  a  sort  of  justice  of  the  peace  in  several  divisions,  pro- 
bably taken  from  the  military  division  of  an  host  into  thou- 
sands, hundreds,  fifties,  and  tens;  this  was  a  model  proper 
for  them  as  an  army  marching,  and  not  unsuitable  to  their 
settlement  as  tribes  or  families,  in  a  sort  of  counties,  hun- 
dreds, and  tithings.  Perhaps  our  old  Saxon  constitution  of 
sheriffs  in  counties,  hnndrcdws  or  centgraves  in  hundred.^,  and 
dcciiicrs  in  decennaries,  may  give  some  light  to  this  constitu- 
tion of  Moses.  Some  of  i:ur  legal  antiquaries  have  thought 
that  those  constitutions  of  the  Saxons  were  taken  from  tliese 
laws  of  Moses,  introduced  by  Alfred,  or  by  his  direction.^ 
It  is  not  jjrobable,  that  in  the  pidjlic  deliberative  assemblies 
the  whole  sixty  thousand  judges  of  tens  had  seats  and  voices, 
Michaelis  conjectures  that  only  tliose  of  hundreds,  or  even 
those  only  of  iliousands,  are  to  he  understood,  when  mention 
is  made  of  judges  in  the  Israelilish  conventions.^ 

But,  after  the  establisbinent  of  the  Hebrews  in  the  land  of 
Canaan,  as  they  no  longer  dwelt  together  in  round  nund)er3, 
Moses  ordained  that  judges  should  be  appointed  in  every 
city  (Deut.  xvi.  18.),  and  it  should  seem  that  they  were  chosen 
by  tlie  people.  In  succeeding  ages  these  judicial  offices  were 
filled  by  tlie  Levites,.  most  probably  because  they  were  the 
persona  best  skilled  in  thelaw  of  the  Helirews.  (See  1  ('hron. 
xxiii.  4.  xxvi.  29 — 32.  2(;hrnn.  xix.  8 — 11.  xxxiv.  13. )< 

3.  During  the  sojourning  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilder- 
ness, Moses  established  a  council  or  senate  of  seventy,  to 
assist  him  in  the  government  of  the  people.  The  Jewish 
rabbinical  writers,  who  have  exercised  their  ingrnuily  in 
conjecturing  why  the  number  was  limited  to  seventy,  have 


I  Michselis's  Comm«ntarlpii,  vol.  1.  pp.231— 23^1.  341. 
*  Uacon  on  Fnislish  <Jovorniiicnt,  parti,  p.  70.    Lowinan's  Civil  Govern- 
mfnt  nfOtr  Hc^r(•^v^  p.  102. 
'  Micliapliii'ii  Coinnicniarics,  vol  I.  p.  245. 
«  Ibid.  p.  :216. 


pretended  that  this  was  a  permanent  and  supreme  court  of 
judicature;  but  as  the  sacred  writers  are  totally  silent  con- 
cerning such  a  tribunal,  we  are  authorized  to  conclude  thai 
it  was  only  a  temporary  institution,  ^ftcr  their  return  from 
the  Babylonish  captivity,  it  is  well  known  tliat  the  Jews  did 
appoint  a  sanhc  drin  or  council  of  seventy  at  Jerusalem,  in 
imitation  of  that  which  Moses  had  instituted.*  In  the  New 
Testament,  very  frequent  mention  is  made  of  this  supreme 
tribunal,  of  which  an  account  will  be  found  in  a  subsequent 
chapter  of  this  volume. 

4.  Among  the  persons  who  appear  in  the  Israelitish  con- 
gregation or  diet  (as  Michaelis  terms  it),  in  addition  to  those 
already  mentioned,  we  find  the  Q-i<Bir  (shotcrim)  or  Scribes, 
It  is  evident  that  they  were  different  from  the  Jethronian  pre- 
fects or  judges ;  for  Moses  expressly  ordained  that  they  should 
not  only  appoint  ji'-'^lges  in  every  city,  but  also  shottrim  or 
scribes.  vVliat  their  functions  were,  it  is  now  difficult  to 
ascertain.  Michaelis  conjectures,  with  great  probability,  that 
they  kept  the  genealogical  tables  of  the  Israelites,  \\  ith  a 
faithful  record  of  births,  marriages,  and  deaths;  and  that  to 
them  was  assigned  the  duty  of  apportioning  the  public  bur- 
thens and  services  on  the  people  individually.,  Under  the 
regal  government,  these  scribes  were  generally  taken  from 
the  tribe  of  Levi.  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  4.  2  Chron.  xix.  8 — 11. 
and  xxxiv.  13.)  In  Deut.  xxix.  10,  xxxi,  28,  Josh.  viii.  33. 
and  xxiii.  2.  we  find  them  as  representatives  of  the  people  in 
tlie  diets,  or  when  they  entered  into  covenant  with  God.  In 
time  of  war  they  were  charged  with  the  duty  of  conveying 
orders  to  the  army  (Deut.  xx.  5.)  ;  and  in  2  Chron,  xxvi.  11. 
we  meet  with  a  scribe,  who  appears  to  have  been  what  is  now 
termed  the  niuster-ma.sier-gentral,'^ 

III,  On  the  death  of  Moses,  the  command  cf  the  children 
of  Israel  was  confided  to  Joshua,  who  had  been  his  minister 
(Exod.  xxiv.  13.  Josh,  i,  1.  )  ;  and  under  whom  the  land  of 
Canaan  was  subdued,  and  divided  agreeably  to  the  divine  in- 
junctions. On  the  death  of  Joshua' and  of  the  elders  of  his 
council,  it  appears  that  the  people  did  not  choose  any  chief 
magistrate  or  counsellors  in  their  place.  The  consequence 
(as  might  naturally  be  expected)  was  a  temporary  anarchy, 
in  which  we  are  told  that  every  man  did  what  was  right  In 
his  ov.  n  eyes.  (Judg.  x.\i,  25. J  This  state  of  things  occa- 
sioned the  government  of  Israel  to  be  committed  to  certain 
supreme  magistrates,  termed  Judges.  Their  dignity  was,  in 
some  cases,  fi.'r  life,  but  not  always :  and  their  office  was  not 
hereditary,  neither  was  their  succession  constant.  There  also 
were  anarchies,  or  intervals  of  several  years'  continuance, 
during  which  the  Israelites  groaned  under  the  tyranny  of 
their  oppressors,  and  had  no  governors.  But  though  God 
himseli  did  regularly  appoint  the  judges  of  the  Israelites,  the 
people  nevertheless,  on  some  occasions,  elected  him  who  -ap- 
peared to  them  most  proper  to  deliver  them  from  their  imme- 
diate oppression  :  thus  Jephthah  was  chosen  by  the  Israelites 
beyonu  Jordan,  As,  however,  it  frequently  happened  that 
the  opjjiession  which  rendered  the  assistance  of  judges  neces- 
sary were  not  felt  equally  over  all  Israel,  so  the  nower  of 
those  judges,  who  were  elected  in  order  to  procure  their  deli- 
verance from  such  servitudes,  did  not  extend  over  all  the 
people,  but  only  over  that  district  which  they  had  delivered. 
Thus  Jephthah  did  not  exercise  his  authority  on  this  side 
Jordan,  neillier  did  Barak  exercise  his  judicial  power  beyond 
that  river.  'I'he  authority  of  the  j-udges  was  not  inferior  to 
tliat  which  was  afterwards  exercised  by  the  kings:  it  ex- 
tended to  ])eace  and  war.  They  decided  causes  without  ap- 
peal ;  but  they  had  no  power  to  enact  new  laws,  or  to  impose 
new  burthens  upon  the  people.  They  were  protectors  of  the 
laws,  deiicnders  of  religion,  and  avengers  of  crimes,  particu- 
larly of  idolatry,  which  was  liicrh-treason  against  Jehovah  tlieir 
Soveriigii.  further,  these  judges  were  without  pomp  or 
s])leudour,  and  destitute  of  guards,  train,  or  equipage  :  unless 
indeed  their  own  wealth  might  enable  tliem  to  make  an  ap- 
pearance suitable  to  their  dignity.  Their  income  or  revenue 
arose  solely  from  presents.  'Hiis  form  of  administration 
subsisted  from  Joshua  to  Saul,  during  a  period  of  about  339 
years.' 

IV.  At  length  the  Israelites,  we;ir}'  of  having  God  for  their 
sovereign,  and  provoked  by  the  misconduct  of  the  sons  of 
the  jtidge  and  proj)bet  Samuel,  who  in  bis  old  age  bad  asso- 
ciated them  witl)  himself  for  the  administration  of  affairs,  de- 
sired a  Kino  to  be  set  over  them,  to  judge  them  like  all  the 

»  MIclisollg's  Commrnlarif  9,  vol.  I.  pp.  !M7— 249. 

•  Iliiil  pp  'JJO— ar.l. 

'  TiippairK  I.rcturps  on  Jpwisli  Anliquitlcg,  p.  77.  Mirliantls's  rommen- 
tarie«,  vol  i.  pp.  202—204.  Dr.  Oraves'a  Lectures  on  llic  Pcnuicucli,  vol. 
li.  pp.  95-104. 


Chap.  l.J 


TO  THE  BABYLONIAN  CAPTIVITY. 


43 


nations  (1  Sam.  viii.  5.),  thus  undesignedly  fulfilling  the  de- 
siorns  of  the  Almighty,  who  had  ordained  that  in  the  fulness 
ot^time  the  Messiah  should  be  born  of  a  royal  house. 

1.  Such  a  change  in  their  government  Moses  foresaw,  and 
accordingly,  by  divine  command,  he  prescribed  the  following 
laws,  both  concerninfT  their  election  of  a  king,  and  also  for 
the  direction  of  their  future  sovereigns,  which  are  recorded  in 
Dent.  xvii.  II — 20. 

(l.)  The  right  of  choice  was  left  to  the  people,  but  with 
this  hmitation,  that  they  must  always  elect  a  native  Israelite, 
and  not  a  foreigner.  One  from  among  thy  brethren  shall  thou 
set  king  over  thee :  thou  mayst  not  set  a  stranger  over  thee, 
which  is  not  thy  bi'other. 

This  was  a  v,-ise  and  patriotic  law,  Avell  adapted  to  inspire 
a  just  dread  of  foreign  intriguers  and  invaders,  and  an  united 
vigilance  in  repulsmg  sucn  persons  from  the  government. 
"  One  who  is  born  and  educated  in  a  community,  is  its  natu- 
ral brother:  his  habits,  attachments,  and  interests  strongly 
link  !;im  to  it ;  while  the  sentiments,  feelings,  and  interests 
oF  a  stranger  do  often  as  naturally  connect  him  with  a  foreign 
country,  and  alienate  him  from  that  in  which  he  resides."  But 
this  statute  did  not  apply  to  the  case  of  the  nation  being  at 
any  time  subjected,  by  force  of  arms,  to  a  foreign  prince; 
though  the  Pharisees  afterwards  so  explained  it.' 

(2.)  The  Israelites  were  on  no  account  to  appoint  any  one 
to  oe  their  king,  who  was  not  chosen  by  God.  Thou  shall  in 
any  wise  set  him  king  over  thee  ivhom  the  Lord  thy  God  shall 
choose. 

Accordingrly,  he  appointed  Saul,  by  lot,  to  be  their  first 
king ;  David,  by  name,  to  be  their  second ;  Solomon,  his  son, 
to  be  his  successor;  and  then  made  the  regal  government 
hereditary  in  David's  family.  But  this  law  did  not  extend 
to  their  subsecjuently  electing  every  individual  king  :  for,  so 
long  as  the  reigning  family  did  not  violate  the  fundamental 
laws  of  the  theocracy,  they  would  continue  to  possess  the 
hrone  ;  but  if  they  tyrannized,  they  would  forfeit  it. 

With  regard  to  the  external  (qualifications  which  the  Jews 
appear  to  have  demanded  in  their  kings : — comeliness  of  per- 
son and  talluess  of  stature  seem  to  have  been  the  principal 
requisites.  Thus,  althouofh  Saul  was  constituted  Kin^  of 
Israel  by  the  special  appointment  of  God,  yet  it  appears  to 
have  been  no  inconsiderable  circumstance  in  the  eyes  of  the 
people  that  he  was  a  choice  young  man  and  goodly,  and  that 
there  was  iwt  among  the  children  of  Israel  a  goocllier  person 
than  he .-  from  the  shoulders  and  upwards  he  was  higher  than 
any  of  the  people.  (1  Sam.  ix.  2.)  And  therefore  Samuel 
said  to  tiie  people,  when  he  presented  Saul  to  them :  See  ye 
him  whom  the  Lord  hath  chosen,  that  there  is  7wne  like  him 
among  all  the  people.  (1  Sam.  x.  24.)  Hence,  also,  David  is 
said  to  have  been  ruddy,  ivithal  of  a  heautiful  countenance, 
and  goodly  to  look  to.  (1  Sam.  xvi.  12.)  The  people  of  the 
East  seem  to  have  had  a  regard  to  these  personal  q^ualities  in 
the  election  of  their  kings,  in  addition  to  those  ot  strength, 
courage,  and  fortitude  of  mind ;  and  it  was  such  a  king  as 
their  neighbours  had,  whom  the  Israelites  desired. 

(3.)  The  king  was  not  to  ntultiply  horses  to  himself,  nw 
cause  the  people  to  return  to  Egypt  to  the  end  that  he  should 
multiply  horses.'^ 

This  prohibition  was  intended  to  prevent  all  commercial 
intercourse  with  Egypt,  and,  consequently,  to  preserve  them 
from  being  contaminated  with  idolatry ;  and  also,  by  restrain- 
ing the  Jews  from  the  use  of  cavalry  in  war,  to  lead  them  to 
trust  implicitly  in  the  special  protection  of  the  Almighty, 
from  whose  pure  worship  they  might  be  seduced  by  extending 
their  dominions  among  the  neighbouring  idolatrous  nations 
by  means  of  cavalry. 

(4.)  The  king  was,  further,  prohibited  from  multiplying 
wives  to  himself,  that  his  heart  turn  not  aivay  from  the  law  and 
worship  of  the  God  of  Israel,  by  his  being  seduced  into  idol- 
atry in  consequence  of  foreign  alliances.  How  grossly  this 
law  was  violated  by  Solomon  and  other  monarchs  the  history 
of  the  Jews  and  Israelites  abundantly  records,  together  with 
the  fatal  consequences  of  such  disobedience. 

»  It  was  on  the  ground  of  this  law  that  the  Pharisees  and  Herodians  pro- 
nosed  tliat  insidious  question  to  Jesus  Christ,— Zs  it  laxcfiil  to  give  tribute 
to  Cesar,  or  no  ?  (Matt.  xxii.  17.)  for,  at  that  time,  they  were  under  the 
authority  of  a  foreigu  power  which  they  detested.  Had  Christ  replied,  Yb.=:, 
then  they  woulil  have  condemned  him  by  tliis  law.  Had  he  answered,  No, 
then  they  would  have  accused  him  to  Casar.  (Dr.  A.  Clarke  on  Deut.  zvii. 
15.  In  his  Commentary  on  Matt,  x.xii.  IG— 5S.  he  has  discussed  this  import- 
ant subject  In  great  detail  and  with  ecjual  ability.) 

»  This  law  was  to  be  a  standing  trial  of  prince  and  people,  whether  they 
had  trust  and  confidence  In  God  their  deliverer.  Sec  Bp.  Sherloclc's  Dis- 
courses on  Prophecy,  Disc.  iv. ;  where  he  has  excellently  explained  the 
reason  and  effect  of  the  law,  and  the  influence  which  the  observance  or 
neglect  of  it  had  in  the  affairs  of  the  Israelites. 


(5.)  In  order  to  prevent  or  restrain  that  royal  avarice  or 
luxury,  for  which  oriental  monarchs  have  always  been  dis- 
tinguished, the  king  was  forbidden  greatly  to  multiply  to  him- 
self silver  and  gold;  lest  the  circulation  of  money  should  be 
obstructed,  industry  discouraged,  or  his  subjects  be  impove- 
rished. 

_  (6.)  In  order  that  they  might  not  be  ignorant  of  true  reli- 
gion, and  of  the  laws  of  the  Israelites,  the  king  was  enjoined 
to  write  out,  for  his  own  use,  a  correct  copy  of  the  divine 
law ;  which  injunction  was  intended  to  rivet  this  law  more 
firmly  in  his  memor>',  and  to  hold  him  in  constant  subjection 
to  its  authority.  For  the  same  purpose  he  was  required  to 
read  in  this  copy  all  the  days  of  his  life,  that  he  may  learn  to 
fear  the  Lord  his  God,  to  keep  all  the  vjords  of  this  law,  ana 
these  statutes,  to  do  them. 

Thus  the  power  of  the  Israelitish  kings  was  circumscribed 
by  a  code  oi  fundamental  and  equal  laws,  provided  by  infi- 
nite wisdom  and  rectitude.  With  regard  to  actual  facts,  it  ap- 
pears from  1  Sam.  x.  25.  compared  with  2  Sam.  v.  3.  1  Kings 
xii.  22 — 24.  and  2  Kings  xi.  17.  that  the  Israelitish  kings 
were  by  no  means  possessed  of  unlimited  power,  but  were 
restricted  by  a  solemn  stipulation ;  although  they  on  some 
occasions  evinced  a  disposition  leaning  towards  despotism. 
(1  Sam.  xi.  5 — 7.  and  xxii.  17,  IS.)^  They  had,  however, 
the  right  of  making  war  and  peace,  as  well  as  tlie  power  of 
life  and  death ;  and  could  on  particular  occasions  put  criminals 
to  death,  without  the  formalities  of  justice  (2  Sam.  i.  5 — 15. 
iv.  9 — 12.);  but,  in  general  they  administered  justice;  some- 
times in  a  summary  way  by  themselves  where  the  case  ap- 
peared clear,  as  David  did  (see  2  Sam.  xii.  1 — 5.  xiv.  4 — 11. 
and  1  Kings  ii.  5 — 9.),  or  by  judges  duly  constituted  to  hear  and 
determine  causes  in  the  king's  name.  (1  Chron.xxiii.  4.  xxvi. 
29 — 32.)  Michaelis  thinks  it  probable  that  there  were  supe- 
rior courts  established  at  Jerusalem,  in  which  David's  sons 
presided,  and  that  in  Psal.  cxxii.  5.  there  is  an  allusion  to 
them ;  but  no  mention  is  made  of  a  supreme  tribunal  in  that 
city  earlier  than  the  reign  of  Jehoshapnat.  (2  Chron.  xix.  8 
— 11.)  Although  the  kings  enjoyed  the  privilege  of  grant- 
ing pardons  to  offenders  at  their  pleasure,  without  consulting 
any  person ;  and  in  ecclesiastical  affairs  exercised  great  power, 
sometimes  deposing  or  condemning  to  death  even  the  high- 
priest  himself  (1  Sam.  xxii.  17,  187  1  Kings  ii.  26,  27.),  and 
at  other  times  reforming  gross  abuses  in  religion,  of  which 
we  have  examples  in  the  zealous  conduct  of  Hezekiah  and 
Josiah ;  yet  this  power  was  enjoyed  by  them  not  as  absolute 
sovereigns  in  their  own  right.  They  were  merely  the  vice- 
roys of  Jehovah,  who  was  the  sole  legislator  of  Israel:  and, 
therefore,  as  the  kings  could  on  no  occasion,  either  enact  a 
new  law  or  alter  or  repeal  an  old  one,  the  government  conti- 
nued to  be  a  theocracy,  as  well  under  their  permanent  admin- 
istration, as  we  have  seen  that  it  was  under  the  occasional 
administration  of  the  judges.  The  only  difference  that  can 
be  discovered  between  the  two  species  of  government  is,  that 
the  conduct  of  the  judges  was  generally  directed  by  urim, 
and  that  of  the  kings,  either  by  the  mspiration  of  God  vouch- 
safed to  themselves,  or  by  prophets  raised  up  from  time  td 
time  to  reclaim  them  when  deviating  from  their  duty,  as  laid 
down  by  the  law. 

(7.)  Lastly,  the  monarch  was  charged,  that  his  heart  be  noi 
lifted  up  above  his  brethren ,-  in  other  words,  to  govern  hia 
subjects  with  mildness  and  beneficence,  not  as  slaves,  but  as 
brothers.  So,  David  styled  his  subjects  his  brethren  iu 
1  Chron.  xxviii.  2.;  and  this  amiable  model  was,  subse- 
quentl)'^,  imitated  by  the  first  Christian  emperors,  particularly 
by  Constantine  the  Great.'' 

Thus  the  regal  government,  though  originating  in  the  per* 
verse  impiety  and  folly  of  the  Israelites,  was  so  regulated 
and  guarded  by  the  divine  law,  as  to  promise  the  greatest 
public  benefits.  It  is  to  be  observed  that  the  preceding 
enactments  relate  to  the  election  of  a  king,  not  of  a  tjueen. 
Athaliah,  indeed,  reigned,  but  she  was  an  usurper;  and,  long 
afterwards,  Alexandra,  the  daughter  of  Jannaeus,  also 
reigned.  She,  however,  reigned  as  a  queen  only  in  name, 
being  under  the  influence  of  the  Pharisees. 

It  was  customary  for  the  Jewish  kings  sometimes  to  nomi- 

»  That  the  Israelitish  monarchs,  even  in  the  worst  times,  were  considered 
not  as  above  law,  but  as  restrained  by  it,  is  evident  from  the  history  of  Ahab, 
a  most  abandoned  prince.  Thougli  he  earnestly  coveted  the  vineyard  of 
Nabofh,  one  of  his  subjects,  and  offered  to  purchase  it,  yet  because  the  law 
prohibited  the  alienation  of  lands  from  one  tribe  or  family  to  another,  he 
could  not  obtain  It,  until,  by  briblns  false  witnesses,  ho  had  procured  the 
legal  condemnation  and  death  of  Naboth,  as  a  traitor  and  blasphemer.  (See 
1  icings  ixi.  1 — 14.)  Tappan's  Lectures  on  Jewish  Antiquities,  pp.  81,  82. 
The  preceding  regulations  concerning  the  Hebrew  monarch.-!  are  aXso  fully 
considered  and  illustrated  by  Michaelis,  Commentaries,  vol.  i.  pp.  266 — 2S3. 

*  Tappan's  Lectures,  p.  83. 


44 


GOVERNMENT  FROM  THE  PATRIARCHAL  TIMES 


[Part 


with  great 
of  this  cir- 


nate  their  successors,  and  sometimes  to  assume  them  as 
partners  with  them  in  the  government  during  their  own  life- 
time. Thus  David  caused  Solomon  to  be  anointed  (I  Kings 
i.  32 — 40.);  so  that  Solomon  reigned  conjointly  with  his 
father  during  the  short  remainder  of  David's  life,  {or  it  does 
not  appear  that  the  latter  resigned  his  sceptre  till  he  resigned 
his  breath.  In  like  manner  Rehoboam,  though  a  prince  of 
no  great  merit,  appointed  his  youngest  son  Abyah  to  be  ruler 
amons;  his  brethren  (3  Chron.  xi.  2-2.),  designing  that  he 
should  reign  after  him ;  and  accordingly  Abijah  succeeded 
him  on  the" throne.  (2  Chron.  xiii.  1.)  So,  among  the  sons 
of  Josiah,  Jehoahaz,  the  younger,  was  preferred  to  Jehoia- 
kim  the  elder.  (2  Kings  xxiii.  31 — 30.)  This  practice  of  the 
Jewish  sovereigns  serves  to  elucidate  some  supposed  chrono- 
logical difficulties  in  Sacred  History. 

2.  The  Inauguration  of  the  Kings  was  performed  with 
various  ceremonies  and  with  great  pomp.  The  principal  of 
these  was  anointing  with  holy  oil  (Psal.  Ixxxix.  20.),  which 
was  sometimes  privately  performed  by  a  prophet  ( 1  Sam.  x. 
I.  xvi.  I — 13.  1  Kings  xix.  IG.  2  Kings  ix.  1 — (5.),  and  was 
a  symbolical  prediction  that  the  person  so  anointed  would 
ascend  the  throne  ;  but  after  the  monarchy  was  established, 
this  unction  was  performed  by  a  priest  (1  Kings  i.  39.),  at 
first  in  some  public  place  (I  Kinws  i.  32 — 31.),  and  after- 
wards in  the  temple,  the  monarch  elect  being  surrounded  by 
his  guards.  (2  Kings  xi.  11,  12.  2  Chron.  xxiii.)'  It  is 
probable,  also,  that  he  was  at  the  same  time  girded  with  a 
sword.  (Psalm  xlv.  3.)  After  the  king  was  anointed  he 
was  proclaimed  by  the  sound  of  the  trumj)et.  In  this  man- 
ner was  Solomon  proclaimed  (1  Kings  i.  31.  39.),  and  (it 
should  seem)  also  the  rebel  Absalom.  (2  Sam.  xv.  10.) 
When  Jehovah  proclaimed  his  law,  and  himself  to  be  the 
King  of  Israel,  tne  sovmd  of  the  trumpet  preceded 
vehemence.  (Exod.  xix.  16.)  The  knowledge  ( 
cumstance  will  explain  the  many  passages  in  the  Psalms,  in 
which  God  is  said  to  have  ^o«e  vp  with  a  shuui ,-  the  Lord, 
with  the  sound  of  a  trumpet ,-  and  the  Israelites  are  called 
upon,  with  trumpets  to  make  a  joi/ful  noise  before  the  Lord  the 
King.  (See  Psal.  xlvii.  5.  xcviii.  G,  &c.)  From  this  cere- 
mony of  anointing,  kings  are  in  the  Scriptures  frcnuently 
termed  the  anointed  of  the  Lord  and  of  the  God  of  Jacob. 
(iSam.  xxiv.  G.  10.  xxvi.  9.  11.  IG.  23.  2Sam.  xxiii.  1. 
Psal.  ii.  2.  Ixxxix.  38.  Habak.  iii.  13.)  A  diadem  or  crown 
was  also  jjlaced  upon  the  sovereign's  head  and  a  sceptre  put 
into  his  haiul  (Ezek.  xxi.  2G.  Psal.  xlv.  6.  2Kin(rsxi.  12.), 
after  which  he  entered  into  a  solemn  covenant  witli  his  sub- 
jects that  he  would  govern  according  to  its  conditions  and 
to  the  law  of  Moses.  (2  Sam.  v.  3.  1  Chron.  xi.  3.  2  Kings 
xi.  12.  2  Chron.  xxiii.  11.  compare  Deut.  xvii.  18.)  The 
nobles  in  their  turn  promised  obedience,  and  appear  to  have 
confirmed  this  pledge  with  a  kiss,  either  of  the  knees  or 
feet.  (Psal.  ii.  12.)  Loud  acclimations  accompanied  with 
music  then  followed,  after  which  the  king  entered  tiie  city. 
n  Kings  i.  39,  40.  2  Kings  xi.  12!  19.  2  (^hron.  xxiii.  11.) 
To  tliis  practice  there  are  numerous  allusions  both  in  the  Old 
Testament  (Psal.  xlvii.  1 — 9.  xcvii.  1.  xcix.  1,  &c.)  as 
well  as  in  the  New  fMatt.  xxi.  9,  10.  Markxi.  9,  10.  Luke 
xix.  35 — 38.) ;  in  which  last-cited  passages  the  Jews,  by 
welcoming  our  Saviour  in  the  same  manner  as  their  kings 
were  formerly  inaugurated,  manifestly  acknowledged  him  to 
be  the  Messiah  whom  they  expected.  Lastly,  after  entering 
the  city,  the  kings  seated  themselves  upon  the  tlirone,  and 
received  the  congratulations  of  their  sul)j('cts.    (1  Kings  i. 

«  Where  the  kinfiilorn  was  hcreclitarv,  as  tliiit  of  Judah  was,  every  kinii 
was  not  anoinlffl,  but  only  Ihp  first  of  the  family  ;  who  bcinit  anniutrd  for 
himself  anil  all  his  succossors  of  Ihc  Harne  fuiiiily,  llii-y  rf<|iiir(;il  tio  otlior 
unction.  If,  however,  any  dillirulty  ;irose  conccriiiii;?  tlic  siici-OKsi-n, 
then  thf  por.^iii  whoohlaiiied  the  throne,  lhou(;h  of  the  same  family,  was 
anointed  in  order  to  terminate  the  diKpiite  ;  after  which  the  title  was  not 
to  be  questioned.  TIiIh  was  the  case  with  Holomon,  .lonsh,  Jehoahaz,  and 
others.  The  kiiiadom  was  not  mode  hereditary  in  the  family  of  Saul ;  and. 
therefore,  I.ihbo.sheth'H  Mi-i/.iii^  on  the  crown  was  oidy  an  ii.«iir])ation.  The 
nower  of  nominalinn  a  HucreKsor  lo  S:iiil  was  ri-nerved  hy  (Jixf  lo  himself, 
ny  whi)m  David  (who  wa.s  lio  relation  lo  Sniil  by  bloful,  1  Sam.  xvi.  Vi.)  was 
appointed  kinir.  David,  therefore,  had  no  oilier  title  b\il  by  divine  appoint- 
ment, firHt  Hi){nilied  by  the  prophet  Sanniel's  anoinline  him,  and  aOerwnrd!) 
by  the  voluntary  ralifiralionoflhiK  appointment  on  the  part  of  the  peojile  : 
80  that  the  anoiiilins;  of  Davhl  wa.s  neeesrtary  for  (be  confirmation  of  his 
title,  lltit  (he  kingdom  b<-ine  made  heri:dilary  in  David'ii  family,  his  beini; 
anointed  serveil  for  him  and  all  his  siicressors,  except  when  the  rijiht  lo 
the  throne  wa.s  diMputeil,  Tliii-i,  when  Solomon'M  ri^-ht  to  the  throne  was 
contested  by  his  elder  brother  .\donijah.  it  was  necesMary  that  lie  shonld 
be  crowned.  In  order  to  rpiash  that  claim.  In  like  manner,  Joa.sh,  the 
Bcvenlh  kinc  of  .Iiidiiti,  was  anointed,  because  Alhallali  had  iiMitrpefl  and 
possessed  the  throne  for  six  years.  (2  Kincsxi.  12.)  So,  Jehoahn'/,,  the 
yoimKcr  son  of  Josiah,  was  anointeil  king  ('2  KinEs  xxiii.  nO.),  and  rei^.'ned 
three  months;  afier  which,  he  was  succeeded  by  his  elder  brother  Johoia- 
kim,  who  ou;;ht  first  to  have  ascended  the  thnnie  of  Judah.  Tlius  it  ap- 
pears, that  ill  all  cases  of  divpiited  succession,  anoinlioR  was  deemed  to 
^ive  a  Dreference.    Home's  Sicripiure  lliuory  of  the  Jews,  vol.  i.  p.  343. 


35.  47,  48.  2  Kings  xi.  19,  20.)  On  the  inauofiiration  of 
Saul,  however,  when  there  was  neither  sceptre,  diadem,  nor 
throne,  these  ceremonies  were  not  observed.  After  the 
establishment  of  royalty  among  the  Jews,  it  appears  to  have 
been  a  maxim  in  their  law,  that  the  kimr's  person  was  inviola- 
ble, even  though  he  might  be  tyrannicat  and  unjust  (1  Sam. 
xxiv.  5 — 8.) ;  a  maxim  which  is  necessary  not  only  to  the 
security  of  the  king,  but  also  to  the  welfare  of  the  subject. 
On  this  principle,  the  Amalekite,  who  told  David  the  im- 
probable and  untrue  story  of  his  having  put  the  mortally 
wounded  Saul  to  death,  that  he  might  not  fall  into  the  hands 
of  the  Philistines,  was  merely  on  this  his  own  statement 
ordered  by  David  to  be  instantly  despatched,  because  he  had 
laid  his  hand  on  the  Lord's  .Inoiiitrd.    (2  Sam.  i.  14.) 

3.  The  CHIEF  Distinctions  of  Maji:sty  mentioned  in 
Scripture,  were  the  royal  apparel,  the  crown,  the  throne,  and 
the  sceptre.  The  royal  apparel  was  splendid  (Matt.  vi.  29.), 
and  the  retinue  of  the  sovereigns  was  both  numerous  and 
magnificent.  (1  Kings  iv.  1 — "24.)  'i'hat  the  apparel  of  the 
Jewish  monarchs  was  different  from  that  of  all  otlier  persons, 
is  evident  from  Ahab's  changing  his  a)iparcl  before  he  en- 
gaged in  battle,  and  fromJehoshaphat's  retaining  his.  (livings 
xxii.  SO.)  It  is  most  probable,  after  the  examjile  of  other 
oriental  sovereiOTS,  that  their  garments  were  made  of  purple 
and  fine  white  linen  (Esth.  viii.  15.) :  in  after-times,  it  ap- 
pears from  Luke  xvi.  19.  that  the  rich  and  great  were  clad 
in  purple  and  fine  linen  :  and  this  circumstance  may  account 
for  Pilate's  soldiers  clothing  Christ  with  purple  (Mark  xv. 
17.),  and  for  Herod  the  tetrarch,  with  his  men  of  war,  array- 
ing him  in  a  gorgeous,  most  probably  a  white  robe  (Luke 
xxiii.  11.),  thereby  in  derision  clothing  him  as  a  king. 
Further,  tlieir  Crowds  or  diadems  glittered  with  gold,  silver, 
and  precious  stones.  (2Sam.  xii.  30.  Zech.vi.  11.)  Their 
arms  were  decorated  with  bracelets  (2  Sam.  i.  10.)  as  those 
of  the  Persian  sovereigns  are  to  this  day  ;2  and  their  thrones 
were  equally  magnificent.  The  throne  of  Solomon  is  par- 
ticularly described  in  1  Kings  x.  18 — 20.  Similar  to  this 
was  tin;  throne  on  which  the  sovereign  of  Persia  was  seated 
to  receive  his  late  Majesty's  ambassador,  Sir  Gore  Ouselc)', 
Bart.  It  was  ascended  by  steps,  on  which  were  painted 
dragons  (that  of  Solomon  was  decorated  with  carved  lions ; 
and  was  also  overlaid  with  fine  gold).^  The  royal  Sceptre 
seems  to  have  been  various  at  dilTerent  times.  That  of  Saul 
was  a  javelin  or  spear  (1  Sam.  xviii.  10.  xxii.  G.),  as  Justin 
informs  us  was  anciently  the  practice  among  the  early  Greek 
sovereigns. '  Sometimes  the  sceptre  was  a  walking-stick, 
cut  from  the  branches  of  trees,  decorated  with  gold  or  studded 
witli  golden  nails.  Such  sceptr«s  were  carried  by  judges, 
and  by  such  a  sceptre  Homer  introduces  Achilles  as  swear- 
ing,* and  to  a  sceptre  of  this  description  the  prophet  Ezekiel 
unquestionably  alludes,  (xix.  11.)  The  sceptres  of  the 
ancient  Persian  monarchs  were  of  solid  gold.  (Esth.  v.  2.)*' 

In  time  of  peace,  as  wtdl  as  of  war,  it  was  customary  to 
have  watchmen  set  on  high  places,  wherever  the  king  was, 
in  order  to  prevent  him  from  being  surprised.  Thus  David, 
at  Jerusalem,  was  informed  by  tlie  watchmen  of  the  approach 
of  the  messengers,  who  brought  him  tidiiinrg  of  Absalom's 
defeat.  (2  Sam.  xviii.  24 — 27. J  And  Jelioram  king  of 
Israel,  who  had  an  army  lyin^Defore  Kamoth-Gilead,  Kept 
a  watchman  on  the  tower  of  Jezreel  where  he  was,  who 
spied  the  company  of  Jehu  as  he  came,  and  accordingly  an- 
nounced it  to  the  king.    (2  Kings  ix.  17.  20.)' 

It  is  well  known  that  the  tables  of  the  modern  oriental 
sovereigns  are  characterized  by  luxurious  profusion ;  and 
vast  numbers  are  fed  from  the  royal  kitchen. «  This  fact 
serves  to  account  for  the  apjiarently  immense  quantity  of 
provisions  stated  in  1  Kintrs  iv.  22,  23.  28.  to  have  been 
consumed  by  the  householaof  Solomon,  whose  vessels  were 
for  the  most  part  of  massive  gold  (1  Kings  x.  21),  and  which 
were  furnished  lliroughout  the  year  from  tlie  twelve  pro- 
vinces into  wliiclt  he  divided  his  dominions.  A  similar  cus- 
tom obtains  in  Persia  to  tliis  day.'-"     Splendid  banquets  were 

»  Morier's  Second  Journey,  p.  173.  »  Ibid  p.  174. 

•  Mist.  lib.  xliii.  c. .).  »  Iliad,  lib.  i.  v.  23-1—239. 

•  I'areau,  Anlii|uitas  Ilebraicn,  pp.  277—270.  Schul-/,ii  Archa'olo«ia 
Hebraica,  pp.  l.'>,  •!<>.  Jahn,  .\rcha-olo|iia  Uiblica,  5J  223— 'i-T.  Ackerinann, 
Archreolosia  Uililica,  «i  217— 220. 

1  Home's  Scripture  History,  v<il.  i.  p.  302. 

•  Not  fewer  than  Itro  Ihous'atKlaro.  baiil  to  be  employed  about  the  palace 
of  the  reifining  Kinirof  the  Druses.  "  We  saw,"  says  Mr.  Jowett,  "many 
profes.'iions  and  irailes  polng  on  in  it, — soldic-rs,  horse-breakers,  carpcn. 
lers,  blacksmiths,  scribes,  cooks,  tobacconists^  Ac.  There  was,  in  the 
air  of  this  niinitled  assembl.-ijte,  somelhinjj  winch  forcibly  liroughf  lo  my 
rccollecliim  the  description  ol  an  eastern  roval  household,  aspven  to  the 
Israelites  by  Samuel.  1  Sam.  viii.  11—17."  Jowctl's  Cliristiun  Ucsearche3 
in  Syria,  p.  »*l. 

»  Morier's  Second  Journey,  p.  274. 


HAP.  I.l 


TO  THE  BABYLONIAN  CAPTIVITY. 


45 


n-iven  by  the  kinjis  (Dan.  v.  I.  Malt.  xxii.  1.  Mark  vi.  21.); 
But  it  (foes  not  up])ear  tliut  women  were  admitted  to  tliem, 
except  in  Persia,  when  the  queen  was  present,  until  the  men 


(Dan. 


■\r       «t7         -J 

V  ■     -O*     0< 


23.  Esth.  i.  11.  V.4. 


grew  warm  with  wine. 
8.  vii.  l.)i 

4.  Numerous  are  the  Allusions  in  the  Sacred  Writings 
TO  THE  Courts  of  Princes,  and  to  the  regal  state  which  they 
anciently  enjoyed.  "The  eastern  monarchs  were  ever  dis- 
tinojuished  for  studiously  keeping  up  the  majesty  of  royalty, 
ancl  thus  inspiring  their  subjects  with  the  most  reverential 
awe.  They  were'  difficult  of  access,2  very,  rarely  showing 
themselves  to  their  per])le,  and  lived  in  the  depth  of  their 
vast  palaces,  surrounded  with  every  possible  luxury,  and 
gratifying  every  desire  as  it  arose.  In  these  kingdoms 
of  slaves  it  M'as  accounted  the  summit  of  human  grandeur 
and  felicity  to  be  admit'ed  into  that  splendid  circle  which 
surrounded  the  person  of  their  sovereign  ;"3  whence  the 
expression  of  seeing  God  (Matt.  v.  8.)  is  to  be  explained 
of  the  enjoyment  of  the  highest  possible  happiness,  namely, 
his  favour-  and  protection,  especially  in  tne  life  to  come. 
And  as  only  a  select  few  in  the  oriental  courts  w^ere  per- 
mitted to  beheld  the  face  of  the  monarch,  it  is  in  reference 
to  this  custom  that  the  angel  Gabriel  replied  to  Zechariah 
(who  hesitated  to  believe  his  annunciation  of  the  Baptist's 
birth),  that  he  was  Gabriel  that  stood  in  the  presence  of 
God  ;  thus  intimating  that  he  stood  in  a- state  of  high  favour 
and.  trust  with  Jehovah.  (Luke  i.  19.)  To  dwell,  or  to  stand 
in  the  presence  of  a  sovereign  is  an  oriental  idiom,  importing 
the  most  eminent  and  dignified  station  at  court."" 

This  allusive  phraseology  beautifully  illustrates  another 
very  striking  passage  of  Scripture.  When  the  disciples,  from 
their  very  low  conceptions  of  the  nature  of  Christ's  Kingdom, 
were  contending  among  themselves  who  should  be  the  great- 
est, our  Saviour,  in  order  to  dispel  these  animosities,  took  a 
child  ;  and,  placing  him  before  them,  in  the  most  solemn 
manner  assured  them  that,  unless  they  were  converted,  and  pu- 
rified their  minds  from  all  ambition  and  worldly  thoughts, 
they  should  not  enter  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  should  not  be 
deemed  proper  subjects  of  the  spiritual  kingdom  of  the  Mes- 
siah. But,  continued  Jesus  Christ,  whosoever  therefore  shall 
humble  himself  as  this  little  child,  the  same  is  greatest  in  the 
kingdom  of  heaven  ,■  and,  after  urging  various  cautions  against 
harshly  treating  sincere  and  humble  Christians,  he  added, 
Take  heed  that  ye  despise  not  one  of  these  little  ones  ,■  fur  I  say 
unto  yo  I,  That  in  heaven  their  angels  do  always  behold  the 

FACE  OF  MY  FaTHER  WHICH  IS  IN    HEAVEN.     (Matt.  Xviii.  1 

10.)  ;  referring  to  the  custom  of  oriental  courts,  where  the 
great  men,  those  who  are  highest  in  office  or  favour,  are 
most  frequently  in  the  prince's  palace  and  presence.  (Esth. 
i.  11.  1  Kings  X.  8.  xii.  6.  2  Kings  xxv.  \d.y  On  another 
occasion,  after  our  Lord  had  promised  the  apostles  that  they 
should  sit  on  twelve  thrones  to  judge  the  tribes  of  Israel,  still 
mistaking  the  spiritual  nature  of  his  kingdom,  the  mother  of 
James  and  John  came  to  Jesus  with  her  sons,  and  requested 
that  he  would  grant  that  they  miffht  sit,  the  one  on  his  right 
hand,  and  the  other  on  his  left  hand,  in  his  kingdom.  (Matt.  xx. 
20 — 23.)  This  alludes  to  the  custom  whicn  in  those  times 
obtained  in  the  courts  of  princes ;  where  two  of  the  noblest 
and  most  dignified  personages  were  respectively  seated,  one 
on  each  side,  next  tlie  sovereign  himself,  thus  enjoying  the 
most  eminent  places  of  dignity.  (Compare  1  Kings  ii.  19. 
Psal.  xlv.  9.  and  Heb.  i.  3.)  In  reply  to  the  request  of  Sa- 
lome, our  Saviour  stated  that  seats  of  distinguished  eminence 
in  his  kingdom  w(?re  not  to  be  given  through  favour  or  par- 
tiality, but  to  those  only  whom  God  should  deem  to  be  pro- 
perly prepared  for  them. 

The  eastern  monarchs  were  never  approached  but  with 
presents  of  some  kind  or  other,  according  to  the  ability  of  the 
individual,  who  accompanied  them  with  expressions  of  the 
profoundest  reverence,  prostrating  themselves  to  the  ground  \^ 

<  This  is  confirmed  by  Herodotus,  lib.  v.  c.  18.  Jahn,  Archa?ologia 
Biblica,  §227.    Ackermann,  Archaeologia  Biblica,  §221. 

«  Amoii":  the  Persians  it  was  deatli  to  enter  the  royal  presence  without 
being  called  for,  Esth.  iv.  11.  Herodotus  (boolc  i.  c.  99.)  states  Deioces 
the  Medc  to  liave  been  the  firist  who  instituted  this  ordinance. 

3  Harwood's  Introduction  to  the  New  Testament,  vol.  ii.  pp.  322,  323. 

*  Ibid.  p.  323. 

»  Ibid.  p.  324,  32'!.  Among  the  ancient  Persians,  to  sit  next  the  person 
of  the  king  wa.s  the  highest  possible  honour.  See  1  Esdras  iii.  7.  iv.  42. 
Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xi.  c.3.  §2. 

«  It  was  (says  ./Elian)  the  law  of  Persia,  that,  whenever  the  king  went 
abroad,  the  people  should,  according  to  their  abilities  and  occupations, 
present  him,  as  he  passed  along,  with  some  gift, — as  an  ox,  a  sheep,  a 
quantity  of  corn,  or  wine,  or  witli  some  fruit.  It  happened  one  day,  when 
Artaxcrx'^s  was  taking  tlie  air,  that  lie  was  met  liy  one  Sinajtes.  The  man, 
i.ieing  at  a  great  distance  from  home,  was  in  tlie  greatest  distress,  having 
nothing  to  offsr,  and  observing  others  crowding  with  their  presents.    At 


and  the  same  practice  continues  to  this  day.  Tlrus  Jacob  in- 
structed his  sons  to  carry  a  present  to  Joscj.di,  when  they 
went  to  buy  food  of  him  as  governor  of  Egypt.  (Gen,  xlih. 
11.  26.)  in  like  manner  the  magi,  who  came  from  the  East 
to  adore  Jesus  Clirist,  as  king  of  the  Jews,  brought  him  pre- 
sents of  gold,  frankincense,  and  myrrh.  (Matt.  ii.  11.)  Allu- 
sions to  this  practice  occur  in  Gen.  xxxii.  13.  1  Kings  x.  2. 
10.  25.  2  Kings  v.  5. ;  see  also  1  Sam.  ix.  7.  and  2  Kings 
viii.  8.  The  prostrations  were  made,  with  every  demonstra- 
tion of  reverence,  to  the  ground.  Thus  David  stooped  with 
his  face  to  the  earth,  and  boired  himself  before  Saul.  (1  Sam. 
xxiv.  8.)  The  mode  of  doing  reverence  to  the  sovereign, 
among  the  ancient  Persians,  was  little  short  of  absolute  idol- 
atry ;''  and  similar  prostrations  are  made  by  their  descendants 
in  the  present  day.^  On  these  occasions,  it  was  usual  toad- 
dress  tnem  with  some  compliment,  or  with  wishes  for  their 
long  life.  Thus  the  Avidow  of  Tekoah,  after  prostrating  her- 
self before  David,  addressed  him  with — 3Iy  lord  is  wise  ac- 
cording to  the  wisdom  of  an  angel  of  God^  (2  Sam.  xiv.  20.) ; 
and  the  Chaldcean  magi  accosted  Nebuchadnezzar  with — 0 
king,  live  for  ever  /  (Dan.  ii.  4.)'°  The  all  but  idolatrous  ho- 
mage thus  rendered  to  their  monarchs,  was  exacted  by  their 
chief  courtiers  and  favourites  of  all  who  approached  them  ; 
and  such  was  their  pride,  that  the  refusal  of  this  homage 
never  failed  to  involve  the  refractory  individual  in  ruin. 
Thus  Orsinus,  a  descendant  of  Cyrus,  who  had  refused  to 
worship  the  eunuch  Bagoas  (who  had  enslaved  Alexander  by 
his  abominable  obsequiousness),  fell  a  victim  to  the  revenge- 
ful minion's  wounded  pride."  In  like  maimer,  Mordecai's 
refusal  to  prostrate  himself  before  Haman  (Esth.  iii.  2.) 
would  have  proved  fatal  not  only  to  himself  but  also  to  the 
Jewish  nation,  had  not  the  malignant  design  of  the  crafty 
but  mortified  Agagite  (Esth.  iii.  3 — G.  v.  13.)  been  provi- 
dentially frustrated. 

Those  who  rendered  personal  services  to  the  sovereign  had 
theil:  names  inscribed  in  the  public  registers  (Esth.  vi.  1.)  ;'2 
and  Avere  rewarded  by  distinguished  marks  of  the  royal 
favour.  Thus  Mordecai  was  arrayed  with  the  royal  vest- 
ments, and  led  in  state  on  horseback  through  the  streets  of 
the  city,  with  the  royal  diadem  on  his  head.  (Esth.  vi.  8 — 
11.)  On  such  occasions  the  person  raised  to  dignity  was 
invested  with  a  new  name  or  title  expressive  of  his  deserts. 
This  was  the  case  with  Joseph  (Gen.  xli.  45.),  Solomon 
(2  Sam.  xii.  25.),  Daniel  and  his  companions  (Dan.  i.  7.)  ; 
and  to  this  there  is  an  evident  allusion  in  Rev.  ii.  17. 

The  sovereigns  of  the  East,  it  is  well  known,  are  very 
fond  of  displaying  their  gorgeous  splendour.  The  present 
sovereign  of  Persia,  and  (after  his  example)  his  sons,  gene- 
rally appoint  for  the  reception  of  ambassadors  such  an  hour 
as,  according  to  the  season,  or  the  intended  room  of  audience, 
will  best  enable  them  to  display  the  brilliancy  of  their  jewels 
in  full  sunshine.  The  title  of  bright  or  resplendent  was  added 
to  the  name  of  one  sovereign,  who  lived  upwards  of  eight 
centuries  ago ;  because  his  regal  ornaments,  glittering  in  the 
solar  rays  on  a  solemn  festival,  so  dazzled  the  eyes  of  all 
beholders  that  they  could  scarcely  bear  the  effulgence  :  and 
some  knew  not  which  was  the  monarch,  or  whicli  the  great 
luminary  of  the  day.  Thus,  Theophylact  Simocatta'^  (a 
Greek  historian  who  flourished  in  the  seventh  century  of  the 
Christian  aera)  relates  that  the  Per^an  king,  Hormisdas, 
sitting  on  his  throne,  astonished  all  spectators  oy  the  blazing 

length  he  ran  to  the  river  Cyrus,  and  taking  up  some  water  in  both  his 
hands,  he  approaclied  the  monarch,  and  thus  accosted  him : — "  O  king, 
reign  for  ever  !  I  now  pay  my  respects  in  the  best  manner  I  am  able.  I 
present  to  thee  some  of  the  waters  of  the  river  Cyrus:  should  your 
majesty  ever  pass  by,  or  near,  my  house,  I  hope  to  vie  with  the  best  of 
these  in  my  donatives."  The  monarch  was  highly  pleased  with  the  man, 
commanded  his  present  to  be  received  into  a  golden  vial,  and  afterwards 
handsomely  rewarded  him.    jEIian,  Var.  Hist.  lib.  i.  cc.  31,  32. 

■>  Quintus  Curtius,  lib.  vi.  c.  6.  torn.  ii.  p.  23.  (edit.  Bipont) :  lib.  viii.  c.  5. 
p.  118.  . 

8  Morier's  Second  .Tourney,  p.  172. ;  where  an  engraving  is  given,  illus- 
trative of  the  oriental  prostrations. 

t>  This  is  very  similar  to  the  hyperbolical  language,  which  is  addressed 
by  the  Hindoos  to  an  European,  when  they  are  desirous  of  obtaining  some- 
thing from  him.  "  Sakcb,  say  they,  can  do  every  thing.  iVb  one  caji  pre- 
vent the  execution  of  Sahtb's  commands.  Saheb  is  God."  (Ward's  View 
of  the  History,  ifec.  of  the  Hindoos,  vol-  ii.  p.  3230 

10  A  similar  salutation  is  to  this  day  given  in  India.  Wlien  a  poor  man 
goes  into  the  presence  of  a  king,  to  solicit  a  favour,  he  says,  "O  Father! 
thou  art  the  support  of  the  destitute — Mayest  thou  live  to  old  age!" 
Ibid.  p.  333. 

11  Quintus  Curtius,  lib.  x.  c.  1.  vol.  ii.  pp.  199—201.  (edit.  Bipont.) 

»*  ilcrodotus,  hb.  viii.  c.  85.  Thucydides,  lib.  i.  c.  129.  Josephus,  Ant. 
Jud.  lib.  xi.  c.  6.  The  same  practice  continues  to  obtain  at  the  Ottoman 
Porte  (Baron  de  Tott's  Mem.  vol.  ii.  p.  15.),  and  also  in  Abyssinia,  and  other 
parts  of  the  East.    Burder's  Oriental  Customs,  vol.i.  p.  311.  5th  edit. 

13  Theophylact,  lib.  iv.  c.  3.  cited  by  Sir  Wm.  Ouseley,  to  whom  we  arc 
indebted  for  the  above  remark,  in  his'  Travels  in  various  Countries  of  the 
East,  more  particularly  Persia;  vol.  ii.  d.  30.  (London,  1821.  4to. 


46 


GOVERNMENT  FROM  THE  PATRIARCHAL  TIMES 


[Paiit  II 


glories  of  his  jewels.  Thus  also  king  Agrippa  was  almost 
regarded  as  a  god,  so  powerfully  did  his  ornamcntrd  dress 
reflect  the  morning  sunbeams ;'  and  it  was  probably  tlie 
splendour  of  Solomon  "  in  all  hi^  .if/'"',(/,"  when  seatf  d  cii 
the  throne,  in  addition  to  the  magnificence  of  his  establish- 
ment, which  so  struck  the  queen  of  Shcba  on  beholding 
them,  that  ^'^ there  was  no  more  tpirit  in  htr.^^  (I  Kings 
X.  4,  5.) 

P'urther,  whenever  the  oriental  sovereigns  go  abroad,  they 
are  uniformly  attended  by  a  numerous  and  S))lendid  retinue  : 
the  Hebrew  kings  and  their  sons  either  rode  on  asses  or 
mules  (2  Sam.  xiii.  29.  I  Kings  i.  33.  38.),  or  in  chariots 
(1  Kings  i.  5.  2  Kinnrs  ix.  21.  x.  15.),  preceded  or  accom- 
panied oy  their  royal  guards  (who,  in  2  Sam.  viii.  18.  and 
XV.  18.,  are  termed  Cherethites  and  Pelethites) ;  as  the 
oriental  sovereigns  do  to  tliis  day.  For  greater  state  they 
had  footmen  to  run  before  tl-.em.  Thus,  the  rebel  Absalom 
had  Jifly  men  to  run  before  him,  (2  Sam.  xv.  1.)  And  in 
this  manner,  the  prophet  Elijah,  though  he  detested  the 
crimes  of  Ahub,  was  aesirous  of  paying  him  all  that  respect 
which  was  due  to  his  exalted  station  ;  girded  up  his  loins, 
utid  ran  before  Ahab  to  the  entrance  of  Jczreel.  (1  Kings  xviii. 
46.)  In  India,  when  a  person  wishes  to  do  honour  to  an 
European,  he  will  run  belore  his  palanquin  for  miles.2  Fur- 
tiier,  the  approach  of  a  king  was  often  announced  by  the 
sound  of  trumpets.  (1  Kings  i.  34.  39.)  Hrnce  the  presence 
of  t^od  is  dcsciibed  in  the  same  manner  (Meb.  xii.  11>.  com- 
pared with  Exod.  xix.  13.),  and  also  tlie  final  advent  of  the 
Messiah.  (Matt.  xxiv.  31.  1  Cor.  xv.  52.  1  Thess.  iv.  15.)' 

Whenever  the  Asiatic  monarchs  entered  upon  an  expedi- 
tion, or  took  a  journey  through  desert  and  untravellcd  coun- 
tries, they  sent  harbingers  before  them  to  prepare  all  tilings 
for  their  ])assage,  and  pionee»s  to  open  the  passes,  level  the 
ways,  and  remove  all  impediments.  The  ancient  sovereigns 
of  Ilindoostan  used  to  send  persons  to  precede  them  in  their 
journeys,  and  command  the  inhabitants  to  clear  the  roads ;  a 
very  necessary  step  in  a  country,  where  there  arc  scarcely 
any  public  roads.'  To  this  practice  the propliet Isaiah  mani- 
festly alludes  (Isa.  xl.  3.  compared  with  Mai.  iii.  1.  and 
Matt.  iii.  3.)  ;  and  we  shall  obtain  a  clear  notion  of  the 
preparation  of  the  way  for  a  royal  expedition,  and  the  force 
and  beauty  of  the  prophetic  declaration  will  fully  appear,  if 
we  attend  to  the  follow infr  narrative  of  the  marches  of  Semi- 
rainis  in  Media,  recorded  by  Diodorus  Siculus.^  "  In  her 
march  to  Ecbatane,  she  came  to  the  Zarcean  mountain, 
which,  extending  many  furlongs,  and  being  full  of  croggt/ 
precipices  and  deep  hollows,  could  not  be  passed  without 
making  a  long  circuit.  Being  desirous,  therefore,  of  leaving 
an  everlasting  memorial  of  herself,  as  well  as  to  make  a 
shorter  way,  she  ordered  the  precipices  to  be  digged  doicm^and 
the  hollow  places  to  be  filled  up ,-  and  at  a  great  expense  she 
made  a  shorter  and  more  expeditious  road,  which  to  this  day 
is  called  the  road  of  Semiramis.  Afterwards  she  made  a 
progress  through  Persia,  and  all  her  other  dominions  in 
Asia  ;  and  wherever  she  came,  she  commanded  the  moun- 
tains and  cruggtf  precipices  to  be  cut  down,  and,  at  a  vast 
expense,  made  the  ways  level  and  plain.  On  the  other  hand, 
in  low  places  she  raised  mounds,  on  which  she  erected  monu- 
ments in  honour  of  her  deceased  generals,  and  sometimes 
whole  cities."  The  writer  of  the  apocryphal  book  of  Barucii 
(v.  7.)  expresses  the  same  subject  by  the  same  images, 
either  taking  them  from  Isa.  xl.  3.  (or  perhaps  from  Ixii.  10 
— 12.),  or  from  the  common  notions  of  Ins  countrymen  : 
"  For  God,"  says  he,  "  hath  appointed  that  every  high  /////, 
and  banks  of  long  continuance,  should  be  casl  down  and  val- 
leys filled  up,  to  iiialee  even  the  ground,  tiiat  Israel  maj'  go 
safely  in  the  glory  of  God."  Tlie  "  Jewish  church  was  that 
desert  country  to  which  John  the  Baptist  was  sent  (Matt, 
iii.  1 — 4.),  to  announce  the  coining  of  the  Messiah.  It  was 
at  that  time  destitute  of  ail  religious  cultivation,  and  of  the 
'  spirit  and  practice  of  .piety ;  and  John  was  s(  nt  to  prrpiire 
tlie  war/  i,J  the  JaitiI  by  preaciiing  tiu;  doctrine  of  rrpcntance. 
The  dt  scrt  is  therefore  to  be  consi(hred  as  a  proper  emlilem 
of  the  rude  state  of  the  Jewish  church,  wliich  was  the  true 
wilderness  meant  by  the  prophet,  and  in  which  Jolui  was  to 
prepare  the  way  of  the  promised  Messiah."" 


pa 


•  Arts  xii.  21,  22.    Hoc  p.  79.  supra,  where  Jonephns's  ncconnt  of  Agrip- 
I'rt  (ToigcoiiH  orray  in  Kiven  In  illuHiratinn  of  tlic  sucrcd  historian- 
>  Htatliaiii'.s  Iniliuri  Upcollc-iSicins,  np.  Illi,  il7. 

'  Robinson'*  Lexicon  to  tlic  tiri-olcTi-Hlaiiient,  p. 67t. 

*  Wnnl'.s  View  of  thi-  History,  Ac.  of  llic  Ilimlooii,  v<il.  iii.  p.  TOO. 

»  nibliotliPca  Ilifitorlra,  111),  ii.  cc.  1."!,  11  (vol.  li.  pp.  J 1  —  40.  rdil.  Bipont.) 
liibliop  Ix>wth  oiiJiHiiah  xl.  vol.  ii.  pp  252— i"!.     Dr.  '.'larlt 


bicntary  on  .Malt.  iii.  3. 


II.  pp  a>vj— :iv?.     l»r.  i.iarKn'H  Com- 
A  practice,  siiiiilar  to  that  above  UcacrlbccI,  \e 


V.  With  regard  to  the  Revenues  of  the  Kings  of  Tsraei-, 
as  none  were  apj'ointcd  by  Mo'^es,  so  he  h  ft  no  ordinances 
concerning  them  :  we  may,  however,  collect  from  the  Sacred 
Writings,  that  they  were  derived  from  the  following  sources: 

1.  Voluntary  r  ttcrings,  or  presents,  which  were  made  to 
them  conformably  to  the  oriental  custom.  (1  Sam.  x.  27. 
xvi.  20.)  Michaelis  is  of  opinion  that  they  were  confined* 
to  Saul  onl)',  as  no  trace  of  them  is  to  be  found  after  his 
time. 

2.  The  produce  of  the  royal  flocks  (1  Sam.  xxi.  7.  2  Sam. 
xiii.  23.  2  Chron.  xxxii.  28, 20.)  ;  and  as  both  king  and  sub- 
jects had  a  common  of  pa.sture  in  the  Arabian  deserts, 
Michaelis  thinks  that  David  kept  numerous  herds  there 
(1  Chron.  xxvii.  29 — 31.),  which  were  partly  under  the  care 
of  Arabian  herdsmen. 

3.  The  produce  of  the  royal  demesnes,  consisting  of  arable 
lands,  vineyards,  olive  and  sycamore  grounds,  &c.  which 
had  originally  been  unenclosed  arid  uncultivated,  or  were 
the  property  of  state  criminals  confiscated  to  the  sovereign  : 
these  demesnes  were  cultivated  by  bondsmen,  and,  perhaps, 
also  by  the  people  of  contjuercd  countries  (1  Chron.  xxvii. 
26 — 31.  2  Chron.  xxvi.  10.);  and  it  appeaife  from  1  Sam. 
viii.  14.  xxii.  7.  and  Ezek.  xlvi.  17.  that  the  kings  assigned 
part  of  Iheir  domains  to  their  servants  in  lieu  of  salar}'. 

4.  Another  source  of  the  royal  revenue  was  the  tenth  part 
of  all  the  produce  of  the  fields  and  vineyards,  the  collection 
and  management  of  which  seem  to  have  been  confided  to 
the  officers  mentioned  in  1  Kings  iv.  7.  and  1  Chron.  xxvii. 
25.  It  is  also  probable  from  1  Kings  x.  14.  that  the  Israelites 
likewise  paid  a  tax  in  money.  These  imposts  Solomcn  appears 
to  have  increased  ;  and  Kehoboam's  refusal  to  lessen  tnem  is 
stated  by  the  sacred  historian  as  the  cause  of  the  rebellion 
of  the  ten  tribes  against  him.  (1  Kings  xii.  14.  18.)  There 
is  an  allusion  in  ^lal.  i.  8.  and  N'oh.  v.  18.  to  the  custom  cf 
paying  dues  in  kind  to  governors,  which  obtains  to  tliis  day 
in  Abyssinia.' 

5.  Not  only  did  the  most  precious  part  of  the  plunder  of 
the  conquered  nations  flow  into  the  royal  treasury  (2  Sam. 
viii.),  but  the  latter  also  had  tributes  imposed  on  them,  which 
were  termed  Mincha,  or  presents,  aim  were  paid  partly  in 
money,  and  partly  in  agricultural  produce.  (1  Kings  iv.  21. 
Psal.  Ixxii.  10.  compared  with  1  Chron.  xx^•ii.  25 — 31.) 

6.  Lastly,  the  customs  paid  to  Solomon  by  the  foreign 
merchants  who  pas.sed  through  his  dominions  (1  Kings  x. 
15.)  aflbrded  a  considerable  revenue  to  that  monarch  ;  who, 
as  the  Mosaic  laws  did  not  encourage  foreinn  commerce, 
carried  on  a  very  extensive  and  lucrative  tracle  (1  Kings  x. 
22.),  particularly  in  Egyptian  horses  and  the  byssus  or  fine 
linen  of  Egypt.   (1  Kings  x.  28,  29.)8 

VI.  On  the  introduction  of  the  regal  government  among 
the  Israelites,  the  princes  of  the  tribes,  heads  of  families, 
scribes  or  genealogists,  and  judges,  retained  the  authority 
which  they  had  previously  exercised,  and  constituted  a 
senate  or  legislative  assembly  for  the  cities,  in  or  near  which 
they  respectively  resided.  (1  Kings  xii.  1 — 24.  1  Chron. 
xxiii.  4.  xxvi.  29,  30.  xxviii.  and  xxix.  0.)  The  judges 
and  scribes  or  genealogists  were  appointed  by  the  sovereign, 
together  with  other  officers,  of  whom  the  following  were 
the  principal : — 

1.  The  most  important  officer  was  the  Prime  Mi.mster, 
or  Second  to  the  King,  as  he  is  termed  in  Scripture.  Such 
was  Elkauah,  who  in  our  version  of  2  Chron.  xxviii.  7.  is 
said  to  have  been  next  (literally  */com/^ /o //le  A/Hij  A haz; 
Joseph  was  prime  minister  to  Pharaoh,  king  of  EgA'pt  (Gen. 
xii.  ,10 — ^13.);  and  Hainan,  to  Ahasuerus.  (Estli.  ill.  1.) 
Jonathan,  siieakinor  to  David,  says, —  Thnu  shall  be  hi ng  over 
fsriitl,  and  J  {■hall  be  nurt  unto  thle.  (1  Sam.  xviii.  17.)  From 
1  Chron.  xviii.  17.,  it  should  seem  that  this  office  was  sonio- 
times  held  by  one  or  more  of  the  king's  sons. 

2.  The  Royal  Colnsem.ors,  or  Privy  Council,  as  we 
perhaps  should  term  them.    (Isa.  iii.  3.  xix.  11,  12.  Jer.  xxvi. 

recorded  by  Uie  cliaplain  to  fir  Tlioiiins  Roe,  ainba.'^Rador  to  the  MokiiI 
court  111  tlie  reigii.s  of  .laiiii's  I.  and  ("hnrli's  I.;  who  says  (p.  li.*^.)  iJiBt, 
iiialciiix  a  progrcsB  with  the  aiiihiiHKador  and  itiiperor,  ihey  came  to  a 
wildmieHS,  "where  0>y  a  very  great  company  tint  lir/ore  us,  lo  niakt 
Ihoiir  pamiagfg  ami  places  Jit  for  us)  a  way  was  cot  out  and  mapk  kven, 
liroarl  eiioimh  for  our  coiivrniciit  passapc.  And  in  the  place  where  we 
pitched  our  teniK,  a  great  lOinpat^H  of  ground  was  riil  anil  liindc  plain  for 
ihiin  hy  grubbing  a  nufiib'-r  of  ire. si  and  buKheii :  yet  lliere  we  went  as 
readily  to  our  trills,  a.s  wc  did  whin  lliey  were  BCt  up  in  the  plains." 
I'mgiiientM  xuppleinenlal  to  falnicl's  Piclionary,  No.  171  See  itiinilar  in- 
BlnnreK  in  Dr.  Clarke'HTravelK,  vol.  viii.  p.  1*77.  l?vo.  Mr.  Forbes'H  (^rionial 
Ml  iiinirH,  vol.  ii.  p.  iriO,  and  Mr.  Ward'w  View  of  the  History,  dec.  of  th« 
IlimlooR,  vol.  iii.  p.  I.'ti. 

1  llnirr'g  Travels,  vol.  i.  p.  3.'>3.  Rvo. 

•  Jahii.  Arrba'ologia  IliMica,  SiM.  Arkerniann,  Archwologia  Dibllci, 
S  2'J8.    Michaeli»'»  Coiumenurles,  vol.  I.  pp.  299— 3C'7. 


Chap.  I.] 


TO  THE  BABYLONIAN  CAPTIVITY. 


47 


11,)  Such  were  the  old  men  t/uit  stood  before  Solomon  ivhile 
he  lived,  and  vvhom  the  headstrong  Rehoboam  consulted 
(1  Kings  xii.  6.)  ;  and  such  also  was  Jonathan,  David's  uncle. 
(1  Chron.  xxvii.  32.) 

3.  The  Prophets,  though  holding  a  divine  commission  as 
prophets,  may,  nevertheless,  be  noticed  among  the  royal 
officers  ;  as  they  were  consulted  by  the  pious  monarchs  of 
Israel  and  Judah.  Thus  Nathan  was  consulted  by  David 
(•2  Sam.  vii.  3.)  ;  Micaiah,  by  Jehoshaphat  (1  Kin"-s'xxii.  7, 
8.) :  Isaiah,  by  Hezekiah  (2  Kings  xix.  2.) ;  ana  the  pro- 
phetess Iluldah,  by  Josiah.  (2  Kings  xxii.  14 — 20.)  But  the 
idolatrous  and  profligate  kings  imitated  the  heathen  monarchs, 
and  summonea  to  their  council  soothsayers  and  false  pro- 
phets. Ahab,  for  instance,  consulted  the  pseudo-prophets 
of  Baal  (1  Kings  xviii.  22.  and  xxii.  6.)  ;  as  Pharaoh  had 
before  called  in  the  wise  men  and  the  sorcerers  or  magicians 
(Exod.  vii.  11.  and  viii.  18.);  and  Nebuchadnezzar  after- 
wards consulted  the  magicians  and  astrologers  in  his  realm. 
(Dan.  i.  20.) 

4.  The  TOTD  ^mazkir)  or  Recorder  (2  Sam,  viii.  16.), 
who  in  the  margm  of  our  larger  English  Bibles  is  termed  a 
remembrancer  or  writer  of  chronickn.  His  office  was  of  no 
mean  estimation  in  the  eastern  world,  where  it  was  customary 
with  kings  to  keep  daily  registers  of  all  the  transactions  of 
their  reigns.  Whoever  discharged  this  trust  with  effect,  it 
was  necessary  that  he  should  be  acquainted  Avith  the  true 
springs  and  secrets  of  action,  and  consequently  be  received 
into  the  greatest  confidence.  Ahilud  was  David's  recorder 
or  historiographer  (2  Sam.  viii.  IG.),  and  appears  to  have 
been  succeeded  in  this  office  by  his  son  Jehoshaphat  (2  Sam. 
XX.  24.),  who  was  retained  by  Solomon.  (1  Kings  iv.  3.) 
Toah,  the  son  of  Asaph,  was  the  recorder  of  the  pious  king 
Hezekiah.  (2  Kings  xviii.  18.  37.  Isa.xxxvi.  3.)  In  Esther 
vi.  1.  and  x.  2.  mention  is  made  of  the  records  of  tlie  chroni- 
cles, written  by  this  officer. 

5.  The  IBID  (sopHfR)  or  Scribe  (Sept.  TpxfAfjLo.TtJi:)  seems 
to  have  been  the  king's  secretary  of  state,  who  issued  all  the 
royal  commands :  he  also  registered  all  acts  and  decrees. 
Seraiah  (2  Sam.  viii.  170  ^"d  Sheva  (2  Sam.  xx.  25.)  were 
David's  secretaries.  This  officer  is  also  mentioned  in 
1  Kings  iv.  3.  2  Kings  xviii,  18.  and  Isa.  xxxvi.  3, 

6.  The  High-Priest,  as  one  would  naturally  expect  in  a 
theocracy,  is  likewise  to  be  reckoned  among  the  royal  coun- 
sellors. Zadok  the  son  of  Ahitub,  and  Ahimelech  the  son 
of  Abiathar,  are  particularly  mentioned  among  the  principal 
officers  of  David.  (2  Sam.  viii.  17.  1  Chron.  xviii.  16.) 

VII.  IMention  has  already  been  incidentally  made  of  the 
immerous  retinue  that  attended  the  oriental  monarchs :  the 
principal  officers,  who  thus  composed  the  domestic  establish- 
ment of  the  Israelitish  and  Jewish  kings,  were  as  follow : — 

1.  The  Governor  of  the  Palace,  who  was  over  the 
household,  seems  to  have  answered,  as  to  his  employment 
and  rank,  to  the  stewards  whom  the  rich  men  engaged  to 
superintend  their  affairs.  To  him  was  committed  the  charge 
of  the  servants,  and  indeed  of  every  thing  which  belonged 
to  the  palace.  Ahishar  held  this  office  under  David  (1  Kings 
iv.  6.)  ;  Obadiah,  under  Ahab  (1  Kings  xviii.  3.)  ;  and  Eli- 
akim,  under  Hezekiah.  (2  Kings  xviii.  18.)  From  Isa. 
xxii.  22.  it  appears  that  this  officer  wore,  as  a  mark  of  his 
office,  a  robe  of  a  peculiar  make,  bound  with  a  precious  gir- 
dle, and  carried  on  his  shoulder  a  richly  ornamented  key. 

2.  The  Officers,  mentioned  in  1  Kings  iv.  5.  7 — 19.  and 
1  Chron.  xxvii.  25 — 31.,  are  in  1  Kings  xx.  15.  called  the 
Princes  of  the  Provinces.  They  supplied  the  royal  table, 
and  must  not  be  confounded  with  those  who  collected  the 
tribute.  In  2  Sam.  xx.  24.  and  1  Kings  iv.  6.  Adoram,  who 
is  enumerated  among  David's  and  Solomon's  officers  of  state, 
is  said  to  be  over  the  tribute  .-  he  was  probably  what  we  call 
chancellor  of  the  exchequer.  He  received  and  brought  into  the 
royal  treasury  all  the  proceeds  of  taxes  and  tributes. 

3.  The  King's  Friend,  or  Companion,  was  the  person 
with  whom  the  sovereign  conversed  most  familiarly  and  con- 
fidentially. Thus,  Hushai  was  the  friend  of  David  (2  Sam. 
XV.  37.  x\-i.  16.);  and  Zabud  the  son  of  Nathan,  of  Solo- 
mon. (1  Kin^s  IV.  5.)  In  the  time  of  the  Maccabees,  this 
appellation  admitted  of  a  broader  meaning,  and  was  applied 
to  any  one  who  was  employed  to  execute  the  royal  com- 
mands, or  who  held  a  high  office  in  the  government.  See 
1  Mace.  x.  65.  xi.  26,  27. 

4.  The  King's  Life-Guard,  whose  commander  was  termed 
the  Captain  of  the  Guard.  This  office  existed  in  the  court 
of  the  Pharaohs  (Gen.  xxxvii.  36.  xxxix.  1.),  as  well  as  in 
that  of  the  Israelitish  and  Jewish  monarchs.  The  captain 
of  the  guard  appears  to  have  been  employed  in  executing 


summary  justice  on  state  criminals.  See  1  Kings  ii.  25.  34. 
In  the  time  of  David  the  royal  life-guards  were  called  Che- 
rethites  and  Pclethites,  concerning  the  origin  of  whose  names 
commentators  and  critics  are  by  no  means  agreed.  The 
Chaldee  Targum,  on  the  second  book  of  Samuel,  terms  them 
the  archers  and  sUngers  .-  and  as  the  Hebrews  were  expert  in 
the  use  of  the  bow  and  the  sling,  it  is  not  improbable  that 
the  royal  guards  were  armed  with  Ihem.i 

The  life-guards  of  the  MaccabfEan  sovereigns,  and  subse- 
quently of  Herod  and  his  sons,  were  foreigners :  they  bore 
a^  lance  or  long  spear,  whence  tliey  were  denominated  in 
Greek  STratct/xaTCjts-.  Among  the  other  duties  of  these  guards 
was  that  of  putting  to  death  condemned  persons  (Mark  vi. 
27.),  in  the  same  manner  as  the  capidgis  among  the  Turks 
and  other  Orientals  are  the  bearers  of  the  sovereign's  com- 
mands for  punishing  any  one,  wheiher  by  decapitation  or 
otherwise  ;  an  office  which  is  very  honourable  in  the  East, 
though  considered  degrading  among  us. 

VIII.  The  women  of  the  king's  Harem  are  to  be  consi- 
dered as  forming  part  of  the  royal  equipage ;  as,  generally 
speaking,  they  were  principally  destined  to  augment  the 
pomp,  which  was  usually  attached  to  his  office.  "  Notwith- 
standing Moses  had  prohibited  the  multiplication  of  women 
in  the  character  of  wives  and  concubines  (Deut.  xvii.  17.)  ; 
vet  the  Hebrew  monarchs,  especially  Solomon,  and  his  son 
Rehoboam,  paid  but  little  regard  to  his  admonitions,  and  too 
readily  as  well  as  wickedly  exposed  themselves  to  the  perils 
which  Moses  had  anticipated  as  the  result  of  forming  such 
irnproper  connections.  (1  Kings  xi.  1 — 3.  2  Chron.  xi.  21. 
xiii.  21.)  The  Israelitish  ana  Jewish  monarchs  spared  no 
expense  in  decorating  the  persons  of  their  women,  and  of 
the  ennuclis  who  guarded  them :  and  who,  as  the  Mosaic  law 
prohibited  castration  (Lev.  xxii.  24.  Deut.  xxii.  1.),  were 
procured  from  foreign  countries  at  a  great  expense.  In  proof 
of  the  employment  of  eunuchs  in  the  HeJ^rew  court  see 
1  Kings  xxii.  9.  (Heb.)  2  Kings  viii.  6.  (Heb.)  ix.  32,  33. 
XX.  18.  xxiii.  11.  (Heb.)  xxxix.  16.  and  xli.  16.  Black 
eunuchs  appear  to  have  been  preferred,  as  they  still  are  in  the 
East ;  at  least,  we  find  one  in  the  court  of  Zedekiah.  (Jer. 
xxxviii.  l.y  The  maids  of  the  harem,  at  the  king's  pleasure, 
became  his  concubines;  but  the  successor  to  the  throne, 
though  he  came  into  possession  of  the  harem,  was  not  at 
liberty  to  have  any  intercourse  with  the  inmates  of  it.  Hence 
Adonijah,  who  in  his  zeal  to  obtain  Abishag,  a  concubine  of 
David's,  for  his  wife,  had  dropt  som.e  intimations  of  his  right 
to  the  kingdom,  was  punishecl  with  death,  as  a  seditious  per-  > 
son.  (1  Kings  ii.  13 — 25.)  But  though  the  king  had  un- 
limited power  over  the  harem,  yet  the  queen,  or  wife  who 
was  chiefly  in  favour,  and  especially  the  mother  of  the  king, 
enjoyed  great  political  influence.  (IKingsxi.  3.  2  Chron. 
xxi.  6.  and  xxii.  3.)  Hence  it  is  that  we  find  the  mother  of 
the  kinw  so  frequently  and  particularly  mentioned  in  the 
books  of  Kings  and  Chronicles.  The  similar  influence  of  the 
reigning  sultana,  as  well  as  of  the  mother  of  the  sovereign, 
in  modern  oriental  courts,  is  attested  by  almost  every  travel- 
ler in  the  East.^ 

IX.  The  Promulgation  of  the  Laws  was  variously  made 
at  different  times.  Those  of  Moses,  as  well  as  the  com- 
mands or  temporary  edicts  of  Joshua,  were  announced  to  the 
people  by  the  onavi'  (shotcrim),  who  incur  authorized  Eng- 
lish version  are  termed  officers.  Afterwards,  when  the  regal 
government  was  established,  the  edicts  and  laws  of  thekin^s 
were  publicly  proclaimed  by  criers.  (Jer.  xxxiv.  8,  9.  Jo- 
nah iii.  5 — 7.)  But  in  the  distant  provinces,  towns,  and 
cities,  they  were  made  known  by  messengers  or  couriers, 
specially  sent  for  that  purpose  (I  Sam.  xi.  7.),  who  were 
afterwards  termed  pods.  (Esth.  viii.  10.  14.  Jer.  Ii.  31.) 
Cyrus,  or,  according  to  Herodotus,  Xerxes,  was  the  first 
who  established  relays  of  horses  and  couriers  at  certain  dis- 
tances on  all  the  great  roads,  in  order  that  the  royal  messages 
and  letters  might  be  transmitted  with  the  greatest  possiole 
speed.  These  Angari,  or  couriers,  had  authority  to  impress 
into  their  service  men,  horses,  and  ships,  or  any  thing  that 
came  in  their  way,  and  which  might  serve  to  accelerate  their 
journey.  From  the  Persians  this  custom  passed  to  the  Ro- 
mans (who,  it  may  be  inferred  from  Matt.  v.  41.,  commonly 

«  C'almet.  Dissertations,  tom.  ii.  pp.  506 — 512. ;  Jahn,  ArchaJologia.  Biblica, 
§§235,236.'  Ackermann,  Archfcolojiia  Biblica,  §§229,  230. 

«  A.S,  however,  in  tiie  East,  eunuchs  often  rose  to  stations  of  great  power 
and  trust,  and  were  even  privy  counsellors  to  kings,  the  term  ullimatc'y 
came  to  signify  a  court  officer  generally.  The  eunuch  mentioned  in  Acts 
viii.  27.  was  an  officer  of  great  vower  and  influence  at  the  court  of  Candace, 
(}ueen  of  Ktiiiopia.  Bloomiield's  Annotations  on  the  New  Testament,  vol, 
iv.  p.  294. 

'  Pareau,  Antiquitas  Ilebraica,  np.  279,  280.  Jahn,  Arehseologia  Biblica, 
§  237.    Ackermann,  Archi£ologia  Biblica,  §  231. 


48 


GOVERNMENT  FROM  THE  TATIilARCHAL  TIMES 


[Part  II 


{iressed  men  into  tliPir  service),  and  it  is  stil!  retnined  in  the 
Cast.'  These  proclamations  were  made  at  tlie  pairs  of  the 
citirs,  and  in  Jerusalem  at  the  gate  of  the  temple,  where 
there  was  always  a  great  concourse  of  people.  On  this  ac- 
count it  was  that  the  prophets  freciuently  delivered  tlicir  pre- 
dictions in  the  temple  (and  also  in  tne  streets  and  at  the  gates) 
of  Jerusalem,  as  being  the  edicts  of  Jehovah,  the  supreme 
King  of  Israel.  (Jer.vii.2,  3.  xi.  6.  xvii.  19,20.  xxxvi.  10.) 
In  later  times,  both  Jesus  Christ  and  his  apostles  taught  in 
and  at  the  gate  of  the  temple.  (Luke  ii.  46.  Matt.  xxvi.  55. 
Mark  xii.  35.  Actsiii.  11.  v.  1-2.  V 

X.  The  kingdr.m  wliicli  had  been  founded  by  Saul,  and 
carried  to  its  hi<fhest  pitch  of  grandeur  and  power  by  David 
and  Solomon,  subsisted  entire  for  the.  space  of  120  years; 
until  Rehoboam,  the  son  and  successor  of  Solomon,  refused 
to  mitigate  the  burthens  of  his  subjects,  when  a  division  of 
the  twelve  tribes  took  i>lace :  ten  of  these  (of  which  Ephraim 
was  the  principal)  acihered  to  Jeroboam,  and  formed  the 
kingdom  of  Israel,  while  the  tribes  of  Judah  and  Benjamin, 
conlinninor  faithful  in  their  alletriance  to  Itehoboam,  consti- 
tuted thelcingdoni  of  Judah.  The  causes  of  this  revolution 
in  the  coniKiencement  of  Rchoboam's  reign,  may,  as  in  all 
similar  commotions,  be  traced  to  anterior  events :  the  impo- 
licy of  that  monarch  was  only  the  immediate  cceasicn  of  it; 
and  in  the  successive  periods  of  the  history  of  the  Hebrews, 
we  may  discern  vestiges  of  hereditary  jealousy,  which  ter- 
minated only  in  the  division  of  the  posterity  of  Abraham  into 
two  distinct  nations,  one  of  whom  has  since  disappeared. 
The  limits  necessarily  assigned  to  this  portion  of  our  work 
will  only  allow  us  to  attempt  a  rapid  sketch  of  this  long 
series  ol  discord  and  hatred. 

From  the  very  beginning  of  the  Israelitish  nation,  the  two 
tribes  of  Judah  and  Ephraim  had  disputed  for  the  pre-eminen- 
cy.  The  former,  whose  glory  had  been  predicted  by  the  dying 
patriarch  Jacob  (Gen.  xlix.  10.),  flourished  in  the  number  of 
Its  families,  as  well  as  by  its  power  and  wealth;  being  allied 
to  the  blood  of  the  Pharaohs  during  the  residence  of  the 
Israelites  in  Eg}'nt,  where  the  two  remarkable  establishments 
of  Er  and  of  Jolcim  had  been  formed,  which  this  tribe  car- 
ried into  Palestine.  (1  Chron.  v.  2.  iv.  18.)  Judah  also 
marched  first  during  the  sojourning  in  the  desert  (Num.  x.  11.), 
and  reckoned  upon  a  dominion  which  had  been  promised  by 
80  many  oracles.  The  latter,  or  tribe  of  Ephraim,  depending 
on  the  great  name  of  Joseph,  and  on  the  right  of  primogeni- 
ture which  it  had  acquired  in  consequence  of  being  adopted 
\  by  Jacob  (1  Chron.  V.  2.  Gen.  xlviii.  5.  19.),  confided  in  that 
numerous  posterity  which  had  been  predicted  to  it;  became 
powerful  during  the  residence  in  Egypt,  as  is  evident  from 
the  buildings  erected  by  Sherah  (1  Chron.  vii.  2i.);  and 
afterwards  rapidly  increased  in  strength  and  prosperity. 
(Josh.  xvii.  11.  Judj.  i.  35.)  One  very  remarkable  proof, 
that  Ephraim  and  Judah  were  the  two  preponderating  tribes, 
is,  that  when  the  land  of  Canaan  was  divided  (Josh,  xviii.  2.), 
they  each  received  their  allotments  before  the  western  tribes. 
As  the  southern  part  of  the  Holy  Land,  which  was  appor- 
tioned to  Judah,  proved  too  large  for  that  tribe,  the  Sinieon- 
ites  were  added  to  them.  (Josh.  xix.  1.  9.)  The  f]phraimites, 
on  the  contrary,  and  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh,  which  were 
sister  and  neighbouring  tribes,  pleaded  that  their  allotment 
was  not  sufficiently  extensive  for  them;  and  enlarged  it  by 
force  of  arms,  and  by  cutting  down  the  forests  which 
abounded  in  the  mountainous  districts  of  the  land  of  Canaan. 
(Josh.  xvii.  11 — IR.) 

In  this  state  of  things,  with  such  recollections  and  mutual 
pretensions,  it  was  impossible  that  a  6j)irit  of  rivalrj'  and 
jealousy  should  not  break  forth.  Tlie  tribe  of  Ephraini  was 
distinguished  for  its  proud,  turbulent,  and  warlike  Ki)irit,  as 
is  evident  not  only  from  the  remonstrances  addressed  by  them 
to  Joshua,  but  also  by  their  discontented  murniurinjj  against 
Gideon,  notwitlistan(Iing  he  was  of  tlie  tribe  of  Manassih 
(Judg.  viii.  1.),  and  in  the  civil  war  witli  Jephthah,  in  which 
their  envy  and  hatred  were  so  severely  punislied.  (xii.  1 — ^1.) 
The  tribe  of  Judah,  on  the  contrary,  more  pacific  in  its  tem- 
per and  more  sedentary  in  its  pursuits,  appears  always  to 
nave  chorished  a  coolnr-ss  towards  the  northern  tribes.  It 
never  assisted  them  in  their  wars ;  its  name  does  not  occur 

I  Xcnopli.  Cyr.  lib.  vlli.C  17.  Hcro.1.  vHi.  9fl  Bloomdeld's  Annolalions 
on  Ihfi  New  TfHCaincnt,  vol.  i.  \t  CC.  Robinson'Hi.'-xicoii,  vocr  Ayyuf.[vu, 
Among  tlic  Tilrks,  Ukho  AnKari  or  courir-rs  aro  calli'il  Tiitars ;  and  in 
I'ersia,  Chajypnrs.  "  VVlicn  a  chappar  sct»  oiil,  llin  innHter  of  llic  lioritc 
furnl^hex  him  witli  a  Ringlo  Imrso :  and  when  Ihnt  is  wcni  y,  Im  diKinounia 
Iho  first  man  he  uieotn,  ami  laltcB  hiH  horxe.  There  is  no  p.irdon  for  a  Ira- 
vcUcr  tliat  Hhould  refuse  lo  lit  n  rhappar  have  hlahurEe.  nor  for  aiiv  oilier 
who  Hliould  deny  hlin  llic  best  horse  in  hib  Blablc."  Chnrdiirs  Travels, 
\ol.  i.  p.  207. 

•  Jahn,  ArcUxoIogia  Diblica,  S233.  AckermanD,.\rcbxoIo'*ia  DiLlica,^  227. 


in  l!ie  triumphal  hynui  of  Deborah,  in  wliich  so  many  others 
are  mentioned;  and  (what  is  particularly  deserving  of  atten- 
tion) it  took  no  part  in  the  exploits  of  Gideon,  althouoh  the 
enemies  whom  he  was  going  to  fight  had  made  incursions  as 
far  as  Gaza  (Judg.  vi.  4.),  whither  they  could  not  have  pene- 
trated without  entering  on  its  territory.  It  was  the  men  of 
Judah,  also,  who  were  desirous  of  delivering  up  Samson,  a 
Danite,  to  the  Philistines,  (xv.  11.)  This  old  grudo^e  sub- 
sisted in  all  its  force,  when  the  elevation  of  Saul,  a  iJenjam- 
ite,  to  the  throne  of  Israel,  still  further  chagrined  the  proud 
tribe  of  Ephraim:  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  discontent 
manifesteo  in  the  assembly  ol  the  Israelites  at  ISIizpetli, 
which  induced  Samuel  to  renew  the  kingdom  at  Gilgal 
(1  Sam.  X.  27.  xi.  12 — 14.),  was  excited  by  the  Ephraimites ; 
and  at  the  very  commencement  of  SauPs  reign  we  observe  a 
census,  in  which  the  troops  of  Judah  are  reckoned  separately 
from  those  of  Israel.  (18.)  At  length,  the  elevation  ef  David 
completed  the  mortification  o^  the  jealous  and  envious  tribe 
cf  Ephraim,  and  of  the  northern  tribes  which  ordinarily  fol- 
lowed the  fortune  cf  so  powerful  a  neighbour;  while  Simeon 
and  Benjamin,  from  necessity  as  well  as  choice,  were  more 
disposed  in  favour  cf  Judah.  Hence  David,  during  the  whole 
of  his  long-continued  flight  from  Saul,  never  quitted  the  ter- 
ritory of  Judah  and  Benjamin,  but  when  he  took  refuge  in  a 
foreign  country;  and  he  sent  presents  only  to  the  cities  of 
his  own  tribe.  (1  Sam.  xxx.  20.)  On  the  death  of  Saul,  two 
thrones  arose  in  Israel;  which  gave  rise  to  a  civil  war,  that 
lasted  seven  years;  and,  had  it  not  been  for  the  defection  of 
Abner,  and  the  timidity  of  Ishbcsheth,  the  tribes  might  never 
have  been  united  under  one  sceptre.  (2  Sam.  ii.  10.  iii.  1. 
9 — 12.  V.  5.')  David  himself  felt  the  weakness  of  his  power, 
(iii.  39.)  Tlie  choice  of  Jerusalem  for  his  capital  and  for  the 
centre  of  worship,  to  the  exclusion  of  Shiloh,  a  town  of 
Ephraim,  where  the  tabernacle  and  ark  had  formerly  been 
kej)!  (Josh,  xviii.  1.),  could  not  but  displease  the  malecon-  . 
tents,  whose  pride  was  wounded  by  hearing  that  advantage 
celebrated  in  one  of  the  sacred  hymns.  (Psah  Ixxviii.  G7,  68.) 
During  David's  reign,  the  dispute  at  the  passage  cf  the  river 
Jordan  showed  how  a  small  spark  kindled  a  name  (2  Sam. 
xix.  41.),  which  Sheba,  retiring  towards  the  north,  was  at 
hand  to  excite,  (xx.  1.) 

Finally,  the  erection  of  the  temple,  the  immoveable  sanc- 
tuary, which  secured  the  supremacy  of  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
the  taxes  levied  and  personal  services  required  by  Solomon, 
who  employed  them  for  the  most  part  in  the  embellishment 
of  Jerusalem, — the  little  commercial  advantage  which 
Ephrcim  could  derive  during  his  reign,  in  comparison  of  Ju- 
dan,  which  tribe  was  more  commodionsly  situated  for  profit- 
ing by  the  transit  of  commodities  between  Egypt,  Idumxa, 
ana  Arabia, — the  intrigues  of  Jeroboam,  who  had  been  im- 
])rudently  nominated  to  the  command  of  the  house  cf  Joseph 
(2  Kings  xi.  20.  28.)  ; — all  these  circumstances  contributed 
secretly  to  mature  that  revolution,  which  only  awaited  his 
death  to  break  forth,  and  which  the  folly  of  Kehoboam  ren- 
dered inevitable. 

The  Kingdom  of  Israel  subsisted  under  various  sove- 
reigns during  a  period  of  251  years,  according  to  some 
chronologers  ;  its  metropolis  Samaria  being  captured  by 
Shalmaneser  king  of  Assyria,  u.  c.  721,  after  a  siege  of  thret- 
years.  Of  the  Israelites,  whose  numbers  had  been  reduced 
by  immense  and  repeated  slaughters,  some  of  the  lower  sort 
were  suiTered  to  remain  in  their  native  country ;  but  the 
nobles  and  all  the  more  opulent  persons  were  carried  into 
captivity  beyond  the  Euphrates.* 

The  KiNCiDoM  OF  Jldah  continued  388  years  ;  Jerusalem 
its  capital  being  taken,  the  temple  burnt,  and  its  sovereign 
Zedekiah  being  carried  captive  to  Baiiylon  by  Nebuchadnez- 
zar; the  rest  of  his  subjects  (with  the  exception  of  the  poorer 
classes  who  were  left  in  Judaa)  were  lilcewise  carried  into 
captivity  beyond  the  Euphrates,  where  they  and  their  pos- 

>  It  was  the  beliefof  somcof  the  ancient  falhcrsof  thcClirislian  church,  j 
that  the  descendants  of  the  tin  Irilios  did  aflcrwards  return  into  their  own  1 
rounlry  :  and  the  same  notion  has  obtained  aiiioni;  some  modern  JewR,  hot  1 
neither  of  thcgp  opinions  is  supported  by  history.  In  the  New  Testament, 
indeed,  we  find  ini'ntion  of  the  twelve  tribes  (Mull.  »ix.  29.  Luke  xxii.  3U 
Arls  xxvi.  7);  and  St.  Jaine.s  (i.  I  )  directs  his  cpitillc  to  them  ;  b"t  itrnnni't 
be  concluded  from  IhcRn  passaiceo,  that  they  were  at  thai  time  gathered 
together:  all  that  can  bo  inferred  from  them  is,  that  they  were  etill  in 
being.  Perhaps  the  whole  bixly  of  the  Jewish  nation  retained  the  naiiic 
of  the  ttrrlvc  trihrs  aceording  to  the  ancient  divisien  j  as  wc  find  the  dis- 
ciples called  the  ttrelre  after  the  death  of  Judas,  and  before  tho  election 
or  Matthias.  This  conjecture  becomes  tho  more  probable,  ns  it  is  certain 
from  the  ti't-liinony  of  the  sacred  writers  and  of  Jobcphus,  Itii'.t  there  wori- 
coniiidriHble  nuinbersof  l.iraeliles  mingled  with  the  Jews,  sulliciiiit  indci  d 
to  r.ii'hori7.e  the  former  to  Fpeak  of  the  twelve  tribes  as  con.'Uiiminit  but 
one  bodv  witli  the  Jewish  nation.  Ueausohrc's  Introd.  to  the  NewTe.-il. 
(Uitliop  NVatson's  Tracts,  vol.  iii.  pp.  114—116.; 


/HAF 


I-] 


TO  THE  BABYLONIAN  CAPTIVITY. 


49 


tcrity  remained  seventy  years,  agreeably  to  the  divine  pre- 
dictions. 

XI.  The  kingdom  of  Jndah  subsisted  one  hundred  and 
thirty-three  years  after  the  subversion  of  the  Israelitish 
monarchy  ;  and  for  this  longer  duration  various  reasons  may 
be  adduced. 

1 .  The  geographico-poliiieal  situation  of  JudaJi  was  more 
favouralli  than  that  of  Israel. 

In  point  of  extent,  indeed,  Israel  far  surpassed  Judah,  the 
latter  kingdom  bein^  scarcely  equal  to  the  third  part  of  Israel, 
which  also  exceeded  Judah  both  in  the  fertility  of  its  soil 
and  the  amount  of  its  population.  But  the  kingdom  of  Judah 
was  more  advantageously  situated  for  commerce,  and  further 
possessed  greater  facilities  of  defence  from  hostile  attacks, 
than  the  kingdom  of  Israel.  The  Syrians,  being  separated 
from  the  Jews  by  the  intervening  kingdom  of  Israel,  once 
only  laid  waste  the  lower  regions  of  Judah  ;  while,  for 
upwards  cf  a  century,  they  made  incursions  into  and  devas- 
tated the  kingdom  of  Israel.  The  Assyrians,  also,  being  more 
remote  from  the  Jews,  could  not  observ^e  them  so  narrowly 
as  they  watched  the  Israelites,  whom  they  in  a  manner  con- 
tinually threatened.  Further,  the  naturally  strong  situation 
of  Jerusalem  (which  city  the  Assyrians  vainly  attempted  to 
reduce  b)^  famine)  contributed  much  to  the  preservation  of 
the  kingdom,  as  it  enabled  Hezekiah  to  hold  out  successfully 
against  the  forces  of  Sennacherib,  who  besieged  it  in  the 
eighth  year  after  the  subversion  of  t-ie  kingdom  of  Israel. 

2.  The  people  were  more  united  in  the  kingdom  of  Judah 
than  in  that  of  Israel. 

The  religious  worship,  which  was  solemnized  at  Jerusa- 
lem, the  metropolis  of  Judah,  not  only  united  the  Jews  and 
Benjaminites  more  closely  together,  but  also  offered  a  very 
powerful  attraction  to  every  pious  person  of  the  other  tribes 
to  emigrate  into  Judah.  Hence  the  priests  and  Levites,  as 
well  as  many  other  devout  Israelites,  enriched  the  kingdom 
of  Judah  with  piety,  learning,  and  wealth.  In  the  kingdom 
of  Israel,  on  the  contrary,  in  consequence  of  the  expulsion 
of  the  priests  and  Levites,  by  whom  its  civil  affairs  had  for 
the  most  part  been  administered,  tumults  and  internal  dis- 
cord necessarily  arose,  from  its  very  commencement  under 
Jeroboam  I. ;  and,  with  regard  to  the  other  Israelites,  the 
liistorj'  of  later  ages  abundantly  attests  the  very  great  loss 
sustained  in  states  and  kingdoms  by  the  compulsory  emigra- 
tion of  virtuous  and  industrious  citizens,  in  consequence  cf 
changes  made  in  religion.  Thus,  Spain  has  never  recovered 
the  expulsion  of  the  Moors ;  and  the  unprincipled  repeal  of 
the  edict  of  Nantes  by  Louis  XIV.  against  the  faith  of  the 
most  solemn  treaties,  inflicted  a  loss  upon  France,  from  the 
effects  of  which  that  country  has  scarce!)'  yet  recovered.  In 
like  manner,  in  ancient  times,  the  kingdom  of  Israel  fell  into 
decay,  in  consequence  of  the  oppression  of  the  faithful  wor- 
shippers of  Jehovah  after  the  introduction  cf  the  worship  of 
the  calves.  But  this  new  idolatrous  religion  was  of  no 
advantage  to  the  apostates :  on  the  contrary,  it  was  detri- 
mental to  them,  for  the  worship  of  the  calves  had  the  effect  of 
disuniting  more  and  more  the  provinces  of  Galilee  and  Sama- 
ria, which  naturally  were  too  much  separated;  and  the  idol- 
atrous worship  of  Baal,  established  at  Samaria,  was  so 
repugnant  to  the  manners  of  the  Hebrews,  as  to  prove  the 
chief  cause — not  of  concord,  but  of  civil  wars. 

To  this  union  among  the  Jews  is  principally  to  be  ascribed 
the  brilliant  victory  which  in  the  reign  of  Abijah  gave  them 
a  decided  superiority  over  the  Israelites ;  and  the  same  una- 
nimity and  affection  for  true  religion,  in  the  time  of  Heze- 
kiah, disposed  them  all  promptly  to  shake  oflf  the  yoke  of 
the  Assyrians,  and  rendered  them  sufficiently  strong  to  ac- 
complish their  deliverance  without  any  foreign  aid.  The 
Israelites,  on  the  contrar}%  being  for  the  most  part  torn  by 
factions,  and  despairing  of  being  able  to  recover  their  affairs, 
were  irresolute  under  almost  every  circumstance. 

3.  7'/ie  succession  to  the  throne  of  Judali  was  more  regular,- 
and  the  character  of  its  sovereigns  was  more  exemplary  than  in 
the  kingdom  of  Israel. 

Although  the  authorit)'  of  the  kings  of  Judah  was  unques- 
tionably much  lessened  in  point  of  extent  by  the  revolt  of 
the  ten  tribes,  yet,  if  we  consider  its  internal  power  and  sta- 
bility, we  shall  find  that  it  was  rather  increased  than  dimi- 
nished by  that  defection.  From  the  very  commencement  of 
the  separation,  it  is  eArident  that  the  prophets,  in  obedience 
to  former  oracles  (see  2  Kings  viii.  19.),  were  so  attached  to 
the  family  of  David,  that  no  wickedness  or  contempt  of  the 
laws  on  the  part  of  individual  kings  could  lessen  their  fidelity 
to  the  royal  lineage.  Hence  no  Jew  ever  thought  of  seizing 
the  throne  of  David,  no  prophet  ever  foretold  the  ruin  of  the 

Vol.  II.  G 


royal  family.  For,  though  some  of  the  Jewish  monarchs 
more  than  once  followed  strange  gods;  though  Asa,  disre- 
garding the  counsels  of  Hanani,  called  the  Syrians  to  his 
aid ;  though  Jehoshaphat,  by  forming  an  alliance  with  the 
wicked  Ahab,  king  or  Israel,  was  the  cause  of  the  greatest 
calamities  both  to  his  kingdom  and  to  his  family ;  though 
Athaliah  destroyed  all  the  seed  royal  of  the  house  of  Judali, 
Joash  alone  excepted,  who  afterwards  put  to  death  the  inno 
cent  high-priest  Zechariah,  the  son  of  the  very  man  to  whom 
he  was  indebted  for  the  preservation  of  his  life  and  kingdom  ; 
though,  finally,  Ahaz,  disregarding  the  advice  of  the  prophet 
Isaiah,  voluntarily  called  to  his  aid  the  Assyrians,  and  shut 
up  the  doors  of  the  house  of  the  Lord ;  yet,  notwithstanding 
all  these  circumstances,  the  Jews  never  thought  of  expelling 
the  royal  family  from  the  throne.  Some  of  the  Jewish  mo- 
narchs, indeed,  came  to  violent  deaths  in  various  ways;'  but 
no  civil  wars  ensued,  no  ambitious  princes  ever  disturbed  the 
state ;  on  the  contrary,  that  kingdom,  being  always  restored 
to  the  lawful  heir,  derived  advantage,  rather  than  suffered 
injury,  from  such  changes.  Thus  the  kingdom  of  Judah 
continued  in  peaceable  subjection  to  its  legitimate  sovereigns ; 
and  all  orders  in  the  state  consulted  its  welfare.  Many  of 
the  kings  maintained  the  worship  of  Jehovah  from  motive? 
of  sincere  piety,  and  others  from  a  conviction  cf  the  utility 
of  religion  to  a  state;  while  the  priests  and  prophets,  who 
vigilantly  watched  over  the  religion  of  their  country,  influ- 
enced their  sovereigns  to  the  adoption  of  sage  counsels. 

To  this  circumstance  we  may  ascribe  the  fact  that  the 
characters  of  the  kings  of  Judah  iccre  more  exemplary  than 
those  of  the  kings  of  Israel :  for,  although  there  were  not 
wanting  wicked  and  imprudent  Jewish  sovereigns,  yet  their 
errors  and  misconduct  were  for  the  most  part  corrected  or 
avoided  by  their  successors,  who  were  instructed  by  the  ad- 
vice and  example  of  wise  and  virtuous  men,  and  thus  were 
enabled  to  repair  the  injuries  which  their  kingdom  had  sus- 
tained. The  reverse  of  all  this  was  the  case  in  the  kingdom 
of  Israel ;  in  which  the  royal  dignity,  polluted  by  continual 
murders  and  seditions,  gradually  fell  into  decay,  and  with 
the  regal  power  declined  all  regard  for  the  welfare  of  the 
state.  Distracted  by  civil  wars  and  by  the  contests  of  ambi- 
tious aspirants  to  the  throne,  the  Israelites  became  disunited  ; 
the  provinces,  which  at  the  commencement  of  the  Israelitish 
monarchy  had  been  tributary  to  it,  revolted  ;  and  almost  all 
the  kings,  who  swayed  the  sceptre  of  Israel,  governed  so  ill, 
as  scarcely  to  deserve  the  name  of  sovereigns.  While  the 
sacred  historians  repeatedly  record  of  various  kings  of  Judah 
that  they  did  that  which  was  right  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord, 
according  to  all  that  their  father  David  had  done,  the  ordi- 
nary character  of  the  kings  of  Israel  is  related  with  this 
stigma, — that  they  departed  not  from  all  the  sins  of  Jeroboam 
the  son  of  Nebat,  who  made  Israel  to  sin. 

4.  Lastly,  and  principally,  pure  and  undefiled  religion  was 
most  carefully  preserved  and  cultivated  in  the  kingdom  of  Judah, 
while  the  vilest  idolatry  was  practised  in  the  kingdom  of  Israel.  ■ 

This  fact  is  so  clearly  narrated  in  the  histories  of  the  two 
kingdoms,  that  it  is  needless  to  adduce  any  examples.  As 
a  necessary  consequence  of  true  piety,  the  Jews  far  surpassed 
the  Israelites  in  the  purity  of  their  moral  character;  and  in 
the  implicit  confidence  with  which  they  left  all  their  aflfairs 
to  the  divine  protection ;  for,  at  the  very  time,  when  abomi- 
nations of  every  kind  were  practised  in  Israel,  when  scarcely 
a  crime  was  left  unattempted,  and  when  the  Israelites  sought 
all  their  safety  and  protection  from  foreign  aid,  in  Judah,  the 
"  Law  of  the  Lord"  was  most  diligently  studied ;  and  tlie 
Jews,  strengthened  by  their  unshaken  trust  in  Jehovah,  vo- 
luntarily risked  every  thing  to  promote  the  welfere  of  their 
country.2  In  short,  the  histories  of  the  two  kingdoms  of 
Judah  and  Israel  furnish  a  perpetual  illustration  or  the  truth 
of  Solomon's  declaration,  that  righteousness  exalteth  a  nation, 
but  sin  is  a  reproach  to  any  people.  Prov.  xiv.  34. 

XII.  State  of  the  Hebrews  during  the  Babylonish 
Captivity, 

The  condition  of  the  Hebrews,  during  the  captivity,  was 
far  from  being  one  of  abject  wretchedness.  "  This  is  mani- 
fest from  the  circumstance,  that  a  pious  Hebrew  prophet 
held  the  first  ofl[ice  at  the  court  of  Babylon;  that  three  devout 
friends  of  this  prophet  occupied  important  political  stations ; 
and  that  Jehoiachin,  the  former  king  of  Judah,  in  the  forty- 

<  Thus,  Ahaziali,  king  of  Judah,  was  slain  by  Jehu,  king  of  Israel  (2Chron. 
xxii.  7—9.) ;  Athaliah,  who  succeeded  Ahaziah,  by  the  command  of  Jchoia- 
da  the  priest  (2  Chron.  xxiii.  14—16.);  Joash,  by  his  own  servants  (2  Chron. 
xxiv.  25,  £6.);  and  Amaziah,  by  some  of  his  subjects  who  conspired  against 
him.  (2Chron.  xxv.  27.) 

»  Bernhardi,  Conunentatio  de  Caussis  quibus  effectum  sit,  ut  Regnum 
Judae  diutius  persisteret  quam  Regnum  Israel,  pp.  96—104.  130— ISS. 


50 


POLITICAL  STATE  OF  THE  JEWS 


[Part  II.  Chap.  II. 


fourth  yr.iT  or'  fl.e  captivity,  was  rolpased  from  an  imprison- 
ment which  had  conimucn  for  thirty-six  years,  and  was  pre- 
ferred in  point  of  rank  to  all  thekini^s  who  were  then  at 
Babylon,  either  as  hostages,  or  for  the  i)arpose  of  payinfr 
homage  to  the  Chaldtean  monarch.  Ho  was  treated  as  the 
first  of  the  kings ;  he  ate  at  the  table  of  his  conqueror,  and  re- 
ceived an  annual  allowanc(^,  corresponding  to  his  royal  rank. 
These  circumstances  of  honour  must  have  reflected  a  deg^rce 
of  dimity  on  all  the  exiles,  suflicient  to  prevent  their  being 
ill-treated  or  despised.  They  were  probably  viewed  as 
-espectable  colonists,  enjoying  "the  peculiar  protection  of  the 
sovereign.  In  the  respect  paid  to  .Tehoiachin,  his  son  Shea!- 
iel  and  his  grandson  Zerubbabel  imdou!)tedly  partook.  If 
that  story'  of  the  discussion  before  Darius,  in  which  Zorub- 
babel  is  said  to  have  won  the  prize,  be  a  mere  fiction,  still  it 
is  at  least  probable  that  the  j'oung  prince,  though  he  held  no 
office,  had  free  access  to  the  court;  a  privilege  wliich  must 
have  afforded  him  many  opportunities  of  alleviating  the  un- 
happy circumstances  of  his  countrj'men.  It  is  therefore  not 
at  all  surprising,  that,  when  Cyrus  gave  the  Hebrews  per- 
mission to  return  to  their  own  country,  njany,  and  perhaps 
even  a  majority  of  the  nation,  chose  to  remain  behind,  be- 
lieving that  they  were  more  pleasantly  situated  where  they 
were,  than  they  would  be  in  Judma.  It  is  not  improbable 
that  the  exiles  (as  is  implied  in  the  story  of  Susanna,  and  as 
the  tradition  of  the  Jews  affirms)  had  magistrates  and  a 


prince  from  their  own  number.  Jehoiachin,  and  after  him 
yhealtie-1  and  Zerubbabel,  might  have  been  rofjarded  as  their 
princes,  in  the  sam.e  manner  as  Jozadak  and  J.  shua  wcre-a3 
their  high-priests.  At  the  same  time  it  cannot  be  denied 
that  the7r  humiliation,  as  a  people  punished  by  their  God, 
was  always  extremely  painful,  and  frequently  drew  on  ihom 
expressions  of  contempt.  The  peculiarities  cf  their  religion 
atlorded  many  opportunities  for  the  ridicule  and  scorn  of  the 
Babylonians  and  Chalda^ans,  a  striking  example  of  which  is 
o-iven  in  the  profanation  of  the  sacred  vessels  of  the  temple. 
(^Dan.  v.)  By  such  insults  they  were  made  to  feel  so  much 
the  more  sensibly  the  loss  of  their  homes,  their  gardens,  and 
fruitful  fields;  the  burning  of  their  capital  and  temple;  and 
the  cessation  of  the  public  solemnities  of  their  religion. 
Under  such  circumstances,  it  is  not  strange  that  an  inspired 
minstrel  breaks  out  into  severe  imprecations  against  the 
scornful  foes  cf  his  nation.  (Psal.  cxxxvii.  8,  9.^ 

"  If  the  Israelites  were  ill-treated  in  Assyria  atter  the  over- 
throw of  Sennacherib  in  Judaea,  as  the  book  of  Tobit  inti- 
mates, this  calamity  was  of  short  duration  ;  for  Sennacherib 
was  soon  after  assassinated.  The  Israelites  of  Media  appear 
to  have  been  in  a  much  better  condition,  since  Tobit  advised 
his  son  to  remove  thither.  (Tobit  xiv.  4.  12,  13.)  This  ia 
the  more  probable,  as  the  religion  of  the  Medes  was  not 
grossly  idolatrous,  and  bore  considerable  resemblance  to  that 
of  the  Jews."3 


CHAPTER  II. 

POLITICAL  STATE  OF  THE   JEWS,  PROM  THEIR  RETURN  FROM  THE  BABYLONISH  CAPTIVITY  TO  THE 

SUBVERSION  OF  THEIR  CIVIL  AND  ECCLESIASTICAL  POLITY. 

SECTION  I. 


POLITICAL  STATE  OF  THE  JEWS  UNDER  THE  MACCABEES,  AND  THE  SOVEREIGNS  OS  THE  HEROUIAN  FA5IILV. 

f.  Brief  account  of  the  Jifaccabees. — II.  Sovereigns  of  the  Hero  (lian  family  : — 1.  Herod  the  Great. — St.  JMatthewi  narrative 
of  the  murder  of  the  infants  at  Jielhlc'iein  covfinncd. — 2.  Archelaus. — 3.  Herod  Antipas. — 4.  Philip. — 5.  Herod  Agrippc, 
— 6.  Agrifipa  junior. — 7.  Bernice  and  Drusilla. 


I.  On  the  subversion  of  the  Babylonian  empire  by  Cyrus 
the  founder  of  the  Persian  monarchy  (b.  c.  513),  he  author- 
ized the  Jews  by  an  edict  to  return  into  their  own  country, 
with  full  permission  to  enjoy  their  laws  and  religion,  and 
caused  the  city  and  temple  of  Jerusalem  to  be  rebuilt.  In 
the  following  year,  part  of  the  Jews  retunu-d  under  Zerub- 
babel, and  renewed  their  sacrifices:  thetiicocratic  government, 
which  had  been  in  abeyance  during  the  captivity,  was  re- 
sumed;  but  the  re-ercction  of  the  city  and  temple  being  in- 
terrupted for  several  years  I)y  the  treachery  and  hostility  of 
the  Samaritans  or  Culheans,  the  avowed  enemiesof  the  Jews, 
the  completion  and  dedication  of  the  temple  did  not  take  place 
until  the  year  51 1  b.  c,  six  years  after  the  accession  of  Cy- 
rus. The  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem  was  accomplished,  and 
the  reformation  of  their  ecclesiastical  and  civil  polity  was  ef- 
fected by  the  two  divinely  inspired  and  pious  governors,  Ezra 
and  Nenemiah.  After  their  death  the  Jews  were  governed 
by  their  high  priests,  in  subjection  however,  to  the  Persian 
kings,  to  whom  they  i)aid  tribute  (Ezra  iv.  \^.  vii.  2  I.),  but 
with  the  full  enjoyment  of  their  other  magistrates,  as  well 
as  their  liberties,  civil  and  religious.  Nearly  three  centuries 
of  uninterrupted  prosperity  ensued,  until  the  reign  of  Anti- 
ochus  Epiphanos,  King  of  Syria,  when  they  were  most  cruelly 
oppressed,  and  compelled  to  lake  up  amis  in  their  own  de- 
fence. 

Under  the  able  conduct  of  Judas,  on  account  of  his  heroic 
exploits  surnamcd  Maccabseus,  (^apo  M«K«ni  the  Hammerer)^ 
the  son  of  Malt-ithias,  surnamed  A'smon  (from  whom  is  de- 
rived the  appellation  Asmona'ans,  home  by  the  princes  de- 
scended from  him),  and  his  valiant  brothers,  the  Jews  main- 

«  1  Esfiraii  iii.  i».    Jospplius,  Ant.  Jiid.  lib.  xi.  c.  3. 

«  Ue.  18,  lir)wpvcr,  most  generally  fiiipimiicd  to  have  ciprivrd  this  name 
from  a  cabaliHUcal  word,  forimrd  of  M.  C.  B.  I.  ihn  Initial  IcllerH  of  the  \U- 
lircw  Text,  Mi  (^hnmoKa  Wnrlini  iehorah,  i.  e.  trhn  anion/;  thr  florin  i»  like 
vnlij  thee,  O  Jrlwrnin  (KxchI.  xv.  II.)  which  li-tlors  inliflit  have;  brpti  ills- 
|)layp<l  on  his  gai-rod  gtaiidanl.  aa  Ihe  Inifrs  H.  P.  (I.  K.  (Seiiatus,  Vvnuln.i 
Que  Korruinu-s),  were  ou  the  Ruman  ensigns.  Ur.  HalrH'a  Aualvsiu  ofCbro- 
A«Iogjr,  vol  i.  p  W9. 


tained  a  religious  war  for  twenty-six  years  with  five  successive 
kings  of  Syria;  and  after  destroying  upwards  of  -200,000  of 
their  best  troops,  the  Maccabees  finally  established  the  inde- 
pendence of  tneir  own  country  and  the  aggrandizement  of 
their  family.  This  illustrious  house,  whose  princes  united 
the  regal  and  pontifical  dignity  in  their  own  persons,  admi- 
nistered the  affairs  of  the  Jews  during  a  period  of  one  hun- 
dred and  twent3'-six  years;  until,  disputes  arising  between 
Ilyrcanus  II.  and  his  brother  Aristobulus,  the  latter  was  de- 
feated by  the  Romans  under  Pompey,  who  captured  Jerusa- 
lem, and  reduced  Judita  to  a  tributary  province  of  the  republic. 
(b.  c.  59.) 

II.  Sovereigns  op  the  Herodian  Family.  —  I.Julius 
Ca?sar,  having  defeated  Pompey,  continued  Ilyrcanus  in  the 
high-priesthood,  but  bestowed  the  government  of  Juda>a  upon 
Antipater,  an  Idumaean  by  birth,  who  was  a  Jewish  prose- 
lyte, and  the  father  of  Ilerod  surnamed  the  Great,  who  w?.3 
subsequently  king  of  the  Jews.  Antipater  divided  Judsa 
betwtMn  his  two  "sons  Phasael  and  Herod,  giving  to  the  for- 
mer the  government  of  Jerusalem,  and  to  the  latter  tlie  pro- 
vince of  Galilee  ;  which  beting  at  that  time  greatly  infested 
with  robbers,  Herod  signalized  bis  courage  by  dispersing 
them,  and  shortly  after  attacked  Antigouus  the  competitor  c? 
Ilyrcanus  in  the  priesthood,  who  was  supported  by  the  T}'- 
rians.  In  the  mean  time,  the  Parthiaus  having  invaded  Jt:- 
dn'a,  and  carried  into  ca])tivity  Hyrcanus  the  hl<rh-prieflt  and 
Pluisael  the  brother  of  Ilcrod  ;  the  lallt  r  fled  to  Rome,  whero 
Mark  Ant(Jhy,  with  the  consent  of  the  senate,  confernd  en 
him  the  title  of  king  of  Juda-a.  Uy  the  aid  of  the  Roman 
arms  Herod  kept  possession  of  his  dignity;  and  after  three 
years  of  sanguinary  and  intestine  war  with  tlie  partisans  of 
Antigonus,  he  was  confirmed  in  his  kingdom  by  Augustus.* 

This  prince  is  characterized  by  Josephtis  as  a  i)er8on  of' 
singular  courage  and  resolution,  liheral  and  even  extravagant 

»  Jahn'H  History  of  ihf  Ilfbrow  romnioiiwnlih,  vol  i.  pp.  101.  lt;.1. 
♦  Ucautubre,  liitrod.  to  Itic  New  Ti-nt.  (Up.  Watson'*  Tracts,  vol.  iii.  D. 
119.) 


I 


Sect.  I.] 


UNDER  THE  MACCABEES,  AND  THE  HERODIAN  FAMH^Y. 


51 


in  his  expencliUire,  magnificent  in  his  buildings,  especially  in 
the  temple  cf  Jerusalem,  and  apparently  disposed  to  promote 
the  happiness  of  every  one.  But  under  this  epecions  exterior 
he  concealed  the  most  consummate  duplicity ;  studious  only 
how  to  attain  and  to  secure  his  own  dignity,  he  reTOrded  no 
means,  however  unj  ustifiable,  which  might  promote  that  object 
of  his  ambition ;  and  in  order  to  supply  his  lavish  expenditure, 
he  imposed  oppressive  burdens  on  his  subjects.  Inexorably 
cruel,  and  a  slave  to  the  most  furious  passions,  he  im.brued 
his  hands  in  the  blood  of  his  wife,  his  children,  and  the 
greater  part  of  his  family ;'  such,  indeed,  were  the  restless- 
ness and  jealousy  of  his  temper,  that  he  spared  neither  his 
people,  nor  the  richest  and  most  powerful  ot  his  subjects,  not 
.even  his  very  friends.  It  is  not  at  all  surprising  that  such  a 
conduct  should  procure  Herod  the  hatred  of  his  subjects, 
especially  of  the  Pharisees,  who  engaged  in  various  plots 
against  him :  and  so  suspicious  did  these  conspiracies  render 
him,  that  he  put  the  innocent  to  the  torture,  lest  the  guilty 
should  escape.  These  circumstances  sufficiently  account  for 
Herod  and  all  Jerusalem  with  him  being  troubled  at  the  arri- 
val of  the  Magi,  to  inquire  where  the  IMessiali  was  born. 
(Matt.  ii.  1 — 3.)  The  .Tews,  who  anxiously  expected  the 
Messiah  "  the  Deliverer,"  were  moved  with  an  anxiety  made 
up  of  hopes  and  fears,  of  uncertainty  and  expectation,  blended 
with  a  dread  of  the  sanguinary  consequences  of  new  tumults ; 
and  Herod,  who  was  a  foreigner  and  usurper,  was  apprehen- 
sive lest  he  should  lose  his  crown  by  the  birth  of  a  rightful 
heir.  Hence  we  are  furnished  with  a  satisfactory  solution 
of  the  motive  that  led  him  to  command  all  the  male  children 
to  be  put  to  death,  who  were  under  two  years  of  age,  in 
iJethlehem  and  its  vicinity.  (Matt.  ii.  16.) 

No  very  long  tim.e  after  the  perpetration  of  this  crime, 
Herod  died,  having  suffered  the  most  excruciating  pains,  in 
the  thirty-seventh  vear  of  his  being  declared  king  of  the  Jews 
by  the  Komans.  ^The  tidings  of  his  decease  were  received 
by  his  oppressed  subjects  with  universal  joy  and  satisfac- 
tion. 

Herod  had  a  numerous  offspring  by  his  different  w^ives, 
although  tlieir  number  was  greatly  reduced  by  his  unnatural 
cruelty  in  putting  many  of  them  to  death:  but,  as  few  of  his 
descendants  are  mentioned  in  the  Sacred  Volume,  we  shall 
notice  only  those  persons  of  whom  it  is  requisite  that  some 
account  should  be  given  for  the  better  understanding  of  the 
New  Testament.  The  annexed  table-  will,  perhaps,  he  found 
useful  in  distinguishing  ihe  particular  persons  of  this  family, 
whose  names  occui  in  the  evangelical  histories. 

•  "WTien  Ilcrod,"  says  the  accurate  Lardncr,  "had  gained  possession 
of  Jerusalem  by  the  assistance  of  llie  Roiuaiis,  and  his  rival  Anligonus  was 
taken  prisoner,  ami  in  the  hands  of  the  Roman  general  Sosius,  and  by  him 
carried  to  Mark  Antony,  Herod,  by  a  large  sum  uf  money,  persuaded  An- 
tony to  put  him  to  death.  Meroil's  great  fear  was,  that  Antigonus  might 
some  lime  revive  his  pretensions,  as  being  of  the  AsmouKan  family.  Aris- 
tobulus,  brother  of  his  wife  Mariamne,  was  murdered  by  his  directions  at 
eighteen  years  of  age,  because  the  people  at  Jerusalem  had  sliown  some 
anection  for  his  person.  In  the  seventli  year  of  his  reign  from  the  death 
of  Antigonus,  he  put  to  death  Hyrcanus,  grandfather  of  Mariamne,  then 
eighty  years  of  ago,  and  who  had  saved  Herod's  life  when  he  was  prose- 
cuted by  the  Sanliedrin ;  a  man  who,  in  his  youth  and  in  the  vigour  of  his 
life,  and  in  all  the  revolutions  of  his  fortune,  had  shown  a  mild  and  peaceable 
disposition.  His  beloved  wife,  the  beautiful  and  virtuous  Marianmc,  had  a 
public  execution,  and  her  mother  Alexandra  followed  soon  after.  Alexan- 
der and  Aristobulus,  his  two  sons  by  Mariamne,  were  strangled  in  prison  by 
his  order  upon  groundless  suspicions,  as  it  seems,  when  they  were  at  man's 
estate,  were  married,  and  had  children.  I  say  nothing  of  the  death  of  his 
eldest  son  Anlipater.  If  Josephus's  character  of  him  be  just,  hewasamis- 
creant,  and  deserved  the  worst  death  that  could  be  inflicted  ;  in  his  last  sick- 
ness, a  little  before  he  died,  he  sent  orders  throughout  Jiida?a,  requiring 
the  presence  of  all  the  chief^  men  of  the  nation  at  Jericho.  His  orders  were 
obeyed,  for  they  were  enforced  with  no  less  penally  tlian  tiiat  of  death. 
When  these  men  were  come  to  Jericho,  he  had  thein  all  shu;  up  in  the 
circus,  and  calling  for  his  sister  Salome,  and  her  husband  Alexas,  he  told 
them,  My  life  is  now  but  short ;  I  know  the  dispositions  of  the  Jewish 
people,  and  nothing  will  please  them  more  than  my  death.  "You  have  these 
men  in  your  custody  ;  as  soon  as  the  breath  is  out  of  my  body,  and  before 
my  death  can  be  known,  do  you  let  in  the  soldiers  upon  tliem  and  kill  them. 
All  Judiea  and  every  family  will  then,  though  unwillingly,  mourn  at  my 
death.'  Nay,  Josephus  says,  '  That  with  tears  in  his  eyes  ho  conjured 
them  by  their  love  to  him,  and  their  iidclity  to  God,  not  to  fail  of  doing  iiim 
this  honour ;  and  they  promised  they  would  not  fail ;'  tliese  orders,  indeed, 
were  not  executed.  But  as  a  modern  historian  of  very  good  sense  observes, 
'the  history  of  this  his  most  wicked  design  takes  off  all  objection  against  the 
truth  of  murdering  the  innocents,  which  may  be  made  irom  the  incredi- 
bility of  so  barbarous  and  horrid  an  act.  For  this  thoroughly  show.s,  that 
there  can  nothing  be  imagined  so  cruel,  barbarous,  and  horrid,  which  this 
man  was  not  capable  of  doing.'  It  may  also  be  proper  to  observe,  that  almost 
all  the  executions  I  have  instanced,  were  sacrifices  to  his  state  jealousv, 
and  love  of  empire."  Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xiv.  c.  21.  25,  26.  28.  lib. 
xvi.  c.  7,  8. 11,  12.  lib.  xvii.  c.  6.  Lardner's  Credibility,  part  i.  book  ii.  c. 
2.  §1. 

»  From  Schulz's  Archseologia  Ilebraica,  p.  54.  Roland  has  given  a  gene- 
alogical table  of  the  entire  Herodian  family.    (Patestina,  torn.  i.  p.  174.) 


ANTIPAS  or  ANTIPATER,  an  Idumcean, 
appointed  prefect  of  Juda;a  and  Syria  by  Julius  C»sar. 


HEROD  THE  GREAT,  king  of  Judffia,-=Mariamne 
(Matt.  ii.  1.  Luke  i.  5.), 
of  whose  oflfspring  the  following  are  to  be  noticed  ;— 


Aristobulus, 
strangled  by 

order  of 
his  father. 


Af.chelaus, 
(Matt.  ii.  22.) 


Philip, 
(Luke  iii.  1.) 


IIekod  Ajjtipas, 

(Luke  iii.  1. 

Matt.  xiv.  3. 

Mark  vi.  14. 

Luke  iii.  19, 20.  and 

xxiii.  11.) 


Herod,  Herod  Agrippa,  Herodias, 

king  of  Chalcis.  the  elder,        married  to  Herod  Philip, 

(Actsxii.)  (Matt.  xiv.  3. 

Mark  vi.  17. 
Luke  iii.  19. 


Behnice, 
(Acts  XXV.  13.) 


Agrippa,  junior, 

(Acts  XXV.  13. 

xxvi.  1.  et  seg.) 


Drcsilla,  ■ 
(Acts  xxiv.  24.) 


Herod,  misnamed  the  Great,  by  his  will  divided  his  do- 
minions among  his  three  sons,  Archelaus,  Herod  Antipas, 
and  Herod  Philip. 

2.  To  Archelacs  he  assigned  Judaea,  Samaria,  and  Idu- 
maea,  with  the  regal  dignity,  subject  to  the  approbation  of 
Augustus,  who  ratified  his  will  as  it  respected  the  territorial 
division,  but  conferred  on  Archelaus  the  title  of  Efhnarch,  or 
chief  of  the  nation,  with  a  promise  of  the  regal  dignity,  if 
he  should  prove  himself  worthy  of  it.  Archelaus  entered 
upon  his  new  ofiice  amid  the  loud  acclamations  of  his  sub- 
jects, who  considered  him  as  a  king;  hence  the  evano-elist, 
in  conformity  with  the  Jewish  idiom,  says  that  he  reigned. 
(Matt.  ii.  23.)  His  reign,  however,  commenced  inauspi- 
ciously  :  for,  after  the  death  of  Herod,  and  before  Archelaus 
could  go  to  Rome  to  obtain  the  confirmation  of  his  father's 
will,  the  Jews  having  become  very  tumultuous  at  the  temple 
in  consequence  of  his  refusing  them  some  demands,  Arche- 
laus ordered  his  soldiers  to  attack  them;  on  which  occasion 
upwards  of  three  thousand  v/ere  slain. ^  On  Archelaus  going 
to  Rome  to  solicit  the  regal  dignity  (agreeably  to  the  prac- 
tice of  th.e  tributary  kings  of  that  age,  who  received  their 
crowns  from  the  Roman  emperor),  the  Jews  sent  an  embassy, 
consisting  of  fifty  of  their  principal  men,  with  a  petition  to 
Augustus  that  they  might  be  permitted  to  live  according  to 
their  ov,-n  laws,  uiider  a  Roman  governor.  To  this  circum- 
stance our  Lord  evidently  alludes  in  the  parable  related  by 
Saint  Luke.  (xix.  12 — 27.)  ^  certain  nobkman  (sjym;,  a 
man  of  birth  or  rank,  the  son  of  Herod),  went  into  a  far 
country  (Italy),  to  receicefor  himself  a  kingdom  (that  of  Ju« 
dfca)  ana  to  return.  But  his  citizens  (the  Jews)  hated  him 
and  sent  a  message  (or  embassy)  after  him  (to  Augustuil 
Carsar),  saying,  "  JVc  will  not  have  this  man  to  reign  over  us.''^ 
The  Jews,  hov,-evcr,  failed  in  their  request,  and  Archelaus, 
having  received  the  kingdom  (or  ethnarchy),  on  his  return 
inflicted  a  severe  vengeance  on  those  who  would  not  that  ha 
should  7-eign  over  them.*  The  application  of  this  parable  is  to 
Jesus  Christ,  v.^ho  foretells,  that,  on  his  ascension,  he  would 
go  into  a  distant  country,  to  receive  the  kingdom  from  hii 
Father;  and  that  he  would  return,  at  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem, to  take  vengeance  on  those  who  rejected  him.*  Tha 
subsequent  reign  of  Archelaus  was  turbulent,  and  dis* 
graced  by  insurrections  of  the  Jews  against  the  Romans,  and 
also  by  banditti  and  pretenders  to  the  crown  :  at  length,  after 
repeated  complaints  against  his  tyranny  and  mal-administra« 
tion,  made  to  Augustus  by  the  principal  Jews  and  Samari- 
tans, who  were  joined  by  his  own  brothers,  Archelaus  was 
deposed  and  banished  to  Vienne  in  Gaul,  in  the  tenth  year  of 
his  reigrl ;  and  his  territories  were  annexed  to  the  Roman 
province  of  Syria.*'    \ 

3.  Herod  Antipas  (or  Antipater),  another  of  Herod's 
sons,  received  from  his  father  the  district  of  Galilee  and 

3  This  circumstance  probably  deterred  the  Holy  Family  from  settling  in 
Judaea  on  their  return  Irom  Egypt ;  and  induced  them  by  the  divine  admrv- 
nition  to  return  to  their  former  residence  at  Nazareth  in  Galilee.  (Matt  if. 
22,  23.)    Dr.  Hales's  Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  ii.  p.  717. 

*  Josephus,  AnL  Jud.  lib.  xvii.  c.  9.  §  3.  c.  11.  Harwood's  Inti'oduction, 
vol.  i.  p.  204. 

»  There  is  an  impressive  application  of  this  parable  in  Mr.  Jones's  Lee 
tures  on  the  figurative  Language  of  Scripture,  lect.  v.  near  the  beginning 
(Works,  vol.  iii.  pp.  3o.  30.) 

e  Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xvii.  c.  11.  (al.  xii.)  42=  c.  J3.  (al.  xiv.)         -^  j 


53 


POLITICAL  STATE  OF  THE  JEWS 


[Paht  n.  Chap.  II. 


Peraea,  with  llie  title  of  Tefrarch.^  lie  is  dpscribod  by  Jose- 
j)hus  as  a  crafty  and  incestuous  prince,  witii  whicii  ciiaracter 
the  narratives  of  tlie  evangelists  coincide ;  for,  having  de- 
serted his  wit'e,  the  daughter  of  Aretas  king  of  Arabia,  he 
forcibly  took  away  and  married  llerodias  the  wife  of  his 
brother  Herod  Philip,  a  proud  and  cruel  woman,  to  gratify 
whom  he  caused  John  the  Bv.ptist  to  be  beheaded  (Matt.  xiv. 
3.  Mark  vl.  17.  Luke  iii.  13.)i  who  had  provokca  her  ven- 
geance by  his  faithful  reproof  of  their  incestuous  nuptials  ; 
tliough  Josephus  ascribes  the  Baptist's  death  to  Herod's 
apprehension,  lest  the  latter  should  by  his  influence  raise  an 
insurrection  among  the  people.  It  was  this  Herod  that  laid 
snares  for  our  Saviour;  who,  delecting  his  insidious  inten- 
tions, termed  him  o  fox  (Luke  xiii.  32.),  and  who  was  sub- 
sequently ridiculed  by  him  and  his  soldiers.  (Luke  xxiii.  7 — 
11.)  Some  years  afterwards,  Herod,  aspiring  to  the  regal 
dignity  in  Judasa,  was  banished  together  with  his  wife,  first 
to  Lyons  in  (laul,  and  thence  into  Spain.^ 

4.  Philip,  tetrarch  of  Trachonitis,  Gaulonitis,  and  Bata- 
Tijea,  is  mentioned  but  once  in  the  New  Testament.  (Ijuke 
iii.  1.)  He  is  represented  by  Josephus  as  an  amiable  prince, 
beloved  by  his  subjects,  whom  he  governed  with  mildness 
and  equity  :^  on  his  decease  without  issue,  after  a  reign  of 
thirty-seven  years,  his  territories  were  annexed  to  the 
province  of  Syria.'' 

5.  Agrippa,  or  Herod  A^rippa  I.,  was  the  son  of  Aristo- 
l)ulus,  and  grandson  of  Herod  the  Great,  and  sustained 
various  reverses  of  fortune  previously  to  his  attaining  the 
royal  dignity.  At  first  he  resided  at  Rome  as  a  private  per- 
son, anoin^ratiated  himself  into  the  favour  of  tne  emperor 
Tiberius :  out  being  accused  of  wishing  him  dead  that 
Caligula  might  reign,  he  was  thrown  into  prison  by  order  of 
Tiberius.  On  the  accession  of  Caligula  to  the  emjjire, 
A""rippa  was  created  king  of  Batansa  and  Traclionitis,  to 
which  Abilene,  Juda?a,  and  Samaria  were  subsequently  added 
by  the  emperor  Claudius.  Returning  home  to  his  dominions, 
he  governed  them  much  to  the  satisfaction  of  his  subjects 
(for  whose  gratification  he  put  to  death  the  apostle  James, 
and  meditated  that  of  St.  Peter,  wlio  was  miraculously 
delivered.  Acts  xii.  2 — 17.);  but,  b(  ing  inflated  with  pride  on 
account  of  his  increasing  power  and  grandeur,  he  was  struck 
with  a  noisome  and  painful  disease,  of  whiph  he  died  at 
Cffisarea  in  the  manner  related  by  St.  Luke.  (Acts  xii.  21 
-~23.V 

G.  HEnon  Aghippa  IL,  or  Junior,  was  the  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding Herod  Ajrripua,  and  was  educated  under  the  auspices 
of  the  emperor  Clauaius  :  being  only  sevente(fn  years  of  age, 
at  the  time  of  his  father's  death,  he  was  judged  to  be  uneciual 
to  the  task  of  governing  the  whole  of  his  dominions.  These 
were  again  placed  under  the  direction  of  a  Roman  procurator 
orgovernor,  and  Agriupa  was  first  king  of  Chakis,  and  after- 
wards of  Batanani,  Trachonitis,  aiul  Abilene,  to  which  other 
territories  were  subsequently  added,  over  whicii  he  seems  to 
have  ruled,  with  the  title  C'f  king."  It  was  before  this 
Agrippa  and  his  sister  Beriiice  tkat  St.  Paul  delivered  his 
masterly  ilefence  (Acts  xxvi.),  where  he  is  expressly  teimed 
a  king.  He  was  the  last  Jewish  prince  of  the  Herodian 
family,  and  for  a  long  time  survived  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem. 

7.  Besides  Herodias,  who  has  been  mentioned  above, 
the  two  following  princesses  of  the  Herodian  family  are 
mentioned  in  the  New  Testament ;  viz. 

(1.^  BKiiMfrE,  the  eldest  daughter  of  king  Herod  Agrippa 
I.  anil  sister  to  Agrippa  II.  (Actsxxv.  l."}.  23.  xxvi.  30^  was 
first  married  to  her  uncU^  Herod  kinw  of  ( Mialeis  ;  after  whose 
death,  in  ordtr  to  avoid  the  merited  suspicion  of  incest  with 
her  brother  Agrippa,  she  l)ecame  the  wife  of  Polemon,  king 
of    Cilicia.      This  connection   being   soon   dissolved,   she 

•  roncpfn'me  Iho  uirfinlni;  of  llli^  ii>nii  lf'arnr<l  in«"ii  nrc  by  no  mrans 
•Rreed.  In  il.s  primary  and  uriKiiial  Nimiilirutnm  it  iiii[iIifKa  go^'iTnorofilie 
Tourth  part  of  a  cuiuitry  ;  iitnl  iliia  seciiis  lo  lin\o  bci-n  tlic  firiit  innaiiinj; 
Killxed  10  it.  But  afterwards  it  wa«  (fivcii  lo  tlio  Kovcnior.s  of  a  provinro, 
whetlier  ilir;ir  Koverninunt  wan  Iho  fourlli  part  of  a  cdniilry  or  not :  for  He- 
rod diviclpd  Ills  kliiKdom  only  Itilo  ihrcf  parts.  Tlin  Tflratrim,  howt-vor, 
wcro  rrgardiMl  a.s  priiinjg,  and  HotiDrtiiiicH  wcrn  coinpliincntrd  witli  tlir  liilt! 
of  kin  v.  (.Malt.  xiv.  y.)  Ilnavisobru's  liurod.  lo  tlio  New  Tf^t.  (lip.  Wat- 
son'.* rrafiH,  vol.  Iii.  p.  I'^J.)  Till!  Komuii.s  conf<rrr<  d  lliirt  till.-  oii  Uiosc 
princes  whom  tlioy  ilid  not  choose  lo  elcvalo  lo  the  rex"!  diunlly;  the 
Tetrairh  was  lower  in  point  of  rank  than  a  Roman  Kovernor  of  u  province^ 
*cliiil7.ii,  ArclKPol.  Ilelir.  pp.  I'*   19.    Jahn,  Arcliicol.  Bibl.  5  240. 

»  Jo«cphu8,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xviii.  c.  7. 

>  Ibid.  lib.  xvii  c.  8.  h  1.  lib.  xvill.  c.  5.  il.  Dc  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  i.  c.33.  $8 
lib.  ii.  r.  (i.  %'.l. 

•  Ibid.  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xvlil.  c.  4.  SO. 
»  Ibid.  lib.  xviii.  rr.  b—B. 

•  IbiU.  lib.  xi.\.  c.  9.    De  Ucll.  Jud.  lib.  ii.  ec.  13,  13. 


returned  to  her  brother,  and  became  the  mistress,  first  of 
Vespasian,  and  then  of  Titus,  who  would  have  married  her, 
but  that  he  was  unwilling  to  displease  the  Romans,  who 
were  averse  to  such  a  step.^ 

(2.)  Dri'Silla,  her  sister,  and  the  youngest  daughter  of 
Herod  Agrippa,  was  distinguished  for  her  Dcauty,  and  was 
equally  celebrated  with  Bernice  for  her  profligacy.  Shu 
was  fiist  espoused  to  Epiphanes,  the  son  of  Antiuchus,  king 
of  Comagena,  on  condition  of  his  embracing  the  Jewish 
religion  ;  but  as  he  afterwards  refused  to  be  circumcised,  she  \ 
was  given  in  marriage,  by  her  brother,  to  x\7.izus  king  of 
Emessa,  who  submitted  to  that  rite.  When  Felix  came  into 
Judaja,  as  procurator  or  governor  of  Judaea,  he  persuaded  iier 
to  abandon  her  husband  and  marry  him.  Josepnus^  says  that 
she  was  induced  lo  transgress  the  laws  of  her  country,  and 
become  the  wife  of  Felix,  in  order  to  avoid  the  envy  of  her 
sister  Bernice,  who  was  continually  doing  her  ill  omces  on 
account  of  her  beauty .9 


SECTION  II. 

POLITICAL  STATE  OF  THE  JEWS  UNDER  THE  nOMAN  PROfX'RA- 
TORS,  TO  THE  SUBVERSION  OF  TIIEIU  CIVIL  AND  ECCLESIAS- 
TICAL POLITY. 

I.  Poioers  and  functio7is  of  the  Roman  procurators. — II.  Po- 
litical and  civil  stale  of  the  Jevii  under  their  adminiitraiion. 
— III.  Account  of  Pontius  Pilate. — IV.  And  of  the  procura- 
tors Felix  and  Festus. 

I.  The  Jewish  kingdom,  which  the  Romans  had  created 
in  favour  of  Herod  the  Gn  at,  was  of  short  duration  ;  expir- 
ing on  his  deatli,  by  the  division  of  his  territories,  and  by 
the  dominions  of  Archelaus,  which  comprised  Samaria. 
Judaea,  and  Idumaea,  being  reduced  to  a  Roman  province 
annexed  to  Syria,  and  governed  by  the  Roman  Procurators. 
These  officers  not  only  had  the  charge  of  collecting  the 
imperial  revenues,  but  also  had  the  power  of  life  and  death  in 
capital  causes  :  and  on  account  of  their  high  dignity  they  aro 
sometimes  called  gover.iors  (H}!,Mcvef).  They  usually  had  a 
council,  consisting  of  their  friends  and  other  chief  Remans  in 
the  province;  with  whom  they  conferred  on  important  ques- 
tftfus.""  During  the  continuance  of  the  Roman  republic,  it 
was  verj'  unusual  for  the  governors  of  provinces  to  take 
their  wives  with  them.  Augustus"  disapproved  of  the  intro- 
duction of  this  practice,  which,  however,  was  in  some 
instances  permitted  by  Tiberius.  Thus  Agripnina  accompa- 
nied Germanicus'2  into  Germany  and  Asia,  and  Plancina  was 
with  Piso,  whose  insolence  towards  Germanicus  shq  con- 
tril)uted  to  inflame  :"  and  though  Ciecina  Severus  afterwards 
oflered  a  motion  to  the  senate,  to  prohibit  this  indulgence 
(on  account  of  the  serious  inconveniences, — not  to  say 
aliuses,  that  would  result  from  the  political  influence  which 
the  wives  miglit  exercise  over  their  husbands),  his  motion 
was  rejected,' '  and  they  continued  to  attend  the  preciirators  to 
tlieir  respective  provinces.  This  circumstance  will  account 
for  Pilate's  wife  being  at  Jerusalem.  (Matt.xxvii.  Hi.)  The 
procurators  of  Judica  resided  principally  at  Cacsarea,'*  which 
was  reputed  to  be  the  metropolis  of  that  country,  and  occu- 
pied the  splendid  palace  which  Herod  the  Great  had  erected 
!  there.  On  the  great  festivals,  or  when  any  tumults  wer6 
appreliended,  they  repaired  to  Jerusalem,  that,  by  their 
presence  and  influence,  tliey  might  restore  order.  For  this 
purpose  they  were  nccomiianied  by  cohorts  (2Tf«i,  Acts  X. 
1.),  or  bands  of  soldiers,  not  legionary  cohorts,  but  distinct 
companies  of  military  :  each  of  them  Mas  about  one  thousand 
strong."'  Six  of  these  coliorts  were  constantly  garrisoned  in 
Judua ;  five  at  Ca:sarea,  and  one  at  Jerusalem,  part  of 
which  was  quartered  in  the  tower  of  Antonia,  so  as  to  com- 

^  Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib  xix.  c.l.  i  1.  lib.  xx.  c.7.  $3.    Taciliis,  Hist.  lib. 
ii.  c.  81.     Siiolonius  in  Tito,  r.  7.    Juvenal,  Sal.  vi.  155. 

•  Anl.Jiid.  lib.  XX.  c.7.  §1.2.     Arts  xxiv. 'J4. 

»  .Sobulzii  Arclin-nloiijn  Ucbraica,  pn  •19— PJ.  Prilii  Inlrojl.nd  Nov.  Tent. 
).  4'J9_^H.  Dr.  l.ardner'K  Credibility,  vol.  I.  book  i.  ch.  I.  {S  I  — il 
iVorks,  vol.  i.  pp.  11— ;in.  ttvo.  or  vol.  i.  pp  9—18.  Ito.)  Carp:;ovii  Aniiqul- 

iates  llebr.T  f.'enlls.  pp.  15—19. 

10  JoHephtis  (.\nl.  Jud.  lib.  xx.  ct.  $4.  and  dp  Rrll.  Jud.  lib.  Ii.  c.  16.  i  1 
meiilioiiN  inHlanceH  in  which  the  llonian  procuratorb  thus  took  council  with 
their  nHifeHSorw. 

•  •  ftuetnnius.  In  AiieiiNto,  c.  01. 

It  Tacitus,  Annal.  lib.  ii.  cc.  M,  05.  lib.  i.  cc.  40,  41. 
«»  Ibid.  hb.  1.  c.  40.  i«  Ibid.  lib.  Iii.  cc.  33,  34. 

>•  JoRi-pbiiii,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xviii.  c.  3.  {  1.  lib  xx.  c.  5.  %  1.    De  Bell.  Jud 
lib.  ii   c.  9.  i  2.    Tncil.  Hist.  lib.  II.  e.  79. 
>•  Biscoe  on  tho  Acta,  vol.  I.  pp.  330—335, 


r^v 


Sect.  II.] 


UNDER  THE  ROMAN  PROCURATORS. 


53 


mand  the  temple,  and  part  in  tlie  prsetoiiuin  or  governor's 
palace. 

These  procurators  were  Romans,  sometimes  of  the  eques- 
trian order,  and  sometimes  freedmen  of  the  emperor :  Felix 
(Acts  xxiii.  2-1 — 26.  xxvi.  3.  22 — 27.)  was  a  freedman  of  the 
emperor  Claudius,'  with  whom  he  was  in  high  favour. 
These  governors  were  sent,  not  by  the  senate,  but  by  the 
Caesars  themselves,  into  those  provinces  which  were  situated 
on  the  confines  of  the  empire,  and  were  placed  at  the  empe- 
ror's own  disposal.  Their  duties  consisted  in  collecting  and 
remitting  tribute,  in  the  administration  of  justice,  and  the 
repression  of  tumults ;  some  of  them  held  independent  juris- 
dictions, while  others  were  subordinate  to  the  proconsul  or 
governor  of  the  nearest  province.  Thus  Judaea  was  annexed 
to  the  province  of  Syria. 

II.  The  Jews  endured  their  subjection  to  the  Romans  with 
great  reluctance,  on  account  of  the  tribute  which  they  were 
obliged  to  pay :  but  in  all  other  respects  they  enjoyed  a  large 
measure  of  national  liberty.  It  appears  from  the  whole  tenor 
of  the  New  Testament  (for  the  particular  passages  are  too 
numerous  to  be  cited),2  that  they  practised  their  own  reli- 
gious rites,  worshippecl  in  the  temple  and  in  their  synagogues, 
tollowed  their  own  customs,  and  lived  very  much  according 
to  their  own  laws.  Thus  they  had  their  high-priests,  and 
council  or  senate;  tliey  inflicted  lesser  punishments;  they 
could  apprehend  men  and  bring  them  before  the  council;  and 
if  a  guard  of  soldiers  was  necessary,  could  be  assisted  by 
them,  on  requesting  them  of  the  governor.  Further,  they 
could  bind  men  and  keep  them  in  custody ;  the  council  could 
likewise  summon  witnesses  and  take  examinations;  they 
could  excommunicate  persons,  and  they  could  inflict  scourg- 
ing in  their  synagogue  (Deut.  xxv.  3.  Matt.  x.  17.  Mark 
xiu.  9.) ;  they  enjoyed  the  privilege  of  referring  litigated 
questions  to  arbitrators,  whose  decisions  in  reference  to  them 
the  Roman  prsetor  was  bound  to  see  put  in  execution. •'' 
Beyond  this,  however,  they  were  not  allowed  to  go;  for, 
when  they  had  any  capital  offenders,  they  carried  them  before 
the  procurator,  who  usually  paid  a  regard  to  what  they 
stated,  and,  if  they  brought  evidence  of  the  fact,  pronounced 
sentence  according  to  their  laws.  He  was  the  proper  judge 
in  all  capital  causes ;  for,  after  the  council  of  the  Jews  had 
taken  under  their  consideration  the  case  of  Jesus  Christ, 
which  they  pretended  was  of  this  kind,  they  went  with  it 
immediately  to  the  governor,  who  re-examined  it  and  pro- 
nounced sentence.  That  they  had  not  the  power  of  life  and 
death  is  evident  from  Pilate's  granting  to  them  the  privilege 
of  judging,  but  not  of  condemning  Jesus  Christ,  and  also 
from  their  acknowledgment  to  Pilate — It  is  7iot  lawful  fur  us 
to  put  any  man  to  death  (John  xviii.  31.) ;  and  likewise  from 
the  power  vested  in  Pilate  of  releasing  a  condemned  criminal 
to  them  at  the  passover  (John  xviii.  39,  40.),  which  he  could 
not  have  done  if  he  had  not  had  tlie  power  of  life  and  death, 
as  well  as  from  his  own  declaration  that  he  had  power  to 
crucify  and  power  to  release  Jesus  Christ.^  (John  xix.  10.) 

>  Suetonius  in  Claudio,  c.  28. 

»  See  Dr.  Lardner's  Credibility,  part  i.  book  ii.  c.  2.  where  the  various 
passages  are  adduced  and  fully  considered. 

»  Cod.  lib.  i.  tit.  9.  1.  8.  de  Judsis. — As  the  Christians  were  at  first  re- 
garded as  a  sect  of  the  Jews,  they  likewise  enjoyed  the  same  privilege. 
This  circumstance  will  account  for  Saint  Paul's  blaming  the  Corinthian 
Christians  for  carrying  their  causes  before  the  Roman  praetor,  instead 
of  leaving  them  to  referees  chosen  from  among  their  brethren.  (1  Cor. 
vi.  1—7.) 

♦  The  celebrated  Roman  Jurist,  Ulpian.  states  that  the  governors  of  the 
Roman  provinces  had  the  right  of  thesicord;  which  implied  the  authority 
of  punishing  malefactors;  an  authority  which  was  personal,  and  not  to  be 
transferred.  (Lib.  vi.  c.  8.  de  Officio  Proconsulis.)  And  Joscphus  states 
(l)e  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  ii.  c.  8.  §  1.)  that  Coponius,  wlio  was  sent  to  govern  Ju- 
daea as  a  province  after  the  banishment  of  Archelaus,  was  invested  by 
Augustus  with  the  power  of  life  and  death.  (Bp.  Gray's  Connection  of 
Sacred  and  Profane  Literature,  vol.  i.  p.  273.  See  also  Dr.  Lardner's  Cre- 
dibility, c.  2.  §  6.)  The  case  of  the  Jews  stoning  Stephen  (Acts  vii.  56,  57.) 
has  been  urged  by  some  learned  men  as  a  proof  that  the  former  had  the 
power  of  life  and  death,  but  the  circumstances  of  that  case  do  not  support 
this  assertion.  Stephen,  it  is  true,  had  been  examined  before  the  great 
council,  who  had  heard  witnesses  against  him,  but  nowhere  do  we  read 
that  they  had  collected  votes  or  proceeded  to  the  giving  of  sentence,  or 


III.  Of  the  various  procurators  that  governed  Judrea  under 
the  Romans,  Pontius  Pilate  is  the  best  known,  and  most 
frequently  mentioned  in  the  sacred  writings.— He  is  supposed 
to  have  been  a  native  of  Italy,  and  was  sent  to  govern  Judaea 
about  the  year  a.  d.  26  or  27.  Pilate  is  characterized  by 
Josephus  as  an  unjust  and  cruel  governor,  sanguinary,  obsti- 
nate, and  impetuous ;  who  disturbed  the  tranquillity  of  Judaea 
by  persisting  in  canying  into  Jerusalem  the  efligies  of  Tibe- 
rius Caesar  that  were  upon  the  Roman  ensigns, 'and  by  other 
acts  of  oppression,  which  produced  tumults  among  the  Jews.* 
Dreading  the  extreme  jealousy  and  suspicion  of  Tiberius,  he 
delivered  up  the  Redeemer  to  be  crucified,  contrary  to  the 
conviction  of  his  better  judgment :  and  in  the  vain  hope  of 
conciliating  the  Jews  whom  he  had  oppressed.  After  he  had 
held  his  office  for  ten  years,  having  caused  a  number  of  in- 
nocent Samaritans  to  be  put  to  death,  that  injured  people 
sent  an  embassy  to  Vitellius,  proconsul  of  Syria ;  by  whom 
he  was  ordered  to  Rome,  to  give  an  account  of  his  mal-admi- 
nistration  to  the  emperor.  But  Tiberius  being  dead  before 
he  arrived  there,  his  successor  Caligula  banished  him  to 
Gaul,  where  he  is  said  to  have  committed  suicide  about  the 
year  of  Christ  41.'' 

ly.  On  the  death  of  king  Herod  Agrippa,  Judaea  being 
again  reduced  to  a  Roman  province,  the  government  of  ,it 
was  confided  to  Antonius  Felix  ;  who  had  originally  been 
the  slave,  then  the  freedman  of  Nero,  and,  through  the  influ- 
ence of  his  brother  Pallas,  also  a  freedman  of  that  emperor, 
was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  procurator  of  Judaea.  He  libe- 
rated that  country  from  banditti  and  impostors  (the  very 
worthy  deeds  alluded  to  by  Tertullus,  Acts  xxiv.  2.);  but  he 
was  in  other  respects  a  cruel  and  avaricious  governor,  incon- 
tinent, intemperate,  and  unjust.  So  oppressive  at  length  did 
his  administration  become,  that  the  Jews  accused  him  before 
Nero,  and  it  was  only  through  the  powerful  interposition  of 
Pallas  that  Felix  escaped  condign  punishment.  His  thii-di 
wife,  Drusilla,  has  already  been  mentioned.  It  was  before 
these  persons  that  St.  Paul,  with  singular  propriety,  reasoned 
of  righteousness,  temperance,  and  a  judgment  to  come.  (Acts 
xxiv.  25.)  On  the  resignation  of  Felix,  a.d.  60,  the  govern- 
ment of  Judaea  was  committed  to  Fortius  Festus,  before 
whom  Paul  defended  himself  against  the  accusations  of  the 
Jews  (Acts  xxv.),  and  appealed' from  his  tribunvil  to  that  of 
Caesar.  Finding  his  province  overrun  with  robbers  and  mur- 
derers, Festus  strenuously  exerted  himself  in  suppressing 
their  outrages.     He  died  in  Judaea  about  the  year  62.8 

The  situation  of  the  Jews  under  the  two  last-mentioned 
procurators  was  truly  deplorable.  Distracted  by  tumults, 
excited  on  various  occasions,  their  country  was  overrun  with 
robbers  that  plundered  all  the  villages  whose  inhabitants 
refused  to  listen  to  their  persuasions  to  shake  off  the  Roman 
yoke.  Justice  was  sold  to  the  highest  bidder ;  and  even  the 
sacred  office  of  high-priest  was  exposed  to  sale.  But,  of  all 
the  procurators,  no  one  abused  his  power  more  than  Gessius 
Florus,  a  cruel  and  sanguinary  governor,  and  so  extremely 
avaricious  that  he  shared  with  the  robbers  in  their  booty,  and 
allowed  them  to  follow  their  nefarious  practices  with  impu- 
nity. Hence  considerable  numbers  of  the  wretched  Jews, 
with  their  families,  abandoned  their  native  countrj' ;  while 
those  who  remained,  being  driven  to  desperation,  took  up 
arms  against  the  Romans,^  and  thus  commenced  that  war, 
which  terminated  in  the  destruction  of  Judaia,  and  the  taking 
away  of  their  name  and  nation.^o 

even  to  pronounce  him  guilty :  all  vphich  ought  to  have  been  done,  if  the 
proceedings  had  been  regular.  Before  Stephen  could  finish  his  defence, 
a  sudden  tumult  arose  ;  the  people  who  were  present  rushed  with  one 
accord  upon  him,  and  casting  him  out  of  the  city,  stoned  him  before  the 
alfair  could  be  taken  before  the  Roman  procurator.  Pritii  Introd.  ad  Nov. 
Test.  p.  592. 

'  Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xviii.  c.  3.  §§  1,  2. 

«  Ibid.  lib.  xviii.  c.  4.    Eusebius,  Hist.  Eccl.  lib.  ii.  cc.  7,  8. 

'  Claudli  Commentatio  de  Felice,  pp.  62,  63. 

8  Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  hb.  xx.  c  8.  §§  9,  10.  De  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  ii.  c. 
14.  §  1. 

9  Ibid.  lib.  XX.  cc.  8.  11.    Ibid.  lib.  ii.  cc.  9,  10. 

10  Schulzii  Archffiologia  Hebraica,  pp.  09—66. 


54 


JEWISH  COURTS  OF  JUDICATURE, 


[Part  II.  Chap,  HI 


CHAPTER  III. 

COURTS  OP  JUDICATURE,  LEGAL  PROCEEDINGS,  AND  CRIMINAL  LAW  OF  THE  JEWS. 

SECTION  I. 


JEWISH  COURTS  OF  JUDICATURE  AND  LEGAL  PROCEEDINGS. 


Seat  of  Justice. — II.  Inferior  Tribunals, — III.  ^flppeah. —  Constitution  of  the  Sanhedrin  or  Great  Council. — IV.  Time  of 
Trials. — Foi-m  of  legal  Proceedings  among  the  Jews. — I.  Citation  tf  the  Parties. — 2,  3.  Form  of  Pleading  in  civil  and 
criminal  Cases.— -4.  Jf'itnesses. —  Oaths. — 5.  The  J,ot,  in  ivhat  Cases  used  judicially. — 6.  Forms  of  Acquittal. — 7.  Sum- 
mary Justice,  sometimes  clamorously  demanded. — V.  Execution  of  Sentences,  by  luhom  and  in  what  manner  performed. 


1.  In  the  parly  ages  of  the  world,  the  Gate  (f  the  CHi/  was 
the  Seat  of  Justice,  where  conveyances  of  titles  and  estates 
•were  made,  complaints  were  heard  and  justice  done,  and 
all  public  businpis  was  transacted.  Thus  Abraham  made 
the  acquisition  of  the  sepulclire  in  the  presence  of  all  these 
who  entered  in  at  the  gate  of  (he  city  of  Hebron.  (Gen.  xxiii. 
10.  18.)  ^Vhen  Hamor  and  his  son  Shecliem  proposed  to 
make  an  alliance  with  Jacob  and  his  sons,  they  spoke  of  it 
to  the  people  at  the  gate  of  the  citi/.  (Gen.  xx'xiv.  24.)  In 
later  times  Boaz,  havingr  declared  his  intention  of  marrying 
Ruth,  at  the  gate  of  Bethlehem  caused  her  kinsman  to  resign 
his  pretensions,  and  give  him  the  proper  conveyance  to  the 
estate.  (Ruth  iv.   1 — 10.)     From  the  circumstance  of  the 

fates  of  cities  being  the  seat  of  justice,  the  judges  appear' to 
ave  been  termed  the  Elders  of  the  Gate  (Deut.  xxii.  15. 
XXV.  7.) ;  for,  as  all  the  Israelites  were  husbandmen,  who 
went  out  in  the  morning  to  work,  and  did  not  return  until 
niglit,  the  city  gate  was  the  place  of  greatest  resort.  By  this 
ancient  practice,  the  judges  were  compelled,  b)"^  a  dread  cf 
public  displeasure,  to  be  most  strictly  impartial,  and  most 
carefully  to  investigate  the  merits  of  the  causes  which  were 
brought  before  them.  The  same  practice  obtained  after  the 
captivity.  (Zech.  viii.  16.)  The  Ottoman  court,  it  is  well 
known,  derived  its  appellation  of  the  Forte,  from  the  distri- 
bution of  justice  and  the  despatch  of  public  business  at  its 
gates.  During  the  Arabian  monarchy  in  Spain,  tlie  same 
oractice  obtained  ;  and  the  magnificent  gate  of  entrance  to  the 
Moorish  palace  of  Alhamr.i  at  Grenada  to  this  day  retains  the 
appellation  of  the  Gate  of  Judice  or  of  Judgmevt.'^  To  the 
practice  of  dispensing  justice  at  the  gates  of  cities,  there  arc 
numerous  allusions  in  the  Sacred  Volume.  For  instance,  in 
Job  v.  4.  the  children  of  the  wicked  are  said  to  be  crushed  in 
the  gate,-  that  is,  they  lose  their  cause,  and  are  condemned  in 
the  court  of  judgment.  The  Psalmist  (cxxvii.  5.),  speaking 
of  those  whom  God  has  blessed  with  many  children,  says 
that  they  shall  not  be  ashamed,  but  they  shall  speak  with  the 
enemies  in  the  gate ;  that  is,  those  who  are  thus  blessed  shall 
courageously  plead  their  cause,  and  need  not  fear  the  want 
of  justice  wiien  they  meet  tiieir  adversaries  in  the  court  of 
juaicalure.  Compare  Prov.  xxii.  22.  and  xxxi.  23.  Lament. 
V.  14.  Amos  v.  12.,  in  all  which  passages  the  gate,  and  tiders 
of  the  land  or  if  the  gate,  respectively  denote  the  seat  of  jus- 
tice and  the  jtidges  who  presided  there.  And  as  the  gates  of 
a  city  constituted  its  strength,  and  as  the  happiness  of  a  peo- 
ple depended  much  upon  the  wisdom  and  integritv  of  the 
judgf  s  who  sat  there,  it  may  be  that  our  Saviour  alluded  to 
this  circumstance,  when  he  said,  The  gates  of  hf II  .shall  nut 
prevail  against  his  church  (Matt.  xvi.  18.);  that  is,  neither 
the  strength  nor  policy  of  Satan  or  his  instruments  shall  ever 
be  able  to  overcome  it. 

In  tiie  time  of  Jesus  Christ  the  Jews  held  courts  of  judica- 
ture in  their  synai^ngues,  where  they  punished  ofTenders  Ity 
scourging,  f  Matt.  x.  17.  Acts  x\ii.  19.  xxvi.  11.)  After 
their  example.  Dr.  Macknigbt  thinks  it  probable,  that  the 
first  Christians  held  courts  for  determining  civil  cruises,  in 
the  places  where  they  assembled  for  pul>lic  wnrsliip,  called 
your  synagogue  in  the  epistle  of  James,  (ii.  2.  Gr.)  It  is 
evident,  he  adds,  that  the  apostle  speaks  not  of  their  assem- 
bly, but  of  the  place  where  their  assembly  was  held,  from 
his  mentioning  the  litigants  as  sitting  in  a  more  honourable 

•  npsulcs  tlic  niitliorilios  inrldcnially  died  in  the  coiirae  of  this  uprtlon, 
the  follf)wini!  wf)rkH  Iiavc  lifv  n  consulted  for  It,  throiiKtioiil ;  vi/.  i^cliiil/.ii 
Arclia.'oloi,'iii  n«.[)riira,  pp.  CD— 61.  ;  Caltiinl.  Dissi'ilalKni  .^ur  I.i  I'dIh-p  ili's 
Ilebreiix  (Dii-fleriationx,  torn.  i.  pp.  l.-<7— 21M.);  Albcr,  Herrneneutii  a  Vet. 
Test.  pp.  •ZH—Zm.;  Piitii  liiiri>.l.  art  Nov.  Tent.  pp.  575— &.M. :  HriininRH 
Antiq.  Uebr.  pp.  y9— 1(17. :  Ilonn'.s  Hist,  of  ttie  Jew«,  vol.  ii.  pp.  30— 41  ; 
Jabn.  Arclicuol.  Uiblica,  is  243-24^.  j  Aciicrmann,  Arcbwol.  Bibl.  ii  237 

»  Murphy's  Arabian  Antk  uitios  of  8paln,  plates  liv.  xv.  pp.  8,  9. 


or  less  honourable  place  in  the  synagogue.  And  the  context 
shows,  that  judges  and  judicia-l  causes  were  the  subjects  of 
the  apostle's  thoughts.' 

II.  On  the  scttU-ment  of  the  Israelites  in  the  land  of  Ca- 
naan, Moses  commanded  them  to  appoint  Judges  and  officers 
in  all  their  gates,  ikroughnut  their  tribe.i  (Deut.  xvi.  18.); 
whose  duty  it  was  to  exercise  judicial  authority  in  the  neigh- 
bouring villages ;  but  weighty  causes  and  appeals  were  car- 
ried before  the  supreme  judge  cr  ruler  of  the  commonwealth. 
(Deut.  xvii.  8,  9.)  According  to  Josephus,  these  inferior 
judges  were  seven  in  number,  men  zealous  in  the  exercise 
of  virtue  and  righteousness.  To  each  judge  (that  is,  to  each 
college  of  judges  in  ever)'  city)  two  officers  were  assigned 
cut  of  the  tribe  of  Levi.-*  These  judges  existed  in  the  time 
of  that  historian  ;^  and,  although  the  rabbinical  writers  are 
silent  concerning  them,  yet  their  silence  neither  does  nor 
can  outweigh  the  evidence  of  an  eye-witness  and  magistrate, 
who  himself  appointed  such  jiidges. 

The  Priests  and  Levites,  wlio,  from  their  being  devoted 
to  the  study  of  the  law,  were,  consequently,  best  skilled  in 
its  various  precepts,  and  old  men,  who  were  eminent  for 
their  age  ana  virtue,  administered  justice  to  the  people  :  in 
consequence  of  their  age,  the  name  of  dJertt  became  attached 
to  tl'.em.  Many  instances  of  this  kind  occur  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament; they  were  also  called  rultrs,  af^cyya:.  (Luke  xii.  58. 
where  ruler  is  synonymous  with  judge. )^     The  law  of  Mo; 


ses 


judge  sits  in  the  seat  of  God,  and,  conseq^uentfy,  that  no  man 
ought  to  have  any  pre-eminence  in  his  sight,  neither  ought 
he  to  be  afraid  of  any  man  in  declaring  the  law.  (Exod.  xxiii. 
3.  G,  7.  Lev.  xix.  15.  Deut.  i.  17.  xvi.  IS,  19.)  The  pro- 
phet Amos  (viii.  (J.)  reproaches  the  corrupt  judges  pf  his 
time,  with  tauing  not  only  silver,  hut  even  so  trifling  an  arti- 
cle of  dress  as  a  pair  of  (wooden)  sandals,  as  a  bribe,  to 
condemn  the  innocent  poor  who  could  not  afford  to  make 
them  a  present  of  equal  value.  Turkish  officers  and  their 
wives  in  Asia,  to  this  day,  go  richly  clothed  in  costly  silks 
given  tlicin  by  those  who  have  causes  depending  before 
thrm.'  It  is  ])robablc,  at  least  in  the  early  ages  after  tlie  set- 
tlrnnent  of  the  Jews  in  Canaan,  that  their  judges  rode  on 
white  asses,  by  way  of  distinction  (Judge.=!  v.  10.),  as  tho 
Mollahs  or  men  of  the  law  do  to  this  day  in  Persia,^  and  the 
heads  of  fiimilies  returning  from  their  pilgrimage  to  Merca.s 
111.  From  these  inferior  tribunals,  ajijieals  lay  to  a  hiifhei 
court,  in  cases  of  iinpr.rl;iiice.  (Deut.  xvii.  8 — 12.)  In  .feni 
salein,  it  is  not  improlrahle  that  there  were  superior  courts,  in 
which  David's  sons  presid(?d.  Psalm  cxxii.  5.  seems  to 
allude  to  them  :  though  we  do  not  find  that  a  supreme  tri- 
bunal was  established  at  Jerusalem  earlier  than  in  the  reign 
of  Jrhoshaphat.  (2  Chron.  xix.  8 — 11.)     It  was  composed  of 

>  Mnrknicbl  nn  .T.iines  Ii.  2. 

«  .losi.'plm.'t,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  iv.  r.  11.  flcbulzii  Proliibio  dc  varlls  Jiida»n. 
nun  erroi-ibus  in  Depcriplione  TeiDpli  il.  i  xv.  i)p.  27—32. ;  prefixed  to  bin 
edition  of  Krlnnd'8  TrcotisQ  Do  ^poliis  Tenipli  llicrosolytnltani  Trajecii  ad 
Kbenunj,  177,'>.  8vo. 

»  .loHpIins,  Dc  Hell.  .lud.  lib.  ii.  r.  20.  {  T.. 

«  Krnesti  Inslilnlio  interjirelis  Nnvi  Testainciill,  part  lii.  c.  10.  {  73.  p.  3^0. 

1  Morier'K  Sernnd  Journey,  l>.  !.'>!. 

•  liariiier's  OliHt-rvnlionR,  vol.  li.  p.  317. 

•  "  We  met,  one  day,  a  jiroreHsion,  ronsisling  of  a  family  roturnlne  from 
the  pil)friiiinge  to  Mecca.  Drums  and  pipes  announced  Ibe  joyfu  [.•vent. 
A  whilo-beardcd  obi  man,  ridinjt  on  a  trhile  nsa,  led  the  way  wilb  palri- 
arcbnl  srare;  .iiid  Ibe  men  wbn  nut  liini,  or  accompanied  liini,  were  con- 
linunlly  Ibrowinc  their  arms  aUinl  bis  neck,  and  nln)nst  disinounlinjt  him 
with  tlii'ir  salutaiionn.  lie  was  followed  by  bis  three  wives,  cacb  riding 
on  a  bigli  eniuel  ;  their  female  acquaiulanceK  running  on  each  siile,  while 
they  occa.'Jionii'ly  utoopei!  tlown  to  Halute  tbein.  The  women  conlinually 
uttered  a  remarknbly  .«hrill  wbi.sile.  It  wn.i  impoiisible,  viewing  the  old 
mftn  who  led  the  why,  not  to  rcoicniber  the  expression  iu  Judges  v.  10  " 
Jovreti's  Christian  Researches  p.  IC3. 


Sect.  I.] 


AND  LEGAL  PROCEEDINGS. 


priests  and  heads  of  f^rniilies,  and  had  two  presidents, — one 
in  the  person  of  the  high-priest,  and  another  who  sat  in  the 
name  of  the  king.  The  judicial  establishment  was  reorga- 
nized after  the  captivity,  and  two  classes  of  judges,  inferior 
and  superior,  were  appointed.  (Ezra  vii.  25.)  But  the  more 
difficult  cases  and  appeals  were  brought,  either  before  the 
ruler  of  the  state,  or  before  the  high-priest;  until,  in  the  age 
of  the  Maccabees,  a  supreme  judicial  tribunal  was  instituted, 
which  is  first  mentioned  under  Hyrcanus  IL' 

This  tribunal  (which  must  not  be  confounded  with  the 
seventy-two  counsellors,  who  were  appointed  to  assist  Moses 
■'n  ihe  civil  administration  of  the  government,  but  who  never 
fulfilled  the  office  of  judges)  is  by  the  Talmudists  denominated 
8a.\hedrin,  and  is  the  great  Council  so  often  mentioned  in 
the  New  Testament.  It  was  most  probably  instituted  in  the 
time  of  the  Maccabees,  and  was  composed  of  seventy  or  se- 
venty-two members,  under  the  chief  presidency  of  the  high- 
priest,  under  whom  were  two  vice-presidents ;  the  first  cf 
whom,  called  the  Father  nftke  Council,  sat  on  the  right,  as  the 
second  vice-president,  who  was  called  Chakam,  or  the  JVise 
Man,  did  on  the  left  hand  of  the  president.  'Vhe  other  asses- 
sors, or  members  of  this  council,  comprised  three  descriptions 
of  persons,  viz.  1.  The  Kj^xfY'^^i  '^'^  Chief  Priests,  who  were 
partly  such  priests  as  had  executed  the  pontificate,  and  partly 
the  princes  or  chiefs  of  the  twenty-four  courses  or  classes  of 
priests,  who  enjoyed  this  honourable  title  : — 2.  The  np=5-,&- 
Tif-.i,  or  Elders,  perhaps  the  princes  of  tribes  or  heads  of  fa- 
milies ; — and,  3.  The  Tfuf^u^n:;,  Scribes,  or  men  learned  in 
the  law.  It  does  not  appear  that  all  the  elders  and  scribes 
were  members  of  this  tribunal :  most  probably  those  only 
were  assessors,  who  were  either  elected  to  the  office,  or  no- 
minated to  it  by  royal  authority.  They  are  reported  to  have 
sat  in  a  semi-circular  form  ;  and  to  this  manner  of  their  sitting 
in  judgment  .lesus  Christ  is  supposed  to  refer  in  Matt.  xix. 
23.,  and  St.  Paul  in  1  Cor.  vi.  2. 

The  Sanhedrin  held  its  daily  sittings  early  in  the  morning 
(according  to  the  Talmudists)  in  the  Temple  ;  but  they  are 
contradicted  by  Josephus,^  who  speaks  of  a  council-house  in 
the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  Temple,  where  this  council 
was  in  all  probability  convened ;  though  in  extraordinary 
emergencies  it  Avas  assembled  in  the  hifjh-priest's  house,  as 
v%'as  the  case  in  the  mock  trial  of  Jesus  Christ.  The  autho- 
rity of  this  tribunal  was  very  extensive.  It  decided  all 
causes,  which  were  brought  before  it,  by  appeal  from  inferior 
courts  ;  and  also  took  cognizance  of  the  general  aflairs  of 
the  nation.  Bcfi/re  Judaea  was  subject  to  the  Roman  power, 
thp  Sanhedrin  had  the  right  of  Judging  in  capital  cases,  but 
not  afterwards  ;  the  stoning  of  Stephen  being  (as  we  have 
already  observed)  a  tumultuary  act,  and  not  in  consequence 
of  sentence  pronounced  by  this  council. ^ 

Besides  the  Sanhedrin,  the  Talmudical  writers  assert  that 
there  were  other  smaller  councils,  each  consisting  of  twenty- 
three  persons,  who  heard  and  determined  petty  causes :  two 
of  these  were  at  Jerusalem,  and  one  in  every  city  containing 
one  hundred  and  twenty  inhabitants.  Josephns  is  silent  con- 
cerning these  tribunals,  but  they  certainly  appear  to  have 
existed  in  the  time  of  Jesus  Christ;  who,  "by  images  taken 
from  these  two  courts,  in  a  very  striking  manner  represents 
the  diiterent  decrees  of  future  punishments,  to  which  the 
impenitently  wicked  will  be  doomed  according  to  the  respec- 
tive heinousness  of  their  crimes.  Bui  I  say  unto  you,  that 
whosoever  is  angry  with  his  brother  without  a  cause,  shall  be  in 
danger  of  the  judgment  ;  and  whosevcr  shall  say  to  his  brother, 
Raca,  shall  be  in  danger  of  the  council  ;  but  whosoever  shall 
say.  Thou  fool,  sliall  be  in  danger  of  hell  fire.  (Matt.  v.  22.) 
That  is,  whosoever  shall  indulge  causeless  ana  unprovoked 
resentment  against  his  Christian  brother,  shall  be  punished 
with  a  severity  similar  to  that  which  is  inflicted  by  the  court 
of  judgment.  He,  who  shall  suffer  his  passions  to  transport 
him  to  greater  extravagances,  so  as  to  make  his  brother  the 
object  of  derision  and  contempt,  shall  be  exposed  to  a  still 
severer  punishment,  corresponding  to  that  which  the  council 
imposes.  But  he  who  shall  load  his  fellow-Christian  with 
odious  appellations  and  abusive  language,  shall  incur  the 
severest  degree  of  all  punishments, — equal  to  that  of  being 
burnt  alive  in  the  valley  of  Ilinnom:"' — which,  having 
formerly  been  the  scene  of  those  horrid  sacrifices  of  children 
to  Moloch  by  causing  them  to  pass  through  the  fire,  the 

«  Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xW.  c.  9.  §  3. 

«  De  Bell.  Jiid.  lib.  v.  c.  4.  §  2.  lib.  vi.  c.  6.  §  3. 

'  Dr.  Lightfoot  has  given  a  list  of  sixteen  presidents  who  directed  the 
sanhedrin  from  the  captivity  till  its  dissolution.  (Prospect  of  the  Temple, 
ch.  xxii.  §  1.     Works,  vol.  ix.  pp.  312— 3J6.  8vo.  edit.) 

<  Harwood's  Introduction  to  tlie  New  Test.  vol.  ii.  pp.  183,  189 


JeAvs  in  our  Saviour's  time  used  to  denote  the  place  of  the 
damned. 

Where  there  were  not  one  hundred  and  twenty  inhabitant!; 
in  a  town  or  village,  according  to  the  Talmudist,  there  was 
a  tribunal  of  three  judges :  and  to  this  tribunal  some  writers 
have  erroneously  imagined  that  Joseph  of  Arimathea  be- 
longed, rather  than  to  the  great  Sanhedrin.  But  both  the 
writers  of  the  New  Testament  and  Josephus  are  silent  con 
cerning  the  existence  of  such  a  tribunal.  Jahn  is  of  opinion 
that  this  court  was  merely  a  session  of  three  arbitrators, 
which  the  Roman  laws  permitted  to  the  Jews  in  civil  causes  : 
as  the  Talmudists  themselves  state  that  one  judge  was  chosen 
by  the  accuser,  another  by  the  party  accused,  and  a  third  by 
both  parties.  It  appears,  however,  that  only  petty  aflfairs  were 
cognizable  by  this  tribunal.  The  reference  to  arbitrators, 
recommended,  to  Christians  by  St.  Paul  in  1  Cor.  vi.  1 — 5,, 
has  been  supposed  to  be  derived  from  this  tribunal. 

It  is  essential  to  the  ends  of  justice,  that  the  proceedings 
of  the  courts  should  be  committed  to  writing,  and  preserved 
in  archives  or  registries :  Josephus  informs  us  that  there  was 
such  a  repository  at  Jerusalem,  which  was  burnt  by  the  Ro- 
mans,* and  which  was  furnished  with  scribes  or  notaries,  for 
recording  the  proceedings.  From  this  place,  probably,  St. 
Luke  derived  his  account  of  the  proceedings  against  the 
protomartyr  Stephen,  related  in  Acts  vi.  and  vii.  These  tribu- 
nals also  had  inferior  ministers  or  officers  (t/T;ig?Ta<,  Matt.  v. 
25.),  who  probably  corresponded  with  our  apparitors  or  me^ 
sengers  ;  and  others  whose  office  it  was  to  carry  the  decrees 
into  execution,  viz.  1.  The  TrpunTcfn;,  or  exactors,  whose  busi- 
ness it  was  to  levy  the  fines  imposed  by  the  court ;  and, 
2.  The  &iTx.viT'jj,  or  tormentors,  those  whose  office  it  was  to 
examine  by  torture  :  as  this  charge  was  devolved  on  gaolers, 
in  the  time  of  Christ,  the  word  /3icr£tv;r»j  came  to  signify  a 
gaoler.'' 

IV".  It  appears  from  Jer.  xxi.  12.,  that  causes  were  heard, 
and  judgment  was  executed  in  the  morning.  According  to 
the  Talmud,"  capital  causes  were  prohibited  from  being  heard 
in  the  night,  as  also  were  the  institution  of  an  examination, 
the  pronouncing  of  sentence,  and  the  carrying  of  it  into 
execution,  on  one  and  the  same  day  ;  and  it  was  enjoined 
that  at  least  the  execution  of  a  sentence  should  be  deferred 
until  the  following  day.  How  flagrantly  this  injunction  was 
disregarded  in  the  case  of  Jesus  Christ,  it  is  scarcely  neces- 
sary to  mention.  According  to  the  Talmud,  also,  no  judg- 
ments could  be  executed  on  festival  days ;  but  this  by  no 
means  agrees  with  the  end  and  design  of  capital  punishment 
expressed  in  Deut.  xvii.  13.  viz.  That  all  me  people  might 
hear  and  fear.  It  is  evident  from  Matt.  xxvi.  5.  that  the  chief  ' 
priests  and  other  leading  men  among  the  Jews  were  at  first 
afraid  to  apprehend  Jesus,  lest  there  should  be  a  tumult 
among  the  people  :  it  is  not  improbable  that  they  feared  the 
Galilaeans  more  than  the  populace  of  Jerusalem,  because 
they  were  the  countrymen  of  our  Lord.  Afterwards,  how- 
ever, when  the  traitor  Judas  presented  himself  to  them,  their 
fears  vanished  awa}'. 

In  the  early  ages  of  the  Jewish  history,  judicial  procedure 
must  have  been  summarj',  as  it  still  is  in  Asia.s  Of  advo- 
cates, such  as  ours,  there  is  no  appearance  in  any  part  of  the 
Old  Testament.  Every  onepleaded  his  own  cause;  of  this 
practice  we  have  a  memorable  instance  in  1  Kings  iii.  1 6 — 
28.  As  causes  were  heard  at  the  city  gate,  where  the  people 
assembled  to  hear  news  or  to  pass  away  their  time,  Michael  is 
thinks  that  men  of  experience  and  wisdom  might  be  asked 
for  their  opinions  in  difficult  cases,  and  might  sometimes 
assist  with  their  advice  those  who  seemed  embarrassed  in 
their  own  cause,  even  when  it  was  a  good  one.  Probably 
this  is  alluded  to  in  Job  xxix.  7 — 17.  and  Isa.  i.  17.^  From 
the  Romans,  the  use  of  advocates,  or  patrons  who  pleaded 
the  cause  of  another,  might  have  passed  to  the  Jews.  In 
this  view  the  word  riopaKWiTSf,  or  advocate,  is  applied  to 
Christ,  our  intercessor,  who  pleads  the  cause  of  sinners  with,  hiif 
Father.  (1  John  ii.  1.)  The  form  of  proceeding  appears  to 
have  been  as  follows  : — 

1.  Those  who  were  summoned  before  courts  of  judicature, 
were  said  to  be  7rpi-^eypu./uumi  u;  Kpii-iv,  because  they  were  cited 
by  posting  up  their  names  in  some  public  place,  and  to  these 

»  Josephus,  Dc  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  vi.  c.  3.  5  3.  * 

«  Schleusncr's  and  Parkhurst's  Lexicon,  in  voce. 

■>  Sanhedrin,  IV. 

»  And  also  among  the  Marootzee,  a  nation  inhabiting  the  interior  of 
South  Africa.  Caiiipbell'.s  Travels  in  the  interior  of  South  Africa,  vol.  ii. 
p.  236.  (London,  lS-23.  8vo.)  From  this,  and  other  coincidences  with  Jew- 
ish observances,  Mr.  C.  thinks  it  probable  that  the  Marootzee  are  of  Jewish 
or  Arabian  origin  ^^   _^ 

»  Michaelis's  Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of  Moses,  vol.  It.  pp.  320.  323. 


96 


JEWISH  COURTS  OF  JUDICATURE, 


[Paht  II.  Chap.  Ill 


jiulirment  was  publislied  or  declared  in  writing.  The  Greek 
writers  apjilied  the  term  7r\,'.y,-,ftiJi.fj.iy'.ui:,  to  those  whom  the 
Romans  called  proscriptos  or  proscribed,  that  is,  whose  names 
were  posted  up  in  writing  in  some  public  place,  as  persons 
doomed  to  die,  with  a  reward  ofTered  to  whoever  would  kill 
them.  To  this  usage  there  is  an  allusion  in  the  Epistle  of 
Jude  (verse  4.),  where  the  persons  who  are  said  to  be  Trpzyt- 
yfit.fxfAnoi  m  Tctrro  Tj  wiy.t,  fort  xorUlen  to,  or  brfore  described  f<n-, 
tills  condemnation,  denote  those  who  were  long  before  di;- 
scribed,  in  the  examples  of  their  wickedness  contained  in  tlie 
writings  of  J\Ioses  and  the  prophets,  such  as  the  angels  that 
sinned^  the  antediluvians,  the  people  of  Sodom,  &c.  And  in 
the  condemnation  of  these  sinners,  God  has  shown  what  he 
will  do  to  all  others  like  them.'  In  the  sacred  writings,  all 
false  teachers  and  impure  practices  have  been  most  openly 
proscribed  and  condemned,  and  in  the  following  verses  of  the 
same  epistle  the  apostle  distinctly  specifies  who  these  per- 
sons are. 

2.  He,  who  entered  the  action,  went  to  the  judges,  and 
stated  his  afiair  to  them ;  and  then  they  sent  officers  with 
him  to  seize  the  party  and  bring  him  to  justice.  To  this  our 
Lord  alludes,  when  he  says  (Matt.  v.  -25.),  Jlgrce  with  thine 
ndversart/  wliik  thou  art  in  the  v:(ty  ivith  him,  before  thou  art 
brought' before  the  judge,  lest  thou  be  condemned.  On  the 
day  appointed  for  hearing  the  cause,  the  plaintiff  and  defend- 
ant presented  themselves  before  the  judges;  who  at  first 
sat  alone.  (Deut.  xxv.  1.)  In  later  times,  the  Jewish  writers 
inform  us,  that  there  were  always  two  notaries  belonging  to 
the  court,  one  of  whom  stood  on  the  right  hand  of  the  judge, 
who  wrote  the  sentence  of  acquittal;  and  the  other,  on  his 
left  hand,  who  wrote  the  sentence  of  condemnation.  To  this 
custom,  probably,  our  Saviour  referred  (Matt.  xxv.  33.), 
when,  speaking  of  the  last  judgment,  he  says,  that  he  will 
set  t/ie  8/ierp  un  his  right  hand,  in  order  to  be  acquitted,  arid 
the  goats  on  tiis  kft,  in  order  to  be  condemned.  It  appears 
that  the  judicial  decrees  were  (as  they  still  are  in  the  East) 
first  written  by  a  notarj^  and  then  authenticated  or  annulled 
by  the  magistrate.  To  this  the  prophet  Isaiah  alludes  when 
he  denounces  a  woe  unto  them  that  tkcree  unrighteous  decrees, 
and  to  the  writers  that  vjritc  griciousness.  (Isa.  x.  1.  marginal 
rendering.)^  The  judges  sat,  wiiile  the  defendants  stood, 
particularly,  during  the  examination  of  witnesses.  Thus, 
Jesus  stood  before  the  governor.  (Matt,  xxvii.  11.) 

3.  In  criminal  cases,  when  the  trial  came  on,  the  judge's 
first  care  was  to  exhort  the  criminal  to  confess  his  crime,  if 
he  really  were  guilty :  thus  Joshua  exhorted  Achan  to  give 
glory  to  the  Lord  God  of  Israel,  and  make  confession  unto  him. 
(Josh.  vii.  19.)  To  this  custom  of  the  Jews,  St.  Paul  seems 
to  allude,  when  he  says,  Hoppy  if  he  that  condemneth  not 
himself  in  that  thing  which  he  allowcth  (Rom.  xiv.  22.);  that 
is,  who,  being  convinced  of  the  truth  of  a  thing,  does  not 
really  and  effectually  condemn  himself  in  the  sight  of  God 
by  denying  it.  After  the  accusation  was  laid  before  the 
court,  the  criminal  was  heard  in  his  defence,  and  therefore 
Nicodemus  said  to  the  chief  priests  and  Pharisees,  Jhth  our 
law  judge  any  nutn  before  it  hear  hiyn,  and  know  what  he  duth  ? 
(John  vii.  51.)  If,  during  the  trial,  the  defendant,  or  sup- 
posed criminal,  said  any  thing  that  displeased  either  the  judire 
or  his  accuser,  it  was  not  unusual  for  the  latter  to  smite  hun 
on  the  face.  This  was  the  case  with  Saint  Paul  (Acts  xxiii. 
2.),  and  the  same  brutal  conduct  prevails  in  Persia  to  tiiis 
day.' 

4.  In  matters  of  life  and  death,  the  evidence  of  one  witness 
was  not  sufficient:  in  order  to  establish  a  charge,  it  was 
necessary  to  have  the  testimony  of  two  or  three  credible  and 
unimpeachable  witnesses.  (Num.  xxxv.  30.  Deut.  xvii.  G,  7. 
xix.  15.)  Though  the  law  of  Moses  is  silent  concerning  the 
evidence  of  women,  Josephus  says  that  it  was  prohiluted  on 
account  of  the  levity  and  boldness  of  their  sex!  He  also 
adds  that  the  testimony  of  servants  was  inadmissible,  on  ac- 
count of  the  prohability  of  their  being  influenced  to  sneak 
what  was  unt.-ue,  either  from  hope  ol  gain  or  frar  of^  pu- 
nishment. Most  likely,  this  was  the  exposition  of  the 
scrilxs  and  Pharisees,  and  the  practice  of  tne  Jews,  in  the 
last  age  of  their  political  existence.'  The  party  sworn  held 
up  his  right  hand,  which  explains  Psal.  cxliv.  8.,  ll'hosc 
month  sprukelh  vnnitu,  and  their  right  hand  is  a  right  hand 
of  falsehood.     In  gd1u;ral,  the  witnesses  to  be  sworn  did  not 

«  ParkhurBl'8  and  Schl^mnor'a  Lexicon  to  Uic  New  Testament,  voce 
W^nyjA'^o.     Boottiroyd  on  Jiidc  4. 

»  Harmer's  ObsenallonH,  vol.  ii.  pp.  519—521. 

>  Morier's  Sorond  Juurn<Ty,  p.  OSi.    Hanway'n  Travels,  vol.  i.  p.  299. 

•  Micliaplis's  f'omiii'^tilaries  on  llic  L:«wh  of  MnsrH,  vol.  iv  p.  SvS.  Schul- 
zii  Arcliiuol.  llcbr.  p.  7-1.    Josephus,  Aut.  Jud.  lib.  It.  c.  6.  i  15. 


pronounce  the  formula  of  the  oath,  either  when  it  was  a  judi- 
cial one,  or  taken  on  any  other  solemn  occasion.  A  formula 
was  read,  to  which  they  said  Amen.  (Lev.  v.  1.  1  Kings 
viii.  31.)  Referring  to  this  usage,  when  Jesus  Christ  was 
abjured  or  put  upon  his  oath,  he  immediately  made  an  an 
swer.  (Matt.  xxvi.  63.)  All  manner  of  false  witness  was 
most  severely  prohibited.  (Exod.  xx.  IG.  xxiii.  1 — 3.)* 

5.  In  questions  of  property,  in  default  of  any  other  means 
of  decision,  recourse  was  had  to  the  lot.  In  this  manner,  it 
will  be  recollected  that  the  land  of  Canaan  was  divided  by 
Joshua,  to  which  there  are  so  many  allusions  in  the  Old 
Testament,  particularly  in  the  book  of  Psalms.  And  it  should 
seem,  from  Prov.  xvi.  33.  and  xviii.  18.  that  it  was  used  in 
courts  of  justice,  in  the  time  of  Solomon,  though,  probably, 
only  with  the  consent  of  both  parlies.  In  criminal  cases, 
recourse  was  had  to  the  sacred  lot,  called  Urim  and  Thum- 
mim,  in  order  to  discover,  not  to  convict  the  guilty  party 
(Josh.  vii.  11 — IB.  1  Sam.  xiv.  37 — 15.);  but  it  appears  to 
have  been  used  only  in  the  case  of  an  oath  beino;  transgressed, 
which  the  whole  people  had  taken,  or  the  leader  of  the  host 
in  their  name.*' 

A  peculiar  mode  of  eliciting  the  truth  was  employed  in  the 
case  of  a  woman  suspected  of  adultery.  She  was  to  be 
brought  by  her  husband  to  the  tabernacle, — afterwards  to  the 
temple  ;  where  she  took  an  oath  of  purgation,  imprecating 
tremendous  punishment  upon  herself.  The  form  of^lhis  pro- 
cess (which  was  the  foundation  of  the  trial  by  ordeal  that  so 
generally  prevailed  in  the  dark  ages)  is  detailed  at  length  in 
Num.  v.  11 — 31.,  to  which  the  rabbinical  writers  have  added 
a  variety  of  frivolous  ceremonies.  If  innocent,  the  woman 
suffered  no  inconvenience  or  injury  ;  but  if  guilty,  the  punish- 
ment which  she  had  imprecated  on  herself  Immediately  over- 
took her.' 

G.  Sentences  were  only  pronounced  in  the  d?  /  time ;  of 
which  circumstance  notice  is  taken  in  Saint  L>''  e  s  narrative 
of  our  Saviour's  mock  trial.  (>*ii.  GG.)  It  was  the  custom 
among  the  Jews  to  pronounce  sentence  of  condemnation  in 
this  manner: — He  is  guilty  vf  death.  (Matt.  xxvi.  GG.)  In 
other  countries,  a  person's  condemnation  was  announced  to 
him  by  giving  him  a  black  stone,  and  his  acquittal  by  giving 
him  a  white  stone.     Ovid  mentions  this  practice  thus : — 

Mos  crat  antiquiis,  niveis  atrisqite  lapiltis, 
Jfi.i  dnmnare  reus,  illis  ahsotvere  culpa. 

Nunc  quoque  sic  lata  est  sententia  tristis 

Met.  lib.  xv.  41—43. 

A  cnslom  wa.s  of  old.  and  still  obtain-^, 
Whicli  life  or  death  \iy  siilTra^^i-s  ordains: 
While  stones  and  blac/c  williin  an  urn  arc  cast ; 
The/irsl  absolve,  but  fate  is  in  the  last. 

DUVDBN. 

In  allusion  to  this  custom,  some  critics^  have  supposed  that 
our  Saviour  (Rev.  ii.  17.)  promises  to  give  the  spiritual  con- 
queror a  while  stone,  and  on  the  stone  a  new  name  written^ 
which  no  man  knoweth,  saving  he  that  receiveth  it ,-  which  may 
be  supposed  to  signify — iVell  done,  thou  good  and  faithful 
servant.  The  whiTe  stones  of  the  ancients  were  inscribed 
with  characters ;  and  so  is  the  white  stone  mentioned  in  the 
Apocalypse.  According  to  Persius,  the  letter  ©  was  the 
token  of  condemnation : 

Et  pi)ti.s  cs  nigrum  vitio  prefigcre  Thfta. 

'  Sat.  iv.  13. 

Fixing  thy  stigma  on  the  brow  of  vice. 

Pbummosd. 

But,  as  there  was  a  nctu  name  inscribed  on  the  white  stone 
given  by  our  Lord,  ivhich  nn  man  knoweth  but  he  who  receiv- 
eth it,  it  should  rather  seem  that  the  allusion  in  this  passage 
is  to  the  te.f.^era-  hosvilales,  of  which  the  readier  will  find  an 
account  infra,  in  the  close  of  chap.  vi.  of  Part  IV.  of  this 
volume. 

7.  Such  were  the  judicial  proceedings  in  ordinary  cases, 
when  the  forms  of  law  were  observed.  On  some  occasions, 
however,  when  particular  persons  were  obnoxious  to  the 
populace,  it  was  usual  for  them  to  demand  nr(.mpt  justice 
upon  the  supposed  delinmienls.  It  is  well  known  that  in 
Asia,  to  this  day,  those  who  dtmand  justice  against  a  crimi- 
luil,  repair  in  large  bodies  to  tlie  gate  of  the  royal  residence, 
where  they  make  hr.rrid  cries,  tearing  their  garments  and 
throwing  dust  into  the  air.  This  circimistance  throws  great 
liirht  niton  the  conduct  of  the  Jews  towards  St.  Paul,  when 

»  Micharlls's  Commentaries,  vol.  iv.  pp.  312.  343.  BrnningR  sayp,  that  Irt 
c.iscH  of  idolatry,  the  .l<:wn  assort  the  admissibility  of  false  wilncases ;  bu 


he  Bivi's  no  authority  fr)r  Ihi.s  stutenipn'. 

•  Mirlini'lUV  «.'oiiinicnlaiii>H,  vol.  Iv.  pp.  S-IZ- 359. 
'  Sclml/.ii  Arili.Ti.loai.T  Ildfrnira,  tin,  79,  80. 

•  WcKluin,  Uoddriilge,  and  Dean  WjoOboiue  on  P.ev.  ii. 


17. 


Skct.  I.] 


AND  LEGAL  PROCEEDINGS. 


5? 


the  chief  captain  of  the  Roman  garrison  at  Jenisalem  pre- 
sented himself  to  them.  (Acts  xxii.  28 — 36.)  When  tiiey 
found  the  apostle  in  the  temple,  prejudiced  as  they  were 
against  him  in  general,  and  at  that  time  particularly  irritated 
by  the  mistaken  notion  that  he  had  polluted  the  holy  place 
by  the  introduction  of  Greeks  into  it,  they  raised  -a  tumult, 
and  were  on  the  point  of  inflicting  summary  vengeance  on 
Saint  Paul.  As  soon  as  the  chief  captain  of  the  Roman  sol- 
diers, who  resided  in  a  castle  adjoining  the  temple,  heard  the 
tumult,  he  hastened  thither.  They  then  ceased  beating  the 
apostle,  and  addressed  themselves  to  him  as  the  chief  offi- 
cial person  there,  exclaiming,  Aivaif  with  him.  Permission 
being  at  length  given  to  Paul  to  explain  the  affair  in  their 
hearmg,  they  became  still  more  violently  enraged  ;  but  not 
daring  to  do  themselves  justice,  they  demanded  it  nearly  in 
the  Sams  manner  as  the  Persian  peasants  now  do,  by  loud 
vociferations,  tearing  off  their  clothes  and  tlirowing  up  dust 
into  the  air.' 

V.  As  soon  as  sentence  of  condemnation  was  pronounced 
against  a  person,  he  was  immediately  dragged  from  the  court 
to  the  place  of  execution.  Thus  our  Lord  was  instantly  hur- 
ried from  the  presence  of  Pilate  to  Calvary :  a  similar  in- 
stance of  prompt  execution  occurred  in  the  case  of  Achan  ; 
and  the  same  practice  obtains  to  this  day,  both  in  Turkey  and 
Persia.  In  those  countries,  when  the  enemies  of  a  great 
man  have  sufficient  influence  to  procure  a  warrant  for  his 
death,  a  capidgi  or  executioner  is  despatched  with  it  to  the 
victim,  who  quietly  submits  to  his  fate.^  Nearly  the  same 
method  of  executing  criminals  was  used  by  the  ancient  Jew- 
ish princes.  It  is  evidently  alluded  to  in  Prov.  xvi.  14. 
Thus  Benaiah  was  the  capidgi  (to  use  the  modern  Turkish 
term)  who  was  sent  by  Solomon  to  put  to  death  Adonijah, 
a  prince  of  the  blood  royal  (1  Kings  ii.  25.),  and  also  Joab 
the  commander-in-chief  of  the  army.  (29 — 31.)  John  the 
J5aptlst  was  put  to  death  in  like  manner.  (Matt.  xiv.  10.) 
Previously,  however,  to  executing  the  criminal,  it  was  usual, 
among  the  ancient  Persians,  to  cover  his  head,  that  he  might 
not  behold  the  face  of  the  sovereign.  SThns,  the  head  of  Phi- 
lotas,  who  had  conspired  against  Alexander  the  Great,  was 
covered  ;3  and  in  conformity  vrith  this  practice,  the  head  of 
Hamanwas  veiled  or  covered.  (Esth.  vii.  8.) 

So  zealous  were  tlie  Jews  for  the  observance  of  their  law, 
that  they  were  not  ashamed  themselves  to  be  the  execution- 
ers of  it,  and  to  punish  criminals  with  their  own  hands.  In 
stoning  persons,  the  witnesses  threw  the  first  stones,  agree- 
ably to  the  enactment  of  Moses.  (Deut.  xvii.  7.)  Thus,  the 
witnesses  against  the  protomartyr  Stephen,  after  laying  down 
their  clothes  at  the  teet  of  Saul,  stoned  him  (Acts  vii.  58, 
^■)9.\ ;  and  to  this  custom  our  Saviour  alludes,  when  he  said 
totne  Pharisees,  who  had  brought  to  him  a  woman  who  had 
been  taken  in  adultery, — He  that  is  without  sin  umorig  you, 
let  him  first  cast  a  stone  at  her.  (John  viii.  7.)  As  there  were 
no  public  executioners  in  the  more  ancient  periods  of  the 
Jewish  history,  it  was  not  unusual  for  persons  oi  distinguished 
rank  themselves  to  put  the  sentence  in  execution  upon  offend- 
ers. Thus  Samuel  put  Agag  to  death  (1  Sam.  xv.  33.) ; 
and  in  like  manner  Nebuchadnezzar  ordered  Arioch  the  com- 
mander-in-chief of  his  forces  to  destroy  the  wise  men  of  Ba- 
bylon, because  they  could  not  interpret  his  dream.  (Dan.  ii. 
24.)  Previously,  however,  to  inflicting  punishment,  it  was 
a  custom  of  the  Jews,  that  the  witnesses  should  lay  their 
hands  on  the  criminal's  head.  This  custom  originated  in  an 
express  precept  of  God,  in  the  case  of  one  who  had  blas- 
phemed the  name  of  Jehovah,  who  was  ordered  to  be  brought 
without  the  camp  :  when  all,  who  had  heard  him,  Avere  ap- 
pointed to  lay  their  hands  upon  his  head,  and  afterwards  the 
congregation  were  to  stone  him.  By  this  action  they  signi- 
fied, that  the  condemned  person  suffered  justly,  protesting 
that,  if  he  were  innocent,  they  desired  that  his  blood  might 
fall  on  their  own  head.  In  allusion  to  this  usage,  when  sen- 
tence was  pronounced  against  Jesus  Christ,  the  Jews  ex- 
claimed,— His  blood  be  upon  us  and  our  children.  (Matt,  xxvii. 
25.)  From  the  above-noticed  precept  of  bringing  the  crimi- 
nals without  the  camp,  arose  the  custom  of  executing  them 
without  the  city. 

But  in  whatever  manner  the  criminal  was  put  to  death, 

«  Harmcr's  Observations,  vol.  iii.  pp.  367 — 369. 

*  Ibid.  vol.  ii.  pp.  372 — 376.  Captains  Irby  and  Mangles  have  related 
a  singular  instance  of  similar  rapidity  of  executing  a  condemned  person. 
In  Ihi.s  case  "the  siifTercr  had  been  appointed  to  the  command  of  tlie 
hadj"  (or  pilgrims  to  Mecca),  "  and  had  set  off  iVom  Constantinople.  While 
he  was  on  his  return  from  Mecca,  a  Khat-sheriffe  was  despatclied  from  the 
capital,  ordering  his  head  to  be  cut  o%  and  sent  immediately  to  Constanti- 
nople. His  sentence  was  carried  into  execution  before  he  reached  Damas- 
cu.s."     Travels  in  Egypt,  &c.  p.  257. 

»  Quintus  Curtius,  lio.  vi.  c.  8.  torn.  ii.  p.  31.  edit.  Bipont. 
Vol.  IL  H 


according  to  the  Talmudical  writers,  the  Jews  always  o-ave 
him  some  wine  with  incense  in  it,  in  order  to  stupify  an3  in- 
toxicate him.  This  custom  is  said  to  have  originated  in  the 
precept  recorded  in  Prov.  xxxi.  6.,  which  sufficiently  explains 
the  reason  why  wine,  mingled  with  myrrh,  was  offered  to 
Jesus  Christ  when  on  the  cross.  (Mark  xv.  23.)  In  the 
latter  ages  of  the  Jewish  polity,  this  medicated  cup  of  wine 
was  so  generally  given  before  execution,  that  the  word  cup 
is  sometimes  put  in  the  Scriptures  for  death  itself.  Thus, 
Jestis  Christ,  in  his  last  prayer  in  the  garden  of  Gethsemane, 
said — //  it  be  possible  let  this  cup  pass  jrom  me.  (IMatt.  xxvi 
39.  42.^ 


SECTION  II. 

OF  THE  ROMAN  JUDICATURE,  MANNER  OF  TRIAL,  TREATMENT 
OF  PRISONERS,  AND  OTHER  TRIBUNALS  MENTIONED  IN  THE 
NEW  TESTAMENT. 

I.  Judicial  proceedirijs  of  the  Romans, — II.  Privileges  and 
treatment  of  Jtomun  citizens,  when  prisoners. — JIT.  Appeals 
to  the  imperial  tribunal. — IV.  The  Roman  method  of  fetter- 
ing and  confining  criminals. — V.  TJie  Roman  tribunals.-— 
VI.  Other  tribunals  mentioned  in  the  JVew  Testament : — 
1.  The  Areopagus  at  Mhens.~-'i.  The  Assembly  at  Ephesus. 

Wherever  the  Romans  extended  their  power,  they  also 
carried  their  laws;  and  though,  as  we  have  already  seen, 
they  allowed  their  conquered  subjects  to  enjoy  the  free  per- 
formance of  theii  religious  worship,  as  well  as  the  holding  of 
some  inferior  courts  of  judicature,  j'et  in  all  cases  of  a  capital 
nature  the  tribunal  of  the  Roman  prefect  or  president  was  the 
last  resort.  Without  his  permission,  no  person  could  be  put 
to  death,  at  least  in  Judaea.  And  as  we  lind  numerous  allu- 
sions in  the  New  Testament  to  the  Roman  judicature,  man- 
ner of  trial,  treatment  of  prisoners,  and  infliction  of  capital 
punishment,  a  brief  account  of  these  subjects  so  intimately 
connected  with  the  political  state  of  Judaea  under  the  Romans, 
naturallv  claims  a  place  in  the  present  sketch. ^ 

I.  " 'I'he  judicial  proceedings  of  the  Romans  were  con- 
ducted in  a  manner  worthy  the  majesty,  honour,  and  magna- 
nimity of  that  people.  Instances,  indeed,  occur  of  a  most 
scandalous  venality  and  corruption  in  Roman  judges,  and  the 
story  of  Jugurlha  and  Verres  vv'ill  stand,  a  lasting  monument 
of  the  power  of  gold  to  pervert  justice  and  shelter  the  most 
atrocious  villany.  But,  in  general,  in  the  Roman  judicatures, 
both  in  the  imperial  city  and  in  the  provinces,  justice  was 
administered  with  impartiality ;  a  fair  and  honourable  trial 
was  permitted  ;  the  allegations  of  the  plaintiff  and  defendant 
were  respectively  heard;  the  merits  of  the  cause  weighed 
and  scrutinized  with  cool  unbiassed  judgment ;  and  an  equi- 
table sentence  pronounced.  The  Roman  law,  in  conformity 
to  the  first  principal  of  nature  and  reason,  ordained  that  no 
one  should  be  condemned  and  punished  without  a  previous 
public  trial.  This  was  one  of  the  decrees  of  the  twelve 
tables  :  No  mie  shall  be  condemned  before  lie  is  tricd.^  Under 
the  Roman  government,  both  in  Italy  and  in  the  provinces, 
this  universally  obtained.  After  *the  cause  is  heard,  says 
Cicero,  a  man  may  be  acquitted  :  but,  his  cause  unheard,  no 
one  can  be  condemned.''  To  this  excellent  custom  among 
the  Romans,  which  the  law  of  nature  prescribes,  and  all  the 
principles  of  equity,  honour,  and  humanity  dictate,  there  are 
several  allusions  in  Scripture.     We  find  the  holy  apcstles, 

*  Tiie  maforial.s  of  this  section  are  principally  derived  from  Dr.  Ilanvood's 
Introduction  to  the  New  Testament  (a  work  now  of  rare  occurrence),  vol.  ii. 
section  xvi.  the  te.x'ts  cited  bting  carefully  verified  and  corrected.  The  sub- 
jects of  this  and  the  following  section  are  also  discussed  by  Dr.  Lardner, 
Credibility,  part  i.  boolc  i.  c.  10.  §§9 — 11. ;  and  especially  by  Calmet  in  his 
elaborate  Dissertation  sur  les  svppUces  dont  il  est  parte  dons  I' Ecriturc, 
inserted  in  his  Commentaire  Litttrale,  torn.  i.  part  ii.  pp.  3a7 — 402.,  and  in 
his  Dissertations,  tom.  i.  p.  241.  et  scrj.  See  also  Merill's  Not.T  PhilologicaJ 
in  passionern  Christi.  and  Wyssenbach's  Nola?  Nomico-Philologica>  in  pas- 
sionem,  in  vol.  iii.  ofCrenius's  Fasciculus  Opusculorum,  pp.  £83— 691.  and 
Lydius's  Floiura  Sparsio  ad  Ilistoriam  Passionis  Jesu  Cluristi,  18mo.  Dor- 
drechti,  1672. 

'  Interfic)  indemnatum  quemcunque  hominem,  etiam  xii  Tabularum 
decreta  vetuerant.  Fragment,  xii.   Tab.  tit.  27. 

6  Causj'i  cognita  niulii  possunt  absolvi :  incognitil  quidein  condcmnari 
nemo  potest.  In  Verrem,  lib.  i.  c.  2.5.  "Producing  the  laws  which  ordain 
that  no  person  shall  suffer  death  without  a  legal  trial."  Dion.  Halicarn.  lib. 
iii.  p.  l.'iS.  Hudson.  "  lie  did  not  allow  them  to  inllict  death  on  any  citizen 
uncondemned."  Ibid.  lib.  vi.  p.  370.  lib.  vii.  p.  428.  edit.  Hudson,  Oxon. 
17t>l.  "They  thought  proper  to  call  him  to  justice,  as  it  is  contrary  to  the 
Koman  customs  to  condemn  aiiy  one  to  death  witlioiit  a  previous  trial." 
Appian.  Hell.  Civil,  lib.  iii.  p.  906.  ToUii, 1670.  "Did  not  you  miserably  murder 
Lenlulns  and  his  associates,  without  their  being  either  judged  or  con- 
victed!"    Dion  Cassius,  Ub.  46.  p.  403.    Reiraar. 


58 


OF  THE  ROMAN  JUDICATURE, 


[Paut  n.  CoAP.  in. 


who  did  not,  like  frantic  enthusiasts  and  visionaries,  court 
persecution,  but  embraced  every  lecfal  method  which  the 
usages  and  maxims  of  those  times  hvul  established  to  avoid 
it,  and  to  extricate  themselves  from  calamities  and  s'all'erinjrs, 
pleading  this  privilege,  reminding  the  Romans  of  it  when 
tiiey  were  going  to  infringe  it,  and  in  a  spirited  manner  up- 
braiding their  persecutors  with  their  violation  of  it.  When 
Lysias,  the  Roman  tribuiic,  ordered  Saint  Paul  to  be  con- 
ducted into  the  castle,  and  to  be  examined  by  scourging,  that 
he  might  learu  what  he  had  done  that  enraged  the  mob  thus 
violently  against  him,  as  the  soldiers  were  fastening  him 
with  thongs  to  the  pillars  to  inflict  this  upon  him,  Paul  said 
o  the  centurion  who  vas  appointed  to  attend  and  sec  this  ex- 
ecuted, Uoth  the  Roman  law  authorize  you  to  scourge  a  free- 
man of  Rome  uncondemned,  to  punish  him  before  a  h'g  il 
sentence  hath  been  passed  upon  him]  (Acts  xxii.  '35.)  Tlie 
centurion  hearing  this  went  nnmediately  to  the  tribune,  bid- 
ding him  be  cautious  how  he  acted  upon  the  present  occa- 
sion, for  the  prisoner  was  a  Roman  citizen !  The  tribune 
upon  this  information  went  to  him,  and  said.  Tell  me  the 
truth,  Are  you  a  freeman  of  Rome'?  He  answered  in  the  af- 
firmative. It  cost  me  an  immense  sum,  said  the  tribune,  to 
purchase  this  privilege.'  But  I  was  the  son  of  a  frccman,- 
eaid  the  apostle.  Immediately,  therefore,  those  who  were 
ordered  to  examine  him  by  torture  desisted ;  and  the  t.ibunc 
was  extremely  alarmed  that  he  had  bound  a  Roman  citizen. 
In  reference  to  this  also,  when  Paul  and  vSilas  were  treated 
with  the  last  indignity  at  Pliilippi  by  the  multitude  abetted 
by  the  magistrates,  were  beaten  with  rods,  thrown  into  the 
public  gaol,  and  their  feet  fastened  in  the  stocks,  the  next 
morning  upon  the  magistrates  sending  their  lictors  to  the 

Erison  with  orders  to  the  keeper  for  the  two  men  whom  they 
ad  the  day  before  so  shamefully  and  cruelly  treated  to  be 
dismissed,  Paul  turned  to  the  messengers  ancl  said.  We  are 
Roman  citizens.  Your  magistrates  have  ordered  us  to  be 
publicly  scourged  without  alegal  trial.  They  have  thrown 
us  into  a  dungeon.  And  would  they  now  have  us  steal 
away  in  a  silent  and  clandestine  manner'?  No!  Let  them 
come  in  person  and  conduct  us  out  themselves.  The  lictors 
returned  and  reported  this  answer  to  the  governors,  who  were 
greatly  alarmed  and  terrified  when  they  understood  they  were 
Roman  citizens.  Accordingly,  they  went  in  person  to  the 
gaol,  addressed  them  with  great  civility,  and  begged  them 
in  the  most  respectful  terms  that  they  would  quietly  leave 
the  town.  (Acts  xvi.  37.)'  "■ 

"Here  we  cannot  but  remark  the  distinguished  humanity 
and  honour  which  St.  Paul  experienced  from  the  tribune 
Lysais.  His  whole  conduct  towards  the  apostle  was  wortliy 
a  Komim.  This  most  generous  and  worthy  officer  rescued 
him  from  the  sanguinary  fury  of  the  mob,  who  had  seized 
the  apostle,  shut  the  temple  doors,  and  were  in  a  tumultuous 
manner  dragging  him  away  instantly  to  shed  his  blood. 
Afterwards,  also,  when  al)Ove  forty  Jews  assoeiuted  and 
mutually  bound  themselves  by  the  most  solemn  adjurations, 
that  they  would  neither  eat  nor  drink  till  they  hadi  assassi- 
nated him  ;  when  the  tribune  was  informed  of  tliis  conspiracy, 
to  Sfcure  the  person  of  the  apostle  from  the  detennincd  fury 
of  the  Jews,  he  inmiediately  gave  orders  for  seventy  horse- 
men and  two  hundred  spearmen  to  escort  the  prisoner  to 
Caesarea,  where  the  procurator  resided;  writing  a  letter,  in 
which  he  informed  the  president  of  the  vindictive  r.ige  of 
the  Jews  against  the  prisoner,  whom  he  had  snatched  from 
their  violence,  and  whom'  he  afterwards  discovered  to  be  a 

'  Dion  Cassius  conflrms  what  the  tribune  here  nsserts,  iliat  this  honour 
was  purch:i.i<-il  at  a  very  hlgli  price.  "Tlie  frecilnm  of  Koine  furiiiorly." 
Mya  tlie  historian,  "coiililonly  be  purchased  fur  a  large  sum  ;"  hiil  lie  ob. 
■erves,  "that  in  llie  rriitn  <i{  t'laiiijiiis,  wlien  Mi'sailina  and  bis  fri^ednien 
harl  the  manaai'infnl  of  every  thini;,  IIiIk  honour  lierauie  mi  cheap  lliiit  iiny 
person  iiiiglit  buy  it  for  a  litUc  broken  glass."  Uiun  Cu>.!iius,  lib.  Ix.  p.  'JjO. 
Reimar. 

»  "  But  I  was  free  born."  Probnldy,  St.  Paul's  family  was  honoured  willi 
tlie  freedom  of  lUime  for  rni:!u;inK  In  Cn-sar's  jiarly,  and  diBliii-ruisliiiie 
IhcinHelveit  in  his  caiigi;  Uuriii^  t)io  civil  v^nrg.  Appi.in  inloriiu  us,  Ih.it 
"lie  made  llie  I.U'diceanH  and  T.ir.sensiiins  free,  and  exeinpled  tlieiii  frnin 
taxeN  ;  and  those  of  the  Tar.seimi.iiit  who  Imd  been  sold  for  slavi-s,  tip  or. 
dereil  by  an  edict  to  bo  released  from  servitude."  Appian  do  Hell.  Civil, 
p.  1077.   ToUii.  It^O. 

•  It  waa  i\fpiupi\  a  great  asfcravallnn  of  any  injury  by  the  Roman  law,  that 
It  waa  ilone  in  public  before  the  people,  The  Hliili|ipian  inaKlHlralejj,  ijiere- 
fore,  riMlM-iiUB  <if  ihc  Iniquity  whieh  they  had  conimilted,  and  of  Ibr 
puiii.sliiiie:il  to  wliirh  (h'-y  were  lialile,  iiiiclil  well  be  iifniid  :  for  I'atil  ami 
Hilaa  had  ihfir  uption,  cither  to  hrini{  a  civil  action  airainHt  them,  nr  fo  unliri 
thcin  crimiinlly  for  the  injury  which  they  had  inlli<  teil  (mi  the  iiposlle  and 
hia  companion.  In  cillnrnf  which  case.),  had  ttiey  been  caul,  Iboy  wnuld 
be  rendered  infamonH,  and  incapable  of  holdine  any  maijislerial  ollire,  and 
subjected  to  several  other  leitnl  inr.apacities,  bexiiles  the  punishiiK'iil  Ihey 
were  to  nndciKO  at  the  (liacn-iioii  of  the  judue,  which  in  so  atrucinua  an 
pjury  would  not  have  been  small,     fliscop  on  the  Acts,  vol.  1.  pp.  .352— :i51. 

*  Acts  JExiii.  27.  "I  havo  sinco  learned  I'lat  be  is  a  Uumun  cili;ica." 


Roman  citizen.  In  con!5equence  of  this  epistle  Felix  gave 
the  aoostl^f  a  kind  and  candid  reception  :  when  he  re^d  it,  he 
turned  to  him  and  said.  When  your  accusers  come  hither 
before  me,  I  will  give  your  cause  an  impartial  hearing.* 
-Vnd  accordingly  when  the  high-priest  Ananias  and  the  Sau» 
hedrin  went  down  to  (/aisarea  with  one  Tertullus  an  orator, 
whose  eloquence  they  had  hired  to  aggravate  the  apostle's 
crimes  before  the  jirocurator,  Felix,  though  a  man  of  merce- 
nary Hud  profligate  character,''  did  not  depart  from  the  Roman 
honour  in  this  regard  ;  and  would  not  violate  the  usual  pro- 
cesses of  judgment  to  gratify  this  body  of  men,  though  tney 
were  the  most  illustrious  personaofes  of  the  province  he 
governed,  by  condemning  the  apostle  unheard,  and  yielding 
him,  poor  and  friendless  as  he  was,  to  their  fury,  merely 
upon  their  impeachment.  He  allowed  the  apostle  to  offer 
his  vindication  and  exculpate  himself  from  the  charges  the^ 
had  alleged  against  him  ;  and  was  so  far  satisfied  with  hw 
apology  as  to  give  orders  for  him  to  be  treated  as  a  prisoner 
at  large,  and  for  all  his  friends  to  have  free  access  to  him ; 
disappointing  those  who  thirsted  for  his  blood,  and  drawing 
down  upon  himself  the  relentless  indignation  cf  the  Jews, 
who,  undoubtedly,  from  such  a  disappointment,  would  be 
instigated  to  lay  all  his  crimes  and  oppressions  before  the 
emperor. 

"  The  same  strict  honour,  in  observing  the  usual  forms 
and  processes  of  the  Roman  tribunal,  appears  in  Festu.s  the 
successor  of  Felix.  Upon  his  entrance  into  his  ]irovincc, 
when  the  leading  men  among  the  Jews  waited  upon  him  to 
congratulate  him  upon  his  accession,  and  took  that  opportu- 
nity to  inveigh  with  great  bitterness  and  virulence  against 
the  apostle,  soliciting  it  as  a  favour  (Acts  xxv.  3.)  that  he 
would  send  him  to  Jeru.salem,  designing,  as  it  afterwards 
appeared,  had  he  complied  with  their  request,  to  have  hired 
ruffians  to  murder  him  on  the  road,  Festus  told  them,  that 
it  was  his  will  that  Paul  should  remain  i  i  custody  at  Caesa- 
rea ;  but  that  any  persons  whom  they  fixed  upon  might  go 
-down  along  with  him,  and  produce  at  his  tribunal  what  they 
had  to  allege  against  the  prisoner.  This  was  worthy  the 
Roman  honour  and  spirit.  How  importunate  and  urgent  the 
priests  and  principal  magistrates  of  Jerusalem,  when  Festus 
was  in  this  capital,  were  with  him  to  jiass  sentence  of  death 
upon  the  apostle,  merely  upon  their  impeachment,  and  upon 
tiie  atrocious  crimes  with  which  they  loaded  him,  appears 
from  what  the  procurator  himself  told  king  Agrippa  and 
Bernice  upon  a  visit  they  paid  him  at  Caesarea,  to  congratu- 
late him  vipon  his  new  government.  I  have  here,  said  he,  a 
man  Avhorn  my  ])redecessor  left  in  custody  when  he  quitted 
this  province.  During  a  short  visit  I  paid  to  .ferusalem,  upon 
my  arrival  1  was  solicited  by  the  priests  and  priiieijial  magis- 
trates to  pass  sentence  of  death  upon  him.  To  these  urgent 
entreaties  I  replied,  that  it  was  not  cvistomary  for  the  Romans 
to  gratify  (xxv.  IG.)  any  man  with  the  death  of  another; 
that  the  laws  of  Rome  enacted  that  he  who  is  accused  should 
have  his  accuser  face  to  face ;  and  have  license  to  answer 
for  himself  concerning  the  crimes  laid  ag-ainst  him.'' 

II.  "  It  appears  from  numberless  passages  in  the  classics 
that  a  Roman  citizen  could  not  legally  be  scourged.^*  This 
was  deemed  to  the  last  degree  dishonourable,  the  most  daring 
indignity  and  insult  upon  the  Roman  name.  '  A  Roman  citi- 
zen, judges!'  exclaims  Cicero  in  his  oration  against  Verres, 
'was  pulilicly  beaten  with  rods  in  the  forum  cf  IMessina : 
during  this  pulilic  dishonour,  no  groan,  no  other  eximssion 
fif  the  unhappy  wretch  was  heard  aniiilst  the  crucltits  he 
sufli'red,  and  the  sound  of  the  strokes  that  werr  inlUcttd,  but 
this,  I  am  a  Roman  citizen  !  13y  this  declaration  that  he  was 
a  Roman  citizen,  he  fondly  imagined  that  he  should  put  an 
end  to  the  ignominy  and  cruel  usapre  to  which  ho  was  now 
subjected.'^     The  orator  afterwards  breaks  forth  into  this 

»  Actsxxiii.35.  Literally,  "Hear  it  IhrouRh  ;  eive  the  whole  ofil  an  alien 
tivo  e.xaininaticin."  Similar  expressions  occur  in  Poly  bins,  lili.  i.  iip.  yg.  170. 
187  lib  iv.  p  3-JS.  edit.  Ilanov.  1C19.    Sec  also  Dion.  Ilulirarn.  lib.  x.  p.  3ttt. 

«  I'eHx  per  ouine  sTviliuin  ac  libiillneni,  jus  reciuin  servill  ingcnin  excr- 
ruit.  Tacitus  lli.st.  lib.  v.  p.  3'.i7.  edit.  Doblui.  Fflix  ritiirta  ninleflcia  Im- 
pune  ratu.s.     Annal.  xii  .'>t.     He  hoped  also  (hat  money,  *e.    Acls.xxiv.  1^ 

'  "Senators,"  sailli  Piso,  "  llw  law  ordains  that  he  who  is  accused  shotitd 
hear  his  accusation,  and  nfler  havliiK  otTpred  bis  defence,  to  wait  the  sen- 
tence of  the  judites."  Appiun,  Hell.  Civil,  hb.  iil.  p.  all.  ToUil,  Ainal.  1C70. 
"  Ho  salil,  llmt  what  lie  now  attempted  Id  do  was  the  last  tyranny  and  dea- 
poiisin,  thai  the  same  pcrnnn  shoulilbe  both  accuser  anil  jiidKe,  niidshould 
nrliilrarily  ilictate  the  degree  of  punioliuienl."  Dion.  Ilalicarn.  lib.  vii.  p. 
i-a.     Hudson. 

•  Faciniis  est  vincirl  clvcm  Roinanuin  :  acelus  verberarl.  In  Vcrrem,  lib. 
V.  17(t. 

•  l/'icdebatur  virsis  In  medio  fnro  Messinic  civls  Romanus,  jiidlceB;  cum 
inlerea  nulliis  Kemiius,  nulla  vox  alia  isiiiis  miseii,  Inter  didorem  crepi- 
tuinqun  pla{;arum  audicbatiir,  nici  ha*c,  CivIs  Ilomanus  sum.  Ilac  se  com- 
inciiioralioii"'  civitalis  iminia  verbera  depulsiiriim  rriirlaluoique  a  corpora 
dcjecturuin  ai;bitraba:ur.    Cicero  in  Vcrrem,  Ub.  v.  lOZ 


Sect.  II.] 


MANNER  OF  TRIAL,  &c. 


59 


pathetic  prosopopoeia :  '  O  transporting  name  of  liberty !  O 
the  distinguished  privilege  of  Koman  freedom!  O  Porcian 
antl  Sempronian  laws  !  Are  things  at  last  come  to  this 
wretched  state,  that  a  Roman  citizen,  in  a  Roman  province, 
in  the  most  public  and  open  manner,  should  be  beaten  with 
ods  !''  The  historian  Appian,  after  relating  how  Marcellus, 
to  express  his  scorn  and  contempt  of  Caesar,  seized  a  person 
of  some  distinction,  to  whom  Caesar  had  given  his  freedom, 
and  beat  him  with  rods,  bidding  him  go  and  show  Ca3sar  the 
marks  of  the  scourges  he  had  received,  observes,  that  this 
was  an  indignity  w^hich  is  never  inflicted  upon  a  Roman 
citizen  for  any  enormity  whatever.^  Agreeably  to  this  cus- 
tom, which  also  obtained  at  Athens,  in  the  Adelphi  of  Terence, 
one  of  the  persons  of  the  drama  says  to  another.  If  you  con- 
tinue to  be  troublesome  and  impertinent,  you  shall  be  instantly 
seized  and  dragged  within,  and  there  you  shall  be  torn  and 
mangled  with  scourges  within  an  inch  of  your  life.  What! 
a  freeman  scourged,  replies  Sannio.^  To  this  privilege  of 
Roman  citizens,  whose  freedom  exempted  them  from  this 
indignity  and  dishonour,  there  are  several  references  in  Scrip- 
ture? St.  Paul  pleads  this  immunity.  He  said  to  the  cen- 
turion, as  they  were  fastening  him  to  the  pillar  with  thongs 
to  inflict  upon  him  this  punisliment.  Is  it  lawful  for  you  to 
scourge  a  Romania    So  also  at  Philippi  he  told  the  messen- 

fers  of  the  magistrates.  They  have  beaten  us  openly  uncon- 
emned,  being  Romans,  and  have  cast  us  into  prison,  and 
now  do  they  thrust  us  out  privately;  no,  verily,  but  let  them 
come  themselves  and  fetch  us  out.  And  the  sergeants  told 
these  words  to  the  magistrates,  and  they  feared  when  they 
heard  that  they  were  Romans,  and  were  conscious  they  had 
used  them  with  a  contumely  and  dishonour  which  subjected 
them  to  the  just  displeasure  of  the  Roman  senate. 

"  Neither  -was  it  lawful  for  a  Roman  citizen  to  be  bound,* 
to  be  examined  by  the  question,  or  to  be  the  subject  of  any 
ingenious  and  cruel  arts  of  tormenting  to  extort  a  confession 
from  him.  These  punishments  were  deemed  servile ;  torture 
was  not  exercised  but  upon  slaves  ;''  freemen  were  privileged 
from  this  inhumanity  and  ignominy.  It  is  a  flagrant  enormity, 
says  Cicero,  for  a  Roman  citizen  to  he  bound.:''  not  meaning 
by  that,  that  it  was  unlawful  for  a  Roman  to  be  fettered  and 
imprisoned  ;  but  it  was  in  the  highest  degree  unjustifiable  and 
illegal  for  a  freeman  of  Rome  to  be  bound  in  order  to  be  tor- 
tured for  the  discovery  of  his  crimes.  Dion  Cassius,  parti- 
cularizing the  miseries  of  Claudius's  government,  observes, 
that  Messalina  and  Narcissus,  and  the  rest  of  his  freemen, 
seized  the  occasion  that  now  offered  to  perpetrate  the  last 
enormities.  Among  other  excesses  they  employed  slaves 
and  frcedmen  to  be  informers  against  their  masters.  They 
put  to  the  torture  several  persons  of  the  first  distinction,  not 
merely  foreigners,  but  citizens ;  not  only  of  the  common  peo- 
ple, but  some  even  of  the  Roman  knights  and  senators: 
though  Claudius,  when  he  first  entered  upon  his  government, 
had  bound  himself  under  a  solemn  oath  that  he  would  never 
apply  the  torture  to  any  Roman  citizen.^  These  two  pas- 
sages from  Cicero  and  Dion  illustrate  what  St.  Luke  relates 
concerning  Lysias  the  tribune.  This  officer,  not  knowing 
the  dignity  of  his  prisoner,  had,  in  violation  of  this  privilege 
of  Roman  citizens,  given  orders  for  the  apostle  to  be  bound, 
and  examined  by  scourging.  (Acts  xxii.  24,  25.)  When 
he  was  afterwards  informed  by  his  centurion  that  St.  Paul 
was  a  freeman  of  Rome,  the  sacred  historian  observes,  that 
upon  receiving  this  intelligence,  the  chief  captain  was  afraid, 
alter  he  knew  that  he  was  a  Roman,  and  because  he  had 
bound  him.  (xxii.  29.) 

III.  "We  find  that  St.  Paul,  when  he  discovered  that 
Festus  his  judge  was  disposed  to  gratify  the  Jews,  appealed 
from  a  provincial  court  to  the  imperial  tribunal ;  transferred 
his  cause,  by  appeal,  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Roman  pro- 
curator to  the  decision  of  the  emperor.    This  appears  to  be 

»  O  nomen  dulce  liberatis !  O  jus  eximinm  nostrce  civitatis  !  OlcxPor- 
cia,  legesque  Semproniai !  IIuRcine  tandem  omnia  rccederunt,  ut  civis  llo- 
manus  in  provincia  populi  Roniani,  delegatis  in  foro  virgis  CEederetur. 
Ibid.  163. 

»  Appian.  Bell.  Civil,  lib.  ii.  p.  731.  ToUii. 

3  Nam  si  molestus  pergis  esse,  jam  infro  abripierc,  atquc  ibi 
Usque  ad  necem  operiere  loris.    S.  loris  liber. 

Adelphi,  act  ii.  scenal.  ver.  28. 

*  Acts  xxii.  2.5.  Tlie  consul  Marcellus  seotiroed  with  rods  one  of  the  ma- 
gistrates ofthat  place  who  came  to  Rome,  declaring  he  inflicted  this  as  a 
Dublic  token  that  he  was  no  Roman  citizen.  Plutarch,  in  Cajsar.  p.  1324. 
edit.  Or.  Stephen. 

»  Facinus  est  vinciri  civem  Romanum.    Cicero  in  Verr.  lib.  v.  170. 
'  Q.  Gallium  praetorera,  servilem  in  modum  torsil.     Sueton.  in  vita  Au- 
gu.sti,  cap.  27.  p.  192.  Variorum  Edit. 
»  See  the  last  note  but  one. 

•  Dion  Cassius,  lib.  Ix.  p.  953,  Rciraar. 


another  singular  privilege  which  a  freeman  of  Rome  enjoyed. 
The  sacred,  historian  relates,  that  after  Festus  had  stayed, 
about  ten  days  in  the  metropolis,  he  went  down  to  Ca»sarea, 
and  the  next  day  after  his  arrival  he  summoned  a  court,  as- 
cended the  bench,  and  ordered  Paul  to  be  brought  before  him. 
Here,  as  he  stood  at  the  bar,  his  prosecutors  from  Jerusalem 
with  great  virulence  charged  him 'with  many  heinous  and 
atrocious  crimes,  none  of  which,  upon  strict  examination, 
they  were  able  to  prove  against  him.  For  in  his  apology  he 
publicly  declared,  in  the  most  solemn  terms,  that  they  could 
not  convict  him  of  any  one  instance  of  a  criminal  behaviour, 
either  to  the  law,  the  temple,  or  to  the  Roman  emperor. 
Festus  then,  being  (Acts  xxv.  9.)  desirous  to  ingratiate  him- 
self with  the  Jews,  asked  him  if  he  was  willing  his  cause 
should  be  tried  at  Jerusalem.  To  this  proposal  Paul  replied, 
I  am  now  before  Caesar's  tribunal,  where  my  cause  ought  to 
be  impartially  canvassed  and  decided.  You  yourself  are  con- 
scious that  I  have  been  guilty  of  nothing  criminal  against 
my  countrymen.  If  I  have  injured  them,  if  1  have  perpe- 
trated any  capital  crime,  I  submit  without  reluctance  to  capital 
punishment.  But  if  all  the  charges  they  have  now  brought 
against  me  are  proved  to  be  absolutely  false  and  groundless, 
no  person  can  condemn  me  to  death  merely  to  gratify  them. 
I  appeal  to  the  emneror»  Festus,  after  deliberating  with  the 
Roman  council,  turned  and  said  to  him.  Have  you  appealed 
to  the  emperor]  You  shall  then  go  and  be  judged  by  the 
emperor.  From  the  above-mentioned  particulars,  which  are 
corroborated  by  several  other  similar  incidents  in  the  Roman 
history,  it  appears  that  a  Roman  citizen  could  by  appeal 
remove  his  cause  out  of  the  provinces  to  Rome.  '  It  was,' 
says  Mr.  Melmoth, '  one  of  the  privileges  of  a  Roman  citizen, 
secured  by  the  Sempronian  law,  that  he  could  not  be  capitally 
convicted  but  by  the  suffrage  of  the  people,  which  seems 
to  have  been  still  so  far  in  force  as  to  make  it  necessary 
to  send  the  person  here  mentioned  to  Rome's  We  are  in- 
formed by  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus  that  the  ever-mem5- 
rable  Poplicola  enacted  this  law,  that  if  any  Roman  governor 
showed  a  disposition  to  condemn  any  one  to  death,  to  scourge 
him,  or  despoil  him  of  his  property,  that  any  private  person 
should  have  liberty  to  appeal  from  his  jurisdiction  to  the 
judgment  of  the  people,  that  in  the  mean  time  he  should  re- 
ceive no  personal  harm  from  the  magistracy  till  his  cause 
was  finally  decided  by  the  people.'^  This  law,  which  was 
instituted  at  the  first  establishment  of  the  commonweal tli, 
continued  in  force  under  the  emperors.  If  a  freeman  of 
Rome,  in  any  of  the  provinces,  deemed  himself  and  his  cause 
to  be  treated  by  the  president  with  dishonour  and  injustice, 
he  could  by  appeal  remove  it  to  Rome  to  the  determination 
of  the  emperor.  Suetonius  informs  us  that  Augustus  dele« 
gated  a  number  of  consular  persons  at  Rome  to  receive  the 
appeals  of  people  in  the  provinces,  and  that  he  appointed  ona 
person  to  superintend  the  affairs  of  each  province."  A  passage 
m  Pliny's  epistle  confirms  this  right  and  privilege  which 
Roman  freemen  enjoyed  of  appealing  from  provincial  courts 
to  Rome,  and,  in  consequence  of  such  an  appeal,  being  re- 
moved, as  St.  Paul  was,  to  the  capital,  to  take  their  trial  in 
the  supreme  court  of  judicature.  In  that  celebrated  epistle 
to  Trajan,  who  desirea  to  be  informed  concerning  the  princi< 
pies  and  conduct  of  the  Christians,  he  thus  writes:  'The 
method  I  have  observed  towards  those  who  have  been  broughl 
before  me  as  Christians  is  this — I  interrogated  them  whethei 
they  were  Christians:  if  they  confessed,  I  repeated  the  ques- 
tion  twice  again,  adding  threats  at  the  same  time,  when,  if 
they  still  persevered,  1  ordered  them  to  be  immediately 
punished ;  for  I  was  persuaded,  whatever  the  nature  of  theij 
opinions  might  be,  a  contumacious  and  inflexible  obstinacy 
certainly  deserved  correction.  There  were  others,  also, 
brouo-ht  before  me,  possessed  with  the  same  infatuation, 
but,  1)eing  citizens  of  Rome,  I  directed  them- to  be  carried 
thither.''2 

IV.  "The  Roman  method  of  fettering  and  confining  cri- 
minals was  singular.  One  end  of  a  chani,  that  was  of  com- 
modious length,  was  fixed  about  the  right  arm  of  the  prisoner, 
and  the  other  end  was  fastened  to  the  left  arm  of  a  soldier. 
Thus  a  soldier  was  coupled  to  the  prisoner,  and  every  where 

8  Mr.  Melmoth's  note  on  the  97th  letter  in  the  10th  book  of  Pliny's  Epis- 
tles, vol.  ii.  p.  672.  3d  edit.  . 

10  Dion.  Hiilicarn.  lib.  v.  p.  281.  edit.  Oxon.  1701.  toee  also  p.  334.  ejuadem 
edit. 

"  Appellationesquotannisurbanorum  quidem  litigatorum  proton  dalega- 
vit ;  ac  provincialiura  consularibus  viris,  quos  singulos  cuju.sque  provinci* 
negotiis  reposuisset.  Sueton.  \it.  August,  cap.  33.  p.  208.  edit.  var.  Lug.  Bat. 
1662. 

•a  Plinil  Epistolse,  lib.  x.  epist.  97.  pp.  722, 723.  ed.  var.  1669. 


60 


OF  THE  ROMAN  JUDICATURE,  MANNER  OF  TRIAL,  &c. 


[Part  IT.  Cuap.  ITI. 


attended  and  guarded  him.'  This  manner  of  confinement  is 
frequently  mentioned,  and  there  are  many  beantiful  allusions 
to  it  in  the  Roman  writers.  Thus  was  St.  Paul  confined. 
Fettered^  in  this  manner,  he  delivered  his  apolofry  before 
Festus,  king  Agrippa,and  Bernice.  And  it  was  this  circum- 
stance that  occasioned  one  of  the  most  pathetic  and  aflecting 
strokes  of  true  oratory  that  ever  was  displayed  eitlier  in  the 
Grecian  or  Roman  senate.  Would  to  God  that  not  only  thou, 
hut  alio  ALL  that  hear  me  this  dai/,  were  both  almost  and  alto- 
gether such  as  I  am,  except  these  bonds  !  What  a  prodigious 
effect  must  this  striking  conclusion,  and  the  sjfrht  of  the  irons 
held  up'  to  enforce  it,  make  upon  the  minds  of  the  audience ! 
During  the  two  years  that  St.  Paul  was  a  prisoner  at  large,  and 
lived  at  Rome  in  his  own  hired  house,  he  was  subjected  to  this 
confinement.  Paul  was  suffered  to  dwell  with  a  soldier  that 
kept  him.  The  circumstance  of  pnhlic-ly  wearing  his  chain, 
and  being  thus  coupled  to  a  soldier,  was  very  disgraceful  and 
dishonourable,  and  the  ignominy  of  it  would  naturally  occa- 
sion the  desertion  of  former  friends  and  acquaintance.  Hence 
the  apostle  immortalizes  the  name  of  Onesijjhorus,  and  fer- 
vently intercedes  with  God  to  hless  his  family,  and  to  re- 
member him  in  the  day  of  future  recompense,  for  a  rare 
instance  of  distinguished  fidelity  and  affection  to  him  when 
all  had  turned  away  from  him  and  forsaken  him.  The  Lord 
give  mercy  to  the  house  of  Onesiphoriis,  for  he  oft  refreshed  me, 
and  was  not  ashamed  of  my  chain,  but  immedlutelu  upon  his 
arrival  in  Home  he  sought  me  out  very  diligently  till  he  found 
me  !  The  Lord  grant  unto  hint  that  he  may  find  mercy  of  the 
Lord  in  that  day.  (2  Tim.  i.  IG,  17,  18.) 

"  Sometimes  the  prisoner  was  fastened  to  two  soldiers, 
one  on  each  side,  wearing  a  chain  both  on  his  ri^ht  and  left 
hand.  St.  Paul  at  first  was  thus  confined.  When  the  tri- 
bune received  him  from  the  hands  of  the  Jews,  he  com- 
manded hirn  to  be  bound  with  two  chains.  (Acts  xxi.  33.) 
In  this  manner  was  Peter  fettered  and  confined  by  Herod 
Aorrippa.  The  same  night  Peter  was  sleeping  between  two  sol- 
diers, bound  with  two  chains.  (Acts  xii.  G.) 

"  It  further  appears,  that  if  the  soldiers,  who  were  thus  ap- 
pointed to  guard  criminals,  and  to  whom  they  were  chained, 
suffered  the  prisoner  to  escape,  they  were  punished  with 
death.  Thus,  when  Peter  was  delivered  out  of  prison  by  a 
miracle,  the  next  morning  we  read  there  v.-as  nn  small  con- 
fusion among  the  soldiers  who  were  appointed  his  guards, 
and  to  whom  he  had  been  chained,  what  was  become  of 
Peter. 

"  Whence  it  appears  that  his  deliverance  had  been  effected, 
and  his  shackles  had  been  miraculously  unloosed,  without 
their  knowledge,  when  they  were  sunk  in  repose.  Upon 
which  Herod,  after  making  a  fruitless  search  for  him,  ordered 
all  those  who  had  been  entrusted  with  the  custody  of  Peter 
to  be  executed.  (Acts  xii.  19.)  In  like  manner  also  keepers 
of  prisons  were  punished  with  death,  if  the  confined  made 
•their  escape.  This  is  evident  from  what  is  related  concern- 
ing the  imprisonment  of  Paul  and  Silas  at  Philippi.  These, 
afrer  their  bodies  were  mangled  with  scourges,  were  precipi- 
tated into  the  public  dungeon,  and  their  feet  were  made  fast 
m  the  stocks.  At  midnight  these  good  men  prayed  and  sang 
praises  to  God  in  these  circumstances ;  when  suddenly  a 
dreadful  earthquake  shook  the  whole  prison  to  its  foundation, 
all  the  doors  in  an  instant  flew  open,  and  the  shackles  of  all 
the  prisoners  dropped  to  the  ground.  This  violent  concus- 
sion awakening  the  keeper,  when  he  saw  tlic  doors  of  the 
prison  wide  open,  he  drew  his  sword,  and  was  going  to 
plunge  it  in  Ids  bosom,  concluding  that  all  the  prisoners  had 
escaped.  In  that  crisis  Paul  called  to  him  with  a  loud  voice, 
entreating  him  not  to  lay  violent  hands  upon  himself,  assur- 
ing him  all  the  prisoners  were  safe. 

V.  "The  Roman  tribunal,  if  we  may  judge  of  it  from 
what  is  related  concerning  Pilate's,  was  erected  on  a  raised 
stage,  the  floor  of  which  was  embellished  with  a  tesselafed 
pavf-ment.  This  consisted  of  little  square  pieces  of  marble, 
or  of  stones  of  various  colours,  which  were  disposed  and  ar- 
ranged with  great  art  and  «'legance,  to  fcj'rm  a  checjut^red  aiul 
pleasing  appearance.^     Pliny  informs  us  that  this  refinement 

■  QtiPiiiailrnoiliim  pailein  catenae!  niodiiliam  ct  inilitfin  ropiibit,  sic  i.stn 


?iua!  lam 
ifonovii, 


<  II  1411111 

1H72. 


li.i  Hiinl,  nariter  iiicc<liiiit.    Hcnoco;  l'.\na\..  5.  loui.  ii.  p.  13. 


So  nlxo  Maiiiliiis. 
Viiictnruin  dniiiinus,  sociuoqiic  in  parte  cotenec, 
Inti:r(luin  pa-riiH  iniinxia  corpora  servat. — Lib.  V.  v.  C28,  C29. 

»  In  like  inannr-r  llic  liravfl  but  unforiunale  Euinrncs  nrldrcsscd  a  very 
patliellc  spovch  to  biKariiiy,  with  hi:)  fullers  on.  Plutnrcli,  Eiunenua.  Jus- 
tin, lib.  ziv.  cap.  3. 

>  Priilniiiin,  .sicut  erat  catciiatu!!,  maniini  ostcndit.  Justin,  lib.  ziv.  cap. 3. 
p.  3!»j.     Oroiiovii. 

<  Opus  tessollatuin  ex  pnn-uli.i  rnloris  varii  lapillis  quadrnlis  constabat, 
(uibus  solum  paviaienii  iiicrustabatur.    Varr<rUc  re  ruslica,  lib.  Ui.  1. 


was  first  introduced  among  the  Romans  by  Sj'lla.*  Their 
great  men  were  so  fond  of  this  magnificence,  and  thought  it 
so  essential  to  the  elegance  and  splendour  of  life,  that  they 
appear  to  have  carried  with  them  these  splendid  materials  to 
form  and  compose  these  elaborate  floors,  for  their  tents,  for 
their  houses,  and  for  their  tribunals,  wherever  they  removed'' 
— from  a  depraved  and  most  wretchedly  vitiated  taste,  at  last 
deeming  them  o  necessary  and  indispensable  furniture,  not 
merely  a  vain  and  proud  display  of  grandeur  and  greatness. 
With  this  variegated  pavement,  composed  of  pieces  of  mar- 
ble or  stone  thus  disposed  and  combined,  the  evangelist 
informs  us,  that  the  floor  of  Pilate's  tribunal  was  ornamented. 
(John  xix.  13.)  Such  an  embellishment  of  a  tribunal  \vas 
only  a  proud  ostentatious  display  to  the  world  of  Italian 
greatness  and  magnificence,  calculated  less  for  real  use  than 
to  strike  the  beholders  with  an  idea  of  the  boundless  prodi- 
gality and  extravagance  of  the  Romans. 

"  Having  mentioned  Pilate  the  Roman  procurator,  we  can- 
not close  this  section  without  remarking  the  efibrts  he  re- 
peatedly made,  when  he  sat  in  judgment  upon  Jesus,  to  save 
nim  from  the  determined  fury  of  the  Jews.  Five  successive 
attempts  are  enumerated  by  commentators  and  critics.  He 
had  the  fullest  conviction  of  his  innocence — that  it  was  merely 
through  malice,  and  a  virulence  which  nothing  could  pla- 
cate, that  they  demanded  his  execution.  Yet  though  the. 
governor  for  a  long  time  resisted  all  their  united  clamour  and 
importunity,  and,  conscious  that  he  had  done  nothing  worthy 
of  death,  steadily  refused  to  pronounce  the  sentence  of  con- 
demnation upon  him  ;  yet  one  argument,  which  in  a  menacing 
manner  they  addressed  to  him,  at  last  totally  shook  his  firm- 
ness, and  induced  him  to  yield  to  their  sanguinary  puqiose.  . 
The  Jews,  after  aggravating  his  g\iilt,  and  employing  every 
expedient  in  vain  to  influence  the  president  to  inflict  capital 
punishment  upon  him,  at  last  criea  out:  If  thou  lit  this  man 
go,  thou  art  not  Cicsar''s  friend ;  luhosoever  maketh  himself  a 
king,  fpeaketh  against  Csesar.  Upon  hearing  this,  all  his 
former  firmness  instantly  vanished;  he  could  stem  the  torrent 
of  popular  fury  no  longer  :  to  this  he  yielded,  and  immediately 
ordered  his  execution.  Thn^  delivered  he  hi m ,  therefore,  to  them 
to  be  crucified.  This  conduct  of  Pilate  arose  from  his  perfect 
knowledge  of  the  character  and  temper  of  his  master  Tiberius, 
who  was  a  gloomy  old  t)rant,day  ana  night  incessantly  haunted 
with  the  fiends  of  jealousy  and  suspicion — who  would  never 
forgive  any  innovations  in  his  government,  but  punished  the 
authors  and  abettors  of  them  with  inexorable  death.'  Pilate, 
therefore,  hearing  the  Jews  reiterating  this  with  menaces, 
that  if  he  let  him  go  he  was  not  Caesar's  friend — knowing 
the  jealousy  and  cruelly  of  Tiberius,'*  and  fearing  that  the 
disappointed  rage  of  the  Jews  would  instigate  them  to  accuse 
him  to  the  old  tyrant,  as  abetting  and  suffering  a  person  to 
escape  with  impunity,  who  had  assumed  the  regal  title  and 
character  in  one  of  his  provinces,  was  alarmed  for  his  own 
safety;  and  rather  than  draw  down  upon  his  devoU^d  head 
the  resentment  of  the  sovereign,  who  would  never  forgive  or 
forget  an  injury,  real  or  imaginary,  contrary  to  his  own  judg- 
ment and  clear  persuasion  of  the  innocence  of  Jesus,  sen- 
tenced him  to  be  crucified." 

VI.  As  the  Romans  allowed  the  iidiabitants  of  conqiiered 
countries  to  retain  their  local  tribunals,  we  find  incidental 
mention  made  in  the  New  Testament  ofu)rovincial  courts  of 
justice.  Two  of  these  are  of  sufficient  importance  to  claim 
a  distinct  notice  in  this  place;  viz.  1.  The  Areopagus,  at 
Athens;  and,  2.  The  Assembly,  at  Ephesus. 

1.  The  tril)unal  of  the  Aukopaols  is  said  to  have  been 
instituted  at  Athens,  by  Cecrops  the  founder  of  that  city, 
and  was  celebrated  for  the  strict  eciuity  of  its  decisions. 
Among  the  various  causes  of  which  it  took  cognizance,  were 
matters  of  religion,  the  consecration  of  new  gods,  erection 
of  temples  and  altars,  and  the  introduction  of  new  ceremonies 
into  divine  worship.  On  this  account  St.  Paul  was  brought 
before  the  tribunal  of  Areojjagus  as  a  sitter  forth  of  strange 
gods,  because  he  preached  unto  the  Athenians,  Jesus  and 
Atx(rTu<Ti(,  or  the  Hcsurreclion.  (Acts  xvii.  18.)  Its  sittings 
were  held  on  the  Ap«;c  rUjcf,  or  /////  of  Mars  (whence  its 
name  was  derived),  which  is  situated  in  the  midstof  the  city 
of  Athens,  oppositt;  to  the  Acropolis  or  citadel,  and  is  an 
insulated  precipitous  rock,  broken  towards  the  south,  and  on 
the  north  side  sloping  gently  down  to  the  temple  of  Thesus. 


•  LlthostrotA  acceptavcre  sub  Sylla.    Plinli  Jllst  Nat.  lib.  zxjcvi.  p.  60. 

•  In  cxniMlilionibuB  tcMsrIla  at  scctilin  pavinirnla  circiimliilisse.  Sueto- 
nius vita  J.  CiiMaris.  cup.  40.  p.  71.  edit,  vaiioruui  Lu){.  Hal.  KiC'i  Vid.  etiain 
not.    Bolniasii  In  loo. 


Soc  Suelnnlus 
•  I'liilu  tuakcs 
Mangey. 


Tacitus,  DInn  Cassias, 
tlic  very  same  remark  coaccming  Pilate,  p. 


300.  ediL 


SSCT.  III.] 


ON  THE  CRIMINAL  LAW  OF  THE  JEWS. 


61 


Its  appearance  is  thus  described  by  Dr.  E.  D.  Clarke : — "  It 
is  not  possible  to  conceive  a  situation  of  greater  peril,  or  one 
more  calculated  to  prove  the  sinceiitj'  of  a  preacher,  than  that 
in  which  the  apostle  -vvas  here  placed  :  and  the  truth  of  this, 
perhaps,  will  never  be  better  felt  than  by  a  spectator,  who 
from  this  eminence  actually  beholds  the  monuments  of  pagan 
pomp  and  superstition,  by  which  he,  whom  the  Athenians 
considered  as  the  s'tler  forth  of  strange  gods,  was  then  sur- 
rounded :  representing  to  the  imagination  the  disciples  of 
Socrates  and  of  Plato,  the  dogmatist  of  the  porch,  and  the 
sceptic  of  the  academy,  addressed  by  a  poor  and  lowly  man, 
who,  rude  in  speech,  without  the  eutichig  words  of  man'' s  ivis- 
dom,  enjoined  precepts  contrary  to  their  taste,  and  very  hostile 
to  their  prcjucficcs.  One  of  the  peculiar  privileges  of  the 
Areopagita;  seems  to  have  been  set  at  defiance  by  the  zeal  of 
Saint  Paul  on  this  occasion ;  namely,  that  of  inflicting  ex- 
treme and  exemplary  punishment  upon  any  person,  who 
should  slight  the  celebration  of  the  holy  mysteries,  or  blas- 
pheme lbs  gods  of  Greece.  We  ascended  to  the  summit  by 
means  of  steps  cut  in  the  natural  stone.  The  sublime  scene 
here  exhibited,  is  so  striking,  that  a  brief  description  of  it 
may  prove  how  truly  it  offers  to  us  a  commentary  upon  tlie 
apostle's  words,  as  they  were  delivered  upon  the  spot.  He 
stood  upon  the  top  of  the  rock,  and  beneath  the  canopy  of 
heaven.  Before  him  there  was  spread  a  glorious  prospect  of 
mountains,  islands,  seas,  and  skies  :  behind  him  towered  the 
lofty  Acropolis,  crowned  with  all  its  marble  temples.  T'hus 
every  object,  whether  in  the  face  of  nature,  or  among  the 
works  of  art,  conspired  to  elevate  the  mind,  and  to  till  it 
with  reverence  towards  that  Being,  who  made  and  governs  the 
world  (Acts  xvii.  21.  -28.)  ;  who  sitteth  in  that  light  which 
no  mortal  eye  can  approach,  and  yet  is  nigh  unto  the  meanest 
cf  his  creatures ;  tn  whom  we  live  atufmove  and  have  our 
being.''^^ 

2.  The  Ass?:mbly  mentioned  in  Acts  xix.  39.  is,  most 
probably,  that  belongi<ng  to  the  district  of  Ephesus,  Asia 
Minor  being  divided  into  several  districts,  each  of  which  had 
its  appropriate  legal  assembly.  Home  of  these  are  referred 
to  by  Cicero,2  and  many  others  are  mentioned  by  Pliny,^ 
particularly  this  of  Ephesus.  The  Tpx/ujuuTSj;  or  chief  offic<  r 
Baj'S,  that  if  Demetrms  had  any  claim  of  property  to  make, 
there  v/ere  civil  courts  in  which  he  might  sue :  if  he  had 
crimes  to  object  to  any  person,  the  proconsul  was  there,  to 
take  cognizance  of  the  charge  :  but,  if  he  had  complaints  of 
a  political  nature  to  prefer,  or  had  any  thing  to  sa}'  which 
might  redound  to  the  honour  of  their  goddess,  there  was  the 
usual  legal  assembly  of  the  district  oelonging  to  Ephesus, 
in  which  it  ought  to  be  proposed.  The  regular  periods  of 
such  assemblies,  it  appears,  were  three  or  four  times  a  month ; 
although  they  were  convoked  extraordinarily  for  the  despatch 
of  any  pressing  business.' 


SECTION  III.5 

ON  THE  CRIMINAL  LAW  OF   TJIE  JEWS. 

I.  CniJiES  AGAixsT  Gon  : — 1.  Idolatry. — 2.  Blasphemy. — 3. 
Falsely  prophesying.  —  4.  Divination.  —  5.  Perjury. — II. 
Chimes  against  Parexts  anjj  Ma(51strati;s. — III.  Crimes 
AGAINST  Propeutt  : — 1.  Theft. — 2.  Man-stealing. — 3.  The 
crime  of  denying  any  thing  taken  in  trust,  or  found. — 
4.  Regulations  concerning  debtors. — IV.  Chimes  against 
THE  Person  : — 1.  .Murder. — 2,  Homicide. — 3.  Corporal  in- 
juries.— 4.  Crimes  of  hist. — V.  Crimes  of  Malice. 

I.  It  has  been  shown  in  a  preceding  chapter,^  that  the 
maintenance  of  the  worship  of  the  only  true  God  was  a  fun- 
damental object  of  the  Mosaic  polity.  The  government  of 
the  Israelites  being  a  Theocracy,  that  is,  one  in  which  the 
supreme  legislative  power  was  vested  in  the  Almighty,  who 
was  regarded  as  their  king,  it  was  to  be  expected  that,  in  a 
state  confessedly  religious,  crimes  against  the  Supreme  Ma- 
jesty of  Jehovah  shomd  occupy  a  primary  place  in  the  statutes 
given  by  Moses  to  that  people.     Accordingly, 

«  Dr.  Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  vl.  pp.  26.3—265.  See  al.so  Mr.  Dodwell's  Clas- 
fical  and  Topographical  Tour  through  Greece,  vol.  i.  pp.  361,  362. 

»  Cicero,  Epist.  ad  Atticum,  lib.  v.  ep.  20. 

»  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  lib.  v.  cc.  25.  29.  32,  33.  See  also  Cellarii  Geographia 
;Antiqua,  vol.  ii.  p.  127. 

*  Biscoe  on  the  Acts,  vol.  i.  p.  312.,  and  Bloomfield's  Annotations,  vol.  iv. 
p.  657. 

»  This  section  is  wholly  an  abridgmeiUofMiohaelis's  Commentaries,  vol. 
iv  pp.  1—312.  ' 

•  bee  p.  41.  supra. 


1.  Idolatry,  that  is,  the  worship  of  other  gods,  jp  the 
Mosaic  law  occupies  the  first  place  in  the  list  of  crimes.  It 
was,  indeed,  a  crime  not  merely  against  God,  but  also  against 
a  fundamental  law  of  the  state,  and,  consequently,  was  a 
species  oi  high-treason,  which  was  capitally  punished.  This 
crime  consisted  not  in  ideas  and  opinions,  but  in  the  overt 
act  of  worshipping  other  gods.  An  Israelite,  therefore,  was 
guilty  of  idolatry  : — 

(1.)  When  he  actually  worshipped  other  gods  besides 
Jehovah,  the  only  true  God.  This  was,  properly  speaking, 
the  state  crime  just  noticed ;  and  it  is,  at  the  same  time,  the 
greatest  of  all  offences  against  sound  reason  and  common 
sense.  This  crime  was  prohibited  in  the  first  of  the  ten 
commandments.  (Exod.  xx.  3.) 

(2.)  By  win-ahipping  images,  whether  of  the  true  God 
under  a  visible  form,  to  which  the  Israelites  were  but  too 
prone  (Exod.  xxxii.  4,  5.  Judg.  xvii.  3.  xviii.  4 — G.  14 — 17. 
30,  31.  vi.  25—33.  viii.  24—27.  1  Kings  xii.  26—31.),  or 
of  the  images  of  the  gods  of  the  Gentiles,  of  which  we  have 
so  many  instances  in  the  sacred  history.  All  image-worship 
whatever  is  expressly  forbidden  in  Exod.  xx.  4,  5. :  and  a 
curse  is  denounced  against  it  in  Deut.  xxvii.  15. 

(3.)  By  prostration  before,  or  adoration  of,  such  images,  or 
of  any  thing  else  revered  as  a  god,  such  as  the  sun,  moon, 
and  stars.  (Exod.  xx.  5.  xxxiv.  14.  Deut.  iv.  19.)  This 
prostration  consisted  in  falling  down  on  the  knees,  and  at 
the  same  time  touching  the  ground  with  the  forehead. 

(4.)  By  having  altars  or  groves  dedicated  to  idoh,  or  images 
theraif;  all  which  the  Mosaic  law  required  to  be  utterly 
destroyed  (Exod.  xxxiv.  13.  Deut.  vii.  5.  xii.  3.) ;  and  the 
Israelites  were  prohibited,  by  Deut.  vii.  25,  26.,  from  keep- 
ing, or  even  bringing  into  their  houses,  the  gold  and  silver 
that  had  been  upon  any  image,  lest  it  should  prove  a  snare, 
and  lead  them  astray :  because,  having  been  once  conse- 
crated to  an  idol-god  (considering  the  then  prevalent  super- 
stition as  to  the  reality  of  such  deities),  some  idea  of  its 
sanctity,  or  some  dread  of  it,  might  still  have  continued,  and 
have  thus  been  the  means  of  propagating  idolatry  afresh 
among  their  children. 

(5.)  By  offering  sacrifices  to  tWofe,  which  was  expressly  for- 
bidden in  Lev.  xvii.  1 — 7.,  especially  human  victims,  the 
sacrifices  of  which  (it  is  well  known),  prevailed  to  a  fright- 
ful extent.  Parents  immolated  their  offspring :  this  ho'rrid 
practice  was  introduced  among  the  Israelites,  from  the 
Canaanites,  and  is  repeatedly  reprobated  by  the  prophets 
in  the  most  pointed  manner.  The  offering  of  human  victims 
was  prohibited  in  Lev.  xviii.  21.  compared  with  2,  3.  24 — 
30.  XX.  1 — 5.  Deut,  xii.  30.  and  xviii.  10. 

(6.)  By  eating  of  offerings  made  to  idols,  made  by  other  peo- 
ple, who  invited  them  to  "their  offering-feasts.  Though  no 
special  law  was  enacted  against  thns  attending  the  festivals 
of  their  gods,  it  is  evidently  presupposed  as  unlawful  in 
Exod.  xxxiv.  15. 

Idolatry  was  punished  by  stoning  the  guilty  individual 
When  a  whole  city  became  guilty  of  idolatry,  it  was  con- 
sidered in  a  state  of  rebellion  against  the  government,  and 
was  treated  according  to  the  laws  of  war.  '  Its  inhabitants 
and  all  their  cattle  were  put  to  death  ;  no  spoil  was  made, 
but  every  thing  which  it  contained  was  burnt,  together  with 
the  city  itself;  nor  was  it  ever  allowed  to  be  rebuilt.  (Deut. 
xiii.  13 — 18.^  This  law  does  not  appear  to  have  been  par- 
ticularly enlorced;  the  Israelites  (from  their  proneness  to 
adopt  the  then  almost  universally  prevalent  polytheism)  in 
most  cases  overlooked  the  crime  of  a  city  that  became  noto- 
riously idolatrous ;  whence  it  happened,  that  idolatry  was 
not  confined  to  any  one  city,  but  soon  overspread  the  whole 
nation.  In  this  case,  when  the  people,  as  a  people,  brought 
guilt  upon  themselves  by  their  idolatry,  God  reserved  to 
himself  the  infliction  of  the  punishments  denounced  against 
that  national  crime ;  which  consisted  in  wars,  famines,  and 
other  national  judgments,  and  (when  the  measure  of  their 
iniquity  was  completed)  in  the  destruction  of  their  polity, 
and  the  transportation  of  the  people  as  slaves  into  other 
lands.  (Lev.  xxvi.  Deut.  xxviii.  xxix.  xxxii.)  For  the  crime 
of  seducing  others  to  the  \A;prship  of  strange  gods,  but  more 
especially  where  a  pretended  prophet  (who  might  often 
naturally  anticipate  what  would  come  to  pass)  uttered  pre- 
dictions tending  to  lead  the  people  into  idolatry,  the  appointed 
punishment  was  stoning  to  death.  (Deut.  xiii.  2 — 12.)  In 
order  to  prevent  the  barbarous  immolation  of  infants,  Moses 
denounced  the  punishment  of  stoning  upon  those  who  offered 
human  sacrifices;  which  the  bystanders  might  instantly 
execute  upon  the  delinquent  when  caught  in  the  act,  without 
any  judicial  inquiry  whatever.    (Lev.  xx.  2.) 


62 


ON  THE  CRIMINAL  LAW  OF  THE  JEWS. 


[Paht  XL  Chap.  Ill 


2.  ^od  being  both  the  sovorc'iCTi  and  the  legislator  of  the 
Israelitos,  Blasphi^mv  (that  is,  tno  spr^kinp  injiiri  jusly  <  ( 
his  iiarrn.h  s  attributes,  las  govvrnmcat,  and  his  revelation) 
was  net  only  a  crime  an;aii!St  Him,  hut  also  against  tlio  state ; 
u  was,  therefore,  punished  capitally  by  stoning.  (Lev.  xxiv. 
10—14.) 

3.  It  appears  from  Deut.  xviii.  20 — 22.  that  a  False  Pro- 
phet was  punislied  capiLiUy,  being  stoned  to  death  ;  and 
tlicrc  were  two  cases  in  which  a  person  was  l;eld  as  con- 
victed of  the  crime,  and  consequently  liable  to  its  punish- 
ment, viz.  (1.)  If  he  had  prophesied  any  thing  in  vhe  name 
of  any  other  god, — whether  it  took  place  or  not, — he  was 
at  all  events  considered  as  a  false  prophet,  and,  as  such, 
stoned  to  death.  (Deut.  xiii.  2 — G.) — (2.)  If  a  pronhetspoke 
in  the  name  of  the  true  God,  lie  was  tolerated,  so  long  as  he 
remained  \mconvicted  of  imposture,  even  though  he  threat- 
ened calamity  or  destruction  to  the  state,  and  he  could  not 
be  punished  :  but  when  the  event  which  he  had  predicted 
did  not  coine  to  pass,  he  was  regarded  as  an  audacious  im- 
postor, and,  as  such,  was  stoned.    (Deut.  xviii.  21,  22.) 

4.  Divination  is  the  conjecturing  of  future  events  from 
tilings  which  arc  supposed  to  presage  them.  The  eastern 
people  were  always  fond  of  clivination,  magic,  the  curious 
arts  of  interpreting  ilrcaras,  and  of  obtiining  a  knowledge 
of  future  events.  When  ]\Ioses  gave  the  law  which  bears 
his  name  to  the  Israelites,  this  disposition  had  long  been 
common  in  Egypt  and  the  neighbouring  countries.  Now, 
all  these  vain  arts  in  order  to  pry  into  futurity,  and  all  divina- 
tion whatever,  unless  God  was  consulted  by  prophets,  or  by 
Urim  and  Thummim  (the  sacred  lot  kept  by  the  high-priest), 
were  expressly  prohibited  by  the  statutes  of  Lev.  xix.  2tj. 
31.  XX.  6.  23.  27.  and  Deut.  xviii.  9 — 12.  In  the  case  of  a 
person  transgressing  these  laws,  by  co^s!////.;^  a  diviner,  God 
reserved  to  iiimselt  the  infliction  of  his  punishment;  the 
transgressor  not  being  amenable  to  tlie  secular  magistrate. 
(Levfxx.  6.)  The  c/;fi/!£r  himself  was  to  be  stoned.  (Lev. 
XX.  27.) 

5.  Perjcry  is,  by  the  Mosaic  law,  most  peremptorily  pro- 
hibited as  a  most  heinous  sin  against  God  ;  to  whom  the 
punishment  of  it  is  left,  and  who  in  Exod.  xx.  7.  expressly 
j)romise3  that  he  will  inflict  it,  without  ordaining  the  inflic- 
tion of  any  punishment  by  the  temporal  magistrate  ;  except 
only  in  the  case  of  a  man  falsely  charging  another  with  a 
crime,  in  which  case  the  false  witness  was  liable  to  the  same 
punishment  which  would  have  bei?n  inflicted  on  the  accused 
party  if  he  had  been  found  to  have  been  really  guilty  (as  is 
shown  in  p.  Gi.  infra);  not  indeed  as  the  punishment  of 
perjury  against  God,  but  of  false  witness. 

11.  Crimes  against  Parents  and  Magistrates  consti- 
tute an  important  article  of  the  criminal  law  of  the  Hebrews. 

1.  In  the  form  of  governmeiU  among  that  people,  we 
recognise  much  of  the  patriarchal  spirit ;  in  consecjuimce  of 
■whicli  fathers  enjoyed  great  rights  over  their  families.  The 
Cl'rsing  of  Parents, — that  is,  not  only  the  imprecation  of 
evil  on  them,  but  probably  also  all  rutfe  and  reproachful  lan- 
t^uaf^e  towards  ihcm,  was  ])uni:-jhed  with  death  (Exod.  xxi. 
17.  Lev.  XX.  0.) ;  as  likewise  was  the  s!riki>ig  of  them. 
(Exod.  xxi.  15.)  An  example  of  the  crime  of  cursing  of  a 
parent,  which  is  fully  in  point,  is  given  by  Jesus  Christ  in 
Slatt.  XV.  1 — ().  or  Mark  vii.  9 — 12.;  "where  he  upbraids 
the  Pharisees  with  their  giving,  from  their  deference  to  hu- 
man traditions  and  doctrines,  sucli  an  exposition  of  the  divine 
law,  as  converted  an  action,  which,  by  the  law  of  Mosee, 
would  have  been  punished  with  death,  into  a  vow,  both  obli- 
gatory and  acceptable  in  the  sight  of  God.  It  seems,  that  it 
was  then  not  uncommon  fir  an  undutiful  and  degenerate  son, 
who  wanted  to  be  rid  of  the  burden  of  supporting  his  parent::;, 
and  in  his  wrath,  to  turn  them  adrift  upon  the  wide  world,  to 
»ay  to  his  father  or  mother,  Kintmu,  or,  lie  thai  I'orhun  (con- 
Becrated)  u-h'ch  J  nhnnlil  ajiprnpriuic  to  thij  mppnrt ;  that  is. 
Ever  If  thill  fr  irhnricilh  f  m'ght  ever  aid  or  scrrf  thee,  and,  of 
course,  everu  thini',  which  I  ought  to  devite  to  thy  rdicf  in  the 
dam  of  h^lpU.tH  old  age,  I  hern  vow  unto  God. — A  moat  abomi- 
nable vow,  indeed  I  and  which  God  would,  unqu' slionably, 
as  little  approve  or  accept,  as  h^  would  a  vow  to  commit 
adultery.  And  yet  some  of  the  Pharisees  pronounced  on 
such  vows  this  strange  decision  ;  that  they  were  absolutely 
obligatory,  and  that  tiie  son,  wlio  uttered  such  words,  was 
bound  to  abstain  from  contributing,  in  th»-  smallest  article, 
to  the  use  of  his  pnnnts,  be -ause  every  thin'j,  th?t  slKnild 
have  been  so  appropriated,  had  become  consecrated  to  (Jod, 
and  could  no  longer  bo  applied  to  th<  ir  uso,  wifhoiit  sacrilege 
aad  a  breach  of  Lis  vow.     But  on  this  exposition,  Christ  not 


I  only  remarked,  that  it  abrogat»;d  the  fifth  commandment,  but 
he  likewiss  added,  as  a  counter-doctrine,  that  Moses,  their 
own  legislator,  had  expressly  declared,  that  the  num  who 
cumd  Jather  or  niolher  aescrvid  to  die.  Ncav,  it  is  impossi- 
ble for  a  man  to  curse  his  parents  more  elFcctually,  than  by 
a  vow  like  this,  when  he  interprets  it  with  such  rigour,  as  to 

freclude  him  from  doing  any  thing  in  future  for  their  benefit, 
t  is  not  imprecating  upon  them  a  curse  in  the  common  style 
of  curses,  which  evaporate  into  air;  but  it  is  fulfilling  "tlie 
curse,  and  making  it  to  all  iatents  and  purposes  eflectual."' 
Of  the  two  crimes  above  noticed,  the  act  of  striking  a  parent 
evinces  the  most  depraved  and  wicked  dispositn^n :  and 
severe  as  the  punishment  v.as,  few  parents  would  apply  to  a 
magistrate,  until  all  methods  had  been  tried  in  vain.  Both 
these  crimes  arc  included  in  the  case  of  the  stubborn,  rebel- 
lious, and  drunkard  son ;  whom  his  parents  were  unable  to 
keep  in  order,  and  who,  when  intoxicated,  endangered  the 
lives  of  others.  Such  an  irreclaimable  offender  was  to  be 
punished  with  stoning.  (Deut.  xxi.  18—21.)  Severe  as  this 
law  may  sccin,\,-c  iiave  no  instance  recorded  of  its  being 
carried  into  effect;  but  it  must  have  had  a  most  salutaiy  ope- 
ration in  the  prevention  of  crimes,  in  a  climate  like  that  of 
Palestine,  where  (as  in  all  southern  climates)  liquor  produces 
more  formidable  efiects  than  with  us,  and  where  also  it  is 
most  probable  that  at  that  time,  the  people  had  not  the  same 
efllcacious  means  Avhich  we  possess,  of  securing  drunkards, 
and  preventing  them  from  doing  mischief. 

2.  Civil  government  being  an  ordinance  of  God,  provision  ■ 
is  made  in  all  well  regulated  states  for  respecting  the  persons 
of  Magistrates.  We  have  seen  in  a  former  chapter ,2  that 
when  the  regal  government  was  established  among  the  Israel- 
ites, the  person  of  the  king  was  inviolable,  even  though  he 
migiit  be  tyrannical  and  unjust.  It  is  indispensably  neces- 
sary to  the  due  execution  of  justice  that  the  persons  of  magis- 
trates be  sacred,  and  that  they  should  not  be  insulted  in  Ihe 
discharge  of  their  office.  Ail  reproachful  words  or  curses, 
uttered  against  persons  invested  with  authority,  are  prohi- 
bited in  Exod.  xxii.  23.  No  punishment,  however,  is  speci- 
fied ;  probably  it  was  left  to  tlie  discretion  of  the  judge,  and 
was  different  according  to  the  rank  of  the  magistrate  and  tlie 
extent  of  the  crime. 

HI.  The  Crimes  or  offences  against  Property,  mentioned 
by  Moses,  are  theft,  man-stealing,  and  the  denial  of  any  thing 
taken  in  trust,  or  found. 

1.  On  the  crime  of  Theft,  Moses  imposed  the  punishment 
of  double  (and  in  certain  eases  still  liigiier)  restitution ;  and 
if  the  thief  were  unable  to  make  it  (which,  however,  could 
rarely  happen,  as  every  Israelite  by  law  had  his  jsaternal 
field,  the  crops  of  whicn  might  be  attached),  he  was  ordered 
to  be  sold  for  a  slave,  and  payment  Wi.s  to  be  made  to  the  in- 
jured party  out  of  the  ))urchase-meney.  (Exod.  xxii.  1.  3.) 
'riie  same  practice  obtains,  according  to  f'hardin,  among  the 
Persians.  The  wisdom  of  this  regulation  is  much  greater 
than  the  generality  of  mankind  are  aware  of:  for.  as  tlie  do-, 
sire  of  gain  and  the  love  of  luxuries  are  the  prevalent  induce- 
ments to  theft,  restitution,  varied  according  to  circumstances, 
would  eflectually  prevent  the  unlawful  gratification  of  that 
desire,  while  the  idle  man  would  be  deterred  from  stealing 
by  the  dread  of  slavery,  in  which  he  would  be  compelled  to 
w  ork  by  the  power  of  blows.  If,  however,  a  thief  was  ff.und 
breaking  Into  a  house  in  the  night  season,  he  might  be  killed 
(Exod.  xxii.  2.),  but  not  if  the  sun  had  arisen,  in  which  case 
he  might  be  known  and  api>rehend('d,  and  the  restitution 
made  which  was  enjoiucd  by  Moses.  When  stolen  oxf^n  or 
sheep  were  found  in  t'.ie  nossession  of  a  thief,  he  was  to  make 
a  Iwo-fild  restitution  to  ttic  owner,  who  thus  obtained  a  profit 
for  his  risk  of  loss.  (Exod.  xxii.  1.)  The  punishment  was 
applicable  to  every  case  in  which  the  article  stolen  remained 
unaltered  in  bis  ]iosse;  :>ion.  Hut  if  it  was  already  alienated 
or  slaughtered.  th(!  criminal  was  to  restore  four-fold  for  a 
sheep,  <im\  fivt-fild  for  an  ox-  (Exod.  xxii.  1),  in  consequence 
of  Its  great  value  and  indispensable  utility  in  agriculture,  to 
the  Israelites,  who  had  no  horses.  In  the  time  of  Solomon, 
when  property  had  become  more  valuable  from  the  increase 
of  commerce,  the  punishment  of  restitution  was  increased  to 
mvai'fotd.  (I'rov.  vi.  30,  31.)  When  a  thief  had  nothing  to 
pay,  ne  wiis  sold  as  a  slave  (Exod.  xxii.  3.),  probably  for  as 
many  years  as  were  n' cessary  for  the  extinction  of  the  debt, 
ami  of  course,  perhaps,  for  life;  though  in  other  cases  the 
Hebrew  servant  could  be  made  to  servo  only  for  six  years. 
If,  however,  a  thief,  afu^r  having  denied,  even  upon  oath,  any 
theft,  w  ilh  which  he  was  charged,  had  the  hon(  sty  or  con- 

«  .MicliarlU's  Comnmnlarici,  vol.  iv.  p.  300.        ..^      »  S«e  p.  44.  tupra. 


S£CT.  m.] 


ON  THE  CRIMINAL  LAW  OF  THE  JEWS. 


63 


science  to  retract  his  perjury,  and  to  confess  his  guilt,  instead 
of  double  restitution,  tie  iiad  only  to  repay  the  amount;  stolen, 
and  owG  fifth  more.  (Levit.  vi.  2 — 5.) 

2.  Man-stealing,  that  is,  the  seizing  or  stealing  of  the 

Eerson  of  a  free-born  Israelite,  either  to  use  him  as  a  slave 
imself,  or  to  sell  him  as  a  slave  to  others,  was  absolutely 
and'irremissibly  punished  with  death.  (Exod.  xxi.  IG.  Deut. 
xxiv.  7.) 

3.  "Where  a  person  was  judicially  convicted  of  having 

OaXIED   ANY    THING    COMMITTED   TO   HIS    TRUST,    Or    found   by 

him,  his  punishment,  as  in  the  case  of  tlicft,  was  double 
restitution;  only  that  it  never,  as  in  that  crime,  went  so  far 
as  quadruple,  or  quintuple  restitution ;  at  least  nothing  of  this 
kind  is  ordained  in  Kxod.  xxii.  8.  If  the  person  accused  cf 
this  crime  had  sworn  himself  guiltless,  and  afterwards,  from 
the  impulse  of  his  conscience,  acknowledged  the  commission 
of  perjury,  he  had  only  one-fifth  beyond  the  value  of  the 
article  denied  to  refund  to  its  owner.     (Levit.  vi.  5.) 

4.  The  Mosaic  laws  respecting  Debtors  were  widely  dif- 
ferent from  those  which  obtain  in  European  countries:  the 
mode  of  ])rocedure  sanctioned  by  them,  though  simple,  was 
TCry  efficient.  Persons,  who  had  property'  due  to  them, 
might,  if  they  chose,  secure  it  either  by  means  of  a  mort- 
gage, or  by  a  pledge,  or  by  a  bondsman  or  surety. 

(l.")  The  creditor,  when  about  to  receive  a  pledge  for  a 
debt,  was  not  allowed  to  enter  the  debtor's  house,  and  take 
what  he  pleased ;  but  was  to  wait  before  the  door,  till  the 
debtor  should  deliver  up  that  pledge  with  whicli  he  could 
mosi  easily  dispense.  (Deut.  xxiv.  10,  11.  Compare  Job 
xxii.  6.  xxiv.  3.  7 — 9.) 

(2  )  When  a  mill  or  mill-stone,  or  an  upper  garment,  was 
givesi  as  a  pledge,  it  was  not  to  be  kept  cdl  night.  These 
articles  appear  to  be  specified  as  examples  tor  all  other 
thini's  with  which  the  debtor  could  not  dispense  without 
greai  inconvenience.  (Exod.  xxii.  26,  27.  Deut.  xxiv.  G.  12.) 

(3-  )  The  debt  which  remained  unpaid  until  the  seventh  or 
sabbatic  year  (during  which  the  soil  was  to  be  left  without 
cultivation,  and,  consequently,  a  person  was  not  supposed  to 
be  in  a  condition  to  make  payments),  could  not  be  exacted 
during  that  period.  (Deut.  xv.  1 — 11.  j  But,  at  other  times, 
in  case  the  debt  was  not  pzdd,  the  creditor  might  seize,  first, 
the  hereditary  land  of  the  debtor,  and  enjoy  its  produce  until 
the  debt  was  paid,  or  at  least  until  the  year  ot  jubilee ;  or, 
secondly,  his  houses.  These  might  be  sold  in  perpetuity, 
except  those  belonging  to  the  Levites.  (Levit.  xxv.  14 — 32.) 
Thirdly,  in  case  the  hoase  or  land  was  not  sufficient  to  cancel 
the  debt,  or  if  it  so  happened  that  the  debtor  had  none,  the 
person  of  the  debtor  might  be  sold,  together  with  his  wife 
and  children,  if  he  had  any.  This  is  implied  in  Lev.  xxv. 
S9»;  and  this  custom  is  alluded  to  in  Job  xxiv.  9.  It  existed 
in  the  time  of  Elisha  (2  Ivings  iv.  1.) ;  and  on  the  return  of 
the  Jews  ftom  the  Babylonish  captivity,  some  rich  persons 
exercised  this  right  over  their  poor  debtors.  (Neh.  v.  1 — 
13.)  Our  Lord  alludes  to  the  same  custom  in  Matt,  xviii.  25. 
As  the  person  of  the  debtor  might  thus  be  seized  and  sold, 
his  cattle  and  firniiure  were,  consequently,  liable  for  his 
debts.  This  is  alluded  to  by  Solomon,  in  Prov.  xxii.  27.  It 
does  not  appear  that  imprisonment  for  debt  existed  in  the  jge 
of  Moses,  out  it  seems  to  have  prevailed  in  the  time  of  Jesus 
Christ.  (Matt,  xviii.  34.) 

(4.)  If  a  person  had  become  bondsman,  or  surety  for  an- 
other, he  was  liable  to  be  called  upon  for  payment  in  the 
same  way  with  the  original  debtor.  But  this  practice  does 
not  appear  to  have  obtained  before  the  time  of  Solomon  (in 
whose  Proverbs  there  are  several  references  to  it),  when  it 
was  attended  with  serious  consequences.  It  seems  that  the 
formality  observed  was,  for  the  person  who  became  surety 
to  give  his  hand  to  the  debtor,  and  not  to  the  creditor,  to  inti- 
mate that  he  became,  in  a  legal  sense,  one  with  the  debtor; 
for  Solomon  cautions  his  son  against  giving  his  hand  to  a 
stranger,  to  a  person  whose  circumstances  he  did  not  know : 
and  entreats  him  to  go  and  urge  the  person  to  whom  he  had 
given  his  hand,  or  for  whom  he  had  become  surety,  to  pay 
his  own  debt;  so  that  it  must  have  been  to  the  debtor  that 
the  hand  was  given.  See  Prov.  xi.  15.  xvii.  18.  and  xxiL  25. 

IV.  Among  the  Crimes  which  may  be  committed  against 
THE  Person, 

1.  Murder  claims  the  first  place.  As  this  is  a  crime  of 
the  most  heinous  nature,  Moses  has  described  four  accessory 
circumstances  or  marks,  ny  which  to  distinguish  it  from  sim- 
ple homicide  or  manslaughter;  viz.  (1.)  When  it  proceeds 
from  hatred  or  enmity.  (Num.  xxxv.  20.  21.  Deut.  xix.  11.) 
—(2.)  When  it  proceeds  from  thirst  of  blood,  or  a  desire  to 
•atiate  revenge  with  the  blood  of  another.  (Num.  xxxv,  20.) — 


(3.)  When  it  is  committed  premed'tatedli/  and  deceitfdly. 
(Exod.  xxi.  14.) — (4.),  When  a  man  lies  iii  wait  for  another, 
rails  upon 'him,  and  sla3-s  him.  (Deut.  xix.  11.)  In  order 
to  constitute  wilful  murder,  besides  enmity,  Moses  deemed 
it  essential,  that  the  deed  be  perpetrated  by  a  blew,  a  thrust, 
or  a  cast,  or  other  thing  of  such  a  nature  as  inevitably  to 
cause  death.  (Num.  xxxv.  IG — 21.)  :  such  as,  the  use  of  an 
iron  tool, — a  stone,  or  piece  cf  wood,  th?t  may  probably 
cause  death, — the  striking  cf  a  man  with  the  fist,  out  of  en- 
mity,— pushing  a  man  down  in  sucli  a  manner  that  his  life 
is  endangx-red, — and  throwing  any  thing  at  a  man,  from  san- 
guinary motives,  so  as  to  occasion  his  death.  The  punish- 
ment of  murder  was  death,  without  all  power  of  redemption, 

2.  HojiiciDE  or  Manslaughter  is  discriminated  by  the  fol- 
lowing adjuncts  or  circumstances: — (1.)  That  it  takes  place 
wiihout  hatred  or  enmity.  (Num.  xxxv.  22.  Deut.  xix.  4 — 
G.) — (2.)  fF(/Aoi// thirst  for  revenge.  (Exod.  xxi.  13.  Num. 
xxxv.  22.) — (3.)  W'hen  it  happens  by  mistake.  (Num.vxxv. 
11.  15. j) — (4.)  ax  accident,  or  (as  it  is  termed  in  the  English 
law)  chance-medley.  (Deut.  xix.  5.)  The  punishment  cf 
homicide  was  confinement  to  a  city  of  refuge,  as  will  be 
shown  in  the  following  section. 

Besides  the  two  crimes  of  murder  and  homicide,  there  are 
two  other  species  of  homicide,  to  which  no  punishment  was 
annexed;  viz.  (1.)  If  a  man  caught  a  thief  breaking  into  his 
Iiouse  by  night,  and  killed  him,  it  ivas  rot  bbod-guiltiness, 
that  is,  he  could  not  be  punished ;  but  if  he  did  so  when  the 
sun  was  up,  it  was  bhod-giiiltiness ,-  for  the  thief's  life  ought 
to  have  been  spared,  for  the  reason  annexed  to  the  law  (Exod. 
xxii.  2,  3.),  viz.  because  then  the  person  robbed  might  have 
it  in  his  power  to  obtain  restitution ;  or,  at  any  rate,  the  thief, 
if  he  could  not  otherwise  make  up  his  loss,  might  be  sold, 
in  order  to  repay  him. — (2.)  If  the  Go;l  or  avenger  of  blood 
overtook  the  innocent  homicide  before  he  reached  a  city  of 
refuge,  and  killed  him  while  his  heart  ivas  hot,  it  was  consi- 
dered as  done  in  justifiable  zeal  (Deut.  xix.  G.) ;  and  evca 
if  he  found  him  without  the  limits  of  his  asylum,  and  slew 
him,  he  was  not  punishable.  (Num.  xxxv.  2G,  27.)  The 
taking  of  pecuniary  compensation  for  murder  was  prohibited ; 
but  the  7node  of  punishing  murderers  was  undetermined;  and, 
indeed,  it  appears  to  have  been  left  in  a  great  degree  to  the 
pleasure  of  the  Gro  1.  An  exception,  however,  was  made  to 
the  severity  of  the  law  in  the  case  of  a  perfect  slave  (that  is, 
one  not  cf  Hebrew  descent),  whether  male  or  female.  Al- 
though a  man  had  strack  any  of  his  slaves,  whether  male  or 
female,  with  a  stick,  so  as  to  cause  their  death,  unless  that 
event  took  place  immediately,  and  under  his  hand,  he  was 
not  punished.  If  the  slave  survived  one  or  two  days,  the 
master  escaped  with  impunity :  it  being  considered  that  his 
death  might  not  have  proceeded  from  the  beating,  and  that  it 
was  not  a  master's  interest  to  kill  his  slaves,  because,  as 
Moses  says  (Exod.  xxi.  20,  21.),  they  are  his  inoney.  If  the 
slave  died  under  his  master's- hand  while  beating  him,  or 
even  during  the  same  day,  his  death  was  to  be  avenged ;  but 
in  what  manner  Moses  has  not  specified.  Probably  the 
Israelitish  master  was  subjected  only  to  an  arbitrary  punish- 
ment, regulated  according  to  circumstances  by  the  pleasure 
of  the  judge. 

In  order  to  increase  an  abhorrence  of  murder,  and  to  deter 
tham  from  the  perpetration  of  so  heinous  a  crime, — when  it 
had  been  committed  by  some  person  unknown,  the  city  near- 
est to  which  the  corpse  was  found  was  to  be  ascertained  by 
mensuration :  after  which  the  elders  or  magistates  of  that^ 
city  were  required  to  declare  their  utter  i;'norance  of  the 
affair  in  the  very  solemn  manner  prescribed  in  Deut,  xxi. 
1—9. 

3.  For  other  Corporal  Injuries  of  various  kinds,  different 
statutes  were  made,  which_show  the  humanity  and  Avisdom 
of  the  Mosaic  law.  Thus,  if  a  man  injured  another  in  a  fray, 
he  was  obliged  to  pay  the  expenses  of  his  cure,  and  of  his 
bed,  that  is,  the  loss  of  his  time  arising  from  his  confine- 
ment. (Exod.  xxi.  18,  19.)  By  this  admirable  precept, 
most  courts  of  justice  still  regulate  their  decisions  in  such 
cases. — If  a  pregnant  woman  was  hurt,  in  consequence  of  a 
fray  between  two  individuals, — as  posterity  among  the  Jews 
was  among  the  peculiar  promises  of  their  covenant, — in  the 
event  of  her  premature  delivery,  the  author  of  the  misfortune 
was  obliged  to  give  her  husband  such  a  pecuniary  compensa- 
tion as  he  might  demand,  the  amount  or  which,  if  the  ofi^en- 
der  thought  it  too  liigh,  was  to  be  determined  by  the  decision 
of  arbitrators.  On  the  other  hand,  if  either  the  woman  or 
her  child  was  hurt  or  maimed,  the  law  of  retaliation  took  its 
full  ofTect,  as  stated  in  Exod.  xxi.  22 — 25. — The  law  of 
retaliation  also  operated,  if  one  man  hurt  another  by  either 


64 


PUNISHMENTS  MENTIONED  IN  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


[Paut  n.  Chap.  U\ 


assauVinor  hiiia  openly,  or  bj'  any  insidious  attack,  whether 
the  parties  wt^re  both  I^raeliles,  or  an  Israelite  and  a  foreigner. 
(Lev.  xxiv.  19 — 22.)  This  equality*  of  the  law,  however, 
did  not  extend  to  slaves:  but  if  a  master  knocked  out  the 
eye  or  tooth  of  a  slave,  the  latter  received  his  freedom  as  a 
compensation  for  the  ir.jnry  he  had  sustained.  (Kxod.  xxi. 
2G,  27.)  If  this  noble  law  did  not  teach  the  unmerciful 
slave-holder  humanilij,  at  least  it  tauo;ht  him  caution ;  as  one 
rash  blow  might  have  deprived  him  of  all  right  to  the  future 
services  of  his  slave,  and,  consequently,  sell-interest  would 
oblige  him  to  be  cautious  and  circumspect. 

4.  The  critne,  of  wh.ich  decency  withholds  the  name,  as 
nature  abominates  the  idea,  was  punished  wi«'h  death  (Lev. 
xviii.  22,  23.  xx.  13.  15,  1(3.\  as  also  was  adultery'  (Lev. 
XX.  10.), — it  should  seem  by  stoning  (Ezek.  xvi.  3R.  40. 
John  viii.  7.),  except  in  certam  cases  which  are  specified  in 
Lev.  xix.  20 — 22.  Other  crimes  of  lust,  wliich  were  com- 
mon among  the  Egyptians  and  Canaanites,  are  made  capital 
by  Closes.  For  a  full  examination  of  the  wisdom  cf  his 
laws  on  these  subjects,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  commen- 
taries of  Michael is.2 

V.  In  nothing,  however,  were  the  wisdom  and  equity  of 
the  Mosaic  law  more  admiraldy  displayed,  than  in  the  rigour 
with  which  Crisies  of  Mai.ick  were  punished.  Those  pests 
of  society,  malicious  informers,  were  odious  in  the  eye  of 
that  law  (Lev.  xix.  16 — 18.),  and  the  publication  of  false 
reports,  affecting  the  characters  of  others,  is  expressly  pro- 
hibited in  Exod.  xxiii.  1.:  though  that  statute  does  not 
annex  any  punishment  to  this  crime.  One  exception,  how- 
ever, is  made,  which  justly  imposes  a  very  severe  punish- 
ment on  the  delinquent.  See  Deut.  xxii.  13 — 19.  All  manner 
cf  false  witness  was  prohibited  (Exod.  xx.  16.),  even  though 
it  were  to  favour  a  poor  man.  (Exod.  xxiii.  1 — 3.)  But  in 
the  case  of  false  testimony  against  an  innocent  man,  the 
matter  was  ordered  to  be  investigated  with  the  utmost  strict- 
ness, and,  as  a  species  of  wickedness  altogether  extraordi- 
nary, to  be  brought  before  the  highest  tril)unal,  where  the 
priests  and  the  judges  of  the  whole  people  sat  in  judgment : 
and  after  conviction,  the  fvilse  witness  was  subjected  to  pu- 
nishment, according  to  the  law  of  retaliation,  and  beyond  the 
possibility  of  reprieve  ;  so  that  he  suffered  the  very  same 
punishment  which  attended  the  crime  of  \vhich  ho  accused 
his  innocent  brother.  (Deut.  xix.  16 — 21.)  No  regulation 
can  be  more  enuitable  than  this,  which  must  have  operated 
as  a  powerfuf  prevention  of  this  crime.  Some  of  those 
excellent  laws,  which  arc  the  glorv  and  ornament  of  the 
British  Constitiition,  have  been  macle  on  this  very  "ground. 
Thus,  in  the  37  Edw.  III.  c.  IS.,  it  is  enacted,  that  all  those 
who  make  suggestion,  shall  suffer  the  same  penalty  toAvhich 
the  oliier  ))arty  would  have  been  subject,  if  he  were  attainted, 
in  case  his  suggestions  be  found  evil.  A  similar  law  was 
made  in  the  same  reign.  (38  Edw.  III.  c.  9.)  By  a  law 
of  tlie  twelve  tables,  false  witnesses  were  thrown  down  the 
Tarpeian  rock.  In  short,  false  witnesses  have  been  deserv- 
elly  execrated  by  all  nations,  and  in  every  age. 


SECTION  IV. 

ON    THE    Pl'NISHWENTS    MENTIONED    IN    THE    SCRIPTURES.' 

Design  of  [ntnishinaits. —  Classijicatian  of  Jeivish  punishments. 

%     1. Pt'NISHMKJITS, NOT  CAPITAL. 1.  ScOUrgi/ltf. 2.  liftu/i- 

alion. — 3.  Pecuniary  Fines. — 4.  Offerings  in  the  natiue  nf 
punishment. — 5.  Imprisonment. — 6.  Banishment. — Oriental 
mode  of  treating  prisoners. — 7.  Depriving  them  of  sight. — 
8.  Cutting  or  plucking  oj' the  hair. — 9.  Excommunication. 
— II.  Capital  Pcmsiimkxts. — 1.  S'aying  -,vith  the  sword. 
2.  iStonitig. — 3.  Jfurning  to  d^uth. — 4.  Decapitation. — 5. 
Precipitation. — 6.  Drowning. — 7.  Jiruising  in  a  mortar. — 

'  As  the  Jewish  law  inllirtcil  surhhrnvy  nuniohmenla  on  IhoFo  wliocnm- 
niiU<;<l  fornication  and  adultery,  it  in  prohahlr-,  frDiii  I'rov.  li.  l(i.,  tlml  Iho 
Jews  had  harlots  anions  tlii'in  from  llir  n("i)[hhi>urinK  nalioiiH,  who  bodiirod 
them  into  iinpiinly  and  idolatry,  and  who  ini«lit  he  tolcralcd  in  Nome  ror- 
rupt  perlinlH  iifOii'ir  nlate.  The  case  was  tho  name  at  Alhriis,  wImmo  foroijin 
harloiH  wiTP  loleratpil.  Ilcnrc  the  term  strange  tromen,  raiiie  to  he  ap- 
plied to  all  bad  women,  whether  furcigiierh  or  Israelites.  Orlon'w  Exjiosi- 
lion,  vol.  V.  p  6. 

»  Vol  iv.  pp.  1C3— 203. 

•  The  ftoiieral  authorities  for  this  Fection  are,  arhnlzii  Arch.Tologia  Ile- 
braica,  pp.  82—92.  (^alini-t,  Diss'srlalion  H\ir  les  Supplii-.-s  den  Ili.'bri'UX, 
Uisscrt.  toin.i.  pp.  241—270.  ;  llruninKS,  Antiq.  Ilebr.  j)p.  1(17— lit. ;  Albcr, 
Hcrmeneut.  Vet  Test.  torn.  i.  pp.  22.">— 2.'J3.  C.  H.  Micliai-lis,  di;  judiciis, 
poenisquc  capitalibiis  nebraionnn,  in  I'litt's  antl  Riipeni's  .Syllo^r,.  C'oimnon- 
tatlonnin,  vol  iv.  pp.  177— viJ'J.  ;  J;ihn,  Arcliajologia  liiblico,  ii  !*i3— a05. ; 
Ackcruxann,  AxchiBoIoKia  Uiblica,  ii  24:>— 258. 


8.  Dichotomif,  or  cutting  asunder. — 9.  Tt/,«w<i'/ff-i<',c,  or  beat 
iug  to  death. — 10.  Exposing  to  wild  beasts. — 11.  Cruc'fxion 
— (1.)  Prevalence  of  this  mode  of  punishment  among  the  an 
citnts. — (2.)  Jgnominy  of  wucifxion. — (3.)  The  circiim 
sta?ices  of  our  Saviour^s  crucifixion  considered  and  illus- 
trated. 

The  end  of  punishment  is  expressed  by  Moses  to  be  the 
determent  of  others  from  tlie  commission  of  crimes.  His 
language  is.  that  others  niai/  hear  and.  fear,  and  man/  s/iun  the 
com  mission  of  like  crimes.  (Deut.  xvii.  lo.  xix.  20.)  By  the 
wise  and  humane  enactments  of  this  legislator,  parents  are 
not  to  be  put  to  death  for  their  children,  nor  children  for  theii 
parents  (Deut.  xxiv.  16.),  as  was  afterwards  the  case  with 
the  (^'lialda\ms  (Dan.  vi.  21.),  and  also  ainonff  the  kings  of 
Israel  (1  Kings  xxi.  and  2  Kings  ix.  26.),  onc-liarges  of  trea- 
son.' Of  the  punishments  mentioned  in  the  sacred  writers, 
some  were  inflicted  by  t!ic  Jews  in  common  with  oilier  na- 
tions, and  others  were  peculiar  to  themselves.  They  are 
usually  divided  into  two  classes,  nnn-capHal  and  capital. 

I.  The  NON-cAPiTAL  or  inferior  Puni.'hments,  which  were 
inflicted  for  smaller  offences,  are  eight  in  number;  viz. 

1.  The  most  common  corporal  punishment  of  the  ancient 
Mosaic  law  was  Scourging.  (IiCv.  xix.  20.  Deut.  xxii.  IH. 
XXV.  2,  3.)  After  the  captivity  it  continued  to  be  the  usual 
punishment  for  transgressions  of  the  law,  so  late  indeed  as  the 
time  of  .fosephus;^  and  the  apostle  tells  us  that  he  suffered 
\tfive  times."  (2  Cor.  xi.  24.)  In  the  time  cf  our  Saviour  it 
was  not  confined  to  the  judicial  tribunals,  but  was  also  in- 
flicted in  the  synagogues.  (Matt.  x.  17.  xxiii.  34.  Acts  xxii. 
19.  xxvi.  11.)  't\\e  p(nialty,of  scourging  was  inflicted  by 
judicial  sentence.  The  offender  having  been  admonished  to 
acknowledge  his  guilt,  and  the  witnesses  produced  against 
him  as  in  capital  cases,  the  judges  commanded  him  to  be  tied 
by  the  arms  to  a  low  pillar:  the  culprit  being  stripped  down 
to  his  waist,  the  ixeciU inner,  wiio  stood  behind  him  upon  a 
stone,  inflicted  the  punishment  both  on  the  back  and  breast 
with  thongs  ordinarily  made  of  ox's  hide  or  leather.  The 
number  of  stripes  depended  upon  the  enormity  of  the  oflTencc. 
According  to  the  talmudical  v/riters,'  while  the  executioner 
was  discharging  his  ofl[ice,  the  principal  judge  proclaimed 
these  words  with  a  loud  voice  : — If  thou  ohservest  not  all  the 
words  of  this  law,  Lfc.  then  the  I^ord  shall  make  thif  ph^tia 
wonderful,  ifc.  (Deut.  xxviii.  58,  59.)  ;  adding,  Keep  there- 
fore tlie  7i'ords  of  thi.s  covenant,  and  do  them,  that  ye  rnny  pros- 
per in  all  that  ye  do  (Deut.  xxix.  9.)  ;  and  concluding  with 
these  words  of  the  Psalmist  (Ixxviii.  3.-^.)  : — But  he  bring  full 
(f  compassion  forgave  their  iniquities ;  which  he  was  to  repeat, 
if  he  liad  finished  these  verses  before  the  full  number  of 
stripes  was  given.  It  was  expressly  enacted  that  no  Jew 
should  suffer  more  than  forty  stripes  for  any  crime,  though  a 
less  number  might  be  inflicteil.  In  order  that  the  legal  num- 
ber might  not  be  exceeded,  the  scourge  consisted  of  three 
lashes  or  thongs  :  so  that,  at  each  blow,  he  received  three 
stripes  :  conseqtiently  when  the  full  punishment  was  inflicted, 
the  delinquent  received  only  thirteen  blows,  that  is,  forty 
stripes  save  Mie  ,-  but  if  he  were  so  weak,  as  lo  be  on  the  point 
ol"  fainting  away,  the  judges  would  order  the  executioner  to 
suspend  his  flagellation.  Among  the  Komans,  however,  the 
number  was  not  limited,  but  varied  according  to  the  crime  of 
the  mah.'factor  and  the  discretion  of  the  judge.  It  is  higiily 
probable  that,  when  Pilate  took  Jesus  and  scourged  him,  he 
directed  this  scourging  to  be  unusually  severe,  iliat  the  sight 
of  his  lacerated  body  mi|>ht  move  the  Jews  to  compassionate 
the  prisont^r,  and  desist  from  opposing  his  release.  Tiiis  ap- 
pears the  more  probable;  as  our  Saviour  was  so  enfeebled  by 
this  scourging,  that  he  afterwards  had  not  strength  enough 
left  to  enable  nim  to  drag  his  cross  to  (Calvary.  Among  the 
Jews,  the  punishment  of  scourging  involved  no  sort  of  igno- 
miny, whicii  could  make  the  sulhrer  infamous  or  an  object 
of  reproach  to  his  fillow-citizcns.  It  consisted  merely  in  the 
physical  sense  of  the  pain.* 

2.  Retaliation,  or  the  returning  of  like  for  like,  was  the 
punishment  inflicted  for  corporal  injuries  to  another,— '//f/"- 
eye,  tooth  for  tnolh,  hand  fir  hand,  foot  for  foot.  (Exod.  xxi. 
21.)     It  appears,  however,  to  have  been  rarely,  if  over, 

«  Michaelis's  roinnienlarics,  vul.  iv.  p.  371.  vol.  iil.  pp.4W.  400—402. 

•  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  Iv.  r.  S.  §  II. 

•  In  indirtinc  'he  piniishmciit  of  wlilppins,  the  Jews  sometimes,  fornotn-  < 
rions  ofTiMiccH,  lied  Hlmrp  bones,  pieces  of  lead,  or  thorns  to  the  end  of  Iho  , 
llioniis,  calleil  by  tin;  (iri'cks  aTi  f»>  ctx^^-ac  fi^my  x;,  Jlae;ia  faxillata  ,  < 
but  in  the  Hrripliires  termed  scorpions.  To  thewe  Kchoboam  alludes  tii 
IKincH  xii.  II.  — nnnler'NOrienl.il  l.iteratnre,  vol.  I.  p.  414. 

'  tailed  by  l)r.  I.iKhlfoot,  WorkB,  vol.  i.  p.  901.  folio  edit. 

•  Micbaclis's  Coiumcntarics,  voL  iii.  pp.  441—448. 


Sect.  IV.] 


PUNISHMENTS  MENTIONED  IN  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


65 


strictly  put  in  execution  :  but  the  injurious  party  was  to  give 
the  injured  person  satisfaction.  In  this  sense  the  tuutctta^uu 
among  the  Greeks,  and  the  Lex  TaUonis  among  the  Romans, 
•was  understcod;  and  an  equivalent  was  accepted,  the  value 
of  an  eye,  a  tooth,  &c.  for  the  eye  or  tooth  itself.  It  should 
seem  that  in  the  time  of  Jesus  Christ,  the  Jews  had  made 
this  law  (the  execution  of  which  belonged  to  the  civil  magis- 
trate) a  ground  for  authorizing  private  resentments,  and  all 
the  excesses  committed  by  a  vindictive  spirit.  Revenge  was 
carried  to  the  utmost  extremity,  and  more  evil  re'urnea  than 
what  had  been  received.  On  this  account  our  Saviour  pro- 
hibited retaliation  in  his  divine  sermon  on  the  mount.  (Matt. 
V.  38,  39.) 

3.  Restitution. — Justice  requires  that  those  things  which 
have  been  stolen  or  unlawfully  taken  from  another  should  be 
restored  to  the  party  aggrievea,  and  that  compensation  should 
be  made  to  him  by  the  aggressor.  Accordingly,  various  fines 
or  pecuniary  payments  were  enacted  by  the  Mosaic  law ;  as, 
(l.)  Fines,  tt'jy  (oncsh),  strictly  so  called,  went  commonly 
to  the  injured  party;  and  were  of  two  kinds, — Fixed,  that  is, 
those  of  which  the  amount  Avas  determined  by  some  statute, 
as  for  instance,  that  of  Deut.  xxii.  19.  orxxii.  '29.  ; — and  U7i- 
de/erniined,  or  where  the  amount  was  left  to  the  decision  of 
the  judges.  (Exod.  xxi.  22.) 

(2.)  Two-fold,  four-fold,  and  even  five-fold,  restitution  of 
things  stolen,  and  restitution  of  property  unjustly  retained, 
with  twenty  per  cent,  ovct  and  above.  Thus,  if  a  man  killed 
a  beast,  he  v/as  to  make  it  good,  beast  for  beast.  (Lev.  xxiv. 
18.) — If  an  ox  pushed  or  gored  another  man's  servant  to 
death,  his  owner  was  bound  to  pay  for  the  servant  thirty 
shekels  of  silver.  (Exod.  xxi.  32.) — In  the  case  of  one  man's 
ox  pushing  the  ox  of  another  man  to  death,  as  it  would  be 
very  difilcult  to  ascertain  which  of  the  two  had  been  to  blame 
for  the  quarrel,  the  two  owners  were  obliged  to  bear  the  loss. 
The  living  ox  was  to  be  sold,  and  its  price,  together  with 
the  dead  beast,  was  to  be  equally  divided  between  them.  If, 
however,  one  of  the  oxen  had  previously  been  notorious  for 
pushing,  and  the  owner  had  not  taken  care  to  confine  him, 
in  such  case  he  was  to  give  the  loser  another,  and  to  take  the 
dead  ox  himself.  (Exod.  xxi.  30.) — If  a  man  dug  a  pit  and 
did  not  cover  it,  or  let  an  old  pit  remain  open,  and  another 
man's  beast  fell  into  it,  the  owner  of  such  pit  was  obliged  to 
pay  for  the  beast,  and  had  it  fortlie  payment.  (Exod.  xxi.  33, 
34.) — When  a  fire  was  kindled  in  the  fields  and  did  any 
damage,  he  who  kindled  it  was  to  make  the  damage  good. 
(Exod.  xxii.  6.)i 

(3.)  Compensation,  not  commanded,  hut  only  allowed,  by 
law,  to  be  given  to  a  person  injured  that  he  might  depart 
from  his  suit,  and  not  insist  on  the  legal  pvmishmcnt,  whether 
corporal  or  capital.  It  is  termed  either  idd  (kopAcr),  that  is, 
Compensation  or  cfij  pno  (p/djon  NcpAesii),  that  is,  Mansomof 
Life.  In  one  case  it  is  most  expressly  permitted  (Exod.  xxi. 
30.)  ;  but  it  is  prohibited  in  the  case  of  murder  and  also  in 
homicide.  (Num.  xxxv.  31,  32.)  The  highest  fine  leviable 
by  the  law  of  Moses,  was  one  hundred  shekels  of  silver,  a  great 
sum  in  those  times,  when  the  precious  metals  were  rare.^ 

4.  To  this  class  of  punishments  may  be  referred  the  Sin 
and  Trespass  Offerings,  which  were  in  the  Nature  of 
Punishments.  They  were  in  general  extremely  moderate, 
and  were  enjoined  in  the  following  cases  : — 

(I.)  For  every  unintentional  trangression  of  the  Levitical 
law,  even  if  it  wSjS  a  sin  of  commission  (for  in  the  Mosaic  doc- 
trine concerning  sin  and  trespass  offerings,  all  transgressions 
are  divided  into  sins  of  commission,  and  sins  of  omissio7i),  a 
sin-offering  was  to  be  made,  and  thereupon  the  legal  punish- 
ment was  remitted,  which,  in  the  case  of  wilful  transgression, 
was  nothing  less  than  extirpation.  (Lev.  iv.  2.  v.  1.4 — 7). 

(2.)  Whoever  had  made  a  rash  oath,  and  had  not  kept  it, 
was  obliged  to  make  a  sin-offering;  for  his  inconsideration, 
if  it  was  an  oath  to  do  evil,  and  for  his  neglect,  if  it  was  an 
oath  to  do  good.  (Lev.  v.  4.) 

(3.)  Whoever  had,  as  a  witness,  been  guilty  of  perjury — 
not,  however,  to  impeach  an  innocent  man  (for  in  that  case  the 
lex  talionis  operated),  but — in  not  testifying  what  he  knew 
against  a  guilty  person,  or  in  any  other  respect  concerning 
the  matter  in  question  ;  and  in  consequence  thereof  felt  dis- 

?[uieted  in  his  conscience,  might,  without  being  liable  to  any 
arther  punishment,  or  ignominy,  obtain  remission  of  the  per- 
jury, by  a  confession  of  it,  accompanied  with  a  trespass- 
offerinjr.  (Lev.  v.  1.) 


f4.)  Whoever  had  incurred  debt  to  the  sanctuary,  that  is 
hau  not  conscientiously  paid  his  tithes,  had  his  cnmc  can- 


»  Michaelis's  Commentaries,  vol.  ii.  pp.  365—367.  477, 
5  Iliicl.  pp.  473,  479. 

Vol.  II.  I 


478. 


celled  by  making  a  trespass-offering,  and  making  up  his  de- 
ficiencies with  twenty  per  cent,  over  and  above.  (Lev.  v. 
14,  1,5.)  ^ 

(5.)  The  same  was  the  rule,  where  a  person  denied  any 
thing  given  him  in  trust,  or  any  thing  kst,  which  he  had 
found,  or  any  promise  he  had  made ;  or  again,  where  he  had  ac- 
quired any  property  dishonestly,  and  hadhis  conscience  awak- 
ened account  of  it, — even  where  it  was  a  theft,  of  which  he 
had  once  cleared  himself  by  oath,  but  was  now  moved  by  the 
inipulse  of  his  conscience  to  make  voluntary  restitution,  and 
wished  to  get  rid  of  the  guilt.  (Lev.  vi.  1 — 7.)  By  the 
offering  made  on  such  an  occasion,  the  preceding  crime  was 
wholly  cancelled  ;  and  because  the  delinquent  would  other- 
wise have  had  to  make  restitution  from  two  to  five  fold,  he 
now  gave  twenty  per  cent,  over  and  above  the  amount  of  his 
theft. 

(6.)  In  the  case  of  adultery  committed  with  a  slave,  an 
offering  was  appointed  by  Lev.  xix.  20 — 22.  :  which  did  not, 
however,  wholly  cancel  the  punishment,  but  mitigated  it  from 
death,  which  was  the  established  punishment  of  adultery,  to 
that  of  stri])es  for  the  woman,  the  man  bringing  the  trespass- 
offerinw  in  the  manner  directed  by  Moses.^ 

Such  measures  as  these,  Michaelis  remarks,  must  have  had 
a  great  effect  in  prompting  to  the  restitution  of  property 
unjustly  acquired :  but  in  the  case  of  crimes,  of  which  the 
good  of  the  community  expressly  required  that  the  legal 
punishment  should  uniformly  and  actually  be  put  in  execution, 
ne  such  offering  could  be  accepted.'' 

5.  Imprisonment  does  not  appear  to  have  been  imposed 
by  Moses  as  a  punishment,  though  he  could  not  be  unac- 
quainted with  it ;  for  he  describes  it  as  in  use  among  the 
Egyptians.  (Gen.  xxxix.  20,  21.)  The  only  time  he°men- 
tions  it,  or  more  properly  arrest,  is  solely  for  the  purpose  of 
keeping  the  culprit  safe  until  judgment  should  be  given  on 
his  conduct.  (Lev.  xxiv.  12.)  In  later  times,  however,  the 
punishment  of  the  prison  came  into  use  among  the  Israelites 
and  Jews  ;  whose  history,  under  the  monarchs,  abounds  with 
instances  of  their  imprisoning  persons,  especially  the  pro- 
phets, who  were  obnoxious  to  them  for  their  faithful  reproofs 
of  their  sins  and  crimes.  Thus,  Asa  committed  the  prophet 
Hanani  to  prison,  for  reproving  him  (2Chron.  xvi.  10.)  ;'• 
Ahab  committed  Micaiah  (1  Kings  xxii.  27.),  as  Zedekiaii 
did  the  prophet  Jeremiah,  for  the  same  offence.  (.Ter.  xxxvii. 
21.)  John  the  Baptist  was  imprisoned  by  Herod,  misnamed 
the  Great  (Matt.  iv.  12.)  ;  and  Peter  by  Herod  Agrippa. 
(Acts  xii.  4.)  Debtors  (Matt,  xviii.  30.)  and  murderers  (Lukf? 
xxiii.  19.)  were  also  committed  to  prison.  We  read  also  of 
T;)po-,'?  Ao^cs-/*,  a  common  prison,  a  public  gaol  (Acts  v.  18.), 
which  was  a  place  of  durance  and  confinement  for  the  worst 
sort  of  offenders.  In  their  prisons,  there  was  usually  a  dun- 
geon (Jer.  xxxviii.  60,  or  a  pit  or  cistern,  as  the  word  ma 
(bor)  is  rendered  in  Zech.  ix.  11.  where  it  unquestionably 
refers  to  a  prison :  and  from  this  word  we  may  conceive  the 
nature  of  a  dungeon,  viz.  that  it  was  a  place,  in  which  indeed 
there  was  no  water,  but  in  its  bottom  deep  mud,-  and,  accord- 
ingly, we  read  that  Jeremiah,  who  was  cast  into  this  worst 
and  lowest  part  of  the  prison,  sunk  into  the  mire.  (Jer. 
xxxviii.  6.)s 

In  the  prisons  also  were  Stocks,  for  detaining  the  person  of 
the  prisoner  more  securely.  (Job  xiii.  27.  xxxiii.  11.)" 
Michaelis  conjectures  that  they  were  of  the  sort  by  the 
Greeks  called  nivrinfii-yyov,  wherein  the  prisoner  was  so  con- 
fined, that  his  body  was  kept  in  an  unnatural  position,  which 
must  have  proved  a  torture  truly  insupportable.s  The  ET-m-epx 
<J>vxnx.-ri,  or  Inner  Prison,  into  which  Paul  and  Silas  were 
thrust  at  Philippi,  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  same  as  the 
pit  or  cistern  anove  noticed  ;  and  here  their  ftet  were  made 
fast  in  the  wooden  stocks  (Acts  xvi.  24),  n  ^vui.  As  this 
prison  was  under  the  Roman  government,  these  stocks  are 
supposed  to  have  been  the  cipjn  or  large  pieces  of  wodH  in 
use  among  that  people,  which  not  only  loaded  the  legs  of 
prisoners,  but  sometimes  distended  them  in  a  very  painful 
manner.     Hence  the  situation  of  Paul  and  Silas  would  b« 


5  Michaclis'.s  Commentaries,  vol.  iii.  pp.  483—- 1S7. 
*  Ibid.  pp.  488. 
»  This  place  is  termed  the  prison-house :  but  it  appears  that  suspected 

Eci'sons  were  sometimes  confined  in  part  of  the  house  which  was  occupied 
y  the  great  officers  of  state,  and  was  converted  into  a  prison  for  this  pur- 
pose. In  this  manner  Jeremiah  was  at  first  confined  (Jer.  xxxvii.  15.),  and 
probably  Joseph  in  the  same  manner  (see  Gen.  xl.  3.):  a  similar  practice 
obtains  in  the  East  to  this  day.    See  Harmer's Observations,  vol.  iii.  p.  503. 

6  Michaelis's  Commentaries,  vol.  iii.  pp.  439 — 44a.  Scliulzii  Archaol. 
Hebr.  pp.  84,  85. 

'  The  word  rendered  stocks  in  our  authorized  version  of  Jer.  xx.  2.  ani 
xx'is.  2G.  ought  to  have  been  rendered  house  of  correction.  See  l>r.  Blay- 
ney's  notes  on  those  passages. 

8  Micliaelis'd  Commentaries,  vol.  iii.  p.  443L 


66 


PUNISHMENTS  MENTIONED  IN  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


[Part  II.  Ciiap.  Ill 


jendcred  morR  painful  than  that  of  an  ofiuMider  sitting  in  the 
stocks,  as  used  among  us  ;  especially  if  (as  is  very  possible) 
they  lay  on  the  hard  or  dirty  ground,  with  their  tare  backs, 
lacerated  by  recent  scourging.' 

The  keepers  of  the  prison  anciently  had,  as  in  the  East 
tliey  still  have,  a  discretionary  power  to  treat  their  prisoners 
just  as  they  please;  nothing  further  being  required  of  thcin, 
than  to  produce  tliem  when  called  for.  According  to  the 
accurate  and  observant  traveller,  Chardin,  the  gaoler  is  mas- 
ter, to  do  as  he  pleases ;  to  treat  his  prisoner  well  or  ill ;  to 
Iiut  him  in  irons  or  not,  to  shut  him  up  closely,  or  to  hold 
lim  in  easier  restraint ;  to  admit  persons  to  him,  or  to  sufler 
no  one  to  see  him.  If  the  gnoltr  and  his  servants  receive 
large  fees,  however  base  may  be  the  character  of  the  prisoner, 
he  shall  be  lodged  in  the  best  part  of  the  gaoler's  own  apart- 
ment :  and,  on  the  contrary,  if  the  persons,  who  have  caused 
the  prisoner  to  be  confineci,  make  tne  gaoler  greater  presents, 
he  will  treat  his  victim  with  the  utmost  inhumanity.  Chardin 
illustrates  this  statement  by  a  narrative  of  the  treatment 
received  by  a  very  great  Armenian  merchant.  Wliile  he 
bribed  the  gaoler,  the  latter  treated  him  with  the  greatest 
ienity;  but  afterwards,  when  the  adverse  party  presented  a 
considerable  sum  of  money,  first  to  the  iud<re,  and  afterwards 
to  the  gaoler,  the  hapless  Armenian  first  felt  his  privileges 
retrenched:  he  was  next  closely  confined,  and  then  was 
ueated  with  such  inhumanity  as  not  to  be  permitted  to  drink 
oftener  than  once  in  twenty-fuur  hours,  even  during  the  hot- 
test time  in  the  summer.  No  person  was  allowed  to  approacli 
liim  but  the  servants  of  the  prison  :  at  length  he  was  thrown 
into  a  dungeon,  where  he  was  in  a  quarter  of  an  hour  brought 
to  the  point  to  which  all  this  severe  usage  was  designed  to 
force  him.2  What  energy  does  this  account  of  an  eastern 
prison  give  to  those  passages  of  Scripture,  which  s|)eak  of 
the  soul  comirifr  Into  iron  (Psal.  cv.  17.  marginal  rendering), 
of  tlie  sorrowful  sighing  of  the  prisoner  coiiiim^  hi  fire  God 
(Psal.  Ixxix.  11.),  and  of  .Teremiah's  being  kept  in  a  dungeon 
many  days,  and  supplicating  that  he  might  not  he  remanded 
ihither  lest  he  should  die!  (Jer.  xxxvii.  1(5 — 20.) 

0.  Banishment  was  not  a  punishment  enjoined  by  the 
Mosaic  law  ;  but  after  the  captivity,  both  exile  and  forfeiture 
i)i  property  were  introduced  among  the  Jews :  and  it  also 
existea  under  the  Romans,  by  whom  it  was  called  diminutio 
rapids,  because  the  person  banished  lost  the  right  of  a  citizen, 
and  the  city  of  Rome  thereby  lost  a  head.'  Hut  there  was 
another  kind  of  exile,  termed  aisportatio,  which  was  accounted 
the  worst  kind.  The  party  banished  forfeited  his  estate ;  and 
being  bound  was  put  on  board  ship,  and  transported  to  some 
island  specified  exclusively  by  the  emperor,  there  to  be  con- 
lined  in  perpetual  banishment.  In  this  manner  the  apostle 
John  was  exiled  to  the  little  island  of  Patmos  (Rev.  i.  9.), 
where  he  wrote  his  Revelation. 

7.  In  the  lOast,  anciently,  it  was  the  custom  to  pit  out 
THE  Eyes  of  Piusoneks.  Thus  Samson  was  deprived  of 
sight  by  the  Philistines  (Judg.  xvi.  21.),  and  Zedekiah  by 
the  Clialdees.  ('2  Kings  xxv.  7.)  It  is  .well  known  that  cut- 
linw  out  one  or  both  of  the  eyes  has  been  frequently  practised 
in  Persia  and  other  parts  of  the  East,  as  a  punishment  for 
treasonable  offences.'  To  the  great  work  of  restoring  eye- 
balls to  the  sightless  by  the   Messiah,  the  prophet  Isaiah 

i)rohably  alludes  in  his  beautiful  prediction   cited   by   our 
ijord,  and  applied  to  himself  in  LuKe  iv.  18.-^ 

8.  Cutting  off  the  Haik  of  criminals  seems  to  be  rather 
an  ignominious  than  a  painful  mode  of  punishment :  yot  it 
appears  that  pain  was  added  to  the  disgrace,  and  that  the 
hair  was  violently  plucked  ofi",  as  if  the  executioner  were 
plucking  a  bird  alive.  This  is  the  literal  meaning  of  thi- 
original  word,  which  in  Neh.  xiii.  25.  is  rendereii  plucktd  <'£' 
iluirhair;  sometimes  hot  ashes  were  applied  to  the  skin  after 
th%hair  was  torn  off,  in  order  to  render  the  pain  more  exqui- 
sitely acute.  In  the  sjiurious  book,  commonly  termed  the 
fourth  book  of  Maccab»;cs,  it  is  said  that  the  tyrant  Antio- 
ehus  Epiphanes  caused  tlic  hair  and  skin  to  be  entirely  torn 

>  Doddridge's  Expositor,  and  Kuinocl,  on  Acts  xvi.  3i.  Biiicoc  on  Kcta, 
vol,  i.  p.  31. 

»  liarmcr'8  Obscr^'ntions,  vnl.  iil.  pp.  fiOl,  .105. 

»  Dr.  .\ilaiii'K  Roiii:)ii  .\nfiqiiitics,  fip.  66,  fi7. 

«  In  \Klf\,  Mr.  R,io  Wil.-ion  iiicl,  at  Arro,  witli  nimifroim  indiviilunis,  wlio 
exhibited  mark.-*  of  ihc  vi-narancc  of  llic  lato  paclia  Ihiljro  Acliinrt,  from 
Jiis  sanpiiinriry  rriioliies  tltly  siirnaiiiod  Diciznr,  ot  l\\e  Butcher.  Tlicy 
were  dlKfii{iir(-d  in  varioiiK  ways,  by  a  bami  .-iinpulaleil,  an  ey^  torn  out,  or 
a  nooe  which  liad  Ixcn  split,  or  partly  or  totally  ciit  off  ('rravcls  in  thr 
Holy  IJind,  vol.  ii.  p.  •Y.\  )  In  iho  wininr  of  IR-Jfi,  two  omirH  li.iil  (heir  ri/<:s 
biiml  otit,  and  tlicir  toMjjiics  in  part  cut  .>!T,  by  Hip  lOjiiir  llicliir,  the  prii"ir.' 
ofMoiint  Lebanon,  Ihcir  nnrlo;  on  account  of  ttioir  hrivingbrrn  conrprmwl 
in  pomo  disturbances  against  his  government.  (Midsiouary  Register,  July, 
1827.  p.  333  ) 

•  I  raguKnts  supplementary  to  Caluiet,  No,  192. 


I  off  the  heads  of  some  of  the  seven  Maccabean  brethren.  As 
!  an  historical  composition  this  book  is  utterly  destitute  ct 
credit;  but  it  shows  that  the  mode  of  punishment  under  con- 
sideration was  not  unusual  in  the  East.  This  sort  of  torture 
is  said  to  have  been  frequently  inflicted  on  the  early  martyrs 
and  confessors  for  the  Christian  faith. 

9.  Exclusion  from  sacked  Wokship,  or  Excommunica- 
tion, was  not  only  an  ecclesiastical  punishment,  but  also  a 
civil  one ;  because  in  this  theocratic  republic  there  was  no 
distinction  between  the  divine  and  the  civil  right.  The  fan- 
cies of  the  Rabbins,  relative  to  the  origin  of  excommunica 
tion,  are  endless.  Some  adirm,  that  Adam  excommunicateil 
Cain  and  his  whole  race ;  others,  that  excommunication  began 
with  Miriam,  for  having  spoken  ill  of  Moses;  others,  again, 
find  it  in  the  song  of  Deborah  and  Barak  (Judg.  v.  23. 
Curse  ye  M'^roz),  interpreting  Meroz  as  a  person  who  had  re- 
fused to  assist  Barak.  But  it  is  most  probable,  that  the 
earliest  positive  mention  of  this  punishment  occurs  after  the 
return  from  the  Babylonish  captivity,  in  Ezra  x.  7,  8.,  or  in 
the  anathema  of  Nehemiah  (xiii.  5.)  against  those  who  had 
married  strange  women.  In  later  times,  according  to  the  rab- 
binical writers,  there  were  three  degrees  of  excommunication 
among  the  Jews.  The  first  was  called  ma  (n/dui),  removal 
or  separation  from  all  intercourse  with  society:  this  is,  in  the 
New  Testament,  frequently  termed  casting  out  of  the  syna- 
gogue. (John  ix.  22.  xvi.  2.  Luke  vi.  22,&:c.)  This  was  in 
force  for  thirty  days,  and  might  be  shortened  by  repentance. 
Durinor  its  continuance,  the  excommunicated  party  was  pro- 
hibited from  bathing,  from  shaving  his  head,  or  approaching 
his  wife  or  any  other  person  nearer  than  four  cubits  :  but  i? 
he  submitted  to  this  prohibition,  he  was  not  debarred  the  pri- 
vilege of  attending  tlie  sacred  rites.  If,  however,  the  party 
continued  in  his  obslinacj'  after  that  time,  the  excommunica- 
tion was  renewed  with  additional  soiemn  maledictions.  This 
second  degree  was  called  oin  (cH^urp.i),  which  signifies  to 
onalheinutize,  or  devote  to  death  :  it  involved  an  exclusion 
from  the  sacred  assemblies.  The  third,  and  last  degree  of  ex- 
communication was  termed  nhkcdc  fsH«M-nTHA)  or  npn  po 
(M'/RflN-ATHA),  tluit  is,  the  Lord  comelli,  or  inai/  the  Lord  come  ,- 
intimating  that  those  against  whom  it  was  fulminated,  had 
nothing  more  to  expect  but  the  terrible  day  of  judgment." 

The  condition  of  those  who  were  excommunicated  was  the 
most  deplorable  that  can  be  imagined.  They  were  perpetu- 
ally excluded  from  all  the  rights  and  privileges  of  the  Jewish 
people,  were  debarred  from  all  social  intercourse,  and  were 
excluded  from  the  temple  and  the  synagogues,  on  pain  of 
severe  corporal  punishment.  Whoever  had  incurred  this 
sentence  was  loaded  with  imprecations,  as  appears  from 
Deut.  xxvii.  where  the  expression  cursed  is  he,  is  so  often 
repeated:  whence  to  curse  and  to  &rco»injunjca/e  were  equiva- 
lent terms  with  the  Jews.  And  therefore  St.  Paul  says,  that 
no  man,  spcukins^  by  the  Spirit  of  God,  calkth  Jesus  anathema 
or  accursed  (1  Cor.  xii.  3.),  that  is,  curses  Him  as  the  Jew 
did,  who  denied  him  to  be  the  Messiah,  and  excommunicated 
the  Christians.  In  the  second  degree,  they  delivered  tho 
excommunicated  party  over  to  Satan,  devoting  him  by  a 
solemn  curse:  to  tliis  practice  St.  Paul  is  supposed  toalludu 
(1  Cor.  V.  5.) ;  and  in  this  sense  he  expresses  his  desire  even 
to  be  accursed  for  his  brethren  (Rom.  ix.  3.),  that  is,  to  be 
excommunicated,  laden  with  curses,  and  to  suffer  all  the 
miseries  consequent  on  the  infliction  of  this  punishment,  if  it 
could  have  been  of  any  service  to  his  brethren  the  Jews.  In 
order  to  impress  the  minds  of  the  people  with  the  greater 
horror,  it  is  said  that,  when  the  offence  was  nuhlished  in  tiie 
synagogue,  all  the  candles  were  lighted,  ana  when  the  pro- 
elamation  was  finished,  they  were  extinguished,  as  a  sign 
that  the  excommunicated  mrson  was  deprived  of  the  light  ot 
Heaven  ;  further,  his  goods  were  confiscated,  his  sons  were 
not  admitted  to  circumcision  ;  and  if  he  died  without  repent- 
ance or  absolution,  by  the  sentence  of  the  judge  a  stone  was 
to  be  cast  upon  his  coffin  or  bier,  in  order  to  show  that  he 
deserved  to  ne  stoned.' 

II.  TheTalinndical  writers  havedistinfruished  thecAPiTAr. 
PuMsii.ME.NTs  of  the  Jcw  s  into  lesser  diulTis,  and  such  as  were 
more  f!;ricvotts :  but  there  is  no  warrant  in  the  Scriptures  for 
tlie.se  distinctions,  neither  are  these  writers  ngreed  among 
tlicm.sclves  what  jjarticular  punishments  are  to  be  referred  to 
these  two  iieads.  A  capital  crime  was  termed,  generally,  a 
sin  of  death  (Deut.  xxii.  2(1.),  or  a  sin  worthy  of  death  (Dcut^ 

•  Robinson's  Lexicon  on  Iho  (Jr.  Test,  voce  ATOTunaywj-tc.  .?aJin, 
Arcliu'<ilo);in  llililica,  i2.><.  Ackcnnann,  Aicha'ol.  Uibl.  §2S2.  Knryclopx- 
(lia  Si'-tropoliiann,  vol.  xxi.  p  703. 

'  (I'ri'tius's  Note,  or  rHtiier  Dignertntion,  on  Luke  vi.  22.  Lighlfnot's 
Works,  vol.  ii.  jip.  717— 71'.t.  Seldcn,  de  Jure  NaturK  Ct  Gentium,  lib.  iv,  o. 
8.  lAiiiy's  Apparatus  Biblicus  vol.  i.  pp.  279—281. 


Sect.  IV.] 


PUNISHMENTS  MENTIONED  IN  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


67 


xxi,  22.) ;  which  mode  of  expression  is  adopted,  or  rather 
imitated,  by  t!ie  apostle  .Tolui,  who  distinffnishes  between  a 
•vm  unto  death,  and  a  sin  nut  unlu  deatli.  (I  John  v.  IG.) 
Criminals,  or  those  who  were  deemed  worthy  of  capital 
punishment,  were  called  sons  or  men  of  death  (I  Sam.  xx.  31. 
xxvi.  IG.  2  Sam.  xix.  29.  marginal  rendering);  just  as  he 
who  had  incun'ed  the  punishment  of  scourging  was  designated 
a  son  of  stripes.  (Deut,  xxv.  2.  Hcb.)  Those  wdio  suffered  a 
capital  punishment,  were  said  to  he  put  to  death  for  their  own 
sin.  (Deut.  xxiv.  IG.  2  Kings  xiv.  6.)  A  similar  phraseo- 
logy was  adopted  by  Jesus  Christ,  when  he  said  totfie  Jews, 
leshall  die  in  your  sins.  (John  viii.  21.  24.)  Eleven  differ- 
ent sorts  of  capital  punishments  are  mentioned  in  the  Sacred 
Writings;  viz. 

1.  Slaving  by  the  Sword  is  commonly  confounded  with 
decapitation  or  beheading.  Thej'  were,  however,  two  dis- 
tinct punishments.  The  laws  of  Moses  are  totally  silent 
concerning  the  latter  practice,  and  it  appears  that  those  who 
were  slain  with  the  sword  were  put  to  death  in  any  way 
which  the  executioner  thought  proper.  See  1  Kings  ii.  25. 
29.  31.  3-1.  46.  This  punishment  was  inflicted  in  two  cases  : 
— (1.)  When  a  murderer  was  to  be  put  to  death;  and  (2.) 
When  a  whole  city  or  tribe  was  hostilely  attacked  for  anjr 
common  crime,  t/iei/  smote  all  ^asthe  Hebrew  phrase  is)  loith 
the  edge  of  the  sword.  (Deut.  xiii.  13 — 16.)  Here,  doubtless, 
the  sword  was  used  by  every  one  as  he  found  opportunity.' 

With  respect  to  the  case  of  murder,  frequent  mention  is 
JTiade  in  the  Old  Testament  of  the  Vk:  (goel)  or  bl/jod-avenger  ,•* 
various  regulations  were  made  by  Moses  concerning  this  per- 
son. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  East,  it  is  well  known,  are  now, 
what  they  anciently  w-ere,  exceedingly  revengeful.  If,  there- 
fore, an  individual  should  unfortunately  happen  to  lay  violent 
hands  upon  another  person  and  kill  him,  tne  next  of  kin  is 
bound  to  avenge  the  death  of  the  latter,  and  to  pursue  the 
murderer  with  unceasing  vigilance  until  he  have  caught  and 
killed  him,  either  by  force  or  by  fraud.  The  same  custom 
exists  in  Arabia  and  Persia,-  and  also  among  the  Circas- 
sians,3  Ingush  Tartars,''  Nubians,''  and  Abyssinians,^  and  it 
appears  to  have  b'cen  alluded  to  by  l^cbecca  :  when  she 
learned  that  Esau  was  threatening  to  kill  his  brother  Jacob, 
she  endeavoured  to  send  the  latter  out  of  the  country,  saying, 
J'Vhy  should  I  be  bereft  of  you  both  in  one  day?  ((ien.  xxvn. 
15.)  She  could  not  be  afraid  of  the  magistrate  for  punishing 
the  murder,  for  the  patriarchs  were  subject  to  no  superior  in 
Palestine  :  and  Isaac  was  much  too  partial  to  Esau,  for  her 
to  entertain  any  expectation  that  he  would  condemn  him  to 
death  for  it.  It  would,  therefore,  appear  that  she  dreaded  lest 
he  should  fall  by  the  hand  of  the  blood-avenger,  perhaps  of 

'  Michaelis's  Commenlaries,  vol.  iii.  pp.  418,  410. 

<^  "The  iiileresl  of  the  coimnon  safety  has,  f<jr  ajres,  established  a  law 
ainong  them"  (the  Arabians)  "  which  decrees  lliat  the  blood  of  every  luan, 
wlio  is  slain,  must  be  avenged  l)y  that  of  his  murderer.  This  vengeance  is 
called  tar,  or  retaliation  ;  and  the  right  of  exacting  it  devolves  on  the  nearest 
of  kin  to  the  deceased.  So  nice  are  tlie  Arabs  on  this  point  of  honour, 
(hat  if  any  one  nefjiects  to  seek  his  retaliation,  he  is  disgraced  for  ever. 
lie  therefore  watches  every  opportunity  of  revenge  :  if  his  enemy  perishes 
from  any  other  cause,  still  he  is  not  satisfied,  and  his  vengeance  is  directed 
against  the  nearest  relation.  These  animosities  are  transmitted,  as  an 
inheritance,  from  father  to  children,  and  never  cease  but  by  the  e.xtinction 
of  one  of  the  families,  tmless  they  agree  to  sacrifice  the  criminal ;  or  jmr- 
cliase  Vie  hinod  for  a  stated  price,  in  money  or  in  flocks.  Without  this 
satisfaction  there  is  neitlier  peace,  nor  truce,  nor  alliance  between  them  ; 
nor,  sometimes,  even  between  whole  tribes.  Tlicre  is  blood  between  us, 
say  they,  on  every  occasion  ;  aud  this  expression  is  an  insurmountable 
barrier."  (Vnlney's  Travels  in  Egypt  and  Syria,  vol.  i.  p.  3C7.  See  also 
Niebuhr,  l)escriplion  de  I'Arabie,  pp.26 — 30.)— In  Turkey  and  in  Persia 
murder  is  never  prosecuted  by  the  officers  of  the  goverimient.  It  is  the 
business  of  the  next  relations,  and  of  them  only,  to  revenge  tlie  slaughter 
of  their  kinsmen  ;  and  if  they  rather  choose,  as  they  generally  do,  to  com- 
pound the  matter  for  money,  nothing  more  is  said  about  it. — Lady  M.  W. 
Montague's  Letters^  let.  42.'  Sir  K.  K.  Porter's  Travels,  vol.  ii.  pp.'7-j,  70. 

'  Among  the  Circassians,  all  the  relatives  of  the  nmrderers  are  consi- 
dered as  guilty.  Tliis  customary  infatuation  to  avenge  the  blood  of  rela- 
tions, generates  most  of  the  feuds,  and  occasions  great  bloodshed  among 
all  the  tribes  of  Caucasus  ;  for,  unless  pardon  be  purchased,  or  obtained 
by  intermarriage  between  the  two  families,  the  principle  of  revenge  i.~' 
propagated  to  all  succeeding  generations.  If  llie  thirst  of  vengeance  is 
quenched  by  a  price  paid  to  the  family  of  the  deceased,  this  tribute  is 
called  Tlilil-  Uasa,  or  the  price  of  blood  :  but  neither  princes  nor  usdens 
(or  nobles)  accent  of  such  a  compensation,  as  it  is  an  established  law 
among  them,  to  demand  blood  for  blood. — Pallas,  Voyages  dans  les  Gou- 
vernemens  Meridionaux  de  I'Kmpirc  de  Kussie,  tom.  i.  p.  441.    Pari.s,  ISOj. 

*  Dr.  Henderson,  in  describing  the  operation  of  the  oriental  law,  of 
"blood  for  blood"  among  the  Ingush  Tartars,  mentions  the  case  of  "a  voung 
man  of  amiable  disposition,  who  was  worn  down  almost  to  a  skeleton,  by 
the  constant  dread  in  which  he  lived,  of  having  avenged  upon  him  a  mur- 
der committed  by  his  father  before  he  was  born.  He  can  reckon  up 
more  than  a  hundred  persons  who  consider  themselves  bound  to  take  away 
bis  life,  whenever  a  favourable  opportunity  shall  present  itself."  Biblical 
Researches  and  Travels  in  Ku.=sia,  p.  4.S5. 

'  Light's  Travels  in  Kgypt,  Nubia,  <fcc.  p.  95.  Burckhardt's  Travels  in 
Kubia,  p.  1.38. 

•  Sail's  Voyage  to  Abyssinia,  pp.  315, 346. 


some  Ishmaelite.  The  office,  therefore,  cf  the  Go  1  was 
in  use  before  the  time  of  Moses,  and  it  was  probably  filled  by 
the  nearest  of  blood  to  the  party  killed,  as  the  right  of  re- 
deeming a  mortgaged  field  is  given  to  him.  To  prevent  the 
unnecessary  loss  of  life  through  a  sanguinary  spirit  of  re- 
venge, the  Hebrew  legislator  made  various  enactments  con- 
cerning the  blood-avenwr.  In  most  ages  and  countries, 
certain  reputed  sacred  places  enjoyed  the  privileges  of  being 
asylums :  Moses,  therefore,  taking  it  for  granted  that  the 
murderer  would  flee  to  the  altar,  commanded  that  when  the 
crime  was  deliberate  and  intentional,  he  should  be  torn  even 
from  the  altar,  and  put  to  death.  (Exod.  xxi.  14.)  But  in  the 
case  of  unintentional  murder,  the  man-slayer  was  enjoined  to 
flee  to  one  of  the  six  cities  of  refuge  which  (we  have  already 
seen)  were  appropriated  for  his  residence.  The  roads  to  these 
cities,  it  was  enacted,  should  be  kept  in  such  a  state  that  the 
unfortunate  individi-.al  might  meet  with  no  impediment  what- 
ever in  his  way.  (Deut.  xix.  3.)  If  the  Go  1  overtook  the 
fugitive  before  he  reached  an  asylum,  and  put  him  to  death, 
he  was  not  considered  as  guilty  of  blood :  but  if  the  man- 
slayer  had  reached  a  place  of  refuge,  he  was  immediately 
protected,  and  an  inr|uiry  was  instituted  whether  he  had  a 
right  to  such  protection  and  asylum,  that  is,  whether  he  had 
caused  his  neighbour's  death  undesignedly, ofwas  ^.  deliberate 
murderer.  In  the  latter  case  he  was  judicially  delivered  to 
the  Go' 1,  who  might  put  him  to  death  in  whatever  way  he 
chose  :  but  in  the  former  case  the  homicide  continued  in  the 
place  of  refuge  until  the  high-priest's  death,  w-hen  he  might 
return  home  in  perfect  security.  If,  however,  the  Goel  found 
him  without  the  city  or  beyond  its  suburbs,  he  might  slay 
him  without  being  guilty  of  blood.  (Num.  xxxv.  26,  27.; 
Further  to  guard  the  life  of  man,  and  prevent  the  perpetration 
of  murder,  Moses  positively  prohibited  the  receiving  of  a  smt 
of  money  from  a  murderer  in  the  way  of  compensation 
(Num.  xxxv.  31.)  It  should  seem  that  it  no  avenger  of  blood 
appeared,  or  if  he  were  dilatory  in  the  pursuit  of  the  murderer, 
it  became  the  duty  of  the  magistrate  himself  to  inflict  the 
sentence  of  the  law  ;  and  thus  we  find  that  David  deemed 
this  to  be  his  duty  in  the  case  of  Joab,  and  Ihat  Solomon,  in 
obedience  to  his  father's  dying  entreaty,  actually  discharged 
it  by  putting  that  murderer  to  death.  (1  Kings  li.  5,  G.  28 — 
34.)'  There  is  a  beautiful  allusion  to  the  blood-avenger  in 
Hob.  vi.  17,  18. 

Hewing  in  pieces  with  the  sword  may  be  referred  to  this 
class  of  punisnments.  Thus  Agag  was  executed,  as  a  cri- 
minal, by  the  prophet  Samuel  (1  Sam.  xv.  33.);  and  recent 
travellers  inform  us  that  criminals  are  literally  hewed  in 
pieces  in  Abyssinia,  Persia,  and  in  Asiatic  Turkey.^ 

2.  Stoning  was  denounced  against  idolaters,  blasphemers, 
sabbath-breakers,  incestuous  persons,  witches,  wizards,  and 
children  who  either  cursed  their  parents  or  rebelled  against 
them.  (Lev.  xx.  2.  27.  xxiv.  14.  Deut.  xiii.  10.  xvii.  5. 
xxi.  21.  and  xxii.  21.  24.)  It  M'as  the  most  general  punish« 
ment  denounced  in  the  law  against  notorious  criminals ;  and 
this  kind  of  punishment  is  intended  by  the  indefinite  term  of 
putting  to  death.  (Lev.  xx.  10.  compared  with  John  viii.  5.) 
Michaelis  supposes  that  the  culprit  was  bound,  previously  ta 
the  execution  of  his  sentence.  The  witnesses  threw  the  firs! 
stones,  and  the  rest  of  the  people  then  followed  their  example. 
Instances  of  persons  being  stoned  in  the  Old  Testament  occur 
in  Achan  (Josh.  vii.  25.),  Adoram  (1  Kings  xii.  18),  Naboth 
(livings  xxi.  10.),  and  Zechariah.  (2Chron.  xxiv.  21. )9 

In  the  New  Testament  we  meet  with  vestiges  of  a  punish« 
ment,  which  has  frequently  been  confounded  with  lapidation : 
it  originated  in  the  latter  times  of  the  Jewish  commonwealth, 
and  was  termed  the  rebcVs  beating.  It  was  often  fatal,  and 
was  inflicted  by  the  mob  with  their  fists,  or  staves,  or  stones, 
without  mercy,  or  the  sentence  of  the  jtidges.  Whoever 
transgressed  against  a  prohibition  cf  the  wise  men,  or  of  the 
scribes,  which  had  its  foundation  in  the  law,  was  delivered 
over  to  the  people  to  be  used  in  this  manner,  and  was  called 
a  son  of  re/jcllion.^o  The  frequent  taking  up  of  stones  by  the 
Jews  against  our  Saviour,  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament, 
and  also  the  stoning  of  Stephen  (Acts  vii.  59.),  were  instances 
of  this  kind,  to  which  some  have  referred  the  stoning  of  St. 
Paul  at  Lystra.  (Acts  xiv.  19.)  But  this  appears  to  be  a 
mistake.  The  people  of  Lystra  were  Gentiles,  though  they 
stoned  Paul  at  the  instigation  of  the  Jews  who  came  from 
Antioch  and  Iconium :  and  it  appears  from  various  passages 

'  Michaelis's  Commentaries,  vol.  ii.  pp.  221—225. 

8  Brnce's  Travels,  vol.  iv.  p.  81.    Harmer's  Observations,  vol. iv.  pp.229 
230,    C'apt.  Light's  Travels  in  lOgypt,  Nubia,  &o.  p.  194. 
»  Michaelis'.s  Commentaries,  vol.  iii.  p.  421. 
«•  Ibid.  pp.  422^^29. 


68 


PUNISHMENTS  MENTIONED  IN  THE  SCraPTUra|S. 


[Part  II.  Chap.  Ill 


of  Greek  authors,  that  stoning  was  a  Grecian  punishment. 
The  inconstancy  of  a  populace,  easily  persuaded  by  any 
plausil>le  demar/n£Tues,  will  sufficiently  account  for  the  sudden 
change  in  tiie  mind  of  the  Lystrians  towards  the  anoslK^' 

Althougrh  the  law  of  Moses  punished  no  one  with  infamy, 
during  life,  yet  tliree  marks  of  infamy  are  denounced  against 
those"who  were  punished  capitally  ;  viz. — (1.)  Jiurning  the 
criminal  who  liao  been  stoned,  agreeably  to  the  ancient  con- 
suetudinary law.  (Gen.  xxxviii.  24.  Lev.  xx.  1 4.  xxi.  9.) — 
(2.)  Hanging,  either  on  a  tree  or  on  a  g-ibbct  (tor  the  Hebrew 
word  signifies  both^  ;  which  was  practised  in  Egyjit  ((jcii. 
xl.  n — 19.),  and  also  enjoined  by  Moses.  (Num.  xxv.  4,  5. 
Deut.  xxi.  •22.)  'ITie  five  Canaanitish  kings  were  first  slain 
and  then  hanged.  (Josh.  x.  26.)  Persons  who  were  hanged 
were  considered  as  accursed  af  Gcd,  tliat  is,  punished  by  him 
and  abominable ;  on  which  account  they  were  to  bo  taken 
down  and  buried  the  same  day.  (Deut.  xxi.  23.)  The  hang- 
ing of  .Saul's  sons,  recorded  in  2  Sam.  xxi.  G.,  was  c\ono,n(/i 
by" the  Israelites,  but  by  the  Gihconiies,  who  were  of  Canaan- 
itish origin,  and  probably  retained  tlieir  old  laws.  The  hang- 
ing mentioned  by  Moses  was  widely  dilTerent  from  crucifixion, 
which  was  a  Roman  punishment ;  on  account  of  its  ignominy, 
h.owever,  tlic  .Tews  subsefpiently  extended  tlie  declaration  of 
Moses  to  it,  and  accounted  the  ciiicifiod  })erson  as  accurse<l. 
(John  xix.  31—34.  Gal.  iii.  13.)— (3.)  'I'he  Heaping  of 
tStones  on  the  bodies  of  criminals,  who  had  been  already 
stoned  to  death,  or  slain  by  the  sword,  or  upcn  their  remains, 
when  consumed  by  fire.-  Such  a  heap  was  accumulated  ovcf 
Achan  (Josh.  vii.  25,  2G.\  and  also  over  Absalom.  (2  Sam. 
xviii.  17.)  The  Arabs,  long  after  the  time  of  David,  ex- 
pressed their  detestation  of  deceased  enemies  in  the  same 
manner.'  Similar  heaps  were  raised  over  persons  murdered 
in  the  highways  in  the  time  of  the  prophet  Ezekiel  f  xxxix, 
15.)  ;  as^they  also  are  to  this  day,  in  Palestine,  and  other 
{'arts  of  the  East.' 

3.  Burning  Offenders  alive  is  a  punishment  which 
Moses  commanded  to  be  inflicted  on  the  daughters  of  priests, 
vho  should  be  guilty  of  fornication  (Lev.  xxi.  !».),  and  upon 
a  rnan  who  should  marry  both  the  mother  and  the  daughter. 
(Lev.  XX.  14.)  This  punishment  srems  to  have  been  in  use 
in  the  East,  from  a  very  early  ])eriod.  When  Judah  was  in- 
formed that  his  daughter-in-law  Tan\ar  was  pregnant,  he  con- 
demned her  to  be  burnt.  (Gen.  xxxviii.  24.)  Many  ages  after- 
wards wc  find  the  Babylonians  or  Chald;eans  burning  certain 
offenders  alive  (Jer.  xxix.  22.  Dan.  iii.  6.) ;  and  this  mode 
of  punishment  was  not  uncommon  in  the  East  so  lately  as  the 
seventeenth  century." 

Tlie  preceding  are  the  only  capital  punishments  denounced 
in  the  Mosaic  law :  in  subseciuent  times  others  were  intro- 
duced among  the  Jews,  as  their  intercourse  increased  with 
foreign  nations. 

4.  Drcapitation,  or  beheading,  though  not  a  mode  of 
punishment  enjoined  by  Closes,  was  certainly  in  us(>  before 
his  time.  It  existed  in  Egypt  (Gen.  xl.  I'J.),  and  it  is  well 
known  to  have  been  inflicteil  under  the  princes  of  the  Hero- 
dian  family.  Thus  John  the  Baptist  was  beheaded  (Matt. 
xiv.  8 — 12.)  by  one  of  Herod's  life-guards,  who  was  de- 
spatched to  his  prison  fi;r  that  purpose.  (Mark  vi.  27.) 

5.  Precipitation,  or  casting  headlong  from  a  wiiulov/,  or 
from  a  precij'ice,  was  a  punishment  rarely  used ;  though  wc 
meet  with  it  in  tlie  history  of  the  kings,  and  in  subsequent 
times.  Thus,  the  profiigate  Jezebel  was  precipitated  out  of 
a  window  (2  Kings  ix.  3o.  33.),  and  the  same  mode  of  punish- 
ment still  obtains'in  Persia.''  Ainaziah,  king  of  Judah,  bar- 
barously forced  ten  thousand  lduma;an  prisoners  of  war  to 
leap  from  the  lop  of  a  high  rock.  (2Chron.  xxv.  12.)  The 
Jews  attempted  to  precipitate  Jesus  Christ  from  the  brow  of 
a  mountain.  (Luke  iv. 21».)  James,  surnamed  the  Just,  was 
thrown  from  the  highest  part  of  the  temple  into  the  subjacent 
valley.  The  same  mode  of  punishment,  it  is  well  known, 
cbtaiiied  among  the  Romans,  who  used  to  throw  certain  male- 

«  Biscoc  on  tlie  Acts,  vol.  i.  pp.  315,  DIO. 

■>  MicUaeliahaii  given  some  inhUinco.s  of  tlils practice.    See  Iiiii  Commcn- 
tari'^i,  vol.  iii.  p.  VM. 
t  Dr.  l.ii?htrooi'8  Worlta,  vol.  i.  pp.  901,  902. 

ftliaw'g  Trav^l.^  in  Itarbary,  vol.  i.     Prcf.  n.  xviii.  Svo.  nlit. 
in   Ins  Travflrt  (vr)l.  vi.   p.  IIK.   of  I^angl 


•  l)r 

•  Cliarilin, 


fdilioii), 
says, 


a  (lor 
Mm 


fpoalcine  of  llie  most  common  iiKxIns  of  piiiiiHliiiif;  willi  iltnll 
there  is  slill  a  partlruiar  way  of  putting  to  dcutli  siicli  aa  have  traiis^rcKiiod 
In  civil  aflfairH,  cilhcr  Ijy  caiiKinj;  a  ilrarlh,  or  by  selling  above  tlie  tax  l.y 
a  faUe  welgtit,  or  who  have  cominitlcJ  themselves  in  any  other  manner. 
The  cooks  are  put  ujion  a  spit,  and  roasted  over  a  slow  fire  (see  Jeremiiili 
xxix.  iS.),  bakers  are  llirowu  into  a  hot  oven.  Diirins  the  ilcarth  in  IRSf, 
I  i<aw  such  ovens  heat''d  on  tlie  roy;d  Hf|uare  al  l.-Jpulian,  to  terrify  tin; 
L.ikcrs,  and  delor  th«in  from  derivina  advr\ntagc  from  the  gen<.ral  diitress." 
— Burdui's  Oriental  I.iteraliire,  vol.  ii.  p  'JM. 
•  Sir  R.  K.  Porter's  Travels  In  Persia,  vol.  ii.  pp.  23—00. 


factors  from  the  Tarpeian  rock.'    The  same  practice  obtains 
among  the  Moors  al  Constantine,  a  town  in  Barbary.* 

G.  Drowning  was  a  punishment  in  use  among  the  Syrians, 
and  was  well  known  to  the  Jews  in  the  time  of  our  Savicur, 
though  we  have  no  evidence  that  it  was  practised  by  them. 
It  was  also  in  use  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  The 
Emperor  Augustus,  we  arc  told,  punished  certain  persons, 
who  had  been  guilty  of  rapacity  in  the  province  (of  Syria  or 
of  Lycia),  by  causing  them  to  be  throAvn  into  a  river,  with  a 
heavy  weight  about  their  nccks.^  Josephus'"  also  tells  us 
that  the  Galileans  revolting,  drowned  the  partisans  of  Herod 
in  the  sea  of  (uMinesaroth.  To  this  mode  of  capital  punish- 
ment Jesus  Christ  alhidcs  in  Matt,  xviii.  6." 

7.  Bruising,  or  poinding  in  a  Moktar,  is  a  punishment  still 
in  use  among  the  Turks.  The  ulema  or  body  cf  lawyers 
are  in  Turkey  exempted  from  confiscation  of  their  property, 
and  from  being  put  to  death,  except  by  the  pestle  and  mortar. 
Some  of  the  Turkish  guards,  who  had  permitted  tlie  escape 
of  the  Polish  prince  Crjreski  in  IGIR,  were  pounded  to  death 
in  great  mortars  of  iron. '2  This  horrid  punishment  was  not 
unknown  in  the  time  of  Solomon,  who  expressly  alludes  to 
it  in  Prov.  xxvii.  22. 

8.  DicHOTOMV,  or  cutting  asunder,  was  a  capital  punish- 
ment anciently  in  use  in  the  countrirs  contiguous  to  Judaea. 
The  rabbinical  writers  report  that  Isaiah  was  thus  put  to 
death  by  the  j)rofligate  Manasseh ;  and  to  this  Saint  Paul  is 
supposed  to  allude.  (Heb.  xi.  37.)  Nebuchadnezzar  threat- 
ened it  to  the  Chaldee  magi,  if  they  did  not  interpret  his 
dream  (Dan.  ii.  5.),  and  also  to  the  blasphemers  of  the  true 
God.  (Dan.  iii.  2!>.)  Herodotus  says,  that  Sabacho  had  a 
vision,  in  wliich  he  was  commanded  to  cut  in  two  all  the 
Egyptian  priests  :  and  that  Xerxes  ordered  one  of  the  sons 
of  Pythias  to  be  cut  in  two,  and  one  half  placed  on  each 
side  of  the  way,  that  his  army  might  pass  between  them.'' 
Trajan  is  said  to  have  inflicted  this  punishment  on  some  re- 
bellious Jews.  It  is  still  practised  by  the  Moors  of  Western 
Barbary,  and  also  in  Persia." 

9.  Blating  to  dkath  {jXi/fxTTdLVK-fAo;:')  was  practised  by 
Anliochus  towards  the  Jews  (2  Mace.  vi.  19.  28.  30.),  and 
is  referred  to  by  Saint  Paul.  (Heb.  xi.  35.  Gr.)  This  was 
a  punishment  in  use  among  the  Greeks,  and  was  usually 
iniiicted  upon  slaves.  The  real  or  supposed  culprit  was 
fastened  to  a  stake,  and  beaten  to  death  with  sticks.  The 
same  punishment  is  still  in  use  among  the  Turks,  under  the 
appellation  of  the  bastinado  :  with  them,  however,  it  is  sel- 
dom mortal. 

10.  Exposing  to  wild  Beasts  appears  to  have  been  a 
punishment  among  the  Modes  and  Persians.  It  was  inflicted 
lirsl  on  the  exemplary  prophet  Daniel,  who  was  miraculously 
preserved,  and  afterwards  on  his  accusers,  who  miserably 
perished.  (Dan.  vi.  7.  12.  IG — 24.)  From  them  it  appears 
to  have  passed  to  the  Romans.'*  In  their  theatres  they  had 
two  sorts  of  amusenicn/\,  each  sufTiciently  barbarous.  Some- 
times they  cast  men  naked  to  the  wild  beasts,  to  be  devoured 
by  them  :  this  punishment  was  inflicted  on  slaves  and  vile 
persons.  Sometimes  persons  were  sent  into  the  theatre, 
armed,  to  fight  with  wild  beasts:  if  they  contpiered,  they 
had  their  lives  and  liberty  :  but  if  not,  they  fell  a  prey  to  the 
beasts.  To  this  latter  usage  (concerning  which  some  further 
jiarticulars  arc  given  in  a  bid)se(iuent  pagi:)  Saint  Paul  refery 
in  2  Tim.  iv.  17.  and  1  Cor.  xv.  32. 

In  the  case  of  certain  extraordinary  criminals,  besides  in- 
flicting uj)on  them  the  sentence  to  which  liuy  had  been  con- 
ilemned,  it  was  not  unusual  to  demolish  their  iiouses,  and 
rediicf!  them  to  a  common  place  for  filth  and  dting.  Among 
ullier  things,  Ncbuclr.uhu^z/ar  denounced  this  disgrace  to  the 
diviners  of  Clialda^a,  if  they  did  not  declare  his  dream  to 
him  (Dan.  ii.  5.)  ;  and  afterwards  to  all  such  aa  should  not 
worship  the  (Jod  of  Shadrach,  Meshech,  and  Abcdnego. 
(Dan.  iii.  21'.)  And  Darius  threatened  the  same  punish- 
ment to  those  who  should  molest  the  Jews.  (Ezra  vi.  11.) 
In  this  way  the  Romans  destroyed  the  house  of  Spurius 
Cassins,  after  tliey  had  precipitated  liim  from  the  Tarpeian 

'  Livy,  Ilisl.  lib.  vi.  r.  20. 

•  Pitt's  Utligion  and  Mmincrs  of  the  Mahometans,  pp.  311,  312.  I^indon 
edii.  mo.  ,  .      . 

•  Sculoniiia,  in  Aiiguslo,  c.  C7.  >•  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xiv.  c.  lu.  $  10 
■  I  UrotiUH  in  loo. 

11  Knollcs's  Ilmlory  of  the  Turks,  vol.  ii.  p.  947.  I.ondoD,  1C87. 

"  Raplielii  Annotalione.'iin  Nov.  Test,  ex  Ilcrodoto,  torn.  i.  ii.  37C.  Other 
inHlnnccs  from  ancient  writers  arc  gi\en  I'Y  I'r-  Whitby,  on  Matt.  xxiv.  51. 
.and  Kiiinorl,  rommeiil.  in  Ilist.  Lib.  Nov.  Test.  vol.  i.  p.  (^i.1. 

u  Hhaw'K  Travels,  vol.  i.  p.  457.    iMorier's  Second  Journey,  p.  96. 

>»  This  barbarous  mode  of  puuishmciit  still  exists  in  Morocco.  Kee  aa 
interesting  extract  from  Iliiiii's  Accouikt  of  Morocco  and  Fez,  in  Uurdcr's 
Oriental  Lilcralurc,  vol.  ii.  p.  207 


fc£CT, 


IV.]. 


PUNISHMENTS  MENTIONED  IN  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


69 


rock,  for  having  (as  ihey  said)  aimed  at  tyrann)'.'  Further,  the 
heads,  hands,  and  feet  of  state  criminals,  were  also  frequently 
cut  off,  and  fixed  up  in  the  most  public  places,  as  a  warning  to 
others.  This  punishment  obtains  among  the  Turks,  and  was 
inflicted  on  the  sons  of  Rimmon  (who  had  treacherously 
murdered  Ishbosheth),  by  command  of  David  :  who  com- 
manded that  the  assassins'  hands  and  feet  should  be  hung  up 
over  the  pool  of  Hebron,  which  was  probably  a  place  of 
great  resort.^  Among  the  ancient  Chalateans,  cutting  off  the 
nose  and  ears  was  a  common  punishment  of  adulterers.  To 
this  the  prophet  Ezekiel  alludes,  (xxiii.  25.) 

11.  Crucifixion  was  a  punishment  which  the  ancients 
inflicted  only  on  the  most  notorious  criminals  and  malefac- 
tors. The  cross  was  made  of  two  beams,  either  crossing  at 
the  top  at  right  angles,  or  in  the  middle  of  their  length  like 
an  X.  There  was,  besides,  a  piece  on  the  centre  of  the 
transverse  beam,  to  which  was  attached  the  accusation,  or 
statement  of  the  culprit's  crime ;  together  with  a  piece  of 
wood  that  projected  from  the  middle,  on  which  the  person 
sat  as  on  a  kind  of  saddle,  and  by  which  the  whole  body 
was  supported.  Justin  Martyr,  in  his  dialogue  with  Trypho 
the  Jew,  gives  this  description;  and  it  is  worthy  of  note, 
that  he  lived  in  the  former  part  of  the  second  century  of  the 
Christian  iiera,  before  the  punishment  of  the  cross  was  abo- 
lished. The  cross  on  which  our  Lord  suffered  was  of  the 
former  kind,  being  thus  represented  on  all  ancient  monu- 
ments, coins,  and  crosses. 

Crucifixion  is  one  of  the  most  cruel  and  excruciating 
deaths,  which  the  art  of  ingeniously  tormenting  and  extin- 
guishing life  ever  devised.  The  naked  body  of  the  criminal 
was  fastened  to  the  upright  beam  by  nailing  or  tying  the  feet 
to  it,  and„  on  the  transverse  beam  by  nailing  and  sometimes 
tying  the  hands  to  it.  Those  members,  being  the  grand  in- 
struments of  motion,  are  provided  with  a  greater  quantity  of 
nerves,  which  (especially  those  of  the  hands)  are  peculiarly 
sensible.  As  the  nerves  are  the  instruments  of  all  sensation 
or  feeling,  wounds  in  the  parts  where  they  abound  must  be 
peculiarly  painful ;  especially  when  inflicted  with  such  rude 
instruments  as  large  nails,  forcibly  driven  through  the  ex- 
quisitely delicate  tendons,  nerves,  and  bones  of  those  parts. 
The  horror  of  this  punishment  will  appear,  when  it  is  con- 
sidered that  the  person  was  permitted  to  hang  (the  whole 
weight  of  his  body  being  borne  up  by  his  nailed  hands  and 
feet,  and  by  the  projecting  piece  in  the  middle  of  the  cross), 
until  he  perished  througli  agony  and  want  of  food.  There 
are  instances  of  crucified  persons  living  in  this  exquisite 
torture  several  days.^  "  The  wise  and  adorable  Author  cf 
our  being  has  formed  and  constituted  the  fabric  of  our  bodies 
in  such  a  merciful  manner,  that  nothing  violent  is  lasting. 
Friendly  death  sealed  the  eyes  of  those  wretches  generally  in 
three  days.  Hanger,  thirst,  and  acute  pain  dismissed  them 
from  their  intolerable  sufferings.  The  rites  of  sepulture 
were  denied  them.  Their  dead  bodies  were  generally  left 
on  the  crosses  on  which  they  were  first  suspended,  and  be- 
came a  prey  to  every  ravenous  beast  and  carnivorous  bird.'' 

(1.)  "  Crucifixion  obtained  among  several  ancient  nations, 
the  Egyptians,^  Persians,  Greeks,'^  and  Carthaginians.  The 
Carthaginians  generally  adjudged  to  this  death  their  unfortu- 
nate and  unsuccessful  commanders.'     There  are  many  un- 

'  Dionys.  Halicarnass.  lib.  viii.  cc.  78,  79 

*  Harmer's  Obsen'ations,  vol.  i.  pp.  501,  502.  This  kind  of  punishment 
was  in  use  in  the  lime  of  Mohammed,  who  introduces  Pliaraoh  as  saying, 
/  iDill  surely  cut  off  yotir  hands  and  your  feet  on  the  opposite  sides  ;  that 
).s,  first  the  risht  hand,  and  then  the  left  foot ;  next  Ihe  left  hand,  and  then 
the  right  foot.  Koran,  ch.  xx.  74.  and  xxvi.  49.  (.Sale's  translation,  pp.  259. 
3i>4.  4fo.  edit.)  See  additional  examples  of  such  mutilations  in  Burdci-'s 
Oriental  Literature,  vol.  ii.  p.  186.  Wilson's  Travels  in  Egypt  and  the 
Holy  Land,  pp.  375—377. 

»  Dr.  Adain  Clarlie  on  Matt.  xx\ii.  35.  For  the  remainder  of  this  account 
of  the  crucifixion  the  author  is  indebted  to  Dr.  Lardner's  Credibility  of  the 
Gospel  History,  part  i.  book i.  c.  7.  §§  ix. — x\ii.,  and  Dr.  Harwood's  Intro- 
duction to  the  New  Testament,  vol.  ii.  pp.  336—353. 

•  Pasces  in  cruce  corvos.  Ilorat.  Epist.  lib.  i.  epist.  16.  ver.  43. 
Vultur,  jumento  et  canibns,  crucibusque  relictis 

Ad  fCBtus  properat;  partemque  cadaveris  afTert. 

Juvenal,  Satyr,  ti.  ver.  77,  78. 

»  Thucydides,  lib.  i.  sect.  110.  p.  71.  edit.  Duker.  Justin,  treating  of  the 
affairs  of  Egypt,  says  :  Concursu  multit-udinis  et  Agalhocles  occiditur,  et 
mulieres  in  ultionem  Eurydiccs  patibulis  suffiguntur.  .lustin,  lib.  xxx.  cap. 
2.  p.  57S.  edit.  Gronovii.  Herodoti  Erato,  p.  54l.  edit.  Wesseiing.  17G3.  See 
also  Thalia,  p.  260.  and  Polyhymnia,  p.  617. 

«  Alexander  crucified  two  thousand  Tyrians.  Tristc  deinde  spectacu- 
iumvictoribus  ira  pr;ebuit  regis;  duo  millia,  inquibus  occidendi  dtfi.'cerat 
rabies,  crucibus  ad.fixi  peringenshiorisspatium,  dependerunt.  Q.  Curtii, 
lib.  iv.  cap.  4.  p.  1.97.  edit.  Snakenburgh,  1724.  See  also  Plutarch  in  vita 
Alex,  and  Jusim,  lib.  xviii.  cap.  3. 

'  Duces  bella  pravo  consilio  gerentes,  etiamsi  prospera  fortuna  subse- 
'Uta  esset,  cruci  tamen  suifiseDantur.  Valerius  Maximus,  lib.  ii.  cap.  7. 
p.  191.  edit.  Torren.  Leidse,  1726. 


happy  instances  of  this.  They  crucified  Bomilcar,^  whom 
Justin  calls  their  king,  when  they  detected  his  intended  de- 
sign of  joining  Agatliocles.  They  erected  a  cross  in  the 
midst  of  the  forum,  on  which  they  suspended  him,  and  from 
which,  with  a  great  and  unconquered  spirit,  amidst  all  his 
sufferings,  he  bitterly  inveighed  against  them,  and  upbraided 
them  with  all  the  black  and  atrocious  crimes  they  had  lately 
perpetrated.  But  this  manner  of  executing  criminals  pre- 
vailed most  among  the  Romans.  It  was  generally  a  servile 
punishment,  and  chiefly  inflicted  on  vile,  worthless,  and  in- 
corrigible slaves.9  In  reference  to  this,  the  apostle,  describ- 
ing the  condescension  of  Jesus,  and  his  submission  to  this 
most  opprobrious  death,  represents  him  as  taking  upon  him 
the  form  of  a  servant  (Phil.  ii.  7,  8.),  and  becoming  obedient 
to  death,  even  the  death  of  the  cross. 

("2.)  "  It  was  universally  and  deservedly  reputed  the  most 
shameful  and  ignominious  death  to  which  a  wretch  could  be 
exposed.  In  such  an  exit  were  comprised  every  idea  and 
circumstance  of  odium,  disgrace,  and  public  .scandal."  Hence 
the  apostle  magnifies  and  extols  the  great  love  of  our  Re- 
deemer, in  that  tvhile  we  icere  yet  sinners,  Vhrid  died  for  us, 
and /or  fJtejoij  set  before  him,  endured  the  cross,  despising  the 
shame  (Rom.  v.  8.  Heb.  xii.  2.) ;  disregarding  ever}'  cir- 
cumstance of  public  indignity  and  infamy  with  which  such  a 
death  was  loaded.  "  It  was  from  the  idea  they  connected 
with  such  a  death,  that  the  Greeks  treated  the  apostles  with 
the  last  contempt  and  pity  for  publicly  embarking  in  the 
cause  of  a  person  who  had  been  brought  to  this  reproachful 
and  dishonourable  death  by  his  own  countrymen.  The 
preaching  of  the  cross  was  to  them  foolishness  (1  Cor.  i.  23.)  ; 
the  promulgation  of  a  system  of  religion  that  had  been  taught 
by  a  person  who,  by  a  national  act,  had  publicly  suffered  the 
punishment  and  death  of  the  most  useless  and  abandoned 
slave,  was,  in  their  ideas,  the  last  infatuation ;  and  the  preach- 
ing of  Christ  crucified,  publishing  in  the  world  a  religion 
whose  founder  suffered  on  a  cross,  appeared  the  last  absur- 
dity and  madness.'''  The  heathens  looked  upon  the  attach- 
ment of  the  primitive  Christians  to  a  religion,  whose  pub- 
lisher had  come  to  such  an  end,  as  an  undoubted  proof  of 
their  utter  ruin,  that  they  were  destroying  their  interest,  com- 
fort, and  happiness,  by  adopting  such  a  system  founded  on 
such  a  dishonourable  circumstance.' •  The  same  inherent 
scandal  and  ignominy  had  crucifixion  in  the  estimation  of  the 
Jews.  They  indeed  annexed  more  complicated  wretched- 
ness to  it,  for  they  esteemed  the  miscreant  who  was  adjudged 
to  such  an  end  not  only  to  be  abandoned  of  men,  but  forsaken 
of  God.  He  that  is  hanged,  says  the  law,  is  accursed  of 
God.  (Deut,  xxi.  23.)  Hence  St.  Paul,  representing  to  the 
Galatians  the  grace  of  Jesus,  who  released  us  from  that 
curse  to  which  the  law  of  Moses  devoted  us,  by  being 
made  a  curse  for  us,  by  submitting  to  be  treated  for  our  sakes 
as  an  execrable  malefactor,  to  show  the  horror  of  such  a  death 
as  Christ  voluntarily  endured,  adds.  It  is  written  in  the  law. 
Cursed  is  every  one  that  hungeth  en  a  tree.'  (Gal.  iii.  13.) 
And  from  this  express  declaration  of  the  law  of  Moses  con- 
cerning persons  thus  executed,  we  may  account  for  that  aver- 
sion the  Jews  discovered  against  Christianity,  and  perceive 
the  reason  of  what  St.  Paul  asserts,  that  their  preaching  of 
Christ  crucified  was  to  the  Jews  a  stumbling-block.  (1  Cor. 
i.  23.)  The  circumstance  of  the  cross  caused  them  to  stum 
ble  at  the  very  gate  of  Christianity.'^ 

8  Bomilcar  rex  Poenorum  in  medio  foro  a  Poenis  paiibulo  suffixus  ert 
De  sunima  cruce,  vcluti  dc  tribunali,  Poenorum  scelera  concionaretur 
Justin,  lib.  x.xii.  cap.  7.  p.  505.  ed.  Gronovii. 

»  Fone  crucem  sen"o.    Juvenal,  Sat.  6.  ver.  218. 

»o  "From  this  circumstance,'-"  says  Justin  Martyr,  "the  heathens  are 
fully  convinced  of  our  madness  for  giving  the  second  place  after  the  im- 
mutable and  eternal  God.andFatherof  alf  toaperson  who  was  crucified!" 
Justin  Martyr,  Apol.  2.  pp.  60,  61.  edit.  Paris,  1636.  Et  qui  homineni  sumnio 
supphcio  pro  facinore  punitum,  et  crucis  ligna  feralia  cereraonias  fabulatur, 
congruentia  perditis  sceleratisque  trihuit  allaria:  ut  id  colant  quod  me- 
rentur.  Minucius  FeliK,  p.  57.  edit.  Davis.  Cantab.  1712.  Nam  quod  re- 
ligioni  nostra;  hominem  noxium  et  crucem  ejus  adscribitis,  longe  de 
vicinia  veritatis  erratis.    Min.  Felix,  p.  147. 

"  That  this  was  the  sentimenlof  the  heathens  concerning  the  Christians, 
St.  Paul  informs  us,  and  he  exhorts  the  Philippians  not  to  be  discouraged 
by  it.  Philip,  i.  28.  Not  intimidated  in  any  thing  by  your  adversaries ;  for 
though  they  looked  upon  your  attachment  to  the  gospel  as  an  undoubted 
proof  of  your  utter  ruin,  yet  to  you  it  is  a  denionsti-ation  of  your  salvation 
—a  salvation  which  hath  God  for  its  author. 

»»  Trypho  the  Jew  every  where  affects  to  treat  the  Christian  religion 
with  contempt,  on  account  of  the  crucifixion  of  its  author.  He  ridicules 
its  professors  for  centering  all  their  hopes  in  a  man  who  was  crucified ! 
Dialog,  cum  Tryphone,  p.  33.  The  perfsonwhom  you  call  your  Messiah, 
says  he,  incurred  the  last  disgrace  and  ignominy,  for  he  fell  under  the 
greatest  curse  in  the  law  of  God,  he  was  crucified!  p.  90.  Again,  we 
must  hesitate,  says  Trypho,  with  regard  to  our  believing  a  person,  who 
was  so  ignominously  crucified,  being  the  Messiah  ;  for  it  is  written  in  Iha 


70 


PUNISHMENTS  MENTIONED  IN  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


[Pakt  II.  Chap.  Ill 


(3.)  ''The  several  circumstances  related  W  the  four  evan- 
gelists as  accom))anyinur  the  crucifixion  of  Jesus  were  con- 
formable to  the  Roman  custom  in  sucli  executions;  and, 
frequently  occurring^  in  ancient  authors,  do  not  only  reflect 
beauty  and  lustre  upon  these  passages,  but  happily  corrobo- 
rate and  confirm  the  narrative  of  the  sacred  penmen."  Wc 
will  exhibit  before  our  readers  a  detail  of  these  as  they  are 
specified  by  the  evanorelists. 

Every  mark  of  infamy  that  malice  could  sngcrcst  was  ac- 
cumulated on  tlie  head  of  our  Redeemer.  While  he  w;is  in 
the  high-priest's  house,  they  did  spit  in  hi.s  face  and  buffeted 
him,  and  others  smote  him  with  the  palms  of  their  hund.^,  ,iai/- 
in^,  Propheci/  unto  us,  thou  Christ,  who  is  he  (hat  smote  thee  ? 
(Matt.  xxvi.'CT,  (f>^.  Mark  xiv.  65.)  Pilate,  hearing  that 
our  Lord  was  of  Galilee,  sent  him  to  Herod ;  and  before  he 
was  dismissed  by  him,  Hood,  with  his  mcaofivar,  set  him  at 
noui^ht ;  and  mocked  him,  andarraijcd  him  in  a  frorgcoits  robe. 
(Lii^ke  xxiii.  11.)  He  was  insulted  and  mocked  by  the  sol- 
diers, when  Pilate  ordertid  him  to  be  scourged  the  first  time ; 
that  by  that  lesser  punishment  he  might  satisfy  the  Jews  and 
save  his  life,  as  is  related  by  St.  John.  After  Pilate  liad 
condemned  him  to  be  crucified,  the  like  indignities  were  re- 
peated by  the  soldiers,  as  we  are  assured  by  two  evangelists. 
(Matt,  xxvii.  27 — 31.  Mark  xv.  IG — 20.)  .ind  they  stripped 
him,  and  put  on  him  a  scarlet  robe,  and  when  they  hud  platted 
a  crown  of  thorns,^  they  put  it  on  his  head,  and  a  reed  in  his 
right  hand;  and  they  bowed  the  knee  before  him,  and  moched 
him,  saying.  Hail!  king  of  the  Jews.  And  they  spit  upon 
him,  and  took  the  reed,  and  smote  him  mi  the  head. 

These  are  tokens  of  contempt  and  ridicule  which  were  in 
use  at  that  time.     Dio,  among  the  other  indignities  oHered 
to  Sejanus  the  favourite  of  libcrius  (in  whose  reign  our 
Saviour  was  crucified),  as  they  were  carryintr  him  from  the 
senate-house  to  prison,  particularly  mentioned  this, — "That 
they  struck  him  on  the  head."     But  there  is  one  instance  of 
ridicule  which  happened  so  soon  after  tliis  time,  and  has  so 
great  a  resemblance  to  that  to  which  our  Saviour  was  ex- 
posed, that  it  deserves  to  be  stated  at  length.     Calignla,  the 
successor  of  Tiberius,  had,  in  the  very  beginning  of  his  reign, 
given  Agrippa  the  tetrarchy  of  his  uncle  Philip,  being  about 
vne  fourTh  part  of  his  grandfather  Herod's  dominions,  with 
the  right  of  wearing  a  diadem  or  crown.     When  he  was 
setting  out  from  Rome  to  make  a  visit  to  his  people,  the  em- 
peror advised  liim  to  go  by  Alexandria  as  the  best  way. 
VVhen  he  came  thither  he  kept  himself  very  private:  but  the 
Alexandrians  having  got  intelligence  of  his  arrival  there,  and 
of  the  design  of  liis  journey,  were  filled  with  envy,  as  Pliilo 
says,  at  the  thnughts  of  a  Jew  having  the  title  of  king. 
They  had  recourse  to  various  expedients,  in  order  to  mani- 
fest  their  indignation:    one  was   the   following: — "There 
■was,"  says  Philo,^  "  one  Carabas,  a  sort  of  distracted  fellow, 
that  in  all  seasons  of  the  y^AX  went  naked  about  the  streets. 
He  was  somewhat  between  a  madman  and  a  fool,  the  com- 
mon jest  of  boys  and  other  idle  people.     This  wretch  they 
i)rouffht  into  tht;  theatre,  and  placed  ium  on  a  lofty  seat,  that 
he  niight  be  conspicuous  to  all;  then  they  i)ut  a  tiling  made 
of  paper  on  his  head  for  a  crown,  the  rest  of  his  body  they 
covered  with  a  mat  instead  of  a  robe,  and  for  a  sceptre  one 
put  into  his  hand  a  little  j)icce  of  reed  which  lie  liad  just 
taken  up  from  the  rrround.     Having  thus  ^iven  him  a  mimic 
royal  dress,  soveralyoung  fellows  with  pdes  on  their  shoul- 
ders came  and  stood  on  each  side  of  him  as  his  guards,  'i'lien 
tliere  came  people  toward  hiin,  some  to  ])ay  tht-ir  homage  to 
him,  others  to  ask  justice  of  liim,  and  some  to  know  his  will 
and  pleastire  concerning  affairs  of  state:  and  in  the  crowd 
were  loud  and  contused  acclamations  of  Maris,  Maris;  that 
being,  as  they  say,  the  Syriac  word  for  Lord,  thereby  inti- 
mating whom  they  intended  to  ridicjile  by  all  thia  niocU 

law,  Ciirofiil  is  pvrry  one  wlin  is  Imnjorl  on  n  rross.  .luslin  Mnrtyr,  DialoR. 
oiiniTryphonc,  p. 'i71  eilll.  Jrbli.  I.oinloii,  1719  Are:  alsD  |)aj;i.-s  VJ72.  iStl. 
378.  30-'.     H.!C  alHo  Kuscbii  Hint.  V.rc\   pp.  171.  7H.     Caiital). 

«  Various  opinion!*  have  been  olfi.Tf <l  ronciiriiinc  il)'"  tippcic?  of  lliorn, 
intcndnl  hy  Die  Kncrcd  wrilnrs.  Ilartholin  wrote  aneluburalc  l]i^.scrtatinn 
De  Hpiniit  Corona,  and  I.yiliiis  Ikih  cojlpctrrl  iho  opinionR  of  8t;voral 
writcrM  in  liis  Floniui  rtpar.sio  ad  IliMtoriatii  Pa.sxioni.s  Jcrtii  ('lirisli.  CAna- 
lect.  pp.  l:l — 17.)  Till!  iiil>-llii;'.-nt  IravclliT  Ilassplfpiisl  says,  tlint  (In-  ini/m 
or  natikii  of  ili.r  Aral>ianH  "  ix  in  all  prohaliilily  ilii?  Xrvc  which  alfurdi'd 
the  crown  of  Ihorn.s  put  on  the  hrad  of  Christ:  it  grows  vpr^  coninionly 
in  tlic  EaNt.  Thia  plant  irnn  rrri/fil  for  Ihe  purponr ;  for  it  has  many 
BMAl.f.  ANn  HHAnp  ajMVKH  trhirli  are  trrfl  iifliijtiril  to  eirr  pain.  The  crown 
might  easily  he  made  of  Ihenn  Hofl,  rouml,  and  pliant  luanrhes;  and  wlial 
in  my  opinion  seein.s  to  be  the  greateRl  proof  i.s,  that  llie  leaves  very  much 
resetnl)le  those  of  ivy,  as  they  are  of  a  very  ileep  green.  I'erhapa  Ihe 
enemies  of  Cliriat  would  have  a  plant  somcwhal  re.-ieirdiliim  tli.il  wllh 
which  eiTipcrom  and  generals  were  u.-ted  to  he  crowjied,  that  there  might 
be  calumny  even  In  the  punishment."  Ilaiisclqulst't  Voyages  and  Travels 
in  the  Levant,  pp  ii83,  289. 

'  In  Flacc.  d.  970 


show :  Agrippa  being  a  Syrian,  and  king  of  a  large  country 
in  Syria. 

"\\  hen  Pilate  had  pronounced  the  sentence  of  condemna- 
tion on  our  Lord,  and  publicly  adjudged  him  to  be  crucified, 
he  gave  orders  that  he  should  be  scourged.  Then  Filate  took 
Je^us  and  scourged  him.  And  when  he  had  scourged  Jesus,  says 
another  of  the  evangelists,  he  delivered  him  to  be  crucified. 
Among  the  Romans,  scourging  was  always  inflicted  previ- 
ously to  crucifixion.  Many  examples  might  be  produced  of 
this  custom.  Let  the  following  suffice.  Livy,  sneaking  of 
the  fate  of  those  slaves  who  had  confederate(l  ancl  taken  up 
arms  against  the  state,  says,  that  many  of  them  were  slain, 
many  taken  prisoners,  and  others,  after  they  had  been  whip- 
ped or  scourged, •'  were  suspended  on  crosses.  Philo,  relating 
tlie  cruelties  which  Flaccus  the  Roman  prefect  exercised  upon 
the  Jews  of  Alexandria,  says,  that  after  they  wove  mangled 
and  torn  with  scourges'  in  the  theatres,  they  were  fastened 
to  crosses.  Josephus  also  informs  us,  that  at  the  siege  of 
Jerusalem  great  numbers  of  the  Jews  were  crucified,  after 
they  had  been  previously  whipped,  and  had  sutfered  every 
wanton  cruelty.* 

"  After  they  had  inflicted  this  customary  flagellation,  the 
evangelist  informs  us  that  they  obliged  our  Lord  to  carry  to 
the  place  of  execution  the  cross,  or,  at  least,  the  transverse 
beam  of  it,  on  which  he  was  to  be  suspended.     Lacerated, 
therefore,  with  the  stripes  and  bruises  he  had  received,  faint 
with  the  loss  of  blood,  his  spirits  exhausted  by  the  cruel  in- 
sults and  bloW'S  that  were  given  him  when  they  invested 
him  with  robes  of  mock  royalty,  and  oppressed  with  the  in- 
cumbent weight  of  his  cross;  in  these  circumstances  our 
Saviour  was  urged  along  the  road.     We  doubt  not  but  in 
this  passage  to  Calvary  every  indignity  was  ofTesed  him. 
This  was  usual."     Our  Lord,  fatigued  and  spent  with  the 
treatment  he  had  received,  could  not  support  his  cross.   The 
soldiers,  therefore,  who  attended  him,  compelled  one  Simon, 
a  Cyrenean,  who  was  coming  from  the  country  to  Jerusa- 
Irm,  and  then  happened  to  be  passing  by  them,  to  carry  it  for 
him.     The  circumstance  here  mentioned  of  our  Lord  bearing 
his  cross  was  agreeable  to  the  Roman  custom.     Slaves  and 
malefactors,  who  were  condemned  to  this  ileath,  were  com- 
pelled to  carry  the  whole  or  jKirt  of  the  fatal  gibbet  on  which 
they  were  destined  to  die.     This  constituted  a  principal  part 
of  the  shame  and  ignominy  of  such  a  death.     Cross-bearer 
was  a  term  of  the  last  reproach  among  the  Romans.     The 
miserable  wretch,  covered  with  blood,  from  the  scourges  that 
had  been  inflicted  u])on  him,  and  groaning  under  the  weight  of 
his  cross,  was,  all  along  the  road  to  the  place  of  execution, 
loaded  with  every  wanton  cruelty.'     So  extreme  w'ere  the 
misery  and  suiTtrings  of  the  hapless  criminals  who  were 
condemned  to  this  punishment,  that  Plutarch  makes  use  of  it 
as  an  illustration  of  the  misery  of  sin,  that  every  kind  of 
wickedness  products  its  own  particular  torment;  just  as 
every  malefactor,  when  he  is  brought  forth  to  execution,  car- 
ries his  own  cross.8     He  was  pushed,  thrown  down,  stimu- 
lated with  goads,  and  impelled  forward  by  every  act  of  inso- 
lence and   inhumanity  that  could  he  inflicted.^     There  is 
great  reason  to  think  that  our  blessed  Redeemer  in  his  way 
to  ('alvary  experienced  every  abuse  of  this  nature,  especially 
when  he  proceeded  slowly  along,  through  languor,  lassitude, 
and  faintness,  and  the  soldiers  and  rabble  found  his  strength 
incapable  of  sustaining  and  dra<rging  his  cross  any  farther. 
On  this  occasion  we  imagine  that  our  Lord  sulfered  very 
cnnl  treatment  from  those  who  attended  him.    Might  not  the 
scourging  that  was  inflicted,  the  blows  he  had  received  from 
the  soldiers  when  in  derision  they  paid  him  homage,  and  thi- 
abuse  he  suflered  on  his  way  to  (,'alvary,  greatly  contribute 
to  accelerate  liis  death,  and  (ccasion  thai  speedy  dissolution 
at  which  one  of  the  evangelists  tells  us  Pilate  marvelled'? 
"  VVhen  the  malefactor  liad  carried  his  cross  to  the  place 

>  Mnltl  occiHl    niulti  capti,  alii   vcrberati  cruclbiis  aflixi.     Llvil,   lib. 

xxxiii.  '^■ 

«  IMiilo  in   Flar.  p.  529.  edit.  Mangey.     See  also  pages  527,  C2S.  ejusdein 

edilionis.    The  Itnman  riiKtom  w.i.s  in  scourge  liefore  all  eiceutionH.    The 

rnagiHirates  bringing  them  onl  into  the  forum,  aflerthey  had  pcourged  them 

accoiding  to  rusloiu,  they  struelt  olT  their  heinls.    I'olybii  Ilisl.lib.  i.  p.  W. 

i.  edit.  (Jronovii.  ll>7(l 

2.  p.  a'vJ.    Ilavcrcanip.    Ucll.  Judiac. 


c.  'J 


torn. 

>  Jose|ihn.'i  de  Ihdio  Jnd.  lib.  v 
lib.  ii.  CKp.  II.   {'•'•  j'.  1S2    Maverr. 

•  Vid.  .Iiixli  l.ipsii  de  Crure,  lib.  ii.  rap. 6.  p.  IISO.     Vesalia*. 

■>  Pluluich  de  tard:\  Dei  vimliela,  p.  flS-J.  edit.  Ur.  8vo.  Stcph.     Dionysli 
Ilalicar.  lib.  vil.  torn.  i.  p.  •l.'^^i.  O.ron.  1701. 

•  O  carninrimu  rribrmn,  rpioil  credo  fore: 

lla  te  fornbuni  palihubilutM  per  vias 
Btimulis,  si  hue  revenial  sene.v. 

riaulus  MosK-1.  Act.  i.  sc.  1.  vcr.  5.1.  edit.  var.  1684. 

•  Nee  dubium  est  qiiin  iuipulerint,  deiecprint,  ercxerint,  per  sxritiuiu 
ai\t  per  lustUD.    Lipsiua  ilc  Cruce,  toui.  vi.  p.  1180.    Vesalia;. 


Sect.  IV.] 


OF  CRUCIFIXION. 


71 


of  execution,  a  hole  was  dug  in  the  earth,  in  which  it  was 
to  be  fixed;  the  criminal  was  stripped,  a  stupefying  potion 
was  given  him,  the  cross  was  laid  on  the  ground,  the  wretch 
distended  upon  it,  and  four  soldiers,  two  on  each  side,  at  the 
same  time  were  employed  in  driving  four  large  nails  through 
his  hands  and  feet.  Atter  they  had  deeply  fixed  and  riveted 
these  nails  in  tlie  wood,  they  elevated  the  cross  with  the 
agonizing  wretch  upon  it;  and  in  order  to  fix  it  more  firmly 
and  securely  in  the  earth,  they  let  it  violently  fall  into  the 
cavity  they  had  dug  to  receive  it.  This  vehement  precipita- 
tion of  the  cross  miist  give  the  person  tliat  was  nailed  to  it  a 
most  dreadful  convulsive  shock,  and  agitate  his  whole  frame 
in  a  dire  and  most  excruciating  manner.  These  several  par- 
ticulars the  Romans  observed  in  the  crucifixion  of  our  Lord. 
Upon  his  arrival  at  Calvary  he  was  stripped  :  a  stupefying 
draught  was  offered  him,  which  he  refused  to  drink.  This, 
St.  Mark  says,  was  a  composition  of  myrrh  and  wine.  The 
design  of  this  potion  was,  hy  its  inebriating  and  intoxicating 
quality,  to  blunt  the  edge  of  pain,  and  stun  the  quickness  of 
sensibility.'  Our  Lord  rejected  this  medicated  cup,  offered 
him  perhaps  by  the  kindness  of  some  of  his  friends,  it  being 
his  fixed  resolution  to  meet  death  in  all  its  horrors  ;  not  to 
alleviate  and  suspend  its  pains  by  any  such  preparation,  but 
to  submit  to  the  death,  even  this  death  of  crucifixion,  with 
all  its  attendant  circumstances."  He  had  the  joy  that  was 
set  before  him,  in  proc\iring  the  salvation  of  men,  in  full  and 
immediate  view.  He  wanted  not,  therefore,  on  this  great 
occasion,  any  thing  to  produce  an  unnatural  stupor,  and  throw 
oblivion  and  stupefaction  over  his  senses.^  He  cheerfully 
and  voluntarily  drank  the  cup  with  all  its  bitter  ingredients, 
which  his  heavenly  Father  had  put  into  his  hands.  Our 
Lord  was  fastened  to  his  cross,  as  was  usual,  by  four  soldiers,' 
two  on  each  side,  according  to  the  respective  limbs  they 
severally  nailed.  While  they  were  employed  in  piercing  las 
hands  and  feet,  it  is  probable  that  he  offered  to  Heaven  that 
most  compassionate  and  affecting  prayer  for  his  murderers, 
in  which  he  pleaded  the  only  circumstance  that  could  possi- 
bly extenuate  their  guilt:  Father,  forgive  them,  fur  they  know 
not  what  they  do  !  It  appears  from  the  evangelist  that  our 
Lord  was  crucified  without  the  city.  And  he  Uearing  his  cross 
went  forth  to  a  place  called  the  place  of  a  skull,  which,  is  called 
in  the  Hebrew  Golgotha.  (John  xix.  17.)  For  the  place  where 
Jesus  was  crucified  was  nigh  to  the  city.  (ver.  20.)  And  the 
apostle  to  the  Hebrews  has  likewise  mentioned  this  circum- 
stance :  Wherefore  Jesus  also — suffered  without  the  gate.  (Heb. 
xiii.  12.)  This  is  conformable  to  the  Jewish  law,  and  to  ex- 
amples mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament.  (Num.xv.  35.) 
Atid  the  Ltrrd  said  unto  3Iuses,  The  man  shall  surely  be  put  to 
death  :  all  the  congi-egation  shall  stone  him  with  stones  without 
the  camp.  (1  Kings  xxi.  13.)  Then  they  carried  him  [Na- 
both]  foi-th  out  of  the  city,  and  stoned  him,  with  stones  that  he 
died.  This  was  done  at  Jezreel,  in  the  territories  of  the  king 
of  Israel,  not  far  from  Samaria'.  And  if  this  custom  was 
practised  there,  we  may  be  certain  the  Jews  did  not  choose 
that  criminals  should  be  executed  within  Jerusalem,  of  the 
sanctity  of  which  they  had  so  high  an  opinion,  and  which 
they  were  very  zealous  to  preserve  free  irom  all  ceremonial 
impurity,  though  they  defiled  it  with  the  practice  of  the  most 
horrid  immoralities.  It  is  p.ossible,  indeed,  that  they  might, 
in  their  sudden  and  ungoverned  rage  (to  which  they  were 
subject  in  the  extreme  at  this  time),  upon  any  affront  offered 
to  their  laws  or  customs,  put  persons  who  thus  provoked 
them  to  death,  upon  the  spot,  in  the  city,  or  the  temple,  or 
wherever  they  found  them ;  but  whenever  they  were  calm 
enough  to  admit  the  form  of  a  legal  process,  we  may  be 
assured  that  they  did  not  approve  of  an  execution  within  the 
city.  And  among  the  Romans  this  custom  was  very  com- 
mon," at  least  in  the  provinces.    The  robbers  of  Ephesus, 

1  Scse  multimoflis  conculcat  ictibus,  myrrha?  contra  presumptione  mu- 
nitus.  Apiileii  Metamorph.  lib.  viii.  Again :  Obfirmafns  myrrhie  pre- 
sumptione nuUis  vcrberibus,  ac  ne  ipsi  qiiidem  succubuit  igni.  Lib.  x. 
Apuleii  Met.  Usque  hodie,  says  St.  Jerome,  Jnrlsei  omncs  increduli  Do- 
niinicffi  resurrectionis  aceto  et  felle  potant  Jesuin,  et  dant  ei  vinum  niyr- 
rhatum,  ut  dum  consopiant,  et  mala  eorum  non  videat.  Ilieronymus  ad 
Matt,  xxvii. 

«  See  Dr.  Benson's  Life  of  Christ,  p.  508. 

3  Monet  nosquoqiie  non  parum  evangelista,  qui  quatunr  numeral  milifes 
crucifigentes,  scilicet  juxta  quatuor  membra  fijjenda.  Quod  clarum  etiam 
est  ex  tunicfe  partilione,  qure  quatuor  militibus  facienda  erat.  Comelii 
Curtii  de  Clavis  Dominicis,  p.  0,1.  edit.  Antweipine,  1670.  The  ("our  soldiers 
who  parted  his  garments,  and  cast  lots  for  his  vesture,  were  llie  four  who 
raised  him  to  the  cross,  each  of  them  fixing  a  liuib,  and  who,  it  seems,  for 
this  service  had  a  right  to  the  crucified  person's  clothes.  Dr.  Macknight, 
p.  604.  second  edition,  4to. 

«  Credo  ego  istoc  examplo  tibi  esse  eimdum  actutum  extra  portam,  dis- 
pessis  manibus  patibulura  quern  habebis.  Plautus  in  Mil,  Glor.  act.  ii. 
eceii.  4. 


whom^  Petronius  Arbiter  mentions,  were  crucified  by  order 
of  the  governor  of  the  province  without  the  city.  This  was 
the  custom,  likewise,  in  Sicily,  as  appears  from  Cicero.'^ 

"  It  was  customary  for  the  Romans,  on  any  extraordinary 
execution,  to  put  over  the  head  of  the  malefactor  an  inscrip- 
tion denoting  the  crime  for  which  he  suffered.  Several  exam- 
ples of  this  occur  in  the  Roman  history."'  It  was  also  usual 
at  this  time,  at  jGrusalem,  to  post  up  advertisements,  which 
were  designed  to  be  read  by  all  classes  of  persons,  in  several 
languages.  Titus,  in  a  message  which  he  sent  to  the  Jews 
when  the  city  was  on  the  point  of  falling  into  his  hands,  and 
by  which  he  endeavoured  to  persuade  them  to  surrender, 
says  :  Did  you  not  erect  pillars,  with  inscrijifions  on  them  in 
the  GnEEK  and  in  our  (the  Latin)  language,  "  Let  no  one 
pass  beyond  these  bounds  ■?"«  "  In  conformity  to  this  usage, 
an  inscription  by  Pilate's  order  was  fixed  above  the  head  of 
Jesus,  written  in  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Latin,  specifying  what 
it  was  that  had  brought  him  to  this  end.  This  writing  was 
by  the  Romans  called  titulus,  a  title,^  and  it  is  the  very  ex- 
pression made  use  of  by  the  evangelist  John,  Filate  wrote  a 
TITLE  (!>p*4«  TITAOn),  and  put  it  on  the  cross.  (John  xix 
19.)'^  After  the  cross  was  erected,  a  party  of  soldiers  was 
appointed  to  keep  guard,''  and  to  attend  at  tlie  place  of  exe- 
cution till  the  criminal  breathed  his  last;  thus  also  we  read 
that  a  body  of  Roman  soldiers,  with  a  centurion,  were  de- 
puted to  guard  our  Lord  and  the  two  malefactors  that  were 
crucified  with  him.   (Matt,  xxvii.  54.) 

"  While  they  were  thus  attending  them,  it  is  said,  our 
Saviour  complained  of  thirst.  This  is  a  natural  circumstance. 
The  exquisitely  sensible  and  tender  extremities  of  the  body 
being  thus  perforated,  the  person  languishing  and  faint  with 
loss  of  blood,  and  lingering  under  such  acute  and  excruci- 
ating torture, — these  causes  must  necessarily  produce  a  vehe- 
ment and  excessive  thirst.  One  of  the  guards,  hearing  this 
request,  hastened  and  took  a  sponge,  and  filled  it  froM  a 
vessel  tliat  stood  by,  that  was  fiiU  of  vinegar.  The  usual 
drink  of  the  Roman  soldiers  was  vinegar  and  water.'^  The 
knowledge  of  this  custom  illustrates  this  passage  of  sacred 
history,  as  it  has  sometimes  been  inquired,  for  what  purpose 
was  this  vessel  of  vinegar  1  Considering,  however,  the  de- 
rision and  cruel  treatment  which  Jesus  Christ  had  already 
received  from  the  soldiers,  it  is  by  no  means  improbable  that 
one  of  them  gave  him  the  vinegar  with  the  design  of  aug 
menting  his  unparalleled  sufferings.  After  receiving  this, 
Jesus  cried  with  a  loud  voice,  and  uttered  with  all  the  vehe- 
mence he  could  exert,  that  comprehensive  word  on  which  a 
volume  might  be  written,  It  is  finished  /  the  important  work 
of  human  redemption  is  finished  ;  after  which  he  reclined 
his  head  upon  his  bosom,  and  dismissed  his  spirit."  (John 
xix.  30.  Matt,  xxvii.  50.) 

The  last  circumstance  to  be  mentioned  relative  to  the 
crucifixion  of  our  Saviour,  is  the  petition  of  the  Jews  to 
Pilate,  that  the  death  of  the  sufferers  might  be  accelerated, 
with  a  view  to  the  interment  of  Jesus.  All  the  four  evange- 
lists have  particularly  mentioned  this  circumstance.  Joseph 
of  Arimatkea  went  to  Pilate,  and  begged  the  body  of  Jesus  ,- 
then  Pilate  commanded  the  body  to  be  delivered.  And  when 
Joseph  had  taken  the  body,  he  laid,  it  in  his  own  new  tomb. 
(Matt,  xxvii.  58 — GO.  Mark  xv.  45,  46.  Lukexxiii.  50 — 53. 
.Tohn  xix.  38 — 40.)  And  it  may  be  fairly  concluded,  the 
rulers  of  the  Jews  did  not  disapprove  of  it :  since  they  were 
solicitous  that  the  bodies  miofht  oe  taken  down,  and  not  hang 
on  the  cross  the  next  day.  (John  xix.  31.)  The  Jews  there- 
fore, says  St.  John,  because  it  was  the  preparation,  that  the 
bodies  should  not  remain  on  the  cross  on  the  Sabbath-day  (^for 

»  Quum  interim  imperator  provinciae  latrones  jussit  crucibus adfigi,  se- 
cundum illain  eandem  casulam,  in  qua  reccns  cadaver  inatrona  dellobat 
Satyr,  c.  71. 

•  Quid  enim  attinuit,  cum  Mamertini  more  atque  institute  sue  crucen) 
fixisset  post  urbem  in  via  Pompeia  ;  te  jubere  in  ea  parte  figcre,  qua;  aj 
fretum  spectaretl  In  Verr.  lib.  v.  c.  66.  n.  169. 

■>  Dion  Cassiu.'j,  lib.  liv.  p.  732.  edit.  Reimar,  1750.  See  also  Suetonius  in 
Caligula,  c.  3'2.     Eusebius,  Hist.  Eccl.  lib.  v.  p.  206.  Cantab.  1720. 

8  Josephu.s,  de  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  vi.  c.  2.  §  4. 

»  See  instances  in  Suetonius,  in  Caligula,  c.  34. ;  and  in  Doniitian,  c.  10. 

">  "  It  is  with  much  propriety  that  iWatthew  calls  this  ainx  accusation: 
for  it  was  false,  that  ever  Christ  pretended  to  be  Iting  of  the  .lews,  in  the 
sense  the  inscription  held  forth :  he  was  accused  of  this,  but  there  was  no 
proof  of  the  accusation ;  however,  it  was  affixed  to  the  cross."  Dr.  A. 
Clarke  on  Matt,  xxvii.  37. 

"  Miles  cnices  asservabat,  ne  qiiis  corpora  ad  sepnlturam  delraherct. 
Petronius,  Arbiter,  cap.  111.  p.  513.  edit.  Burman.  Traject.  ad  Khen.  1709. 
Vid.  not.  ad  loc. 

'«  The  Roman  soldiers,  says  Dr.  Ilu.xham,  drank  posca  (viz.  water  and 
vinegar)  for  their  common  drink,  and  found  it  very  healthy  and  useful. 
Dr.  Huxham's  Method  for  preserving  the  Health  of  Seamen,  in  his  Essay 
on  Fevers,  p.  263.  3d  edition.  See  also  Lamy's  Apparatus  Biblicus,  vol.  ii. 
p.  27-3.    See  also  Macknight  in  loc. 


n 


JEWISH  AND  ROMAN  MODES  OF  COMPUTING  TIME, 


[Pinx  II. 


that  Sabbath-day  icas  an  high  day),  besought  Pilate  that 
their  legs  might  be  broken,  and  that  they  might  be  taken 
away. 

Burial  was  not  always  allowed  by  the  Romans  in  these 
cases.  For  we  find  that  sometimes  a  soldier  was  appointed 
to  guard  the  bodies  of  malefactors,  that  they  mij^ht  not  be 
taken  away  and  buried.'  However  it  seems  tlrat  it  was  not 
often  refused  unless  the  criminals  were  verj'menn  and  infa- 
mous. Cicero  reckons  it  one  of  the  horrid  crimes  of  Verrcs's 
administration  in  Sicily,  that  he  would  take  money  of  parents 
for  the  burial  of  their  children  whom  he  had  put  to  doatli.^ 
Both  hsuctonius^  and  Tacitus'  represent  it  as  one  of  the  un- 
common crueltie#  of  Tiberius,  in  the  latter  part  of  his  reign, 
that  he  generally  denied  burial  to  those  vdio  wore  put  to  death 
by  his  orders  at  Rome.  Ulpian,  in  his  treatise  of  the  duty 
r)f  a  proconsul,  says,  "  The  bodies  of  those  who  are  con- 
demned to  death  are  not  to  be  denied  to  their  relations  :"  and 
Augustus  writes,  in  the  tenth  book  of  his  own  life,  "  that  he 
hacT been  wont  to  observe  this  custom;"*  that  is,  to  grant 
the  bodies  to  relations.  Paul  us  says,  "  that  the  bodies  of 
tliose  who  have  been  punished  [with  death]  are  to  be  given 
to  any  that  desire  them  in  order  to  burial."'* 

It  IS  evident,  therefore,  from  these  two  lawyers,  that  the 
jjovernors  of  provinces  had  a  right  to  grant  ourial  to  the 
bodies  of  those  who  had  been  executed  by  their  order  :  nay, 


they  seem  to  intimate  that  it  ought  not  usually  to  be  denied 
when  requested  by  an}'. 

Hence  it  appears,  that  burial  was  ordinarily  allowed  to 
persons  who  were  put  to  death  in  Juda;a :  and  tl:e  subsequent 
conduct  of  Pilate  siiows  that  it  was  seldom  denied  by  the 
Ronian  governors  in  that  countr)'.  There  is,  moreover,  an 
express  command  in  the  law  (of  which  we  know  that  tlie 
latter  Jews  were  religiously  observant),  that  the  bodies  of 
those  who  Avere  hanged  should  not  be  suffered  to  remain  all 
night  upon  the  tree.  (Dent.  xxi.  23.)'  "  On  this  account  it 
was,  that,  after  the  crucifixion,  a  number  of  leading  men 
among  the  Jews  waited  on  Pilate  in  a  body,  to  desire  that  he 
would  hasten  the  death  of  the  malefactors  hanging  on  their 
crosses.  (John  xix.  31.)  Pilate,  therefore,  despatched  his 
orders  to  the  soldiers  on  duty,  who  broke  the  legs  of  the  two 
criminals  who  were  crucified  along  with  Christ;  but  when 
they  came  to  Jesus,  finding  he  had  already  breathed  his  last, 
the)'  thought  this  violence  and  trouble  unnecessary  ;  but  one 
of  the  soldiers  pierced  his  side  with  a  spear,  whose  point 
appears  to  have  penetrated  into  the  pericardium,  or  membrane 
surrounding  the  heart ;  for  St.  Jonn,  who  says  he  was  an 
eye-witness  of  this,  declares  that  there  issued  from  the  wound 
a  mixture  of  blood  and  water.  This  v.'ound,  had  he  not  been 
dead,  must  necessaiily  have  been  fatal.  This  circumstance 
St.  John  saw,  and  has  solemnly  recorded  and  attested. "<* 


CHAPTER  IV. 


•  ON  THE  JEWISH  AND  ROMAN  MODES  OF  COMPUTING  TIME,  MENTIONED  IN   THE   SCRIPTURES. 

I.  Days. — II.  Jfours. —  U'atches  of  the  J^ig'ht. — III.    Weeks. — IV.  Jiforiths. — V.   Tears,  civil,  ecclesiastical,  and   natvral^- 
Jewish  Calendar, — VI.  Parts  of  the  Tune  taken  for  the  Whole. — VII.  Remarkable  ^Eras  of  the  Jews. 


It  is  well  known  that,  in  the  perusal  of  ancient  authors, 
we  are  liable  to  fall  into  many  serious  mistakes,  if  we  con- 
sider their  modes  of  computing  time  to  be  precisely  the  same 
as  ours :  and  henc^  it  oecomes  necessary  that  we  observe 
their  different  notations  of  time,  and  carefully  adjust  them  to 
our  own.  This  remark  is  particularly  applicable  to  the  sacred 
writers,  whom  sceptics  and  infidels  have  charged  with  vari- 
ous contradictions  and  inconsistencies,  which  fall  to  the  ground 
as  soon  as  the  various  computations  of  time  are  considered 
and  adapted  to  our  own  standard.  The  knowledge  of  the 
different  divisions  of  time  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures  will 
elucidate  the  meaning  of  a  multitude  of  passages  with  regard 
to  seasons,  circumstances,  and  ceremonies. 

I.  The  Hel)rew3  computed  their  Days  from  evening  to 
evening,  according  to  the  command  of  Moses.'-*  TLev.  xxiii. 
32.)  It  is  remarkable  that  the  evening  or  natural  night  pre- 
cedes the  morning  or  natural  day  in  the  account  of  the  creation 
(Gen.  i.  5,  &c.) :  whence  the  prophet  Daniel  employs  the 
compound  term  evening-mvrning  (Dan.  viii.  11.  marginal 
reading)  to  denote  a  civil  day  in  his  celebrated  chronological 
prophecy  of  tiie  2300  days ;  and  the  same  portion  of  time  is 
tenned  in  Greek  Yu;/^bTi/ui^!,v. 

The  Romans  had  two  different  computations  of  their  days, 

•  Sbc  thn  paFsaRO  oitr^il  from  I'l  ironins  Arldler,  in  note  ",  p.  71. 

•  Rapiuiit  cum  aiJ  siippliriuiii  dii  pnirii :  (pioil  istc  inventus  est,  qui  c 
coniploxu  paiontuin  alinptosi  filius  ad  ncccin  duccrut,  ct  parunlus  jirc- 
Hum  pro  sfpiillura  pnsci.TCI.    In  Vcr.  lib.  i.  cap.  3. 

>  Nofno  puniluruin  nun  ct  in  O'ciiionias  adjcctus  uncoquo  tractus.  Vit. 
Tiber,  c.  61. 

•  Et  quia  damnali,  pnblicatU  bonis,  sepuUunt  prohibcbantur.  Ann.  lib. 
6.  c.  29. 

•  Corpora  conini  qui  capitc  damnantur  coffnalis  ipsoruin  nojjanila  noii 
Kunt :  et  id  sc  obsL'rva.ssn  ciiain  U.  Aug.  lib.  x.  ilc  vitii  suA,  arribit.  Ilndii; 
auti:in  eoruin,  in  quos  aniiuadvnrlitiir,  corpora  nnn  allt<-r  Kcpi'ljiuitiir,  quiun 
t'i  fiicrit  jietituin  cl  pi-rwiitj^uiq;  ft  nonniinquaiii  imn  pcruiitilliir,  luciAiiiu- 
maji!staii(<  cbu*i  dairui.iioruni.  I.  i.  IT.  ilo  rarlavr-r.  Piinit. 

°  Corpora  aiiiinadvci'soniiu  quibuslibet  pctcnlibiiii  ad  sopulluram  danda 
$unt.  1.  iii.  cod. 

1  Bee  an  instance,  incidentally  mentioned  by  Josephus.  Dc  Belt.  Jud. 
Ub.  Iv.  c.  6.  42. 

'  And  he  that  ariie  it  Ixire  rer.onl,  and  his  front  U  true ;  and  he  knuxccth 
that  he  auilh  It  ur,  lhn,t  iji.  miqht  i'licrn.    Jolm  xi.x.  ."JS. 

»  Tacitus,  spiukiuK  of  the  ancioiit  (.'(frinnni>,  taltrs  nnlico  (bat  thrir 
accoutit  of  linir  ililT.r.-t  from  tlial  of  llii-  Rnmans  ;  and  lliat  iimtcTd  of  .l.ivs 
thejf  n-ckoni'il  ibe  niiuib.  r  of  nielils.  I>c  Mor.  (Jorui.  c.  11.  .So  a!;")  did  tbe 
ancient  Gauis  (C.x-aar  de  U.-ll.  Call.  lib.  vi.  c.  17.);  and  vesiigrK  <if  ilii.s  an 
r.ient  practice  still  remain  in  our  own  country.  We  say  laBt  Siiri'triy  se'n- 
tiigM  or  this  diiij/ortni^hi.  TUo  pr;«clici'  of  compuliiis  lime  by  ninh'?, 
instead  of  days,  obtains  amonji  I  be  Maslioog,  nn  inland  n  ition,  dwolIinK  in 
tbe  Interior  of  South  .\frica.  Travels  by  the  Rev.  John  Campbell,  vol.  i. 
p.  182.    (London,  1822.  8vo  ) 


and  two  denominations  for  them.  The  one  they  called  the 
civil,  the  other  the  nuiiirul  day;  the  civil  day  was  from  mid- 
night to  midnight ;  and  the  natural  day  was  from  the  rising  to 
the  setting  suii.'o  The  natural  day  of  the  Jews  variocT  in 
length  according  to  the  seasons  of  the  year:  the  longest  day 
in  the  Holy  Land  is  only  fourteen  hours  and  twelve  minu'fs 
of  our  time;  and  the  shortest  day,  nine  hours  and  forty-eioht 
minutes.  ■  This  portion  of  time  was  at  first  divided  into  fiiur 
parts  (Neh.  ix.  3.)  ;  which,  though  varying  in  length  accord- 
ing to  the  seasons,  could  nevertheless  be  easily  discerned 
from  the  position  or  ajipearance  of  the  sun  in  the  hori/vDn. 
Afterwards  the  natural  uay  was  divided  into  twelve  hours, 
which  were  measured  from  dials  constructed  for  that  purpose. 
Among  these  contrivances  for  the  measurement  of  time,  the 
sun-dial  of  Ahaz  is  particularly  mentioned  in  2  Kings  xx<> 
II."  Jahn  thinks  it  probable  that  Ahaz  first  introduced  it 
from  Babylon. '2 

II.  The  earliest  mention  of  Hours  in  tlie  Sacred  Writings 
occurs  in  the  prophecy  of  Daniel  (iii.  6.  15.  v.  5.) :  and  as 
the  Chalda;ans,  according  to  Herodotus,'^  were  the  inventors 
of  this  division  of  time,  it  is  probable  that  the  Jews  derived 
their  hours  from  them.  It  is  evident  that  the  division  of  liours 
was  unknown  in  the  time  of  Moses  (compare  Gen.  xv.  12. 
xviii.  1.  xix.  1.  15.  23.);  nor  is  any  notice  taken  of  them  by 
the  most  ancient  of  the  profane  poets,  who  mentions  only 
the  inurni/ig  or  evening  or  mid-day. ^^  With  Homer  cf>rres- 
ponded  the  notations  of  time  referred  toby  the  rc^yal  Psalmist, 
who  mentions  them  as  the  tinu  s  of  j)rayer.  (Psal.  Iv.  17.) 
The  Jews  comnuted  their  hours  of  the  civil  day  from  six  in 
the  morning  till  six  in  t!ie  evening:  thus  their./?'*/  hour  cor-' 
responded  with  our  wwn  o'clock;  their  4c«//it/  to  o\it  eiglU i 
\.\\viT  third  Ui  o\xx  nine,  he. 

The  knowledge  of  this  circumstance  will  illustrate  several 
passages  of  Scripture,  particularly  Matt,  xx.,  where  the  third, 

10  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  lib.  ii.  c.  77. ;  Censoriniii»do  Din  Nalali,  c.  23.  ;  Macro- 
bins  SHi'iirnal.  lib.  iii.  c.  3.  See  alwi  l>r.  Ward's  Di.'^.sertaiions  on  several 
n.i.<!sai:e!*  of  .Scripture,  p.  l.C  ;  and  Dr.  Maclini«bl'B  Ilanuoiiyi  vol.  i.  Pre- 
lim. Obs.  V.      Aiiatii'ti  Koman  AnliiiUilioR,  p.  ;A).'i. 

u  Few  lopicH  have  rau.se  J  more  disciissinn  nmong  biblical  cotnmrnla'ors 
tban  Ibi;  siniilial  of  Abiiz.  A.-<  tljo  original  word  sipnifn'S,  projuTly,  step* 
i,r  tilair.<,  many  bavo  iniafined  tbiit  it  wa-f  a  kiml  ,)f  ascent  to  llie  c«'e  of 
the  palace,  marked  at  proper  ilistanccs  willi  figures  sliowina  tlir  divisijn 
of  tbe  day,  railirr  than  a  regular  jiiece  of  dial-work.  On  ibis  subject  the 
render  will  find  koiiio  vitv  ingenious  and  probable  ill'i-lra;ions,  togclliei 
wih  a  di.iarani,  in  I)r  A   Olarl'.o'a  Coaiiuentary,  on  2  Kuw^  xx. 

««  Jalin,  Arcba-ol.  Ilebr.  %  101.  "  I-il'.  ii.  c.  109. 

M  H-f  n  inKn  rt  inr>v  i/i»f.— Hom.  H.  lib.  xxi.  3. 


Chap.  IV.] 


MENTIONED  IN  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


73 


sixth,  ninth,  and  eleventh  hours  (ver.  3.  5.  6.  9.)  respectively 
denote  nine  o'clock  in  the  morning,  twelve  at  noon,  three  and 
five  in  the  afternoon;  see  also  Acts  ii.  15.  iii.  1.  x.  9.  30. 
The  first  three  hours  (from  six  to  nine)  were  their  morning: 
during  the  third  hour,  from  eight  to  nine,  their  morning  sacri- 
fice was  prepared,  offered  up,  and  laid  on  the  altar  precisely 
at  nine  o'clock;  this  interval  they  termed  ihe  preparation 
(Trxptta-kiuii).  .losepluis  confirms  the  narrative  of  the  evange- 
lists.i  As  the  Israelites  Avent  nut  of  Egypt  at  the  vernal 
equinox,  the  morning  watch  would  answer  to  our  four  o'clock 
in  the  morning.^ 

Before  the  t/'aptivity  the  night  was  divided  into  throe  parts 
or  Watches.  (Psal.  Ixiii.  6.  xc.  4.)  The ^rs<  or  beginning 
of  watches  is  mentioned  in  Lam.  ii.  19.  ;  the  middte-watcli 
in  .Tudg.  vii.  19. ;  and  the  morning-watch,  or  watch  of  day- 
lireak,  in  Exod.  xiv.  24.  It  is  probable  that  these  watches 
varied  in  leno  th  according  to  the  seasons  of  the  year  :  conse- 
quently those  who  had  a  long  and  inclement  winter  watch  to 
♦nicounter,  would  ardently  dtsire  the  approach  of  morning 
light  to  terminate  their  watch.  This  circumstance  would 
beautifully  illustrate  the  fervour  of  the  Psalmist's  devotion 
(Psal.  cxxx.  0.)  as  well  as  serve  to  explain  other  passages 
of  the  Old  Testament. 3  These  three  watches  are  also  men- 
tioned by  various  profane  writers.' 

During  the  time  of  our  Saviour,  the  night  was  divided  into 
four  watches,  a  fourth  watch  h^-ing  been  introduced  among 
the  Jews  from  the  Romans,  who  deprived  it  from  the  Greeks. 
The  second  and  third  watches  are  mentioned  in  Luke  xii.  38. ; 
the  fourth  in  Matt.  xiv.  25. ;  and  the  four  are  all  distinctly 
mentioned  in  Mark  xiii.  35.  Watch,  therefore,  for  ye  know 
not  when  the  master  if  the  house  comeih  ,■  at  even  {'■■{i,  or  the 
late  watch),  or  at  snDNiGHT(//6<rowKT<cy),  or  at  ihe  cock-crow- 
^'so  (aA9CTip:?ai«i?),  or  in  the  morning  {rrfm,  the  early  watch). 
TIere,  X\\q  first  watch  was  at  even,  and  continued  from  six  till 
nine  ;  the  second  commenced  at  nine  and  ended  at  twelve,  or 
midnight;  the  /A/rrf  watch,  called  by  the  Romans  ga///c/m«w, 
lasted  from  twelve  to  three  ;  and  the  mwning  watch  closed  at 
six.  A  double  cock-crowing,  indeed,  is  noticed  by  St.  Mark 
(xiv.  30.),  Avliere  the  other  evangelists  mention  only  one. 
(Matt.  xxvi.  34.  Luke  xxii.  34.  John  xiii.  33.)  But  this 
may  be  easily  reconciled.  The  Jewish  doctors  divided  the 
cock-crowing  into  tlie  first,  second,  and  third :  the  heathen 
nations  in  general  observed  only  tico.  As  the  cock  crew  the 
second  time  after  Peter's  third  denial,  it  was  this  second  or 
principal  cock-crowing  (for  the  Jews  seem  in  many  respects 
to  have  accommodated  themselves  to  the  Roman  computa- 
tion of  time)  to  which  the  evangelists  Matthew,  Luke,  and 
John  refer.  Or,  perhaps,  t]\e  second  cock-crowing  of  the 
Jews  might  coincide  with  the  second  of  the  Romans.* 

It  may  be  proper  to  remark  that  the  word  hour  is  frequently 
used  with  great  latitude  in  the  Scriptures,  and  sometimes  im- 
plies the  space  of  time  occupied  by  a  whole  watch.  (Matt. 
XXV.  13.  xxvi.  40.  Mark  xiv.  37.  Luke  xxii.  59.  Rev.  iii. 
3.)  Perhaps  the  third  //our  mentioned  in  Acts  xxiii.  23.  was 
a  military  watch  of  the  night.s 

The  Jews  reckoned  two  evenings  :  the  former  began  at  the 
ninth  hour  of  the  natural  daj^  or  three  o'clock  in  the  after- 
noon ;  and  the  latter  at  the  eleventh  hour.  Thus  the  pas- 
chal lamb  was  required  to  be  sacrificed  between  the  evenings 
(Exod.  xii.  6.  Lev.  xxiii.  4.)  ;  which  Josephus  tells  us,  the 
Jews  in  his  time  did,  from  the  ninth  hour  until  the  eleventh." 
Hence  the  law,  requiring  the  paschal  lamb  to  be  sacrificed 
"  at  even,  at  the  going  down  of  the  sun"  (Deut.  xvi.  6^,  ex- 
pressed both  evenings.     It  is  truly  remarkable,  that  "  Christ 

»  During  the  siege  of  Jerusalem,  the  Jewish  historian  relates  that  the 
priests  were  not  interrupted  in  the  discharore  of  their  sacred  functions,  liut 
coutinued  twice  a  day,  in  the  morning,  and  at  the  ninth  hour  (or  at  tliree 
o'clock  in  the  afternoon),  to  otter  up  sacrifices  at  the  allar.  Tlic  Jews 
rarely,  if  ever,  ate  or  drank  till  after  the  hour  of  prayer  (Acis  x.  30.),  and 
on  Saljbath-days  not  till  the  sixth  hour  (twelve  at  noos-^osephus,  de  vita 
sua.  §54.):  which  circumstance  well  explains  t!ie  apt^ffiPeter's  defence 
of  those  on  whom  the  Holy  Spirit  had  miraculously  dSfcended  on  the  day 
of  Pentecost.    (Acts  ii.  lo!) 

«  Dr.  A.  Clarke  on  Exod.  xiv.  11. 

3  Thus  the  134th  psalm  gives  an  instance  of  the  temple  watch  :  the  whole 
psalm  is  nothing  more  tiian  the  alternate  cry  of  two  diflerent  divisions  of 
the  watch.  The  first  watth  addresses  the  second  (ver.  1,  2.)  reminding 
them  of  their  duty  ;  and  the  second  answers  (ver.  3.)  by  a  solemn  blessing. 
The  address  and  tlie  answer  seem  both  to  be  a  set  form,  which  each  indi- 
vidual proclaimed  or  sung  aloud,  at  stated  intervals,  to  notify  the  lime  of 
(he  nighf.    Bishop  Lowlh's  Isaiah,  vol.  ii.  p.  357. 

■•  See  Homer,  Iliad,  lib.  x.  v.  •2.'i2,  253.  Livy,  lib.  vii.  c.  35.  and  Zenophon, 
Anab.  lib.  iv.  p.  250.  (edit.  Hutchinson.) 

5  I.ightfoot,  Hor.  Heb.  on  John  xiii.  38.  (Works,  vol.  ii.  p.  597.)  Grotius 
and  Whitby  on  Matt.  xxvi.  31.  Dr.  Hales's  Analysis  of  Clironology,  vol. 
i.  p.  112.  iJy  which  writers  various  pas.^ages  of  classical  authors  are  cited. 
Pee  also  Mr.  Townsend's  Harraouy  of  the  New  Testament,  vol.  i.  pp. 
480-182. 

«  Fi-agments  annexed  to  Calraet's  Dictionary,  No.  cclxiii.  p.  lC-1. 

■>  De  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  vi.  c.  9.  §  3. 
Vol.  II.  K 


our  passover,"  the  antitype  of  the  paschal  lawib,  "  expired  ?.l 
the  ninth  hour,  and  was  taken  down  from  the  crosS  at  the 
eleventh  hour,  or  sunset."^ 

III.  Seven  nights  and  days  constituted  a  Week  ;  six  of 
these  were  appropriated  to  labour  and  the  ordinary  purposes 
of  life,  and  the  seventh  day  or  Sahba-^h  was  appointed  by  God 
to  be  observed  as  a  day  of  rest,  because  that  cm  it  he  had.  restea 
from  all  his  work  which  God  lied  created  and  nnide.  (Gen.  ii. 
3.)  This  division  of  time  was  universally  observed  by  the 
descendants  of  Noah;  and  some  eminent  critics  have  conjec- 
tured thatit  was  lost  during  the  bondage  of  the  Israelites  in 
Egypt,  but  was  revived  and  enacted  by  Moses  agreeably  to 
the  divine  command.  This  conjecture  derives  some  weight 
from  the  word  Sabbat  or  Sabbnta,  denoting  a  week  amontr 
the  Syrians,  Arabians,  Christian  Persians,  and  Ethiopians, 
as  in  the  following  ancient  Syriac  Calendar,  expressed  in 
Hebrew  characters  :9 

.sn3'i:'-nn. . .  One  of  the  Sabbath,  or  Week. .  .Sunday. 

i<pyy-f\P  • . .  Txvo  of  the  Sabbath Monday. 

Nn3t:'"n'7n.  •  •  Three  of  the  Sabbath Tuesday. 

Wair-Njoix . .  .Four  of  the  Sabbath Wednesday. 

.Nnaz'"N'.:'Cn. .  .Five  of  the  Sabbath Thursday. 

Nnjiy-ij?   . .  Eve  of  tlie  Sabbath Friday. 

Knai'.    •  The  Sabbath Saturday. 

The  high  antiquity  of  this  calendar  is  evinced  by  the  use 
of  the  cardinal  numbers,  one,  two,  three,  &c.  instead  of  the 
ordinals,  first,  second,  third,  &c.  following  the  Hebrew  idiom  ; 
as  in  the  account  of  the  creation,  where  we  read  in  the  origi- 
nal, "  one  day — two  day — three  day,"  &c. ;  where  the  Sep- 
tuagint  retains  it  in  the  first,  calling  it  ifAip-x  juia.  It  is  re- 
markable that  all  the  evangelists  follow  the  Syriac  calendar, 
both  in  the  word  o-uCC-xtu,  used  for  "  a  week,''''  and  also  in  re- 
taining the  cardinal  number  .mw  o-affaTav,  "  one  of  tlie  iceek,'^ 
to  express  the  day  of  the  resurrection.  (Matt,  xxviii.  1.  Mark 
xvi.  2.  Luke  xxiv.  1.  John  xx.  1.)  Afterwards  Mark  adopts 
the  usual  phrase,  ■rpccr-i  o-ctCC-j-Tn,  "  the  first  of  the  week''''  (Mark 
xvi.  9.),  where  he  uses  the  singular  o-JtfCaTcv  for  a  tveek ,-  and 
so  does  Luke,  as  Nns-Tsy^  cT;?  tij  a-xSCxTi:,  "  I  fast  twice  in  the 
week.''''  (Luke  xviii.  12.) 

The  Syriac  name  for  Friday,  or  the  sixth  day  of  the  week, 
is  also  adopted  by  IMark,  who  renders  it  ^f,c!ru.CCxTCY,  ^' sabbath- 
eve'-^  (xv.  42.),  corresponding  to  7riifi<rKiw-i,  '■'•  preparaiion-duy .'''' 
(Matt,  xxvii.  62.  Mark  xv.  42.  Luke  xxiii.  54.  John  xix. 
31.)  And  Josephus  also  conforms  to  this  usage,  except  that 
he  uses  o-^lCQ-xt^  in  the  singular  sense,  for  the  Sabbath-day,  in 
his  account  of  a  decree  of  Augustus,  exem.pting  the  Jews  of 
Asia  and  Cyrene  from  secular  services,  w  a-^QC^cn,  »  t»  tt^ 
t:<:/t»c  7r:!fii(7-Kiuii,  oLTTo  TK  ^fiA?  £i'i'*T«f.  "  Ou  the  Subbut h-A'Aj ,  or 
on  the  prtparation-ddiy  before  it,  from  the  ninth  hour.'"io  The 
first  three  evangelists  also  use  the  plural  o-'jiCSutu,  to  denote 
the  Sabbath-day.  (Matt.  xii.  5— -11.  IMark  i.  21.  and  ii.  23. 
Luke  iv.  16,  &c.)  Whereas  John,  to  avoid  ambiguity,  ap- 
propriates the  singular  a-a..=C-xTcv  to  the  Subbuth-dd.y,  and  the 
plural  o-afbWa.  to  the  week.  (John  v.  9 — 16.  vii.  22,  &c.  xx.  1.) 

I'he  second  Sabbath  after  the  first  (Luke  vi.  1 .),  Swrip-.n-paTov, 
or  rather  the  second  prime  Sabbedh,  concerning  which  com- 
mentators have  been  so  greatly  divided,  appears  to  have  been 
the  first  Sabbath  after  the  second  day  of  unleavened  bread  or 
of  the  passover  week.  Besides  weeks  of  days,  the  Jews  had 
weeks  of  seven  years  (the  seventh  of  which  was  called  the 
sabbatical  year)  •  and  weeks  of  seven  times  seven  years,  or 
or  of  forty-nine  years,  which  v/ere  reckoned  from  one  jubilee 
to  another.  The  fiftieth  or  jubilee  year  was  celebrated  with 
sino-ular  festivity  and  solemnity." 

fV.  The  Hebrews  had  their  Months,  which,  like  those  of 
all  other  ancient  nations,  were  lunar  ones,  being  measured  by 
the  revolutions  of  the  moon,  and  consisting  alternately  of 
twenty-nine  and  thirty  days.  While  the  Jews  continued  in 
the  land  of  Canaan,  the  commencement  of  their  months  and 
years  was  not  settled  by  any  astronomical  rules  or  calcula- 
tions, but  by  the phasis  or  actual  appearance  of  the  moon.  As 
soon  as  they  saw  the  moon,  they  began  the  month.  Persons 
were  therefore  appointed  to  watch  on  the  tops  of  the  moun- 
tains for  the  first  appearance  of  the  moon  after  the  change : 
as  soon  as  they  saw  it,  they  informed  the  Sanhcdrin,  and 
public  notice  was  given,  first,  by  the  sounding  of  trumpets, 
to  which  there  is  an  allusion  in  Psal.  Ixxxi.  3. ;  and  after- 

«  Dr.  Hales's  Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  i.  p.  111.  In  the  two  foilowin; 
page.s,  he  illustrates  several  apparenlly  chronological  contradictions  be- 
tween the  evangelists  with  equal  felicity  and  Ifarning. 

»  This  calendar  is  taken  from  Bp.  Marsh's  Translation  of  Michaelis's  Ii> 
troduction  to  the  New  Testament,  vol.  i.  p.  136. 

">  Antir|.  lib.  xvi.  c.  6.  §  2. 

>'  Dr.  Hales's  Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  i.  p.  120. 


74 


JEWISH  AND  ROMAN  MODES  OF  COMPUTING  TIME. 


[Part  II 


wards  lighting  beacons  throuorhout  the  land;  though  (as  the 
mishnical  rabbins  tell  us)  after  they  had  frequently  been  de- 
ceived by  the  Samaritans,  who  kindled  false  fires,  they  used 
to  announce  the  appearance  by  sendino;  messengers.  As, 
however,  they  had  no  months  longer  than  thirty  days,  if  they 
did  not  see  the  new  moon  the  night  following  the  thirtieth 
day,  they  concluded  that  the  appearance  was  obstructed  by 
the  clouds ;  and,  without  watching  any  longer,  made  the  next 
day  the  first  day  of  the  following  month.  But,  on  the  dis- 
persion of  the  Jews  throughout  all  nations,  having  no  oppor- 
tunities of  being  informed  of  the  appearance  of  the  new 
moons,  they  were  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  astronomical 
calculations  and  cycles,  in  order  to  fix  the  beginning  of  their 
months  and  years.  At  first,  they  employed  a  cycle  of  eighty- 
four  years  :  but  this  being  discovered  to  be  defective,  they 
had  recourse  to  the  Mctonic  cycle  of  nineteen  years;  which 
was  established  by  the  authority  of  rabbi  Hillel,  prince  of  the 
Sanhedrin,  about  the  year  3G0  of  the  Christian  a;ra.  This 
they  still  use,  and  say  that  it  is  to  be  observed  until  the 
coming  of  the  ]\Icssial).  In  the  compass  of  this  cj'cle  there 
are  twelve  common  years,  consisting  of  twelve  months,  and 
seven  intercalary  years,  consisting  of  thirteen  months.' 

O.'iginally,  the  .Tews  had  no  particular  names  for  their 
month's,  but  called  them  the /'■«/,  second,  &c.  Thus  the  De- 
luge began  in  the  second  month,  and  came  to  its  height  in  the 
seventh  month,  at  the  end  of  150  days  (Gen.  vii.  11 — 21.  viii. 
4.) ;  and  decreased  until  the  tenlh  month,  when  the  tops  of 
the  mountains  were  seen.  (viii.  5.)  Afterwards  they  acquired 
distinct  names ;  thus  Moses  named  the^/-*/  month  of  the  year 
Abib  (Exod.  xii.  2.  xiii.  4.)  ;  signifying  green,  from  the  green 
ears  of  corn  at  that  season  ;  foritbeffanabont  the  vernal  equi- 
nox. The  second  month  was  named  'Zif,  signifyincr  in  Chal- 
dee  glory  or  fiplendmtr ,-  in  which  the  foundation  of  Solomon's 
temple  was  laid.  (1  Kings  vi.  1.)  The  seventh  month  was 
styled  Ethanim,  which  is  interpreted  harvests  by  the  Syriac 
version.  (1  Kin^s  viii.  2.)  Tlie  eighth  month  Bui ,-  from 
the  fall  of  the  leaf.  (1  Kings  vi.  38.)  But  concerning  the 
origin  of  these  appellations  critics  are  by  no  means  agreed  : 
on  their  return  from  the  Babylonish  captivity,  they  introduced 
the  names  which  they  had  ibund  among  the  Chalda'ans  and 
Persians.  Thus,  the  first  month  was  also  called  Nisan,  signi- 
(ying  Jl'ght ;  because  in  that  month  the  Israelites  were  thrust 
out  of  EfTypt  (Exod.  xii.  39.)  ;  thetliird  month,  Sivan,  signi- 
fying a  uramhlc  (I'^sth.  iii.  7.  Neh.  ii.  1.);  and  the  sixth 
month  Elul,  signifying  monrning,  probably  because  it  was 
the  time  of  preparation  for  the  great  day  of  atonement,  on  the 
tenth  day  of  tiie  seventh  month.  (Neh.vi.  15.)  The  ninth 
month  was  called  ChisL-u,  signifying  chilled,-  when  the  cold 
weather  sets  in,  and  fires  are  lighted.  (Zech.  vii.  1.  Jer.  xxxvi. 
22.)  The  tenth  month  was  called  Febelh,  signifying  miry. 
(Esth.  ii.  IG.)  The  eleventh,  Shcbef,  signifying  a  staff  or  a 
sceptre.  (Zech.  i.  7.)  And  the  twelftii  Jdar,  signitying  a 
magnificent  mnntky  pn^bably  from  the  profusion  of  flowers 
and  plants  with  which  the  earth  then  begins  to  he  clothed  in 
warm  climates.  (Ezra  vi.  15.  Esth.  iii.  7.)  It  is  said  to  be 
a  Syriac  term.  ^2  Mac.  xvi.  30.)^ 

V.  The  Jews  had  four  sorts  of  Ve*.rs, — one  for  plants,  an- 
other for  1  easts,  a  third  for  sacred  purposes,  and  the  fourth 
was  civil  and  common  to  all  the  inliabitants  of  Palestine. 

1.  The  year  nf  Plants  was  reckoned  from  the  month  corres- 
ponding with  our  January ;  because  thi'y  paid  tithe-fruits  of 
the  trees  whicli  budded  at  that  time. 

2.  The  second  year  was  that  of  Beasts,-  for  when  they 
tithed  their  lambs,  the  owner  drove  all  the  flock  under  a  rod,, 
and  they  marked  the  tenth,  which  was  given  to  the  I.evites. 
They  could,  however,  oidy  take  those  which  fell  in  the  year, 
and  this  year  began  at  the  month  Elul,  or  the  beginning  of 
our  AufTust. 

But  tlie  two  years  which  arc  the  most  known  are  the  Civil 
and  Ecclesiastical  Years. 

3.  The  Civil  Year  commenced  on  the  fifteenth  of  our  Sej)- 
tember,  because  it  was  ;fn  old  tradition  that  th(^  world  was 
created  at  that  time.  From  this  j'car  the  Jews  conij)uted 
their  jubilees,  dated  all  contracts,  and  noted  the  birth  ol  chil- 
dren, and  the  reign  of  kings.  It  is  said  also  that  this  month 
was  appointed  for  making  war  ;  because,  the  great  heats  be- 
ing passed,  they  then  went  into  the  fie'd.  In  2  Sam.  xi.  1. 
we  read  that  Harid  sent  Juab  and  his  sen-ants  with  him,  mid 
all  Israel,  to  dcslray  the  .Qmnioniles,  at  the  return  af  the  year 

«  Dr.  A.  Clarkp,  at  tlic  cti'l  nf  liis  commcnlary  on  Priilcrononiv,  haa  given 
six  clnlxiraltly  conslnicteil  ratilpK,  r.x[>lannl<iry  of  thn  Jpwisli  ralr-ndar. 
Mr.  Allen  has  also  (fivrn  nix  tiihlos  ;  winch,  ihoiijh  let:B  extensive  than  the 
preceilin?,  are  well  calriilaleil  to  afr>ril  a  clear  idea  of  the  ronstrurtion  and 
vai iaiio  >s  of  the  Jewish  calendar.     See  .Mmlern  Jiidaisni,  pi'.  30'J — 377. 

*  Dr.  Iloles'a  Analyajg  of  Cbronulogy,  vul.  i.  p.  l'.r. 


S 


marginal  rendering),  at  the  time  when  kings  go  forth  to  battle, 
tliat  is,  in  the  month  of  September.  The  annexed  table  ex- 
hibits the  months  of  the  Jewish  civil  year,  with  the  corres- 
ponding months  of  our  computation  : — 

1.  Tisri....  corresponds  with  part  of....  September  and  October. 

2.  Marole'svan October  and  November. 

3.  (-'hi.^ieu  or  Kisleu November  and  December 

4.  Thebet December  and  January. 

5.  Sebat  January  and  February. 

•>.  Adar February  and  March. 

7.  Nisan  or  Al)ib March  and  April. 

8.  Jyaror  Zif April  and  May. 

9.  silvan May  and  June. 

10.  Thaminiiz  JuneandJuly. 

11.  Ab   July  and  Ani:us>. 

1-2.  Kbit August  and  Scptembe* 

Some  of  the  preceding  names  are  still  in  use  in  Persia. 

4.  The  Ecclesiastical  or  Sacred  Year  began  in  March,  or  on 
the  first  day  of  the  month  Nisan,  because  at  that  time  they 
departed  out  of  Egypt.  Yvom  that  month  they  computed 
their  feasts,  and  the  prophets  also  occasionally  dated  their 
oracles  and  visions.  Thus  Zcchariah  f  vii.  1.)  says,  that ///« 
word  of  the  Lord  came  unto  him  in  the  fourth  day  of  the  ninth 
month,  even  in  Chisleu ,-  which  answers  to  our  November, 
whence  it  is  evident  that  he  adopted  the  ecclesiastical  year, 
which  commenced  in  March.  The  month  Nisan  is  noted  in 
the  Old  Testament  for  the  overfowings  of  Jordan  (Josh,  iii 
15.  1  Chron.  xii.  15.) ;  which  were  common  at  that  season, 
the  river  being  swollen  by  the  melted  snow^s  that  poured  in 
torrents  from  Blount  Lebanon.  The  following  table  presents 
the  months  of  the  Jewish  ecclesiastical  year,  compared  witli 
our  months  : — 

^'  (Neh"iri:Eith;iii.Y..;  (  «"«^«"  ">  P^^  of  March  ard  April. 

2.  Jyar  or  Zif April  and  May. 

3.  Sivan  (E.sth.  viii.  9.) May  and  June. 

4.  Thammu'/ June  and  July. 

5.  Ab July  and  .\ui:usf. 

6.  Elul  (Neh.vi.  1.').) August  and  Scpiember. 

7.  Ti.sri Sepieuiber  and  October. 

8.  Marchesvan October  and  November. 

9.  Kisleii  or  Cnisleu  (Zech.  vii.  1.  Neh.  i.  I.)  November  and  December. 

10.  Thebet December  and  January. 

11.  Sebat  (Zech.  i.  7.) January  and  February. 

12.  Adar  (Ezra  vi.  13.  Esth.  iii.  7.) February  and  MarLli.» 

The  Jewish  months  being  regulated  by  the  phases  or  ap- 
pearances of  the  moon,  their  years  were  consetiuently  lunar 
years,  consisting  of  twelve  tunations,  or  35  4  days  and  8 
hours ;  but  as  the  Jewish  festivals  were  held  not  ordy  on  cer- 
tain fixed  days  of  the  month,  but  also  at  certain  Seasons  of 
the  year,  consequently  great  confusion  would,  in  process  of 
time,  arise  by  this  method  of  calculating  ;  the  spring  month 
sometimes  falling  in  the  middle  of  winter,  it  became  neces- 
sary to  accommodate  the  lunar  to  solar  years,  in  order  that 
their  months,  and  consequently  their  festivals,  might  alwavs 
fall  at  the  same  season.  For  this  purpose,  the  Jews  added  a 
whole  month  to  the  year,  as  often  as  it  was  necessary  ;  which 
occurred  commonly  once  in  three  years,  and  sometimes  once 
in  two  years.  This  intercalary  month  was  added  at  the  end 
of  the  ecclesiastical  year  after  the  month  Adar,  and  was  there- 
fore called  Ve-Adar,  or  the  second  Adar  :  but  no  vestiges  of 
such  intercalation  are  to  be  found  in  the  Scriptures. 

As  agriculture  constituted  the  ])rincipal  employment  of  the 
Jews,  they  also  divided  their  natural  year  into  seasons  with 
reference  to  their  rural  work.  These,  we  have  seen,  were 
six  in  number,  each  of  two  months'  duration,  including  one 
whole  month  and  tlie  halves  of  two  others.  See  an  account 
of  them  in  pp.  2.3 — 25.  of  this  volume. 

To  this  natural  division  of  the  year  there  are  several  allu- 
sions in  the  Sacred  Writings  :  as  in  Jer.  xxxvi.  22.  where 
king  Jehoiakim  is  said  to  be  sitting  in  the  winter-house  in  the 
ninth  sacred  month  Chisleu,  the  latter  half  of  which  fell  in 
the  winter  or  r.iiny  season  ;  so,  in  Ezra  x.  13.  it  is  said  that 
the  congregatuiy  of  the  jieojile  which  had  been  convened  on 
tlie  twentieth  d»y  of  the  same  month,  were  not  able  to  stand 

a  The  preceding  view  of  the  sacred  and  civil  years  of  the  Jews  is  that 
generally  adopted  by  the  most  eminent  writers  on  Ji-wish  antirpiilies,  aflcr 
The  opinions  of  the  Jewish  rabbins,  who  aflirm  that  March  and  Hrntrmber 
were  the  initial  monlbn  of  these  two  years,  instead  of  April  and  October 
That  this  was  ibe  c.i.se  at  a  late  period  is  admitted  by  Jalin  .-.lul  ,\rkermann, 
after  J.  i>.  Michaelis.  Hut  alter  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Ro. 
Mianrs,  who  commenced  their  year  with  the  month  of  March,  it  appears 
that  the  Jews  adopted  the  practice  of  their  confjuerors.  In  confirmation 
of  Ibis  remark  i(  may  b<'  observed  that  the  rabmnical  opinion  is  oppogeif 
not  only  by  Josepbu.-*,  but  also  by  the  (tenlus  of  the  Syriac  and  Araliic 
languagrs,  anil  by  the  fact  that  the  ceremonies  nrescribed  to  be  observed 
on  till'  three  great  festival  davs  do  not  .ijjree  willi  the  mouths  of  March  and 
.SepliMiiber.  For  a  further  invi'stitiation  of  this  curious  question,  which 
cannot  be  discusiied  within  the  liniiis  of  a  note,  the  reader  is  referred  to 
Michaelis's  Cominentalio  de  Mensibus  MebriPorimi,  In  the  Commcntationeg 
negin'  Societutis  (ioettingensi  l><-r  annus  17634J8,  pp  10.  el  sfq.,  or  to  Mr. 
Ilowver'g  translation  of  this  (iis(iuisilion  in  his  "Select  Discourses"  on 
Uie  Hebrew  months,  *c  pp.  1— 3i 


Chap.  IV.] 


THE  JEWISH  CALENDAR. 


75 


out  in  the  open  air,  because  it  was  "  a  time  of  much  rain." 
Tlie  knowledge  of  this  mode  of  dividing  the  year  illustrates 
John  X.  23,  23.  and  accounts  for  our  Lord's  walking  in  the 
portico  of  the  temple  at  the  feast  of  dedication,  which  was 
celebrated  towards  the  close  of  the  same  month. 

Further,  the  Jews  divided  their  solar  year  into  four  parts, 
called  by  them  TekupJiat  (that  is,  revolutions  of  time\,  or 
q.iarters,  which  they  distinguished  by  the  names  ot  the 
months  with  which  they  commenced :  thus,  the  vernal  equi- 
nox is  termed  Tekuphat  Nisan ,-  the  autumnal  equinox,  Teku- 
phat  Tisri ,-  the  winter  solstice,  2\kuphat  Tebeth ,-  and  the 
summer  solstice,  Tekuphat  Thammuz,  Some  critics  have 
conjectured  that  our  Lord  refers  to  the  intervening  space  of 
four  months,  from  the  conclusion  of  seed-time  to  the  com- 
mencement of  the  harvest,  in  John  iv.  35. 

The  following  Calendar  will  present  to  the  reader  a  view 
of  the  entire  Jewish  Year.  It  is  abridged  from  Father 
Lamy's  Apparatus  Bihlicus,^  with  additions  from  the  Calen- 
dar printed  by  Calmet,  at  the  end  of  his  Dictionary  of  the 
Bible.  In  it  are  inserted  the  festivals  and  fasts  celebrated 
by  the  Jews;  including  not  only  those  enacted  by  the  law  of 
Moses,  and  which  are  described  in  a  subsequent  part  of  this 
work,  but  likewise  those  which  \yere  not  established  until 
after  the  destruction  of  the  temple,  and  those  which  are  ob- 
served by  the  Jews  to  the  present  time.  The  lessons  also 
are  introduced  which  they  were  accustomed  to  read  in  the 
synagogues. — Those  days,  on  which  no  festival  or  fast  was 
celebrated,  are  designedly  omitted. 


1.    TISRI,  FORMERLY  CALLED    ETHANIM. 

The  FIRST  month  of  the  civil  year,  the  seventh  month  of  the 
ecclesiastical  yeur;  it  has  thirty  days,  and  corresponds  ivith 
part  of  our  September  and  October. 

1.  Rosch  llaschana,  the  beginning  of  the  civil  year.  The  feast  of  trum- 
pets commanded  in  Leviticus.  (Lev.  xxiii.  24,  25.  Num.  xxix.  1.  Jer. 
jsii.  ).) 

3.  The  fast  of  Gedaliah;  because  Gedaliah,  the  son  of  Ahikam,  and  all 
the  Jews  that  were  with  liim,  were  slain  at  Mizpah.  (2  Kings  xxv.  25.) 
This  is  the  fast  that  Zechariah  calls  the  fast  of  the  seventh  month.  (Zech. 
viii.  19.) 

5.  A  fast.  Twenty  Israelites  were  killed:  Rabbi  Akiba,  the  son  of  Jo- 
sojih,  was  loaded  with  irons,  and  died  in  prison. 

7.  A  fast,  appointed  on  account  of  the  golden  calf    (Exod.  xxxii.  6,  7, 8.) 
The  lessons  for  this  day  were  from  Deut.  xx^'i.  1.  to  Deut.  xxix.  and  the 

Ixth  chapter  of  Isaiah. 
10.  Tlie  fast  of  expiation.  (Lev.  xxiii.  27.) 

14.  The  lessons  for  this  day  were  from  Deut.  xxix.  10.  to  Deut.  xxxi.  I. 
when  the  year  had  most  Sabbaths  ;  and  when  fewest,  the  book  was  finished 
on  this  day.     And  from  Isa.  Ixi.  1.  to  Isa.  l.\iii.  10. 

15.  The  feast  of  fabemacles.  (Lev.  x.viii.  31,  35.)  It  lasted  seven  days, 
exclusive  of  the  octave  or  eighth  day. 

21.  Hosanna  Rabba,  the  seventh  day  of  the  feast  of  tabernacles  ;  or  the 
feast  of  branches. 

The  lessons  for  this  day  were  from  Gen.  i.  1.  to  Gen.  vi.  9.  and  from  Isa. 
jilii.  5.  to  Isa.  xliii.  11. 

22.  The  octave  of  the  feast  of  tabernacles.    (Lev.  xxiii.  3G.) 

23.  The  solemnity  of  the  law,  in  memory  of  the  covenant  and  death  of 
Moses.     On  this  day  Solomon's  dedication  was  finished.    (1  Kings  viii.  tj5.) 

28.  The  lessons  were  from  Gen.  vi.  9.  to  Gen.  xii.  X.  end  from  Isa.  liv.  1. 
to  Isa. Iv.  5. 

30.  On  this  day  the  lessons  were  from  Gen.  xii.  1.  to  Gen.  xviii.  1.  and 
from  Isa.  xl.  27.  to  Isa.  xli.  17.  (This  dav  is  the  fast  held  in  commemoration 
of  the  murder  of  Gedaliah,  whom  N'ebuchadnezzar  made  governor  of 
Judaea,  after  he  had  destroyed  Jerusalem,  according  to  Dr.  Prideaux.  » 

2.  MARCHESVAN 

The  SECOXD  month  of  the  civil  year,  the  eigiith  month  of  the 
ecclesiastical  year  ;  it  has  only  ttventy-nine  days,  and  cor- 
responds with  part  of  our  October  and  JS'ovember. 

1.  The  new  moon.  (Calmet  observes,  in  the  Jewish  Calendar,  at  the  end 
of  his  Dictionary  of  the  Bible,  that  the  Jews  always  made  two  new  moons 
for  every  month ;  the  first  of  which  was  the  last  day.of  the  preceding 
month  ;  and  the  first  day  of  the  month  was  the  second  new  moon  of  that 
month.) 

3.  The  lessons  for  this  day  were  from  Gen.  xviii.  1.  to  Gen.  xxiii.  1.  and 
from  2  Sam.  iv.  1.  to  2  Sam.  iv.  ^. 

'  6.  A  fast,  appointed  on  account  of  Zedekiah's  having  his  eyes  put  out  by 
the  command  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  after  he  had  seen  his  children  slain  be- 
fore his  face.     (2  Kings  xxv.  7.  Jer.  Hi.  10^ 

8.  The  lessons  for  this  day  were  from  Gen.  xxiii.  1.  to  Gen.  xxv.  19.  and 
from  1  Sam.  i.  1.  to  1  Sam.  i.  3?. 

15.  The  lessons  for  this  day  were  from  Gen.  xxv.  19.  to  Gen.  xxviii.  10. 
and  from  Mai.  i.  1.  to  Mai.  ii.  8. 

19.  Fast  to  expiate  the  crimes  committed  on  account  of  the  feast  of 
tabernacles. 

23.  A  fast  in  memory  of  the  stones  of  the  altar  which  the  Gentiles  pro- 
faned, 1  Mac.  iv.  46. 

The  lessons  for  this  day  were  from  Gen.  xxviii.  10.  to  Gen.  xxxii.  3.  and 
from  Hos.  xi.  7.  to  Hos.  xiv.  3. 

25.  A  fast  in  memory  of  some  places  which  the  Ciithoeans  seized,  and 
were  recovered  by  the  Israelites  after  the  captivity. 

'  Lamy's  Apparatus  Bibiicus,  vol.  i.  p.  l.W.  et  scq. 

»  Prideaux's  Connection,  part  i.  book  i.  under  the  year  5S8. 


In  this  month  the  Jews  prayed  for  the  rain,  which  they  call 
Jore,  or  the  autumnal  rain,  which  was  very  seasonable  for  their 
seed.  Genebrard  pretends  that  they  did  not  ask  for  this  rain  tiil 
the  next  month.  Perhaps  there  might  be  no  stated  time  for 
asking  for  it ;  that  might  depend  upon  their  want  of  it.  The 
Jews  say  it  was  in  October ;  and  it  was  called  in  general  the 
autumnal  rain,  which  season  lasted  three  months. 

3.  CHISLEU,  OR  CASLEU. 

The  THIRD  month  of  the  civil  year,  the  xinth  month  of  the 
ecclesiastical  year  ;  it  has  thirty  days,  and  corresponds  -with 
part  of  our  JVovember  and  December. 

1.  The  new  moon. 

2.  Prayers  for  rain. 

3.  A  foast  in  memory  of  the  idols  which  the  Asmonseans  threw  out  of 
the  temple. 

6.  The  lessons  for  this  day  were  from  Gen.  xxxii.  3.  to  Gen.  xxx-vii.  1. 
and  the  whole  book  of  Obadiah,  or  from  Hos.  xii.  12.  to  the  end  of  the 
book. 

7.  A  fast,  instituted  because  king  JehOiakim  burned  the  prophecy  of 
Jeremiah,  which  Baruch  had  written.  (Jer.  xxxvi.  23.)  This  fast  Dr.  Pri- 
deaux places  on  the  29th  of  this  month.a  But  Calmet  places  it  on  the  sixth 
of  this  month,  and  makes  the  seventh  of  this  month  a  festival,  in  memory 
of  the  death  of  Herod  the  Great,  the  son  of  Aniipater.  Scaliger  will  liava 
it  that  it  was  instituted  on  account  of  Zedekiah's  having  his  eyes  put  out, 
after  his  children  had  been  slain  in  his  sight. 

10.  The  lessons  for  this  day  were  from  Gen.  xxxvii.  I.  to  Gen.  xli.  1.  and 
from  Amos  ii.  6,  to  Amos  iii.  9. 

17.  The  lessons  for  this  day  were  from  Gen.  xli.  1.  to  Gen.  xliv.  18.  and 
from  1  Sam.  iii.  15.  to  the  end  of  the  chapter. 

2.5.  The  dedication  of  the  temple.    This  feast  lasted  eight  days. 

The  lessons  for  this  day  were  from  Gen.  xliv.  18.  to  Gen.  xlvii.  27.  and 
from  Ezek.  xxxvii.  15.  to  the  end  of  the  chapter. 

4.  THEBETH,  or  TEBETH. 

The  fourth  month  of  the  civil  year,  the  tenth  month  of  the 
ecclesiastical  year ;  it  has  but  tiuenty-nine  days,  and  cor- 
responds  with  part  of  our  December  and  January, 

1.  The  new  moon. 

3.  The  lessons  for  this  day  were  from  Gen.  xlvii,  27.  to  the  end  of  the 
book,  and  the  thirteen  first  verses  of  the  second  chapter  of  the  first  book 
of  Samuel. 

8.  A  fast  on  account  of  the  translation  of  the  Bible  into  Greek.  Philo,  in 
his  life  of  Moses,  says,  that  the  Jews  of  Alexandria  celebrated  a  feast  on 
this  day,  in  memory  of  the  72  Interpreters.  But  the  Jews  at  present  abo- 
minate that  version. 

9.  A  fast,  the  reason  of  which  is  not  mentioned  by  the  Rabbins. 

10.  A  fast  on  account  of  the  siege  which  the  king  of  Babylon  laid  to  Jeru- 
salem. (2Kingsxxv.) 

U.  The  lessons  were  the  first  five  chapters  of  Exodus,  and  with  them 
from  Isa.  x.x^'ii.  6.  to  Isa.  xx^•ii.  14.  or  else  from  Jer.  i.  1.  to  Jer.  ii.  4. 

17.  The  lessons  for  this  day  were  from  Exod.  vi.  1.  to  Exod.  x.  1.  and 
from  Ezek.  xxviii.  2.5.  to  Ezek.  xxx.  1. 

25.  The  lessons  for  this  day  were  from  Exod.  x.  1.  to  Exod  xiii.  17.  and 
from  Jer.  xlvi.  13.  to  the  end  of  the  chapter. 

28.  A  fast  in  memory  of  Rabbi  Simeon's  having  driven  the  SadducecJ 
out  of  the  Sanhedrin,  where  they  had  the  upper  hand  in  the  time  of  Alcx« 
ander  Jannaeus ;  and  his  having  introduced  the  Pharisees  in  their  room. 

5.  SEBAT,  SHE  VET,  or  SHE  BAT. 

The  FIFTH  month  of  the  civil  year,  the  eleventh  month  of  thi 
ecclesiastical  year  ;  it  has  thirty  days,  and  corresponds  -with 
part  of  our  Jamiary  and  Tebruary. 

1.  The  new  moon.  In  this  month  the  .lews  began  to  reckon  the  yean 
of  the  trees  which  they  planted,  whose  fruit  was  not  to  be  eaten  till  aflei 
they  had  been  planted  three  years.  Calmet  fixes  the  beginning  of  thil 
year  of  trees  to  the  15th  day  of  tliis  month. 

2.  A  rejoicing  for  the  death  of  Alexander  Jannxus. 

3.  Now  is  read  from  Exod.  xiii.  17.  to  Exod.  x-viii.  1.  and  from  Judg.  iv.  4. 
to  Judg.  vi.  1. 

A  fast  in  memory  of  the  death  of  the  elders  who  succeeded  Joshua, 
(Judg.  ii.  10.) 

8.  A  fast,  because  on  this  day  died  the  just  men  who  lived  in  the  days  of 
Joshua.     (Judg.  ii.  10.) 

10.  The  lessons  were  from  Exod.  xviii.  1.  to  Exod.  xxi.  1.  and  the  whoU 
sixth  chapter  of  Isaiah. 

17.  The  lessons  for  this  day  were  from  Exod.  xxi.  1.  to  E.xod.  xxv.  1.  an4 
Jer.  xxxiv.  from  ver.  8.  to  the  end  of  the  chapter. 

23.  A  fast  in  memory  of  the  insurrection  of  the  other  tribes  against  thai 
of  Benjamin,  on  account  of  the  death  of  the  Levite's  wife.    (Judg.  xx.) 

26.  Now  is  read,  from  Exod.  xxv.  1.  to  Exod.  xxTii.  20.  and  from  1  Sam.  v. 
12.  to  1  Sam.  vi.  14.' 

29.  Now  is  read,  from  Exod.  xxvii.  20.  to  Exod.  xxx.  11.  and  Ezek,  xliii, 
from  the  10th  verse  to  the  end  of  the  chapter. 

6.  ADAR. 

The  SIXTH  month  of  the  civil  year,  the  twelfth  month  of  the 
ecclesiastical  year ;  it  has  only  tiventy-nine  days,  and  cor 
responds  -with  part  of  our  February  and  March. 

1.  The  new  moon.    Genebrard  places  the  first-fruits  on  this  day, 

3.  The  lessons  for  this  day  were  from  Exod.  xxx.  11.  to  Exod.  xixv.  1,  and 

from  ISam.  xviii.  1.  to  ISam.  xviii.  39. 
7.  A  fast  on  account  of  the  death  of  Moses,  the  lawgiver  of  the  Jows. 

(Deut.  xxxiv.  5,  6.) 

<  Connection,  part  i.  book  i.  under  the  year  685. 


76 


THE  JEWISH  CALENDAR. 


[Part  H. 


9.  A  fast.  The  schools  of  Schatumai  aiid  Ilillel  bogan  to  be  divided  on 
this  day. 

12.  The  lessons  arc  from  Exod.  x.x.tv.  1.  to  E.xod.  xx.xviii.  21.  and  from 
I  Sam.  -wii.  13.  to  1  Sam.  xvii.  26.  (This  day  is  also  a  feast  in  memory  of 
The  death  of  Hollianiis  and  Pipus,  two  proselytes  and  biothers,  wlio  cliose 
rather  to  die  tlian  violate  tlie  law.)' 

13.  A  festival  on  account  of  the  death  of  NIcanor.  (2  Mace.  xv.  37.) 
Genobrard  places  the  fast  of  Etither  (Esth.  iv.  10.)  on  this  day. 

14.  Purim  the  first,  or  the  Little  Feast  of  Lots. 

15.  Purira  the  second,  or  tlie  Great  Fca.st  of  Lots.  (Esth.  ix.  18.)  An  ac- 
eount  of  these  festivals  is  given  in  a  siib.-icqiiont  part  of  this  volume. 

The  dedication  of  the  temple  of  Zorobabel  (Enravi.  10.)  was  made  in  this 
month,  but  the  day  is  not  known. 

LS.  Now  is  read  from  Exod.  xxxviii.  21.  to  the  cad  of  the  book ;  and  from 
1  Sam.  vii.  50.  to  1  Sam.  viii.  21. 

20.  A  fast  in  memory  of  the  rain  obtained  of  God,  by  one  Onias  Uam- 
ma^el,  in  a  time  of  jjreat  dearth. 

25.  The  lessons  were  the  first  five  chapters  of  Lcviticu?,  and  from  Isa. 
xliii.  21.  to  Isa.  xliv.  21. 

23.  A  feast.  The  Grecian  edict,  which  forbade  the  Jews  the  use  of  cir- 
cumcision, recalled. 

The  intercalary  month  was  inserted  here,  when  the  rear  was  to  consist 
of  thirteen  lunar  months ;  and  the  inontii  so  added  was  cailC'l  Vc-Ailai-j  that 
is,  the  second  Adar. 

7.  ABIB,  OR  NISAN. 

The  SETEXTii  month  of  the  civil  year,  the  iinsT  itionth  of  the 
ecclesiastical  year  ;  it  has  thirty  days,  and  corresponds  -with 
part  of  our  JMurch  and  ^dpril, 

1.  The  new  moon.  A  fast  on  account  of  the  death  of  the  children  of 
Aaron.    (Lev.  x.  1  ) 

3.  Tlic  lessons  were  from  Lev.  vi.  1.  to  Lev.  ix.  1.  and  fi'om  Jer.  vii.  21. 
to  Jer.  viii.  4. 

10.  A  fast  on  account  of  the  death  of  Miriam.  (Num.  xx.  1.)  On  this  day 
every  one  provided  liim.«elf  with  a  lamb  against  the  Itlh. 

12.  Tnc  lessons  were  from  Lev.  ix.  1.  to  Lev.  xii.  1.  and  from  2  Sam.  vi.  1. 
to  2  Sam.  vii.  17. 

14.  The  passover.  The  Jews  now  burn  all  the  leavened  bread  they  have 
in  their  houses. 

15.  The  feast  of  unleavened  bread. 

10.  The  morrow  after  the  feast  of  the  passover.  On  this  second  day  the 
Jews  olfered  up  to  God  the  Ouicr.  that  i.s,  the  sheaf  of  the  new  barley 
harvest,  which  was  cut  and  carried  into  the  temple  with  much  ceremony. 
'I'lie  fifty  days  of  pentccost  were  reckoned  from  this  day. 

19.  The  lessons  were  from  Lev.  .xii.  1.  to  Lev.  xiv.  l.iuid  from  2 Sara.  iv. 
<2.  to  2  Sam.  v.  20. 

21.  The  last  day  of  the  feast  of  unleavened  bread. 

26.  A  fast  for  the  deatli  of  Josliua.     (Jd.ih.  xxiv.  29.) 

27.  The  lessons  were  from  Lev.  xiv.  1.  to  Lev.  xvi.  L  and  2  Sam.  vii.  3. 
to  the  end  of  the  chapter. 

29.  Gciicbrard  observes,  that  the  Jews  in  this  month  prayed  for  the 
i^pring  rain,  or  the  latter  rain,  which  was  seasonable  for  their  harvest. 
(Deal.  xi.  11.  Zech.  x.  I.)  This  is  that  rain  wliich  the  Hebrews  call 
Malkosh,  that  is,  the  rain  which  prepares  for  the  harvest,  and  makes  the 
grain  swell. 

8.  JYAR,  OR  ZIF. 
The  F.iOriTH  month  of  the  civil  y^ar,  the  second  month  of  the 
ecclesiastical  year ;  it  has  only  t-Mcnty-nine  days,  and  cor- 
responds -with  part  of  our  Jlpril  and  JMay. 

I.  The  new  moon. 

3.  The  lessons  were  from  Lev.  xvi.  1.  to  Lev.  xix.  1.  and  17  verses  of 
Ey.f.k.  xxii. 
10.  A  fast  for  the  death  of  Eli,  and  the  taking  of  the  ark.    (1  Sam.  iv.  18.) 

II.  Tlie  lessons  wore  from  Lev.  xix.  1.  to  Lev.  xx.  1.  and  from  Amos  ix.  7. 
to  the  end;  or  else  from  Ezek.  xx.  2.  to  Ezek.  x.\i.  21. 

14.  The  second  pit<sover  (Num.  ix.  10,  11.)  in  favour  of  those  who  could 
not,  or  were  not  suffered  to  celebrate  the  passover  the  l.a.st  month. 

19.  The  lessons  were  from  Lev.  xxi.  1.  to  Lev.  .xxv.  1.  and  from  Ezek.  iv. 
15.  to  the  end  of  the  chapter. 

23.  A  feast.    Simon  talces  Gaza,  according  to  Sraliger. 

26.  The  lessons  were  from  Lev.  xxv.  1.  to  Lev.  x.xvi.  3.  and  from  Jer. 
xxxii.  6.  to  Jer.  xxxii.  28. 

28.  K  fa.st  for  the  death  of  Samuel,  who  was  lamented  by  all  the  people. 
(I  Sam.  xxv.  1.) 

0.  SIVAN,  OR  SIUVAN. 

The  :ti7ttii  month  of  the  civil  year,  the  Tiiinn  month  of  the 
ecclesiastical  year ;  it  has  thirty  days,  and  corresponds  -.vith 
part  of  our  .May  and  June. 

1.  The  new  moon. 

3.  The  les.-«in.^  were  from  Lev.  «xvi.  3.  to  the  end  of  the  book,  and  from 
Jer.  xvi.  19.  to  Jer.  xvii.  l.'i. 

C.  The  feast  of  pentecost,  which  Is  also  called  the  feast  of  weeks,  be- 
cause it  fell  judt  seven  weoku  after  the  morrow  after  the  feast  of  the 
passover. 

10.  Numbers  is  begun  andTcad  to  ch.  iv.  vcr.  21.  and  from  IIoBca  ii.  10. 
lolloscaii.  21. 

13.  A  feast  in  memory  of  the  victories  of  tlio  Maccabees  over  the  Dath- 
surilps,  1  Mace.  V.  52. 

17.  A  frant  for  the  takinc  of  C.Tsarca  by  the  Asmnn.raiis. 

19.  The  I'^s.-i'ins  wore  from  Num.  iv.  21.  to  Num.  viii.  1.  and  from  Judg.  ii. 
2.  to  the  end  of  ihc  cliapter. 

23.  A  h^\,  bcrauKe  Jeroboam  forbad  the  ten  tribcg,  which  obeyed  him, 
to  carry  up  their  firstfriilts  to  Jerusalem.     (1  Kines  xii.  27.) 

2.5.  A  fa-it,  on  acnunt  of  the  murder  of  the  rribi>ins,  Hlnion  the  son  of 
Gamaliel,  Ishmarl  the  son  of  Elisha,  and  Ananias  the  Sagan,  that  iri,  the 
hich-pricst's  vicar. 

26.  The  lessons  were  from  Num.  viil.  to  Num.  xiii.  1.  and  from  Zech.  Ii. 
10.  to  Zech.  iv.  8. 

27.  A  fast,  because  Ilabbi  Ilanina,  (he  son  of  Tardion,  was  burnt,  and 
with  bin)  the  book  of  the  law. 

•  Scldcn.  I.  iii.  c.  13.  de  Syned.  ex  Meglll.  Taanilh.  Calmcfs  Calend 


10.  THAMMUZ,  OR  TAMMUZ. 


The  TKNxn  month  of  the  civil  year,  the  fourth  month  of  the 
ecclesiastical  year  ;  it  has  only  t-wenty-nine  days,  and  cor- 
responds  -with  part  of  our  June  and  July. 

1.  The  new  moon. 

3.  The  lessons  were  from  Num.  xiii.  1.  to  Num.  xvi.  1.  and  the  2d  chap- 
ter of  Joshua. 

10.  The  lessons  were  from  Num.  xvi.  1.  to  Num.  xix.  i.  and  from  1  Sam. 
xi.  14.  10  1  Sam.  xii.  23. 

14.  A  least  for  the  abolition  of  a  pernicious  book  of  the  Sadducees  against 
the  oral  law  and  tradition. 

17.  The  fast  of  the  fourth  month,  because  the  tables  of  the  law  were 
broken,  the  perpetual  sacrifice  ceased,  Rpistemon  burned  the  law,  and  set 
u|)  an  idol  in  the  temple. »  (Exod.  xxxii.  19.) 

19.  The  lessons  were  from  Num.  xix.  1.  to  Num.  xxii.  2.  and  tlie  lllh 
chapter  of  Judges  to  the  34lh  verse. 

26.  The  lessons  were  from  Num.  xxii.  2.  to  Num.  xxv.  10.  and  from  Mic. 
v.  7.  to  Mic.  vi.  9. 

29.  The  les.sons  were  fi-om  Num.  x-\xv.  10.  to  Num.  xx.  2.  and  from  1  Sam. 
xviii.  46.  to  the  end  of  the  chapter. 

11.  AB. 

The  ELETENTH  month  of  the  civil  year,  the  fifth  month  of  the 
ecclesiastical  year  ;  it  has  thirty  days,  and  corresponds  leith 
part  of  our  July  and  August. 

1.  The  new  moon.  A  fast  on  account  of  the  death  of  Aaron  the  high, 
priest.    (Num.  x.xxiii.  TiS.) 

3.  The  lessons  were  from  Num.  xx.x.  2.  to  Num.  sxxiii.  1.  and  from 
Jer.  i.  1.  to  Jer.  ii.  4. 

9.  The  fast  of  the  fif^h  month,  because  the  temple  was  first  burnt  by  the 
Chaldees,  and  afterwards  by  tlie  Romans,  on  this  day ;  and  because  God 
on  thi.-!  day  declared  in  the  time  of  Moses  that  none  nf  iliose  who  came 
OJt  of  Egypt  should  enter  into  the  laud  of  promise.  (Num.  xiv.  29.31.) 

12.  The  book  of  Numbers  is  now  finished;  and  from  Jer.  ii.  4.  to  Jer. 
ii.  29.  is  also  read. 

18.  A  fast,  because  in  the  time  of  .\haz  the  evening  lamp  went  out.  Go 
nchj-and  calls  this  lamp  the  Western  Lamp. 

20.  Deuteronomy  is  begun,  and  read  from  i.  1.  to  iii.  23.  and  the  Lst  chap- 
ter of  Isaiah  to  verse  28. 

21.  Sclden  asserts  that  lliis  was  the  day  that  all  the  wood  which  was 
wanteil  in  the  temple  was  brought  into  it ;  but  others  think  tliat  this  was 
done  in  the  next  month. 

24.  A  feast  for  the  Maccabees  havine  abolished  that^nw  of  the  Sadducees 
whrreby  sons  and  daughters  inherited  alike. 

23.  The  lessons  were  from  Deut.  iii.  23.  to  Dent.  vii.  12.  and  Isa.  xl.  to 
verse  27. 

12.  ELUL. 

The  TWEtFTH  month  of  the  civil  year,  the  sixth  month  of 
the  ecclesiastical  year;  it  fias  but  tiventy-nine  days,  and 
corresponds  -with  part  of  our  August  and  September. 

1.  The  new  moon. 

3.  The  lessons  were  from  Deut.  vii.  12.  to  Deut.  xi.  2C.  and  from  Isa.  xlix. 
14.  to  Isa.  II.  4. 
7.  The  dedication  of  the  walls  of  Jerusalem  by  Nehemiah. 

13.  The  lessons  were  from  Deut.  xi.  27.  to  Deut.  xvi.  13.  and  from  Isa. 
Ii".  II.  to  Isa.  Iv.  4. 

17.  A  fast,  because  of  the  death  of  the  spies  wlio  brought  up  the  evil 
report  of  the  land  of  promise.     (Num.  xiv.  30,  37.) 

20.  The  lessons  were  from  Deut.  xvi.  18.  to  Deut.  xxi.  10.  and  from  Isa. 
Ii.  12.  to  Isa.  Iii.  18. 

21.  The  festival  of  wood  offerini  (ryfo/iAorm). 

22.  A  fast  in  memory  of  the  punishment  of  the  wicked  and  incorrigible 
Israelites. 

28.  The  lessons  were  from  Deut.  xxi.  10.  to  Deut.  xxvi.  1.  and  Isa.  liv.  to 
ver.se  11. 

29.  This  is  the  last  day  of  ihe  month,  on  which  the  Jews  reckoned  up 
the  beasts  that  had  been  born,  the  tenth  of  which  belonged  to  O-^d. 
They  chose  this  day  on  which  to  do  it,  because  Ihe  first  day  of  the  n>on(h 
Tisri  was  a  festival,  and  tlierefore  they  could  not  tithe  a  flock  on  that  da/. 


I 


VI.  In  common  with  otliornations,  the  Jews  rockonctl  nny 
part  of  a  period  of  time  for  tlio  whole,  as  in  Exod.  xvi.  35. 
An  attention  to  tliis  circumstance  will  explain  several  appa- 
rofit  contradictions  in  the  vSacred  Writincrs:  thus,  a  part  of 
the  day  is  used  for  the  whole,  arid  part  of  the  year  for  an 
entire  yo^x. 

In  Gon.  xvii.  19.  circumsion  is  enjoined  to  be  performed 
when  a  child  is  eii^ht  days  ohK  hut  in  T,ev.  xii.  .'^.  on  the 
cii:;htli  day ;  accordinjrly,  whcMi  .Tesus  Christ  is  said  to  itave 
l)een  circumcised  when  eii^ht  days  were  accomplished  (Luke  ii. 
21.)  and  .Inhn  the  Baptist  on  the  eiixhth  day  (Luke  i.  59.), 
the  last,  which  was  the  constant  nsairp,  explains  the  former 
passajfe.  Ahciic7,ra,  an  eminent  Jewish  cnmmentator  fon 
Lev.  xii.  3,),  says,  tliat  if  an  infant  were  horn  in  the  last 
hour  of  the  day,  such  hfur  was-  counted  for  one  xrhok  day. 
This  ohservation  critic-ally  reconciles  the  account  of  our 
Lord's  resurrectinn  in  Matt,  xxvii.  63.  and  Mark  viii.  31., 
"  three  days  after,''''  witli  that  of  his  resurrection  "w«  ihe  third 
day,"  accordiiifT  to  Matt.  xvi.  21.  Luke  ix.  22.,  and  accord- 
inij  to  fact ;  for,  as  our  Lord  was  crucified  on  Good  Friday, 
ahout  Ihe  sixth  hour,  or  noon,  the  remainder  of  that  day  to 


»  Sec  Prideiux's  Con.  p.  I.  b.  1.  under  the  year  588. 


Chap.  IV.] 


KEMARILVBLE  -EKAS. 


77 


sunset,  according  to  the  Jewish  computation,  was  reckoned 
as  one  day.  Saturday,  it  is  universally  admitted,  formed  the 
second  day ;  and  as  the  third  da}'  began  on  Saturday  at  sun- 
set, and  our  Saviour  rose  al)out  sunrise  on  the  followincr 
morninw,  that  part  of  a  day  is  justly  reckoned  for  tlie  third 
day  ;  so  that  the  interval  was  '■'■three  days  and  three  nights,''^ 
or  three  calendar  days  current,  not  exceeding  43  hours,  and, 
consequently,  not  two  entire  days.'  This  observation  also 
illustrates  2  Chron.  x.  5.  12.  :  and  the  same  mode  of  com- 
puting time  obtains  in  the  East,  to  this  day.- 

In  Tike  manner,  in  some  parts  of  the  East,  the  year  ending 
on  a  certain  daj',  any  portion  of  the  foregoing  year  is  taken 
for  a  whole  year ;  so  that,  supposing  a  child  to  be  born  in 
the  last  week  of  our  December,  it  would  be  reckoned  one 
year  old  on  the  first  day  of  January,  because  born  in  the  old 
year.  If  this  mode  of  computation  obtained  among  the  He- 
orews,  the  principle  of  it  easily  accounts  for  those  anachron- 
isms of  single  years,  or  parts  of  j-ears  taken  for  whole  ones, 
which  occur  in  sacred  writ :  it  obviates  the  difficulties  which 
concern  the  half  years  of  several  princes  of  .Tudah  and  Israel, 
in  which  the  latter  half  of  the  deceased  king's  last  year  has 
hitherto  been  supposed  to  be  added  to  the  former  haif  of  his 
successor's  first  year. 

"We  are  told"  (I  Sam.  xiii.  1.  marg.  reading),  "  a  son 
of  one  year  was  Saul  in  his  kingdom :  and  two  years  he 
reigned  over  Israel,"  that  is,  say  he  was  crowned  m  June  : 
he  was  consequently  one  year  old  on  the  first  of  January 
following,  though  he  had  only  reigned  six  months, — the  son 
of  a  year.  But,  after  this  so  following  first  of  January  lie 
was  in  the  second  year  of  his  reign  ;  though,  according  to 
our  computation,  the  first  year  of  his  reign  wanted  some 
months  of  being  completed ;  in  this,  his  second  year,  he  chose 
tliree  thousand  military,  &c.  guards. 

"The  phrase  (u?ro  <5':iry.;)  used  to  denote  the  age  of  the 
infants  slaughtered  at  Bethlehem  (Matt.  ii.  16.)  '  from  two 
5'ears  old  and  under,'  is  a  difficulty  that  has  been  deeply  felt 
by  the  learned.  Some  infants  ttco  weeks  old,  some  two  months, 
others  two  years,  equally  slain  !  Surely  those  born  so  long 
before  could  not  possibly  be  included  in  the  order,  whose 
purpose  -vvas  to  destroy  a  child,  certainly  born  within  a  fuc 
months.  This  is  regulated  at  once  by  the  idea  that  they 
were  all  of  nearly  equal  age,  being  recently  born  ;  some  not 
long  before  the  close  of  the  old  year,  others  a  little  time  since 
the  beginning  of  the  new^  year.  Now,  those  born  before  the 
close  of  the  old  year,  though  only  a  few  months  or  weeks, 

>  Dr.  Hales,  to  whotnwc  are  partly  indebted  for  the  above  remark,  lias 
cited  several  passages  from  profane  authors,  wlio  have  used  a  similar 
phraseology.  (Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  i.  pp.  1'21,  122.)  Similar  illustra- 
tions from  ralibinical  writers  are  collected  by  Bp.  Beveridge  (on  the  39 
Articles,  in  Art.  IV.  Works,  vol.  ix.  p.  159.  note  f ),  bv  I>r.  Lightfoot  (Ilor. 
Ucb.  in  Matt.  xii.  40.),  and  by  Roland.  (Antiq.  Ileb.  lib.  iv.  c.  1.) 

^Shortly  before  the  philanthropic  Mr.  Howard  arrived  at  Constantinople, 
the  grand  chamberlain  of  llie  city  (whose  province  it  was  to  supply  the  in- 
habitants with  bread)  liad  been  beheaded  in  a  summary  way,  in  the  public 
street,  for  having  furnished,  or  permitted  to  be  furnished,  loaves  short  of 
weight ;  and  his  body  was  exposed  for  a  day  and  a  half,  with  three  light 
loaves  beside  it  to  denote  his  crime.  "  When  Mr.  Howard  was  told  that 
the  body  had  lain  there  for  three  days,  he  expressed  his  surprise  that  it 
had  not  bred  a  contagion.  He  learnl,  however,  that  in  point  of  fact  it  had 
not  been  left  so  long,  as  they  were  7iot  entire  days :  for,  it  being  the  even- 
ing when  the  head  was  struck  oSH  it  remained  the  whole  of  the  second,  and 
was  removed  early  in  the  succeeding  morning,  which  was  accounted  the 
third  ;  thus"  (as  Mr.  H.'s  biographer  very  properly  remarks)  "the  manner 
of  computation,  in  use  at  the  time  of  our  Saviour's  crucifixion  and  burial, 
btill  subsists  among  tlie  eastern  nations.'  (Brown's  Life  of  John  Howard, 
Es(i.  pp.  137,  438.  Svo.  edit.) 


would  be  reckoned  not  merely  one  year  old,  but  also  in  their 
second  year,  as  the  expression  implies  ;  and  those  born  since 
the  beginning  of  the  year,  would  be  well  described  by  the 
phrase  '  and  under,''  that  is,  under  one  year  old  ; — some,  two 
years  old,  though  not  born  a  complete  twelvemonth  (perhaps, 
in  fact,  barely  six  months)  ;  others,  under  one  year  old,  yet 
born  three,  four,  or  five  months,  and,  therefore,  a  trifle 
younger  than  those  before  described  :  according  to  the  time 
which  Herod  had  diligently  inquired  of  the  wise  men,  in 
their  second  year  and  under. "^ 

VII.  Besides  the  computation  of  years,  the  Hebrews  first 
and  the  Jews  afterwards,  were  accustomed  to  reckon  their 
tiine  from  some  Remarkable  -Skas  or  epochas.  Thus,  1. 
From  Gen.  vii.  11.  and  viii.  13.,  it  appears  that  they  reck- 
oned from  the  lives  of  the  patriarchs  or  other  illustrious  per- 
sons: 2.  From  their  departure  out  of  EgA'pt,  and  the  first 
institution  of  their  polity  (Exod.  xix.  1.  xl.  17.  Num.  i.  1. 
ix.  1,  xxxiii.  38.  1  Kings  vi.  1.)  :  3.  Afterwards,  from  the 
building  of  the  temple  (1  Kings  ix.  10.  2  Chron.  viii.  1.), 
and  from  the  reigns  of  the  kings  of  Judah  and  Israel:  4. 
Then  from  the  commencement  of  the  Babylonian  captivity 
(Ezek.  i.  1.  xxxiii.  21.  xl.  1.);  and,  perhaps,  also  from 
their  return  from  captivity,  and  the  dedication  of  the  second 
temple.  In  process  of  time  they  adopted,  5.  The  iEra  of 
the  Seleucidffi,  which  in  the  books  of  Maccabees  is  called 
the  A]Ta  of  the  Greeks,  and  the  Alexandrian  i5*Jra  :  it  began 
from  the  year  when  Seleucus  Nicanor  attained  the  sovereign 
power,  that  is,  about  312  years  before  the  birth  of  Jesu.s 
Christ.  This  sera  the  Jews  continued  to  employ  for  upwards 
of  thirteen  hundred  years.""  6.  They  were  further  accustomed 
to  reckon  their  years  from  the  years  when  their  princes  begat: 
to  reign.  Thus,  in  1  Kin^s  xv.  1.  Isa.  xxxvi.  1.  and  Jer.  i. 
2,  3.,  we  have  traces  of  their  anciently  computing  accordina- 
to  the  years  of  their  kings;  and  in  later  times  (1  INIacc.  xiii. 
42.  xiv.  27),  according  to  the  years  of  the  Asmouccan  princes. 
Of  this  mode  of  computation  we  have  vestiges  in  Matt, 
ii.  1.  Luke  i.  5.  and  lit.  1.  Lastly,  ever  since  the  compila- 
tion of  the  Talmud,  the  Jews  have  reckoned  their  years  Irom 
the  creation  of  the  world.^ 

»  Calraet's  Dictionary,  4to.  edit.  vol.  ii.  Supplementary  Addenda. 

♦  There  are  in  fact  two  dates  assigned  to  the  wra  of  the  Seleucidae  in  the 
two  books  of  Maccabees.  As  Seleucus  did  not  obtain  permanent  possessior. 
of  the  city  of  Babylon  (which  had  been  retaken  from  him  by  Demetrius, 
surnamed  Poliorcetes,  or  the  vanquisher  of  cities)  until  the  spring  of  the 
year  311  before  Christ,  the  Babylonians  fixed  the  commencement  of  this 
ffira  in  the  latter  year.  "Theirs/  book  of  Maccabees  computes  the  years 
from  April,  u.  c.  311,  asMichaelis  has  shown  in  his  note  on  IMacc.  x  21. ; 
while  the  second  book  dates  from  October,  b.  c.  312. ;  consequently,  there 
is  often  the  diflference  of  a  year  in  the  chronology  of  these  books.  (Com- 
pare 2Macc.  xi.  21.  with  IMacc.  vi.  10.,  and  2Macc.  xiii.  i.  with  iMacc. 
vi.  20.)  This  a!ra  continued  in  general  use  among  the  orientals,  with  th-o 
exception  of  the  Mohammedans,  who  employed  it  together  with  their  own 
tera  from  the  flight  of  Mohammed,  e.  c.  G22.  The  Jews  had  no  other  epocli 
until  A.  D.  1040;  when,  being  expelled  from  Asia  by  the  caliphs,  and  scat- 
tered about  in  Spain,  England,  Germany,  Poland,  and  other  western  coun- 
tries, they  began  to  date  from  the  creation,  though  still  without  entirely 
dropping  the  sera  of  the  Seleucidse.  The  orientals  denominate  this  epoch 
the  cbra  of  the  two-horned;  by  which  it  is  generally  supposed  they  mean 
Alexander  the  Great.  But  perhaps  the  name  had  primary  reference  to 
Seleucus:  for  on  some-coins  he  is  represented  with  two  horns.  See  Frof - 
lich,  Annales  Syrise,  Tab.  ii.  Seleuc.  Nic.  1.  et  Tab.  iii.  29."— (Jahn's  Hit- 
tory  of  the  Hebrew  Commonwealth,  vol.  i.  pp.  249,  250.) 

'"Reland,  Antiq.  Hebr.  pp.  203 — 21.5.  Schulzii  Compendium  Archsoln- 
giK  Hebraic*,  lib.  i.  c.  11.  pp.  94—107.  Lamy's  Apparatus  Biblicus,  book 
i.  ch.  5.  vol.  i.  pp.  133—1^.  Calmet's  Dictionary,  articles  Day,  Week, 
Month,  Year.  Jahn,  et  Ackermann,  ArchoeologiaBiblica,  §§  101 — 103.  Jen. 
ning's  Jewish  Antiqjuties,  book  iii.  ch.  1.  See  also  Wachner's  Anticjuitates 
Hebrrcorum,  part  ii.  p.  5.  et  seq.  Pritii  Introd.  in  Nov.  Test.  pp.  5Cl)— 57D. , 
Pareau.  Antiquitas  Hebraica,  pp.  310—318; 


I 


78 


ON  TRIBUTE  AND  TAXES. 


[Part  IJ 


CHAPTER  V. 


ON  THE   TRIBUTE   AND  TAXES  MENTIONED  IN  THE  SCUIPTURES. 


I.  Annual  Pavments  made  by  the  Jeivs  for  the  support  of  their 
III.  Tributes  and  Customs  paid  by  them  to  foreign  J'o-wers.- 
cant  or  Tax-gatherers. 

As  no  government  can  be  supported  without  great  charge, 
it  is  but  just  that  every  one  who  enjoys  his  share  of  protec- 
tion from  it,  should  contribute  towards  it  maintenance  and 
support. 

I.  On  the  first  departure  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt,  be- 
fore any  regulation  was  made,  the  people  contributed,  on  any 
extraordinary  occasion,  according  to  their  ability,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  voluntary  donations  for  the  tabernacle.  (Kxod. 
XXV.  2,  XXXV.  5.)  After  the  tabernacle  was  erected,  a  pay- 
ment of  half  a  shekel  was  made  by  every  male  of  twenty 
years  of  age  and  upwards  (Exod.  xxx.  13,  14.),  when  the 
census,  or'si"'*  of  trie  children  of  hrael,  was  taken  :  and  on 
the  return  of  the  .Tews  from  the  Babylonian  captivity,  an 
annual  payment  of  the  Hard  part  of  a  shekel  was  made,  for 
the  mamtenance  of  the  temple-worship  and  service.  (Neh. 
X.  32.)  Subsequently,  the  enactment  of  Moses  was  deemed 
to  be  of  perpetual  obugation,^  and  in  the  time  of  our  Saviour 
two  drachma,  or  half  a  shekel,  were  paid  by  every  Jew, 
whether  native  or  residing  in  foreign  countries:  besides 
which,  every  one,  who  was  so  disposed,  made  voluntary 
offerings,  according  to  his  ability.  (Mark  xii.  41 — i4.)' 
Hence  vast  quantities  of  gold  were  annually  brought  to 
Jerusalem  into  the  temj)le,^  where  there  was  an  apartment 
called  the  Tranury  (ra^i<j.t/xa;t(:v),  specially  appropriated  to 
their  reception.  After  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  Vespa- 
sian, by  an  edict,  commanded  that  the  half  shekel  should  in 
future  be  brought  by  the  Jews,  wherever  they  were,  into  the 
capitol.*  In  addition  to  the  preceding  payments  for  the  sup- 
port of  their  sacred  worshij),  we  may  notice  the  first-fruits 
and  tenths,  of  which  an  account  is  found  in  Part  III.  chap, 
iv.  infra. 

II.  Several  of  the  Canaanitish  tribes  were  tributary  to  the 
Israelites  even  from  the  time  of  Joshua  (Josh.  xvi.  10.  xvii. 
13.  Judg.  i.  23.  33.)  whence  they  could  not  but  derive  con- 
siderable wealth.  The  Moabites  and  Syrians  were  tributary 
to  David  (2  Sam.  viii.  2.  G.)  :  and  Solomon  at  the  beginning 
of  his  reign  compelled  the  Amoj-ites,  Hittites,  Penzzites, 
Hivites,  and  Jebusites,  who  were  left  in  the  country,  to  pay 
him  tribute,  and  to  perform  the  drudgery  of  the  public  works 
which  he  had  undertaken,  and  from  which  the  children  of 
Israel  wereexempted.  (I  Kings  ix.  21,  22.  33.  2  Chron.  viii. 
y.)  But  towards  the  end  of  his  reign  he  imposed  a  tribute 
on  them  also  (1  Kings  v.  13,  M.  ix.  15.  xi.  27.),  which 
alienated  theirniinds,  and  sowed  the  seeds  of  that  discontent, 
which  afterwards  ripened  into  open  revolt  by  the  rebellion  of 
Jeroboam  the  son  of  Nebat. 

III.  Afterwards,  however,  the  Israelites,  being  subdued  by 
other  nations,  were  themselves  compelled  to  pay  tribute  to 
their  conquerors.  Thus  Pharaoh-Necho,  king  of  Egj'pt, 
imposed  a  tribute  of  one  hundred  talents  of  silver  and  a 
talent  of  gold,  (2  Kings  xxiii.  33.  35.)  After  their  return 
from  capfivity,  the  Jews  paid  tril)ute  to  the  Persians,  under 
whose  government  they  were  (Ezra  iv.  13.),  then  to  the 
Greeks,  from  which,  however,  they  were  exonerated,  when 
under  the  Maccabees  they  had  regained  their  liberty.''  In 
later  times,  when  they  were  conquered  by  the  lionian  arms 
under  Pompey,  they  were  again  subjected  to  the  payment  of 
tribute,  even  though  their  princes  enjoyed  the  honours  and 
dignities  of  royalty,  as  was  tlie  case  with  Herod  the  Great 


'The  materials  of  tliin  clia|>lcr,  wlicrc  oihcr  authorities  arc  notritcfl, 
art-  (Icrivofl  frnm  Hctiiilz'n  ArcliJroloRia  Hcbraica,  v.  13.  <lc  vpcligalilms  ct 
triiiiiii.s,  and  Parcaii'ti  Aiitiquilas  Ilcljraica,  part  iii.  sect.  ii.  c.  5.  lic  triljutis 
ct  vecti(j:ililius. 

'>  J'i8<'|iliu8,  lie  DcU.  JuU.  lib.  vii.  c.C.  iC.  PhlloniH  JuOxi  Opera,  toni.  Ii. 
|i.?JI. 

»  A  Hin|!iilar  law  wa.<  In  force  In  the  time  of  Jcsiis  Clirist,  proliibit- 
ine  o-AF  mite  ().i-rT'.»)  from  bring  cast  Into  the  IreaMiiry.  The  poor 
widow,  therefore,  who  in  Mark  xii.  42.  i8  nan!  to  have  i-a.^t  in  ttco  miles, 
Rave  tlie  HniulleHt  hiiih  poriniltrd  by  the  law.  Schoet;;fn,  Ilorin  Hcbraii'it, 
vol.  i.  p.  250.     Tiiwnfien'I'H  Harmony  of  the  New  T'-Ktaiii'-iit.  vol.  i.  p  111. 

«  Jonepliiia,  Ant.  Jiid.  lib.  xiv.  r.  7.  %  'i.    Cicero,  Onit.  pro  Flacco,  c.  28. 

»  Josepbus),  (le  UpII.  JuiI.  lib.  vii.  c.C.  » ti. 

<  1  Macr.  X.  29,  30.  xi.  J.',  JC.  xr.  5.     Joscphu^,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xiii.  C  2. 

3.  c.  4.  *  9.  c.  6.  S  ti. 


Sacred  Worship. — II.  Tributes  paid  to  their  oini  Sovereigns.— 
— A'otice  of  the  JMoney-changers. — IV.  Account    of  the  Pubii- 

(Luke  ii.  1 — 5.):  and  afterwards,  when  Juda?a  was  reduced 
into  a  Roman  province,  on  the  dethronement  and  banishment 
of  his  son  Archelaus,  the  Pomans  imposed  on  the  Jews  not 
only  the  annual  capitation  tax  of  a  denarius  (f^f-c),  but  also 
a  tax  on  goods  imported  or  exported  (tixjc),  and  various 
other  taxes  and  burthens.  To  this  capitation  tax  the  evange- 
lists allude  in  Matt.  xxii.  17.  and  Mark  xii.  14.  where  it  is 
termed  vt/uKr/ui  nny^-.v  {numisma  censsujs'^,  or  the  tribute  money ; 
and  as  this  tax  appears  from  Matt.  xxii.  20,  21.  to  have  been 
paid  in  Roman  coin,  the  Jews  paid  it  with  great  reluctance; 
and  raised  various  insurrections  on  account  of  it.  Among 
these  malcontents,  Judas,  surnamed  the  Gaulonite  or  Gali- 
laean,  distinguished  himself:  he  pretend(^d  that  it  was  not 
lawful  to  pay  tribute  to  a  foreigner;  that  it  was  the  badge  of 
actual  servitude,  and  that  they  vrere  not  allowed  to  own  any 
for  their  master  who  did  not  worship  the  Lord.  These  senti- 
ments animated  the  Pharisees,  who  came  to  Christ  with  the 
insidious  design  of  ensnaring  him  by  the  question,  whether 
it  was  lawful  to  pay  tribute  to  Cresar  or  not  T  Which  ques- 
tion he  answered  with  equal  wi.sdom  and  regard  for  the 
Roman  government.  (Matt.  xxii.  17 — 21.)  With  these  sen- 
timents the  Jews  continued  to  be  animated  long  after  the 
ascension  of  .Tesus  Christ;  and  it  should  seem  that  some  of 
the  first  Hebrew  Christians  had  imbibed  their  principles. 
In  opposition  to  which,  the  apostle  Paid  and  Peter  in  their 
inimitable  epistles  strenuously  recommend  and  inculcate  on 
all  sincere  believers  in  Jesus  Christ,  the  duties  of  submis- 
sion and  obedience  to  princes,  and  a  conscientious  dis- 
charge of  their  duty,  in  paying  tribute.  (Rom.  xiii.  7.  1  Pet. 
ii.  13.) 

To  supply  the  Jews  who  came  to  Jerusalem  from  all  parts 
of  the  Roman  empire  to  pay  the  half-shekel  with  coins  cur- 
rent there,  the  money-changers  (xt?^.!/C«*i)  stationed  them- 
selves at  tables,  in  the  courts  of  the  temple,  and  chicfly^.  it 
should  seem,  in  the  court  of  the  Gentiles,  for  which  they 
exacted  a  small  fee,  holbon  (xiX/.yfi?).  It  was  the  tables  on 
which  these  men  trafficked  for  this  unholy  gain,  which  were 
overturned  by  Jesus  Christ.   (Matt.  xxi.  12.)' 

The  money-changers  (called  Tj.-xvt^n-M  in  Matt.  xxi.  12. 
and  x!f//aT^;«i"in  John  ii.  14.)  were  also  those  who  made  a 
profit  by  exchanging  money.  They  supolied  the  Jews,  who 
came  from  distant  parts  of  Judaea  and  other  parts  of  the  Ro- 
man empire,  with  money,  to  be  received  back  at  their 
respective  homes,  or  which,  perhaps,  they  had  paid  before 
they  commenced  their  journey.  It  is  likewise  probable  lliat 
they  exchanged  foreign  coins  for  such  as  were  current  at 
Jerusalem. 

IV.  Among  the  Romans,  the  censors  let  their  taxes  by  jj 
public  auction  ;  and  those  who  farmed  them  were  callnl 
Publicani.,  or  Piblicans.  Tliese  farmers-general  were 
usually  Roman  knights,*  who  had  under  thein  inferior  col- 
lectors:  Josepliiis  has  made  mention  of  several  Jews  who 
were  Roman  knights,"  whence  Dr.  Lardner  thinks  it  proba- 
ble that  they  had  ineriUul  the  equestrian  rank  by  their  good 
services  in  collecting  some  part  of  tlie  revenue.  The  col- 
lectors of  these  tributes  were  known  by  the  general  name  of 
Ty.»w;,  that  is,  tax-gatlierers,  in  our  authorized  version  ren- 
dered PuBLK-.AN.s.  Some  of  them  appear  to  have  been  re- 
ceivers-geni-ral  for  a  largedistrict,  as /acciieus,  who  is  styled 
a  chiifpi'bliran  (Af_jr*Ti\a)v>ic).  Matiliew,  who  is  tinned  sim- 
ply a  publican  (TtKiem),  was  one  who  sat  at  the  receipt  of 
custom  where  the  duly  was  paid  on  imports  and  exports. 
(Matt.  ix.  y.  Luke  v.  2y.  Mark  ii.  14.)      Tiiese  officers,  at 

'  Groiius,  Hainmonil,  and  Wlijibv,  on  Matt.  xxi.  12.  Dr.  T.iKliifiotV 
Workif,  vol.  it.  p.  225.  In  <"<'y|i«n,  '•  Muoruirn,  whose  biLsines.s  it  Ih  io  give 
cash  for  notes,  may  be  sei-n' sitting  in  public  places,  with  heaps  of  coir, 
before  (hem.  On  obsrrvlnn  a  person  with  a  note,  or  in  want  of  Iheir  t<r 
vice*,  they  earnestly  solicit  his  attention."  Calldwey's  Oiionlal  t)bscrva 
ti'ino.  p  Cs. 

•  <icero,  in  Vcrrciu,  lib.  iii.  c.72.  Orat.  pro  Planco,  c.  9.  Dc  Pelitione 
Ccnxulatiis,  c.  I.  Tacit.  .Vnnal.  lib.  iv.  c.  6.  AJaui's  Koman  Antkpiiiic*, 
pp.  25.  &i. 

*  Dc  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  ii.  c.  U.  {  9. 


Ckap.  VI.] 


GENEALOGICAL  TABLES,  AND  PUBLIC  MEMORIALS  OF  EVENTS. 


79 


least  the  inferior  ones  (like  the  rahdars,  or  toll-ofatherers,  in 
modem  Persin,'  and  the  mirtgees,  or  colltctcrs  of  customs,  in 
Asia  Minor,''  were  generally  rapacious,  extorting  more  than 
the  legal  tribute  ;  whence  they  were  reckoned  infamous 
among  the  Greeks,  and  various  passages  in  the  Gospels  show 
how  odious  they  were  to  the  Jews  (Mark  ii.  15,  16.  Luke 
iii.  13.),  insomuch  that  the  Pharisees  would  hold  no  com- 
munication whatever  with  them,  and  imputed  it  to  our  Saviour 
asacrimethat  besataf  meai-whh  publicans.  (Matt.  ix.  10,  11. 
xi.  19.  xxi.  31,  32.)  Thepaymentof  taxes  to  the  Komans  was 
accounted  by  the  Jews  an  intolerable  grievance:  hence  those 
who  assisted  in  collecting  them  were  detested  as  plunderers 
in  the  cause  of  the  Romans,  as  betrayers  of  the  liberties  of 
their  countrj'^,  and  as  abettors  of  those  who  had  enslaved  it; 
this  circumstance  will  account  for  the  contempt  and  hatred  so 


often  expressed  by  the  Jews  in  the  evangelical   histories 
against  the  collrctors  of  the  taxes  cr  tribute.'  \ 

The  parable  of  the  Pharisee  and  the  Publican  (Luke  xviiu 
10 — 13.)  will  derive  considerable  illustration  from  these  cir- 
cumstances. Our  Saviour,  in  bringing  these  two  characteiss 
together,  appears  to  have  chosen  them  as  making  the  strongest 
contrast  between  what,  in  the  public  estimation,  were  the 
extremes  of  excellence  and  villany.  The  Pharisees,  it  is 
well  known,  were  the  most  powerful  sect  among  the  Jews, 
and  made  great  pretences  to  piety :  and  when  the  account  of 
the  Persian  rahclars,  given  in  the  preceding  page,  is  recol- 
lected, it  will  account  for  the  Pharisee,  in  addressing  God, 
having  made  exfortioners,  and  the  unjusf.  almost  synonymous 
terms  with  publicans ;  because,  from  his  peculiar  office,  the 
rahdar  is  almost  an  extortioner  by  profession. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


ON  THE  GENEALOGICAL  TABLES  OF  THE  HEBREWS,  AND  TUBLIC  MEMORIALS  OF  EVENTS. 
I.  On  the  Genealogical  Tables  of  the  Hebre-ws. — II.  Public  Memorials  of  Events. 


I.  The  Hebrews  were  very  careful  in  preserving  their 
Genealogies,  or  the  history  of  the  successions  of  families. 
Vestiges  of  these  histories  of  families  appear  in  Gen.  v.  and 
X.  In  proportion  as  the  Hebrews  increased  in  numbers  dur- 
ing their  residence  in  Egypt,  it  became  an  object  of  growing 
importance  carefully  to  ])reserve  the  genealogical  tables  of 
the  whple  nation,  in  order  that  each  tribe  might  be  kept  per- 
fectly distinct.  The  charge  of  these  genealogies  was,  most 
probably,  confided,  in  the  first  instance,  to  the  shoferlm,  or 
scribes,  of  whom  a  short  account  is  given  in  p.  42.  supra,  and 
afterwards  to  the  Levites ;  at  least  in  the  time  of  the  kings, 
we  find  that^e  scribes  were  generally  taken  from  the  tribe 
of  Levi.  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  4.  2  Chron.  xix.  8 — 11.  xxxiv.  13.) 
"This  was  a  very  rational  procedure,  as  the  Le\ntcs  devoted 
themselves  particularly  to  study ;  and,  among  husbandmen 
and  unlearned  people,  few  were  likely  to  be  so  expert  in 
writing,  as  to  be  intrusted  with  keeping  registers  so  impor- 
tant. In  later  times  the  genealogical  tables  were  kept  in  the 
temple."^ 

Whatever  injury  the  public  genealogies  might  have  sus- 
tained in  consequence  of  the  Babylonish  captivity,  it  was  re- 
paired on  the  restoration  oi'  the  Jewish  polity,  as  far  at  least 
as  was  practicable.  (Ezra  ii.  viii.  1 — 14.  Neh.  vii.  xiij 
Hence  it  is,  that  a  very  considerable  portion  of  the  first  book 
of  Chronicles  is  composed  of  genealogical  tables  :  the  com- 
parison of  which,  as  well  as  of  the  genealogy  recorded  in 
Gen.  V.  with  the  tables  in  Matt.  i.  and  Luke  in.  will  contri- 
bute materially  to  show  the  fulfilment  of  the  prophecies  re- 
lative to  the  advent  of  the  Messiah.  Joseph  us  states  that  the 
Jews  had  an  uninterrupted  succession  of  their  high-priests 
preserved  in  their  records  for  the  space  of  nearly  two  thou- 
sand years ;  and  that  the  priests  in  Judaea,  and  even  in  Egypt 

'  The  ra/idars,  or  toll-gatherers,  are  appointed  to  levy  a  toll  upon 
KaHlhes  or  caravans  of  merchants ;  "  who  in  general  exercise  their  office 
with  so  much  brutality  and  extortion,  as  to  be  execrated  by  all  travellers. 
The  police  of  the  hiirhways  is  confided  to  them,  and  whenever  any  goods 
are  stolen,  they  are  meant  to  be  the  instruments  of  restitution  ;  but  when 
they  are  put  to  the  test,  are  found  to  be  inefficient.  None  but  a  man  in 
power  can  hope  to  recover  what  he  has  once  lost. . .  .The  collections  of  the 
toll  are  farmed,  consequently  extortion  ensues;  andasmostof  the  raiidars 
receive  no  other  eiiioluiiKnt  tlian  what  they  can  exact  over  and  above  the 
prescribed  dues  from  the  traveller,  their  insolenqf  is  accounted  for  on  the 
one  hand,  and  the  detestation  in  which  they  are  held  on  the  other.'" 
Morier's  Second  Journey,  p.  70. 

»  At  Smyrna,  the  mirigee  sits  in  the  house  allotted  to  him,  as  Matthew  sat 
at  the  receipt  ofcustum  (or  in  the  custom- house  of  Capernaum)  ;  "  and  re- 
ceives tlie  money  which  is  due  from  various  persons  and  commodities, 
entering  into  the  city.  The  exactions  and  rude  behaviour  of  these  men" 
(.oays  Mr.  Hartley,  who  experienced  both)  "  are  just  in  character  with  the 
conduct  of  the  publicans  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament.". . .  .When  men 
arc  guilty  of  such  conduct  as  this,  no  wonder  that  they  were  detested  in 
ancient  times,  as  were  the  publicatis ;  and  in  modern  times,  as  are  the 
luirisees."    (Hartley's  Researches  in  Greece,  p.  239.) 

a  Lardiier's  Crcdibdily,  part  i.  book  i.  c.  9.  §i  10,  II.  Carpzovii  Appara- 
tus Antiquitatum  Sacri  Codicis,  pp.  29,  30.  As  the  Clnistians  sub.sequently 
were  often  termed  Galila;ans,  and  were  represented  as  a  people  hostile 
to  all  government,  and  its  necessary  supports,  St.  Paul  in  Rom.  .xiii.  G.  stu- 
diously obviates  this  slander ;  and  enjoins  the  payment  of  tiibute  to  civil 
governors,  because,  as  all  goveniments  derive  their  authority  from  God, 
rulers  are  his  ministers,  attending  upon  this  very  thing,  viz.  the  public  ad- 
ministration, to  protect  the  good  and  to  punish  the  evil  deer.  (Gilpin  and 
Vnlpy  on  Rom.  xiii.  6.) 

«  .Moricr's  Second  Journey,  p.  7L 

»  Michaelis's  Commentaries,  vol.  i.  p.  2S0 


and  Babylon,  or  in  any  other  place  whithersoever  their  priests 
were  carried,  were  careful  to  preserve  their  genealogies.'^ 
Such  priests  after  the  captivity  as  could  not  produce  their 
geneal  ogies  were  excl  uded  from  the  sacerdotal  office.  H  ence, 
when  in  Heb.  vii.  3.  Melchizedek  is  said  to  have  been  with- 
out  descent  (il^»ziAo^«T(;f,that  is,  without  genealogy),  the  mean- 
ing is,  that  his  name  was  not  found  in  the  public  genealogical 
registers  :  his  father  and  mother,  and  ancestors  were  unknown, 
whence  his  priesthood  was  of  a  diiferent  kind,  and  to  be  re- 
garded differently  from  that  of  Aaron  and  his  sons. 

From  similar  public  registers  Mathew  and  Luke  derived 
the  genealogies  of  our  Saviour;  the  former  of  w^hich,  from 
Abraham  to  Jesus  Christ,  embraces  a  period  of  nearlj*  two 
thousand  years,  while  the  genealogy  of  Luke,  from  Adam  to 
Christ,  comprises  a  period  of  about  four  thousand  years.  It 
is  well  known  that  the  Jews  carried  their  fondness  for 
genealogies  to  great  excess,  and  prided  themselves  on  tracing 
their  pedigrees  up  to  Abraham.  Jerome  says  that  they  were 
as  wedl  acquainted  with  genealogies  from  Adam  to  Zerub- 
babel  as  they  were  with  their  own  names.'  Against  such 
unprofitable  genealogies  Paul  cautions  Timothy  (1  Tim.  i.  4.) 
and  Titus,  (iii.  9.)  Since  the  total  dispersion  of  the  Jews  in 
the  reign  of  Adrian,  the  Jews  have  utterly  lost  their  ancient 
genealogies. 

In  exhibiting  genealogical  tables  with  any  specific  design, 
some  of  the  sacred  writers,  for  the  sake  of  brevity,  omitted 
names  which  were  of  less  importance,  and  distributed  the 
genealogies  into  certain  equal  classes.  Examples  of  this 
kind  occur  in  Exod.  vi.  14 — 24.  1  Chron.  vi.  12 — 15.  com- 
pared with  Ezra  i.  5.  and  in  Matt.  i.  17.  The  Arabs  have 
not  unfrequently  taken  a  similar  liberty  in  their  genealogies.' 
II.  From  the  remotest  ages,  mankind  have  been  desirous 
of  perpetuating  the  memory  of  remarkable  events,  not  on!}' 
for  their  own  benefit,  but  also  in  order  to  transmit  them  to 
posterity ;  and  in  proportion  to  the  antiquity  of  such  events 
has  been  the  simplicity  of  the  Public  Memorials  employed 
to  preserve  the  remembrance  of  them.  W  hen,  therefore,  any 
remarkable  event  befell  the  patriarchs,  they  raised  either  a 
rude  stone  or  a  heap  of  stones  in  the  very  place  where  such 
event  had  happened.  (Gen.  xxviii.  18.  xxxi.45, 46.)  Some- 
times, also,  they  gave  names  to  places  importing  the  nature 
of  the  transactions  which  had  taken  place  (Gen.  xvi.  14.  xxi. 
31.  xxii.  14.  xxviii. 19.  xxxi.47 — 19.);  and  symbolical  names 
were  sometimes  given  by  them  to  individuals.  (Gen.  xxv. 
26. 30.)  To  this  usage  the  Almighty  is  represented  as  vouch- 
safing to  accommodate  himself  in  Gen.  xvii.  5.  15.  and 
xxxiL  28,  29. 

Confornfably  to  this  custom,  Moses  enjoined  the  Israelites 
to  erect  an  altar  of  great  stones  on  which  the  law  was  to  bo 
inscribed,  after  they  had  crossed  the  river  Jordan  (Deut. 

«  Jospphus  against  Apion,  booki.  §7. 

1  Valpy's  Gr.  Test.  vol.  iii.  p.  117. 

8  Parcau,  Antiq.  Hebr.  pp.  318— .300.  Schulzii  Archffiol.  Hcbr.  p.  41. 
The  ecclesiastical  historian  Eusel)ius,  on  the  authority  of  Julius  Africa- 
nup,  a  writer  of  the  third  century,  relates  that  Herod,  misnamed  the 
Great,  committed  to  the  Ilames  all  the  records  of  the  Jewis'.  genealogies  ; 
but  Carjizov  has  shown  that  this  narrative  is  not  worUiy  al  creJit.  Anti- 
j  quitates  Uentis  Hebrecic,  p.  36. 


80 


ON  THE  TREATIES  OR  COVENANTS, 


[Part  II 


xxvii.  1 — 4.),  and  afso  gave  to  those  places,  which  had  been    ascribes  the  orijjin  of  the  name  of  .Maceaboeiis  with  which 
si;jfnalized  by  the  previous  conduct  of  the  Israelites,  signifi-    Judas  was  first  distiiiguished  (1  Mace.  ii.  1.),  (who  was  sur 
cant  names  which  would  be  perpetual  memorials  of  their  re-  !  named  N3po,  Macaba,  or  the  Hammer,  on  accor.nt  of  his  sin- 
heilioii  ag-auist  God.    (Exoa.  xvii,  7.)     The  same  custom    gular  valour  and  success  against  the  enemies  of  his  nation);' 
obtained  alter  their  arrival  in  the  land  cf  Canaan.  (Josh,  iv.)  I  and  a^so  the  new  name  <jiveu  by  cur  Lord  to  Peter  (Matt. 


In  like  manner,  Samuel  erected  a  stone  at  Mizpeh,  to  com-  j  xvi.  IS.  John  i.  43.),  and  the  name  given  to  the  field  which 
memorate  the  discomfiture  of  the  Philistines.  (1  Sam.  vii.  12.)  ,  was  boujrht  witli  the  purchase-money  of  Judas's  treason. 


In  progress  of  lime  more  splendid  monuments  were  erected 
(I  Sam.  XV.  12.  2  Sam.  viii.  13.  xviii.  18.);  and  symbolical 
memorial  names  were  given  both  to  things  and  persons. 
Thus,  the  columns  which  were  erected  in  the  temple  of  So- 
lomon,— Jac/iin  he  shall  establish,  lioaz,  in  it  is  strength, — 
most  probably  denoted  the  devout  monarch's  hope,  that  Jeho- 
vah would  firmly  establish  that  temple  in  the  entrance  of 
which  they  were  placed.      To  the  same  practice  Pareau 


(Matt,  xxvii.  8.  Acts  i.  19.)  The  great  festivals,  prescribed 
by  Moses  to  the  Jews,~as  well  as  the  feasts  and  lasts  insti- 
tuted by  them  in  later  times,  and  the  tables  of  the  law  which 
were  to  be  most  religiously  preserved  in  the  ark,  were  k» 
many  memorials  of  important  national  transactions. 

In  more  ancient  times  proverbs  sometimes  originated  from 
some  remarkable  occurrence.    (Gen.  x.  9.   xxii.  11.    1  Sam 
X.  12.  xix.  24.)2 


CHAPTER  YII. 


ox  THE  TREATIES  OR  COVENANTS,  CONTRACTS,  AND  OATHS  OF  THE  JEWS. 

I.    Whether  the  Je-ws  were  prohibited  from  con  eluding  Treaties  xvith  heathen  J\''atio?is. — II.   Treaties,  hotv  made  and  ratified 
—  Covenant  of  Salt. — III.    Contracts  for  the  Sale  and  Cession  of  alienable  Property,  ho-v  made, — W.   Of  Oaths. 


I.  A  Treaty  is  a  pact  or  covenant  made  with  a  view  to 
the  public  welfare  by  the  superior  power.  It  is  a  common 
nastake,  that  the  Israelites  were  prohibited  from  forming 
alliances  with  heathens :  this  woulcl  in  effect  have  amounted 
fo  a  general  prohibition  of  alliance  with  any  nation  whatever, 
because  at  that  time'  all  the  world  were  heathens.  In  the 
Mosaic  law,  not  a  single  statute  is  enacted,  that  prohibits  the 
conclusion  of  treaties  with  heathen  nations  in  general ;  al- 
though, for  the  reasons  therein  specified,  Moses  either  com- 
mands them  to  carrj'  on  eternal  war  against  the  Canaanites 
and  Amalekites  (but  not  against  the  Moabites  and  Ammon- 
ites), or  else  forl)ids  all  friendship  with  these  particular  na- 
tions. It  is  however,  clear,  from  Deut.  xxiii.  4 — 9.,  that  he 
did  not  entertain  the  same  opinion  with  rei^ard  to  all  foreign 
nations  :  for  in  iliat  passage,  though  the  Moabites  are  pro- 
nounced to  be  an  abomination  to  the  Israelites,  no  sucli  decla- 
ration is  made  respecting  the  Edomites.  Further,  it  is  evident 
tliat  they  felt  themselves  bound  religiously  to  observe  treaties 
when  actually  concluded  :  though  one  of  the  contracting  par- 
ties had  been  gnilty  of  fraud  in  the  transaction,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  treaty  with  the  Gibeonites.  (Josh,  ix.^  David  and 
Solomon  lived  in  alliance  with  the  king  of  Tyre;  and  the 
former  with  the  king  of  Hamath  (2  Sam.  viii.  9,  10);  and 
the  (luoen  of  Slieba  cannot  be  regarded  in  any  other  light  than 
as  an  ally  of  Solomon's.  Even  the  Maccabees,  who  were 
so  laudably  zealous  for  the  law  of  Moses,  did  not  hesitate  to 
enter  into  a  compact  with  the  Romans.  The  only  treaties 
condemned  by  the  prophets  are  those  with  the  Egyptians, 
Babylonians,  and  Assyrians,  which  were  extremely  prejudi- 
cial to  the  nation,  by  involving  it  continually  in  quarrels 
with  sovereigns  more  powerful  than  the  Jewish  monarclis; 
and  the  event  always  showed,  in  a  most  striking  manner, 
the  propriety  of  their  reproofs. 

II.  Various  soUmnitics  were  used  in  the  conclusion  of 
treaties  ;  sometimes  it  was  done  by  a  simple  junction  of  the 
hands.  (Prov.  xi.  21.  Ezek.  xvii.  18.)  The  Hindoos  to  this 
day  ratify  an  engagement  by  one  person  laying  his  right 
hand  on  the  hand  of  the  other.^  Sometimes,  also,  tlie  cove- 
nant was  ratified  by  erecting  a  heap  of  stones,  to  which  a 
suitable  name  was  given,  referring  to  the  subject-matter  of 
the  covenant  ((!en.  xxxi.  41 — 51.)  ;  that  made  between  Abra- 
ham and  the  king  of  Gcrar  was  ratified  by  the  oath  of  both 
parties,  by  a  present  from  Abraham  to  the  latter  of  seven  ewe 
lambs,  and  by  giving  a  name  to  the  well  Avhich  had  given 
occasion  to  the  transaction.  (Gen.  xxi.  22 — 32.)  It  was, 
moreover,  customary  to  cut  the  victim  (which  was  to  be 
offered  as  a  sacrifice  upon  the  occasion)  into  two  parts,  and 
80  placing  each  half  upon  two  difft^rent  altars,  to  cause  those 
who  contraf,tt;d  the  covenant  to  pass  between  both.  ((ien. 
XV.  9,  10.  17.  Jer.  xxxiv.  18.)   This  rile  was  practised  both 

«  In  like  manner  Cliarlea,  mayor  of  tlio  palace  to  the  Iciny  of  France, 
receivfij  the  nanii'  of  Marlel,  or  tlie  I/ammrr.  fn)iii  llio  irreHlBtililc  lilowK 
he  in  «ai(i  to  liave  givi-n  to  iln;  Har.iccns  or  Mhoi-h,  wlio  witc  tiUorly  (lis- 
comfilfiJ  ill  lliP  nieinonible  battle  fuuKlit  near  Poicliers,  in  73.'?.— Another, 
and  more  (generally  received  origin  of  tho  a|ipcllaliun  Maccabees,  liaii 
been  given  in  p.  .V).  tupra. 

■>  Pareau,  Aniiq.  Ucbr.  pp  ^20— 322. 

»  Ward's  View  of  tlic  Uistory,  ir.  of  the  nindoos,  vol.  ii.  p.  3"^. 


by  believers  and  heathens  at  their  solemn  leagues ;  at  first, 
doubtless,  with  a  view  to  the  great  Sacrifice,  who  was  to 
purge  our  sins  in  his  own  blood ;  and  the  offering  of  these 
sacrifices,  and  passing  between  the  parts  of  the  divided  vic- 
tim, was  symbolically  staking  their  nopes  of  purification  and 
salvation  on  their  performance  of  the  condition  on  which  it 
was  offered.^ 

The  editor  of  the  Fragments  supplementary  to  Calmet'  is 
of  opinion  that  what  is  yet  practised  of  this  ceremony  may 
elucidate  that  passage  in  Isa.  xxviii.  15. : — IVe  have  mcdf.  n 
ccvcnant  with  death,  and  ivilh  lull  arc  tve  at  cgrcfmint ,-  when 
the  overflowing  scourge  shall  pass  through,  it%haU  not  conif^ 
unto  tifffor  ive  have  made  lies  our  refuge,  and  under  fitsehood 
have  tee  hid  ourselves.  As  if  it  had  been  said  : — \Vc  have 
cut  off  a  covenant  Sacrifice,  a  purification  offerintr  with 
death,  and  with  the  grave  we  have  settled,  so  that  the 
scourge  shall  not  injure  us.  May  not  such  a  custom  have 
been  the  origin  of  the  follow  ing  superstition  related  by  Pitts  ? 
— "  If  they  (the  Algerine  corsairs)  at  any  time  happen  to  be 
in  a  very  great  strait  or  distress,  as  being  chased,  or  in  a 
storm,  they  will  gather  money,  light  up  candles  in  reinem- 
brancc  of  some  dead  marrabot  (saint)  or  other,  calling  upon 
bini  with  heavy  sighs  and  groans.  If  they  find  no  succoui 
from  their  before-mentioned  rites  and  superstitions,  but  that 
the  danger  rather  increases,  then  they  go  to  sacrificing  a 
sheep  (or  two  or  three  upon  occasion,  as  they  think  needful), 
which  is  done  after  this  manner  :  having  cut  off  the  head 
with  a  knife,  they  immediately  take  out  the  entrails,  and 
throw  them  and  the  head  overboard ;  and  then,  with  all  the 
speed  they  can  (without  skinning)  they  cut  the  body  into 
two  parts  b}' the  middle,  and  throw  one  part  over  the' right 
side  of  the  ship,  aiid  the  other  over  the  left,  into  the  sea,  as 
a  kind  of  propitiation.  Thus  those  blind  infidels  anply  them 
selves  to  imaginary  intercessors,  instead  of  the  living  and 
true  God."'^  In  the  case  here  referred  to,  the  ship  passes 
between  the  parts  thus  thrown  on  each  side  of  it.  This 
bi'haviour  of  tne  Algerines  may  be  taken  as  a  pretty  accurate 
counterpart  to  that  of  making  a  covenant  with  death  and  with 
imminent  danger  of  destruction,  by  appeasing  the  angry 
gods. 

Festivities  alwa'^s  accompanied  the  ceremonies  attending 
covenants.  Isaac  and  Abinndeeh  feasted  at  making  their 
covenant  (Gen.  xxvi.  30.),  .^Ind  he  imidc  them  a  feast,  and 
they  did  cat  and  drink.  (Gen.  xxxi.  54.)  Jacob  offered  sacri- 
fice upon  the  mount,  and  called  his  brethren  to  eai  bread.  Thi? 
practice  was  also  usual  amongst  the  heathen  nations.' 

*  This  remarkable  practice  may  l>c  clearly  traced  in  the  Greek  and 
L.iliu  writers.     Homer  has  the  following  exprcasion: — 

Op<4a  n-is-Ts  Tu^otTi.-.  Iliad,  lib.  it.  vcr.  VA. 

Harins;  cut  fuilhful  oaths. 

Euxtathius  explains  ih';  pasiia|;c  by  Raylnff.  they  were  oatlis  relating;  to 
important  matters,  and  wero  made  by  the  divislou  of  the  victim.  Sec  alJc- 
ViruiL  JF-n.  viii.  vcr.  040. 

»  N".  129.  «  Travels,  p.  18. 

1  Burdtr'N  Oriental  Ciijitoms,  vol.  ii.  p.  Rl.— Fifili  eililion.  Src  example* 
of  the  ancient  mode  of  ratifying  rovcnaiitfi,  in  Flonicr.  II.  lib.  iii.  verses 
103—107.  245.  <•/  Heq.  Virgil,  AOn.  lit),  viii.  Ml.  xii.  109.  et  aeij.  Dionysiu^ 
Ilalicarnis.senais,  lib  v.  c.  I.    Uookc's  Roiiia:i  Hiilory,  vol.  i.  p.  6". 


Chap.  VH.] 


CONTRACTS,  AND  OATHS  OF  THE  JEWS. 


81 


Afterwards,  when  the  IMosaic  law  was  established,  and 
the  people  were  settled  in  the  land  of  Canaan,  the  people 
feasted,  in  their  peace  offerings,  on  a  part  of  the  sacrifice,  in 
token  of  their  reconciliation  with  God  (Deut.  xii.  6,  7.)  :  and 
thus,  in  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  supper,  we  renew  our 
covenant  with  God,  and  (in  the  beautiful  language  of  the 
communion  office  of  the  Anglican  church)  "  we  offer  and 
present  ourselves,  our  souls  and  bodies,  to  be  a  reasonable, 
noly,  and  lively  sacrifice"  unto  Him,  being  at  His  table 
feasted  with  the  bread  and  wine,  the  representation  of  the 
sacrifice  of  Christ's  body  and  blood  ;  who  by  himself  once 
offered  upon  the  cross  has  made  a  full,  perfect,  and  sufficient 
sacrifice,  oblation,  and  atonement  for  tne  sin  of  the  whole 
world. 

Sometimes  the  parties  to  the  covenant  were  sprinkled  with 
the  blood  of  the  victim.  Thus  Moses,  after  sprinkling  part 
of  the  blood  on  the  altar,  to  show  that  Jehovah  was  a  party 
to  the  covenant,  sprinkled  part  of  it  on  the  Israelites,  and 
said  unto  them,  Behold  the  obod  of  the  covenant  wh.'ch  the 
Lord  hath  made  with  you.  (Exod.  xxiv.  6.  8.)  To  this 
transaction  St.  Paul  alludes  in  his  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
(ix.  20.),  and  explains  its  evangelical  meaning. 

The  Scythians  are  said  to  have  first  poured  wine  into  an 
earthen  vessel,  and  then  the  contracting  parties,  cutting  their 
arms  with  a  knife,  let  some  of  the  blood  run  into  the  wine, 
•with  which  they  stained  their  armour.  After  which  they 
themselves,  together  with  the  other  persons  present,  drank 
of  the  mixture,  uttering  the  direst  maledictions  on  the  party 
who  should  violate  the  treaty.' 

Another  mode  of  ratifying  covenants  was  by  the  superior 
contracting  party  presenting  to  the  other  some  article  of  his 
own  dress  or  arms.  Thus,  Jonathan  stripped  himself  of  the 
robe  tluit  was  upon  him,  and  gave  it  to  David,  and  his  gar- 
merits,  even  to  the  sword,  and  to  his  bow,  and  to  his  girdle. 
(1  Sam.  xviii.  4.)  The  highest  honour,  which  a  king  of 
Persia  can  bestow  upon  a  subject,  is  to  cause  himself  to 
be  disapparellcd,  and  to  give  his  robe  to  the  favoured  indi- 
vidual.^ 

In  Num.  xviii.  19.  mention  is  made  of  a  covenant  of  salt. 
The  expression  appears  to  be  borrowed  from  the  practice  of 
ratifying  their  federal  engagements  by  salt ;  which,  as  it  not 
only  imparted  a  relish  to  different  kinds  of  viands,  but  also 
preserved  them  from  putrefaction  and  decay,  became  the 
emblem  of  incorruptibility  and  permanence.  It  is  well 
known,  from  the  concurrent  testimony  of  voyagers  and 
travellers,  that  the  Asiatics  deem  the  eating  together  as  a 
bond  of  perpetual  friendship :  and  as  salt  is  now  (as  it 
anciently  was)  a  common  article  in  all  their  repasts,  it  may 
be  in  reference  to  this  circumstance  that  a  perpetual  covenant 
is  termed  a  covenant  of  salt ,-  because  the  contracting  parties 
ate  together  of  the  sacrifice  offered  on  the  occasion,  and  the 
whole  transaction  was  considered  as  a  league  of  endless 
friendship.'  In  order  to  assure  those  persons  to  whom  the 
divine  promises  were  made,  of  their  certainty  and  stability, 
the  Almighty  not  only  willed  that  they  should  have  the  force 
of  a  covenant ;  but  also  vouchsafed  to  accommodate  himself 
(if  we  may  be  permitted  to  use  such  an  expression)  to  the 
received  customs.  Thus,  he  constituted  the  rainbow  a  sign 
of  his  covenant  with  mankind  that  the  earth  should  be  no 
more  destroyed  by  a  deluge  (Gen.  ix.  12 — 17.) ;  and  in  a 
vision  a]rpeared  to  Abraham  to  pass  between  the  divided 
pieces  oi  the  sacrifice,  which  the  patriarch  had  offered. 
(Gen.  XV.  12 — 17.)  Jehovah  further  instituted  the  rite  of 
circumcision,  as  a  token  of  the  covenant  between  himself 
and  Abraham  (Gen.  xvii.  0 — 14.)  ;  and  sometimes  sware  by 
nimself  (Gen.  xxii.  16.  Luke  i.  73.),  that  is,  pledged  his 
eternal  power  and  godhead  for  the  fulfilment  of  his  promise, 
there  being  no  one  superior  to  himself  to  vvhom  he  could 
make  appeal,  or  by  whom  he  could  be  bound.  Saint  Paul 
beautifully  illustrates  this  transaction  in  his  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews,  (vi.  13 — 18.)  Lastly,  the  whole  of  the  Mosaic 
constitution  was  a  mutual  covenant  between  Jehovah  and  the 
Israelites ;  the  tables  of  which  being  preserved  in  an  ark, 
the  latter  was  thence  termed  the  ark  oj  the  covenant,  and  as 
(v/e  have  just  seen)  the  blood  of  the  victims  slain  in  ratifica- 
tion of  that  covenant,  was  termed  the  blood  of  the  covenant. 
(Exod.  xxiv.  8.  Zech.  ix.  11.)  Referring  to  this,  our 
Saviour,  when  instituting  the  Lord's  supper,  after  giving  the 

«  Herodotus,  lib.  iv.  c.  70.  vol.  i.  p.  273.  Oxen.  1809.  Doaghtaei  Analecta, 
1.  p.  69. 

'  Harmer's  Observations,  vol.  ii.  p.  94.  Burder's  Or.  Gust.  vol.  i.  p. 
206. 

»  Some  plea.=iing  facts  from  modern  history,  illustrative  of  the  covenant 
of  salt,  are  collected  bv  the  indu.«trious  editor  of  CaUnet,  Fragment.?. 
No.  130. 

Vol.  XL  L 


cup,  said,  This  is  (signifies  or  represents)  my  blood  of  tin 
New  Covenant,  luhich  is  shed  for  many,  fir  the  remission  of 
sins.  (Matt,  xxvi,  28.)  By  this  very  remarkable  expres- 
sion, Jesus  Christ  teaches  us,  that  as  his  body  was  to  be 
broken  or  crucified,  t/!V6/)  xyuv,  in  our  stead,  so  his  blood  was  to 
be  poured  out  (ac;^yvi^8y:v,  a  sacrificial  term)  to  make  an  atone- 
ment, as  the  words  remission  of  sins  evidently  impl}"^ ;  for 
without  shedding  of  blood  there  is  no  remission  (Heb.  ix.  22.), 
nor  any  remission  by  shedding  of  blood  but  in  a  sacrificial 
wav.     Compare  Heb.  ix.  20.  and  xiii.  12. 

fll.  \\  hat  treaties  or  covenants  were  between  the  high 
contracting  powers  who  were  authorized  to  conclude  them, 
that  contracts  of  bargain  and  sale  are  between  private  indi- 
viduals. 

Among  the  Hebrews,  and  long  before  them  among  the 
Canaanit'es,  the  purchase  of  any  thing  of  consequence  was 
concluded  and  the  price  paid,  at  the  gate  of  the  city,  as  the 
seat  of  judgment,  before  all  who  went  out  and  came  in. 
(Gen.  xxiii.  16 — 20.  Ruth  iv.  1,  2.)  As  persons  of  leisure, 
and  those  who  wanted  amusement,  were  wont  to  sit  in  the 
gates,  purchases  there  made  could  always  be  testified  by 
numerous  witnesses.  From  Ruth  iv.  7 — 11.  we  learn  another 
singular  usage  on  occasions  of  purchase,  cession,  and  ex- 
change, viz.  that  in  earlier  times,  the  transfer  of  alienable 
property  was  confirmed  by  the  proprietor  plucking  off  his 
shoe  at  the  city  gate,  in  the  presence  of  the  elders  and  other 
witnesses,  and  handing  it  over  to  the  new  owner.  The 
origin  of  this  custom  it  is  impossible  to  trace :  but  it  had 
evidently  become  antiquated  in  the  time  of  David,  as  the 
author  of  the  book  of  Ruth  introduces  it  as  an  unknown 
custom  of  former  ages. 

In  process  of  time  the  joining  or  striking  of  hands,  alreadv 
mentioned  with  reference  to  public  treaties,  was  introduced 
as  a  ratification  of  a  bargain  and  sale.  This  usage  was  not 
unknown  in  the  days  of  Job  (xvii.  3.),  and  Solomon  often 
alludes  to  it.  (See  Prov.  vi.  1.  xi.  15.  xvii.  18.  xx.  16. 
xxii.  26.  xxvii.  13.)  The  earliest  vestige  of  written  instru- 
ments, sealed  and  aelivered  for  ratifying  the  disposal  and 
transfer  of  property,  occurs  in  Jer.  xxxii.  10 — 12.,  which  the 
prophet  commanded  Baruch  to  bur)'  in  an  earthen  vessel  in 
order  to  be  preserved  for  production  at  a  future  period,  as 
evidence  of  the  purchase.  (14,  15.)  No  mention  is  ex- 
pressly made  of  the  manner  in  which  deeds  were  anciently 
cancelled.  Some  expositors  have  imagined  that  in  Col.  ii. 
14.  Saint  Paul  refers  to  the  cancelling  of  them  by  blotting 
or  drawing  a  line  across  them,  or  by  striking  them  through 
with  a  nail :  but  we  have  no  information  whatever  from 
antiquity  to  authorize  siich  a  conclusion.'' 

I\ .  It  was  customary  for  those  who  appealed  to  the  Deity 
in  attestation  of  any  thing,  to  hold  up  their  right  hand, 
towards  heaven ;  by  which  action  the  party  swearing,  or 
making  oath,  signified  that  he  appealed  to  God  to  witness 
the  truth  of  what  he  averred.  Thus  Abram  said  to  the  king 
of  Sodom — /  have  lift  up  mv  hand  unto  the  Lord  the  most 

high  God,  the  possessor  of  heaven  and  earth, that  I  will 

not  take  any  thing  that  is  thine.  (Gen.  xiv.  22,  23.)  Hence 
the  expression, "  to  lift  up  the  hand,"  is  equivalent  to  making 
oath.  In  this  form  of  scriptural  antiquity,  the  angel  in  the. 
Apocalypse  is  represented  as  taking  a  solemn  oath.  (Rev. 
X.  5.)^ 

Among  the  Jews,  an  oath  of  fidelity  was  taken  by  the 
sei-vant's  putting  his  hand  under  the  thigh  of  his  lord,  as 
Eliezer  did  to  Abraham  (Gen.  xxiv.  2.) ;  Avhence,  with  no 
great  deviation,  is  perhaps  derived  the  form  pf  doing  homage 
at  this  day,  by  putting  the  hands  between  the  knees,  and 
within  the  hands  of  flie  liege.s  Sometimes  an  oath  was 
accompanied  with  an  imprecation,  as  in  2  Sara.  iii.  9.  35. 
Ruth  i.  17.  1  Kings  ii.  23.  2  Kings  vi.  31. :  but  sometimes 
the  party  swearing  omitted  the  imprecation,  as  if  he  were 
afraid,  and  shuddered  to  utter  it,  although  it  was,  from  other 
sources,  sufficiently  well  understood.  (Gen.  xiv.  22,  23. 
Ezek.  xvii.  18.)  At  other  times  he  merely  said,  ^^  Let  God 
be  a  xoitness  ,-^  and  sometimes  affirmed,  saying,  "./fs  surely  a* 
God  liveth.^^  (Jer.  xlii.  5.  Ruth  iii.  13.  1  Sam.  xiv.  45.  xx. 
3.21.) 

These  remarks  apply  to  the  person  who  uttered  the  oath 

*  Schulzii  Archccologiallebraica,  cap.  14.  deFocderibusetContractibus, 
pp.  130—132. ;  Pareau,  Antiquitas  Hebraica,  part  iii.  §  2.  cap.  3.  de  Foede- 
ribus  ct  Contractibus,  pp.  322— 325.  Bruning,  Antiquitates  Hebrace,  cap. 
26.  pp.  242—245.    Michaelis's  Commentaries,  vol.  i.  pp.  310—313. 

»  "This  mode  of  swearing  has  descended  even  to  our  own  times  and 
nation,  being  still  used  in  Scotland,  and  there  allowed  by  act  of  Pariiament 
to  those  dissenters  who  arc  styled  Seceders.  The  Solemn  League  an<l 
Covenant,  ifathe  time  of  Charles  L,  was  taken  in  this  form."  Deau  Wood- 
house,  on  Rev.  x.  5.  .     .    ,.    ,  , 

8  Paley's  Mor.  and  Polil.  Philosophy,  Book  ni.  en.  16.  §  1. 


82 


L^WS  RESPECTIXG  STRANGERS,  &c. 


[Paht  n. 


himself  of  his  own  accord.  When  an  oath  was  exacted, 
whether  by  a  judge  or  another,  the  person  who  exacted  it 
put  the  oath  in  form ;  and  tlie  person  to  wiioni  it  was  put, 
responded  by  savin?,  Amen,  Amen,  so  let  it  be  .•  or  grave  his 
response  in  other  expressions  of  like  import,  such  as  s-y  tnrxt. 
Thou  hast  said  it.  (Num.  v.  19 — SQ.  1  Kings  xxii.  IG. 
Deut.  xxvii.  15 — 26.)  Sometimes  tlie  exacter  of  the  oath 
merely  used  the  following  adjuration,  viz.  I  adjure  you  by 
the  living  God  to  answer,  whether  this  thini^lje  so  or  not.  And 
the  person  sworn  accordingly  made  answer  to  the  point  in- 
t|uired  of.  (Num.  v.  22.  Matt.  xxvi.  (VJ.)  It  should  be  re- 
marked here,  that  although  the  formulary  of  assent  on  the 
part  of  tiie  respondent  to  an  oath  was  frequently  Amen,  Amen. 
yet  this  formulary  did  not  always  imply  an  oath,  but,  in 
some  instances,  was  merely  a  protestation.  As  the  oath  was 
an  appeal  to  God  (Lev.  xix.  12.  Deut.  vi.  13.),  the  taking 
of  a  liaise  oath  was  deenied  a  heinous  crime ;  and  perjury,  ac- 
cordingly, was  forbidden  in  those  words.  Thou  .wait  not  take 
the  name  of  the  Lord  thy  Gad  in  vain,  that  is,  shalt  not  call 
God  to  witness  in  pretended  confirmation  of  a  falsehood. 
(Exod.  XX.  6.) 

It  was  also  common  tosAvearby  those  whose  life  and  pros- 
perity were  dear  to  the  party  making  oath.  Thus,  .Joseph 
swore  by  the  I'fe  of  the  king  (Gen.  xTii.  lH.);  and  this  prac- 
tice prevailed  subsequently  among  the  Hebrews.  (1  Sam. 
XXV.  26.  2  Sam.  xi.  11.  xiv.  19.  comp.  Psal.  Ixiii.  11.)  A 
person  sometimes  swore  by  himself,  and  sometimes  Ijy  the 
Ifc  of  the  person  before  whom  he  spoke,  as  in  1  Sam.  i.  26. 


2  Kings  ii.  2.  .Tudg.  vi.  13.  15.  1  Kings  iii.  17.  20. ;  a  prac- 
tice which  obtains  m  Syria  to  this  day.'  In  some  instances, 
persons  adjured  others  by  the  beasts  "of  the  field  (Sol.  Song 
ii.  7.),  a  sort  of  adjuration  which  still  makes  its  appearance 
in  the  writings  of  the  Arabian  poets.* 

In  the  time  of  Clirist,the  Jews  were  in  the  habit  of  swear- 
ing by  the  altar,  by  Jerusalem,  by  heaven,  by  the  earth,  by 
themselves,  ))y  their  heads,  by  the  gold  of  the  temple,  by  sacri- 
fices, &:c.  Because  the  name  of  God  was  not  mentioned  in 
these  oaths,  they  considered  them  as  imposing  but  small,  if 
any  obligation  ;"'and  we,  accordingly,  find,  that  our  Saviour 
takes  occasion  to  inveigh,  in  decided  terms,  against  such  arts 
of  deception.  (Matt.  v.  33 — 37.  xxiii.  16 — 22.)  Itisagainst 
oaths  of  this  kmd,  and  these  ahme  (not  against  an  oath  uttered 
in  sincerity),  that  he  expresses  his  displeasure,  and  prohibits 
them.  This  is  clear,  since  he  himself  consented  to  take  upon 
him  the  solemnity  of  an  oath  (Matt.  xxvi.  64.);  and  since 
Paul  himself,  in  more  than  one  instance,  utters  an  adjuration. 
Compare  Rom.  ix.  1.  2  Cor.  i.  23. 

In  the  primitive  periods  of  their  history,  the  Hebrews  re- 
ligiously obsr^rved  an  oath  (.Tosh.  ix.  14,  15.);  but  we  find, 
that,  in  later  times,  they  were  often  accused  by  the  prophets 
of  perjury.  After  the  captivity,  the  Jews  became  again  cele- 
brated for  the  scrupulous  observance  of  what  they  had  sworn 
to,  but  corruption  soon  increased  among  them  :  they  revived 
the  old  forms,  the  words  without  ihe  meaning  ;  and  acquired 
among  all  nations  the  reputation  of  perjurers.^ 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


LAWS  RESPECTING  STRANGERS,  AGED,  DEAF,  BLIND,  AND  POOR  PERSONS. 
I.  Of  Strangers.— \\.   Of  the  Aged,  Blind,  and  Deaf— HI.   Of  the  Poor. 


All  wise  legislators  have  deemed  it  an  important  branch 
of  political  economy,  to  direct  their  attention  towards  aliens 
ana  to  the  poor :  and  the  humanity  and  wisdom  of  the  Mo- 
saic regulations  in  this  respect  will  be  found  not  unworthy 
of  a  divmely  inspired  legislator. 

I.  Strangers  are  frenuently  mentioned  in  the  laws  of  Mo- 
ses, who  specifies  two  aifferent  descriptions  of  them,  viz.  1. 
a'acin  (xoscntfBiM),  or  those  who  had  no  home,  whether 
they  were  Israelites  or  foreigners ;  and  2.  cDnj  (ceRiM),  or 
those  who  were  strangers  generally,  and  who  possessed  no 
landed  nroi)erty,  thougli  they  might  have  purchased  houses. 
Towards  both  of  these  classes  the  Hebrew  legislator  en- 
forced the  duties  of  kindness  and  humanity,  by  reminding  the 
Israelites  that  they  had  once  been  strangers  in  Egypt.  (Ltv. 
xix.  33,  34.  Deut.  x.  19.  xxiii.  7.  xxiv.  18.)  Hence  he  or- 
dained the  same  rights  and  privileges  for  the  Israelites,  as  for 
strangers.  ("licv.  xxiv.  19 — 22.  Num.  ix.  14.  xv.  5.)  Stran- 
gers might  be  naturalized,  or  permitted  to  etiter  into  the  con- 
gregation of  the  liORD,  by  submitting  to  circumcision,  and  re- 
nouncing idolatry.  (Deut.  xxiii.  1 — 9.)  Tlie  Ednmites  and 
Egyptians  were  capable  of  becoming  citizens  of  Israel  after 
tlie  third  generation.  Doog  the  Edomite  (1  Sam.  xxi.  8. 
Fsal.  Iii.)  was  tlms  naturalized  ;  and,  on  the  conquest  of  Idn- 
maea  by  the  Jews,  about  129  years  before  the  birth  of  ("hrist, 
the  Jews  and  Idurnaeans  liecame  one  people.  It  appears, 
also,  that  other  nations  were  not  entirely  excluded  from  being 
incorporated  with  the  j)eople  of  Israel :  for  Uriah  the  Iliftife, 
who  was  of  C'anaanilisn  descent,  is  represi'nted  as  Ixinir  a  fully 
naturalized  Israelite.  But  the  "  Ammonites  and  M7)aiiiles, 
in  consequence  of  the  hostile  disposition  which  they  had  ma- 
nifested to  the  Israelites  in  the  wihlcniess,  were  absolutely 
excluded  from  the  right  of  citizenHhin."* 

"  In  the  earlier  periods  of  the  Hebrew  slate,  persons  who 
<^ere  mitives  of  another  coimtry,  but  who  had  come,  either 
from  choice  or  necessity,  to  take  up  tluir  residence  among 

■  "By  your  i;fr"  ig  still  a  common  oalh  in  Syria  (Biuclthanlt's  Tmvels 
in  Syria,  p.  40.),  but  lln;  vioal  comiiion  oath  In  tliat  cr)uiili-y  is,—"  On  mu 
head:'    (Jowott'sl^liristian  UoKcaroli«ii  in  Syria,  p.  JW  ) 

»  Consult  the  Koran,  .Sura  Lxxxv.  l-X  \xxx\i.  1.  U— 13.  I.xjtxix.  1—1. 
xci.  1—8,  &c. 

•  .Martialis  Epitrranimat.  XI.  95. 

«  Albcr,  Hcrincncm.  Vot.  Tchi.  pp.  210,  211.  Jalin'sArchKologiaBiblica, 
tranKlatfil  by  Mr.  IJpham,  pp.  101,  10,'). 

•  Michaelis'g  Commentaries,  vol.  ii.  pp.  233—239, 


the  Hebrews,  appear  to  have  been  placed  in  favourable  cir- 
cumstances. At  a  later  period,  viz.  in  the  reigns  of  David 
and  Solomon,  they  were  compelled  to  labour  on  the  religious 
edifices,  which  were  erected  by  those  princes  ;  as  we  may 
learn  from  such  passages  as  these : — And  Solomon  numbered 
all  ihe  strangers  that  loere  in  the  land  of  Israel,  after  the  nwn- 
bcring  wherewith  David  his  father  had  numbered  fhetn ;  and 
Ihty  were  found  a  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  and  three  thou- 
sand and  six  hundred  ,•  and  he  set  threescore  and  ten  thousand 
of  them  to  he  bearers  of  burdens,  and  fourscore  thousand  to  be 
hewers  in  the  mountain.  (2  Chron.  ii.  1.  17,  18.  compared 
with  1  Chron.  xxii.  2.)  The  exaction  of  such  laborious 
services  from  foreigners  was  probably  limited  to  those  who 
had  been  taken  prisoners  in  war;  and  who,  according  to 
the  rights  of  war  as  they  were  understood  at  that  period, 
could  be  justly  employed  in  any  oflices,  however  low 
and  however  laborious,  which  the  conqueror  thought  proper 
to  impose.  In  the  time  of  Christ,  the  degenerate  Jews 
did  not  find  it  convenient  to  render  to  the  strangers  from  a 
foreign  country  those  deeds  of  kindness  and  humanity,  which 
were  not  only  their  due,  but  which  were  demanded  in  their 
behalf  by  the' laws  of  Moses.  They  were  in  the  habit  of 
uiidersUmding  by  the  word  neighbour,  their  friends  merely, 
and  accordingly  restricted  the  exercise  of  their  benevolence 
by  the  same  narrow  limits  that  bounded  in  this  case  their 
interpretation ;  contrary  as  both  were  to  th<'  spirit  of  those 
passages,  which  have  been  adduced  in  the  preceding  para- 
graph."" 

II.  In  a  monarchy  or  aristocracy,  birth  and  oflice  alono 
give  rank,  but  in  a  democracy,  where  all  are  on  an  equal 
looting,  the  right  discharge  of  ofTicial  duties,  or  the  arrival 
of  OLD  A(iK,  are  the  only  sources  of  rank.  Hence  the  Mosaic 
statute  in  Lev.  xix.  32.  {t>cfore  the  hoary  head  thou  shall  stand 
up,  and  shalt  reverence  the  aged),  will  be  found  suited  to  the 
republican  circumstances  of  the  Israelites,  as  well  as  con- 
formable to  the  nattire  and  wishes  of  the  human  heart :  for 
no  man  has  any  desire  to  sink  in  honour,  or  to  be  of  less 
consequence  than  he  was  before;  and  to  allow  precedence  to 
old  age  catmol  be  a  malUT  ihat  will  ever  affect  a  young  man 
very  sen^sibly.  Nor  does  Moses  confine  his  attention  to  tb-J 
aged.  He  extends  the  protection  of  a  special  statute  to  the 
DEAi''  and  the  blind,  in  Lev.  xix.  14.,  which  prohibits  re 

•  Jthr.'i  Archwologia  Biblica,  by  rpham,  p.  197. 


Chap.  IX.] 


MILITARY  AFFAIRS. 


83 


vilincr  the  one  or  putting  a  stumbling-block  in  the  way  of  the 
other.  In  Deut.  xxvii.  18.  a  curse  is  denounced  against  him 
who  misleads  tlic  blind. 

III.  With  regard  to  those  whom  misfortune  or  other  cir- 
cumstances had  reduced  to  poverty,  various  humane  regula- 
tions were  made ;  for  though  Moses  had,  by  his  statutes 
relative  to  the  division  of  the  land,  studied  to  prevent  any 
Israelites  from  being  born  poor,  yet  he  nowhere  indulges  the 
hope  that  there  would  actually  be  no  poor.  On  the  contrary 
he  expressly  says  (Deut.  xv.  II.),  the  Poor  shall  never  cease 
out  of  thy  land ;  and  he  enjoins  the  Hebrews  to  open  wide 
their  hands  to  their  brethren,  to  the  poor  and  to  the  needy  in 
their  land.  He  exhorts  the  opulent  to  assist  a  decayed  Isra- 
elite with  a  loan,  and  not  to  refuse  even  though  the'  sabbati- 
cal year  drew  nigh  (Deut.  xv.  7 — 10.)  ;  and  no  pledge  was 
to  be  detained  for  the  loan  of  money  that  served  for  the  pre- 
servation of  his  life  or  health  (Deut.  xxiv.  12,  13.),  or  was 
necessary  to  enable  him  to  procure  bread  for  himself  and 
family,  as  the  upper  and  nether  mill-stones.  During  harvest, 
the  owner  of  a  held  was  prohibited  from  reaping  the  corn 
that  grew  in  its  corners,  or  the  after-growth :  and  the  scat- 
tered ears,  or  sheaves  carelessly  left  on  the  ground,  equally 
belonged  to  the  poor.  After  a  man  had  once  shaken  or 
beaten  his  olive  trees,  he  was  not  permitted  to  gather  the 
olives  that  still  hung  on  them :  so  that  the  fruit,  which  did 
not  ripen  until  after  the  season  of  gathering,  belonged  to  the 
poor.  (Lev.  xix.  9,  10.  Deut.  xxiv.  19,  20,  21.  Ruth  ii.  2 — 
19.)  Further,  whatever  grew  during  the  sabbatical  year,  in 
the  fields,  gardens,  or  vineyards,  the  poor  might  take  at  plea- 
sure, having  an  equal  ri^ht  to  it  with  the  owners  of  the  land. 
Another  important  privilege  enjoyed  by  the  poor  was,  what 
were  called  second  tenths  and  second  firstlings.  "  Besides  the 
tenth  received  by  the  Levites,  the  Israelites  were  obliged  to 
set  apart  another  tenth  of  their  field  and  garden  produce ;  and 
in  like  manner,  of  their  cattle,  a  second  set  of  offerings,  for 
the  purpose  of  presenting  as  thank  offerings  at  the  high  fes- 
ti\-als."     Of  these  thank  offerings  only  certain  fat  pieces 


were  consumed  on  the  altar :  the  remainder,  after  deducting 
the  priest's  portion,  was  appropriated  to  the  sacrifice  feasts^ 
to  which  the  Israelites  were  bound  to  invite  the  stranger,  the 
widow,  and  the  orphan.  "  When  any  part  of  these  tenths 
remained,  which  they  had  not  been  able  to  bring  to  the  altar 
or  to  consume  as  offerings,  they  were  obliged  every  three 
years  to  make  a  conscienfious  estimate  of  the  amount,  and, 
without  presenting  it  as  an  offering  to  God,  employ  it  in 
benevolent  entertainments  in  their  native  cities."  (Deut. 
xii.  5 — 12.  17 — 19.  xiv.  22 — 29.  xvi.  10,  11.  xxvi.  12, 
130' 

But  though  Moses  has  made  such  abundant  provision  for 
the  poor,  yet  it  does  not  appear  that  he  has  said  any  thing 
respecting  beggars.  The  earliest  mention  of  beggars  occurs 
in  Psal.  cix.  10.  In  the  New  Testament,  however,  we  read 
of  beggars,  blind,  distressed,  and  maimed,  who  lay  at  the 
doors  of  the  rich,  by  the  way  sides,  and  also  before  the  gate 
of  the  temple.  (Mark  x.  46.  Luke  xvi.  20,  21.  Acts  iii.  2.)2 
But  "  we  have  no  reason  to  suppose,  that  there  existed  in 
the  time  of  Christ  that  class  of  persons  called  vagrant  beg- 
gars,  who  present  their  supplications  for  alms  from  door  to 
door,  and  who  are  found  at  the  present  day  in  the  East, 
although  less  frequently  than  in  the  countries  of  Europe. 
That  the  custom  of  seeking  alms  by  sounding  a  trumpet  or 
horn,  which  prevails  among  a  class  of  Mohammedan  monas- 
tics, Kalendar  or  Karendm,  prevailed  also  in  the  time  of 
Christ,  may  be  inferred  from  Matt.  vi.  2. ;  where  the  verb 
<rjtx!r/crj,f,  which  possesses  the  shade  of  signification,  that 
would  be  attached  to  a  corresponding  word  in  the  Hiphil 
form  of  the  Hebrew  verbs,  is  to  be  rendered  transitively,  as 
is  the  case  with  many  other  verbs  in  the  New  Testament. 
There  is  one  thing  characteristic  of  those  orientals,  who  are 
reduced  to  the  disagreeable  necessity  of  following  the  voca- 
tion of  mendicants,  which  is  worthy  of  being  mentioned ; 
they  do  not  appeal  to  the  pity  or  to  the  alms-giving  spirit, 
but  to  the  justice  of  their  benefactors.  (Job  xxii.  7.  xxxi. 
16.  Prov.  iii.  27,  28.)"3 


CHAPTER  IX. 

OF    THE    MILITARY    AFFAIRS    OP    THE    JEWS    AND    OTHER    NATIONS    MENTIONED    IN 

THE    SCRIPTURES. 

SECTION  L 


ON    THE    PIILITAKY    DISCIPLINE    OF    THE    JEWS. 

I.  The  earliest  Wars,  predatory  Excursions. — II.  Character  of  the  Wars  of  the  Israelites. — Their  Levies  how  raised.—- 
.Mosaic  Statutes  concerniiig-  the  Israelitish  Soldiers. — III.  Divisions,  and  Ojfficers  of  the  Jewish  ..Irmies  ; — which  wen 
sometimes  conducted  bu  the  Kings  in  Person. — Military  Chariots. — IV.  Encampments. — V.  Military  Schools  and  Training.— 
VI.  Defensive  .irms.—Yl\.  Offensive  Arms. — VIII.  Fortifications. — IX.  Mode  of  declaring  War. — X.  Military  Tactics. — 
Order  of  Battle. — Treatment  of  the  Slain,  of  captured  Cities,  and  of  Captives. — XI.  Triumphant  Reception  of  the  Cow 
querors. — XII.  Distribution  of  the  Spoil. — Military  Honours  conferred  on  eminent  Warriors. — A  military  Order  established 
by  David.— XIU.  Trophies, 


I.  There  were  not  wanting  in  the  earliest  ages  of  the 
world  men  who,  abusing  the  power  and  strength  which  they 
possessed  to  the  purposes  cf  ambition,  usurped  upon  their 
weaker  neighbours.  Such  was  the  origin  of  the  kingdom 
founded  by  the  plunderer  Nimrod  (Gen.  x.  8 — 10.),  whose 
name  signifies  a  rebel  ,•  and  it  was  most  probably  given  him, 
from  his  rejection  of  the  laws  both  of  God  and  man,  and 
supporting  by  force  a  tyranny  over  others.  As  mankind 
continued  to  increase,  quarrels  and  contests  would  naturally 
arise,  and,  spreading  from  individuals  to  families,  tribes  and 
nations,  produced  wars.  Of  the  military  affairs  of  those 
times  we  have  very  imperfect  notices  in  the  Scriptures. 
These  wars,  however,  appear  to  have  been  nothing  more 
than  predatory  incursions,  like  those  of  the  modern  Waha- 
bees  and  Bedouin  Arabs,  so  often  described  by  oriental  tra- 
vellers. The  patriarch  Abraham,  on  learning  that  his  kins- 
man Lot  had  been  taken  captive  by  Chedorlaomer  and  his 
confederate  emirs  or  petty  kings,  mustered  his  trained  ser- 
vants, three  hundred  and  eighteen  in  number;  and  coming 
against  the  enemy  by  night,  he  divided  his  forces,  and  totally 

>  Michaelis's  Commentarips,  vol.  li.  pp.  251—259.  »  Ibi'",  p.  24&. 

>  Ja'nn's  Arcbxulogia,  by  Uphaci,  p.  I98. ' 


discomfited  them.  (Gen.  xiv.  14 — 16.)  The  other  patriarchs 
also  armed  their  servants  and  dependants,  when  a  conflict 
was  expected.  (Gen.  xxxii.  7 — 12.  xxxiii.  1.)^ 

II.  Although  the  Jews  are  now  the  very  reverse  of  being 
a  military  people  (in  which  circumstance  we  may  recognise 
the  accomplishment  of  prophecy),*  yet  anciently  they  were 
eminently  distinguished  for  their  prowess.  But  the  notices 
concerning  their  discipline  which  are  presented  to  us  in  the 
Sacred  Writings,  are  few  and  brief. 

The  wars  in  which  thj  Israelites  were  engaged,  were  of 
two  kinds,  either  such  as  were  expressly  enjoined  by  divine 

«  This  section  is  chiefly  translated  from  Calinet's  Dissertation  sur  la 
Milice  des  anciens  Ilebreux,  inserted  in  the  third  volume  of  his  Cominen- 
taire  Littorale  sur  la  Hiblc,  and  also  in  vol.  i.  pp.205 — 240.  of  his  Disserta- 
tions qui  peuvent  servir  do  Prolcgoinenes  de  I'Ecritiirc  ;  which,  in  the 
judgment  of  the  celebrated  tactician,  the  Chevalier  Folard,  discusses  the 
military  affairs  of  the  Hebrews  with  so  much  accuracy  and  knov.iedge,  as 
to  leave  sraicely  any  room  for  additions.  (Dissertation  on  the  Militai"y 
Tactics  of  the  Hebrews,  in  vol.  iii.  p.  535.  of  the  folio  Enslish  translation 
of  Calmet's  Dictionary.)  The  Dissertation  of  the  Chevalier  Folard  has 
also  been  consulted;  together  with  Alber's  Inst.  Herni.  Vet.  Test.  lorn.  i. 
pp.  239—247. ;  Schulzii  ArcheTologiaHebraica,  pp.  132—116.  ;  Jahn,  Archse- 
ologia  Biblica,  §§  26C— 296. ;  Ackermann,  Archa'ologia  Biblica,  §§2C0— 2Sf. ; 
Home's  Hist,  of  the  Jews,  vol.  ii.  pp.  303—316. ;  Brunins,  Antiq.  Hobr  f.p, 
74—91. ;  Carp/x)vii  Anfiquitates  Gentis  Hebrscw,  pp.  665—671. 

•  .See  Lev.  xxvi.  36.  Deut.  xxviii.  65,  66. 


bi 


MILITARY  AFFAIRS. 


[Part  II.  Chap.  IX. 

Hence  we  read  in  the  Scriptures  of 
not  of  levying  them.     In  liko  ninnner. 


command,  or  such  hs  uere  vohmtar)'  and  entered  upon  by  :  mode  of  selection, 

the  prince  for  revenging  some  national  afTronts,  and  for  the    choosing  the  men, 

honour  of  his  sovereignty.     Of  the  first  sort  were  these  nn-    untier  the  Roman  rej-ublic,  all  the  citizens  c  f  the  military  age 

dertaken  against  the  seven  nations  of  Canaan,  \vhom  God  I  (seventeen  to  fortj-six  years)  were  ohlijred  to  serve  a  certain 
J       ..J  ._    1  -,      ..    .    _.!      .1  .  IT-..-,        ,v     .        :.         number  of  campai<rns,  when  they  were  commanded.     On  tho 

day  appointed,  the  consuls  lield  a  levy  {dikcium.  habcbant), 
by  the  assistance  of  the  military  or  lejrionary  tribunes;  when 
it  was  determined  by  lot  in  what  manner  tlie  tribes  should 
be  called.  Tne  consuls  ordered  such  as  they  pleased  to  bo 
cited  out  of  each  tribe,  and  every  one  was  obliged  to  answer 
to  his  name  under  a  severe  penalty.  On  certain  occasions, 
some  of  the  most  refractor}'  were  put  to  death.2  To  the 
above  describedmode  of  selectingtroops,  our  iSaviour alluded, 
when  he  said  that  many  are  cai/ed,  Imi  few  chosen  (Matt.  xx. 
16.)  :  the  great  mass  of  the  people  being  convened,  choice 
was  made  of  those  who  were  the  most  fit  for  service. 

This  mode  of  selecting  soldiers  accounts  for  the  formation 
of  those  vast  armies,  in  a  very  short  space  of  time,  of  which 
we  read  in  the  Old  Testament.  The  men  of  Jabesh  Gilead, 
who,  in  the  beginning  of  Saul's  reign,  were  besieged  by  the 
Ammonites,  had  only  seven  days'  respite  given  them  to  send 
messengers  to  the  coasts  of  Israel,  after  which,  if  no  relief 
came  to  tliern,  they  Averc  to  deliver  up  the  city  and  havi; 
their  eyes  put  out,  Avhich  was  the  best  condition,  it  seems, 
they  could  procure.  (1  Sam.  xi.  1,  2,  3.)  As  soon  as  Saul 
Vvas  informed  of  it,  he,  by  a  symbolical  representation  of  cut- 
ting a  yoke  of  oxen  in  pieces,  and  sending  them  all  over 
Israel,  signified  what  should  be  done  to  the  oxen  of  such  as 
did  not  appear  upon  this  summons.  In  consequence  of  this 
summons,  we  find  that  an  army  of  three  hundred  and  thirty 
thousand  men  was  formed,  who  relieved  the  place  within  the 
seven  days  allowed  them.  In  like  manner,  when  the  chil- 
dren of  Israel  had  heard  of  the  crime  that  was  "committed 
by  the  inhabitants  of  Gibeah  against  the  Levite's  concubine, 
it  is  said,  that  they  resolved  not  to  return  to  tlieir  houses  till 
they  had  fully  avenged  this  insult  (.Tudg.  xx,  8.),  and  ac- 
cordingly, upon  the  tribe  of  Benjamin's  refusing  to  deliver 
up  these  men,  an  army  was  soon  gathered  together  of  four 
hundred  thousand  men  of  war.  (verse  17.)  Nor  was  the  pro- 
viding of  their  armies  with  necessaries  any  impediment  to 
these  sudden  levies ;  for  in  the  beginning  of  the  Jewish 
republic,  their  armies  consisting  altogether  of  infantry,  every 
one  served  at  their  own  expense,  and  ordinarily  earned  their 
own  arms  and  provisions  along  with  them.  And  thus  we 
find  that  Jesse  sent  a  supply  of  provisions  by  David  to  his 
other  three  sons  that  were  in  Saul's  camp  (1  Sam.  xvii.  13. 
17.),  which  gave  David  an  opportunity  of  eng~aging  Goliath  ; 
and  this  was  the  cliief  reascm  \a  hy  their  wars  in  those  days 
were  ordinarily  but  of  a  short  continuance,  it  being  hardly  pos- 
sible that  a  large  body  could  subf^ist  long  upon  such  provisions 
as  every  one  carried  along  with  him.  After  the  time  of  Solo- 
mon, their  armies  became  vastly  numerous :  we  read  that 
Abijah  king  of  Judah  had  an  army  of  four  hundred  thousand 
men,  with  \v  hich  he  fought  Jeroboam  king  of  Israel,  who  had 
double  that  number  ('2(.'hron.  xiii.  3.),  and  it  is  said  there 
were  five  hundred  thousand  killed  of  Jeroboam's  army.  (ver. 
17.)  Asa  king  of  Judah  had  an  army  of  nearly  six  hundred 
thousand  men,"when  ho.  was  actacked  by  Zerali  the  Ethiopian 
with  a  host  of  a  million  of  men.  (-2  Chron.  xiv.  H,  9.)  Je- 
hoshaphat  kinw  of  Judah  had  eleven  hundred  and  sixty  thou- 
sand men,  without  reckoning  the  garrisons  in  his  fortified 
places.  (-2  Chron.  xvii.  11—1!).) 

Various  regulations  were  made  by  Moses  concerning  thn 
Israeliiish  soFditrs,  which  are  characterized  by  equal  wis- 
dom and  humanity.  Not  to  repeat  what  has  already  been 
noticed  above,  we  may  remark  that  llie  following  classe;? 
of   persons    were  wholly  extuiptod   from   military  scrvicf 


had  devoted  to  destruction,  viz.  the  llittites,  the  Amorites, 
the  Canaanites  (strictly  so  called),  the  Perizzites,  the  Hi- 
vites,  the  Jebusite.^,  and  the  Girgashites.  These  the  Israel- 
ites were  commanded  to  extirpate,  and  to  settle  themselves 
in  their  place.  (Dcut.  vii.  1,2.  andxx.  16,  17.)  There  were 
indeed  other  nations  who  inhabited  this  country  in  tlie  days 
of  Abraham,  as  may  be  seen  in  Gen.  xv.  19,  20.  But  these 
had  either  become  extinct  since  that  time,  or  being  but  a 
small  people  were  incorporated  with  the  rest.  To  these 
seven  nations  no  terms  of  peace  could  be  offered  ;  for,  being 

fuilty  of  gross  idolatries  and  other  detestable  vices  of  all 
inds,  GoQ  thought  them  unfit  to  live  any  longer  upon  the 
face  of  the  earth.  These  wars,  thus  undertaken  by  the  com- 
mand of  God,  were  called  the  tears  of  the  Lord,  of  which  a 
particular  record  seems  to  have  been  kept,  as  mentioned  in 
Num.  xxi.  14. 

In  the  voluntary  wars  of  the  Israelites,  v.iiich  were  un- 
dertaken upon  some  national  account,  such  as  most  of  those 
were  in  the  times  of  the  Judges,  when  the  Moahites,  Philis- 
tines, and  other  neigliboiiring  nations  invaded  their  coinitry, 
and  such  as  that  of  David  against  the  AiTunonites,  whose 
king  had  violated  the  law  of  nations  by  insulting  his  am.bas- 
sadors, — there  were  certain  rules  established  by  God,  v/hich 
were  to  regulate  their  conduct,  both  in  the  undertaking  and 
carrying  on  of  these  wars.     As,  first,  they  were  to  proclaim 

f)eace  to  them,  which,  if  they  accepted,  these  people  were  to 
)ecome  tributaries  to  them  ;  but  if  they  refused,  all  the 
males,  upon  besieging  the  city,  were  allowed  to  be  sLiin,  if 
the  Israelites  thought  fit;  but  the  women  and  little  ones  were 
lo  be  spared,  and  the  cattle  with  the  other  goods  of  the  city 
were  to  belong,  as  spoil,  to  the  Israelites.  (Dent.  xx.  10 — 
15.)  Secondly,  in  besieging  a  city  they  were  not  to  commit 
unnecessary  waste  and  depredations  ;  ior  though  they  were 
allowed  to  cut  down  barren  trees  of  all  sorts,  lo  serve  the 
purposes  of  their  approaches,  yet  they  were  obliged  to  spare 
the  fruit  trees,  as  being  necessary  to  support  the  lives  ot  the 
inhabitants  in  future  limes,  when  the  little  rancour,  wliich 
was  the  occasion  of  their  present  hostilities,  should  be  re- 
moved and  done  away.   (Dent.  xx.  19,  20.) 

The  Lsraelites,  in  the  beginning  of  their  republic,  appear 
to  have  been  a  timorous  and  cowardly  people;  their  spirits 
vrere  broken  by  their  bondage  in  Egypt ;  ana  this  base  temper 
soon  appeared  upon  the  approach  of  Pliarnoh  and  his  army, 
before  the  Israelites  passcn  through  the  Red  Sea,  which  made 
tlicm  murmur  so  much  against  Moses.  (Exod.  xiv.  10,  11, 
12.)  But  in  no  instance  was  their  cowardice  more  evident, 
than  when  they  heard  the  report  of  the  spies  concerning  the 
inhabitants  of  the  land,  which  threw  them  into  a  fit  of 
dt'sp.'.ir,  and  made  them  resolve  to  return  into  Egypt,  not- 
witnstandiiig  all  the  miracles  wrought  for  them  by  God. 
(Num.  xiv.  1 — 6.)  It  was  on  this  account  that  David,  who 
was  well  acquainted  with  their  disposition,  says,  that  thci/ got 
not  the  land  in  pi/nscs.iiun  hi/  their  oicn  sword,  neither  did  tluir 
cvm  arm  save  them,  but  thy  right  hand  and  thine  arm,  and  the 
light  if  Ihi/  couniennnce,  because  thou  hadsi  a  favour  unto 
them.  (Psal.  xliv.  3.) 

After  their  departure  from  Egypt,  the  whole  of  the  men, 
from  twenty  years  and  upwards,  until  the  age  of  fifty  (when 
they  might  demand  their  discharge  if  they  chose),  were  lia- 
ble to  military  service,  the  priests  and  l>evites  not  excepted. 
(Num.  i.  3.  22.  2Sai!i.  xxiii.20.  1  Kings  ii.  35.)  Like  the 
militia  in  some  countries,  and  tl\e  hardy  mountaineers  of  Le- 
banon at  this  day,'  they  were  always  ready  to  asseiitTJle  at 
the  shortest  notice.  If  the  occasion  were  extremely  urgent, 
aJecting  their  existence  as  a  people,  all  wore  summoned  to 
war;  but  ordinarily,  when  there  was  no  necessity  for  con- 
Viiking  tho  wiiole  of  their  forces,  a  selection  was  made.  Tiuis 
Joshua  chose  twelve  thousand  men,  in  ordrr  to  attack  the 
Amalckites  (Exod.  xvii.  9,  10.)  :  in  the  war  with  the  Midi- 
anites,  one  thousand  men  were  selected  out  of  each  tribe 
(Num.  xxxi.  4,  5,),  and  in  the  rash  a.ssanlt  unon  the  city  of 
Ai,  three  thousand  men  were  employed,  (.losh.  vii.  3,  4.) 
'I'he  book  of  Judges  furnishes  numerous  instanc*  s  of  this 

'  A  recent  learned  travoller  in  \.\\o  Holy  I.niv!.  iIp.TribinR  tlir  proocnt 
.s'.-itp  of  Mount  I.L'banon,  says,  thai,  "  of  Oie  pc.-i.<<atiln,  great  nutnlxTii 
cirryarins.  In  fact,  tvrryyownf.  man  may  in  some  scnso  be  called  a 
R:>ldier.  and  would  in  rue  of  need  niir-iteras  such  :  llic  gun  which  s'>rvr8 
h  ni  for  field  ?i)or(  and  sii.-.lenance  is  nady  for  the  call  of  war ;  and  liis 
(:;'<ci,)linc  con,-ists  in  the  liracinjf.  hanly  Inmu  of  a  mountaineer."  Kcv. 
W.  Jowrell'xCtirijiian  ResearrJicfi  in  Syria,  p.  74.  (J.on  Ion,  Ift'JO.  3vo.) 


(Dent.  XX.  5 — R.  xxiv.  5.)  ;  viz. 

1.  He,  wiio  had  built  a  new  house,  and  had  not  dedicated 
it,  was  to  return  heme,  lest  he  should  die  in  battle,  and  an- 
other man  dedicate  it.  From  the  title  of  Psal.  xxx — .'i  Psalm 
or  !So>ig  at  the  dedication  if  the  house  of  JJavid, — it  was  evi- 
dently a  custom  in  Israel  to  dedicate  a  new  liouse  to  Jeho- 
vah, with  pniyer,  praise,  and  thanksgiving,  in  order  that  he 
might  oi)tam  the  divine  blessing. 

2.  Tliose  wiio  hail  jjlanted  a  vine  or  olive  yard,  and  who 
had  not  yet  eaten  of  its  produce. 

3.  Every  nuin  who  had  betrothed  a  wife  and  had  not  taken 
her  home.  It  is  well  known,  that  among  the  Jews  a  consi- 
dcraide  time  sometimes  elapsed  between  the  espousal  or  be- 
trothing of  the  parties  anu  the  celebration  of  a  marriaffe. 
When  "the  bridegroom  had  made  proper  preparations,  the 

•  Dr.  Adani's  Rowan  Antiti«lties,  pp.  2ffl,  363.  fifth  edit 


I 
I 


SiCT.  I.] 


ON  THE  MILITARY  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  JEWS. 


85 


bride  was  conducted  to  his  house,  and  the  nuptials  were 
consummated. 

4.  Every  newly  married  man,  during  the  first  year  after 
ills  marriage.  The  humanity  of  these  exemptions  will  be 
tlie  more  evident,  when  it  is  recollected  that,  anciently,  it 
was  deemed  an  excessive  hardship  for  a  person  to  be  obliged 
to  go  to  battle  (in  which  there  was  a  probability  of  his  being 
slain)  who  had  left  a  new  house  unfinished,  a  newl}-  pur- 
chased heritage  half  tilled,  or  a  wife  with  whom  he  had  just 
contracted  marriage.  Homer  represents  the  case  of  Protesi- 
laus  as  singularly  afllicting,  wlio  was  obliged  to  go  to  the 
Trojan  war,  leaving  his  wife  in  the  deepest  distress,  and  his 
house  unfinished.' 

5.  The  last  exemption  was  in  favour  of  the  fearful  and 
faint  hearted;  an  exemption  of  such  a  disgraceful  nature, 
that  one  would  think  it  never  would  have  been  claimed. 
Such,  however,  w^as  the  case  in  Gideon's  expedition  against 
the  Midianites.  Ten  thousand  only  remained  out  of  ttiirli/- 
two  thousand,  of  which  number  his  army  originally  consisted ; 
twenty-two  thousand  having  complied  with  his  proclamation, 
that  whosoever  was  fearful  and  afraid  might  return  and  depart 
early  from  Mount  Gilead.  (Judg.  vii.  3.)^ 

Before  the  regal  government  was  established,  the  Israeli- 
tish  army  was  entirely  disbanded  at  the  conclusion  of  a  war. 
The  earliest  instance  recorded  of  any  military'  force  being 
kept  in  time  of  peace,  is  in  the  reign  of  Saul,  w'ho  retained 
two  thousand  for  his  body  guard,  and  one  thousand  for  his 
son  Jonathan's  guard.  (1  Sam.  xiii.  1,  2.)  David  had  a  dis- 
tinct guard,  called  Cherethites  and  Pelethites,  concerning  the 
origin  of  whose  name  various  contradictory  opinions  nave 
been  offered.  Josephus,  however,  expressly  says,  that  they 
w^ere  his  guards,  and  the  Chaldee  paraphrast  terms  them 
archers  ana  slingers J  Besides  these  he  had  twelve  bodies  of 
twenty-four  thousand  men  each,  who  were  on  duty  for  one 
month,  forming  an  aggi-egate  of  two  hundred  and  eighty-eight 
thousand  men.  (I  Chron.  xxvii.  1 — 15.)  Subsequently,  when 
the  art  of  war  was  improved,  a  regular  force  seems  to  have 
been  kept  up  both  in  peace  and  war;  for,  exclusive  of  the 
vast  army  which  Jehoshaphat  had  in  the  field,  we  read  that 
he  had  troops  throughout  all  the  fenced  cities,  which  doubt- 
less were  garrisoned  in  time  of  peace  as  well  as  during  war. 

in.  The  Officers  who  were  placed  at  the  head  of  the 
Hebrew  forces  appear  not  to  have  diflTered  materially  from 
those  whom  w^e  nnd  in  ancient  and  modern  armies. 

The  Division  of  the  army  into  three  bands  or  companies, 
mentioned  in  Gen.  xiv.  14,  15.  Job  i.  17.  Judg.  vii.  16.  20. 
1  Sam.  xi.  11.  and  2  Sam.  xviii.  2.,  was  probably  no  other 
than  the  division  intp  the  centre,  left,  and  right  wing,  which 
obtains  in  the  modern  art  of  war.     The  Hebrews,  when  they 


(Exod.  xiii.  18.)  is  renaered  harnessed,  and  in  the  margin, 
by  Jive  in  a  rank.  It  is  probable,  from  these  expressions, 
that  they  followed  each  otiier  in  ranks  fifty  deep,  and  that  at 
the  head  of  each  rank  or  file  of  fifty  w^as  the  captain  of  fifty. 
(1  Sam.  viii.  12.  2  Kings  i.  9 — 14.  J  The  other  divisions 
consisted  of  tens,  hundreds,  thousands,  &c. ;  and  the  oflTicers 
that  commanded  them  are  styled  captains  of  thousands,  cap- 
tains of  hundreds,  captains  of  fifties,  and  captains  of  tens ; 
of  these  mention  is  made  in  1  Chron.  xii.  14.  20.  xiii.  1. 
xxviii.  1.  and  2  Kings  i.  9.  11.  13.  These,  probably,  were  of 
the  same  rank  with  those  whom  Moses  constituted  in  the 
wilderness,  rulers  of  thousands,  &c.  (Exod.  xviii.  25.),  and 
who  at  first  acted  in  a  double  capacity,  being  at  the  same  time 
civil  magistrates  and  military  officers.  The  captains  of  thou- 
sands seem  to  have  been  much  the  same  as  colonels  of  regi- 
ments with  us ;  and  the  captains  of  hundreds  might  probably 
answer  to  those  who  in  our  army  have  the  command  of  troops 
and  companies ;  the  captains  of  fifties  and  tens  to  our  subal- 
terns, sergeants,  and  corporals.  During  the  Mosaic  com- 
monwealth, in  conformity  to  the  law  in  Deut.  xx.  9.,  all  these 

I  Iliad,  lib.  ii.  700-702. 

I  Michaelis's  Commentaries,  vol.  iii.  pp.  34 — 37. 

s  On  this  subject  tlie  reader  may  consult  the  Dissertations  of  Ikenius, 
De  Cretlii  et  Tletlii  (Lug.  Bat.  1749),  and  of  Lakemacher,  Ob.servaiiones 
I*liilolo?icae,  part  ii.  pp.  11 — 14.,  and  also  Michaelis's  Commentaries  on  the 
Law  of  Moses,  §  23-2. 

«  It  is  from  tliis  circumstance  "that  the  Divine  Being  calls  himself  the 
Ix>RO  OF  Hosts,  or  armies;  because  the  Israelites  were  brought  out  of 
Birypt  under  his  direction,  marshalled  and  ordered  by  himself,  guided  by 
Id's  wisdom,  supported  by  his  providence,  and  protected  by  his  miglit. 
This  is  the  true  and  simple  reason,  why  God  is  so  frequently  styled  in 
Scripture  the  Lord  of  Hosts:  /o;-  the  Lord  did  bring  the  children  of  Israel 
out  of  Egypt  by  their  armies."  Dr.  A.  Clarke's  Commentary,  on  E.xod. 
xii.  51. 


oflScers  were  appointed  by  the  Snoferim,  genealogists  or  offi- 
cers (as  they  are  termed  in  our  version),  who  probably  chose 
the  heads  of  families ,-  but  after  the  monarchy  took  place, 
they  received  their  commissions  either  from  the  king  in  the 
same  manner  as  at  present,  as  appears  from  2  Sam.'xviii.  1. 
and  2  Chron.  xxv.  5. ;  or  from  the  commander-in-chief  (2  Sam. 
xviii.  11.)  :  and  it  should  seem  that  a  captain's  commission 
was  denoted  by  giving  a  military  girdle  or  sash.  (2  Sam. 
xviii.  11.) 

The  first  and  principal  Head  of  the  armies  of  Israel  was 
the  Almighty  himself,  w^ho  is  so  frequently  termed  in  Scrip- 
ture the  Lord  of  Hosts.  The  whole  nation  marched  forth 
under  the  superintending  guidance  of  their  God.  Subordinate 
to  Him,  and  as  his  lieutenant-general,  was  the  principal  officey, 
or  leader  of  the  whole  army,  who,  in  the  Scriptures,  is  termed 
the  Captain  of  the  Lord's  Host,  and  who  appears  to  have 
been  of  the  same  rank  with  him  who  is  now*  called  the  com- 
mander-in-chief of  an  array.  Such  were  Joshua  and  the 
Judges  under  the  primitive  constitution  of  their  government 
as  settled  by  God  himself:  such  w  as  Abner  under  Saul  (2  Sam. 
ii.  8.),  Joab  under  David  (2  Sam.  xx.  23.),  and  Axnasa  under 
Absalom,  when  he  Avas  raising  a  rebellion  against  his  father. 
(2  Sam.  xvii.  25.)  The  command  and  authority  of  this  captain 
of  the  host  appear  to  have  been  very  great,  sometimes  indeed, 
nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  sovereign.  David  seems  to  have 
been  afraid  of  Joab  his  commancler-in-cliief ;  otherwise  he 
would  never  have  sufl'ered  him  to  live  after  the  sanguinary 
assassinations  which  he  had  perpetrated.  It  is  evident  that 
the  captain  of  the  host  enjoj-ed  great  influence  in  the  time  of 
Elisha  :  for  we  read,  that  the  prophet  having  been  hospitably 
entertained  by  an  opulent  woman  at  Shunem,  and  being  de- 
sirous of  making  her  some  acknowledgitient  for  her  kindness, 
ordered  his  servant  Gehazi  to  inquire  what  she  would  wish 
to  have  done  for  her.  fVouldst  thou  be  spoken  for  to  the  king, 
or  to  the  Captain  of  the  Host?  (2  Kings  iv.  13.) 

After  the  establishment  of  the  monarchy,  the  kings  went  to 
w^ar  in  person,  and  at  first  fought  on  foot,  like  the  meanest  of 
tlieir  soldiers.  Thus  David  fought,  until  the  danger  to  which 
he  exposed  himself  became  so  great,  that  his  people  would 
no  longer  allow  him  to  lead  them  on  to  battle.  (2  Sam.  xxi. 
17.)  It  does  not  appear  that  there  were  any  horse  in  the  Is- 
raelitish  army  before  the  time  of  Solomon.  In  the  time  of 
David  there  were  none ;  for  the  rebel  Absalom  was  mounted 
on  a  mule  in  the  battle  in  which  he  lost  his  life.  (2  Sam. 
xviii.  9.)  Solomon,  who  had  married  the  daughter  of  the 
king  of  Egypt,  procured  horses  from  that  country  at  a  great 
expense  (f  Kings  x.  28,  29.);  and  afterwards  had  four  thou- 
sand stalls  for  horses  and  chariots,  and  twelve  thousand^iorse- 
inen.  (2  Chron.  ix.  25.)  From  Zech.  xiv.  20.  it  should  seem, 
that  bells  formed  a  part  of  the  caparison  of  war-horses.  Sub- 
sequent kings  of  Judah  and  Israel  went  into  the  battle  in 
chariots,  arrayed  in  their  royal  vestments,  or  sometimes  in 
disguise.  They  orenerally  had  a  spare  chariot  to  attend  them : 
thus  we  read  that  king  Josiah,  after  he  was  mortally  wounded, 
w^as  taken  out  of  his  war-chariot,  and  put  into  another,  in 
which  he  was  carried  to  Jerusalem.  (2  Chron.  xxxv.  23,  24. 
1  King'&  xxii.  34.)  Both  kings  and  generals  had  armour' 
bearers,  who  were  chosen  from  the  bravest  of  the  soldier}-, 
and  not  only  bore  the  arms  of  their  masters,  but  were  also 
employed  to  give  his  commands  to  the  subordinate  captains, 
and  w^ere  present  at  his  side  in  the  hour  of  peril.  (1  Sam. 
xiv.  6.  xvii.  7.) 

INIilitary  chariots  were  much  in  use  among  the  Egyptians, 
Canaanites,  and  other  oriental  nations.'  Two  sorts  are  men- 
tioned in  the  Scriptures ;  one  in  which  princes  and  generals 
rode,  the  other  to  oreak  the  enemy's  battalions  by  rushing  in 
among  them,  armed  with  iron  scythes,  which  caused  terrible 
havoc.  The  most  ancient  war-chariots,  of  which  we  read, 
are  those  of  Pharaoh,  which  were  destroyed  in  the  Red  Sea 
(Exod.  xiv.  7.):  his  infantry,  cavalry,  and  war-chariots  were 
so  arranged  as  to  form  separate  divisions  of  his  army.  (Exod. 
xiv.  6,  7.)  The  Canaanites,  whom  Joshua  engaged  at  the 
waters  oi  Merom,  had  cavalry  and  a  multitude  of  chariots. 
(Josh.  xi.  4.)  Sisera,  the  general  of  Jabin,  king  of  Hazor 
had  nine  hundred  chariots  of  iron  in  his  army.  (Judg.  iv.  3.) 
The  tribe  of  Judah  could  not  obtain  possession  of  part  of  the 
lands  allotted  to  them,  because  the  inhabitants  of  the  country 
were  strong  in  chariots  of  iron.  (Judg.  i.  19.)  The  Philis- 
tines, in  their  war  with  Saul,  had  thirty  thousand  chariots, 
and  six  thousand  horsemen.  (1  Sam.  xiii.  5.)  David,  having 
taken  a  thousand  war-chariots  from  Hadadezer,  king  of  Da- 
mascus, ham-strung  the  horses,  and  burnt  nine  hundred  cha- 

>  They  were  also  used  among  the  ancient  Britons. 


88 


MILITARY  AFFAIRS. 


[Part  II.  Chap.  IX. 


riots,  reserving  only  one  hundred.  (2  Sam.  viii,  4.)  It  does 
not  appear  that  the  Hebrews  ever  used  chariots  in  war,  though 
Solomon  had  a  considerable  number;  but  we  know  of  no 
military  expedition  in  which  he  employed  them.  In  the 
second  book  of  Maccabees,  mention  is  made  of  chariots 
armed  with  scythes,  which  the  king  of  Syria  led  against  the 
Jews.    (2  Mace.  xiii.  2.)     These   chariots  were   generally 

filaced  on  the  whole  front  of  the  infantry,  ranged  in  a  straight 
ine,  parallel  sometimes  to  the  cavalry.  Some  of  them  were 
with  four,  others  with  two  wheels  only :  those  were  driven 
against  the  enomy,  whcjjTn  they  never  failed  to  put  into  dis- 
order, when  they  were  followed  closely  by  the  line.  There 
were  two  ways  of  rendering  them  useless ;  first,  by  opening 
a  passage  for  them  through  the  battalions;  secondly,  by  kilP 
ing  the  horses  before  they  were  too  far  advanced  :  in  which 
case  they  were  of  the  greatest  disservice  to  those  who  em- 

filoyed  tnem,  because  they  not  only  embarrassed  them,  but, 
urtlier,  broke  the  closeness  of  the  line,  and  checked  all  the 
force  of  the  onset.  The  infantry  were  divided  into  lii^ht- 
armed  troop.",  and  into  spearmen,  (Gen.  xlix.  19.  1  Sam.  xxx. 
8.  15.  23.  2  Sam.  iii.  22.  iv.  2.  xxii.  30.  Psal.  xviii.  30.  in 
the  Hebrew,  20.  of  our  English  version,  2  Kings  v.  2.  Hos. 
vii.  1.)  The  \ight-armed  troops  of  infantry  were  furnished 
with  a  sling  and  javelin,  with  a  bow,  arrows,  and  quiver,  and 
also,  at  least  in  later  times,  with  a  buckler:  they  fought  the 
enemy  at  a  distance.  The  spearmen,  on  the  contrary,  who 
were  armed  with  spears,  swords,  and  shields,  fougiit  hand 
to  hand.  (1  Chron.  xii.  21.  34.  2  Chron.  xiv.  8.  xvii.  17.) 
The  liffht-anned  troops  were  commonly  taken  from  the  tribes 
of  Kphraim  and  Benjamin.  (2  Chron.  xiv.  8.  xvii.  17.) 

IV.  No  information  is  given  us  in  the  Scriptures,  con- 
cerning the  order  of  Enxamp.ment  adopted  by  the  Israelites 
after  their  settlement  in  Canaan.     During  their  sojourning 


in  the  wilderness,  the  form  of  their  camp,  according  to  the 
account  given  in  Num.  ii.,  appears  to  have  been  quadrangu- 
lar, having  three  tribes  placed  on  eacli  side,  under  one  gene- 
ral standard,  so  as  to  inclose  the  tabernacle,  which  stood  in 
the  centre.  Between  these  four  great  camps  and  the  taber- 
nacle were  pitched  four  smaller  camps  ot"  the  priests  and 
Levites,  who  were  immediately  in  attendance  upon  it;  the 
camp  of  Moses  and  of  Aaron  and  his  sons  (who  were  the 
ministering  priests,  and  had  the  charge  of  the  sanctuarj')  was 
on  the  east  side  of  the  tabernacle,  where  the  entrance  was. 
From  Isa.  liv.  2.  it  appears  that  the  tents,  under  which  they 
lived,  were  nearly  the  same  as  those  which  arc  now  in  use 
in  the  PVast.  Every  family  and  household  had  their  particu- 
lar ensign ;  under  which  they  encamped  or  pursued  their 
march.  Rabbinical  writers  assert  that  the  standard  of  Judah 
was  a  lion;  that  of  Reuben,  the  figure  of  a  man;  that  of 
Enhraim,  an  ox;  that  of  Dan,  an  eagle  with  a  serpent  in  his 
talons:'  but  for  these  assertions  there  is  no  loundation. 
They  are  probably  derived  from  the  patriarch's  prophetic 
blessing  of  his  children,  related  in  Gen.  xlix.  It  is  far  more 
likely,  that  the  names  of  the  several  tribes  were  embroidered 
in  large  letters  on  their  rcs))ective  standards,  or  that  they 
were  distinguished  by  appropriate  colours.  The  following 
diagram,  alter  Ainsworth,  Roberts,  and  Dr.  A.  Clarke,'  will, 
perhaps,  give  tlie  reader  a  tolerable  idea  of  the  beautiful  order 
of  the  Israelitish  encampment;  the  si<rht  of  which,  from  the 
mountains  of  Moab,  extorted  from  Balaam  (when  fie  sau- 
Israel  abiding  in  his  tents  according  to  their  tribes)  the  follow- 
ing exclamation  : — "  How  goodly  are  thy  tents,  O  Jacob,  and 
thy  tabernacles,  0  Israel!  As  the  valleys  are  they  spread  forth, 
as  gardens  by  the  river^s  side,  as  the  trees  of  lign-uloes  tvhlch 
the  Lord  hath  planted,  and  as  cedar  trees  beside  the  waters, 
(Num.  xxiv.  2.  5,  6.) 


EAST. 


z; 


186,400  Men. 
FIRST  GRAND  DIVISION. 


JUDAH, 

74,600. 

IssACHAR,  and  Zabulo.n, 

5J,tU0.           57,100. 

c 

MOSKS,                      AARON, 

AND  THE  PRIESTS. 

< 

1^ 

8« 

IS 

p 

RKUBEiN, 

46,500. 

Si.MEON,  and  Gad, 

Q 
X 

Ii 

5 

•< 

55 

o 

JO   > 

ft 
H 

•OCOo 

'saxi.NJoiisM'jo 

oot-'ys        oos'ss 

'KiKvr.N;ag  piio  'nasswvj^ 

, 

•OO'/'OI' 

•ivivjjnd:^ 

•MoiyiAia  QMVMO  aaiHX 

•"••IV  00  T '801 


M.SM.W 


7) 

M 

O 

o 
o 

> 


CO 

o 


During  the  encampment  of  thf  Israelitis  in  the  wihienioss, 
Moses  made  various  salutary  enaetnients,  which  are  recorded 
in  Deut.  xxiii.  10 — 15., for  guarding  against  the  vice  and  un- 
deanliness  that  might  otherwise  liave  prevailed  among  so 
large  a  budy  of  oiople,  forming  an  atrgngatc  of  upwards  of 
three  millions.  The  following  was  tlu^  order  of  thuir  march, 
which  is  not  much  unlike  that  in  which  the  caravans  or  assem- 
blages of  oriental  travellers  still  continue  to  move  : — When 
lliey  were  to  remove  (which  was  only  when  llio  cloud  was 
taken  off  the  tabernacle),  the  trumpet  was  sounded, -and  upon 
tlu'  first  alarm  the  standard  of  Jnuah  being  raised,  tlie  three 
tribes  which  belonged  to  it  set  forward ;  then  the  tabernacle 
being  taken  down,  which  was  the  jjroper  office  of  the  I,cvites, 
the  Gershonites  and  the  Murarilcs  (two  families  of  that  or- 


der), attended  Ihe  wagons  with  the  boards,  staves,  &c.  When 
these  were  on  their  march  a  second  alarm  was  sounded, 
upon  which  the  standard  of  Reuben's  camp  advanced  with 
the  three  tribes  under  it.  After  them  ff>llow(;d  tiie  Kohath- 
ites  (the  third  family  of  the  Levites)  bearing  the  sanctuary, 
that  IS,  the  Holy  of  Holies  and  the  utensils  thereto  belong, 
ing ;  and  because  this  was  less  cumbersome  tlian  the  boards, 
pillars,  and  other  parts  of  the  tabernacle,  and  more  lioly,  it 
was  on  that  account  not  jnit  into  a  wagon,  but  carried  on 
their  shoulders.     Next  followed  the  standard  of  Ephraim's 

'  I.nniy  (\e-  Tutirrnftrnln,  lil>.  iii.  c.  2.  Carpzov  haii  given  nl  lenxlli  llio 
raltliinical  dcscriplioiis  uf  thu  Iiiraelitisli  mnii'Jards.  Atiliq.  Ilubr.  Genlix. 
pp.  (507,  068. 

«  III  their  Commcntarice,  on  Num.  ii.  RobcrU's  Calvis  Bibliuruio,  p. 
"M.  fotju  eUil. 


Sect.  I.] 


ON  THE  MILITARY  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  JEWS. 


87 


camp  with  the  tribes  belonging  to  it :  and  last  of  all  the  other 
three  tribes  under  the  standard  of  Dan  brought  up  the  rear ; 
Moses  and  Aaron  overseeing  the  whole,  that  every  thing  was 
done  as  God  had  directed,  while  tlie  sons  of  Aaron  were 
chiefly  employed  in  blowing  the  trumpets,  and  other  offices 
properly  belonging  to  them. 

From  1  Sam.  xxvi.  5.,  as  rendered  in  our  authorized  ver- 
sion {Saul  lay  in  the  trench,  and  the  people  pitched  roundabout 
him),  it  has  been  imagined  that  the  Israelites  had  a  fortified 
camp.  The  proper  rendering  is,  that  Saul  lay  among  the  bag- 
gage, with  his  spear  stuck  at  his  head  (v.  7.),  in  the  same 
manner  as  is  usual  among  the  Persians,'  and  also  among  the 
Arabs  to  this  day,  wherever  the  disposition  of  the  ground 
will  permit  it :  their  emir  or  prince  bemg  in  the  centre  of  the 
Arabs  around  him  at  a  respectful  distance.^  When  David  is 
represented  as  sometimes  secreting  himself  in  the  night,  when 
he  was  with  his  armies,  instead  of  lodging  with  the  people 
("2  Sam.  yvii.  8,  9.),  it  probably  means  that  he  did  not  lodge 
in  the  mi<ldle  of  the  camp,  which  was  the  proper  place  for  a 
king,  in  order  that  he  might  the  better  avoid  any  surprise 
from  his  enemies.' 

V.  In  ancient  times  the  Hebrews  received  no  pay,  during 
their  miUtary  service  :  the  same  practice  of  gratuitous  service 
obtained  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  in  the  early  period 
of  their  respective  republics.''  The  Cherethites  and  Peleth- 
ites  appear  to  have  been  the  first  stipendiary  soldiers :  it  is 
liowever  probable,  that  the  great  military  officers  of  Saul, 
David,  Solomon,  and  the  other  kings,  had  some  allowance 
suitable  to  the  dignity  of  their  rank.  The  soldiers  were  paid 
out  of  the  kind's  treasury :  and  in  order  to  stimulate  their 
valour,  rewartls  and  honours  were  publicly  bestowed  on  those 
who  distinguished  themselves  agamstthe  enemy;  consisting 
of  pecuniary  presents,  a  girdle  or  belt,  a  woman  of  Quality 
for  a  wife,  exemptions  from  taxes,  promotion  to  a  higher 
rank  in  the  army,  &;c.  all  of  which  were  attended  with  great 
profit  and  distinction.  (2  Sam.  xviii.  11.  Josh.  xv.  16.  1  Sam. 
xviii.  25.  1  Cliron.  xi.  6.)  In  the  age  of  the  Maccabees,  the 
patriot  Simon  both  armea  and  paid  his  brave  companions  in 
anns,  at  his  own  expense.  (1  Mace.  xiv.  32.)  Afterwards, 
it  became  an  established  custom,  that  all  soldiers  should 
receive  pay.  (Luke  iii.  14.  1  Cor.  ix.  7.) 

It  appears  from  various  passages  of  Scripture,  and  espe- 
cially from  Isa.  ii.  4.  and  Mic.  iv.  3.,  that  there  were  mili- 
tary schools,  in  which  the  Hebrew  soldiers  learned  war,  or, 
in  modern  language,  were  trained,  by  proper  officers,  in  those 
exercises  which  were  in  use  among  the  other  nations  of  anti- 
quity. Swiftness  of  foot  was  an  accomplishment  highly 
valued  among  the  Hebrew  warriors,  both  for  attacking  and 
pursuing  an  enemy,  as  well  as  among  the  ancient  Greeks 
and  Romans.  In  2  Sam.  i.  19.  Saul  is  denominated  the  roe 
(in  our  version  rendered  the  beauty)  of  Lrael ;  the  force  of 
which  expression  will  be  felt,  when  it  is  recollected  that  in 
the  East,  to  this  day,  the  hind  and  roe,  the  hart  and  antelope, 
continue  to  be  held  in  high  estimation  for  the  delicate  ele- 
gance of  their  form,  or  their  graceful  agility  of  action.  In 
-2  Sam.  ii.  18.  we  are  told  that  Jisahel  was  as  light  of  foot  as  a 
wild  roe ,- — a  mode  of  expression  perfectly  synonymous  with 
the  epithet  of  Iliif-j.;  aicu;  A:^/\M!/f,  the  swift-footed  Achilles, 
which  is  given  by  Homer  to  his  hero,  not  fewer  than  thirty 
times  in  the  course  of  the  Iliad.  David  expressed  his  grati- 
tude to  God  for  making  his  feet  like  hinePs  feet  for  swiftness, 
and  teaching  his  liands  to  war,  so  that  a  bow  of  steel  was 
broken  by  his  arms.  (Psal.  xviii.  33,  34.)  The  tribe  of  Ben- 
jamin could  boast  of  a  great  number  of  brave  men,  who 
could  use  their  right  and  left  hands  with  equal  dexterity 
(Judg.  XX.  16.  1  Cnron.xii.  2.),  and  who  were  eminent  for 
their  skill  in  the  use  of  the  bow  and  the  sling.  The  men  of  war, 
out  of  the  tribe  of  Gad,  who  came  to  David  when  persecuted 
by  Saul,  are  described  as  being  men  of  war,  fit  for  the  battle, 
that  could  handle  shield  and  buckler,  whose  faces  were  like  the 
faces  of  lions,  and  who  were  as  swift  as  the  roes  upon  the 
mountains.  (1  Chron.  xii.  8.) 

VI.  The  Hebrews  do  not  appear  to  have  had  any  peculiar 
military  habit:  as  the  flowing  dress  which  they  ordinarily 
wore,  would  have  impeded  their  movements,  they  girt  it 
closely  around  them  when  preparing  for  battle,  and  loosened 
it  on  their  return.  (2  Sara.  xx.  8.  1  Kings  xx.  11.)  They 
used  the  same  arms  as  the  neighbouring  nations,  both  defen- 
sive and  offensive,  and  these  were  made  either  of  iron  or  of 

t  Morier's  Second  Journey  into  Persia,  pp.  115,  116. 

»  Captains  Irljy's  and  Mangle's  Travels  in  Egypt,  &c.  p.  395.  Dr.  Delia 
Cella's  Narrative  of  an  Expedition  from  Tripoli  in  Barbary  to  the  V/ester.a 
Frontiers  of  E;;ypt,  p.  11. 

»  Hanner's  Observations,  vol.  iii.  pp.  430,  431. 

«  Livy,  lib.  iv.  c.  59.    Bruning's  Antiquit.  Grsec.  p.  103. 


brass,  principally  of  the  latter  metal.  In  the  Scriptures  we 
read  of  brazen  shields,  helmets,  and  bows;  the  helmet, 
greaves,  and  target  of  the  gigantic  Goliath  were  all  of  brass, 
wliich  vvas  the  metal  chiefly  used  by  the  ancient  Greeks. ■'^ 
The  national  museums  of  most  countries  contain  abundant 
specimens  of  brazen  arms,  which  have  been  rescued  from  the 
destroying  hand  of  time.  Originally,  every  man  provided  hi* 
own  arms :  but  after  the  establishment  of  the  monarchy, 
depots  were  formed,  whence  they  were  distributed  to  the  men 
as  occasion  required.  (2  Chron.  xi.  12.  xxvi.  14,  15.) 

Of  the  Defensive  Arms  of  the  Hebrews,  the  following 
were  the  most  remarkable ;  viz. 

1.  The  Helmet  paia  (kobong),  for  covering  and  defending 
the  head.  This  was  a  part  of  the  military  provision  made  by 
Uzziah  for  his  vast  army  (2  Chron.  xxvi.  14.) :  and  long  be- 
fore the  time  of  that  king,  the  helmets  of  Saul  and  ot  the 
Philistine  champion  were  of  brass.  (1  Sam.  xvii.  38.  5.) 
This  military  cap  was  also  Avoni  by  the  Persians,  Ethiopians, 
and  Libyans  (Lzek.  xxxviii.  5.),  and  by  the  troops  which 
Antiochus  sent  against  Judas  Maccabeus.  (1  Mace.  vi.  35.) 

2.  The  Bkeast-plate  or  Corslet,  p^-itp  (sh/rion)  was 
another  piece  of  defensive  armour.  Goliath,  and  the  soldiers 
of  Antiochus  (1  Sam.  xvii.  5.  1  Mace.  vi.  35.)  were  accoutred 
with  this  defence,  which,  in  our  authorized  translation,  is 
variously  rendered  habergeoyi,  coat  of  mail,  and  brigundine. 
( 1  Sam.  xvii.  38.  2  Chron.  xxvi.  14.  Isa.  lix.  17.  Jer.  xlvi.  4.) 
Between  the  joints  of  his  harness  (as  it  is  termed  in  1  Kings 
xxii.  34.),  the  profligate  Ahab  was  mortally  wounded  by  an 
arrow  shot  at  a  venture.  From  these  various  renderings  of 
the  original  word,  it  should  seem  that  this  piece  of  armour 
covered  both  the  back  and  breast,  but  principally  the  latter. 
The  corslets  were  made  of  various  materials :  sometimes 
they  were  made  of  flax  or  cotton,  woven  very  thick,  or  of  a 
kind  of  woollen  felt :  others  again  were  made  of  iron  or 
brazen  scales,  or  lamince,  laid  one  over  another  like  the  scales 
of  a  fish  ;  others  were  properly  what  we  call  coats  of  mail ; 
and  others  were  composed  of  two  pieces  of  iron  or  brass, 
which  protected  the  hack  and  breast.  All  these  kinds  of 
corslets  are  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures.  Goliath's  coat  of 
mail  (1  Sam.  xvii.  5.)  was  literally,  a  corslet  of  scales,  that  is, 
composed  of  numerous  laminae  of  brass,  crossing  each  other. 
It  was  called  by  the  Latin  writers  squarnea  lorica.'^  Similar 
corslets  were  worn  by  the  Persians  and  other  nations.  The 
breast-plate  worn  by  the  unhappy  Saul,  when  he  perished  in 
battle,  is  supposed  to  have  been  of  flax,  or  cotton,  woven 
very  close  and  thick.  (2  Sam.  i.  9.  marginal  Tendering.) 

3.  The  Shield  defended  the  whole  body  during  the  battle. 
It  was  of  various  forms,  and  made  of  wood  or  ozier,  covered 
with  tough  hides,  or  of  brass,  and  sometimes  was  overlaid 
with  gold.  (1  Kings  x.  16,  17.  xiv.  26,  27.)  Two  sorts  are. 
mentioned  in  the  Scriptures,  viz.  the  njx  (TSJ^Nan)  great 
shield  or  buckler,  and  the  po  (iMoceN)  or  smaller  shield.  It 
was  much  used  by  the  Jews,  Babylonians,  Chaldaeans,  As- 
syrians, and  Egyptians.  David,  who  was  a  great  warrior, 
often  mentions  a  shield  and  buckler,  in  his  divine  poems,  to 
signify  that  defence  and  protection  of  heaven  which  he  ex- 
pected and  experienced,  and  in  which  he  reposed  all  his  trust. 
(Psal.  V.  12.)  And  when  he  says,  God  vnll  with  favour 
compass  the  righteous  as  with  a  shield,  he  seems  to  allude  to 
the  use  of  the  great  shield  tsinnah  (which  is  the  word  he  uses) 
with  which  they  covered  and  defended  their  whole  bodies. 
King  Solomon  caused  two  different  sorts  of  shields  to  be  made, 
viz.  the  tsiniiah  (which  answers  to  the  clypeus  of  the  Latins), 
such  a  large  shield  as  the  infantry  wore,  and  the  raaginnim 
or  scuta,  which  were  used  by  the  horsemen,  and  were  of  a 
much  less  size.  (2  Chron.  ix.  15,  16.)  The  former  of  these 
are  translated  targets,  and  are  double  in  weight  to  the  other. 
The  Philistines  came  into  the  field  with  this  weapon :  so  we. 
find  their  formidable  champion  was  appointed.  (1  Sam.  xvii. 
7.)  One  bearing  a  shield  went  before  him,  whose  proper 
duty  it  was  to  carry  this  and  some  other  weapons,  with  which 
to  furnish  his  master  upon  occasion.' 

»  Calmet,  in  his  elaborate  Dissertation  sur  la  Milice  dea  Anciens  He- 
breu.x,  has  collected  numerous  examples  from  Homer,  Hesiod,  Virgil,  anrl 
various  other  classic  writers,  in  which  brazen  arms  and  armour  are  mea- 
tioned.     Dissertations,  torn.  i.  pp.  220 — 222. 

«  ;Eneid,  lib.  ix.  707. 

"  The  chevalier  Folard  is  of  opinion  that  the  brazen  shield,  with  which 
Goliath  covered  his  shoulders,  consisted  only  of  brass  plates  fastened  upon 
the  wood;  similar  to  the  bucklers  which  Solomon  afterwards  enriched 
with  gold  plates,  and  deposited  in  the  temple  (1  Kings  x.  16, 17.),  and  which, 
having  been  carried  away  by  Shishak,  king  of  Egypt,  veere  replaced  by 
Rehoboam,  with  other  brazen  shields.  An  additional  reason  for  conclud- 
ing Goliath's  shield  to  have  been  composed  of  brass  plates  affixed  to  wood, 
is,  that  if  it  had  been  wholly  composed  of  this  metal,  and  had  been  of  a 
size  proportionable  to  his  body,  it  is  doubtful  whether  this  giant,  and  still 
more  whether  his  squircj  would  have  been  able  to  support  its  weight. 


r 


f8 


MILITARY  AFFAIRS. 


[Part  II.  Chap.  IX 


A  shipld-bcarer  was  an  office  amonp  ihe  Jews  as  well  as 
he  Philistines,  for  David  •when  he  h'rst  went  to  court  was 
made  king  Saul's  armour-bearer  (1  Sam.  xvi.  21.'),  and  Jona- 
than had  a  youncr  man  who  bore  his  armour  before  him. 
( I  Sam.  xiv.  1 .)  Besides  this  tsinnah,  or  preat  massy  shield, 
(ioliath  was  furnished  with  a  less  one  (1  Sam.  xvii.  6.  and 
45.),  which  is  not  expressed  by  one  of  the  fore-mentioned 
words,  but  is  called  cidon,  which  we  render  a  target  in  one 
place  and  a  shield  in  another,  and  was  of  a  different  nature 
from  the  common  shit-Kls.  lie  seems  not  only  to  have  held 
it  in  his  hand  when  he  had  occasion  to  use  it,  but  could  also 
at  other  times  conveniently  hang  it  about  his  neck  and  turn 
it  behind,  on  which  account  it  is  added,  that  it  was  between 
his  shoulders.  The  loss  of  the  shield  in  fight  was  excessively 
resented  by  the  Jewish  warriors,  as  well  as  lamented  by 
them,  for  it  was  a  signal  ingredient  of  the  public  mourning, 
that  the  shield  of  ilic  ndi^/iti/  was  vi/eli/  cast  muni/.  (2  Sam. 
i.  21.)  David,  a  man  of  arms,  who  composed  the  beautiful 
elegv  on  the  death  of  Saul  related  in  2  Sam.  i.  19 — 27.,  was 
sensible  how  disgraceful  a  thing  it  was  for  soldiers  to  quit 
their  shields  in  the  field,  yet  this  was  the  deplorable  case  of 
the  Jewish  soldiers  in  that  unhappy  engagement  with  the 
Philistines  (1  Sam.  xxxi.  7.),  they  fled  away  and  left  their 
shields  behind  them  ;  this  vile  and  dishonourat)le  casting 
away  of  that  principal  armour  is  deservedly  the  subject  of 
the  royal  poet  s  lamentation. 

But  these  honourable  sentiments  were  not  confined  to  the 
Jews.  We  find  them  prevailing  among  most  other  ancient 
nations,  who  considered  it  infamous  to  cast  away  or  lose 
their  shield.  With  the  Greeks  it  was  a  capital  crime,  and 
i)unished  with  death.  The  Lacedemonian  women,  it  is  well 
Known,  in  order  to  excite  the  courage  of  their  sons,  used  to 
deliver  to  them  their  fathers'  shields,  with  this  short  address: 
"This  shield  thy  father  always  preserved;  do  thou  preserve 
it  also,  or  perish."  Alluding  to  tnese  sentiments.  Saint  Paul, 
when  exhorting  the  Hebrew  Christians  to  steadfastness  in 
the  faith  of  the  Gospel,  urges  them  not  to  cant  awa>/  their 
tonfidencc,  their  confes^^ion  of  faith,  which  hnth  trrcat  recom- 
pense nf  reward,  no  less  than  the  approbation  of  God,  the 
peace  which  passeth  all  understanding  here,  and  the  glories 
of  heaven,  as  tlu  ire/cm/// portion.  (Heb.  x.  3.'>.) 

It  may  he  further  observed,  that  they  used  to  scour  and 
polish  thf'ir  arms,  as  may  be  inferred  from  the  prophet's  ex- 
pressions of  fit/hishinir  (he  spears  and  ma/fin^  bright  the  ar- 
rows (JcT,  "xWu  4.  and  ii.  11.),  and  it  should  seem  that  such 
shields  as  were  covered  with  leather  w:to  oiled  in  order  to 
keep  them  clean,  and  prevent  them  from  becoming  too  dry. 
To  this  custom  there  is  an  allusion  in  2  Sam.  i.  21.  and  Isa. 
xxi.  5.  When  the  shields  were  not  in  use,  they  were  co- 
vered with  a  case,  in  order  to  preserve  them  from  being  rusty 
and  soiled  ;  hence  we  road  of  uncovering  the  shield,  which 
signifies  preparing  for  war,  and  having  that  weapon  espe- 
cially in  readiness.   (Isa.  xxii.  0.) 

4.  Another  defensive  provision  in  war  was  the  Miutahy 
(ilRDLK,  or  liEi,T,  wliich  answi'H'd  a  twofold  purpose,  viz. 
first,  in  ordf-r  to  wear  the  sword,  which  hung  at  the  soldier's 
girdle  or  belt  (1  Sam.  xvii.  'V.i) ;  secondly,  it  was  necessary 
to  ^ird  their  clothes  and  armour  together,  and  thus  David 

•  girded  his  sword  upon  his  armour.  To  gird  and  to  arm  are 
synonymous  words  in  Scripture ;  for  those  who  are  said  to 
be  able  to  put  on  annonr  are,  according  to  the  Hel)rew  and 
the  Septuaginl,  girt  with  a  girdle,  and  hence  comes  the  ex- 
pression of  girding  to  the  batiln.  (1  Kings  XX.  11.  Isa.  viii.  !>. 
•2  Sam.  xxii.  10.)  'I'he  military  girdit;  was  the  ehi«  f  orna- 
ment of  a  soldier,  and  was  highly  prized  anumg  all  ancient 
nations:  it  was  also  a  rich  present  from  one  chieftain  to 
another.  Thus,  Jonathan  gave  his  girdle  to  Davifl,  as  the 
highest  pledrre  of  his  esteem  and  j)erpctual  friendship. 
(1  Sam.  xviii.  4.)' 

5.  Boots  or  (iKFAVKS  were  part  of  the  ancient  defensive 
harness,  because  it  was  the  custom  to  cast  certain  ifx?r'.in, 
imi)ediment8  (so  called  because  they  entangle  Ihcir  feet, 
afterwards  known  by  the  name  of  gall-traj>s,  which  sinee,  in 
heraldry,  are  corruptly  called  call-trops),  in  the  way  before 
the  enemy :  the  military  hoot  or  shoe  was,  therefore,  neres- 
sary  to  guard  the  legs  and  feet  from  the  iron  slakes  placed 
in  the  way  to  gall  and  wound  them;  and  thus  we  aro  eiia- 
bli'd  to  aecount  for  Goliath's  {jreaves  of  brass  which  were 
upon  his  legs. 

VII.  The  Ofkensivk  Arms  were  of  two  sorts,  viz.  such 
as  were  employed  when  they  came  to  a  close  engagement ; 

•  In  like  mwinrr,  Ajix  fnvo  hi»  ginlln  tn  llrrlor,  m  s  folccn  of  the  high- 
est re*p'>cL    (iilad,  vii.  JU6.;    Ur  A.  C'larko,  oo  '^dwn.  xviil.  11. 


and  those  with  which  they  annoyed  the  enemy  at  a  distance. 
Of  the  former  description  were  the  sword  and  the  battle-axe. 

1.  The  SwoHD  is  the  most  ancient  wea])on  of  otfence  men- 
tioned in  the  Bible.  With  it  Jacob's  sous  treacherously  as- 
sassinated the  Shechemites.  TGen.  xxxiv.  25.)  It  was  worn 
on  the  thigh  (Psal.  xlv.  3.  Lxod.  xxxii.  27.),  and  it  should 
seem  on  the  left  thigh  ;  though  it  is  particularly  mentioned 
that  Ehud,  a  Benjamite,  put  a  dafrger  or  short  sword  under 
his  garments  on  his  right  thi^h.  (Judg.  iii.  16.)  The  palan- 
quin, or  travelling  couch  of  Solomon  (Son<r  iii.  7,  rt.  where 
our  version  terms  it  a  bed),  was  surrounded  by  threescore 
valiant  Isnulitish  soldiers,  every  one  of  whom  had  his  sword 
girt  upon  his  thigh.  There  appear  to  have  been  two  kinds 
of  swords  in  use,  a  larger  one  with  one  ^fi%^,  which  is  called 
in  Hebrew  the  mouth  of  the  sword  (Josh.  vi.  21.);  and  a 
shorter  one  with  two  edges,  like  that  of  Ehud.  The  modern 
Arabs,  it  is  well  known,  wear  a  sabre  on  ci'.c  side,  and  a 
cangiar  or  dagwr  in  their  girdles. 

2.  Of  the  Battle-axe  we  have,  no  description  in  the 
Sacred  Volume :  it  seems  to  have  been  a  most  powerful 
weapon  in  the  hands  of  cavalrj',  from  the  allusion  made  to 
it  by  Jeremiah  : — Thou  cu-t  my  battle-tixe  and  weapons  uf  war,- 
for  toilh  thee  will  I  break  in  pieces  the  nations,  and  with  thee 
will  I  destro)/ kingdoms :  and  with  thee  will  I  break  tn  pieces 
the  horse  and  his  rider,  and  with  thee  will  I  break  in  pieces  the 
chariot  and  his  rider.  (Jer.  li.  20,  21.) 

The  other  offensive  weapons  for  annoying  the  enemy  at  a 
distance,  were  the  spear  or  javelin,  the  sling,  and  the  bow 
and  arrow. 

3.  The  Spear  or  Javelin  (as  the  words  nsn  (^noKocn),  and 
P'jn  (cHf'NiTu),   are  variously  rendered   in   Num.  xxv.  7. 

1  Sam.  xiii.  19.  and  Jer.  xlvi.  4.)  was  of  different  kinds, 
according  to  its  length  or  make.  Some  of  them  might  be 
thrown  or  darted  (I  Sam.  xviii.  II.);  and  it  appears  from 

2  Sam.  ii  23.  that  some  of  them  were  pointed  at  both  ends. 
When  armies  were  encamped,  the  spear  of  the  general  or 
commander-in-cliief  was  stuck  into  the  ground  at  his  head.* 

4.  Smngs  are  enumerated  among  the  military  stores  col- 
lected by  LTzziah.  (2  (Jhron.  xxvi.  11.)  In  the  use  of  the 
sling,  David  eminenily  excelled,  and  slew  (Joliath  with  a 
stone  from  one.  The  Beujamites  were  ceUbratpd  in  battle 
because^  they  had  attained  to  a  great  skill  and  accuracy  in 
iiandiing  this  weapon;  thei/  could  s'ing  stones  to  a  hair''a 
lyreadth,  and  not  miss  (Judg.  XX.  Ki.);  and  where  it  is  said 
that  they  were  left-handed,  it  shouk!  rather  be  rendered  am- 
bidexters, for  we  are  told,  they  could  use  both  the  right-hana 
and  the  left  (1  Chron.  xii.  2.);  that  is,  they  did  not  con- 
stantly use  their  right  hand  as  others  di  I,  when  they  shot 
arrows  or  slung  stones,  but  they  were  so  expert  in  their  mili- 
tary exercises,  that  they  could  perform  them  with  their  left 
hand  as  well  as  with  their  risrht. 

5.  Bows  and  Arrows  areof  ffreatantiquity:  indeed,  no  wea- 
pon is  mentioned  so  early.  Thus  Isaac  said  to  Esau,  Take 
thy  weapons,  thy  ejuivtr  and  thy  bow  (Gen.  xxvii.  3.)  ;  though 
it  is  true,  these  are  not  spoken  of  as  used  in  war,  but  in 
hunting,  and  so  they  are  supposed  and  imjilied  before  this ; 
where  it  is  said  of  Ishmaei,  that  he  became  an  archer,  and 
used  bows  and  arrows  in  shooting  of  wild  beasts.  (Gen.  xxi. 
20.)  This  afterwards  became  so  useful  a  weapon,  that  care 
was  taken  to  train  up  the  Hebrew  youth  to  it  betimes.  \\  hen 
David  had  in  a  solemn  manner  lamented  the  death  of  kin^ 
Sa\d,  he  gave  ord(>rs  for  teaching  the  young  men  the  use  of 
the  bow  (2  Sam.  i.  18.),  that  they  niiglit  be  as  expert  as  the 
Philistines,  by  whose  bows  and  arrows  Saul  and  his  army 
were  slain.  These  were  part  of  the  military  ammunition 
(for  in  those  times  bows  were  used  instead  of  <juns,  and  ar- 
rows supplied  the  place  of  powder  and  i)all).  From  Job  xx. 
21.  and  trom  Psal.  xviii.  ^4.  it  may  be  collected,  that  thff 
military  bow  was  made  of  steel,  and,  consequently,  was 
very  stiff  ami  hard  to  bend,  on  which  account  they  used  their 
foot  in  bending  their  iiows;  and  therefore  when  theproi)het8 
speak  of  treading  Ihr  boir,  and  of  baws  trodden,  they  are  to  be 
understood  of  b<nvs  bent,  as  our  translators  riirhtly  render  it 
(Jer.  I.  14.  Isa.  v.  28.  xxi.  15.);  where  the  Hebrew  word 
which  is  used  in  these  places  signifies  to  tread  upon.  'I'his 
weajion  was  thought  so  necessarv  in  war,  that  it  is  called 
the  /in'rif  war,  or  the  bfilth-lnnr.   ('/ech.  ix.  10.  X.  4.) 

VIII.  Many  of  the  cities  of  Palestine,  being  erected  on 
eminences,  were  fortified  by  nature;  hot  most  fre<[uently  they 
were  surrounded  with  a  lofty  wall,  i  ilher  single  or  double 
(Deut.  xxviii.  52.  2  Chron.  xxxiii.  14.  Isa.  xxii.  11.) ;  or. 
which  were  erected  towers  or  bulwarks.  (2  Chron.  xiv.  7 

•  Sec  p.  87.  lupra,  for  cwuuplei  of  ihia  cuBtoin. 


Sect.  I.] 


ON  THE  MILITARY  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  JEWS. 


89 


xxvi.  9.  Psal.  xlviii.  13.)  These  towers  were  furnished  with 
machines,  from  which  the  besieged  could  discharge  arrows 
and  great  stones.  (2  Chron.  xxvi.  15.)  It  was  also  usual  to 
erect  lowers  on  the  confines  of  a  country,  to  repress  the  in- 
cursions of  troublesome  neighbours,  and.  which  also  served 
as  occasional  places  of  refuge.  The  tower  of  Peniel  (Judg. 
viii.  9.  17.),  and  those  erected  by  Uzziah  (2  Chron.  xxvi.  9, 
10.),  appear  to  have  been  of  this  description;  and  similar 
towers  were  afterwards  erected  by  the  crusaders. i  \\  hen 
the  Israelites  were  about  to  besiege  a  city,  they  dug  trenches, 
drew  a  line  of  circumvallation,  erected  ramparts,  built  forts 
against  it,  and  cast  a  mount  against  it ;  they  also  set  the 
camp  against  it,  and  set  battering  rams  against  It  round  about, 
(•2 Sam.  XX.  15.  Lam.  ii.  8.  Ezek.  iv.  2.)  These  engines 
nf  ^hot,  as  our  mari;in  renders  it  in  the  prophecy  of  Jeremiah 
(vi.  G.),  in  all  probability,  resembled  m  some  measure  the 
haiistiB  and  catapultae  among  the  Romans  ;  which  were  used 
tor  throwing  stones  and  arrows,  and  anciently  served  instead 
of  mortars  and  carcasses.  Further,  in  order  to  give  notice 
of  an  approaching  enemy,  and  to  bring  the  dispersed  inhabi- 
tants ot  the  country  together,  they  used  to  set  up  beacons  on 
the  fops  of  mountains,  as  a  proper  alann  upon  those  occasions. 

Such  were  the  various  instruments  of  offence  and  defence 
ill  use  among  the  ancient  Israelites.  Sometimes,  however, 
they  were  very  badly  provided  with  military  weapons  :  for, 
after  the  Philistines  had  gained  many  considerable  advantages 
over  them,  and  in  effect  subdued  their  country,  they  took 
rare  that  no  smith  should  be  left  throughout  the  land  of  Is- 
rael, to  prevent  them  from  making  swords  and  spears  ;  so 
that  the  Israelites  were  obliged  to  go  down  to  the  Philistines 
whenever  they  had  occasion  to  sharpen  their  instruments  of 
husbandry.  (1  Sam.  xiii.  19,  20.  22.)  Long  before  the  reign 
of  Saul  we  read  that  there  was  not  a  shield  or  spear  seai 
among  for/ 1/  thousand  i?!  Israel  (Judg.  v.  8.)  ;  though  it  is  pro- 
bable that  they  had  other  military  weapons  which  are  not  men- 
tioned. After  Nebuchadnezzar  had  captured  Jerusalem,  he 
adopted  the  policy  of  the  Philistines,  and  took  all  the  crafts- 
men and  smiths  with  him  to  Babylon,  that  the  poorest  of  the 
people,  whom  he  had  left  behind,  might  be  in  no  condition 
to  rebel.  (2  Kings  xxiv.  14.) 

It  was  an  ancient  custom  to  slioot  an  arrow  or  cast  a  spear 
into  the  country  which  an  army  intended  to  invade.  As  soon 
as  Alexander  had  arrived  on  the  coasts  of  Ionia,  he  threw  a 
dart  iuto  the  country  of  the  Persians. ^  The  throwing  of  a 
dart  was  considered  as  an  emblem  of  the  commencement  of 
liostilities  among  the  Romans.^  Some  such  custom  as  this 
appears  to  have  obtained  amonw  the  eastern  people  ;  and  to 
this  the  prophet  Elisha  alluded  when  he  termed  the  arrow 
shot  b}^  the  ting  of  Israel,  the  arrow  of  diliverance  from  Syria 
(2  Kings  xiii.  17.):  meaning,  that  as  surely  as  that  arrow 
was  shot  towards  the  lands  which  had  been  conquered  from 
the  Israelites  by  the  Syrians,  so  surely  should  those  lands  be 
reconquered  ana  restored  to  Israel. 

IX.  Previously  to  undertaking  a  war,  the  heathens  con- 
sulted their  oracles,  soothsaj'ers,  and  magicians  ;  and  after 
their  example,  Saul,  when  forsaken  by  God,  had  recourse  to 
a  witch  to  know  the  result  of  the  impending  battle  (1  Sam. 
xxviii.  7.)  :  they  also  had  recourse  to  divination  by  arrows, 
and  inspection  of  the  livers  of  slaughtered  victims.  (Ezek. 
xxi.  21.)  The  Israelites,  to  whom  these  things  were  prohi- 
bited, formerly  consulted  the  urim  and  thummim,  or  the 
sacred  lot.  (Judg.  i.  l.xx.  27,  28.)  After  the  establishment 
of  the  monarchy,  the  kings,  as  they  were  piously  or  impi- 
ously disposed,  consulted  the  prophets  of  the  Lord,  or  the 
false  prophets,  the  latter  of  whom  (as  it  was  their  interest) 
failed  not  to  persuade  them  that  they  should  succeed. 
(1  Kings  xxii.  6 — 13.  2  Kings  xix.  2.  20.)  Their  expedi- 
tions were  Generally  undertaken  in  the  spring  (2  Sam.  xi.  1.), 
and  carried  on  through  the  summer.  Previously  to  the  en- 
gagement, the  combatants  anointed  fheir  shields,  and  took 
food  that  their  strength  might  not  fail  them.  (Isa.  xxi.  5. 
Jer.  xlvi.  3,  4.)  The  law  and  usage  of  civilized  nations  re- 
quire that  no  war  should  be  undertaken  without  a  previous 
declaration,  and  without  a  previous  demand  of  satisfaction 
for  the  injury  complained  of.  Hence,  in  the  voluntary  wars 
of  the  Jews,  IMoses  ordained  that  certain  conditions  of 
peace  should  be  offered  before  the  Israelites  attacked  any 
place.  (Deut.  xx.  10 — 20.)  There  does  not,  however,  ap- 
pear to  have   been  any  uniform  mode  of  declaring  war. 

»  Harmev's  Obeervations,  vol.  iii.  pp.  415 — 118.  425—423. 
'  Justin,  Hist.  Philipp.  lib.  ii. 

»  L\\y,  lib.  i.e.  32.    Other  instances  from  the  Roman  history  maybe 
tefn  in  Aitam's Roman  Antiquities,  p.  362. 
Vol.  II.  M 


When  Jephthah  was  appointed  judge  of  the  Israelites 
beyond  the  Jordan,  he  sent  messengers  (or  embassadors) 
to  the  king  of  the  Ammonites,  saying,  What  hast  Ihou  t'l 
do  with  me,  that  thou  art  come  against  me,  to  fight  in  my 
land?  (Judg.  xi.  12.)  On  the  Ammonites  complaining 
that  the  Israelites  had  forcibly  seized  their  lands,  Jephthah, 
after  justifying  his  people  from  the  charge,  concluded  by  say- 
ing, Fhe  Lord,  the  Judge,  be  judge  this  day  hetwetn  the  chil- 
dren of  Israel  and  the  children  of  Jmmon  (27.)  ;  after  which 
he  attacked  and  totally  discomfited  them.  When  the  Philis- 
tines invaded  the  territorj'^  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  to  avenge  the 
injury  committed  by  Samson  in  burning  their  corn,  in  reply 
to  the  question  of  the  men  of  Judah,  Why  are  ye  came  up 
against  us  ?  and  on  their  promising  to  deliver  up  Samson, 
the  Philistines  withdrew  their  forces.  (Judg.  xv.  9,  10,  &c.) 
After  the  detestable  crime  committed  by  certain  Benjamites 
of  the  town  of  Gibeah,  upon  the  Levite's  concubine,  all  the 
assembled  Israelites  sent  to  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  to  demand 
that  the  guilty  parties  should  be  delivered  up,  that  they  might 
put  them  to  death,  and  put  away  evil  from  Israel.  (Judg.  xx. 
12,  13.)  Nor  did  they  resolve  upon  war,  until  after  the 
refusal  of  the  Benjamites. 

In  later  times,  we  may  observe  a  kind  of  defiance,  or  decla- 
ration of  war  between  David's  army  under  the  command  of 
Joab,  and  that  of  Ishbosheth  under  "Abner,  who  said  to  Joab, 
Let  the  young  men  now  arise  and  play  hefrre  its.  And  Joab 
said,  Let  them  arise ,-  and  immediately  the  conflict  began  be- 
tween twelve  men  of  each  anny  (2  Sam.  ii.  14,  15.)  Ama- 
ziah,  king  of  Judah,  proud  of  some  advantages  which  he  had 
obtained  over  the  Levites.  sent  a  challenge  to  Jehoash  king 
of  Israel,  saying.  Come,  let  us  look  one  another  in  the  face. 
Jehoash,  in  a  beautiful  parable,  dissuaded  him  from  going  to 
war;  to  which  Amaziah  refused  to  listen.  The  two  kings 
did  look  one  another  in  t lie  face  at  Btthshemesh,  where  the  kino- 
of  Judah  v/as  totally  defeated.  (2  Kings  xiv.  8 — 12.)  Ben- 
Hadad,  king  of  Syria,  declared  war  against  Ahab  in  a  yet 
more  insolent  manner.  Having  laid  siege  to  Samaria,  he 
sent  messengers,  saying.  Thy  silver  and  Ihy  gold  is  mine; 
thy  wives  also,  and  thy  children  are  mine.  AJiab,  who  felt  his 
weakness,  rejjlied,  My  lord,  0  king,  according  to  thy  saying, 
lam  thine  and  all  that  I  have.  Then  Ben-Hadad,  more  inso- 
lent than  before,  rejoined,  Although  I  have  sent  unto  thee,  say- 
ing. Thou  shall  deliver  me  thy  silver,  and  thy  gold,  and  thy 
wives,  and  thy  children  ,-  yet  1  will  send  my  servants  unto  thee 
to-morrow  about  this  time,  and  they  shall  search  thi7ie  house, 
and  the  houses  of  thy  servants,  and  whatsoever  is  pleasant  in 
thine  eyes,  they  shall  put  it  i?i  their  hand,  and  take  it  aivay. 
These  exorbitant  demands  being  rejected  by  Ahab  and  his 
counsel,  who  resolved  to  defend  themselves  and  sustain  the 
siege,  Ben-Hadad  was  obliged  to  abandon  it,  after  having 
lost  the  greater  part  of  his  army,  (livings  xx.  4 — 21.) 
When  Pharaoh  Necho  king  of  Egypt,  on  his  way  to  Car- 
chemish  against  the  Assyrians,  was  desirous  of  crossing  the 
dominions  of  the  king  of  Judah,  Josiah,  who  was  the  ally 
or  tributary  of  the  Assyrian  monarch,  opposed  his  passage 
with  an  army.  Then  Necho  sent  ambassadors  to  him,  say- 
ing, What  have  I  to  do  ivith  thee,  thou  king  of  Judah  ?  I  coin e 
not  against  thee  this  day,  but  against  the  house  wherewith  1 
have  war,  for  God  commanded  me  to  make  haste.  Foi-bear  thou 
from  meddling  with  God,  who  is  with  me,  that  he  destroy  thee 
not.  Josiah  persisted,  and  was  mortally  wounded  in  a  battle 
which  he  lost.  (2  Chron.  xxxv.  20 — 24.) 

X.  Of  the  precise  mode  in  which  the  earliest  Jewish 
armies  were  drawn  up,  the  Scriptures  give  us  no  information  : 
but,  as  the  art  of  war  was  then  comparatively  imperfect, 
much  reliance  was  placed  in  the  multitude  of  combatants, — 
a  notion,  the  fallacy  of  which  is  exposed  in  Psal.  xxxiii.  16. 

Subsequently,  however,  under  the  kings,  when  the  Jews 
had  cavalry,  they  threw  them  upon  the  wings  (according  to 
the  chevalier  Folard),in  large  squadrons  of  six  or  eight  hun- 
dred horse,  with  a  depth  equal  to  the  front,  and  with  little 
intervals  between  them.  But  this  order  was  not  always  ob- 
served. John  the  son  of  Simon  Maccabaeus,  in  the  battle 
which  he  fought  with  Cendebeus,  placed  his  horse  in  the 
centre,  and  threw  his  foot  upon  the  wings  ;  to  which  success- 
ful stratagem  he  was,  under  Providence,  indebted  for  a  com- 
plete victory  (1  Mace.  xvi.  7,  8.)  :  for  the  novelty  of  this 
order  of  battle  amazed  the  enemy's  infantry,  and  confounded 
Cendebeus,  when  he  found  that  he  had  to  encounter  the  whole 
of  John's  cavalry,  which  bore  down  his  foot,  while  the  infantry 
of  the  Jews  broke  through  his  horse,  and  put  them  to  flight. 

From  the  time  of  Moses  to  that  of  Solomon,  the  ark  ot  the 
covenant  was  present  in  the  camp,  the  symbol  of  the  divine 


90 


MILITARY  AFFAIRS. 


[Pakt  n.  Chap.  IX, 


presence,  and  an  inciiement  to  valiant  achievements.  It 
was  taken  by  the  Philistines  in  the  time  of  the  high-priost 
Eli  (1  Sam.  iv.  11.),  but  subsequently  restored.  In  like 
manner  the  Philistines  carried  their  deities  into  the  field  of 
battle  (1  Chron.  xiv.  12.)  ;  and  it  appears  that  Jeroboam  and 
the  Israelites  of  the  ten  tribes  had  tlieir  golden  calves  with 
them  in  the  field.  (2  Chron.  xiii.  8.)  Before  they  enoraffcd 
ill  battle,  the  law  of  Moses  appointed  two  priests  to  blow 
with  two  silver  trumpets  (Num.  x.  9.),  which  are  described 
by  Josephus'  to  have  been  a  cubit  lon<T,  and  narrow  like  a 
pipe,  but  wider,  as  ours  are,  at  the  bottom  ;  no  more  than  two 
were  at  first  ordered  for  present  use,  but  more  were  after- 
vrards  made  when  the  priests  and  the  people  were  increased. 
There  were  others  called  trumpets  of  rams'  horns  (Josh.  vi. 
4.),  probably  from  their  shape,  which  were  used  in  war,  to 
incite  the  soldiers  to  the  conflict.  These  instruments  were 
blown  to  call  the  people  to  the  sanctuary  to  pay  their  devo- 
tion, and  pray  to  God  before  they  engaged  ;  and  they  were 
sounded  with  a  particular  blast,  that  they  might  know  the 
meaning  of  the  summons :  then  the  anomied  for  the  loar, 
going  from  one  battalion  to  another,  was  to  exhort  the  sol- 
Siers  to  fight  valiantly.  (Deut.  xx.  2.)  There  were  officers 
whose  duty  it  was  to  make  proclamation,  that  those  whose 
business  it  was  should  make  sufficient  provision  for  the  army 
before  they  marched  ;  and  every  tenth  man  was  appointed  for 
that  purpose.  (Josh.  i.  10,  11.  Judg.  xx.  10.)  Sometimes 
they  advanced  to  battle  singing  hymns  (2  C^hron.  xx.  21, 
22.) ;  and  the  signal  was  given  by  the  priests  sounding  the 
trumpets.     (Num.  x.  9.     Judg.  vi.  31.     2Chron.  xiii.  1-1. 

1  Mace.  iii.  54.  iv.  13.)  It  should  seem  that  a  notion  pre- 
vailed among  the  ancient  idolatrous  nations  of  the  East,  of 
the  efficacy  of  devoting  an  enemy  to  destruction.  Under 
this  persuasion  Balak  engaged  Balaam  to  curse  the  Israel- 
ites because  they  were  too  mighty  for  him  (Num.  xxii.  G.)  ; 
and  Goliath  cursed  David  by  his  gods.  (ISam.  xvii.  IS.y 
The  Romans  in  later  times  had  a  peculiar  form  of  evoking  or 
calling  out  the  gods,  under  whose  protection  a  place  was 
supposed  to  be,  and  also  of  devoting  the  people,  which  is 
fully  described  by  Macrobius,'  and  many  accounts  are  related 
in  the  Hindoo  puranas  of  kings  employing  sages  to  curse 
their  enemies  when  too  powerful  for  them.  It  was  custom- 
ary for  the  Hebrew  kings  or  their  generals  (in  common  with 
other  ancient  nations)  to  deliver  an  address  to  their  armies. 
(2  Chron.  xiii.  4—12.  .xx.  21.  1  Mace.  iv.  8—11.)  These 
harangues  had  a  great  share  in  the  success  of  the  day,  and 
often  contributed  to  the  gaining  of  a  battle.  The  Greek  and 
Roman  historians  abound  with  pieces  of  this  kind  ;  but  they 
are  too  long,  and  too  elaborate,  to  be  originals.  Those  only 
which  are  recorded  in  the  Scriptures  appear  to  be  natural  : 
the  terms  in  which  they  are  conceived  carry  certain  marks 
of  truth,  which  cannot  fail  to  strike  the  reader :  they  are  short 
but  lively,  moving,  and  full  of  pious  sentiments. 

The  onset  of  the  battle,  after  the  custom  of  the  orientals, 
was  very  violent  (Num.  xxiii.  24.  xxiv.  8,  9.),  and  was  made 
with  a  great  shout.  (Exod.  xxxii.  17.   1  Sam.  xvii.  20.  52. 

2  Chron.  xiii.  15.  Jer.  1.  42.)     The  same  practice  obtained 
in  the  age  of  the  Maccabees  (1  Mace.  iii.  54.),  as  it  does  to 
this  day  among  the  Cossacks,  Tartars,  and  Turks.     All  the 
\\ar8,  in  the  earliest  times,  were  carried  on  with  great  cru- 
elty and  ferocity;  of  which  wo  may  see  instances  in  Judg. 
viii.  7.  IG.  2  Kings  iii.  27.  viii.  12.  xv.  16.  2  Chron.  xxv. 
12.  Amos  i.  3.  13.  and  Psal.  cxxxvii.  8,  9.     Yet  the  kings 
of  Israel  were  distinguished  for   their  liumanity  and  lenity 
towards  their  enemies,  (l  Kings  xx.  31.  2  Kings  vi.  21 — 23. 
2  Chron.  xxviii.  8 — 15.)     When  the  victory  was  decided, 
the   bodies   of   the   slain   were   interred.    (1  Kin^s  xi.  15. 
2  Sam.  ii.  32.  xxi.  14.    Eztk.  xxxix.  11,12.  2  Mace.  xii. 
39.)     Sometimes,  however,  tiie  heads  of  the  slain  were  cut 
off,  and  deposited  in   heaps  at  the  palace  gate  (2  Kings  x. 
7,  8.),  as  is  frequently  done  to  this  day  in  Turkey,  and  in 
Persia;*  and  when  the  conquerors  were  irritated  at  the  ob- 
stinacy with  wtiich  a  city  was  deft^nded,  they  refused   the 
riles  of  burial  to  the  dead,  whose  bodies  were  cast  out,  a 
prey  to  earnivomns   birds   and   beasts.     This   barbarity  is 
feelingly  deplored  by  the  Psalmist.  (Ixxix.  1 — 3.)     And  on 
some  occasions  the  rernain.s  of  the  slain  were  treated  with 
every  mark  of  indignity.     Thus  the  Philistines  mt  njf  the 
html  nf  Saul,  and  flriiiptd  off  hi.i   nrinonr,  which  thrij  put  in 
the  home  o/ their  A(^iiy,  JUhtaroth  or  Astarte;  and  Ihei/ fas- 

i  AnUq.  lib.  111.  c.  11. 

'  In  like  mannpr,  the  Cincalesp  frr<|'iently  ulier  imprrmtinim  in  iho 
name  of  (lie  iiioit  malignant  of  their  dcitiei.  C'ailaway'a  Orlenlnl  Obscr- 
vatmnH.  p.  'A). 

>  Saturnalia,  lib.  iii.  c.  9.  *  Moricr's  SecouU  Journey,  p.  186. 


tened  his  body  and  the  bodies  of  his  sons  to  the  wall  of  Beth' 
shan ;  whence  they  were  soon  taken  by  the  brave  inhabitants 
of  Jabesh  Gilead.  (1  Sam.  xxxi.  9 — 12.)  A  heap  of  stones 
was  raised  over  the  grave  of  princes,  as  in  the  case  of  Absa- 
lom. (2  Sam.  xviii.  17.)  1  he  daily  diminishing  cairn  of 
pebble-stones,  situated  about  two  miles  from  tlie  lake  of 
Grasmere,  in  Cumberland,  and  known  by  the  appellation  of 
Dunmail  Raise-stonea,  was  raised  in  a  like  manner  to  com- 
memorate the  name  and  defeat  of  Dunmail,  a  petty  king  of 
(vumbria,  a.  d.  945  or  94G,  by  the  Anglo-Saxon  monarch 
Edmund  I. 

When  a  city  was  taken,  after  being  rased  to  the  founda- 
tion, it  was  sometimes  sowed  with  salt,  and  ploughed  up,  in 
token  of  perpetual  desolation.  In  this  manner  Abimelech, 
after  putting  the  inhabitants  of  Shechem  to  the  sword,  level- 
led it  with  the  ground,  and  sowed  it  with  salt:  and  thus 
many  centuries  after,  the  emperor  Frederick  Barbarossa  (a.  d. 
11G3),  irritated  at  the  long  and  strenuous  defence  made  by 
the  besieged  iidiabitants  of  Milan,  on  capturing  that  city, 
abandoned  it  to  pillage,  and  sparing  nothing  but  the  churches, 
ordered  it  to  be  entirely  rased  to  the  ground,  which  was 
ploughed  and  .sinmi  with  salt,  in  memory  of  its  rebellion.* 
The  prophet  Micah  (iii.  12.)  foretold  that  Jerusalem  should 
he  ploughed  as  afield,  and  his  prediction  (as  we  have  seen  in 
another  part  of  this  work)  was  most  literally  fulfilled  after 
Jerusalem  was  taken  by  the  Roman  army  under  Titus.  It 
was  not  unusual  in  remote  antiquity  to  pronounce  a  curse 
upon  those  who  should  rebuild  a  destroyed  city.  Thus 
Joshua  denounced  a  curse  upon  the  man  who  should  rebuild 
Jericho  (Josh.  vi.  2G.),  the  fulfilment  of  which  is  recorded 
in  1  Kings  xvi.  34.  in  like  manner  Croesus  uttered  a  curse 
on  him  who  should  rebuild  the  walls  of  Sidene,  which  he 
had  destroyed ;  and  the  Romans  also  upon  him  who  should 
rebuild  the  city  of  Carthage.^ 

Various  indignities  and  cruelties  were  inflicted  on  those 
who  had  the  misfortune  to  be  taken  captive.  On  some  occa- 
sions particular  districts  were  marked  out  for  destruction. 
(2  Sam.  viii.  2.)  Of  those  whose  lives  were  spared,  the 
victors  set  their  feet  upon  the  necks  (Josh.  x.  24.),  or  muti- 
lated their  persons'  (Judg.  i.  7.  2  Saiyi.  iv.  12.  Ezek.  xxiii. 
25.8),  or  imposed  upon  them  the  severest  and  most  laborious 
occupations.  (2  Sam.  xii.  31.)  It  was  the  barbarous  custom 
of  the  conquerors  of  those  times,  to  make  their  unhappy 
captives  bow  down  that  they  might  go  over  them  (Isa.  li. 
23.),9  and  also  to  strip  them  naked,  and  make  them  travel  in 
that  condition,  exposed  to  the  inclemency  of  the  weather, 
and,  which  was  worst  of  all,  to  the  intolerable  heat  of  tlie 
sun.  Nor  were  women,  as  appears  from  Isa.  iii.  17.,  ex- 
empted from  this  treatment,  lo  them  this  was  the  height 
of  mdignity,  as  well  as  of  cruelty,  especially  to  those  de- 
scribed by  the  prophets,  who  had  indulged  themselves  in  all 
manner  of  delicacies  of  living,  and  all  the  superfluities  of 

»  Modem  Universal  History,  vol.  xx\\.  p.  II.  8vo.  edit. 

0  Hiirder's  Oriental  Litenimrc,  vol.  i.  p.  301. 

■>  That  the  culling  olT  the  ihiiinbs  and  toes  of  cnplured  enemies  was  an 
ancient  mode  of  treating  them,  we  liarii  iVoni  Ji'Man  (Var.  Hist.  lib.  ii.  r 
9),  who  tells  us,  that  the  "Alht-ninn.s,  at  the  iiisligiitinn  of  Cleon,  son  of 
CleiPnatas,  made  a  decree  that  all  the  inhahilanisof  the  island  of  jfCgina 
should  have  the  thmnb  cut  otT  from  the  right  hand,  so  that  they  might  ever 
after  be  disableil  from  holduig  a  spear,  yet  mitflit  handle  an  oar."  It  was  :i 
custom  among  those  Komans  who  disliked  a  military  life,  to  cut  off  their  o«u 
thumbs,  that  they  might  not  be  capable  of  sen'ing  in  the  army.  Some- 
times ihe  parents  rut  otf  the  thundis  of  their  children,  that  thf-y  might  not 
lie  called  mto  the  army.  According  lo  Suetonius,  a  Unman  knight,  who 
had  cut  off  Ihe  thumb.s  of  his  two  sons,  to  prevent  Ihrm  from  being  called 
lo  a  military  life,  was,  by  the  order  of  Augnslns,  pnbllrly  sold,  both  he  and 
his  property.  JC</uitem  liomanum,  quud  duohtu  JUiis  adoleieentilmi', 
causa dr.lrarlandi  sacramenti,  pollicrg  uinpulaasrl.  ijtsutn  hoiiai/w auliji-cit 
hnjtt(t.  Vit.  Augusl.  c.  'H.  Calmel  remarks,  that  the  Italian  language  li,-ts 
preserved  a  term,  jiollTonfi,  which  signifies  one  whose  thumh  is  cut  off,  to 
drsignale  a  soldier  destitute  of  courage.  Burdcr's  Oriental  Literature, 
vol.  i.  p.  310. 

•  Kzek.  x.\iii.  2.'.  TViey  shnU  lake  away  thy  nose  and  thine  ears.  This 
cruelly  is  Rlill  pracli.sed  nn<ler  pome  of  the  dei-polir  governments  of  the 
eastern  countries.  One  of  the  most  recent  insNincps  is  thus  related  by 
Messrs.  Waddington  and  Hanbnry,  during  their  visit  to  some  parta  oi" 
Klhu'pia  : — ''  Our  srrvnnis,  in  ihrir  cxpedilion  into  Ihe  village,  found  only 
an  old  woman  alive,  vilh  hfrrnm  off.  The  pa.«ha  buys  human  ears  at 
fifty  piastres  apiece,  which  leads  to  a  lbousan>l  Imneressaiy  cruelties, 
and  barbarizes  the  system  of  warfiirc ;  but  enables  his  highness  lo  collect 
a  large  slock  of  ears,  which  be  sends  down  lo  his  falbiT.  as  proofs  of  hit 
successes."  Journal  of  a  Visit,  ^lic.  p.  US.  (I.omlon,  lf*M.  4to.) — $ttmllar 
instances  of  Ibis  kind  of  cruelly  may  be  seen  in  Doflwrll'g  Classical  Tour 
through  Crfcre,  vol  i  p.  'M.  Sir  Jamr-s  Malcoliii's  Ilisl  of  Persia,  vol.  i. 
J)  .Vi.^.  ;  mill  llurrkhardi's  Travels  in  Nubia,  p.  .V>. 

•  A  similar  barbanins  Instance  is  recorded  lone  after  the  lime  of  Isaiah. 
The  Roman  emperor  Valerian,  being  through  treachery  betrayed  to  Sapor 
king  of  Persia,  waa  treated  by  bmi  as  (he  basest  and  most  abject  slave  : 
for  the  Persian  monarrh  commanded  Ihe  imhappy  Roman  lo  Ijoir  himtelf 
fliiwii,  and  offi-r  him  his  berk,  on  which  he  set  his  fof)t,  in  order  lo  moiiiil 
his  chariot  or  his  horse,  whenever  he  had  occasion.  (IJ»ctaDlins,  de  Morle 
Pcrseciilornni,  c.  f).  Aiirelins.  Victor.  Epitome,  c.  'S2)  Rp.  Lowtb'4 
icaiah,  \u\.  ii.  p.  315.    In  p.  3U7.  ne  hat  given  aauther  similar  ias'ance. 


Sect.  I.] 


ON  THE  MILITARY  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  JEWS. 


91 


ornamental  dress;  and  even  whose  faces  had  hardly  ever 
been  exposed  to  the  sight  of  men.  This  is  always  mentioned 
as  the  liardest  part  of  the  lot  of  captives.  Nahum  (iii.  5,  6.), 
denouncing  the  fate  of  Nineveh,  paints  it  in  very  strong  co- 
lours.' Women  and  children  were  also  exposed  to  treatment 
at  which  humanity  shudders.  (Zech,  xiv.  2.  Esth.  iii.  13. 
•2  Kings  viii.  12.  Psal.  cxxxvii.  9.  Isa.  xiii.  16.  18.  2  Kings 
XV.  le!  Hos.  xiii.  16.  Amos  i.  13.)  And  whole  nations  were 
carried  into  captivity,  and  transplanted  to  distant  countries : 
this  was  tlie  case  with  the  Jews  (2  Kings  xxiv.  12 — 16.  .ler. 
xxxix.  9,  10.  xL  7.),  as  Jeremiah  had  predicted  (Jer.  xx.  5.), 
and  instances  of  similar  conduct  are  not  wanting  in  the  mo- 
dern history  of  the  East.^  In  some  cases,  indeed,  the  con- 
quered nations  were  merely  made  tributaries,  as  the  Moabites 
and  Syrians  were  by  David  (2  Sam.  viii.  4.  6.)  :  but  this 
was  considered  a  great  ignommy,  and  was  a  source  of  re- 
proach to  the  idol  deities  of  the  countries  which  were  tlms 
subjected.  (2  Kings  xix.  12, 13.)  Still  further  to  show  their 
absolute  superiority,  the  victorious  sovereigns  used  to  change 
the  names  of  the  monarchs  whom  they  subdued.  Thus  we 
find  the  king  of  Babylon  changing  the  name  of  Mattaniah 
into  Zedekiah,  when  he  constituted  him  kinw  of  Judah. 
(2  Kings  xxiv.  17.)  Archbishop  Usher  remarks,  that  the 
kin^  of  Egypt  gave  to  Eliakim  the  name  of  Jehoiakim 
(2  Chron.  xxxvi.  4.),  thereby  to  testify  that  he  ascribed  his 
victory  over  the  Babylonians  to  Jehovah  the  God  of  Israel, 
by  whose  command,  as  he  pretended  (2  Chron.  xxxv.  21, 
22.),  he  undertook  the  expedition.  Nebuchadnezzar  also 
ordered  his  eunuch  to  change  the  name  of  Daniel,  who  after- 
wards was  called  Belteshazzar ;  and  the  three  companions 
of  Daniel,  whose  names  formerly  were  Hananiah,  Mishael, 
and  Azariah,  he  called  Shadrach,  Meshach,  and  Abednego. 
(Dan.  i.  7.)  It  was  likewise  a  custom  amon^  the  heathens 
to  carry  in  triumph  the  images  of  the  gods  ot  such  nations 
as  they  had  vanquished  :  Isaiah  prophesies  of  Cyrus,  that 
in  this  manner  he  would  treat  the  gocis  of  Babylon,  when  he 
says,  Belboiveth,  Ntbo  stoopeth,  their  irhh  were  upon  the  beasts, 
and  upon  the  cattle,  and  themselves  have  gone  into  captivity. 
(Isa.  xlvi.  1,  2.)  Daniel  foretells  that  the  gods  of  the  Sy- 
rians, with  their  princes,  should  be  carried  captive  into  Egypt 
(Dan.  xi.  8.)  ;  and  similar  predictions  are  to  be  met  with  in 
Jeremiah  (xlviii.  7.)  and  in  Amos.  (i.  15.) 

XI.  On  their  return  home,  the  Victors  were  received  with 
every  demonstration  of  joy.  The  women  preceded  them  with 
instruments  of  music,  singing  and  dancing.  In  this  manner 
Miriam  and  the  women  of  Israel  joined  m  chorus  with  the 
men,  in  the  song  of  victory  which  Moses  composed  on  occa- 
sion of  the  overthrow  of  Pharaoh  and  his  Egyptian  host  in 
the  Red  Sea,  and  which  they  accompanied  with  timbrels  and 
dances.  (Exod.xv.  1 — 21.)  Thus,  also,  Jephthah  was  hailed 
by  his  daughter,  on  his  return  from  discomfiting  the  children 
of  Ammon  (Judg.  xi.  34.) ;  and  Saul  and  David  were  greeted, 
in  like  manner,  on  their  return  from  the  defeat  of  the  Philistines. 
The  women  came  out  of  all  the  cities  of  Israel,  singing  and 
dancing,  to  meet  king  Saul,  with  tabrets,  with  joy,  and  with 
ii^stniments  of  music.  And  the  women  answered  one  another 
as  they  played,  and  said,  Saul  hath  slain  his  thousands  and 
David  his  ten  thousands  !  (I  Sam.  xviii.  7,  8.)  The  victori- 
ous army  of  Jehoshaphat,  the  pious  king  of  Judah,  long  after- 
wards, returned,  every  man  of  Judah  and  Jerusalem  with  the 
king  at  their  head,  to  go  again  to  Jerusalem  with  joy ;  for  the 
Lord  had  made  them  to  rejoice  over  their  enemies.     And  they 

«  Up.  Lowth's  Isaiah,  vol.  ii.  p.  45. 

»  In  the  thirteenth  century,  when  the  Moguls  or  Tartars  under  Zinghis 
Kahn  overran  and  conquered  Asia,  "  the  inhabitants  who  had  submitted  to 
tlieir  discretion,  were  ordered  to  evacuate  their  houses,  and  to  assemble 
in  some  plain  adjacent  to  the  city,  where  a  division  was  i»de  of  the  van- 
quished into  three  parts.  The  first  class  consisted  of  the  soldiers  of  the 
garrison,  and  of  the  young  men  capable  of  bearing  arms ;  and  their  fate 
was  instantly  decided:  they  were  either  enlisted  among  the  Motruls,  or 
they  were  massacred  on  the  spot  by  the  troops,  who  witli  pointed  spears 
and  bended  bows  had  formed  a  circle  round  the  captive  multitude.  Tlio 
second  class,  composed  of  the  Jjoung  and  beautiful  tcomen,  of  the  arti- 
ficers of  every  rank  and  profession,  and  of  the  more  weallhij  or  honourable 
citizens,  fri>m  whom  a  private  ransom  miglit  be  expected,  was  distributed 
in  equal  or  proportionable  lots.  The  reniainder,  w^hose  life  or  death  was 
alike  useless  to  the  conquerors,  were  permitted  to  return  to  the  city,  which 
in  the  mean  while  had  been  stripped  of  its  valuable  furniture  ;  and  a  tax 
was  imposed  on  those  wretched  inhabitants  for  the  indulgence  of  breath- 
ing their  native  air."  (Gibbon's  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  E  npire, 
vol.  iii.  pp.367,  358.  4to.,  or  vol.  vi.  p.  55.  Svo.  edit.)  Here  we  evidently  see 
the  distinction  made  by  Jeremiah  (xx.  5.)  of  tlie  strength  of  the  city  (that 
is,  the  men  of  war  who  constitute  the  strength  of  a  city  or  state);  its 
labours  or  industry  (that  is,  the  industrious  artisans  and  mechanics)  ;  and 
all  the  precious  things  thereof,  all  that  is  valuable  in  it,  or  the  honourable 
and  respectable  members  of  the  community  not  included  in  the  two  former 
classes  ;  and  also  those  poorer  and  meaner  citizens  who,  according  to  Jer. 
xxxix.  18.  and  xl.  7.,  were  left  in  Juda?a,  but  still  tributary  to  the  Chal- 
deans, first  under  Zedekiah,  and  next  under  Gedaliah.  Dr.  Blayney,  on 
Jer.  XX.  5. 


came  to  Jerusalem  with  psalteries  and  harps,  atid  trumpets  unto 
the  house  of  the  Lord.  (2  Chron.  xx.  27,  28.)  The  same 
custom  still  obtains  in  India  and  in  Turkey.^  In  further 
commemoration  of  signal  victories,  it  was  a  common  prac- 
tice, both  among  the  ancient  heathen  nations  and  the  Jews, 
to  hang  up  the  arms  that  were  taken  from  their  enemies  in 
their  temples.  Thus  we  find,  that  the  sword  with  which 
David  cut  off  Goliath's  head,  being  dedicated  to  the  Lord, 
was  kept  as  a  memorial  of  his  victory,  and  of  the  Israelites' 
deliverance,  and  was  deposited  in  the  tabernacle  ;  for  we  find 
that  when  David  came  to  Abimelech  at  Neb,  where  the 
tabernacle  was,  Abimelech  acknowledged  it  was  there,  and 
delivered  it  to  David.  (1  Sam.  xxi.  8,  9.)  For  when  occa- 
sions of  state  required  it,  it  was  no  unusual  thing  to  take 
such  trophies  down,  and  employ  them  in  the  public  service. 
Thus  when  Joash  was  crowned  king  of  Judah,  Jehoiada,  the 
high-priest  (who  had  religiously  educated  him),  delivered  to 
the  captains  of  hundreds  spears,  and  bucklers,  and  shields,  that 
had  been  king  David's,  which  were  in  the  house  of  God. 
(2  Chron.  xxiii.  9.) 

XII,  By  the  law  of  Moses  (Num.  xxxi.  19 — 24.)  the  whole 
army  that  went  out  to  war  were  to  stay  without,  seven  days 
before  they  were  admitted  into  the  camp,  and  such  as  had  had 
their  hands  in  blood,  or  had  touched  a  dead  body,  though 
killed  by  another,  were  to  be  purified  on  the  third  and  on  the 
seventh  day  by  the  water  of  separation.  All  spoil  of  gar- 
ments, or  other  things  that  they  had  taken,  were  to  be  punfied 
in  the  same  manner,  or  to  be  washed  in  nmning  water,  as  the 
method  was  in  other  cases.  All  sorts  of  metals  had,  besides 
sprinkling  with  the  water  of  separation,  a  purification  by  fire, 
and  what  would  not  bear  the  fire  passed  through  the  water 
before  it  could  be  applied  to  use. 

In  the  Distribution  of  the  Spoil,  the  king  anciently  had 
the  tenth  part  of  what  was  taken.  Thus  Abraham  gave  a 
tenth  to  Melchisedec  king  of  Salem.  (Gen.  xiv.  20.  Heb.  vii. 
4.)  And  if  any  article  of  peculiar  beauty  or  value  were  found 
among  the  spoil,  it  seems  to  have  been  reserved  for  the  com- 
mander-in-chief. To  this  Deborah  alludes  in  her  triumphal 
ode.  (Judg.  V.  30.)  After  the  establishment  of  the  monarchy, 
the  rabbinical  writers  say  (but  upon  what  authority  it  is  im- 
possible now  to  ascertain)  that  the  king  had  all  the  gold,  sil- 
ver, and  other  precious  articles,  besides  one  half  of  the  rest 
of  the  spoil,  which  was  divided  between  him  and  the  people. 
In  the  case  of  the  Midianilish  war  (Num.  xxxi.  27.),  the 
whole  of  the  spoil  was,  by  divine  appointment,  divided  into 
two  parts  :  the  army  that  won  the  victory  had  one,  and  those 
that  stayed  at  home'  had  the  other,  because  it  was  a  common 
cause  in  which  they  engaged,  and  the  rest  were  as  ready  to 
fight  as  those  that  went  out  to  battle,  ^fhis  division  was  by 
a  special  direction,  but  was  not  the  rule  in  after-ages ;  for, 
after  the  general  had  taken  what  he  pleased  for  himself,  the 
rest  was  cTivided  among  the  soldiers,  as  well  those  who  kept 
the  baggage,  or  were  disabled  by  wounds  or  weariness,  as 
those  who  were  engaged  in  the  fight,  but  the  people  had  na 
share ;  and  this  was  ordained,  as  a  statute  to  be  observed 
throughout  their  generations  (1  Sam.  xxx.  24.)  :  but  in  the 
time  of  the  Maccabees  the  Jewish  army  thought  fit  to  recede 
from  the  strictness  of  this  military  law,  for  when  they  had 
obtained  a  victory  over  Nicanor,  under  the  conduct  of  .Tudas, 
they  divided  among  themselves  many  spoils,  and  made  the 
maimed,  orphans,  widows,  yea,  and  the  aged  also,  equal  in 
spoils  with  themselves.  (2  Mace.  viii.  28.  30.)  In  the  Midi* 
anitish  war,  after  the  distribution  of  the  spoils  amon^  the 
army  and  the  people,  there  was  another  division  maoe  for 
the  service  of  the  priesthood,  and  the  Levitical  ministry. 
(Num.  xxxi.  28 — 30.)  The  priests,  out  of  the  share  that 
fell  to  the  army,  were  allotted  one  out  of  five  hundred  of  all 
women  and  children,  and  cattle  that  were  taken;  and  the 
Levites,  from  the  part  that  fell  to  the  people,  received  one 
out  of  fifty,  so  that  the  priest  had  just  a  tenth  part  of  what 
was  allowed  to  the  Levites,  as  they  had  a  tenth  part  of  the 
Levitical  tithes,  which  was  paid  them  for  their  constant  sup- 
port :  but  -whether  this  was  the  practice  in  future  wars  is  un- 
certain. Sometimes  all  the  spoils  were,  by  divine  appoint- 
ment, ordered  to  be  destroyed ;  and  there  is  an  instance  in 
the  siege  of  Jericho,  when  all  the  silver  and  the  gold  (except 
the  gold  and  the  silver  of  their  images,  which  were  to  be  con- 
sumed utterly),  and  vessels  of  brass  and  iron,  were  devoted 
to  God,  and  appropriated  to  his  service.  They  were  to  be 
brought  into  the  treasury  which  was  in  the  tabernacle,  after 
they  were  purified  by  making  them  pass  through  the  fire  ac- 
cording to  the  law;  the  Jews  conceive  that  these  spoils 

«  Forbes's  Oriental  Memoirs,  vol.  ii.  p.  295.  Lad/  Mary  Wortlcy  Moq. 
tague's  Letters,  vol.  i.  p.  197. 


92 


MILITARY  AFFAIRS, 


[Paht  II.  Cjiap.  IX. 


of  Hosts  alone  for  all  their  strength  and  victories. 


(called  in  the  Scripture  the  accursed  thing  on  the  account  of  I  iiissi,  that  is,  Tfte  Lord  is  my  hanner.  (Exod.xvii.  15.)  Un 
their  being  devoted  with  a  curse  upon  him  who  should  take  ]  der  tlic  influence  of  similar  devout  afTections,  David  conse- 
them  for  his  own  use)  were  given  to  God,  because  the  city  j  crated  the  sword  and  other  arms  of  Goliath  in  the  tabernacle, 
was  taken  upon  the  Sabbath-iTay.  But  in  succeeding  ages,  and  subsequently  deposited  in  the  sacred  treasury  the  rich 
it  appears  to  be  an  established  rule  that  the  spoil  was  to  be  spoils  won  in  battle,  as  Samuel  and  Saul  had  done  before 
divided  among  the  army  actually  engajred  in  battle;  those  him  (1  Chron.  xxvi.  20 — 28.),  and  as  several  of  his  pious 
who  had  the  charge  oi  the  baggage  (as  alr(^ady  noticed)  successors  en  the  throne  of  Judah  also  did.  Thus  they 
being  considered  entitled  to  an  equal  share  with  the  rest,  gratefully  acknowledged  that  they  Vi'e»e  indebted  to  the  Lord 
(1  Sam.  XXX.  21.) 

Beside.^  a  share  of  the  spoil  and  the  honours  of  a  triumph, 
various  military  rewards  were  bestowed  on  those  warriors 
who  had  pre-eminently  distinguished  themselves.  Thus 
Saul  promised  to  confer  great  riches  on  the  man  who  should 
ronq^uer  (ioliath,  and  further  to  give  his  daughter  in  marriage 
to  him,  and  to  exempt  his  father's  house  from  all  taxes  in 
Israel.  (1  Sam.  xvii.  25.)  How  reluctantly  the  jealous  mo- 
narch fulfilled  his  promise  is  well  known.  David  jjromised 
the  command  in  chief  of  all  his  forces  to  him  who  should 
first  mount  the  walls  of  Jerusalem,  and  expel  the  .lebusitcs 
out  of  the  city  (2  Sam.  v.  8.  I  Chron.  jii.  6.) ;  which  honour 
was  ac(uiired  by  Joab.  In  the  rebellion  of  Absalom  against 
David,  Joab  replied  to  a  man  who  told  him  that  the  prince 
was  suspended  in  an  oak, —  T//»/  didd  thou  not  finite  niin  tu 
the  ground,  and  I  ivould  have  given  thee  tin  shekels  of  siher 
and  a  girdle?  (2  Sam.  xviii.  11.)  Jephthah  was  constituted 
head  and  captain  over  the  Israelites  beyond  Jordan,  for  deli- 
vering them  from  the  oppression  of  the  Ammonites.  (Judg. 
xi.  11.  compared  with  xii.  7.) 

From  2  Sam.  xxiii.  8 — 31>.  it  appears  that  the  heroes  or 
"miglity  men,"  during  the  reign  of  David,  were  thirty-seven 
in  nundjer,  including  Joab,  who  was  commander-in-chief  of 
all  his  forces.  These  warriors  were  divided  into  three  classes, 
the  first  and  second  of  which  consisted,  each,  of  (hree  men, 
Jdshobeam,  Kleazar,  and  Shammah  ;  Abishai,  Benaiuh,  and 
Asahel ;  and  the  third  class  was  composed  of  the  remaining 
thirty,  of  whom  Asahel  appears  to  have  been  the  head.  Such 
is  the  list  according  to  2  Sam.  xxiii. ;  but  in  1  Chron.  xi.  10 
— 47.  the  list  is  more  numerous,  and  dilTers  considerably  I'rom 
the  preceding.  The  most  jjfobable  solution  of  these  vari- 
ations is,  that  the  first  list  contains  the  worthies  who  lived  in 
the  former  part  of  David's  riMgn,  and  that  it  underwent  vari- 
ous changes  in  the  course  of  his  government  of  the  kingdom 
of  Israel.  At  the  head  of  all  these  "  mighty  men"  was 
Jashobeam  the  son  of  Hachmoni  H  Chron.  xi.  11.),  who 
from  his  office  in  2  Sam.  xxiii.  8.  ( llebr.  and  marginal  ren- 
dering) is  termed  Josilj-Bassebet,  the  Tuchmonite,  head,  of  the 
three;  and  whose  jnilitary  appellation  was  Mino-IIe-Ezni 
{the  lifting  up — or  siritiing  with — a  .yjetir)  b(>cause  he  lifted 
up  his  spear  against,  or  encountered,  three  hundred  soldiers 
at  once.  However  extraordinary  it  may  seem,  we  may  here 
clearly  perceive  a  distinct  order  of  knighthood,  similar  to  our 
modern  orders,  and  presenting  the  same  honorary  degrees, 
and  of  which  Jashobeam,  according  to  modern  parlance,  was 
the  grand-master.  An  institution  of  tliis  kind  was  in  every 
respect  adapted  to  the  n-ign,  the  character,  and  the  policy  of 
David.' 

After  the  return  of  the  Jewish  armies  to  their  several 
homes,  their  military  dress  was  laid  aside.  The  militia, 
which  been  raised  for  the  occasion,  were  dislianded  ;  their 
warlike  instruments,  with  the  exception  of  such  as  were 
private  property,  were  delivered  up  as  the  property  of  the 
state,  until  some  future  war  should  call  them  forth ;  and  the 
soldiers  thfinselves  returned  (like  ('incinnatiis)  to  the  plough, 
and  the  other  avocations  of  private  lifr.  To  this  suspension 
of  their  arms,  the  prophet  Ezckiel  alludes  (xxvii.  10,  11.) 
when  he  says,  that  ttui/  if  Persia,  and  if  Jjud,  and  of  I' hut, 
and  of  Jlrvuil,  were  in  the  Tyrian  army  uji  nun  if  war,  and 
hanged  their  shiild.s  upon  the  vnilU  if  Ti/re,  To  the  same  cus- 
tom also  the  bridegroom  refers  in  the  sacred  idyls  of  Solomon 
(Song  iv.  A.),  whin  he  compares  the  neck  of  his  bridt;  to 
the  tower  of  l)avid  builded  f<n-  un  nrnioury,  whereon  there  hang 
a  thousand  Inicklers,  all  shields  of  might)/  men,. 

XIII.  It  does  not  certainly  ap|)ear  from  the  Sacnd  Writ- 
ings, that  the  Hebrews  were  accustomed  to  erect  Tuophiks 
or  mniuunpnls  for  commemorating  their  victories.  In  1  Sam. 
XV.  12.  Saul  is  sai»l  to  have  net  him  up  a  place  on  Mount  L'ar- 
mel  1  which  some  expositors  understand  to  i)e  a  column,  or 
other  monument,  while  others  imagine  it  to  have  been  sim- 
I)ly  a  hand,  pointing  out  the  place  where  he  had  obtained  his 
decisive  victory  over  the  Amalckites.  P'ar  more  devout  was 
the  conduct  of  Moses,  who,  after  discomfiting  Amalek, 
erected  an  altar  to  the  Lord,  with  this  inscription,  Jehovah- 


>  Coquercl,  Biup-aphta  Sacrie,  torn.  il.  p.  1G7. 


SFXTION  II. 

ALLUSIONS   IN   THE   NEW  TESTAMENT  TO   THE   MILITARY  DISCI- 
PLINE  AND  TRIUMPHS  OF    THE  ROMANS. 

I.  nivisions  of  the  Roman  army,  and  lioman  niilitart/  officers 
mentioned  in  the  J\''e-iv  Testament. — II.  ..Illusions  to  the  ar- 
mow  of  the  Romans. — III.  To  their  military  discipliite.—' 
Strict  subordination. — Rewards  to  soldiers  -vho  hud  distill' 
guished  themselves. — IV.  Allusions  to  the  Roman  triumphs. 

I.  At  the  time  the  evangelists  and  apostles  wrote,  the  Ro- 
mans had  extended  their  empire  almost  to  the  utmost  bound- 
aries of  the  then  known  world,  principally  by  their  unparal- 
leled military  discipline  and  heroic  valour.  Judaja  was  at 
this  time  subject  to  their  sway,  and  their  troops  were  sta- 
tioned in  different  parts  of  that  country. 

The  RoiTian  army  was  composed  of  Legions  (AtjtAvi;), 
each  of  which  was  divided  into  ten  cohorts,  each  cohort  into 
three  maniples,  and  each  maniple  {iTrapa.)  into  two  centuries. 
The  number  of  men  in  a  legion  was  different  at  different 
times.  But  besivies  the  cohorts  which  were  formed  into 
legions,  there  were  certain  others  separate  and  distinct  from 
any  legion ;  such  were  the  Cohortes  LIrbanas,  and  Prfetorias, 
(Sec.  Such  appears  to  have  been  the  Italian  Band  (Sjrwfct 
Jrahutu)  mentioned  in  Acts  x.  1.,  which  was  in  attendance  on 
the  Roman  governor,  who  at  that  time  was  residing  at  Caesa- 
rea.  It  was  probably  called  the  Italian  cohort,  because  most 
of  the  soldiers  belonging  to  it  were  Italians,  and  also  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  the  other  troops  which  were  drawn  from 
Syria  and  the  adjacent  regions.  The  Italian  legion  was  not 
in  existence  at  this  time.2  Of  the  same  description  also  was 
the  Jugusian  Hand  or  CW/or/ (Acts  xxvi.  1.),  (i7ra,j*  ^hxtTTx), 
which,  most  probably,  derived  its  name  from  Sebaste,  the 
capital  of  Samaria.  The  commanding  officer  of  the  Praeto- 
rian Cohorts  at  Rome  (a  body  of  troops  instituted  by  Augus- 
tus 
sub 
This 

to  whose  custody  Paul  was  committed,  it  being  a  part  of'his 
ofTice  to  take  the  charge  of  accused  persons.  (Acts  xxviii. 
IG.)  The  commanding  officer  of  an  ordinary  cohort  was 
called  Trilmnus  Cohortis,  if  it  was  composed  of  Roman  citi- 
zens ;  or  Pnrfcctus  Cuhortis,  if  composed  of  auxiliary  troops. 
'Wq  oflicer  intended  by  both  these  words  is  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament termed  X/awp;(^!)c,  or  Captain  of  a  Thousand,  most 
probably  because  each  tribune  had  under  him  ten  ccMituries 
of  trooj)s.  This  was  the  oflicer  who  commanded  tiie  legion 
of  soldiers  that  garrisoned  the  tower  of  Antonia,  which  over- 
looked the  temple  at  Jerusalem,  in  the  porticoes  of  w  hich  a 
company  kept  guard  ()c'.t/TTa-//*v)  to  prevent  any  tumult  at  the 
gnnit  festivals.'^  (Jlaudius  Lysias  was  the  trit)uiie  or  Roman 
captain  of  this  fort,  who  rescued  Paul  from  the  tumultuous 
attack  of  the  murderous  Jews.  (Acts  xxi.  31.  xxii.  3-1.  xxiii. 
2«.)  Und(#tlie  command  of  the  tribune  was  tho  centurion 
{Y.nTVf,uti  or  'KK^TiVTaf;^:.;),  who,  as  his  name  implies,  had  on« 
hundred  men  under  him.' 

The  Roman  infantry  were  divided  into  three  principal 
classes,  the  I[(wtati,  the  I'rincipe.",  and  the  Triaril,  each  of 
which  was  composed  of  thirty  manipuli  or  companies,  and 
each  manipulus  contained  two  centuries  or  hundreds  of  men: 
over  every  comnnnj  were  placed  two  centurif)ns,  wIjo,  how- 
ever, were  very  lar  from  being  rt/utd  in  rank  and  honour,  though 
possessing  the  same  office.  The  Triarii  and  Princi|)es  wero 
esteemed  t\ie  most  honourable,  and  had  ibeircentnrionselected 
first,  and  these  took  precedency  of  the  centurions  of  the  1  laslati, 
who  were  elected  last.    The  humble  centurion,  who  in  Matt. 


t  niscoo  on  the  Acts,  vo).  1.  pp.  328-332.     Doddridge  on  Acts  x.  1.  and 
Kiiinofl  on  ActHX.  1.  and  xxvii.  1.  .    .„ 

>  Josepliiii-,  dc  Hell.  J;id.  lib.  v.  c.  5.  i  f.    Ani.  Jud.  111>.  xx.  r,  4.  5  3. 
Uiticnc  (in  tlic  \cln,  vol.  I.  pp.328,  3','9.     Adam's  Kouian  AntianUics, 


pp.  33C.  339. 


Sect.  II.] 


ROMAX  DISCIPLINE  AND  TRIUMPHS, 


93 


viii.  8,  9.  besought  the  aid  of  the  compassionate  Redeemer, 
appears  to  liavo  been  of  this  last  order.  He  was  a  man  un- 
der atitho7\'fi/,  that  is,  of  tlie  Principes  or  Triarii,  and  had 
none  under  }iim  but  the  hundred  men,  who  appear  to  have 
been  in  a  state  of  the  strictest  military  subordination,  as  well 
'as  of  lovinfT  subjection  to  him.  lam,  said  the  centurion,  a  nmn 
under  autltoriit/,  having  soldiers  under  me,  and  I  aay-to  this 
man.  Go,  and  he  i^oeth,  and  to  anothei;  Come,  and  he  cometh  ,- 
and  to  my  slave  (Tai  icvKai  f.r.u),  Do  this,  and  he  doeth  it.  The 
application  of  Tiis  argument,  addressed  to  Christ,  seems  to  be 
this  : — If  I,  who  am  a  person  subject  to  the  control  of  others, 
yet  have  some  so  completely  subject  to  mj-self,  that  I  can 
say  to  one,  Come,  and  he  cometh,  &c.  how  much  more  then 
canst  thou  accomplish  whatsoever  thou  wiliest,  beinof  under 
no  control,  and  having  all  things  under  thy  command  T' 

The  i:ii^io\u.Q'A  or  Spearmen,  mentioned  in  Acts  xxiii.  23., 
were  soldiers,  carrying  spears  or  lances  in  their  right  hand, 
whose  duty  it  was,  not  only  to  attend  as  guards  upon  their 
sovereign  or  commander,  but  also  to  guard  prisoners,  who 
were  bound  by  a  chain  to  their  right  hand.^  The  iTrai'.vKa.'r'.fK 
(in  Latin,  Spicululores  or  Specuhtores,  from  the  spicnlum,  a 
javelin  or  spear  which  they  carried)  were  a  kind  of  soldiers 
who  formed  the  body-ffuard  of  princes.  Among  other  duties 
of  these  guards,  was  tliat  of  putting  condemned  persons  to 
death.' 

II.  The  allusions  in  the  New  Testament  to  the  military 
discipline,  armour,  battles,  sieges,  and  military  honours  of 
the  Greeks,  and  especially  of  the  Romans,  are  very  nume- 
rous ;  and  the  sacred  writers  have  derived  from  them  meta- 
phors and  expressions  of  singular  propriety,  elegance,  and 
'  energy,  for  animating  Christians  to  fortitude  against  tempta- 
tions, and  to  constancy  in  the  profession  of  their  holy  faith 
under  all  persecutions,  and  also   for   stimulating   them   to 

Eersevere   unto   the  end,  that  they  may  receive  those  final 
onours   and  that  immortal  crown  which   await  victorious 
piety. 

In  the  following  very  striking  and  beautiful  passage  of  St. 
Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians  (vi.  II — 17.),  the  various 
parts  of  the  panoply-armour  of  the  heavy  troops  among  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  (those  who  had  to  sustain  the  rudest 
assaults)  "  are  distinctly  ennmerr.ted,  and  beautifully  applied 
to  those  moral  and  spiritual  weapons  with  which  the  believer 
ought  to  be  fortified.  Pat  on  the  whole  armour  of  Gud,  that 
ye  may  he  able  to  stand  against  the  wiles  of  the  devil.  For  we 
wrestle  not  against  jiesh  and.  blood,  but  against  principalities, 
against  powers,  against  the  rulers  of  the  darkness  of  this  world, 
against  spiritual  icickedness  in  high  places.  TVhereforc,  take 
unto  you  the  ichnle  armour  of  God,  that  ye  may  be  able  to  with- 
stand in  the  evil  day,  and  hamng  done^  all  to  stand.  Stand, 
therefore,  having  your  loins  girt  about  with  truth,  and  having 
on  the  breast-plate  of  righteousne-s :  and  your  feet  shod  with  the 
preparation  of  the  gospel  of  peace  :  above  all,^  taking  the  shield^ 
of  faith,  wherewith  you  shall  be  able  to  quench  all  the  fiery  darts' 

«  Dr.  A.  Clarkp.  on  Matt.  viii.  9. 

5  Valpy's  Gr.  Test.  vol.  iii.  p.  255. 

'  UoDJnson'a  Gr.  Lex.  to  tlie  New  Test,  in  voce. 

*  Eph.  vi.  13.  "  A;ry.i7»  >tx'cf>  xo-xuivoi.  TIlis  verb  frequently  signifies 
to  detjiatch  a  foe,  totally  to  vanquish  and  subdue  an  adversary.  So  it 
should  be  translated  intliis  place.  'Ow  xxihx'.'fix  xxlupy^a-xTn :  Whom  he 
despatched  whh  his  own  hand.  Dion,  iralicarn.  torn.  i.  p.  90.  Oxon.  1704. 
ll*v?.«  -sox-uix  xx''.ifyx<rxui\oi  :  Having  quelled  all  ho.stilities.  Idem,  p. 
885.  Me5'  r,;  >i?ii  Tri».Ko\j;  ^c>,.7iioui  7.x?f if yao-ji  :  By  wtiich  you  have  van- 
quished many  enemies.  Po!ya?ni  Siratajr.  p.  421.  Lugd.  1589.  nslf^f 
«?x1o-jj  (rij>i/jie  Kxhifiy  xTx/i-/,v.  Idem,  p.  599.  Casaubon.  Txopoi/  aypior— 
Taic  y.ipTi  u:rxii  xxluiyxa-inv^  :  He  despatched  a  wild  bull  only  with  his 
hands.  Appiiin.  vol.  i.  p.  S"!!.  Anist.  1670.  See  also  pp.  5.  291.  410.  531. 
Toilii.  The  v.ord  here  used  by  the  apostle  has  also  this  signilication  in 
DionCassius,  .Toscpliu.s,  andPhilo. 

»  Ztti  TsxTtv,  after  all,  or  besides  all:  it  never  sijrnifies  above  all.  Au7oc 
Si  %«?.!^/.-{  £5r.  ^an  4i=i,E»ivcuv:  After  all,  he  himself  passed  with  ditriculty. 
Plutarch,  Cse.sar,  p.  1311.  edit.  Gr.  Stephan.  AyovTx  jfjlov  ry.v  (fxKxyy  a, 
fti'ix  T.fjlst  Touj  r-.-£i;,  ETTi  z^xa-i  S-  TO  o-zsuo^rspoi'  :  First,  he  led  u])  the  pha- 
lan.v,  next  the  cavalry,  after  all  the  baggage.  Polybius,  p.  CM.  Casaubon. 
Em  TKc-i  as  Airtrt;  svviy,  x**  nirtrxfxx'j^'l x  xxt  /zy.vx^  ^uo  ;  After   all,  Assis 

reigned  foriynine  years  and  two  months.    Josephus  contra  Apiou.  p.  445. 
Ilavercauip. 

«  The  shield  here  intended  (3-jpso;)  is  the  scutum,  or  large  oblong  shield 
of  the  Romans,  which  was  made  of  wood  covered  with  hides,  and  derived 
its  name  from  its  resemblance  to  a  door  (rup i).  As  faith  is  tiiat  Christian 
.grace,  by  which  all  the  others  arc  preserved  and  rendered  active,  it  is 
here  properly  represented  under  the  fisure  of  a  shieM ;  which  covered 
and  protected  the  whole  body;  and  enables  the  believer  to  qttench — to 
intercept,  blunt,  and  extinguish,  as  on  a  shield— Ms  fiery  darts  of  the 
Kicked  one,  that  is,  all  those  evil  thoughts,  and  strong  "injections,  as  they 
are  termed,  which  inflame  the  passions  of  the  unrenewed,  and  excite  the 
soul  to  acts  of  transgression. 

1  Zi'f.y,  rjiTvpi/iivx.  These  dreadful  weapons  were  frequently  employed 
by  the  ancients.  Uvp^ofx  rol<ufixlx.  Appian.  p.  ,329.  IIvp<j)opiii;  oiVrci,- 
/Btt>./we«-4»>.    Thucydidos,  torn.  ii.  lib.  xi.  p.  202.    Glasg. 

Totcu;,  »ypie  oai^or,  e^sij  ■svfdiilx;  oiorou;. 

Oppian.  Kjfuy.  lib.  ii.  ver.  4^>. 

Accordinjf  to  Anainiaaus  Marcellinus  (lib.  xxiii.  c.  4.)  these  fier>  darts 


of  lite  vjicked,  and  take  the  helmet «  of  salvation,  and  the  sword 
of  the  Spirit,  ivhich  is  the  ivord  of  Gof/."3 

Having  thus  equipped  the  sjiiritual  soldier  with  the  divine 
panoply,  the  apostle  proceeds  to  show  him  how  he  is  to  use 
it :  he  therefore  subjoins— /'mj//«o-  alvmys  loith  all  prayer 
and  supplication  in  the  Spirit,  and  watching  thereunto  with  all 
perseverance.  The  Greeks  and  other  ancient  nations,  we  have 
already  observed,  offered  up  prayers  before  they  went  into 
the  battle.  Alluding  to  this.  Saint  Paul  adds  the  exhortation 
to  believers,  praying  always,  at  all  seasons,  and  on  all  occa- 
sions, with  all  prayer  (more  correctly,  supplication  for  what 

is   good)  dind  deprecation  of  evil;  and  luaiching  thereunto 

being  always  on  their  guard  lest  their  spiritual  enemies  should 
surprise  them — with  all  perseverance,  being  always  intent  on 
their  object,  and  never  losing  sight  of  their  danger  or  of  their 
interest.io 

"  In  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  the  apostle,  exhorting  men 
to  renounce  those  sins  to  which  they  nad  been  long  accus- 
tomed, and  to  enter  upon  a  new  and  holy  life,  uses  a  beauti- 
ful similitude,  borrowed  from  the  custom  of  soldiers  throw- 
ing off  their  ordinary  habit  in  order  to  put  on  a  suit  of  armour. 
The  night  is  far  spent,  the  day  is  at  hand:  let  us  therefore  ca.st 
OFF  the  loorks  of  darkness,  and  let  us  put  on  the  armour  of 
light.^i  (Rom.  xiii.  12.)  In  another  passage  he  represents, 
by  a  striking  simile,  in  what  manner  the  apostles  were  for- 
tified against  the  opposition  with  which  they  were  called  to 
conflict  in  this  worla.  By  the  ivord  of  truth,  by  the  power  of 
God,  by  the  armour  of  righteousness  on  the  right  hand  and 

ON  THE  LEFT."    (2  Cor.  vi.  7.)'^ 

III.  It  is  well  known  that  the  strictest  subordination  and 
obedience  were  required  of  every  Rornan  soldier.  An  allu- 
sion to  this  occurs  in  the  speech  of  the  centurion  to  Jesu.'^ 
Christ  (Matt.  viii.  8,  9.)  which  has  already  been  noticed 
above,  and  which  is  greatly  illustrated  by  two  striking  pas- 
sages in  Arrian's  Discourses  of  Epictetus: — speaking  of  the 
Saturnalia,  he  says, — "  We  agreed  to  play  Agamemnon  and 
Achilles.  He  who  is  appointed  for  Agamemnon  says  to  me. 
'  Go  to  Achilles,  and  force  away  Briseis,'' — I  go. — 'Come.' — / 
corne.^^^^  Again,  discoursing  on  all  things  being  under  the 
divine  inspection,  he  says, — "  When  God  commands  the  plants 
to  blossom,  they  bear  bfussoms.  When  he  commajids  them  to 
bear  seed,  they  bear  seed.  When  he  commands  them  to  bring 
forth  fruit,  i\\ey  put  forth  their  fruit.  When  he  commands 
them  to  ripen,  they  gi-ow  ripe.  When  he  commands  them  to 
fade  and  shed  their  leaves,  and  to  remain  inactive,  and  involv- 
ed (or  contracted)  within  themselves,  they  thus  remain  and 
are  inactive."'^ 

Nor  is  the  military  subordination  adverted  to  by  the  cen- 
turion, without  its  (almost  verbal)  parallel  in  modern  times 
in  the  East : — Kirtee-Ranah,  a  captive  Ghoorkha  chief,  who 
was  marching  to  the  British  head-quarters, — on  being  inter- 
rogated concerning  the  motives  that  induced  him  to  qiiit  his 
native  land  and  enter  into  the  service  of  the  Rajah  of  Nepnl, 
— replied  in  the  following  very  impressive  manner : — "  My 
master,  the  rajah,  sent  me:  He  says  to  his  people, — to  one, '  Go 

consisted  of  a  hollowed  reed,  to  the  lower  part  of  which,  under  the  point 
or  barb,  was  fastened  a  round  receptacle,  made  of  iron,  for  combustible 
materials,  so  that  such  an  arrow  had  the  form  of  a  distaff.  This  was  filled 
with  l)urning  naphtha ;  and  when  the  arrow  was  shot  from  a  slack  bow 
(for  if  discharged  from  a  tight  bow  the  fire  went  out),  it  struck  the  ene- 
mies' ranks  and  remained  infixed,  the  tlamc  consuming  whatever  it  met 
with  ;  water  poured  on  it  increased  its  violence;  there  were  no  other  means 
to  extinguish  it  but  by  tlirowing  earth  upon  it.  Similar  darts  or  arrows, 
wlifch  were  twined  roand  with  tar  and  pitch,  and  set  fire  to,  are  described 
by  Livy  (lib.  xxi.  c.  8.),  as  having  been  made  use  of  by  the  inhabitants  of 
the  city  of  S.->.guntuni,  when  besieged  by  the  Romans. 

'  On  the  tops  of  tiie  ancient  helmets,  as  well  as  on  those  now  in  use,  is 
a  crest  or  ridge,  furnished  with  ornaments ;  some  of  the  ancient  helmets 
had  emblematic  figures,  and  it  is  probable  that  Saint  Paul,  who  in  1  Thess. 
V.  8.  terms  the  helmet  the  hope  of  salvation,  refers  to  such  helmets  as  had 
on  them  the  emblematic  representation  of  hope.  His  meaning  therefore 
is,  that  as  the  helmet  defended  the  head  from  deadly  blows,  so  the  fiope  of 
salvation  (of  conquering  every  adversary,  and  of  surmounting  every 
difficulty,  through  Christ  strengthening  the  Christian),  built  on  the  pro- 
mises of  God,  will  waYd  off,  or  preserve  him  from,  the  fatal  effects  of  alt 
temptations,  from  worldly  terrors  and  evils,  so  that  they  shall  not  disorder 
the  imagination  or  pen'ert  the  judgment,  or  cause  men  to  desert  the  path 
of  duty,  to  their  final  destruction. 

»  Dr.  Ilarwood's  Introd.  to  the  New  Test.  vol.  ii.  pp.  49,  50. 

>•  Drs.  Chandler,  Macknight,  and  A.  Clarke,  on  Eph.  vi.  11—17.  In  the 
fifth  of  Bishop  Home's  Discourses  (Works,  vol.  v.  pp.  60—72.)  the  reader 
will  find  an  admirable  and  animated  ex-position  of  the  Christian  armour. 

•  I    ATrcSi'iU.'JK    rx    tfyu,    TOu    (rx«l(JUs    Kai    ivJuo-it^sS*    tc«    crr.\»   tou  ^aili;. 

Fulgentiaque  induit  arma.  Virgil,  JSneid.  ii.  ver.  747.  np-.«7ov  toiwi-  awe- 
SvTw/xiv,  xvayxif  yx(  tou;  fiiKKCvlxi  QTrKiZ^trixij  ^v/cvOvrSx>  ■Sfolif'iv,  Lu- 
cian,  torn.  ii.  p.  2,56.  edit.  Grffivii. 

'»  Harwood's  Introd.  vol.  ii.  p.  52. 

'»  Arrian's  Epictetus,  book  i.  c.  25.  §  1.  (Mr.  Carter's  translation,  vol.  i, 
P- 113.)  ^    . 

««  Ibid,  book  i.  c.  14.  Raphelii  Annotationes  ia  SacramScripturam,  ei 
Iltrodoto,  &c.  vol.  i.  pp  242,  243. 


94 


MILITARY  AFFAIRS. 


Part  II.  Chap  IX. 


you  to  Gurwfutl ;''  to  another,  '  Go  you  to  Ca-ihniire,  or  to  antj 
distant  part.'' — '  My  Lord,  thy  stave  obeys  ;  (7  is  pt)XE.' — 
None  ever  inquires  into  the  reason  of  an  order  of  the  riijali."'' 
In  his  Kpistle  to  Timothy,  wlio  appCirs  to  have  been 
^eatly  dejected  and  dispirited  by  the  opposition  he  met  with, 
St.  Paul  animates  him  to  fortitude,  and  among  other  direc- 
tions encourages  him  to  endure  hardship  as  a  good  soldier 
of  .lesus  Christ  (2  Tim.  ii.  li.) — and  what  hardsliip  a  Uoman 
soldier  supported,  the  following  passage  in  Josephus  will 
abundantly  evince.  It  is  the  most  striking  commentary  upon 
this  text  that  ever  was  written.  "  When  they  march  out  of 
their  encampment,  they  advance  in  silence  and  in  great  de- 
corum, each  man  Ueeping  his  proper  rank  just  as  in  battle. 
Their  infantry  are  armed  with  breastplates  and  helmets,  and 
they  carry  a  sword  on  each  side.  'I  ne  sword  they  wear  on 
their  left  side  is  by  far  the  longest,  for  that  on  the  right  is 
not  above  a  span's  length.  That  select  bod^  of  infantrj', 
which  forms  part  of  tlie  wneral's  life-guards,  is  armed  with 
lances  and  bucklers,  hut  tTie  rest  of  the  phalanx  have  a  spear 
and  a  long  shield,  besides  which  they  bear  a  saw  and  a 
basket,  a  spade  and  a  hatchet ;  they  also  carry  with  them  a 
cord,  a  sickle,  a  chain,  and  provisions  for  three  days  !  so  that 
a  Roman  foot-soldier  is  but  very  little  different  from  a  beast 

OF  BURDEN."^ 

According  to  a  military  custom,  established  in  an  early 
period  of  the  commonwealth,  every  Roman  soldier  chose  his 
favourite  comrade ;  and  by  that  tie  of  friendship  all  were 
mutually  bound  to  share  every  danger  with  their  fL41ows.5 
Saint  Paul,  alluding  to  this  practice,  terms  Epaphroditus  his 
companion  in  labour  and  feltowsolilier.  (Phil.  ii.  25.)  Fur- 
ther, "  it  is  well  known  that  the  Roman  soldiers  were  not 
allowed  to  marry  ;  by  this  prohibition  the  Roman  providence, 
as  much  as  possible,  studying  to  keep  their  military  disem- 
barrassed from  the  cares  and  distractions  of  secular  life. 
To  this  law  the  apostle  refers ;  no  one  that  ivarreth,  entan- 

GLETH    HIMSELF    WITH   THE    AFFAIRS    OF    THIS    LIFE;    that    he 

Tiiay  please  him  who  fuitk  chosen  him  to  be  a  soldier.  (2  Tim. 

'•  The  names  of  those  who  died  or  were  cashiered  for  mis- 
conduct were  expunged  from  the  muster-roll.  To  this  cus- 
tom, probably,  the  following  text  alludes;  in  this  view  the 
similitude  is  very  striking,  /  will  not  blot  out  his  name  out 
of  th".  BOOK  '/  life.  (Rev.  iii.  5.)* 

"  The  triumphant  advancement  of  the  Christian  religion 
through  the  world,  St.  Paul  compares  to  the  irresistible  pro- 
i^rcss  of  a  victorious  army,  before  Vhich  evQxy  fortified  place. 
and  all  opposition,  how  formidable  soever,  yielded  and  fell. 
(•2  Cor.  X.  4.)  For  the  iveapons  of  our  warfare  are  not  carnal, 
but  mighty  through  God^  to  the  pulling  down  of  strongholds  ,- 
casting  down  imaginations,  and  every  tiling  that  exalteth  itself 
againut  the  knowledge  of  God,  and  bringing  into  captivity 
every  thought  to  the  obedience  of  Christ.'  Having  sjjoiled  prin- 
cipalities and  powers,  he  made  a  show  of  them  openly,  triuntph- 
ing  over  them. 

«  Frascr'8  Notes  on  the  Hills  at  the  Foot  of  the  Ilimala  Mountains,  p.22C. 
I^n.lon,  1820.  4to. 

»  Josephus,  De  Bell.  Jii'l-  lib.  iii.  c.  5.  §5.  Ifarwood's  Iiilroduclion,  vol.  ii. 
p.  32.  The  following  particulars,  colIecte<l  from  Roman  authors,  will  con- 
firm and  illustrate  tlie  Hialcinents  of  .loseptius:— "The  loarl  which  a  Ro- 
man soldier  carried  is  alnio-st  incredible  (V'irg.  Geor^.  iii.  3-10.  iloral.  Sat. 
ii.  10.);  viclua'"}  (cibaria)  for /J/Ve/^n days  (Cic.  Tusc.  li.  !.'>,  16.),  soiuciiuies 
more  (I.i"  tpit.  07.),  usually  corn,  as  being  lijihter,  sometimes  drest  food 
(coctiu  ubiu,  I.iv.  iii.  27),  utensils  (iitmiilia,  ib.  42),  a  saw,  a  baski  t,  a 
niatlock,  an  axe,  a  lioolt,  aiid  leather  tlion",  a  chain,  a  pot,  Ac.  (Liv.  xxviii. 
4.").  Ilnrat.  Epod.  ix.  13.),  stakes  usually  three  or  foui,  sometimes  twelve 
(Liv.  iii.  27.)  ;  the  whole  amountinf;  to  sirli/  pounds  wciglil,  besides  arms  : 
for  a  Roman  soldier  consi<lered  these  not  as  a  burden,  but  as  a  part  of  him- 
self (anna  ijiembra  mililcs  ilucebant.  Cic.  Tusc.  ii.  10.)." — Adam's  Human 
Aniirpiities.  p.  ■i77. 

»  Livy,  lib.  ix.  c.  30.  Tacitus,  llisl.  lib.  i.  c.  IS.— Murphy's  note,  in  hj.s 
translation  of  Tacitus,  vol.  v.  p.  3jO.  8vo.  edit. 

•  Tei(  ii  TTpx7iu3>Aiv3i;,  iTifiif  yvvmtKxf  «u»  iTuvsvTo  t%  yt  rev  t>cu4'v 
<%•■».  Dion  C'assius,  lib.  Ix.  p.  961.  Rcimar-  Tacitus,  spcakinn  of  some 
Roman  veterans,  sayn,  Neque  conjii({ii«  suscipienili.x  n<-(|iie  alcndis  libcris 
<;ut;i.    Tiicili  Ann.ilcs,  torn,  ii.lib.  xlv.  (•.••|r.  'J7.  p.  '.;|0.  Dulilin. 

'  It  is,  however,  posKible  tlial  tlii.s  allusion  may  be  drawn  from  ciiil  life, 
in  winch  case  the  meaiiim;  of  the  above  cited  passncc  will  be  this  : — .\8  in 
slates  and  cities,  thosi-  who  obtained  freedom  and  ffllnwship  were  enrolled 
lo  the  public  regigters,  which  enrolment  was  their  title  to  tlie  privileges  of 
citizens;  so  (In-  Kms  of  Heaven,  of  the  New  Jerusab'm,  eng^es  to  pre- 
•orvc  in  his  p'Kisler  and  enrolment,  in  the  book  of  lif<',  the  naiiies  of  those 
who,  like  the  faillitul  members  of  the  church  of  ."<«rilis,  in  a  corniplicl  and 
supine  Kocieiy,  sli::ll  preserve  alloginnre,  and  a  faithl'iil  disrliarge  of  llieir 
Christian  ilulies.  He  will  own  them  as  his  fellow-oiti/.ens,  bel.ire  im  n  and 
•nffcls.  (Joni|>are  Malt.  xx.  32.  I.uke  xii  R  Ace  also  I'sal.  Ivix  '.^<  iv/.ek. 
xiii.  9.  Rxod.  xxxiii.  '.SX  Dan  xil.  1.  Mai.  iii.  16.  Liike  x.  20.  Dr  Woodliouse 
on  the  Apocalypse,  p  Bl, 

•  i^jvxIa  t/,  Bi4>,  excceiling  powerful.  .Moses  is  called  «TT<ie(  tx  ^i», 
e.xreedinc  beautiful.  \<Ih  viii.  '.^1. 

'  ScG  the  conrpieHt  of  the  flo.spel  and  Ks  triumph  over  idolatry  In  a  very 
striking  iuann<-r  represented  l)y  Eusebius,  lib.  x.  p.  46''.  Cantab.  " 


"  By  a  very  striking  meta])hor,  taken  from  the  pay  of  a 
soldier,  ho  rej)reReiit.^  the  wages  wi;h  which  sin  rewards  those 
who  fii^ht  under  Iter  banners,  to  be  certain  and  inevitable 
death.     The  avages*  of  sin  is  death. 

"  Our  Lord  in  that  wonderful  prophecy  of  the  deslructioQ 
of  .Tenisalem  accuratf^lj'  represents  the  Roman  manner  of 
besieging  and  taking  towns, — which  was  by  invcstiticr  the 
place,  digging  a  dotp  trench  round  it,  and  encompas.sing  it 
with  a  strong  wall,  to  prevent  escape,  and  consume  the  in- 
habitants by  famine.  7'he  days  sluill  come  upon  thee,  that 
thine  enemies  shall  cast  a  trench  about  tliee,  and  co.mpass  thee 
ROiND,  and  keep  thee  in  on  evtry  side :  and  shall  lay  thee  even 
n-ith  the  ground,  and  thy  children  within  thee,  and  they  shall 
iwt  leave  in  thee  (me  stone  upon  another ,-  because  thou  knowest 
not  the  time  of  thy  visitation.    (Luke  XX.  42,  43.) 

"  In  expatiating  upon  the  difficulties  and  distresses  with 
which  the  first  preachers  of  the  Gospel  conflicted,  the  apos- 
tle Paul  in  a  strong  figure  compares  their  situation  to  that 
of  an  army  pent  up  in  a  narrow  Y>]ace— annoyed  on  every  side 
— but  not  iotaWy precluded  from  an  escape"^ — their  condition  to 
the  last  degree  perplexed,  and  ivretched,  yet  not  altogether 
desperate  and  forlorn.  (2  Cor.  iv.  8.)  \Ve  are  troubled  on 
every  side,  yet  not  distressed:  we  are  perplexed,  but  not  in 
despair.'''' 

Once  more,  "as  among  the  other  military  honours  and  re- 
compenses, rich  and  splendid  croivns,^^  frequently  of  gold, 
W'ere  publicly  bestowea  upon  the  illustrious  conqueror,  and 
upon  every  man  who,  acting  worthy  the  Roman  name,  had 
distinguished  himself  by  his  valour  and  his  virtue — in  allu- 
sion to  /A/s  custom  how  beautiful  and  striking  are  those  many 
passages  of  Sacred  Scripture,  which  represent  Jesus  Christ, 
nefore  angels  and  the  whole  assembled  world,  acknowledg- 
ing and  applauding  distinguished  piety,  and  publicly  confer- 
ring crowns  of  immortal  slory  upon  persevering  and  victorious 
holiness.  Be  thou  faithful  unto  death :  I  ivill  give  thee  a 
CROWN  of  life.  (Rev.  ii.  10.)  Blessed  is  the  man  that  endu- 
reth  temptation  ,-  for  ichen  he  is  tried,  he  shall  receive  the  crown 
"/  ^'f^  (James  i.  12.),  tvhich  the  I^rd  hath  promised  to  them 
that  love  him.  When  the  chief  shepherd  shall  appear,  ye  shall 
receive  a  crown  of  glory  that  fadeth  not  aivay.  (1  Pet.  v.  4.) 
/  have  fought  a  good  fight,  I  have  finished  my  course,  J  have 
kept  the  faith .-  Jienceforth  there  is  laid  up  for  me  a  crown  of 
righteousness,  irhich  the  Lord  the  righteous  judge  shall  give  me 
at  that  day ,-  and  not  to  me  only,  but  unto  ALL  them  also  that 
love  his  appearing.''''  (2  Tim.  iv.  8.) 

IV.  But  the  highest  military  honour  that  could  be  conferred 
in  the  lioman  state  was  a  triumph,  or  solemn  procession, 
with  which  a  victorious  general  and  his  army  advanced 
through  the  city  to  the  capitol ;  and  which  was  the  most 
grand  and  magnificent  spectacle  ever  beheld  in  ancient  times. 
"  After  a  decisive  battle  gained,  and  the  complete  conquest 
of  a  kingdom,  the  most  illustrious  captives  in  war,  kinj^s, 
princes,  and  nobles,  with  their  wives  and  children,  to  tlie 
perpetual  infamy  of  this  people,  were,  with  the  last  dis- 
lionour  and  ignominy,  led  in  tetters  before  the  general's  cha- 
riot, through  the  pijblic  streets  of  Home:  scaffolds  bring 
every  wIktc  erected,  the  streets  and  pul)lic  places  crowded, 
and  this  barbarous  and  uncivilized  nation  all  the  while  in 
the  hio'hest  excess  of  joy,  and  in  the  full  fruition  of  a  spo' 
tacle  tTiat  was  a  reproach  to  huinanitv.  Nor  was  only  the  " 
sovereign  of  large  and  opulent  kingdoms,  the  magnanimous 
hero'-  who  had  fought  valiantly  for  his  country  and  her  liber- 

•  Rom-  vi.  2n.  Ovx-ia,  the  pay  of  a  soMier.  Ov^-nsv  m  <rT,--<T,.«,_ 
<aii.i>x».'!i<  xjy.fi'.v  ;  Bringing  money  to  pay  the  army.  Dion.  Halicarn. 
torn.    i.  p.  ."568.  Oxon.  A«Ci.»  e|;.».a  n   xx>   ^'  »).'.»   sir».»  i^n   ry,  iri fm'i.m. 

|).  r.>*7. 
»  llarwood's  Introd.  vol.  ii.  pp.  53— W. 

lo  i.ri»av3«;  uri  t«i{  v.k.ii.-  o-uxvevr — Xf^f'^i  i>.«t! :  He  rereived  several 
crotrn.s-  u/  gold  on  account  of  his  victories.  Dion.  Casslus,  lib.  xlii.  p. 
'3a%.  edit.  Relmar.  Vid.  etiani  notasFabricii  adioc.  Tci<  it  Jii  »««xpa1i|ir«ri 
K«i  (riir»i-5i'  i>.aiji«  i?««/:  To  those  who  had  conquered  in  the  naval 
enca.';enienl  be  giive  rroirns  of  nitrr.  Lib  .vlix  p.  '•V7.  See  also  pp.  537. 
'y^y.  "*i  also  Josephus  sBVs  that  Titus  gave  rnnrtis  of  gold  to  those  who 
had  distinguished  ihcniseUes  in  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  ;  <rri?«ccv{  i»i!.5ii 
Xfvrsvf.     Ili-ll.  Jud.  lib.  vii.  p.  4Ui.  See  also  n.  412.   Havereamp. 

1"  liehind  the  children  and  their  train  walked  IVrseus  himself  [the  cap- 
live  king  of  Macedon],  and  wearing  sniidals  of  the  f:ishion  of  his  country. 
I  He  had  the  appearance  of  a  man  overwhelmed  with  terror,  and  whose 
'  rea.Hon  almost  stageered  imder  the  load  of  bi.<  mislortiiues.     He  wa.s  fol- 

I  l.iweil  by  a  great  ii ber  of  friends  and  favnuriti-s,  whoso  countenances 

'  were  oppressi'd  with  sorrow;  and  who,  by  li.xing  their  weeping  eyes  con- 
tinually upon  llii-ir  prince,  testified  lo  the  .spectators  that  it  was  his  lot 
which' they  lainenterl,  and  that  they  were  reijardl.'ss  of  their  own.  Plu- 
urch\  Vita',  In  /Koiil.  lom.  ii.  pji.  1*.  1K7    edit,  nrianl. 

•  »  Thus,  at  the  roncliision  nt  the  second  Piinir  war,  the  Numtrtlan  «nn 
Carthaginian  captive  generals  were  led  In  triumph,  .\ppian.  lorn.  i.  p  j>*. 
eriii.  Tollii.  AuiMl  li,;o.  Several  kings,  princes,  anil  gcncraU  were  also 
UJ  iu  Purupc-y'8  tiiumph.     Appian.  tom.  i.  p-  417. 


Part  III.  Chap.  I.] 


OF  SACRED  PLACES. 


95 


ties,  the  weak  and  tender  sex,  born  to  a  happier  fate,  and 
young  children,'  insensible  of  their  wretched  condition,  led 
in  triumph  ;  but  vast  numbers  of  wagons,  full  of  rich  fur- 
niture, statutes,  pictures,  plate,  vases,  vests,^  of  which  they 
had  stripped  palaces  and  the  houses  of  the  great;  and  carts 
loaded  with  the  arms  they  had  taken  from  the  enemy,  and 
with  the  coin,"^  of  the  empires  they  had  conquered,  pillaged, 
and  enslaved,  preceded  tlie  triumphal  car.  On  this  most 
splendid  occasion,  imperial  Rome  was  a  scene  of  universal 
festivity  :  the  temples  were  all  thrown  open,  were  adorned 
will  garlands,  and  filled  with  clouds  of  incense  and  the 
richest  perfumes;'  the  spectators  were  clothed  in  white  gar- 
ments :^  hecatombs  of  victims  were  slain,^  and  the  most 
sumptuous  entertainments'  were  given.  The  illustrious  cap- 
tives, after  having  been  dragged  through  the  city  in  this  pro- 
cession, and  thus  publicly  exposed,  were  generallj'  imprison- 
ed, frequently  strangled  and  despatched^  in  dungeons,  or  sold 
for  slaves.9 — To  several  of  these  well  known  circumstances 
attending  a  Roman  triumph,  the  sacred  writers  evidently 
allude  in  the  following  passages.  In  the  first  of  which 
Jesus  Christ  is  represented  as  a  great  conqueror,  who,  after 
fiaving  totally  vanquished  and  subjugated  all  the  empires  and 
kingdoms  of  false  religion,  and  overturned  the  mighty  esta- 
blishment of  Judaism  and  Paganism,  supported  by  the  great 


and  potoerful,  celebrates  a  most  magailicent  triumph  over 
them,  leridi  them  in  procession,  openfy  exposinir  them  to  the 
v'ew  of  the  whole  world,  as  the  captives  of  his  omnipo- 
tence, and  the  trophies  of  his  Gospel !  Jliiving  spoiled  princi- 
palities and  powers,  lie  made  a  show  of  them  openlt/,  triumphing 
over  them  ."" — The  second  passa^,  whose  beautiful  and  strik- 
ing imagery  is  taken  from  a  Roman  triumph,  occurs  in  2 
Cor.  ii.  14 — 16.  Now  thanhs  be  unto  God,  who  always  caus- 
eth  us  to  triumph  in  Christ,  and  rnaktth  manifctl  the  savour 
of  his  knowledge  by  us  in  every  place.  For  we  are  unto  God 
a  sweet  savour  of  Christ,  in  them  that  are  saved,  and  in  them 
that  perish ,-  to  the  one  we  are  a  savour  of  death  unto  death  ,• 
and  to  the  other,  of  life  unto  life.  In  tliis  passage  God  Al- 
mighty, in  very  striking  sentiments  and  language,  is  repre- 
seiUed  as  hading  the  apostles  in  triumph^^  througli  the  world 
aiiowing  them  every  where  as  the  monuments  of  his  grace 
and  mercy,  and  by  their  means  diffusing  in  every  place  the 
od(jur  of  tlie  knowledge  of  God — in  reference  to  a  triumph, 
when  all  the  temples  were  filled  with  fragrance,  and  the 
whole  air  breathed  periume; — and  the  apostle,  continuing 
the  allusion,  adds,  that  this  odour  would  prove  the  means  oi 
the  salvation  of  some,  and  destruction  of  others — as  in  a 
triumph,  after  the  pomp  and  procession  was  concluded,  some 
of  the  captives  \f  ere  put  to  death,  others  saved  alive.^''^^ 


PART  III. 

SACRED  ANTIQUITIES  OF  THE  JEWS,  AND  OF  OTHER  NATIONS  INCIDENTALLY  MENTIONED 

IN   THE    SCRIPTURES. 

CHAPTER  I. 

OF    SACRED    PLACES. 


The  whole  world  being  the  workmanship  of  God,  there  is 
no  place,  in  which  men  may  not  testify  their  reverence  for 
His  supreme  Majest)'.  From  the  very  beginning  of  time 
some  place  was  always  appropriated  to  the  solemn  duties  of 
religious  worship.  Adam,  even  during  his  continuance  in 
Paradise,  had  some  place  where  to  present  himself  before 
the  Lord ;  and,  after  his  expulsion  thence,  his  sons  in  like 
manner  had  whither  to  bring  their  oblations  and  sacrifices. 
This,  probably,  was  the  reason  why  Cain  did  not  immedi- 
ately fall  upon  his  brother,  when  his  offering  was  refused, 
because  perhaps  the  solemnity  and  religion  of*  the  place,  and 
the  sensible  appearance  of  the  divine  Alajesty  there,  struck 

>  Plutarch,  in  his  account  of  the  triumph  of  Emilias  at  the  conquest  of 
Macedon,  represents  this  tragical  circumstance  in  a  very  affecting  manner. 
The  king's  children  were  also  led  captive,  and  along  with  them  a  train  of 
nurses,  and  tutors,  and  governors :  all  bathed  in  tears,  stretching  out  tlieir 
hands  to  tlie  spectators,  and  teaching  the  children  to  entreat  and  supplicate 
their  mercy.  There  were  two  boys  and  a  girl,  whose  tender  age  rendered 
Iheni  insensible  to  the  greatness  of  their  calamity,  and  this  their  insensi- 
bility was  the  most  affecting  circumstance  in  their  unhappy  condition. 
Plutarch.  j'Emil.  toui.  ii.  p.  186.     See  also  Appian.  p.  417.  edit.  'Ainst.  Ib'O. 

*  KpxTHpaf  apj^uisojj  y.xt  y.ipxlx^  v.jtl  f  tK\«5  xai  %uKi%x^.  Plutarch,  ibid, 
p.  497.  Ai'/„ux/.n-rHf  xyifix<ri  y.y.i  yfxex'%  xai  xo?,ooTOi;  x.  K.  p.  496.  See 
idso  Appian.  torn.  i.  p._53.  and  p.  417.    Tollii. 

'  AvSfi;  tmTT^fU'j^vla  rpir^i/.i^*,  vit/.tr/zx  ^£pov7i;  eep^upsuv  x.  X.     E*Ta 

^!Ta  Toulou;  oi'  TO  ccuiT/ix  tfis'-mi.  Plutarch,  torn.  ii.  p.  184.  Appian. 
p.  417. 

*  Ila;  o£  rxo;  iv-u,x79,  y.xi  (m^xriiv  xxi  Svftixfiul-^v  y,v  ■=>.y,}m,  Plutarch, 
lorn.  i.  p.  496.  Gr.  8to. 

»  Nivcos  ad  fraena  Quiritcs.  Juvenal.  Sat.  x.  vcr.  45.  XsiS»p«ij  trir.in. 
xixj<r^>;^jvo..    Plutarch,  p.  496.  Steph. 

«  .MfTat  TCVTC'j,-  y,ytvlo  '/ p-jT'iy-fi-^  TpoJt*i  3iv:,  I-axx^v  !*xoa"*,  mlput^ 
rs-r.y.u-vai  xxi  ittiuuxti.  After  thesc  were  led  one  hundred  and  twenty 
fat  o.xen,  which  had  their  horns  gilded,- and  which  were  adorned  with 
ribands  and  garlands.    Plutarch,  ii.  p.  SS.^ 

f  A^iy.:u  =  '.:j  Si  :;  to  Kx;ri7>j>.i3v  o  yiytrri-jav^  rvv  fxtv  vofx7Ty,v  %xts!txvtiVj 
tlirrix  oil  TOu;  oiJ.juj  iLr^if  171;  iTTtv,  i;  to  ii(.',v.  Apoian.  ton),  i.  p.  59. 
edit.  Amst.  1670.      _  <  r  1 1 

S5i{  tTxpxy»>-ovr„M-  r»v.=  i>.£To].  Appian.  p.  41*^.  For  example,  Aristobulus, 
king  of  the  Jews,  after  having  been  exposed,  and  dragged  through  the  city 
in  Pompey's  triumph,  was  immediately,  after  the  procession  was  con- 
cluded, put  to  deaUi:  Tigranes,  some  time  afterwarrls,  ApirTs?ou>,c;  ;•-■&•..,- 
avvpiiri.,  -/.a.  Tiyfxvr;  Oo-Tspoi..  Appian.  dc  Bcllis  Mithrid.  p.  419.  Amst. 
X'.TO.    See  also  p.  403. 

»  Longe  phirimos  captivos  ex  Elruscis  ante  currum  duxit,  quibus  sub 
hasta  venumdatis.    Livy,  lib.  vi.  p.  409.  edit.  Elz.  1C31. 


him  with  a  reverential  awe  that  might  cause  him  to  defer  hi3 
villanous  design  till  he  came  into  the  field  wiiere  he  slew 
him. 

The  patriarchs,  both  before  and  after  the  flood,  used  altars 
and  mountains  and  groves  for  the  same  purpose :  thus  we 
read  of  Noah's  building  an  altar  to  the  Lord,  and  ofliering 
burnt-offerings  upon  it.  (Gen.  viii.  20.)  Abraham,  when  he 
was  called  to  the  worship  of  the  true  God,  erected  altars 
wherever  he  pitched  his  tent  (Gen.  xii.  8.  and  xiii.  4.)  :  he 
planted  a  grove  in  Beersheba,  and  called  there  on  the  name  of 
the  Lord  (Gen.  xxi.  33.)  :  and  it  was  upon  a  mountain  that 
God  ordered  him  to  offer  up  his  son  Isaac.  (Gen.  xxii.  2.) 
Jacob  in  particular  called  a  place  by  the  name  of  God's  House, 
where  he  vowed  to  pay  the  tithes  of  all  that  God  should  give 
him.  (Gen.  xxviii.  22.) 

There  were  several  public  places  appropriated  to  the  reli- 
gious worship  of  the  Jews,  viz.  1.  The  labemacle,  which  in 
time  gave  place  to,  2.  The  Temple,  both  of  which  are  often- 
times in  Scripture  called  the  Sanctuary ;  between  which  there 
was  no  other  difference  as  to  the  principal  design  (though 

«o  Coloss.  ii.  15.  ©pixftSiuo-xf  xuTcu,-,  Leading  them  in  triumph. 

11  0fix/ioivovTi  ii^xc,  Causeth  us  to  triumph ;  rather,  Leadeth  us  about 
in  triumph.  E  jpiayt-.'fu ?>!  xxi  xyr.fi^r,  Hc  was  led  in  triumph,  and  then  put 
to  death.  Appian.  p.  403.  Amst.  1670.  "The  Greek  word,  c-pix/«SfuoyTi, 
which  we  render  causeth  ns  to  triumph,  properly  signifies  to  triumph 
over,  or  to  lead  in  triumj^h,  as  our  translators  themselves  have  rightly 
rendered  it  in  another  place,  Coloss.  ii.  \o.  And  so  the  apostle's  true 
meaning  is  plainly  this :  Now  thanks  be  to  God,  who  always  triumpheth 
over  tis  in  Christ :  leading-  its  about  in  triumph,  as  it  were  in  solemn  pro- 
cess-ion. This  yields  a  most  congruous  and  beautilul  sense  of  his  words. 
And  in  order  to  display  the  force  of  his  fine  sentiment,  in  its  full  compass 
and  extent,  let  it  be  ol)ser^•ed,  that  when  St.  Paul  represents  himself  and 
others  as  being  led  about  in  triumph,  like  so  many  captives,  by  the  pre- 
vailing power  and  efficacy  of  Gospel  grace  and  truth,  his  words  naturally 
imply  and  suggest  three  things  worthy  of  particular  notice  and  attention .j 
namelv,  a  contest,  a  victory,  and  an  open  show  of  his  victory."  (Brekell's 
Discourses,  pp.  Ijl,  Hi)  "While  God  was  leading  about  such  men  in 
triumpli,  he  made  them  very  serviceable  and  successful  in  promoting 
Christian  knowledge  in  every  place  wherever  they  came."   (Ibid.  p.  151.) 

n  Harwood'.s  Inlroduclion  to  the  New  Testament,  vol.  ii.  pp.  29 — 34.  col- 
lated with  Brunings's  disquisition  De  Triumpho  Romanoruni  in  the  Appenjj 
di.r  to  his  Compendium  Antiquitatum  Gr:ecarum  (pp.  41.5 — 4.34.),  which 
seems  to  have  guided  Dr.  Uarwood  in  his  manner  of  illustrating  a  Roman 
triumph.  He  has,  however,  greatly  improved  upon  Brunings's  Disser- 
tation. 


96 


OF  SACRED  PLACES. 


fPART  III.  Chai-.  I. 


there  was  in  beautj'  and  wcrkmansliip)  than  tliat  the  taber- 
nacle was  a  niovcablp  teru[>le,  as  tbe  temple  was  an  immove- 
able tabernacle ;  on  which  account  the  tabernacle  is  some- 
times called  the  temple  (1  Sam.  i.  9.  and  iii.  3.),  as  the  tem- 
ple is  sometimes  called  tlie  tabernacle.  (Jer.  x.  20.  Lam.  ii. 
6.)  3.  There  were  also  places  of  worsliip  called  in  Scrip- 
ture High  I'lucei',  used  promiscuously  during  the  limes  of 
both  the  tabernacle  and  temple  until  the  captivity ;  and,  lastly, 
there  were  Synagngue-i  amori^  the  Jews,  and  other  places, 
used  only  for  prayer,  called  I'roseuchx  or  Oratories,  which 
chiefly  obtained  after  the  captivity ;  of  these  various  struc- 
tures some  account  will  be  found  in  the  followinfj  sections. 


SECTION  L  ^ 

CF  THE  TACERKACLE. 

I.  Different  tabernacles  in  use  amonff  the  Israelites. — II.  Thi: 
Tahluxacle,  so  culled  by  tuay  of  eminence,  not  of  Egyp- 
tian origin. — Its  materials. — III.  Form  and  constrtiction  of 
the  tabernacle. — Its  conteiits. — IV.  Its  migrations. 

I.  Mention  is  made  in  the  Old  Testament  of  three  different 
tabernacles  previously  to  the  erection  of  Solomon's  temple. 
The  first,  which  Moses  erected,  is  called  the  Tabernacle  of 
the  Congregation  (l^xod.  xxxiii.  7.);  here  he  gave  audience, 
heard  causes,  and  imiuired  of  .lehovah,  and  here  also,  at  first, 
perhaps  the  public  offices  of  rclijjion  were  solemnized.  The 
tecona  tabernacle  was  that  erected  by  Moses  for  Jehovah,  and 
Ht  his  express  command,  partly  to  be  a  palace  of  his  presence 
8S  the  kiuff  of  Israel  (Kxod.  xl.  34, 35.),  and  partly  to  be  the 
medium  of  the  most  solemn  public  worship,  which  the  peo- 
j)Ie  were  to  pay  to  him.  ("iti — 29.)  Tiiis  tabernacle  was 
erected  on  the  first  day  of  the  first  month  in  the  second  year 
after  the  departure  of  the  Israelites  from  Etrypt.  The  third 
public  tabernacle  was  that  erected  by  David  in  his  own  city, 
for  the  reception  of  the  ark,  when  he  received  it  from  the 
house  of  Obed-Edom.  (2  Sam.  vi.  7.  1  Chron.  xvi.  I.)  Of 
tlic  second  of  these  tabernacles  we  are  now  to  treat,  which 
was  called  the  tabeu.vaci.e  by  way  of  distinction.  It  was 
a  moveable  chapel,  so  contrived  as  to  be  taken  to  pieces  and 
put  toorether  again  at  pleasure,  for  the  convenience  of  carry- 
ing it  from  place  to  place. 

II.  It  has  been  imagined  that  this  tabernacle,  together  with 
all  its  furniture  and  irppurtenances,  was  of  Egyptian  origin  : 
tliat  Moses  projected  it  after  the  fashion  of  some  such  struc- 
ture which  he  had  observed  in  Egypt,  and  which  was  in  use 
among  other  nations  ;  or  that  God  directed  it  to  be  made  with 
a  view  of  indulging  the  Israelites  in  a  compliance  with  their 
customs  and  modes  of  worship,  so  far  as  there  was  nothing 
in  them  directly  sinful.  The  heathen  nations,  it  is  true,  had 
such  tabernach  s  or  portable  shrines  as  are  alluded  to  by  the 
prophet  Amos  (v.  2(5.),  which  might  bear  a  great  resemblance 
to  tnat  of  the  Jews;  but  it  has  neither  been  proved,  nor  is  it 
probable,  that  they  had  them  before  the  Jews,  and  tliat  the 
Almighty  so  far  condescended  to  indulge  the  Israelites,  a 
wayward  people,  and  prone  to  idolatry,  as  to  introduce  them 
into  his  own  worship.  It  is  far  more  likely  that  the  heathens 
derived  their  tabernacles  from  that  of  the  .tews,  who  had  the 
whole  of  their  religion  immediately  from  (Jod,  than  that  the 
Jews,  or  rather  that  (jod  should  take  them  from  the  heathens.' 

The  materials  of  the  tabernacle  were  provided  by  the  peo- 
ple; every  one  brourrht  his  oblation  according  to  his  ability  : 
those  of  the  first  quality  offl.red  gold,  those  of  a  middle  con- 
dition brought  silver  and  brass,  and  shittim-wood  ;*  and  the 
offerings  of  the  meaner  sort  consisUid  of  yarn,  fine  linen, 
goafs' hair  and  skins;  nor  were  the  women  backward  in  con- 
tributing to  tiiis  work,  for  they  willingly  lirouglit  in  their 
bracelets,  ear-rinjjs,  and  other  ornaments,  and  such  of  thein 
as  were  skilful  in  spinning  made  yarn  and  thread.  In  short, 
Uie  liberality  of  the  pcoide  on  this  occasion  was  so  great, 
that  Moses  was  obliged  by  proclamation  to  f<jrbid  any  more 
olTeriiifTs,  and  thereby  restrain  the  excessive  zeal  of  the  peo- 
ple for  that  service,  (lilxod.  xxxv.  and  xxxvi.) 

<  The  liy|K)llipsis  abovr;  noticed  wriK  ndvanrpd  l>y  Sjirncrr  in  !ii.=i  I<>arnr(l, 
but  In  many  n-uiiRctH  fanriful,  trcati.st*,  Dn  I.oitiljiix  IIi'lira.'urinn,  lili.  iil. 
disH.  i.  c.  3.  RnJ  >liS4.  vi  c.  1.  Ilia  arKiim>'nt8  worn  oxainincd  onil  refuted 
hv  lliiddcus  in  his  lliiitoria  RcclesiaHticu  Velcriv  TcHtaiucnIi,  part  i.  ]>]). 
3iO.  MS. 

*  This  thitlimwood  is  gnnpogrd  to  havn  bpcn  cither  tlic  acacia  or  llie 
nedar,  Ixiili  whicli  grnw  in  Ksypi  an<l  in  S^ria.  The  araria  is  delineated 
by  Prosper  Alpinus,  De  I'lnnlin  il'iypli.irin,  r.  1.  HaHselipiist  fuimd  it  in 
I';i!estine  (Tour  In  tlic  Levant,  p.  liVJ.),  and  Pr.  Pocorlje  fdijtid  it  lio'.h  on 
U  juai  Sinai  and  in  Kgypt.    Tliu  cedar  lias  been  already  msnlionod. 


1  Jiixoa.  XXV.  5i2.J,  or  the  ark  of  the  covenant.  (Josh.  iv.  7.) 
This  was  a  small  chest  or  cclfer  made  of  shittim-wood,  over- 

ffold,  ■  "  "  -        - 

(as  well 


laid  with  gold,  into  which  were  put  the  two  tables  of  the  law 
"  the  '     '  ■      '  


This  tabernac  e  was  set  up  in  the  wilderness  of  Sinai,  and 
carried  along  with  the  Israelites  from  place  to  place  as  thev 
j  nirneyed  towards  Cana-n,  and  is  often  called  tne  Tabn-ncclt 
uf  the  Congregation.  I  i  form,  it  appears  to  have  closely  re- 
sembled our  modern  tent.;,  but  it  was  much  larger,  havini' 
the  sides  and  roof  secured  with  boards,  hangings,  and  cover^ 
ings,  and  was  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  a  Targe  outer  court, 
which  was  enclosed  by  pillars,  posted  at  equal  distances, 
whose  spaces  were  filled  up  with  curtains  fixed  to  these  pil- 
lars: whence  it  is  evident  that  this  tabernacle  consisted  nrf>t 
of  the  tent  or  house  itself,  which  was  covered,  and  next  of 
the  court  that  surrounded  it,  which  was  open  :  all  which  are 
minutely  and  exactly  described  in  Exod.  xxv. — xxx.  xxxvi. 
— xl.  from  which  chapters  the  following  particulars  are 
abridged. 

III.  The  tent  itself  was  an  oblong  square,  thirty  cubits  in 
length,  and  ten  in  height  and  breadth.  The  inside  of  it  was 
divided  by  a  veil  or  hanging,  made  of  lich  embroidered  linen, 
which  parted  the  Holy  Place,  which  is  called  thej^r.>/  taber- 
nark  in  Heb.  ix.  2.  6.,  from  the  llol>;  tf  Holies,  called  the 
second  fabcniac/e  in  Heb.  ix.  7.  In  the  fonner  stood  the  altar 
of  incense  overlaid  with  gold,  the  table  of  sliew-bread,  con- 
sisting of  twelve  loaves,  and  the  great  Cinuilestick  of  pure 
gold,  containing  seven  branches :  none  of  the  pecple  were 
allowed  to  go  into  the  holy  place,  but  only  the  priests.  The 
Holy  of  Holies  (so  called  because  it  was  the  most  sacred 
place  of  the  tabernacle,  into  which  none  went  but  the  high- 
priest)  contained  in  it  the  ark,  called  the  ark  of  the  testimony 
(Exod.  xxv.  22." 
as  a  smvi 

broken  ones,  say  thi;  Jews,  as  the  whole),  with 
the  pot  of  manna,  and  Aaron  s  rod  that  budded.  (Heb.  ix.  4.) 
This  was  the  most  holy  of  all  the  sacred  furniture.  None 
but  the  priests  were  allowed  to  touch  it ;  and  only  the  Kohath- 
ites,  the  sacerdotal  family,  were  permitted  to  carry  it,  with 
poles  made  of  shittim-wood,  also  overlaid  with  gold  inserted 
in  two  golden  rings  at  each  end.  (I  Kings  viii.'H.)  Hence 
Uzziah  the  Lcvite  was  punished  with  death  for  touching  it. 
(2  Sam.  vi.  7.) 

The  lid  or  covering  of  the  ark  was  wholly  of  solid  gold, 
and  called  the  mercy-seat ;  at  the  two  ends  of  it  were  twf. 
c!iernl)im  (or  hieroglyphic  figures,  the  form  of  which  it  is  im- 
possibieiiow  to  ascertain), lookinginwards  towards  each  other, 
with  wings  expanded,  which,  embracing  the  whole  circum- 
ference of  the  mercy-seat,  met  en  each  side  in  the  middle. 
Here  the  Shechinah  or  IJivine  Presence  rested,  both  in  the 
tabernacle  and  temple,  and  was  visiblj'  seen  in  the  appear- 
ance of  a  cloud  over  it.  (Lev.  xvi.  2.)  Frcni  this  the  diviiio 
oracles  were  given  out  by  an  audible  voice,  as  often  as  Jeho- 
vah was  consulted  on  behalf  of  his  people.  (Exod.  xxv.  22 
Num.  vii.  8tM  And  hence  it  is  that  the  ark  is  called  the 
footstool  of  God  fPsal.  xcix.  5.),  who  is  so  often  said  in 
Scripture,  to  dueli  between  the  cherubim.  (2  Kings  xix.  15 
Psal.  Ixxx.  I.)  The  roof  of  the  tabernacle  was  a  square 
frame  of  plants,  resting  upon  their  bases,  and  over  these 
were  coverings  or  curtains  of  different  kinds  ;  of  which  the 
first  on  the  inside  was  made  of  fine  linen,  curiont;ly  embroi 
dered  in  various  colours  of  crimson  and  scarlet,  purple,  and 
hyacinth.  The  next  was  made  of  goat.s'  hair  curiously  wove 
together ;  and  the  last,  or  outmost,  was  of  sheep  and  badgers' 
skins  (some  dyed  red,  and  others  of  azure  blue),  which 
served  to  preserve  the  other  rich  curtains  from  the  rain,  and 
to  protect  the  tabernacle  itself  from  the  injuries  of  the 
weather. 

Th(^  tabernacle  vas  surrounded  by  a  large  oblong  court, 
an  hundred  cubits  lon^r,  and  fifty  broad,  nearly  in  the  centre 
of  which  stood  a  vessel,  called  the  lirozeii  Lover,  in  which 
the  priests  washed  their  hands  and  fivt,  whenever  they  were 
to  oner  sacrifices,  or  go  into  the  tabernacle ;  and  directly  op- 
|)osite  to  the  entrance  of  the  tabernacle  stood  the  Brazen 
.'lllur  of  burnt-oflerings,  in  the  (.jjcu  air,  in  order  that  the  in- 
terior might  not  be  spoiled  by  the  fire,  which  was  at  first 
miraculously  kindled'  (Lev.  ix.  24.),  and  which  was  kept 

a  Gnd  had  prcviniiisly  orderecl-th.^t  the  fire  on  this  allar,  wlicn  once 
i{indl»(l,  ^l.ould  never  Ro  out.  (I.tv.  vi.  12,  13.)  It  wasrerkoned  an  impious 
preKUinptinn  to  make  use  of  any  other  hut  lliis  sacreil  fire  in  hurning 
iiieensi-  before  the  I.oid;  which  wa.s  suflicienlly  nutified  to  Auron  by  an 
injunrllon  R'ven  him,  that  he  was  to  lij^ht  Ihc  incense  olTered  to  God,  in 
liie  most  lioly  niai  e  on  the  preal  d.^v  ol  r-xuiation.  at  this  fire  only.  (Lev. 
xvi.  Vi,  l-t.)  Nolwillinlandiiig  which  prohibition  Nniiab  and  .\bQ)U,  Iw" 
unhappy  huis  of  Aaron,  forgetful  of  their  duly,  took  their  ceuFf  rs,  and 


pultii.g  romi.ioii  fire  iu  lliein,  laid  incense  thtrcon,  and  olTered  slrany 
fire  bi'foie  Ihr  I,oid.  in  their  daily  ministrations,  which  profane  approarli 
(.Vid  imiiiriliately  res'iiled  ;  for  we  ere  told  ihiit  a  fire  went  ovl  from  Hit 
Lord,  and  devoured  them,  so  that  tliey  died.  (Lev.  x.  1 ) 


Sect.  I.] 


OF  THE  TABERNACLE. 


97 


perpetually  upon  it,  and  by  the  smoke  arising  from  the  vic- 
tims that  were  there  consumed. 

There  is  no  precept  in  the  law  to  make  the  altar  a  privi- 
leged place,  but  in  conformity  to  the  custom  of  other  nations 
the  Jews  seem  to  have  made  it  such ;  for,  from  the  word-s  in 
Exod.  xxi.  14.  where  God  ordered  the  wilful  murderer  to  be 
taken  from  his  altar,  that  he  may  die,it  seems  unquestionably 
true,  that  both  in  the  wilderness  and  afterwards  in  Canaan, 
this  altar  continued  a  sanctuary  for  those  who  fled  unto  it ; 
and  very  probably  it  was  the  horns  of  this  altar  (then  at 
Gibeon)  that  Adonijah  and  Joabtook  hold  of  (1  Kings  i.  50. 
and  ii.  28.),  for  the  temple  of  Solomon  was  not  then  erected.' 

After  the  Israelites  were  settled  in  the  land  of  promise,  it 
appears  that  this  tabernacle  was  surrounded  with  a  great 
many  other  tents  or  cells,  which  were  placed  about  it  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  buildings  were  afterwards  placed  round 
the  temple.  These  were  absolutely  necessary  for  the  recep- 
tion of  the  priests  during  the  time  of  their  mmistration,  and 
for  laying  up  the  utensils  and  provisions  which  were  used  in 
the  tabernacle.  This,  circumstance  explains  what  is  related  of 
Eli's  sons  going  into  the  kitchen  where  the  peace-ofFerings 
were  dressing,  and  taking  out  of  the  pots  whatever  the  flesh- 
hook  brought  up.  (1  Sam.  ii.  14.)  And  thus  Eli  is  said  to  be 
laid  down  in  his  place  (iii.  2.),  that  is,  was  gone  to  bed  in  one 
of  these  tents  near  the  tabernacle,  next  to  which  Samuel  lay, 
which  made  him  (being  then  a  child)  run  to  Eli,  when  he 
heard  the  voice  of  the  Lord,  thinking  that  Eli  had  called  (4, 
5,  &c.)  :  and  this  also  explains  what  is  said  of  David  (Matt. 
xii.  4.),  that  he  entered  into  the  house  of  God  mid  did  eat  the 
shew-bread,  that  is,  he  came  to  the  priest's  habitation,  which 
was  among  these  tents  round  the  tabernacle,  and  which  were 
reckoned  as  parts  of  the  house  of  God. 

When  the  tabernacle  was  finished,  it  was  consecrated, 
with  all  the  furniture  therein,  by  being  anointed  with  a  pecu- 

»  It  is  evident  from  this  and  otlier  passages  of  Scripture,  that  the  altar 
was  considered  as  an  asylum  ;  and  it  is  well  known  that,  among  almost  all 
the  heathen  nations  of  antiquity,  the  altars  of  their  deities  were  accounted 
so  sacred  that  the  vilest  miscreant  found«afety,  if  he  once  reached  an 
altar.  Hence  aroso  many  abuses,  and  ju"ce  was  greatly  perverted  :  so 
that  it  became  a  maxim  that  the  guilty  should  be  punished  even  though 
Ihey  should  have  taken  refuge  there.  We  have  remarked  above  that  the 
presumptuous  murderer  was,  by  divine  command,  to  be  dragged  thence 
and  put  to  death.  Euripides  thus  alludes  to  a  similar  ordinance  among  the 
heathen  nations  in  his  time  : — 

Bio^OV  TTpOtTi^Ji,   TOV  VOjUOV  %XifHV  («»», 

Kxxov  y«p  »vjp»  Xp>I  xaxuif  7T»a-y,iiv  atti. 

Eurip.  Frag.  42.  edit.  Musgrave. 

In  English  thus  : — 

"If  an  unrighteous  man,  availing  himself  of  the  law,  should  claim  tliea 
protection  of  the  altar,  I  would  drag  him  to  justice,  nor  fear  the  wrath  of 
the  gods :  for  it  is  necessary  that  a  wicked  man  should  always  suffer  for 
his  crimes."    Dr.  A.  Clarke  on  1  Kings  ii.  30. 


liar  oil,  prepared  by  divine  command  for  that  very  purpose 
(Exod.  XXX.  22,  &c.),  after  which  God  made  His  people 
sensible  of  His  special  presence  in  it,  covering  it  with  a 
cloud'  which  overshadowed  it  by  day,  and  by  night  gave  liijht, 
as  if  it  had  been  a  fire,  and  by  giving  answers  in  an  audible 
iTianner  from  the  ark  when  consulted  by  the  high-priest. 
Whenever  the  Israelites  changed  their  camp  the  tabernacle 
was  taken  down,  and  every  Levite  knew  what  part  he  was 
to  carry,  ibr  this  was  a  part  of  their  office ;  and  sometimes, 
upon  extraordinary  occasions,  the  priests  themselves  bore  the 
ark,  as  when  they  passed  over  Jordan,  and  besieged  Jericho. 
(Josh.  iii.  14.  and  vi.  G.)  Concerning  the  manner  of  carry- 
ing the  several  parts  of  it,  see  Num.  iv.  When  they  en- 
camped, the  tabernacle  stood  always  in  the  midst,  being 
surrounded  by  the  army  of  the  Israelites  on  all  sides  in  a 
quadrangular  form,  divided  according  to  their  several  tribes ; 
the  Israelitish  camp  being  at  the  distance  of  two  thousand 
cubits  from  the  tabernacle,  which  by  computation  is  reckoned 
a  mile,  and  is  called  a  Sabbath-day'' s  journey  (Acts  i.  12.), 
as  being  the  distance  they  had  to  go  on  that  day  to  the  place 
of  worship.  Moses  and  Aaron,  with  the  priests  and  Levites, 
encamped  in  their  tents  next  the  tabernacle,  between  it  and 
the  army ;  as  represented  in  the  diagram  inserted  in  page  86. 
supra. 

IV.  The  tabernacle  being  so  constructed  as  to  be  ti^ken  1o 
pieces  and  put  together  again  as  occasion  required,  it  was 
removed  as  often  as  the  camp  of  the  Israelites  moved  from 
one  station  to  another ;  and  thus  accompanied  them  in  all 
their  marches,  until  they  arrived  at  the  land  of  Canaan.  It 
was  at  first  set  up  at  Gilgal,  being  the  first  encampment  of 
the  Israelites  in  Canaan ;  and  here  it  continued  for  about 
seven  years,  during  which  Joshua  was  occupied  in  the  con 
quest  of  that  country.  Afterwards,  it  was  pitched  in  Shiloh, 
being  nearly  in  the  centre  of  the  country  then  subdued  ;  on 
being  restored  by  the  Philistines,  who  had  taken  it  and  de- 
posited it  in  the  temple  of  one  of  their  idols,  as  related  in 
1  Sam.  iv.  10,  11.  v.  vi.,  it  remained  for  twenty  years  in  the 
custody  of  Abinadab  of  Gibeah,  and  afterwards  (for  three 
months)  in  the  house  of  Obed-Edom,  whence  David  brought 
it  with  great  solemnity  into  that  part  of  Jerusalem  which 
was  called  the  city  of  David.  (2  Sam.  vi.  17.  1  Chron.  xv. 
25.  xvi.  1.)  Here  it  remained  until  it  was  deposited  in  the 
temple  of  Solomon,  where  (having  been  subsequently  re- 
moved) it  was  again  replaced  by  order  of  the  pious  king 
Josiah.  (2  Chron.  xxxv.  3.)  It  is  supposed  to  have  been, 
consumed  in  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar.2 

»  Schulzii  Archmol.  Hebr.  pp.  1S3— 204. ;  Pareau,  Antiq.  Hebr.  pp.  94— 
101. ;  Relandi  Antiq.  Ilebr.  pp.  H— S4. ;  Home's  Hist,  of  the  Jews,  vol.  ii. 
pp.  129— 13a ;  Brunings,  Antiq.  Hebr.  pp.  115—159. 


Vol.  II. 


N 


98 


ON  SACRED  PLACES. 


[Part  III.  Chap.  L 


Plan  ol  the  Temple  at  Jesusalc^i,  according  to  Lauiy  and  Calaiel. 


SECTIOx\  11. 


OF   THE   TEMPLE. 


I.  The  temple  of  Solomon. — II.  The  second  temple. — Its  va- 
rious courts. — Revevence  of  the  Jeics  Jhr  it. — III.  .Notice  of 
the  temples  at  IleliopoUs  and  Gerizim. 

According  to  the  opinion  of  some  writers,  there  were  three 
tRmples,  viz.  the  first,  erected  by  Solomon;  the  second,  by 
Zerubbabel  and  Joshua,  the  hiifh-priest ;  and  the  third,  by 
Herod  a  few  years  before  the  birth  of  (Jhrist.  But  this  opi- 
nion is  very  properly  rejected  by  the  Jews :  who  do  not 
allow  the  third  to  be  a  new  temple,  but  only  the  second  tem- 
ple rebuilt :  and  this  opinion  corresponds  with  the  prophecy 
of  Haffcrai  (ii.  9.),  that  the  f^lory  <if  this  latter  house — the  tcni- 
[de  built  by  Zcrubbabttl,  should  be  f^reater  than  that  rf  the 
ffjrmer ;  which  prediction  was  uttered  with  reference  to  the 
RIessiah's  honouring  it  with  his  presence  and  ministry. 

I.  The  first  tempVe  is  that  which  usually  bears  the  name 
of  .Solomon  ;  the  materials  for  which  were  provided  by  David 
before  his  death,  though  the  edifice  was  raised  by  his  son. 
It  stood  on  Mount  Moriah,  an  eminence  of  the  monntaiiions 
ridge  in  the  Scriptures  termed  Mount  Sion  (Psal.  cxxxii. 
13,  It.),  which  had  been  purchased  of  Araunah  or  Oman  the 
Jebusite.  (2  Sam.  xxiv.  2.3,  24.  1  (Miron.  xxi.  25.)  'I'lio 
plan  and  whole  model  of  this  superb  structure  were  formed 
after  that  of  the  tabernacle,  but  of  much  lar^^er  dimensions. 
It  was  surrounded,  except  at  the  front  or  east  end,  by  tliree 
Btories  of  chambers,  each  five  cubits  sfjuare,  which  reached 
to  half  the  heijrht  of  the  temple ;  and  the  front  was  orna- 
mented with  a  mafrnificrnt  portico,  which  rose  to  the  hf  i<fhl 
of  onr  hundred  and  twenty  cubits:  so  that  the  form  of  the 
whole  edifice  was  not  unlike  that  of  some  ancient  duirches 
wliich  have  a  lofty  tower  in  the  front,  and  a  low  aisle  run- 
nincr  along  each  side  of  the  building.  The  utensils  for  the 
sacred  service  were  the  same ;  excepting  tliat  seviral  of 
them,  as  the  altar,  candlestick,  &c.  were  larger,  in  propor- 
tion to  the  more  spacious  edifice  to  which  they  belonged. 
Seven  years  and  six  months  were  occupied  in  the  erection 
of  the  superb  and  magnificent  temple  of  >olonion  ;  by  whom 
it  was  dedicated!  with  ])eculiar  solemnity  to  the  worship  of 
the  Most  High,  wlio  on  this  occasion  voiichsafid  to  iionour 
it  with  the  Shechinah,  or  visildc  manifestation  of  His  j)re- 
Hence.     The  prayer  of  the  Hebrew  monarch,  on  this  occa- 

•  In  the  year  oftho  world  3001 ;  before  Clirisl  909. 


sion,  is  one  of  the  noblest  and  most  sublime  compositions  in 
the  Bible,  exhibiting,  in  the  projihetic  spirit  of  Moses,  the 
most  exalted  conceptions  of  the  omnipresence  of  the  Deity, 
of  his  superintending  Prl^dencc,  and  of  his  peculiar  pro- 
tection of  the  Israelites  from  the  time  of  tlieir  departure  ou' 
of-Egypt;  and  imploring  pardon  and  forgiveness  lor  all  their 
sins  and  transgressions  in  the  land,  and  during  the  c;>)itivi- 
ties  which  might  ensue.2  Various  attempts  have  been  made 
to  describe  the  proportions  and  several  parts  of  this  struc- 
ture ;  but  as  no  two  writers  scarcely  agree  on  this  subject,  a 
minute  description  of  it  is  designedly  omitted.'  It  retained 
its  pristine  splendour  only  thirty-three  or  thirty-fnur  years, 
when  Shishak  king  of  Egypt  took  Jerusalem,  and  carried 
away  the  treasures  of  the  temple;'  and  after  undergoing  sub- 
sequent profanations  and  pillages,  this  stiipendous  building 
was  finally  plundered  aiin  burnt  by  the  Chaldseans  under 
Nebuchadnezzar  in  the  y(ar  of  the  world  341 G,  or  before 
Christ5rtl.  (2  Kings  xxv.  13-il5.  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  17 — 20.) 

II.  After  tlie  ca[)tivity  the  temple  emerged  from  its  ruins, 
being  rebuilt  by  Zerubbabel,'  but  with  vastly  inferior  and 
diminished  glory;  as  appears  from  the  tears  of  the  aged  men 
who  had  beheld  the  tormer  structure  in  all  its  grandeur. 
(Ezra  iii.  12.)  Tiie  second  temple  was  profaned  !)y  order 
of  Antioclius  Epiphanes  f  a.  si.  3837,  n.  c.  1G3)  ;  who  caused 
the  daily  sacrifice  to  be  uiscontiniicd,  and  erected  the  image 
of  Jupiter  Olympius  on  the  altar  of  burnt-offering.  In  this 
condition  it  continued  three  years  (2  Mace.  x.  1 — R.),  when 
Judas  Maccabanis  purified  and  re])aired  it,  and  restored  tho 
siunifices  and  true  worship  of  Jehovah,  (a.  m.  3840,  b.  c. 
IGH.) 

Some  years  before  the  birth  of  our  Saviour,  the  repairing 
or  rather  i^radunl  rebuilding  of  this  second  temple,  which 
had  become  decayed  in  the  lapse  of  five  centuries,  was  un- 
dertaken l)y  Herod  the  Cireat,  who  for  nine  years  employed 
eighteen  thousand  workmen  upon  it,  and  spar<!d  no  expense 
to  render  it  equal,  if  not  superior,  in  magnitude,  splendour, 
and  beauty  to  any  thing  among  mankind,  Josephus  calls  it 
a  work  llu>  most  admiralde  of  any  that  had  (!V(>r  been  seen 
or  heard  of,  both  for  its  curious  structure  and  its  magnitude, 
and  also  for  the  vast  wealth  expended  upon  it,  as  well  as  for 
the  universal  reputation  of  its  sanctity."  But  though  Herod 
accomplished  his  original  design  in  the  time  above  specified, 

«  HMcti'ii  ClininoloBV.  vol.  ii.  p.  39n. 

'  Ttic  roailrr  will  find  a  lopuins  ilescrlplion  of  what  the  first  fcinplc  is 
siipposrd  lo  liBvo  lircn,  In  llninc's  Hiat.  of  the  Jew.",  vol.  II.  pp.  M4 — ISS. 

«  In  Iho  vcnr  of  llie  world  3033  ;  before  Chrim  SC/.  1  Kings  xiv.  25,  86 
2rhron.  xii.  9. 

»  i;/.m  I.— vl.     .Insf^plins,  Ant.  Jiid.  lib.  xi.  C.  4. 

•  I>c  BcU.  Jud.  lib.  M.  c.  4.  t  S. 


Sect.  II.] 


OF  THE  TEMPLE. 


0!) 


yet  the  Jews  continued  to  ornament  nnd  enlarge  it,  expend- 
ing the  sacred  treasure  in  annexing  additional  buildings  to  it; 
so  that  they  might  with  great  propriety  assert  that  their  tem- 
ple had  been  forty-and-six  years  in  building.' 

Before  we  proceed  to  describe  this  venerable  edifice,  it 
may  be  proper  to  remark,  that  by  the  temple  is  to  be  under- 
stood not  only  the  fabric  or  house  itself,  which  by  way  of 
eminence  is  called  Tiie  Temple,  viz.  the  holy  of  holies,  the 
sanctuary,  and  the  several  courts  both  of  the  priests  and  Is- 
raelites ;  but  also  all  the  numerous  chambers  and  rooms 
which  this  prodigious  edifice  comprehended,  and  each  of 
which  had  its  respective  degree  of  holiness,  increasing  in 
proportion  to  its  contiguity  to  the  holy  of  holies.  This  re- 
mark it  will  be  necessary  to  bear  in  mind,  lest  the  reader  of 
the  Scriptures  should  be  led  to  suppose  that  whatever  is 
there  said  to  be  transacted  in  the  temple  was  actually  done 
in  the  interior  of  that  sacred  edifice.  To  this  infinite  num- 
ber of  apartments  into  which  the  temple  was  disposed  our 
Lord  refers  (John  xiv.  2.) ;  and,  by  a  very  striking  and  mag- 
nificent simile  borrowed  from  them,  he  represents  those  nu- 
merous seats  and  mansions  of  heavenly  bliss  w^hich  his 
Fai/ier^s  house  contained,  and  which-  were  prepared  for  the 
everlasting  abode  of  the  righteous.  The  imagery  is  singu- 
larly beautiful  and  hap])}^  when  considered  as  an  allusion  to 
the  temple,  which  our  Lord  not  unfrequently  called  his 
Father''s  house. 

The  second  temple,  originally  built  by  Zerubbabel,  after 
the  captivity,  and  repaired  by  Herod,  dilTered  in  several  rc- 
s))ecls  from  that  erected  by  Solomon,  although  they  agreed 
in  others. 

The  temple  erected  by  Solomon  was  more  splendid  and 
magnificent  than  the  second  temple,  which  was  deficient  in 
five  remarkable  things  that  constituted  the  chief  glory  of  the 
first : — these  were  tire  ark  and  mercy-seat, — the  shechinah 
or  manifestation  of  the  divine  Presence  in  the  holy  of  holies, 
— the  sacred  fire  on  the  altar,  which  had  been  first  kindled 
from  heaven, — the  urim  and  thummim, — and  the  spirit  of 
prophecy.  But  the  second  temple  surpassed  the  first  in 
glory,  being  honoured  by  the  frequent  presence  of  our  divine 
Saviour,  agreeably  to  the  prediction  of  Haggai.  (ii.  9.)  Both, 
however,  were  erected  upon  the  same  site,  a  very  hard  rock 
encompassed  by  a  very  frightful  precipice ;  and  the  founda- 
tion was  laid  with  incredible  expense  and  labour.  The  su- 
perstructure was  not  inferior  to  this  great  work ;  the  height 
of  the  temple  wall,  especially  on  the  south  side,  was  stupen- 
dous ;  in  the  lowest  places  it  was  three  hundred  cubits  or  four 
hundred  and  fifty  feet,  and  in  some  places  even  greater.  This 
most  magnificent  pile  was  constructed  with  hard  white  stones 
of  prodigious  magnitude.^ 

The  temple  itself,  strictly  so  called  (which  comprised  the 
portico,  the  sanctuary,  and  the  holy  of  holies),  formed  only  a 
small  part  of  the  sacred  edifice  on  Mount  Moriah;  being 
surrounded  by  spacious  courts,  making  a  square  of  half  a 
mile  in  circumference.  It  was  entered  through  nine  magni- 
ficent gates ;  one  of  which,  called  the  Beautiful  Gale  in  Acts 
iii.  2.,  was  more  splendid  and  costly  than  all  the  rest :  it 
was  composed  of  Corinthian  brass,  the  most  precious  metal 
in  ancient  times. 

L  The  first  or  outer  court,  which  encompassed  the  holy 
house  and  the  other  courts,  was  named  the  Court  of  the 
Gentiles  ;  because  the  latter  were  allowed  to  enter  into  it, 
but  were  prohibited  from  advancing  further :  it  was  sur- 
rounded by  a  range  of  porticoes  or  cloisters,  above  which 
were  galleries  or  apartments  supported  by  pillars  of  white 
marble,  each  consisting  of  a  single  piece,  and  five-and-twenty 
cubits  in  height.  One  of  these  was  called  Solomon's 
Porch  or  Piazza,  because  it  stood  on  a  vast  terrace,  which 
he  had  originally  raised  from  a  valley  beneath,  four  hundred 


C: 


«  John  ii.  90.  There  is,  therefore,  no  real  contradiction  between  the 
sacrSd  writer  and  .Tosephus.  The  words  of  the  evangehst  are,  "Forty-and- 
six  yo?rs  was  this  temple  in  buildinfc."  Tliis,  as  Calmet  well  observes.  Is 
not  saying  that  llerod  liad  employed  forty-six  year.s  in  erecting  it.  Jose- 
ihus  acquaints  us  that  Herod  began  to  rebuild  the  temple,  j?et  so  as  not  to 
10  esteemed  a  new  cdifioe,  in  the  eighteenth  year  of  his  rei!;u  (Antiq.  lib. 
XV.  c.  14.),  computinar  from  his  being  declared  king  by  the  Romans,  or  i:i 
the  fifteenth  year  (Bell.  .lud.  lib.  i.  c.  16.),  rackoning  from  the  death  of  An- 
tigonus.  He  flnished  it  for  use  in  about  nine  years  (Ant.  xv.  14.);  but  it 
continued  increasing  in  splendour  and  magnificence  through  the  pious  do- 
nations of  the  people  (Bell.  Jud.  v.  14.)  to  the  time  of  Nero,  when  it  was 
completed,  and  18,000  workmen  were  dismissed  from  that  service,  durinir 
the  procuratorship  of  Albinus.  From  the  eighteenth  of  llerod,  who  reigned 
thirty-seven  years,  to  the  birth  of  Christ,  more  than  a  year  before  the 
death  of  that  prince,  was  above  sixteen  years,  added  to  which,  the  age  of 
Christ,  now  thirty,  gives  forty-six  complete  years.  Calmet's  Comment,  in 
loc. 

s  Antiq.  Jud.  lib.  xv.  §  3. 


cubits  high,  in  order  to  enlarge  the  area  en  the  top  of  the 
mountain,  and  make  it  equaf  to  the  plan  of  his  intended 
building ;  and  as  this  terrace  was  the  oniy  work  of  Solomon's 
that  reiirained  in  the  second  temple,  the  piazza  which  stood 
upon  it  retained  the  name  cf  that  prince.     Here  it  was  that 
orir  Lord  was  walking  at  the  feast  of  dedication  (John  x. 
23.),'  and  the  lairie  man,  when  healed  by  Peter  and  John, 
glorified  God  before  all  the  people.''  (Acts  iii.  11.)  This  su- 
perb portico  is  termed  the  Royal  Portico  by  Josephus,  who 
represents  it  as  the  noblest  work  beneath  the  sun,  being  ele- 
vated to  such  a  prodigious  height  that  no  one  could  look 
down  from  its  flat  roof  to  the  valley  below  without  being 
seized  with  dizziness,  the  sight  not  reaching  to  such  an  im- 
measurable depth.    The  souUi-east  corner  of  the  roof  of  this 
portico,  where  the  height  was  greatest,  is  supposed  to  have 
Deen  the  n-titir)  lov,  pinnacle,  or  extreme  angle,  whence  Satan 
tempted  our  Saviour  to  precipitate   himself.    (Matt.  iv.  5. 
Luke  iv.  9.)   This  also  was  the  spot  where  it  was  predicted 
that  the  abomination  of  desolation,  cr  the  Roman  ensigns, 
should  stand.  (Dan.  ix.  27.  Matt.  xxiv.  15.)  Solomon's  por- 
tico was  situated  in  the  eastern  front  of  the  temple,  oppcsite 
to  the  Mount  of  Olives,  where  our  Lord  is  said  to  have  sat 
when  his  disciples  caine  to  show  him  the  grandeur  of  its 
various  buildings,  of  which,  grand  as  they  were,  he  said,  the 
time  was  approaching  when  one  stone  should  not  be  left  upon 
another.   (Matt.  xxiv.  1 — 3.)    This  outermost  court  being 
assigned  to  the  Gentile  proselytes,  the  Jews,  who  did  not  wor- 
ship in  it  themselves,  conceived  that  it  might  be  lawfully 
put  to  profane  uses :  for  here  we  find  that  the  buyers  and 
sellers  of  animals  for  sacrifices,  and  also  the  money-changers, 
had  stationed  themselves;  until  Jesus  Christ,  awing  them 
into  submission  by  the  grandeur  and  dignity  of  his  person 
and  behaviour,  expelled  them,  telling  them  that  it  was  the 
house  of  prayer  Jbr  all  nations,  and  that  it  had  a  relative 
sanctity,  and  v,'as  not  to  be  profaned.     Ii  is  not  improbable, 
that  the  captains  of  the  temple,  who  were  officers  that  had 
the  care  and  charge  of  it,  let  out  this  court  for  profit  and  ad- 
vantage ;  and  that  the  sellers,  to  compensate  themselves  for 
what  they  paid  for  their  tables  and  seats,  made  an  unjust 
and  exorbitant  gain ;  and  that  this  circumstance  occasioned 
its  being  called  a  den  of  thieves.'  (Matt.  xxi.  13,  13.  Mark 
xi.  15 — 17.  Luke  xix.  45,  46.) 

2.  Within  the  court  of  the  Gentiles  stood  the  Court  of 
THE  Israelites  divided  into  two  parts  or  courts,  the  outer 
one  being  appropriated  to  the  Avomen,  and  the  inner  one  to 
the  men.  The  Court  of  the  Women  was  separated  from 
that  of  the  Gentiles  by  a  low  stone  wall  or  partition,  of  ele- 
gant construction,  on  which  stood  pillars  at  equal  distances, 
with  inscriptions  in  Greek  and  Latin,  importing  that  no  alien 
should  enter  into  the  holy  place  To  this  wall  Sst.  Paul  most 
evidently  alludes  in  Eph.  ii.  13,  14.  But  now  in  Christ 
Jesus,  ye,  who  sometimes  were  far  off,  are  made  7iigh  by  the 
blood  of  Christ :  for  he  is  our  peace,  who  hath  made  both  one 
(united  both  Jews  and  Gentiles  into  one  church),  and  hath 
broheii  down  the  middle  wall  of  partition  between  us;  hav- 
ing abolished  the  law  of  ordinances  by  which,  as  by  the 
v.-all  of  separation,  both  Jews  and  Gentiles  were  not  only 
kept  asunder,  but  also  at  variance.  In  this  court  was  the 
treasury,  over-against  which  Christ  sat,  and  beheld  how  the 
people  threw  their  voluntary  offerings  into  it  for  furnishing 
the  victims  and  other  things  necessary  for  the  sacrifices. 
(Mark  xii.  41.  John  viii.  20.) 

From  the  court  of  the  women,  which  was  on  higher 
ground  than  that  of  the  Gentiles,  there  was  an  as-ccnt  of  fit- 
teen  steps  into  the  Imier  or  Men^s  Court  .■  and  so  called  be- 
cause it  was  appropriated  to  the  worship  of  the  male  Lsrael- 
ites.  In  these  tv/o  courts,  collectively  termed  the  Court  of 
the  Israelites,  were  the  people  praying,  each  apart  by  himself 
for  the  pardon  of  his  sins,  while  Zechariah  was  offering  in- 
cense within  the  sanctuary.  (Luke  i.  10.) 

3.  Within  the  court  of  the  Israelites  was  that  of  the 
Priests,  wliich  was  separated  from  it  by  a  low  wall,  one 
cubit  in  height.  This  enclosure  surrounded  the  altar  of 
burnt-offerings,  and  to  it  the  people  brought  their  oblations 
and  sacrifices  :  but  the  priests  alone  were  permitted  to  enter 

court  twelve  steps  ascended  to  the  Te: 


it.     From  this 


.  EMPLE 


»  Antiq.  Jud.  hb.  xv.  c  11.  §  3. 

«  Of  the  same  kind  with  these  porticoes,  cloisters,  or  piazzas,  were  doubt- 
less the  five  porticoes  wliich  surrounded  the  pool  of  Bethesda.  (John  v.  2.) 
The  pool  was  probably  a  pentagon,  and  the  piazzas  round  it  were  designed 
to  shelter  from  the  weather  the  multitude  of  diseased  persons  who  lay  wait- 
ing for  a  cure  by  the  miraculous  virtue  of  those  waters.  Jennings's  Jewish 
Antiq.  p.  267.  . 

>  Up.  Pearce's  Commentary,  vol.  i.  on  Matt.  xxi.  13. 


100 


OF  SACRED  PLACES. 


[Paht  in.  Chap.  I 


strictly  so  called,  which  was  divided  into  three  parts,  the 
portico,  the  outer  sanctuarj',  and  tlie  holy  place. 

1.  In  the  Portico  were  suspended  the  splendid  votive 
offerings  made  by  the  piety  of  various  individuals.  Among 
its  other  treasures,  there  was  a  golden  table  given  by  Porn- 
pey,  togetiier  with  several  golden  vines  of  exquisite  work- 
manship as  well  as  of  immense  size :  for  Joseuhus  relates 
that  there  were  clusters  as  tall  as  a  man.  And  he  adds,  that 
all  around  were  fixed  up  and  displayed  the  spoils  and  trophies 
taken  uy  Herod  from  the  Barbarians  and  Arabians.  '1  hese 
votive  otTerings,  it  should  seem,  were  visible  at  a  distance  ; 
for  when  Jesus  Chri?t  was  sitting  on  the  Mount  of  Olives, 
and  his  disciples  called  his  attention  to  the  temple,  thev 
pointed  out  to  him  the  gifts  with  which  it  was  adornetl. 
(Luke  xxi.  5.")  This  porch  had  a  verj  lar^e  portal  or  gate, 
which,  insteauof  folding  doors,  was  furnislied  with  a  costly 
Babylonian  veil,  of  many  colours,  that  mystically  denoted 
the  universe. 

(•2.)  The  Sanctuauy  or  Holy  Place  was  separated  from 
the  holy  of  holies  by  a  double  veil,  which  is  sup^wsed  to 
have  been  the  veil  tliat  was  rent  in  twain  at  our  Saviour's 
cnicifixion  :  thus  emblematically  pointing  out  that  the  sepa- 
ration between  Jews  and  Gentiles  was  abolished,  and  that 
tiie  privilege  of  the  high-priest  was  communicated  to  all 
mankind,  who  might  henceforth  have  access  to  the  throne  of 
grace  through  the  one  great  mediator,  Jesus  Christ.  (Heb. 
X.  19 — '22.)  This  corresponded  with  the  Holy  Place  in  the 
'J'abernacle.  In  it  were  placed  the  Golden  Candlestick,  the 
Altar  of  Incense,  and  the  Table  of  Show-Bread,  which  con- 
sisted of  twelve  loaves,  according  to  the  number  of  the  tribes 
of  Israel.  Various  fanciful  delineations  have  been  given  of 
these  articles  :  in  the  subjoined  engraving  is  represented  the 
form  of  the  Golden  (Unl'LEStick  as  it  was  actually  carried 
\n  the  triumphal  procession  of  the  Roman  (Jcnenu  Titus ; 


and  tlio  r>llowiiig  engraving  exliil)its  the  TaklI';  of  Shew- 
Brkad,  with  a  cup  upon  it,  an<i  witli  two  of  tlie  sacred  tnun- 
pets,  which  were  used  to  proclaim  the  year  of  Jubilee,  as 
they  were  also  carri'd  in  the  same  triumph.  They  an;  co- 
pied from  the  phitrs  in  licdand's  Treatise  on  tlu;  Spoils  of 
l!ic  Tcnaple  of  Jerusalem,'  the  drawings  for  which  were 
made  at  Itome,  upwards  of  a  century  sii-ce,  when  liie  trium- 
phal arch  of  Tjlus  was  in  a  much  better  state  of  preservation 
than  it  now  Is. 

•  Ha(fr.  RfllanrliiB  do  Rpoli'iR  Tcmpli  In  Arcu  Tiiiano  Romo)  contpicuiei, 
Tiajoctl  ad  Rhenum,  1773.  8vu. 


(3.)  The  Holy  of  Holiics  was  twenty  cubits  square.  No 
person  was  ever  admitted  into  it  Init  tlie  high-priest,  who 
entered  it  rnce  a  year  on  the  great  day  of  atonement.  (Exod. 
XXX.  10    Lev.  xvi.  2.  15.  34.  Heh.  ix.  2—7  '' 


dific 


Magnificent  as  the  rest  of  the  sacred  edifice  was,  it  was 
infinitely  surpassed  in  splendour  by  the  Inner  Temple  or 
Sanctuary.  "  Its  appearance,"  according  to  Josephus, "  had 
every  thing  that  could  strike  the  mind  or  astonish  the  sight: 
for  it  was  covered  on  every  side  with  plates  of  gold,  so  that 
whenthesun  rose  upon  it,  itreflected  sostrongand  dazzlingan 
eifnlgence,  that  the  eye  of  the  spectator  was  obliged  to  turn 
away,  being  no  more  able  to  sustain  its  radiance  than  the 
splendour  of  the  sun.  To  strangers  who  were  approaching, 
it  appeared  at  a  distance  like  a  mountain  covered  with  snow, 
for  where  it  was  not  decorated  with  j)!atcs  of  gold,  it  was  ex- 
tremely white  and  glistering.  On  tlie  top  it  had  sharp- 
pointed  spikes  of  gold,  to  prevent  any  bird  from  resting  upon 
It  and  polluting  it.  'J'here  were,"  continues  the  Jewish  his- 
torian, "in  lh;'.t  building  several  stones  which  were  forty-five 
cubits  in  length,  five  in  height,  and  six  in  breadth. ^  vS'hen 
all  these  things  are  considered,  how  natural  is  the  exclama- 
tion of  the  disciples  when  viewing  this  immense  building  at 
a  distance  :  Master,  see  tv/iaf  mannkr  fj/"  stones  {TrcrtTru  Kid-u, 
what  very  large  stones),  and  what  kviltiI'sgs  are  here .'  (Mark 
xiii.  1.);  and  liovv  wonderful  is  the  declaration  of  our  Lord 
upon  this,  how  unlikely  to  be  accomplished  before  the  race 
of  men  who  were  then  living  should  cease  to  exist.  Seest 
thou  these  great  buildings  ?  There  shall  not  be  lift  one  stone 
upon  another,  that  shall  not  lie  thrcn'n  down.''^  (Mark  xiii.  2.)' 
linprobat)le  as  this  prediction  must  have  appeared  to  thedisri- 
ples  at  that  time,  in  the  short  space  of  about  forty  years  after, 
It  was  exactly  accomplished ;  and  this  most  magnificent 
temple,  which  the  Jews  had  literally  turned  into  a  den  of 
thieves,  through  the  righteous  judgments  of  God  upon  that 
wicked  and  abandoned  nation,  was  utterly  destroyed  by  the 
Romans  a.  m.  4073  (a.  d.  73),  on  the  same  month,  and  on 
the  same  day  of  the  month,  wh(>n  Solomon's  temple  had  been 
rased  to  the  ground  by  the  Babylonians  ! 

Both  the  first  and  second  temples  were  contemplated  by 
the  Jews  with  the  highest  reverence :  of  their  atrectionaio 
regard  for  the  first  temple,  and  for  Jerusalem,  within  whose 
walls  it  was  built,  we  have  several  instances  in  those  psalms 
which  were  composed  during  the  Babylonish  captivity;  and 
of  their  profound  venenition  fur  the  seccuid  temple  we  havo 
repeatf^d  examples  in  the  New  'JVstanient.  "They  could 
not  bear  any  disrespectful  or  dishonourable  thing  to  be  said 
of  it.  The  least  injurious  sli<rlit  of  it,  real  or  ajiprehended, 
instantly  awakened  all  the  chouir  of  a  Jew,  and  was  an  atTront 
never  to  be  forgiven.  Our  Saviour,  ill  the  course  of  his  public 
instructions,  happening  to  say,  Destroi/  this  temple,  and  in 
Ihrccdays  I  will  raise,  it  up/igain  (John  i.  19. \  it  was  construed 
into  a  contemptuous  disrespect,  designedly  thrown  out  against 
the  temple;  his  words  instantly  descended  into  the  heart  of 

»  GniKvin'8  Moses  anil  Aaron,  liook  ii.  cli.  1.  ;  .Ii-nnlnRs's  .lowlsh  Antiqui- 
ties, IxKik  ii.  cli.  1.  ;  Schiil/.ji  ArohicoloRiii  llcl)riiicn.  pp.  y(M— -W. ;  Be.iu- 
solire's  and  I.'Enfant'.s  Introiliirlion.  (Up.  Wnlsim's  Tlinol.  Tracts,  vol.  iii. 
pp.  145— li'iO.)  I'art'aii,  Antiquilas  Ilcbraica,  pp.  IDC  '2UJ. ;  lirutiings, 
Aniiq.  Uohr.  pp.  lO.V-Ua. 

»  JosophuK,  Antiq.  Jud.  lib.  XV.  c.  11.  §3.     Do  Bell,  Jud.  lib.  v.  c.  5.  St 

1-r,. 
«  Dr.  Uarwood's  Introd.  to  the  New  Test.  vol.  ii.  pp.  ISO.  ICl 


Sect.  II.] 


OF  THE  TEMPLE. 


101 


a  Jew,  and  kept  ranlding  there  for  several  years ;  for  upon 
his  trial,  this  declaration,  Avhich  it  was  impossible  for  a  Jew 
ever  to  forget  or  to  forgive,  was  immediately  alleged  against 
him  as  big  with  the  most  atrocious  guilt  and  impiety :  they 
told  the  court  they  had  heard  him  publicly  assert,  I  am  able 
to  destroy  this  temple.'  The  rancour  and  virulence  they  had 
conceived  against  him  for  this  speech,  which  they  imagined 
had  been  levelled  against  the  temple,  was  not  softened  by  all 
the  affecting  circumstances  of  that  excruciating  and  wretched 
death  they  saw  him  die:  even  as  he  hung  upon  the  cross, 
with  infinite  triumph,  scorn,  and  exultatioli,  they  upbraided 
him  with  it,  contemptuously  shaking  their  heads,  ana  saying. 
Thou  that  desiroijcst  the  temple^  and  mildest  it  in  three  days, 
save  thyself!  If  thou  be  the  Son  of  God,  come  down  from  the 
cross.  (Matt,  xxvii.  40.)  The  superstitious  veneration,  which 
this  people  had  for  their  temple,  further  appears  from  the  ac- 
count of  Stephen.  When  his  adversaries  were  baffled  and 
confounded  by  that  superior  wisdom  and  those  distinguished 
gifts  which  he  possessed,  they  were  so  exasperated  at  the 
victory  he  had  gained  over  them,  that  they  suborned  persons 
to  swear  that  they  had  heard  him  speak  blasphemy  against 
Moses  and  against  God.  These  inflaming  the  populace,  the 
magistrates,  and  the  Jewish  clergy,  the  holy  man  was  seized, 
dragged  away,  and  brought  before  the  Sannedrin.  Here  the 
false  witnesses,  whom  they  had  procured,  stood  up  and  said. 
This  person  before  you  is  continually  uttering  the  most  re- 
proachful expressions  against  this  sacred  place,^  meaning  the 
temple.  This  was  blasphemy  not  to  be  pardoned.  A  judi- 
cature composed  of  high-priests  and  scribes  would  never  for- 
give such  impiety. 

"  Thus,  also,  when  St.  Paul  went  into  the  temple  to  give 
public  notice,  as  was  usual,  to  the  priests,  of  his  having 
purified  and  bound  himself  with  a  religious  vow  along  with 
four  other  persons,  declaring  the  time  when  his  vow  was 
made,  and  the  oblations  he  would  offer  for  every  one  of  them 
at  his  own  expense,  when  the  time  of  their  vow  was  accom- 
plished, some  Jews  of  Asia  Minor,  when  the  seven  daj'^s  pre- 
scribed by  the  law  were  almost  completed,  happening  to  see 
him  in  the  temple,  struck  with  horror  at  the  sight  of  such 
apprehended  profanation,  immediately  excited  the  populace, 
who  all  at  once  rushed  upon  him  and  instantlv  seized  him, 
vehemently  exclaiming,  Men  of  Israel,  hdp  !  'Phis  is  the  man 
that  teacheth  all  men.  every  where  against  the  people  (the  Jews), 
and  the  law,  and  this  place ,-  ajid,  further,  brought  Greeks  info 
th^e  temple,  and  hath  polluted  this  holy  pla?e.  (Acts  xxi.  28.) 
They  said  this,  because  they  had  a  little  before  seen  Trophi- 
mus  an  Ephesian  alonw  with  him  in  the  city,  and  they  in- 
stantly concluded  he  had  brought  him  into  the  temple.  Upon 
this  the  whole  city  was  immediately  raised ;  all  tbe  people 
at  once  rushed  furiously  upon  him,  and  dragged  him  out  of 
the  temple,  whose  doors  were  instantly  shut.  Being  deter- 
mined to  murder  him,  news  was  carried  to  the  Roman  tribune 
that  the  whole  city  was  in  a  commotion.  The  uproar  now 
raised  among  the  Jews,  and  their  determined  resolution  to 
imbrue  their  riands  in  the  blood  of  a  person  who  had  spoken 
disrespectfully  of  the  temple,  and  who  they  apprehended  had 
wantonly  profaned  it  by  intToducing  Greeks  into  it,  verify 
and  illustrate  the  declaration  of  Pliilo ;  that  it  was  certain 
and  inevitable  death  for  any  one  who  was  not  a  Jew  to  set 
his  foot  within  the  inner  courts  of  the  temple."^ 

It  only  remains  to  add,  that  it  appears  from  several  pas- 
sages of  Scripture,  that "  the  Jews  had  a  body  of  soldiers  Avho 
guarded  the  temple,  to  prevent  any  disturbance  during  the 
ministration  of  such  an  immense  number  of  priests  and  Le- 
vites.  To  this  guard  Pilate  referred,  when  he  said  to  the 
chief  prieSis  and  Pharisees  who  waited  upon  him  to  desire 
he  would  make  the  sepulchre  secure.  Ye  have  a  ivatch,  go 
your  way,  and  make  it  as  secure  as  ye  can.  (Matt,  xxvii.  65.) 
Over  these  guards  one  person  had  the  supreme  command, 
who  in  several  places  is  called  the  captain'  of  thf  temple 
(2tp«th}.(!?  tcu  'ligoZ),  or  officer  of  the  temple  guard.  '  And 
as  they  spake  unto  the  people,  the  priests  and  the  captain  of 
the  temple  and  the  Sadducees  came  upon  them.'  (Acts  iv.  1. 
V.  25,  26.  John  xviii.  12.)  Josephus  mentions  such  an  offi- 
cer."' It  should  seem  that  this  officer  was  a  Jew,  from  the 
circumstance  of  his" assisting  the  high-priest  in  arresting 

• 

1  Matt.  XXV!.  61.  "This  fellow  said,  I  am  able  to  destroy  the  temple  of 
God  and  to  build  it  in  three  days." 

a  Acts  vi.  13. 

3  Harwood's  Introd.  vol.  ii.  pp.  165— 1G9. 

*  Tov  <rrpxry\ytiv,  Ai'xvoi',  Ananias,  the  commander  of  the  temple.  Antiq. 
Jud.  lib.  XX.  C.6.  §2.  BcU.  Jud.  lib.  ii.  c.  17.  §2.  AyopuvT;,- .■.;  tov  Z>.:u.Cxf>v 
o-T()XT.;yoi-Tx,  Imvinc  the  chief  regard  l.i  Eleazar,  the  governor  of  tlie 
temple.  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  ii.  c.  17.  §2.  edit.  Hudson.  Harwood's  Introd.  vol. 
Ii.  p.  169.  and  Dr.  Lardner's  Credibility,  book  i.  eh.  xi.  §  1,  ch.  ix.  §4. 


those  who  were  deemed  to  be  seditious,  without  the  inter- 
vention of  the  Roman  procurator. 

III.  Besides  the  temple  at  Jerusalem,  two  others  were 
erected,  viz:  one  in  Egypt,  and  another  on  Mount  Gerizim, 
of  which  the  following  notice  may  not  be  unacceptable  to  the 
reader : — 

1.  The  Heliopolitan  TEiMPLE,also  called  the  Temple  of 
Onias,  was  erected  in  imitation  of  that  at  Jerusalem  by 
Onias,  the  son  of  Onias  the  high  priest :  Avho  findino-  that 
no  hope  remained  of  his  being  restored  to  the  pontifical  dig- 
nity which  had  been  held  by  nis  ancestors,  fled  into  Egypt 
in  the  time  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes.  "  Having  acquired 
great  favour  with  the  then  reigning  sovereign,  Ptolemy  Phi- 
lometer,  and  his  queen  Cleopatra,  by  his  skill  in  political 
and  military  affairs,  Onias  represented  to  them,  that  it  would 
be  productive  of  great  advantage  to  their  kingdom,  if  the 
numerous  Jewish  inhabitants  of  E  gypt  and  Gyrene  could  have 
a  temple  of  their  own,  which  would  supersede  the  necessity 
of  their  repairing  to  Jerusalem  in  the  dominions  of  a  foreign 
monarch,  to  perform  their  religious  services :  and  that,  if 
such  a  temple  were  built,  many  more  Jews  would  be  induced 
to  settle  in  the  country,  as  Judeea  was  continually  exposed 
to  the  evils  of  war.  By  such  representations  he  at  length 
obtained  permission  to  erect  a  temple  for  the  Jews,  on  the 
site  of  an  ancient  temple  of  Bubastis  or  Isis,  in  the  city  of 
Leontopolis  in  the  Heliopolitan  nome  (or  district)  over  which 
he  w;!s  governor."*  To  the  Jews  he  justified  his  undertak- 
ing, on  tire  plea  that  the  building  of  such  a  temple  had  been 
predicted  by  the  prophet  Isaiah,  who  lived  about  six  hundred 
years  before.^  Accordingly,  the  temple  was  completed  on 
the  model  of  that  at  Jerusalem.  Onias  was  invested  with 
the  high-priesthood  ;  the  subordinate  priests  were  furnished 
from  the  descendants  of  Aaron  :  Levites  were  employed  in 
the  sacred  services ;  and  the  whole  of  their  religious  wor- 
ship was  performed  in  the  same  manner  as  at  Jerusalem. 
Though  the  Heliopolitan  temple  was  smaller  in  its  dimen- 
sions than  the  temple  at  Jerusalem,  it  was  made  conforma- 
ble to  the  latter  in  every  respect,  except  that  a  golden  lamp 
suspended  by  a  golden  chain  was  suostituted  for  a  candle- 
stick. It  was  also  adorned  wilh  votive  gifts.  This  temple 
continued  until  the  time  of  Vespasian,  who,  in  consequence 
of  a  tumult  which  had  been  raised  by  the  Jews  in  Egypt, 
commanded  Lupus  the  governor  to  demolish  it.  Accordingly, 
the  gates  were  effectually  closed,  so  that  no  vestiges  r''- 
mained  of  any  divine  worship  having  been  there  performed. 
This  occurrence  took  place  three  hundred  and  forty-three 
years  after  the  building  of  the  temple.'  In  2  Mace.  i.  1 — 9. 
there  is  an  epistle  from  the  Jews  at  Jerusalem  to  those  in 

Egypt. 

2.  The  Temple  on  Mount  Gerizim  was  erected  by  San- 
ballat,  under  the  authority  of  Alexander  the  Great,  for  tha 
use  of  the  Samaritans ;  who,  on  the  return  of  the  Jews  from 
the  Babylonish  captivity,  pretended  that  they  were  of  th« 
stock  of  the  true  and  ancient  Hebrews,  and  that  their  moun- 
tain was  the  most  proper  place  of  worship.  (Upon  this 
principle  the  Samaritan  women  argued  with  Jesus  t/hrist  in 
John  iv.  20.)  Sanballat  constituted  his  son-in-law  Manasseh 
the  first  high-priest.  This  temple  was  destroyed  about  two 
hundred  years  afterwards  by  Hyrcanus,  and  was  rebuilt  by 
the  Samaritans,  between  whom  and  the  Jews  there  subsisted 
the  bitterest  animosity. ^  Representations  of  this  temple  are 
to  be  seen  on  the  c-yins  of  the  city  of  Sichem  or  Neapolis.' 


SECTION  III. 

OF  THE  HIGH  PLACES,  AND  PROSEUCHjE,  OR  ORATORIES 
OF    THE    JEWS. 

I.   Of  the  hi^h  places. — II.  Of  the  proseuchx,  or  oratories. 

I.  Besides  the  tabernacle,  which  has  been  described  in  a 
former  section,  freauent  mention  is  made,  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, of  places  or  worship,  called  High  Places,  which 
were  in  use  both  before  and  after  the  building  of  the  temple. 


s  .lahB's  Hist,  ofllebr.  Commonwenlth,  vol.  i.  p.  348. 

6  There  is  a  considei-able  diversity  of  opinion  amona;  commentators  con- 
ceniins  the  interpretation  of  Isa.  xix.  18,  19.,  which  is  the  prediction  above 
alluded  to.  See  Bp.  Lowth's  Isaiah,  and  Dr.  Boothroyd's  translation  of  the 
Bible  nn  that  pas.sage. 

■1  Josephns,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xlii.  c.3.  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  vm.  c.  10.  SchuUii 
Archreol.  Hebr.  pp.  221,  222.    Pareau,  Antiq.  Ilebr.  p.  2OT. 

8  Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  x.  c.  S.  §■;  2—4.  lib.  xui.  c.  9.  §  1. 

»  Schulzii  Archaeol.  Hebr.  p.  221.    Pareau,  Ant.  Hebr.  p.  229. 


02 


OF  SACRED  PLACES. 


[Paut  m.  Chap.  I. 


In  the  early  ajjes  of  the  world,  the  devotion  of  mankiml 
seems  to  have  delighted  greatly  in  groves,  woods,  and  moun- 
tains, not  only  because  these  retired  places  were  naturally 
fitted  for  contemplation,  but  probably  also  because  they  kin- 
dled a  certain  sacred  dread  in  the  mind  of  t!ie  wnrslupnrr. 
It  is  certain  tliat  nothing  was  more  ancient  in  the  E;'.st,  than 
altars  surrounded  by  groves  and  trees,  whii  h  made  tbe  place 
very  shady  and  delightful  in  those  hot  countries.  The  idol- 
aters in  the  first  ages  of  the  world,  who  generally  worshipped 
the  sun,  appear  to  have  thought  it  improper  to  straiten  and 
confine  the  supposed  infinity  of  this  imaginary  deity  within 
walls,  and  therefore  they  gvaerally  madechoice  of  hills  and 
mountains,  as  the  most  convenient  places  for  their  idolatry ; 
and  when  in  later  times  they  had  brought  in  the  use  of  tem- 
ples, yet  for  a  long  litiie  they  kept  them  open-roofed.  Nay, 
the  patriarchs  themselves,  who  worshipped  the  true  God, 
generally  built  their  altars  near  to  some  adjacent  grove  of 
trees,  which,  if  nature  denied,  were  usually  planted  by  the 
religious  in  those  davs.  \^lien  Abraham  dwelt  at  13eershe- 
l)a,  in  the  pUiins  o(  .Mamre,  it  is  said.  He  planted  a  grm-c 
there,  and  called  upon  the  name  of  the  L  ird  the  everlasting  God 
(Gen.  xxi'.  33.),  and  doubtless  that  was  the  place  to  which 
the  patriarch  and  his  family  resorted  for  public  worship.' 

But  at  length  these  hills  and  groves  oi  the  heathen  idola- 
ters, as  they  were  more  retired  and  shady,  became  so  much 
the  fitter  for  the  exercise  of  their  unhf>ly  rites,  and  for  the 
commission  of  the  obscene  and  horrid  practices  that  were 
usually  perpetrated  there.  (.See  1  Kings  xv.  12.  2  Kings 
xxiii.  7.)  In  many  passages  of  Scripture  it  is  record<jd  of 
the  Israelites  (who  in  this  respect  imitated  tlie  heathens) 
that  they  secretly  did  the  things  which  were  not  right,  that 
they  set  up  images  and  groves  in  every  high  hill,  and  under 
ever}'  green  tree,  and  there  burnt  incense  in  all  the  high  places, 
and  wrought  wickedness  to  provolfc  the  Lord,  as  did  the  heathen, 
(2  Kings  xvii.  9 — 13.)  On  this  account,  therefore,  God  ex- 
pressly commanded  th3  Israelites  utterly  to  destroy  all  the 
places  wherein  the  nations  of  Canaan,  whose  land  they 
should  possess,  served  thuirgods  upon  the  high  mountains  and 
upon  the  hills :  and  to  pay  their  devotions  and  bring  their 
oolations  to  that  place  only  which  God  should  choose.  (Deut. 
xii.  2 — 15.)  Nay,  to  prevent  every  approach  to  the  idola- 
trous customs  of  the  heathens,  thtv  were  forbidden  to  jilant 
any  trees  near  the  altar  of  the  Lorcf.  (Deut.  xvi.  21.)  Hence 
it  13  clear,  that  after  God  should  fix  upon  a  place  for  his  pub- 
lic worship,  it  was  entirely  unlawful  to  ofl<  r  sacrifices  upon 
high  places,  or  any  where  else  but  in  the  place  God  did 
choose:  so  that  after  the  buil-ling  of  the  t<jiaple,  the  pro- 
hibition of  places  and  groves  (so  far  at  least  as  cono  rued  the 
sacrificing  in  them)  unquestionably  took  place.  And  it  was  for 
their  disobedience  to  this  command,  by  their  sacrificing  upon 
high  places  and  in  groves,  even  after  tUe  temple  was  erectecl  (2 
Kings  XV.  35.),  and  for  not  destroying  the  high  places  of  the 
heathens,  where  their  idol  gods  were  worsliipped,  which  by 
that  coinnnnd  and  in  many  other  places  of  .Scripture  (Num. 
xxxiii.  52.).  tliey  were  exjjressly  appointed  to  do; — that  the 
prophets  with  so  much  holy  zeal  reproached  the  Israelites. 
VVe  liave,  indeed,  sov.'ral  itistances  in  Scripture  besides  that  of 
Abraham,  where  the  prophets  and  other  good  men  are  said  to 
have  mad*;  use  of  these  high  places  for  sacrificing,  as  well 
as  other  less  solemn  acts  of  devotion,  and  whicn  are  not 
condemned.  Tiius,  Samuel,  upon  the  uncertain  abode  of  the 
ark,  fitted  up  a  plarc  of  df:Volinn  for  himself  and  his  family 
in  a  hiirh  place,  and  Ijuilt  an  altar  there,  and  sacrificed  upon 
it.  (I  Sam.  ix.  12.  19.  25.)  Gideon  also  built  an  altar  and 
offered  a  sacrifice  to  God  upon  the  top  of  a  rock  (Judg.  vi. 
25,  2().J;  and  the  tabernacle  itself  was  removed  to  the  liigh 

flace  that  was  at  (iibeon.  (1  Chron.  xvi.  31).  and  x\i.  2;*.) 
Jut  all  this  was  befm-e  ihi?  temple  was  erected,  whieh  was 
the  first  fixed  jdace  that  God  appointed  for  his  public  wor- 
ship ;  aflrr  whu-h  other  |)lace-i  for  sacrificing  hceaiiu-  unlawful. 
'rhat  the  Israelites,  both  kings  and  people,  offered  sacrifices 
upon  these  high  places  even  after  th«'  temple  was  built,  will 
tividcnlly  appe.ir  i)y  noticing  a  fitw  passages  in  their  iiistjjr}'; 
for  (not  to  mention  Jeroboam  and  his  successors  in  the  king- 
dom of  Israel,  whose  professe<l  purpose  was  to  innovate  every 
thing  in  mattprs  of  religion,  and  who  had 'peculiar  priests 
whom  they  tcrmwl  proj)hcts  of  the  groves,  1  Kings  xviii.  1!).) 
It  is  clear  that  most  ol  the  kings  of  Judah, — even  such  of 
them  who  wire  otherwise  zealous  for  the  observance  of  the 
law, — are  expressly  recorded  as  blameable  on  this  head,  and 
but  few  have  the  commendation  given  them  of  destroying 

t  M^ny  ancient  ii.ilions  usnl  to  ••recx  altari  and  offur  Mciificc-s  lo  llipir 
(ods  u|M>ii  liiiih  jilnors  und  iivunlaiiis.  cicc  D)«  exaiuplcg  adduced  iu  Uur- 
dci's  Uricuul  Literature,  vul.  1.  p.  'ilQ. 


these  high  places.  No  sooner  had  Rehoboam  the  son  of 
Solomon,  after  the  revolt  of  the  ten  tribes  from  him,  strength- 
ened himself  in  his  kingdom,  but  we  read  that  Judah  diaevii 
in  the  sight  of  the  J^ord,  and  built  tliein  high  places,  a/id  images, 
and  groves,  on  every  high  hill,  and  under  every  green  tree. 
(iKiuds  xiv.  22,  23.) 

Of  the  exemplary  sovereigns,  Asa  and  Jehoshaphat,  in- 
deed, it  is  recorded  that  they  took  away  the  high  places  and 
groves  (2  Chron.  xiv.  3.  xv.  IG.  xvii.  C.) ;  but  Jehoshaphat's 
son  and  successor,  Jehoram,  is  said  to  have  made  high  places 
in  the  tnountains  of  Judah.  (2  Chron.  xxi.  11.)  And  though 
Joash,  one  of  his  sons,  set  out  well,  yet  in  the  latter  part  of 
his  life  he  was  perverted  by  his  idolatrous  courtiers,  who 
served  groves  and  idols,  to  whom  it  appears  that  he  gave  a 
permission  for  that  purpose ;  for,  after  maKini;  their  obeisance, 
we  are  told,  tliat  he  hearkened  to  them,  and  then  they  left  the 
house  of  God.  (2 Chron.  xxiv.  17,  18.)  Nor  was  the  rei^n 
of  Amaziah  the  son  of  Joash  any  better,  for  still  the  people 
sacrificed  and  burnt  inceruc  on  the  high  places  (2  Kings  xiv.  1.); 
and  though  Uzziah  his  son  is  said  to  have  done  that  which 
was  right  in  the  sight  of  God,  yet  this  exception  appears 
against  him,  that  the  high  places  were  not  removed,  out  the 
piojjle  still  sacrificed  there  (2  Kings  xv.  3,  4.)  ;  the  same  obser- 
vation is  made  of  Jotham  and  Ahaz.  (2  Chron.  xxviii.  4.) 
But  Hczekiah,  who  succeeded  him,  was  a  prince  of  extra- 
ordinary ])iety :  he  removed  the  hiu:h  places,  and  brake  the 
images,  and  cut  dawn  the  groves  (2  Kings  xviii.  4.),  ivhich  his 
son  Manasseh  again  built  up.  (2  Kings  xxi.  2.)  At  length 
good  king  Josiah,  a  prince  very  zealous  for  the  true  religion, 
utterly  cleared  the  land  from  the  high  places  and  croves,  and 
purged  it  from  idolatry :  but  as  the  lour  succeeding  reigns 
nefore  the  Babylonian  captivity  were  very  wicked,  we  may 
presume  that  the  high  places  were  again  revived,  though 
there  is  no  mention  of  them  after  the  reign  of  Josiah.* 

II.  Prom  the  preceding  facts  and  remarks,  however,  wo 
are  not  to  conclude,  that  the  prohibition  relatitig  to  high  ^ 
places  and  groves,  which  extended  chiefly  to  the  more  solemn 
acts  of  sacrificing  there,  did  on  any  account  extend  to  the 
prohibiting  of  other  acts  of  devotion,  particularly  prayer,  in 
any  other  place  besides  the  temple,  the  high  places  and  groves 
of  the  heathen  (which  were  ordered  to  be  razed)  only  ex- 
cepted. For  we  learn  from  the  Sacred  Writings,  that  prayers 
are  always  acceptable  toCJod  in  every  place,  when  ])erformed 
with  that  true  and  sincere  devotion  of  heart,  which  alone 
gives  life  and  vigfl\ir  to  our  religious  addresses.  And  there- 
fore it  wa5  that  in  manv  places  of  Judaea,  both  before  and  nt'ter 
the  Babylonian  c.iptivily,  we  find  mention  made  in  the  Jew- 
ish and  other  histories  of  places  built  purposely  for  prayer,  and 
resorted  to  only  for  that  end,  called  Phoseixik*  or  Okatokies. 

These  places  of  worship  were  very  common  in  Jnda;a  (and 
it  should  seem  in  retired  mountainous  or  elevated  places)  in 
the  time  of  Christ;  they  were  also  numerous  at  Alexandria, 
which  was  at  that  time  a  large  and  flourishing  commercial 
citv,  inhabited  by  vast  numbers  of  Jews:  and  it  appears  that 
in  heathen  countries  they  wore  erected  in  seqvu  stored  retreats, 
commonly  on  the  banks  of  rivers,  or  on  the  sea  shore.  The 
proseucha  or  oratory  at  Philippi,  where  the  Ixird  opened  the 
heart  vf  Lydia,  that  she  atlemied  unto  the  things  which  were 
spoken  by  Paul,  was  by  a  river  side.  (Acts  xvi.  13,  14,  15.)* 

It  is  a  question  with  some  learned  men,  whether  these 
proseuchjc  were  the  same  as  the  synagogues  (of  which  an 
account  will  be  found  in  the  following  section),  or  dititinct 
edifices  from  the  latter.  Both  Josephus  and  Philo,  to  whom 
we  may  add  Juvenal,  appear  to  have  considered  them  as 
synonymous;  and  with  them  agree  (Jroius,  Ernesti,  Drs. 
Whitby,  Doddridge,  and  Lardner;'  but  Calmelf  Drs.  Pri- 
dcaux  and  Hammond, and  others,  have  distinguished  between 
these  two  sorts  of  buildings,  aiul  have  shown  that  though 
thev  were  nearly  the  same,  and  were  sometimes  confounded 
iiy  Vliilo  and  Josephus,  yet  that  there  was  a  real  difference 
l)ttween  them  ;  the  synagogues  being  in  cities,  while  the 
proscuchffi  were  without  the  walls,  in  sequestered  spots,  and 

*  Hninc'i  MiHt.  of  tho  J«w»,  vol.  li.  pp.  161— lt>6.    Croxall'a Scripture  Po- 

lilickM,  pp.  «)— 09. 

a  Jd.ciiliiis  has  proaorvcd  the  decree  of  the  city  of  IlBtlcarnnMii.i,  per- 
iiiiltins  llioJewn  Ui  erect  onilorioa,  pari  of  wliich  ta  inlhp  followiii|{  teniia : 
— "Wo  orrlaln.  Ilmt  tlio  .lews  wlmurr  willing,  liotli  mm  and  xvdtncn,  doolj. 
Korve  tlir-  SaMiatlis'  ami  pn  InrMi  Mairi-il  nU's  ncrunljiip  lo  llie  .Irwisli  law, 
■mil  liuiUTvrci:'  iirli/r  I"/  l/r  ..i  ii  mlr,  uccurdin/;  to  tin  ciislum  pf  Ihrir  cuiin- 
try  ;  and  If  any  inun.  wliftlier  mu;;islrate  or  private  pprson,  give  lliftn  any 
hlndcr.-vnco  or  dislurbancc,  he  slioll  pay  a  fine  to  Uie  citr."  Ant.  Jud.  lib. 
xiv.  c.  10.  i  'Z3. 

«  I'hiliidc  I.opniione  fld  Cftiiun,  p.  lOlI.  Jfmrphngdp  Vila  sua.  <&1.  Ju- 
venal, S:il.  iii.  11.  (JriiiiuM,  Whjiliy,  ami  Doililriiijif  on  laikiMi.  12.  Ernewi 
IiiBtiliilio  Inlirprctis  N<ivj  TcHlaiii'-nli,  pp.  JWH,  -M.  edit.  llo.  179'J.  I.ard- 
iipr'H  ('ri'(lil)iljiy,  biHik  i.  r.  3.  §  J.  Ur.  Harwood'a  lntrod\ieilon  lo  the  New 
Teataiucnt,  vol.  ii.  pp.  171— 18U. 


Sect.  FV.] 


OF  THE  SYNAGOGUES. 


103 


f  particularly  in  heathen  countries)  were  usually  erected  on 
tne  banks  of  rivers,  or  on  the  sea-shore  (Acts  xvi.  13.), 
without  any  coverinor  but  galleries  or  the  shade  of  trees. 
Dr.  Prideaux  thinks  the  proseuchm  were  of  greater  antiquity 
than  the  synagogues,  and  were  formed  by  the  Jews  in  open 
courts,  in  order  that  those  persons  who  dwelt  at  a  distance 
from  Jerusalem  might  offer  up  their  private  prayer^s  in  them, 
as  they  were  accustomed  to  do  in  the  courts  of  the  temple  or 
of  the  tabernacle.  In  the  synagogues,  he  further  observes, 
the  prayers  were  offered  up  m  public  forms,  while  the  pro- 
seuchae  were  appropriated  to  private  devotions :  and  from  the 
oratory,  where  our  Saviour  spent  a  whole  night  in  prayer, 
being  erected  on  a  mountain  (Luke  vi.  12.),  it' is  hin^hly  pro- 
bable that  these  proseucha  were  the  same  as  the  high  places, 
60  often  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament. » 


SECTION  IV. 


ON  THE  SYNAGOGUES. 


X 


•ti;  i''i 
Eir;i.-i:i 


± 


lite  II 


..    »i::)i 

.i.h;.;rf;irji 
ij.r.ii.ibi.ii 

!.Ki.i:itiW.;l 

■llMHl-'ltUU 

iiuCkli>ti;.i.a 


!niitiiMi,| 

■..rnm>..^.,t 


1ii*t»ti1i..l 

lrtiM::l.ii;i 
.lli.ti.llilir 

,T.i:.n--m 

l„t:ii...>..i 
liMilix.iil 

it.ii.ijii;)t 

i;Miin-'< 

ttliiif  ;.<  in 

iMileiM 

i;iinn;i 

.III. lima 
ii.ih;>kii 
(kiiiimijij 
lehl:~.;>,.n 


Chw 


^;!±, 


Form  of  a  Synagogue  Roll  of  the  Pentateuch. 

I.  J^atitre  and  origin  of  synagogues. — TJie  synagogue  of  the 
libertinca  explained. — II.  Form  of  the  syjiagogues, — III.  The 
oj^cers  or  ininisters. — IV.  The  service  performed  in  the  syna- 
gogues.— V.  Ecclesiastical  power  of  the  synagogues. — VI. 
The  Shemoneh  Esreh',  or  JVineteen  Prayers  used  in  the  syna- 
gogue service. 

I.  The  Synagogues  were  buildings  in  which  the  Jews 
y.-sembled  for  praj'er,  reading  and  hearing  the  Sacred  Scrip- 
tures, and  other  instructions.  ThouHni  frequently  mentioned 
in  the  historical  books  of  the  New  Testament,  "their  origin 
is  not  very  well  known  ;  and  many  learned  men  are  of 
opinion  that  they  are  of  recent  institution. 

Although  sacrifices  could  only  be  offered  at  the  holy  taber- 
nacle or  temple,  yet  it  does  not  appear  that  the  Jews  were 
restricted  to  any  particular  place  for  the  performance  of  other 
exercises  of  devotion.  Hence  formerly,  the  praises  of  .Jeho- 
vah were  sung  in  the  schools  of  the  prophets,  which  the 
more  devout  Israelites  seem  to  have  frequented  on  vSabbath- 
days  and  new  moons  for  the  purpose  of  instruction  and 
prayer.  (1  Sam.  x.  5 — 11.  xix.  18—24.  2  Kings  iv.  23.) 
During  the  Babylonish  captivity,  the  Jews,  being  deprived 
of  the  solemn  ordinances  of  divine  worship,  resorted  to  the 
house  of  some  prophet,  or  other  holy  man,  who  was  in  the 
practice  of  giving  religious  instruction  to  his  own  family, 
and  of  reading  the  Scriptures.  (Compare  Ezek.  xiv.  1.  and 
XX.  1.  with  Neh.  viii.  18.)  At  length  these  domestic  con- 
gregations became  fixed  in  certain  places,  and  a  regular  order 
of  conducting  divine  worship  was  introduced.  Philo^  thinks 
these  edifices  were  originally  instituted  by  Moses  :  but  as  no 
mention  is  made  of  them  during  the  time  of  Antiochus  Epi- 
phanes,  their  origin  in  Jerusalem  is  referred  to  the  reigns  of 
the  AsmoniEan  princes,  under  whom  they  were  first  erected, 
and  were  soon  greatly  multiplied  ;  though  in  Alexandria  and 
other  foreign  places,  where  the  Jews  were  dispersed,  they 
were  certainly  of  much  greater  antiquity."  There  appears  to 
be  an  allusion  to  them  in  Psal.  Ixxiv.  4. 8. 

In  the  time  of  the  Maccabees,  synagogues  became  so  fre- 

«  Dr.  Haininond  on  Lukev  i.  12.  and  Acts  xvi.  13 — 16.  CaUnet's  Diet,  voce 
Pfoseucha.  Prideanx's  Connection,  part  i.  book  vi.  sub  anno  414.  vol  i 
pp.  387—390.  edit.  1720. 

»  PhUo,  De  Vita  Mosis,  lib.  iii.  p.  685. 

»  JoBephus,  De  Bell.  Jiid.  hb.  vii.  c.  3.  §3. 


quetit,  that  they  were  to  be  found  in  almost  every  place  in 
Judaea :  but  the  Jews  were  not  permitted  to  build  one  in  a 
town,  unless  there  were  ten  persons  of  leisure  in  it.  Not 
fewer  than  four  hundred  and  eighty  synagogues  are  said  to 
have  been  erected  in  Jerusalem,  previously  to  its  capture  and 
destruction  by  the  Romans.  In  the  evangelical  history  we 
find,  that  wherever  the  Jews  resided,  they  had  one  or  more 
synagogues,  constructed  after  those  at  Jerusalem  :  hence  we 
find,  in  Acts  vi.  9.  synagogues  belonging  to  the  Alexan- 
drians, the  Asiatics,  the  Cilicians,  the  Libertines,  and  the 
Cyrenians,  which  were  erected  for  such  Jewish  inhabitants  of 
those  countries  or  cities,  as  should  happen  to  be  at  Jerusalem. 

With  re^rd  to  the  synagogue  of  the  Libertines,  a  consi- 
derable difference  of  opinion  exists  among  the  learned, 
whether  these  Libertines  were  the  children  of  freed  men 
(Italian  Jews  or  proselytes),  or  African  Jews  from  the  city 
or  country  called  Libertus,  or  Liberiina,  near  Carthage.  The 
former  opinion  is  supported  by  Grotius  and  Vitringa;  the 
latter  (which  was  first  hinted  by  Oecunienius,  a  commenta- 
tor in  the  close  of  the  tenth  century),  by  Professor  Gerdes, 
Wetstein,  Bishop  Pearce,  and  Schleusner. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  ancient  Romans  made  a  distinc- 
tion between  the  Liberti  and  llie  Libcrtini.  The  Libertits 
was  one  who  had  been  a  slave,  and  obtained  his  freedom  ;■• 
the  Libertimis  was  the  son  of  a  Libertus.-''  But  this  distinc- 
tion in  after-ages  was  not  strictly  observed ;  and  Libertinns 
also  came  to  be  used  for  one  not  bom  but  made  free,  in  oppo- 
sition to  Ingenuus  or  one  born  free, ^  Whether  the  Libertini^ 
mentioned  in  this  passage  of  the  Acts,  were  Gentiles,  who 
had  become  proselytes  to  Judaism,  or  native  Jews,  who  hav- 
ing been  made  slaves  to  the  Romans  were  afterwards  set  at 
liberty,'  and  in  remembrance  of  their  captivity  called  them- 
selves Libertini,  and  formed  a  synagogue  by  themselves, 
is  differently  conjectured  by  the  learned.  It  is  proba- 
ble, that  the  Jews  of  Cyrene,  Alexandria,  &c.  erected  syna- 
TOgues  at  Jer'isalem  at  their  own  charge,  for  the  use  of  tlieir 
brethren  who  came  from  those  countries,  as;  the  Danes, 
Swedes,  &c.  built  churches  for  the  use  of  their  own  country- 
men in  London;  and  that  the  Italian  Jews  did  the  same ;  and  be- 
cause the  greatest  number  of  them  were  Libertini,  their  syna- 
gogue was  therefore  called  the  synagogue  of  the  Libertines. 

In  support  of  the  second  opinion  above  noticed,  viz.  that 
the  Libertines  derived  their  name  from  Libertus  or  Libertina, 
a  city  in  Africa,  it  is  urged  that  Suidas  in  his  Lexicon,  on 
the  word  AtSepTiv.^,  says,  that  it  was  cvj^a  i^ycv;,  a  national  ap- 
pellative ;  and  that  the  Glussa  interlinear! s,  of  which  Nicholas 
de  Lyra  made  great  use  in  his  notes,  has,  over  the  word  Li- 
bertini, e  regions,  denoting  that  they  were  so  styled  from  a 
country.  Further,  in  the  acts  of  the  celebrated  conference 
with  the  Donatistsat  Carthage,  civic  411,  there  is  mentioned 
one  Victor,  bishop  of  the  church  of  Libertina,-  and  in  the 
acts  of  the  Lateran  council,  which  was  held  in  649,  there  is 
mention  of  Januarius  gratia  Dei  episcopus  sanctse  ecclesim  Li- 
bertinensis,  Januarius,  by  the  grace  of  God,  bishop  of  the  holy 
church  of  Libertina ;  and  therefore  Fabricius  in  his  Geographi- 
cal Index  of  Christian  Bishoprics,  has  placed  Libertina  in  what 
was  called  Jfrica  propria,  or  the  proconsular  province  of 
Africa.  Now,  as  all  the  other  people  of  the  several  synagogues, 
mentioned  in  this  passage  of  the  Acts,  are  called  from  the 
places  whence  they  came,  it  is  probable  that  the  Libertines 
were  denominated  in  like  manner  ;  and  as  the  Cyrenians  and 
Alexandrians,  who  came  from  Africa,  are  placed  next  to  the 
Libertines  in  that  catalogue,  the.supporters  of  this  opinion 
think  it  probable,  that  they  also  belonged  to  the  same  coun- 
try. But  we  have  no  evidence  to  show  that  there  were  any 
natives  of  this  place  at  Jerusalem,  at  the  period  referred  to 
in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.     On  the  contrary,  as  it  is  well 

*  Cives  Romani  sunt  Liberti,  qui  vindictA,  censu,  aut  testamento  nullo 
jure  impediente  manumissi  sunt.     Ulpian.  tit.  i.  §  6. 

'  This  appears  fioni  the  following  passage  ofSuetonius  concerning  Clau- 
dius, who,  he  says,  was,  ignarus  temporibus  Appii,  et  deinceps  aliquamdiu 
Libertinos  dictos,  non  ipsos,  qui  manumitterontur,  sed  ingenuos  ex  his 
procreates.    In  vita  Claudii,  cap.  24.  §  i.  p.  73.  Pitisci. 

«  Qviintilian.  de  Institutione  Oratoria,  lib.  5.  cap.  10.  p.  246.  edit.  Gibson, 
1693.  Qui  seivus  est,  si  manumittatur,  fit  Libertinus — Justinian.  Institiit. 
lib.  i.  tit.  V.  Libertini  sunt,  qui  ex  jusia  scrvitute  inanuinissi  sunt.  Tit.  iv. 
Ingenuus  est  is,  qui  statiin  ut  natus  est,  liber  est;  sive  ex  duobus  ingenuia 
matrinionio  aditus  est,  sive  ex  liberlinis  duobus,  sive  ex  altero  libertino,  et 
altero  ingenuo. 

•<  Of  these  there  were  great  numbers  at  Rome.  Tacitus  informs  us 
(Anal.  lib.  ii.  cap.  85.)  that  four  thousand  Libertini,  of  the  Jewish  supersti- 
tion, as  he  styles  it,  were  banished  at  one  time,  by  order  of  Tiberius,  into 
Sardinia  ;  and  the  rest  commanded  to  quit  Itajy,  if  ihey  did  not  adjure,  by  a  " 
certain  day.  See  also  Suetonius  in  vita  Tiberii,  cap.  30.  Josephus  ( Antiq. 
lib.  xviii.  cap.  3.  §  5.  edit.  Haverc.)  mentions  the  same  fact.  And  Philo  (Le- 
gal, ad  Caium.  p.  785.  C.  edit.  Colon.  1613.)  speaks  of  a  good  part  of  the  city, 
beyond  the  Tiber,  as  inhabited  by  Jews,  who  were  mostly  Libertini,  having 
been  brought  to  Rome  as  captives  and  slaves,  but,  being  made  frtfi  by  their 
masters,  were  permitted  to  live  according  to  their  own  rites  and  custonw. 


104 


OF  SACRED  PLACES. 


[Paiit  III.  Chap.  I. 


known  that,  only  ahout  fifteen  years  before,  great  numbers  of 
Jews,  emancipated  slaves,  or  their  sons,  were  banished  from 
Rome,  it  is  most  likely  that  the  Libertines  mentioned  by 
Luke  were  of  the  latter  description,  especially  as  his  account 
IS  corroborated  by  two  Roman  historians. 

IL  It  does  not  appear  from  the  New  Testament  that  the 
synacoafueshadanypeculiarFoRM.  The  buildingof  them  was 
regar'Sed  as  a  mark  of  piety  (Luke  vii.  5.)  ;  and  they  were 
erected  within  or  without  the  city,  orenerally  in  an  elevated 
place,  and  were  distinguished  from  the  proseuchae  by  being 
roofed.  Each  of  them  had  an  altar,  or  rather  table,  on  which 
the  book  of  the  law  was  spread ;  and  on  the  east  side  there 
was  an  ark  or  chest,  in  which  the  volume  of  the  law  was 
deposited.  The  seats  were  so  disposed  that  thepeoole  always 
Bat  with  their  faces  towards  the  elders,  and  the  place  where 
the  law  was  kept ;  and  the  elders  sat  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion, that  is  to  say,  with  their  backs  to  the  ark  and  their 
faces  to  the  people.  The  seats  of  the  latter,  as  being  placed 
nearer  the  ark,  were  accounted  the  more  holy,  and  hence 
they  are  in  the  New  Testament  termed  the  chief  scats  in  Ihc 
syna!xns;ue ,-  which  the  Pharisees  affected  ;  and  for  which 
our  Lord  inveighed  against  them.  (Matt,  xxiii.  6.)  A  simi- 
lar precedency  seems  to  have  crept  into  the  places  of  wor- 
ship even  of  the  very  first  (~Ihristians,  and  hence  we  may 
account  for  the  indignation  of  the  apostle  James  (ii.  3.) 
against  the  undue  preference  that  was  given  to  the  rich.  Tiie 
■women  were  separated  from  the  men,  and  sat  in  a  gallery 
enclosed  with  lattices,  so  that  they  could  distinctly  see  and 
hear  all  that  passed  in  the  synagogue,  without  themselves 
being  exposea  to  view. 

III.  For  the  maintenance  of  good  order,  there  were  in 
every  synagogue  certain  Okficeiis,  whose  business  it  was  to 
see  that  all  the  duties  of  religion  wexe  decently  performed 
therein.    These  were, — 

1.  The  AfVfTy'/i^a^o^,  or  Ruhr  of  the  synagogue.  (Luke 
xiii.  14.  Mark  v.  H-Z.)  It  appears  from  Acts  xiii.  15.,  col- 
lated with  Mark  v.  22.  and  John  vi.  59.,  that  there  were  se- 
veral of  these  rulers  in  a  synagogue.  They  regulated  all  its 
concerns,  and  gave  permission  to  persons  to  preach.  They 
were  always  men  aavanced  in  age,  and  respectable  for  their 
learning  and  probity.  The  Jews  t.^rmed  them  Flucanum,  that 
is,  sages  or  ivise  men,  and  they  possessed  considerable  influ- 
ence "and  authority.  They  were  judges  of  thefts,  and  simi- 
lar petty  offences :  and  to  them  Saint  Paul  is  supposed  to 
allude  in  1  Cor.  vi.  5.,  where  he  reproaches  the  Corinthian 
Christians  with  carrying  their  differences  before  the  tribunals 
of  the  Gentiles,  as  if  tliey  had  no  persons  amcng  them  who 
were  capable  of  determining  them.  /*"  it  so,  says  he,  that 
there  is  not  a  wise  man  among  you  ?  no,  not  one  that  shall  be 
able  to jud'^e  between  his  brethren?  These  rulers,  likewise, 
had  the  power  of  inflicting  punishment  on  those  whom  they 
judged  to  be  rebellious  agiinst  the  law ;  in  allusion  to  which 
fircumstance  Christ  forewarned  his  disciples  that  they  should 
be  scourgfd  in  the  synr/g igues.  (Matt.  x.  17.) 

2.  Next  to  the  Ap;^trjvi-iikiyi(,  or  ruler  of  the  synap;ogue, 
was  an  ofllcer,  whose  province  it  was  to  offer  up  public  i)ray- 
rrs  to  Cod  for  the  whr)!e  congregation  :  he  was  called  She- 
liach  Zibbor,  or  the  angel  of  the  church,  because,  as  their 
messenger,  he  spoke  to  God  for  them.  ITence  also,  in  Rev. 
ii.  iii.  the  presiding  ministers  of  the  Asiatic  churches  are 
termed  angels. 

3.  The  f'hazan  appears  to  have  been  a  diflTerent  officer 
from  tlie  SheVnrh  Ziljljor,-i\m]  infrrior  to  him  in  dignity.  He 
seems  to  have  been  the  person,  who  in  Luke  iv.  20.  is  term- 
ed fcTxpnTtc,  the  minister,  and  who  had  the  charge  of  the 
sacred  books. 

IV.  The  service  performed  in  the  synagogue,  on  the  Sab- 
bath and  on  other  holy  days,  consisted  of  three  parts,  viz. 
prayer,  reading  the  Scriptures,  and  preaching,  or  exposition 
of  the  Scriptures. 

1.  The  first  part  of  thf  synagonnie  service  is  Prrn/cr ,-  for 
the  performance  of  which,  according  to  Dr.  Pri«lt'aux,  tiny 
had  liturgies,  in  wiiich  are  all  the  prescribed  forms  of  the 
synaiTogue  worship.  The  most  solomn  part  of  these  prayers 
are  the  mcjjrmcr  (sh^mo.vii  esiich),  or  tlic  eightet-n  prayers, 
whicli,  according  to  thr;  rahliics,  were  composed  and  insti- 
tuted by  Krra,  in  order  that  the  Jews,  whose  language  after 
the  captivity  was  eorni])te4  with  many  barbarous  tonus  bor- 
rowed from  otiier  lan<rnaix«  s,  miglil  be  able  to  perform  llieir 
•  devotions  in  the  pure  lantjuage  of  their  own  country.  Such 
is  the  account  which  Maimonides  gives,  out  of  the  Gemara, 
of  the  origin  of  the  Jewish  liturcies;  and  the  eigliteen  col- 
lects, in  particular,  arc  mentioned  in  the  Mishna.     However, 


some  belter  evidence  than  that  of  the  talmudical  rabbies  is 
requisite,  in  order  to  prove  their  liturgies  to  be  of  so  high  an 
antiquity  ;  especially  since  some  of  their  prayers,  as  Dr.  Pri- 
deaux  acknowledges,  seem  to  have  been  composed  after  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem,  and  to  have  reference  to  it.  It  is 
evident  they  were  composed  when  there  was  neither  teniple 
nor  sacrifice ;  since  the  seventeenth  collect  prays,  that  God 
would  restore  his  worship  to  the  inner  part  of  his  house,  and 
make  haste,  with  fervour  and  love,  to  accept  the  burnt  sacri- 
fices of  Israel,'  &c.  They  could  not,  therefore,  be  the  com- 
position of  Ezra,  who  did  not  receive  his  commission  from 
Artaxerxes  to  go  to  Judaea,  till  more  than  fifty  years  after  the 
second  temple  Avas  built,  and  its  worship  restored.  The 
probability  is,  that  the  forms  of  prayer  for  the  synagogue 
worship  were  at  first  very  few,  and  that  some  were  in  use  in 
the  time  of  Jesus  Christ,  the  number  of  which  was  subse- 
quently increased.  To  the  eighteen  prayers  above  mentioned, 
another  was  added,  a  short  time  before  the  destruction  of 
the  second  temple,  by  Rabbi  Gamaliel,  or,  according  to  some 
writers,  by  Ranbi  Samuel,  one  of  his  scliolars.  It  is  di- 
rected against  apostates  and  heretics,  appellations  which  the 
Jews  liberally  employed  to  designate  all  Christians,  whether 
of  Jewish  or  of  Gentile  descent.  This  additional  prayer  is 
now  inserted  as  the  twelfth,  and  tlic  number  is  nineteen. 
Tiiey  are  required  to  be  said  by  all  Jews  without  exception, 
who  are  of  age,  three  times  every  day,  either  in  public,  at 
the  synagogue,  or  at  their  own  houses,  or  wherever  they 
may  happen  to  be.  As  some  readers  may  be  curious  to  see 
them,  they  are  subjoined,  at  the  end  of  this  section.^ 

2.  The  second  part  of  this  synagogue  service  is  the  read 
ing  of  the  Scriptures,  whifeh  is  of  three  sorts, — the  Kiriofh- 
Shema,  the  reading  of  the  whole  law  of  Moses,  and  portions 
out  of  the  prophets,  and  the  Hagiographa  or  holy  writings. 
(1.)  The  Kirioth-Shcma  consists  of  three  portions  of  Scrip- 
ture, viz.  Deut.  vi.  6 — 9.  xi.  13 — 21.  Num.  xv.  37 — 41. 
As  the  first  of  these  portions  commences  with  the  word 
shcma,  that  is,  hear,  they  are  collectively  termed  the  Shema, 
and  the  reading  of  them  is  called  hirioth-shemu,  or  the  read- 
ing of  the  Shema.  This  reading  or  recital  is  preceded  and 
followed  by  several  prayers  and  benedictions ;  and,  next  to 
the  saying  of  the  nineteen  prayers  above  noticed,  is  the  most 
solemn  part  of  the  religious  service  of  the  Jews;  who,  be- 
lieving the  commands  in  Deut.  vi.  7.  and  xi.  19.  to  be  of 
perpetual  obligation,  repeat  the  Shema  daily,  every  morning 
and  evening. 

(2.)  The  Laiu  was  divided  into  fifty-three,  according  to 
the  Masorets,  or,  according  to  others,  fifty-four  Parascnioth 
or  sections :  for  tlie  Jewish  year  consisted  of  twelve  lunar 
months,  alternately  of  twenty-nine  or  thirty  days,  that  is,  of 
fifty  weeks  and  four  dajs.  The  Jews,  therefore,  in  their 
division  of  the  X'&w'xnXoPai-aschioth  or  sections,  had  a  respect 
to  their  intercalary  year,  which  was  every  second  or  third, 
and  consisted  of  tiiirteen  months;  so  that  tiie  whole  law  was 
read  over  this  year,  allotting  one  Paraschioih  or  section  to 
every  Sabbath  ;  and  in  common  years  they  reduced  the  fifty- 
three  or  fifty-four  sections  to  the  number  of  the  fifty  Sabbatfis, 
by  reading  two  shorter  ones  together,  as  ol'ien  as  there  was 
occasion.  They  began  the  course  of  reading  the  first  Sab 
bath  after  the  feast  of  tabernacles;  or  rather,  indeed,  on  thi 
Sabbath-day  before  that,  when  they  finished  the  last  coursi? 
of  reading,  they  also  made  a  beginning  of  the  new  course  ; 
that  so,  as  the  rabbies  say,  tlie  devil  might  not  accu-jc  them 
to  God  ot"  being  weary  of  reading  his  law. 

(3.)  The  porticns  selected  out  of  the  prophetical  writin'^^s 
are  termed  Jiaphtoruth.  Wiien  Antiochus  Epiphanes  con 
qucred  the  Jews  about  the  year  l(i3  before  the  Christian  a'ra, 
bo  prohibited  the  public  reading  of  the  law  in  the  synagogues, 
on  pain  of  death.  The  Jews,  in  order  that  they  might  not 
be  wholly  deprived  of  the  word  of  (Jod,  selected  from  other 
parts  of  the  Sacred  W rn'infrs  fiffy-fntir  portions,  which  were 
lernieKl  hapiit.ujas,  nnscn  (ik'phtorotmJ,  from  nat  (pffT«R), 
he  dismissed,  lei  loose,  o/ienrd — for  thougli  the  liaw  was  dis- 
missed from  their  synagogues,  and  was  rhiscd  to  tiicm  by  the 
edict  of  this  persecuting  king,  yet  thu  prophetic  ti^rifings,  not 
being  under  tne  interdict,  were  left  open,-  and  therefore  they 

•  The  fiftli,  Icnili,  filcvenlti,  nml  fmirtneiilli  mllocls  linvc  Itic  same  nllii- 
f^ion  mill  rffrri'iiro  n"  llin  povriiliTiUli.  Woo  die  urii;in»l  prayuis  in  Mai- 
iiiDiiiilfti  (Jo  Orilino  I'rcciun,  or  in  Viirinyat  (do  Syimff.  vctcro,  lili.  iii.  prut 
ii.  call.  It.  pp.  I";U — 103S,)  wlioolj.-jci-vps  tlint  llie  Taliiiiiili!)l«  will  liavo  ttn' 
sovciiti-cnin  cnllffi,  wliicli  prityri  for  llic  rosiornlion  olllic  Icniple  worsliip, 
(rodiir  nilnlsk-riiitii  I.ovilicuiii  in  Adyliiiii  Doiimis  Iii.t,  nn  tic  translates  il). 
lo  have  been  iisimlly  ri-rlti'd  by  the  kiiiR  in  the  temple  Bl  the  feast  oflahf  i  • 
nftdoH;  which  is  hiicIi  nn  ahfninlily  that  it  conl'nteH  itiicif,  and  slinws  how 
litUclhe  Jewi.^li  tradilii>ri«  conccriuiigllieiinliiiuiiy  ami  line  nf  their  liiiirxics 
are  to  be  UepcndeJ  upor..  i  See  pp.  IOC,  107.  in/ra. 


8rcT.  IV.] 


OF  THE  SYNAGOGUE. 


105 


used  them  in  place  of  the  others.  It  was  from  this  custom 
of  the  Jews,  that  the  primitive  Christians  adopted  theirs,  of 
reading  a  lesson  every  >Sabbath  out  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments.  The  following  tables  exhibit  the  paraschioth 
or  section  of  the  law,  and  the  haphtoroth  or  sections  of  the 


prophets  (which  were  substituted  for  the  former),  as  they 
have  been  read  together  ever  since  the  days  of  the  Asmo- 
nteans  or  Maccabees,  and  as  the,y  continue  to  be  read  in  the 
various  synagogues  belonging  to  the  English,  Portuguese, 
Italian,  Dutch,  and  German  Jews. 


A  GENERAL  VIEW  of  all  the  sections  of  the  law,  and  sections  of  the  prophets,  as  read  in 

THE    different   JEWISH    SYNAGOGUES    FOR   EVERY    SaAaTH    OF    THE    YEAR. 


A' 


PARASCHIOTH,  or  Sections  of  the  Law. 

Sect.  GENESIS. 

i.  n'S'^a  Bereshith i.  1.  to  vi.  8. 

ii.  nj  rm'7n  Toledoth  noach, vi.  9.  to  xi.  32. 

iii.  -]'?  "fj  Lee  leca, xii.  1.  to  xvii.  27. 

iv.  N1M  Vaiyera, xviii.  1.  to  xxii.  24. 

V.  nns*  n^\T  Chaiyeh  Sarah, xxiii.  1.  to  xxv.  18. 

vi.  mVn  Toledoth, xxv.  19.  to  xxviii.  9. 

vii.  «s>i  Vaiyetse, xxviii.  10.  to  xxxii.  3 

viii.  nSsTM  Vaiyishhch, xxxii.  4.  to  xxxvi.  43, 

be.  jj^M  Vaiyesheb xxxvii.  1.  to  xl.  23. 

X.  ypa  Mikkcts,. xli.  1.  to  xliv.  17. 

xi.  CJM  Vaiyigga^a, xliv.  18.  to  xlvii.  27. 

xii.  'inii  Vayechei, xlvii.  28.  to  1.  26. 

EXODUS. 

xiii.  nina'  Shemoth, i.  1.  to  vi.  1. 

xiv.  mxi  Vaera vi.  2.  to  ix.  35. 

XV,  ^;;^o  '?n  n3  Bo  el  Paraoh, . . .  .x.  1.  to  xiii.  16. 

xvi.  n'7i:'3  Beshalach, xiii.  17.  to  xvii.  16. 

xvii.  nn^  Yithro, xviii.  1.  to  xx.  26. 

xviii.  n^aa'i'a  Mishpatim, xxi.  1.  to  xxiv.  18. 

xix.  nDTiH  Terumah, xxv.  1.  to  xxvii.  19. 

XX.  msn  Tetsaveh, xxvii.  20.  to  xxx.  10. 

xxi.  NB>n  ^3  Kei  tissa, xxx.  11.  to  xxxiv.  35. 

xxii.  VnpM  A^'aiyakhel, xxxv.  1.  to  xxxviii.  20 

xxiii.  inipfl  Pekudey, xxxviii,  21.  to  xl.  38. 

mviTicus. 

xxiv.  K-\pM  Vaiyikra 1.  1.  to  vi.  7. 

xxv.  Xi  N->|i'i  Vaiyikra  Tsau, vi.  8.  to  viii.  36 

xxvi.  ^j^DB'  Shemini, ix.  1.  to  xi.  47. 

xxvii.  j)in?n  Tazria, xii.  1.  to  xiii.  59. 

xxviii.  yTiD  Metsora, xiv.  1.  to  xv.  33. 

xxix.  ni3  nnx  Acharey  Moth, xvi.  1.  to  xviii.  30. 

xxx.  Dicnp  Kedushim, xix.  1.  to  xx.  27. 

xxxi.  ncN  Emor, xxi.  1.  to  xxiv.  23 

xxxii.  ^j'D  ■'na  Behar  Sinai, xxv.  1.  to  xxvi.  2. 

xxxiii.  ^npna  Bechukkotai, xxvi.  3.  to  xxvii.  34. 

NUMBERS. 

xxxvi.  nanna  Bemidbar, i.  1.  to  iv.  20. 

xxxv.  HVi  Naso, iv.  21.  to  vii.  89. 

xxxvi.  ^nS^'na  Bchaalotica, viii.  1,  to  xii.  16. 

xxxvii.  •^'jsy  Shelach, xiii.  1.  to  xv.  41. 

xxxviii.  n-ip  Korach, xvi,  1.  to  xviii.  32. 

xxxix.  npn  Chukkath xix.- 1.  to  xxii.  1. 

xl.  p'7a  Balak, xxii.  2.  to  xxv,  9. 

xli.  anJ'D  Pinchas, xxv.  10.  to  xxx.  1.  ' 

xiii.  mas  Mattolh, xxx.  2.  to  xxxii.  42. 

xiiii.  •«;jDD  Masey, xxxiii.  1.  to  xxxvi,  13. 

DEUTERONOMY. 

xliv,  onai  Debavim, i.  1.  to  iii.  22. 

xiv,  pnoNi  Vaethchanan, *  .iii,  23.  to  vii.  1 1. 

xlvi.  ap;  Ekeb, vii.  12.  to  xi.  25. 

xlvii,  n«T  Reeh, xi.  26.  to  xvi,  17. 

xlviii.  DiaflS'  Shophetim, xvi.  18.  to  xxi,  9. 

xlix.  N3?n  Tctse, xxi.  10.  to  xxv.  19. 

I.  Nian  Tabo, xxvi,  1,  to  xxix.  8. 

li.  d^3j:j  Nitsabim, xxix.  9.  to  xxx.  20. 

Iii.  iSm  Vaiyelec, xxxi.  1.  to  xxxi.  30. 

liii.  uvKn  Haazinu, xxxii.  1.  to  xxxii.  52, 

liv.  naian  mnVezotHabaracah,.. xxxiii,  1.  to  xxxiv,  12. 


HAPHTOROTJJ,  or  Sections  of  the  Phophets. 

Porhiguese  and  Italian  Je^vs.       German  and  Dutch  Jews, 

Isa.  xiii,  5 — 21, . . . ". Isa.  xiii.  5 — 25.  xiiii.  10, 

Isa.  liv,  1—10 Isa,  liv.  1— 17.  iv,  1—5, 

Isa.  xl.  27—31.  xli.  1—16 Ditto. 

2  Kings  iv.  1—23 2  Kings  iv.  1.— 37. 

1  Kings  i.  1—31 Ditto. 

Mai.  i.  1—14.  ii.  1—7 Ditto. 

Hos.  xi.  7— 12.  xii.  1—11 Ditto. 

Obad.  i.  1-21 Hos.  Xli.  12-14.  xiii.  1-16 

Amos  ii.  1 — 16.  iii.  1 — 8 Ditto. 

1  Kings  iii.  15 — 28. 4v.  1 Ditto. 

Ezek.  xxxvii.  1 5 — 28 Ditto, 

1  Kings  ii,  1 — 12 Ditto, 


Jer,  i,  1 — 19,  ii,  1 — 3 Isa.  xxvii.  6.  to  xxix.  23. 

Ezek.  xxviii.  25.  to  xxix.  21. Ditto. 

Jer.  xlvi.  13—28 Ditto. 

Judg.  V.  1—31 Judg.  iv.  4.  to  v.  1 — 31. 

Isa.  vi.  1 — 31 Isa.  vi.  1-1 3.  vii.  1-6.  ix.  6,7. 

Jer.  xxxiv.  8 — 22.  and  xxxiii.  25,  26,.  Ditto. 

1  Kings  V.  12—18.  vi.  1 — 13 Ditto. 

Ezek.  xiiii.  10—27 Ditto. 

1  Kings  xviii.  20—39 1  Kings  xviii.  1—39. 

1  Kings  vii.  13—26 1  Kings  vii,  40 — 50. 

1  Kings  vii,  40 — 50 1  Kings  vii.  51.  viii.  1 — 21. 


Isa.  xiiii.  21 — 28.  xliv.  1 — 25 Ditto. 

Jer.  vii.  21 — 34.  viii.  1 — 3.  ix.  23,  24.. Ditto. 

2Sam.  vi.  1—19 2  Sam.  vi.  1-23.  vii.  1-17. 

2  Kings  iv.42 — 44.  v.  1 — 19 Ditto. 

2  Kings  vii.  3 — 20 Ditto. 

Amos  ix.  7 — 15 Ezek.  xxii.  1 — 19. 

Ezek.  XX.  2—20 Amosix.  7— 15. 

Ezek.  xliv.  15—31 Ditto. 

Jer.  xxxii.  6 — 27 Ditto. 

Jer.  xvi.  19 — 21.  xvii,  1 — 14 Ditto. 


Hos,  i,  10,11,  ii,  1—20 Ditto. 

Judg.  xiii.  2 — 25. Ditto. 

Zech.  ii.  10—13.  iii.  1 — 13.  iv,  1—7,  Ditto, 

Josh.  ii.  1 — 24 Amos  ix.  7 — 15 

1  Sam.  xi.  14,  15.  xii,  1 — 22 Ditto. 

Judg.  xi.  1 — 33 Ditto. 

Micah  V.  7 — 15.  vi.  1 — 8 Ditto. 

1  Kings  XX.  46.  xix.  1— .21 Ditto. 

Jer.  i.  1—19.  ii.  1—3 Ditto. 

Jer.  ii.  4 — 28.  iv.  1,  2 Jer.  ii. 


28.  iii.  4. 


Isa.  i.  1—27 

xl.  1—26 

xlix.  14—26.  I.  1—3. 
liv.  11—17.  Iv.  1—5.. 


.Ditto. 
.Ditto. 
.Ditto. 
.Ditto. 


li.  12—23.  Iii.  1—12 Ditto. 

liv.  1—10 Ditto. 

Ix.  1—22 Ditto. 

Ixi.lO,  11,  Ixii.  1-12.  Ixiii,  1-9..  .Ditto. 
Hos.  xiv.  1—9.  Mic.  vii.  18 — 20. . . .  .Isa.  Iv.  6 — 13.  Ivi.  1 — 8, 
2  Sam,  xxii,  1 — 51.  Some  say  Ezek. 

xvii.  22 — 24.  xviii.  1—32 Hos.  xiv.  1-9.  Joel  ii.  1-27." 

Josh.  i.  1-18.  Eccl.  i.-xii.  inclusive,. .  .Ditto.2 


'  It  is  a  circumsUmce  highly  'leserving  of  notice,  that  tlie  celebrated  pro- 
phecy, quoteJ  by  the  apostle  Pttf  r  on  the  clay  of  Pentecost  from  the  pro- 
phet Joel  (ii.  29—32.)  forms  apart  of  the  Pentecostal  sen'ice  of  the  Karaite 
Jews  in  the  Crimea.  "Such,  however,  is  the  fact;  and  may  we  not  con- 
z\wh\  from  the  pertinacity  with  which  this  ancient  sect  have  adhered  to 
Vol.  II.  O 


their  primitive  iKistitulion-s,  that  the  same  coincidence  took  place  in  the 
apostolic  age  1"    Dr.  Henderson's  Bil)lical  Researches,  &c.  p.  326. 

"^  The  above  tables  are  copied  from  Dr.  A.  Clarke's  Commentary  on  Deut. 
x.x.xiv.,  who  states  that  he  has  in  general  followed  the  divisions  in  the  best 
Masoretic  .Bibles,  from  which  oiu-  common  English  Dibles  in  some  cases 


lOG 


OF  SACRED  PLACES, 


[Part  III.  Chap. 


In  the  synagogues  of  the  Hellenists  or  Greek  Jews,  the 
law  was  alwa^ys  read  in  the  Alexandrian  or  Greek  version  :• 
but  in  those  of  the  native  Jews,  the  law  was  always  read  in 
Hebrew;  whence  it  became  necessary,  as  soon  as  that  lan- 
guage ceased  to  be  vernacular  among  the  Jews,  to  establish 
an  interpreter,  bj'  whom  the  Jewish  Scriptures  wore  ex- 
pounded in  the  Chaldee  dialect,  which  was  spoken  by  them 
after  the  return  from  the  Babylonian  captivity .2  The  doctor 
or  reader,  therefore,  having  the  interpreter  always  by  him, 
softly  whispered  in  his  cars  what  he  saiclf  and  this  interpre- 
ter repeated  aloud  to  the  people  whiit  had  thus  been  commu- 
nicated to  him.  To  this  custom  our  Saviour  is  supposed  to 
have  alluded  when  he  said  to  his  disciples,  What  ye  hear  in 
the  ear,  that  preach  ye  upon  the  house/ops.  (Matt.  x.  27-)^ 

3.  The  third  and  last  part  of  the  synagogue  service  is. 
Exposition  of  the  Scriptures,  and  ^reaching  to  the  pi  op/e  from 
them.  The  first  was  performed  at  the  lime  of  reading  them, 
and  the  other  after  the  reading  of  the  law  and  the  prophets. 
In  Luke  iv.  15 — 22.  we  have  an  account  of  the  service  of 
the  synagogue  in  the  time  of  Christ;  from  which  it  appears 
that  he  taught  the  Jews  in  both  these  ways:  And  he  taught 
in  their  synagogues,  being  glorified  of  all.  And  he  came  to 
Nazareth,  where  he  had  been  brought  up,-  and  as  his  custom 
toas,  he  went  into  the  synagogue  on  the  Sabbath-day,  and  stood 
up  for  to  read.  And  there  was  delivered  tivto  him  the  book  of 
the  prop  hit  Esaia.^ ,-  and  when  he  had  unrolled  the  vohime*  he 
found  the  place  where  if  was  written,  "  The  Spirit  of  the  Loi-d 
is  upon  riie,  because  he  hath  aiwintcd  me  to  preach  the  Gospel  to 
the  poor ;  he  hath  sent  me  to  heal  the  brokai-heartcd,  to  preach 
deliverance  to  the  captives,  and  recovering  of  sight  to  tlie  blind,- 
to  set  at  liberty  them  that  are  bruised ;  to  preach  the  acceptable 
year  of  the  Lord  /"  And  he  folded  the  volume,^  and  he  gave  it 
again  to  tlie  minister  and  sat  down  .•  and  the  eyes  of  ail  them 
that  were  in  the  synagogue  were  fastened  on  tiim.  And  he 
began  to  say  unto  them:  This  day  is  this  Scripture  fulfilled  in 
your  ears.  And  at!  bare  him  tvitness,  and  wondered  at  the  gra- 
cious wordt  that  proceeded  out  of  his  mouth. 

From  this  passage  we  learn,  that  when  Jesus  Christ  came 
to  Nazareth,  liis  own  city,  he  was  called  out,  as  a  member 
of  that  synagogue,  to  rea2l  the  haphtorah,  that  is,  the  section  or 
lesson  out  of  the  prophets  for  that  day ;  which  appears  to  have 
been  the  fifty-first  haphtorah,  and  to  have  commenced  with 
they?''*/  verse  of  Isa.  Ixi.  and  not  with  the  tenth,  as  in  the 
table  above  given.  "  Have  the  Jews,"  asks  an  eminent 
roinmentator,  "  altered  this  haphtorah,  knowing  the  use 
which  our  blessed  Lord  made  of  itainoiiir  their  ancestors?"'' 
Fiirtlier  he  stood  up  (as  it  was  custoniarv,  at  least  for  the 
officiating  minister  to  do  out  of  reverence  for  the  word  of 
God)  to  read  the  Scriptures  ;  and  unrolled  the  manuscript 
until  he  came  to  the  lesson  appointed  for  that  day;  which 
having  read  he  rolled  it  up  again,  and  gave  it  to  the  proper 
officer ;  and  then  he  sat  down  and  expounded  it,  agreeaoly 
to  the  usage  of  the  Jews.'  But  when  Christ  entered  any 
synagogue  of  which  he  was  not  a  member  (as  it  appears 
from  Luke  iv.  IG.  he  always  did  on  every  Sabbatn-day, 
wherever  he  was),  he  taught  the  people  in  sermons  after  the 
law  and  the  prophets  had  been  read.  The  Sacred  Writings, 
used  to  this  day  in  all  the  Jewish  synagogues,  are  written  on 
skins  of  parchment  or  vellum,  and  (like  the  ancient  copies) 
rolled  on  two  rollers,  beginning  at  each  end  :  so  that,  in  read- 
will  be  found  to  vary  a  little.  On  the  above  tables,  Pr.  f'larkc  remarks,  ll;at 
though  the  Jews  are  agreed  in  the  iioctions  of  the  law  that  arc  read  every 
Habbath  ;  yet  they  are  not  agreed  in  the  haphtorotli,  or  scctionM  from  the 
prophets  ;  as  it  appears  above,  that  the  Diitcli  and  Oerinan  Jews  difTer  in 
Bcvcral  cases  from  the  Italian  and  Portuguese  ;  and  there  are  some  slighter 
variations  besideo  those  above,  which  he  luis  not  noticed. 

•  Terlulliani  Apoloj^ia,  c.  13. 

»  From  this  practice  originated  the  Chaldee  Parnplirascs,  of  which  an 
tccount  has  been  piven  in  the  first  volume  of  this  work. 

■  Dr.  Lightfoot's  Worm  Hebraica:,  on  Malt.  x.  27. 

«  "Av:«:ttu;«{  TO  S.s/.ijv.  Thiii  word  signifies  to  ur\fnUl,  unroll.  The 
books  of  the  ancients  were  written  on  parchment  ami  rolh-d  up.     II<-nce 

the  word  volume.      A*./,'  Cu<  xva^lvJxvn;  aurcuj  «■!  T«»  X"f'  Tlf i!»).5ni< 

m-  K'.Ktif  ;  Why  do  we  not  (infold  our  arms,  and  clasj)  each  other  in  lliern  I 
Dion.  Uolicarii.  lib.  vi.  p.  3/i.  lludKon.  T'.<>  i^riTf.t.^v  ANAliTTiAj;, 
unfolding  the  letter.  Josephus,  de  vit;\  sua,  p.  21.  Ilavercamp.  l\»i,%i 
■  (  C*C>.iev  T«  iCovXiTO,  kKl^v  r»v  Wi^vav  ix3«i'r«Te,  fAtrm  5i,  ANAflTI  JAi;^ 
10BIBAI0N,"  (the  very  expression  of  the  evanei.dii)!.)  Herodotus,  lib.  i.  c. 
J25.  lom.  1.  p.  158.  edit.  Oxon.  I'sW.  Dr.  Ilarwood's  Introduction,  vol.  ii. 
p.  161. 

•  lfTv£jC(  T9    C>«>.I0V. 

•  Dr   A.  Clarke,  on  Dent,  xxxlv. 

'  In  like  manner,  a<-rordinK  to  the  custom  of  their  public  instructers, 
we  find  our  Haviour  »ir(inir  dotrn  (Malt.  v.  1  )  before  ho  becan  lo  delivftr 
his  sermon  on  the  mount  to  the  assembl'-d  multilu<l>'S  ;  and  upon  another 
occasion  nittini;  dotrn,  and  otil  of  the  ship  Icarhine  the  pi-oplc  who  were 
collected  on  the  shore.  (M  ii.t  xlii.  1.)  K<i  rIso  It  Is  twid  of  the  scrlboK,  who 
were  the  Jewish  rlerity,  that  they  uril  (Matt,  xxiii.  "r^.)  In  Moiei'  chair: 
whalemr  thrrf/ore  tlir.u  hiil  yuu  ohnrrrc,  that  obstrve  and  do,  6u(  do  not 
ti/ttr  their  toorkt,J'or  they  aay  and  do  not. 


ing  from  right  to  left,  they  roll  off  with  the  left,  while  they 
roll  on  with  the  right  hand.8  The  vignette,  at  the  head  of  this 
section,  will  convey  some  idea  of  the  manner  in  which  the 
Synagogue  Rolls  are  unrolled.  It  is  taken  from  the  original 
and  very  valuable  manuscript  in  the  British  Muskum,  which 
is  described  in  Vol.  I.  Part  I.  chap.  iii.  sect.  i.  §  ii. 

"  It  should  seem  also,  at  least  in  foreign  countries  where 
places  of  worship  were  established,  that  when  strangers, 
who  were  Jews,  arrived  at  such  towns,  and  went  to  offer 
their  devotions,  it  was  usual  for  the  presidents  of  the  syna- 
gogue, after  the  appointed  portion  out  of  the  law  and  the  pro- 
phets was  read,  to  send  a  servant  lo  them,  and  in  a  very 
respectful  manner  to  request  that  if  the^  could  impart  any 
thing  that  might  contribute  to  the  religious  instruction  and 
edification  of  the  audience,  they  would  deliver  it.  This  token 
of  respect  and  politeness  shown  to  strangers,  appears  from 
the  following  passage  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  (Acts  xiii. 
II,  15.)  \Vhen  Pnul  and  his  companions,  on  their  arrival 
at  Antioch  in  Pisidia,  went  into  tlie  Jewish  synagogue  on 
the  Sabbath-day,  and  sat  down  after  the  reading  of  the  law 
and  the  prophets,  the  rulers  of  the  synagogue  sent  to  them, 
saying,  3fen  and  brethren,  if  ye  have  any  icord  of  ejchortution 
for  the  people,  say  on.  Upon  ivhich  Paul  stood  up,  and  beck' 
oning  vnth  his  hand  said.  Men  vf  Israel,  and  ye  that  fear  God, 
give  audience.'''^ 

The  synagogues,  however,  were  not  only  places  set  apart 
for  prayer ;  they  were  also  schools  where  youth  were  in- 
structed. The  sages  (for  so  were  the  teachers  called)  sat 
upon  elevated  benches,  while  the  pupils  stood  at  their  feet 
or  before  them;'''  which  circumstance  explains  St.  Paul's 
meaning  (Acts  xxii.  3.)  when  he  says  that  he  was  brought 
up  AT  THE  FEET  of  Gamaliel. 

V.  Those  who  had  been  guilty  of  any  notorious  crime,  or 
were  otherwise  thought  unworthy,  were  cast  out  of  these 
synagogues,  that  is,  excommunicated,  and  excluded  from 
partaking  with  the  rest  in  the  public  prayers  and  religious 
oflices  there  performed ;  so  that  they  were  looked  upon  as 
mere  heathens,  and  shut  out  from  all  benefit  of  the  Jewish 
religion,  which  exclusion  was  esteemed  scandalous.  We 
are  told  that  the  Jews  came  to  a  resolution,  that  whoever  con- 
fessed that  Jesus  was  the  Christ,  he  should  be  put  out  of  the 
synagogue,  (John  ix.  22.)  And,  therefore,  when  the  blind 
man,  who  had  been  restored  to  sight,  persisted  in  confessing 
that  he  believed  the  per.si>n  wl;o  had  been  able  to  work  such 
a  miracle  could  not  have  done  it,  if  he  woe  not  of  God,  they 
cast  him  out.  (vcr.  33,  31.)" 

VI.  The  following  are  the  Sheinoneh  Esreh,  or  nineteen 
prayers  of  the  Jews,  referred  to  in  page  104.  as  translated  by 
Dr.  Prideaux.  That  which  was  formerly  the  nineteenth  is 
now  the  twelfth  in  the  order  in  which  they  stand  in  the  Jewish 
liturgies.  The  first  or  priratory  part  of  each  article  was  pro- 
nounced by  the  priest,  aii'I  the  last  or  eucharistical  part  was 
the  res])onse  of  the  people. 

"  1.  Blessed  be  thou.  O  Lord  onr  Gon,  the  Goo  <-f  our 
fathers,  the  GuD  of  Abraham,  the  (Jod  of  Isaac,  the  God  of 
Jacob,  the  great  God,  powerful  and  tremendous,  the  high 
God,  bountifully  dispensing  benefits,  the  creator  and  possessor 
of  the  universe,  who  rememherest  the  good  deeds  of  our  fa- 
thers, and  in  thy  love  sendest  a  Redeemer  to  those  who  ar.> 
descended  from  them,  for  thy  name's  sake,  0  King  our  Lord 
and  helpt  r,  our  Saviour  and  our  shield. — Blessed  art  thou,  0 
Lord,  who  art  the  shield  if  .ibruham  ! 

"  2.  Thou,  O  Lord,  art  powerful  for  ever ;  thou  raisest  the 
dead  to  life,  and  art  mighty  to  save ;  thou  sendi-st  down  the 
dew,  stillest  the  winds,  and  makest  the  rain  to  conn;  down 
upon  the  earth,  and  suslainest  with  thy  beneficence  all  that 

"  Dr.  A.  Clarke,  on  Luke  vl.  17. 

»  Dr.  Ilarwood's  Introd.  vol.  II.  p.  I&2. 

'0  Fleiiry,  Laiiiy,  and  other  rmminl  critics,  have  supposedthaf  the  Jew- 
i.-iii  youth  sal  on  liiw  scats  or  «.n  the  ground,  at  the  feet  of  their  lircOtptorP, 
w  ho  occupieil  n  lofty  chair  ;  but  Vilrliiga  has  slmwii,  from  Ji-wisn  aulhorily, 
that  the  disciples  of  the  rabbins  sl(n<d  before  them  in  the  iriaimcr  above 
renrescnted.  8eo  his  treatise  de  Hyiia^.  Vet.  lib.  i.  p.  1.  c.  7.  Kypkc 
(Oi)serv.  Sacrir,  in  Nov.  Fird.  Libros,  vol.  ii.  pp.  Ill,  115.)  lias  collected  a 
variety  of  passaites  from  Greek  writers,  to  show  (hat  the  expression  srupa 
Tou{  !roJu{  At  Ihr  ftfl,  is  e(|iiivnlrnl  to  rr>.iiTi6v,  nrur  or  brfort. 

"  The  preceding  accoiml  of  the  Jewish  Synag<iKues  has  been  compiled 
from  Ijtiiiy's  Apparalii.s  Ihlillcus,  vol.  ii  pn.  Sl'.t— 'i'l.  I'ridcaux's  Coiincc- 
lions  (biMik  vi.  sub  anno  '111),  vol.  I.  pp.  .t7t -If.'l-  Fleury's  Manners  of 
the  Israelites  by  Dr.  Clarke,  pp.  .'i'tt') — .'KH  Ticlet,  Aiiliij.  Judairpies,  pp. 
\i—\\.  (Theol.  Chret.  torn,  lii.)  Schiilzii  Archa'ol.  llebr.  pii.  ZK,  ZSB. 
Ueland's  Aniiq  Ilebr.  part  i.  c.  10.  pp.  lit)— HO.  Ikenii  Aiiiiq.  Ilebr.  part  I. 
c.  9.  pp.  100—105.  Krhnchtii  AnimadvcrHlones  ad  Ikenii  Aiiliq.  Ilebr.  pp. 
453-^70.  I^inlner'a Credibility,  liook  I.  c.  9.  46.  Frilii  Inliod.  nil  Nov.  Test, 
pp.  417.  fi'.t.V- flits  ;  and  Dr.  Jenninns's  Jewish  Anli(|iiilieK.  book  II.  c.  2. 
Pareau,  ,\iilir|.  Ili-br.  pp  'JOl— 'J(1H.  Heausobrc's  .iiid  I-'Knlanl's  Inlrod. 
Up.  Watson's  Thc<il.  Tracts,  pp.  I.'".*— fiO.  On  the  syn.-uiosiie. worship  of 
the  modem  Jews,  see  Mr.  Men'a  Modern  Judaism,  pp.  3i;>— 3&1. 


Sect.  IV.] 


OV  THE  SYNAGOGUE. 


107 


are  therein ;  and  of  thy  abundant  mercy  makest  the  dead 
again  to  live.  Thou  raisest  up  those  who  fall ;  thou  healest 
the  sick,  thou  loosest  them  who  are  bound,  and  makest  good 
thy  word  of  truth  to  those  who  sleep  in  the  dust.  Who  is 
to  be  compared  to  thee,  O  thou  Lord  of  might !  and  who  is 
like  unto  thee,  O  our  King,  who  killcst  and  makest  alive, 
and  makest  salvation  to  spring  as  the  grass  in  the  field  ! 
Thou  art  faithful  to  make  the  dead  to  rise  again  to  life. — 
Blessed  art  thou,  0  Lord,  who  raisest  the  dead  again  to  life  ! 

"  3.  Thou  art  holy,  and  thy  name  is  holy,  and  thy  saints 
do  praise  tliee  every  day.  Selah.  For  a^reat  king  and  a 
holy  art  thou,  O  God. — Blessed  art  thou,  (/Lord  God,  most 
Inly  ! 

"  4.  Thou  of  thy  mercy  givest  knowledge  unto  men,  and 
teachest  them  understandmg :  give  graciously  unto  us  know- 
l(idge,  wisdom,  and  understanding. — Blessed  art  tlioti,  O 
Lord,  loko  graciously  givest  knowledge  unto  men  ! 

"  5.  Bring  us  back,  O  our  Father,  to  the  observance  of  thy 
law,  and  make  us  to  adhere  to  thy  precepts,  and  do  thou,  O 
our  King,  draw  us  near  to  thy  worship,  and  convert  us  to 
thee  by  perfect  repentance  in  thy  presence. — Blessed  art  thou, 
0  Lord,  who  voucnsafest  to  receive  its  by  repentance  .' 

"  6.  Be  thou  merciful  unto  us,  O  our  Father :  for  we  have 
sinned :  pardon  ns,  O  our  King,  for  we  have  transgressed 
against  thee.  For  thou  art  a  God,  good  and  ready  to  par- 
don.— Blessed  art  thou,  0  Lord  most  gracious,  who  multipllest 
thy  mercies  in  the  forgiveness  of  sins  I 

"  7.  Look,  we  beseech  thee,  upon  our  afflictions.  Be  thou 
on  our  side  in  all  our  contentions,  and  plead  thou  our  cause 
in  all  our  litigations ;  and  make  haste  to  redeem  us  with  a 
perfect  redemption  for  thy  name's  sake.  For  thou  art  our 
God,  our  King,  and  a  strong  Redeemer. — Blessed  art  thou,  0 
Lord,  the  Bedeemer  of  Israel.' 

"  8.  Heal  us,  O  Lord  our  God,  and  we  shall  be  healed ; 
save  us,  and  we  shall  be  saved.  For  thou  art  op.r  praise. 
Bring  unto  us  sound  health,  and  a  perfect  remedy  for  all  our 
infiraiities,  and  for  all  our  griefs,  and  for  all  our  wounds. 
For  thou  art  a  God  who  healest  and  art  merciful. — Blessed 
art  thou,  0  Lord  our  God,  m'/w  curest  the  diseases  of  thy  people 
Israel  / 

"  9.  Bless  us,  O  Lord  our  God,  in  every  work  of  our 
hands,  and  bless  unto  us  the  seasons  of  the  year,  and  give  us 
the  dew  and  the  rain  to  be  a  blessing  unto  us,  upon  the  face 
of  all  our  land,  and  satiate  the  world  with  thy  blessings,  and 
send  down  moisture  upon  every  part  of  the  earth  thr.t  is  habi- 
table.— Blessed  art  thou,  0  Lord,  luho  givest  thy  blessing  to 
the  years  / 

"  10.  Gather  us  together  by  the  sound  cf  the  great  trum- 
pet, to  the  enjoyment  of  our  liberty  ;  and  lift  up  thy  ensign 
to  call  together  all  the  captivity,  from  tlie  four  quarters  of  the 
earth  into  our  own  land. — Blessed  art  thou,  0  Lord,  who 
gatherest  together  the  exiles  of  the  people  of  Israel  / 

"11.  Restore  unto  us  our  judges  as  at  the  first,  and  our 
counsellors  as  at  the  beginnmg ;  and  remove  far  from  us 
affliction  and  trouble,  and  do  thou  only  reign  over  us  in  be- 
nignity, and  in  mercy,  and  in  righteousness,  and  in  justice. 
—Blessed  art  thou,  0  Lord,  our  king,  who  lovest  righteousness 
and  justice. 

"  12.  'Let  there  be  no  hope  to  them,  who  apostatize  from 
the  true  religion  ;  and  let  heretics,  how  many  soever  they  be, 
all  perish  as  in  a  moment.  And  let^  the  kingdom  of  pride 
be  speedily  rooted  out  and  broken  in  our  days. — Blessed  art 
thou,  0  Lord  our  God,  who  destroyest  the  wicked,  and  bringest 
down  the  proud  .'^ 

«  This  is  ihe  praver  which  was  ailded  by  Rabbi  Gamaliel  against  the 
Christians,  or  as  oinc-rs  say  by  Uabbi  siamuel  Ihe  little,  who  was  one  of  his 
scholars. 

*  The  Roman  empire. 

»  The  twelfth  prayer,  as  now  used  by  the  Jews,  varies  considerably  from 
that  above  given.  In  the  Prayer  Book  of  the  German  and  Polish  Jews,  it 
Stands  thus : — "  O  let  the  slanderers  have  no  hope,  all  the  wicked  be  asini- 


"  13.  Upon  the  pious  and  the  just,  and  upon<  the  prose- 
lytes of  justice,  and  upon  the  remnant  of  thy  people  of  the 
house  of  Israel,  let  thy  mercies  be  moved,  O  Lord  our  God, 
and  give  a  good  reward  unto  all  who  faithfully  put  their  trust 
in  thv  name  ;  and  grant  us  our  portion  with  them,  and  for 

ever  let  us  not  be  ashamed,  for  w-e  put  our  trust  in  thee. 

Blessed  art  thou,  0  Lord,  who  art  the  support  and  confidence 
of  the  just  / 

"  14.  Dw^  thou  in  the  midst  of  Jerusalem,  thy  city,  as 
thou  hast  promised  :  build  it  with  a  building  to  last  for  ever, 
and  do  this  speedily  even  in  our  days. — Blessed  art  thou,  6 
Lord,  who  buildest  Jerusalem  ! 

"  15.  Make  the  offspring  of  David  thy  servant  speedily  to 
grow  up,  and  flourish  ;  and  let  our  horn  be  exalted  in  thy  sal- 
vation. For  wc  hope  for  thy  salvation  every  day. — Blessed 
art  thou,  0  Lord,  wlto  makest  the  horn  of  our  salvation  to 
flourish .' 

"  16.  Hear  our  voice,  O  Lord  our  God,  most  merciful 
Father,  pardon  and  have  mercy  upon  us,  and  accept  cf  our 
prayers  with  thy  mercy  and  favour,  and  send  us  not  away 
from  thy  presence,  O  our  king.  Ft  thou  hearest  with  mercy 
the  prayer  of  thy  people  Israel. — Blessed  art  thou,  0  Lord, 
who  hearest  prayer  ! 

"  17.  Be  thou  well  pleased,  O  Lord  our  God,  with  thy 
people  Israel ;  and  have  regard  unto  their  prayers  ;  restore 
thy  worship  to^  the  inner  part  of  thy  house,  and  make  haste 
with  favour  and  love  to  accept  of  the  burnt  sacrifices  of  Is- 
rael, and  their  prayers ;  and  let  the  worship  of  Israel  thy  peo- 
ple be  continually  well  pleasing  unto  thee. — Blessed  art  tliott, 
O  Lord,  who  restorest  thy  divine  presence  to  Zion  ! 

"  18.  We  will  give  thanks  unto  thee  with  praise.  For 
thou  art  the  Lord  our  God,  the  God  of  our  fathers,  for  ever 
and  ever.  Thou  art  our  rock,  and  the  rock  of  our  life,  and 
the  shield  of  our  salvation.  To  all  generations  will  we  give 
thanks  unto  thee,  and  declare  thy  praise,  because  of  our  life 
which  is  always  in  thy  hands,  and  because  of  thy  si^ns, 
which  are  every  day  with  us,  and  because  of  thy  wonders, 
and  marvellous  lovmg-kindness,  which  are  morning,  and 
evening,  and  night  before  us.  Thou  art  good,  for  thy  mer- 
cies are  not  consumed ;  thou  art  merciful,  for  thy  loving- 
kindnesses  fail  not.  For  ever  we  hope  in  thee.  And  for  all 
these  mercies  be  thy  name,  O  king,  blessed  and  exal)ed,and 
lifted  up  on  high  for  ever  and  ever ;  and  let  all  that  live  give 
thanks  unto  thee.  Selah.  And  let  them  in  truth  and  sincerity 
praise  thy  name,  O  God  of  our  salvation,  and  our  lielp.  Se- 
lah.— Blessed  art  thou,  0  Lord,  vjhose  name  is  good,  and  to 
whom  it  is  fitting  always  t>  give  praise  ! 

"  19.  Give  peace,  beneficence,  and  benediction,  grace,  be- 
nignity, and  mercy  unto  us,  and  to  Israel  thy  people.  Bless 
us,  our  Father,  even  all  of  us  together  as  one  man,  with  the 
light  of  thy  countenance.  For  \\\  the  light  of  thy  counte- 
nance hast  thou  given  unto  us,  O  TiORO  our  God,  the  law  of 
life,  and  love,  and  benignity,  and  righteousness,  and  blessing, 
and  mercy,  and  life,  and  peace.  And  let  it  seem  good  in 
thine  eyes,  to  bless  thy  people  Israel  with  thy  peace  at  all 
times,  and  in  every  moment. — Blessed  art  thou,  0  Lord,  who 
blessest  thy  people  Israel  with  peace  !    Amen." 

hilated  speedily,  and  all  the  tyrants  be  cut  off  quickly  ;  humble  thou  them 
quickly  in  our  days.— Blessed  art  thou,  O  Lord,  who  destroyest  enemies 
and  humblest  tyrants!"  In  the  Prayer  Book  of  the  Spanish  and  Portu- 
guese Jews,  this  prayer  runs  thus  :— "  Let  slandex-ers  have  no  hope,  and 
&11  presumptuous  apostates  perish  as  in  a  moment ;  and  may  thine  enemies, 
and  those  who  hate  thee,  be  suddenly  cut  off,  and  all  those  who  act  wick- 
edly be  suddenly  broken,  consumed,  and  rooted  out ;  and  humble  thou 
them  speedily  in  our  days. — Blessed  art  thou,  O  Lord,  who  destroyest  the 
enemies  and  huvMest  the  proud !"    Allen's  Modern  Judaism,  p.  329. 

«  Concerning  these  supposed  proselytes  of  justice,  see  p.  109.  infra. 

'  i.  c.  The  Adytum  Templi,  which  in  the  temple  of  Jerusalem  was  tho 
holy  of  holies,  into  which  none  ever  entered  but  the  high-priest  once  a 
year,  on  the  great  day  of  expiation.  From  this  place,  after  the  Babylonish 
captivity,  were  wanting  the  ark,  the  mercy-seat,  the  Shechinah  of  the 
divine  presence,  and  the  Urim  and  Thummira,  which  causing  an  imperfec- 
tion in  their  worship  in  respect  of  what  it  was  formerly,  a  restoration  ol 
them  seems  to  be  the  subject  of  this  petition. 


108 


SACRED  PERSOXS. 


[Paiit  IIL  Chap.  II 


CHAPTER  II. 


SACRED     PERSONS. 


SECTION  I.« 


OF   THr  JEWISH   CHURCH   AND   ITS   MEMBERS. 


I.  The  v/hole  ^''ation  accounted  holy, — II.  JYTembers  of  the  Je^oish  Church ;  Bebreios  of  the  Hebre^us. — III.  Proselytes.-^ 
IV.  Je-MS  of  the  Dispersion, — V.  Hellenists. — VI.  The  Libertines. — VII.  Devout  Men. — VIII.   Circumcision. 


I.  Jehovah,  in  his  infinite  wisdom  and  goodness,  havinor 
been  pleased  to  prefer  the  posterity  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  and 
Jacob  before  every  other  nation,  and  to  select  them  from 
every  other  people,  for  the  purposes  of  imparting  to  them  the 
revelation  ot  his  will,  and  of  preserving  the  knowledge  and 
worship  of  the  true  God ;  He  is  thence  said  to  have  chosen 
them,  and  they  arc  in  many  passages  of  Scripture  represent- 
ed as  his  chosen  and  elect  people.*  And  because  they  were 
by  the  will  of  God  set  apart,  and  appropriated  in  a  special 
manner  to  his  honour  and  obedience,  and  furnished  with  ex- 
traordinary motives  to  holiness,  God  is  therefore  said  to  have 
sanctified  them.  (Lev.  xx.  8.  xxi.  8.  xxii.  9.  16.  32.)  For 
these  reasons  they  are  termed  a  Holy  Nation,  a  kingdom 
of  priests,  and  also  saints  ;^  and  their  covenant  relation  to 
God  is  urged  upon  them  as  a  motive  to  holiness  of  heart  and 

Eraf'tice.  (Lev.  xix.  2.  xx.  7,  8.  26.  xi.  45.  Kxod.  xxii.  31.) 
lut  the  Jews  of  later  times,  becoming  proud  of  these  titles, 
and  of  their  ecclesiastical  jirivileges,  extended  their  charity 
only  to  those  of  their  own  faith ;  while  towards  the  rest  of 
mankind  they  cherished  a  sullen  and  inveterate  hatred,  ac- 
counting them  to  be  profane  persons  and  sinners.''  This 
relative  or  imputed  holiness  of  the  Jews  as  a  covenant  j)eo- 
ple,  separated  and  consecrated  to  the  worship  of  the  true 
God,  was  perpetual  (in  other  words  it  was  to  subsist  until 
the  institution  of  the  Gospel  dispensation) ;  although  the 
Fews  were  often  extremely  corrupt  in  their  manners,  as  the 
numerous  denunciations  of  the  prophets  sufTicienlly  indicate. 
Hence  some  of  the  rabbinical  writers  call  the  most  wicked 
kings  of  Israel  and  Judah  holy, — holy,  or  righteous,  and 
Israelite,  being  with  them  convertible  terms  (compare  Wisd. 
X.  15.  17.  20.  xviii.  1.  7.  9.  20.);  and  in  the  time  of  our 
Lord  the  Jews  held  the  preposterous  notion,  that  though  they 
should  continue  in  their  sins,  yet,  because  they  were  the 
offspring  of  Abraham,  God  would  not  impute  their  sins  to 
them.* 

The  apostles  being  Jews  by  birth,  though  they  wrote  in 
Greek,  have  retained  their  national  idiom,  and  have  borrowed 
the  Old  Testament  phraseology,  which  they  have  applied  to 
Christians,  in  order  to  convey  to  them  accurate  ideas  of  the 
magnitude  of  God's  love  to  them  in  Christ.  Thus  the  apos- 
tles not  only  call  them  disciples  and  brethren,  that  is,  friends 
united  in  the  same  profession  of  faith  by  bonds  equally  close 
as  those  of  brothers,  having  one  Lord,  one  faith,  one  bupUsni, 
but,  because  all  true  Christians  are  by  the  will  of  God  set 
apart  and  appropriated  in  an  especial  manner  to  his  honour, 
service,  and  obedience ,  and  are  furnished  with  extraordinary 
helps  and  motives  to  holiness,  they  are,  therefore,  said  to  l)e 
sanctified  (1  Cor.  i.  2.  vi.  11.  Heb.  ii.  11.  x.  2').  Jude  1.); 
and  are  further  styied  holy,  holy  brethren,  a  holy  nation  and 
saints.'' 

«  This  Bcciion  is  principally  flcrived  from  rtclitiUii  Archn-ologia  IIc- 
braica,  lib.  Ii.  c.  1.  de  KccUifiia  Judaica  njunrpic  Mciiibris;  tonellicr  witli 
Beausubrc  and  L'Eiifaul'M  Inlrod.  lo  the  New  Test.  (Ilisihoii  Watson's 
Coll.  of  Tracts,  vol.  iil.  pp.  'JO.".,  20C.)  Ikenii  Anti(j.  pp.  'i\-l—'M7.  .Siosc.li. 
Compi^nd.  Arch.'Pol.  (l-,coni)inira)  Nov.  Tei^t.  55  32—30.  Edward-s  on  ilio 
Authority,  &c.  of  Scripturr,  vol.  ii.  pp.  313—330.  Alber,  Inst.  Hi-rin.  N'et. 
Test.  toni.  i.  pp.  ISl— IH«J.,;  Carnzovn  Aiititi.  Ilebr.  Gcniis,  pp.  'i'i—M  ;  .lun- 
nings's  Jewish  Anli(|uiUf8,  book  i.  ch.  3.  Mr.  Allen  has  given  nn  interest- 
ing arronnt  of  the  mode  of  circumcision  that  obtains  anion);  llie  Jews  of 


)mparc  Deul.  iv.  .37.  vii.  6.  ji.  15.     I  Kirips  viii.  '^.  ct  sen.     1  Chron. 
xvi.  13.  I'ual.  cv.  6.  xxxili.  12.  cv.  '13.  cvi.  0.  cxxxv.  4.  Isa.  xli.  8,  0.  xliii.  20. 


llie  present  time  in  hia  "Modern  Jud.ii.-fiii,"  jip.  '/Sii— 296. 
«  C-'or  "  --  - 

;vi.  13. 

xliv.  1,  2.  xir.  4.  and  K/.ok.  xx.  5. 

»  Compare  Exod.  xix.  (i.  L^v.  xi.  44,  4.'>.  xix.  2.  xx.  20.  Dent.  vii.  C.  xiv. 
2.  21.  xxvi.  r.t.  xxviii.  0.  xxxiil.  3.  2  Chron.  vl.  41.  Psal.  xxxiv.  9.  1.5.  7. 
Uxlx.  2.  cxxxii.  U.  rxlvili.  11. 

«  Ap'id  Ipso.H  fid";s  obstlnata,  miscrlcordia  in  promptn,  scd  advcrsus 
omncs  alios  hostile  odium.  Hncli  is  the  cliaraclcr  of  the  Jews  f>iven  by  the 
Roman  historian,  as  ilicy  were  in  the  time  of  our  Saviour  (Tacit.  Hist.  lib. 
V.  c.  5.  toni.  ill.  p.  2)7.  edit,  nipont.);  which  Is  abundantly  cf)Mfirmed  by 
the  sacred  writers.  Sec  Matt  ix.  10,  11,  xxvi.  45.  Ual.  ii.  15.  17.  IThess. 
11.  15,  10. 

»  See  Whitby  on  Mall.  lii.  9. 

•  9.!e  Col.  iii.  12.  I  Ttiosa.  v.  27.  Ilcb.  iil.  1.  1  Pet.  ii.  0.  Acts  ix.  3?,  41. 
xxvi.  10.  Rom.  i.  7.  xii.  13.  xv.  25,  20.  x\\.  15.  1  Cor.  i.  2.  2  Cor.  i.  1.  xiii.  13. 
PhiU  iv.  22.  Eph.  i,  1.  Pliil.  i.  1.  luidCol.  i.  Z 


II.  The  first  Members  of  the  Jewish  Church  were  the 
immediate  descendants  of  Abraham  by  Isaac  and  Jacob, 
whom  God,  having  delivered  from  their  oppressive  bondage 
in  E^ypt,  chose  tor  himself  to  be  his  peculiar  people,  and 
their  direct  issue,  without  any  intermixture  of  Gentile  blood 
or  langua^.  These  are  termed  by  St.  Paul  Ilebrctvs  of  the 
Hebrews  (Phil.  iii.  5.),  as  opposed  to  the  Helleniiftic  Jews,  oi 
those  who  lived  among  the  Greeks,  whose  language  they 
spoke,  and  who  were  called  Hellenist.".  (Acts  vi.  1.  ix,  29. 
xi.  20.)  Many  of  the  latter  were  descended  from  parents, 
one  of  whota  only  was  a  Jew.  Of  this  descrijjtion  was 
Timr.tiiy.  (Acts  xvi.  1.).  Tho.^e  who  were  born  in  Juda?a, 
of  parents  rightly  descended  from  Abraham,  and  who  re- 
ceived their  education  in  Judaja,  spoke  the  language  of  their 
forefathers,  and  were  thoroughly  instructed  in  the  learning 
and  literature  of  the  Jews,  were  reckoned  more  honourable 
than  the  Hellenist^;''  and,  to  mark  the  excellence  of  their 
lineage  and  language,  they  were  called  Hebrews,- — a  name 
the  most  ancient,  and  therefore  the  most  honourable  of  all 
the  names  borne  by  Abraham's  descendants  ;  for  it  was  the 
name  given  to  Abraham  hiinself,  by  the  Canvianites,  to  sig- 
nify tiiat  he  had  come  from  the  other  side  of  the  Euphrates. 
A  Hebrew,  therefore,  possessing  the  character  and  (lualifica- 
tions  above  described,  was  more  honourable  than  an  nrueltie; 
as  that  name  indicated  only  that  a  person  was  a  member  of 
the  commonwealth  of  Israel,  whieu  a  Jewmi^ht  be,  though 
born  and  edti.-.xted  in  a  foreign  country.  St.  Paul,  indeed, 
was  born  ai  Tarsus,  in  Cilicia;  yet  being  a  Hebrew  of  the 
Hebrews,  uho  received  his  education  at  Jenisalem,  spoke 
the  language  used  there,  and  understood  the  Hebrew  in  which 
the  ancient  oracles  of  God  were  written,  he  was  a  Jew  of  the 
most  honourable  class;  and,  therefore,  when  cautioning  the 
Philippians  against  Judaizing  teachers  and  unbelieving  Jews, 
he  enumerates  this  privilege  among  tho.se  of  which  (if  sal- 
vation were  to  be  olitained  oy  them)  he  might  hove  conjidence 
in  the  flesh.  (Phil.  iii.  4,  5.)  The  privileges  of  the  Israel- 
ites, which  were  very  highly  esteemed  by  all  Jews,  are 
enumerated  by  St.  Paul  in  his  Epistle  to  the  liomans,  in  a 
very  animated  manner.* 

All  the  posterity  of  Jacob  were  anciently  called  Israel,  or 
Children  oj  Israel,  from  the  surname  of  that  patriarch,  until 
the  time  of  king  Rehoboain:  when  ten  tribes,  revoliiiig  from 
this  prince  and  adhering  to  Jeroboam,  were  thencid'orlh 
denominated  the  House  (f  Israel:  while  the  two  tribes  of  Judnh 
and  Benjamin,  who  remained  faithful  to  the  family  of  David, 
were  styleil  ihe  House  of  Judah.  After  tho  captivity,  most 
of  those  who  returned  and  rebuilt  Jerusalem  and  the  temple, 
and  restored  the  rites  of  the  IMosaic  worship,  having  sprung 
from  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  the  term  Jews  oecame  a  gcnfrm 
appellation  for  all  the  inhabitants  of  Palestine,  and  afterwards 
fur  those  who  were  descended  from  them.  (Dan.  iii.  8.1^sth. 
iii.  3.  2  Mace.  ix.  17.)  And  in  this  extensive  sense  the  ' 
word  is  employed  in  the  N»'W  'i'estament.9 

III.  Although  the  constitution  of  the  Jewish  polity  and 
the  laws  of  Muses  allowed  no  other  nations  to  participate  in 

'  It  has  been  remarked  that  Greek  words  ending  in  uttk;  imply  Inferi- 
ority. Tlius  the  'E>.>.iiii;  (///•//riiEs)  were  disliniiui.slied  from  llio  r.>.A.iii  lo-. 
TMi  '(//(7/f  nisT.E) ;  X.hf  funiirr  imply  jmrc  or  native  Creeks,  who  Kpokc  tha 
fJreek  lonK<ic  in  its  purity;  ami  tlie  lutlir,  Jiirs  or  otln-r.s  sojourning 
nmong  llie  Creeks,  who  sjioke  ilie  Creek  Inmiiiaae  accorduiK  lo  the  He- 
brew iclioiii.  These  wire  Ihe  '  EA.>.inirt!«i,  Hellenists  or  Orrrinvn  who 
niiiriiiiired  agairml  the.  I/ilirnra.  (.\cls  vi.  1)  "  I'vlhacorns  divided  his 
ilisciples  into  two  clnssts.  Those,  who  were  capable  of  enlerini;  into  Iho 
spirit  and  mystery  of  his  doclrine,  he  called  llu>»vo^»i»i,  fyl/uigi'UK/LSn  ; 
lliose,  who  were  of  a  dilTiTrnt  cast,  he  termed  lljityofirTat,  or  I'ljlliago- 
nisTS.  The  former  were  emineni  and  worthy  of  their  ni.nster  ;  the  laller,- 
huX.  indifferent.  The  same  distinction  is  iii.ide  between  those  who  were 
called  ArTi«su(,  or  .4^/ics,  and  Attixittbc  or  Atticisx^. — the  pure  and 
less  pure  Creeks,  a  .  between  tliose  called  't.KKKy»(  and  'EA>.iti.iirr»;,  Hel- 
lrnB.a  and  /fcllenisTs,  pure  Creeks,  and  Cra-cising  Jews."  lambllchua 
de  vita  ryllias.  c.  H.  and  .Hchoellgen,  cited  by  Ur.  A.  Claike  on  Act<t  vi.  I. 

•  Sec  Drs.  Whitby,  Dmldridne,  Markiiight,  A.  Clarke,  or  Messrs.  Scoll, 
Henrv.  Ac   on  Koni  ix.  4.  and  Phil.  iii.  5. 

•  K'obinsou's  and  Tarkhurst's  Lexicons,  voce  buJuuf. 


Sect.  I.] 


OF  THE  JEWISH  CHURCH  AND  ITS  MEMBERS. 


109 


their  sacred  rites,  yet  they  did  not  exclude  from  them  such 
persons  as  ^vere  willing  to  tjualify  themselves  for  confonninjr 
to  them.  Hence  they  admitted  jPruselytes,  who  renounced 
the  worship  cf  idols  and  joined  in  the  religious  services  of 
the  Jews ;  although  they  were  not  held  in  the  same  estimation 
as  Jews  by  birth,  descent,  and  language,  who,  we  have  just 
seen,  were  termed  Hebrews  of  the  Hebrews.  During  the 
time  of  Jesus  Christ,  the  Jews,  especially  the  Pharisees, 
greatly  exerted  themselves  in  making  proselytes  to  their 
religion  and  sect.' 

Calmet,  and  some  other  learned  men  after  him,  have  dis- 
tinguished two  kinds  of  proselytes,  namely,  1.  Proselytes  of 
the  gate,  who  dwelt  either  in  or  out  of  the  land  of  Israel, 
and  worshipped  the  true  God,  observing  the  seven  precepts 
of  Noah,2  but  without  obliging  themselves  to  circumcision 
or  any  other  legal  ceremony ;  and,  2.  Proselytes  of  justice  or 
of  righteousness,  who  were  converts  to  Judaism,  and  engaged 
themselves  to  receive  circumcision,  as  avcU  as  to  observe  the 
whole  of  the  Mosaic  law.  There  does  not,  however,  appear 
to  be  any  foundation  in  the  Scri])tures  for  such  a  distinction : 
nor  can  any  with  propriety  be  termed  proselytes,  except  those 
who  fully  embraced  the  Jewish  religion.'  The  Scriptures 
mention  only  two  classes  of  persons,  viz.  the  Israelites  or 
Hebrews  of  the  Hebrews  above  mentioned,  and  the  Gentile 
converts  to  Judaism,  which  last  are  called  by  the  names  of 
strangers  and  sojourners,  or  proselytes.' 

In  the  initiation  of  proselytes  to  the  Jewish  religion,  ac- 
cording to  the  rabbinical  writers,  the  three  following  obser- 
vances were  appointed,  namely,  circumcision,  baptism,  and 
the  offering  of  sacrifices ;  all  of  which,  except  circumcision, 
were  performed  by  the  women,  as  well  as  by  the  men,  who 
became  proselytes. 

1.  Circumcision  (the  import  of  which  is  more  fully  ex- 
plained in  pp.  110,  111.)  was  the  seal  of  the  covenant  into 
which  the  proselyte  entered  with  God,  and  of  the  solemn 
prof(;ssion  which  he  made  to  obseiTe  the  entire  law  of  Moses : 
and  if  the  proselyte  were  a  Samaritan,  or  of  aiiy  other  nation 
that  used  that  rite,  blood  was  to  be  drawn  afresh  from  the 
part  circumcised. 

2.  The  second  ceremony  w^as  Washing  or  Baptism,-  which 
must  be  performed  in  the  presence  of  at  least  three  Jews  of 
distinction,  and  in  the  day-time  that  nothing  might  be  done 
in  secret.  At  the  time  of  its  performance  the  proselyte  de- 
clared his  abhorrence  of  his  past  life,  and  that  no  secular 
motives,  but  a  sincere  love  for  the  law  of  Moses,  induced 
him  to  be  baptized ;  and  he  was  then  instructed  in  the  most 
essential  parts  of  the  law.  He  promised,  at  the  same  time, 
to  lead  a  lioly  life,  to  worship  the  true  God,  and  to  keep  his 
commandments. 

Baptism  was  also  administered  to  the  children  of  prose- 
lytes who  were  born  before  their  parents  became  proselytes, 
and  generally  at  the  same  time  with  their  parents :  but  it  was 
not  administered  to  children  born  after  that  event,  because 
the  parents  and  their  offspring  were  considered  as  Israelites, 
clean  from  their  birth,  and  therefore  were  brought  into  cove- 
nant by  circumcision  alone.'' 

3.  The  third  ceremony  to  be  performed  was  'hat  oi  offering 
ISacrifice. 

And  it  was  a  common  notion  among  the  Jews,  that  every 
person  who  had  duly  performed  them  all  was  to  be  consi- 

«  Compare  Acts  vi.  5.  xiii.  43.  and  Matt,  xxiii.  15  '.vith  Josephus,  Ant. 
Jnd.  lib.  xiii.  c.  9.  §  1.  and  lib.  xx.  c.  3.  §  4. 

»  These  precepts  are  by  the  Jewish  doctors  termed  the  seven  precepts 
of  Noah,  and  (they  pretend)  were  given  by  God  to  the  sons  of  Noah.  They 
are  as  follows: — 1.  That  man  .should  abstain  from  idolatry  ; — 2.  That  they 
sliould  worship  the  true  God  alone  ; — 3.  That  they  should  hold  incest  in 
abhorrence;— 4.  That  they  should  not  commit  murder; — 5.  Nor  rob  or 
steal; — 6.  TJiat  they  should  punish  a  murderer  with  death  ; — 7.  That  they 
should  not  eat  blood,  nor  any  thing  in  which  blood  is,  consequently,  nothing 
strangled.  "Every  one,"  says  a  living  Jewish  writer,  "that  observes 
these  seven  commandments,  is  entitled  to  happiness.  But  to  observe  them 
merely  from  a  sense  of  their  propriety,  is  deemed  by  Maimonides  insuffi- 
cient to  constitute  a  pious  Gentile,  or  to  confer  a  title  to  happiness  in  the 
world  to  come ;  it  is  requisite  that  they  be  observed,  because  they  are 
divine  commands."    f?ee  Allen's  Modern  Judaism,  p.  107. 

'  These  two  classes  are  very  frequently  mentioned  in  the  books  of  Mo- 
ses ;  thus  in  Lev.  xxv.  we  havff  "  the  children  of  Israel"  (ver.  2.)  and  "  the 
strangers  that  sojourn"  among  them.  (ver.  45.)  See  also  Ezek.  xiv.  7. — 
"Every  one  of  the  house  of  Israel,  or  of  the  stianger  that  sojourneth  in 
Israel,  that  separateth  himself  from  me,  and  setteth  up  idols  in  his  heart." 
It  is  evident  that,  by  the  "stranger,"  in  this  pa.«sage,  is  meant  a  proselyte 
who  had  been  converted  to  the  worship  of  Jehovah,  otlierwise  he  could 
not  have  been  separated  from  liim.  Scnulzii  Archaol.  Hebr.  ut  supra 
Jennings's  Jewish  Antiquities,  book  i.  ch.  hi.  pp.  63— £X).  Dr.  Lardner  has 
remarked  that  the  notion  of  two  sorts  of  proselytes  is  not  to  be  found  in 


it  probable  that  the  twelfth  prayer  of  the  Jews  in  p.  107.  supra,  is  not  of  so 
early  a  date  as  is  commonly  supposed 
«  LiglUfooi's  Hor.  Ilebr.  on  Sjatt.  ;  ?.  6. 


dered  as  a  new-bom  infant.  Thus  Maimonides  expressly 
says  i"^ — "A  Gentile  who  is  become  a  proselyte,  and  a  servant 
who  is  set  at  liberty,  are  both  as  it  were  new-born  babes  ;« 
and  all  those  relations  which  he  had  while  either  Gentile  or 
servant,  now  cea.se  from  being  so." 

On  the  proselytism  of  the  Jews,  Jesus  Christ  appears  to 
have  formed  the  principal  qualities  which  he  required  in  the 
proselytes  of  his  covenant.  "  The  first  condition  of  prose- 
lytism among  the  Jews  was,  that  he,  who  came  to  embrace 
tlair  religion,  should  come  voluntarily,  and  that  neither  force 
nor  influence  should  be  employed  in  this  business.  This," 
also,  is  the  first  condition  required  by  Jesus  Christ,  and 
which  he  considers  as  the  foundation  of  all  the  rest.  Jf  any 
man  be  willing  (a  t/?  bikit)  io  come  after  me.  (Matt.  xvi.  24.) 
The  second  condition  required  in  the  Jewish  proselyte  was, 
that  he  should  perfectly  renounce  all  his  prejudices,  his 
errors,  his  idolatry,  and  every  thing  that  concerned  his  false 
religion,  and  that  he  should  entirely  separate  himself  from 
his  most  intimate  friends  and  acquaintances.  It  was  on  this 
ground  that  the  Jews  called  proselytism  a  new  birth,  and 
proselytes  new  born  and  new  men ,-  and  our  Lord  requires 
men  to  be  born  again,  not  only  of  water  but  l)y  the  Holy 
Ghost.  (John  iii.  5.)  All  this  our  Lord  includes  in  this  word, 
let  him  renounce  himself — aTrctfrna-cta-^u)  Imt^v.  (Mark  viii,  34.) 
To  this  the  following  scriptures  refer ;  Matt.  x.  33.  John  iii. 
3.  5.  2  Cor.  V.  17. — ^The  third  condition,  on  which  a  person 
was  admitted  into  the  Jewish  church  as  a  proselyte,  was, 
that  he  should  submit  to  the  yoke  of  the  Jewish  law;  and 
patiently  bear  the  inconveniences  and  sufferings,  with  which 
a  profession  of  the  Mosaic  religion  might  be  accompa- 
nied. Christ  requires  the  same  condition,  but,  instead  of  the 
yoke  of  the  law,  he  brings  in  his  own  doctrine,  which  he 
calls  his  yoke  (Matt.  xi.  29.)  and  his  cross  (Matt.  xvi.  24. 
Mark  viii.  34.),  the  taking  up  of  which  implies  not  only  a 
bold  profession  of  Christ  crucified,  but  also  a  cheerful  sub- 
mitting to  all  the  sufferings  and  persecutions  to  which  ha 
m.ight  be  exposed,  and  even  to  death  itself. — The  fourth  con- 
dition was,  tnat  they  should  solemnly  engage  to  continue  in 
the  Jewish  religion,  faithful  even  unto  death.  This  condi- 
tion Christ  also  requires,  and  it  is  comprised  in  this  word  let 
him  folloiv  me."'     (Matt.  xvi.  24 — 26.     Mark  viii.  34 — 37.) 

IV.  In  consequence  of  the  Babylonish  captivity,  the  Jews 
were  dispersed  among  the  various  provinces  of  the  great 
Babylonian  empire ;  and  though  a  large  portion  of  them 
returned  under  Zerubbabel,  it  appears  that  a  considerable 
part  remained  behind.  From  this  circumstance,  as  well  as 
from  various  other  causes,  it  happened,  in  the  time  of  our 
Lord,  that  great  numbers  of  Jews  were  to  be  found  in 
Greece,  and  all  the  other  parts  of  the  Roman  empire,  which 
at  that  time  had  no  other  limits  but  those  of  the  then  known 
world.?  It  was  of  the  Jews  dispersed  among  the  Gentiles 
OR  Greeks,  that  mention  is  made  in  John  vii.  35. :  and  to  them 
Jesus  Christ  is  also  supposed  to  have  alluded  when  he  said 
that  he  had  other  sheep  (John  x.  16.),  but  without  excluding 
the  Gentiles,  who  also  were  to  enter  into  his  sheepfold,  oi 
be  admitted  into  his  church.  To  these  dispersed  Jews  it 
was,  that  Peter  and  James  inscribed  their  respective  epis- 
tles ;  the  former  to  those  who  were  scattered  through  Pontus, 
Galatia,  Cappadocia,  Asia  Minor,  and  Bithynia  (1  Pet.  i.  1.); 
and  the  latter  to  the  twelve  tribes  who  were  dispersed  through* 
out  the  then  known  world.  (James  i.  1.)  The  Jews  who 
were  assembled  at  Jerusalem  on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  were 
of  the  dispersion.  (Acts  ii.  5 — 11.) 

V.  There  were  also  Jews  who  lived  in  those  countries 
where  Greek  was  the  living  language,  and  perhaps  spoke 

'  Lightfoot's  Hebr.  on  Matt.  iii.  6. ;  Wetstein  on  John  iii.  2. ;  and  Whitby 
on  John  iii.  4, 5, 6.  Some  learned  men  have  supposed  that  our  Lord  alluded 
to  this  rabbinical  tradition  when  he  reproached  Nicodemus  with  being  a 
master  in  Israel  (John  iii.  10.),  and  yet  being  at  the  same  time  ignorant  how 
a  man  could  be  born  a  second  time.  But  it  is  most  probable  that  Jesus 
Christ  referred  to  that  spiritual  meaning  of  circumcision  which  is  noticed 
in  p.  110.  note  «,  infra.  The  arguments  on  the  much  disputed  question, 
Whether  baptism  was  in  use,  or  not,  before  the  time  of  our  Saviour,  are 
reviewed  by  Carpzov  in  his  Apparatus  Antiquitatum  Sacrarum,  p.  49.  and 
by  Dr.  Jennings  in  his  Jewish  Antiquities,  book  i.  c.  3.  It  may  not,  be 
irrelevant  to  remark  that  the  learned  Dr.  Campbell  refers  our  Lord's  cen- 
sure of  Nicodemus,  not  to  the  rabbinical  notion  above  mentioned,  but 
rather  to  his  entire  ignorance  of  that  effusion  of  the  Spirit  which  would  fake 
place  under  the  Messiah,  and  which  had  been  so  clearly  foretold  by  the 
prophets.    Translation  of  the  Four  Gospels,  vol.  ii.  p.  515.  3d  edit. 

8  In  allusion  most  probably  to  this  custom,  St.  Peter  addresses  the  He- 
brews who  had  recently  embraced  Christianity,  as  new-born  babes  (1  Ep. 
ii.  2.),  because  they  had  been  born  again  not  of  corruptible  seed,  but  of 
incorruptible,  even  the  word  of  God  which  livetb  and  abideth  for  ever. 
(1.  23.) 

i  Dr.  A.  Clarke,  on  Mark  viii.  34. 

«  Philo,  de  Legatione  ad  Caium,  p.  1031.  et  in  Flaccum,  p.  971.  Josephus, 
Ant.  Jud.  lib.  rvl.  c.  6.  lib.  xii.  c.  3.  lib.  xiv.  c.  10.  Cicero  Oral,  pro  Flacco 
c.  28. 


110 


SACRED  PERSONS. 


[Paht  in.  Chap.  II 


no  other.  These  are  distintruishcd  in  tlie  New  Testament 
from  the  Hebrews  cr  native  .Jews,  who  sj)oke  what  was  then 
called  Hel)rew'(a  kind  of  Chaldaico-Syriiic),  hy  the  appel- 
lation of  Hellenists,  or  Grecians  as  they  are  t*>imcd  in  our 
authorized  English  version."  These  in  all  other  respects 
were  members  of  the  Jewish  church ;  they  are  repeatedly 
mentioned  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  and  it  was  a  party  of 
the  Hellenistic  Jews  that  requested  to  see  Jesus.' 

VI.  DurinEf  the  time  of  our  Saviour  there  was  a  consi- 
derable number  of  Jews  resident  at  Rome :  Josephus  esti- 
mates them  at  eight  thousand  ;  and  Philo,  who  relates  that 
they  occupied  a  large  quarter  of  the  city,  says,  that  they  were 
chiefly  such  as  had  been  taken  captive  at  diflerent  times, 
and  had  been  carried  intoluxly,  where  they  had  subsequently 
acquired  their  freedom,  and  were  called  Libertines.  Tiie 
synagogue  of  the  Libertines,  mentioned  in  Acts  yi.  0.  is,  by 
some"  critics,  supposed  to  have  belonged  to  this  class  of 
Jews. 2 

VII.  In  consequence  of  this  dispersion  of  the  Jews  thrcn'^h- 
out  the  Roman  empire,  and  the  extensive  commerce  \ihich 
they  carried  on  with  other  nations,  their  religion  became 
known,  and  the  result  was  the  prevalence  of  a  somewhat 
purer  knowledge  of  the  true  God  among  the  Gentiles.  Hence 
we  find,  that  there  were  many  who,  though  they  did  not 
adopt  the  rite  of  circumcision,  yet  had  acquired  a  better  know- 
ledge of  the  Most  High  than  the  pagan  theology  furnished, 
and  who  in  some  respects  conformed  to  the  Jewish  religion. 
Of  this  de^^cription  appear  to  be  the  "  Devout  Men  who  fiared 
Got/,"  who  are  frequently  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament,^ 
and  particularly  the  pious  centurion  Cornelius,  of  whom  the 
sacred  writer  has  given  us  so  pleasing  an  account.  (Acts  x.) 

VIII.  All  these  persons,  with  the  exception  of  the  last 
class,  were  members  of  the  Jewish  church,  participated  in 
its  worship,  and  regulated  themselves  by  the  law  of  Moses 
(or  at  least  professed  to  do  so),  and  by  the  other  inspired 
Hebrew  books,  whence  their  sacred  rites  and  religious  in- 
struction were  derived.  No  person,  however,  was  allowed 
to  partake  of  the  sacred  ordinances,  until  he  had  underg^one 
the  rite  of  Circumcision.'  This  rite  is  first  mentionea  in 
Gen.  xvii.  10 — 12.,  wht-re  we  read  that  it  was  a  seal  of  the 
covenant  which  God  i^ride  with  Abraham  and  his  posterity. 
Afterwards,  when  God  delivered  his  law  to  the  children  of 
Israel,  he  renewed  the  ordinance  of  circumcision,  which  from 
that  time  became  a  sacrament  of  the  Jewish  religion.  Hence 
the  protomartyr  Stephen  calls  it  the  "  covenant  of  circumci- 
sion (Acts  vii.  8.") ;  and  Jesus  Christ  also  ascribes  its  insti- 
tution to  Moses,  though  it  was  derived  from  the  patriarchs. 
(John  vii.  22.)  Besides  the  design  which  God  proposed  to 
himself  in  establishing  this  ceremony,  he  appointed  it  for 
some  other  ends,  suited  to  the  circumstances  of  the  Israelites ; 
a  brief  consideration  of  whieh  will  illustrate  many  important 
passages  of  Scripture.  In  the  first  place,  it  included  in  it  so 
solemn  and  indispensable  an  obligation  to  observe  the  whole 
law,  that  circumcision  did  not  profit  those  who  transgressed. 
(Rom.  ii.  2").)  Hence  the  Jews  are  in  the  Scriptures  fre- 
quently termed  the  circumcision,  that  is,  persons  circumcised, 
as  opposed  to  the  uncircumcised  Gentiles,  who  are  styled  the 
uncirciimcision  (Rom.  iii.  1. 30.  iv.  12.  Gal.  ii.7 — 9.  lOph.  ii. 
II.  Phil.  iii.  5.);  the  abstract  being  put  for  the  concrete. 
Thus,  our  Saviour  is  called  the  minister  of  circumcision  :  and 
therefore  St.  Paul  says,  that  whoever  is  circumcised,  is  bound 
to  kerp  the  whole  law.  (Gal.  v.  .3.)  For  the  same  reason 
Jesus  Christ  was  circumcised,  that  he  might  be  made  under 
the  law,  to  fulfil  the  promise  of  the  Messiah,  and  redeem 
those  who  were  under  tlie  law.  (Gal.  iv.  4.)  Secondly,  as 
only  circumcised  persons  were  deemed  to  be  visible  members 
of  the  Jewish  church,  so  none  but  these  were  permitted  to 
celebrate  the  great  fi^stivals,  particularly  the  passnver.  On 
this  account  it  was  that  Joshua  commanded  all  the  Israelites, 
who  having  been  born  in  the  wilderness  remained  uncir- 
cumcised, to  undergo  the  rite  of  circumcision,  previously  to 
their  entering  the  land  of  Canaan  (Josh.  v.  1.  G.  !).) ;  on 
which  occasion  God  told  them  that  Ik;  hnd  removiul  or  rolled 
away  the  reproach  of  Egypt  from  them  ;  in  other  words,  that 
they  should  thenceforth  be  regarded  as  his  peculiar  people, 

I  John  xVi.  30.  8co  also  Acts  vl.  1.  ix.  29.  and  x\.  00.  and  the  commenta- 
tors on  thoHO  jiasPBgcs. 

«  Josephus,  Ant.  Juil.  lib.  xvii.c.  11.  (n\.  13  )  lib.  xviil.  c.  3.  (.nl.  4.)  H  4,  5. 
Philo  <lo  I,<>|!nt.  ed  Calum.  p.  101-1.  TarKuii,  Annal.  lib.  ii.  r.  fV>.  Sueto- 
nius in  Tiberio,  c.  36.  WolfiuH  on  Acts  vi.  1.  hns  (Iclnilod  the  various 
opinioiiii  of  learned  men  rcipeciiiig  the  Liberlincg.— Sec  pp.  2yl,  2o'Z 
lupra 

»  9eo  Acts  xiii.  43.  TiO.  xvi.  14.  xvii   1.  17.  and  xvlil.  7. 

*  C'alnict  has  an  elaborate  disniu.sition  on  ihn  origin  and  doaign  of  clr- 
cunici:iion.    Diascrtattons,  torn.  i.  pp.  ill-4iil 


and  no  longer  as  the  slaves  of  Egj'pt.  The  knowledge  of 
this  circumstance  beautifully  illustrates  Eph.  ii.  11 — 13.; 
where  St.  Paul,  describing  the  wretched  state  cf  the  Gentiles 
before  tlioir  conversion,  represents  them  as  aliens  from  the 
commonwealth  of  Israel,  and,  consequently,  excluded  from 
•41  its  privileges  and  blessings.  Thirdly,  circumcision  was 
an  open  profession  of  the  worship  of  the  true  Gcd,  and,  con- 
sequently, an  abjuration  of  idolatry ;  on  this  account  we  are 
told  that  during  the  persecution  of  Antiochus  the  heathen  put 
to  death  those  Jewish  women  who  had  caused  their  children 
to  be  circumcised  ;^  and  such  Jews  as  apostatizcxl  to  hea- 
thenism took  away  as  much  as  possible  every  vestige  of  cir- 
cumcision. As  this  rite  was  an  o])en  profession  of  the  Jewish 
religion,  some  zealous  converts  from  tnat  faith  to  Christianity 
strenuously  urged  its  continuance,  especially  among  those 
who  were  of  Jewish  origin ;  but  this  was  expressly  prohi- 
bited by  St.  Paul.  (1  Cor.  vii.  18.) 

Lastly,  circumcision  was  appointed  for  mystical  and  moral 
reasons  :  it  was,  as  baptism  is  with  us,  an  external  sign  of 
inward  puritj''  and  holiness :  hence  these  expressions  of 
" circumci.sing  the  foreskin  of  the  heart,"  the  "circumcision 
of  the  heart,"  the  "  circumcision  made  without  hands,"  the 
"  uncircumcised  in  heart,"  &c.  so  often  occurring  in  the  Scrip- 
tures.5 

The  sacrament  of  circumcision  was  enjoined  to  be  observed 
on  the  eighth  day  (Gen.  xvii,  12.),  including  the  day  when 
the  child  was  born,  and  that  on  which  it  wasperformed  ;  and 
so  scrupulous  were  the  Jews  in  obeying  the  letter  of  the  law, 
that  they  never  neglected  it,  even  though  it  happened  on  the 
Sabbath-day.  (John  vii.  22, 23.)  This  they  termed  "  driving 
away  the  Sabbath."  If  they  v.ero  obliged  to  perform  circum- 
cision, cither  sooner  or  later,  it  was  considered  as  a  misfor- 
tune, and  the  circumcision  so  administered,  though  valid, 
was  not  deemed  equally  good  with  that  done  on  the  eighth 
day  :  and  when  this  ceremony  was  deferred,  it  was  never 
used  to  drive  away  iho  Sabbath.  It  was  for  tliis  reason  that 
St.  Paul  accounted  it  no  small  privilege  to  have  been  circum- 
cised on  the  eighth  day.  Accordingly  John  the  Baptist  (Luke 
i.  59.)  and  Jesus  ('hrist  (Luke  i\.  21.)  were  circumcised 
exactly  on  that  day.  There  was  a  peculiar  fitness  in  the 
circumcision  of  Jesus  Christ:  for,  as  the  Jews  reckoned  it 
dishonourable  to  associate  with  uncircumcised  persons  (Acts 
xi.  3.),  it  was  neces.^iary  that  he  should  be  circumcised  in 
order  to  qualify  him  for  conversing  familiarly  with  them,  and 
also  for  discharging  the  other  duties  of  his  ministry.  Be- 
sides, as  the  Messiah  was  to  be  descended  from  Abraham, 
whose  posterity  were  distinguished  from  the  rest  of  mankind 
by  this  rite,  he  received  the  seal  of  circumcision  to  show  that 
he  was  rightly  descended  from  that  patriarch  :  and  as  every 
person  that  was  circumcised  was  "  a  debtor  to  the  whole  law'' 
(Gal.  V.  3.),  it  Avas  further  necessary,  that  Jesus  Christ  the 
true  Messiah  should  be  circumcised ;  because,  being  thus 
subjected  to  the  law  of  Moses,  he  was  put  into  a  condition  to 
fulfil  all  righteousness,  and  redeem  those  who  were  under  the 
law.-  (Gal.  iv.  -1,  5.) 

At  the  same  time  that  the  child  was  circumcised,  we  Icam 

'  1  M:inc.  i.  C3.    J(i.--'pplinR,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xii.  c.  7. 

'  See  l.pv.  .\xvi.  41.  42.  I'f  ut.  x.  16.  xxx.  0.  Jer.  iv.  4.  ix.  2r>,  CO.  Rom. 
ii.  2.")— "JO.  Col.  ii.  11.  Ads  vii.  ;'!.  Cirruuicisioii  was  thai  rile  of  the  law  by 
which  the  Lsrueliles  were  taken  into  God's  covenant ;  and  (in  (he  (spirit  of 
it)  WHS  the  suine  ai!  haplisin  among  Christians.  For,  as  tlie  form  of  ba|)tisiii 
expresses.'  the  putlitij!  away  of  sin,  circiiinoisiou  was  another  form  to  the 
.saiuf  iiVecl.  The  S?i:ripliiri'  .'•peaks  <if  a  '•  lirciiiiiciKion  iiiailo  without 
liiuiils,"  of  whiili  thulinaili'  with  hainl.s  waj  no  more  th.in  an  outward  sign, 
which  denoted  "  the  pultina  oirihc  body  of  the  sins  of  the  lleuli,"  (Col.  ii. 
11.),  and  l)econiinK  a  new  creature;  which  isthe  senseof  our  liaptisin.  Of 
this  inward  and  si. i I  ilualcrace  of  circtiiiii-i.''ionlhe  apostle  gpcal(s  expressly 
ill  aiiDliier  plaoi- ;  ''  He  is  not  a  Jew  whieh  is  one  outwardly,  neiihci  Is  thai 
riremiii-i.-inn  which  in  outward  in  the  lleshj  but  he  is  a  Jew  which  is  one 
iiiwarilly,  and  circumrisinn  is  that  of  the  lienil,  in  the  tipiril,  and  imt  in  the 
letter."  (Komi.  ii.  2~t.)  ■"'i>iiie  may  suppose  that  this  spiritual  ap|ilication  of 
circiiincisioii,  as  a  sacrament,  was  invented  alter  the  proachiii>;  of  the  Gos- 
pel, when  the  veil  w.is  takrn  from  the  law ;  but  this  doctrine  was  only  en- 
forced III  tliose  who  liail  it  befnre,  and  hail  dejiarteil  from  (he  Feiise  of  their 
ipwii  law;  for  thus  ilid  Mn.ses  iiistrmt  the  Jews,  that  there  is  a  "  fiire>kin  of 
the  heart''  which  was  to  be  "  ririiiiiiciscd"  in  a  moral  or  spiritual  w.i>, 
before  they  could  be  accepted  ns  the  servants  of  God  ;  and  ajiain,  that  tlio 
i.iiril  wi'ulil  "circuniri.-<e  their  biarl,  to  love  him  Willi  all  their  heart,  and 
Willi  all  their  soul."  (l)iiit.  x.  ll'>.  and  x.\x.  0.)  ;  which  was  the  same  aj  to 
say,  that  he  would  Rive  them  what  circumcision  sl^rnifled,  niakiiii:  Iheiii 
Jews  inwardly,  niid  (liviii;;  them  the  inward  (jraco  Willi  the  oiitwnril  sIru , 
without  whicli  (he  Idler  of  baptism  avails  no  ni«ie  now  Ih.in  the  letter  of 
circumcision  did  then  :  and  we  may  say  of  the  one  as  is  haid  of  the  other, 
"  lie  is  not  B  Christiati  which  Is  one  outwardly,  and  baptism  is  nut  Vie  f>ut- 
tin/;  ttxrnij  llf  filth  iif  the  Jlmh  by  washing  with  water,  but  the  inisyrer  of 
a  good  rormrir.'iirc  linrarifa  Oud."  (1  I'et.  iii.  21.)  Ri-v.  W.  Jones  on  the 
KliJiirative  I.ansiiai'e  of  .Scripture.  (Works,  vol.  iii.  pii.  77,  78.)  On  this; 
subject  Dr.  Graves  has  some  excellent  remarks,  in  his  Lectures  on  the 
Penlftteuch,  vol.  i.  jip.  '.Ml— 2ri0.  See  also  an  excellent  discourse  of  Bishop  i 
neveridze,  entitled  ''Tiie  New  Creature  In  Christianity."  Works,  vol.  it.  I 
Serin,  xix.  p.  417.  et  seq.  Kvo  eilit.  ' 

f  Maclcnli^ht  and  Whitby  on  Luke  ii.  21. 


Sect.  IT.] 


OF  THE  LEVITES. 


Ill 


from  the  Gospel,  that  it  was  usual  for  the  father,  or  some 
near  relation, 'to  give  him  a  name.  Thus  John  the  Baptist 
and  .Tesus  Christ  both  received  their  names  on  that  day. 
(Luke  i.  59.  ii.  21.)  It  appears,  however,  that  the  Jews 
had  several  names  clurin^  the  period  comprised  in  the  evan- 
gelical history.  Thus  it  was  customary  with  them,  when 
travellingr  into  foreign  countries,  or  familiarly  conversing  with 
the  GreeTis  and  Komans,  to  assume  a  Greek  or  Latin  name 
of  great  affinity,  and  sometimes  of  the  very  same  significa- 
tion with  that  of  their  own  country,  by  which  naine  they 
were  usually  called  among  the  Gentiles.  So  Thomas  was 
called  Didymus  (John  xi.  16.)  ;  the  one  a  Syriac  and  the 
ether  a  Greek  word,  but  both  signifying  a  twin.  (See  Acts 
L  23.  xii.  12.  2  Pet.  i^  1.  Col.iv.  11.  &c.)  Sometimes  the 
name  was  added  from  their  country,  as  Simon  the  Canaan- 
ite,  and  Judas  Iscariot  (Matt.  x.  4.) ;  but  more  frequently 
from  their  assuming  a  new  and  difterent  name  upon  particu- 
lar occurrences  in  life.  (See  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  4.  2  Kings 
xxn.  IT.  John  i.  42.)  The  same  practice  obtains  in  the 
Ea- 1  to  this  day.' 

However  necessary  circumcision  was  while  the  ceremonial 
law  remained  in  force,  it  became  equally  indifferent  and  un- 
necessary on  the  abrogation  of  that  law  by  the  destruction 
of  the  temple.  Until  that  time  the  apostles  allowed  it  to  be 
performed  on  the  Jewish  converts  to  Christianity ;  but  they 
expressly  prohibited  the  imposition  of  such  a  yoke  on  the 
necks  of  the  Gentile  converts :  and  therefore  St.  Paul,  who 
has  fully  proved  how  unprofitable  and  unnecessary  it  is 
(1  Cor.  vii.  19.),  thought  it  proper  to  have  Timothy  circum- 
cised, because  his  mother  was  oi  Jewish  extraction  (Acts  xvi. 
1 — 3.)  ;  though  he  would  not,  on  the  other  hand,  allow  this 
ceremony  to  be  performed  on  Titus,  because  he  was  a  Greek 
(Gal.  ii.  3.)  : — tnus  giving  to  the  church  in  all  ages  a  most 
excelleht  pattern,  either  of  condescension  or  resolution,  in 
insisting  upon  or  omitting  things  indifferent  according  to  the 
difference  of  times  and  circumstances. 


SECTION  XL 

ON  THE  MINISTERS  OF  THE  TEMPLE  AND  OTHER  ECCLESIASTICAL 
OR  SACRED  PERSONS. 

I.  Of  the  Levites. — II.  The  priests,  their  functions,  mainte- 
nance, and  privileges. — III.  The  high-priest. — His  functions, 
dress,  and  privileges. — Si'.ccession  to  the  pontifical  dignity. 
— IV.  Officers  of  the  Synagogue, — V.  The  JWizarites ;  na- 
ture of  their  voxvs. — VI.  The  Rechabites. — VII.  The  pro- 
phets. 

The  Jews,  on  the  establishment  of  their  republic,  had  no 
King  but  Jehovah  himself;  and  the  place  appointed  for  their 
sacrifices  and  prayers  was  at  the  same  time  Doth  the  temple 
of  their  God  and  the  palace  of  their  sovereign.  This  circum- 
stance will  account  for  the  pomp  and  splendour  of  their  wor- 
ship, as  well  as  the  number,  variety,  and  gradations  in  rank 
of  their  ministers;  which  were  first  established  by  Moses, 
and  afterwards  renewed  by  David,  with  increased  splendour, 
for  the  service  of  the  temple.  To  this  service  the  tribe  of 
Levi  was  especially  devoted,  instead  of  the  first-born  of  the 
tribes  of  Israel,  and  was  disengaged  from  all  secular  labours. 
The  honour  of  the  priesthood,  however,  was  reserved  to  the 
family  of  Aaron  alone,  the  rest  of  the  tribe  being  employed 
in  the  inferior  offices  of  the  temple  :  so  that  all  the  priests 
were  I^evites,  but  all  th^  Levites  were  not  priests. 

I.  Originally,  the  tribe  of  Levi  was  divided  into  the  three 
families  and  orders  of  Gershonites,  Kohathites,  and  Mera- 
rites  (1  Chron.  vi.  16,  &c.),  but  afterwards  the  Levites  were 
divided  by  David  (1  Chron.  xxiii.)  into  four  clases.  Their 
principal  office  was  to  wait  upon  the  priests,  and  be  assisting 
to  them  in  the  service  of  the  tabernacle  and  temple ;  so  that 
they  were  properly  the  ministers  and  servants  of  the  priests, 
and  obliged  to  obey  their  orders,  (Num.  iii.  9.  1  Chron. 
xxiii.  28.)  But  the  particular  duties  incumbent  upon  them 
were  different  in  the  time  of  Moses,  while  the  Israelites  were 
in  the  wilderness,  from  those  which  they  liad  to  discharge 
afterwards,  in  the  days  of  David  and  Solomon.  In  the 
wilderness  the  tabernacle  was  always  in  a  moveable  con- 
dition as  well  as  the  Israelites  :  and  at  that  time  the  chief 
business  of  the  Levites  was,  when  the  Israelites  journeyed, 
to  take  down  the  tabernacle,  to  carry  it  about  as  the  host 

«  See  rianner's  Observations,  vol.  iv.  pp.  431—433. 


removed,  to  take  care  of  all  the  instruments  and  sacred  vessels 
belonging  to  it,  and  when  the  army  pitched  their  tents  to  set 
them  up  again. 

For  the  more  regular  performance  of  the  several  duties 
belonging  to  the  tabernacle,  the  whole  business  was  divided 
between  the  Kohathites,  the  Gershonites,  and  the  Mcrarites. 
The  first  were  principally  concerned  in  carrying  the  ark  and 
sacred  vessels  belonging  to  the  tabernacle  under  the  conduct 
of  Eleazar  the  priest  (Num.  iv.  16.),  which  being  the  most 
honourable  employment,  was  given  to  them  most  probably 
out  of  respect  to  Mcses,  who  was  descended  from  this  family. 
The  Gershonites  and  Merarites,  under  the  direction  of  Itha- 
mar,  had  the  burden  and  charge  of  every  thing  else  belono-- 
ing  to  the  tabernacle,  as  the  coverings,  hangings,  wocdworE, 
cords,  pins,  &c.  (ver.  2d — 34.)  When  the  Israelites  were 
encamped,  these  three  families  of  Levites  were  to  pitch  their 
tents  round  three  sides  of  th.e  tabernacle,  and  INIoses  and 
Aaron  with  their  sons  round  the  fourth  quarter ;  by  which 
means  they  were  so  disposed,  as  to  be  each  of  them  as  near 
as  conveniently  they  could  to  their  respective  charges.  Such 
was  the  office  of  the  Levites  in  the  time  of  Mcses.  After- 
wards, when  the  Israelites  were  settled  in  th.e  promised  land, 
this  employment  of  the  Levites,  in  carrying  the  tabernacle 
and  its  utensils,  ceased ;  and  therefore  David  and  Solomon 
appointed  them  to  new  offices.  They  were  chiefly  indeed 
employed  about  the  service  of  the  temple  :  but  during  their 
recess,  while  they  were  not  in  attendance  there,  they  were 
dispersed  through  the  whole  country,  and  employed  in  the 
service  of  the  state  as  well  as  of  the  church.  David  made 
six  thousand  of  them  officers  and  judges  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  4.) ; 
they  also  took  care  to  instruct  the  people  where  they  resided 
in  the  Mosaic  law,  by  expounding  the  several  parts  of  it; 
and,  according  to  the  Jews,  they  kept  the  public  records  and 
genealogies  of  the  several  tribes. 

In  the  business  about  the  temple  some  of  tl^chief  amongst 
them  had  the  charge  of  the  sacred  treasures.  ^  Chron.  xxiii. 
20.)  Others  of  a  lower  rank  were  to  prepare  the  shew-bread 
and  unleavened  cakes,  with  the  proper  quantity  of  flour  for 
the  morning  and  evening  service.  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  29.)  From 
which  text  it  appears  also  that  they  had  in  their  custody 
within  the  sanctuary  the  original  standard  for  weights  and 
measures,  liquid  and  dry,  according  to  which  every  thing  of 
this  kind  was  to  be  re^iilated.  Hence  it  is  we  often  read  in 
Scripture  of  the  shekel  of  the  sanctuary,  not  that  there  were 
two  sorts  of  shekels,  one  sacred  and  another  civil,  but  be- 
cause weights  and  measures,  being  reckoned  among  the 
sa(;red  things,  were  kept  in  the  sanctuary,  as  they  were  in 
the  temples  of  the  Pagans,  and  afterwards  in  Christian 
churches.2  Many  of  the  Levites  were  likewise  employed 
as  porters,  to  guard  the  gates  and  passages  into  the  temple. 
(1  Chron.  ix.  17.)  Others  were  more  honourably  employed 
as  singers,  and  were  to  stand  every  morning  to  thank  and 
praise  the  Lord,  and  likewise  in  the  evening  (1  Chron.  xxiii. 
30.)  ;  and  this  we  find  they  did  in  a  very  solemn  manner  at 
the  dedication  of  the  temple.  (2  Chron.  v.  12,  13.)  The 
whole  body  of  the  Levites  in  David's  time  amounted  to 
thirty-eight  thousand,  from  thirty  years  old  and  upwards 
(1  Chron.  xxii.  3.),  of  which  number  he  appointed  four-and- 
twenty  thousand  to  attend  the  constant  duty  and  work  of  the 
temple ;  and  these  being  divided  as  the  priests  were  into  four- 
and-twenty  courses  (as  appears  from  1  Chron.  xxiii.  24.  and 
2  Chron.  xxxi.  17.),  there  were  one  thousand  for  each  week. 
Six  thousand  again  were  to  be  officers  and  judges,  as  already 
mentioned,  four  thousand  for  porters,  and  four  thousand  for 
singers.  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  4, 5.)  The  four-and-twenty  courses 
of  singers  are  mentioned  in  1  Chron.  xxv.  8 — 31.  This  dis- 
position of  them  was  afterwards  confirmed  by  Solomon  when 
the  temple  was  finished  (2  Chron.  viii.  14.)  ;  and  all  these 
had  their  chiefs  or  overseers  as  well  as  the  priests.  (Ezra 
viii.  29.)  The  duty  of  the  porters  was  not  only  to  be  a  mili- 
tary guard  upon  the  temple,  but  also  to  take  care  that  no 
person  who  was  unclean  or  uncircumcised  might  enter  the 
court  of  the  Israelites.  (2  Chron.  xxiii,  19.)  And  however 
mean  their  employment  was,  yet  it  was  the  pious  desire  of 
David,  rather  to  be  a  door-keeper  in  the  house  of  God,  than  to 
dwell  in  the  tents  of  wickedness.  (Psal.  Ixxxiv.  10.)  The 
order  of  singers  was  instituted  by  David,  and  it  appears  that 
the  whole  book  of  psalms  was  composed  for  this  kind  of 
devotion.  David  (by  whom  the  greatest  number  was  com- 
posed) directed  many  of  them  to  the  chief  musician,  for  this 
very  purpose,  that  they  might  be  used  in  the  sei-vice  of  the 
house  of  God.  And  we  have  one  particular  instance  in  which 

a  Novels  of  Justinian,  nov.  123.  cap.  15, 


112 


SACRED  PERSONS, 


[Part  III.  Chap.  11. 


it  is  said,  that  David  deVrered  this  psalm  to  thank  the  Lord 
into  the  Itnud  of  .Isaph  and  his  brethren.  (1  Cliroii.  xvi.  7.) 
Tl'.e  principal  persons  of  this  order,  who  had  the  siiporiiiten- 
deiicy  over  all  the  rest,  were  lit  man  and  As-.iph  of  the  line 
of  Gershon,-and  Jeduthun  of  the  line  of  Mernri,  of  whom 
we  have  an  ar^count  in  1  Chron.  xxv. 

The  men-  circumstance  of  birth  did  not  give  the  Levites  a 
title  to  officiutt^ ;  they  were  ohliaed  to  receive  a  sort  of  conse- 
cration, whic't  consisted  chiefly  in  sprinklin":  them  with 
water,  in  washing,  and  in  offering  sacrifices.  (Num.  viii.  G, 
7,  8.)  The  usual  ajje,  at  which  the  Levites  were  to  enter  on 
their  office,  was  at  (ivo-and-twentv  years,  and  they  continued 
till  fifty.  (Xum.  viii.  21,  25.)  l^nt  there  was  a  particular 
precept  which  restrained  the  Kohathites  (one  of  the  three 
orancues)  from  being  employed  to  carry  tlie  holy  things  be- 
longing to  the  sanctuary,  till  they  were  of  the  age  of  thirty 
(Num.  iv.  30.),  probably,  because  these  being  the  most  valu- 
able and  important  of  all  the  moveables  belonging  to  the 
tabernacle,  recpiired  therefore  persons  of  greater  experience 
and  strength.  Afterwards,  when  David  new-moulded  the 
constitution  of  the  Iievites,,he  (by  the  same  authority  which 
empowered  him  to  give  directions  about  the  building  and 
situation  of  the  house  of  God)  ordered  that  for  the  future  the 
liCvites  should  be  admitted  at  the  age  of  twenty  years. 
(1  Chron.  xxiii.  24.)  It  does  not  appear  by  the  first  institu- 
tion of  the  Levitts  that  they  had  any  peculiar  habit  in  the 
ceremonies  of  religion  by  which  they  were  distinguished 
from  other  Lsraelites.  None  of  the  Levites,  of  what  degree 
or  order  soever,  had  any  right  to  sacrifice,  for  that  was  the 
proper  duty  of  the  priests  only  :  the  Levites,  indeed,  were  to 
assist  the  priests  m  killing  and  flaying  the  sacrifices,  and, 
during  the  time  they  were  offered  up,  to  sing  praises  to  God  : 
and  in  this  sense  the  two  passages  in  1  Chron.  xxiii.  31.  and 
2  Chron.  xxxi.  2.  are  commoiuy  understood  ;  neither  had 
they  any  title  to  burn  incense  to  the  Ijord ;  and  though  the 
speech  of  Hezekiah  (mentioned  in  2  Chron.  xxix.  particu- 
larly ver.  11.)  seems  to  imply  otherwise,  yet  we  ought  to 
consider  that  he  is  there  speaking  to  the  priests  as  well  as  to 
the  Levitt:S.  It  was  on  account  of  their  aspiring  to  the  priest's 
office  in  this  particular  of  burning  incense,  that  Korah  and 
his  company  (who  were  Levites)  were  miraculously  destroy- 
ed, and  their  censers  ordered  to  be  beaten  into  broad  plates, 
and  fixed  upon  the  altar,  to  be  perpetual  monuments  of  their 

frcsurnptuous  sacrilege,  and  a  caution  to  all  the  children  of 
srael,  that  none  presume  to  offer  incense  before  the  Lord 
but  tlie  seed  of  Aaron,  who  alone  were  commissioned  to  the 
priestly  office. 

As  the  Levites  were  subordinate  to  the  priests,  so  they 
(the  Levites)  had  others  under  them,  called  Nethinims, 
whose  business  it  was  to  carry  the  water  and  wood  that  was 
wanted  in  the  temple  for  the  use  of  the  sacrifices,  and  to 
perform  other  laborious  services  there.  They  were  not 
orio^inally  of  Hebrew  descent,  but  are  supposed  to  have  been 
chiefly  the  posterity  of  the  CJibeonites,  who  for  their  fraudu- 
lent stratagem  in  imposing  upon  Joshua  and  the  Hebrew 
princes  (Josh.  ix.  3 — 27.)  were  condemned  to  this  employ- 
ment, which  was  a  sort  of  honourable  servitude.  We  read 
in  Ezra,  that  the  Nethinims  were  devoted  by  David  and  the 
other  princes  to  the  service  of  the  temple  (Ezra  viii.  20.), 
and  they  arc  called  the  children  of  Solomon's  servants  (Ezra 
ii.  58.),  being  probably  a  mixture  of  the  race  of  the  Gibeon- 
ites,  and  some  of  the  remains  of  the  Canaanites,  whom  Solo- 
mon constrained  to  various  servitudes.  (1  Kings  ix.  20,  21.) 
They  had  a  particular  place  in  Jerusalem  where  they  dwelt, 
called  Ophrl,  for  the  conveniency  of  being  near  the  service 
of  the  tcmj)le.  (Neh.  iii.  2G.) 

In  order  to  ena!)le  the  Levites  to  devote  themselves  to  that 
service,  forty-eight  cities  were  assigned  to  them  for  their 
residence,  on  the  division  of  the  land  of  Canaan  ;  thirteen  of 
these  were  appropriated  to  the  jiriests,'  to  which  were  added 
the  tithes  of  corn,  fruit,  and  cattle.  The  Levites,  however, 
paid  to  the  priests  a  tenth  part  of  all  their  tithes ;  and  as 
they  were  possessed  of  no  landed  properly,  tiie  tithes  which 
the  priests  received  from  them  were  considered  as  the  first- 
fruits  which  they  were  to  offer  to  God.  (Num.  xviii. 
21--21.V 

II.  Next  to  the  Levites,  but  superior  to  them  in  dignity, 
were  the  ordinary  Piuests,  who  were  chosen  from  the  family 
of  Aaron  exclusively.  They  served  immediately  at  the  altar, 
prepared  the  victims,  and  offered  the  sacrifices.  They  kept 
up  a  perpetual  fire  on  the  altar  of  the  burnt  sacrifices,  and 

See  p.  16.  auprh. 
Hoinc'a  ? 
Hcbr.  pp.  237 


»  Home's  Script  Hist,  of  Jews,  vol  li.  pp.  214—221. 

"^-ai. 


Schulzii  Arcticol. 


also  in  the  lamps  of  the  golden  candlestick  in  the  sanctuary; 
they  kneaded  the  loaves  of  shew-bread,  which  they  baked, 
ana  offered  on  the  golden  altar  in  the  sanctuary :  and  changed 
them  every  Sabl)ath-day.  Every  day,  morning  and  evening, 
a  priest  (who  was  appointed  at  the  beginning  of  the  week 
by  lot)  brought  into  the  sanctuarv  a  smoking  censer  of 
incense,  which  ho  set  upon  the  golden  table,  a:.d  which  on 
no  account  was  to  be  kindled  with  strange  fire,  that  is,  with 
any  fire  but  that  which  was  taken  from  the  altar  of  burnt 
sacrifice.  (Lev.  x.  1,2.)  And  as  the  number  and  variety  of. 
their  functions  required  them  to  be  well  read  in  their  law,  in 
order  that  they  might  lie  able  to  judge  of  the  various  legal 
uncleannesses,  &c.  this  circumstance  caused  them  to  be  con- 
sulted as  interpreters  of  the  law  (ITos.  iv.  6.  Alal.  ii.  7,  &c. 
Lev.  xiii.  2.  Num.  v.  11,  1.5.),  as  well  as  judges  of  contro- 
versies. (Deut.  xxi.  5.  xvii.  8 — 13.)  In  the  time  of  war, 
their  business  was  to  carry  the  ark  of  the  covenant,  to  sound 
the  holy  trumpets,  and  animate  the  army  to  the  performance 
of  its  duties.  To  them  also  it  belonged  publicly  to  bless 
the  people  in  the  name  of  the  Lord. 

The  priests  were  divided  by  David  into  twenty-four  classes 
(1  Chron.  xxiv.  7 — 18.)  ;  which  order  was  retained  by  Solo- 
mon (2  Chron.  viii.  H.J  ;  and  at  the  revivals  of  the  Jewish 
religion  by  the  kiiiffs  Hezekiah  and  Josiah.  (2  Chron.  xxxi. 
2.  XXXV.  4,  5.^  As,  however,  only  four  classes  returned 
from  the  Babylonish  captivity  (Ezra  ii.  3C — 39.  Neh.  vii. 
39 — i2.  xii.  1.),  these  were  agam  divided  into  twenty-four 
classes,  each  of  which  was  distinguislied  by  its  original  ap- 
pellation. This  accounts  for  the  introduction  of  the  class  or 
order  of  Abiah,  mentioned  in  Luke  i.  5.,  which  we  do  not 
find  noticed  among  those  who  returned  from  the  captivity. 
One  of  these  classes  went  up  to  Jerusalem  every  week  to 
discharge  the  sacerdotal  office,  and  succeeded  one  another  on 
the  Sabbath-day,  till  they  had  all  attended  in  their  turn.  To 
each  order  was  assignee!  a  president  (1  Chron.  xxiv.  6.  31. 
2  Chron.  xxxvi.  14.),  whom  some  critics  suppose  to  be  the 
same  as  the  chief  priests  so  often  mentioned  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament, and  in  the  writings  of  Jcsephus.'  The  prince  or 
prefect  of  each  class  appointed  an  entire  family  to  offer  the 
daily  sacrifices :  and  at  the  close  of  the  week  they  all  joined 
together  in  sacrificing.  And  as  each  family  consisted  of  a 
great  number  of  priests,  they  drew  lots  for  the  different 
offices  which  they  were  to  perform.  It  was  by  virtue  of  such 
lot  that  the  office  of  burning  incense  was  assigned  to  Zacha- 
rias  the  father  of  John  the  Baptist,  luhen  he  went  into  the 
temple  of  the  Lmd.  (Luke  i.  9.)  According  to  some  Jewish 
writers,  there  were  three  priests  employed  in  the  offering  of 
the  incense  ;  one,  who  carried  away  the  ashes  left  on  the 
altar  at  the  preceding  service  ;  another,  who  brought  a  pan 
of  burning  coals  from  the  altar  of  sacrifice,  and,  having 
placed  it  on  the  golden  altar,  departed ;  a  third,  who  went 
in  with  the  incense,  sprinkled  it  on  the  burning  coals,  and, 
while  the  smoke  ascended,  made  intercession  for  the  people. 
This  was  the  particular  office  wliich  fell  by  lotto  Zacharias  ; 
and  it  was  accounted  the  most  honourable  in  the  whole 
service.  This  office  could  be  In  Id' but  once  by  the  same 
person.^ 

The  sacerdotal  dignity  being  c  Mifir.ed  to  certain  families, 
every  one  who  aspired  to  it  was  rctpiired  to  establish  his 
descent  from  those  families  :  on  this  account  the  genealogies 
of  the  priests  were  inscribed  in  the  public  registers,  and  were 
preserved  in  the  archives  of  tlic  temple.*  Hence,  in  order 
to  preserve  the  purity  of  the  sacerdotal  blood,  no  priest  was 
permitted  to  marry  a  harlot  or  profane  woman,  or  one  who 
liad  been  divorced;  and  if  any  one  laboured  under  any  bodily 
defect,  this  excluded  hiin  from  serving  at  the  altar.  Purity 
of  body  and  sanctity  of  life  were  alike  indispensable  ;  nor 
could  any  one  undertake  the  priestly  office,  in  the  early 
period  of  the  Jewish  polity,  before  he  had  att;iined  thirty 
years,  or,  in  later  times,  the  age  of  twenty  years.''  According 
to  Maimonides,  the  priest  whose  genealogy  was  defective  in 
any  nspcct  was  clothed  in  black,  and  veiled  in  black,  and 
sent  without  the  verge  of  the  court  of  the  priests ;  but  every 
one  that  was  found  perfect  and  right  was  clothed  in  white, 
and  went  in  and  ministered  with  his  brethren  the  priests.  It 
is  not  improbable  that  St.  John  refers  to  this  custom  of  the 

•  Sec  MaU.  ixvji.  1.  Acts  Iv.  23.  v.  2t.  ix.  11.  21.  xxii.  30.  xxiii.  11.  xxv. 
ir>.  xxvl.  10.  ;  nn  l.^lxn  JoHephiiH,  Am.  JiiH.  lib.  xx.  c.  8.  $8.  DcBcll.  Jud. 
lib.  Iv.  c.  3   i  7.  c.  1.  i  3.  el  <le  viln  fus,  «  2.  D. 

«  Mnrkiiixbi,  niid  \Vci>.tein,  on  l.iiko  i.  9. 

»  Kzra  ii  Ci  Ncli.  \.i.  &t.  Josrphua  contra  Aplon,  lib.  i.  i7.  et  In  Tita 
sua,  f  I. 

•  Lev.  xxl.  7. 17— 83.  Num.  Iv.  3.  2  Chron.  xxxi  17.  Maimon ides  has 
enumcrnU'd  not  fewer  than  140  bodily  defects  wliicli  diMiunlified  persons 
for  llio  pricnlhond.  8c«  Josephus,  Aiil.  Jud.  lib.  ui  c  12.  4  2.  and  oom 
pare  Carpzov'sAppari-.tus  AntiquitBtum  Sacrarum,  p.  89.  ttitq. 


Sect.  II.] 


OF  THE  HIGH-PRIEST. 


11. -i 


Jewish  sanhedrin  in  Rev.  iii.  5.  Those  priests,  whose  birth 
was  pure,  lived  in  certain  apartments  of  the  temple,  in  which 
was  deposited  wood  for  the  altar,  and  were  employed  in 
splitting  and  preparing  it,  to  keep  up  the  sacred  lire.i  No 
particular  ceremony  appears  to  have  taken  place  at  the  con- 
secration of  the  ordinary  priests,  who  were  admitted  to  the 
exercise  of  their  functions  by  '■'■filling  their  hancb,^^  as  the 
Scriptures  term  it, — that  is,  by  making  them  perform  the 
offices  of  their  order.  But  when  the  priests  had  departed 
from  their  religion,  or  had  been  a  long  time  without  dis- 
charging their  functions  (which  happened  under  some  of  the 
later  kings  of  Judah),  it  was  deemed  necessary  to  sanctify 
anew  such  priests,  as  well  as  those  who  had  never  exercised 
their  ministry.  (2  Chron.  xxix.  34.) 

The  priests  were  not  distinguished  by  their  sacerdotal 
habits,  unless  when  engaged  in  the  service  of  the  altar.  Of 
these  garments  there  are  four  kinds  mentioned  in  the  books 
of  Exodus  (xxviii.)  and  Leviticus  (viii.)  ;  viz. 

1 .  Linen  Drawers.  These  were  prescribed  for  the  express 
purpose  of  covering  their  nakedness ,-  that  is,  to  preserve  the 
priests  from  an  indecorous  and  ludicrous  appearance,  when 
they  stood  either  above  the  heads  of  the  people,  or  when  their 
office  required  a  variety  of  bodily  gestures  in  the  view  of  the 
multitude.  This  garment  would  prevent  those  indecent 
exposures  of  their  persons,  which  some  heathen  idolaters 
esteemed  honourable,  and  even  religious  in  the  worship  of 
their  ^ods. 

2.  A  Linen  Tunic,  which  reached  down  to  the  ankles, 
fitting  closely  to  the  body,  and  the  sleeves  of  which  were 
tightly  drawn  round  the  arms :  it  was  without  seam,  and 
woven  from  the  top  throughout.  Such  was  the  tunic  worn 
by  Jesus  Christ,  for  which  the  soldiers  cast  lots.2 

3.  A  Girdle  or  long  sash,  made  of  linen  curiously  embroi- 
dered, and  intended  to  bind  the  coat  closely  around  them, 
and  thus  to  serve  at  once  the  purposes  of  warmth  and  strength, 
of  convenience  and  ornament. 

4.  The  Tiara  was  originally  a  pointed  kind  of  bonnet  or 
turban,  made  of  several  rolls  of  linen  cloth  twisted  round 
the  head ;  but  in  the  tim©  of  Josephus  it  approached  some- 
what to  a  globular  form.^ 

In  order  that  the  priests,  as  well  as  the  Levites,  might  be 
wholly  at  liberty  to  follow  their  sacred  profession,  they  were 
exempted  from  all  secular  burthens  or  labours.  Of  the  Le- 
viticai  cities  already  mentioned,  thirteen  were  assigned  for 
the  residence  of  the  priests,  with  their  respective  suburbs 
(Num.  XXXV.)  ;  the  limits  of  which  were  confined  to  a  thou- 
sand cubits  beyond  the  walls  of  the  city,  which  served  for 
out-houses,  as  stables,  barns,  and  perhaps  for  gardens  of 
herbs  and  flowers.  Beyond  this  they  had  two  thousand  cubits 
more  for  their  pasture,  called  properly  the  fields  of  the  suburbs. 
(Lev.  XXV.  34.)  So  that  there  were  in  the  whole  three  thou- 
sand cubits  round  the  city ;  and  in  this  sense  we  are  to  under- 
stand Num.  XXXV.  4,  5.  where  the  word  suburbs  compre- 
hends both  the  houses,  Avithout  the  walls,  and  also  the  fields. 
But  though  the  tribe  of  Levi  had  no  portion  in  Canaan 
assigned  them  in  the  first  division  of  it,  yet  they  were  not 
prevented  from  purchasing  land,  houses,  goods,  or  cattle,  out 
of  their  own  proper  effects.  Thus  we  read  that  Abiathar  had 
an  estate  of  his  own  at  Anathoth,  to  which  Solomon  banished 
and  confined  him  (1  Kings  ii.  26.) ;  and  the  prophet  Jeremiah, 
who  was  also  a  priest,  purchased  a  field  of  his  uncle's  son  in 
his  own  town.  (Jer.  xxxii.  8, 9.)  Such  were  the  residences 
allotted  to  the  priests.  Their  maintenance  was  derived  from 
the  tithes  offered  by  the  Levites  out  of  the  tithes  by  them 
received,  from  the  first-fruits,  from  the  first  clip  of  wool  when 
the  sheep  were  shorn,  from  the  offerings  made  in  the  temple, 
and  from  their  share  of  the  sin-offerings  and  thanksgiving- 
offerings  sacrificed  in  the  temple,  of  which  certain  parts  were 
appropriated  to  the  priests.  Thus  in  the  peace-offerings, 
tliey  had  the  shoulder  and  the  breast  (Lev.  vii.  33,  34.)  :  in 
the  sin-offerings,  they  burnt  on  the  altar  the  fat  that  covered 
certain  parts  of  the  victim  sacrificed  ;  the  rest  belonged  to  the 
priest.  (Lev.  vii.  6. 10.)  To  him  also  was  appropriated  the 
skin  or  fleece  of  every  victim ;  and  when  an  Israelite  killed 
an  animal  for  his  own  use,  there  were  certain  parts  assigned 
to  the  priest.  (Deut.  xviii.  3.)    All  the  first-born  also,  whether 

'  Lamy,  Apparatus  Biblicus,  vol.  i.  p.  213. 

»  Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  iii.  c.  7.  §  2.  See  also  the  Observations  of 
Ernesti,  Inst.  Interp.  Nov.  Test,  part  ii.  c.  10.  §88.  pp.  371—373.  It  was  for 
along  time  supposed  that  the  art  of  making  such  vests  was  irrecoverably 
lost.  Brauniiis,  however,  rediscovered  it,  and  procured  a  loom  to  be  made, 
in  wliich  tunics  were  woven  all  of  one  piece.  See  his  treatise  de  Vesiitu 
Saccrdotum  Ilebrrsorum,  lib.  i.  c.  16.  p.  204. 

=  .losephus,  Antiq.  Jud.  lib.  iii.  c.  7.  §  3.  Tappan'3  Lect.  on  Jewish 
Anttauities,  pp.  155—157. 

Vol.  II.  P 


of  man  or  beast,  were  dedicated  to  God,  and  by  virtue  of  that 
devotion  belonged  to  the  priests.  Tiie  men  were  redeemed 
for  five  shekels  (Num.  xviii.  15,  16.)  :  the  first-born  of  im- 
pure animals  were  redeemed  or  exchanged,  but  the  clean 
animals  were  not  redeemed.  They  were  sacrificed  to  th(^ 
Lord ;  their  blood  was  sprinkled  about  the  altar,  and  the  rest 
belonged  to  the  priest ;  who  also  had  the  first-fruits  of  trees, 
that  is,  those  of  the  fourth  year  (Num.  xviii.  13.  Lev.  xix. 
23,  24.),  as  well  as  a  share  in  the  tithes  of  the  spoils  taken 
in  war.  (Num.  xxxi.  28 — 41.^  Such  were  the  principal 
revenues  of  the  priests,  which,  tnough  they  were  sufficient  to 
keep  them  above  want,  yet  were  not  (as  some  writers  have 
imagined)  so  ample  as  to  enable  them  to  accumulate  riches, 
or  to  impoverisn  the  laity ;  thus  their  political  influence, 
arising  from  their  sacred  station,  as  well  as  from  their  supe- 
rior learning  and  information,  was  checked  by  rendering  them 
dependent  on  the  people  for  their  daily  bread.  By  this  wise 
constitution  of  Moses,  they  were  deprived  of  all  power,  by 
which  they  might  injure  the  liberty  of  the  other  tribes,  or  ir 
any  way  endanger  the  Israelitish  polity,  by  any  ambitious 
views  or  prospects  :  for  not  only  were  all  the  estates  of  tlie 
Levites  and  priests,  but  also  their  persons,  given  into  the 
hands  of  the  other  tribes,  as  so  many  hostages,  and  as  a 
security  for  their  good  behaviour.  They  were  so  separated 
from  one  another,  that  they  could  not  assist  each  other  in  any 
ambitious  design;  and  they  w'ere  so  dispersed  among  the 
other  tribes,  th?tt  these  could  attach  the  whole  subsistence  as 
well  as  arrest  all  the  persons  of  the  Levites  and  priests  at 
once,  in  the  event  of  any  national  quarrel,  or  if  tney  were 
suspected  of  forming  any  evil  designs  against  the  other  tribes 
of  Israel.  Hence  we  may  perceive,  that,  whatever  powef^ 
influence  the  Mosaic  constitution  gave  the  Levites  to  do  good, 
the  same  constitution  carefully  provided,  that  they  should 
have  no  power,  either  to  disturb  the  peace,  or  to  endanger 
the  liberties  of  their  country.'' 

111.  Over  all  the  priests  was  placed  the  Higii-priest,  who 
enjoyed  peculiar  dignities  and  influence.  He  alone  could 
enter  the  Holy  of  Holies  in  the  temple  :  the  supreme  adminis- 
ti-ation  of  sacred  things  was  confined  to  him ;  he  was  the 
final  arbiter  of  all  controversies  ;  in  later  times  he  presided 
over  the  sanhedrin,  and  held  the  next  rank  to  the  sovereign 
or  prince.  His  authority,  therefore,  was  very  great  at  all 
times,  especially  when  he  united  the  pontifical  and  regal 
dignities  in  his  own  person.  In  the  Old  Testament  he  is 
sometimes  called  the  priest  by  way  of  eminence  (Exod. 
xxix.  30.  Neh.  vii.  65.),  and  sometimes  the  head  or  chief  of 
the  high-priests,  because  the  appellation  of  high-priests  was 
given  to  the  heads  of  the  sacerdotal  families  or  courses,  who 
were  members  of  the  sanhedrin.  This  appellation,  in  the 
New  Testament,  includes  not  orily  the  person  v/ho  actually 
held  the  oflice  of  high-priest  of  the  Jews,  but  also  those  who, 
having  once  filled  that  ofl[ice,  still  retained  the  name.  (Matt, 
xxvi.  57,  58.  Luke  xxii.  50.  54.  John  xi.  49.  51.)  When 
the  high-priest  became  old,  or  had  accidentally  been  ex- 
posed to  any  pollution,  a  uD  (sffoaN)  or  substitute  was  ap- 
pointed to  perform  his  duties.  Zephaniah,  the  second  priest, 
(Jer.  Iii.  24.)  is  supposed  to  have  oeen  the  sagan  or  deputy 
of  the  high-priest  Seraiah.  Such  an  ofiicer  seems  to  be  in- 
tended in  John  xviii.  13.  and  Acts  iv.  6. ;  in  which  passages 
Annas  is  called  a  chief  priest  either  as  having  formerly  been 
hi^h-priest,  or  as  then  being  actually  his  sagan.' 

In  order  that  the  person  of  the  high-priest  might  be  deemed 
more  holy,  he  was  inaugurated  w^ith  great  splendour ;  being 
invested  (after  ablution  was  performed)  with  tfie  sacrea 
habiliments  which  conferred  this  dignity,  and  anointed  with 
a  precious  oil  prepared  and  preserveu  for  this  exclusive  pur- 
pose. (Exod.  xxix.  7.  xxx.  23.  et  seq.  Lev.  viii.  12.)  But, 
after  the  erection  of  the  second  temple,  this  anointing  ceased, 
and  the  inauguration  of  the  high-pnest  was  accomplished  by 
arraying  him  with  the  pontifical  robes  worn  by  his  prede- 
cessor. 

Besides  the  garments  which  were  common  to  the  high- 
priest,  as  well  as  to  the  inferior  members  of  the  sacerdotal 
order,  there  were  four  peculiar  to  himself;  viz. 

1.  The  Coat  or  Robe  of  the  Ephod,which.vfdiS  made  of  blue 
wool ;  on  its  hem  there  were  seventy-two  golden  bells,*^  sepa- 
rated from  one  another  by  as  many  artificial  pomegranates. 
As  the  pomegranates  added  to  the  beauty  of  the  robe,  so  the 

■•  Schulzii  Archxologia,  Hebraica,  pp.  231— -2-35.  Lowman's  Civil  Govern- 
ment of  the  Hebrews,  p.  124. 

>  Godwin's  Moses  and  Aaron,  p.  18.  Lightfoot's  Ilorae  Hebraicw,  and 
Kuinuel.  on  Luke  iii.  2. 

8  Similar  bells  are  still  in  use  in  the  East.  See  Hassclqiiist'a  Travela^ 
p.  58.,  and  D'Arvieux's  Travels  in  Arabia  the  Desert,  p.  226. 


114 


SACRED  PERSONS, 


[Past  Ul.  Cuap.  IL 


i!iound  of  the  bells  gave  notice  to  the  people  ia  the  outer  court  of 
the  high-priest's  entrance  into  the  holy  place  to  hum  incense  ; 
in  order  tliat  they  mi^ht  tlien  apply  themselves  to  their  devo- 
tions, as  an  expression  of  their  concurrence  with  him  in  his 
offering,  and  of  their  hope  tliat  their  prayers,  accompanied 
with  the  incense  offered  oy  him,  would  ascend  as  a  fragrant 
odour  before  God. 

2.  The  Ephod  was  a  vest,  which  was  fastened  on  the 
shoulders,  the  hinder  part  reaching  down  to  the  heels,  while 
the  fore  part  descended  only  a  little  below  tlie  waist.  It  was 
of  fine  twisted  linen,  splenJidly  wrouglit  with  gold  and  pur- 
ple :  to  each  of  the  shoulder-straps  of  this  enhod  was  affixed 
a  precious  stone,  on  which  were  engraven  tnc  names  of  the 
twelve  tribes  of  Israel. 

3.  The  Brecv!tph!c  of  Judgment,  or  ornclp,  was  a  piece  of 
cloth  doubled,  one  span  square,  and  of  similar  texture  and 
workmanship  with  the  ephod  :  on  it  were  set  twelve  precious 
stones,  containing  tlie  engraved  names  of  the  twelve  sons  of 
Jacob,  and  also  the  words  Crihi  and  TliumiU'in,  signifying 
'*  lights  and  perfections,"  and  emblematical  of  divine  illumi- 
nation. Concerning  the  nature  of  the  Urim  and  Tlnsmmim, 
learned  men  are  not  agreed.  All  that  we  know  with  cer- 
tainty is,  that  when  the  high-priest  went  to  ask  counsel  of 
Jehovah,  he  presented  himself  arrayt  d  with  this  breastplate, 
and  received  the  divine  commands.  This  mode  of  consulta- 
tion subsisted  under  the  tabernacle  erected  by  Moses  in  the 
wilderness,  and  until  the  building  of  Solomon's  temple.  As 
(»od  was  the  political  sovereign  of  the  Hebrews,  tne  high- 
priest  was  of  course  his  minister  of  state:  the  names  of  the 
twelve  tribes  being  worn  at  his  breast,  when  he  went  to  ask 
counsel  of  his  sovereign,  were  a  fit  pledge  and  medium  of 
divine  direction.  At  the  same  time,  these  names  being  worn 
both  on  his  breast  and  shoulders  would  forcibly  instruct  him 
to  cherish  the  tenderest  affection,  and  to  exert  his  utmost 
j)ower,  for  their  w«>lfare.' 

4.  The  last  peculiarity  in  tlie  dress  of  the  high-priest  was 
a  Crown  or  Mitre,  on  the  front  of  which  was  tied,  by  a  blue 
riband,  a  plate  of  pure  gold,  on  which  were  engraven  nin^V 
cv  (K<>DfSH  Lffj^nyvflH),  or  I  Mi  lias  unto  the  Ijord,  emble- 
matical of  that  holiness  which  was  the  scope  and  end  of  the 
law. 

With  all  these  vestments  the  high-priest  was  necessarily 
arrayed  when  he  ministered  in  the  tabernacle  or  temple,  but 
at  other  times  he  wore  the  ordinary  dress  of  the  priests  ;  and 
this,  according  to  some  learned  persons,  was  the  reason  why 
St.  Paul  who  had  been  long  absent  from  Jerusalem,  knew 
not  that  Ananias  was  the  high-priest,  when  he  appeared  be- 
fore him  in  the  sanhedrin.2  (Acts  xxiii.  5.)  'I  he  frequent 
and  violent  changes  in  the  pontifical  office',  which  happened 
in  those  times,  confirms  the  probability  of  this  conjecture. 
The  supreme  pontiff  was  not  allowed  to  rend  his  garments, 
■as  the  other  Jews  did,  on  any  occasions  of  domestic  calamity 
(Lev.  xxi.  10.);  but  in  the  time  of  Jesus  Christ  it  had  be- 
come lawful,  or  at  least  was  tolerated  as  an  expression  of 
horror  at  hearing  what  was  deemed  blasphemy  against  God. 
This  will  explain  the  conduct  of  Caiaphas,  who  is  said  (Matt. 
XAvi.  65.)  to  have  rent  his  garments. ^ 

The  Jewish  writers  have  discovered  much  recondite  mean- 
ing in  the  nontifical  vestments.  According  to  Josephus  and 
Philo,  the  high-priest's  linen  garments  represented  the  body 
of  the  earth  ;  the  glorious  robe  which  encompassed  it,  heaven; 
the  bells  and  promegranatcs,  thtmderand  lightning.  Or,  the 
ephod  of  various  colours  is  the  universe;  the  breastplate, 
the  earth  in  its  centre  ;  the  girdle,  the  sea;  the  onyx-stone 
on  each  shoulder,  the  sun  and  moon;  the  twelve  jewels  in 
the  breastplate,  the  twelve  signs  of  the  zodiac  ;  the  mitre, 
heaven ;  and  the  golden  plate,  with  the  name  of  (iod  en- 
graven on  it,  the  splendour  of  J»;hovah  in  hraven.  Some 
Christian  divines  have  allegorized  them  in  a  manner  equally 

'  Tappan's  Lectures  on  Jowlali  Antin.  pp.  157— IBO. 

»  nie  drcBS  ami  omainfMlH  of  ilio  niKlipncit  nbovr;  nolice>I,  tujtoilifr 
with  the  inotlcof  consccralinj  him,  an  cllrcctcJ  by  Muac«,  arc  dCECribcilat 
kngth  in  Exo'l.  xxviji.  and  xx\x.  1—37. 

»  Tappan'o  Lectures,  p.  IW. 


extravagant ;  but  such  wild  comments  serve  no  other  purpose 
than  to  throw  an  air  of  romance,  of  uncertainty,  and  of  ridi- 
cule over  sacred  things.  It  is  sufficient  for  us  to  be  assured, 
that  these  minute  ]irescriptions  were  adapted  to  wise  and 
rvcellent  purposes,  ia  the  comparatively  infant  slate  of  the 
church ;  and,  jiarticularly,  that  they  serv'ed  the  general  uses 
of  an  emblimatical  and  typical  religion,  which  was  intended 
to  impress  moral  and  spiritual  truth  by  sensible  and  striking 
representations. ^ 

The  high-priest,  who  was  the  chief  man  in  Israel,  and 
appeared  before  God  in  behalf  of  the  people  in  their  sacred 
services,  and  who  was  appointed  for  sacrifice,  for  blessing, 
and  for  intercession,  was  a  tvpe  of  Jesus  Christ,  that  great 
higli-priest,  who  o'Tercd  himself  a  sacrifice  for  sin,  who  bltsses 
his  peoi)le,  and  who  evermore  liit/h  to  make  intei-ui-ifion  for 
them.  The  term  pritst  is  also  applied  to  every  true  believer, 
who  is  enabled  to  ofTcr  up  himsen  a  spiritual  sacrifice  accept- 
able to  God  through  Christ.  (I  Pet.  li.  5.  Rev.  i.  6.)* 

The  pontifical  dignil}',  in  its  first  institution,  was  held  for 
life,  provided  the  high-priests  were  not  guilty  of  crimes  that 
merited  deposition.  For  we  read  that  Solomon  deprived 
Abiathar  of  this  office  for  being  concerned  in  treasonable 
practices  with  Adonijah,  who  aspired  to  the  throne  of  Israel. 
( 1  Kings  ii.  27.)  At  its  first  in.stitution,  also,  the  high-priest- 
hood v.'as  made  hereditary  in  the  family  of  Aaron  (Num.  iii, 
10.),  who  was  the  first  person  invested  with  this  dignity. 
( Lev.  viii.  \.et  se.q.  Heb.  v.  4,  5.)  From  Aaron  it  descended 
to  Eleazar,  his  eldest  son,  from  whom  it  passed  in  long*feuc- 
cession  to  Eli ;  from  him,  on  account  of  the  wickedness  of 
his  sons,  the  dignity  subsequently  devolved  to  the  descendants 
of  Ithamar  the  second  son  of  Aaron.  (1  Sam.  ii.  3.5, 3G.)  In 
the  reign  of  Solomon,  however,  it  returned  again  into  the 
family  of  Kleazar  by  Zadok  (1  Kings  ii.  35.);  in  which  it 
remained  until  the  Babylonian  captivity.  During  lliis  period 
the  high-priest  was  elected  by  the  other  priests,  or  else  by 
an  assembly  partly  consisting  of  priests. 

The  first  high-priest,  after  the  return  from  the  captivity, 
Avas  Joshua  the  son  of  Josedck,  of  the  family  of  Eleazar ; 
whence  the  succession  went  into  a  private  Levitical  family. 
The  office  was  then  filled  by  some  of  the  princes  of  the 
Maccabajan  family.  According  to  the  law,  it  was  or  ought 
to  have  been  held  for  life ;  but  this  was  vtry  ill  obeyed  under 
the  Roman  government,  especially  during  the  time  of  cut 
Saviour,  and  in  the  latter  years  of  the  Jewish  polity,  when 
election  and  the  right  of  succession  were  totally  disregarded. 
The  dignity,  sanctity,  and  authority  of  the  high-priest  were 
then  almost  annihilated  ;  and  this  oflTice  was  not  unfrequently 
sold  to  the  highest  bidder,  to  persons  who  had  neither  age, 
learning,  nor  rank  to  recommend  them ;  nay,  even  to  indivi- 
duals who  were  not  of  the  sacerdotal  race;  and  sometimes 
the  office  was  made  annual."  This  circumstance  will  account 
for  the  variations  in  the  lists  of  the  succession  to  the  high- 
priesthood  contained  in  the  Scriptures,  in  Josephus,  and  in 
the  Talmudical  writers ;"  and  will  also  explain  the  circum- 
stance of  several  high-priests  being  in  existence  at  the  same 
time,  or,  rather,  of  there  being  several  pontifical  men  who, 
having  once  held  the  office  for  a  short  time,  seem  to  have 
retained  the  original  dignity  attached  to  tlie  name.^ 

«  BpskIcs  the  autborilics  already  cited  in  the  course  of  tliis  article,  tho 
roailcr  wtio  is  liosiruus  of  invesiiiiaiinK  tlic  nature  and  functions  of  tho 
Jewish  priesthooil  is  referred  to  Relaml's  Antiunitates  vetrrmn  Hi.bra.'o- 
nun,  part  ii  cr.  1 — fi.  pp.  HI— 238. ;  IkeniuB's  Ai'itiiiuitiiicB  Ilchniica',  part 
i.  cr.  10,  11.  pp.  lOS— I'JS. ;  and  to  Schacht's  Aiiiiiitt(l\i"rsli)n(  s  ad  lltcnil 
Anti(iuitaie.s,  pp.  471 — 544. ;  Dr.  Jcnnin^&'ij  Jewish  Aniiquilit!).  b-iok  i.  c.  5. 
pp.  9u — 171.  ;  Michaclis's  Coimnontarles  on  ihe  Law  of  Moses,  \oI.  i.  pp. 
WTd— eCi;  Dr.  I.iglilfoot'g  Workf,  vol.  i.  pp.  101.  915-918.  and  Vi.I.  ii.  pp. 
377— 38<t.  :W.  tlhl. ;  Carpzovii  Anli(|uitati'»  ll-ihr.  fientis,  pp.04— 110. 

»  Tlu'  typical  natiin,-  of  iIjo  J.'wi.-ih  pri.. s'.liooil,  rsin-cnjly  of  llie  liifli- 
pri<  if,  ifl  di.scii.ssod  liy  the  Rev.  VV.  JonrK,  in  lii.s  Lrcturi's  in  the  Figura- 
tive I.anf(U;iL'e  of  Soi  ipliiro,  and  on  the  Epislh'  to  llie  Hebrews.  .(Work*, 
vol.  iii.  pp.  68— C'.'.  223—227.) 

«  Josephus  dc  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  iv.  c.  3.  H7,  a 

'  That  this  was  the  cage  with  Annas  and  Caiaplia.'J,  is  fully  provrd  hy  Dr. 
Lai  drier,  <.'reilil)ilily,  book  ii.  c.  4.  S\.  (WorkB,  \ol.  i  pp.'.'K)— 3S0.)  Tlio 
vanoun  HiicceKHioiik  of  the  hixh-prieMs  are  uivrn  at  Icnelh  liy  Reland, 
Anll(|.  H.-hr.  partd.c  VJ.  pn  160— ItW.  ririchi,  lino.  1717;  aiid  liy  (':Umef, 
Di.'scrt.-dlonK,  torn.  1.  pp.  4«7 — 190,,  and  Diet,  voci  Priest,  froin  whoia  wo 
have  copied  the  Tahln  in  the  followinc  pages. 

•  AiUiq.  Jud  lib  viii.  C  2.  V-i.  c.4.  S3. 


S£CT.  n.] 


OF  THE  HIGH-PRIEST. 


The  following  TABLE  exhibits  a  CnnoKOLOOiCAL  Sbries  of  the  High- 
priests  OP  THE  Hebrews,  from  ttie  OymmencemctU  to  the  Subversion 
of  their  Slate  and  Gocernmcnt. 


1.  Succession,  taken  from  seve- 
ral flaca  of  tfit  Holy  Scrip 
lures. 


2,  Succession,  ta- 
ken from  I 
Chron.  vi.  3 — 
15. 


3.  Succession.  ta-\ 
Jtcn  from  Jorc- 
p/itis,  Ant.  Jud. 
Hi.  X.  c.  8.  lii. 
XX.  c  10. 


1.  Aaron,  the  lirother  of 
Moses,  created  hii^h- 
priest,  A.M.  2514,  died 
•.^552. 

2.  Eleazar.  created  in 
2552,  ana  died  about 
2571. 

3.  Phinehas,  a.  m.  2571, 
died  2-550. 

4.  Abiezer,  orl     These 
Abfehua.       I    were  an- 

!>.  Bukki.  f     ?"  the 

6.  Uzzi.  J      •'•"'Ses- 

7.  Eli,  of  the  race  of  Itha- 
mar,  created  in  2yS. 
died  in  2883. 

5.  Ahitub  I. 

9.  Ahiah.  He  lived  in 
2911,  or  2912. 

10.  Ahiinelech,  or  Abia- 
thar,  he  was  murdered 
by  Saul,  2944. 

11.  Abiathar,  Ahimelech, 
or  Abimelech,  tuider 
David,  from  2944  to 
2989. 

f2.  Zadok  I.  under  Saul, 
David,  and  Solomon, 
from  2944  tw  about 
3000. 

13.  Ahimaaz,  under  Re- 
hoboam,  about  a.  m. 
3030. 

14.  Azariah,  unfler  Jc- 
hoshaphat ;  perhaps 
the  same  as  Aiaariali. 
(2Chron.  xi.x.  11.) 

15.  Johanan,  perhaps  Je- 
hoiada,  hi  the  reign  o;' 
Joash,  2  Cliron.  -xxiv. 
15.  in  3126.  He  died  at 
the  age  of  130. 

j6.  Azariah,  perhaps  Uie 
same  with  Zechariah, 
son  of  Jelioiadah,  who 
was  killed  in  3164. 

17.  Amariah,  perhaps 
AzaviaVi,  under  Uzziah, 
ill  .32-21. 

18.  Ahitub  n.  )rnder  Jo- 

>  thaiu,  king 

19.  Zadok  II.  )  of  JudJib. 


20.  Ih-iah,  under  Ahaz, 
3-265. 

21.  Shallu'.n,  tVie  father 
of  Azariah,  and  grand- 
father to  Hilkiah 

22.  Azariah,  who  livou  in 
the  time  of  Hezekiah 
(2  Cliron.  xxxi.  10.). 
.3278. 

23.  Hilkiah,  under  Heze- 
kiah. 

24.  Eliakim,  or  Joakim, 
under  Manasseh,  and 
at  the  lime  of  the  siege 
of  Bethulia,  in  S>48. 
He  coniinued  to  live 
under  Josiah  to  3380, 
and  lonaer.  He  is  also 
called  Hilkiah.  (Ba- 
ruch  i.  7.) 

"ii.  Azariah,  perhaps  Ne- 
riah,  the  father  of  .Sera- 
iah  and  of  Baruch. 

20.  Seraiali,  the  last  high- 
priest  before  the  cap- 
tivity ;  put  to  death  in 
3414. 

27.  Jpzadak,  during  the 
captivity  of  Babylon, 
from  3414  to  3169. 

28.  Joshua,  or  Jesus,  the 
son  of  lozadak  :  he  re- 
turned from  Babylon 
in  3408. 


1.  Aaron. 

2.  Eleazar. 

3.  Phinehas 

4.  Abishua. 

5.  Bukki. 

6.  Uzxi. 

7.  Zerahiah. 

S.  Meraioth. 
9.  Amariah. 

10.  Ahitub  I. 

11.  Zadok  I. 

12.  Ahimaaz. 

13.  Azariah. 


14.  Johanan, 
1  Cliron.  vi 
9,10. 

15.  Azariah. 


16.  Amariah. 

17.  Ahitub  II. 

18.  Zadok  II. 

19.  Shallum. 

20.  Hilkiah. 

21.  Azariah. 

22.  Scraiah. 

23.  Jehzadak. 

24.  Joshua. 


I.  Succession,  taken 
from  the  Jewish  Chro- 
nicle, enlitleet  Seller 
Olam. 


1.  Aaron. 

2.  Eleazar. 

3.  Phinehas. 

4.  Abiezer. 

5.  Bukki. 

6.  Uzzi. 

7.  Eli. 

8.  Ahiiub. 

9.  Ahimelecl 

10.  Abiathar. 

11.  Zadok. 

12.  Ahimaaz. 

13.  Azariah. 

14.  Joram. 

15.  Issus. 

IC.  Axiora. 

17.  Phideus. 

18.  Sudeas. 

19.  Julus. 

20.  Jotham. 
21."  Uriah. 

22.  Neriah. 

23.  Odeas. 

24.  Saldam. 


1.  Aaron. 

2.  Eleazar. 

3.  Phinehas. 

4.  Eli. 

5.  Ahitub. 

6.  Abiathar 

7.  Zadok. 


8.  Ahimaaz,  under 
Relioboam. 

9.  Azariah,  under 
Abiah. 

10.  Jehoachash,  un 
(Icr  Jelioshaphat. 

11.  Jehoiarib,  under 
Jehoram. 


12.  Jehoshaphat,  un- 
der Ahaziah. 


I3.Jehoiadah,  i  e^_ 

S  3 


14.  Phadaiah,  J 


15.  Zedekiah,  under 
Araaziah. 


16.  Joel,  under  Uz- 
ziah. 


17.  Jotham,  under 
Joatham. 

18.  Uriah,     under 
Ah< 


■25.  Hilkiah. 


26.  Seraiah. 


27.  Jozadak. 


23.   Jesus,  or 
Joshua. 


19 


AtVU^ 

.    Neriah, 


under 


Hezekiah. 
■20.  Ilosaiah,  under 

Manasseh. 
21.  Shallum,  under 

Amon. 

■22.    Hilkiah,    under 
Josiah. 


23.  Az.^riah,  under 
Jehoiakiin,  and 
Zedekiah. 

24.  Jehozailak,  after 
the  taking  of  Je- 
rusalem. 


25.  Jesus,  son  of  .lo- 
zadak,  a.^tsr  the 
captivity. 


The  foUouing  succession  is  collected  from  Ezra,  Nehemiak,  and 

Josephus. 


29.  Joachim,  under  the  reign  of 
Xerxes,  Jos.  Ant.  1.  ii.  c.  5. 

30.  Eliasib,  Joasib,  or  Chasib,  un- 
der Nehemiah,  a.  m.  3550. 

31.  Joiada,  or  Juda,  Neh.  xii.  iO. 

32.  Jonathan,  or  John, 


33.  Jaddua,  or  Jaddus,  who  receiv- 
ed Ale.xander  the  Great  at  Jerusa- 
lem in  3673,  and  died  in  3G82. 

34.  Onias  I.  made  high-priest  in 
3681.  governed  21  years,  and  died  in 
3702. 


35.  Simon  I.  called  the  Just,  made 
hiahpriest  in  3702  or  3703,  and  died 
iir3711. 

36.  Eleazar,  made  in  3712.  Under 
this  potitiflV  the  translation  of  the 
Septua^iiit  is  said  to  have  been 
made,  about  the  year  3727 :  he  died 
in  .3744. 

37.  Manasseh,  made  in  3745,  died 
in  3771. 

38.  Onias  II.  made  in  3771,  died  in 
3785. 

30.  Simon  II.  made  In  3785,  and 
died  in  3805. 

40.  Onias  III.  made  in  3805,  deposed 
3529,  died  in  3834. 

41.  Jesus,  or  Jason,  made  in  K30, 
depo.sed  in  3831. 

42.  Onias  IV.  otherwi,<?e  called 
Mcnclaus,  made  in  3832,  died  in  3842. 

43.  Lysimachus,  vicegerent  of 
Menelaus,  killed  in  3834. 

44.  Alcimus,  or  Jacimus,  or  Joa- 
chim, made  in  3842,  died  in  3814. 

45.  Onias  V.  He  did  not  exercise 
his  pontificate  at  Jerusalem,  but  re- 
tired intoEiiiypt,  where  he  built  the 
temple  Onion  in  3854. 

46.  Judas  Maccabaeus,  restored  the 
altar  and  the  sacrifices  in  3810,  died 
in  .3843. 

47.  Jonathan,  the  AsmonKan,  bro- 
ther to  Judas  Maccabaius,  created 


115 

high-priest  in  3343,  and  died  in 
3860. 

48.  Simon  Maccabteus  made  in 
3860,  died  in  3969. 

40.  Jolm  Hyrcanus,  made  in  38C9, 
died  in  3898. 

50.  Aristobulus,  king  and  pontifT 
of  the  Jew.s,  died  38^. 

51.  Alexander  Jannreus,  also  king 
and  pontiff  during  27  years,  from 
3809  to  3926. 

52.  Hyrcanus  was  high-prie.st  for 
the  space  of  32  years  in  the  whole, 
from  3926  to  3XS. 

53.  Aristobulus,  brother  toHvrca- 
nus,  usurped  the  high-priesthood, 
and  held  it  three  years  and  three 
months,  from  3935  to  3940. 

^  54.  Antigonus,  his  son,  also  usurp 
ed  the  priesthood  in  prejudice  to  the 
rights  of  Hyrcanus,  and  possessed 
it  for  three  years  and  seven  months, 
from  3964  to  3967,  when  he  was  taken 
by  Sosius. 

55.  Ananeel  of  Babylon,  made  high- 
priest  by  Herod  in  3968  till  3970. 

56.  Aristobulus,  the  last  of  the 
Asmonaians :  he  did  not  enjoy  the 
pontificate  a  whole  year.  He  died 
in  3970.  Ananeel  was  made  high- 
priest  a  second  time  in  3971. 

57.  Jesus,  the  son  of  Phabis,  de- 
posed in  39S1.  , 


Succession  of  High-priesls  after  the  Captivity. 


58.  Simon,  son  of  Botheus,  made 
high-priest  in  3981,  deposed  in  3009. 

59.  Matthias,  son  of  Theophilus, 
made  high-priest  in  3999.  EUem  was 
substituted  in  his  place  for  a  day, 
because  of  an  accident  that  happen- 
ed to  Matthias,  which  hindered  him 
from  performing  his  office  that  day. 

60.  Joazar,  son  of  Simon,  son  of 
Boethus,  made  high-priest  in  4000, 
the  year  of  the  birth  of  Jesus  Christ, 
four  years  before  the  commence- 
ment of  the  vulgar  era. 

61.  Eleazar,  brother  to  Joazar, 
made  hi«h-priest  in  4004,  of  Christ 
4,  of  the  vulgar  era  1. 

62.  Jesus,  son  of  Siah,  made  high- 
priest  in  the  year  of  the  vulgar  era 
6.  Joazar  was  made  a  second  time 
in  7,  and  deposed  in  1.3. 

63.  Ananus,  son  of  Seth,  for  11 
years,  from  4016  to  4027,  of  the  vul- 
gar era  24, 

64.  Ishmael,  son  of  Phabi,  in  24. 

65.  Eleazar,  son  of  Ananus,  made 
in  24. 

66.  Simon,  son  of  Camithus,  made 
high-priest  in  25. 

67.  .Joseph,  surnamed  Caiaphas, 
made  in  26,  and  continued  til!  -35. 

6.8.  Jonathan,  son  of  Ananus,  made 
in  35,  and  continued  till  37. 

69.  Theophilus,  son  of  .Jonathan, 
made  in  37,  and  continued  till  41. 


70.  Simon,  surnamed  Cantharus, 
and  son  of  Simon  Boethus,  was 
made  high-priest  in  41. 

71.  Matthias,  sonof  Ananus,  made 
high-priest  in  42. 

72.  Elioneus,  made  in  44,  and  con- 
tinued till  45.  Simon,  son  of  Cantha- 
rus, was  a  second  time  made  high- 
priest,  A.  D.  45,  and  deposed  the 
same  year. 

73.  Joseph,  son  of  Caneus,  was 
made  high-priest  in  a.  d.  45,  till  57. 

74.  Ananias,  the  son  of  Nebodeus, 
was  made  high-priest  in  the  year  of 
the  vulgar  era  47,  and  enjoyed  the 
priesthood  till  63. 

75.  Ismael  was  ordained  high- 
priest,  A.  D.  63. 

76.  Joseph,  surnamed  Cabei,  in  63. 

77.  Ananus,  the  son  of  Ananus, 
in  63. 

78.  Jesus,  the  son  of  Ananus,  in  64. 

79.  Jesu.?,  the  son  of  Gamaliel,  in 
64. 

80.  Matthias,  the  son  of  Theophi- 
lus, was  made  high-priest  in  the  year 
of  the  vulgar  Christian  era  70. 

81.  Phannias,  the  son  of  Samuel, 
was  made  high-priest  in  the  year  70, 
in  which  yeai"  Jerusalem  and  the 
temple  were  destroyed  by  the  Ro- 
mans, and  a  final  period  was  put  to 
the  Jewish  priesthood. 


Of  those  who  discharged  the  functions  of  high-priest  dur- 
ing the  decline  of  the  Jewish  polity,  there  are  two  particu- 
larly mentioned  in  the  New  Testament,  namely,  Annas  (John 
xviii.  13.  Acts  iv.  6.),  and  Caiaphas.  (Matt,  xxvi,  3.  57. 
John  xviii.  13.  24.  23.)  The  former  is  bj"^  Josephus  called 
Ananus,  of  which  name  Annas  is  an  abridgment :  the  latter 
he  calls  Joseph,  intimating  also  that  he  was  known  by  the 
name  of  Caiaphas.'  Annas  enjoyed  the  singular  felicity 
(which  indeed  had  never  happened  to  any  other  of  the  Jew- 
ish high-priests),  not  onlj'  of  having  himself  held  the  supremo 
Eontifical  office  for  many  years,  but  also  of  seeing  it  filled 
y  several  successors  out  of  his  own  family,  five  of  them 
being  his  sons,  and  others  his  sons-in-law.  Hence,  although 
he  was  deprived  of  the  high-priesthood  by  the  Romans,  he 
afterward  continued  to  take  the  chief  sway,  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  Jewish  affairs ;  and  is  represented  in  the  sacred 
history,  together  with  Caiaphas,  as  being  chief  priest  ana 
exercising  supreme  authority. 

IV.  Next  to  the  Levites,  priests,  and  high-priests,  the 
Officers  of  the  Synagogue  may  be  mentioned  here,  as 
being  in  some  degree  sacred  persons;  since  to  them  was 
confided  the  superintendence  of  those  places  which  were  set 
apart  for  prayer  and  instruction.  Their  functions  and  powers 
have  been  fully  stated  in  p.  104.  supra. 

«  Luke  iii.  2.  Acts  iv.  6.  In  like  manner  Josephus  (de  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  ii. 
c.  12.  §  6.)  places  .lon.ithan,  who  had  been  high-priest  (Antiq.  Jud.  lib.  xviii. 
c.  4.  §  3.),  and  who  still  continued  to  possess  great  authority,  before  Ananias, 
who  at  tliat  time  discharged  the  functions  of  sovereign  pontiff.  (Ant.  Jixl. 
lib.  XX.  c.  5.  5  2.)  See  aUo  Lardner's  Credibility,  book  i.  c.  7.  §  1.  and  book 
i:.  c.  4.  (Works,  vol.  i.  pp.  143.  3S3-359.) 


SACRED  THINGS. 


[Past  ITL 


V.  The  Naz.vritks  (as  the  Hebrew  word  Nazlr  implies) 
were  persons  separated  from  tlic  use  of  certain  things,  and 
sequestered  or  consecrated  to  Jeliovah.  They  are  commonly 
regarded  as  sacred  persons  ;  a  notice  of  their  institute  will 
be^found  ir^fra,  in  ciiapter  v.  sect.  i.  §  iii.  '2. 

VI.  The  Rechaeites  are  by  many  writers  considered  as 
a  class  of  holy  persons,  who,  like  the  Nazarites,  sej)arated 
themselves  from  the  rest  of  the  Jews,  in  order  that  they 
misht  lead  a  more  pious  life.  But  this  is  evidently  a  mistake ; 
for' they  were  not  Israelites  or  Jews,  but  Kenites  or  Midi- 
anites,  who  used  to  live  in  tents,  and  traversed  the  country 
tn  quest  of  pasture  for  tl.cir  cattle,  as  the  Nabathfean  Arabs 
rtiiciently  did,  and  as  the  modern  Arabians,  and  (,' rim-Tatars 
(or  Tartars)'  still  do.  Their  manner  of  livinrr  was  not  the 
result  of  a  religious  institute^  but  a  mere  civil  ordinance, 
grounded  upon  a  national  custom.  They  derived  their  name 
trom  Jonadab  tlie  son  of  Rechab,  a  man  of  eminent  zeal  for 
the  pure  worship  of  God  against  idolatry,  who  assisted  king 
Jehu  in  destroying  the  house  of  Ahal)  and  the  worshippers 
of  Baal.  ('2  Kings  x.  15,  H!.  ;J3.)  It  was  he  who  gave  the 
rule  of  life  to  his  children  and  their  posterity,  which  is 
recorded  by  the  prophet  Jeremiah  (xxxvi.  5 — 7.);  and  which 
ronsisted  of  these  three  articles:  1.  That  they  should  drink 
no  rine;  2.  That  they  should  neither  possess  nor  occujiy 
any  houses,  fields,  or  vineyards ;  and,  3.  That  they  should 
dwell  in  tents.  In  those  regulations  he  appi^ars  to  have  had 
no  religious,  but  merely  a  prudential  view,  as  is  intimated 
in  the  reason  assigned  for  them,  viz.  that  they  might  live 
nmny  days  in  the' land  where  they  were  strangers.  And 
such,  in  fact,  would  be  the  natural  consequence  of  their  tem- 
perate and  quiet  mode  of  living.  On  the  first  invasion  of 
Nebuchadnezzar,  with  intent  to  besiege  Jerusalem,  these 
Rechabites,  apprehending  themselves  in  more  danger  in  the 
open  country,  came  to  Jerusalem  for  safety  ;  by  these  people 
('od  intended  to  convince  the  Jews  of  their  disobedience  to 
him ;  and,  therefore,  lie  ordered  his  prophet  Ji-reiniah  to  bring 
them  to  an  apartment  of  the  tem])le,  and  there  offer  them 
wine  to  drink,  which  when  they  refused,  on  account  of  its 
being  contrary  to  tlitir  institute,  which  they  never  had  vio- 
latecf,  the  prophet,  after  due  commendation  of  their  obedience, 
addressed  the  Jews,  and  reproached  them,  who  were  (iod's 
]>eculiar  people,  for  bein{r  less  observant  of  his  laws  than 
these  poor  Rechabites  had  been  of  the  injunctions  of  their 
ancestor.  (Jcr.  xxxv.)    Wherefore  Jehovah  declares  (ver.  18, 


19.)  that,  because  the  Rechabites  had  obeyed  the  precepts  of 
Joiuidub  their  father,  therefore  Jonadab  should  7tnt  iravt  a  man 
to  itund  before  him  fn-  ever,-  The  Rechabites  flourished  as  n 
community  about  one  hundred  and  eighty  years,  and  were  sup- 
posed to  have  been  dispersed  after  the  captivity;  but  modern 
travellers  have  discovered  their  descendants  in  a  tribe  of 
Bedouin  Arabs,  who  dwell  alone  in  the  vicinity  of  Mecca, 
and  are  called  Beni  Khaibr,  or  the  sons  of  Khaibr  (that  is, 
of  Heber).  They  continue  to  obey  the  injunctions  of  their 
ancestor  Rechab.  "To  this  moment  they  drink  no  wine,  and 
have  neither  vineyard,  ncr  field,  nor  seed;  but  dwell  like 
Arabs  in  tents,  and  are  wandering  noinades.  They  believe 
and  observe  the  law  of  IMoses  by  tradition,  for  they  are  not 
in  possession  of  the  written  law.''^ 

VII.  The  Prophets  were  eminently  distinguished  amon^ 
the  persons  accounted  holy  by  the  Jews :  they  were  raised 
up  by  God  in  an  extraordinary  manner  for  the  performance 
of  the  most  sacred  functions.  Originally  the}'  were  called 
Seers. •  they  discovered  things  yet  future,  declared  the  will  of 
God,  and  announced  their  divine  messages,  both  to  kings  and 
people,  with  a  confidence  and  freedom  that  could  only  be 
prouuced  by  the  conviction  that  they  were  indeed  autho- 
rized messengers  of  Jehovah.  The  gift  of  prophecy  was  not 
always  annexed  to  tiie  priesthood :  there  were  prophets  of 
all  the  tribes,  and  sometimes  even  among  the  Gentiles.  The 
office  of  a  prophet  was  not  confined  to  the  prediction  of  future 
events  ;  it  was  their  province  to  instruct  tne  people,  and  they 
interpreted  the  law  of  God  :  hence  the  words  prophet  anu 
prophecy  are,  in  many  passages  of  the  Scriptures,  synony- 
mous with  interpreter  or  teacher,  and  interpretation  or  teach- 
ing. It  is  unanimously  agreed  both  by  Jews  and  Christians 
that  RIalachi  was  the  last  of  the  prophets  \mder  the  Old 
Testament  dispensation  :  and  it  is  a  remarkable  fact,  that  so 
lonor  as  there  were  prophets  among  the  Jews,  they  were  not 
divrded  by  sects  or  heresies,  although  they  often  fell  into 
idolatry.  This  circumstance  may  thus  be  accounted  for : — As 
the  prophets  received  tlieir  communications  of  the  divine 
will  immediately  from  God  himself,  there  was  no  alternative 
for  the  Jews :  either  the  people  must  obey  the  prophets,  and 
receive  their  interpretations  of  the  law,  or  no  longer  acknow- 
ledge that  CJcd  who  inspired  them.  When,  however,  the 
law" of  God  came  to  be  explained  by  weak  and  fallible  men, 
who  seldom  agreed  in  their  opinions,  sects  and  parties  were 
the  unavoidable  result  of  such  conflicting  sentiments.^ 


CHAPTER  III. 


S  A  C  R  K  D      THINGS. 


ON   THE    SACRIFICES   AND   OTHER   OFFERINGS    OF   THE    JEWS.* 


.eneralClassi/tcation  of  Sacrifcca  and  Offcrins*  : — I-  Bloodt  OrrKnixcs,  and  tia-  divine  Origin  of  Sacrifices  ,— I.  Differ, 
ent  Kinds  of  ficlims  ; — 2.  Selection  of  Victims  ; — 3.  Manner  of  presenting  them  ; — \.  Immolation  of  the  Sacrijice  ; — 5.  7'/.<f 
Place  and  Time  af/fiointrd  for  sacrificing ;—G.  Different  Kinds  of  Fire-sacrifces  :—\.    liurnt-offerincrt ; — ii.  Peace-offer- 

ings  ; iii.    SiJi-offcriwrs  ;—h\   Trespass-offerings; — II.  Xational,  regular,  iveek-hj,  mouthlu,  and  annual  Sacrifices. — III. 

Unbloody  OFFi:ui>fis. — IV.  DniitK-OfFEnixos. — V.  Other  Oblations  made  by  the  Je^vs:^\.  Oani.vAni  Oblations; — (1.) 
The  She-u-brcad. — (2.)  Incense. — 2.  Voluntary  Oiilations. —  Curban. — 3.  PnEscniHED  Oblations; — (1.)  First-fruits; 
(2.)  Tillies. — VI.  Fitness  and  Utility  of  the  Jewish  Sacrifices. 

or  destruction  (.f  the  thing  offered  :  whereas,  an  oblation  is 


A  SACRIFICE  is  an  offering  made  to  God  upon  his  altar  by 
the  hand  of  a  lawful  rninisUT.  Sacrifice  differs  from  oblation 
in  this  respect,  viz.  in  a  sacrifice  there  must  be  a  real  change 

«  Bpp  Mrs.  IfoMern'-ss's  Notes  relating  to  Uie  Manners  anci  Customs  of 
I'.p  f 'rim-Tainr*.  Ix>ii(lori,  1*^1.  Viiwn. 

1  I.auiyN  AiipHrutiis  llihliruH,  vol.  i.  j).  223.    Mirli.v:lu'»  ConinifnlaricR 
■  ).M,  vol.  1.  i.;<   .i.7,  2;^t  _Mc'iIu'm  \V.,rk.s,  1     •  -     "  •      • 


on  tlic  Law 


Mc'iIu'm  \V.,rk.s,  i>    VZI.    t^aliiict, 
The  rc.Tler  will  find  an  Inntiiiclivi; 


ti<inm<»ntairn  I,i(H''ralo,  toiiio  vi.  p.  xvil 

('..irrii]  '.c  liUtory  of  tlic  Rechabites,  in  Dr.  Tounson'd  VVoiks,  vol. 

I.,  pi' 

>  \\  ,.;  ,  .i.^-ion.iry  Journal  aniTMcnioir,  ji.  t"7.;  Curnc's  Recollection.'; 
of  the  tUint,  pp.  »'),  or.. 

*  For  a  nioro  particular  account  of  Iho  sacrcJ  prophet*,  Bocpartl.  cliap. 
Iv.  BCCt.  i.  infra. 

»  General  authoriticii  from  wlilch  this  chapter  Is  compilert :— Scliul/.il 
Arrh.Tol.  11,1).  pp  2."iO-28f>.  I.amy,  Appaialns  nihllcuB,  vf)l.  I.  pp.  IV— 
2'.J.  Ri'lan'li  Amiq  H.irr.  IIebr.T'iruiii,  part  iii.  "an.  1—5.  pp.  ;*«)  -KJH. 
iKcnii  Anti((.  Mel.,  p.irt  i.  rap.  i:i,  11.  pp.  l.VJ— I'.M.  llcaunnhrr  and  I.'Kn- 
fanl'H  Inlrod.  to  the  NewT<>st.  (Kinhup  Wnloon'ii  Tracts,  vol.  iii.  ^ip.  1% — 
IW  )  Ji'nnini;H'ti  Jrwi.^h  Anlirpiiije.x,  hook  i.  clinp.  v.  MirhaeliH'.'i  (ommen- 
tnrie«,  vol.  iii.  pp.  0«-  97.  I(W  -ll.V  MO— 'JfVI.  Vr.  MiiI'h'h  Annlyiin,  vol.  il. 
l.iok  ii.  pp  .n\\~Hi.  Jahn.  Arrh.i-.l.  Bil.lira.  «i:«7:t--1»>  I>i  Owen  on 
rn«  EpUile  to  Iho  Hebrew,!,  vol  I.  Ktercil.  x\i*.  pp.  :Ki6-  3IS.  Dr.  I.ight- 
l^ji'd  \*  jritf",  vol.  1.  pp.  ?J0— »11.  folio  edition,  SS  353-38.5.    Ackermann, 


on 


ly  a  simple  offering  or  gift.» 
Thes:     " 


sacrifices  and  oblations  of  the  Jews  demand  particular 
notice  in  this  sketch  of  their  ecch  siasticiil  titate.  "Such  a 
ritual  as  they  were  enjoined  to  observe,  the  multiplicity  of 
victims  they  were  appointed  statedly  to  offer,  tcgetiter  with 
the  splendour  of  that  external  worship  in  which  they  were 
daily  engaged, — all  tendt^d  to  replenish  and  adorn  their  lan- 
guage with  numerous  allusions,  and  striking  metaphorn 
derived  from  the  pomp  of  their  ndigion.  Hence  it  is  that 
the  writings  of  th«!  Jews,  more  than  of  any  other  i»eoplc, 
abound  with  phrases  and  terms  l)orrowed  from  tiie  lemple 
worship  and  servire.  The  psalms  and  prophetical  wriiinga 
may  in  particular  l)e  adduced  in  illnstr.ition  of  this  remark. 
Purine  fne  with  hya.tnp,  says  David,  and  I  shall  be  clean, 
I'ltott  shall  be  pleased  with  th't  Mtcrifces  of  righteousness,  (Psal. 

ArchiPol.  nihllra.  SSVO—^2.  Tappan'n  Jewish  Antlq  pp.  11)6—119.  Brun- 
iiiifB,   Aniiq.   llcbr.  pp.    Vii—Wi.     C'urpjovii   Autiii.    llebr.    UcnUn    pp 
OLW— 725. 
•  Cclmel'i  Dictionary,  voce  Sacrifice. 


Ckap.  III.] 


OF  BLOODY  OFFERINGS. 


117 


li.  7.  19.)  Let  my  prayer  corrtt  before  thee  as  incense,  and  the 
rfiing  up  of  my  hwids  as  the  eveni7ig  sacrifice.  (Psal.  cxli.  2.) 
Tiierefore  will  I  offer  the  sacrifice  of  joy.  (Psal.  cxvi.  17.) 
7%e  sin  of  Jiidah,  says  Jeremiah,  is  -  -  -  -  graven  upon  the 
horns  of  yoir  altars.  (Jer.  xvii.  1.)  Take  away  all  our  ini- 
quity  and  receive  us  graciously  ,•  so  will  we  render  thee  the 
calves  of  our  lips.  (Hos.  xiv.  2.)"  Nor  are  similar  examples 
wanting  in  the  New  Testament,  whose  inspired  authors, 
being  educated  in  the  Jewish  religion,  retain  the  same 
phraseology,  which  has  enriched  their  writings  with  nume- 
rous beautiful  and  expressive  allusions  to  the  national  sacri- 
fices and  ceremonies.' 

Michaelis  classes  the  oflFerings  prescribed  to  the  Israelites 
under  three  general  heads — namely,  bloody  offerings,  or 
sacrifices  strictly  so  called ;  unbbody  offerings,  or  those 
taken  only  from  the  vegetable  kingdom  ;  and  drink-offerings, 
or  libations,  which  were  a  kind  of  accompaniment  to  the 
two  preceding.  We  shall  follow  this  classification,  as  ena- 
bling us  to  present  to  our  readers  the  most  compendious 
account  of  the  Jewish  sacrifices. 

I.  Bloody  Offerings  were  sacrifices  properly  and  strictly 
so  called  ;  by  which  we  may  understand  the  infliction  of 
death  on  a  living  creature,  generally  by  the  effusion  of  its 
blood  in  a  way  of  religious  worship,  and  the  presenting  of 
this  act  to  God  as  a  supplication  for  the  pardon  of  sin,  and  as 
a  supposed  mean  of  compensation  for  tlie  insult  and  injury 
offered  by  sin  to  his  majesty  and  government.  Sacrifices 
have  in  all  ages,  and  by  almost  every  nation,  been  regarded 
as  necessary  to  appease  the  divine  anger,  and  to  render  the 
Deity  jiropitious  :^  but  whether  this  universal  notion  derived 
Its  origin  from  divine  revelation,  or  was  suggested  by  con- 
scious guilt  and  a  dread  of  the  divine  displeasure,  is  a  ques- 
tion that  cannot  be  easily  decided.  It  is,  however,  not 
improbable  that  it  originated  in  the  former,  and  prevailed 
under  the  influence  of  the  latter.  The  Scripture  account  of 
sacrifices  leads  us  to  conclude,  that  they  were  instituted  by 
divine  appointment,  immediately  after  the  entrance  of  sin  by 
the  fall  of  Adam  and  Eve,  to  be  a  type  or  significant  emblem 
of  the  great  atonement  or  all-sufficient  sacrifice  of  Christ.-^ 
Accordingly  we  find  Abel,  Noah,  Abraham,  Job,  and  ethers, 
offering  sacrifices  in  the  faith  of  the  Messiah  that  was  to  be 
revealed  ;  and  the  divine  acceptance  of  their  sacrifices  is 
particularly  recorded.  This  hypothesis,  and  this  only,  satis- 
factorily accounts  for  the  early  prevalence  of  religious  sacri- 
fices, not  only  among  the  worshippers  of  the  true  God,  but 
also  among  Pagan  idolaters. 

1.  In  all  bloody  sacrifices  it  was  essential  that  the  animals 
slaughtered  should  be  clean ;  but  it  does  not  appear  that  all 
clean  animals  were  to  be  offered  indiscriminately.  Fishes 
were  not  brought  to  the  altar;  and  hence  the  Israelites  are 
nowhere  prohibited  from  eating  their  blood,  but  only  that  of 
birds  and  quadrupeds.  (Lev.  vii.  26.)  It  would  seem  that 
o// clean  birds  might  be  offered  (Lev.  xiv.  4 — 7.),  though  the 
dove  was  the  most  common  offering  of  this  class.  Of  quad- 
rapeds,  oxen,  sheep,  and  goats  were  the  only  kinds  which 
were  destined  for  the  altar.  No  wild  beasts  were  admissi- 
ble :  and  hence  comes  the  expression  in  the  law  of  Moses 
f  Deut.  xii.  15,  22.  xv.  22.),  //  shall  be  eaten  like  the  roe  or  the 
hart;  by  which  he  means  to  intimate  that,  in  killing  a  beast, 
all  religious  intention  and  all  idea  of  sacrifice  was  to  be 
avoided.^ 

2.  In  the  selection  of  the  victims,  the  utmost  care  was 
taken  to  choose  such  only  as  were  free  from  every  blemish. 
Unless  it  were  pure  and  immaculate,  it  was  to  be  rejected,  as 
a  sacrifice  unacceptable  to  Jehovah.  (Lev.  xxii.  22.)  In  a 
beautiful  allusion  to  this  circumstance,  St.  Paul  beseeches 
Christians,  by  the  mercies  of  God,  to  present  their  bodies  a 
living  sacrifice,  holy  and  acceptable,  which  is  their  reasonable 
service.  (Rom.  xii.  1.)     Hence  also  Jesus  Christ  is  styled  a 

I  ITarwood's  Introd.  to  the  New  Test.  vol.  ii.  pp.  216,  217. 

s  To  this  notion  of  sacrifice  our  Saviour  alluded  in  John  xvi.  2.  where  he 
tfills  his  disciples  that  such  would  be  the  enmily  with  which  they  should 
be  piu'sued,  that  he  who  should  kill  them  would  be  deemed  to  have  slain  a 
sacrifice  highly  acceptable  to  the  Almighty — "He  that  killeth  you  shall 
think  he  doeth  God  service.'''  In  reference  also  to  this  notion  of  sacrifice, 
the  apostle  by  a  very  beautiful  and  expressive  figure  represents  Christ  as 
loving  us,  and  giving  himself  for  us,  an  offering  and  a  sacrifice  to  God  of 
a  sweet-smelling  savour.  (Eph.  v.  2.)  Harwood's  Introdi  to  the  New 
Test.  vol.  ii.  p.  218. 

»  The  divine  origin  of  sacrifices  is  fully  proved  by  Archbishop  Magee, 
in  his  Discourses  on  the  Atonement,  vol.  i.  pp.  41 — CO.  and  vol.  ii.  pp.  22 — 
46.  184—189.,  and  by  Mr.  Jeram  in  his  Treatise  on  the  Doctrine  of  the 
Atonement,  pp.  90 — 292.  Mr.  Davi.son  has  argued  on  the  contrary  side  in 
his  Inquiry  into  the  Origin  of  Sacrifice.  (London,  1825.  8vo.)  Mr.  Faber 
has  ably  vindicated  the  divine  origin  of  Sacrifices  in  a  treatise  published  at 
l/indon  in  1827.  Svo. 

*  Michaelis's  Commentaries,  vol.  iii.  p.  93i 


lamb  without  blemish  and  without  spot.  (1  Pet.  i.  19.)  Fur- 
ther, it  was  a  custom  among  nations  contio-uous  to  Judaea,  and 
particularly  among  the  ECTptians,^  to  setlj.  sea/ upon  a  victim, 
that  was  deemed  proper  tor  sacrifice.  With  this  custom  the 
Jews  could  not  be  unacquainted  ;  and  it  is  possible  that  simi- 
lar precautions  were  in  use  amonw  themselves,  especially  as 
they  were  so  strictly  enjoined  to  have  the  sacrifices  ivithout 
spot  and  without  blemish.  To  such  a  usage  Jesus  Christ  is 
supposed  to  have  alluded,  when  speaking  of  the  sacrifice  of 
himself,  he  says — Him  hath  God  the  Father  sealed.  (John 
vi.  27.  51.)  "Infinite  justice  found  Jesus  Christ  to  be  with- 
out spot  or  blemish,  and  therefore  sealed,  pointed  out  and  ac- 
cepted him  as  a  proper  sacrifice  and  atonement  for  the  sin  of 
the  whole  world.  Collate  Heb.  vii.  26—28.  Eph.  v.  27. 
2  Pet.  iii.  11.,  and  especially  Heb.  ix.  13,  14.  For,  if  the 
blood  of  BULLS  ajid  of  goats,  and  the  ashes  of  an  heifer,  spriiik- 
ling  the  imcleaii,  sanctifieth, — how  much  more  shall  the  blood 
of  Christ,  who  through  the  Eternal  Spirit  offered  himself  with- 
out SPOT  to  God,  purge  your  consciences  from  dead  works  P"^ 

3.  The  victim  thus  chosen,  being  found  immaculate,  was 
led  up  to  the  altar  by  the  person  oflfering  the  sacrifice  ;  who 
laid  his  hand  upon  its  head,  on  which  he  leaned  with  all  his 
strength  ;■  and,  while  the  sacrifice  was  offering,  said  some 
particular  prayers ;  and  if  several  persons  united  in  offering 
the  same  victim,  they  put  their  hands  upon  it  in  successioiu 
(Lev.  iv.  13 — 15.)8  By  this  imposition  of  hands  the  person 
presenting  the  victim  acknowledged  the  sacrifice  to  be  his 
own :  that  he  loaded  it  with  his  iniquities ;  that  he  offered  it 
as  an  atonement  for  his  sins ;  that  he  was  worthy  of  death 
because  he  had  sinned,  having  forfeited  his  life  by  violating 
the  law  of  God ;  and  that  he  entreated  God  to  accept  the  li^ 
of  the  innocent  animal  in  the  place  of  his  own.  In  this  re- 
spect the  victims  of  the  Old  Testament  were  types  of  Jesus 
Christ,  the  lamb  of  God  that  taketh  away  the  sin  of  the 
world  (John  i.  29.),  and  on  whom  Jehovah  in  the  fulness 
of  time  laid  the  iniquity  of  us  all,^  (Isa.  liii.  6.  with  1  Pet. 
ii.  24.) 

Further,  in  certain  cases  it  was  required  that  the  victim 
should  be  one,  on  which  never  came  yoke  (Num.  xix.  2.  Deut. 
xxi.  3.  1  Sam.  vi.  7.)  ;  because  any  animal  which  had  been 
used  for  a  common  purpose  was  deemed  improper  to  be 
offered  in  sacrifice  to  God.'" 

4.  The  animal  thus  conducted  to  the  altar  was  next  im- 
molated, by  cutting  the  throat  and  windpipe  entirely  throuorh 
at  one  stroke ;  the1)lood  being  caught  in  a  vessel,  and  sprink- 
led round  about  upon  the  altar.  By  this  sprinkling  the  atone- 
ment was  made,  tor  the  blood  was  the  life  of  the  beast,  and 
it  was  always  supposed  that  life  went  to  redeem  life.  (Lev. 
i-  5 — 7.)  The  blood  remaining  after  these  aspersions  was 
poured  out  at  the  foot  of  the  altar,  either  all  at  once,  or  at 
different  times,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  sacrifice  offered. 

s  The  following  account  of  the  manner  in  v.'hich  the  Egyptians  provided 
white  bulls  for  their  sacrifices,  will  materially  explain  the  custom  abova 
alluiled  to  :— "They  sacrifice  white  bulls  to  Apis,  and  for  that  reason  make 
tlie  following  trial.  If  they  find  one  black  hair  upon  him,  they  consider 
him  as  unclean.  In  order  that  they  may  know  this  with  certainty,  the 
priest  appointed  for  this  purpose  views  every  part  of  the  animal  both 
standing  and  lying  on  the  groimd  :  after  this,  he  draws  out  his  tongue,  to 
see  if  lie  be  clean  by  certain  signs ;  and  in  the  last  place  he  inspects  the 
hairs  of  his  tail,  that  he  may  be  sure  they  are,  as  by  nature  they  should  be. 
If,  after  tliis  search,  the  animal  is  found  unblemished,  be  signifies  it  by 
t>/ing  a  label  to  his  horns  ;  then,  having  applied  wax,  he  seals  it  with  hi* 
ring,  and  Ihey  lead  him  away,  for  it  is  death  to  sacrifice  one  of  these  ani- 
mals, unless  lie  has  been  tnarked  with  such  a  seal."  Herodotus,  lib.  ii.  c. 
3S.  vol.  i.  p.  1 13.  edit.  Oxon. 

«  Dr.  A.  Clarke,  on  John  vi.  27. 

•>  This  ceremony,  it  is  proper  to  remark,  was  omitted  in  respect  to  th« 
turtle  doves,  and  young  pigeons,  which  were  allowed  to  be  offered  in  cer- 
tain cases. 

8  The  nature  and  mystical  import  of  laying  hands  on  the  head  of  the 
victim  are  largely  considered  by  Archbishop  Magee  in  his  Discourses  on 
the  Atoncineni,  vol.  i.  pp.  336 — .377. 

9  On  the  vicarious  import  of  the  Mosaic  sacrifices,  see  Archbishop 
Magee's  Discourses  on  the  Atonement,  vol.  i.  pp.  352—366. 

«o  The  heathens,  who  appear  to  have  borrowed  much  from  the  Hebrews, 
were  very  scrupulous  in  this  particular.  Neither  the  Greeks,  nor  the  Ro- 
mans (who  had  the  same  religion,  and,  consequently,  the  same  sacrifices 
with  the  Greeks),  nor  indeed  the  Egyptians,  would  offer  an  animal  in  sacri- 
fice that  had  been  employed  in  agriculture.  Just  such  a  sacrifice  as  that 
prescribed  here  does  Diomede  vow  to  offer  to  Pallas.  Iliad,  x.  291—294. 
In  the  very  same  words  Nestor  promises  a  similar  sacrifice  to  Pallas. 
Odyss,  iii.  382. 
Thus  also  VnjGiL.    Georg.  iv.  550. 

Quatuor  eximios  prseslanti  corpore  tauros, 
Ducit,  et  intacta  totidcm  cervice  juvcncas. 

From  his  herd  he  culls, 
For  slaughter,  four  the  fairest  of  his  bulls  ; 
Four  heifers  from  his  female  stock  he  took, 
All  fair,  and  a(J  unknowing  of  the  yoke.  Dryden. 

It  is  very  probable  that  the  Gentiles  learnt  their  first  sacrificial  rites  from 
the  Patriarchs  ;  and  on  this  account  we  need  not  wonder  to  find  so  many 
coincidences  in  the  sacrificial  system  of  the  patriarchs  and  Jews,  and  of 
all  the  neighbouring  nations.  (Dr.  A.  Clarke,  on  Num.  xix.  2.) 


118 


SACRED  THINGS. 


[Part  III. 


Around  the  altar  there  was  a  kind  of  trench  into  which  the 
blood  tell ;  whence  it  was  conveyed  by  subterraneous  chan- 
nels into  the  brook  Cedron.  This  altar,  being  very  high,  is 
considered  'iy  Lamy  as  a  type  of  the  cross  to  which  our 
Saviour  was  fixed,  and  which  he  washed  with  his  precious 
blood.  The  victim  being  thus  immolated,  the  skin  was 
stripped  from  the  neck;  its  breast  was  opened;  its  bowels 
were  taken  out,  and  the  back  bone  was  cleft.  It  was  then 
divided  into  quarters;  so  that,  both  externally  and  intenially, 
it  was  fully  exposed  to  view.  To  this  custom  of  laying  open 
the  victim,  St.  Paul  has  a  very  beautiful  and  emphatic  allu- 
sion in  one  of  the  most  animated  descriptions  ever  written, 
of  the  mighty  effects  produced  by  the  preached  Gospel. 
(Heb.  iv.  12,  13.)  The  word  uj  Gud  is  quick  and  powerful, 
sharper  than  any  two-edged  sv:ord,pierciJig  even  to  the  dividing 
asun'kr  of  tout  and  spirit,  and  of  the  joints  and  marrow,  and 
is  a  discerner  of  the  thoughts  una  intents  of  the  heart.  Nuither 
is  there  any  creature  that  is  not  manifest  in  his  sight ,-  for  all 
things  are  naked  J:nd  opened  to  the' eyes  of  him  to  whom  we 
7mist  give  an  account.  Previously  to  laying  the  sacrifice  on 
the  aTtar,  it  was  salted /or  the  fire  (Lev.  ii.  13.  Ezek.  xliii. 
21.  Mark  ix.  4G.) ;  the  law  prohibiting  any  thing  to  be  of- 
fered there  which  was  not  salted  :  and  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  sacrifice,  either  the  whole  or  part  of  the  victim  was 
consumed  upon  the  altar,  where  the  priests  kept  a  fire  per- 
petually burning.' 

5.  Before  the  building  of  the  temple,  sacrifices  were  offered 
at  the  door  of  the  tabernacle ;  but  atter  its  erection  it  was  not 
lawful  to  oflcr  them  elsewhere.  (Deut.  xii.  14.)  This  pro- 
hibition took  from  the  Jews  the  liberty  of  sacrificing  in  any 
other  plare.  The  victims  might  indeed  be  slain  in  any  part 
of  the  priest's  court,  but  not  without  its  precincts :  and  there 
they  were  also  obliged  to  sacrifice  the  paschal  lamb.  All 
tiie  victims  were  to  be  offered  by  daylight,  and  tlie  blood 
was  always  to  be  sprinkled  on  the  same  day  that  they  were 
slain ;  as  it  became  nolluted  as  soon  as  the  sun  was  set.  If, 
liowever,  the  Si)rinkiing  had  been  made  in  the  daytime,  the 
members  and  entrails  of  the  victim  might  be  cons\nned  during 
the  night.  Subsequently  to  the  time  of  Moses,  indeed,  altars 
were  multiplied,  but  they  fell  under  suspicion,  altliough  some 
of  them,  perhaj)s,  were  sacred  to  the  worship  of  the  true  God. 
Nevertheless,  on  extraordinary  occasions,  soine  proi)hets, 
whose  characters  were  above  all  suspicion,  did  olier  sacri- 
fices in  oth(>r  places  than  that  prescribed  l)y  the  Mosaic  laws  ; 
as  Samuel  (1  Sam.  xiii.  8 — 14.  xvi.  1 — 5.),  and  Elijah. 
(I  Kings  xviii.  01 — 10.) 

6.  The  sacrifices  of  the  altar  were,  in  general,  called  bv 
the  Hebrews  Korhanim,  that  is,  ofioriugs  or  oblations  to  God, 
from  the  Hebrew  word  karab,  to  ap[)roach  or  bring  nigh. 
This  term  consequently  denotes  something  brought  nigh,  in 
order  to  be  dedicated,  or  offered  to  God,  to  wliom  the  person 
offering  thus  had  access  in  the  way  ajipoiuted  by  the  law; 
and,  therefore,  at  the  close  of  the  enumewtion  of  all  offerings 

by  fire  it  is  added  (Lev.  vii.  37,  38.),  This  is  the  law 

iL-hich  the  Lord  commanded  Moses  in  Mount  Sinai,  in  the  day 
that  he  commanded  the  children  nf  Israel  to  offer  or  bring  nig/i 
their  KORBANIM,  that  is,  offerings  or  sacrifices  of  all  sorts.^ 

Tlie  Jewish  fire-sacrifices  were  of  three  kinds ;  viz. 

i.  The  Bl'rnt-offkhings,  or  Holocausts,  were  free-will- 
offerings  wholly  devoted  to  God,  according  to  the  primitive 
patriarchal  usage.  The  man  himself  was  to  bring  them  be- 
fore the  Lord,  and  they  were  offered  in  the  manner  described 
in  the  ])n;cediiig  page.  The  victim  to  be  offered  was,  accord- 
ing to  the  person's  ability,  a  bullock  without  blemish,  or  a 
male  of  the  sheep  or  goats,  or  a  tnrtlc-dove  or  pigeon.  (Lev. 
i.  3.  10.  11.)  If,  however,  he  was  too  poor  to  bring  either 
of  these,  he  was  to  offer  a  mincha  or  meat-offering,  of  which 
an  account  is  given  in  a  subseqiient  pajje.^  The  Jews 
esteemed  the  burnt-offering  the  most  excellent  of  all  their 
sacrifices,  not  only  on  account  of  its  su])erior  antiipiily,  but 
also  because  it  was  cni/r'-/// consecrated  to  (lod.  In  allusion 
to  this,  St.  Pa\il  exhorts  ('liristians  to  pri.-sciil  their  ixxlies,  or 
their  whole  selves,  a  living  sacrifice  to  (iod.  Hiom.  xii.  1.) 
The  buriit-offr;ring8  arc  in  Hebrew  termed  rh-j  (oLffn),  which 
signifies  to  a.sccud ;  because  this  offering,  as  being  wlioUy 
consumed,  ascended,  as  it  were,  to  God  in  smoke  or  vapour. 
It  was  a  very  expressive  type  of  tlie  sacrifice  of  (-'brist,  as 
nothing  less  than  his  comphle  and  full  sacrifice  could  make 
atonement  for  the  sins  of  the  world. 

ii-  \L 

many  devout  ami  iioiiie  fnncirul  rciiHons  whjrsalt  wan  uscU  in  the  Jewish 
•acrificcs.     Antiq.  Ilcb.  Oenl.  pp.  719—72). 

*  Dr.  Owen  on  the  Epistle  to  ilio  Ilelirews,  vol.  i.  Excrcitot.  xxlv. 
0.  307.  >  tiee  p.  119.  infra. 

i 


ii.  The  Peace-offf.rings  ("Lev.  iii:  1.)  were  also  free- 
will-offerings, in  token  of  peace  and  reconciliation  between 
God  and  man ;  they  were  either  eucharistical,  that  is,  offered 
as  thanksgivings  for  blessings  received,  or  votive,  that  is, 
offered  with  prayers  for  the  impetration  of  mercies.  Tliese 
offerings  consisted  either  of  animals,  or  of  bread  or  dough  ; 
if  the  former,  part  of  them  was  burnt  upon  the  altar,  espe- 
cially all  the  fat,  as  an  offering  to  the  Lora ;  and  the  remainder 
was  to  be  oaten  by  the  priest  and  the  party  offering.  To 
this  sacrifice  of  praise  or  thanksgiving  St.  Paul  alludes  in 
Heb.  xiii.  15,  1(5.  In  this  kind  of  sacrifices  the  victims 
might  be  either  male  or  female,  provided  they  were  without 
blemish.  'J^he  parts  of  both,  which  were  appropriated  to  the 
priests  and  Levites,  were  called  heave  or  ivave  offerings ,-  be- 
cause they  were  heaved  or  lifted  up  towards  heaven,  and  waved 
to  and  fro,  before  they  were  eaten,  in  acknowledgment  of 
the  goodness  and  kindness  of  God,  and  also  in  token  of  their 
being  consecrated  to  him.  (Lev.  iii.  1 — G.  Exod.  xxix.  26, 
27.  Num.  xviii.  21—28.) 

The  peace-offerings  are  in  Hebrew  termed  cdSs*  (shplo- 
mim),  from  a'rj^  (suau/m),  to  complete  or  make  whole :  be- 
cause, by  these  offerings  that  whicn  was  deficient  was  consi- 
dered as  being  now  made  up  ,•  and  that  wliich  was  broken, 
viz.  the  covenant  of  God,  by  his  creature's  transgression,  was 
supposed  to  be  made  whole:  so  tliat,  after  such  an  offering, 
the  sincere  and  conscientious  mind  was  authorized  to  consider 
itself  as  reconciled  to  God,  and  that  it  might  lay  confident 
hold  on  this  covenant  of  peace.  To  this  St.  Paul  alludes  in 
that  fine  passage  contained  in  Eph.  ii.  14 — 19. 

The  appointed  seasons  and  occasions  of  the  peace-offering 
were,  1.  At  the  consecration  of  a  priest.  (Exod.  xxix.  1 — 37.) 

2.  At  the  expiration  of  the  Nazarite  vow.  (Num.  vi.  13 — 21.) 

3.  At  the  solemn  dedication  of  the  tabernacle  and  temple ; 
and,  4.  At  the  purification  of  a  leper. 

iii.  SiN-OFFFHiNGS,  in  Hebrew  tenned  nsan  (cHflrnrAH), 
(from  the  word  .srn  (ciu/ta)  to  miss  the  mark),  were  offered 
for  sins  committed  through  ignorance,  or  wilfully  against 
knowledge;  and  which  God  always  punished  unless  they 
were  expiated.  These  offerings  in  general  coiisisted  of  a 
sin-rtffering  to  God,  and  a  burnt-offering,  accompanied  with  ^ 
restitution  of  damage  (f^ev.  v.  2 — 19.  vi.  1 — 7-),  conform-  ■ 
ably  to  which  our  Lord  requires  previous  reconciliation  with 
an  injured  brothor,  including  restitution,  before  the  burnt- 
offering  or  gift  would  be  acce})ta])le  to  God.  (Matt.  v.  23, 24.) 
St.  Paul  (Eph.  V.  2.)  terms  Christ's  giving  himself  for  us  au 
oflering  (/.  e.  a  peace-offering),  and  a  .-ncrifice  or  sin-offering 
to  God  for  a  sweet  smelling  savour,  (t)ompare  Lev.  iv.  31.) 
In  Avarm  climates  nothing  is  more  refreshing  than  fragrant 
odours :  and  as,  in  the  highly  figurative  language  of  the  an- 
cient Hebrews,  smf/Z/w^  is  used  to  denote  the  perception  of  a 
moral  quality  in  another,  God  is  said  to  smell  a  sweet  savour 
from  sacrifice,  to  signify  that  he  perceived  with  pleasure  the 
good  dispositiftn  which  the  offerer  expressed  by  such  an  act 
of  worship.  When,  therefore,  the  apostle  tells  us  that  Christ 
gave  himself  for  us,  an  offering  and  a  sweet-smelling  sacrifice 
to  God,  he  teai^hes  us  that  Christ's  sacrifice  for  us  was  highly 
acceptable  to  CJod,  not  only  as  a  signal  instance  of  obedience 
to  his  Father's  will,  but  also  on  accoimt  of  its  happy  influ- 
ence in  establishing  the  moral  government  of  (Jod.'  The 
sacrifices  ofl'ered  for  the  purification  of  lepers,  as  well  as  of 
women  after  child-birth  (Lev.  xii.  Luke  li.  2L),  were  reck- 
oned among  the  sin-ofl'erings,  inasmuch  as  leprosy  and  the 
pains  of  child-bearing  were  considered  as  punishments  (nx 
some  particular  sin ;  though  both  were  accompanied  by 
eucharistic  sacrifices  for  the  recovery  of  the  persons  offering 
them.  Maimonides  adds,  that  if  the  person  who  offered  this 
sacrifice  did  not  repent,  and  make  ])ul)lic  confession  of  his 
sins,  he  was  not  cleansed  or  purified  liy  it.' 

iv.  The  Trespass-offkrinos  were  made,  where  the  party 
offering  had  just  reason  to  doubt  whether  be  had  violated  the 
law  of  God  or  not.  (Lev.  v.  17,  18.)  They  do  not  appear 
to  have  differed  materially  from  sin-offerings.'"'  In  both  these 
kinds  of  sacrifices,  the  person  who  offered  them  placed  his 
hands  on  the  victim's  head  (if  a  sin-offering),  and  confessed 
his  sin  over  it,  and  his  trespass  over  \\w  trespass-offering; 
saying,  "I  have  sinned,  1  have  done  ini(iuity,  1  have  tres- 
passtnl,  and  have  done  tlius  and  thus,  and  do  return  by 
re|)enlance  before  thee,  and  with  this  1  mak(!  atonement.'' 
The  animal  was  then  considered  as  vicariously  bearing  the 

«  Marknieht  on  F.pli.  v.  2.  1 

»  Dc  Ualionc  Sarrificii,  c.  iii.  n.  13.  " 

•  Michaclis  is  of  opinion  tliat  sin-otrerlnes  wore  made  for  sins  of  com- 
mission, and  irenpaM-ulTeriugvj  for  sius  of  omintion.  Conuuentaries,  vol 
iii.  p.  9C. 


»:« AP.  in.] 


OF  ORDINARY  AND  VOLUNTARY  OBLATIONS. 


119 


sins  of  the  person  who  brought  it.'  In  Isa.  iiii.  10.  Jesus 
Christ  is  said  to  make  liis  soul  an  offering  for  sin,  u-z^a 
(ashgm),  the  very  word  used  in  the  law  of  Moses  to  denote  a 
trespass-offering. 

II.  All  the  sacrifices  were  occasional,  and  had  reference 
to  individuals :  but  there  were  others  which  were  national 
and  reoular,  daily,  weekly,  monthly,  and  annual. 

1.  Tlie  Perpetual  or  Daily  Sacrifice  was  a  burnt-offering, 
consisting  of  two  lambs,  which  were  offered  every  day, 
morning  and  evening,  at  the  third  and  ninth  hours.  (Exod. 
xxix.  38 — 40.  Lev.  vi.  9—18.  Num.  xxviii.  1—8.)  'ITiey 
were  burnt  as  holocausts,  but  by  a  small  fire,  that  they  might 
continue  burning  the  longer.  With  each  of  these  victims 
was  offered  a  bread-offering  and  a  drink-offerinw  of  strong 
wine.  The  morning  sacrifice,  according  to  the  Jews,  made 
atonement  for  the  sins  committed  in  the  night,  and  the  even- 
ing sacrifice  expiated  those  committed  during  the  day.  This 
sacrifice  was  a  daily  expression  of  national  as  well  as  indi- 
vidual repentance,  prayer,  and  thanksgiving. 

2.  The  Weekly  Sacrifice  on  every  Sabbath-day  was  equal 
to  the  daily  sacrifice,  and  was  offered  in  addition  to  it.  (Num. 
xxviii.  9,  10.) 

3.  The  Monthly  Sacrifice,  on  every  new  moon,  or  at  the 
beginning  of  each  month,  consisted  of  two  young  bullocks, 
one  ram,  and  seven  lambs  of  a  year  old,  together  with  a  kid 
for  a  sin-offering,  and  a  suitable  bread  and  drink  offering. 
(Num.  xxviii.  ll — 14.) 

4.  The  Yearly  Sacrifices  were  those  offered  on  the  great 
annual  festivals,  viz.  (1.)  The  paschal  lamb  at  the  passover, 
which  was  celebrated  at  the  commencement  of  the  Jewish 
sacred  year;  (2.)  On  the  day  of  pentecost,  or  day  of  first- 
fruits;  (3.)  On  the  new  moon,  or  first  day  of  the  seventh  month, 
which  was  the  beginning  of  their  civil  year,  or  in-gal.hering 
of  the  fruits  and  vintage ;  and  all  these  stated  burnt-offerings 
were  to  be  accompanied  with  a  sin-offeriiig  of  a  goat,  to  show 
their  insufficiency  to  "  make  the  comers  thereunto  perfect" 
(Num.  xxviii.  Heb.  x.  1.) ;  (4.)  Lastly,  on  the  day  of  expia- 
tion, or  great  day  of  atonement.  As  a  particular  account  is 
given  of  the  solemn  festivals  in  the  following  section,  we 
proceed  briefly  to  notice  the  second  general  class  of  sacri- 
fice, vix. 

III.  The  Unbloody  Sacrifices  or  Meat-offerings  (Lev. 
ii.),  which  were  taken  solely  from  the  vegetable  kingdom. 
They  consisted  of  meal,  bread,  cakes,  ears  of  corn,  and 
parched  grain,  with  oil  and  frankincense  prepared  according 
to  the  divine  command.  Regularly  they  could  not  be  pre- 
sented as  sin-offerings,  except  in  the  singte  case  cf  the  person 
who  bad  sinned  being  so  poor,  that  the  offering  of  two  young 
pigeons  or  two  turtle  doves  exceeded  his  means.  They 
were  to  be  free  ffom  leaven  or  honey :  but  to  all  of  them 
it  was  necessary  to  add  pure  salt,  that  is,  saltpetre. 

IV.  Drink-offerings  were  an  accompaniment  to  both 
bloody  and  unbloody  sacrifices :  they  were  never  used  sepa- 
rately, and  consisted  of  wine,  which  appears  to  have  been 
partly  poured  upon  the  brow  of  the  victim  in  order  to  conse- 
crate it,  and  partly  allotted  to  the  priests,  who  drank  it  with 
their  portions  of  both  these  kinds  of  offerings.  The  Psalmist 
shows  how  the  use  of  drink-offerings  degenerated  amongst 
idolaters,  who  in  their  superstitious  rage  made  use  of  the  blood 
of  living  creatures,  perhaps  of  men,  in  their  libations.  Their 
DRINK-OFFERINGS  OF  BLOOD,  says  lie,  ivHl  I  iiot  offer,  (Psal. 
xvi.  4.") 

V  l?esides  the  various  kinds  of  sacrifices  above  described, 
there  vv'ere  some  oblations  made  by  the  Jews,  consisting  of 
incense,  bread,  and  other  things  :  which  have  been  divided  by 
Lamyinto  three  sorts,  viz.  such  as  were  ordinary  o^  common  ,- 
voluntary  or  free  oblations ;   and  such  as  were  prescribed. 

1.  The  Ordinary  Oblations  were, 

(I.)  The  Shew-bread  (Heb.  bread  of  the  face),  which  con- 
sisted of  twelve  loaves,  according  to  the  number  of  the  tribes 
of  Israel.  They  were  placed  hot,  every  Sabbath-day,  by  the 
priests,  upon  the  golden  table  in  the  sanctuary,  before  the 
Lord ;  when  they  removed  the  stale  loaves  which  had  been 
exposed  for  the  whole  of  the  preceding  week.  The  priests 
alone  were  to  eat  the  bread  thus  removed.  David,  however, 
through  necessity  broke  through  this  restriction  (1  Sam.  xxi. 
3,  4.),  God  preferring  mercy  to  sacrifice,  or,  in  the  collision 
of  duties,  allowing  a  positive  to  give  way  to  a  natural  law. 
(Matt.  xii.  7.) 

(2.)  Incense,  consisting  of  several  fragrant  spices,  pre- 
pared according  to  the  instructions  given  to  Moses  in  Exod. 

>  Dr.  A.  Clarke  on  Exod  xxix.  10. 


XXX.  31 — 3G.  It  was  offered  twice  every  day,  morning  and 
evening,  by  the  officiating  priest,  upon  an  altar  of  gold,  where 
no  bloody  sacrifice  was  to  come,  during  which  solemn  rite 
the  people  prayed  without  in  silence.  (Luke  i.  10.)  But  on 
the  great  day  of  expiation  the  high-priest  himself  took  fire 
from  the  great  altar  in  a  golden  censer  ;  and,  on  descending 
thence,  he  received  incense  from  one  of  the  priests,  which  he 
offered  on  the  golden  altar.  During  such  offering  the  people 
prayed  silently  without ;  and  to  this  most  solemn  silence 
St.  John  aUfcdes  in  Rev.  viii.  1.,  where  he  says  that  there 
was  silence  in  heaven  about  the  space  of  half  a7i  hour, ^  To  this 
oblation  of  incense  the  Psalmist  refers  (cxli.  2.)  in  his  devo- 
tions, and  explains  his  meaning  by  his  application  of  it :  Let 
ray  prayer  be  set  forth  in  thy  sight  as  the  incense, — "  As  the 
smoke  and  odour  of  this  offering  was  wafted  into  the  holy 
place,  close  bj'^  the  veil  of  which  stood  the  altar  of  incense, 
so  do  the  prayers  of  the  faithful  ascend  upwards  and  find 
admission  to  the  highest  heaven.""   (Acts  x.  4.) 

2.  The  Voluntary  or  Free  Oblations  were  either  the 
fruits  of  promises  or  of  vows  ;  but  the  former  were  not  con- 
sidered so  strictly  obligatory  as  the  latter,  of  which  there 
were  two  kinds. 

(1.)  The  vow  of  consecration,  yvhen  any  thing  was  devoted 
either  for  sacrifice  or  for  the  service  of  the  temple,  as  wine, 
vi'ood,  salt,  &c. ;  and 

(2.)  The  vow  of  engagement,  when  persons  engaged  to  do 
something  that  v.'as  not  in  itself  unlawful,  as  not  to  eat  of 
some  particular  meat,  nor  to  wear  some  particular  habits,  not 
to  drink  wine,  nor  to  cut  their  hair,  &c.  When  the  Jews 
made  a  vow,  they  made  use  of  one  of  these  two  forms :  "/ 
charge  myself  with  a  burnt-offering  i^''  or,  "  I  charge  myself 
with  the  price  of  this  animal  for  a  bunit-cffcring.''''  Besides 
these  they  had  other  shorter  forms  ;  for  instance,  when  they 
devoted  all  they  had,  they  merely  said,  "  Jill  1  have  shall 
be  corban,"  that  is,  "I  make  an  oblation  of  it  to  God." 
Among  other  false  doctrines  taught  by  the  Pharisees,  who 
were  the  depositaries  of  the  sacred  treasury,  was  this,  that 
as  soon  as  a  person  had  pronounced  to  his  father  or  mother 
this  form  of  consecration  of  offering,  Be  it  corban  (that  is, 
devoted),  whatever  of  mine  shall  profit  thee  (Mark  vii.  11.), 
he  thereby  consecrated  all  he  had  to  God,  and  must  not  thence- 
forth do  any  thing  for  his  indigent  parents  if  they  solicited 
support  from  K!m.  With  great  reason,  therefore,  does  Jesus 
Christ  reproach  them  with  having  destroyed,  by  their  tradi- 
tion, not  ordy  the  commandment  of  the  law  which  en- 
joins children  to  honour  their  fathers  and  mothers,  but  also 
another  divine  precept,  which,  under  the  severest  penalty, 
forbad  that  Viind  of  dishonour  which  consists  in  contumelious 
words.  (Mark  vii.  9,  10.  13.)  They,  however,  proceeded 
even  further  than  this  unnatural  gloss  ;  for,  thougli  the  son 
did  not  directly  give,  or  mean  to  give,  any  thing  to  God  at 
that  time,  yet  if  he  afterwards  should  repent  of  bis  rashness, 
and  wish  to  supply  them  with  any  thing,  what  he  had  for- 
merly said  precluded  the  possibility  of  doing  so  ;  for  his  pro- 
perty became  eventually  devoted  to  God,  and,  according  to 
the  Pharisaic  doctrine,  the  sacred  treasury  had  a  claim  upon 
it,  in  preference  to  the  parents.  The  words  "  be  it  corban," 
or  devoted,  consequently  implied  an  imprecation  against  him- 
self, if  he  should  ever  afterwards  bestow  any  thing  for  the 
relief  of  his  parents :  as  if  he  should  say  to  them,  "  May  I 
incur  all  the  infamy  of  sacrilege  and  perjury  if  ever  j'e  get 
any  thing  from  me;"  than  which  it  is  not  easy  to  conceive 
of  any  thing  spoken  by  a  son  to  his  parents  more  contemptu- 
ous or  more  oarbarous,  and  therefore  justly  denominated 
>t-/)c;>/,>-/*,  "  opprobrious  language."'' 

3.  The  Prescribed  Oblations  were  either  first-fruits  or 
tithes. 

(I.)  All  the  First-fruits,  both  of  fruil  and  animals,  were 
consecrated  to   God    (Exod.  xxii.  29.    Num.  xviii.  12,  13. 

»  Sir  Isaac  Newton  on  the  Apocalypse,  p.  264.  See  also  Woodhouse  oa 
Rev.  viii.  1.  p.  199. 

3  Jones  on  the  Fig.  Lang,  of  Script.  Lect.  iv.  towards  the  close.  "Tlie 
prayer  of  faidi,"  adds  this  learned  and  pious  writer,  "is  acceptable  to 
God,  as  the  fragrance  of  incense  is  agreeable  to  the  senses  of  man  ;  and, 
as  the  incense  was  offered  twice  a  day,  in  the  morning  and  evening,  the 
spirit  of  this  service  is  to  be  kept  up  at  those  times  throughout  all  genera- 
tions. The  prophet  Maiachi  (upon  a  forced  and  erroneous  interpretation 
nf  whose  words  alone  the  church  of  Home  has  founded  and  defended  the 
use  of  incense  in  her  worship)  foretold  that  it  should  be  observed  through- 
out the  world  (Mai.  i.  11.),  and  in  the  Revelation  we  hear  of  this  incense 
as  now  actually  carried  up  and  presented  in  heaven.  (Rev.  v.  8.)  Happy 
are  they  who  fulfil  this  service ;  and  at  the  rising  and  going  down  of  the 
sun  send  up  this  offering  to  heaven,  as  all  Christians  are  supposed  to  do, 
at  least  twice  in  every  day."    Ibid.  (Works,  vol.  iii.  p.  66.) 

*  Dr.  Campbell's  Translation  of  the  Four  Gospels,  vol.  ii.  pp.  379—392. 
third  edition.  Michaelis's  Commentaries,  vol.  iv.  p.  300. 


120 


SACRED  THINGS. 


[Pakt  UI. 


Deut.  xxvi.  2.  Neh.  x.  35,  36.) ;'  and  the  first-fruits  of  corn, 
wine,  oil,  and  sheep's  wool  were  offered  for  the  use  of  the 
Levites.  (Deut.  xviii.  4.)  The  amount  of  this  gift  is  not 
specified  in  the  law  of  Moses,  which  leaves  it  entirely  to  the 

fdeasure  of  the  ^ver:  the  Talmudical  writers,  however,  in- 
brm  us,  that  liberal  persons  were  accustomed  to  give  the 
fortieth,  and  even  the  thirtieth;  while  such  as  were  covetous 
or  penurious  gave  only  a  sixtieth  part.  Ti:e  first  of  these 
ihey  called  an  oblation  with  a  good  eye,  and  the  second  an 
oblation  with  an  evil  eye.  To  this  traditional  si\v^ng  our  Lord 
is,  by  some  learned  men,  supposed  to  have  almdcd  in  Matt. 
XX.  15.  Amon^  animals,  the  males  only  belong  to  (lod;  and 
the  Jews  not  only  had  a  right,  but  were  even  obliged,  to  re- 
deem them  in  the  case  of  men  and  unclean  animals,  which 
could  not  he  offered  in  sacrifice.  These  first-fruits  were 
•iffered  from  the  feast  of  pentecost  until  that  of  dedication,  be- 
cuuse  after  that  time  the  fruits  were  neither  so  beautiful  nor 
80  o-ood  as  before.  Further,  the  Jews  were  prohibited  from 
j^atliering  in  the  harvest  until  they  had  offered  to  God  the 
".VI  >r,  that  is,  the  new  sheaf,  which  was  presented  the  day 
iifter  the  great  day  of  unleavened  bread  :  neither  were  they 
allowed  to  bake  any  bread  made  of  new  corn  until  they  had 
oiii'red  the  new  loaves  upon  the  altar  on  the  day  of  pentecost ; 
without  which  all  the  corn  was  reg-arded  as  unclean  and 
unholy.  To  this  St.  Paul  alludes  in  Rom.  xi.  16. ;  where 
he  says,  If  ilie  first-fruit  be  holy,  the  lump  also  is  holy. 
The  presentation  of  the  first-fruits  was  a  solemn  and  fes- 
tive ceremony.  At  the  beginning  of  harvest,  the  sanhe- 
drin  deputed  a  number  of  priests  to  go  into  the  fields  and  reap 
a  handuil  of  the  first  ripe  corn;  and  these,  attended  by  great 
crov.-ds  of  people,  went  cut  of  one  of  the  gates  of  Jerusalem 
i^ito  the  neighbouring  corn-fields.  The  first-fruits  thus 
reaped  were  carried  with  great  pomp  and  universal  rejoicing 
through  the  streets  of  Jerusalem  to  the  temple.  The  Jewish 
writers  say  that  an  ox  j)receded  them  with  gilded  horns  and 
an  olive  crown  upon  his  head,  and  that  a  pipe  played  before 
them  until  they  p.pproached  the  city :  on  entering  it  they 
crowned  the  first-fruits,  that  is,  exposed  them  to  sight  with 
as  much  pomp  as  they  could,  and  the  chief  oflicers  of  the 
temple  went  out  to  meet  them.  They  were  then  devoutly 
offered  to  God  in  grateful  acknowlidgmcnt  of  his  providen- 
tial goodness  in  giving  tliem  the  fruits  of  the  earth.  "These 
first-fruits,  or  handful  of  the  first  ripe  graih,  gave  notice  to  all 
who  beheld  them  that  the  qcneral  harvest  would  soon  be  ga- 
thered in.  How  beautiful  and  striking  is  St.  Paul's  allusion 
to  this  religions  ceremony  in  that  most  ccnsclatory  and 
closely  reasoned  chapter,  the  fifteenth  of  his  first  Epistle  to 
the  Corinthians,  in  which,  from  the  resurrection  of  Jesus 
(.'hrist,  he  argues  and  establishes  the  certainty  of  the  general 
resurrection;  and  represents  Christ  as  the  first-fruits  of  a 
glorious  and  universal  harvest  of  all  the  sleeping  dead  !  Mnv 
is  Christ  riten,  undhecomeihe  fikst-fruits  of  than  that  klcpt  J''' 
(1  Cor.  XV.  20.)  The  use  which  the  apostle  makes  of  this 
image  is  very  extensive.  "  In  the  first  place,  the  growing 
of  grain  from  the  earth  where  it  was  buried  is  an  exAct  image 
of  tne  resurrection  of  the  body  ;  for,  as  the  one  is  soion,  so  is 
the  other,  and  neither  is  quickened  except  it  first  die  and  be 
buried.  Then  the  whole  harvest,  from  its  relation  to  the  first- 
fruits,  explains  and  ensures  the  order  of  our  resurrection. 
For,  is  the  sheaf  of  the  first-fruits  reapf  d  ]  then  is  the  whole 
harvest  ready.  Is  Christ  risen  from  the  dead  1  then  shall  all 
rise  in  like  manner.  Is  he  accepted  of  God  as  a  holy  offer- 
ing'? then  shall  every  sheaf  that  has  grown  up  with  him  be 
taken  fiom  the  earth  and  sanctified  in  its  proper  order  : — 
^'hrist,  the  first-fruits,  and  afterwards  they  that  are  VlirisCs 
at  his  coming.^  (1  Cor.  xv.  23.) 

(2.)  Uesides  the  first-fruits,  the  Jews  also  paid  the  Tenths 
or  Titlie-s  of  all  they  possessed.  (Num.  xviii.  21.)     They 


were  in  general  collected  of  all  the  produce 


21. J  iney 
of  tlie  earth 
(Lev.  xxvii.  30.  Deut.  xiv.  22,  23.  Neh.  xiii.  5.  10.),  but 
chiefly  of  corn,  wine,  and  oil,  and  were  rendered  ever}'  year 
except  the  sabbatical  year.  "When  these  tithes  were  paid, 
the  owner  of  tlie  fruits  further  gave  annihcr  teiitii  part,  which 
was  carried  up  to  Jerusalem,  ^nd  eaten  in  the  teninle  at  'liler- 
iiig  feasts,  as  a  sign  of  rejoicing  and  gratitude  to  uod.  These 

•  From  the  J«wl«h  cuRtom  of  ofTi^rinn  firBt-friiits  to  Jehovah,  the  hca- 
lliciis  bnrrowcfl  a  Hiinilar  rif.  8no  Pliny,  Nat.  Mist.  lib.  xviii.  c.~  Horace, 
Sat.  lib.  ii.  Snt.  v.  12.     TiImiIIiki,  Elt-it.  lib.  1.  Ki.  1.  13. 

»  Jonrs's  W(irk»,  vn].  in.  p.  M.  Hnrwood's  IiilroiJ.  to  th»>  NowTcbi.  vol. 
ii.  p.  307.  Micbiielin's  ('Diniiifiilaries,  vol.  iii.  pp.  Ifi — 1!9.  IJoRUSoiire'c 
Iiilioil.  to  the  NcwTpirt.  (vol.  iri.  p.  200.  of  illshop  Wnlwin's  rdUfclion  nf 
TracLs.)  Or.  MshlfoniSi  Workn,  vol  i.  p.  ;«>}.  vol.  ii  pp.  IH).  ItOC,  307.  folio 
(-•'lit.  Lainy's  .\pparaiu<i,  vol.  i.  p.  201.  Ikt-iiii  Aiiiiri.  Hdjr.  jiart  i.  c.  \n. 
I'p.  210— '^Sl.  Schulzii  Arrhmul.  Hcbr.  pp.  2H7— 292.  Laiiiy'a  Apparatus 
Diblicus,  vol.  i.  pp.  2(»— 306. 


are  called  second  tithes.^  The  Levites  paid  a  tenth  of  the 
tithes  they  received  to  the  priests.  Lastly,  there  were  tithes 
allotted  to  the  poor,  fur  whom  there  was  also  a  corner  left  in 
every  field,  which  it  was  not  lawful  to  reap  with  the  rest 
(Lev.  xix.  9.  Deut.  xxiv.  19.) ;  and  they  were  likewise  al- 
lowed such  ears  of  corn,  or  graj)es,  as  were  dropped  or  scat- 
tered about,  and  the  sheaves  that  might  be  acciuentally  for- 
gotten in  the  field.  Field-tithes  might  be  redeemed  by  those 
who  desired  it,  on  paying  one-fifih  in  addition  :  but  all  con- 
version of  the  tithes  of  cattle  was  prohibited.  (Lev.  xxvii. 
32,  33.)  The  payment  and  appreciation  of  them  Moses  left 
to  the  consciences  of  the  people,  without  subjecting  thein  to 
judicial  or  sacerdotal  visitations,  but  at  the  same  time  he 
aid  not  prohibit  the  Levites  from  taking  care  that  they  duly 
receivea  what  was  their  own.  The  conscientious  accuracy 
of  the  people,  with  respect  to  the  second  tithe,  he  secured 
merely  ny  tne  declaration  which  they  made  every  three  years 
before  God.  From  trifling  articles  he  in  no  case  required 
tithes ;  though  we  learn  from  the  Gospel  that  the  Pharisees 
affected  to  be  scrupulously  exact  in  paying  tithes  of  every 
the  least  herb.  (Matt,  xxiii.  23.)  If,  however,  a  person  had 
committed  a  trespass  against  the  sanctuary,  that  is,  had  not 
paid  the  tithes  of  any  particular  things,  and  if,  at  any  time 
afterwards,  his  conscience  were  awakened  to  a  sense  of  his 
guilt,  he  had  it  in  his  power  to  make  an  atonement,  without 
incurring  any  civil  disgrace,  by  simply  paying  an  additional 
fifth,  with  his  tithe,  and  making  a  trespass-offering.''  (Lev. 
V.  14—16.) 

The  custom  of  giving  tithes  to  the  Deity  existed  long 
before  the  time  of  Moses.  Thus  Abraham  gave  to  Melchi- 
sedek  king  of  Salem  (who  was  at  the  same  time  the  priest 
of  the  Most  High  God)  the  tithe  of  all  that  he  had  taken 
from  the  enemy,  when  he  returned  from  his  expedition 
against  the  four  kin^s  who  were  in  alliance  with  Chedorlao- 
mer.  (Gen.  xiv,  20.)  And  Jacob  consecrated  to  God  the 
tenth  of  all  that  he  should  acquire  in  Alesopotamia.  (Gen. 
xxviii.  22.)  The  same  custom  obtained  among  various 
ancient  nations,  who  devoted  to  their  gods  the  tenth  part  of 
every  thing  they  obtained. 

VI.  From  the  preceding  sketch  of  the  Jewish  Sacrifices, 
we  may  strongly  infer  their  Fitne.ss  and  Utilitv. 

According  to  the  refined  ideas  of  modern  times  animal 
sacrifices  are  a  very  absurd  and  savage  mode  of  expressing 
and  promoting  devout  sentiments  and  dispositions.  But,  if 
we  steadily  keep  in  view  the  genius  and  habits  of  ancient 
nations,  and  the  special  circumstances  of  the  Hebrews,  these 
objections  will  vanish ;  and  the  propriety  as  well  as  expe- 
diency of  the  Jewish  institutions  will  forcibly  appear. 

"\Vhen  the  practice  of  sacrificing  was  first  appointed,  the 
use  of  letters  was  probably  unknown :  consequently,  the 
mode  of  instruction  by  visible  emblems  or  symbols  was  both 
indispensable  and  hiMily  beneficial.  In  such  a  slate  of 
things,  the  offering  of^animal  victims  was  m;.de  to  answer 
for  that  more  simple  and  rational  devotion,  which  words  are 
now  happily  fittecl  to  express.  WTien  we  consider  sacrifices, 
with  all  their  attendant  rites,  as  appointed  by  God  in  ojdei 
to  assist  the  religious  instruction,  improvement,  and  consola 
tion  of  man,  we  must  conclude  that  the  Most  High  would, 
in  the  first  instance,  clearly  explain  every  part  of  this  insti- 
tntion;  otherwi.se  it  could  not  answer  its  proposed  ends. 
Now,  if  the  moral  import  of  sacrifices  were  thus  exjdained, 
the  utility  of  them  to  mankind  in  their  rude  and  simple  state 
is  beyond  calculation.  In  untutored  man,  reason  is  weak, 
the  mental  feelings  are  heavy  and  rough,  while  sense,  imagi- 
nation, and  passion  are  the  leading  avenues  both  to  the  un- 
derstanding and  heart.  To  man  thus  situated,  the  appoint- 
ment of  sacrifices  is  peculiarly  adapted  :  for  these  convey 
a  most  pathetic  and  awful  adifrcss  to  his  ver)*  senses,  and 
thus  rouse  him  to  the  most  serioys  and  impressive  reflections. 
The  frequent  spectacles  of  bleeding  aiiu  smoking  victims, 
suflipring  and  atoning  for  the  guilty  offertTS,  would  give  them 
the  deepest  impressions  of  the  purity,  justice,  and  majesty 
of  (Jod,  of  the  evil  cf  transgressions,  of  tlnir  own  ill  ilescrf, 
and  of  the  necessity  of  some  adequate  atont  ineiit,  and  of  the 
readiness  of  the  Deity  to  pardon  the  penitent.  The  nume- 
rous and  diversified  offerings  f)f  the  ancient  Jews,  with  the 
strikino:  pomp  which  preceded  and  attended  them,  were  fitted 
not  only  to  excite  and  express  the  most  reverential,  humble, 
and  grateful  devotion ;  but  also  to  give  the  best  direction  to 
the  whole  temper  and  conduct.     The  many  washings  and 

>  On  the  applirntion  of  Uicsc  second  lithrs,  sec  Micliaalis'a  Commcaia* 
rIPK,  vol.  iii.  pp.  112,  113. 
«  Michaolin'ii  Cotnincntarics,  vol.  )U.  pp.  141—146. 


Ohap.  rv.] 


THE  SABBATH— HOW  OBSERVED. 


121 


purifications,  enjoined  previous  to  the  oblation  of  sacrifice, 
Vi'sre  not  only  physically  beneficial  in  the  eastern^countries, 
but  directly  tended  to  impress  a  simple  people  with  a  scru- 
pulous regard  to  inward  and  moral  purity,  especially  in  all 
their  approaches  to  the  Deit3\  That  this  was  the  primary 
intention  of  these  ceremonies,  was  a  maxim  frequently  anrj 
solemnly  enforced.  In  those  early  ages,  the  language  of 
these  well-chosen  emblems  could  not  fail  to  be  well  under- 
stood and  strongly  felt.  Above  all,  the  frequent  sacrifices  of 
the  .Tewish  law  were  intended  to  prefigure,  and  gradually  to 
prepare  men  for  the  great  atoning  sacrifice  of  the  promisee? 
Messiah."  Accordingly,  "  our  SaviouiT'in  allusion  to  those 
ancient  oblations,  is  called  by  way  of  eminence  a  sin-offer- 


ing, a  perfect  sacrifice  for  the  sins  of  the  world.  In  a  word, 
the  religion  of  the  Jews  and  that  of  Christians  form  one 
great  and  harmonious  plan.  The  Jews  saw  gospel-truth  in 
its  early  and  gradual  dawn ;  we  behold  in  it  its  meridian 
splendour.  Wheii  Christ  appeared,  the  candid  and  pious 
Jews  embraced  him ;  because  they  saw  in  him  a  glorious 
counterpart,  a  perfect  accomplishment  of  their  ancient  rites 
and  predictions.  The  Gentiles,  on  the  other  hand,  were  led 
to  venerate  and  believe  in  the  Hebrew  Law ;  because  they 
beheld  in  it  an  exact,  though  imperfect  figure  and  prophecy 
of  the  Gospel.  What  beauty  and  glory  do  these  observa- 
tions reflect  both  on  the  Jewish  and  Christian  dispensations ! 
What  admirable  depth  of  wisdom  do  they  discover  in  both !"' 


CHAPTER  IV. 


SACRED    TIMES    AND    SEASONS    OBSERVED    BY    THE    JEWS. 


The  Sabbath. — 1.  Hoiu  observed. — 2.  Jetvish  IVorship  on  that  Day  ;  particularly  their  Manner  of  in  or  shipping  tn  the 
Temple. — II.  New  Moons. — III.  Annual  Festivals. — Their  important  Design. — IV.  The  Passoteh  ;  -when  celebrated,  and 
ivith  -what  Ceremonies  ;  its  mystical  or  tyjdcal  Reference. — V.  The  Dat  op  Pentecost. — VI.  The  Feast  or  Tabernacles. 
— VII.  Other  annual  Festivals. — 1.  The  Feast  of  Trumpets. — 2.  The  Day  of  Expiation. — VIII.  Annual  Festivals  insti- 
tuted  by  the  Jeivs  in  later  Times. — 1.  The  Feast  of  Purim.  2.  The  Feast  of  Dedication. — IX.  Other  Festivals  observed 
at  stated  Intervals. — 1.  The  Sabbaticai.  Yeah. — 2.  The  Year  of  Jubieee. 


In  order  to  perpetuate  the  memory  of  the  numerous  won- 
ders God  had  wrought  in  favour  of  his  people,  Mcses,  by  ! 
the  Divine  command,  instituted  various  festivals,  which  they  i 
were  obliged  to  observe :  these  sacred  seasons  were  either 
weekly,  monthly,  or  annual,  or  recurred  after  a  certain  num- 
ber of  years.  j 

I.  Every  seventh  day  was  appropriated  to  sacred  repose, ! 
and  called  the  Sabbath  ;  although  this  name  is  in  some  pas- 
sages given  to  ether  festivals,  as  in  Lev.  xxv.  4.,  and  some- 
times it  denotes  a  week,  as  in  Matt,  xxviii.  1.  Luke  xxiv.  1. 
Acts  XX.  7.  and  1  Cor.  xvi.  2.  (Gr.)    It  was  originally  insti- 
tuted to  preserve  the  memory  of  the  creation  of  the  world 
(Gen.  ii.  3.) ;  whether  it  continued  to  be  observed  by  the 
Israelites  as  a  day  of  rest  and  holy  convocation  during  their  i 
residence  in  Egypt,  is  a  question  concerning  which  learned  ' 
men  are  no. means  agi-eed.^   When,  however,  God  gave  them  I 
rest  in  the  land  of  Canaan,  he  gave  them  his  Sabbaths  to  be  j 
statedly  kejjt  (Exod.  xx.   10,   11.   and  xvi,  23.);  and  its 
observance  was  specially  enjoined  on  the  Israelites  in  Deut, 
v.  15.,  because  they  were  the  redeemed  people  of  God,  and 
they  were  to  make  the  Sabbath  a  day  of  peculiar  recognition 
of  their  deliverance  from  bondage.-^ 

1.  In  the  observance  of  the  Sabbath,  the  following  circum- 
stances were  enjoined  by  divine  command: — (1.)  This  day 
was  to  be  held  sacred  as  a  day  of  worship,  in  memory  of  the 
creation  of  the  world  by  Jehovah,  and  also  of  the  deliverance 
of  the  Jews  from  Egyptian  bondage,  as  well  as  a  day  of 
repose  both  for  man  and  beast,  that  they  might  be  refreshed, 
and  not  have  their  bodily  strength  exhausted  by  uninterrupted 
labour  (Gen.  ii.  1—3.  Deut.  v.  13.  Exod.  xx.  10,  11.  Ezek. 
XX.  20.) ;  hence  the  celebration  of  the  Sabbath  was  the 
making  of  a  weekly  profession  that  tliey  received  and  revered 
the  Creator  of  heaven  and  earth,  and  was  closely  connected 
with  the  fundamental  principle  of  the  Mosaic  law,  whose 
object  was  to  keep  the  people  from  idolatrj',  and  to  maintain 
the  worship  of  the  one  true  God ;  and  hence,  also,  the  pun- 
ishment of  death  was  denounced  against  the  wilful  profana- 
tion of  this  solemnity.  (2.)  On  this  day  they  were  most 
religiously  to  abstain  from  all  manner  of  work.  (Exod.  xx. 
10.  xxiii.  12.  xxxi.  12 — 17.  xxxv.  2.  Deut.  v.  14,  15.  Jer. 
xvii.  22.)  It  was,  therefore,  unlawful  to  gather  manna 
(Exod.  xvi.  22 — 30.),  to  light  a  fire  for  culinary  purposes 
(Exod.  XXXV.  3.  Num.  xv.  32 — 36.),  and  to  sow  or  reap. 
(Exod.  xxxiv.  21.)  To  these  enactments  the  Jewish  doctors 
added  a  variety  of  other  re^rulations,  for  which  there  is  not 
the  slightest  foundation  in  the  law  of  Moses.  Thus,  it  was 
formerly  accounted  unlawful  to  repel  force  by  force  on  the 

<  Tappan's  Lectures,  pp.  116. 113. 

»  For  a  minute  and  able  discussion  of  this  and  every  other  question  con- 
nected with  the  Sabbath,  the  reader  is  referred  to  "  The  Christian  Sab- 
bath ;  or,  an  Inquiry  into  the  religious  Obligation  of  keeping  holy  one  Day 
in  Seven.     By  the  Rev.  Geo.  Holden,  M.  A."  London,  1825,  8vo. 

»  Stuart's  Hebrew  Chrestomathy,  p.  175. 
L    V0L.n.  Q 


Sabbath-day ;''  and  how  much  its  observance  was  strained  by 
the  traditions  of  the  elders  in  the  time  of  our  Lord,  is  suffi- 
ciently manifest.  Hence,  we  find  it  was  deemed  unlawful 
to  pluck  ears  of  corn  (IMatt.  xii.  2.)  to  satisfy  the  cravings 
of  nature,  because  that  was  a  species  of  reaping.  We  learn 
from  the  Talmudical  writers  that  it  was  unlawful  to  use  oil 
medicinally,  though  they  allowed  it  as  a  luxury ;  the  anoint- 
ing of  the  body  with  fragrant  oils  being  then,  as  it  is  now, 
in  the  East,  one  of  their  highest  enjoyments.  It  was  a  tra- 
ditional rule  of  the  ancient  Jewish  doctors  that  "  whatever 
could  possibly  be  done  on  the  day  before,  or  might  be  defer- 
red until  the  tblloAvin*  day,  ought  not  to  drive  out  the  Sab- 
bath ;"  an  excellent  maxim  when  rightlv  understood,  but 
when  applied  to  cases  of  infirmity  or  sickness,  the)'^  mani- 
festly showed  that  they  did  not  comprehend  the  meaning  of 
the  divine  declaration — /  will  have  mercy  and  not  sacrifice.  In 
chronical  diseases,  therefore,  of  which  description  were  those 
cured  by  Jesus  Christ  en  the  Sabbath-day,  they  conceived 
that  the  persons  who  had  so  long  struggled  with  them  might 
very  Avell  bear  them  a  day  longer,  rather  than  prepare  medi- 
cines or  in  any  way  attempt  to  be  cured  on  that  day.  The 
knowledge  of  this  circumstance  will  greatly  illustrate  the 
conduct  of  our  Lord  in  healing  the  sick  on  the  Sabbath-day, 
and  particularly  the  man  who  had  been  bom  blind.  (John 
ix.)  The  rule  above  stated  was  made  before  he  began  to 
teach,  and  he  gladly  availed  himself  of  the  first  opportunity 
to  refute  their  erroneous  notions,  and  expose  their  gross  pre- 
varication in  interpreting  many  of  the  sabbatical  laws. 
Further,  seeing  it  was  prohibited  to  put  fasting  spittle  upon 
or  into  the  eyes  of  a  blind  man  on  the  Sabbath-day,  our  Sa- 
viour effected  a  cure  by  using  both  clay  and  spittle  (John  ix. 
6.  14.),  to  show  his  divine  authority,  in  employing  means  to 
human  reason  the  most  improper,  even  on  that  sacred  day, 
directly  in  opposition  to  the  above  rule;  which  was  good 
and  just  in  itself,  but  hypocritical,  superstitious,  and  cruel, 
when  applied  to  the  case  of  healing  on  the  Sabbath.*  The 
services  of  the  temple,  however,  might  be  performed  with- 
out profaning'  the  Sabbath,  such  as  preparing  the  sacrifices 
(Lev.  vi.  8 — 13.  Num.  xxviii.  3 — 10.  Matt.  xii.  5.);  and  it 
was  also  lawful  to  perform  circumcision  on  that  day.  (John 
vii.  23.)  (3.)  The  Sabbath  was  to  be  devoted  to  cheerful 
rest,  that  not  only  the  Israelites,  but  also  strangers  living 
with  them,  as  well  as  their  cattle,  might  be  refreshed. 
(Exod.  xxiii.  12.)  Hence,  it  is  not  improbable,  that  tjjey 
celebrated  sacrificial  or  offering  feasts,  to  which,  from  the 
commencement  of  their  polity,  the  poor  were  invited.  In 
later  times,  at  least,  we  know  from  history,  that  the  Jews 
purchased  and  prepared  the  best  viands  they  could  procure 

*  1  Mace.  ii.  31—33.  See  other  examples  in  Josephus,  Ant.  JuiJ.  lib.  xii. 
c.  6.  §  2.  De  Bell.  .lud.  lib.  ii.  c  16.  §  4.  lib.  iv.  c.  2.  §  3.  and  de  vita  sua,  §  32. 

5  Dr.  Wotton's  Misna,  tiUe  Shabbath,  pp.  101—103.  123.  The  Sabbath, 
we  may  observe,  was  a  type  of  that  eternal  rest,  which  all  the  true  ser- 
vants of  God  will  hereafter  enjoy  in  heaven.  See  Jones's  Lectures  on  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  lect.  ii-  (Works,  vol.  iii.  pp.  210— 2i2.) 


122 


SACRED  TIMES  AND  SEASONS  OBSERVED  BY  THE  JEWS. 


[Paht  m 


for  the  Sabbath-daj\  in  order  to  do  it  honour;  r.nd  that  they 
actually  had  Sabhath-fcasts,  to  which  tiiey  even  invited  per- 
sons with  whom  they  were  unacquainted.' 

The  Sabbath  commenced  at  sunset,  and  closed  at  the  same 
time  on  the  followinor  day.  (Afatt.  viii.  IG.  i\lark  i.  .32.) 
Whatever  was  necessary  was  prepared  on  tlie  latter  part  of 
the  preceding  day,  that  is,  of  our  Friday :  hence,  the  daj- 
precedin«r  the  Sabbath  {rrf-.-atCixni)  is  in  tne  New  Testament 
termed  the  preparr.tion  {Truprt^rKwn),  in  Matt,  xxvii.  G2.  Mark 
XV.  42.  Luke  xxiii.  51.  and  John  xix.  11.  31.  42.^ 

2.  We  know  not  with  certainty  from  the  Mosaic  writings 
what  constituted  the  most  ancient  worship  of  the  Israelites 
on  the  Sabbath-day.  It  is  however,  evident  from  the  New 
Testament,  that  the  celebration  of  this  day  chiefly  consisted 
in  the  religious  exercises  which  were  then  performed  :  though 
there  is  no  injunction  recorded,  e;ccept  that  a  burnt-olTering 
of  two  lambs  should  on  that  day  be  added  to  the  morning 
and  evening  sacrifices  (Num.  xxviii.  9.);  and  that  the  shew- 
bread  should  be  changed.  (Lev.  xxiv.  S.)  In  the  syna- 
goijues^  the  Sacred  W  ritings  were  read  and  expounded,  to 
which  was  sometimes  added  a  discourse  or  sermon  by  some 
doctor  or  eminent  teacjicr.  (Luke  iv.  16.  Acts  xiii.  15.) 
Prayer  also  appears  to  have  formed  a  part  of  their  sacred 
worship  in  the  synagogue,  and  especially  in  the  temple. 
(I  Sam.  i.  9,  10.  1  Kings  viii.  29,  30.  33.  Psal.  xxvii.  2. 
Luke  xviii.  10.  Acts  ii.  15.  and  iii.  1.) 

AViih  what  reverence  the  Jews  regarded  their  temple,  we 
have  already  seen  :"•  and  in  proportion  to  the  sanctity  of  the 
place  was  the  solemn  and  holv  behaviour  required  of  all 
who  came  to  worship  there,  'fiie  law,  indeed,  had  prohi- 
bited the  approach  of  all  uncleanness;  but  to  the  enactments 
of  Moses  the  great  masters  of  traditions  added  a  variety  of 
other  trifling  regulations,  which  the  law  had  not  named, 
while  they  scruple  not  to  make  the  "  house  of  prayer"  a  den 
of  thieves.  Dr.  Lightfoot  has  collected  many  of  these  tra- 
ditions respecting  the  temple  worship;  an  abridgment  ot 
which  will  form  a  proper  supplement  to  the  preceding  obser- 
vations. 

( 1 .)  No  man  might  enter  the  "  mountain  of  the  house,"  for 
so  they  called  tlie  temple,  with  his  staflT;  weapons  of  offence 
being  unsuiled  to  the  house  of  peace;  and  it  being  reputed 
indecorous  to  loan,  when  there,  on  any  other  staff"  than  God. 
On  this  account  it  was,  tliat  our  Lord  expelled  the  buyers 
and  sellers  of  cattle  from  the  temple,  with  a  whip  of  cords. 
(John  ii.  15.) — (2.)  No  man  was  permitted  to  enter  with 
shoe?  on  his  feet,'  nor  dust  on  his  feet,  which  he  was  obliged 
to  wipe  or  wash  (thus  intimating  the  necessity  of  approaching 
the  Most  High  divested  of  all  worldly  cares  and  auections); 
nor  with  money  in  his  purse,  nor  with  his  purse  about  him. 
— (3.)  Having  arrived  at  the  temple,  every  worshipper  was 
prohibited  from  spitting  there,  as  well  as  from  using  any 
irreverent  gestures,  or  making  it  a  thoroughfare  to  shorten  his 
distance  in  crossing  from  one  part  of  the  city  to  another ;  and 
on  entering  the  court,  he  must  walk  leisurely  and  gravely  to 
his  place,  and  there  demean  himself  as  in  the  presence  of  God. 
— ( 1.)  Having  now  entered  to  pray  and  attend  the  ser\'icc, 
\i9  was  to  stand  with  his  feet  one  even  with  the  other;  and, 
casting  his  eyes  downward,  while  he  raised  his  heart  upward, 
must  cross  his  hands  tipon  his  breast,  and  stand  as  a  servant 
before  his  master  with  all  reverence  and  fear.  The  practice 
of  looking  down  in  prayer  the  Jews  derived  from  tiiose  pas- 
sages of  Scripture,  which  speak  of  being  ashamed  to  Took 
up  towards  heaven,  on  account  of  their  sinfulness :  to  this 
position  of  looking  down  and  laying  his  hands  upon  his 
heart,  the  demeanour  of  the  devout  publican  (Luke  xviii.  13.) 
seems  to  be  parallel.  Even  the  priests,  when  they  pronounced 
the  blessing  upon  the  people,  neither  looked  up  towards 
heaven,  nor  level  upon  the  people,  but  down  upon  tlie  ground  ; 
and  the  peo|)le  wero  prohibited  from  looking  upon  them. — 
(5.)  However  weary  the  worshipper  migiit  be  with  standing, 

•  I.'ike  xiv.  1.  and  I.ightfooi's  Ilora;  Ilebraica"  on  Ihnt  passatjc.  CWorks, 
vol.  ii.  pp.  4-15,  416.)  8ee  nlxo  Wi:(iaoin'ii  Nutes,  vol.  I.  p.  76U.  Mlrliaelis 
rcinarkrt  that  our  tiavioiir'M  ub.servalion  iti  I.iikc  xiv.  12 — 14.  can  only  be 
fully  uiiil>'i.<r(i(«l  in  rvd-TPncv  to  a  ftMSl  that  fonnol  .1  part  of  divim-  wor- 
Bhip,  Mill,  ixt  rtucti,  niiijht  liiiik  for  n  riTntiipensf  from  fi'xl :  fi)r  we  ilo  not 
la  onluviry  ca:.<;N  expect  thai  Oo<l  .shouM  rfuanl  us  iti  another  world  for 
every  rniiTiaiiiuiont  wo  gin;.     C'oimneiilarii'»,  vol.  tii.  p.  l.V. 

•  Sr.hiil/.ii  .\rrli.eiili)i;ia  lli'biaiia,  pp.  311— 3H  ;  l.rii.^ilrii's  riiilnlogua 
nc'br.To-Mixtiix,  pp  '^U}—■JH2.^,  Ueanaobrc'H  ami  I.'Knfani'H  Imnvluctioii 
(Dp  Wut«ion'iiThi!<)|,  Trnclj),  vol.  Hi.  pp.  '^£y-'Z»)■,  the  Mosaic  statutes 
rolntlvc  to  the  Satiti«lh  are  folly  iliMruKsoil  by  Michaolin,  C'uiiiinentarles, 
»ol.  iii.  pp  lai— HI.;  vol.  ii.  pp.  390,  100. 

•  Hoe  pp.  101  — lOfi  mipra.  *  See  pp    ino,  101. 

•  Thin  prohiliilion  wajt  (l<5riveil  from  the  coniniand  nf  (Jixl  to  Mohcs 
fExorl.  ill  Ti.),  anil  Joxhua.  (v.  15.)  The  Mine  uwtjc  obtains  throughuut  the 
East  to  this  day. 


he  mioht  on  no  account  sit  down  either  in  the  Israelites'  or 

firiests'  ctjurt :  no  person  whatever  being  allowed  that  privi- 
e^e,  except  the  kings  of  the  house  of  David. — (G.)  Having 
olfered  their  prayers,  and  perfomied  the  services,  they  were 
to  depart  in  the  same  order  in  which  they  had  entered : 
<md  as  tliey  were  ])roliibited  to  turn  their  backs  upon  the  • 
altar,  they  went  backward  till  they  were  out  of  the  court, 
and  departed  from  tlie  temple  by  a  different  gate  from  that 
by  which  they  had  entered.** 
^  II.  The  Jewisli  mouths  being  lunar  were  originally  calcit- 
*ated  from  the  firsV^appearance  of  the  moon,  on  which  the 
Feast  of  the  NEwnVIooN,  or  the  beginning  of  the  month  (as 
the  Hebrews  termed  it),  was  celebrated.  (Kxod.  xii.  2.  Num. 
x.  10.  xxviii.  11.  Isa.  i.  13,  14.)  It  seems  to  have  been  in 
use  long  before  the  time  of  Moses,  who  by  the  divine  com- 
mand prescribed  what  ceremonies  were  then  to  be  observed. 
It  was  proclaimed  by  the  sound  of  trumpets  (Num.  x.  10. 
Psal.  Ixxxi.  3.) ;  and  several  additional  sacrilices  were 
offered.  (Num.  xxviii.  11 — 15.) 

III.  Besides  the  Sabbath,  Moses  instituted  three  Annual 
Festivals,  viz.  the  passover,  the  feast  of  pentecost,  and  the 
feast  of  tabernacles  :  these,  which  are  usually  denominated 
the  Great  Ftsiivals,  were  distinguished  from  the  Sabbath,  and 
indeed  from  all  other  holy  days,  by  the  circumstance  of  two 
of  them  lasting  seven,  and  one  for  eight,  successive  days ; 
during  which  the  Jews  were  bound  to  rejoice  before  the  Lord 
for  all  their  deliverances  and  mercies.  (Deut.  xvi.  11 — 15.) 
All  the  males  of  the  twelve  tribes  were  bound  to  be  present 
at  these  grand  festivals  (Exod.  xxxiv.  23.  Deut.  xvi.  16.)  ; 
and  for  their  encouragement  to  attend  they  were  assumed  that 
710  man  should  desire  their  land  during  their  absence  (Exod. 
xxxiv.  24.)  :  in  other  words,  that  they  should  be  secure  from 
hostile  inva.sion  during  their  attendance  on  religious  worship  : 
— a  manifest  proof  this  of  the  divine  origin  of  their  religion, 
as  well  as  of  the  power  r.nd  particular  providence  of  God 
in  workinij  tiirice  every  year  an  especial  miracle  for  the  i)ro- 
tection  of  his  people ;  for  it  is  a  well  known  fact,  that  the  Jews 
constantly  attenued  these  ceremonies  without  any  fear  of 
danger,  and  that  their  most  vigilant  enemies  never  invaded 
or  injured  them  during  these  sacred  seasons.  The  design 
of  these  meetings  was  partly  to  unite  the  Jews  among  them 
selves,  and,  teaching  them  to  regard  each  other  as  brethren 
and  fi^low-citizcns,  to  promote  mutual  love  and  friendship. 
To  this  the  Psalmist  probably  refers  in  Psal.  cxxii.  3,  4.; 
and  it  was  partly  that,  as  one  church,  they  might  make  one 
congregation,  join  in  solemn  worship  Ujgt^ther,  and  renew 
their  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  one  true  God,  and  to  tlieir  ex-  ' 
cellent  constitution  and  religion.  Further,  so  large  a  con- 
course of  people  would  give  the  greater  solemnity  to  these 
festivals  :  and  as  no  Israelite  was  to  present  himself  before 
the  Lord  without  some  offering  (Deut.  xvi.  16,  17.),  ample 
provision  was  thus  made  for  the  support  of  the  ministers  of 
the  sanctuary.  On  these  occasions,  although  the  men  were 
required  to  attend,  it  does  not  appear  that  women  were  pre- 
vented from  going  if  they  chose,  at  least  to  the  passover. 
(See  1  Sam.  1.  3.  7.  Luke  ii.  41.)  For  greater  security, 
however,  against  the  attacks  of  robbers  on  the  road,  they 
used  to  travel  in  large  companies,  those  who  came  from  the 
same  city,  canton,  or  district,  forming  one  company.  They 
carried  necessaries  along  with  them,  and  tents  tor  tlieir  lodg- 
ing at  night.'  It  was  among  such  a  "company"  that  Joseph 
aiul  Mary  sought  Jesus  Christ  (Luke  ii.  44.) :  and  to  their 
journeying  through  a  dreary  valley  on  one  of  these  festivals 
the  Psaliinst  probably  alludts,  (Ixxxiv.  G.)  Further,  asthe 
Jewish  sanctuary  ana  service  contained  in  them  a  shadow  of 
good  tilings  to  come,  and  were  typical  of  the  ('hristian 
cliurch,  this  prescribed  concourse  from  all  parts  of  the  coun- 
liy  miglil  1)0  inteiuh  d  to  typify  the  galhering  of  the  peoplo 
to  (.'hrist  and  into  his  church,  from  all  parts  of  the  world 
under  the  Christian  dispensation.  Hence  St.  Paul,  alluding 
to  these  general  assemblies  of  the  Israelites  on  the  three 

•  l.iplUfool'H  WorkH,  vol.  ii.  pp  917— OfiO. 

'  Nearly  Hiiiiilar  to  thin  ia  the  imxle  ol  travelling  In  the  nastto  this  hour. 
Such  coiiipaiiieH  tlu'y  now  call  caravaii.s;  ami  ni  many  places  lliere  aro 
biiililinSH  liltril  up  for  tlieir  rfceptlon.  nilliil  cayanin.^i  mis.  Thin  account 
of  the  Israolilea'  mode  nf  travelling  furuislieN  a  ready  au.'<wer  to  the  ques. 
tion,  how  JoMeph  and  Mary  could  make  a  day'H  journey  without  discovering 
before  iiijilil,  that  Jroin  w.•l^^  not  in  the  "  coiiipajiy."  In  the  daytime,  as 
circunistancea  iiiicht  bud  ihetii,  the  Iravelleru  would  iirohalily  iiiin«Ie  with 
their  friends  ami  aciiuaintance  ;  lull  in  the  evening,  when  they  were  about 
to  encHiiip,  every  one  would  join  the  fauiily  to  which  he  belonged.  As 
JesUH  then  did  not  api>i-ar  wlien  it  was  ginwing  late,  hlH  pareiils  firnt 
sought  hiin,  where  they  HU)ip<i.si.-il  be  would  most  probably  bf,  among  hij 
relations  ami  luouauilanre  ;  anil  not  fin<ling  hlin,  returned  to  Jerusalem. 
Dr.  Campbell's  Trau.slaliou  of  the  GospoU,  vol.  ii.  p.  419.  nolo  on  Luke 
Ii.  44. 


Chap.  IV.] 


THE  PASSOVER. 


123 


grand  feasts,  says,  "  We  are  come  to  the  general  assembly 
and  church  of  the  first-bom.''''  (Heb.  xii.  23.) 

But  besides  the  benefits  to  be  derived  from  the  religious 
celebration  of  these  ordinances,  Michaelis,  to  whom  we  are 
indebted  for  part  of  the  preceding  remarks,  has  pointed  out 
several  instances  in  whicn  they  produced  a  salutary  effect  on 
the  community.  Not  only  would  their  meeting  together  in 
one  pj:rce  for  the  purposes  of  religion  and  social  intercourse 
tend  to  prevent  a  total  alienation  of  rival  tribes,  as  well  as 
civil  war,  but  it  would  also  afford  them  an  opportunity  of  be- 
ing mutually  reconciled.  Further,  it  is  not  improbable  that 
these  annual  meetings  promoted  the  internal  commerce  of  the 
Israelites,  who  Avere  prohibited  from  carrying  on  traffic  with 
foreigners ;  and,  lastly,  they  had  an  important  influence  on 
the  Jewish  calendar,  inasmuch  as  the  year  was  arranged,  so 
that  the  various  festivals  should  fall  in  their  respective  months 
without  interfering  with  the  labours  of  the  field.' 

IV".  The  first  and  most  eminent  of  these  festivals  was  the 
Passover,2  instituted  the  night  before  the  Israelites' departure 
from  Egypt,  for  a  perpetual  memorial  of  their  signal  deliver- 
ance, and  of  the  favour  which  God  showed  them  in  passing 
over  and  sparing  their  first-born,  when  he  slew  the  first-born 
of  the  Egyptians.  (Exod.  xii.  12—14.  29—51.)  This  fes- 
tival was  also  called  the  feast  or  the  days  of  unleavened  bread 
(Exod.  xxiii.  15.  Mark  xiv.  1.  Acts  xii.  3.)  ;  because  itwas 
unlawful  to  eat  any  other  bread  during  the  seven  days  the 
feast  lasted.  The  name  was  also  by  a  metonymy  given  to 
the  lamb  that  was  killed  on  the  first  day  of  this  feast  (Ezra 
vi.  20.  Matt.  xxvi.  17.),  whence  the  expressions  to  eat  the 
passover  (Mark  xiv.  12.  14.)'  and  to  saa-ifice  the  passover.'' 
(ICor.  V.  7.)  Hence  also  St.  Paul  calls  Jesus  Christ  our 
passover  (ibid.),  that  is,  our  true  paschal  lamb.  But  the 
appellation,  passover,  belongs  more  particularly  to  the  second 
day  of  the  feast,  viz.  the  fifteenth  day  of  the  month  Nisan.* 
It  was  ordained  to  be  celebrated  on  the  anniversary  of  the 
deliverance  cf  the  Israelites.  Tliis  was  an  indispensable 
rite  to  be  observed  by  every  Israelite,  except  in  particular 
cases  enumerated  in  Num.  ix.  1 — 13.,  on  pain  of  death  ;5 
and  no  uiicircumcised  person  was  allowed  to  partake  of  the 

Jassover.'  On  this  festive  occasion,  it  was  the  custom  at 
erusalem  for  the  inhabitants  to  mve  the  free  use  of  their 
rooms  and  furniture  to  strangers  at  the  passover. — This  usage 
will  explain  the  circumstance  of  our  Saviour's  sending  to  a 
man  to  prepare  for  his  eating  the  passover,  who,  by  the  rela- 
tion, appears  to  have  been  a  stranger  to  him.  Further,  in 
order  to  render  this  grand  festival  the  more  interesting,  a 
custom  Avas  introduced  in  the  later  times  of  the  Jewish  polity 
of  liberating  some  criminal.  By  whom  or  at  what  time 
this  practice  originated  it  is  now  impossible  accurately  to 
determine :  the  most  probable  opinion  is,  that  it  was  intro- 
duced by  the  Romans  themselves,  perhaps  by  Pilate  at  the 
commencement  of  his  procuratorship  of  Judaea,  with  the  per- 
mission of  Augustus,  in  order  to  gratify  the  Jews  by  show- 
ing them  this  public  mark  of  respect.^  However  this  im.y 
be,  it  had  become  an  established  custom  from  which  Pilate 
could  not  deviate  (Matt,  xxvii.  15.  Lukexviii.  17.  John  xviii. 
39.),  and  therefore  he  reluctantly  liberated  the  malefactor 
Barabbas. 
As  the  very  interesting  history  of  this  most  solemn  of  all 

«  Cominentaries  on  the  Law  of  Moses,  vol.  iii.  pp.  182 — 189.  Jennings's 
Jewish  Antiquities,  boolc  iii.  ch.  4.  pp.  448,  449.  Tappan's  Lectures  on 
Jewisti  Antiquities,  pp.  127,  128. 

■^  On  the  true  meaning  of  the  word  passover  Archbp.  Magee  has  a 
learned  disquisition  in  vol.  i.  of  his  Discourses  on  the  Atonement,  pp.  309 
—321.  That  it  was  a  kind  of  foederal  lite  (as  the  Eucharist  also  is)  between 
God  and  man.  Dr.  Cudworth  has  solidly  proved  in  his  "  True  Notion  of  the 
Lord's  Supper,"  chap.  vi.  pp.28 — 36.  at  tiie  end  of  vol.  ii.  of  his  "Intellect- 
ual System,"  4to.  edit. 

»  Schulzii  Archseologia  Hebi^.  p.  318. 

«  That  the  passover  was  a  proper  and  real  sacrifice,  see  largely  proved 
by  Archbp.  Magee,  on  the  Atonement,  vol.  i.  pp.  297 — 309. 

'  Lev.  xxiii.  6.  Mark  xiv.  1.  Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  iii.  c.  10.  §  5. 

«  In  like  manner,  Dr.  Waterland  has  observed,  a  contempt  and  rejection 
of  at  least  the  thing  signified  by  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  supper, 
must  necessarily  exclude  every  man  from  the  benefits  of  Christ's  passion 
and  death. 

1  So,  in  the  early  ages  of  Christianity,  no  person  was  permitted  to  come 
to  the  Lord's  supper  until  he  had  been  baptized.  As  soon,  however,  as  the 
passover  was  celebrated,  every  one  was  at  Hberty  to  go  home  the  very 
next  morning  if  he  pleased  (Deut.  xvi.  7.),  of  course  while  the  festival 
lasted,  in  order  that  those  Jews,  who  came  from  a  distance,  might  return 
in  time  for  getting  in  the  harvest.  Michaelis's  Commentaries,  vol.  iii.  pp. 
183,  li«. 

•  Hottingerhas  discussed  the  various  opinions  on  the  origin  of  this  usage 
in  a  dissertation  De  rilS  dimittetidi  reum  in  festo  Paschatis,  Tempe  Hel- 
vetic, vol.  iv.  p.  2154.  From  the  Jews  the  custom  proceeded  to  the  Chris- 
tians ;  Valentinian  and  several  other  emperors  havin»  issued  their  edict, 
that  some  prisoners  should  be  liberated  from  their  bonds  at  the  annual 
commemoration  of  our  Saviour's  resurrection.  This  custom  obtained 
among  the  Venetians  till  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century.  (Schulzii 
Archaeol.  Hebr.  p.  321.) 


the  Jewish  festivals,  is  copiously  related  in  the  twelfth  chapter 
of  Exodus,  it  is  unnecessary  to  detail  it  again  in  this  place : 
but  as  various  traditional  observances  were  in  after-times 
added  to  the  Mosaic  precepts  concerning  this  sacrifice,  to 
which  there  are  manifest  allusions  in  the  New  Testament, 
we  shall  trace  them,  as  briefly  as  the  important  nature  of  the 

subject  will  admit,  under  the  following  heads : 1.  The  time 

when  it  was  to  be  kept ; — 2.  The  ceremonies  with  which  it 
was  to  be  celebrated ; — 3.  The  mystical  signification  of  these 
rites. 

1.  Of  the  time  when  the  Passover  was  t»  he  kept. — This  fes- 
tival commenced  on  the  evening  subsequent  to  the  fourteenth 
day  of  the  month  Nisan,  the  first  in  the  Jewish  sacred  or 
ecclesiastical  year  (Exod.  xii.  6.  8.  18.  Lev.  xxiii.  4 — 8. 
Num.  xxviii.  1 6 — 27.) ,  with  eating  what  was  called  the  paschal 
lamb ;  and  it  was  to  continue  seven  whole  days,  that  is,  until 
the  twenty-first.  The  day  preceding  its  commencement  was 
called  the  preparation  of  the  passover.  (John  xix.  14.)  Dur- 
ing its  continuance  no  leavened  bread  was  allowed  to  be 
used ;  hence  the  fourteenth  day  of  the  month  Nisan  might 
with  great  propriety  be  called  (as  we  find  it  is  in  Matt.  xxvi. 
17.  Mark  xiv.  12.)  the  first  day  of  unleavened  bread,  because 
the  passover  began  in  the  evening.  The  fifteenth  day,  how- 
ever, might  also  be  called  the  first  day  of  unleavened  bread :' 
since,  according  to  the  Hebrew  computation  of  time,  the 
evening  of  the  fourteenth  was  the  dawn  or  beginning  of  the 
fifteenth,  on  which  day  the  Jews  began  to  eat  unleavened 
bread.  (_Exod.  xii.  18.)  But,  if  any  persons  were  prevented 
from  arriving  at  Jerusalem  in  time  for  the  feast,  either  by  any 
uncleanness  contracted  by  touching  a  dead  body,  or  by  the 
length  of  the  journey,  he  was  allowed  to  defer  his  celebration 
of  the  passover  until  the  fourteenth  day  of  the  following 
month,  in  the  evening.  (Num.  ix.  10 — 12.)  As  it  is  not 
improbable  that  some  difference  or  mistake  might  arise  in  de- 
termining the  new  moon,  so  often  as  such  difference  recurred, 
there  would  consequently  be  some  discrepancj-  as  to  the  pre- 
cise time  of  commencing  the  passover.  Such  a  discordance 
might  easily  arise  betw^een  the  rival  and  hostile  sects  of 
Pharisees  and  Sadducees ;  and  such  a  difference,  it  has  been 
conjectured,  did  exist  at  the  time  Jesus  Christ  celebrated  the 
passover  with  his  disciples,  one  whole  day  before  the  Phari- 
sees offered  their  paschal  sacrifice.'"  Sacrifices  peculiar  to  this 
festival  were  to  be  offered  every  day  during  its  continuance ; 
but  the  first  and  last  da3^s  were  to  be  sanctified  above  all  the 
rest,  by  abstaining  from  servile  labour,  and  holding  a  sacred 
convocation.  (Exod.  xii.  16.  Lev.  xxiii.  7,  8.) 

2.  Of  the  ceremonies  lutih  ivhich  the  Passover  was  to  be  cele- 
brated.— The  paschal  lamb  was  to  be  a  male,  without  blemish, 
of  the  first  year,  either  from  the  sheep  or  the  goats"  (Exod. 
xii.  5.) :  it  was  to  be  taken  from  the  flocks  four  days  before 
it  was  killed  ;  and  one  lamb  was  to  be  offered  for  each  family ; 
and  if  its  members  were  too  few  to  eat  a  whole  lamb,  two 
families  were  to  join  together.  In  the  time  of  Josephus  a 
paschal  society  consisted  at  least  of  ten  persons  to  one  lamb, 
and  not  more  than  tW'Cnty.'^  Our  Saviour's  society  was  com- 
posed of  himself  and  the  twelve  disciples.  (Matt.  xxvi.  20. 
Luke  xxii.  14.)  Next  followed  the  killing  of  the  passover: 
before  the  exode  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt,  this  w"as  done 
in  their  private  dwellings ;  but  after  their  settlement  in  Ca- 
naan, it  was  ordered  to  be  performed  "  in  the  place  which 
the  Lord  should  choose  to  place  his  name  there."  (Deut. 
xvi.  2.)  This  appears  to  have  been  at  first  wherever  the  ark 
was  deposited,  and  ultimatel)'^  at  Jerusalem  in  the  courts  of 
the  temple. '3  Every  particular  person  (or  rather  a  delegate 
from  every  paschal  society)'''  slew  his  own  victim :  according 
to  Josephus,  between  the  ninth  hour,  or  three  in  the  afternoon, 
and  the  eleventh^  that  is,  about  sunset ;  and  within  that  space 

9  The  fifteenth  day  is  so  called  in  Lev.  xxiii.  6.  and  by  Josephus,  who 
expressly  terms  the  second  day  of  unleavened  bread  the  sixteenth  day  of 
the  month.    Ant.  Jud.  lib.  iii.  c.  10.  §5. 

10  Schulzii  ArchEBol.  Hebr.  pp.  318,  319.  That  a  difference  did  exist  as  to 
the  time  of  beginning  the  passover  is  intimated  in  John  xiii.  1,  2.  xviii.  2S. 
and  xix.  14.  31.  The  conjecture  above  noticed  was  made  by  Schulze  ;  and 
if  it  could  be  substantiated,  it  would  reconcile  the  seeming  differences 
occurring  in  the  evangelists,  respecting  the  time  when  Christ  actually  cele- 
brated the  passover.  Dr.  A.  Clarke  has  collected  the  principal  opinions  on 
this  much  contested  point,  in  his  discourse  on  the  Eucharist,  pp.  5 — 24. 
See  also  Jenniogs's  Jewish  Antiquities,  book  iii.  c.  4.  pp.  455—458. 

«'  The  Hebrew  word  Dif  (sen)  means  either  a  lamb  or  a  kid  :  either  was 
equally  proper.    The  Hebrews,  however,  in  general  preferred  a  lamb. 

I'JDeBen.  Jud.  Ub.  vi.  c.  9.  §3. 

i»Xhe  area  of  the  three  courts  of  the  temple,  besides  the  rooms  and  other 
places  in  it,  where  the  paschal  victim  might  be  offered,  contained  upwards 
of  435,000  square  cubits;  so  that  there  was  ample  room  for  more  than 
500,000  men  to  be  in  the  temple  at  the  same  time.  Lamy,  De  Tabernaeule. 
lib.  vii.  c.  9.  §§4,  5. 

'«  See  Lightfoot's  Temple  Service,  ch.  xii.  S  5.  (Works,  vol.  i.  pp. 
957—959.) 


124 


SACRED  TIMES  AND  SEASONS  OBSERVED  BY  THE  JEWS. 


[Paut  ni. 


of  time  it  was,  that  Jesus  Christ,  our  true  paschal  lamb,  was 
crucified.  (Matt,  xxvii.  4G.)  The  victim  bcintr  killed,  one 
of  the  priests  received  the  blood  into  a  vessel,  which  was 
handed  from  one  priest  to  another,  until  it  came  to  him  who 
stood  next  the  altar,  and  by  whom  it  was  sprinkled  at  the 
bottom  of  the  altar.  After  the  blood  was  sprinkled,  the  lamb 
was  hung  up  and  flayed :  this  being  done,  the  victim  was 
opened,  the  fat  was  taken  out  and  consumed  on  the  altar, 
after  which  the  owner  took  it  to  his  own  house.  The  paschal 
lamb  was  to  be  roasted  whole,  which  might  be  commanded 
as  a  matter  of  convenience  at  the  first  passover,  in  order  that 
their  culinary  utensils  might  be  packed  up  ready  for  their 
departure  while  the  lamb  was  roasting;  no  part  of  it  was  to 
be  eaten  either  in  a  raiv  state,  or  boiled.  (Exod.  xii.  9.) 

The  propriety  of  the  prohibition  of  eatmg  any  portion  of 
the  paschal  lamb  in  a  raw  state  will  readily  appear,  when  it 
is  known  that  raw  flesh  and  palpitating  limbs  were  used  in 
some  of  the  old  heathen  sacrifices  and  festivals,  particularly 
in  honour  of  the  Egyptian  deity  Osiris,  and  the  Grecian 
Bacchus,  who  were  the  same  idol  under  different  names. 
That  no  resemblance  or  memorial  of  so  barbarous  a  supersti- 
tion nii<rht  ever  debase  the  worship  of  Jehovah,  He  made 
this  earTy  and  express  provision  against  it.  On  the  same 
ground,  probably.  He  required  the  paschal  lamb  to  be  eaten 
privately  and  entire,  in  opposition  to  the  bacchanalian  feasts, 
m  which  the  victim  was  publicly  torn  in  pieces,  carried 
about  in  pomp,  and  then  devoured.  Further,  the  prohibition 
of  boiling  the  paschal  lamb  was  levelled  against  a  supersti- 
tious practice  of  the  Egyptians  and  Syrians,  who  were 
accustomed  to  boil  their  victims,  and  especially  to  seethe  a 
kid  or  lamb  in  the  milk  of  its  dam  ;  as  the  command  to  roast 
and  eat  the  whole  of  the  lamb — not  excepting  its  inwards — 
without  leaving  any  portion  until  the  following  morning,  was 
directed  against  anotncr  superstition  of  the  antient  heathens, 
whose  priests  carefully  preserved  and  religiously  searched 
the  entrails  of  their  victims,  whence  they  gathered  their 
pretended  knowledge  of  futurity.  Those,  likewise,  who 
frequented  pagan  temples,  were  eager  to  carry  away  and  de- 
vote to  superstitious  uses  some  sacred  relics  or  fragments  of 
the  sacrifices.  In  short,  tlie  whole  ceremonial  of  the  pass- 
over  appears  to  have  been  so  adjusted  as  to  wage  an  open 
and  destructive  war  against  the  gods  and  idolatrous  ceremo- 
nies of  Egypt,  and  thus  to  form  an  early  and  powerful 
barrier  aromid  the  true  worship  and  servants  of  Jehovah.' 

After  the  lamb  was  thus  dressed,  it  was  eaten  by  each 
family  or  paschal  society.^  "  The  first  passover  was  to  be 
eaten  standing,  in  the  posture  of  travellers,  who  had  no  time 
to  lose;  and  with  unleavened  bread  and  bitter  hefbs,  and  no 
bone  of  it  was  to  be  broken,  (Exod.  xii.  8.  11.  4C.)  The 
posture  of  travellers  was  enjomed  them,  both  to  enliven 
iheir  faith  in  the  promise  of  their  then  speedy  deliverance 
from  Egypt;  and  also,  that  they  might  be  ready  to  begin 
their  march  presently  after  supper.  Thoy  were  ordered,  there- 
fore, to  cat  it  with  their  loins  girded  ;  for  as  they  were  accus- 
tomed to  wear  longand  loose  garments,  such  as  are  generally 
used  by  the  eastern  nations  to  this  day,  it  was  necessary  to 
tie  them  up  with  a  girdle  about  their  loins,  when  they  either 
travelled  or  engaged  in  any  laborious  employment."^  Fur- 
ther, "  they  were  to  eat  the  passover  rmth  shoes  on  their  feet, 
for  in  those  hot  countries  they  ordinarily  wore  sandals,  which 
were  a  sort  of  clogs,  or  went  barefoot;  but  in  travelling  they 
used  shoes,  whicK  were  a  kind  of  short  boots,  reaching  a 
little  way  up  the  legs.  Hence,  when  our  Saviour  sent  his 
twelve  disciples  to  preach  in  the  neighbouring  towns,  dcsigii- 
inc  to  convince  them  by  their  own  experience  of  the  cxtra- 
or3inary  care  of  Divine  Providence  over  them,  that  they 
miglit  not  be  discouraged  by  the  length  and  danger  of  the 
journeys  they  would  bo  called  tounderUike; — -on  this  account 
he  ordered  them  to  make  no  provision  for  their  present  jour- 
ney, particularly,  not  to  take  shoes  on  their  feet,  but  to  be 
shod  with  sandals.  (Mutt,  x,  10.  compared  with  Mark  vi.  9.) 
Again,  they  were  to  eat  the  jjassover  with  staves  in  their 
hands,  such  as  were  always  used  by  travellers  in  those  rocky 
countries,  both  to  support  them  in  slippery  places,  and  de- 
fend thein  against  assaults.  (Gen.  xxxii.  10.)'     Of  this  sort 

'  Tnppan's  I.octiircs  on  Jcwisli  AnIiqiiilicH,  pp.  123,  121. 

»  Utjiiusiibro  BHys  that  lliosp  wjdaliiics  wore  called  hrolhtrhoodji,  and  the 
CUCRts  compnnions  or  frirndJt,  nnil  lliat  our  Saviour'tt  fproof  of  JudaH  by 
aallliii;  him  fri<-nil  or  rniii|ianion  (Mall.  xxvi.  GO.)  was  holh  Jiiri  an<l  cutting, 
becau'ic  he  brlniycd  liiiii  afti'r  havmz  i-alen  the  p.ianovcr  with  liiiii. 

»  Thti.-f  wh*"!!  Klisha  leiit  his  Brrvniil  Ocha/.i  on  a  ini'ssngc  in  haste,  he 
hade  him  "gird  nji  his  li>tn.t,"  ^Kincs  iv.  29. ;  and  when  our  Saviour  eel 
nhoiil  washing  liin  diBciplcs'  feet,  "Tic  took  a  towel  and  girded  hiinscir," 
Jolin  xiii.  4. 

«  David  beautifully  alliirle^  to  thiji  custom  In  the  twcnfy-lhird  P.salm ; 
where  (vcr.  i),  cx]ircaxing  I  js  trust  in  the  guoJiioiiii  of  the  Almighty,  he 


was  probably  Moses's  rod  which  he  had  in  his  hand,  when 
God  sent  him  with  a  message  to  Pharaoh  (Exod.  iv.  2.),  and 
which  was  afterwards  used  as  an  instrument  in  working  so 
many  miracles.  So  necessarj'  in  these  countries  was  a  staff 
or  walking-stick  on  a  journey,  that  it  was  a  usual  thing  for 
persons  when  they  undertook  long  jonrneys  to  take  a  spare 
staff  with  them,  for  fear  one  should  fail.  When  Christ, 
therefore,  sent  his  apostles  on  the  embassyr  above  mentioned, 
he  ordered  them  not  to  take  staves  (Luke  ix.  3.  !\Iark  vi.  8.), 
that  is,  only  one  staff  or  walking-stick,  without  making  pro- 
vision of  a  spare  one,  as  was  common  in  long  journeys. 

"  The  paschal  lamb  was  to  be  eaten  with  unleavened  bread, 
on  pain  of  being  cut  off  from  Israel,  or  excommunicated  ; 
though  some  critics  understand  this  of  being  put  to  death. 
The  reason  of  this  injunction  was,  partly  to  remind  them  of 
the  hardships  they  had  sustained  in  Egj'pt,  unleavened  being  > 
more  heavy  and  less  palatable  than  leavened  bread  ;  on  which 
account  it  is  called  the  bread  of  affliction  (Dent.  xvi.  .S.) ; 
and  partly  to  commemorate  the  speed  of  their  deliverance 
or  departure  from  thence,  which  was  such,  that  they  had  not 
sufl!icient  time  to  leaven  their  bread  ;  it  is  expressly  said,  that 
their  "  dough  was  not  leavened,  because  they  were  thrust  out 
of  Egypt  and  could  not  tarrj'  (Exod.  xii.  39.);  and  on  this 
account  it  was  enacted  into  a  standing  law,  '  Thou  shalt  eat 
unleavened  bread,  even  the  bread  of  affliction ;  for  thou  earnest 
forth  out  of  Egypt  in  haste.'  (Deut.  xvi.  3.)  This  rite, 
therefore,  was  not  only  observed  at  the  first  passover,  but  in 
all  succeeding  ages."*  But  from  the  metapnorical  sense  in 
which  the  term  leaven  is  used,'^  this  prohibition  is  supposed 
to  have  had  a  moral  \iew ;  and  that  the  divine  legislator's 
intention  was,  that  the  Israelites  should  cleanse  their  minds 
from  malice,  envy,  and  hypocrisy ;  in  a  word,  from  the  leaven 
of  Egypt.  In  consequence  of  this  injunction,  the  Hebrews, 
as  well  as  the  mcdern  Jews,  have  auvays  taken  particular 
care  to  search  for  all  the  leaven  that  might  be  in  their  houses, 
and  to  burn  it." 

The  passover  was  likewise  to  be  eaten  "  with  bitter  herbs :" 
this  was  doubtless  prescribed  as  "  a  memorial  of  their  severe 
bondage  in  Egypt,  which  made  their  lives  hitter  unto  them; 
and  possibly  also  to  denote  that  the  haste,  in  which  they  de- 
parted, compelled  them  to  gather  such  wild  herbs  as  most 
readily  presented  themselves.  To  this  sauce  the  Jews  after- 
wards added  another,  made  of  dates,  raisins,  and  several  in- 
gredients beaten  together  to  the  consistence  of  mustard,  which 
IS  called  charoseth,  and  is  designed  to  represent  the  clay  in 
which  their  forefathers  wrought  while  they  were  in  bondage 
to  the  Egyptians. 

"  It  was  further  prescribed,  that  they  should  eat  the  flesh 
of  the  lamb,  without  breaking  any  of  bis  bones.  (Exod.  xii. 
•IG.)  This  the  latter  Jews  understand,  not  of  the  smaller 
bones,  but  only  of  the  greater  which  had  marrow  in  them. 
Thus  was  this  rite  also  intended  to  denote  their  being  in 
haste,  not  having  time  to  break  the  bones  and  suck  out  the 
marrow." 

Lastly,  "it  was  ordered  that  nothinor  of  the  paschal  lamb 
should  remain  till  the  morning;  but,  if  it  were  not  all  eaten, 
it  was  to  be  consumed  by  fire.  (Exod.  xii.  10.)  The  same 
law  was  extended  to  all  eucharistical  sacrifices  (Lev.  xxii. 
30.)  ;  no  part  of  which  was  to  be  left,  or  set  by,  lest  it  should 
be  corrupted,  or  converted  to  any  profane  or  common  use, — 
an  injunction  which  was  designed,  no  dotibt,  to  maintain  the 
honour  of  sacrifiees,  and  to  teach  the  Jews  to  treat  with 
reverence  whatever  was  consecrated  more  especially  to  the 
service  of  God."*  ' 

Such  were  the  circumstances  under  which  the  first  passover 
was  celebrated  by  the  Israelites ;  for,  after  they  were  settled 
in  the  land  of  (^anaan,  they  no  longer  ate  it  standing,  but  the 
guests  reclined  on  their  left  arms  upon  couches  placed  round 

exclaims.  Yea,  tftouch  I  trallc  thrnuch  tlievnUty  of  thr  shndo\t  of  Arnth,  I 
trillfear  no  r.cil :  for  ihou  art  tcith  mc,  thy  rod  and  t/iy  staff l/tey  comfort 
int. 

>  .lenningd's  Jewish  Antiquities,  book  Hi.  ch.  !t.  pp.  463 — 470.  (London, 
X^Xi,  8vo.) 

•  LiRhifopt's  Works,  vol.  i.  pp.  OvJ,  95-1.    Allen'.'! Moilern  Judaism,  p.  3Sl. 

1  See  Mall.  xvi.  C.  Si.  Paul,  wiilineto  Ihe  CiirinlhiniiH  a  short  lime  be- 
fore the  passover,  exhorts  lln-in  lo  cleanse  out  the  old  leaven  of  lewdness 
by  casliii}!  the  iticcsiuou.s  person  out  of  the  church  ;  audio  krryi  thffrnst 
(of  the  Lord's  wupncr)  not  with  the  old  Itaren  of  sensuality  and  imclcan- 
ness,  with  which  they  were  foriirerly  corrupted,  neilhrr  irith  the  Irarrn 
of  vinlicp  and  iriclcidnrxa.  Inil  irilh  the  unttnrrnrd  hread  (or  (junlilies)  nf 
sincrrity  and  truth.  Macknight  on  1  Cor.  v.  7,  8.  ;  who  observes,  tlinl  it  is 
prohal>le  from  this  passacc  that  Ihe  diseiples  of  Christ  bei:an  very  early  to 
celebrate  Ihe  Lonl's  .supper  with  p'M-uliar  solemnity,  annually,  on  the  day 
on  wliirh  the  lli.'drciiier  hUlTered,  which  was  Ihe  diy  of  Ihi-  Ji-wi.sh  jimis- 
over,  callpd  in  modern  language  Kastrr.  It  is  with  beautiful  propriety, 
therefore,  Ihal  ihis  pas.sage  of  Saicil  Paul  is  inlroihiccd  by  lh«  Anglican 
Church  ainonu  the  occasional  verSlcles  for  Easier  Sunday.  _ 

•  Jcnuings'ti  Jcwisli  Aiiliqtiilics,  book  iii.  ch.  iv.  pp.  -iro,  471, 


Cakt.  IV.j 


THE  PASSOVER. 
Thrs  posture,  accordingf  to  the 


125 


the  table.  (John  xiii.  '22.) 

Tahnudic^l  writer.s,  v/as  an  emblem  oi  that  rest  andTreedom 
which  God  had  granted  to  the  children  of  Israel  by  bringing 
them  out  cf  Egypt.  Tins  custom  of  reclining  at  table,  over 
one  another's  bosom,  was  a  sign  of  equality  and  strict  union 
among  the  guests.' 

Dr.  Lightfoot  has  collected  from  the  Talmud  a  variety  of 
passages  relative  to  the  Jewish  mode  of  celebrating  the  pass- 
over  ;  from  which  we  have  abridged  the  following  particulars, 
as  they  are  calculated  materially  to  illustrate  the  evangelical 
history  of  our  Lord's  last  passover,  recorded  in  Matt.  xxvi. 
Mark  xiv.  Luke  xxii.  and  John  xiii. 

(1 .)  The  guests  being  placed  around  the  table,  they  mingled 
a  cup  of  wine  with  water,  over  which  the  master  of  the  family 
-  (or,  if  two  or  more  families  were  united,  a  person  deputed 
for  the  purpose)  gave  thanks,  and  then  drank  it  off.     The 
, ,  thanksgiving  for  the  wine  was  to  this  effect,  "  Blessed  be  thou, 
\  'O  Lord,  who  hast  created  the  fruit  of  the  vine,-"  and  for  the 
day,  as  follows — "  Blessed  be  thou  for  this  good  day,  and  for 
this  holy  convocation,  ivhich  thou  hast  given  us  for  joy  and  re- 
joicing !  Blessed  be  thou,  0  Lord,  who  hast  sanctified  Israel 
and  the  times  /"     Of  these  cups  of  wine  they  drank  four  in 
the  course  of  the  ordinance. 

(2.)  They  then  washed  their  hands,  after  which  the  table 
was  furnished  with  the  paschal  lamb,  roasted  whole,  with 
bitter  herbs,  and  with  two  cakes  of  unleavened  bread,  together 
with  the  remains  of  the  peace-offerings  sacrificed  on  the  pre- 
cfedinw  day,  and  the  charoseth,  or  thick  sauce,  above  men- 
tioned. 

(3.)  I'he  officiator,  or  person  presiding,  then  took  a  small 
piece  of  salad,  and  having  blessed  God  for  creating  the  fruit 
of  the  ground,  he  ate  it,  as  also  did  the  other  guests :  after 
which  all  the  dishes  were  removed  from  the  table,  that  the 
children  might  inquire  and  be  instructed  in  the  nature  of  the 
fc^ast.  (Exod.xii.  25, 2G.)  The  text  on  which  they  generally 
discoursed  was  Deut.  xxvi.  f) — 11.  In  like  manner  our  Sa- 
viour makes  use  of  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  supper,  to 
declare  the  great  mercy  of  God  in  our  redemption ;  for  it 
shoV!s  forth  the  Lord^s  death  till  he  come  to  judge  the  world. 
The  "continual  remembrance  of  the  sacrifice  of  the  death  of 
Christ,  and  of  the  benefits  we  receive  thereby,"  which  has 
been  observed  ever  since  the  time  of  the  apostles,  is  a  per- 
manent and  irrefragable  argument  for  the  reality  of  that 
full,  perfect,  and  sufficient  sacrifice,  oblation,  and  satisfaction 
for  the  sins  of  the  whole  world,"  which  was  made  by  Jesus 
Christ  "by  his  one  oblation  of  himself"  upon  the  cross;  in 
opposition  to  the  opinion  of  those  who  deny  the  divinity  of 
our  Saviour,  and  the  vicarious  nature  of  his  death. 

(4.)  Then  replacing  the  supper,  they  explained  the  import 
of  the  bitter  herbs  and  paschal  lamb ;  and  over  the  second 
cup  of  wine  repeated  the  hundred  and  thirteenth  and  hundred 
and  fourteenth  psalms,  with  an  eucharistic  prayer. 

(5.)  The  hands  were  again  washed,  accompanied  by  an 
ejaculatory  prayer;  after  which  the  master  of  the  house  pro- 
ceeded to  break  and  bless  a  cake  of  the  unleavened  bread, 
which  he  distributed  among  the  guests,  reserving  half  of  the 
cake  beneath  a  napkin,  if  necessary,  for  the  aphicomen,  or 
last  morsel ;  for  the  rule  was,  to  conclude  with  eating  a 
small  piece  of  the  paschal  lamb,  or,  after  the  destruction  of 
the  temple,  of  unleavened  bread.^  In  like  manner  our  Lord, 
upon  instituting  the  sacrament  of  the  eucharist,  which  was 
prefigured  by  the  passover,  took  bread ;  and  having  blessed 
or  given  thanks  to  God,  he  brake  it,  and  gave  it  to  his  disci- 
ples, saying,  Take,  eat,  this  is  [that  is,  signifies]  my  body, 
which  is  given  for  you.  This  do  in  remembrance  of  me.  (Matt, 
xxvi.  2G.  Mark  xiv.  22.  Luke  xxii.  19.  1  Cor.  xi.  23,  24.)  In 
the  communion  service  of  the  Anglican  church,  the  spirit 
and  design  both  of  the  type  and  antitype  are  most  expres- 
sively condensed  into  one  point  of  view  in  the  following 
address  to  the  communicant: — "Take  and  eat  this  in  re- 
MEMBRANXE  that  Christ  died  for  thee,  and  feed  upon  him  in 
thy  heart  by  faith,  with  thanksgiving.'''' 
(6.)  They  then  ate  the  rest  of  the  cake  with  the  bitter 

<  This  custom,  Beausobre  well  observes,  will  explain  several  passages 
nf  Scripture,  particularly  those  in  which  mention  is  made  of  Abraham's 
bosom  (Luke  xvi.  22),  and  of  the  Son's  being  in  the  hosom  of  the  Father. 
(Jolm  i.  18.  compared  with  Pliil.  ii.  6.  and  John  xiii.  23.) 

»  ^n  this  part  of  the  paschal  ceremony,  among  the  modern  Jews,  after 
the  master  of  the  house  has  reserved  the  portion  for  the  aphicomen,  the 
bone  of  the  lamb  and  the  egg  are  taken  off  the  dish,  and  all  at  table  lay 
hold  of  the  dish  and  say, — "Lo!  this  is  [or  siirnifies]  the  bread  of  afflic- 
tion, which  OUT  ancestors  ate  in  the  lanil  of  Egypt ;  let  all  those  irho  are 
hungry  eat  thereof;  and  all  leho  are  necessitous,  come,  and  celebrate  the 
Passover."  Form  of  Prayers  for  the  Festivals  of  Passover  and  Pente- 
cost, according  to  the  custom  of  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  Jews,  trans- 
lated from  the  Hebrew  by  David  Levi,  p.  20. 


herbs,  dipping  the  bread  into  the  charoseth,  cr  sauce.  To 
this  practice  the  evangelists  jVIatthew  (xxvi.  21—25.)  and 
Mark  (xiv.  18 — 21.)  manifestly  allude;  and  into  this  sauce 
our  Saviour  is  supposed  to  have  dipped  the  sop  which  he 
gave  to  Judas.  (John  xiii.  2(5.) 

(7.)  Next  they  ate  the  flesh  of  the  peace-offerings  which 
had  been  sacrificed  on  the  fourteenth  day,  and  then  the  flesh 
of  the  paschal  lamb,  which  was  followed  by  returning  thanks 
to  God,  and  a  second  washing  of  hands. 

(8.)  A  third  cup  of  wine  was  then  filled,  over  which  they 
blessed  God,  or  said  grace  after  meat  (\\'hence  it  was  called 
the  cup  of  blessing),  and  drank  it  off.  i  o  this  circumstance 
St.  Paul  particularly  alludes  when  he  says, — The  cup  of  bless- 
ing which  we  bless,  is  it  not  the  communion  of  the  blood  of  Christ? 
(1  Cor.  x.  16.)  It  was  also  at  this  part  of  the  paschal  supper 
that  our  Lord  took  the  cup,  saying.  This  is  the  new  testament 
(rather  covenant)  in  my  blood,  which  is  shed  for  you,  and  for 
many,  for  the  remission  of  sins.  (Luke  xxii.  20.  Matt.  xxvi. 
27.)  The  cup  here  is  put  for  tvine ,-  and  covenant  is  put  for 
the  token  or  sign  of  the  covenant.  The  luine,  as  represent- 
ing Christ's  blood,  answers  to  the  blood  of  the  passover, 
which  typified  it;  and  the  remission  of  sins  here,  answers  to 
the  passing  over  there,  and  preserving  from  death. ^ 

(9.)  Lastly,  a  fourth  cup  of  wine  was  filled,  called  the  cup 
of  the  hallel :  over  it  they  completed,  either  by  singing  or 
recitation,  the  great  hallel,  or  hymn  of 'praise,  consisting  of 
psalms  cxv.  to  cxviii.  inclusive,  with  a  prayer,  and  so  con- 
cluded.' In  like  manner  our  Lord  and  his  disciples,  when 
they  had  sung  a  hymn,  departed  to  the  Mount  of  Olives. 
(Matt.  xxvi.  30.    Mark  xiv.  26.) 

3.  TVith  regard  to  the  mystical  signification  of  the  pas.'^- 
over,  we  know  generally  from  St.  Paul  (1  Cor.  v.  7.),  who 
calls  Jesus  Christ  our  passover,  that  this  Jewish  sacrament 
had  a  typical  reference  to  him :  but  concerning  the  points  of 
resemblance  between  the  type  and  anti-type,  learned  men 
are  not  agreed.  Godwin*  has  enumerated  thirtet^i  points  of 
coincidence ;  Dr.  Lightfoot,'^  seventeen ,-  and  Keach,'  nineteen. 
The  most  judicious  an-angement  of  this  subject  which  we 
have  seen  is  that  of  Herman  Witsius,^  who  has  treated  it 
under  four  general  heads,  viz.  the  person  of  Christ, — the 
sufferings  he  bore  for  us, — the  fruits  of  those  sufferings, — 
and  the  manner  in  which  we  are  made  partakers  of  tnem. 
As,  however,  many  of  the  analogies  which  Witsius  has  traced 
between  the  passover  and  the  death  of  Christ  are  very  fanci- 
ful, his  arrangement  only  has  been  adopted  in  the  following 
observations : — 

(1.)  The  Person  of  Christ  was  typified  by  the  Pas- 
chal Lamb. 

"  The  animal  sacrifice  at  the  passover  was  to  be  a  lamb 
without  blemish.  (Exod.  xii.  5.)  Christ  is  styled  the  Lamh 
of  God,  which  taketh  away  the  sin  of  the  world  (John  i. 
29.  36.) ;  a  lamb  without  blemish  and  without  spot.  (1  Pet. 
i.  19.  See  Isa.  liii.  7.)  The  paschal  lamb  was  to  be  one 
of  the  flock.  Christ  the  Word  who  was  made  flesh,  and 
dwelt  amonw  us  (John  i.  14.),  was  taken  from  the  midst  of 
the  people,  Being  in  all  things  made  like  unto  his  brethren." 
(Heb.  if.  17.)9 

(2.)  The  Sufferings  and  Death  of  Christ  were  also 
typified  by  the  Paschal  Lamb  in  various  particulars. 

"  The  sacrifice  of  the  passover  differed  from  other  sacri« 

'  Clarke  on  the  Eucharist,  p.  39.  On  this  part  of  the  institution  of  thu 
Lord's  supper.  Dr.  Lightfoot  has  the  following  admirable  remarks : — "  Thii 
is  my  blood  of  the  New  Testament.  Not  only  the  seal  of  the  covenant, 
but  the  sanction  of  the  new  covenant.  The  end  of  the  Mosaic  economy, 
and  the  confirming  of  a  new  one.  The  confirmation  of  the  old  covenant 
was  by  the  blood  of  bulls  and  of  goats  (Exod.  xxiv.  Heb.  ix),  becausQ 
blood  was  siill  to  be  shed:  the  confirmation  of  the  new  was  by  a  cupol 
wine  ;  because  under  the  new  covenant  there  is  no  further  shedding  or 
blood.  As  it  is  here  said  of  the  cup.  This  cup  is  the  New  Testa7nent  in 
my  blood ;  so  it  might  be  said  of  the  cup  of  blood.  (Exod.  xxiv.)  That  cup 
was  the  Old  Testament  in  the  blood  vf  Christ :  there  all  the  ai-ticles  of  that 
covenant  being  read  over,  Moses  sprinkled  all  the  people  with  blood,  and 
said.  This  is  the  blood  of  the  covenant  which  God  hath  made  teith  you  ;  and 
thus  that  old  covenant,  or  testimony,  was  confirmed.  In  like  manner 
Christ,  having  published  all  the  articles  of  the  new  covenant,  he  takes  the 
cup  of  wine,  and  gives  them  to  drink,  and  saith.  This  is  tlie  New  Testa-- 
ment  inmy  blood,  and  thus  the  new  covenant  was  established." — (Works, 
vol.  ii.  p.  260.)    Hor.  Heb.  on  Malt.  xxvi.  27. 

*  Lightfoot's  Temple  Service,  c.  xiii.  (V»'orks,  vol.  i.  pp.  959—967.)  See 
also  Mr.  Ainsworth's  learned  and  interesting  notes  on  Exod.  xii.  in  hia 
Annotations  on  the  Pentateuch. 

5  Godwin's  Moses  and  Aaron,  pp.  114,  115. 

6  Lightfool'.s  Works,  vol.  i.  pp.  1008,  1009. 

1  Reach's  Key  to  Scripture  Metaphors,  pp.  979,  980.  2d  edit.  See  also 
M'Ewen  on  the  Types,  pp.  148—152. 

8  Witsius,  de  Qilconomia  Fosderum,  lib.  iv.  c.  9.  5§33 — 58.  or  vol.  ii.  pp. 
275—282.  of  the  EngUsh  translation.  Witsius's  View  of  the  Mystical  Im- 
port of  the  Passover  has  been  abridged  by  Dr.  Jennings.  Jewish  Antiq. 
book  iii.  ch.  iv.  pp.  472—477. 

9  Chevallicr's  Hulsean  Lectures,  on  the  Historical  Types  of  the  Old 
Testament,  p.  2S5. 


t2G 


SACRED  TIMES  AND  SEASONS  OBSERVED  BY  THE  JEWS, 


[Part  III. 


fices,  in  being-  a  public  act  of  the  whole  people  :  it  was  to  be 
slain  by  '  thf;  whole  assemhiy  of  the  coiigrp^.tion  of  Israel.' 
(Exod.  xii.  G.)  Tlio  chief  "priests,  and  the  nilers,  and  the 
people,  were  conseMting  to  the  death  of  Jesus.  (Luke  xxiii. 
13.)  The  blood  of  the  passovor  was,  at  its  first  institution, 
o  be  sprinkled  upon  the  lintel,  and  the  two  side-posts  (Exod. 
xii.  7.  •22.),  for  the  protection  of  the  people;  and  in  the  sub- 
sequent celebration  of  the  paschal  sacrifice,  '  the  priests 
sprinkled  the  blood  which  they  received  of  the  hand  of  the 
Levites.'  (2  Chron.  xxx.  16.  xxxv.  11.)  It  is  by  the  sprink- 
linjr  of  the  blood  of  Jesus  Christ,  that  our  consciences  are 
nurfTcd  (Heb.  ix.  M.),  and  protection  and  salvation  obtained. 
(Heb.  xii.  21.  1  Pet.  i.  2.)  The  passover  was  to  be  eaten 
by  the  Israelites,  in  the  character  of  travellers,  with  their 
loins  jrirdod,  their  shoes  upon  their  feet,  and  their  staff  in 
their  blind.  (Exod.  xii.  11.)  They,  for  whom  Christ  is  sa- 
crificed, are  compared  to  strangers  and  pilgrims  (1  Pet.  ii. 
11.),  and  are  commanded  to  stand,  bavin sj  tlieir  loins  girt 
about  with  truth,  and  having  on  the  breastplate  of  righteous- 
ness, and  their  feet  shod  with  the  preparation  of  the  gospel 
of  peace.  (Kph.  vi.  15.)  The  Israelites  were  to  eat  the  pass- 
over  in  haste.  (Exod.  xii.  11.)  We  are  to  give  diligence  to 
make  our  calling  and  election  sure  (2  Pet.  i.  10.) ;  and  to 
flee  for  refuge  to  lay  hold  upon  the  hope  set  before  us.  (Heb. 
vi.  18.)  The  passover  was  to  be  sacrificed  only  in  the  taber- 
nacle, and  afterwards"  only  in  the  temple  at  Jerusalem. 
(Dcut.  xvi.  5,  6.)     Neither  could  it  be  that  Christ  should 

Serish  out  of  Jerusalem.  (Luke  xiii.  33.)  The  month,  and 
ay  of  the  month,  on  which  the  passover  was  to  be  sacrificed 
by  the  Israelites,  is  laid  down  with  accuracy.  And  on  the 
very  day  on  which  the  passover  oui^lit  to  Be  slain  (Luke 
xxii.  7.  'Ey  «  EaEI  9yw-9i<  Ti  7ri.a-)(/\,  and  on  which  Christ 
celebrated  the  naschal  feast  with  liis  disciples,  he  endured 
his  agony  and  bloody  sweat ;  and  he  sulTered  death  upon  the 
cross,  on  the  day  when,  at  least  the  scribes  and  Pharisees, 
and  some  of  the  principal  men  among  the  Jews,  did  'eat  the 
passover.'  (John  xviii.  28.)  Further,  not  a  bone  of  the  pas- 
chal victim  was  to  be  broken,  (Exod.  xii.  4(5.) — atypical  cir- 
cumstance, which  the  evangelist  snecially  notices  as  fulfilled 
in  the  person  of  Jesus  Christ.  (Jonn  xix.  32 — 36.') 

"  Another  peculiarity  in  the  paschal  oflfering  is  the  time  of 
the  day  at  which  it  was  appointed  to  be  slain.  '  The  whole 
assembly  of  the  congregation  shall  kill  it  in  the  evening,' 
(Exod.  xii.  6.) ;  or,  as  the  expression  is  rendered  in  the  mar- 
gin, between  the  two  evenings. — Now  at  the  very  time  ap- 
pointed for  the  sacrifice  of  the  paschal  lamb,  between  the 
two  evenings,  Christ  our  passover  was  sacrificed  for  us.  The 
scene  of  suffering  began  at  the  third  hour  of  the  day.  (Mark 
XV.  25.)  And  at  the  sixth  hour  there  was  darkness  over  all 
the  land  until  the  ninth  hour.  (Matt.xxvii.  45.  Mark  xv.  33. 
Luke  xxiii.  44.)  And  about  the  ninth  hour,  Jesus  cried  with 
a  loud  voice,  and  gave  up  the  ghost.  (Matt,  xxvii.  40.  50. 
Mark  xv.  34.  37.)"' 

(3.)  Several  of  the  Fritits  of  Christ's  Dp.\Tn  were 

REMARKABLY    TYPIFIED    BY  THE    SACRIFICE  OF    THE  PaSCHAL 

Lamb. 

Such  are  "protection  and  salvation  by  his  blood,  of  which 
the  sprinkling  of  the  door-posts  with  the  blood  of  the  lamb, 
and  tiie  safety  which  the  Israelites  by  that  means  enjoyed 
from  the  plague  that  spread  through  all  the  families  of  tiie 
Egyptians,  was  a  desijrned  and  illustrious  emblem.  In  allu- 
sion to  this  type,  the  blood  of  Christ  is  called  the  blood  i>f 
sprinkling.  (1  Pet.  i.  2.  Heb.  xii.  21.)  Immediately  upon  the 
Israelites  eating  the  first  passover,  they  were  delivered  from 
their  Egyptian  slavery,  and  restored  to  full  liberty,  of  which 
they  had  been  d(])rived  for  many  yars ;  and  such  is  the  fruit 
of  the  death  of  Christ,  in  a  spiritual  and  much  nobler  sense, 
to  all  that  believe  in  him  ;  for  he  hath  thereby  •'  obtained 
eternal  redemption  for  us,"  and  "  brought  us  into  the  gloriou,^ 
liberty  of  the  children  of  God."  (Heb.  ix.  12.  Rom.  yiii. 
21, )2 

(4.)  The  Manner  in  which  wr  abf.  to  be  made  Par- 
takers OF  THE  BLKSSED  FlU'lTSOF  THE  SAfRIFlCE  OF  (^HRIST, 
WERE  AI-SO  REPRESE.NTED  BY  LIVELY  EmULEMS  IN  THE  PaSS- 
OVER. 

"The  paschal  lamb  was  ordered  to  be  slain,  and  his  blood 
was  direcU'd  to  be  sprinkled  upon  the  lintel  and  the  door- 
posts of  each  dwelling  occupinl  by  (Jod's  chosen  people; 
that,  when  the  angel  smote  the  Egyi)tians,  he  might  pass 
over  the  houses  of  the  IsnielitcB  anu  leave  llu  m  srrure  from 
danger :  in  a  similar  maimer,  by  the  blood  of  Clirist  alone, 

«  fhev.iUicr's  I.*>cturcs,  pp.  287— 2W. 

'  Jenninga'i  Jewish  Anlkiuiiicj,  book  iii.  ch.  W.  pp.  474, 475. 


shed  for  many  for  the  remission  of  sins,  can  the  impending 
wrath  of  heaven  be  averted  from  sinful  man.  Before  the 
blood  of  our  Lord  was  sprinkled  upon  his  church,  we  stood 
(as  it  were)  without,  exposed,  like  the  Egyptians,  to  the 
vengeance  of  a  justly  incensed  God  :  but  now  his  ]  ncioua 
blood-shedding,  like  the  sprinkled  blood  of  the  paschal  lamb, 
is  our  safety  and  defence,  so  that  the  anger  of  Jehovah  may 
pass  over  us.  The  death  of  the  paschal  lamb  was  for  the 
deliverance  of  the  Levitical  church;  yet,  if  any  negligent  or 
unbelieving  Israelite  availed  not  himself  of  the  profferea 
refuge,  he  perished  undistinguished  with  the  Egyptians  : 
thus  likewise  the  death  of  the  Lamb  of  God  was  for  the  de- 
liverance of  the  Christian  church  ;  but,  if  any  one  claims  to 
be  a  Christian  in  name,  while  yet  he  renounces  the  doctrine 
of  pardon  and  acceptance  through  the  sprinkled  blood  of  the 
Messiah,  he  then  places  himself  without  the  doors  of  the 
church,  and  will  be  strictly  judged  according  to  his  works 
by  a  law  which  pronounces  that  man  accursed  who  observes 
not  with  nndivKtIins:  punctuality  all  the  commandments 
which  it  has  enjoined.  (Gal.  iii.  10.)  From  the  creation  to 
the  day  of  judgment,  there  have  been,  and  are,  and  can  be, 
no  more  than  two  covenants ;  that  of  works,  and  that  of  ^ace. 
Under  the  one  or  the  other  of  these  compacts,  every  man 
must  arrange  himself."^ 

Lastly,  the  passover  was  to  be  eaten  with  unleavened 
bread  :  nor  is  it  in  vain  that  leaven  is  so  often  and  so  expressly 
forbidden  to  those  who  are  invited  to  eat  of  the  lamb  ;  for  in 
Scripture  leaven  is  the  symbol  of  corruption,  and  especially 
of  hypocrisy.  Hence,  St.  Paul,  speaking  of  Christ  the  tme 
paschal  lamb,  exhorts  Christians  to  keep  the  feast,  not  with 
old  leaven,  neither  ivith  leaven  of  malice  ana  wickedness,  but  with 
the  unleavened  broad  of  sincerity  and  truth.  (2  Cor.  v.  7,  8.)' 

On  the  second  day  of  the  festival  (the  sixteenth  of  the 
month  Nisan)  was  offered  the  sheaf  of  the  first-fruits  of  the 
barley  iiarvcst,  which  was  usually  ripe  at  this  season,  as  a 
grateful  acknowledgment  of  the  goodness  of  God,  in  bestow- 
ing upon  them  both  the  former  and  the  latter  rains  (Jer.  v. 
21.),  and  also  of  his  right  to  confer  or  withhold  them  as 
he  pleases.  It  was  accompanied  M'ith  a  particular  sacri- 
fice, the  circumstances  of  which  are  detailed  in  Lev.  xxiii. 
9—14. 

V.  The  second  of  the  three  great  Jewish  festivals  was  the 
Feast  of  Pentecost,  which  is  called  by  various  names  in 
the  Sacred  Writings  ;  as  i)\c  feast  of  weeks  (Exod.  xxxiv.  22. 
Deut.  xvi.  10.  16.),  because  it  was  celebrated  seven  weeks 
or  a  week  of  weeks  after  the  first  day  of  unleavened  bread;  i 
— \.\\G  feast  of  harvest  (Exod.  xxiii.  16.),  and  also  the  day  of 
Jirst-fruils  (Num.  xviii.  26.),  because  on  this  day  the  Jews 
offered  thanksfrivings  to  God  for  the  bounties  of  harvest,  and 
presented  to  him  the  first-fruits  of  the  wheat  harvest,  in 
bread  baked  of  the  new  corn.  (Exod.  xxiii.  16.  Lev.  xxiii. 
11 — 21.  Num.  xxviii.  20 — 31.)  The  form  of  thanksgiving 
for  this  occasion  is  given  in  Deut.  xxvi.  5 — 10.  On  this  day 
also  was  commemorated  the  giving  of  the  law  on  Mount 
Sinai.  The  Greek  word  Pentecost,  UwrrK-.trrn  f  Acts  ii.  I. 
XX.  16.),  is  derived  from  the  circumstance  of  its  oeing  kept 
on  the  fiftieth  day  after  the  first  day  of  unleavened  bread. 
The  number  of  Jews  asscml)lcd  at  Jerusalem  on  tliis  joyous 
occasion  was  very  great.*  This  fi^stival  had  a  typical  refer- 
ence to  the  miraculous  eflusion  of  the  Holy  Spirit  upon  the 
apostles  and  first-fruits  of  the  (Jhristian  church  on  the  day  of 
Pentecost  (corresi)onding  with  our  Whit-Sunday),  en  the 
fiftieth  day  al'tcr  the  nsurrection  of  Jesus  (Mirist." 

VI.  The  Feast  of  'I'abernaclks,  like  the  preceding  festi- 
val, continued  for  a  week.  It  was  instituted  to  commemo- 
rate the  dwelling  of  the  Israelites  in  tents  while  they 
wandered  in  the  desert.  (Lev.  xxiii.  31.  43.)  Hence  it  is 
calle(l  by  St.  John  \\ic  fast  of  tents  {(miir.myu,  John  vii.  2.)' 
It  is  likewise  termed  the/cwY  of  inaat/urini^s.  (Exod.  xxiii. 
10.  xxxiv.  22.)  Further,  the  design  of  this  feast  was,  to 
return  thanks  to  God  for  the  fruits  of  the  vine,  as  well  as  of 
otlier  trees,  which  were  gathered  about  this  time,  and  also  to 
implore  his  blessing  upfni  those  of  the  ensuing  year.  The 
following  were  the  principal  cercmonits  observed  in  the  cele- 
bration of  this  feast : — 

J  Fnlicr'H  Ilnr.T  Morale ro.  vol.  ii,  p.  273. 

«  WiiKiiiHon  tlic  Covciiiiiili*,  IjDoit  vi.  rli.  ix.  i  W.  vol.  ii.  p.  280. 

>  AcUiii.  9—11.    JioriiliiiH,  Ant.  Jud  lib.  ii.  o.  3.  i  1. 


ricK, 


•  iirui  II.    » — i  ■•       .#"3«  iPiiiin,    /»iii.  rfu*..  *ii/.  ft.   V  .  V.     ... 

•  Scluil7.li  Arrtin-nl.  I!.-I>r.  pp.  ail— 3^.     Ij\iiiy'ii  Apnaratuii  Blbli 
vol   i.  p.  179.     Lij(lilf<HiiH  Wurltfi,  vol.  i.  p.  1*0.    MlrliBnlin's  Comment,!. ..., 
vol.  111.  p.  181.     R.lanJi  Anilti.  Ucbr.  p.  472.     Albor,  Inut.  Heriu.  Vtu  Test 
torn.  I.  pp.  172,  in. 

1  A  miiiilar  ajipclliition  is  given  by  Joirphuf,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xi.  «  S.  i  5 
lib.  viii.  c.  4.  il. 


Chap.  IV.] 


THE  FEAST  OF  TRUMPETS DAY  OP  ATONEMENT. 


1.  During  the  whole  of  this  solemnity  they  were  obliored  | 
to  dwell  in  tents,  which  anciently  were  pitched  on  the  flat 
terracp-like  roofs  of  their  houses.  (Neh.  viii.  IG.) 

2.  Besides  the  ordinary  daily  sacrifices,  there  were  several 
pxtraordinary  ones  offered  on  this  occasion,  which  are  de- 
tailed in  Num.  xxix. 

3.  During  the  continuance  of  this  feast,  they  carried  in 
their  hands  branches  of  palm  trees,  olives,  citrons,  myrtles, 
and  willows  (Lev.  xxiii.  40.  Nch.  viii.  15.  2  IMacc.x.  7.).;' 
sinking  Hoaanna,  save  I  beseech  thee  (Psal.  cxviii.  25.),  in 
which  words  thev  prayed  for  the  corning  of  the  Messiah. 
These  branches  also  bore  the  name  of  Hosanna,  as  well  as 
all  the  days  of  the  feast.  In  the  same  manner  was  Jesus 
Christ  conducted  into  Jerusalem  by  the  believing  Jews,  who, 
considering  him  to  be  the  promised  Messiah,  expressed  their 
boundless  joy  at  finding  in  hira  the  accomplishment  of  these 
])etitions,  which  they  had  so  qften  offered  to  God  for  his 
coming,  at  the  feast  of  tabernacles.  (Matt.  xxi.  8,  0.)  Dur- 
ing its  continuance,  they  walked  in  procession  round  the 
altar  with  the  above-mentioned  branches  in  their  hands,  amid 
the  sound  of  trumpets,  singing  Hosanna ;  and  on  the  last  or 
seventh  day  of  the  feast,  they  compassed  the  altar  seven 
limes.  This  was  called  the  Great  Hosanna.  To  this  last 
ceremony  St.  John  probably  alludes  in  Rev.  vii.  9,  10.,  where 
he  describes  the  saints  as  standing  before  the  throne,  "  clothed 
with  white  robes,  and  palms  in  their  hands ,-  and  saying.  Sal- 
vation to  our  God  which  sitteih  upon  the  throne,  and  unto  the 
Lamb:' 

4.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  ceremonies  performed  at 
tills  feast  in  the  later  period  of  the  Jewish  polity,  was  the 
libation  or  pouring  out  of  water,  drawn  from  the  fountain  or 
pool  of  Siloaiji,  upon  the  altar.  As,  according  to  the  Jews 
themselves,^  this  water  was  an  emblem  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
Jesus  Christ  applied  the  ceremony  and  the  intention  of  it  to 
nimself  when  he  "  cried,  saying.  If  any  man  thirst,  let  him 
co7ne  unto  me  and  drinh.'''  (John  vii.  37.  39.) 

On  the  last  day,  that  gi-eat  day  of  the  feast  (John  vii,  37.), 
the  Jews  fetched  w"ater  from  that  fountain  in  a  golden  pitcher, 
which  they  brought  through  the  water-gate  into  the  temple, 
with  great  rejoicmg.  The  oflSciating  priest  poured  it,  mixed 
with  wine,  upon  the  morning  sacrifice,  as  it  lay  on  the  altar. 
The  Jews  seem  to  have  adopted  this  custom  (for  it  is  not 
ordained  in  the  law  of  Moses)  as  an  emblem  of  future  bless- 
ings, in  allusion  to  this  passage  of  Isaiah  (xii.  3.),  With 
joy  shall  ye  draw  water  out  of  the  ivells  of  salvatioii :  expres- 
isions  that  can  hardly  be  understood  of  any  benefits  afforded 
by  the  Mosaic  dispensation.  Water  was  offered  to  God  this 
daj',  partly  in  reference  to  the  water  which  flowed  from  the 
rock  in  the  wilderness  (1  Cor.  x.  4.),  but  chiefly  to  solicit 
the  blessing  of  rain  on  the  approaching  seed-time.^ 

No  festival  was  celebrated  with  greater  rejoicing  than  this, 
which  Josephus  calls  "  a  most  holy  and  most  eminent  feast." ' 
Dancing,  music,  and  feasting  were  the  accompaniments  of 
this  festival,  together  with  such  brilliant  illuminations  as 
lighted  the  whole  city  of  Jerusalem.  These  rejoicings  are 
supposed  to  have  taken  place  in  the  court  of  the  women,  in 
order  that  they  might  be  partakers  of  the  general  hilarity.^ 
In  every  seventh  year  the  law  of  Moses  was  also  read  in 
public,  in  the  presence  of  all  the  people.  (Deut.  xxxi.  10 — 
12.  Neh.  viii.  18.) 

VII.  To  the  three  grand  annual  festivals  above  described, 
Moses  added  two  others,  which  were  celebrated  with  great 
solemnity,  though  the  presence  of  every  male  Israelite  was  not 
absolutely  required. 

1.  The  first  of  these  was  the  Feast  of  Trumpets,  a'hd  was 
held  on  the  firsthand  second  days  of  the  month  Tisri,  which 
was  the  commencement  of  the  civil  year  of  the  Hebrews : 
this  feast  derived  its  name  from  the  blowing  of  trumpets  in 

'  Lamy  adds,  that  the  Jews  tied  these  branches  with  gold  and  silver 
.strings,  or  with  ribands,  and  did  not  lay  tlieni  aside  tlic  whole  day  ;  carry- 
ing tlieui  into  their  synagojiues,  and  keeping  them  by  them  while  they  were 
at  their  prayers.    App.  Bib.  vol.  i.  p.  183. 

»  The  sense  of  the  .lews  is  in  this  niatter  plainly  shown  by  the  following 
passage  of  the  Jerusalem  Talmud :— "  Why  is  it  called  the  place  or  house 
of  drawing?  because  from  thence  they  draw  theHoIy  Spirit :  as  it  is  writ- 
ten, And  ye  shall  draw  water  with  joy  from  the  wells  of  Salvation."  Wolfii 
Curte  Philol.  in  N.  T.  on  John  vii.  37.  39.    Lowlh's  Isaiah,  vol.  ii.  p.  117. 

»  Bp.  Lowth's  Isaiah,  vol.  ii.  p.  117.  Doyly's  and  Mant's  Bible,  on  John 
7ii.  37. 

*  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  viii.  c.  4.  §  1.  The  greatness  of  these  rejoicings,  and 
their  happening  at  the  time  of  vintage,  led  Tacitus  erroneously  to  suppose 
that  the  Jews  were  accustomed  to  sacrifice  to  Bacchus.  Tacit.  Ilist.  lib- 
V.  c.  5.  (torn.  iii.  p.  268.  edit.  Bipont.) 

•  Schulzii  Archtcol.  Heb.  pp.  323—326.  Relandi  Antiq.  Ileb.  p.  477. 
Ikenii  Anliq.  Heb.  pp.  134,  1.36.  I.ightCoot's  Worlcs,  vol.  i.  p.  904.  vol.  ii. 
pp.  641— 643.  Lcusden's  Philologus  Hebraso-Mixtus,  p.  295.  Beausobre's 
Introd.  to  the  New  Test.  (Bp.  Watson's  Tracts,  vol.  iii.  pp.  224,  225.)  Ilar- 
mer's  Observations,  vol.  i.  p.  13. 


127 

the  temple  with  more  than  usual  solemnity.  (Num.  xxix.  1. 
Lev.  xxiii.  24.)  On  this  festival  they  abstained  from  all 
labour  (Lev.  xxiii.  25.),  and  offered  particular  sacrifices  to 
God,  which  are  described  in  Num.  xxix.  1 — 6. 

2.  The  other  feast  alluded  to  was  the  Fast  or  Feast  of 
Expiation,  or  Day  of  Atonement  ;  which  day  the  Jews 
observed  as  a  most  strict  fast,  abstaining  from  all  servile 
work,  taking  no  food,  and  afflicfing  their  souh.  (Lev.  xxiii.  27 
— 30.)  Of  all  the  sacrifices  ordained  by  the  Mosaic  law,  the 
sacrifice  of  the  atonement  was  the  most  solemn  and  import- 
ant :  it  was  offere:d  on  the  tenth  day  of  the  month  Tisri,  by 
the  high-priest  alone,  for  the  sine  of  the  whole  nation. 

"  On  this  day  only,  in  the  course  of  the  year,  was  the  high- 
priest  permitted  to  enter  the  sanctuary,''  and  not  even  then 
without  due  preparation,  under  pain  of  death  ;  all  others 
being  excluded  from  the  tabernacle  during  the  whole  cere- 
mony. (Lev.  xvi.  2.  17.)     Previously  to  his  entrance  he  was 
to  wash  himself  in  water,  and  to  put  on  the  holy  linen  gar- 
ments, with  the  mitre  ;  and  to  bring  a  young  bullock  into  the 
outer  sanctuary,  and  present  it  before  the  Lord  to  be  a  sin- 
ofTcring  for  himself  and  his  household,  including  the  priests 
and  Levites,  and  a  ram  also  for  a  burnt-offering,  (xvi.  3,  4.) 
Next,  he  was  to  take  two  young  goats,  and  present  them 
before  the  Lord,  at  the  door  of  tlie  tabernacle,  to  be  a  sin- 
offering  for  the  whole  congregation  of  Israel,  and  a  ram  also 
for  a  burnt-ofTering.  (xvi.  5.)     He  was  then  to  cast  lots  upon 
the  two  goats,  which  of  them  should  be  sacrificed  as  a  sin- 
oflering  to  the  Lord,  and  which  should  be  let  go  for  a  scape- 
goat  into   the    wilderness.      After   this,   he    was  first    to 
sacrifice  the  bullock  as  a  sin-offering  for  himself  and  his 
household,  and  to  take  some  of  the  blood  into  the   inner 
sanctuary,  bearing  in  his  hand  accuser  with  incense  burning, 
kindled  at  the  sacred  fire  on  the  altar,  and  to  sprii;kle  the  blood 
with  his  finger  upon  the  mercy-seat,  and  oefore  it,  seven 
times,  to  purify  it  from  the  pollution  it  might  be  supposed  to 
have  contracted  from  his  sins  and  transgressions  during  the 
preceding  year.     He  was  then  to  sacrifice  the  allotted  goat 
tor  the  sins  of  the  whole  nation,  artd  to  enter  the  inner  sanc- 
tuary a  second  time,  and  to  sprinkle  it  with  blood  as  before, 
to  purify  it  from  the  pollution  of  the  people's  sins  and  trans- 
gressions of  the  foregoing  year.    After  Avhich,  he  was  to 
purify,  in  like  manner,  the  tabernacle  and  the  altar.     He  was 
next  to  bring  the  live  goat,  and  lay  both  his  hands  upon  its 
head,  and  confess  over  him  all  the  iniquities,  transgressions, 
and  sins  of  the  children  of  Israel,  putting  them  upon  the  head 
of  the  goat,  and  then  to  send  him  away  by  the  hand  of  a  fit 
person  into  the  wilderness,  to  bear  away  upon  him  all  their 
iniquities  to  a  land   of  separation,  where  they  should   be 
remembered  no  more.     After  this  atonement  he  Avas  to  put 
off  his  linen  garments,  and  leave  them  in  the  sanctuary,  and 
to  wash  himself  again  in  water,  and  put  on  his  usual  gar- 
ments ;  and  then  to  offer  burnt-offerinffs  for  himself  and  for 
the  people,  at  the  evening  sacrifice.  (Lev.  xvi.  3 — 28.)    The 
whole  of  this  process  seems  to  be  tj'pical  or  prefigurative  of 
the  grand  "atonement  to  be  made  for  the  sins  of  the  whole 
world  by  Jesus  Christ,  the  high-priest  of  our  profession  (Heb. 
iii.  1.),  and  a  remarkable  analogy  thereto  may  be  traced  in 
the  course  of  our  Lord's  ministry.     He  becran  it  with  per- 
sonal purification  at  his  baptism,  to  fulfil  G/Hegal  righteous' 
ness.  (Matt.  iii.  13 — 15.)     Immediately  after  his  baptism,  he 
was  led,  by  the  impulse  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  into  the  wilder- 
ness, as  the  true  scape-goat,  who  bore  away  our  infirmities, 
and  carried  off  our  diseases.    (Isa.  liii.  4 — 6.   Matt.  viii.  17.) 
Immediately  before  his  crucifixion,  he  vjos  afflicted,  and  his  soul 
was  exceeding  sorrowful  unto  death,  v.hen  he  was  to  be  mad© 
a  sin-oflering  like  the  allotted  goat  (Psal.  xl.  12.  Isa.  liii.  7. 
Matt.  xxvi.  38.  2  Cor.  v.  21.  Heb.  i.  3.) ;  and  his  sweat,  as 
great  drops  of  blood,  falling  to  the  ground,  corresponded  to  the 
sprinkling  of  the  mercy-seat  (Luke  xxii.  44.)  ;  and  when,  to 
prepare  for  the  sacrifice  of  himself,  he  consecrated  himself  in 
prayer  to  God  (John  xvii.  1—5.  Matt.  xxvi.  39 — 46.) ;  and 
then  prayed  for  his  household,  his  apostles,  and  disciples 
(John  xvii.  6 — 9.),  and  for  all  future  believers  on  him  by 
their  preaching.  (John  xvii.  20—26.)     He  put  off  his  gar- 
ments at  his  crucifixion,  when  he  became  the  sin-offenng 
(Psal.  xxii.  18.  John  xix.  23, 24.) ;  and,  as  our  spiritual  high- 
priest,  enffered  once  for  all  into  the  most  holy  place,  heaven, 
to  make  intercession  with  God  for  all  his  faithful  followers. 
(Heb.  vii.  24—28.  ix.  7—15.)^    W^o  died  for  our  sins,  and 
rose  again  for  our  justification.'''^  (Rom.  iv.  25.) 

6  When  the  tabernacle  was  to  be  removed,  and  set  up  again,  the  inner 
sanctuary  might  safely  be  entered,  but  not  at  other  times. 

■'  Dr.  Ilalcs's  Analysis,  vol.  ii.  book  i.  pp.274.  276.  See  also  Jennings'8 
Jewish  Antiquhies,  book  iii.  ch.  vii.  Alber,  Inst.  Herm.  Vet.  Test.  torn.  i. 
pp.  174—170.  Lightfoot's  Works,  vol.  1.  pp.  961, 962.  Relandi,  Antiq.  Hebr 


128 


SACRED  TIMES  AND  SEASONS  OliSEliVED  BY  THE  JEWS.         [Part  HI.  Chap.  IV. 


VIII.  Besides  tl.e  anr.ual  festivals  above  described,  tlie 
Jews  in  later  times  ii.trochicccl  several  fast  and  feast  dujs  in 
addition  to  those  instituted  by  Moses.  The  two  principal 
festivals  of  this  kind  were  the  Feast  of  Purim,  and  that  of  the 
Dedication  of  the  Second  Temple. 

1.  The  Feast  of  Plrim,  or  oi  Lois,  as  the  word  signifies, 
is  celebrated  on  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  days  of  the  month 
of  Adar  (or  of  Ve-Adar  if  it  be  an  intercalary  year),  in  coni- 
memoratiou  of  the  providential  deliverance  of  tlie  .lews  from 
the  cruel  machinations  of  Haman,  who  iiad  j)rocured  an  edict 
from  Artaxerxes  to  extirpate  them.  (Esth.  iii. — ix.)  On  this 
occasion  the  entire  book  of  Esther  is  read  in  the  synagogues 
of  the  modern  Jews,  not  out  of  a  printed  copy,  but  from  a  roll 
which  generally  contains  this  book  alone.  All  Jews,  of  both 
sexes,  and  of  every  age,  who  are  able  to  attend,  are  remiired 
to  come  to  this  feast  and  to  join  in  the  reading,  for  the  better 
preservation  of  the  memory  of  this  important  fact.  When  the 
roll  is  unfolded,  the  chazanor  reader  says,  "  Blessed  be  God, 
the  King  of  the  world,  who  hath  sanctified  us  by  his  precepts, 
and  commanded  us  to  read  the  Mcgillah !  Blessed  be  God, 
who  in  those  days  worked  miracles  for  our  fathers !"  As 
often  as  the  name  of  Ham.an  occurs,  the  whole  congregation 
clap  their  hands,  stamp  with  tiieir  feet,  and  exclaim,  "  Let 
his  name  be  blotted  out !  May  the  memory  of  the  wicked 
rot !"  The  children  at  the  same  time  hiss,  and  strike  loudly 
on  the  forms  with  little  wooden  harhmers  made  for  the  pur- 
pose. When  the  reader  comes  to  the  seventh,  eighth,  and 
ninth  chapters,  where  the  names  of  Hainan's  ten  sons  occur, 
he  pronounces  them  with  great  rapidity,  and  in  one  breath,  to 
intimate  that  they  were  all  hanged,  and  expired  in  the  same 
moment.  In  most  manuscripts  and  editions  of  the  book  of 
Esther,  the  ten  names  contamed  in  the  chapters  just  men- 
tioned are  written  under  each  other  in  ten  lines,  no  other  word 
being  connected  with  them,  in  order  to  exhibit  the  manner  in 
which  they  were  hanged,  viz.  on  a  pole  fifty  cubits,  that  is, 
seventy-five  feet  high ;  each  of  the  brothers  being  immedi- 
ately suspended,  the  one  under  the  other,  in  one  perpendicular 
line. 

When  the  clnzan  has  finished  the  reading,  the  whole  con- 
frregation  exclaim — "  Cursed  be  Haman! — Ble?sed  be  Mor- 
decai! — Cursed  be  Zeresh! — Blessed  be  Esther! — Cursed 
be  all  idolaters! — Blessed  be  all  the  Israelites  ! — And  blessed 
likewise  be  Harbonah,  at  whose  instance  Haman  was  hang- 
(hI  !"  In  order  to  heighten  the  general  joy  on  this  festival, 
Buxtorf  relates  that  some  Jews  wore  party-coloured  gannents, 
and  young  foxes'  tails  in  their  hats,  and  ran  about  the  syna- 
gogue exciting  the  congregation  to  laughter!  Further,  to 
excite  and  increase  mirth,  the  men  ami  women  exchange 
ai)parel ;  this,  though  positively  forbidden  by  the  law,  they 
consider  innocent,  and  allowable  on  this  festive  occasion, 
which  is  a  season  of  peculiar  gayety.  Alms  are  given  to  the 
poor;  relations  and  friends  send  presents  to  each  other;  and 
all  famish  their  tal)les  with  every  luxury  they  can  command. 
These  two  days  are  the  bacchanalia  of  the  modern  Jews ; 
who  think  it  no  sin  to  indulge  themselves  largely  in  their 
cups,  some  of  them  indeed  to  intoxication,  in  memory  of 
Esther's  banciuct  of  wine  ;  at  which  she  succeeded  in  defeat- 
iig  the  sanguinary  designs  of  Haman.' 

2.  The  I  EAST  Of  Dkdication  (mentioned  in  John  x.  22.) 
was  instituted  by  Judas  Maccabaius,  in  imitation  of  those  by 
Solomon  and  Ezra,  as  a  grateful  memorial  of  the  cleansing 
of  the  second  temple  and  altar,  after  they  had  been  profaned 
by  Antiochus  Epiphanes.  (1  Mace.  iv.  52 — 59.)  It  com- 
menced on  the  twenty-fifth  of  the  month  Cisleu,  correspond- 
ing with  our  December,  and  lasted  eight  days.  This  festival 
was  also  called  the  feast  of  lii^hf/i,  because  the  Jews  illumi- 
nated their  houses  in  testimony  of  their  joy  and  gladness  on 
tills  very  important  occasion.-  The  whole  of  this  feast  was 
spent  in  singing  hymns,  offering  sacrifices,  and  every  kind 
of  diversion  :'  it  was  celebrated  with  much  solemnity  in  the 
time  of  Josephus. 

Besides  these  two  festivals,  we  find  several  others  inci- 
dentally mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament,  as  being  observed 

p.  491.  c/ «i»7.  Schulzii  Arclifnol.  IlfiLr.  pp.  323-331.  Tlio  ty|-iic-,il  rofor- 
onco  of  lli»>  Barrifice  offered  on  this  ilajf  Ih  diHriiN.tcil  at  ciinskkTalilo 
loDgth  by  WitHiuH,  dc  Oicon.  Ka-d.  lib.  iv.  c.  0.  or  vol.  it.  pp.  \m—'Si\.  «{ 
the  English  trant'4ation.  On  the  manner  in  wliicti  this  furt  ii>  uL>ii>Tv«d  by 
tlio  modern  .lews,  nco  Allen's  Modern  .ludnism,  pp.  lOl — 3?0. 

'  Buxtorf  <le  Hynseog.  Jud.  rap.  20.  Iken.  Antii|.  IMn:  pp.  3nC— S.'W. 
Schul/.ii  Arcli.Tol,  Hcbr.  pp  :<.il,335.  Allen's  MoJern  Judaism,  p.  105.  Ur. 
Clarke's  Coiniiieiitnry  on  KKlher. 

«  JoRepliiiH.  Ant.  Juil   lilj.  xli.  c.  7.  55  G,  7. 

»  Schulzii  Archai'ol  Mebr.  pp.  SS.'?,  3rt6.  Ij»my,  vol.  i.  p.  IfxV  I.igbtfoot's 
Works,  vol.  I.  pp.  246.  079.  vol.  li.  pp.  070.  1033.  1039.  Hclaadi  Anliq.  U->b. 
p.  !>31. 


by  tiie  Jews  in  later  ages,  though  not  appointed  by  Mcscs. 
Such  are  the  fast  cf  the  fourth  month,'  en  account  of  the  tak- 
ing of  Jerusalem  by  the  Chald:«ans  (Jer.  Iii.  G,  7.);  the  fast 
ofthe  fifth  month,  on  account  of  their  burning  the  temple  and 
city  (2  Kings  xxv.  8.);  and  that  of  the  seventh  month,  en 
account  of  the  nmrder  of  Gedaliah  (2  Kings  xxv.  25.) ;  and 
the  fast  of  the  tenth  month,  when  the  Babylonian  army  com- 
menced the  siege  of  Jerusalem.  (Jer.  Hi.  1.)  All  these  fasts 
are  enumerated  together  in  Zecli.  viii.  19.;  and  to  them  we 
may,  perhaps,  add'the  xtflvphuria,  or  feast  of  wood-clTcring, 
when  the  people  brought  and  offered  large  quantities  of  wocd 
for  tlie  use  of  the  altar:  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  celebrated 
in  the  time  of  Nehemiah  (x.  34.  xiii.  31.),  in  whose  praises, 
on  this  occasion,  the  Jews  largely  expatiated,  and  related 
several  wonderful  tales  concernmg  him  and  the  fire  lighted 
upon  the  altar.  (2  Maec.  i.  18 — 22.^  Nine  days  were  appro- 
priated to  this  festival,  viz.  The  first  of  Nisan,  the  20th  of 
Tamn^uz,  the  5th,  7th,  lUth,  15th,  and  20th  of  Ab,  the  20th 
of  Elul,  and  the  1st  of  Tebeth.^ 

IX.  The  preceding  are  the  chief  annual  festivals  noticed 
in  the  Sacred  Writings,  that  are  particularly  deserving  of 
attention :  the  Jews  have  various  otliers  of  more  modern  in- 
stitution, which  are  here  designedly  omitted.  We  therefore 
proceed  to  notice  those  extraordinary  festivals  which  were 
celebrated  only  after  the  recurrence  of  a  certain  number  of 
years. 

1 .  The  first  of  these  was  the  Sabbatical  Year.  For,  as 
the  seventh  day  of  the  vi^eek  was  consecrated  as  a  day  of 
rest  to  man  and  beast,  so  this  gave  rest  to  the  land ;  which, 
during  its  continuance,  was  to  lie  fallow,  and  the  "  Sabbath 
of  the  land,"  or  its  spontaneous  produce,  was  dedicated  to 
charitable  uses,  to  be  enjoyed  by  die  servants  of  the  family, 
by  the  way  faring  stranger,  and  by  the  cattle.  (Lev.  xxv.  I 
— 7.  Exod.  xxiii.  II.)  This  was  also  the  year  of  release 
from  personal  slavery  (Exod.  xxi.  2.),  as  well  ?.s  cf  the 
remission  of  debts.  (Deut.  xv.  1,2.)  Beausobre  is  of  opinion 
that  the  frequent  mention  made  in  the  New  Testament  of  the 
remission  of  sins  is  to  be  understood  as  an  allusion  to  the 
sabbatical  year.  In  order  to  guard  against  famine  on  this  and 
the  ensuing  year,  God  was  graciously  pleased  to  promise  a 
triple  produce  of  the  lands  upon  the  sixth  year,  suifuient  to 
supply  the  inhabitants  till  t!>c  fruits  or  harvest  sown  in  the 
eighth  year  were  ripe.  (Lev.  xxv.  2 — 22.)  This  was  a  sin- 
gular institution,  peculiar  to  a  theocracy.  And  the  breach 
of  it  was  among  the  national  sins  that  occasioned  the  captivit)', 
that  the  land  might  tnjoy  her  Habhaths,  of  which  she  had  been 
defrauded  by  the  rebellion  of  the  inhabitants.*  (Lev.  xxvi.  31. 
2  Chron.  xxxvi.  21.) 

2.  The  Jubilee  was  a  more  solemn  sabbatical  year,  held 
every  seventh  sabbatical  year,  that  is,  at  the  end  of  every 
forty-nine  years,  or  the  fiftieth  current  year.  (Lev.  xxv.  8-i- 
10.)  Concerning  the  etymology  of  the  Hebrew  word  jobel 
(whence  our  jubilee  is  derived)  learned  men  are  by  no  means 
agreed;  the  most  probable  of  these  conflicting  opinions  is 
that  of  Calmet,  who  deduces  it  from  the  Hebrew  verb  hobil, 
to  recall,  or  bring  back  ;  because  estates,  &c.  that  had  been 
alienated  were  then  brought  back  to  their  original  owners. 
Such  a])pears  to  have  been  tlie  meaning  of  the  word,  as  un- 
derstood by  the  Septuagint  translators,  who  render  the  He- 
brew w ma  jobel  by  a<j>w/c,  reniiaaion,  and  by  Josephus,  who 
says  that  it  signified  liberty.^ 

This  festival  commenced  on  the  tenth  day  of  the  month 
Tisri,  in  the  evening  of  iho  day  cf  atonement  (Lev.  xxv. 
9.)  :  a  time,  Bishon  Patrick  remarks,  peculiarly  w«dl  chosen. 
as  the  JAvs  would  lie  bettt;r  disposed  to  forgive  their  bn  ihren 
their  debts  when  they  had  been  imploring  pa^^lon  of  God  for 
their  own  transgressions.  It  was  proclaimed  by  the  sound 
of  trumpet  throughout  the  whole  land,  on  the  great  day  of 
atonement.  All  debts  were  to  be  cancelled;  all  slaves  or 
captives  were  to  be  released.  Even  thos(»  who  had  volunta- 
rily rclintjuishid  their  freedom  at  the  end  of  their  six  years' 
service,  and  whose  ears  had  been  bored  in  token  oi  their 
perpetual  servitude,  were  to  be  liberated  at  the  jubilee:  for 
then  they  were  to  proclaim  lihcrti/  tlmmghout  all  the  Utnd,  uulo 
all  the  inhnbitanls  thrnof.  (Lev.  xxv.  10.)  Further,  in  this 
year  all  estates  that  had  been  sold,  reverted  to  iheir  original 
proprietors,  or  to  the  families  to  which  they  had  originally 

316.      Pictot.  Antiq.  Judai<inc8,  p.  37. 


«  arlinl/.ii    Arrli.Tol 
{Tlieologlc  (^lirilinim 


Hobr.   p. 
tiMU.  iii.) 


.Sr,liiil/.ii  Arcliii-ol.  Hel 


337—339.    Michaelis'p  Coinmentarlop,  vol. 


ir.  pp.  SW 
i   pp  3^.rlscq      Leusdon,  I'liilol.  }Iobr.  Mi.xt.  p.  307.    Keland'8  Antiq. 
Ilebr   p.  0!«.     Dr.  Maks's  AnalyHi.s,  vol.  il.  book  i.  n.  !i78.     lleaii.sobre ami 
l/Enfunt,  In  Up.  Watson's  Tracts,  vol    Iii.  p.  124.      Jcnninfs's  Jewish 
Anilq.  book  III  cli.  9. 
<  Ant.  Jud.  lib  Hi.  c.  12.  $3. 


Chap.  V.  Sect.  L] 


OF  VOWS. 


1!^ 


belonged  this  provision  was  made,  that  no  family  should 
be  totally  ruined,  and  doomed  to  perpetual  poverty  :  for  the 
family  estate  could  not  be  alienated  for  a  longer  period  than 
fifty  years.  The  value  and  purchase-money  of  estates  there- 
fore diminished  in  proportion  to  the  near  approach  of  the 
I  jubilee.  (Lev.  xxv.  15.)  From  this  privilege,  however, 
'  houses  in  walled  towns  were  excepted :  these  were  to  be 
redeemed  within  a  year,  otherwise  they  belonged  to  the  pur- 
chaser, notwithstanding  the  jubilee,  (ver.  30.)  During  this 
voar,  as  well  as  in  the  sabbatical  year,  the  ground  also  had 
Its  rest,  and  was  not  cultivated.' 

The  law  concerning  the  sabbatical  year,  and  especially 
the  year  of  jubilee,  affords  a  decisive  proof  of  the  divine 
legation  of  Moses.  No  legislator,  unless  he  was  conscious 
that  he  was  divinely  inspirea,  would  have  committed  himself 
by  enacting  such  a  law  :  nor  can  any  thing  like  it  be  found 
among  the  systems  of  jurisprudence  of  any  other  nations, 
whether  ancient  or  modern.  "  How  incredible  is  it  that  any 
legislator  would  have  ventured  to  propose  such  a  law  as 
this,  except  in  consequence  of  the  fullest  conviction  on  both 
sides,  that  a  peculiar  providence  would  constantly  facilitate 
its  execution.  When  this  law,  therefore,  was  proposed  and 
received,  such  a  conviction  must  have  existed  in  both  the 
Jewish  legislator  and  the  Jewish  people.  Since,  then, 
nothing  could  have  produced  this  conviction,  but  the  expe- 
rience or  the  belief  of  some  such  miraculous  interposition  as 
the  history  of  the  Pentateuch  details,  the  very  existence  of 
this  law  is  a  standing  monument'  that,  when  it  was  given, 
the  Mosaic  miracles  were  fully  believed.  Now  this  law  was 
coeval  with  the  witnesses  themselves.  If,  then,  the  facts 
were  so  plain  and  public,  that  those  who  witnessed  them 
could  not  be  mistaken  as  to  their  existence  or  miraculous 
nature,  the  reality  of  the  Mosaic  miracles  is  clear  and  onde- 
niable."2 

The  reason  and  design  of  the  law  of  the  jubilee  was  partly 
political  and  partly  typical.  "It  was  political,  to  prevent 
the  too  great  oppression  of  the  poor  as  well  as  their  liability 
to  perpetual  slavery.  By  this  means  the  rich  were  prevented 
from  accumulating  lands  upon  lands,  and  a  kind  ot  equality 
was  preserved  through  all  the  families  of  Israel.  Never  was 
there  any  people  so  effectually  secure  of  their  liberty  and 
property  as  the  Israelites  were:  God  not  only  engaging  so 
to  protect  those  invaluable  blessings  by  his  providence,  that 
they  should  not  be  taken  away  ffom  them  by  others;  but 


providing,  in  a  particular  manner  by  fhis  law,  that  they 
should  not  be  thrown  away  through  their  own  folly  ;  since 
the  property,  which  every  man  or  family  had  in  their  divi- 
dend of  the  land  of  Canaan,  could  not  be  sold  or  any  way 
alienated  for  above  half  a  century.  By  this  means,  also,  the 
distinction  of  tribes  was  preserved,  in  respect  both  to  theii 
families  and  possessions  ;  for  this  law  rendered  it  necessary 
for  them  to  keep  genealogies  of  their  families,  that  they 
might  be  able  when  there  was  occasion,  on  the  jubilee  year, 
to  prove  their  right  to  the  inheritance  of  their  ancestors.  By 
this  means  it  was  certainly  known  from  what  tribe  and 
family  the  Messiah  sprung.  Upon  which  Dr.  AUix  observes, 
that  God  did  not  suffer  them  to  continue  in  captivity  out  of 
their  own  land  for  the  space  of  two  jubilees,  lest  by  that 
means  their  genealogies  should  be  lost  or  confounded.  A 
further  civil  use  of  the  jubilee  might  be  for  the  easier  com- 
putation of  time.  For,  as  thte  Greeks  computed  by  olym- 
piads, the  Romans  by  lustra,  and  we  by  centuries,  the  Jews 
probably  reckoned  by  jubilees ;  and  it  might  be  one  design 
of  this  institution  to  mark  out  these  large  portions  of  time 
for  the  readier  computation  of  successive  ages. 

"  There  was  also  a  typical  design  and  use  of  the  jubilee, 
which  is  pointed  out  by  the  prophet  Isaiah,  when  he  says,  in 
reference  to  the  Messiah,  '  The  Spirit  of  the  Lord  God  is 
upon  me,  because  the  Lord  hath  anointed  me  to  preach  good 
tidings  unto  the  meek :  he  hath  sent  me  to  bind  up  the 
broken-hearted,  to  proclaim  liberty  to  the  captives,  and  the 
opening  of  the  prison  to  them  that  are  bound,  to  proclaim 
the  acceptable  year  of  the  Lord.'  CIsa.  Ixi.  1,  2.)  Where 
'  the  acceptable  year  of  the  Lord,'  when  '  liberty  was  pro- 
claimed to  the  captives,'  and  '  the  opening  of  the  prison  to 
them  that  were  bound,'  evidently  refers  to  the  jubilee;  but, 
in  the  prophetic  sense,  means  the  Gospel  state  and  dispensa- 
tion, which  proclaims  spiritual  liberty  from  the  bondage  of 
sin  and  Satan,  and  the  liberty  of  returning  to  our  own  pos- 
session, even  the  heavenly  inheritance,  to  Avhich,  having 
incurred  a  forfeiture  by  sin,  we  had  lost  all  right  and  claim."^ 
That  our  Lord  began  his  public  ministry  on  a  jubilee.  Dr. 
Hales  thinks,  is  evident  from  his  declaration :  "  The  Lord 
hath  anointed  me  (as  the  Christ)  to  preach  the  Gospel  to 
the  poor :  he  hath  sent  me  to  heal  the  broken-hearted,  to 
proclaim  deliverance  to  the  captives,  and  restoration  of  sight 
to  the  blind  ;  to  set  at  liberty  the  bruised  ;  to  proclaim  the 
acceptable  year  of  the  Lord."''  (Luke  iv.  18,  19.) 


CHAPTER  V. 

SACRED  OBLIGATI&NS  AND  DUTIES. 


SECTION  I. 


OF  vows. 


[.  JVatureofVotus. — How  far  acceptable  to  God. — II.  Requisites  essential  to  the  Validity  of  a  Vow. — III.  Different  Sorts  of 
Vows  : 1.  The  Cherim,  or  Irremissible  Vow. — 2.   Other  Vows,  that  might  be  redeemed. —  Of  the  Jv'azareate. 


I.  A  vow  is  a  religious  engagement  or  promise  voluntarily 
undertaken  by  a  person  towards  Almighty  God.  '^  Unless 
the  Deity  has  expressly  declared  his  acceptance  of  human 
vows,  it  can  at  best  be  but  a  very  doubtful  point,  whether  they 
are  acceptable  in  his  sight;  and  if  they  are  not  so,  we  cannot 
deduce  from  them  the  shadow  of  an  obligation ;  for  it  is  not 
from  a  mere  offer  alone,  but  from  an  offer  of  one  party,  and 
its  acceptance  by  another,  that  the  obligation  to  fulfil  an  en- 

fagement  arises.  The  divine  acceptance  of  vows,  we  can 
y  no  means  take  for  granted ;  considering  that  from  our 
vows  God  can  derive  no  benefit,  and  that,  m  general,  they 
are  of  just  as  little  use  to  man."*    In  Matt.  xv.  4 — €.  and 

«  Leusden,  Philol.  Hebrceo-Mixt.  p.  309.  Michaelis's  Commentaries, 
vol.  i.  pp.  376—386. 

»  Dr.  Graves's  Lectures  on  the  Pentateuch,  vol.  i.  p.  171. 

3  Jennings's  Jewish  Antiq.  bookiii.  eh.  x.  pp.511,  542.  Schulzii  Archeeol. 
Hebr.  pp.  341—344.    Relandi  Antiq.  Kebr.  p.  529. 

*  Dr.  Hales's  Analysis,  vol.  ii.  book  i.  p.  !!&'9.  Lightfoot's  Works,  vol.  ii. 
p.  619.  The  best  practical  illustration  we  have  seen,  of  the  analogy  be- 
»ween  the  Mosaic  jubilee  and  the  Gospel,  is  to  be  found  in  the  late  Rev. 
Dr.  Claudius  Buchanan's  "Three  Sermons  on  the  Jubilee,"  celebrated  on 
the  25th  October,  1809,  on  the  occasion  of  King  George  II^.'s  entering  on 
the  fiftieth  year  of  his  reign.         •* 

»  Michaelis's  CoQamentaries  on  the  I-aw  of  Moses,  vol.  ii.  p.  263. 

Vol.  II.  R 


Mark  vii.  9 — 13.  Christ  himself  notices  the  vow  of  Korban 
(already  considered),  which  was  common  in  his  time,  and 
by  which  a  man  consecrated  to  God  what  he  was  bound  to 
apply  to  the  support  of  his  parents ;  and  he  declares  it  to  be 
so  impious  that  we  cannot  possibly  hold  it  to  be  acceptable 
to  God.  In  the  New  Testament,  no  vows  whatever  are  obli- 
gatory, because  God  has  nowhere  declared  that  he  will  accept 
them  from  Christians.  But  the  people  of  Israel  had  such  a 
declaration  from  God  himself;  although  even  they  were  not , 
counselled  or  encouraged  to  make  vows.  In  consequence  of 
this  declaration,  the  Vows  of  the  Israelites  were  binding ;  and 
that  not  only  in  a  moral  view,  but  according  to  the  national 
law ;  and  the  priest  was  authorized  to  enforce  and  estimate 
their  fulfilment.  The  principal  passages  relating  to  this 
point  are  Lev.  xxvii.  Num.  xxx.  and  Deut.  xxiii.  18.  21, 
22,  23.6 

II.  In  order  to  render  a  vow  valid,  Moses  requires, 
1.  "That  it  be  actually  uttered  with  the  mouth,  ^nA  not 
merely  made  in  the  heart.    In  Num.  xxx.  3.  7.  9.  13.  and 
Deut.  xxiii.  24.  he  repeatedly  calls  it  the  expression  of  the 

6  Michaelis's  Commentaries  on  the  Law  of  Moses,  vol.  Ii.  pp.  264—366, 


130 


SACRED  OBLIGATIONS  AND  DUTIES. 


[Part  III.  Chap.  V. 


lips,  OT  what  has  s^one  forth  from  the  mouth  ,■  and  the  same 
phrase  occurs  in  Psal.  Ixvi.  14.  If,  therefore,  a  person  had 
merely  made  a  vow  in  his  heart,  without  letting  it  pass  his 
lips,  it  would  seem  ns  if  God  would  not  accept  such  a  vow  ; 
regardinor  it  only  as  a  resolution  to  vow,  but  not  as  a  vow 
itself.  This  limitation  is  humane,  and  necessary  to  prevent 
much  anxiety  in  conscientious  people.  If  a  vow  made  in  the 
heart  be  valid,  we  shall  often  experience  difficulty  in  distin- 
guishing whether  what  we  thoujilit  of  was  a  bare  intention, 
or  a  vow  actually  completed.  Here,  therefore,  just  as  in  a 
civil  contract  with  our  neighbour,  words — uttered  words — are 
necessary  to  prevent  all  uncertainty."' 

2.  The  party  making  the  vow  must  be  in  his  own  power, 
and  competent  to  undertake  the  obligation.  Therefore  the 
vows  of  minors  were  void,  unless  they  were  ratified  by  the 
express  or  tacit  consent  of  their  fathers.^  In  like  manner, 
neither  unmarried  daughters,  so  long  as  they  were  under  the 
parental  roof,  nor  married  women,  nor  slaves,  could  oblige 
themselves  by  vow,  unless  it  was  ratified  by  their  fathers, 
husbands,  or  masters  ;  the  authority  being  given  to  the  liead 
of  the  family  in  every  thing  which  might  produce  advantage 
or  injury.'' 

3.  The  things  vowed  to  be  devoted  to  God  must  be  hmestbj 
obtained.  It  is  well  known,  that  in  ancient  times,  many 
public  prostitutes  dedicated  to  tbeir  gods  a  part  of  their  im- 
pure earnings.  This  is  most  expressly  forbidden  by  IMoscs. 
(Deut.  xxiii.  18.)^ 

III.  There  are  two  sorts  of  vows  mentioned  in  tlie  Old 
Testament,  viz.  1.  The  cain  (cwrcm),  which  was  the  most 
solemn  of  all,  and  was  accompanied  with  a  form  of  execra- 
tion, and  which  could  not  be  redeemed ;  and  2.  The  mij 
(NeDfR'M),  or  common  vows. 

1.  The  cherem  is  nowhere  enjoined  by  Moses  ;  nor  does 
he  specify  by  what  solemnities  or  expressions  it  was  distin- 
guisned  trom  other  vows,  but  pre-supposos  all  this  ns  already 
well  known.  The  species  of  cherom  with  which  we  are  best 
acfjuaintcd,  was  the  previous  devotement  to  God  of  hostile 
cities,  against  which  they  intended  to  proceed  with  extreme 
severity ;  and  that  with  a  view  the  more  to  inflame  the  minds 
of  the  people  to  war.  In  such  cases,  not  only  were  all  (lie 
inhabitants  put  to  death,  but  also,  according  as  the  terms  of 
the  vow  declared,  no  booty  was  made  by  any  Israelite ;  the 
beasts  were  slain  ;  what  would  not  burn,  as  gold,  silver,  and 
other  metals,  was  added  to  the  treasury  of  the  sanctuary ; 
and  every  thing  else,  with  the  whole  city,  burnt,  and  an  im- 
precation pronounced  upon  any  attempt  that  should  ever  be 
made  to  rebuild  it.  Of  this  the  history  of  Jericho  (Josh.  vi. 
17 — in.  21 — 24.  and  vii.  1.  12 — 2G.)  furnishes  the  most  re- 
markable example  In  Moses's  lifetime  we  find  a  similar 
vow  against  the  king  of  Arad.  (Num.  xxi.  1 — 3.)  If  an  Is- 
raelitish  city  introduced  the  worship  of  strange  gods,  it  was 
(as  we  have  already  seen)  in  like  manner,  to  be  devoted  or 
consecrated  to  God,  and  to  remain  un-rebuilt  for  ever.  (Deut. 
xiii.  16—18.)*  Jephthah's  dedication  of  his  daughter  is  gene- 
rally supposed  to  nave  been  a  cherem  :  but  we  have  shown 
in  another  part  of  this  work  that  he  did  not  sacrifice  her.'' 
The  text  (Judg.  xi.  30.)  says  that  Jiphthah  votred  a  row  (inj, 
Nf  dcr),  u/ilo  the  Jj(jrd,  and  ag^ain,  (verse  39.)  that  he  did  tuith 
her  accordinir  to  his  vow  {jni).  Tliere  is  no  word  in  either  of 
tliese  passages  that  either  expresses  or  implies  a  cherem. 

2.  The  common  vows  were  divided  into  two  sorts,  viz.  i. 
Vows  of  dedication,  and,  ii.  Vows  of  self-interdiction  or 
abstinence. 

i.  Th(!  mi  (NirDCR)  or  vow,  in  the  stricter  sense  of  the  word, 
was  when  a  person  engaged  to  do  any  thing,  as,  for  instance, 
to  bring  an  offering  to  God ;  or  otherwise  to  dedicate  any 
thing  unto  him.  Things  vowed  in  this  way,  were,  1.  Un- 
clean fjeasts.  These  might  he  estimated  by  tlie  priest,  and 
redeemed  by  the  vowcr,  by  the  addition  of  one  nfih  to  the 
value.  (Lev.  xxvii.  11 — 1.}.) — 2.  Ctran  bxixln  used  for  offer- 
ings. Here  there  was  no  right  of  redemption  ;  nor  could  the 
beasts  be  exelianged  for  olliers  under  the  penalty  of  bolli 
being  forfeited,  and  belonging  to  the  Lord.  (Lev.  xxvii.  9, 
10.) — 3.  Lands  and  houses.  These  had  the  privilege  of 
valuation  and  redemption.   (Lev.  xxvii.  14 — 21.) — ^To  these 

•  Mirhaclia'HCnirunontarics  on  the  Law  of  Moses,  vol.  ii.  p.  209. 
»  Allior,  Inst.  Ilcriii.  Vet.  Test.  torn.  i.  p.  214. 

•  MiilinorililcK's  Reasons  of  tlir  I,a\v  of  Mohcb,  by  Dr.  Townley,  p.303. 
«  Schulzii  ArctLTol.  Hcl>r.  p.  20.'J. 

•  Micliaflls'g  iJomrnentarles,  vol.  ii.  pp.  272—275. 

•  Site  vol.  i.  part  il.  chap.  tii.  sect.  v.  i  13. 


we  have  to  add,  4.  The  person  of  .the  voice,-  himself  with  the 
like  privilege.  (Lev.  xxvii.  1 — 8.^  To  this  species  of  vow 
Micliaclis  thinks  the  sccrmd  tenths  may  have  belonged,  as 
Moses  nowhere  speaks  of  them  as  a  new  institution.'  They 
most  probably  derived  their  origin  from  the  vow  made  by 
Jacob,  which  is  recorded  in  Gen.  xxviii.  22. 

ii.  Vows  of  self-intcrdidion  or  self-denial  were,  Avhen  a 
person  engaged  to  abstain  from  any  wine,  food,  or  any  other 
thing.  These  are  especially  distinguished  by  Moses  from 
other  vows  in  Num.  xxx.,  and  are  there  termed  -^aw  (ASfcrR), 
or  cDj  Vjj  -ON  (a.s.wr  al  NfPHfSH),  that  is,  a  bond  upon  the 
soul  or  person,  a  self-interdiction  from  some  desire  of  nature,  or 
of  the  heart,  or,  in  other  words,  a  vow  of  abstinence,  particu- 
larly from  eating  and  drinking.  Among  this  species  of  vows 
may  be  classed  those  of  the  I^uzarcute  or  Ntizuritism ,-  wh'ch, 
iMichaelis  is  of  opinion,  was  not  instituted  by  Moses,  but 
was  of  more  ancient,  and  probably  of  Kgj'ptian  origin;*  the 
Hebrew  legislator  giving  certain  injunctions  for  the  better 
regulation  and  performance  of  these  vows.  The  statutes 
respecting  the  Nazareate  are  related  in  the  sixth  chapter 
of  the  bobk  of  Numbers.  Lamy,  Calmet,  and  others,  have 
distinguislied  two  classes  of  Nazarites  :  first,  those  icho  were 
Nazurites  by  birth,  as  Samson  and  John  the  Baptist  were ; 
and,  secondly,  those  who  were  Nazarites  by  vow  and  engage- 
ment ,-  who  followed  this  mode  of  living  for  a  limited  time, 
at  the  expiration  of  which  they  cut  off  their  hair  at  the  door 
of  the  tabernacle,  and  offered  certain  sacrifices.  The  Naza- 
rites were  required  to  abstain  from  wine,  fenncnted  liquors, 
and  every  thing  made  of  grapes,  to  let  their  hair  grow,  and 
not  to  defile  themselves  by  touching  the  dead ;  and  if  any 
person  had  accidentally  expired  in  their  presence,  the  Naza- 
rites of  the  second  class  were  obliged  to  recommence  their 
Nazariteship. 

Similar  to  the  Nazareate  was  the  vow  frequently  made  by 
devout  Jews,  on  iheir  recovery  from  sickness,  or  oeliverance 
from  danger  or  distress ;  who,  for  thirty  days  before  they 
offered  sacrifices,  abstained  from  Avine,  and  shaved  the  hair 
of  their  liead.'^  This  usage  illustrates  the  conduct  of  Paul, 
as  related  in  Acts  xviii.  18.  The  apostle,  in  consequence 
of  a  providential  deliverance  from  some  imminent  peril  not 
recorded  by  the  sacred  writer,  bound  himself  by  a  vow,  which 
the  law  in  this  case  required  him  to  pay  at  Jerusalem.  In 
consequence  of  this  transaction,  Luke  relates  that  he  shaved 
his  head  at  Cenchrea.  Paul,  in  his  intended  journey  after- 
wards to  Judsea,  says,  he  must  needs  go  to  Jerusalem:  for  the 
laws  respecting  the  Nazarite's  vow  required  the  person  who 
had  entered  into  this  engagement,  if  he  were  in  a  foreign 
country  when  he  first  laid  himself  under  this  solemn  obliga- 
tion, to  go  up  to  Jerusalem  to  accomplish  it.  Here  several 
appointed  sacrifices  were  offered,  and  a  certain  course  of 
purifications  and  religious  observances  was  prescribed  and 
performed.  Tiiis  aj)pcars  from  another  passage  in  the  same 
sacred  writer :  (Acts  xxi.  23,  24.  26,  27.)  "  We  have  four 
men  who  have  a  vow  on  them ;  them  take  and  purikv  thyself 
with  them,  and  be  at  charges  with  them,  that  XHrcY  mav  shavk 
THKin  HEADS.  Then  Paul  took  the  mai  .•  and  the  next  day 
purifying  himself  toith  them,  entered  into  the  temple,  to  signijt/ 
the  accomplishment  of  tlic  days  of  purification  :  and  that  an 
offering  should  be  offered  for  every  one  of  them.  And  tohen  the 
SEVEN  days  were  almost  ended,''''  &c.  Josephus  presents  us 
with  an  instance  parallel  to  this  of  Paul,  in  the  person  of 
Bernice,  who  went  to  Jerusalem,  in  order  to  perform  a  vow 
which  she  had  made  to  God.'" 

'  Mirliarlis's  Commentaries,  vol.  ii.  pp.  280,  261. 

»  Ibiil.  p.  -231. 

'  An  iina^'f  siniilrir  to  tlio  vow  of  Na7.nrltOKllip  r^isls  In  Prrsia  to  this 
ilay.  It  fro((Ticnlly  happens  after  ihc  lilrlh  of  a  son,  that  if  Iho  paront  Le 
In  (lislrrf-s,  or  the  child  be  ukk,  or  tliat  there  be  aiiy  cause  ot  grirfj  tho 
iiiolhci' makes  u  vow,  that  no  raxor  shall  come  upon  the  child's  head  lor  a 
cerlaln  portion  of  lime,  and  Boiiietimea  for  his  whole  life,  as  Samuel  was. 
(l.'^mn.  1.  11.)  If  thii  child  rrcovers,  and  the  cause  of  grief  bo  removed, 
uiidlf  the  vow  be  but  for  a  lime,  so  that  the  mother's  vow  be  fiilfillct),  i 
Ilieii  shi'  slinve.-i  hn  head  al  Ihe  end  of  the  time  pie.scrilicil,  makes  a  sujall 
enleriainiiieni,  collects  money  and  other  things  from  her  relations  and 
friends,  which  are  sent  as  S'ctzrrs  or  otferinfrs  to  the  mosque  at  Kcrbelah, 
anil  are  there  consecrated.     Morier's  Secdud  Journey,  p.  109. 

»•  Bee  Lamy's  Apparatus  RIblicus,  vol.  i.  p.  i£21.  C'almot's  Dictionary, 
voce  Xazaritn.  Fhnry's  Manners  of  the  Israelites,  pp.  .'W,  JK)9.  I.ard- 
nor's  Crediliilily,  t)ook  i.  c.  9.  i  7.  (Works,  vol.  i.  pn  2()8— '.'12.)  Jennings's 
Jewish  Antiiiullies,  book  i.  r.  8.  Ilarwood'a  Inlrod.  to  the  New  Test.  vol. 
li.  p  'J.H.  rt,  land's  Antiq.  Ilebr.  part  I.  c.  10.  pp.  2ftl— 2W.  .Schulzii 
Arrh.vol.  Il,.|,r.  pp.  294,  i^.V  IJrtmings,  Anllq.  Ilebr.  pp.  I'.W— 201.  I>r. 
Randolph's  Discourse  on  Jephthali'B  Vow,  in  his  View  Of  Chiibl's  Ministry, 
Ac.  vol.  ii.  pp.  166—195. 


Sect.  II.] 


PRIVATE  PRAYERS. 


131 


SECTION  II. 

ON  THE  PnAYERS  AND  FEASTS  OF  THE  JEWS. 

I.  Various  appellations  given  to  prayers. — 11.  Public  prayers. — 
III.  Pri-oate  prayers. — Attitudes  of  the  Jetcs  during'  prayer. 
— IV.  Forms  of  prayer  iji  use  among  the  Jeivs. — V.  Fasts  of 
the  Je-ws. — 1.  Pitblic  fasts. — 2.  Private  fasts. — 3.  Solemni- 
ties of  the  Jetvish  fasts, 

I.  Prayers,  or  petitions  addressed  to  the  Almighty,  are 
closely  connected  with  sacrifices  antf  vows.  (Psal.  1.  14, 15.) 
Various  appellations  are  given  to  the  prayers  mentioned  in 
the  Scriptures.  In  Phil.  iv.  C.  and  1  Tim.  ii.  1.  five  different 
terms  are  employed,  viz.  air,i/uiat-ru.,  or  requests,  which  may  be 
considered  as  a  generic  term,  including  TrfoT&j^ai,  prayers  for 
obtaining  those  things,  whether  temporal  or  spiritual,  of 
which  we  feel  our  need ;  ii-^a-a;,  deprecations  of  evil  of  every 
kind ;  aroj^u;,  intercessions  or  prayers  in  behalf  of  others ; 
rnd  iux^^nj-TiAi,  thanksgivings  or  addresses  of  praise  to  God 
for  all  the  blessings  conferred  upon  us.  The  mode  of  pray- 
ing was  two-fold ;  1 .  Internal,  in  which  mental  prayer  is 
offered  from  the  heart  alone  (such  was  the  prayer  of  Hannah, 
I  Sam.  i.  13.)  ;  or,  2.  External,  being  uttered  aloud  with  the 
7oice :  hence,  in  Psal.  cxlv.  19.  it  is  termed  a  cry. 

Prayers  Avere  either  public,  or  private,  or  stated,  that  is, 
performed  at  a  particular  time.  The  Stated  Hours  were  at 
the  time  of  offering  the  morning  and  evening  sacrifice,  or  at  the 
third  and  ninth  hours  (Acts  ii.  15.  and  iii.  1.);  although  it 
was  the  custom  of  the  more  devout  Jews,  as  David  (Psal. 
Iv.  17.)  and  Daniel  (vi.  10.),  to  pray  three  times  a  day. 
Peter  went  up  on  the  house-top  to  pray,  about  the  sixth  hour. 
(Acts  X.  9.)  A  similar  usage  obtains  among  the  Hindoos 
to  this  day.i  Previously  to  offering  up  their  supplications 
they  washed  their  hands,  to  signify  that  they  had  put  away 
sin  and  purposed  to  live  a  holy  life.  As  the  Jewish  phyla- 
terical  prayers  were  long,  and  the  canonical  or  stated  hours 
obliged  them  to  repeat  these  prayers  wherever  they  happened 
to  bo,  the  proud,  vainglorious  Pharisees  contrived  to  be  over- 
taken in  the  streets,  in  order  that  they  might  be  observed  by 
the  people,  and  be  applauded  for  their  piety.  Against  this 
formal  spirit  Jesus  Christ  cautions  his  disciples  in  Matt. 
vi.  5.2 

II.  Public  Prayers  were  offered,  at  first,  in  the  taberna- 
cle, and  afterwards  in  the  temple  and  synagogues,  by  the 
minister  appointed  for  that  purpose,  the  people  answering 
{in  the  synagogues  only)  at  the  conclusion  with  a  loud  Amen.^ 
(Neh.  \nii.  6.) 

III.  Private  Prayers  were  offered  by  individuals  in  a 
loiv  tone  of  voice  with  the  head  covered  ;'•  either  standing 
or  kneeling,  sometimes  bowing  the  head  towards  the  earth, 
and  at  others  with  the  whole  body  prostrate  on  the  ground. 
Sometimes  they  smote  upon  the  breast,  in  token  of  their  deep 
humiliation  and  penitence,  or  spread  forth  their  hands,  or 
lifted  them  up  to  heaven.  Of  these  various  postures  in  prayer 
many  instances  occur  in  the  sacred  writers.  Thus  Hannah, 
in  her  affliction,  spake  in  her  heart,-  he)-  lips  mily  moved,  but 
HER  VOICE  was  not  heard  (1  Sam.  i.  13.) ;  and  the  proud 
Pharisee  stood^  and  prayed  with  (within)  himself.  (Luke 
xviii.  11.)  David  says,  I  stretch  forth  my  hands  unto  thee. 
(Psal.  cxliii.  6.)  Solomon  kneeled  down  upon  his  knees  before 
alt  the  congregation  of  Israel,  and  spread  forth  his  hands 
ioiuards  heave7i.  (2  Chvon  vi.  13.)  Ezra  fell  itpon  his  kkees, 
and  spread  out  his  hands  to  the  Lord  his  God.  (Ezra  ix. 
5.)  Our  adorable  Redeemer,  in  his  a^ony  in  the  garden  of 
Gethsemane,/e//o«A!S /ace  (prostrated  himselfto  the  ground), 
kneeled  cfoy.'re  and  prayed  (alatt.  xxvi.  39.  Lukexxii.  41.)  ; 
and  the  protomartyr  Stephen  kneeled  down  and  prayed  for 
his  murderers.  (Acts  vii.  60.)     Moses,  when  interceding  for 

t  Warr''s  History,  &c.  of  the  Hindoos,  vol.  ii.  p.  342. 

»  Drs.  Lightlbot  and  A.  Clarke  on  Matt.  vi.  .5. 

3  The  Jews  attribute  a  wonderful  efficacy  to  this  wrord ;  and  have  an 
idle  tradition  that  the  gates  of  Paradise  will  be  open  to  him  who  says  Amen 
with  all  his  might. 

«  The  reason  of  this  custom  was  to  profess  themselves  reverent  and 
ashamed  before  God,  and  unworthy  to  appear  before  him.  It  was  a  maxim 
of  the  .lews, — "Let  not  the  wise  men,  nor  the  scholars  of  the  wise  men, 
pray,  unless  they  be  covered."  It  appears  that  the  Corinthians,  though 
converted  to  the  Christian  faith,  in  this  respect  conformed  to  the  Jewish 
practice ;  and  therefore  St.  Paul  remonstrated  against  it.  1  Cor.  xi.  4. 
Lightfoot's  Hor.  Heb.  inloc.   (Works,  vol.  ii.  pp.  709,  770.) 

'  The  practice  of  standing  during  prayer  oiitained  among  the  Arabs  in 
the  time  of  Mohammed,  who,  in  his  Koran,  repeatedly  commands  his  fol- 
lowers to  stand  when  they  pray.  C.  B.  Michaelis  de  ritualibus  3.  S.  ex 
Alcorano  illustrandis,  §  xiv.  in  vol.  ii.  pp.  108,  109.  of  Pott's  and  Ruperti's 
Bylloge  Commenlationum  Theologicarum.  See  also  Dr.  Richardson's 
Travels  along  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  vol.  i.  pp.  403.  et  seq. 


the  ungrateful  Israelites,  bowed  his  head  to  the  earth  ana 
iuorshipped.  (Exod.  xxxiv.  8.  Compare  also  Exod.  ix.  29.) 
The  humble  and  Contrite  publican,  standing  afar  off,  smote 
ON  his  breast,  and  supplicated  divine  mercy.  (Luke  xviii. 
13.)  The  prophet  Isaiah,  when  reproving  the  hypocritical 
Jews,  denounces  that  Jehovah  would  hide  his  eyes  from  them 
when  they  spread  forth  their  hands  (Isa.  i.  15.) ;  and  the 
lifting  up  of  the  HANDS  to  hcaven,  in  prayer,  is  expressly 
noted  by  the  Psalmist  (cxli.  2.)  and  by  the  prophet  Jeremiah. 
(Lam.  lii.  41.)'' 

Similar  postures  were  adopted  by  most  of  the  heathen  na- 
tions that  pretended  to  any  kind  of  worship,  when  approach- 
ing the  objects  of  their  adofation ;  which  it  13  highly  proba- 
ble that  they  borrowed  from  the  people  of  God.  Kneeling  was 
ever  considered  to  be  the  proper  posture  of  supplication,  as 
it  expressed  humility,  contrition,  and  subjection.  If  the 
person  to  whom  the  supplication  was  addressed  was  within 
reach,  the  supplicant  caught  him  by  the  knees;  for  as,  among 
the  aneients,  the ^OTe/ieaa  was  consecrated  to  genius,  the  ear 
to  memory,  and  the  right  hand  to  faith,  so  the  knees  were 
consecrated  to  mercy.  Hence  those  who  entreated  favour, 
fell  at  and  caught  hold  of  the  knees  of  the  person  whose 
kindness  they  supplicated.  This  mode  of  supplication  is 
particularly  referred  to  in  Horner.^  In  the  same  manner  we 
find  our  Lord  accosted,  Matt.  xvii.  14. — There  came  to  him 
a  certain  man,  kneeling  down  to  Mm,  yomTreruv  aunv,  falling 
down  at  his  knees. 

As  to  the  lifting  up,  or  stretching  out,  the  hands,  (often 
joined  to  kneeling),  of  which  we  have  seen  already  several 
instances,  and  of  which  we  have  a  very  remarkable  one  in 
Exod.  chap.  xvii.  11.  where  the  lifting  vp,  or  stretching  out 
of  the  hands  of  Moses  was  the  means  of  Israel's  prevailing 
over  Amalek ;  we  find  many  examples  of  both  in  ancient 
authors.'  In  some  cases,  the  person  petitioning  came  for- 
ward, and  either  sat  in  th(;  dust  or  kneeled  on  the  ground, 
placing  his  left  hand  on  the  knee  of  him  from  whom  he  ex- 
pected the  favour,  while  he  touched  the  person''s  chin  with  his 
right.     Wo  have  an  instance  of  this  also  in  Homer.  9 

When  the  supplicant  could  not  approach  the  person  to 
whom  i\e  prayed,  as  where  a  deity  M'as  the  object  of  the 
prayer,  he  washed  his  hands,  made  an  offering,  and  kneeling 
down,  cither  stretched  out  both  his  hands  to  heaven  or  laid  them 
upon  the  offering  or  sacrifice,  or  upon  the  altar.  In  this  mode 
Homer  represents  the  priest  of  Apollo  as  praying.'" 

The  practice  of  standing  with  their  hands  spread  out 
towards  heaven,  was  adopted  by  the  primitive  Christians 

6  Schulzii  Archaeol.  Hcbraica.  pp.  298,  299.  Brunings,  Antiquitates  He- 
brceae,  pp.  19.3—198. 

1   Tujv  i/yv  /*jv  iJLvvtiTxiTA  ;7«p!^£0j  KocJ  ?vaSi  ^cyvcuv.  Iliad  I.  407. 

Now,  therefore,  of  these  things  reminding  Jove, 

Embrace  tiis  knees.  ,         Cowper. 

To  which  the  following  answer  is  made  : 

K»i  TOT*  l-^TEITK  roi   Slftl    ^tC^  STOT  .   %*>.XoEciT  £f   S'jt, 

Kxt  fiiv  yc'jvxFOfixi,  y.j.i  juiv  TzinTHT^xi  oioj.  Iliad  I.  426,  427. 

Then  will  I  to  Jove's  brazen-floored  abode, 

That  I  may  clasp  his  knees ;  and  much  misdeem 

Of  my  endccivour,  or  my  pray'r  sluill  speed.  Cowper. 

8  The  following  instances  are  taken  from  Virgil : — 
Corripio  e  siralis  corpus,  TENDoauE  snpiNAS 
Ad  ccelum  cum  voce  manus,  et  niunera  libo.      jEneid  iii.  176, 177. 
I  started  from  my  bed,  and  raised  on  high 
My  hands  and  voice  in  rapture  to  the  sky  ; 
And  pour  libations.  Prrr. 

Dixerat :  et  genua  ajiplexus,  genibusque  volutans 
Harebat.  2E.neV\  iii.  G07,  603 

Then  kneeled  the  wretch,  and  suppliant  clung  around 
My  taiees,  with  tears,  and  grovelled  on  the  ground.    Pitt. 


-media  inter  numina  divum. 


Mulla  Jovem  manibus  supplex  orasse  supiNis.     Ibid.  iv.  201, 203. 

Amidst  the  statues  of  the  gods  he  stands. 

And  spreading  forth  to  Jove  his  lifted  hands Id. 

St  DuPLicES  cum  voce  man'vs  ad  sidera  tendit.  Ibid.  x.  667. 

And  lifted  both  his  hands  and  voice  to  heaven.  Id. 

»    Ka<  px  Trxfiii'  otuToio  x»3-s^5to,  xai  >.xSi  ■yovvav 

Xxxtic  JiJiTifi)  S'  xf    [it'  Bv9sps<uviJ5  iKova-x  Iliad  I.  500,  501, 

Suppliant  the  goddess  stood  :  one  hand  she  plac'd 
Beneath  his  chin,  and  one  his  knee  embrac'd.  Pope. 

to     X!pvltJ/«VTO   J"    iTTtlZX,  XMI  OUXO^UTcej  XVlKdVTO. 

Toio-Jv  Si  Xpua-ij;  fiiyx\'  t<jyA-">,  %!'P»S  x\ixtr%iav.      Iliad  1.  449,  150. 

With  water  purify  their  hands,  and  take 

The  sacred  ofpring  of  the  salted  cake. 

While  thus  with  arms  devoutly  raised  in  air. 

And  solemn  voice,  the  priest  directs  his  pray'r.  Popz. 

Dr.  A.  Clarke  on  Exod.  ix.  29.  Other  illustrations  of  the  various  attitude* 
in  which  the  heathens  offered  up  prayer  to  their  deities  are  given  by  Bru 
ning?,  Compendium  Antiquitatum  Graecarum,  pp.  270—275. 


132 


PRIVATE  FASTS. 


[Pabt  III.  CnAP.  V. 


when  offering  theilr  suyiplications  :  they  stood  up,  says  Ter- 
tullian,  and  directed  their  eyes  towards  heaven  with  expanded 
hands.'  A  similar  testimony  is  given  by  Clement  of  Alex- 
andria :' — "We  lift  up  our  head  and  elevate  our  hands 
towards  heaven."  So  also,  St.  Paul,  when  exhorting  Chris- 
tains  to  pray  for  all  classes  of  persons,  describes  the  gest\ire 
then  used  in  prayer  (1  Tim.  ii.  8.) : — wlierefore  lift  ip  holij 
HANDS  vjithout  wrath  or  doubting.  Those  who  affected  supe- 
rior sanctity,  or  who  from  motives  of  ostentation  and  hypo- 
crisy, it  appears,  prayed  in  the  streets.'  and  nwfk  hng prayers, 
were  severely  censured  by  our  Lord  for  their  fomial  and 
hypocritical  (levotion.  (Matt.  vi.  5.  and  xxiii.  11.)  "When  at 
a  distance  from  the  temple,  the  more  devout  .tews  turned 
themselves  towards  it  when  they  prayed.  We  have  an 
instance  of  this  in  the  conduct  of  Daniel.'  (Dan.  vi.  10.) 
When  the  Orientals  pray  seriously,  in  a  stiite  of  grief,  they 
hide  their  faces  in  their  bosom.  To  this  circumstance  the 
Psalmist  alludes  (xxxv.  13.),  when  he  says,  Mi/  prayer 
returned  into  mine  own  bosoin.^ 

IV.  Various  Forms  of  Prayer  were  in  use  amoiig  the 
Jews  from  the  earliest  period  of  their  existence  as  a  distinct 
nation.  Tlie  first  piece  of  solemn  worship  recorded  in  the 
Scripture  is  a  hymn  of  praise  composed  by  Moses,  on  occa- 
sion of  the  deliverance  of  the  Israelites  from  the  Egyptians, 
which  was  sung  by  all  the  congregation  alternately ;  by  Moses 
and  the  men  first,  and  afterwards  by  Miriam  and  the  women 
(Exod.  XV.  1.  20,21.);  which  could  not  have  been  done  ,unle6S 
it  ted  been  a  precomposed  set  form.  Again,  in  the  expia- 
tion of  an  uncertain  murder,  the  elders  of  the  city  which  lay 
nearest  to  the  party  that  was  slain,  were  expressly  com- 
manded to  say,  and  consequently  to  join  in,  the  form  of 
praj'er  appointed  by  God  himself  in  Deut.  xxi.  7,  8.  In  Num. 
vi.  23—26.  X.  35,  36.  Deut.  xxvi.  3.  5 — 11.  and  1.3—15. 
there  are  several  other  divinely  a]>pointed  forms  of  prayer, 
prescribed  by  .Moses.  On  the  establishment  of  the  monarchy, 
David  appointed  the  Levites  to  stand  every  mornin«; Jo  thank 
and  praise  the  Lord,  and  likewise  ut  even  (1  Chron.  xxiii.  30.)  ; 
which  rule  was  afterwards  observed  in  the  temple  erected  by 
Solomon,  and  restored  at  the  building  of  the  second  temple 
after  the  captivity.  (Neh.  xii.24.)  And  the  whole  book  of 
Psalms  was,  in  fact,  a  collection  of  forms  of  prayer  and 
praise,  for  the  use  of  the  whole  congregation  ;  as  is  evident 
from  the  titles  of  several  of  those  divinely  inspired  composi- 
tions,'' as  well  as  from  other  passages  of  Scripture.'' 

What  the  slated  public  prayers  were  in  the  time  of  our 
Lord,  it  is  now  impossible  exactly  to  ascertain  :  it  is,  how- 
ever, probable  that  many  of  the  eighteen  prayer-s,  whicli  have 
been  given  in  pp.  106,  107.  and  which  are  said  to  have  been 
collected  by  Rabbi  Gamaliel  the  Elder,  the  master  of  St.  Paul, 
were  then  in  use ;  and  as  all  persons  were  not  able  to  com- 
mit them  to  memory,  it  is  also  probable  that  a  summary  of 
them  was  drawn  up.  But  we  know  certainly  that  it  was 
customary  for  the  more  eminent  doctors  of  the  Jews  to  com- 
pose forms  of  short  prayers,  which  they  delivered  to  their 
scholars.  Thus  John  the  Baptist  gave  his  disciples  such  a 
form  ;  and  Jesus  Christ,  at  the  request  of  his  disciples,  gave 
them  that  most  pf-rfect  model  emphatically  termed  TheljunVs 
Prayer,  which,  tl»e  very  learned  Nlr.  (iregory  has  shown,  was 
collected  out  of  the  Jewish  euchologics :«  he  has  translated 
the  whole  form  from  them  as  follows  : — 

•  Apoloc;.  c.  30 

»  Strotnala,  lib.  ii.  p  722.     Dr.  H.irwooil'.'?  Tntrod.  vol.  ii.  p.  302.    Tim 

Fracticc  of  extcndini,'  the  hands  in  praypr  ulli  olit.iins  in  llic  East.     See 
Iarrn'>r'B  OhscrvalioM.s,  vol.  ii.  pp.  511— 513.      I'ragnienU  suppicinonlary 
to  Caliiict,  No.  cclxxviii. 

'  Thia  practice  is  also  general  ihroughout  tlie  East.  Iloth  Hindoos  and 
MiiJiiliiiauns  olTcr  their  devotions  in  the  most  public  places ;  as,  at  the 
landinc  plaros  of  rivers,  in  tin;  public  streets,  .-ind  on  the  roofs  of  KoalH, 
without  the  lonst  modesty  or  etfoit  at  cunceuluietit.  W.-inl's  lli.-clory  of 
Ihe  Hindoos,  vol.  ii.  p.  Xii.  Uno.  alHoI-'ra«;niniit8,  No.  cv.  Morier's  Hecond 
Journey,  p.  208.  Dr.  Richardson's  Travels,  vol.  i.  p.  75.  and  Lii^litfuol's 
HoriH  Ficbraic.i;  on  Malt.  vi.  5.    (Works,  vol.  ii.  p.  150.) 

•  Lainy  Is  of  opinion  that  He/ckiah  did  so,  nn<l  that  wc  arc  to  ttndcr.'iland 
his  tUTning  his  fart  to  thn  vail  Ci  Kings  xx.  Z)  of  his  turning  towanls  the 
temple.     Do  TaLomaculo,  lib.  vil.  c.  I.  i  5. 

»  UurJer's  Oriental  Literature,  vol.  ii.  p.  SO. 

•  rtec  the  titlcsof  Psalms  Iv.  v.  vi.  xlii.  xliv.  xcii.  Ac. 

1  »oe  1  Chron.  xvi.  7.  2  Chrrin.  xxix.  30.  and  Ezra  lii.  Id,  11.  Wheatley 
on  the  Coninicin  Prayer,  Introduction,  p.  Ii. 

•  Sec  the  Works  of  the  Rev.  and  learned  Mr.  John  GroRoric,  p.  108. 
London,  16<J.  See  al.so  Dr.  Lightfoot's  Ilor.  Heb.  on  M.ilt,  vi.  0—13. 
Drusiii.^  in  Critici  rtacri.  vol.  vi.  col.  'Stf.),  'Ml  Wbilby  and  oilier  com- 
mentators, In  loc.  Dr.  Hales  has  an  excellent  conimiMii.iry  on  this  prayer, 
tnliis  AnalvHisofChronuloKy,  vol.  ii.bookii.  pp.  ItKIG— lull.  The  forms.  Ac. 
of  prayer  of  the  modern  J«w«  are  (Jescritied  by  .Mr.  Allen,  .Modern  Juda- 
ism, pp.  326— 3M. 


"  Our  Father,  which  art  in  heaven,  be  gracious  unto  us ! 
O  Lord  our  Gotl,  hallowed  be  thy  name,  and  let  the  remem- 
brance of  thee  be  glorified  in  heaven  above,  and  upon  earth 
here  below.  Let  thy  kingdom  reign  over  us,  now  and  for 
ever.  The  holy  men  of  old  said.  Remit  and  forgive  unto  all 
men  whatsoever  they  have  done  against  me.  And  lead  us 
not  into  temptation,  hut  deliver  us  from  the  evil  thinu.  For 
thine  is  the  Kingdom,  and  thou  shalt  reign  in  glory  for  ever, 
and  for  evermore." 

V.  To  prayers  the  Jews  sometimes  added  Fasts,  or 
religious  abstinence  from  food  :  these  fasts  were  either  pub- 
lic or  private. 

1.  The  Public  FasI^  were  either  ordinary  or  extraordi- 
nary. Moses  instituted  only  one  ordinary  annual  public 
fast,  which  was  solemnized  on  the  day  of  alonement,^  other 
public  fasts  being  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  nation.  Of 
extraordinary  fasts  appointed  by  authority  of  the  civil  magis- 
trate, several  instances  are  recorded  in  the  Old  Testament. 
See  1  Sam.  vii.  5,  6.  2  Chron.  xx.  3.  and  Jer.  xxxvi.  9. 
After  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  captivitj',  Ezra  proclaimed 
a  fast  at  the  river  Ahava,  in  order  to  implore  the  direction 
and  blessing  of  God  (Ezra  viii.  21.)  :  and  several  other  fasts 
were  subsequently  added,  to  commemorate  particular  melan- 
choly events,  of  which  we  read  in  Zech.  viii.  19. ;  viz.  the 
fast  of  the  fourth  month,  which  was  instituted  in  memory  of 
the  famine  in  Jerusalem  (Jer.  lii.  6.) ;  the  fast  of  the  fil'th 
month,  for  the  destruction  of  the  temple  (Zech.  vii.  3.)  ;  the 
fast  of  the  seventh  month,  on  account  of  the  murder  of  Geda- 
liah  (2  Kings  xxv.  28.)  ;  and  the  fast  of  the  tenth  month, 
when  Jerusalem  was  besieged.  (Jer.  lii.  4.)  Extraordinary 
])ublic  fasts  were  also  held  when  the  Jews  were  threatened 
with  any  imminent  danger.  (Joel  i.  11.  ii.  12.)  In  like 
manner  the  people  of  Nineveh,  on  hearing  the  prophetic 
message  of  Jonah,  whom  they  believed  to  be  truly  sent  by 
God,  proclaimed  a  fast ;  and  by  a  decree  of  the  king  and  his 
nobles,  neither  man  nor  boast,  neither  herd  nor  liock,  was 
permitted  to  taste  any  food,  or  even  to  drink  any  water. 
(Jonah  iii.  6,  7.)  This  was  carrying  their  abstinence  to  a 
greater  degree  of  rigour  than  what  we  find  recorded  cf  the 
Jews;  for  though,  during  seasons  of  public  calamity,  they 
made  their  children  to  fast  (as  may  be  inferred  from  Joel  ii. 
15,  16.),  yet  we  nowhere  read  of  their  extending  that  severity 
to  cattle. 

2.  Private  Fasts  were  left  to  the  discretion  of  individuals 
who  kept  them,  in  order  that  they  might  by  prayer  and  fast- 
ing avert  imminent  calamities,  and  obtain  tne  favour  of  God. 
So  David  fasted  and  prayed  during  the  sickness  of  his  child 
liy  Bathsheba  (2  Sam.  xii.  16.)  ;  Ahab,  when  he  heard  the 
divine  judgments  which  were  denounced  against  him  by  the 
nrophet  Elijah  (1  Kings  xxi.  27.)  ;  and  the  pious  Jews, 
Ezra  (x.  C),  and  Nehemiah  (i.  4.),  on  account  oi  the  calami- 
ties of  their  country  and  of  the  Jews.  In  the  time  of  Jesua 
Christ,  private  fasts  appear  to  have  been  deemed  necessary, 
in  order  to  yield  an  acceptable  worship  to  God  :  such  at  least 
was  the  case  with  the  Pharisees  and  their  followers,  who 
affected  more  than  ordinary  devotion ;  and  who  fasted  twice 
in  the  week,  on  the  seconil  and  fifth  daya  (Luke  xviii.  12.) 
to  which  acts  of  devotion  they  ascribed  a  marvellous  efficacy.'" 

3.  With  regard  to  the  Solem.mties  of  the  Jewish  Fasts, 
the  precept  of  the  law  simply  enjoined  that  they  should 
ujfiid  their  souls  (Lev.  xvi.  2!).);  conformably  to  which  the 
nrophet  Joel  (ii.  13.)  exhorts  his  countrymen  to  rend  their 
hearts  and  not  their  garments.  From  various  passages  of 
Scripttire,  it  appears  that  the  Jewish  fasts,  whether  ]uiblio 
or  jirivatc,  were  distinguislied  by  every  possible  mark  of 
grief;  the  people  being  clothed  In  sackcloth,  with  ashes 
strewed  on  their  heads,  downcast  countenances,  rent  gar- 
ments, and  (on  public  occasions)  witli  loud  weeping  and 
supplication.  (2  Sam.  xiij.  19.  Psal.  xxxv.  13.  Isa.  Iviii.  5. 
Lam.  ii.  10.  Joel  i.  13,  11.  ii.  12,  13.)  At  these  times  they 
ahstiiined  from  food  until  evening.  The  sanctimonious 
Pharisees  affected  the  utmost  humility  and  devotion,  di.sfigiir- 
iiig  their  faces  and  avoiding  every  appearance  of  neatness; 
against  this  conduct  our  Lord  cautions  his  disciples  in  Matt. 
VI.  16,  17." 

•  See  an  accoimt  of  this  fast  In  p.  127.  »upra. 

10  LJRhtfoot's  Hor.  Hebr.  on  Mdlt.  Ix.  11.   Schulrii  ArrhiPologin  HtbralCB, 
pp.  ItOl,  3U2.     Homo's  Hist,  of  the  Jews,  vol.  Ii.  pp.  'J70,  ViSO. 

11  See  LIghtfooi'H  Hor.  Hcb.  on  Malt.  vi.  '.<-13.  and  Luke  xviii.  12.    Jose- 
phus,  Anl.  Jud.  bb.  111.  c.  10.  i  3.    Schulzii  Archscol.  Hebr.  pp.  301,  30i 


Sect.  III.] 


ON  THE  PURIFICATIONS  OF  THE  JEWS. 


133 


legal 


SECTION  III. 

ON  THE   PURIFICATIONS   OF  THE   JEWS. 

I.  Materials  luith  ivhich  the  purifications  of  the  Jeivs  toere per- 
formed.— II.  Ceremonies  of  ptirificatioti. — III.  Of  the  persons 
lustratecL — IV.  Accovnt  of  the  different  kinds  of  legal  impu- 
rities, particularly , — 1.  The  leprosy  of  the  person. — 2.  The 
leprosy  of  clothes, — 3.  The  house  leprosy. — V.  ^llinor 
impurities,  and  their  hislrations. 

It  was  requisite  that  every  one  who  was  about  to  make 
any  offering  to  Jehovah  should  be  cleansed  from  all  impuri- 
ties, or  lustrated — to  adopt  an  expression  in  common  use 
among  the  Romans.  The  materials,  form,  and  ceremonies  of 
these  lustrations,  which  were  prescribed  by  Moses,  were 
various,  according  to  different  circumstances.  The  design 
of  them  all  was  not  only  to  preserve  both  the  health  and 
morals  of  the  Israelites,  but  also  to  intimate  how  necessary 
it  was  to  preserve  inward  puritj',  without  which  they  could 
not  be  acceptable  to  God,  though  they  might  approach  his 
sanctuary. 

I.  The  purifications  were  for  the  most  part  performed  with 
V'ater,  sometimes  with  blood  (Heb.  ix.  21,  22^,  and  with 
eil.  (Exod.  xxx.  26 — 29.  Lev.  viii.  10,  11. )'  The  water  of 
purification  was  to  be  drawn  from  a  sprint  or  running  stream, 
and  was  either  pure,  or  mixed  with  blood  (Heb.  ix.  19.),  or 
with  the  ashes  of  the  red  heifer.  For  preparing  these  ashes, 
a  heifer  of  a  r^d  colour  was  burnt  with  great  solemnity. 
This  ceremony  is  described  at  length  in  the  nineteenth  chap- 
ter of  the  book  of  Numbers.  As  all  the  people  were  to  be 
interested  in  it,  the  victim  was  to  be  provided  at  their  charge. 
This  Jewish  rite  certainly  had  a  reference  to  things  done 
under  the  Gospel,  as  St.  Paul  has  remarked  in  his  Epistle 
to  the  Hebrews — Fur  if  the  blood  cf  hulls  and  of  goats  (allud- 
ing to  the  sin-offerings,  and  to  the  scape-goat),  and  the 
ASHES  OF  A  HEIFER,  sprinkling  the  unclean,  sanctifieih  to  the 
purifying  of  the  flesh,  hoiu  much  more  shall  the  blood  of 
Christ  ,,.  .  purge  (or  purify)  your  conscience  from  dead 
works  to  serve  the  living  God.  As  the  principal  stress  of  allu- 
sion in  this  passage  is  to  the  ordinance  of  tne  red  heifer,  we 
may  certainly  conclude  that  it  was  designed  to  tj^pify  the 
sacrifice  of  our  adorable  Redeemer. 

In  the  ordinance  of  the  red  heifer,  we  may  perceive  the 
wisdom  of  Moses  (uuder  the  guidance  of  Jehovah)  in  taking 
every  precaution  that  could  prevent  the  Israelites  from  falling 
into  idolatry.  The  animal  to  be  selected  was  a  heifer,  in  op- 
position to  the  superstition  of  the  Egyptians,  who  held  this 
animal  to  be  sacred,  and  worshipped  Isis  under  the  form  of  a 
heifer  : — it  was  also  to  be  a  red  heifer,  without  spot,  that  is, 
altogether  red,  because  red  bulls  were  sacrificed  to  appease 
the  evil  demon  Typhon,  that  was  worshipped  by  the  Egyp- 
tians; wherein  was  no  blemish,  so  that  it  was  free  from  every 
imperfection ; — o«  which  never  came  yoke,  because  any  animal 
that  had  been  used  for  an}'  common  purpose  was  deemed  im- 
proper to  be  offered  in  sacrifice  to  God.- 

The  animal  being  slain,  and  her  blood  sprinkled  as  directed 
in  Num.  xix.  3,  4.,  was  then  reduced  to  ashes,  which  were 
to  be  collected  and  mixed  with  running  water  (ver.  9.  17.), 
for  the  purpose  of  lustration. 

II.  The  Jews  had  two  sorts  of  washing ;  one. — of  the 
whole  body  by  immersion,  which  was  used  by  the  priests  at 
their  consecration,  and  by  the  proselytes  at  llieir  initiation ; 
^the  other,  of  the  hands  or  feet,  called  dipping,  ot  pouring 
of  water,  and  which  was  of  daily  use.  not  only  for  the  hands 
and  feet,  but  also  for  the  cups  and  other  vessels  used  at  their 
meals.  (Matt.  xv.  2.  Mark  vii.  3,  4.)  The  six  watev-pots 
of  stone,  used  at  the  marriage-feast  of  Cana,  in  Galilee  (John 
ii.  6.),  were  set  for  this  purpose.'  To  these  two  modes  of 
purification  Jesus  Christ  seems  to  allude  in  John  xiii.  10. ; 

»  Josephus,  Ant.  .Tticl.  lib.  iii.  c.  8.  §  6. 

»  This  opinion  obtained  among  the  ancient  Greeks. 
Homer's  Iliad,  x.  291—29.3.  and  Odyssey,  iii.  382.,  and  Virgil's 
550,  551.     Dr.  A.  Clarke  on  Num.  xix.  2. 

»  While  Mr.  W.  Rae  Wilson  (who  visited  Palestine  in  1819)  was  at  Cana, 
"six  women  having  their  faces  veiled  came  down  to  the  well,  each  carry- 
ing on  her  head  a  pot  for  the  purpose  of  being  filled  with  water.  These 
vessels  were  formed  of  stone,  and  something  in  the  shape  of  the  bottles 
used  in  our  country  for  containing  vitriol,  having  great  bodies  and  small 
necks,  with  this  excepiion.  they  were  not  so  large;  many  had  handles 
attached  to  the  sides  ;  and  it  was  a  wonderful  coincidence  with  Scripture, 
that  the  vessels  appeared  to  contain  much  the  same  quantity  as  those, 
which  the  Evangelist  informs  [us]  had  been  employed  on  occa.sion  of  the 
nupiial  celebration."  viz.  "three  firkins,"  that  is,  about  twelve  gallons 
each.  'Wilson's  Travels  in  Egypt  and  the  Holy  Land,  p.  339.  first  edition.) 


See  particularly 
I  Georgics,  iv. 


where  the  being  wholly  washed  implies  one  who  had  become 
a  disciple  of  Christ,  and  consequently  had  renounced  the  sins 
of  his  former  life.  He  who  had  so  done  was  supposed  to 
be  wholly  washed,  and  not  to  need  any  immersion,  in  imita- 
tion of  the  ceremony  of  initiation,  which  was  never  repeated 
among  the  Jews.  All  that  was  necessary  in  such  case  was 
the  dipping  or  rinsing  of  the  hands  and  feet,  agreeably  to  the 
customs  ot  the  Jews.  Sometimes  the  lustration  was  per- 
formed by  sprinkling  blood,  or  anointing  with  oil.  Sprink- 
ling was  perfomied  either  with  the  finorer  or  with  a  branch 
of  cedar  and  hyssop  tied  together  with  scarlet  wool.  (Lev. 
xiv.  4.  6.  Num.  xix.  18.  Psal.  li.  7.) 

HI.  The  objects  of  lustration  were  either  persons  or  things 
dedicated  to  divine  worship.  The  Le\dtes,  priests,  and  above 
all,  the  high-priest,  underwent  a  purification  previously  to 
undertaking  their  respective  offices.  In  like  manner  the  Is- 
raelites were  commanded  to  sanotify  themselves  by  ablutions 
both  of  their  persons  and  clothes,  &c.  previously  to  receiving 
the  law  (Exod.  xix.  10,  11.  14, 15.  Heb.ix.  19.)  ;  and  after 
the  giving  of  the  law  and  the  people's  assent  to  the  book  of 
the  covenant,  Moses  sprinkled  them  with  blood.  (Exod. 
xxiy.  5 — 8.  Heb.  ix.  19.)  So  also  were  the  tabernacle,  and 
all  its  sacred  vessels  anointed  with  oil  (_Exod.  xxx.  26- -28. 
xl.  9 — 11.  Lev.  viii.  10,  11.),  and  asSamt  Paul  further  inti- 
mates, were  sprinkled  with  the  blocd  of  the  victims. 

Those  who  were  about  to  offer  sacrifice  unto  Jehovah  were 
also  to  be  lustrated  (1  Sam.  xvi.  5.)  ;  as  well  as  those  who 
v^ere  repairing  to  divine  worship  to  offer  their  prayers  (.Tuditli 
xii.  7, 8.)  ;  and  especially  the  priest  and  the  high-priest,  before 
they  executed  their  respective  offices.  (Exod.  xxx.  20.) 
Lastly,  all  who  according  to  the  Mosaic  law  were  adjudged, 
impure,  were  to  be  purified  before  they  could  be  admitted  into 
the  cono-reo'ation  of  the  Lord.  (Num.  xix.  20.) 

IV,  In  the  Mosaic  law,  those  persons  are  termed  unclean, 
vi-hom  others  were  obliged  to  avoid  touching,  or  even  meeting, 
unless  they  chose  to  be  themselves  defiled,  that  is,  cut  o'fi' 
from  all  intercourse  with  their  brethren  ;  and  who,  besides, 
were  bound  to  abstain  from  frequenting  the  place  where  divine 
service  and  the  offering-feasts  were  held,  under  penalties  still 
more  severe. 

The  duration  and  degrees  of  impurity  were  different.  In 
some  instances,  by  the  use  of  certain  ceremonies,  an  unclean 
person  became  purified  at  sunset;  in  others,  this  did  not  take 
place  until  eight  days  after  the  physical  cause  of  defilement 
ceased.  Lepers  were  obliged  to  live  in  a  detached  situation, 
separate  from  other  people,  and  to  keep  themselves  actually 
at  a  distance  from  them.  They  were  distinguished  by  a  pe- 
culiar dress  ;  and  if  any  person  approached,  they  were  bound 
to  give  him  warning,  by  crying  out.  Unclean.'  unclean/ 
Other  polluted  persons,  again,  could  not  directly  touch  those 
that  were  clean,  without  defiling  them  in  like  manner,  and 
were  obliged  to  remain  without  the  camp,  that  they  might  not 
be  in  their  way.  (Num.  v.  1 — 4.)  Eleven  different  species 
of  impurity  are  enumerated  in  the  Levitical  law,  to  which  the 
later  Jews  added  many  others.     But  the  severest  of  all  was, 

1.  The  Leprasy,  an  infectious  disease  of  slow  and  imper- 
ceptible progress,  beginning  very  insidiously  and  gently,  for 
the  most  part  with  one  little  bright  spot,  which  causes  no 
trouble,  though  no  means  will  make  it  disappear  :  but  in- 
creasing with  time  into  furfuraceous  scales  that  ultimately 
become  a  thick  scab,  it  imperceptibly  passes  into  a  disease, 
which,  though  divested  of  its  deadly  nature  in  our  temperate 
climates  and  by  our  superior  cleanliness,  is  in  the  East 
attended  with  the  most  formidable  symptoms :  such  as  morti- 
fication and  separation  of  whole  limbs,  and  when  arrived  at  a 
certain  stage,  it  is  altogether  incurable.  As  the  varieties  and 
symptoms  of  this  frightful  malady  are  discussed  at  length  in. 
a  subsequent  part  of  this  work,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  remark, 
for  the  present,  that,  among  the  heathens,  the  leprosy  was 
considered  as  inflicted  by  their  gods,  by  whom  alone  it  could 
be  removed,  and  the  same  notion  appears  to  have  prevailed 
amon^  the  Israelites  ;  for  when  the  king  of  Syria  sent  Naa- 
man,  his  commander-in-chief,  to  the  king  of  Israel,  to  heal 
him  of  his  leprosy,  the  latter  exclaimed, — ^m  I  Gou,  to  kill 
and  to  make  alive,  that  this  man  doth  send  unto  me,  to  recover 
a  man  of  his  leprosy  ?  (2  Kings  v.  7.)  Some  instances  are 
also  recorded  in  which  this  disease  is  represented  as  a  punish 
ment  immediately  inflicted  by  God  for  particular  sins ;  r.s  in 
the  cases  of  Miriam,  Gehazi,  and  king  L  zziah.  This  circum- 
stance, connected  with  the  extreme  foulness  of  the  disorder, 
rendered  it  a  very  striking  emblem  of  moral  pollution  ;  and 
the  exclusion  of  persons  infected  with  it  from  the  worship  and 
people  of  God  was  fitted  not  only  to  humble  and  reform  the 


134 


SACRED  OBLIGATIONS  AND  DUTIES. 


[Part  in.  Chap.   V 


offenders,  but  also  to  impress  upon  the  mind  the  most  solemn 
and  useful  instructions. 

The  person  who  had  been  healed  of  leprosy  was  minutely 
examined  by  the  priest,  who  proceeded  to  perform  the  rites 
and  sacrifices  of  purification,  which  are  minutely  described 
in  Lev.  xiv.,  in  order  that  the  patient  might  be  readmitted 
into  society  and  to  the  privileges  of  the  Jewish  church. 
Among  these  sacrifices  and  ceremonies,  the  following  is  very 
remarkable : — "  The  priest  was  required  to  take  two  small 
birds,  and  to  kill  one  of  them  over  an  earthen  vessel  filled 
with  river  water,  so  that  the  blood  might  be  mixed  with  the 
water.  He  was  then  to  dip  the  other  or  living  bird  into  the 
water,  and  sprinkle  the  leper  with  it  seven  times  with  a  stick 
of  cedar  wooii,  upon  which  a  buticli  oi  hyssup  was  tied  wiih 
a  scarlet  thread ;  after  which  the  priest  was  to  pronounce  him 
purified,  and  let  loose  the  living  bird  into  the  open  air.  (Lev. 
xiv.  2 — 7.)  This  ceremony  seems  to  be  typical  of  the  puri- 
fication of  our  sins  by  the  sprinkling  of  the  blood  of  Jesus 
Ohrist  fisa.  lii.  15.  1  Pet.  i.  2.),  wliich  flowed  out  of  his 
woundea  side  mixed  with  water  (John  xix.  34.) ;  while  the 
dismissal  of  the  living  bird  resembles  that  of  the  scape-goat 
into  the  wilderness,  with  the  sins  of  the  leper  upon  him. 
Our  Lord  expressly  commanded  the  lepers,  wnom  he  healed, 
to  conform  to  the  law."  (Malt.  viii.  4.  Mark  i.  44.  Luke  v. 
14.  xvii.  14.)' 

Besides  the  leprosy  of  the  person,  Moses  mentions  two 
other  species  of  leprosy,  viz.  of  clothes  and  of  houses,  which 
are  in  a  great  measure  unknown  in  Europe. 

2.  The  Leprosy  of  Clothes  is  described  m  Lev.  xiii.  47 — 59. 
as  consisting  of  green  or  reddish  spots,  which  remain  in  spite 
of  washing  and  continue  to  spread  ;  so  that  the  cloth  becomes 
bald  or  bare,  sometimes  on  one  side,  and  sometimes  on  the 
other.  From  the  information  which  Michaelis  received  from 
a  woollen  manufacturer,  he  supposes  this  disease  to  arise  in 
woollen  cloth,  from  the  use  of  the  wool  of  sheep  that  have 
died  of  disease;  which  when  worn  next  the  skin  (as  in  the 
East)  is  very  apt  to  produce  vermin.  With  respect  to  leather 
and  linen,  he  could  obtain  no  information. 

Clothes  suspected  to  be  thus  tainted  were  to  be  inspected 
by  the  priest;  if  they  were  found  to  be  corroded  by  the 
leprosy,  they  were  to  be  burnt;  but  if,  after  being  washed, 
the  plague  was  Ibund  to  have  departed  from  them,  they  were 
to  be  pronounced  clean. 

3.  The  House  Leprosy  is  said  in  Lev.  xiv.  33 — 37.  to  con- 
sist of  greenish  or  reddish  spots  or  dimples,  that  appear  on 
the  walls,  and  continually  spread  wider  and  widtr.  Alichaeli  > 
considers  it  to  be  the  same  as  the  falfpclre,  which  sometimes 
attacks  and  corrodes  houses  that  stand  in  damp  situations. 
Although  in  Europe  unattended  with  any  injury  to  health,  in 
Palestine  it  might  be  hurtful ;  so  that  the  Mosaic  regulations 
in  this  respect  are  both  wise  and  provident. 

When  a  house  was  suspected  to  be  thus  tainted,  the  priest 
was  to  examine  it,  and  ordered  it  to  be  shut  up  seven  days. 
If  he  found  that  the  plague  or  signs  of  the  plague  had  not 
spread,  he  commanded  it  to  be  shut  up  seven  days  more.     On 

«  Dr.  Hales's  Analysis  of  Chronolo^j',  vol.  ii.  book  i.  p.  273. 


the  thirteenth  day  he  revisited  it ;  and  if  he  found  the  infected 
place  dim,  or  gone  away,  he  took  out  that  part  of  the  wall, 
carried  it  out  to  an  unclean  place,  mended  the  wall,  and 
caused  the  whole  house  to  be  newly  plastered.  It  was  then 
shut  up  a  third  seven  days :  he  once  more  inspected  it  on  the 
nineteenth  day ;  and  if  he  found  that  the  plague  had  broken 
out  anew,  he  ordered  the  house  to  be  pullecf  down.  If  on 
the  other  hand  it  was  pronounced  to  be  clean,  an  oflfering  was 
made  on  the  occasion ;  in  order  that  every  one  might  certainly 
know  that  ij  was  not  infected,  and  the  public  might  be  Creed 
from  all  apprehensions  on  that  account. 

V.  Various  other  legal  impurities  are  enumerated  in  IjCv. 
xii.  1 — 8.  and  xv.  which  it  is  not  necessary  to  detail.  To 
wiiich  we  may  add,  that  all  liunian  corpses  and  the  carcas-;<  s 
of  beasts  that  died  in  anv  other  way  than  by  the  knife,  were 
regarded  as  unclean.  Whoever  touched  the  former,  or  went 
into  the  lent  or  apartment  (after  the  Israelites  had  houses) 
where  a  corpse  lay,  was  unclean  for  seven  days ;  and  who- 
ever touched  a  dead  body,  or  even  a  human  bone,  or  a  grave 
in  the  fields,  was  unclean  for  the  same  period.  The  body  of 
a  clean  beast  that  fell  not  by  the  knife,  but  died  in  any  other 
way,  defiled  the  person  who  touched  it,  until  the  evening 
(Lev.  xi.  39.^;  ana  the  carcasses  of  unclean  beasts,  bj  what- 
ever means  they  died,  did  the  same.  (Lev.  v.  2.  xi.  8.  11. 
24,  25.  27,  28.  31.  Deut.  xiv.  8.)  The  consequence  of  this 
law  was,  that  the  carcasses  of  beasts  were  not  suffered  to 
remain  above  ground,  but  wore  put  into  the  earth,  that  pas- 
sengers might  not  be  in  danger  of  pollution  from  them. 

By  these  wise  enactments,  the  spreading  of  contagious 
diseases  would  be  effectually  prevented,  which  in  hot  cli- 
mates are  peculiarly  rapid  and  fatal.  For  the  same  reason, 
also,  Michaelis  is  of  opinion,  that  Moses  commanded  the 
Israelites  to  break  earthen  vessels,  which  were  liable  to  be 
defiled  by  being  left  uncovered  in  a  tent  or  apartment  where 
a  person  died,  or  a  corpse  lay  (Num.  xix.  15.),  or  by  an 
unclean  beast  falling  into  them  (Lev.  xi.  33.),  or  by  the  touch 
of  a  diseased  person.  (Lev.  xv.  12. )2 

Sucii  are  the  Mosaic  statutes  concerning  purifications  and 
impurities.  Profane  scoffers,  Avho  deride  those  things,  the 
reason  and  projpriety  of  which  they  will  not  take  the  trouble 
to  investigate,  have  ridiculed  them  as  too  minute, — especially 
those  respecting  the  different  species  of  leprosy, — and  as 
unworthy  to  be  made  part  of  a  divine  law.  But  every  well 
regulated  mind  surely  must  discern  in  them  both  the  good- 
ness and  wisdom  of  Jehovah  towards  his  chosen  people,  in 
giving  them  prece[)ts  which  were  calculated  not  onh^  to  pre- 
serve their  health  and  reguliite  tlioir  morals,  buf  also  to 
accustom  them  to  obedience  to  his  will  in  every  respect. 
The  leprosy  lias  ever  been  considered  as  a  lively  emblem  of 
that  moral  taint  or  "  corruption  of  the  nature  of  every  man 
that  naturally  is  engcndercfl  of  t/te  offspring  of  jldiim  /"^  as  the 
sacrifices,  which  were  to  be  offered  by  the  healed  leper,  pre- 
figured that  spotless  Lamb  of  God  that  taketh  away  the  sin  of 
the  world. 

«  Scliulzii  Archxolopia  Hcbraica,  pp.  SO.") — 310.     Micliacli.s's  Commeif 
tariea,  vol.  iii.  pp.  254 — 3^35. 
»  Ariicle  ix.  of  ilie  Confession  of  the  Anglican  Churdi. 


Sect.  L] 


CORRUPTIONS  OF  RELIGION  AMONG  THE  JEWS. 


135 


CHAPTER  VI. 

ON    THE    CORRUPTIONS    OF    RELIGION    AMONG    THE    JEWS. 

SECTION  I. 


ON  THE  IDOLATRY  OF  THE  JEWS. 


I.  Origin  and  Progress  of  idolatry. — Sketch  of  its  History  among  the  Israelites  and  Jews. — II.  Idols  worshipped  by  the 
Israelites   alone. — III.  Idols  of  the  Ammonites,  -.uorshipped  by  the  Israelites. — IV.  Idols   of  the  Canaa7iitcs  or  Syrians. — 
V.  Phoenician  Idols. — VI.  Babylonian  and  .Assyrian  Idols, — VII.  Idols  worshipped  in  Samaria  during  the  Captivity.— 
Hieroglyphic  Stones,  why  prohibited  to  the  Jews. — VIII.  Idols  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  mentioned  in  the  J^exv  Testament. 
— IX.  Allusions  in  the  Scriptures  to  the  idolatrous  Worship  of  the  Heathen  JVations. — X.  Different  Kinds  of  Divination, 


I.  Idolatry  is  the  superstitious  worship  of  idols  or  false 
gods.  From  Gen.  vi.  5.  compared  with  Kom.  i.  23.  there  is 
ever}^  reason  to  believe  that  it  was  practised  before  the  flood  ; 
and  this  conjecture  is  confirmed  by  the  apostle  Jude  (ver.  4.), 
who,  describing  the  character  of  certain  men  in  his  days 
that  denied  the  only  Lord  God,  adds  in  the  eleventh  verse  of 
his  epistle,  fVb  unto  them,  for  they  are  gone  into  the  way  of 
Cain  ;  whence  it  maybe  inferred  that  Cain  and  his  descend- 
ants were  the  first  who  threw  off  the  sense  of  a  God,  and 
worshipped  the  creature  instead  of  the  Creator.^ 

The  heavenly  bodies  were  the  first  objects  of  idolatrous 
worship ;  and  Mesopotamia  and  Chaldsa  were  the  countries 
where  it  chiefly  prevailed  after  the  deluge.^  Before  Jeho- 
vah vouchsafed  to  reveal  himself  to  them,  both  Ter^h  and 
his  son  Abraham  were  idolaters  (Josh.  xxiv.  2.)  ;  as  also  Avas 
Laban,  the  father-in-law  of  Jacob  (Gen.  xxxi.  19.  30.); 
though  he  appears  to  have  had  some  idea  of  the  true  God, 
from  his  mentioning  the  name  of  Jehovah  on  several  occa- 
sions. (Gen.  xxiv.  31.  50,  51.)  Previously  to  Jaeob  and  his 
sons  going  into  E  gypt,  idolatry  prevailed  in  Canaan ;  and  while 
their  posterity  were  resident  in  that  country,  it  appears  from 
Josh.  xxiv.  11.  and  Ezek.  xx.  7,8.  that  they  worshipped  the 
deities  of  Egj'pt. 

On  the  departure  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt,  although 
Moses  by  the  command  and  instruction  of  Jehovah  had  given 
them  such  a  religion  as  no  other  nation  possessed,  and  not- 
withstanding all  his  laws  were  directed  to  preserve  them 
from  idolatry;  yet,  so  wayward  were  the  Israelites,  that 
almost  imm-^vu lately  after  tlseir  deliverance  from  bondage  we 
find  thera  worshipping  idols.  (Exod.  xxxii.  1.  Psal.  cvi.  19, 
20.  Acts  vii.  41 — 43.)  Soon  after  their  entrance  into  the 
land  of  Canaan,  they  adopted  various  deities  that  were 
worshipped  by  the  Ca'naanites,  and  other  neighbouring  na- 
tions (Judg.  ii.  13.  viii.  33.)  ;  for  which  base  ingratitude 
they  were  severely  punished.  Shortly  after  the  death  of 
Joshua,  the  government  became  so  unsettled,  that  every 
man  did  that  which  seemed  right  in  his  own  eyes.  The  pro- 
vihnt,  Azariah  describes  the  infelicity  of  these  times,  wnen 
ne  says.  They  were  luithout  the  true  God,  without  a  teaching 
priest,  and  ivlthout  the  law  (2  Chron.  xv.  3.)  ;  and  as  anarchy 
prevailed,  so  did  idolatry,  which  first  crept  into  the  tribe  of 
Ephraim  in  the  house  of  Micah,  and  then  soon  spread  itself 
amongst  the  Danites.  (.Tudg.  xvii.  xviii.)  Nor  were  the  other 
tribes  free  from  this  infection,  during  this  dissolution  of  the 
government;  for  it  is  said.  They  forsook  the  Lord  and  served 
Baal  and  Ashtaroth,  and  followed  the  other  gods  of  the  people 
round  about  them.  (Judg.  ii.  13.  12.) 

Under  the  government  of  Samuel,  Saul,  and  David,  the 
worship  of  GoQ  seems  to  have  been  purer  than  in  former  times. 
Solomon  is  the  first  king,  who,  out  of  complaisance  to  the 
strange  women  he  had  married,  caused  temples  to  be  erected 
in  honour  of  their  gods;  and  so  far  impiously  complied  with 
them  himself,  as  to  offer  incense  to  these  false  deities  ( 1  Kings 
xi.  5 — 8.) ;  so  fatal  an  evil  is  lust  to  the  best  understana- 
ings,  which  besots  every  one  it  overcomes,  and  reigns  over 
them  with  uncontrolled  power  vSolomon,  it  is  true,  did  not 
arrive  at  that  pitch  of  audacity  which  some  of  his  successors 
afterwards  did  ;  but  his  giving  the  smallest  countenance  to  the 
breach  of  the  divine  law,  among  a  people  so  prone  to  idola- 
try, could  not  but  be  attended  with  the  worst  consequences  ; 
and  accordingly,  upon  his  death,  the  glory  of  his  kingdom 
was  speedily  eclipsed  by  the  revolt  of  the  ten  tribes  and  the 

>  The  history  of  the  origin  and  progress  of  idolatry  are  ably  traced  in 
Dr.  Graves's  Lectures  on  the  Pentateuch,  vol.  i.  pp.  183—190. 

«  On  tlie  subject  of  Zabianism,  or  the  idolatrous  worship  of  the  stars, 
there  is  an  interesting  dissertation  in  Dr.  Townley's  Translation  of  Mai- 
monides's  Reasons  of  the  Laws  of  Mose    pp.  38—47. 


division  of  his  kingdom.  This  civil  defection  was  attended 
with  a  spiritual  one,  for  Jeroboam  the  son  of  Nebat,  who 
succeeded  him  in  the  government  of  the  ten  tribes  which 
had  revolted  (and  who  himself  had  probably  been  initiated 
in  the  idolatrous  worship  of  the  neignbouring  nutions,  when 
he  took  refuge  from  Solomon's  jealousy  at  the  court  of  Shi- 
shak),  soon  introduced  the  worship  of  two  golden  calves, 
the  one  at  Dan  and  the  other  at  Bethel.  He  made  choice  of 
Bethel,  because  it  had  long  been  esteemed  as  a  place  sacred 
for  the  real  appearance  of  God  in  ancient  times  to  Jacob,  and 
might,  therefore,  induce  the  people  to  a  more  ready  belief  of 
the  residence  of  the  same  Deity  now ;  and  Dan  (as  already 
observed)  being  at  the  extremity  of  the  kingdom,  was  the 
place  whither  that  part  of  the  country  resorted  on  account  of 
Micah's  teraphim.  Idolatry  being  thus  established  in  Israel 
by  public  authority,  and  countenanced  by  all  their  princes, 
was  universally  adopted  by  the  people,  notwithstanding  all 
the  remonstrances  against  it  by  the  prophets  whom  God  sent 
to  reclaim  them  from  time  to  time,  and  who  stood  as  a  barrier 
against  this  growing  wickedness,  regardless  of  all  the  perse- 
cutions of  impious  Jezebel,  Avho  did  what  she  could  utterly 
to  extinguish  the  worship  of  the  true  God.  At  length  this 
brought  a  flood  of  calamities  upon  that  kingdom,  and  was 
the  source  of  all  the  evils  with  which  that  people  were  after- 
wards afflicted ;  so  that,  after  a  continual  scene  of  tragical 
deaths,  civil  wars,  and  judgments  of  various  kinds,  they 
were  at  length  carried  away  captive  by  Shalmaneser  into 
Ass)rria. 

The  people  of  Judah  were  little  better.  One  might  justly 
have  expected,  that,  if  there  had  been  no  other  reason  than 
state  policy  for  preserving  the  true  religion  in  its  native  purity, 
that  alone  would  have  been  sufficient  to  prevent  any  other  false 
worship  from  being  set  up,  and  that  the  same  motives,  which 
induced  the  ten  tribes  to  establish  a  strange  worship,  would 
have  induced  Judah  to  be  jealous  for  the  true  one.  But  the 
event  proved  otherwise ;  for  notwithstanding  the  great  strength 
added  to  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  by  those  who  resorted  thither 
out  of  other  tribes  for  the  sake  of  religion,  prosperity  inflated 
Rehoboam  and  soon  ruined  him.  It  is  said  that  he  continued 
but  three  years  walking  in  the  loays  of  David  and  Solomon. 
(2  Chron,  xi,  17.)  After  which  these  idolatrous  inclinations 
began  to  appear,  which  probably  were  instilled  into  him  bj 
his  mother  JNaamah,  who  was  an  Ammonitess.  (1  Kings  xiv. 
21.)  In  short,  he  forsook  the  law  of  the  Lord,  and  all  Israel 
with  him  (2  Chron,  xii.  1.),  and  fell  into  the  grossest  idolatry 
above  all  that  their  fathers  had  done.  (1  Kings  xiv,  22,)  But 
God  soon  corrected  him  and  his  people,  bavins  delivered  them 
into  the  hands  of  Shishak  king  of  Egypt,  m  ho  with  a  vast 
army  entered  the  country,  took  their  cities,  and  plundered 
Jerusalem  and  the  temple  of  all  the  riches  which  David  and 
Solomon  had  treasured  up  there.  (2  Chron.  xii.  2.)  Upon 
their  repentance  and  humiliation,  the  anger  of  Jehovah  was 
soon  mitigated ;  and  we  do  not  find  that  the  kingdom  of 
Judah  fell  into  any  gross  acts  of  idolatry  till  the  reign  of  Ahaz, 
who  was  the  most  impious  prince  that  ever  sat  upon  that 
throne.  He  was  not  content  luith  walking  in  the  ways  of  the 
kings  of  Israel,  and making  molten  images  of  Baalim  (2  Chron. 
xxviii.  2.),  but  he  carried  his  wicked  inclinations  still  farther, 
and  imitated  the  old  inliabitants  of  the  land  in  their  cruel  and 
idolatrous  practices ;  for  it  is  said  of  him  that  he  burnt  incense 
in  the  valley  of  the  son  of  Hinnom,  and  burnt  his  children  in 
the  fire  (ver.  3.)  ;  or,  as  we  read  in  2  Kings  xvi.  3.,  He  made 
his  son  to  pass  through  the  fire,  which  doubtless  was  the 
passing  through  the  fire  to  Moloch,  so  expressly  prohibited  in 
Lev.  xviii.  21.  For  these  impieties  Ahaz  was  justly  punished 
by  God,  and  after  a  constant  course  of  all  manner  of  wicked- 


136 


CORRUPTIONS  OF  RELIGION  AMONG  THE  JEWS. 


[Paut  III.  Chap.  VI. 


ness,  died  in  the  flower  of  his  age ;  but  was  happily  succeeded 
by  his  son  Hezekiah,  who,  among  other  reformations,  it  is 
said,  broke  in  pieces  tlie  brazen  serpent  that  Muses  had  made,  to 
which  the  children  of  Israel  did  burn  incense.  (2  Kint^sxviii.  1.) 
But  Hezekiah's  reformation  was  soon  overturned  upon  the 
succession  of  his  wicked  son  Manasseh,  who  seems  to  liave 
made  it  his  business  to  search  out  what  God  in  his  law  had 
forbidden,  and  to  make  the  practice  of  it  his  study.  (SChron. 
xxxiii.  3—8.) 

The  princes  who  succeeded  (Josiah  only  excepted)  and 
their  people  seem  to  have  lived  in  a  kind  ol' competition  with 
one  another  in  wickedness  and  idolatry,  and  to  have  given 
a  loose  to  the  wildness  of  their  imaginations  in  the  worship 
of  God,  which  brought  upon  Judah  and  her  people  the  utmost 
fury  of  God's  wrath,  and  those  judgments  which  had  been  de- 
creed, and  which  ended  in  the  captivity  of  king  and  people.' 
At  length,  however,  become  wiser  by  the  severe  discipline 
they  had  received,  the  tribes  that  returned  into  their  native 
country  from  the  Babylonian  captivity  wholly  renounced 
idolatry;  and  thenceforth  uniformly  evinced  the  most  deeply- 
rooted  aversion  from  all  strange  deities  and  foreign  modes  of 
worship.  This  great  reformation  was  accomplished  by  Ezra 
and  Nehemiah,  and  the  eminent  men  who  accompanied  or 
succeeded  them  :  but,  in  the  progress  of  time,  though  the  ex- 
terior of  piety  was  maintained,  the  "  power  of  godliness"  was 
lost;  anil  we  learn  from  the  New  Testament,  that,  during  our 
Saviour's  ministry,  the  Jews  were  divided  into  various  reli- 
gious parties,  which  widely  differed  in  opinion,  and  pursued 
each  other  with  the  fiercest  animosity,  and  with  implacable 
hatred. 

Very  numerous  are  the  idols  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures, 

f»articularly  in  the  Old  Testament.  It  is  proposed  in  the  fol- 
owing  pages  of  this  section  to  offer,  in  the  first  place,  a  short 
notice  of  the  idols  which  were  peculiar  to  the  Israelites;  and, 
secondly,  of  those  which  they  adopted  from  the  Ammonites, 
Syrians,  Phoenicians,  Babylonians,  and  other  nations  of  anti- 
quit)' .2 

II.  Idols  worshipped  particularly  bv  the  Israelites. — 
Scarcely,  as  we  have  already  observed,  had  the  children  of 
Israel  been  delivered  from  their  cruel  bondage  in  Egypt,  when 
they  returned  to  those  idols  to  wiiich  they  had  been  accus- 
tomed. 

1.  The  first  object  of  their  idolatrous  worship  was  a  Golden 
('alf.  (Exod.  xxxii.  1 — 6.)  Having  been  conducted  through 
the  wilderness  by  a  pillar  of  cloud  and  fire,  which  preceded 
them  in  their  marches,  while  that  cloud  covered  the  mountain 
where  Moses  was  receiving  the  divine  commands,  they  ima- 

Sined  that  it  would  no  longer  be  their  guide  ;  and  therefore 
ley  applied  to  Aaron  to  make  for  them  a  sacred  sign  or  sym- 
bol, as  other  nations  had,  which  might  visibly  represent  God 
to  them.  With  this  request  Aaron  uidiappily  complied:  the 
Veople  offered  bumt-<fferin!;s^  and  brought  peace-offerings,  and 
sal  down  to  eat  and  to  drink,  and  rose  up  to  play.  'Die  mate- 
rials of  this  idol  were  the  golden  ear-rings  of  the  people, 
worn  in  these  eastern  countries  by  men  as  well  as  women ; 
and  probably  they  were  some  of  the  jewels  which  they  had 
demanded  of  the  Egyptians.  They  were  cast  in  a  mould  bj- 
Aaron,  and  subsequently  chiselled  into  a  calf,  which  is  gene- 
rally supposed  to  nave  been  an  exact  reseml)lance  of  the  cele- 
brated Egyptian  deity,  Apis,  who  was  worshipped  under  the 
form  of  an  ox.  This  ancient  Egy])tian  superstition  is  still 
perpetuated  on  Mount  Libanus,  by  those  Druses  who  assume 
the  name  of  Okkals,  and  who  ))ay  divine  honours  to  a  calf.^ 

2.  In  imitation  of  this  were  the  two(JoLDEN  Calves,  made 
by  Jeroboam,  the  first  king  of  Israel,  after  the  secession  of  the 
ten  tribes.  The  Egyptians  had  two  oxen,  one  of  which  they 
worshipped  under  tiie  name  of  Apis,  at  Mempliis,  tlie  capital 
of  Upper  Egypt,  and  the  other  under  the  name  of  Mnevis,  at 
Hierapolis,  the  metropolis  of  Lower  Egypt.  In  like  manner, 
Jeroboam  set  up  one  of  his  calves  at  lii  thtl,  and  the  other  at 
Dan.  (1  King*xii.  2S — .'{2.)  Like  the  idolaters  in  the  wil- 
derness, this  leader  of  the  rel)uls  proclaimed  Ijrfore  the  idols 
upon  the  frast  of  their  consecration,  'Jhtse  are  thy  god-',  0 
Isratl,  which  brought  t/ux  out  of  the  land  of  Egypt !  as  if  he 

«  Home's  ITiKt.  of  tlip  Jews,  vol.  ii.  pp.  292—291. 

«  Tlio  rollnwinic  arcoiint  of  tlm  l<loI«  \Vf>r«lii(i]>c(l  l)y  the  .Imvs  Is  sliriiljjrd 
principally  from  Ij\iiiy'»  Apparntiix  Hihlicis,  vol.  II.  pp.  170— IsS.  CHlinot's 
bi.sscrtatioiiR  m  IiIh  Couniieiilairc  I.iitiral,  loni.  i.  p.irt  II.  pp.  175—1/8.  ami 
torn.  vl.  pp.  7t.'> — 7o2.  aiKl  his  Uicllonary  of  lli<;  liiMi;  uinli-r  Ilic  several 
runes  of  the  Mol  deities.  Lewis's  Oiliiines  Heljr.T.T,  vol.  Hi.  pp.  1— l(r2. 
JuIim'h  Arclimiilogia  Hil)lira,  %S  'in(1~il'..  Ai'keriiMiiir.i  Arrlia-olnuia 
Hil/IIca,  <5  J(*7— lOvL  Millar'.s  IIi^i.  of  llie  l'rop<nllt)ti  of  C'lniHlianity,  vol. 
i.  pp.  '^Zl—'Mn.  Ooilwiii's  Moses  nn<l  Anron,  hook  iv.  pp.  140—176.  and 
Alher,  In.il.  Iterni.  Vet.  Test,  torn  I   pp.  3i<:— 106. 

»  Ur.  Clarko'a  TraveU,  vol.  iv.  p.  2ai. 


had  said,  "God  is  every  where  in  his  essence,  and  cannot  be 
included  in  any  place  :  he  dwells  among  you  here  as  well  as 
at  Jerusalem,  ana  if  you  require  any  symbols  of  his  presence, 
behold  here  they  are  in  these  calves  whi^h  I  have  set  up;" 
for  they  could  not  be  so  stupid  as  to  believe,  that  the  idols 
taken  just  before  out  of  the  furnace  had  been  their  deliverers, 
so  many  ages  before.  It  is  evident,  that  the  worship  of  these 
calves  was  not  regarded  by  the  sacred  writers  and  by  the  pro- 
phets, as  an  absolute  Pagan  idolatry,  but  only  as  a  schism, 
which  was  indeed  ver)'  criminal  in  itself,  but  did  not  come 
up  to  the  degree  of  a  total  apostasy ;  for  the  history  of  the 
revolt  of  the  ten  tribes  introduces  Jeroboam  speaking  not  like 
a  person  whose  intention  was  to  make  the  people  change  their 
religion,  but  as  representing  to  them  that  the  true  God,  being 
every  where,  was  not  confined  to  any  certain  place,  and, 
therefore,  they  might  pay  their  devotions  to  him  as  well  in 
Dan  and  Bethel  as  at  Jerusalem. 

The  worship  offered  before  these  image.s  is  supposed  to 
have  been  in  imitation  of  the  ceremonies  of  the  Mosaic  Ijikv. 

As  most  of  the  priests  of  the  family  of  Aaron,  and  the 
Levites  who  had  tneir  cities  and  abodes  among  the  ten  re- 
volted tribes,  retired  into  the  dominions  of  the  king  of  Judah, 
to  avoid  joining  in  the  schism,  which  proved  a  great  addi- 
tional strength  to  the  house  of  David  ;  Jeroboam  seized  their 
cities  and  estates,  and  he  eased  the  people  of  paying  tlK»ir 
tithes,  there  being  none  to  demand  them ;  so  he  gratified 
them  by  making  priests  out  of  every  tribe  and  family,  even 
in  the  extreme  part  of  the  country.  The  pontificate  and 
supremacy  over  this  schismatical  priesthood  he  reserved  in 
his  own  hands.  These  idols  were  at  length  destroyed  by 
the  kings  of  Assyria;  the  calf  in  Bethel  was  carried  to 
Babylon,  with  other  spoils,  bv  Shalmaneser,  and  the  other  in 
Dan  was  seized  by  '1  iglath-Pileser,  about  ten  years  before, 
in  the  invasion  which  he  made  upon  Galilee,  in  which  pro- 
vince the  city  stood. 

3.  The  Brazen  Serpent  was  an  image  of  polished  brass, 
in  the  form  of  one  of  those  fiery  serpents  (or  serpents  whose 
bite  was  attrnded  with  violent  inflammation)  which  were 
sent  to  chastise  the  murmuring  Israelites  in  tlie  wilderness. 
By  divine  command  Moses  made  a  serpent  of  brass,  or  copper, 
and  put  it  upon  a  pole ;  and  it  came  to  pass  that  if  a  serpent 
had  bitten  any  man,  when  he  beheld  the  serpent  vf  brass,  he 
livid.  (Num.  xxi.  G — 9.)  This  brazen  serpent  was  preserved 
as  a  monument  of  the  divine  mercy,  but  in  process  of  time 
became  an  instrument  of  idolatry.  When  tiiis  superstition 
began,  it  is  difficult  to  determine ;  but  the  best  account  is 
given  by  the  Jewish  rabbi,  David  Kimchi,  in  the  following 
manner.  From  the  time  that  the  kin^s  of  Israel  did  evil, 
and  the  children  of  Israel  followed  idolatry,  till  the  reign  of 
Hezekiah,  they  offered  incense  to  it ;  for,  it  bein^  vvritten  in 
the  Jaw  of  Moses,  whoever  laoketh  upon  it  shall  live,  they 
fancied  they  might  obtain  bh  ssings  by  its  mediation,  and, 
therefore,  thought  it  worthy  to  be  worshipped.  It  had  been 
kept  from  the  days  of  Moses,  in  memory  of  a  miracle,  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  pot  of  manna  was  :  and  Asa  and 
Jehoshaphat  did  not  extirpate  it  when  they  rooted  out  idola- 
try, becau.so  in  their  reign  they  did  not  observe  that  the 
people  worshijjped  this  serpent,  or  burnt  incense  to  it;  and, 
therefore,  they  h-ft  it  as  a  memorial.  But  He/.rkiah  thought 
lit  to  take  it  quite  away,  when  he  abolished  other  idolatry, 
because  in  the  time  01*^1118  f.ither  they  adored  it  as  an  idol; 
and  though  pious  people  among  them  accounted  it  only  as  a 
memorial  of  a  wcndcrful  work,  yet  he  judged  it  better  to 
abolish  it,  though  the  memory  of  thr  miracle  should  happen 
to  be  lost,  than  suffer  it  to  remain,  and  leave  the  Israelites  in 
danger  of  committing  idolatr)'  hereafter  with  it. 

On  the  subji'Ctof  th(!  serpi  iit-bitteii  Isruelitrs  bping  healed 
by  looking  at  the  brazen  serpent,  there  is  a  good  comment  in 
the  book  of  Wisdom,  chap.  xvi.  ver.  4 — 12.  in  which  are 
these  remarkable  words  : — ''They  were  admonished,  having 
a  sign  of  salvation  (/.  e.  the  bra/.en  serpent)  to  jnit  them  in 
remembrance  of  the  coinmantlmeiit.s  of  thy  law.  For  he  that 
turned  himself  towards  it,  was  not  saveil  by  the  thing  that 
he  saw,  but  l)y  thee  that  art  the  saviour  of  all."  (ver.  0,  7.) 
To  the  circumstance  of  looking  at  the  brazen  serpent  in 
order  to  be  healed,  our  Lord  refers  (John  iii.  U,  15.),  -^i 
MotM  lifted  up  the  nerpenl  in  the  witdaness,  even  so  viu^l  the 
Son  of  man  be  liflid  up  J  hat  who.'ncver  bilirvclh  in  him,  should 
not  piri.sh.  l/ut  have  eternal  life:  from  which  words  we  may 
learn,  1.  That  as  the  serpent  wa.s  lifKvl  wy  on  the  pole  or 
ensign  ,-  fo  Jesus  Christ  was  lilted  up  on  the  cross.  2.  That 
ns  the  Israelites  wore  to  look  at  the  brazen  serpent;  so  sin- 
ners must  look  to  Christ  for  salvation.     3.  That  as  God  pro- 


Sect.  I.] 


ON  THE  IDOLATRY  OF  THE  JEWS. 


137 


vided  no  other  remedj-  than  this  looking,  for  the  wounded 
Israelites ;  so  he  has  provided  no  other  way  of  salvation  than 
faith  in  the  blood  of  his  Son.  4.  That  as  he  who  looked  at 
the  brazen  serpent  was  cured  and  did  live ,-  so  he  that  believeth 
on  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  shall  not  perish,  but  ha.ve  eternal 
life.  5.  That  as  neither  the  serpeiit,  nor  looking  at  it,  but  tlie 
invisible  power  of  God,  healed  the  people ;  so  neither  the 
cross  of  Ciirist,  nor  his  merely  being  cruojicd,  but  the  pardon 
he  has  bought  by  his  blood,  communicated  by  the  poweifid 
energy  of  his  Spirit,  saves  the  souls  of  men.  May  not  all 
these  thinors  be  plainly  seen  in  the  circumstances  of  this  trans- 
action, witiiout  making  the  serpent  a  type  of  Jesus  Christ 
(the  most  exceptionable  that  could  possibly  be  chosen),  and 
running  the  parallel,  as  some  have  done,  through  ten  or  a 
dozea  of  particulars'?' 

4.  In  .ludg.  viii.  24 — 27.  we  read  that  Gideon  made  an 
Ephod  of  gold  from  the  spoils  of  the  Midianites.  This 
ephod  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  rich  sacerdotal  garment, 
made  in  imitation  of  that  worn  by  the  high-priest  at  Shiloh. 
But  whether  Gideon  meant  it  as  a  commemorative  trophjs  or 
had  a  Levitical  priest  in  his  house,  it  is  difficult  to  determine. 
It  became,  however,  a  snare  to  all  Israel,  who  dwelt  in  Gilead, 
and  on  the  eastern  side  of  Jordan;  who  thus  having  an  ephod 
and  worship  in  their  own  countr}^  would  not  so  readily  go 
over  to  the  tabernacle  at  Shiloh,  and,  consef|uently,  fell  into 
idolatry,  and  worshipped  the  idols  of  their  neighbours  the 
Piioenicians.    (Judg.  viii.  27.  33.) 

5.  The  Teraphim,  it  appears  from  1  Sam.  xix.  13.,  were 
carved  images  in  a  human  form,  and  household  deities,  like 
the  pennies  and  lares  of  the  Romans  many  centuries  after- 
wards (Gen.  xxxi.  19.  34,  35.  1  Sam.  xix.  13 — 17.),  of  which 
oracular  inquiries  were  made.  (Judg.  xvii.  5.  xviii.  5,  6.  14 
— 20.  Zech.  X.  2.  Hos.  iii.  4.)  This  is  confirmed  by  1  Sam. 
XV.  23.  (marginal  rendering),  where  the  worship  of  teraphim 
is  mentioned  in  conjunction  with  divination.  They  appccr 
to  have  been  introduced  among  the  Israelites  from  Mesopo- 
tamia ;  and  continued  to  be  worshipped  until  the  Babylonish 
captivity. 

6.  The  Jews  were  accused  by  the  pagans  of  worshipping 
the  Head  of  an  Ass  ;  but  from  this  calumny  they  have  been 
completely  vindicated  by  M.  Schumacher.^  "Apion,  the 
grammarian,  seems  to  be  the  author  of  this  slander.  He 
affirmed  that  the  Jews  kept  the  head  of  an  ass  in  the  sanc- 
tuary; that  it  was  discovered  tlVere  when  Antiochus  Epi- 
phanes  took  the  temple  and  entered  into  the  most  holy  place. 
He  aded,  that  one  Zabidus,  having  secretly  got  into  the  tem- 

gle,  carried  off  the  ass's  head,  and  conveyed  it  to  Dora, 
uidas^  says,  that  Damocrilus  or  Democritus  the  historian 
averred  that  the  Jews  adored  the  head  of  an  ass,  made  of 
gold,  &c.  Plutarch  and  Tacitus  were  imposed  on  by  this 
calumnj^  They  believed  that  the  Hebrews  adored  an  ass, 
out  of  gratitude  for  the  discovery  of  a  fountain  by  one  of 
these  creatures  in  the  wilderness,  at  a  time  when  the  army 
of  this  nation  was  parched  with  thirst  and  extremely  fatigued. 
Learned  men  who  have  endeavoured  to  search  into  the  origin 
of  this  slander  are  divided  in  their  opinions.  The  reason 
which  Plutarch  and  Tacitus  gave  for  it  has  nothing  in  the 
history  of  the  Jews  on  which  to  ground  it.  Tanaquil  Faber 
has  attempted  to  prove  that  this  accusation  proceeded  from 
the  temple  in  Egypt  called  Onion,-  as  if  this  name  came  from 
onos,  an  ass  ;  which  is,  indeed,  very  credible.  The  report  of 
the  Jews  worshipping  an  ass  might  originate  in  Egypt.  We 
know  that  the  Alexandrians  hated  the  Jews,  and  were  much 
addicted  to  raillery  and  defamation.  But  it  was  extremely 
easy  for  them  to  have  known  that  the  temple  Onion,  at  Heli- 
opolis,  was  named  from  Onias,  the  high-priest  of  the  Jews, 
who  built  it  in  the  reign  of  Ptolemy  Philometer  and  Cleopatra. 
Others  have  asserted  that  the  mistake  of  the  heathen  pro- 
ceeded from  an  ambiguous  mode  of  reading  ;  as  if  the  Greeks, 
meaning  to  say  that  the  Hebrews  adored  heaven,  clpuvov,  might 
in  abbreviation  write  oivav;  whence  the  enemies  of  the  Jews 
concluded  that  they  worshipped  he;,  an  ass.  Or,  perhaps, 
reading  in  Latin  authors  that  they  worshipped  heaven,  ccelum. 

'Nil  praeter  nubes  et  coeli  numen  adorant,' 

instead  of  caelum,  they  read  cillum,  an  ass,  and  so  reported 
that  the  Jews  adored  this  animal.  Bochart  is  of  opinion 
that  the  error  arose  from  an  expression  in  Scripture,  '  the 

•  Dr.  A.  Clarke  on  Num.  xxi.  9.  Sec  also  a  pleasing  and  instructive  con - 
tempUdion  of  Bishop  Hall  on  tliis  subject. 

»  De  Cultu  Animaliuui  inter  J^^^yptios  at  Juda?os  Commentatio,  ex  re- 
I  "ndlta  antiquitatc  illustrala  a  M.  Joliaon.  Ileinr.  Schuinacher.  sect  Tiii. 

sag.   (Brunsvigiis,  1773.  4to.) 

3  In  Dainocrito  cl  in  Juda. 

Vol.  II  S 


mouth  of  the  Lord  hath  spoken  it ;'  in  the  Hebrew,  Pi-Jeho- 
vah, or  Pi-Jeo.  Now,  in  the  Egyptian  lano^uage,  pico  signifies 
an  ass;  the  Alexandrian  Egj'ptians  hearing  the  Jews  often 
pronounce  this  word  pico,  believed  that  tliey  appealed  to 
their  God,  and  thence  inferred  that  they  adored  an  ass. 
These  explications  are  ingenious,  but  not  solid.  It  is  doubt- 
ful whether  any  one  can  assign  the  true  reason  for  the  calumny ; 
■Avhich  might  have  arisen  from  a  joke,  or  an  accident.  M. 
Le  Moine'  seems  to  have  succeeded  best,  who  says  that  in 
all  probability  the  golden  urn  containing  the  manna  which 
was  preserved  in  the  sanctuary  ^yas  taken  for  the  head  of  an 
ass  ;  and  that  the  omer  of  manna  might  have  been  confounded 
with  the  Hebrew  hamm;  which  signifies  an  sss."'' 

III.  InoL  Gods  of  the  Ammonites,  worshipped  by  the 
Children  of  Israel. 

Moloch,  also  cr.lled  Molech,  IMilccm,  or  Melccm,  was  the 
principal  idol  of  the  Ammonites  (1  Kings  xi.  7.),  yet  not  so 
appropriated  to  them,  but  that  it  was  adopted  by  other  neigh- 
iDouring  nations  for  their  god.  Some  writers  have  supposed 
that  Moloch  was  the  same  as  Saturn,  to  v;hom  it  is  well 
known  that  human  victims  were  offered.  But  he  rather  ap- 
pears to  have  been  Baal  or  the  Sun  (Jer.  xxxii.  35.),  and 
was  the  Adrammelech  and  Anammelech  of  the  Scpharvaites, 
who  burnt  their  children  to  them  in  the  fire.  There  is  great 
reason  to  think  that  the  Hebrews  were  addicted  to  the  wor- 
ship of  this  deity  before  their  departure  from  Egypt,  since 
both  the  prophet  Amos  (v.  26.)  and  the  protomartyr  Stephen 
(Acts  vii.  43.)  reproach  them  with  having  carried  the  taber- 
nacle of  their  god  Moloch  with  them  in  the  wilderness. 
Solomon  built  a  temple  to  Moloch  on  the  Mount  of  Olives 
(1  Kino-s  xi.  7.),  and  his  impiety  was  followed  by  other 
kings,  Sis  successors,  who  had  apostatized  from  the  worship 
of- Jehovah,  The  valley  of  Tophet  and  Hinnom,  on  the  east 
of  Jerusalem,  was  the  principal  scene  of  the  horrid  rites  per- 
formed in  honour  of  Moloch  (Jer.  xix.  5,  6.),  who  it  is  pro- 
bable was  the  same  as  the  Baal,  Bel,  or  Belus  of  the  Car- 
thaginians, Sidonians,  Babylonians,  and  Assyrians. 

IV.  Idol  Gods  of  the  Canaanites  or  Syrians,  worshipped 
BY  THE  Israelites. 

1.  Mr.  Selden,  in  his  elaborate  treatise  on  the  Syrian  gods,' 
mentions  a  goddess,  whom  he  terms  Good  Fortune,  as  the 
first  idol  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures,  and  worshipped  by  the 
Hebrews.  This  opinion  is  founded  on  the  exclamation  of 
Leah  (Gen.xxx.  11.),  when  her  handmaid  Zilpah  bore  a  son 
to  Jacob.  She  said,  I  am  prosperous  (or  as  some  in  the  pre- 
sent day,  who  ascribe  every  thing  to  chance,  would  say — 
Good  luck  to  me')  ,-  and  she  called  his  name  Gad,  that  is,  pros- 
perity. Although  this  interpretation  has  been  que.stioned, 
yet  in  Isa.  Ixv.  11.  Gad  is  unquestionably  joined  with  Meni 
(or  the  Moon),  and  both  are  names  of  idols,  where  the  pro- 
phet saj's  — 

Ye  ....  have  deserted  Jehovah, 

And  have  forgotten  my  holy  mountain  ; 

Who  set  in  order  a  table  for  Gad, 

And  fill  out  a  hbation  to  Meni.  Bp.  Lowth's  Version. 

Vv'hat  these  objects  of  idolatrous  worship  were,  it  is  now 
impossible  exactly  to  ascertain :  it  is  probable  that  the  latter 
was  an  Egyptian  deity.  Jerome,  as  cited  by  bishop  Lowth, 
gives  an  account  of  the  idolatrous  practice  of  the  apostate 
Jews,  which  is  alluded  to  by  the  prophet  of  making  a  feast, 
or  a  lectistemiuni,  as  the  Romans  called  it,  for  these  pre- 
tended deities.  "  It  is,"  he  says,  "  an  ancient  idolatrous  cus- 
tom in  every  city  in  Egypt,  and  especially  in  Alexandria, 
that  on  the  last  day  of  the  last  month  in  the  year  they  set 
out  a  table  with  various  kinds  of  dishes,  and  with  a  cup  filled 
with  a  mixture  of  water,  wine,  and  honey,  indicating  the 
fertility  of  the  past  or  future  year.  This  also  the  Israelites 
did."5 

2.  Ahad  ot  Achad  is  the  name  of  a  Syrian  deity,  under 
which  the  sun  was  worshipped  :  it  is  mentioned  in  Isa.  Ixvi 
17.  where  the  rites  of  this  god  are  described : — 

They  who  sanctify  themselves,  and  purify  themselves 
In  the  gardens,  after  the  rites  of  Achad  ; 
In  the  midst  of  those  who  eat  swine's  flesh, 
And  the  abomination,  and  the  field  mouse ; 
Together  shall  they  perish,  saith  Jehovah. 

Bp.  Lowth'9  Version. 

3.  Baal-peor  (Num.  xxv.  1 — 5.)  was  a  deity  of  the 
Moabites  and  Midianites,  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  the 
Priapus  of  the  Romans,  and  worshipped  with  similar  ob- 

*  Dr.  Harris's  Nat.  Hist,  of  the  Bible,  pp.  24,  25.  (American  edit.)  or  pp. 
22,  23.  of  the  London  reprint. 

'  De  Diis  Syris,  Syntag.  i.  c.  1.  (Works,  vol.  ii.  pp.  255,  236  ) 
6  Bp.  Lowtli's  Isaiah,  vol.  ii.  p.  375. 


138 


CORRUPTIONS  OF  RELIGION  AMONG  THE  JEWS. 


[Part  III.  Cuap.  VI. 


scene  rite"?.  (Compare  Hos.  ix.  10.)  Seldcn  imagined  that 
this  idol  was  the  same  with  Pluto,  irom  Psal.  cvi.  28.  They 
joined  themselves  unto  Baal-peor,  and  ate  the  sacrifices  of  the 
dead.  But  this  may  mean  nothincr  more  than  the  sacrifices 
and  offerings  made  to  idols,  who  are  properly  termed  dead, 
in  opposition  to  the  true  God,  the  Creator  ana  Preserver  of 
all  tilings,  who  is  in  the  Scriptures  repeatedly  and  emphati- 
cally termed  the  living  God,  Ciiemosh,  tJit  abomination  of 
Moab,  to  whom  Solomon  erected  an  altar  on  the  Mount  of 
Olives  (1  Kings  xi.  7.),  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  same 
deity  as  Baal-peor.  Servants  are  known  by  the  name  of 
their  lord.  As  the  Israelites  were  called  by  the  name  of  the 
true  God  (2  Chron.  vii.  It.),  so  the  Moabites  are  called 
(Num.  xxi.  29.)  by  the  name  of  their  god,  the  j)cop leaf  Che- 
niosh;  and  other  "idolatrous  nations  were  designated  in  a 
similar  manner.    (See  Mic.  iv.  5.) 

4.  Ri.MMoN  was  an  idol  of  the  Syrians,  but  not  worship- 
ped by  the  Israelitps :  it  is  mentioned  in  2  Kings  v.  8.  and 
IS  supposed  to  have  been  the  same  as  the  Jupiter  of  the 
ancients. 

5.  ASHTAUOTU  or  AsTARTE  (Judp;.  ii.  13.  1  Sam.  xxxi.  10. 
2  Kings  xxiii.  13.)  is  generally  understood  to  have  been  the 
moonT  though  in  later  times  this  idol  became  identified 
with  the  Syrian  Venus,  and  was  worshipped  with  impure 
rites.  Astarte  is  still  worshipped  by  the  Druses  of  ISlount 
Libanus.' 

V.  Phceniciax  Idols  worshipped  by  the  Israelites. 

1.  None  of  the  heathen  deities,  mentioned  in  the  Old 
Testament,  is  more  celebrated  than  Baal. 

The  word  signifies  lord,  master,  and  husband  ;  a  name 
•which,  doubtless,  was  given  to  their  supreme  deity,  to  him 
whom  they  regarded  as  the  master  of  men  and  gods,  and  of 
the  whole  of  nature.  Tiiis  name  had  its  original  from  Phte- 
nicia,  Baal  being  a  god  of  the  Phcenicians  :  and  Jezebel, 
daugliter  of  Etliijaal  king  of  tlif;  Zidonians,  brought  this 
deity  from  tlie  city  of  Zidon  ;  for  he  was  the  god  of  Tyre 
and'Sidon,  and  was  certainly  the  Zsjc  of  the  Greeks,  and  the 
Jupiter  of  the  Latins.  This  god  was  known  under  the  same 
name  all  over  Asia  :  it  is  the  same  as  the  Bel  of  the  Bal)y- 
lonians  ;  and  the  same  name  and  the  same  god  went  to  the 
Cartha<rinians,  who  were  a  colony  of  the  Phcenicians  :2  wit- 
ness the  name  of  Hannibal,  Asdrubal,  Adherbal,  all  con- 
siriting  of  Bel  or  Baal,  being  the  name  of  the  deity  of  that 
country,  which  was  according  to  the  custom  of  tlie  East, 
where  the  kings,  and  great  men  of  the  realm,  added  to  their 
own  names  those  of  their  gods.  In  short,  it  seems  to  be  a 
name  common  to  all  idols,  to  whatever  country  they  belonged  ; 
and  when  it  is  mentioned  in  the  Holy  Writings  without  any 
explanatory  circumstance  annexed,  it  is  usually  understood 
to  be  the  principal  deity  of  that  nation  or  place  of  which  the 
sacred  writer  was  speaking. 

This  false  deity  is  frequently  mentioned  in  Scripture  in 
the  plural  number,  Baalim  (I  Sam.  vii.  1.),  which  may  either 
signify  that  the  name  of  Baal  was  given  to  many  diflerent 
gods,  or  may  imply  a  plurality  of  statues  consecrated  to  that 
idol,  and  bearing  several  appellations,  according  to  the  dif- 
ference of  places :  just  as  the  ancient  heathens  gave  many 
surnames  to  Jupiter,  as  Olympian,  Dodontean,  and  others, 
according  to  the  names  of  the  places  where  he  was  wor- 
shipped. 

The  false  gods  of  Palestine  and  the  nei'ihbouring  nations 
were  called  Baal  in  general ;  but  there  were  othLT  Baals 
whose  name  was  compounded  of  some  additional  word,  such 
as  Baal-peor,  Baalberitli,  Baalzebub,  and  Baalzeplion.  The 
first  of  these  has  already  been  noticed  in  the  preceding 
page. 

2.  Baalberith  was  the  idol  of  the  Shechomites  (Judg. 
viii.  33.);  and  the  temple  of  this  deity  was  their  arsenal  and 
public  treasury.  As  tiie  Hebrew  word  Berith  signifies  a 
covenant  or  contract,  tliis  god  is  supposed  to  have  had  his 
appellation  from  his  office,  which  was  to  preside  over  cove- 
nants, contracts,  and  oaths.  In  like  inaniu-r,  the  Greeks  had 
thcii  7tuc  Opuic;  and  the  Romans,  their  lini.t  Fidius. 

3.  Baalzkbub  or  Bki.zebub  was  the  god  of  the  Ekronites 
(2  Kings  i.  3.),  but  the  origin  of  the  name  (whicb  in  Helirew 
denotes  the  t:od  nfjlies)  it  is  difficult  to  asceruin.  As  the 
vicinity  of  this  country  was  long  after  inftslcd  with  minute 

»  T>r.  Clarkp'B  Travr-li,  vol.  v.  pp.  Xi.  4^1— IW. 

»  May  i(  not  be  prcHuiiird  ttinl  the  aiirit'iil  iiiliabitants  of  Ireland  wore  a 
PhOMilcian  colorfy,  from  the  apjjroprialion  of  the  round  towers,  found  in 
that  Iflnnd,  to  the  preservation  of  Itie  BnnlThinnf.,  or  Bacred  fire,  of 
Baal  ^  On  this  siiliject.  tlie  fiiriluT  prnscciilion  of  wtiicli  in  foreiifn  to  ilio 
I  Ini  of  tlie  present  work,  iiiurli  ciirioiiK  and  nnlii|Uarian  inlnrination  ia  rol- 
lertcd  in  the  nolee  to  "The  Druid,"  a  Dramatic  Puciu,  by  Tliutnas C'roui- 
well.    London,  1S32,  8to. 


flies  that  stung  severely  all  on  whom  they  settled,  it  i.s  not 
improbable  that  Ekron  was  infested  In  a  similar  manner, 
and  that  its  inhabitants  had  a  deity  whom  ihev  supplicated 
for  the  prevention  or  removal  of  this  plague.-  ^Fhe  .lews,  in 
the  time  of  Christ,  called  the  prince  of  the  devils  by  the  naiKe 
of  Beelzebub.    (Matt.  xii.  21.  Luke  xi.  15.) 

4.  Baalzepho.n  is  smiposed  to  have  been  an  idol,  erected 
to  ^uard  the  confines  of  the  Red  Sea,  and  also  the  name  of 
a  place,  where  a  temple  was  erected  for  the  use  of  mariners 

5.  Dagon,  the  tutelary  deity  of  the  people  of  Asluiod  oi 
Azotus,  was  the  Derceto  of  the  heathens.  Its  name  signifies 
a  fish;  and  its  figure  is  said  to  have  been  that  of  a  man  from 
the  navel  upwards,  and  that  of  a  fish  downwards.  It  is  not 
improbable  that  this  idol  was  commemorative  of  the  preserva- 
tion of  Noah  in  the  ark. 


the 


6.  Tamml'z  or  Tha.mmlz,  though  an  Egj'ptian  deity,  is 
e  same  as  the  Adonis  of  the  Phcenicians  and  Syrian.s.-  For 


this  idol  the  Jewish  women  are  said  to  have  sat  we^^ping 
before  tlie  north  gate  of  the  temple,  f  Ezek.  viii.  II.)  Iau"ian° 
has  given  an  account  of  the  rites  oi  this  deity,  which  illus- 
trates the  allusion  of  the  prophet.  "I  saw,"  says  he,  "at 
Biblis,  the  great  temple  of  Venus,  in  which  are  annually 
celebrated  the  mysteries  of  Ad  ouis  in  which  I  am  initiated  ; 
for  it  is  said,  that  he  was  killed  in  the  country  by  a  wild 
boar,  and  in  perpetual  remembrance  of  this  event,  a  ])ublic 
mourning  is  solemnized  every  year  with  dolei'ul  Ip.menta- 
tions:  then  follows  a  funeral  as  of  a  dead  body,  and  next 
day  is  celebrated  his  resurrection,  for  it  is  said,  he  Hew  up 
into  heaven:  one  of  the  ceremonies  is  for  women  to  hp'6 
their  heads  shaved  in  the  same  manner  as  the  Egypt<'^;^6  at 
the  death  of  Apis.  Those  who  refuse  to  be  shaved  are 
obliged  to  prostitute  themselves  a  whole  day  to  strangers, 
and  the  money  which  they  thus  acquire  is  consecrated  to  the 
goddess.  But  some  of  the  Biblians  say,  that  all  those  cere- 
monies are  observed  for  Osiris,  and  that  he  is  buried  in  their 
country,  not  in  Egypt.  In  order  to  which  there  comes  yearly 
a  head  made  of  ])apyrus,  brought  by  sra,  from  Egypt  to 
Biblis,  and  I  myself  have  seen  it."  Piocopius,  in  his  com- 
mentarj'  on  Isaiah,  move  particularly  explains  this  rite,  and 
observes  that  the  inhabitants  of  Alexandri  i  annually  prepare 
a  pot  in  which  they  put  a  letter  directed  to  the  women  of 
Biblis,  by  which  they  are  informed  that  Adonis  is  found 
again.  This  pot  being  sealed  up,  they  commit  it  to  the  sea, 
after  performing  some  ceremonies  over  it,  and  command  it  to 
depart;  accordingly,  the  vessel  immediately  steers  its  course 
to  Biblis,  where  it  puts  an  end  to  the  women's  mourning. 

This  Syrian  Venus  had  a  temple  upon  the  top  of  a  moun- 
tain, which  was  built  out  of  the  way  in  a  by-place,  in  the 
midst  of  a  wood  ;  it  was  demolished  by  the  emperor  Con- 
stantine,*  who  put  an  end  to  all  the  filthy  ceremonies  which 
had  been  performed  in  it.  The  image  of  this  goddess,  ac- 
cording to  Macrobius,''  represented  a  woman  in  mourning 
covered  with  a  veil,  having  a  dejected  countenance,  and  tears 
seeming  to  run  down  her  face. 

7.  Tlie  Baithylia  or  Consecrated  Sotnes,  adored  by  the 
early  Phcenicians,  are  supposed  to  have  been  the  nio.st  ancient 
objects  of  idolatrous  worshi]) ;  and,  probably,  were  after- 
wards formed  into  beautit'ul  statues,  when  the  art  of  sculp- 
ture became  tolerably  perfected.  They  original  d  in  Jacob  s 
setting  up  and  anointing  with  oil  the  stone  wbicii  he  had 
used  for  a  pillow,  as  a  memorial  of  the  heavenly  vision  with 
which  he  had  been  favoured  (Gen.  xxviii.  IH.),  and  also  to 
serve  as  a  token  to  point  out  to  him  the  place  when  God 
should  bring  him  back  again."  The  iilolatrous  unction  of 
stones,  consecrating  them  to  the  memory  of  great  men,  and 
worsiiipping  them  after  their  deatii,  must  have  prevailed  to  a 
great  ext(  nt  in  the  time  of  .Most  s,  who  therefore  prohibited 
the  Israelites  from  erecting  them.  (Lev.  x.wi.  1.)  'llie 
jiractice  of  setting  up  stones  as  a  guide  to  travellers  still 
exists  in  Persia  and  other  parts  of  the  East." 

'  See  Ilarincr's  Oli.scrvalinns,  vol.  iii  pp.  S'^— n25. 

«  In  his  treatise  De  I)ed  Syria.     Op.  loin.  ix.  pii.  89—91.  edit  BiponC 

•  Kiisebiiisdc  Laiidibiis  Consiaiitini,  pp.  73(3,  i37.  edit.  Reading. 

«  Saturnalia,  lib.  i.  r.  21. 

'  Dr.  A.  t'larkc  on  fJeii.  x.xviil.  1.1. 

»  In  ihe  roui-Ke  of  Mr  Morier's  journey  in  the  Interior  of  (hat  country, 
lie  remarked  th.it  hiH  old  Biiide  "every  here  and  there  placed  a  stone  on  a 
con»pi'ii(iU(i  bit  of  rock,  or  two  sluiu-s  one  upon  the  oltiir.  at  ilie  -same 
tine  ulleririK  Home  word*  which"  (ijnva  Ibis  iiiirlli^cnt  traveller)  "  I  learnt 
were  a  prayi'r  for  our  safe  return.  'I'lils  explained  to  ine.  what  I  li.nl  fre- 
quently neeu  liefore  In  the  Kast,  and  particularly  on  a  hidli  road  IcaiJine  to 
n  great  town,  whence  the  town  isi  firi<:  seen,  and  where  the  eastoni  traveller 
upt«  up  his  stone,  accompanied  by  a  dcvou'  excliunaiion,  as  it  were,  in 
loken  of  his  .safe  arrival.  The  action  of  our  gui<le  appears  to  iMuBlialo  l)ie 
vow  which  Jaci'h  nude  when  he  ircvilled  to  I'nd.MU  .\rain.  (On.  xxvlil. 
13— 'AJ.)  In  sceins  a  stone  on  the  road  placed  Inthi.s  position,  or  one  atone 
upon  another,  it  linpllea  ihal  aoino  traTcllcr  has  Uiera  made  a  vow  or  a 


SXCT.  I.] 


ON  THE  IDOLATRY  OF  THE  JEWS. 


139 


VI.  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  Idols. 

1,2.  Bel  and  Kebo  are  Babylonian  dfities  mentioned  in 
Isa.  xlvi.  1.  Bel  (the  Belus  of  profane  historians')  was  most 
probably  a  contraction  of  Baal,  or  the  Sun.  Tlie  planet 
Mercury  has  the  name  of  Nebo  or  Nebu  among  the  Zabi- 
ans  :  it  is  found  also  in  the  composition  of  several  Chaldean 
names  of  persons,  as  Nebuchadnezzar,  Nebuzaradan,  &c.  &c.i 

3.  Meropach  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  Babylonish 
monarch,  who  was  deified  after  his  death. ^ 

4.  NisROCH  was  an  Assyrian  idol,  adored  by  Sennacherib. 
(2  Kings  xix.  37.  Isa.  xxxvii.  38.)  Perhaps  it  was  the  solar 
nre,  to  whose  anger  he  probably  attributed  the  destruction 
of  his  army  before  Jerusalem ;  and  whom  he  v>as  in  the  act 
of  adoring,  when  he  was  assassinated  by  his  sons.' 

VII.  Idols  worshipped  in  Samaria  during  the  Cap- 
tivity. 

The  deities  noticed  in  the  preceding  pages  are  the  chief 
idols  anciently  adorec^  in  Palestine ;  bat  there  were  other 
false  gods  worshipped  there,  v\-hich  were  imported  into 
Samaria,  after  Shalmaneser  had  carried  the  ten  tribes  into 
captivity,  by  the  colony  of  foreigners  which  he  sent  to 
occupy  "their  country.  These  men  brought  their  idols  with 
them.  The  men  of  Babylon  had  their  Succoth-benoth,  which 
was  the  Babylonish  Melitta,  in  honour  of  whom  young 
women  prostituted  themselves.  The  men  of  Cuth  or  Cutka 
brought  their  JVergal,  or  the  Sun :  it  was  represented  by  a 
cock,  which  animal  was  dedicated  to  Apollo,  or  the  Sun. 
The  men  of  Hamath  had  Jishima ;  a  deity  of  which  nothing 
certain  is  known.  The  rabbinical  writers  say,  that  it  was 
compounded  of  a  man  and  a  goat ;  consequently  it  answered 
to  the  Pan  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  mythology.  The  peo- 
ple of  Sepharvaim  brought  Adrammelech  and  Jlnammelech, 
already  noticed.  The  Avites  brought  Nlbhaz  and  Tartak, 
which  probably  are  two  different  names  of  the  sams  idol. 
As  Nibhaz  in  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  signifies  quick,  siviff, 
rapid;  and  Tartak  in  both  languages  denotes  a  chariot, 
these  two  idols  together  may  mean  the  sun  mounted  on 
his  car^ 

In  Lev.  xxvi.  1.  Moses  prohibits  the  Israelites  from  setting 
lip  any  Image  of  Stone,  literallv?  figured  stone,  or  stone  of 
a  picture,  in  their  land.  This  prohibition  was  directed  against 
the  hieroglyphic  figures  or  stones  of  the  Egyptians,  the 
meaning  of  which  was  known  only  to  the  priests.  With 
these  stones  idolatry  was  practised.  In  Egypt  they  were 
regarded  as  the  god  Tiioth  ,  the  god  of  sciences,  and  so  late 
as  the  time  of  Ezekiel  (viii.  8 — 11.)  we  find  an  imitation  of 
this  species  of  idolatry  common  among  the  Jews.  Accord- 
ing, therefore,  to  that  fundamental  principle  of  the  INIo- 
saic  policy,  which  dictated  the  prevention  of  idolatry,  it 
became  absolutely  necessary  to  prohibit  stones  with  hiero- 
glyphic inscriptions.  Besides,  in  an  age  when  so  great  a 
propensity  to  idolatry  prevailed,  stones  with  figures  upon 
them  which  the  people  could  not  understand,  would  have 
been  a  temptation  to  idolatry,  even  though  they  had  not  been 
deified  (as  we  know  they  actually  were)  by  the  Egyptians. ' 
The  walls  of  the  ancient  temples,  particularly  that  of  Ten- 
tyra,  and  also  the  tombs  of  the  kings  in  Egypt,  are  covered 
with  such  hieroglyphics ;  which  it  is  impossible  to  see  alid 
not  be  struck  with  the  necessity  of  the  injunction  contained 
in  Deut.  iv.  15—20.'' 

VIII.  The  idols  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament  are,  doubt- 
less, known  to  every  classical  reader.  It  will,  therefore, 
suffice  briefly  to  state  here,  that  Jupiter  was  the  supreme 
deity,  or  father  of  the  gods,  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans ; 
Mercury  was  the  god  of  eloquence,  and  the  messenger  of 
the  other  deities.  The  inhaoitants  of  Lystra,  in  Lycaonia, 
struck  with  the  miracle  which  had  been  wrought  bv  St.  Paul, 
considered  him  as  Mercury,  from  his  eloquence,  andi  Barnabas 
as  Jupiter,  probably  from  his  being  the  more  majestic  person  of 
the  two,  and  conseqiuently,  answering  to  the  prevalent  notions 
which  they  had  iinbibed  from  statues  concerning  him.  The 
Diana  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  was  worshipped  with 
most  solemnity  at  Ephesus,  where  she  is  said  to  have  been 

thanksgivin?.  Nolhin?  is  so  natural  in  a  joui'ney  over  a  dreary  country, 
as  for  a  solitary  traveller  to  sit  down,  fatigued,  and  to  make  tlie  vovy  that 
Jacob  did: — If  God  will  be  with  me,  and  keep  me  in  the  way  that  I  go, 
and  will  give  me  bread  to  eat  and  raimeiit  to  ptit  on,  so  that  I  reach  my 
father's  honse  in  peace,  <fcc.  then  I  will  give  so  much  in  charity  : — or,  again, 
that  on  first  seeing  the  place  which  he  lias  so  long  toiled  to  reach,  the 
traveller  should  sit  down  and  make  a  thanksgiving ;  in  both  cases  setting 
up  a  stone  as  a  memorial."    Morier's  Second  Journey,  p.  &4. 

«  Gesenius's  Hebrew  Lexicon,  by  Gibbs,  p.  85.  col.  2.  p.  407.  col.  2. 

a  W^.  Lowth,  on  Jer.  1.  2. 

»  Brown's  Antiq.  of  the  Jews,  vol.  ii.  p.  32. 

•*  Michaelis's  Commentaries,  vol.  iv.  pp.54 — 59. 
Jowett's  Christian  Researches  in  the  Mediterranean,  pp.  132. 134. 


represented  as  a  woman,  whose  upper  part  was  hung  round 
with  breasts,  eniblematic  of  the  prolific  powers  of  nature. 
Her  image  is  said  to  have  fallen  down  trom  Jupiter  (Acts 
xix.  35.);  whence  some  expositors  have  conjectured  that  it 
was  an  aerolite  or  atmospheric  stone.  But  Pliny  describes  the 
image  as  having  been  made  by  one  Caneti  as  from  the  wood 
of  the  vine.°  This  notion  of  certain  statues  having  descended 
on  earth  from  the  clouds  to  represent  particular  divinities, 
and  to  inspire  devotion  in  their  temples,  was  very  common 
in  the  heathen  world.  The  palladium  at  Troy,  and  the  statue 
of  Minerva  at  Athens,  like  this  of  the  Ephesian  Diana,  are 
said  to  have  dropped  from  the  skies.  The  avarice  of  priests 
forged  these  stories  to  dupe  and  fleece  a  blind  and  bigoted 
people.  The  same  ridiculous  tale  the  Romans  were  taught 
to  believe  concerning  their  Ancilia  or  sacred  shields,  which 
their  history  represents  to  have  fallen  from  heaven  in  the 
reign  of  Numa  Pompilius." 

The  Romans,  also,  it  is  well  known,  worshipped  the  vir- 
tues and  affections  of  the-^nind,  as  Justice,  Fidelity,  or  Good 
Faith,  Hope,  Fortune,  Fame,  &c.;  and  the  same  superstition 
prevailed  among  the  inhabitants  of  Malta,  on  which  island 
Paul  was  shipwrecked.  When  they  saw  a  venomous  serpent 
fasten  on  the  hand  of  Paul,  they  concluded  that  he  was  a 
murderer,  whom  vengeance — more  correctly  the  goddess  A;x>i 
{Diki  or  Vindictive  Justice) — had  not  permitted  to  live.  (Acts 
xxviii.  4.)  We  learn  from  the  mythological  poet  Hesiod,  that 
the  Greeks  had  a  female  deity  of  this  name.s  Naj^,  the 
superstition  of  the  Pagans  went  so  far  as  to  worship  the 
gods  and  goddesses  of  all  countries,  even  those  which  they 
knew  not.  Thus  there  was  at  Athens  an  altar  consecrated 
to  the  gods  and  goddesses  of  Europe,  Asia,  Libya,  and  to 
the  unknown  God ,-  which  gave  SL  Paul  occasion  to  deliver 
that  admirable  discourse  in  the  Areopagus,  which  is  related 
in  Acts  xvii.  23—31.'?'' 

IX.  Very  numerous  are  the  allusions  in  the  Sacred  Writ- 
ings to  the  idolatrous  rites  of  the  heathen,  and  to  their  per- 
suasions concerning  their  power  and  influence.  A  few  only 
of  these  can  be  here  noticed. 

1.  With  regard  to  the  opinions  which  were  entertained 
concerning  their  gods  : — 

(1.)  The  heathens  had  generally  a  notion,  that  all  deities 
were  local,  and  limited  to  a  certain  country  or  place,  and 
had  no  power  any  where  else,  but  in  that  country  or  place ;  and 
thus  we  read  in  2  Kings  xvii.  26.  that  the  colonists  sent  by 
the  king  of  Assyria  to  Samaria  in  place  of  the  Israelites  attri- 
buted their  being  plagued  with  lions  to  (heir  not  knowing 
the  manner  of  the  god  of  the  land.  In  conformity  with  this 
notion,  Jonah  (who  lived  in  the  midst  of  the  mixed  multi- 
tude of  Gentiles,  that  had  forced  themselves  into  the  district 
of  Galilee,  with  their  various  forms  of  worship)  seems  to  have 
considered  Jehovah  as  the  local  god  of  Juaaja;  and  in  ordei 
to  escape  from  his  presence,  /le  rose  tip  to  flee  unto  Tarshish, 
and  went  doimi  to  Joppa.  (Jonah  i.  3.)  So  also  in  1  Kings 
XX.  23.  it  is  said  that  the  servants  of  the  king  of  Syria  per* 
suaded  their  master,  that  the  gods  of  the  Israelites  were 
gods  of  the  hills ;  hearing,  perln.ps,  that  the  law  was  given 
on  Mount  Sinai,  that  the  temple  was  built  on  Mount  Sion, 
and  that  they  delighted  to  worship  on  high  places ;  and  there- 
fore they  imagined  that  they  would  have  the  advantage  by 
fighting  the  Israelites  in  the  plain.  It  is  not  unlikely  that 
such  of  the  Israelites  who  were  murmurers  in  the  v/ilder- 
ness  (being  those  among  them  who  were  most  tainted  with 
idolatry)  entertained  the  same  opinion,  and  believed  that 
God  was  a  local  deity  and  his  power  limited ;  for  in  this 
manner  it  is  that  the  Psalmist  represents  them  reasoning 
with  themselves, — Can  God  furnish  a  table  in  the  wilder- 
ness ?  Behold  he  smote  the  rock  that  the  waters  gushed  out,  and 
the  streams  overflowed,  but  can  he  give  bread  also  ?  Can  he  pro* 
vide  flesh  far  his  people?  (Psal.  xxviii.  19,  20.) 

(2.)  All  the  nations  of  antiquity,  especially  in  the  East, 
supposed  the  Deity  to  be  surrounded  by  light  so  dazzling  as 
to  overpower  all  mortal  vision.  This  mode  of  speaking  was, 
in  a  later  age,  transferred  to  the  divine  majesty  and  perfec- 
tions, as  being  utterly  incomprehensible  to  the  human  facul- 
ties. (Psal.  CIV.  1—3.  Ezek.  i.    1  Tim.  vi.  IG.)'" 

(3.)  "  Another  common  opinion  which  prevailed  among 
the  heathens,  was,  that  sometimes  the  immortal  gods,  dis- 
guised in  human  form,  deigned  to  visit  mortals,  and  con- 

«  Pliny,  Nat.  Hist.  lib.  xvi.  c.  40. 

'■  Harwood's  Introd.  vol.  ii.  p.  360.  See  also  Biscoe  on  the  Acts,  vol.  i 
p.  307.  and  Dr.  Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  vii.  pp.  21, 22. 

8  Opera  et  Dies,  v.  254—258. 

9  On  the  subject  of  this  altar,  see  vol.  i.  pp.  196, 197. 

>"  Robinson'sGr.  Lexicon  to  the  New  Test,  voce  A^r-poriro;.  Bloonifield'l 
Annotations  on  the  New  Test.  vol.  viii.  pp.  286,  287, 


140 


ALLUSIONS  TO  THE  IDOLATROUS  RITES 


[Part  HI.  Chap.  VI 


versed  wiili  them.  According  to  their  theology,  Jupiter  and 
Mercury  accompanied  each  other  on  these  expeditions.  Agree- 
ably to  this  notion,  which  universally  obtained  among  the 
Pagans,  we  find  that  the  Lycaonians,  when  they  saw  a  mi- 
racle performed  upon  a  helpless  cripple,  immediately  cried 
out  in  the  last  astonishment, — The  guds  are  come  down  unto 
us  in  the  likeness  of  men.'  (Acts  xiv.  11.)  Instantly  Paul 
and  Barnabas  were  metamorphosed,  by  their  imaginations, 
into  Jove  and  Mercury,  who,  according  to  their  creed,  were 
inseparable  companions  in  these  visits.  These  heathens  (as 
we  have  already  intimated)  recognised  Jupiter  in  Harnabas, 
because,  probably,  his  appearance  and  person  were  more 
specials  and  striking;  ana  Paul,  whose  bodily  presence  was 
weak,  but  whose  public  talents  and  rhetoric  were  distin- 
guished, they  persuaded  themselves  could  be  no  other  than 
RIercury,  the  eloquent  interpreter  of  the  gods."' 

f-4.)  Further,  when  persons  were  wrongfully  oppressed 
ana  aiflicted,  the  heathens  believed  that  the  gods  interfered 
in  their  behalf.  The  tokens  of  their  presence  were  earfh- 
fjuakes,  the  opening  of  dvors,  and  the  loosing  of  their  bunds.^ 
In  this  manner  God  bore  a  miraculous  testimony  of  his  ap- 
probation to  his  faithful  servants  Paul  and  Silas,  when  im- 
prisoned atPhilippi;  and  the  knowledge  of  this  fact  will 
account  for  the  extreme  fright  of  the  gaoler,  which  termi- 
nated so  happily  for  his  salvation,  (Acts  Kvi'.  25 — '2^.y 

2.  Although  the  priesthood  constifMteJ  a  distinct  class  cf 
persons  among  the  Jews,  yet  among  the  Romans,  and  it 
should  seem  also  among  the  Greeks,  they  did  not  form  a 
separate  order.  Among  the  Romans  they  were  chosen  from 
among  the  most  honourable  men  in  the  state.    In  the  eastern 

.  provinces  of  the  Roman  empire,  persons  were  annually 
selected  from  among  the  more  opulent  citizens  to  preside 
over  the  things  pertaming  to  religious  worship,  and  to  exhibit 
annual  games  at  their  own  expense  in  honour  of  the  gods,  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  aediles  did  at  Rome.  These  officers 
received  their  appellations  from  the  districts  to  which  they 
belonged,  as  Synarch  (^^upiuf.^>t(),  Phoeniciarch  (<l>c/iv)t/«f;^i)?), 
and  the  like :  of  course,  m  proconsular  Asia,  they  were  called 
Asiarchs  {Amgx*')'  Tbe  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus  was 
erected  at  the  common  expense  of  all  the  Grecian  cities  in 
Asia  Minor.  It  is  evident  from  Acts  xix.  .'il.  that  at  lliat 
very  time  they  were  solemnizing  games*  in  honour  of  Diana, 
who  was  one  of  the  great  celestial  deities  (the  dii  viajorum 
gentium  of  the  Romans),  and  who  was,  therefore,  called  the 
GREAT  GODDESS,  by  the  recorder  or  town-clerk  of  Ephesus. 
(Acts  xix.  35.)*  This  circumstance  will  account  for  St. 
Paul's  being  hurried  before  the  tribunal  of  the  Asiarchs. 

3.  We  learn  from  various  profane  authors  that  High  Places, 
or  eminences,  were  considered  to  be  the  abode  of  the  heathen 
deities,  or  at  least  as  the  most  proper  for  sacrificing;  and, 
therefore,  sacrifices  were  offered  either  on  the  summits  of 
mountains  or  in  woods.  Thus  it  was  the  custom  of  the 
ancient  Persians  to  go  up  to  the  tons  of  the  loftiest  mountains, 
and  there  to  offer. sacrifices  to  .Tupiter, — distinguishing  by 
that  appellation  the  whole  expanse  of  heaven.'^  Furtlier, 
as  most  of  these  sacrifices  were  accompanic  d  with  prostitu- 
tion, or  other  impure  rites,  they  seern  to  have  chosen  the 
most  retired  spots,  to  conceal  their  abominations.  On  this 
account,  and  also  to  obliterate  every  vestige  of,  or  temptation 
to,  idolatry,  the  Israelites  were  commanded  to  offer  sacrifices 
to  Jehovan,  only  and  exclusively  in  the  place  which  he  should 
appoint  (Dent.  xii.  14.);  and  were  also  prohibited  from 
sacrificing  in  high  places  (Lev.  xxvi.  30.),  and  from  placing 
a  grove  of  trecv  near  his  altar.  (Deut.  xvi.  21.)  'Wie  profli- 
gate Manasseh,  however,  utterly  disregarded  these  prohibi- 
tions, when  he  hnilt  up  again  the  high  placet,  and  reared 
up  altars  for  Boat,  and  made  a  grove.  (0  Kings  xxi.  3.)  Thus 
Isaiah  (Ivii.  4,  5.)  reproached  the  Israelites  with  the  like  pre- 
varication, when  he  said,  JIre  ye  not  children  of  transgression, 
a  seed  of  falsehood,  inflaming  yourselves  with  idols  under  ever  if 
green  tree,  slaying  the  children  in  the  valleys  under  the  clefts  of 
tlie  rodis?     And  Jeremiah  (iii.  C.)  reproaches  them  with 

»  Pr.  Ilarwoorl'g  Inlrod.  vol.  li.  p.  359. 

»  KUncr,  in  hiii  notes  on  Acta  x^i.  26.  has  shown,  by  a  scries  of  iiio.st 
ap|)o.-jiii'  (|iiolnlions,  lliat  each  <>(  Ihesr  Ihines  wan  accountrd  n  lok<-n  nf 
the  <livliii.'  appearand;  in  tn-lialf  of  \\\i>sr:  wlio  giilTiTcil  unjiislly,  ami  who 
wef  <li!ar  lo  ilir  g"(l«. — Ohnfrvnlioiics  SacriB,  vol.  i.  pp.  441 — 444. 

1  Biscoo  on  lln;  .\cn,  vol.  i  p.  313. 

«  UroliuH,  IlniniMuncI,  Poole'g  SynopsiK,  Wfislcln,  and  Doil.lriilcf  on 
Acts  xix.  31.  HiHCoe  on  the  Acts,  vol.  1.  pp.  303,  301.  Roblnaon'H  tircck 
L-'xicon,  voce  ATiM^-/,r;. 

•  Sec  Eisner's  Ohservationes  Sacrae,  vol.  I.  pp.  4C0,  461. 

•  Itrrndotiis,  lib.  i.  c.  131. 

1  III  .Sir  William  Ousilcy's  Travels  in  the  E.!-!  (vol.  I.  pp.  3,'CI-IOI.')  the 
ffader  will  finii  a  very  learned  and  very  InteresiinR  memoir  on  the  taered 
ivm  of  ihu  ancients,  which  iUusiratcH  many  impurlanl  passages  of  sacred 
writ. 


having  played  the  harlot,  that  is,  worshipped  idols  on  every 
high  mountain,  and  under  every  green  tree.  Nor  were  only 
mountains,  woods,  and  valleys  appointed  for  the  worship  oi 
false  gods ;  almost  every  thing  else,  among  the  Pagans,  uore 
the  marks  of  idolatry.  Herodotus^  says,  that  the  Phoeni- 
cians, who  were  the  greatest  seamen  in  the  world,  adorned 
the  heads  and  sterns  of  their  ships  with  the  images  of  their 
gods:  and  Luke  (Acts  xxviii.  11.)  has  observed,  that  the 
vessel  which  carried  St.  Paul  from  Malta  to  Syracuse  had 
the  sign  of  Castor  and  Pollux  ;  and  it  is  not  improbable,  that 
the  vessel  in  which  f]uropa  was  carried  away  had  the  sign 
of  a  bull,  which  gave  occasion  to  the  poets  to  say,  that  Jupi- 
ter carried  her  away  under  that  shape.^ 

4.  The  statues  of  the  deities  were  carried  in  procession, 
on  the  shoulders  of  their  votaries.  This  circumstance  is  dis- 
tinctly stated  by  Isaiah,  in  his  masterly  exposure  of  the 
insanity  of  idolatry,  (xlvi.  7.)  In  this  way  do  the  Hindoos 
at  present  carry  their  gods;  and,  indeed,  so  exact  a  picture 
has  the  prophet  drawn  of  the  idolatrous  processions  of  this 
people,  tnat  he  might  be  almost  supposed  to  be  sitting  among 
them,  when  he  delivered  his  prediction  to  the  Jevvs.''^  It  was 
also  customary  to  make  shrines  or  portable  models  of  the 
temples  of  those  deities  which  were  the  principal  objects  of 
worship,  and  to  place  a  small  image  therein,  when  tliey  tra- 
velled or  went  to  war,  as  also  for  their  private  devotions  at 
home.  From  the  celebrity  of  the  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephe- 
sus, it  is  but  natural  to  suppose,  that  there  would  be  a  great 
demand  for  models  of  it,  which  would  become  a  kind  ofsub- 
stitute  for  the  temple  itself,  to  such  of  her  votaries  as  lived 
in  distant  parts  of  Greece.  It  is  evident  from  Acts  xix.  24 
— 27.  that  the  manufacture  of  such  shrines  proved  a  source 
of  great  emolument  to  Demetrius,  and  the  artisans  employed 
by  nim,  who  might  naturally  expect  a  brisk  demand  for  their 
models,  from  the  vast  concourse  of  worshippers  who  were 
present  at  the  annual  solemnization  of  the  games  in  honour 
of  Diana :  which  demand  not  equalling  their  expectations, 
Demetrius  might  ascribe  his  loss  to  St.  Paul's  preaching 
against  idolatry,  as  the  apostle  had  now  (Acts  xix.  8.  10.) 
been  more  than  two  years  at  Ephesus  ;  so  that  all  they  which 
dwelt  in  Jlsia  heard  the  tvcn-d  of  the  Lord  Jf.sus,  both  Jews  and 
Greelcs.^i  The  tabernacle  of  Moloch  (Amos  v.  2G.)  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  a  portable  temple  or  shrine,  made  after 
the  chief  temple  of  that  "  horrid  king,*'  as  Milton  emphati- 
cally terms  him.'- 

"  When  the  heathens  offered  a  sacrifice  to  any  of  those 
numerous  divinities  which  they  worshipped,  it  was  usual  on 
this  sacred  solemnity,  in  which  religion  and  frieiul.ship  were 
harmoniously  interwoven  and  united  with  each  other,  for  all 
the  sacrificers  to  have  their  temples  adorned  with  chaplets  oi 
flowers, — and  the  victims,  too,  that  were  led  to  the  altar, 
were  dressed  with  fillets  and  garlands.  Aliundant  examples 
of  this  custom  are  found  in  almost  every  page  of  the  Greek 
and  Roman  classics.  The  L3'caonians,  who  recognised  Ju- 
piter in  Barnabas,  and  Mercury  in  Paul,  and,  believing 
themselves  honoured  with  a  visit  from  these  divinities,  from 
the  miracle  which  Paul  had  wrought  in  restoring  a  cripple 
to  the  full  use  of  his  limbs,  intended  to  show  their  venera- 
tion of  this  illustrious  condescension  to  them  by  celebrating 
a  public  and  solemn  sacrifice,  and  decked  themselves,  and 
the  victims  they  intended  to  immolate,  in  this  manner."  The 
priest,  therefore,  of  Jove,  whom  it  seems  they  worshipped 
as  the  guardian  of  their  city,  and  whose  temple  stood  a  little 
way"  out  of  the  town,  immediatily  brought  victims  and 
chai)lets  of  flowers  lo  crown  the  aposth  s,  agreeably  to  the 
pagan  rites, — and  in  this  manner  advanced  towards  the  door 
of  the  house,  where  the  apostles  lodged,  designing  to  sacri- 
fice to  them.  This  custom,  here  mentioned,  was  in  conformity 
with  the  heathen  ritual.  All  wore  garlands  at  a  heathen 
sacrifice,  both  the  people  and  the  victims."!* 

5.  W lien  the  victim  devoted  to  the  .sacrifice  was  brought 
before  the  altar,  tlie  priest,  having  imitlored  the  divine  favour 
and  acceptance  by  ])rayer,  pound  wine  upon  its  head  ;  and 
after  the  performance  of  this  solemn  act  of  religion,  which 

•  Hist.  I.  Iii.  c.  37.  •  Biscoc  on  the  Acts,  vol.  I.  pp.  330,  K7. 

10  Ward's  Ili.story,  A:r.  of  the  Hindoos,  vol.  ii.  p.  330. 

11  Discoe  on  the  Arts.  vol.  I.  pp.  301,  302.  'M. 

•»  See  l>r.  (;i:irke'8  Tmvcis,  vol.  vi.  pp.  215— 21R,  for  •omc  curious  Infor- 
mnlioncoiicereiiiiK  the  portable  shrines  of  the  imcienls. 

'•  Arts  xiv.  13.  Th<  ii  the  priest  of  Jupiter,  which  \vhb  before  their  e\ty, 
brought  oxen  nnd  e^ailaitils  tiiilothc  gates,  and  would  have  done  sacrifice 
unio  the  people. 

i«  Iff.  T.;  >ro>.i».-.    Ibid.   T4  nPO  THE  nOAEili:  Airx>.H3<Mov.     The  tem- 
ple of  .'E.iculapiiis  which  was  bcfon^  the  town,  era  liule  way  oiit'of  the    ' 
city.     Pol\  bins,  lib  i.  p.  17.  edit.  Hanov.  1619. 

II  Dr.  Hnrwood'sInlroducUon,  vol.  ii.  p.301.  Wctsleln  and  Dr.  A  Clarke     i 
on  Acuxiv.  11—15.  \ 


Sect.  I.] 


OF  THE  HEATHENS. 


141 


was  termed  a  libation,  the  victim  was  instantly  led  to  the 

slauwhttr.    To  this  circumstance  St.  Paul,  knowing  the  time 

■    of  his  martj'rdom  to  be  very  near,  has  a  very  striking  aliu- 

',■    sion;  representing  tliis  rite,   wliich  immediately  preceded 

'     the  death  of  the  victim,  as  already  performed  upon  himself, 

implying  that  he  was  now  devoted  to  death,  and  that  his 

dissolution  would  speedily  follow.     /  am  now  ready  to  be 

offered,  says  he  (2  Tim.  iv.  6.)  :  literally,  I  am  already  poured 

out  as  a  libation ;  the  time  of  my  departure  is  at  hand.     A 

similar  expressive  sacrificial  allusion  occurs  in  Phil.  ii.  17. 

Yea,  says  the  holy  apostle,  and  if  I  be  poured  out  upon  the 

sacrifice  and  service  of  your  faith,  I  joy  and  rejoice  with  you 

i    all.     In  this  passage  he  represents  the  faith  of  the  Philip- 

,"    plans  as  the  sacrificial  victim,  and  compares  his  blood,  will- 

,    mgly  and  joyfully  to  be  shed  in  martyrdom,  to  the  libation 

poured  out  on  occasion  of  the  sacrifice." 

After  the  usual  portions  of  the  victims  had  been  burnt  on 
the  altar,  or  given  to  the  officiating  priests,  the  remainder 
was  either  exposed  by  the  owner  for  sale  in  the  market,  or 
became  the  occasion  of  giving  a  feast  to  his  friends,  either 
m  the  temple  or  at  his  own  house.  l\Ieat  of  this  description, 
termed  uSaiKo^vTct,  or  meats  offered  to  idols,  in  Acts  xv.  29., 
was  an  abomination  to  the  Jews ;  who  held  that  not  only  those 
who  partook  of  such  entertainments,  but  also  those  who 
purchased  such  meat  in  the  market,  subjected  themselves  to 
the  pollution  of  idolatry.  The  apostle  James,  therefore, 
recommends,  that  the  Gentile  Christians  should  abstain  from 
all  meats  of  this  kind,  out  of  respect  to  this  prejudice  of 
Jewish  Christians  ;  and  hence  he  calls  these  meats  ax/o^ji^ar^t, 
pollution  of  idols,  that  is,  meats  polluted  in  consequence  of 
their  being  sacrificed  unto  idols.  (Acts  xv.  20.,  compare  also 
1  Cor.  viii.  1.  4.  7.  10.  x.  19.  28.)  It  appears  from  Judg. 
ix.  27.  that  feasting  after  sacrifice  in  the  temples  of  idols 
was  not  unknown  to  the  Shechemites. 

6.  Singing  and  dancing  were  the  general  attendants  of 
eome  of  "these  idolatrous  rites :  thus,  the  Israelites  danced 
before  the  golden  calf.  (Exod.  xxxii.  19.)  To  this  day,  dancing 
before  the  idol  takes  place  at  almost  every  Hindoo  idolatrous 
feast.  But  their  sacrifices  Avere  not  confined  to  irrational 
victims  :  it  is  well  known  that  the  practice  of  offering  human 
victims  prevailed  to  a  great  extent  ;'•'  and  among  the  Ammon- 
ites and  Phojnicians  they  were  immolated  to  propitiate 
Moloch  and  Baa! ;  and  children  were  in  some  manner  dedi- 
cated and  devoted  to  them.  The  idolatrous  worshippers  are 
said  to  make  them  pass  through  the  fire  ;  denoting  some  rite 
of  dedication  and  purification.  This  was  most  expressly 
forbidden  to  the  Israelites.  (Lev.  xviii.  21.)  In  this  manner 
Ahaz  devoted  his  son  (2  Kings  xvi.  3.)  ;  but  as  Hezekiah 
afterwards  succeeded  his  father  on  the  throne  of  Judah,  it  is 
evident  that  he  was  not  put  to  death.  From  the  declarations 
of  the  psalmist  (cvi.  36 — 40.),  and  of  the  prophet  Ezekiel 
(xvi.  21.  XX.  2G.  31.),  it  is  however,  certain  that  many  hu- 
man victims  were  thus  barbarously  sacrificed. 

The  adoration  or  worship  which  idolaters  paid  to  their  gods 
did  not  consist  barely  in  the  sacrifices  which  they  offered  to 
them,  but  likewise  in  prostrations  and  bowings  of  the  body  ; 
thus  Naaman  speaks  of  bowing  in  the  house  of  Rimmon. 
(2  Kings  V.  18.)  It  was  also  a  religious  ceremony,  to  lift  up 
the  hand  to  the  mouth  and  kiss  it,  and  then,  stretching  it  out,  to 
throw  as  it  were  the  kiss  to  the  idol :  both  this  and  the  fonner 
ceremony  are  mentioned  in  1  Kinas  xix.  18.  And  so  Job,  in 
order  to  express  his  not  having  fallen  into  idolatry,  very  ele- 
gantly says.  If  I  beheld  the  sun  while  it  shined,  or  the  moon 
walking  m  brightness,  and  my  heart  had  been  secretly  enticed, 
or  my  mouth  hath  kissed  my  hand,  &c.  (Job  xxxi.  26,  27.) ; 
for  to  kiss  and  to  worship  are  synonymous  terms  in  Scripture, 

1  Parkhurst's  Gr.  Lexicon,  p.  621.  Hanvood,  vol.  ii.  pp.  219,  220.  Drs. 
Clarke  and  Macknigtit  on  the  passages  cited. 

»  The  Egyptians  had  several  cities,  wliich  were  tenned  Typhmiian, — 
such  as  Hcliopolis,  Idithya,  Aharei,  and  Busiris, — where  at  particular  sea- 
sons they  imonolated  ttien.  The  objects  thus  devoted  were  persons  of 
bright  hair  and  a  particular  complexion,  such  as  were  seldom  to  be  found 
among  that  people.  Hence  we  may  conclude  that  they  were  foreigners  ; 
and  it  is  probable  that  while  the  Israelites  resided  in  Egypt,  the  victims 
were  chosen  from  their  body.  They  were  burnt  alive  upon  a  high  altar, 
and  thus  sacrificed  for  the  good  of  the  people :  at  the  conclusion  of  the 
sacrifice,  the  priests  collected  their  ashes,  and  scattered  them  upwards  in 
the  air,— most  likely  with  this  view,  that,  where  any  of  the  dust  was  wafted, 
a  blessing  might  be  entailed.  By  a  just  retribution,  Moses  and  Aaron  were 
commanded  to  take  ashes  of  the  furnace  (which  in  the  Scriptures  is  used 
as  a  tj;pe  of  the  slavery  of  the  Israelites,  and  of  all  the  cruelty  which  ihey 
experienced  in  Egypt),  and  to  scatter  them  abroad  toicards  the  heaven 
(E.xod.  X.  8,  9.),  but  with  a  different  intention,  viz.  that  where  any  the 
smallest  portion  alighted,  it  mitcht  prove  a  plague  and  a  curse  to  the  un- 
grateful, cruel,  andinfatuated  Egyptians.  Tims  there  was  a  designed  con- 
trast in  these  workings  of  Providence,  and  an  apparent  opposition  to  the 
supcrslition  of  the  times.  Bryant,  on  the  Plagues  of  I3gypt,  p.  116.  On 
the  prevalence  of  human  sacrifices  in  ancient  times,  sec  vol.  i.  p.  5.  and 
note. 


as  appears  from  Psal.  ii.  12.  There  is  an  fiolatrous  ritemes- 
tioned  by  Ezekiel,  called  flie  putting  the  branch  to  the  nose 
(Ezek.  viii.  17.\  by  which  interpreters  understand,  that  the 
worshipper,  with  a  wand  in  his  hand,  touched  the  idol,  and 
then  applied  the  wand  to  his  nose  and  mouth,  in  token  of 
worship  and  adoration.  There  appears  to  be  this  difference, 
hovyever,  between  the  idolatry  of  the  Jews  and  that  of  other 
nations,  viz.  that  the  Jews  did  not  deny  a  divine  power  and 
providence  ;  only  they  imagined  that  their  idols  were  the  in- 
termediate causes,  by  which  the  blessings  of  the  supreme 
God  might  be  conveyed  to  them;  whereas  the  heathens 
believed  that  the  idols  they  v^^orshipped  were  true  gods,  and 
had  no  higher  conceptions,  having  no  notion  of  one  eternal, 
almighty,  and  independent  Being.  ^ 

In  the  account  of  the  decisive  triumph  of  true  religion  over 
idolatry,  related  in  1  Kings  xviii.,  we  have  a  very  striking 
delineation  of  the  idolatrous  rites  of  Baal ;  from  which  it 
appears  that  his  four  hundred  and  fifty  priests,  or  prophets,  as 
they  are  termed,  employed  the  whole  cay  in  their  desperate 
rites.  The  time  is  divided  into  two  periods,  I.  From  morn' 
ing  until  noon,  which  was  occupied  in  preparing  and  offering 
the  sacrifice,  and  in  earnest  supplication  for  the  celestial  fire, 
(for  Baal  was  unquestionably  the  god  of  fire  or  the  sun, 
and  had  only  to  work  in  his  own  element),  vociferating,  0, 
Baal,  hear  us  (I  Kings  xviii.  26.)  ;  and,  2.  They  continued 
from  noon  until  the  time  of  offering  evening  sacrifice  (the  time 
when  it  was  usually  offered  to  Jehovah  in  the  temple  at  Jeru- 
salem), performing  their  frantic  rites. 

They  leaped  up  and  down  at  the  altar,'^  that  is,  they  danced 
around  it  with  strange  and  hideous  cries  and  gesticulations, 
tossing  their  heads  to  and  fro,  with  a  great  variety  of  bodily 
contortions,  precisely  as  the  Ceylonese  do  to  this  day.'  In 
like  manner  the  priests  of  INIars  among  the  Romans  danced 
and  leaped  around  the  altars  of  that  divinity,  from  which  cir- 
cumstance they  derived  their  name, — Salii.^  ^ind  it  came  to 
pass  at  noon  that  Elijah  mocked  them  :  had  not  the  intrepid 
prophet  of  the  Lord  been  conscious  of  the  divine  protection, 
he  certainly  would  not  have  used  such  freedom  of  speech, 
while  he  was  surrounded  by  his  enemies :  .And  said.  Cry 
aloud  J  Oblige  him,  by  your  vociferations,  to  attend  to  your 
suit. — Similar  vain  repetitions  were  made  by  the  heathen  in 
the  time  of  our  Saviour,  who  cautions  his  disciples  against 
them  in  Matt.  vi.  7.' — For  he  is  a  god — the  supreme  Goq;  you 
worship  him  as  such ;  and,  doubtless,  he  is  jealous  of  his  own 
honour,  and  the  credit  of  his  votaries.  Either  he  is  talking — 
he  may  be  giving  audience  to  some  others  :  or,  as  it  is  ren- 
dered in  the  margin  of  our  larger  Bibles, — he  meditateth — he 
is  in  a  profound  reverie,  projecting  some  godlike  scheme — or 
he  is  pursuing — taking  his  pleasure  in  the  chase — or  he  is  on 
a  journey — ^having  left  his  audience  chamber,  he  is  making 
some  excursions — or  peradventure  he  sleepeth  and  must  be 
aiuaked, — Absurd  as  these  notions  may  appear  to  us,  they  are 
believed  by  the  Hindoos,  to  each  of  whose  gods  some  parti- 
cular business  is  assigned,  and  who  imagine  that  Vishnoo 
sleeps  for  months  in  the  year,  while  others  of  their  deities  are 
often  out  on  journeys  or  expeditions.s  Accordingly  the 
priests  of  Baal  cried  aloud,  and  cut  themselves,  after  their  man- 
ner.  This  was  not  only  the  custom  of  the  idolatrous  Israel- 
ites, but  also  of  the  Syrians,  Persians,  Indians,  Greeks, 
Romans,  and,  in  short,  of  all  the  ancient  heathen  world. 
Hence  we  may  see  the  reason  why  the  Israelites  were  for- 
bidden to  cut  themselves,  to  make  any  cuttings  in  their  flesh  for 
the  dead,  and  to  print  any  marks  upon  themselves.  (Deut.  xiv.  1. 

3  On  the  subject  of  the  idolatrous  worship  of  the  heathens,  the  editor 
of  Calmet's  Dictionary  has  accumulated  much  interesting  information. 
See  the  Fragments,  particularly  Nos.  107.  185.  212,  213. 

*  This  is  the  marginal  rendering,  and  most  correct,  of  1  Kings  xviii.  26. 

5  From  the  statement  of  a  Ceylonese  convert  to  Christizmity  (who  was 
formerly  one  of  the  principal  high-priests  of  Budhoo)  Dr.  A.  Clarke  has 
described  the  manner  and  invocations  of  the  pagan  inhabitants  of  that 
island  (Comment,  on  1  Kings  xviii.),  to  which  we  are  indebted  for  part  of 
the  present  elucidation  of  the  rites  of  Baal ;  and  his  account  is  confirmed 
by  Dr.  John  Davy,  in  his  Travels  in  Ceylon. 

»  Jam  dederat  Saliis  (a  saltu  nomina  ducunt) 
.  Armaque  et  ad  certos  verba  canenda  modos. — Ovid.  Fast.  iii.  387,  388. 

On  the  custom  of  dancing  around  the  altars  of  the  gods,  the  reader  will 
find  much  curious  information  in  Loraeier's  treatise  De  veterum  Gentilium 
Lustrationibus,  cap.  33.  pp.413,  et  seq. 

'  The  infuriated  worshippers  of  Diana  all  with  one  voice  about  the  space 
of  two  hours  cried  out,  "  Great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephesians."  (Acts  xix.  34.) 
Not  to  multiply  unnecessary  examples,  see  an  illustration  of  these  vain, 
repetitions  in  the  Heautontimoreumenos  of  Terence,  act  v.  scene  1.  We 
are  informed  by  Servius  that  the  ancient  heathens,  after  supplicating  the 
particular  deity  to  whom  they  offered  sacrifice,  used  to  invoke  all  the  aoda 
and  goddesses,  lest  any  one  of  them  should  be  adverse  to  the  suppliant. 
Serv'ius  in  Virgil.  Georg.  lib.  i.  21.  (vol.  i.  p.  178.  of  Burmann's  edition, 
Amst.  1746.  4to.)  For  a  remarkable  instance  of  the  "  vain  repetitions"  of 
the  modern  Mohammedans,  see  Dr.  Richardson's  Travels  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, &c.  vol.  i.  pp.  462^64. 

'  Ward's  History,  &c.  of  the  Hindoos,  vol.  ii.  p.  334. 


142 


ALLUSIONS  TO  THE  IDOI^ATROUS  RITES 


[Pakt  in.  Chap.  VI 


Lev.  xix.  28.)  For  the  lieathens  did  these  thintrs  not  o;ilv 
in  honour  of  their  p:ods,  but  also  in  testimony  of  tlieir  grief 
for  the  loss  of  any  of  their  neighbours.  The  bcylhians,  as  we 
are  informed  b)'  Herodotus,  were  accustonu-d  to  slash  their 
arms  on  the  death  of  their  kinjrs ;'  and  it  is  not  improbable 
that  some  similar  custom  obtained  amoncr  some  one  of  the 
neighbouring  nations.  The  modern  Persians  to  this  day  cut 
ana  lacerate  themselves,  when  celebrating  the  anniversary 
of  the  assassination  of  11  ossein,  whom  they  venerate  as  a 
martyr  for  the  ^Moslem  faith .* 

7.  The  heathens  sliowed  their  veneration  for  their  deities 
in  various  ways,  the  knowledge  of  which  serves  to  illustrate 
many  pnssagtrS  of  Scripture.  Tlius  nothing  was  more  fre- 
quent than  prostitution  of  women,  M'ith  examples  of  ^hich 
tne  ancient  writers  abound.  According  to  Justin,'  the  C}'- 
prian  women  gained  that  portion  wliich  their  husbcnds  re- 
ceived with  them,  on  marriage,  by  previous  public  prostitu- 
tion. And  the  Phoenicians,  as  we  are  informed  by  Augustine, 
made  a  gift  to  Venus  of  the  gain  acquired  by  the  same  dis- 
gusting means.^  Hence  w-e  may  accor.nt  for  Moses  prohi- 
biting the  Israelites  from  committing  any  such  atrocities. 
(Lev.  xix.  29.) — Others  dedicated  to  them  the  spoils  of  war  ; 
others,  votive  tablets  and  other  offerings  in  commemoration 
of  supposed  benefits  conferred  on  them.* 

A  more  frequent  and  indeed  very  general  custom  was  the 
carrying  of  marks  on  their  body  in  honour  of  the  object  of 
their  worship.  This  is  expressly  forbidden  in  Lev.  xix.  28. 
To  this  day,  all  the  castes  of  the  Hindoos  bear  on  their  fore- 
heads, or  elsewhere,  what  are  called  the  sectarian  marks, 
which  not  only  distinguish  them  in  a  civil,  but  also  in  a  re- 
ligious point  of  view,  from  each  other.*'  INIost  of  the  barba- 
rous nations  lately  discovered  have  their  faces,  arms,  breasts, 
&c.  curiously  carved  or  iafooed,  probably  for  superstitious 
purposes.  Ancient  writers  abound  with  accounts  of  marks 
made  on  the  face,  arms,  &c.  in  honour  of  different  idols, — 
and  to  this  the  inspired  penman  alludes  (Rev.  xiii.  IG,  17. 
xiv.  9.  11.  XV.  2.  xvi.  2.  xix.  20.  xx.  4.),  where  false  wor- 
shippers are  represented  as  receiving  in  their  hands,  and  in 
their  forehead,  tne  marks  of  the  beast. 

Tiio  prohibition  in  Lev.  xix.  27.  against  the  Israelites 
rounding  (he  corners  of  their  heads,  and  marring  the  corners  of 
their  beards,  evidently  refers  to  customs  which  must  have 
existed  among  the  Egyptians,  during  their  residence  among 
that  people ;  though  it  is  now  difficult  to  determine  what 
those  customs  were.  Herodotus  informs  us,  that  the  Arabs 
shave  or  cut  their  hair  round  in  honour  of  Bacchus,  who  (they 
say)  wore  his  hair  in  this  way ;  and  that  the  Macians,  a  peo- 
ple of  Libya,  cut  their  hair  round,  so  as  to  leave  a  tuft  on  the 
top  of  the  head ;'  in  this  manner  the  Chinese  cut  their  hair 
to  the  present  day.  This  might  have  been  in  honour  of  some 
idol,  and,  therefore,  forbidden  to  the  Israelites. 

The  hair  was  much  used  in  divination  among  the  ancients ; 
and  for  purposes  of  religious  superstition  among  the  Greeks  ; 
and  particularly  about  tlie  time  of  the  giving  of  this  law,  as 
this  IS  supposed  to  have  been  the  sra  of  the  Trojan  war.  AVe 
learn  from  Homer,  that  it  was  customary  for  i)arents  to  dedi- 
cate the  hair  of  their  children  to  some  god  ;  which,  when  they 
came  to  manhood,  they  cut  off  and  consecrated  to  the  deity. 
Achilles,  at  the  funeral  of  Patroclus,  cut  off  his  wolden  locks, 
which  his  father  had  dedicated  to  the  river  gcd  Sperchius, 
and  threw  them  into  the  flood.8  From  Virgil's  account  of 
the  death  of  Dido,^  we  learn  that  the  toprnod  lock  of  hair  was 
dedicated  to  the  infernal  gods.  If  the  hair  was  rounded,  and 
dedicated  for  purposes  of  tiiis  kind,  it  will  at  once  account 
for  the  prohibition  in  this  verse. 'o 

A  reugion  so  extravagant  as  that  of  pag.-usm  could  not 
have  subsisted  so  long,  had  not  the  priests  by  whom  it  was 
managed  contrived  to  secure  the  devotion  of  the  multitudes 

•  Hcro(!otH8,  lib.  iv.  c.  71. 

•  Mr.  Moricr  has  given  a  long  and  intercBllnjf  narmtivc  of  this  anni- 
vcrBary.  "  II  is,"  lie  Bays,  "iioc«.s/;iiy  lu  have  wIIiich.si'iI  the  si-eiics  tli.it 
arc  cxhibitcil  In  their  cilics,  tu  juilfic  of  the  dcprcc  uf  ranalicisin  wliich 
posi<c8se8lhciM  at  this  time.  I  have  Sin:n  some  of  tliu  niuHt  vi>.leiiti>rt)irin, 
as  tliey  vociferatcil  Vn  Ifonafin!  walk  al)Oiit  the  «tr(.'Pts  almost  niikrd, 
with  only  rhcir  loins  covered  and  their  bodies  Hlrcaiiiing  with  blood,  by 
the  voluntary  cuts  which  they  had  given  lo  lhein8('Ivei<,  either  a^*  acts  of 
luve,  anxulNh,  or  iiiortirication.  tiiicli  iniiat  have  been  the  cullingsof  wliich 
we  read  in  Holy  Writ."     Moricr's  Second  Journey,  p.  170. 

>  Hist.  lib.  xviii.  c.  5. 

4  Calmct  on  Lev.  xix.  29.  Michaelis'a  Commentaries,  vol.  Iv.  pp.  183— 
185. 

•  Sec  niuch  curious  Information  on  this  siibiect  in  Dr.  Clarlte's  Travels, 
rol.  vi.  pp.  441 — 448.  8vo.  and  Mr.  Dodwell'a  Claiwical  Tour  in  Greece,  vol. 
i  pp.  311,3^12. 

•  .Sec  Forbes's  Oriental  Memoirs,  vol.  ill.  p.  15. 
'  Herod,  lib.  iii.  c.  8.  and  lib.  iv.  c.  175. 

•  Iliad,  xxiii.  142,  Jkc.  •  iCiiciJ.  iv.  C98. 
>«  Calmct,  and  Dr.  A.  Clarke  on  Lev.  xix.  27. 


by  pretending  that  certain  divinities  uttered  oracles.  The 
resparches  of  enlightened  travellers  have  laid  open  the  con- 
trivances by  which  these  frauds  were  managed,  at  least  in 
Greece."  Various  v.-ere  the  means  by  which  the  credulity 
of  the  people  was  imposed  upon.  Sometimes  they  charmed 
serpents, — extracted  their  poison,  and  thus  rendered  them 
harmless ; — a  practice  to  which  there  are  frequent  allusions  in 
the  Old  Testament,  and  it  must  have  been  a  gainful  and  an 
established  traflic. 

X.  JMoses  has  enumerated  seven  different  sorts  of  Divi- 
ners into  futurity,  whom  the  Israelites  were  prohibited  from 
consulting  (Dent,  xviii.  10,  11.),  viz.  1.  Those  who  used 
divination, — that  is,  who  endeavoured  to  penetrate  futurity 
by  auguries,  using  lots,  &c. ; — 2.  Observers  of  times,  those 
who  pretended  to  foretell  futvire  events  by  present  occur- 
rences, and  w  ho  predicted  political  or  physical  changes  from 
the  aspects  of  the  planets,  eclipses,  motion  of  the  clouds,  &c. ; 
— 3.  Enchanters,  either  those  who  charmed  serpents,  or  those 
who  drew  auguries  from  inspecting  the  entrails  of  beasts, 
observing  the  flights  of  birds,  &c. ; — 4.  Witches,  those  who 
pretended  tp  bring  down  certain  celestial  influences  to  their 
aid  by  means  of  herbs,  drugs,  perfumes,  &c. ; — 5.  Charmers, 
those  who  used  spells  for  the  purposes  of  divination ; — 6.  C'o/j- 
sultcrs  with  familiar  spirits, — Pythonesses,  those  who  pre- 
tended to  inquire  by  means  of  one  spirit  to  get  oracular 
answers  from  another  of  a  superior  order; — and,  7.  Wizards 
or  necromancers,  tiiose  who  (like  the  witch  at  Endor)  pro- 
fessed to  evoke  the  dead,  in  order  to  learn  from  them  the 
secrets  of  the  invisible  world. 

Four  kinds  of  divination  are  particularly  mentioned  in 
sacred  history,  viz.  by  the  cup, — oy  arrows, — by  inspecting 
the  livers  of  slaughtered  animals, — and  by  the  staff. 

1.  Divination  by  the  cup  appears  to  have  been  the  most 
ancient:  it  certainly  prevailed  in  Egypt  at  the  time  of  Joseph 
(Gen.  xliv.  5.),=-  and  it  has  from  time  immemorial  been  pre- 
valent among  the  Asiatics,  who  have  a  tradition  (the  origin 
of  which  is  lost  in  the  lapse  of  ages)  that  there  was  a  cup 
which  had  passed  successively  into  the  hands  of  different 
potentates,  and  which  possessed  the  strange  property  of  re- 
presenting in  it  the  whole  world,  and  all  the  things  which 
were  then  doin^  in  it.  The  Persians  to  this  day  call  it  t}>e 
Cap  of  Jtmshecd,  from  a  very  ancient  king  of  Persia  of  that 
name,  whom  late  historians  and  poets  liave  confounded  with 
Bacchus,  Solomon,  Alexander  the  Great,  &c.  This  cup 
filled  with  the  elixir  of  immortality,  they  say,  was  discovered 
when  digging  the  foundations  of  rersepolis.  To  thi»cup 
the  Persian,  poets  have  numerous  allusions ;  and  to  tlie  intel- 
ligence supposed  to  have  been  received  from  it  they  asciibe 
the  great  prosperity  of  their  ancient  monarchs,  as  by  it  they 
understood  all  events,  past,  present,  and  future.  Many  of 
the  Mohammedan  princes  and  governors  affect  still  to  have 
information  of  futurity  by  means  of  a  cup.  Thus  when  Mr. 
Norden  was  at  Dehr  or  Derri  in  the  farthest  part  of  Egypt, 
in  a  very  dangerous  situation,  from  which  he  and  his  com- 
pany endeavoured  to  extricate  themselves  by  e.xerting  great 
spirit,  a  spiteful  and  powerful  Arab  in  a  tlireatening  way 
told  one  of  their  people,  whom  they  had  sent  to  him,  that  lie 
knew  what  sort  of  people  they  were,  that  Ac  had  consulted  his 
cup,  and  had  found  hy  it  that  they  wore  those  of  whom  one 
of  their  prophets  hail  said,  that  Franks  would  come  in  dis- 
guise, and  passing  every  where,  examine  the  state  of  the 
country,  ana  afterwards  bring  over  a  great  number  of  other 
Franks,  conquer  the  country,  and  exterminale  all.'^  It  was 
precisely  the  same  tiling  that  Joseph  meant  when  he  talked 
of  divining  by  his  cup.'* 

Julius  Serenus  tells  us,  that  the  method  of  divining  by  the 
cup  among  the  Al)ys.<!iniaiis,  Chaldees,  and  Egyptians,  was 
to  fill  it  first  with  water,  then  to  throw  into  it  their  plates  of 
gold  and  silver,  together witli  some  precious  stones,  whereon 
were  engraven  certain  characters:  and  after  that  the  persons 
who  camo  to  consult  the  oracle  used  certain  forms  oi  incan- 
tation, and  80  calling  upon  the  devil,  received  their  answers 
several  ways ;  sometimes  by  articulate  sounds,  sometimes 
by  the  character.s,  wliich  were  in  the  cup,  arisincr  npon  the 
surface  of  the  water,  and  by  this  arrangement  forming  the 
answer;  and  many  times  by  the  visible  appearing  of  the  jier- 
sons  themselves  al)out  whom  the   oracle  was    consulted. 

"  Bee  Dr.  Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  vi.  pp.  479,  490. ;  also  vol.  Iii.  p.  298. 

•  »  We  have  no  reason  to  infer  that  Jo.scph  ])rncti.-pd  divination  by  ihc 
run;  allhouKli,  according  lo  the  superstition  of  tlioEO  times,  suprrnalunil 
inlliience  iniKlit  lie  attributed  lo  his  cup.  And  as  llio  wliolo  transaction 
related  in  (Jen.  xliv.  was  merely  intruded  to  deceive  his  brethren  for  .1 
short  time,  he  ini;;ht  as  well  allict  divination  by  his  cup  as afTcct  to  believe 
that  they  had  stolen  it 

"  Trav.  vol.  ii.  p.  150.  »«  Ilarmer,  voL  ii.  p.  475. 


OF  THE  HEATHENS. 


'  eitcT.  II.] 

Cornelias  Ao^rippa'  tells  us  likewise,  that  the  manner  of 
some  was  to  pour  melted  wax  into  a  cup  containing  water, 
which  wax  would  range  itself  into  order,  and  so  form  an- 
swers, according  to  the  questions  proposed .^ 

2.  Divination  bjj  arrows  was  an  ancient  method  of  presag- 
ing future  events.  Ezekiel  (xxi.  21.)  informs  us  that  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, when  marching  against  Zedekiah  and  the  king 
of  the  Ammonites,  and  coming  to  the  head  of  two  ways, 
mingled  his  arrows  in  a  quiver,  that  he  might  thence  divine 
in  \\-hat  direction  to  pursue  his  march;  and  that  he  consulted 
teraphim,  and  inspected  the  livers  of  beasts,  in  order  to  de- 
termine iiis  resolution.  Jerome,  in  his  commentary  on  this 
passage,  says  that  "the  manner  of  divining  by  arrows  was 
thus  : — they  wrote  on  several  arrows  the  names  of  the  cities 
against  which  they  intended  to  make  war,  and  then  putting 
them  promiscuously  all  together  into  a  ciuiver,  they  caused 
them  to  be  drawn  out  in  the  manner  of  lots,  and  that  citj', 
whose  name  was  on  the  arrow  first  drawn  out,  was  the  first 
they  assaulted. "3  This  mctliod  of  divination  was  practised 
by  the  idolatrous  Arabs,  and  prohibited  by  Mohammed,'' 
and  was  likewise  used  by  the  ancient  Greeks,  and  other 
nations.^ 

3.  Divination  by  inspecting  the  liver  of  slaughtered  ani- 
mals was  another  mode  of  ascertaining  future  events,  much 
practised  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  by  the  former  of  whom 
It  was  termed  'H,T:tTC3-K05rw,  or  looking  into  the  liver.  This 
word  subsequently  became  a  general  term  for  divination  by 
inspecting  the  entrails  of  sacrifices,  because  the  liver  was 
the  first  and  principal  part  observed  for  this  purpose.  To 
this  method  of  divination  there  is  an  allusion  in  Ezekiel 
xxi.  21.« 

4.  Rahdomancy,  or  divination  by  the  staff,  is  alluded  to  by 
the  prophet  Hosea  (iv.  12,) ;  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  thus 
performed :  The  person  consulting  measured  his  staft'  by 
spans,  or  by  the  length  of  his  finger,  saying,  as  he  measured, 
"  1  will  ^o,  or,  1  will  net  go  ;  1  will  do  such  a  thing,  or,  I 
will  not  do  it ;"  and  as  the  mst  span  fell  out  so  he  determined. 
Cyril  and  Theophylact,  however,  give  a  diflferent  account  of 
the  matter.  They  say  that  it  was  performed  by  erecting  two 
sticks,  after  which  they  murmured  forth  a  certain  charm,  and 
then,  according  as  the  sticks  fell,  backwards  or  forwards, 
towards  the  right  or  left,  they  gave  advice  in  any  affair.' 

In  the  later  period  of  the  Jewish  history,  we  meet  with 
many  persons  among  the  Jews,  who  pretended  to  be  sorce- 
rers,^ This  class  of  persons  dealt  in  incantations  and  divi- 
nations, and  boasted  of  a  power,  in  consequence  of  their  deep 

»  De  occuli.  Pliilos.  1.  i.  cap.  57. 

5  Ur.  A.  Clarke  on  Gen.  xliv.  5.  Burder's  Oriental  Customs,  vol.  i. 
p.  54. 

3  On  this  subject  see  some  curious  information  in  the  Fragments  sup- 
plementary to  Calmer,  No.  179. 

<  Koran,  ch.  v.  4.  (Sale's  tran.slation,  p.  94.  4to.  edit.)  In  his  preliminary 
discourse,  Mr.  Sale  states  that  the  arrows,  used  by  the  idolatrous  Arabs 
for  this  purpose,  were  destitute  of  heads  oi  feathers,  and  were  kept  in  the 
temple  of  some  idol,  in  whose  presence  they  were  consulted.  Seven  such 
arrows  were  kept  in  the  temple  of  Mecca,  but  generally  in  divination  they 
made  use  of  throe  only,  on  one  of  which  was  written.  My  Lord  hath  coin- 
manded  vie, — on  another.  My  Lord  hath  forOidden  me, — and  the  third 
was  blank.  If  the  first  was  drawn,  they  regarded  it  as  an  approbation  of 
the  enterprise  in  question  ;  if  tlje  second,  tiiey  made  a  contrary  conclu- 
sion ;  but  if  the  third  happened  to  be  drawn,  they  mixed  them  and  drew 
over  again,  till  a  decisive  answer  was  given  by  one  of  tlie  others.  These 
divining  arrows  were  generally  consulted  before  any  thingof  moment  was 
undertaken— as  when  a  man  was  about  to  marry,  to  undertake  a  journey, 
or  the  like.  (Sale's  Prel.  Disc.  pp.  126,  127.) 

5  Potter's  Antiquities  of  Greece,  vol.  i.  pp.  359,  3G0. 

«  Iljid.  vol.  i.  pp.  339,  350.  The  practice  of  "divination  from  the  liver  is 
very  old,  and  was  practised  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  till  Christianity 
banished  it,  together  with  the  gods  of  Olympus.  In  .,'Eschylu.s,  Prome- 
theus boast3  of  having  taught  man  the  division  of  the  entrails,  if  smooth, 
and  of  a  iloar  colour,  to  be  agreeable  to  the  gods  ;  also  the  various  forms 
of  the  gall  and  the  liver."  (Stoiberg's  History  of  Religion,  vol.  iii.  p.  436.) 
Among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  as  soon  as  a  victim  was  sacrificed,  the 
entrails  were  examined.  They  began  with  the  liver,  which  was  considered 
the  chief  seat;  or,  as  Philostratus  expresses  himself  (Life  of  ApoUonius, 
viii.  7.  §  15.),  as  the  prophesying  tripod  of  all  divination.  If  it  had  a  fine, 
natural,  red  colour  ;  if  it  was  healthy,  and  without  sjDots  ;  if  it  was  large 
anddouljle  ;  if  the  lobes  turned  outwards;  they  promised  themselves  the 
best  success  in  their  undertakings :  but  it  portended  evil  if  the  liver  was 
dry,  or  had  a  band  between  the  parts,  or  had  no  lobes.  It  was  also  con- 
sidered an  unfortunate  omen  if  tile  liver  was  injured  by  a  cut  in  killingthe 
victim.  (Matern.  of  Cilano,  Roman  Antiquities,  vol.  ii.  p.  164.)  Rosen- 
miiller.    Burder's  Oriental  Literature,  vol.  ii.  p.  185. 

'  Selden  de  diis  Syiris.  Synt.  I.  cap.  2.  p.  28.  Godwin's  Moses  and 
Aaron,  p.  216.  Pococke  and  Newcomc,  in  loo.  Potter's  Antiq.  of  Greece, 
vol.  i.  p.  359.  (Edinb.  18(M.) 

•  Josephus  relates  that,  at  the  period  above  referred  to,  there  were 
numerous  sorcerers  and  deceivers;  who,  pretending  to  show  wonders 
and  prodigies,  seduced  great  numbers  of  people  after  them  into  the  wil- 
derness. (Ant.  Jud.  Ub.  xx.  c.  8.  §6.    Bell.  Jud.  lib.  iv.  c.  13.  §4.) 


14S 


science,  and  by  means  of  certain  rites,  to  evoke  the  spirits 
of  the  dead  from  their  gloomy  abodes,  and  compel  them  to 
disclose  information  on  subjects  beyond  the  reach  of  the 
human  powers  :  of  this  description,  probably,  was  the  sorce- 
rer Bar-Jesus,  mentioned  in  Acts  xiii.  G — 11.  There  also 
were  others,  such  as  Simon  the  sorcerer  (Acts  viii.  9.) ;  who 
having  some  knowledge  of  natural  philosophy  and  astrology, 
abused  that  knowledge  and  deceived  the  common  peopleljy 
pretending  to  foretell  future  events,  from  the  motions  and  ap- 
pearances of  the  planets  and  stars,  and  to  cure  certain  dis- 
eases by  repeating  certain  phrases,  &;c.9  So  prevalent  was 
the  practice  of  sorcery  among  the  Jews,  that  many  of  their 
elders,  judges,  or  rabbles,  are  said  to  have  attained  such  a 
proficiency  in  mao-ic  or  sorcery,  as  to  surpass  even  tlicse  who 
made  it  their  profession."' 

The  prevalence  of  magic  amon?  the  heathen  is  too  well 
known  to  require  any  proofs.  Pymagon^.s  and  other  distin- 
guished Greek  philosophers  took  no  small  pains  to  attain 
the  knoAvledge  of  this  art:  the  inhabitants  of  Ephosus  in  par- 
ticular were  "distinguished  for  their  magical  skill.  And  it 
was  no  small  triumph  of  the  Gospel  that  many  of  the  Chris- 
tian converts  at  Ephesus,  who  had  previously  used  curious 
arts  (t^  TTiftipyu,  which  word  is  used  by  Greek  writers  to  de- 
note magical  arts,  incantations,  &c.),  trotighi  their  hoolcs  tO' 
gether  and  burned  them  before  all  men.  (Acts  xix.  19.)  So 
celebrated  was  the  city  of  Ephesus  for  the  magic  art,  that 
some  particular  fonus  of  incantation  derived  their  names  from 
thence,  and  were  called  Ecpssrw  Y^;i/j.fA.u.TA,  or  Ephesian  Letiers.^^ 
They  appear  to  have  been  amulets  inscribed  with  strange 
characters,  which  were  worn  about  the  person  for  the  pur- 
pose of  curing  diseases,  expelling  demons,  and  preserving 
individuals  from  evils  of  different  kinds.  The  "  books 
above  mentioned  were  such  as  taught  the  science,  mode  ol 
forming,  use,  &c.  of  these  charms.'^ 


SECTION  II. 

ON  THE  STATE  OF  RELIGION  AMONG  THE  JEWS,  IN  THE  TIME  OF 

JESUS  CHRIST. 

Previously  to  the  Babylonish  captivity  there  are  no  ves- 
tiges of  the  existence  of  any  sect  among  the  Jews.  Devoted 
to  the  study  of  their  law  and  to  the  ceremonies  of  their  re- 
ligion, they  neglected  those  curious  studies  which  were 
esteemed  among  other  nations.  The  temple  of  Jehovah  and 
the  houses  of  the  prophets  were  their  principal  schools  ;  in 
which  they  Vv^ere  taught  how  to  serve  the  Lord  and  to  observe 
the  ordinances  which  he  had  commanded.  After  the  cap- 
tivity, we  do  not  meet  with  any  traces  of  any  sects  among 
them  until  the  time  of  the  Maccabsean  princes ;  when  it 
should  seem  that  the  Jewish  literati,  in  imitation  of  the  sects 
of  the  Grecian  philosophers,  became  divided  in  their  opinions, 
and  composed  the  three  celebrated  sects  .of  the  Pharisees, 
Sadducees,  and  Essenes.  As  these  sects  are  frequently 
mentioned  in  the  New  Testament,  it  is  proposed  in  this  sec- 
tion to  give  an  account  of  their  origin  ancl  tenets,  together 
with  those  of  the  Herodians,  who  are  repeatedly  mentioned 
by  Jesus  Christ,  and  of  some  other  minor  denominations  of 
religious  parties  which  were  in  existence  during  the  period 
of  time  comprised  in  the  New  Testament  history.'* 

'  Robinson's  Gr.  Lex.  voce  Mx>-04-. 

'0  If  any  credit  may  be  given  to  the  Talmuds,  twenty-four  of  the  school 
of  rabbi  Judah  were  killed  by  sorcery  ;  and  eighty  women  sorcei-esses 
were  hanged  in  one  day  by  Simon  ben  Shetah.  So  greatly  did  the  practice 
of  this  art  prevail  among  them,  that  skill  in  it  was  required  as  a  necessary 
qualification  for  a  person  to  be  chosen  a  member  of  their  councils,  whether 
that  of  seventy-one  or  those  of  twenty-three ;  in  order  that  he  might  be 
the  better  able  to  try  and  judge  the  accused ;  whether  they  were  really 
guihy  of  sorcery  or  not.  Lightfoot's  Works,  vol.  i.  p.  371.  vol.  ii.  p.  211 
(folio  edit.)  where  the  passages  from  the  Talmuds  are  given. 

»i  Biscoe  on  the  Acts,  vol.  i.  pp.  290—293. 

12  Dr.  A.  Clarke,  on  Acts  viii.  17.  where  some  cnrious  information  rela 
live  to  tlie  Ephesian  letters  is  collected  from  the  lexicographers,  Suidas  and 
Hesycliius. 

'3  The  authorities  principally  consulted  for  this  section  are  Pritii  Intro-' 
ductio  iu  Lectionem  Novi  Testamenti,  cc.  33,  34.  De  Statu  Religionis 
JudtBorum  tempore  Christi,  pp.  446—471.  Calmet's  Dissertation  sur  lea 
Sectes  dcs  Juifs  Dissert,  fom.  i.  pp.  711—743.  Godwin's  Moses  and  Aaron, 
and  Jennings's  Jewish  Antiquities,  book  i.  ch.  10—13.  Schulzii  Archa;- 
ologia  Biblica,  pp.  170—180.  Carpzovii  Antiquitates  Ilebr.  Gentis,  pp.  173 
—247.  Pictel-s  Theologie  ChnJtienne,  torn.  i.  pp.  627—630.  and  torn.  iii. 
pp.  103—117.  Jahn,  Archa;ol.  Bibb  §§316— 320.  andAckermann,  Archasol. 
Bibl.  §§  3CV3— 311.  Beausobre'fi  and  L'Enfant's  Introd.  (Bp.  Watsons 
Tracts,  vol.  iii.  pp.  181—192.) 


144 


ACCOUXT  OF  THB  JEWISH  SECTS 


[Part  III.  Chap.  VI 


§  1.    ACCOUNT   OF   THE   JEWISH  SECTS  MENTIONED  IN  THE  NEV." 

TESTAMENT. 

I.  The  Pharisees. — II.  The  Sadducees. — III.  The  Essenes. — 
IV.  Th6-  Scribes.— V.  The  Lawjfers.—Yl.  The  Samari- 
tans.— VII.  The  Uerodiuns. — VIII.  The  GaUlxans. — IX. 
The  Zealots. — X.   The  Sicarii. 

I.  The  Pharisees  were  the  most  numerous  and  powerful 
sect  of  the  Jews.  The  precise  time  when  they  first  appeared 
is  not  known  :  but,  as  Josephus'  mentions  the  Pharisees, 
Sadducees,  and  Essenes,  as  distinct  sects,  in  the  rein^n  of 
Jonathan  (b.  c.  ll-l — 139),  it  is  manifest  that  tliey  must  have 
been  in  existence  for  some  time.  Calmet  is  of  opinion  that 
their  origin  cannot  be  carried  higher  than  the  year  of  the 
world  3820,  correspondintr  with  the  year  184  before  the 
Christian  aera.  They  derived  their  name  from  the  Hebrew 
verb  via  (phorcsh)  to  separate  ;  because  they  professed  an 
uncommon  separation  from  the  apparel  and  customs  of  the 
world  to  the  study  of  the  law,  and  an  extraordinary  devotion 
to  Gcd  and  sanctity  of  life,  beyond  all  other  men.  Hence 
one  of  them  is  represented  as  thanking  God,  that  he  was  not 
as  other  men  are ,-  and  Ht.  Paul,  in  his  masterly  apology  be- 
fore king  Agrippa,  terms  them  axf.iSi^'r^T;,  mp-^ig,  the  most 
rigorous  sect,  in  our  version  rendered  the  most  struitest  sect. 
(Acts  xxvi.  5.)  They  were  not  restricted  to  any  particular 
family  or  class  of  men  :  there  were  Pharisees  of  every  tribe, 
family,  and  condition.  The  credit  which  they  had  acquired 
by  their  reputation  for  knowledge  and  sanctit}"^  of  life  early 
rendered  tnem  formidable  to  the  Maccaba;an  sovereigns  ; 
while  they  were  held  in  such  esteem  and  veneration  by  the 

Seople,  that  they  may  be  almost  said  to  have  given  what 
ireotion  they  plcasedi  to  public  affairs.^  They  boasted  that, 
from  their  accurate  knowledge  of  religion,  they  were  the  fa- 
vourites of  heaven ;'  and  thus,  trusting  in  themselves  that 
they  were  righteous,  despised  others.  (Luke  xi.  52.  xviii. 

y.  11.) 

Amon^  the  tenets  inculcated  by  this  sect,  we  may  enume- 
rate tlie  fr.llowir!<f ;  viz. 

1.  They  ascribed  all  things  to  fate  or  providence,  yet  not 
so  absolutely  as  to  take  away  the  free  will  of  man,  though 
fate  does  not  co-operate  in  every  action.^  They  also  believed 
in  the  existence  of  angels  and  spirits,  and  in  the  resurrection 
of  the  dead  (Acts  xxiii.  8.)  :  but,  from  the  account  given  of 
them  by  Josrphus,  it  appears  that  their  notion  of  the  immor- 
tality of  the  soul  was  tlie  Pythagorean  metempsychosis  ;•'' 
that  the  soul,  after  the  dissolution  of  one  body,  winged  its 
flight  into  another  ;  and  that  these  removals  were  perpetuated 
and  diversified  through  an  infinite  succession,  the  soul  ani- 
mating a  sound  and  healthy  body,  or  being  confined  in  a 
deformed  and  diseased  frame,  according  to  its  conduct  in  a 
prior  state  of  existence.  From  the  Pharisees,  whose  tenets 
and  traditions  the  people  generally  received,  it  is  evident  that 
the  disciples  of  our  Lord  had  adopted  this  philosophical  doc- 
trine of  tlie  transmigration  of  souls  ;  when,  having  met  with 
a  man  who  had  been  born  blind,  they  asked  him  whether  it 
were  the  sins  of  this  man  in  a  pre-existent  state  which  had 
caused  the  Sovereign  Disposer  to  inflict  upon  him  this 
punishment.  To  this  inquiry  Christ  replied,  that  neither  his 
vices  or  sins  in  a  pre-existent  state,  nor  those  of  his  parents, 
were  the  cause  of  this  calamity.  (John  ix.  1 — 4.)  From 
this  notion,  derived  from  the  Greek  philosophy,  we  find  that 
during  our  Saviour's  public  ministry,  the  Jews  speculated 
variously  concerning  him,  and  indulged  several  conjectures, 
which  of  the  ancient  prophets  it  was  whose  soul  now  ani- 
mated him,  and  performed  such  astonishing  miracles.  Some 
contended  that  it  was  the  soul  of  Elias  ;  others  of  Jeremiah  ; 
while  others,  less  sauj^uine,  only  declared  in  general  terms 
that  it  must  be  the  soul  of  one  of  the  old  prophets  by  which 
these  mighty  deeds  were  now  wrouglit.  (Matt.  xvi.  14. 
Luke  ix.  19.)"' 

«  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xiii.  c.  5.  {  9. 

»  The  liiL'h  rfipu'alion  and  Inllufncc  of  the  PharLocPS  arc  .slrlkbiRly 
illustrateil  by  the  following  an<!ciloto  :— When  Ali-xaiKli.T  .I.iniiaMis  lay  on 
lii.s  <lcalh-b(.'il,  about  cinhty  years  boforn  Die  ChriHlinn  icra,  his  queen 
Alexandra  having  expressed  great  anxiiily  on  account  of  Ihc  expo8c<l  slate 
in  which  herself  unil  sous  would  be  left,  the  dying  monarch  recommended 
her  to  court  the  Pharisee.'),  and  delegate  pari  of  her  power  to  thciTi. 
Alcxan<lra  followed  this  advice  ;  and  the  PhariHeos,  availing  Ihemstelves  of 
the  opportunity,  made  ihem.sclves  masters  of  the  government,  an<l  dis- 
posed of  every  thing  as  they  pleased.  Josephus,  Ant.  Jiiil.  lib.  xiii.  c.  15. 
4  5.  c.  16.  i  1.    Bell.  Jud.  lib.  i.  c.  4.  »  Ant.  .lud.  lib.  xvii.  c.  2.  »4. 

«  Ibid.  lib.  xiii.  c.  5.  S  0.  lib.  xviii.  c.  2.  $3.  Dc  Bell.  Jud.  lib  ii.  c.  8.  »  M. 
Acts  V.  .18,  30. 

•  Ibid.  lib.  xviii.  c.  1.  t  3.  Pc  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  II.  c.  a  S  14.  lib.  ill.  c.  8.  h  5. 
The  author  of  the  Book  of  Wisdom  (cb.  vlll.  i20.)  Benms  to  allude  to  the 
same  doctrine,  when  he  tells  uh,  that,  being  good,  he  came  into  a  huily  un- 
de.fUeil. 

*  Dt.  Lightfool's  Works,  vol.  Ii.  pp.  0C8,  569.     Dr.  IIarvrood'8  Introd.  to 


2.  Tlie  Pharisees  contended  that  Gcd  wne  in  strict  justice 
bound  to  bless  the  Jews,  and  make  them  all  partakers  of  the 
terrestrial  Vin^Aom  of  the  Messiah,  to  justify  them,  to  make 
them  eternally  happy,  nnd  that  he  could  not  possibly  damp 
any  one  of  them  !  The  groimd  of  their  justification  they  de 
rived  from  the  merits  of  Abraham,  from  their  knowledge  of 
God,  from  their  practising  the  rite  of  circumcision,  and  from 
the  sacrifices  they  offered.  And  as  they  conceived  works  to 
be  meritorious,  they  had  invented  a  great  number  of  mpert 
roi^utori/  ones,  to  which  they  attached  greater  merit  than  to 
the  observance  of  tlie  law  itself.  To  this  notion  St.  Paul 
has  soine  allusions  in  those  parts  of  his  Epistle  to  the  Romans 
in  which  he  combats  the  erroneous  suppositions  of  the  Jews.^ 

3.  The  Pharisees  were  the  strictest  of  the  three  principal 
sects  that  divided  the  Jewish  nation  (Acts  xxvi.  5.),  rnci 
aflected  a  singular  probity  of  manners  according  to  tl  eir 
system,  which  however  was  for  the  most  part  botli  lax  and 
corrupt.  Thus,  many  things  which  Moses  had  tolerated  in 
civil  life,  in  order  to  avoid  a  greater  evil,  the  Pharisees  de- 
termined to  be  morally  right ;'  for  instance,  the  law  of  retalia- 
tion, and  that  of  a  divorce  from  a  wife  for  any  cause.  (Matt. 
V.  31.  et  seq.  xix.  3 — 12.)  During  the  time  of  Christ  there 
were  two  celebrated  philosophical  and  divinity  schools  among 
the  Jews,  that  of  Schamniai  and  that  of  Hillel.  On  the 
question  of  divorce,  the  sr.hool  of  Schammai  maintained,  that 
no  man  could  lefrally  put  away  his  wife  except  for  adultery  : 
the  school  of  Hiilel,  on  the  contrar)',  allowed  a  divorce  lor 
(tnij  cause  (from  Deut.  xxiv.  1.),  even  if  the  wife  found  no 
favour  in  the  eyes  of  her  husband, — in  other  words,  if  he  saw 
any  woman  who  pleased  him  better.  Tlie  practice  of  the 
Jews  seems  to  have  gone  with  the  school  of  Hillel.  Thus 
we  read  (in  Ecclus.  xxv.  20.),  "  If  she  go  not  as  thou 
Avouldest  have  her,  cut  her  olT  from  thy  flesh  ;  give  her  a  bill 
of  divorce  and  let  her  go  ;"  and  in  conformity  with  this  doc- 
trine, Josephus,'  who  was  a  Pharisee,  relates  that  he  repu- 
diated his  wife  who  had  borne  him  three  children,  because 
he  was  not  pleased  with  her  manners  or  behaviour. 

4.  Further,  they  interpreted  certain  of  the  Mosaic  la^vs 
most  literally,  and  distorted  their  meaning  so  as  to  favour 
their  own  philosophical  system.  Thus,  tlie  law  of  loving  j 
their  neighbour,  they  expounded  solely  of  the  love  of  their  ^ 
friends,  that  is,  of  tiie  wiiole  Jewish  race  ;  all  other  persons 
being  considered  by  them  as  natural  enemies  (Matt."  v.  43. 
compared  with  Luke  x.  31 — 33.),  whom  they  were  in  no 
respect  bound  to  assist.  Dr.  Lightfoot  has  cited  a  striking 
illustration  of  this  passage  from  Maimonides.^  An  oath,  in 
which  the  name  of  Goa  was  not  distinctly  specified,  they 
taught  was  not  binding  (Matt.  v.  33.),  maintaining  that  a 
man  might  even  swear  with  his  lips,  and  at  the  same  mo- 
ment annul  it  in  his  heart !  So  rigorously  did  they  under- 
stand the  command  of  observing  the  Sabbatli-daj',  that  they 
accounted  it  unlawful  to  jjluck  ears  of  corn,  and  lieal  tlie 
sick,  &c.  (Matt.  xii.  1.  et  seij.  Luke  vi.  G.  d  scq.  xiv.  1.  ct  seq.) 
Those  natural  laws  which  Moses  did  not  sanction  by  any 
penalty  they  accounted  among  the  petty  commandments, 
inferior  to  the  ceremonial  laws,  which  they  preferred  to  the 
former,  as  being  the  weightier  matters  of  the  law  (Matt.  v. 

19.  XV.  4.  xxiii.  23.),  to  the  total  neglect  of  mercy  and 
fidelity.  Hence  they  accounted  causeless  anger  and  impuro 
desires  as  trifles  of  no  moment  (Matt.  v.  21,  22.  27 — 30.)  ; 
they  compassed  sea  and  land  to  make  proselytes'^  to  tlie  Jew- 
ish religion  from  among  the  Gentiles,  that  they  might  rule 
over  their  consciences  and  wealth  :  and  these  proselytes, 
through  the  influence  of  their  own  scandalous  examples  and 
characters,  they  soon  rendered  more  profligate  and  abandoned 

tlie  New  Test.  vol.  ii.  p.  355.    To  this  popular  notion  of  a  transmigration  ■ 

of  souls,  Dr.  II.  ascribes  the  alarm  of  Herod,  who  had  caii&cd  Jclin  tho         9 
Ilaplist  lo  be  beheailed,  when  thi?  fame  of  Chrisl's  miracles  reached  his  ■ 

rouil;  but,  on  comparing  Matt.  xvi. 6.  with  Mark  viii.  15..  it  appears  that 
Heroii  was  a  SiuUlucf-,  and,  consequently,  disb(  lieved  a  future  slate.  His 
alarm,  therefore,  i.s  rather  lobe  altiibuicdiothe  force  of  conscience  wliicli 
haunted  his  guilty  mind  in  despite  of  his  liliertine  princiiiles. 

••  See  Rom.  i.— xi.  Josephus,  Ant.  .'ml.  lib.  xvii.  c.  2.  i4.  De  Bell.  Jud 
lib.  ii.  c.  8.  5  4.     Justin.  Dialog.  cuniTrvphon.    I'irke  Abolh. 

>  Life  of  hiin.self,  S7C.  (Jrotius,  (.'al'mei,  Drs.  I-iglufoot,  Whitby,  Dod 
dridge,  and  A.  Clarke  (on  Matt.  v.  30.  rt  »e'f.  and  Matt.  xix.  3.  f.l  seii.)  have 
all  given  Illustrations  of  the  Jewisli  doctrine  of  divorce  from  ralibinical 
writers.  Sec  also  Seidell's  Uxor  Ilubraica,  lib.  ill.  c.  22.  (Oi),  lotn.  ii.  col. 
782—790.) 

•  "A  Jew  sees  a  Oentile  fall  into  tho  sea,  let  him  by  no  means  lift  bim 
out :  for  it  is  written,  '  'J'/iou  shall  not  rise  tti)  agiiitisl  Ike  blond  of  thy 
neighbour.'     But  tliisis  not  tliy  neighbour."     vVorks,  vol.  W.  p.  IW. 

•0  JuRlin  Miirlyr  bears  witness  lo  the  iir\'eteralc  malignity  of  the  pros.""- 
lytcs  of  the  Pliarisees  against  the  name  of  Christ,  at  tho  beginning  of  the 
soconil  century.  "  Your  proselytes."  says  ho  to  Try  pho  the  Jew  (p.  .TiO.), 
"not  only  do  not  believe  m  Chri.sl,  but  blRKphome  his  name  wiili  ttci^oia 
nuirr.  rirulrnce  than  yoaraclrea.  They  are  ready  lo  show  their  uialiciouB 
zeal  against  us  ;  aiirj,  to  obtain  merit  in  jour  eyes,  wish  lo  us  reproach,  and 
torment,  and  death.  "  Scc  further  Dr.  Ireland's  r.-iganlsm  iiud  I.  hribljanity 
compared,  pp.  21—23. 


S£CT.  TI.    4  1.] 


MENTIONED  IN  THE  NEV/  TESTAMENT. 


145 


than  ever  they  were  before  their  conversion.  (Matt,  xxiii. 
15.)  Esteeming  temporal  happiness  and  riches  as  the 
nignest  good,  they  scrupled  not  to  accumulate  wealth  by 
every  means,  legal  or  illegal  (Matt.  v.  1 — 12.  xxiii.  4.  Luke 
xvi.  14.  James  ii.  1 — 8.)  ;  vain  and  ambitious  of  popular  ap- 
plause, they  offered  up  long  prayers'  in  public  places,  but  not 
without  a  self-sufficiency  of  their  own  holiness  (Matt.  vi. 
2 — 5.  Luke  xviii.  11.);  under  a  sanctimonious  appearance 
of  respect  for  the  memories  cf  the  i)rophets  whom  their  an- 
cestors had  slain,  they  repaired  and  beautified  their  sepul- 
chres (Matt,  xxiii.  29.)  ;  and  such  was  their  idea  of  their 
oAvn  sanctity,  that  they  thought  themselves  defiled  if  they 
but  touched  or  conversed  with  sinners,  that  is,  with  publi- 
cans or  tax-gatherers,  and  persons  of  loose  and  irregular  lives. 
(Luke  vii.  39.  xv.  1.  ei  seq.) 

But,  above  all  their  other  tenets,  the  Pharisees  were  con- 
spicuous for  their  reverential  observance  of  the  traditions  or 
decrees  of  the  elders :  these  traditions,  they  pretended,  had 
been  handed  down  from  Moses  through  every  generation,  but 
were  not  committed  to  writing ;  and  they  were  not  merely 
considered  as  of  equal  authority  with  the  divine  law,  but 
even  preferable  to  it.  "The  words  of  the  scribes,"  said 
they,  "  are  lovely  above  the  words  of  the  law ;  for  the 
words  of  the  law  are  weighty  and  light,  but  the  words  of 
the  scribes  are  all  weighty."^  Among  the  traditions  thus 
sanctimoniously  observed  by  the  Pharisees,  we  may  briefly 
notice  the  following: — 1.  The  luashing  of  hands  np  to  the 
wrist  before  and  after  meat  (Matt.  xv.  2.  Mark  vii.  3.),  which 
they  accounted  not  merely  a  religious  duty,  but  considered 
its  omission  as  a  crime  equal  to  fornication,  and  punishable 
by  excommunication.  2.  The  purification  of  the  cups,  ves- 
sels, and  coaches  used  at  their  meals  by  ablutions  or  v/ash- 
ings  (Mark  vii.  4.)  ;  for  which  purpose  the  six  large  water- 
pots  mentioned  by  St.  John  (ii.  6.)  were  destined.  But 
these  ablutions  are  not  to  be  confounded  with  those  symboli- 
cal washings  mentioned  in  Psal.  xxvi.  G.  and  Matt,  xxvii. 
24.  3.  Their  punctilious  payment  of  tithes  (temple-offer- 
ings), even  of  the  most  trifling  thing.  (Luke  xviii.  12.  Matt. 
xxiii.  23.)  4.  Their  wearing  broader  ph/laclcrics  and  larger 
fringes  to  their  garments  than  the  rest  of  the  Jews.  (Matt, 
xxiii.  5.)  He,  who  wore  his  phylactery  and  his  fringe  of 
the  largest  size,  was  reputed  to  be  the  most  devout.  5. 
Their  fasting  twice  a  week  with  great  appearance  of  austerity 
(Luke  xviii.  12.  Matt.  vi.  16.)  ;  thus  converting  that  exercise 
into  religion  which  is  only  a  help  towards  the  performance 
of  its  hallowed  duties.  The  Jewish  days  of  fasting  were 
the  second  and  fifth  days  of  the  week,  corresponding  with 
our  Mondays  and  Thursdays :  on  one  cf  these  days  they 
commemorated  Moses  going  up  to  the  mount  to  receive  the 
law,  which,  according  to  their  traditions,  was  on  the  fifth  day 
or  Thursday ;  and  on  the  other  his  descent  after  he  had  re- 
ceived the  two  tables,  which  they  supposed  to  have  been  on 
the  second  day,  or  Monday. 

Very  surprising  effects  are  related  concerning  the  mortifi- 
cations of  the  Pharisees,  and  the  austerities  practised  by  some 
of  them  in  order  to  preserve  the  purity  of  the  body.  Some- 
times they  imposed  these  painful  exercises  for  four,  eight,  or 
even  ten  years,  before  they  married.  They  deprived  them- 
selves almost  entirely  of  sleep,  lest  they  should  involunta- 
rily become  unclean  or  polluted  during  sleep.  Some  of  them 
are  said  to  have  slept  on  narrow  planks,  not  more  than  twelve 
fingers  broad ;  in  order  that,  if  they  should  sleep  too  soundly, 
they  might  fall  upon  the  ground  and  awake  to  prayer.  Others 
slept  on  small  and  sharp-pointed  stones,  and  even  on  thorns, 
in  order  that  they  might  be  laid  under  a  kind  of  necessity  to 
be  always  awake.^  As,  however,  none  of  these  austerities 
were  legally  commanded,  and  as  the  Pharisees  were  not 
bound  to  practise  them  by  any  law  or  other  obligation,  each 
seems  to  nave  followed  his  own  inclination  and  the  impulse 
or  ardour  of  his  devotion.  The  Talmuds  mention  seven 
sorts  of  Pharisees,  two  of  whom  appear  to  be  alluded  to, 
though  not  specified  by  name,  in  the  New  Testament,  viz. 

«  Bucher,  after  a  very  ancient  Hebrew  manuscript  ritual,  h3S  given  a 
long  and  curious  specimen  of  tlie  "vain  repetitions"  used  by  the  Pharisees. 
See  his  Antiquitates  Biblicae  ex  Novo  Testamento  select*,  PP-  210—244. 
Vitembergje,  1729.  4to. 

»  Jerusalem  Berachoth,  fol.  3.  2.  as  cited  by  Dr.  Ligbfibot  in  liis  Horse 
Hebraicae  on  Malt.  xv.  The  vhole  of  his  Hebrew  and  Talmudical  Exer- 
citations  on  that  chapter  is  singularly  instructive.  The  collection  of  these 
traditions,  by  which  the  Jews  made  the  law  of  God  of  none  effect,  is 
termed  the  Talmud :  of  which,  and  of  its  use  in  illustrating  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  an  account  has  already  been  given.  On  (he  traditions  of  the 
modern  Jews  (which  illustrate  very  many  passages  of  the  New  Testament), 
the  reader  may  consult  Mr.  Allen's  Modern  Judaism,  chap.  viii.  to  xv.  pp. 
J  40— 280. 

3  Epiphanius,  Hieres.  p.  10. 

Vol.  IL  T 


1.  The  Shechemite  Pharisees,  or  those  who  entered  into  the 
sect  only  from  motives  of  gain;  just  as  the  Shechemites 
sutlered  themselves  to  be  circumcised.  This  order  of  Phari- 
sees is  most  probably  alluded  to  in  Matt,  xxiii.  5.  14. ;  and, 

2.  The  Pharisees  who  said,  "Let  me  know  what  my  duty 
IS,  and  I  will  do  it."—"  I  have  done  my  duty,  that  the  com- 
mand may  be  performed  according  to  it."  Of  this  sort  the 
young  man  in  the  Gospel  appears  to  have  been,  who  came 
to  Jesus  Christ,  saying,  "  Good  master,  what  good  thing 
SHALL  I  DO,  that  I  may  have  eternal  life?''''  and  who  at  length 
replied, — All  these  have  I  kept  (or  observed)  from  mv  vouth 
t^j9.  (Matt.  xix.  16.  20.)'  ^''  ^^ 

With  all  their  pretensions  to  piety,  the  Pharisees  enter- 
tained the  most  sovereign  contempt  for  the  people;  whom, 
being  ignorant  of  the  law,  they  pronounced  to  be  accursed. 
(John  vii.  49.)  It  is  unquestionable,  as  Mosheim  has  well 
remarked,  that  the  religion  of  the  Pharisees  was,  for  the 


most  part,  founded  in  consummate  hypocrisy ;  and  that,  in 
were  the  slaves  of  every  vicious  appetite, 


general,   they 

proud,  arrogant,  and  avaricious,  consulting  only  the  gra'tifica- 
tion  of  their  lusts,  even  at  the  very  moment  when  they  pro- 
fessed themselves  to  be  engaged  in  the  service  of  their 
Maker.  These  odious  features  in  the  character  of  the  Pha- 
risees caused  them  to  be  reprehended  by  our  Saviour  with 
the  utmost  severity,  even  more  than  he  rebuked  the  Saddu- 
cees ;  who,  although  they  had  departed  widely  from  the 
genuine  principles  of  religion,  yet  did  not  impose  on  man- 
kind by  pretended  sanctity,  or  devote  themselves  with  insa- 
tiable greediness  to  the  acquisition  of  honours  and  riches.* 
.M  the  Pharisees,  however,  were  not  of  this  description. 
Nicodemus  appears  to  have  been  a  mgn  of  great  probity  and 
piety  :  and  the  same  character  is  applicable  to  Gamaliel.  If 
Saul  persecuted  the  church  of  Christ,  he  did  it  out  of  a  blind 
zeal ;  but,  not  to  insist  on  the  testimony  which  he  bears  of 
himself,  it  is  evident,  from  the  extraordinary  favour  of  God 
towards  him,  that  he  was  not  tainted  with  the  other  vices 
common  to  the  sect  of  the  Pharisees.  What  he  says  of  it, 
that  it  was  the  strictest  of  all,  cannot  admit  of  any  other 
than  a  favourable  construction.^ 

n.  The  sect  of  the  Sadducees  is  by  some  writers  considered 
as  the  most  ancient  of  the  Jewish  sects ;  though  others  have 
supposed  that  the  Sadducees  and  Pharisees  gradually  grew 
up  together.  This  sect  derives  its  appellation  from  Sadok, 
or  Zadok,  the  disciple  and  successor  of  Antigonus  Sochseus, 
who  lived  above  two  hundred  (Dr.  Prideaux  says  two  hun- 
dred and  sixty-three)  years  before  Christ;  and  who  taught 
his  pupils  to  "  be  not  as  servants,  who  wait  upon  their  mas- 
ter for  the  sake  of  reward,  but  to  be  like  servants  who  wait 
upon  their  master,  not  for  the  sake  of  reward ;"  but  that 
they  should  let  the  fear  of  the  Lord  be  in  them.^  Unable  to 
comprehend  a  doctrine  so  spiritual,  Sadok  deduced  from  it 
the  inference  that  neither  reward  nor  punishment  is  to  be 
expected  in  a  future  life.  The  following  are  the  principal 
tenets  of  the  Sadducees : — 

1.  That  there  is  no  resurrection,  neither  angel  nor  spirit 
(Matt.  xxii.  23.  Acts  xxiii.  8.),  and  that  the  soul  of  man 
perishes  together  with  the  body.^ 

2.  That  there  is  no  fate  or  overruling  providence,  but  that 
all  men  enjoy  the  most  ample  freedom  of  action;  in  other 
words,  the  absolute  power  of  doing  either  good  or  evil,  accord- 
ing to  their  owns  choice ;  hence  they  were  very  severe  judges.'o 

3.  They  paid  no  regard  whatever  to  any  tradition,  adher- 
ino-  strictly  to  the  letter  of  Scripture,  but  preferring  the  five 

<  Jerusalem  Talmud,  Berachoth,  fol.  1-3.  2.  Sotah,  fol.  20.  3.  Babylonish 
Talmud,  foL  22.  2.  Dr.  Lightfoot  has  translated  the  entire  passages  in  his 
HorM  Hebraicae  on  Matt.  iii.  7. 

5  Mosheim's  Commentaries  on  the  Affairs  of  Christians,  vol.  i.  p.  S3. 

«  Beausobre's  and  L'Enfant's  Introd.  (Bp.  Watson's  Tracts)  vol.  iii. 
p.  100.  ♦ 

'  Lightfoot's  Hora;  Hebraicae  on  MaU.  iii.  7. 

8  .Tosephus  de  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  i.  c.  8.  in  fine-  Anf.  Jud.  lib.  xviii.  c.  I.  §  4. 
Some  learned  men  have  expressed  their  surprise,  that  the  Sadducees 
should  deny  the  existence  of  angels,  since  they  acknowledged  the  five 
books  of  Moses,  in  which  such  frequent  and  express  mention  is  made  of 
the  appearance  and  ministry  of  angels.  To  this  it  is  answered,  Uiat  they 
believed  not  the  angels,  spoken  of  in  the  books  of  Moses,  to  be  of  any  durap 
tion,  but  looked  on  them  as  being  created  only  for  the  service  they  per- 
formed, and  existing  no  longer.  (Grotius  on  Matt.  xxii.  xxiii.  &c.  Light- 
foot's  Works,  vol.  ii.  p.  702.  Whitby  on  Acts  xxiii.  8.  and  Matt.  xxii.  23.) 
There  seem  to  have  been  heretics  in  the  time  of  Justin  Martyr  (the  second 
century),  who  entertained  a  similar  opinion.  (Justin.  Dial,  cum  Tryphone, 
p.  35S.  b.)  And  it  is  evident  that  this  notion  was  entertained  by  some  among 
the  Jews,  so  lately  as  the  emperor  Justinian's  Ume  (the  sixth  century) ;  for 
there  is  a  law  of  his  extant  (Novel.  146.  c.  2.)  published  agamst  Uiose  Jews, 
who  should  presume  either  to  deny  the  resurrection  and  judement,  or  that 
angels,  the  workmanship  and  creatures  of  God,  did  subsist.    Biscoe  on  the 

'  *^9  Joseplius%nt.  Jud.  lib.  xiii.  c.  D.  §  9.    De  BeU.  Jud.  Ub.  ii.  c  8.  §  4. 
lo  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xviii.  c.  10.  §  6. 


149 


ACCOUNT  OF  THE  JEWISH  SECTS 


[Part  III.  Chap.  VI. 


books  of  Most^s  to  the  rest.  It  has  been  conjectured  by 
some  writers  that  they  rejected  all  the  sacred  books  but  those 
of  Moses.  But  this  hypothesis  is  no  proof:  for,  in  the  first 
place,  this  sect  took  its  rise  at  a  time  when  the  .lewish 
canon  had  been  closed ;  and  it  was  just  as  easy  for  the  Sad- 
ducees  to  make  their  opinions  harmonize  with  the  other 
books  of  the  Old  Testament  as  with  the  books  of  Moses. 
Secondly,  how  could  any  of  the  Sadducees  have  sustained  the 
office  of  hi^h-priest,  if  they  had  departed  in  so  important  a 
point  from  the  oeliof  of  the  nation  1  Thirdly,  althoun-h  Jose- 
phus  frequently  mentions  their  rejecting  the  traditions  of  the 
elders,  yet  he  nowhere  charges  them  with  rejecting  any  of 
the  sacred  books ;  and  as  he  was  himself  a  Pharisee,  and 
their  zealous  antagonist,  he  would  not  have  passed  over  such 
a  crime  in  silence.  It  is  further  worthy  of  remark,  that  our 
Saviour,  who  so  severely  censured  the  Sadducees  for  tlieir 
other  corruptions,  did  not  condemn  them  for  such  rejection.' 

In  point  of  numbers,  the  Sadducees  were  an  inconsiderable 
sect ;  hut  their  numerical  deficiency  was  amply  compensated 
by  the  dignity  and  eminence  of  those  who  embraced  their 
tenets,  and  who  were  persons  of  the  first  distinction.  Several 
of  them  were  advanced  to  the  high-priesthood.-  Tliey  do  not, 
however,  appear  to  have  aspired,  generally,  to  public  offices. 
Josephus  affirms  that  scarcely  any  business  of  the  state  was 
transacted  by  them :  and  that,  when  they  were  in  the  m;\gis- 
tracy,  they  generally  conformed  to  the  measures  of  the  Phari- 
sees, though  unwilhngly,  and  out  of  pure  necessity ;  for  other- 
wise they  would  not  have  been  endured  by  the  multitude.^ 

III.  Concerning  the  origin  of  the  Essenes,  who  were  the 
third  principal  sect  of  the  Jews,  there  is  a  considerable  dif- 
ference of  opinion.  By  some  writers  of  the  Jewish  antiqui- 
ties they  have  been  identified  with  the  fraternity  of  Assi- 
daeans,  who  are  mentioned  in  1  Mace.  ii.  42.  as  being  zeal- 
ously devoted  to  the  law ;  while  others  trace  their  (Xjscent 
to  the  Rechabites.  But  the  latter  were  ayf'wiYy  only,  and 
not  a  sect.  Most  probably  they  derived  their  origin  from 
Egypt,  where  the  Jewish  refugees,  who  fled  for  security 
after  the  murder  of  Gedaliah,  were  compelled,  on  the  ca])- 
tivity  of  the  greater  part  of  their  body,  to  lead  a  recluse  life, 
out  of  which  the  Essenc  institute  might  have  grown.  They 
were  dispersed  chiefly  through  Palestine,  Syria,  and  Eg\'pt, 
though  they  were  to  be  met  with  in  other  countries,  'llie 
Essenes  differed  in  many  respects  from  the  Pharisees  and 
Sadducees,  both  in  doctrines  and  in  practice.  They  were 
divided  into  two  classes  : — 1.  The  prctdical,  who  lived  in 
society,  and  some  of  whom  were  married,  though  it  appears 
with  much  circumspection.  These  dwelt  in  cities  and  their 
neighbourhoods,  and  applied  themselves  to  husbandry  and 
other  innocent  occupations.  2.  The  contemplative  Essenrs, 
who  were  also  called  Therapeutic  or  Physicians,  from  their 
application  principally  to  the  cure  of  the  diseases  of  the  soul, 
devoted  themselves  wholly  to  meditation,  and  avoided  living 
in  great  towns  as  unfavourable  to  a  contemplative  life.  But 
both  classes  were  exceedingly  abstemious,  exemplary  in  their 
moral  deportment,  averse  from  profane  swearing,  and  most 
rigid  in  their  observance  of  the  Sabbath.  Tiiey  held,  among 
other  tenets,  the  immortality  of  the  soul  (though  they  denieS 
the  resurrection  of  the  body^,  the  existence  of  angels,  and  a 
state  of  future  rewards  and  punishments.  They  believed 
every  thin^  to  be  ordered  by  an  eternal  fatality  or  chain  of 
causes.  Although  Jesus  Christ  censured  all  the  other  sects 
of  the  Jews  for  their  vices,  yet  he  never  spoke  of  tlie  Essenes; 
neither  are  they  mentioned  by  name  in  any  part  of  the  Now 
Testament.  The  silence  of  the  evangelical  historians  con- 
cerning them  is  by  some  accounted  for  by  their  eremitic  life, 
which  secluded  them  from  plac(!S  of  punlic  resort ;  so  that 
they  did  not  come  in  the  way  of  our  Saviour,  as  thn  Pharisees 
and  Sadducees  often  did.  Others,  however,  are  of  opinion, 
that  the  Essenes  being  very  hont^st  and  sincere,  without  guile 
or  hypocrisy,  gave  no  room  for  the  reproofs  and  censures 
which  the  other  Jews  dcservod ;  and,  therefore,  no  mention 
is  made  of  them. 

But  though  the  Essenes  are  not  expressly  named  in  any 
of  the  sacred  books,  it  has  been  conicctun-d  tlr.it  tliey  are 
alluded  to  in  two  or  three  passagcts.  'I'bus,  those  whom  our 
Lord  terms  eunuchs,  who  have  made  themselves  such  for 
the  kingdom  of  heaven's  sake  (Matt.  xix.  12.),  are  supposed 
to  be  the  contemplative  Essenes,  who  abstained  from  all 

•  Schmucker's  Iliblirnl  Theology,  vr,I.  I.  p.  261.  Tim  rca'Icr  will  tliid 
several  adilillormi  proofit  In  rnnflnnation  of  tho  prncpiliim  nrrotinl  of  tin: 
book.i  received  hy  the  .SaildiiecrH,  in  I»r  Jortin'a  Bcniarkg  on  Eccl.  Hisl. 
Appendix,  No.  II.  vol.  I.  pp.  :»'i-374.  K<lil.  HWi. 

»  Ada  V.  17.  xxiii.  6.  Joiephu»,  Ant.  JuJ.  lib.  xiiL  c.  10.  »  6,  7.  lib.  xviii. 
c.  1.  i4. 

*  Ant.  Jud.  Ub.  XTiH.  e.  1.  f  1 


intercourse  with  women,  in  the  hope  of  acquiring  a  greater 
degree  of  purity,  and  becoming  the  better  fitted  for  the  king- 
dom of  ur.d.  St.  P;uil  is  generally  undersitood  to  have 
referred  to  them,  in  (-'ol.  ii.  1*^.  2.3.,  where  "voluntary  humi- 
lity," and  "neglecting  tlie  body,"  are  peculiarly  applicable 
to  the  Essenes ;  who,  when  they  received  any  persons  into 
their  number,  made  them  solemnly  swear  that  they  would 
keep  and  observe  the  books  of  the  sect  and  the  names  of  the 
angels  with  care.^  What  is  also  said  in  the  above-cited 
passage,  of  "  intruding  into  thins^  not  seen,"  is  likewise 
agreeable  to  the  character  of  the  Therapeutic  Essenes  ;  who, 
placing  the  excellence  of  their  contemplative  life  in  raising 
their  minds  to  invisible  objects,  pretended  to  such  a  degree 
of  elevation  and  abstraction  as  to  be  able  to  penetrate  into 
the  nature  of  angels,  and  assign  them  proper  names,  or  rightly 
interpret  those  already  given  them;  and  also  to  pry  into 
futurity>and  predict  future  events.  Onthese  accounts  it  is 
highly  probable  that  they  were  "  vainly  puffed  up  by  their 
fleshly  mind."  Further,  the  tenets  referred  to  by  St.  Paul 
(Ool.  ii.  21.  "touch  not,  taste  not,  handle  not")  are  such  as 
the  Essenes  held,  who  would  not  taste  any  pleasant  food, 
but  lived  on  coarse  bread  and  drank  nothing  but  water,  and 
some  of  whom  would  not  taste  any  food  at  all  till  after  sun- 
set :  if  touched  by  any  that  were  not  of  thr-ir  OAvn  sect,  they 
would  wa.sh  tliemselves,  as  after  some  great  pollution.  It 
has  been  conjectured  that  there  might  be  a  sodality  of  Essenes 
at  Colosse,  as  there  were  in  many  other  places  out  of  Judaea; 
and  that  some  of  the  Christians,  being  too  much  inclined  to 
Judaism,  might  also  affect  the  peculiarities  of  this  sect;  which 
might  be  the  reason  of  the  apostle's  so  particularly  caution- 
ing the  Oolossinns  against  them.' 

IV.  Tliere  is  in  the  Gospels  frequent  mention  of  a  set  of 
men  called  Scribes,  who  are  often  joined  with  the  chief- 
priests,  elders,  and  Pharisees.  They  seem  to  have  been  men 
of  learning,  and  on  that  account  to  have  had  great  deference 
paid  to  them  (Matt.  ii.  1.  vii.  20.);  but,  strictly  speaking, 
they  did  not  form  any  distinct  sect.  The  Scribes  generally 
belonged  to  the  sect  of  the  Pharisees,  in  whose  traditions 
and  explanations  of  the  law  they  were  profoundly  skilled ; 
and  on  the  Sabbath-days  "they  sat  in  Moses'  seat"  and 
instructed  tiie  ppuple.  Originally,  they  had  tiieir  name  from 
their  employment,  which  at  first  was  transcribing  the  law : 
but  in  progress  of  time  they  exalted  themselves  into  the 
])ublic  ministry  and  became  teachers  of  it,  authoritatively 
determining  what  doctrines  were  or  were  not  contained  in  the 
Scriptures,  and  teaching  the  common  people  in  what  sense 
to  understand  the  law  and  the  prophets.  In  sliort,  they  were 
the  oracles  which  were  consulted  in  all  diflicult  points  of 
doctrine  and  duty  ;  aiid  it  is  not  improbable  that  they  were, 
for  the  most  part,  Levites,  whose  peculiar  business  it  was  to 
study  and  read  the  law."  The  Scribes  were  of  different 
families  and  tribes,  and  therefore  of  different  sects  :  hence 
we  read,  that  there  were  Scribes  of  the  sect  of  the  Pharisees 
and  also  of  the  Sadducees.  (Acts  xxiii.  9.)  In  the  New 
Testament,  the  Scribes  are  frequently  identified  with  the 
Pharisees,  because  they  held  both  these  titles.  They  were 
Scribes  by  office,  and  Pharisees  by  religious  profession. 
This  explAnation  will  account  for  the  Pharisees  in  Slatt.  xxii. 
35.  being  called  Scrilies  in  Mark  xii.  28.' 

V.  The  Lawvehs  (vo^ww)  or  Teachers  of  the  Law  and 
Scribes  appear  to  be  synonymous  terms,  importing  one  and 
the  same  order  of  men;  as  St.  Mattliew  (xxii.  35.)  calls  him 
a  lawyer  whom  St.  IMark  (xii.  2^?.)  terms  one  of  the  Scribes. 
Dr.  Macknight  conjectures  the  Scribes  to  have  been  the  pub- 
lic expounders  of  the  liw,  and  that  the  lawyers  studied  it  in 
private  :  perhaps,  as  Dr.  Lardner  conjectures,  they  taught  in 
the  scliools.8  But  M.  Basnage  is  of  opinion  that  tliey  were 
a  distinct  class  or  sect  of  men,  who  adhered  closely  to  the 

♦  .losephiis,  do  Bell.  Jud.  lit).  H  c.  S.  5  7. 

'  Ji'niiings's  Jewish  .\ntiqiiilirs.  F'ook  i  r.  13.  Enryclopfrdia  Mclropoli- 
ta'iii,  Vol.  X.  p.  MJ.  Miclwiclis  tliinkH  tli:it  Saint  I'aul  alludes  lo  the  teneta 
and  i)r&.-,iir,e»  of  the  EsHenes  in  his  Kpiiitle  to  the  Ephcsians,  and  in  tiis  first 
KplsUe  to  Timothy.  Inlrod.  to  the  New  Test.  vol.  iv.  pp.  79—85.  Dr.  Pri- 
draux  has  rollocted  with  Rrcal  imliiRlry  and  fidelity  all  that  Pliilo,  Josephus, 
anil  Pliny  (uivo  rerordeil  ronrrrnmit  the  Kssenrs.  Connection,  vol.  ii 
hook  V.  siih  anno  11)7  B.  c.  pp.  3l.'i— IWl.  Sili  edit.  Thrro  is  a  very  interest- 
iiiK  d(;«cri|>tion  of  the  in.sniiil<-  of  the  Kssencs  in  vol.  ii.  pp.  I il -!.>•.  of 
"  Heli.n's  rilsrlnnvge  lo  Ji-rnHalein,"  which  ronlain.s  an  Bilniirable  and  gra- 

fihic  delineation  of  J'-wIhIi  rnanneia  unrl  ciistoiim,  Hiif.h  an  they  uio.st  pro 
lahly  wero  at  the  liini;  when  the  advent  of  the  Mesifiah  was  al  hand.    For 

the  iranHlutioii  of  ihig  very  pleaHing  and  instructive  work  from  the  lierinan 

of  Fridrrirk  SiraiKw,  (he  luvor  of  sacred  literature  is  indebted  to  the  Rov. 

John  Kenrick,  M.  A.  of  Vorlr. 
■  Dr.  Iliirton'H  PapiHlaaiid  Pharmeca  compared,  p.  0.  (OxfonI,  17fiC.  Svo.) 
1  filranheini'i  Kccleaiafitical  AnnaU,  bv  the  Kev.  O.  WriKlil,  p.  178. 
»  Prideaux,  vol.  ii.  p.  31.3.     I.ardn«jr'»  Credibility,  part  i.  l«>ok  i.  ch.  4.  »3. 

(Worka,  vol.  i.  p.  126.)    Macknight'g  Harmony,  sect.  87.  vol.  11.  p.  472.  8vo 

edit. 


Sect.  II.  §  1.] 


MENTIONED  IN  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


147 


text  of  the  law,  and  totally  disregarded  all  traditions,  and 
that  they  were  the  same  as  the  modern  Karaites.' 

V^I.  The  SAMAniTANS,  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament, 
are  Qfeneially  considered  as  a  sect  of  the  Jews. 

This  appellation  is,  in  the  New  Testament,  given  to  a 
race  of  people  who  spranw  originally  from  an  intermixture 
of  the  ten  tribes  with  Gentile  nations.  VVlien  the  inhabitants 
of  Samaria  and  of  the  adjacent  country  were  carried  into 
captivity  by  Shalmaneser  king  of  Assyria,  he  sent  in  their 
places  colonies  from  Babylonia,  Cuthah,  Ava,  Hamath,  and 
Sepharvaim ;  with  which  the  Israelites  who  remained  in  the 
land  became  intermingled,  and  were  ultimately  amalgamated 
into  one  people.  (2  Kings  xvii.  24.)  An  origin  like  this 
would,  of  course,  render  the  nation  odious  to  the  Jews ;  and 
the  Samaritans  further  augmented  this  cause  of  hatred  by 
rejecting  ail  the  sacred  books  of  the  Jews,  except  the  Penta- 
teuch, which  they  had  received  from  the  Jewisn  priest  who 
had  been  sent  to  them  from  Assyria  to  instruct  them  in  the 
true  religion.  (2  Kings  xvii.  27,  28.)  On  the  return  of  the 
Jews  from  the  Babylonish  captivity,  when  they  began  to 
rebuild  Jerusalem  and  the  temple,  the  Samaritans  requested 
to  be  acknov\'l edged  as  Jewish  citizens,  and  to  be  permitted 
to  assist  in  the  work  ;  but  their  application  was  rejected. 
(Ezra  iv.  1 — 4.)  In  consequence  of  this  refusal  and  the  sub- 
sequent state  of  enmity,  the  Samaritans  not  only  took  occasion 
to  calumniate  the  Jews  before  the  Persian  kings  (Ezra  iv.  5. 
Neh.  iv.  1 — 7,  8.)  ;  but  also,  recurring  to  the  directions  of 
Moses  (Deut.  xxvii.  11 — 13.),  that  on  entering  the  promised 
land  the  Hel  rews  should  offer  sacrifices  on  Mount  Gerizim, 
they  erected  a  temple  on  that  mountain,  and  instituted  sacri- 
fices according  to  the  prescriptions  of  the  Mosaic  law .2 
From  all  these  and  other  circumstances,  the  national  hatred 
between  the  Samaritans  and  Jews  increased  to  such  a  height, 
that  the  Jews  denounced  the  most  bitter  anathemas  against 
them  (Ecclus.  1.  2(5.),  and  for  many  ages  refused  them 
every  kind  of  intercourse.  Hence  the  woman  of  Samaria 
was  astonished  that  Jesus  Christ,  who  was  a  Jew,  should 
ask  drink  of  her.  (John  iv.  9.)  Hence  also  the  Jews,  when 
they  would  express  the  utmost  aversion  to  Christ,  said  to 
him — Thou  art  a  Samaritan,  and  hast  a  devil.  (John  viii. 
48.)  The  temple  on  Mount  Gerizim  was  destroyed  by  Hyr- 
canus,  B.  c.  129  -J  but  the  Samaritans,  in  the  time  of  Jesus, 
esteemed  that  mountain  sacred,  and  as  the  proper  place  of 
national  worship.  (John«iv.  20,  21.)  At  that  time,  also,  in 
common  v,'ith  the  Jews,  they  expected  the  advent  of  a  Mes- 
siah (John  iv.  25.),  and  many  of  them  afterwards  became 
the  followers  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  embraced  the  doctrines  of 
his  religion.     (Acts  viii.  1.  ix.  31.  xv.  3.)^ 

Towards  the  close  of  the  Jewish  polity,  the  Samaritans 
suffered  much  from  the  Romans  ;  and  though  they  received 
a  little  favourable  treatment  from  one  or  two  of  the  pagan 
emperors,  yet  they  suffered  considerably  under  some  of  the 

Jrofessiiig  Christian  emperors,  particularly  Valentinian  and 
ustinian.5  At  present,  the  Samaritans  are  very  much  re- 
duced in  point  of  numbers.  Their  principal  residence  is  at 
Sichem  or  Shechem,  now  called  JS/apolose  or  Nuhlous.  In 
*  1823,  there  were  between  twenty  and  thirty  houses,  and 
about  sixty  males  paid  the  capitation-tax  to  the  Mohamine- 
dan  government.6  They  celebrated  divine  service  every 
Saturday,  Formerly  they  went  four  limes  a  year,  in  solemn 
procession,  to  the  old  synagogue  on  Mount  Gerizim  :  and  on 
these  occasions  they  ascended  before  sunrise,  and  read  the 
law  till  noon ;  but  of  late  years  they  have  not  been  allowed 
to  do  this.    The  Samaritans  have  one  school  in  Napolose, 

<  Basiwge's  History  and  Religion  of  tVie  Jews,  book  i.  ch.  8,  9.  pp.  101— 
lit.  The  Karaites  claim  a  very  remote  antiquity,  some  pretending  that 
they  are  descended  from  the  ten  tribes  who  were  carried  into  captivity  by 
Shalmaneser,  while  others  glory  in  their  descent  from  Ezra.  This  sect  was 
reformed  by  Uabbi  Annn  in  the  eighth  century.  They  are  found  in  ditTe- 
rcnt  parts  of  Russia^  Poland,  Litlmania,  Austria,  the  Caucasus,  Turkey, 
Egypt,  Abyssinia,  India,  and  the  Holy  Land;  but  their  numbers  are  not 
known.  The  principal  point  of  difiercnce  between  them  and  the  rabbi- 
nists  or  Pharisaical  Jews  consists  in  their  rejection  of  the  oral  law,  and 
their  rigid  appeal  to  the  text  of  Scripture,  as  the  exclusive  and  only  infalli- 
ole  source  and  test  of  religious  truth.  On  tliis  account  they  are  called 
Karaites  (O'NIp  Kuralm)  or  Scripturists,  from  Nip  KnrtA  or  Scripture- 
lit.  Henderson's  Biblical  Researclies  and  Travels  in  Russia,  p.  319.  In 
pp.  315—339.  he  has  given  a  very  interesting  account  of  the  principles,  &c. 
of  tlie  Karaites  in  the  Crimea.  Carpzov  has  given  an  abstract  of  the 
earlier  writers  concerning  this  sect  in  his  AntiquitatesIIebrteaj  Gentis,  pp. 
1&3— 172. 

»  Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xi.  c.  8,  §  4. 

>  Ibid.  lib.  xlii.  c  10.  §§  2,  3. 

«  Robinson's  Gr.  Lex.  voce  Sa.uapi'Tijf.  Tappan's  Lectures  on  Jewteh 
Antiq.  pp.  221—227.     Kuinoel,  on  John  iv.  9.  25. 

»  Basnage's  History  of  the  Jews,  pp.  73 — 77.  In  pp.  63 — 96.  he  has  given 
minute  details  respecting  the  history,  tenets,  and  practices  of  this  sect  or 
people. 

•  Jowett's  Christian  Researches  in  Syria,  p.  190. 


where  their  language  is  tauglit.  The  head  of  this  sect  is 
stated  to  reside  at  Pans."  The  Samaritans  at  Napolose  are 
m  possession  of  a  very  ancient  manuscript  Pentateuch,  which 
they  assert  to  be  nearly  3500  years  old  ;  but  they  reject  the 
vowel  points  as  a  rabbinical  invention.  In  order  to  complete 
our  notice  of  this  sect,  we  have  subjoined  their  confession  of 
faith,  sent  in  the  sixteenth  century  by  Eleazar  their  high- 
priest  to  the  illustrious  critic  Scaliger,  who  had  applied  to 
them  for  that  purpose ;  together  with  a  few  additional  par- 
ticulars from  the  baron  de  Sacy's  Memoir  en  the  Samaritans, 
and  the  Rev.  W.  Jowett's  Christian  Researches  in  Syria.s 

1.  The  Samaritans  observe  the  Sabbath  with  all  the  ex- 
actness required  in  Exodus  ;  for  not  one  of  them  goes  out  of 
the  place  where  he  is  on  the  Sabbath-day,  except  to  the 
synagogue,  where  they  read  the  law,  and  sing  the  praises  of 
God.  They^o  not  lie  that  night  with  their  wives,  and  nei- 
ther kindle  nor  order  fire  to  be  kindled  :  whereas  the  Jews 
transgress  the  Sabbath  in  all  these  points  ;  for  they  go  out 
of  town,  have  fin;  made,  lie  with  their  wives,  and  even  do 
not  wash  themselves  after  it. — 2.  They  hold  the  passover  to 
be  their  first  festival  ;  the}--  begin  at  sunset,  by  the  sacrifice 
enjoined  for  that  purpose  in  Exodus  ;  but  they  sacrifice  only 
on  Mount  Gerizim,  vvhere  they  read  the  law,  and  offer 
prayers  to  God,  after  which  the  priest  dismisses  the  whole 
congregation  with  a  blessing.  [Of  late  years,  however,  hav- 
ing been  prohibited  from  ascending  Mount  Gerizim  by  their 
oppressors  the  Turks,  they  offer  the  paschal  sacrifice  within 
their  city,  which  they  consider  to  be  within  the  precincts  of 
the  sacred  place.] — 3.  They  celebrate  for  seven  days  to- 
gether the  feast  of  the  harvest,  but  they  do  not  agree  with  the 
Jews  concerning  the  day  when  it  ought  to  begin  ;  for  these 
reckon  the  next  day  after  the  solemnity  of  the  passover ; 
whereas  the  Samaritans  reckon  fifty  days,  beginning  the  next 
day  after  the  Sabbath,  which  happens  in  the  week  of  the 
unleavi-ned  bread,  and  the  next  day  after  the  seventh  Sabbath 
following,  the  feast  of  the  harvest  begins. — 4.  They  observe 
the  fast  of  expiation  on  the  tenth  of  the  seventh  month :  they 
employ  the  four-and-twenty  hours  of  the  day  in  prayers  to 
God,  and  singing  his  praises,  and  fasting.  All  fast,  except 
children  at  the  breast,  whereas  the  Jews  except  children 
under  seven  years  of  age. — 5.  On  the  fifteenth  of  tlie  same 
month,  they  celebrate  the  feast  of  tabernacles. — 6.  They 
never  defer  circumcision  beyond  the  eighth  day,  as  it  is  com- 
manded in  Genesis,  whereas  the  Jews  defer  it  sometimes 
longer. — 7.  They  are  obliged  to  wash  themselves  in  the 
morning,  when  they  have  lain  with  their  wives,  or  have  been 
sullied  in  the  night  by  some  uncleanness ;  and  all  vessels 
that  may  become  unclean,  become  defiled  when  they  touch 
them  before  they  have  washed. — 8.  They  take  avray  the  fat 
from  sacrifices,  and  give  the  priests  the  shoulder,  the  jaws, 
and  the  belly. — 9.  They  never  marry  their  nieces  as  the 
Jews  do,  and  have  but  one  wife,  whereas  the  Jews  may  hava 
many. — 10.  They  believe  in  God,  in  Moses,  and  in  Mount 
Gerizim.  Whereas,  say  they,  the  Jews  put  their  trust  in 
others,  we  do  nothing  but  what  is  expressly  commanded  in 
the  law  by  the  Lord  who  made  use  of  the  ministry  of  Moses  ; 
but  the  Jews  swerve  from  what  the  Lord  hath  commanded 
in  the  law,  to  'jbserve  what  their  fathers  and  doctors  have 
invented. — 11.  They  receive  the  Torah  or  Pentateuch,  and 
hold  it  as  their  only  sacred  book  ;  they  reverence  the  hooka 
of  Joshua  and  Judges,  but  do  not  account  them  sacred  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  Torah,  considering  Joshua  not  to  havo 
been  a  prophet,  but  only  the  disciple  of  a  prophet,  that  is,  of 
Moses. — 12.  They  expect  a  prophet,  whom  they  term  Hathab ; 
but,  say  they,  "  tiiere  is  a  great  mystery  in  regard  to  Hathab, 
who  is  yet  to  come.  We  shall  be  happy  when  he  comes." 
When  the  Rev.  Mr.  Jowett,  in  November,  1823,  interrogated 
the  oflSciating  Samaritan  priest  concerning  their  expectation 
of  a  Messiah,  the  latter  replied  that  they  were  all  in  expecta- 
tion of  him ; — "  that  the  Messiah  would  bo  a  man,  not  the 
Son  of  God, — and  that  this"  (Naposloe^  "  was  to  be  the 
place  which  he  would  make  the  metropolis  of  his  kingdom  : 
this  was  the  place,  of  which  the  Lord  had  promised,  he 
would  place  his  name  there."  The  report  of  the  Samaritans 
worshipping  a  dove  is  groundless  ;  nor  is  it  true  that  they 
deny  the  resurrection  of  the  dead,  or  the  existence  of  angels. 
They  admit,  however,  that  they  recite  hymns  and  prayers 

1  Visit  of  the  Rev.  James  Connor,  in  1819  and  1820,  to  Candia,  I^hodes, 
Cyprus,  and  various  parts  of  Syria  and  Palestine,  annexed  to  the  Rev.  W. 
Jowett's  Christian  Researches  in  the  Mediterranean,  p.  425. 

8  Memoire  sur  I'Etat  actuel  dcs  Samaritains,  par  M.  ftilvcstre  deSacy. 
Paris  1812.  8vo.  Jowett's  Christian  Researches  in  Syria,  pp.  196—193. 
See  also  Joan.  Christoph.  Friedrich,  Discussionum  de  Chnstologia  Sama- 
ritanorum  Liber.  Accedit  Appendicula  de  Coluniba  Dea  Samaritanoruiw 
Lipsise,  1821.  8vo. 


148 


ON  THE  EXTREME  CORRUPTION  OF  THE 


[Part  HI.  Chap  VL 


that  Jehovah  would  pardon  the  dead,  and  the  priest  purifies 
them  by  praj  er. 

The  Samaritans  have  a  catalogue  of  the  succession  of  their 
high-priests  from  Aaron  to  the  present  time.  They  believe 
themselves  to  be  of  the  posterity  of  Joseph  by  Ephraim,arid 
that  all  their  high-priests  descended  from  Phinehas  ;  whereas 
the  Jews  have  not  one  of  that  family.  They  boast  that  they 
have  preserved  the  Hebrew  characters  which  God  made  use 
of  to  promulgate  his  law ;  while  the  Jews  liave  a  way  of 
writing  from  Ezra,  which  is  cursed  for  ever.  And,  indeed, 
instead  of  looking  upon  Ezra  as  the  restorer  of  the  law,  they 
'curse  him  as  an  impostor,  who  has  laid  aside  their  old  charac- 
ters to  use  new  ones  in  their  room,  and  authorized  several 
books  that  were  written  to  support  the  posterity  of  David. 

Several  attempts  have  been  made  to  convert  these  Samari- 
tans ;  but  they  l^r^■e  been  oppressed  instead  of  being  made 
Christians,  and  they  are  reduced  to  a  small  numl^r  rather  by 
misery  than  by  the  multitude  of  these  who  have  been  con- 
verted. Nay,  they  seem  more  stubbornl}'  wedded  to  their 
sect  than  the  Jews,  tiiough  these  adhere  rigorously  to  Uie  law 
of  Moses.  At  least  Nicon,  who  lived  after  th(!  twelfth  cen- 
tury, when  setting  down  the  formalities  used  at  the  reception 
of  heretics,  observes,  that  if  a  Jew  had  a  mind  to  be  converted, 
in  order  to  avoid  jjunishment  or  the  payment  of  what  he  owed, 
he  was  to  purify  himself,  and  satisfy  his  creditors  before  he 
was  admitted.  But  the  Samaritans  were  not  received  before 
they  had  been  instructed  two  years,  and  were  required  to  fast 
ten  or  fifteen  days  before  they  professed  the  Christian  reli- 
gion, to  attend  at  morning  and  evening  prayers,  and  to  learn 
some  psalms ;  others  were  not  used  with  so  much  rigour. 
The  term  of  two  years  which  was  enjoined  to  the  Samaritan 
proselytes  is  an  argument  that  they  were  suspected,  and  the 
reason  why  they  were  so  was,  thai  thej^  had  often  deceived 
the  Christians  by  their  pretended  conversion.' 

VII.  The  Herodians  were  rather  a  political  faction  than  a 
religious  sect  of  the  Jews  :  they  derived  their  name  from 
Herwl  the  Great,  king  of  Judaea,  to  whose  family  they  were 
strongly  attached.  They  were  distinguished  from  the  other 
Jewish  sects,  first,  by  their  concurring  in  Herod's  plan  of 
subjecting  himself  and  his  people  to  tiie  dominion  of  the  Ro- 
mans; and,  secondly,  in  complying  with  the  latter  in  many 
of  their  heathen  practices,  such  as  erecting  temples  with 
images  for  idolatrous  worship,  raising  statues,  and  instituting 
games  in  honour  of  Augustus;  which  symbolizing  Avith 
idolatry  upon  views  of  interest  and  worldly  policy  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  a  part  at  least  of  the  lectren  of  Ikrod, 
against  which  Jesus  Christ  cautioned  his  disciples  (Alark  viii. 
15.) ;  consequently  they  were  directly  oppcsed  to  the  Phari- 
sees, who,  from  a  misinterpretation  of  Deut.  xvii.  15.  main- 
tained that  it  was  not  lawful  to  submit  to  the  Roman  emperor, 
or  to  pay  taxes  to  him.  But  Herod  and  his  followers,  under- 
standmg  the  text  to  exclude  only  a  voluntarj^  choice,  and  not 
a  necessary  submission  wliere  force  had  ovcrpov/ered  choice, 
held  an  opinion  directly  contrary,  and  insisted  that  in  this 
case  it  was  lawful  both  to  submit  to  the  Roman  emperor,  and 
also  to  pay  taxes  to  Mm.  How  keen  then  must  have  been 
the  malice  of  thePha.isees  against  Christ,  when  they  united 
with  their  mortal  en(!mies  the  Herodians,  in  ])roposing  tohim 
the  ensnaring  ([uestion,  whether  it  was  lawful  to  give  tribute 
V)  Caesar  or  nof!  (Matt.  xxii.  IG.^  If  our  Redeemer  had 
auswered  in  the  ncijativc,  the  Herodians  would  liave  accused 
him  to  the  Roman  power  as  a  seditious  person  ;  and  if  in  the 
affirmative,  the  Pharisees  were  equally  ready  to  accuse  him 
to  the  people,  and  excite  their  indignation  against  him,  as 
betraying  the  civil  liberties  and  privileges  of  his  country'. 
Christ  by  his  prudent  reply  defeated  the  malice  of  both,  and 
at  the  same  time  implicitly  justified  the  Herodians  in  paying 
tribute  to  Catsar.  It  is  further  probable  that  the  Herodians, 
in  their  doctrinal  tenets,  were  cliiefly  of  the  sect  of  the  Sad- 
ducces,  who  were  the  most  indiflerent  to  religion  among  the 
whole  Jewish  nation;  since  that  which  is  by  one  evangelist 
called  the  kuven  of  Htrtxl  (Mark  viii.  15.^,  is  by  another 
trrrnod  (Matt.  xvi.  G.)  the  kuvax  if  the  Sadaucccs.^ 

VIII.  The  Galila:an8  were  a  political  aect  thai  originated 

«  Lewis's  Ori(pne«  Ilnbrvte,  vol.  Hi.  pp.  67— .S9.  In  pp.  IW— 65.  he  lins 
printcil  a  Irltnr,  piiriKu'lini:  to  have  been  written  by  the  Saindritans  m  Hhc- 
I  liem  ill  the  Rfvi-nti-triUi  rcniiiry,  and  srnl  liv  llicui  In  lln'ir  lirtlhren  in 
Enilancl,  by  I>r.  niiniinsion,  Kome  lime  cliaplniii  to  itie  Tiirlccy  company 
al  .\li:p]H),  and  .iflerward.s  IliHhnii  of  Kaplinc,  in  Inlnnd. 

»  Pririoaux'«  Connection,  part  li.  boolt  v.  (vol.  ii.  pp.  IJOi— 3Cfl.)  Jennings's 
Jewish  AniiqiiilieF,  boolt  I.  rh,  xii,  Calim-t,  l)is»orlnIlnn«,  loin.  i.  pn.  737 
— 743.  where  the  difrcreiil  nfiiniimit  of  former  writers  conwrnhi"  the  Ilero- 
tllaiis  are  eimincratpd ;  as  al^o  in  Elsley'«  Annotallfint  on  Ibc  (Jos))rI»,  vol. 
t  pi'.  :il'..'— 3W.  vol.  ii.  p.  1.".  Parlihur!--t'<!  flreclt  Lexicon,  vcic  ;  I.ardMi.r'." 
C'rcdibiNiy,  part  I.  book  i.  ch.  iv.  5  1.  (Workn.  vol.  i. pi).  Vji,  \J7)  Tappan's 
I.  .ciur««  on  Jcwitli  Antiq.  p.  239. 


from  the  Pharisees,  a.  d.  1'2,  when  Archelaus  was  banished, 
Juda?a  reduced  inl«  a  Reman  province,  arid  a  census  taken  by 
Quirinius  or  Cyrenius,  president  of  Syria  (to  which  province 
Judtea  was  attached).  On  this  occasion,  Judas  the  Galilaean, 
or  Gaulonite,  as  he  is  also  called, ^  exhorted  the  people  to 
shake  off  this  yoke,  telling  them,  that  tribute  was  due  to  God 
alone,  and,  consequently,  ought  not  to  be  paid  to  the  Romai.s ; 
and  that  religious  liberty  and  the  authority  of  the  divine  laws 
were  to  be  defended  by  force  of  arms.  In  other  re.5pecls  hia 
doctrines  appear  to  have  been  the  same  as  those  of  the  Phari- 
sees. The  tumults  raised  by  these  pernicious  tenets  were  in- 
deed sn))prcssed  (Acts  v.  37.)  ;  but  his  followers,  who  were 
called  Galilaans,  continued  secretly  to  propagate  them,  and 
to  make  proselytes,  whom  they  re(|uireu  to  be  circumcised. 
As  the  same  restless  disposition  and  seditious  principles  con- 
tinued to  exist  at  the  time  when  the  apostles  Paul  and  Peter 
wrote  their  Epistles,  they  took  occasion  thence  to  inculcate 
upon  Christians  (who  were  at  that  time  generally  confounded 
with  the  Jews),  the  necessity  of  obedience  to  civil  authority, 
with  singular  ability,  truth,  and  persuasion.  See  Rom.  xili. 
1.  et  ^ey/  1  Tim.  ii.  1.  e(  scq.  1  Pet.  ii.  13.  d  seq.^ 

IX.  The  Zealots,  so  often  mentioned  in  Jewish  history, 
appear  to  have  been  the  followers  of  this  Judas.  Lamy  is 
of  opinion  that  the  just  men  whom  the  Pharisees  and  Hero- 
dians sent  to  entangle  Jesus  in  his  conversation  were  mem- 
bers of  this  sect,  (Matt.  xxii.  15,  16.  Mark  xii.  13,  14.  Luke 
XX.  20.)^  Simon  the  Canaimitc,'  one  of  the  apostles  of  Jesus 
Christ,  is  called  Zclutes  (Luke  vi.  15.)  ;  and  in  Acts  xxi.  20. 
and  xxii.  3.  (Gr.)  wc  find  that  there  were  certain  Christiana 
at  Jerusalem,  who  were  denominated  Zealots.  But  these 
merely  insisted  on  the  fulfilment  of  the  Mosaic  law,  and  by 
no  means  went  so  far  as  those  persons,  termed  Zelctas  or 
Zealots,  of  whom  we  read  in  Josephus'.'S  history  of  the  Jev>'- 
ish  war. 

X.  The  SicARii,  noticed  in  Acts  xxi.  38.  were  assassins, 
who  derived  their  name  from  their  using  poniards  bent  Irke 
the  Roman  siar,  which  tlicy  concealed  under  their  garments, 
and  which  was  the  secret  instrument  of  assassination.*'  The 
Egyptian  impostor,  also  mentioned  by  the  sacred  historian, 
is  iioticcd  by  Josephus,  who  says  that  lie  was  at  the  head  of 
30,000  men,  tliough  St.  Luke  notices  only  4000 ;  but  both 
accounts  are  reconcilfd  i;y  supposing  thut  the  impostor  (who 
in  the  second  year  of  Nero  pretended  to  be  a  prophet)  led  out 
4000  from  Jerusalem,  who  were  afterwards  joined  by  others 
to  the  amount  of  30,0C0,  us  related  by  Josephus.  They  were 
attacked  and  dispersed  by  the  Roman  procurator  Felix." 

§  2.  ON  the  extreme  corruption  of  the  JEWISH  PEOPLE, 
BOTH  IN  RELIGION  AND  MORALS,  AT  THE  TI.ME  UF  CHKIST's 
BIRTH. 

iGeneral  corruption  of  the  lenders  of  the  Jeivish  nation — of  their 
chief  priests,  and  other  miuisters  of  religion — its  deplorable 
effects  on  the  people. — Stute  of  the  Je-.vs  not  resident  in  J'a- 
lesline. 

The  preceding  chapters^  will  have  shown  that  the  political 
state  of  the  Jews  was  truly  deplorable.  Allliouurh  they  were 
oppressed  and  fleeced  by  varieus  governors,  who  exercised 
the  most  rigorous  autherity  over  them,  in  many  instances 
with  peculiar  avarice,  cruelty,  and  extortion,  yet  they  were 
in  some  measure  governed  by  their  own  laws,  and  were  per- 
mitted to  enjoy  their  religion.  The  adniinislratiAn  of  tJieir 
sacred  rites  continued  to  he  committed  to  the  hiirh-priest  and 
the  Sanhcdrin  ;  to  the  former  the  priests  and  Levites  were 
subordinate  as  before  :  and  the  form  of  their  ext(  rnal  wor- 
ship, except  in  a  very  few  points,  had  suffered  no  visible 
cliange.     lint,  whatc^vcr  comforts  were  left  to  them  by  the 

'  lie  was  a  native  of  Gamala,  in  tbo  province  of  Gnnlonitis. 

«  Josciilms,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xviii.  c.  1.  %i  1.  6.  lib.  xx.  r.  :"•.  4  2.  Do  Bell.  Jurt. 
lib.  ii.  c.  17.  5i  7—9.  lib.  vii.  c.  8.  S  I.  TheThendas  mentioned  inAiLs  v.  J6. 
must  not  be  confoundeil  with  the  Ttiendns  or  JiulaB  referred  to  by  Joso- 
phiis.  (Ani.  lib.  xx.  c.  0.  §  1.)  'I'lituda.s  was  a  very  roinmon  name  nineng 
the  Jew«;  and  llie  person  menlioned  liy  ibr  snrred  hisiori.in  was  prol-.tMy 
one  of  llie  niiuiy  lendcn!  who  took  tip  arms  in  defenrc  of  Ihe  public  liber- 
lirH,  al  the  time  of  CyriiniiiK's  enrolment,  al  1<  ast  Kevcii,  if  not  ten  years 
i)efore  the  ppeccli  delivered  by  (Jamiiliel.  (.\cIhv.  34 — 40.)  lie  seein*  to 
have  been  «upiH>rted  by  gin-iller  numliers  than  the  Bccond  of  ihal  nniiio, 
and  (as  the  .second  ofterwardB  did)  perished  In  the  alloiupt ;  but  as  bin  fo|. 
lowers  were  disperKiil,  and  not  Kl;iiinhlered,  like  tbohe  of  the  Kccond  Judas, 
RiirvlvoiB  niiiiht  talk  iimch  <if  him.  and  fiaiiKilicI  iiiiphi  li.Tve  been  p.irlicu- 
larly  informed  of  hi.s  hisUirv,  Ihoiijjb  Josephus  only  menlions  It  in  general 
lerinK.  .See  Dr.  l.anliiei  'h  Credibillly,  part  i.  book  ll.  en.  vii.  (VVoiki*,  vol.  I, 
pp.  400—413.)     Dr.  Doddridjjc  on  Aets  v.  36. 

>  ApparatuH  lldillcnx,  vol.  1.  p.  !^J. 

•  Joaeiihiis,  .\iil.  Jiid.  lib.  xx.  c.  8.  i  10. 

■>  Ibid.  lib.  XX.  r.  8  5  I'..  De  Hell.  .hid.  lib.  ii.  c.  13.  5  .n.  Dr.  L-nrdncr's 
Credibility,  part  i.  book  ii.  ch.  viii.  (Works,  vol.  1.  pp.  414-410) 

•  See  particulaily  pp.  CO— 03.  of  the  present  voluuic. 


i 


Sect.  II.  §  1.] 


JEWISH  PEOPLE  AT  THE  TIME  OF  CHRIST'S  BIRTH. 


149 


Roman  magistrates,  they  were  not  allowed  to  enjoy  them  by 
their  chief  priests  and  popular  leaders,  whom  Josephus  cha- 
racterizes as  profligate  wretches,  who  had  purchased  their 
places  by  bribes  or  oy  acts  of  iniquity,  and  maintained  their 
ill-acquired  authority  by  the  most  flagitious  and  abominable 
crimes.  Nor  were  the  religious  creeas  of  these  men  more 
pure  :  having  espoused  the  principles  of  various  sects,  they 
suffered  themselves  to  be  led  away  by  all  the  prejudice  and 
animosity  of  party  (though,  as  in  the  case  of  our  Saviour, 
they  would  sometimes  abandon  them  to  promote  some  fa- 
vourite measure) ;  and  were  commonly  more  intent  on  the 
gratification  of  private  enmity,  than  studious  of  advancing  the 
cause  of  religion,  or  promoting  the  public  welfare.  The 
subordinate  and  inferior  members  were  infected  with  the  cor- 
ruption of  the  head  ;  the  priests,  and  the  other  ministers  of 
religion,  were  become  dissolute  and  abandoned  in  the  highest 
degree  ;  while  the  common  people,  instigated  by  examples 
so  depraved,  rushed  headlong  into  every  kind  of  iniquity, 
TxXid  by  their  incessant  seditions,  robberies,  and  extortions, 
armed  against  themselves  both  the  justice  of  God  and  the 
vengeance  of  men. 

Owiaff  to  these  various  causes,  the  great  mass  of  the  Jew- 
ish people  were  sunk  into  the  most  deplorable  ignorance  of 
Goa  and  of  divine  things.  Hence  proceeded  that  dissolute- 
ness of  manners  and  that  profligate  wickedness  which  pre- 
vailed among  the  Jews  during  Christ's  ministry  upon  earth ; 
in  allusion  to  which  the  divine  Sflviour  compares  the  people 
to  a  multitude  of  lost  sheep,  straying  without  a  shepherd 
(INIatt.  X.  6.  XV.  24.),  and  their  teachers,  or  doctors,  to 
blind  guides,  who  proiessed  to  instruct  others  in  a  way  with 
which  they  were  totally  unacquainted  themselves.'  (Matt. 
XV.  14.  John  ix.  39,  40.) 

More  particularly,  in  the  Ncw'Testament,^  "  the  Jews  are 
^  described  as  a  most  superstitious  and  bigoted  people,  at- 
tached to  the  iMosaic  ritual  and  to  the  whimsical  traditions 
of  their  elders,  with  a  zeal  and  fanaticism  approaching  to 
madness.  They  are  represented  as  a  nation  ot  hypocrites, 
assuming  the  most  sanctimonious  appearance  before  the 
world,  at  the  corners  of  crowded  streets  uttering  loud  and 
fervent  strains  of  rapturous  devotion,  merely  to  attract  the 
eyes  of  a  weak  and  credulous  multitude,  and  to  be  noticed 
and  venerated  by  them  as  mirrors  of  mortification  and  hea- 
venl3^-mindedness  ;  devoured  with  ostentation  and  spiritual 
pride ;  causing  a  trumpeter  to  walk  before  them  in  the 
streets,  and  make  proclamation  that  such  a  rabbi  w"as  going 
to  distribute  his  alms  ;  publicly  displaying  all  this  showy 
parade  of  piety  and  charity,  yet  privately  guilty  of  the  most 
unfeeling  cruelty  and  oppression ;  devouring  widows'  houses, 
stripping  the  helpless  widow  and  friendless  orphan  of  their 
property,  and  exposing  them  to  all  the  rigours  of  hunger  and 
nakedness  ;  clamouring.  The  'ii,ipk  ofihe  Lord  !  The  temple 
of  the  Lord!  making  conscience  of  paying  tithe  of  mint, 
anise,  and  cummin,  to  the  support  of  its  splendour  and 
priesthood,  but  in  practical  life  violating  and  trampling  upon 
the  first  duties  of  morality, — justice,  fidelity,  and  mercy, — as 
being  -viilgar  and  heathenish  attainments,  and  infinitely  be- 
low the  regard  of  exalted  saints  and  spiritual  perfectionists. 
Tlieir  great  men  were  to  an  incredible  degree  depraved  in 
their  morals,  many  of  them  Sadducees  in  principle,  and  in 
practice  the  most  profligate  sensualists  and  debauchees  ; 
their  atrocious  and  abandoned  wickedness,  as  Josephus  tes- 
tifies,' transcended  all  the  enormities  which  the  most  corrupt 
age  of  the  world  had  ever  beheld  ;  they  compassed  sea  and 
land  to  make  proselytes  to  Judaism  from  the  Pagans,  and, 
when  they  had  gained  these  converts,  soon  rendered  them, 
by  their  immoral  lives  and  scandalous  examples,  more  de- 
praved and  profligate  than  ever  they  were  betore  their  con- 
version. The  apostle  tells  them,  that  by  reason  of  their 
notorious  vices  their  religion  was  become  the  object  of  ca- 
lumny and  satire  among  the  heathen  nations.  The  name  of 
God  is  blasphemed  among  the  Gentiles  through  you  .">  (Rom. 

>  Mosheim's  Eccl.  Hist,  book  i.  part  i.  chap,  ii.,  and  also  his  Commsnta- 
ries  on  the  Affairs  of  Christians  before  tlie  time  of  Constantine  the  Great, 
vol.  i.  Introd.  ch.  ii.  Pritii  Introcluclio  ad  Lectionem  Novi  Testainenti,  c.  35. 
De  SLiujiaa  Populi  Judaici  corruptione,  tempore  Christi,  pp.  471 — i73. 

s  For  the  following  picture  of  the  melancholy  corruption  of  the  Jewisli 
church  and  people,  the  author  is  indebted  lo  Dr.  Harwood's  Introduction 
to  the  New  Testament,  (vol.  ii.  pp.  58.  01.) 

»  Josephus,  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  vii.  p.  1314.  Hudson.  Again,  says  this  hi^;to- 
rian,  '-They  were  universally  corrupt,  both  publicly  and  privately.  They 
vied  which  should  surpass  each  other  in  impiety  against  God  and  injustice 
towards  men."    Ibid. 

*  The  superstitious  credulity  of  a  Jew  was  proverbial  aiBong  the  hea- 
thens. Credat  Judaeus  Apella.  Ilorat.  Epictetus  mentions  and  exposes 
their  greater  attachment  to  their  ceremonies  than  to  the  duties  of  morality. 
Dissertationes,  lib.  i.  p.  115.  edit.  Upton.  See  also  Josephus  contra  Apion. 
V-  4S0.  'lavercamp. 


11.  24.)  And  in  his  Epistle  to  Titus,  he  informs  us  that  the 
Jews  in  speculation,  indeed,  acknowledged  a  God,  but  in 
practice  they  were  atheists ;  for  in  their  lives  they  were  abo- 
minally  immoral  and  abandoned,  and  the  contemptuous 
despisers  of  every  thing  that  was  virtuous.  They  profess 
that  they  know  God,  but  in  works  they  deny  him,  being  abomi- 
nable and  disobedient,  and  unto  every  good  wwk  reprobate. 
(Titus  i.  16.)  This  testimony  to  the  religious  and  moral 
character  of  the  Jewish  people,  by  Jesus  Christ  and  his 
apostles,  is  amply  corroborated  by  Josephus,  who  has  given 
us  a  true  estimate  of  their  principles  and  manners,  and  is 
also  confirmed  by  other  contemporary  historians.*  The  cir- 
cumstance of  their  nation  having  been  favoured  with  an  ex- 
plicit revelation  from  the  Deity,  instead  of  enlarging  their 
minds,  miserably  contracted  and  soured  them  with  all  the 
bitterness  and  leaven  of  theological  odium.  They  regarded  un- 
circumcised  heathens  with  sovereign  contempt,^  and  believed 
them  to  be  hated  by  God,  merely  because  they  were  born 
aliens  from  the  commonwealth  of  Israel,  and  lived  strangers 
to  their  covenant  of  promise.  They  would  not  eat  with 
them  (Acts  xi.  3.),  do  the  least  friendly  office  for  them,  or 
maintain  any  social  correspondence  andf  mutual  intercourse 
with  them.  The  apostle  comprises  their  national  character 
in  a  few  words,  and  it  is  a  just  one  :  They  v:cre  contrary  to 
all  nienJ  (1  Thess.  ii.  15.)  Th?  supercilious  insolence, 
with  which  the  mean  and  sclT'sh  notion  of  their  being  the 
only  favourites  of  heaven  and  enlightened  by  God  inflated 
them  as  a  people,  and  the  haughty  and  scornful  disdain  in 
which  they  held  the  heathens,  are  in  a  very  striking  manner 
characterized  in  the  following  spirited  address  of  St.  Paul  to 
them  : — Behold  !  thou  art  called  a  Jew,  and  restest  in  the  law, 
and  makest  thy  boast  of  God:  and  knowesi  his  will,  and  ap- 
provest  the  things  that  are  more  excellent,  being  instructed  out 
of  the  law,  and  art  confident  that  thou  thyself  art  a  guide  of  the 
blind,  a  light  of  them  which  are  in  darkness,  an  instructor  of 
the  foolish,  a  teacher  of  babes,  which  hast  thefo)-m  of  knowledge 
and  of  the  truth  in  the  law.  (Rom.  ii.  17 — 20.)  This  passage 
exhibits  to  us  a  faithful  picture  of  the  national  character  of 
this  people,  and  shows  us  how  much  they  valued  themselves 
upon  their  wisdom  and  superior  knowledge  of  religion,  arro- 
gating to  themselves  the  character  of  lights  and  guides,  and 
instructors  of  the  whole  world,  and  contemptuously  regard- 
ing all  the  heathen  as  blind,  as  babes,  and  as  fools. 

"  Another  ever  memorable  instance  of  the  national  pride 
and  arrogance  of  this  vain  and  ostentatious  people  is,  that 
when  our  Lord  was  discoursing  to  them  concerning  their 
pretensions  to  moral  liberty,  and  representing  the  ignoble 
and  despicable  bondage  in  which  sin  detains  its  votaries, 
they  imagined  this  to  be  an  indirect  allusion  to  the  present 
condition  of  their  country :  their  pride  was  instantly  in 
flames  ;  and  they  had  the  effrontery  and  impudence  openly  to 
assert,  that  they  had  always  been  free,  and  were  never  in 
bondage  to  any  man  (John  viii.  33.)  ;  though  every  child 
must  know  the  history  of  their  captivities,  must  know  that 
Judeea  was  at  that  very  time  a  conquered  province,  had  been 
subdued  by  Pompey,  and  from  that  time  had  paid  an  annual 
tribute  to  Rome.  Another  characteristic  which  distinguishes 
and  marks  this  people,  was  that  kind  of  evidence  which  they 
expected  in  order  to  their  reception  of  tmth.  Except  they 
saw  signs  and  wonders  they  wouhl  not  believe!  (John  iv.  48.) 
If  a  doctrine  proposed  to  their  acceptance  was  not  confirmed 
by  some  visible  displays  of  preternatural  power,  some  strik- 
ino-  phenomena,  the  clear  and  indubitable  evidences  of  an 
im'mediate  divine  interposition,  they  would  reject  it.     In  an- 

»  "I  cannot  forbear,"  says  Josephus,  "declaring  my  opinion,  though  the 
(leclai-ation  fills  me  with  great  emotion  and  regret,  that  if  the  Romans  had 
delayed  to  come  ai^ainst  these  wretches,  the  city  would  either  have  been 
ingulfed  by  an  earthquake,  overwhelmed  by  a  deluge,  or  destroyed  by  fire 
from  heaven,  as  Sodom  was  :  for  that  generation  was  far  more  enormously 
wicked  than  those  who  suffered  these  calamities."  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  v.  c.  13. 
p.  125t5.  "These  things  they  suftered,"  says  Origen,  "as  being  the  most 
abandoned  of  men."    Origen  contra  Celsu'm,  p.  \)2.    Cantab.  1677. 

6  "  The  Jews  are  the  only  people  who  refuse  all  friendly  intercourse  with 
every  other  nation,  and  esteem  all  mankind  as  enemies."  Diod.  Siculus, 
torn.  ii.  p.  524.  edit.  Wesseling,  Amstel.  1746.  "Let  him  be  to  thee  as  an 
heathen  man  and  a  publican."  (Matt,  xviii.  17.)  Of  the  extreme  detesta- 
tion and  abhorrence  which  the  Jews  had  for  the  Gentiles  we  have  a  very 
striking  example  in  that  speech  which  St,  Paul  addresses  to  them,  telling 
them  in  the  course  of  it,  that  God  had  commissioned  him  to  go  to  the  Gen- 
tiles. The  moment  he  had  pronounced  the  word,  the  wliole  assembly  was 
in  confusion,  tore  off  their  clothes,  rent  the  air  with  their  cries,  threw 
clouds  of  dust  into  it,  and  were  transported  into  the  last  excesses  of  rage 
and  madness.  "He 'said  unto  me,  Depart,  for  1  will  send  thee  far  hence 
unto  the  Gentiles:  they  gave  him  audience,"  says  the  sacred  historian, 
"  until  this  word,  and  then  lifted  up  their  voice  and  said.  Away  with  such 
a  fellow  from  the  earth  ;  for  it  is  not  fit  that  he  should  live,"  (Acts  xxii,  21.) 

t  This  character  of  the  Jewish  nation  is  confi.med  by  Tacitus,  and  ex- 
pressed almost  in  the  verv  words  of  the  Apostle,  "  Adversus  omnes  alios 
hostile  odium."    Tacit.  Hist.  hb.  v,  §  5.  vol.  iii.  p,  261.  edit.  Bipont. 


150 


ON  THE  DWELLINGS  OF  THE  JEWS. 


[Part  IV 


cient  timns.  f  r  a  series  of  many  years,  this  people  had  been 
favoured  with  numerous  signal  manifestations  from  heaven  : 
a  cloud  had  conducted  them  by  day,  and  a  ])illar  of  fire  by 
night ;  their  law  was  oivcn  them  accompanied  by  a  peculiar 
display  of  solemn  pomp  and  magnificence  ;  and  the  glory  of 
God  had  repeatedly  filled  their  temple.  Habituated  as  their 
understandings  had  been,  for  many  ages,  to  receive  as  truth 
only  what  should  be  attested  and  ratified  by  signs  from  hea- 
ven, and  by  some  grand  and  striking  phenomena  in  the  sky, 
it  was  natural  for  them,  long  accustomed  as  t'.uy  had  been 
to  this  kind  of  evidence,  to  ask  our  .Saviour  to  give  them 
some  sign  from  heaven  (Matt.  xvi.  1.),  to  exhibit  before  them 
some  amazing  and  stupendous  prodigy  in  the  air  to  convince 
them  of  the  dignity  and  divinity  of  his  charactL^r.  Tlf.  Jews, 
says  St.  Paul'  rcjuire  a  sign  (1  Cor.  i.  23.)  ;  it  was  that 
species  of  evidence  to  which  their  nation  hacl  been  accus- 
tomed. Thus  wc  read  that  the  Scribes  and  Pharisees  came 
to  John,  desiring  bvai  that  he- would  show  them  a  sign  from 
henven.  Again,  we  read  that  the  Jews  came  and  said  to 
Jesus,  ]Vkui  sign  showcst  thoa  unto  us,  seeing  that  thou  dost 
the^e  things?  Jesus  answered  and  said  unto  th'ni.  Destroy  tfi's 
temple,  and  in  three  dai/s  I  will  raise  it  up  !  (John  ii.  18,  19.) 
Wliat  kind  of  signs  these  were  which  they  expected,  and 
what  sort  of  preternatural  prodigies  they  wanted  him  to  dis- 
play in  order  to  authenticate  his  divine  mission  to  them,  ap- 
pears from  the  following  passages  :  They  said,  therefore,  unto 
niin.  What  sign  shmvcst  tliou  then,  that  ivc  may  see  and  believe 
thee  ?  What  dost  thou  work  ?  Our  fathers  did  eat  manna  in 
the  desert ,-  as  it  is  wriUco,  He  gai^e  them  bread  from  heaven  ! 
(John  vi.  30,  31.)  This  method,  therefore,  of  espousing 
religious  doctrines,  only  as  they  should  be  confirmed  by  some 
signal  and  indubitable  interpositioin  of  the  Deity,  and  their 
cherishing  the  vanity  and  presumption  that  heaven  would 
la\'ish  its  miraculous  signs  whenever  they  called  for  them, 
constitute  a  striking  and  very  distinguishing  feature  in  the 
national  character  of  this  people." 

So   exceedingly  great  was   the   fecundity  of  the  Jewish 
people,  that  multitudes  of  tliem  had  occasionally  been  con- 


strained to  emigrate  from  their  native  country ;  hence,  at  the 
time  of  our  Saviour's  birth,  there  was  scarcely  a  province  in 
the  Roman  empire  in  which  tliey  were  not  to  be  found,  either 
serving  in  the  army,  engaged  in  the  pursuits  of  commerce, 
or  exercising  some  lucrative  arts.  They  were  maintained, 
in  foreign  countries,  against  injurious  treatment  and  violence, 
by  various  special  edicts  of  the  emperors  and  magistrates  in 
their  favour ;'  though  from  the  peculiarities  of  their  religion 
and  manners,  they  were  held  in  ver}'  general  contempt,  and 
were  not  unfrcquonlly  exposed  to  much  vexation  and  annoy- 
ance, from  the  jealousy  and  indignation  of  an  ignorant  and 
superstitious  populace.  Many  or  them,  in  conseciuence  of 
their  long  residence  and  intercourse  with  foreign  nations,  fell 
into  the  error  of  endeavouring  to  make  their  religion  accom- 
modate itself  to  the  princijjles  and  institutions  of  some  of  the 
different  systems  or  heathen  discipline;  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  it  is  clear  that  the  Jews  brought  many  of  those  among 
whom  they  resided  to  perceive  the  superiority  of  the  iMosaic 
religion  over  the  Gentile  superstitions,  and  were  highly  in- 
strumental in  causing  them  to  forsake  the  worship  of  a  plu- 
rality of  gods.  Although  the  knowledge  which  Inc  Gentiles 
thus  acquired  from  the  Jews  respecting  the  only  t[ue  God, 
the  Creator  and  Governor  of  the  universe,  was,  doubtless, 
both  partial  and  limited,  yet  it  inclined  many  of  them  the 
more  readily  to  listen  to  the  subsequent  arguments  and  ex- 
hortations of  the  apostles  of  our  Saviour,  for  the  purpose  of 
exploding  the  worship  of  false  deities,  and  recalling  men  to 
the  knowledge  of  true  religion.  All  which,  Moslieim  ob- 
serves, with  equal  truth  and  piety,  appears  to  have  been  most 
singularly  and  wisely  directed  by  the  adorable  hand  of  an 
interposing  Providence:  to  the  end  that  this  people,  who 
were  the  sole  depository  of  the  true  religion  and  of  the  know- 
ledge of  the  one  supreme  God,  being  spread  abroad  through 
the  whole  earth,  migiit  be  every  whore,  by  their  example,  a 
reproach  to  superstition,  contribute  in  some  measure  to  check 
it,  and  thus  prepare  the  way  for  that  fuller  display  of  divine 
truth  which  was  to  shine  upon  the  world  from  tlie  ministry 
and  Gospel  of  the  Son  of  God.^ 


PART  TV. 

DOMESTIC    ANTIQUITIES    OF    THE    JEWS,    AND    OF    OTHER    NATIONS   INCIDENTALLY 

MENTIONED    IN   THE    SCRIPTURES. 

CHAPTER  I. 

ON    THE    nWEM-lNGS    OF    THE    JEWS. 


I.   Caves. — n.  Tents. — HI.  Houset — Their  .irravi^ement — Jfaterials — and  Conveniences. — IV.  Furniture. — V.   Cities, 

J\larkets,  and  Gates. 


1.  As  men,  in  the  primitive  condition  of  nociety,  were  un- 
acquainted with  the  arts,  they,  of  course,  were  not  able  to 
build  themselves  hotises  ;  they  abode,  therefore,  necessarily 
under  the  shade  of  trees.     It  is  j)rol)ahle  that  when  mankind 


began  to  multiply  on  the  earth,  tbev  dwelt  in  Caves,  many 
Cf  Vvhich,  in  the  Holy  Land,  are  both  canarimis  and  dry,  and 
Htill  afford  occasional  shelter  to  the  wanoering  shepherds  and 


their  llocks.  Thus,  Lot  and  iiis  daughters  abode  in  a  cave, 
after  the  destruction  of  Sodom.  (Gen.  xix.  30.)  Ancient 
historians''  contain  many  notic<:s  of  troglodytes,  or  dwdhrs 
in  caves,  and  modern  travellers  have  met  with  them  in  13ar- 

•  In  proof  of  this  ob.icrvalinn,  Moshclm  refers  (<>  .Inrobl  Ornnnvli  Pn- 
crcLi  Iloiiiana  r-l  Aninlicn  pro  Jii(la-i«nil  riilliiiii  ilivuriin  per  AkI.i-  MiiicirJH 
uriies  Hfciin-  uliiMiiuliirn.  I.in<l.  ilat.  \j\i.  hv».  rt'-f  ulfio  Dr.  l.nr<tii(T't> 
Cf  '  '  '  •  ;  TPt  I.  I.ouk  I.  cli.  h.  (W.irk'i,  vr,l.  i.  pp.  IM—xVl.)  wliurt  mi- 
ni' i  !i-  iiKiiiiionifs  nrc  a<l'lucc<l. 

»  .M  .  CDiiiiiiciilancM,  vol  1.  p.  lOC.     Rcr).  Hint.  yoI.  I.  n.  C2.  ftilit. 

1806.  U<?aiiip8  tin;  nniliorilics  rilnl  in  t)ip  pr<>rpiliiia  clinpter,  (he  Jewish 
MCla,  tut.  »r<»  Inrc'-ly  iliHcusiw-il  l>y  I'riilejiiu,  Coiim'i  lion,  hook  v.  vi't  ii. 
pp.  SriS — ."*>►<.  Iti'lniicit  An'l'i.  ."'ncr.  Ilchrfforiini,  pp.  'J^ir^.  tl  iiftj.  Ikeniun, 
Antlci,  M'lir.  PI'  ''■',-\'l.  Sctmrliiil  l)ic|:tl!i  it)  lkc'ii:iiiii.  pp.  -iW.  it  /tn/.  Dr 
Mackriight'H  llaniiMiiy,  v'>l.  i.  disc  1.  I^ainyN  Appniiiliiii  IlilillriiK,  vol.  i 
pp.  l£^r>— '.il.').  I)r  l.:('r<lii>r'«  (^roililiiliiv,  pari  I.  Imnk  t.  ili.  1.  I.cu.j'li'n's 
Pliilologiig  Hcbra^o-MijEtus,  pp.  133—170.'  Hiidrlti  Ill-it.  J'iiiloaophla!  Hebr.i; 
orum,  pp.  96.  el  se<j. 

•  llnrudoiiiH,  lib.  ill.  e.74.  iJlod.  Hie.  lib.  ill.  c.31.  Quinlus  Curiius,  lib. 
V.  c.  6.    Joctplius,  Ant.  J\i(t  liU  av  c.  1.  i  1. 


bary  and  Egypt,  as  well  as  in  various  other  parts  of  the 
East.'  The  lloriies,  who  dwelt  on  Mount  Seir,  the  Zain- 
zummim,  and  the  Einims  or  Anakim,  are  supposed  to  have 
resided  in  caves. 

II.  In  succeeding  ages,  they  abod^  generally  in  Tents,  as 
the  Arabs  of  the  Ui'sert  do  to  this  day.  The  invention  of 
these  is  ascribed  to  J;ilial  the  son  of  Lamceli,  who  is,  there- 
fore, termed  tho  father  (f  such  as  dwell  in  tents.  (Gen.  iv.  20.) 
The  patriarchs  pitched  their  tents  where  they  pleased,  ana, 
it  should  seem,  under  the  shade  f>f  trees  whenever  this  was 
])racticable.  'i'hns,  Abraliiim's  tent  was  pitched  under  a  treo 
in   the   plains  of  Manire  ((ien.  xviii.  1.),  and  Deborali  the 

froj'hetess  dwelt  under  a  palm  tree  between  Ham;ib  and 
Jethel,  in  Mount  Ephraim.  (Judg.  iv.  5.)  In  the  Eiist,  to 
this  day,  it  is  the  cusloia  in  many  places  to  plant  about  and 
among  their  l)nilding8  trees,  which  grow  noth  high  and 
l)roa(l,and  aff'ord  a  cooling  and  refrr'sbing  shade.  It  appears 
from  1  Kings  iv.  Sr).  that  this  practice  anciently  obtained  in 
Juda'a,  and  that  vines  and  fig  trees  were  commonly  u<5rd  for 
tiiis  purpose.  The.sc  trees  furnished  two  great  iirlicles  of 
food  for  their  consumption,  and  the  cuttings  of  their  vinei 

♦  The  inhaliiluilH  of  Anal),  a  town  on  llio  oasl  of  Hie  river  Jordan  (lal.  32. 
li)ii(t.  3.".  Iv),  nil  livf  in  (irnlIoi-K  or  ravfs  c.xruvalcd  In  llic  rock,  iliicking- 
haw'*  Travels  among  iliu  Arab  Tribes,  p.  61. 


Chap.  I.] 


ON  THE  DWELLINGS  OF  THE  JEWS, 


151 


would  be  useful  to  them  for  fuel.  The  tents  of  the  emirs 
and  sovereigns  of  the  East  are  both  lar^e  and  magnificent, 
and  furnished  with  costly  hangings.  Those  of  the  Turco- 
mans are  said  to  be  black ;'  and  those  of  the  Turks  green : 
but,  according  to  D'Arvieux,  Dr.  Shaw,  and  M,  Volney,  the 
tents  of  the  Bedouins,  or  Arabs  of  the  Desert,  are  univer- 
sally blacks  or  of  a  very  dusky  brown.  To  these  the  bride 
in  the  Canticles  compares  herself  (i,  5.) — /  am  black  (or, 
fawneij)  as  ike  tents  of  Kedar,  but  comely,  or  beautiful  as  the 
curtains  of  Solomon.  In  the  East,  those  who  lead  a  pastoral 
life  frequently  sit  (as  Abraham  did)  in  the  tent-door  in  the 
heat  of  the  day.  (Gen.  xviii.  1.)  The  Arabian  tents  are  of 
an  oblong  figure,  supported  according  to  their  size,  some 
with  one  pillar,  others  with  two  or  three,  while  a  curtain  or 
carpet,  occasionally  let  down  from  each  of  these  divisions, 
converts  the  whole  into  so  many  separate  apartments.  These 
tents  are  kept  firm  and  steady  by  bracing  or  stretching  down 
their  eaves  with  cords,  tied  to  hooked  wooden  pins,  well 
pointed,  which  they  drive  into  the  ground  with  a  mallet : 
one  of  these  pins  answering  to  the  nail,  us  the  mallet  does 
to  the  hammer,  which  Jael  used  in  fastening  the  temples  of 
Sisera  to  the  ground.  (Judg.  iv.  21.)  In  these  dwellings 
the  Arabian  shepherds  and  their  families  repose  upon  the 
bare  ground,  or  with  only  a  mat  or  carpet  heneath  them. 
Those  who  are  married  have  each  of  them  a  portion  of  the 
tent  to  themselves  separated  by  a  curtain. ^  Tne  more  opu- 
lent Arabs,  however,  always  have  two  tents,  one  for  them- 
selves, and  another  for  their  wives,  besides  others  for  their 
servants ;  in  like  manner,  a  particular  tent  was  allotted  to 
Sarah.  (Gen.  xxiv.  67.)  When  travelling,  they  were  care- 
ful to  pitch  their  tents  near  some  river,  fountain,  or  well. 
(ISam.  xxix.  1.  xxx.  21.)  In  countries  subject  to  violent 
tempests  as  well  as  to  intolerable  heat,  a  portable  tent  is  a 
necessary  part  of  a  traveller's  baggage,  both  for  defence  and 
shelter.  To  this  the  prophet  Isaiah  appears  to  allude. 
(iv.  6.)' 

III.  In  progress  of  time  men  erected  Houses  for  their  habi- 
tations: those  of  the  rich  were  formed  of  stone  or  bricks,  but 
the  dwellings  of  the  poor  were  formed  of  wood,  or  more  fre- 
quently of  mud,  as  they  arc  to  this  day  in  the  East  Indies  \^ 
which  material  is  but  ill  calculated  to  resist  the  effects  of  the 
impetuous  torrents,  that  descended  from  the  mountains  of 
Palestine."^  Our  Lord  alludes  to  this  circumstance  at  the 
close  of  his  sermon  on  the  mount.  (JVIatt.vii.  2l>,  27.)   In  the 

«  Emerson's  Letters  from  the  JE^ean,  vnl.  i.  p.  192. 

«  From  Hit,  a  town  on  the  banks  of  tlio  Euphi'ates,  to  Ililla,  the  site  of 
ancient  Babylon,  "l\\e  black  tp.iit  oi  \.\\e  Bedouin,  formefl  of  strong  cloth 
made  of  goat's  hair  and  wool  mixed,  supported  by  low  poles,  is  almost  the 
only  kind  of  habitation  met  with."  (Capt.  Chesney's  Reports  on  the  Navi- 
gation of  tlic  Euphrates,  p.  3.  London,  1833.  folio.)  The  lllyauts,  a  wan- 
dering tribe  of  Arabs,  have  black  tents.  (Hon.  Capt.  Keppel's  Narrative 
of  Travels  from  India  io  England,  vol.  i.  p.  ioO.) 

'  Shaw's  Travels,  vol.  i.  pp.  .398,  S99.  The  description  jriven  by  the  intelll- 
pcnt  traveller  Mr.  Buckingham  of  the  tent  of  the  Sheili  Barak,  who  wa.?  at 
the  head  of  a  tribe  of  Turcomans,  wandering  in  the  vicinity  of  Aleppo, 
will  enable  us  to  form  some  idea  of  the  shape  and  arrangement  of  the  tent 
of  the  patriarch,  Abraham.  "The  tent  occupied  a  space  of  about  thirty 
feel  square,  and  was  formed  1  y  one  large  awning,  supported  by  twenty-four 
small  poles  in  four  rows  of  six  each,  the  ends  of  the  awning  being  drawn 
out  by  cords  fastened  to  pegs  in  the  ground.  Each  of  these  poles  giving  a 
pointed  form  to  the  part  of  the  awning,  which  it  supported,  the  outside 
looked  like  a  number  of  umbrella  tops,  or  small  Chinese  spires.  The 
lialf  of  this  square  was  open  in  front  and  at  the  sides,  having  two  rows  of 
poles  clear,  and  the  third  was  closed  by  a  reeded  partition,  behind  which 
was  the  apartment  for  females,  surrounded  entirely  by  the  same  kind  of 

matting." "When  the  three  angels  arc  said  to  have  appeared  in  the 

plains  of  Mamre,  he  is  represented  as  siuing  in  the  tent-door  in  the  heat 
of  the  day."  (Gen.  xviii.  1—10.)  "  'And  when  he  saw  them,  he  ran  to 
meet  them  from  the  tent-door,  and  bowed  himself  towards  the  ground. . . . 
And  -Abraham  hastened  into  the  tent  unto  Sarah,  and  said.  Make  ready 
quickly  three  measures  of  fine  meal,  knead  it,  and  make  cakes  upon  the 
hearth.  And  he  took  butter,  and  milk,  and  the  calf  which  he  had  dressed, 
and  set  it  before  them,  and  lie  stood  by  them,  under  the  tree,  and  they  did 
cat.'  When  inriuiry  was  made  after  his  wife,  he  replied,  'Ileliold,  she  is 
ire  the  tent.'    And  when  it  was  promised  him  that  Sarah  should  have  a  son, 

it  is  said,  '  And  Sarah  heard  in  the  tent-door  which  was  behind  him.' 

The  form  of  Abraham's  tent,  as  thus  described,  seems  to  have  been  ex- 
actly like  the  one  in  which  we  sit:  for  in  both  there  was  a  shaded  open 
front  in  which  he  could  sit  in  the  heat  of  the  day,  and  yet  be  seen  from  afar 
off;  and  the  apartment  of  the  females,  where  Sarah  was,  when  he  stated 
her  to  be  within  the  tent,  was  immediately  behind  this,  wherein  she  pre- 
pared the  meal  for  the  guests,  and  from  whence  she  listened  to  their  pro- 
plietic  declaration."    Travels  in  Me.<!Opotanii;i,  vol.  i.  pp.  30.  .33,  34. 

«  Bp.  Lowth  on  Isaiah  iv.  6.  Pareau,  Antiq.  IXebr.  pp.  35.3—356.  Bru- 
nine,  Antiq.  Hebr.  p.  273.    Jahn  et  Ackermann,  Archaeol.  Biblica,  §§  26 — 31. 

f  In  Bengal  and  Ceylon,  as  well  as  in  Egypt,  houses  are  constructed  with 
this  frail  material.  Dr.  Oavy's  Accoimt  of  tiie  Interior  of  Ceylon,  p.  256. 
See  also  Harmer's  Observations,  vol.  I.  pp.  265.  2S5.  The  houses  at  Mousul 
"arc  mostly  constructed  of  small  imlijjwn  stones,  cemented  by  mortar, 
and  plastered  over  with  mud,  though  -some  are  built  of  burnt  and  unburnt 
bricks."    Buckingham's  Travels  in  Mesopotamia,  vol.  ii.  p.  28. 

6  fiee  instances  of  the  frailly  of  these  tenements  in  Dr.  Shaw's  Travels, 
vol.  i.  p.  250.  Belzoni's  Researches  in  Egypt,  p.  299.,  and  Ward's  View  of 
the  History,  &c.  of  the  Hindoos,  vol.  ii.  p.  335. 


Indies,  also,  nothing  is  more  common  than  for  thieves  to  dig 
or  break  through  these  mud  walls,  while  the  unsuspecting 
inhabitants  are  overcome  by  sleep,  and  to  plunder  them.?  To 
similar  depredations  Jesus  Christ  appears  to  allude,  when  he 
exhorts  his  disciples  not  to  lay  up  their  treasure  where 
thieves  break  through  and  steal.  (Matt.  vi.  19,  20.)  Job  also 
seems  to  refer  to  the  same  practice,  (xxiv.  16.)  In  the  holes 
and  chinks  of  these  walls  serpents  sometimes  concealed 
themselves.  (Amos  v.  19.)  In  Egypt,  it  appears  from  Exod. 
V.  7.  that  straw  ancieiitly  entered  into  the  composition  of 
bricks  ;  and  some  expositors  have  imagined  that  it  was  used 
(as  with  us)  merely  tor  burning  them  ;  but  this  notion  is  un- 
founded. The  Egyptian  bricks  were  a  mixture  of  clay,  mud^ 
and  straw,  slightly  blended  and  kneaded  together,  and  after- 
wards baked  in  the  sun.  Philo,  in  his  life  of  Moses,  says, 
that  they  used  straw  to  bind  their  bricks.^  The  straw  still 
preserves  its  original  colour,  and  is  a  proof  that  these  bricks 
were  never  burnt  in  stacks  or  kilns.^  Part  of  the  bricks  of 
the  celebrated  tower  of  Babel  (or  of  Belu^  as  the  Greeks 
termed  it)  were  made  of  clay  mixed  with  chopped  straw,  or 
broken  reeds,  to  compact  it,  and  then  dried  in  the  sun.  Their 
solidity  is  equal  to  that  of  the  hardest  stone.'o  Among  the 
ruins  discovered  on  the  site  of  ancient  Nineveh,  are  houses, 
built  of  sun-dried  bricks,  cemented  with  mud ;  and  similarly 
constructed  dwellings  were  observed  by  Mr.  Buckingham  in 
the  village  of  Karagoosh,  near  Mousul  in  Mesopotamia."  At 
this  day  the  town  of  Busheher  (or  Bushire),  like  most  of  the 
towns  in  Persia,  is  built  with  sun-dried  bricks  and  mud,''. 
There  is  an  allusion  to  this  mode  of  building  in  Nahum 
iii.  14. 

At  first,  houses  were  small ;  afterwards  they  were  larger, 
especially  in  extensive  cities,  the  capitals  of  empires.  The 
art  of  multiplying  stories  in  a  building  is  very  ancient,  as  we 
may  conclude  from  the  construction  of  Noah's  ark  and  the 
tower  of  Babel.  The  houses  in  Babylon,  according  to  Hero- 
dotus,'^  were  three  and  four  stories  high  ;  and  those  in  Thebes 
or  Diospolis,'^  in  Egypt,  were  four  or  five  stories.  In  Pales- 
tine they  appear  to  have  been  low,  during  the  time  of  Joshua; 
an  upper  story,  though  it  may  have  existed,  is  not  mentioned 
till  a  more  recent  age.  The  houses  of  the  rich  and  powerful 
in  Palestine,  in  the  time  of  Christ,  were  splendid,  and  were 
built  according  to  the  rules  of  Grecian  architecture.'* 

Of  all  modern  travellers,  no  one  has  so  happily  described 
the  form  and  structure  of  the  eastern  bufldings  as  Dr.  Shaw, 
from  whose  account  the  following  particulars  are  derived, 
which  admirably  elucidate  several  interesting  passages  of 
Holy  Writ.  • 

"The  streets  of  the  cities,  the  better  to  shade  them  from 

'  Ward's  History,  &c.  of  the  Hindoos,  vol.  ii.  p.  325. 

8  Philonis  Opera,  tom.  ii.  p.  86.  (edit.  Mangey.) 

0  Shaw's  Travels,  vol.  i.  p.  250.  Mr.  Belzoni,  in  his  Researches  in  Egypt, 
found  similar  bricks  in  an  ancient  arch  which  lie  discovered  at  Thebes,  ana 
which  he  has  engraved  among  the  plates  illustrative  of  his  Researches  in 
Egypt,  Nubia,  &c.  Plate  xliv.  No.  2.  In  and  near  the  ruins  of  the  ancient 
Tenlyra,  Dr.  Richardson  also  found  huts  built  of  sun-dried  brick,  made  of 
straw  and  clay.  (Travels,  vol.  i.  pp.  185.  259.)  They  are  thus  described  by 
the  Rev.  Mr.  Jowett,  as  they  appeared  in  February,  1819.— Speaking  of  the 
remains  of  ancient  buildings  in  that  part  of  Egypt,  he  says,—"  These  mag- 
nificent edifices,  while  they  display  tjhe  gianaeur  of  former  times,  exhibTt 
no  less  the  meanness  of  the  present.  This  temple,  built  of  massive  stone, 
with  a  portico  of  twenty-four  pillars,  adorned  with  innumerable  hieroglyph- 
ics, and  painted  with  beaiitifiil  colours,  the  brightness  of  which  in  many 
parts  remains  to  this  day,  is  choked  up  with  dusty  earth.  Village  after  vil- 
lage, built  of  unburnt  brick,  crumbling  into  ruins,  and  giving  place  to  new 
habitations,  have  raised  the  earth,  in  some  parts,  nearly  to  the  level  of  the 
summit  of  the  temple;  and  fragments  of  the  walls  of  these  mud  huts  appear 
even  on  the  roof  of  the  temple.  In  every  part  of  Egypt,  we  find  the  towns 
built  in  this  manner,  upon  the  ruins,  or  rather  the  rubbish,  of  the  former 
habitation.  The  expression  in  Jeremiah  xxx.  18.  hterally  applies  to  Egypt 
in  the  very  meanest  sense — The  city  shall  be  buildeclnpon  her  own  heap; 
and  the  expression  in  Job  xv.  28.  might  be  illustrated  by  many  of  these 
deserted  hovels — He  dweUeth  in  desolate  cities,  and  in  houses  which  no 
man  inhabiteth,  which  are  ready  to  become  heaps.  Still  more  touching  is 
the  allusion  in  Job  iv.  19.  ;  where  the  perishing  generations  of  men  are 
filly  compared  to  habitations  of  the  frailest  materials,  built  ufion  the  heap 
of  similar  dwelling  places,  now  reduced  to  rubbish — How  much  less  in  them 
that  dwell  in  houses  of  clay,  whose  foundation  is  in  the  dxist!" — (Jowett'a 
Researches  in  the  Mediterranean,  pp.  131,  132.)— In  one  place,  says  the 
same  intelligent  traveller,  "the  people  were  making  bricks,  with  straw  cut 
into  small  pieces,  and  mingled  with  the  clay  to  bind  it.  Hence  it  is,  that, 
when  villages  built  of  these  bricks  fall  into  rubbish,  which  is  often  the 
case,  the  roads  are  full  of  small  particles  of  straws  extremely  offensive  to 
the  eyes  in  a  high  wind.  They  were,  in  short,  engaged  exactly  as  the  Israel- 
ites used  to  be,  making  bricks  with  straw;  and  for  a  similar  purpose— to 
build  extensive  granaries  for  the  bashaw;  treasure-cities  for  Pharaoh." 
E.xod.  i.  11.     (Ibid.  p.  167.) 

10  Sir  R.  K.  Porter's  Travels  in  Georgia,  Persia,  Babylonia,  &c.  vol.  ii.  pp. 
329  330 

11  Buckingham's  Travel.';  in  Mesopotamia,  vol.  ii.  p.  71. 

i»  Price's  Journal  of  the  British  Embassy  to  Persia,  part  i.  p.  6.  Lond. 
1825.  folio. 
n  Herodot.  lib.  i.  c.  1£0.  "  Djod.  Sic.  lib.  i.  c.  45. 

IS  Jahn  et  Ackermann,  Archajol.  Bibl.  §  33. 


.53 


ON  THE  DWELLINGS  OF  THE  JEWS. 


the  sun,  are  usually  narrow,  sometimes  v^ilh  a  ranfre  of  shops 
on  each  side.     If  from  these  we  ent:;r  into  any  of  the  princi- 
pal houses,  we  shall  first  pass  throupfh  a  porch'  or  gateway, 
with  benches  on  each  side,  where  the  master  of  the  family 
receives  visits,  and  despatches  business;  few  persons,  not 
even  the  nearest  relations,  having  admission  any  farther, 
except  upon  extraordinary  occasions.     From  hence  wc  are 
received  into  the  court,  which  lying  open  to  the  weather,  is, 
according  to  the  ability  of  the  owner,  paved  with  marble,  or 
such  proper  materials  as  will  carry  of!"  the  water  into  the  com- 
mon sewers."   This  court  corresponded  to  the  cwva  adium  or 
impluvium  of  the  Romans ;  the  use  of  which  was  to  give  light 
to  the  windows  and  carry  olTthe  rain.   "  When  much  people 
are  to  be  admitted,  as  upon  the  celebration  of  a  marriage,  the 
circumcising  of  a  child,  or  occasions  of  the  like  nature,  the 
company  is  seldom  or  never  admitted  into  one  of  the  cham- 
bers.    The  court  is  the  usual  place  of  their  reception,  which 
is  strewed  accordingly  with  mats  or  carpets,  for  their  more 
commodious  entertainment.     The  stairs  which  lead  to  tlie 
roof  are  never  jrtaced  on  the  outside  of  the  house  in  the  street, 
but  usually  at  the  gateway  or  passage  room  to  the  court ; 
sometimes  at  the  entrance  within  the  court.     This  court  is 
now  called  in  Arabic  el  wuuxt,  or  tlic  middle  of  the  house. 
literally  answering  to  the  TO  ^.st:v  of  St.  Luke.  (v.  19.)  Litliis 
area  our  Saviour  probably  taught.   In  the  summer  season,  and 
upon  all  occasions  when  a  larw  company  is  to  be  received, 
the  court  is  commonly  sheltered  from  the  heat  and  inclemen- 
cies of  the  weather  by  a  vellum  umbrella  or  veil,  which,  being 
expanded  unon  ropes  from  one  side  of  the  parallel  wall  to  the 
other,  may  De  folded  or  unfolded  at  pleasure.     The  Psalmist 
seems  to  allude  either  to  the  tents  of  the  Bedouins,  or  to  some 
.covering  of  this  kind,  in  that  beautiful  expression,  of  spreading 
out  the  heavens  like  a  veil  or  curtain.''''  (Psal.  civ.  2.    See  also 
Isaiah  xl.  22. )2    The  arrangement  of  oriental  houses  satis- 
factorily explains  the  circumstances  of  the  Idling  down  of 
the  paralytic  into  the  presence  of  Jesus  Christ,  iu  order  that 
he  might  heal  him.  (iNIark  ii.  4.  Luke  v.  19.)     The  paralytic 
was  carried  by  some  of  his  neighbours  to  the  top  of  the  bouse, 
either  by  forcmg  their  way  through  the  crowd  by  the  gateway 
and  passages  iip  the  staircase,  or  else  by  conveying  him  over 
some  of  the  neighbouring  terraces  ;  and  there,  after  tlioy  had 
drawn  away  the  (rnym  or  awning,  they  let  him  down  along 
the  side  of  the  roof  through  the  opening  or  impluvium  int<> 
the  viidH  of  the  conx*  before  Jesus,     ^rr^i,  Dr.  Shaw  remarks, 
may  with  propriety  denote  no  less  than  tatlllo  (the  corres- 
ponding word  in  the  Syriac  version),  any  kind  of  covering ; 
and,  consequently,  anTrr^ -j^uv  may  signify,  the  removal  of 
such  a  covering.     "E^ipj-^tvTs;  is  in  the  A'ulgate  Latin  version 
rendered  putefacicntes.,  as  if  further  explanatory  of  UTriTTiyxc-^y . 
The  same  in  the  Persian  version  is  connected  with  na-xjijix'TC)/, 
and  there  implies  making  holes  in  it  for  the  cords'  to  4)ass 
through.     That  neither  am^nty^TaM  nor  ef-fy^avTs;  imply  any 
force  or  violence  offered  to  the  roof,  appears  from  the  i)arallel 
passage  m  St.  Luke;  wlirre,  though  cfi*  t::!-  ;cefx^a,v  x^^-oxx/ 
«!/Tov,  per  tei^ulus  dcmiserunt  ilium,  is  rendered  by  our  trans- 
lators, they  let  him  down  throu<rh  the  t'lintr,  as  ii"  that  had  been 
prnvinnaly  broken  up.  it  should  be  rendered,  thei/  H  liimdown 
over,  along  the  side,  or  by  the  way  nf  the  ronf  as  in  Acts  ix. 
25.  and  2  Cor.  xi.  33.,  where  the  like  phraseology  is  observed 
as  in  St.  Luke :  ht.  is  rendered  in  both  places  by,  that  is, 
along  the  side,  or  by  the  way  of  the  wall.     'l-|cf.i/|avT«  may 
express  the  plucking  away  or  removing  any  obstacle,  such  as 
awning  or  part  of  a  parapet,  which  might  be  in  their  way. 
Kv«/M5i  was  first  used  for  a  roof  of  tiles,  but  afterwards  came 
to  signify  any  kind  of  roof.^ 

The  following  diagram  will  perhaps  give  the  reader  a 
toli;rably  accurate  idea  of  tlie  arrangemi;nt  of  un  eastern 
house : — 

«  In  Bengal,  genranta  ari'l  otliers  genorallv  sleep  in  ihc  vprBiula))  or  porch, 
in  front  of  their  niastnr'o  Iioiihc.  (Wani'H  History,  Ac.  of  llio  iliiidoos, 
vol.  il.  p.  323.)  Tlie  Arah  srrvaiils  in  Kgypi  (l(j  (lie  saini-.  (Wjl.son'a  Tra- 
TelH  in  Ksypt  ami  the  Holy  I.;ini!.  p.  m.)  In  llli^'  way  I'tinh  Hlrpi  „l  the 
nf  tht  king'H  linusc,  leilh  nit  llf  mTrintlH  iif  liU  lard.  (2  Sam.  xi.  9.) 
»r.  ShBw'B  Travels,  vol.  i.  pp  .•J7.|— 370, 
'  *'''»w'8  Travels  in  Uarbary,  6cc.  vol.  i..pp.  3SJ— ."BJ.  8vo.  cdilion.  Val- 
'  .T. '•'•■'"•  "" '"^'ark  il.  1.  "If  the  rircuinHtiiiices  rrlnlcil  l>vlhe  i-vanu'i' 
lapprneil  in  hvlia,  nolliiiijj  couM  lie  ra.sier  llinn  the  nrnlu  oflfjliiu' 


tfoa 

»nr 


h.til  111 


py' 

down  the  paralytic.  A  [ilank  or'lwo  inii(ht  be  stflrloirfroin  the  top  ilaT 
cony  or  viranilM  in  the  hack  court,  wli.>ri'  llio  roni{rP(,'alion  was  pn.hal.ly 
asseinh  f.l,  and  tho  m^n  (t,cj  let  down  in  his  hamtnock."  Cillaway-i 
Onentiil  Observations,  p.  71.  •' 


c 


D 


C 


B 


[Pakt  IV 


A,  A,  the  street. 
U,  the  outer  porch. 
C,  C,  C,  the  gaUery. 


D,  tlip  porch  at  the 
entrance  into  the 
main  building. 


A 


Now,  let  it  be  supposed,  that  Jesus  was  sitting  at  D  in  the 
porch,  at  the  entrance  into  the  main  building,  and  speaking 
to  the  ))eoplc,  when  the  four  men  carrying  thi;  paralytic  came 
to  the  front  gate  or  porch,  B.  Finding  the  porch  so' crowded 
that  they  could  not  carr)'  him  in  and  lay  him  before  Jesus, 
they  carried  him  up  the  stairs  at  the  porch  to  the  toi)  of  the 
gallery,  C,  C,  C,  and  along  the  gallery  round  to  tne  place 
where  Jesus  was  sitting,  and  forcing  a  passage  by  removing 
the  balustrade,  they  lowered  dov.-n  the  paralytic,  with  the 
couch  on  which  he  lay,  into  the  court  before  Jesus.  Thus  we 
are  enabled  to  understand  the  manner  in  which  the  ])aralytic 
was  brought  in  and  laid  before  the  compassionate  Redeemer.^ 

"  The  court  is  for  the  most  j)art  surrounded  with  a  cloister, 
as  the  cava  sedium  of  the  Romans  was  with  a  peristylium  or 
colonnade,  over  which,  when  tlic  bouse  has  one  or  more 
stories  (and  they  sometimes  have  two  or  throe),  there  is  a 
gnller)^  erected  of  the  same  dimensions  with  the  cloister, 
having  a  balustrade,  or  else  a  piece  of  carved  or  latticed 
work  going  round  about  it,  to  prevent  people  from  falling 
from  it  into  the  court.  From  the  cloisters  and  galleries  we 
are  conducted  into  large  spacious  chambers  of  the  same 
length  of  the  court,  but  seldom  or  never  communicating  with 
one  another.  One  of  them  fre(iuently  .serves  a  wlujle  f;imily, 
particularly  when  a  father  indulges  nis  married  children  to 
live  with  him  ;  or  when  several  persons  join  in  the  rent  of  the 
same  house.  Hence  it  is  that  the  cities  of  these  countries, 
which  are  generally  mucii  inferior  in  size  to  those  of  Eu- 
rope, are  so  exceedingly  populous,  that  great  numbers  of  the 
inhabitants  are  swept  away  by  the  jihigue,  or  any  other 
contagious  distemper.  In  houses  of  better  fashion,  these 
cliambers,  from  the  middle  of  the  wall  downwards,  are  co- 
vered and  adorned  with  velvet  or  damask  hangings,  of  white, 
blue,  red,  green,  or  other  colours  (l]sth.  i.  <!.),  suspended 
upon  hooks,  or  taken  down  at  pleasure.*  J3ut  the  upper 
part  is  embellished  with  more  jiermanent  ornaments,  being 
adorned  with  the  most  ingenious  wn^athings  and  devices  in 
stucco  and  fret-work.  The  ceiling  is  generally  of  wainscot 
either  very  artfully  painted,  or  else  thrown  into  a  vaiiety  of 
panels,  with   gihli  '  ' '"  '  "        -    .    •     .-•' 

The 


intermixed. 


ded  nouldings  and  scrolls 
prophet  Jeremiah    (xxii. 


of  their  K'orar. 
11.)   exclaims 


«  Mr.  Hartley  Im'  Jisscnicd  from  Iho  intcrprelalion  above  given  l.y  Dr. 
Shaw.  "  Whi^n  I  hvi'  I  in  yK.;iiia"  t,!"'  rolali^s),  "I  ii.'iod  to  loot;  up  niil  un. 
frecniciitly  aU^vo  my  licad,  and  conteinplali"  ihe  fucilily  with  which  the 
whole  iran.sai-tion  niiuht  take  place.  The  roof  was  constructed  ni  ihia 
nianni.r: — A  layer  of  leod.'S,  ofalarui^  sproiei*,  was  placed  upon  Ihe  rafters, 
these  a  (luantlty  of  heather  (liealh)  wua  strewed  ;  upon  Ihe  heather 

"  'W  what  difli- 


On 


eartli  was  deposiled,  and  heal  down  inio  a  conir.:icl  mass.     N< 

I... I  I   .1       .._     I    ,     :-.     „ _.,; fi .1..,    .1.     .1 .1   ,,   1 


culty  could  tlu-ro  he  in  removiiis.  firi<t  the  earth,  llirn  Ihc  hciilher,  next 
the  reeds  1  Nor  would  Ihe  difficully  he  increased,  if  llio  carlh  Irad  n  pave- 
ment of  tilinj!  (>cip:</u>i>i')  laid  upon  it.  No  inconvenience  could  result  to 
the  persons  in  the  hnu«e  from  the  removal  of  Ihe  liKs  and  cnrlh;  for  Iho 
heallier  and  reeds  would  intercept  any  thln^  which  uiiyhl  olherwi.se  fall 
down,  and  would  be  removedlast  of  all."  (Hartley's  Kesrarchesin  Greece, 
p.  210.) 

•  Similar  rosily  hnn:jliii!i)  appear  to  have  decnraled  Iho  pavilion  or  Rtalo 
tent  of  •'^olouion,  alluded  io  in  Cant.  i.  .I.  ;  the  beauty  and  elegance  of  wliicli 
Would  form  a  slrikin^  conirasi  to  the  black  lenlH  of  the  nomadic  Arabs. 
The  slate  teniB  of  modern  oriental  Hoverpi;;ii(«,  it  is  well  known, 
;Mi[iiTh:  of  ilii.'4  zor«'oiis  s|i|eii.loMr,  Mr.  U.ivuie 

from  the  travels  of  Kuiiioni  and  Haynmii.  1'lie  lent  of  the  Grand  Seignior 
was  covered  and  lined  with  .silk.  Nadir  Sliah  had  a  very  su|)erb  one, 
covered  on  the  outside  with  si-arlel  broad  clolb,  and  lined  williiu  with  vi.)lel 
coloured  satin,  ornamenled  with  a  ;zreat  variety  of  aniiiml.-<,  llowers^  ic 
formed  entirely  of  pearls  and  precious  stones, 
p.  1*J.) 


are  very 

lias  (liven  some  iiislancr-s 


(Ilarmcr  on  Sol.  9on^ 


Chap.  I.] 


ON  THE  DWELLINGS  OF  THE  JEWS. 


153 


against  the  eastern  houses  that  were  ceiled  Avith  cedar,  and 
painted  Avith  vermilion.  The  floors  are  laid  with  painted 
tiles,  or  plaster  of  terrace.  But  as  these  people  make  little 
or  no  use  of  chairs  (either  sitting  cross-legged  or  lying  at 
length),  they  always  cover  and  spread  them  over  with  car- 
pets, which,  for  the  most  part,  are  of  the  richest  materials. 
Along  the  sides  of  the  wall  or  floor,  a  range  of  narrow  heds 
or  mattresses  is  often  placed  upon  these  carpets  :  and  for 
their  farther  ease  and  convenience,  several  velvet  or  damask 
bolsters  are  placed  upon  these  carpets  or  mattresses  ;  iudvil- 
gences  which  seem  to  be  alluded  to  by  their  stretching  ihem- 
selves  upon  couches,  and  by  the  sewing  of  pillows  to  the  arnh- 
holes,  as  we  have  it  expressed  in  Amos  vi.  4.  and  Ezek.  xiii. 
18.  At  one  end  of  tne  chamber  there  is  a  little  gallery, 
raised  three,  four,  or  five  feet  above  the  floor,  with  a  balus- 
trade in  the  front  of  it,  with  a  few  steps  likewise  leading  up 
to  it.  Here  they  place  their  beds  ;  a  situation  frequently 
alluded  to  in  the  Holy  Scriptures  ;  which  may  likewise  illus- 
trate the  circumstance  of  Hezekiah's  turning  his  face  when  he 
■prayed  towards  the  wall,  i.  e.  from  his  attendants  (2  Kings 
XX.  2.),  that  the  fervency  of  his  devotion  might  be  the  less 
taken  notice  of  and  cbsei-ved.  The  like  is  related  of  Ahab 
(1  Kings  xxi.  4.),  though  probably  not  upon  a  religious  ac- 
count, but  in  order  to  conceal  from  his  attendants  the  anguish 
be  felt  for  his  late  disappointments.  The  stairs  are  some- 
times placed  in  the  porch,  sometimes  at  the  entrance  into  the 
court.  When  there  is  one  or  more  stories,  they  are  after- 
wards continued  through  one  comer  or  other  of  the  gallery  to 
the  top  of  the  house,  whither  they  conduct  us  through  a  door 
that  is  constantly  kept  shut  to  prevent  their  domestic  animals 
from  daubing  the  terrace,  and  thereby  spoiling  the  water 
which  falls  from  thence  into  the  cisterns  below  the  court. 
This  door,  like  most  others  we  meet  with  in  these  countries, 
is  hung,  not  with  hinges,  but  by  having  the  jamb  formed  at 
each  end  into  an  axle-ti'ee  or  pivot,  whereof  the  uppermost, 
which  is  the  longest,  is  to  be  received  into  a  correspondent 
socket  in  the  lintel,  while  the  other  falls  into  a  cavity  of  the 
same  fashion  in  the  threshold."'  Anciently,  it  was  the  cus- 
tom to  secure  the  door  of  a  house,  by  a  cross-bar  or  bolt, 
which  by  night  was  fastened  by  a  littlebutton  or  pin  :  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  door  was  left  a  round  hole,  through  v/hich 
any  person  from  without  might  thmst  his  arm,  and  remove 
the  bar,  unless  this  additional  security  were  suneradded.  To 
Kuch  a  mode  of  fastening  the  bride  alludes  in  Cant.  v.  4.^ 

"  The  top  of  the  house,  which  is  always  flat,  is  covered 
with  a  strong  plaster  of  terrace,  wlience  in  the  Frank  lan- 
guage it  lias  obtained  the  name  of  the  tei-racc,"  This  is 
usually  surrounded  by  two  walls,  the  outermost  whereof  is 
partly  built  oVer  the  street,  and  partly  makes  the  partition 
with  the  contiguous  houses,  being  frequently  so  low  that  one 
may  easily  climb  over  it.  The  other,  which  may  be  called 
the  parapet  wall,  hangs  immediately  over  the  court,  being 
always  breast  high,  and  answers  to  the  npyc,  or  lorica,  Dcut. 
sxii.  8.,  which  we  render  the  battlements.  Instead  of  this 
parapet  wall,  some  teiTaces  are  guarded,  like  the  galleries, 
■wiili  balustrades  only,  or  latticed  work ;  in  which  fashion, 
pi  obably,  as  the  name  seems  to  import,  was  the  nD3'j',  or  net, 
or  lattice,  as  we  render  it,  that  Ahaziah  (2  Kings  i.  2.)  might 
be  carelessly  leaning  over,  when  he  fell  down  from  thence 
int)  the  court.  For  upon  those  terraces  several  offices  of  the 
family  are  performed,  such  as  the  drying  of  linen  and  flax 
(Josh  ii.  6.),  the  preparing  of  figs  or  raisins,  where  likewise 
they  enjoy  tne  cool  refreshing  breezes  of  the  eveninsT,  con- 
verse with  one  another,  and  offer  up  their  devotions."^  At 
Tiberias,  we  are 'informed  that  the  parapet  is  commonly  made 
of  wicker-work  and  sometimes  of  green  branches  ;  which 
mode  of  constructing  booths  seems  to  be  as  ancient  as  the 
days  of  Nehemiah,  when  the  people  ivent  fmih,  at  the  feast  of 
tabernacles,  and  brought  branches  and  made  themselves  booths, 
every  one  upon  the  top  of  his  house,  (Neh.  viii.  16.)^  "As 
these  terraces  are  thus  frequently  used  and  trampled  upon, 
not  to  mention  the  solidity  of  the  materials  with  which  they 
are  made,  they  will  not  easily  permit  any  vegetable  sub- 
stances to  take  root  or  thrive  upon  them ;  which  perhaps  may 

'  Dr.  Shaw's  Travels  in  Barbary,  vol.  i.  pp.  374—379. 

2  Itp.  Percy's  Translation  of  Solomon's  Song,  p.  76. 

"  On  these  terraces,  the  inhabitants  of  the  East  sleep  in  the  open  air 
d'lriiiff  the  hot  sea.-^on.  See  inst.inces,  illustrating  various  passages  of  the 
.Scriptures,  in  the  Travels  of  Ali  Bey,  vol.  ii.  p.  293.  IVIr.  Kinneir's  Travels 
in  Armenia,  &c.  p.  134.  Mr.  Morier's  Second  Journey  in  Persia,  p.  230., 
where  a  wood  cut  is  civen  explanatory  of  this  practice ;  and  Mr.  Ward's 
History,  &c.  of  the  Hindoos,  vol.  ii.  p.  323. 

*  Thus  we  read  that  Samuel  communed  with  Saul  upon  the  house-top 
(ISam.  i.t.  25.);  David  walked  upon  the  roof  of  the  king's  house  (2 Sam. 


xi.  2.);  anil  Peter  went  up  upon'lhe  house-top  to  pray.  (Acts  x. 
»  Mad  len's  Travels  in  Turkey  Eavpt,  &c.  vol.  ii.  p.  314. 

Vol.  n.  U 


9.) 


illustrate  the  prophet  Isaiah's  comparison  of  the  Assyrians 
to  the  grass  upon  the  house-tops.  (Isa.  xxxvii.  27.)  When 
any  of  these  cities  are  built  upon  level  ground,  one  may  pass 
along  the  tops  of  houses  from  one  end  of  them  to  the  other, 
without  coming  down  into  the  street."s  In  the  mountainous 
parts  of  modern  Palestine  these  terraces  are  composed  of 
earth,  spread  evenly  on  the  roof  of  the  house,  and  rolled  hard 
and  flat.  On  the  top  of  every  house  a  large  stone  roller  is 
kept,  for  the  purpose  of  hardening  and  flattening  this  layer 
of  rude  soil,  to  prevent  the  rain  from  penetrating  ;  but  upon 
this  surface,  as  may  be  supposed,  grass  and  weeds  grow 
freely.  Similar  terraces  appear  to  have  been  anciently  con- 
structed in  that  country  :  it  is  to  such  grass  that  the  Psalmist 
alludes  as  useless  and  bad — Let  them  be  as  the  grass  upon  the 
house-tops,  which  luithereth  afore  it  groweth  up.  (Psal.  cxxix. 
6.)  These  low  and  flat-roofed  houses  afford  opportunities  to 
speak  to  many  on  the  house  as  well  as  to  many  in  the  court- 
yard below  :  this  circumstance  will  illustrate  the  meaning 
of  our  Lord's  command  to  his  apostles,  What  ye  hear  in  the 
ear,  that  preach  ye  upon  the  house-tops.  (Matt,  x.  27.)''  On 
these  terraces  incense  v/as  anciently  bumt  (Jer.  xix.  13. 
xxxii.  29.),  and  the  host  of  heaven  was  worshipped.  (Zeph. 
i.  5.) 

In  Barbary,  the  hills  and  valleys  in  the  vicinity  of  Algiers 
are  beautified  with  numerous  country  seats  and  gardens, 
whither  the  opulent  resort  during  the  intense  heats  of  sum- 
mer. In  all  probability,  the  summer-houses  of  the  Jews, 
mentioned  by  the  prophet  Amos  (iii.  15.),  vrere  of  this  de- 
scription ;  though  these  have  been  supposed  to  mean  differ- 
ent apartments  of  the  same  house,  the  one  exposed  to  a 
northern  and  the  other  to  a  southern  aspect. 

During  the  Rev.  Mr.  Jowett's  residence  at  Haivali,  in  May., 
1818,  he  relates  that  the  house,  in  which  he  abode,  gave  him 
a  correct  idea  of  the  scene  of  Eutychus's  falling  from  the 
upper  loft,  while  Paul  was  preaching  at  Troas.  (Acts  xx. 
G — 12.)  "According  to  our  i<kea  of  houses,"  he  rem.arks, 
"  the  scene  of  Eutychus's  falling  from  the  upper  loft  is  very 
far  from  intelligible;  and,  besides  this,  the  circumstance  of 
preaching  generally  leaves  on  the  mind  of  cursory  readers 
the  notion  of  a  church.  To  describe  this  house,  which  is 
not  many  miles  distant  from  the  Troad,  and  perhaps,  from 
the  unchanging  character  of  oriental  customs,  nearly  resem- 
bles the  houses  then  built,  will  fully  illustrate  the  narrative. 

"  On  entering  my  host's  door,  we  find  the  ground  floor 
entirely  used  as  a  store  :  it  is  filled  with  large  barrels  of  oil, 
the  produce  of  the  rich  country  for  many  miles  round  :  this 
space,  so  far  from  being  habitable,  is  sometimes  so  dirty  with 
the  dripping  of  the  oil,  that  it  is  difficult  to  pick  out  a  clean 
footing  from  the  door  to  the  first  step  of  the  strtircase.  On 
ascending,  we  find  the  first  floor,  consisting  of  a  humble 
suite  of  rooms,  not  very  high ;  these  are  occupied  by  tb." 
family,  for  their  daily  use.  It  is  on  the  next  story  that  all 
their  expense  is  lavished  :  here,  my  courteous  host  has  ap- 
pointed my  lodging :  beautiful  curtains,  and  mats,  and  cush 
ions  to  the  divan,  display  the 
to  receive  their  guest ;  '         " 

at  the  top  of  the  house,  is  enjoyed,  by  the  poor  Greeks,  witli 
more  retirement  and  less  chance  of  molestation  from  the 
intrusion  of  Turks:  here,  when  the  Professors  of  the  Col- 
lege waited  upon  me  to  pay  their  respects,  they  were  received 
in  ceremony  and  sat  at  the  window.  The  room  is  both 
higher  and  also  larger  than  those  below:  it  has  two  project- 
ing windows ;  and  the  whole  floor  is  so  much  extended  in 
front  beyond  the  lower  part  of  the  building,  that  the  project- 
ing windows  considerably  overhang  the  street.  In  such  an 
upper  room — secluded,  spacious,  and  commodious — Paul 
was  invited  to  preach  his  parting  discourse.  The  divan,  or 
raised  seat,  with  mats  or  cushions,  encircles  the  interior  of 
each  projecting  window :  and  I  have  remarked,  that  when 
company  is  numerous,  they  sometimes  place  large  cushions 
behind  the  company  seated  on  the  divan ;  so  that  a  second 
tier  of  company,  with  their  feet  upon  the  seat  of  the  divan, 
are  sitting  behind,  higher  than  the  front  row.  Eutychus,thus 
sitting,  would  be  on  a  level  with  the  open  window ;  and,  being 
overcome  with  sleep,  he  would  easily  fall  out  from  the  third 
loft  of  the  house  into  the  street,  and  be  almost  certain,  from 
such  a  height,  to  lose  his  life.  Thither  St.  Paul  went  down ; 
and  comforted  the  alarmed  company,  by  bringing  up  Eutychus 
alive.  It  is  noted,  that  there  were  many  lights  in  the  upper 
chamber.  The  very  great  plenty  of  oil  in  this  neighbourhood 
would  enable  them  to  afford  many  lamps  :  the  heat  of  these 

6  This  is  particularly  the  case  at  Aleppo.    Irby's  and  Mangle's  Travels, 
p.  233.     Shaw's  Travels,  vol.  i.  pp.  -390,  331. 
1  Jowett's  Christian  Researches  in  Syria,  &c.  pp.  69.  95, 


respect  with  which  they  mean 
here,  likewise,  their  splendour,  being 


154 


ON  THE  DWELLINGS  OF  THE  JEWS. 


[Part  IV 


and  so  much  company  would  cause  the  drowsiness  of  Euty- 
chus  at  that  late  hour,  and  be  the  occasion,  likewise,  of  the 
windows  being  open."» 

In  most  houses,  some  place  must  have  been  appropriated 
to  the  preparation  of  food  ;  but  kitchens  are  for  the  first  time 
mentionea  in  Ezek.  xlvi.  23,  21.  The  hearth  or  fire-place 
appears  to  have  been  on  the  ground.  Chimneys,  such  as  are 
in  use  among  us,  were  unknown  to  the  Hebrews,  even  in  the 
latest  times  of  their  polity.  The  smoke,  therefore,  escaped 
through  large  openings  left  for  that  purpose,  which  in  our 
version  of  Hos.  xiii.  3.  are  rendered  by  the  equivalent  term, 
chimneys.2 

It  was  common,  when  any  person  had  finished  a  house, 
and  entered  into  it,  to  celebrate  the  event  with  gn^t  rejoicing, 
and  to  perform  some  religious  ceremonies  to  obtain  the  divine 
blessing  and  protection.  The  dedication  of  a  newly-built 
house  was  a  ground  of  exemption  from  military  service. 
(Deut.  XX.  5.)  The  xxxth  Psalm,  as  appears  from  the  title, 
was  composed  on  occasion  of  the  dtdicution  of  the  house  of 
David ;  and  this  devout  practice  obtained  also  amon^  the  an- 
cient Romans.'-  In  Deut.  vi.  9.  Moses  directs  tlie  Israelites 
to  write  certain  portions  of  his  laws  on  the  doors  of  their 
houses  and  the  gates  of  their  cities.  This  direction  Michaelis 
understands  not  as  a  positive  injunction,  but  merely  an  exhor- 
tation, to  inscribe  his  laws  on  the  do,or-posts  of  their  houses. 
"In  Syria  and  the  adjacent  countries,  it  is  usual  at  this  day 
to  place  inscriptions  above  the  doors  of  the  houses,  consist- 
ing of  passages  from  the  Koran  or  from  the  best  poets. 
Among  us,  where,  by  the  aid  of  printing,  books  are  so  abun- 
dantly multiplied,  and  may  be  put  into  the  hands  of  every 
child,  such  measures  would  be  tjuite  superfluous  ;  but,  if  we 
would  enter  into  the  ideas  of  Moses,  we  must  place  ourselves 
in  an  age  when  the  book  of  the  law  could  only  come  into  the 
hands  of  a  few  opulent  people. "^ 

IV.  The  Furniture  of  the  oriental  dwellings,  at  leah',  in  the 
earliest  ages,  was  vorj'  sini{^  :  that  of  the  poorer  clas^o';  con- 
sisted of  but  few  articles,  and  those  such  as  were  absolutely 
necessary.  The  interior  of  the  more  common  and  useful 
apartments  was  furnished  with  sets  of  large  nails  with  square 
heads  (like  dice),  and  bent  at  the  head  so  as  to  make  them 
i"ram])-irons.  In  modern  Palestine,  the  plan  is  to  fix  nails  or 
pins  of  wood  in  the  walls,  while  they  arc  still  soft,  to  suspend 
such  domestic  articles  as  are  required;  since,  consisting  alto- 
gether of  clay,  they  are  too  frail  to  admit  of  the  operation  of 
the  hammer.*  To  this  custom  there  is  an  allusion  in  Ezra 
ix.  8.  and  Isa.  xxii.  23.  On  these  nails  were  hung  their 
kitchen  uti^nsils  or  other  articles.  Instead  of  chairs  they  sat 
on  mats  or  skins ;  and  the  same  articles,  on  which  they  laid  a 
rnattrass,  served  them  instead  of  bedsteads,  while  their  upper 
garment  served  them  for  a  covering,  and  sovereigns  had  chairs 
of  state  or  thrones  with  footstools.^  (Exod.  xxii.  26,27.  Deut. 
xxiv.  12.)  This  circumstance  accounts  for  our  Lord's  com- 
manding the  paralytic  to  take  up  his  bed  and  go  unto  his 
house.  (Matt.  ix.  6.)'  The  more  opulent  had  (as  those  in  the 
East  still  have)  fine  carpets,  couches,  or  divans,  and  sofas, 
in  which  they  va/,"  lay,  and  slept.  (2  Kings  iv.  10.  2  Sam. 


on 


xvii.  28.)  In  later  times  their  couches  were  splendid,  and  the 
frames  inlaid  wiih  ivory  (Amos  vi.  4.),  and  the  coverlids  rich 
and  perfumed.  (Prov.  vii.  16,  17.)'  On  these  sofas,  in  the 
latter  agrrs  of  the  .Jewish  state  (for  before  the  time  of  Moses 
it  appears  to  have  bei-n  the  custom  to  sit  at  table.  Gen.  xliii. 
.33.),  they  universally  reclined,  when  taking  their  meals 
(Amos  VI.  4.  Luke  vii.  3*)— 38.)  :  resting  on  tiieir  side  with 
their  heads  towards  the  table,  so  that  their  feet  were  acccssi- 

'  Jowctt's  Chrisiian  Rcsearrhcs  in  the  Mediterranean,  po.  CC,  67. 
»  I'areau,  Anliijuilas  Ilt-bralra,  Ji.  3C3. 
'  Britnine,  Anii(|.  Hclir.  p.  :iO0. 

•  Micliri'lJB'.s  C'Miiinenlarii/rt,  vol,  ili.  pp.  .171,372. 
»  Rat- Wil.viii'!»^'ravplH,  vol.  ii.  p.  US.  Jd  edit. 

•  Bp.  lyiwtli  on  l.sa.  lij.  2. 

1  "  A  ni.li  and  pillow  form  all  the  bed  of  the  common  people  in  the  East ; 
and  the  rojlin?  up  the  cm:  in  the  other  li.-ui  often  Ktriirk  me  as  illiirttrating 
the  comnianil  to  n'HC,  tiUcc  up  thy  hpil,  and  ttdlk.  (I, like  v.  19.  Mark  ii.  4. 
II.)  In  Acts  ix.  31.  I'elcr  said  to  yEiioa.s,  Arine  and  H/irrad  thy  Uril /or 
Ihynftf.  Uavid'H  bed  (I  siain.  xix.  15.)  wa.t  pniliably  the  fliiair '  (divan)  '"•  or 
raised  bcncli  with  i\vo({uilis,  one  dfinbleil  and  sprvini;  f'>r  a  niuUrasH,  and 
the  uthrr  as  a  covering.  It  was  probably  not  unlike  a  sailor's  hanimuck, 
laid  on  the  floor  or  l)ench."    C^iUnway's  Oriental  Observations,  p.  21. 

•  A  pansace  in  Jeremiah  xiii.  22.  nmy  in  some  dedree  be  rx|>!aincil  by 
the  oriental  mode  of  fillinc — for  the  Ifreatnrxii  of  thinf.  inii/uili/  tire  l/ii/ 
skirtK  iUti:ori:rt:il,  and  thy  heels  made  I/are.  ''  I  iiave  often  been  slriick,'' 
says  Mr.  .loweii,  "with  the  manner  in  which  a  groM  man  »\ln;  for  ex- 
ample, when  I  viMiteil  the  bashaw,  1  never  saw  his  feet:  Ihey  were  entirely 
drawn  up  under  him,  and  covered  by  his  dress.  This  was  di);nitie(l.  To 
see  his  feet  his  skirls  must  have  been  discoverefl :  still  nxire  so,  in  onler 
to  see  the  heels,  which  often  serve  km  the  acfiial  seat  of  an  Oriental." — 
Jnwett's  Chrisiian  Uesef.rrhe.s  in  Ihe  Meiliterraiiean,  p.  1611. 

•  Jaiui  et  Ackcruiann,  Archx-ologia  lliblica,  V  10. 


ble  to  one  who  came  behind  the  couch,  as  in  the  annexed 
diagn-am  :— 


B 


In  which  A  denotes  the  table,  and  c,  c,  c,  the  couches  on 
which  the  guests  reclined.  B  is  the  lower  end,  open  for  ser 
vants  to  enter  and  supply  the  guests.  The  knowledge  of  this 
custom  enables  us  to  understand  the  manner  in  which  John 
leaned  on  the  bosom  of  his  Master  (".John  xiii.  23.),  and  Mary 
anointed  the  feet  of  Jesus  and  wipea  them  with  her  hair;  and 
also  the  expression  of  Lazarus  being  carried  into  Abraham's 
bosom  (Luke  xvi.  22.  J  :  that  is,  he  was  placed  next  to  Abra- 
ham at  the  splendid  Banquet,  under  the  image  of  which  the 
Jews  represented  the  happy  state  of  the  pious  after  death. 'o 

Anciently,  splendid  hangings  were  used  in  the  pal-aces  of 
the  eastern  monarchy,  and  ample  draperies  were  suspended 
over  the  openings  in  tlic  sides  of  the  apartments,  for  the  two- 
fold purpose  of  affording  air,  and  of  shielding  them  from  the 
sun.  Of  this  description  were  the  costly  hangings  of  the 
Persian  sovereigns  mentioned  in  Eslh.  i.  6. ;  which  passage 
is  confirmed  by  the  account  given  by  Quintus  Curtius  of  their 
superb  palace  at  Persepolis. 

Other  articles  of  necessary  furniture  were,  at  least  in  the 
more  ancient  periods,  both  few  and  simple.  The  principal 
were  a  hand-mill,  with  which  they  around  their  corn,  a 
kneading-trough,  and  an  oven.  The  IIand-.'iiill  resembled 
the  querns,  which,  in  early  times,  were  in  general  use  in  this 
country,  and  which  still  continue  to  be  used  in  some  of  the 
more  remote  northern  islands  of  Scotland,  as  well  as  in  the 
East.  So  essential  were  these  domestic  utensils,  that  the 
Israelites  were  forbidden  to  take  them  in  pledge,  f  Deut.  xxiv. 
G.)  The  Kneaping-troughs  (at  least  those  which  the  Israel- 
ites carried  with  them  out  of  I'^gj'pt,  Exod.  xii.  34.)  were  not 
the  cumbersome  articles  now  in  use  among  us,  but  compara- 
tively small  wooden  bowls,  like  those  of  tnf>  modern  Arabs, 
who,  after  kneading  their  flour  in  them,  make  use  of  them  as 
dishes  out  of  which  they  eat  tlieir  victuals.  The  Oven  was 
sometimes  only  an  earthen  pot  in  which  fire  was  put  to  lieat 
it,  and  on  the  outside  of  which  the  batter  or  dough  was  spread, 
and  almost  instantly  baked.  Cakes  of  bread  were  also  baked 
by  being  placed  within  the  oven.  Besides  these  two  articles, 
they  must  have  had  dilTercnt  kinds  of  earthenware  vessels, 
e.spccially  pots  to  hold  water  for  tlieir  various  ablutions. 
\Vhile  sittiu"-  upon  the  shatlereil  wall  whicji  enclo'sed  "  the 
Well  of  Cana"  in  Galilee,  in  Fehruarv,  1^2«.  Air.  Kae  Wil- 
son observed  six  females,  having  their  faces  veiled  f  (ien.  xxiv. 
66.  Cant.  v.  7.),  come  down  to  the  well,  each  carrying  on  hi  r 
head  a  pot  (John  ii.  6 — 10.),  for  the  purpose  of  being  filled 
with  water:  onn  of  whom  lowered  hi  r  pitcher  into  the  well 
and  (ilTi-red  him  water  to  drink,  preciesly  in  the  same  mannei 
in  which  Hcbekah,  many  centuries  before,  had  offered  water 
to  Abraiiam's  servant.  (Gen.  xxiv.  18.)  These  water-pots 
are  formed  of  clay,  hardened  by  the  heat  bf  the  sun,  and  aie 
of  a  globular  shape,  lartre  at  the  mouth,  not  unlike  the  bottles 
used  in  our  country  for  holding  vitriol,  but  not  so  large. 
Many  of  them  have  handles  attached  to  the  sides  :  and  iiwaa 
a  wonderful  coineideiu-e  with  Scripture  that  the  vessels 
appeared  to  cmiain  much  aliout  the  same  quantity  as  those 
wliicli,  the  evangelist  informs  us.  were  em])loyed  on  occasion 
of  the  marriage  which  was  honoured  by  the  Saviour's  pre- 
sence ;  namely,  three  firkins,  or  twelve  gallons  each."   About 

10  Robinson's  fJreek  Lexicon,  voce  K»>.rr8t. 

"  Rae  Wilson's  Travels  in  Uie  Holy  Land,  &c.  vol.  ii.  pp.  ^,  1.  3d  edition 


Chap.  II.] 


ON  THE  DRESS  OF  THE  JEWS. 


155 


twenty  years  before,  the  Rev.  Dr.  E.  D.  Clarke,  while  explor- 
ing the  ruins  of  Cana  in  Galilee,  saw  several  large  massy 
.  stone  water-pots,  answering  the  description  given  of  the 
•ancient  vessels  of  the  country  (John  ii.  6.)  ;  not  preser\'ed  nor 
•  exhibited  as  relics,  but  lying  about,  disregarded  by  the  pre- 
sent inhabitants  as  antiquities  with  whose  original  use  they 
were  acquainted.  From  their  appearance,  and  the  number  of 
them,  it  was  quite  evident  that  the  practice  of  keeping  water 
in  large  stone  pots,  each  holding  from  eighteen  to  twenty- 
seven  gallons,  was  once  common  in  the  country. '  In  the  later 
times  of  the  Jewish  polity,  Baskets  formed  a  necessary  article 
of  furniture  to  the  .Tews  ;  who,  when  travelling  either  among 
the  Gentiles  or  the  Samaritans,  were  accustomed  to  carry 
their  provisions  with  them  in  noiptvoi,  baskets,  in  order  to  avoid 
defilement  by  eating  with  strangers.^  Large  sacks  are  still, 
as  they  anciently  were  (John  ix.  11.  Gen.  xliv.  1 — 3.),  em- 
ployed for  carrying  provisions  and  baggage  of  every  descrip- 
tion.'  • 

Bowls,  cups,  and  drinking  vessels  of  gold  and  silver,  it 
appears  from  1  Kings  x.  21.  were  used  in  the  courts  of 
princes;  but  the  modern  Arabs,  as  the  Jewish  people  an- 
ciently did,  keep  their  water,  milk,  wine,  and  other  liquors, 
in  Bottles  made  of  skins,  which  are  chiefly  of  a  red  colour 
(Exod.  XXV.  5.) ;  and  their  mouths  are  closed  by  slips  of 
■wood,  that  they  may  contain  milk  or  other  liquids."*  These 
bottles,  when  old,  are  frequently  rent,  but  are  capable  of  be- 
ing repaired,  by  being  bound  up  or  pieced  in  various  waj's. 
Of  this  description  were  the  wine  bottles  of  the  Gibeonites,  old, 
and  rent,  and  bound  up.  (Josh.  ix.  4.)  As  new  w'ine  was 
liable  to  ferment,  and,  conseciuently,  would  burst  the  old 
skins,  all  prudent  persons  Avould  put  it  into  new  skins.  To 
this  usage  our  Lord  alludes  in  Matt.  ix.  17.  Mark  ii,  22.  and 
Luke  V.  37,  38.  Bottles  of  skin.  It  is  well  known,  are  still 
in  use  in  Spain,  where  they  are  called  Burrachas.^  As  the 
Arabs  make  fires  in  their  tents,  which  have  no  chimneys, 
they  must  be  greatly  incommoded  by  the  smoke,  which 
blackens  all  their  utensils  and  taints  their  skins.  David, 
wh-en  driven  from  the  court  of  Saul,  compares  himself  to  a 
bottle  in  the  smoke.  (Psal.  cxix.  83.)  He  must  have  felt 
acutely,  when  he  was  driven  from  the  vessels  of  gold  and 
silver  in  the  palace  of  Saul,  to  live  like  an  Arab,  and  drink 
out  of  a  smoky  leathern  bottle.  His  language  is,  as  if  he  had 
said, — "  My  present  appearance  is  as  different  from  what  it 
was  when  1  dwelt  at  court,  as  the  furniture  of  a  palace  differs 
from  that  of  a  poor  Arab's  tent."  Apartments  were  lighted 
by  means  of  Lamps,  which  were  fed  with  olive  oil,  and  were 
commonly  placed  upon  elevated  stands.  (Matt.  v.  15.)  The 
lanipn  of  Gideon's  soldiers  (Judg.  vii.  16.),  and  those  of  the 
wise  and  foolish  virgins  (Matt.  xxv.  1 — 10.),  were  of  a  dif- 
ferent sort.  They  were  a  kind  of  torches  or  flambeaux  made 
of  iron  or  earthemvare,  wrapped  about  with  old  linen, 
moistened  from  time  to  time  witK  oil.« 


v.  In  progress  of  time,  as  men  increased  upon  the  earth, 
and  found  themselves  less  safe  in  their  detached  tents,  they 
began  to  live  in  society,  and  fortified  their  simple  dwellings 
by  surrounding  them  with  a  ditch,  and  a  rude  breastwork, 
or  wall,  whence  they  could  hurl  stones  against  their  enemies. 
Hence  arose  villages,  towns,  and  Cities,  of  which  Cain  is 
said  to  have  been  the  first  builder.  In  the  time  of  Moses, 
the  cities  of  the  Canaanites  were  both  numerous  and  strongly 
fortified.  (Num.  xiii.  28.)  In  the  time  of  David,  when  tho 
number  of  the  Israelites  was  greatly  increased,  their  cities 
must  have  proportionably  increased  ;  and  the  vast  population 
which  (we  have  already  seen)  Palestine  maintained  in  the 
time  of  the  Romans  is  a  proof  both  of  the  size  and  number 
of  their  cities.  The  principal  strength.of  the  cities  in  Pales- 
tine consisted  in  their  situation  :  they  were  for  the  most  part 
erected  on  mountains  or  other  eminences  which  were  diflfi- 
cult  of  access ;  and  the  weakest  places  were  strengthened  by 
fortifications  arid  walls  of  extraordinary  thickness. 

The  streets  in  the  Asiatic  cities  do  not  exceed  from  two  to 
four  cubits  in  breadth,  in  order  that  the  rays  of  the  sun  may 
be  kept  off;  but  it  is  evident  that  they  must  have  formerly 
been  wider,  from  the  fact  that  carriages  were  driven  through 
them,  which  are  now  very  seldom,  if  ever,  to  be  seen  in  the 
East.  The  houses,  however,  rarely  stand  together,  an»l 
most  of  them  have  spacious  gardens  annexed  to  them.  It  is 
not  to  be  supposed  that  the  almost  incredible  tract  of  land, 
which  Nineveh  and  Babylon  are  said  to  have  covered,  could 
have  been  filled  with  houses  closely  standing  together :  an 
cient  writers,  indeed,  testify  that  almosta  third  part  of  Baby 
Ion  was  occupied  by  fields  and  gardens. 

In  the  early  ages  of  the  world  the  Markets  were  held  at 
or  near  the  Gates  of  the  Cities  (which,  we  have  already 
seen,'  were  the  seats  of  justice),  generally  within  the  walls, 
though  sometimes  without  them.  Here  commodities  were 
exposed  to  sale,  either  in  the  open  air  or  in  tents  (2  Kings 
vii.  18.  2  Chron.  xviii.  9.  Job  xxix.  7.)  :  but  in  the  time  of 
Christ,  as  we  learn  from  Josephus,  the  markets  were  en- 
closed in  the  same  manner  as  the  modern  eastern  bazars, 
which  are  shut  at  night,  and  where  the  traders'  shops 
are  disposed  in  rows  or  streets ;  and  (in  large  towns)  the 
dealers  in  particular  commodities  are  confined  to  particular 
streets. 

The  Gates  of  the  Cities,  and  the  vacant  places  next  ad- 
jacent to  them,  must  have  been  of  considerable  size;  for  we 
read  that  Ahab  king  of  Israel  assembled  four  hundred  false 
prophets  before  himself  and  Jehoshaphat  kina  of  Judah,  in 
the  Gate  of  Samaria.  (1  Kings  xxii.  10.)  And  besides  these 
prophets,  we  may  readily  conclude  tliat  each  of  these  mo- 
narchs  had  numerous  attendants  in  waiting.  Over  or  by  tha 
side  of  many  gates  there  were  towers,  in  which  watchmen 
were  stationed  to  observe  what  was  going  on  at  a  distance; 
(2  Sam.  xviii.  24.  33.)8 


CHAPTER  II. 


ON    THE    DRESS    OF    THE    JEWS." 

I.  Dress  in  the  early  Ages. — IL  Tttnic. — III.  Upper  Garment. —  Other  Articles  of  Apparel. — IV.  Coverings  for  the  Head.—> 
.Mode  of  dressing  the  Hair. — V.  Sandals. — VI.  Seals  or  Sig7iets,  and  Rings. — VII.  Some  Articles  of  Female  Apparel 
elucidated. —  Complexion  of  the  Tf'o/r.en, — VIII.  Rending  of  Garments,  a  Sign  of  JVTourning. — ^IX.  JSTumerous  Changes  of 
Apparel  deemed  a  necessary  Part  of  their  Treasure. 


I.  In  the  early  ages,  the  dress  of  mankind  was  very  sim- 
ple. Skins  of  animals  furnished  the  first  materials  (Gen. 
lii.  21.  Heb.  xi.  37.),'^  w-hich,  as  men  increased  in  numbers 
and  civilization,  were  exchanged  for  more  costly  articles, 
made  of  wool  and  flax,  of  which  they  manufactured  woollen 
and  linen  garments  (Lev.  xiii.  47.    Prov.  xxxi.  13.)  ;  after- 

>  Travels,  vol.  ii.  p.  445.  2  Kninoel,  on  Matt.  xiv.  19. 

3  Rae  Wilson's  Travels,  vol.  i.  pp.  ir.'5, 176.      «  Ibid.  vol.  i.  p.  176. 

'  Harmer's  Observations,  vol.  i.  p.  217.  See  also  vol.  ii.  pp.  135 — 1.38.  for 
various  remarlts  illustrative  of  the  nature  of  the  drinking  vessels  anciently 
in  use  among  the  Jews. 

«  Jahn  et  Ackermann,  ArchcEol.  Bibl.  §  40.  Calmet's  Dictionary,  voce 
Lamps. 

'  See  p.  54.  supra. 

s  Brunins,  Antiq.  Hebr.  pp.  2"9— 281.  Calmet,  Dissertations,  torn.  i.  pp. 
31^—315.  Jahn  et  Ackermann,  Archceol.  Bibl.  §  41.  Pareau,  Ant.  Hebr. 
pp.  367—371. 

9  The  principal  authorities  for  this  chapter  are  Calraet's  Dissertation  sur 
les  Habits  des  Hebreux,  Dissert,  torn.  i.  pp.  337—371.;  and  Pareau, 
Antiquitas  Hebraica,  pp.  371—385. 

10  Mr.  Rae  Wilson  met  with  some  Arabs,  residing  near  the  (so  caUed) 
village  of  Jeremiah,  who  were  clothed  in  sheep  and  goat  skins,  open  at 
the  neck.    Travels  in  the  Holy  Land,  &c.  vol.  i.  p.  189.  3d  edition. 


wards  fine  linen,  and  silk,  dyed  with  purple,  scarlet,  and 
crimson,  became  the  usual  apparel  of  the  more  opulent. 
(2  Sam.  i.  24.  Prov.  xxxi.  22.  Luke  xvi.  19.)  In  the  more 
earl}''  ages,  garments  of  various  colours  were  in  great  esteem : 
such  was  Joseph's  robe,  of  which  his  envious  brethren  strip- 
ped him,  when  they  resolved  to  sell  him."  (Gen.  xxxvii.  23.) 
Robes  of  various  colours  were  likewise  appropriated  to  the 
virgin  daughters  of  kings  (2  Sam.  xiii.  18.),  who  also  wore 
richly  embroidered  vests.  (Psal.  xlv.  13,  14. V-  It  appears 
that  the  Jewish  garments  were  worn  pretty  long ;  for  it  is 
mentioned  as  an  aggravation  of  the  affront  done  to  David's 
ambassadors  by  the  king  of  Ammon,  that  he  cut  off  their 
garments  in  the  middle,  even  to  their  buttocks.  (2  Sam.  x.  4.) 
The  dress  of  the  Jews,  in  the  ordinary  ranks  of  life,  was 
simple  and  nearly  uniform.     John  the  Baptist  had  his  raiment 

«'  A  coat  of  many  colours  is  as  much,esteemed  in  sonve  parte  of  Pales- 
tine at  this  day  as  it  was  in  the  time  of  Jacob,  and  of  Siscra.  Bucking- 
ham's Travels  among  the  Arab  Tribes,  p.  31.  Emerson's  Lelters  from  the 
jEgean,  vol.  ii.  p.  31. 

■«  Jahn  et  Ackermann,  §5 118,  119. 


156 


ON  THE  DRESS  OF  THE  JEWS. 


[Part  IV. 


of  cameW  hair  (Matt.  iii.  4.), — not  of  the  fine  hair  of  that 
animal  which  is  wrought  into  camlets  (in  imitation  of 
which,  though  made  of  wool,  is  the  English  camlet),  but  of 
the  long  ana  shaggy  hair  of  camels,  which  in  the  East  is 
manufactured  into  a  coarse  stuff  like  that  anciently  worn  by 
monks  and  anchorets.' 

It  is  evident,  from  the  prohibition  against  changing  the 
dresses  of  the  two  sexes,  that  in  the  time  of  Moses  there  was 
a  difference  between  the  garments  worn  respectively  by  men 
and  women  ;  but  in  what  that  difference  consisted  it  is  now 
imp-^ssible  to  determine.  The  fishion,  too,  of  their  apparel 
does  not  appear  to  have  continued  always  the  same  ;  for, 
before  the  nrst  subversion  of  the  Jewish  monarchy  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, there  were  some  who  delighted  to  wear  stran<re 
(that  is,  foreign)  apparel.  In  every  age,  however,  there 
were  certain  garments  (as  there  still  are  in  the  East)  which 
were  common  to  both  sexes,  though  their  shape  was  some- 
what different. 

II.  The  simplest  and  most  ancient  was  the  Tunic,  or  inner 
garment,  which  was  worn  next  the  body.  At  first,  it  seems 
to  have  been  a  large  linen  cloth,  which  hung  down  to  the 
knees,  but  which  was  afterwards  better  adajjted  to  the  form 
of  the  body,  and  was  sometimes  furnished  with  sleeves.  Tiie 
tunics  of  the  women  were  larger  thnn  those  worn  by  men. 
Ordinarily  they  were  composed  of  t.vo  breadths  of  cloth 
sewed  together ;  hence  those  whicl-.  were  woven  whole,  or 
without  seam  on  the  sides  or  shoulders,  were  greatly 
esteemed.  Such  was  the  tunic  or  coat  of  Jesus  Christ  men- 
tioned in  John  xix.  23.  A  similar  tunic  was  worn  by  the 
high-priest.2  This  garment  was  fastened  round  the  loins, 
whenever  activity  was  required,  by  a  frirdle.  ("2  Kings  iv.  2'). 
John  xxi.  7.  Acts  xii.  8.)  The  prophets  and  poorer  class 
of  people  wore  leathern  (rirdles  (2  Kmgs  i.  8.  Matt.  iii.  1.), 
as  is  still  the  case  in  the  East ;  but  tlic  girdles  of  the  opulent, 
e^specially  those  worn  by  women  of  qualitj%  wer:;  composed 
of  more  precious  materials,  and  were  more  skilfully  wrought. 
(Ezek.  xvi.  10.  Tsa.  iii.  21.)  The  girdles  of  the  inliabitauts 
of  the  East,  Dr.  JShaw  informs  us,  are  usually  of  worsted, 
very  artAilly  woven  into  a  variety  of  figures,  such  as  the  rich 
girdles  of  the  virtuous  virgins  may  be  supposed  to  have  been. 
(Prov.  xxxi.  2 1.)  They  are  made  to  fold  several  times  about 
tlie  i)ody  ;  one  end  of  wnich  being  dor.bled  back,  and  sown 
along  the  edges,  serves  them  for  a  j.iirsc,  agreeably  to  the 
acceptation  of  farw  in  the  Scriptures  (Matt.  x.  9.  I\f;irk  viii. 
6.  wnerc  it  is  rendered  a  purse).  The  Turks  make  a  further 
use  of  these  girdles,  l)y  fixing  therein  their  knives  and 
poniards  :  whilst  the  Hojias,  ?'.  e.  the  writers  and  secretaries, 
suspend  in  the  same  their  inkhorns  ;  a  custom  as  old  as  the 
prophet  Ezekiel,  who  mentions  (ix.  2.)  a  person  clofhed  i7i 
white  linen,  with  an  inkhorn  upon  his  hin.sj 

III.  Over  the  tunic  was  worn  a  larger  vest,  or  Upper 
Garment.  It  was  a  piece  of  cloth  nearly  square,  like  tlie 
hykes  or  blankets  woven  by  the  Barbary  women,  about  six 
yards  long,  and  five  or  six  feet  broad.  The  two  corners, 
which  were  thrown  over  the  shoulders,  were  called  the 
«A-'>/.<t,  literally,  fhc  v.unf^s  of  the  garment,  (1  Sam.  xv.  11. 
xxiv.  4,  5.  11.  Hag.  ii.  12.  Zech.  viii.  2.3.)  Tiiis  garment 
serves  the  Kabyles  or  Arabs  for  a  complete  dress  in  the  ihiy  ; 
and  as  they  sleep  in  their  raiment  (as  the  Israelites  did  of 
old,  Deut.  xxiv.  13.)  it  likewise  serves  them  for  their  bed 
and  covering  in  the  night.  "  It  is  a  loose,  but  troublesome 
kind  of  garment,  being  frequently  disconcerted  and  falling  to 
the  ground,  so  that  the  person  who  wears  it  is  every  rnniar  nt 
obliged  to  tuck  it  up,  and  fold  it  anew  around  iiis  body. 
This  siiows  the  great  use  of  a  girdle  whenever  they  are 
engaged  in  any  active  employment,  and  the  force  of  the 
Scripture  injunction  alluding  to  it,  (A  hnvinu;  our  loins  frirdnf, 
in  orfler  to  set  about  it.  The  method  of  wenring  tiiese  gar- 
ments, with  the  use  to  which  they  are  at  other  times  put,  in 
serving  for  coverlids  to  tiieif  l)e(ls,  leads  us  to  infer  that  the 
finer  sort  of  them  (such  as  are  worn  by  the  ladies  and  l)y 
persons  of  distinction)  are  the  pcplu.i  of  the,  ancients.  Itntli's 
veil,  which  held  six  measures  of  barley  fKutli  iii.  If).), 
niigiit  be  of  th(;^  like  fashion,  and  have  serven  extraordinarily 
for  the  same  use  ;  as  were  also  the  clothes  (ru.  Ifxtna,  tlie 
upper  jrarments)  of  the  Israelites  (Exod.  xii.  31.),  in  wliieh 
they  f')l<lffl  u])  their  kneadiug-troiighs  :  as  the  Mo(»rs,  Araiis, 
and  Kabyles  do,  to  this  day,  things  of  the  like  burden  and 

I  On  Ihifi  «utiiect  »po  Cnpt,  I,ii;)il'8Trnvi>la  In  Kgypt,  Ac.  p.  135,  nml  Mr. 
Mori«*r'«  rtecoiul  Jourm-y  in  Persia,  p.  H.  Cliarilm  ni.siircB  iir,  tlint  the 
modern  Ucrviscs  wear  Karinnnis  of  coarse  coincU'  hair  aoU  also  great 
lealhern  girdles.     Hnriiifr'n  Obs.  vol.  ii.  p.  487. 

»  JoHppliuK,  Ant.  JiM.  lib.  iii.  r.  7.   i  4. 

»  8haw'«  Travels,  vol.  i.  pp   lOU,  410,  8vo.  edit. 


incumbrance  in  their  hykes.  Instead  of  the  fibula  that  was 
used  by  the  Romans,  the  Arabs  join  together  with  thread  or 
a  wooden  bcdkin  the  two  tipper  comers  of  this  gannent ;  and 
after  having  ulaeed  them  first  over  one  of  their  shoulders, 
they  then  fold  the  rest  of  it  cbout  their  bodies.  The  outer 
folil  serves  them  frequently  instead  of  an  apron,  wherein  they 
carrj'  herbs,  leaves,  com,  &c.,  and  may  illustrate  several 


allusions  made  thereto  in  Scripture  ;  as  g  ithering  the  lap  full 
of  wild  gourds  (2  Kin^s  iv.  39.),  rendering  seven-fold,  »/r/»?g 
i^Dod  mecsure  into  the  boxom  (Psalm  cxxix.  7.  Luke  vi.  38.), 
and  shakini^  the  lap."  (Neh.  v.  13.)'  It  Avas  these  i/utTtx, 
or  up})er  garments,  which  the  Jewish  populace  strew« 
road   during    Christ's    triumjdiant  progress   to   Jci 

(Matt.  xxi.  8.)    A  person  divested  of  this  garment,  cc 

bly  to  the  Heorew  idiom,  is  said  to  be  nuked.  (2  Sum.  vi.  20. 
John  xxi.  7.)  By  the  Mosaic  constitution,  in  Num.  xv, 
37 — 10.,  the  Israelites  were  enjoined  to  put  fringes  on  thf 


red  in  the 
Jcmsalem. 
(Matt.  xxi.  8.)    A  person  divested  ofthis  garment,  conforma- 
"     ■    "     "  '■        ■        ■'      '         P  ■   '-  ■•  -20. 

XV. 

_  .,  -. . enjoined  to  put  fringes  on  the 

borders  of  their  upper  gannents  that  tney  might  rmiemlir  ch 
the  comntundmetifs  (f  the  Lord  to  do  them.  A  similar  exhorta- 
tion is  recorded  in  Deut.  vi.  8.  compared  with  Exod.  xiii.  Ifi. 
But,  in  succeeding  ages,  these  injunctions  were  abused  to 
superstitious  pin-poses ;  and  among  the  charges  alleged 
against  the  Pharisees  by  Jesus  Christ,  is  that  of  enlarging 
tlTeir  Phvlacteries,  and  the  fringes  of  their  garments  (Matt! 
xxiii.  5.),  as  indicating  their  pretensions  to  a  more  studious 
and  perfect  observance  of  the  law.  These  phylacteries  con- 
sisted of  four  strips  or  scrolls  of  parchment,  or  the  dressed 
skin  of  some  clean  animal,  inscribed  with  four  paragraphs  of 
the  law,  taken  from  Exod.  xiii.  1 — 10.  and  xiii.  11 — 16. 
Deut.  vi.  4 — 9.  and  xi.  13 — 21.  all  inclusive,;  which  the 
Pharisees,  interpreting  literally  (as  do  the  modem  rabbins) 
Deut.  vi.  8..  and  other  similar  passages,  tied  to  the  fronts  of 
their  caps  and  on  their  arms,  and  also  inscribed  on  their  door- 
posts. These  phylacteries  were  regarded  as  amulets,  or,  at 
least,  as  efficacious  in  keeping  off  evil  spirits,  whence  their 
(xreek  name  Oc/\»)ct«/«j,  from  or/xaTTS',  to  guard  or  preserve. 
The  practice  of  inscribing  passages  of  the  Koran  upon  the 
door-posts  of  their  houses  is  said  to  be  still  continued  by  the 
Mohammedans  in  Judsea  and  Syria. '^  The  Kpx(rrtf:v,  hem,  or 
border  of  Christ's  garment,  out  of  which  a  healing  )!Ov.-er 
issued  to  the  diseased  who  touched  it  (Matt.  ix.  20.  xiv.  36. 
IVIark  vi.  56.  Luke  viii.  41.),  was  the  fringe  which  he  wore, 
in  obedience  to  the  law. 

The  X\^fAu;,  chlamys,  or  scarlet  robe  with  which  our  Sa- 
viour was  arrayed  in  mock  majesty  (Matt,  xxvii.  28.  31.), 
was  a  scarlet  robe  worn  by  the  Roman  soldiers.  The  1t<.\» 
was  a  flowing  robe  reaching  to  the  feet,  and  worn  by  persons 
of  distinction.  (Mark  xii.  38.  xvi.  5.  Luke  xv.  22.  xx,  46. 
Rev.  vh  11.  vii.  9.  13,  11.)  Tiie  livJm  was  a  linen  upper 
garment,  worn  by  the  Orientals  in  summer  and  1)V  night,  in- 
stead of  the  usual  i/unTioy.  (Mark  xiv.  51,  52.)  It  was  also 
used  as  an  enveloji*  for  dead  bodies.  (Matt,  xxvii.  59.  Mark 
XV.  46.  Luke  xxiii.  53.)  The  ;>a<x2v»;,''  or  cloak  (2  Tim.  iv. 
13.),  was  the  same  as  ihe  penuhi  of  the  Romans,  viz.  a  tra- 
velling cloak  with  a  hood  to  ])rotect  tlie  wearer  against  the 
weather.'  The  'S.'.vi^pi'.y,  or  handkerchief,  corresponded  to  the 
Kst-j'^faT/iv  of  the  Creeks,  and  the  sudurium  of  the  Romans, 
from  whom  it  passed  to  the  Chaldaeans  and  Syrians  with 

f greater  latitude  o#  signification,  and  was  used  to  "denote  any 
inen  cloth.  (John  xi.  44.  xx.  7.  Acts  xix.  12.)  The  iiyu«/y- 
T/:v  (semicinctium),  or  apron,  passed  also  from  the  Romans  : 
it  was  made  of  linen,  surrounded  half  the  bijdy  (Acta  xix. 
12.),  and  corresponded  nearly  to  the  nii.'^awa  of  the  Creeks.' 
Whenever  the  men  journeyed,  a  staff  was  a  necessary  accom- 
paniment, (Cen.  xxxii.  10.  xxxviii,  18.  Malt.  x.  10.  Mark 
vi.  8.) 

IV.  Originally,  men  had  no  other  Covering  for  the  Head 
than  that  which  nature  it.self  supplied, — the  hair.  Calmet 
is  of  opinion,  that  the  Hebrews  never  wore  any  dress  or 
covering  on  their  heads  :  David,  whin  driven  from  Jerusa- 
lem (he  urges),  lied  with  his  head  covered  witli  his  upper 
garment ;  and  Absalom  would  not  have  been  suspended  among 
the  boughs  of  an  oak  by  his  hair,  if  lie  had  worn  a  covering. 
(2  Sam.  xvi.  30.  xviii.  9.)     But  may  not  these  liave  been 

«  Hbaw's  Travols,  vol.  1.  pp.  lOt— 406. 

•  Cnlinet'8  Uictlonnry,  vore  Phylitrleries.''  Robinson's  Orecl<  Lexicon. 
voce 'l'i'».»»r»^iu.  KespiHliiig  llio  pliylarteries  of  llie  iiioibTii  Jews,  Mr. 
Allen  lias  collerled  inncli  riirioiis  inlorMiatiun.      .Moilern  Jiiilaisni.  pp.  301 

;)1S.     In  til"'  Hil>liollie.;a  Siissexiium  Ibirc  isa  descripiioii  nf  tliree  Jevvisli 

pbylnriiTies,  which  are  preserved  unions  (he  .M.S.S.  in  the  library  of  bis 
Koyal  llighncsa  tbo  Dxikn  o(  Sussex.  UiU.  Sussex,  vol.  1.  port  i.  pp.  xjcxvi. 
— xxxix. 

•  Kobin^on'H  I.e.xiron.  vorlbus. 


1  A'luni'H  IloMian  Anli(iiiities,  p.  X6. 
•  Valpy'ii  Ur.  Test,  on  Luke  xix. '4).  and 


Acts  xix.  13 


Chap.  II.] 


ON  THE  DRESS  OF  THE  JEWS. 


157 


particular  cases  ?  David  went  up  the  Mount  of  Olives,  as  a 
mourner  and  a  fugitive;  and  Absalom,  fleeing  in  battle, 
might  have  lost  his  cap  or  bonnet.  It  is  certain,  that  the 
t^^jv  (tswniph),  or  turban,  was  common  both  to  men  and  wo- 
men. (Job  xxix.  14.  Isa.  iii.  23.) 

Longhair  \v^s  in  great  esteem  among  the  Jews.  The  hair 
of  Absalom's  head  was  of  such  prodigious  length,  that  in  his 
flight,  when  defeated  in  battle,  as  he  was  riding  with  great 
speed  under  the  trees,  it  caught  hold  of  one  of  the  boughs  ; 
in  consequence  of  v.iiich  he  was  lifted  off  his  saddle,  and  his 
mule  running  from  beneath  him,  left  him  suspended  in  the 
air,  unable  to  extricate  himself.  (2  Sam.  xviii.  9.)  The 
plucking  off  the  hair  was  a  great  disgrace  among  the  Jews ; 
and,  therefore,  Nehemiah  punished  in  this  manner  those 
Jews  who  had  been  guilty  of  irregular  m.arriages,  in  order  to 
put  them  to  the  greater  shame.  (Neh.  xiii.  25.)  Baldness 
was  also  considered  as  a  disgrace.  (2  Sam.  xiv.  26.  2  Kings 
ii.  23.  Isa.  iii.  24.)  On  festive  occasions,  the  more  opulent 
perfumed  their  hair  with  fragrant  unguents.  (Psal.  xxiii.  5. 
Eccl.  ix.  8.  Matt.  vi.  17.  xxvi.  7.)  And  it  should  seem, 
from  Cant.  v.  II.,  that  black  hair  was  considered  to  be  the 
most  beautiful. 

The  Jews  wore  their  beards  very  long,  as  we  may  see 
from  the  example  of  the  ambassadors,  whom  David  sent  to 
the  king  of  the  Ammonites,  and  whom  that  ill-advised  king 
caused  to  be  shaved  by  way  of  affront.  (2  Sam.  x.  4.)  And 
as  the  shavinfy  of  them  was  accounted  a  great  indignity,  so 
the  cutting  off  half  tlieir  beards,  which  made  them  still  more 
ridiculous,  was  a  great  addition  to  the  affront,  in  a  country 
where  beards  were  held  in  such  great  veneration. 

In  the  East,  especially  among  the  Arabs  and  Turks,  the 
beard  is  even  now  reckoned  the  greatest  ornament  of  a  man, 
and  is  not  trimmed  or  shaven,  except  in  cases  of  extreme 
grief:  the  hand  is  almost  constantly  employed  in  smoothing 
tiie  beard  and  keeping  it  in  order,  and  it  is  often  perfumed  as 
if  it  were  sacred.  Thus,  we  read  of  the  fragrant  oil,  which 
ran  down  from  Aaron's  beard  to  the  skirts  of  his  garment. 
(Psal.  cxxxiii,  2.  Exod.  xxx.  30.)'  A  shaven  beard  is  re- 
puted to  be  more  unsightly  than  the  loss  of  a  nose ;  and  a 
man  who  possesses  a  reverend  beard  is,  in  their  opinion,  in- 
capable of  acting  dishonestly.  If  they  wish  to  affirm  any 
thing  with  peculiar  solemnity,  they  swear  by  their  beard ; 
and  when  they  express  their  good  wishes  for  any  one,  they 
make  use  of  the  ensuing  formula — God  preserve  thy  blessed 
heard !  From  these  instances,  which  serve  to  elucidate 
many  other  passages  of  the  Bible  besides  that  above  quoted, 
we  may  readily  understand  the  full  extent  of  the  disgrace 
wantonly  inflicted  by  the  Ammonitish  king,  in  cutting  off 
half  the  beards  of  David's  ambassadors.  Niebuhr  relates, 
that  if  any  one  cut  off  his  beard,  after  having  recited  a/a/^c, 
or  prayer,  which  is  considered  in  the  nature  of  a  vow  never 
to  cut  it  off,  he  is  liable  to  be  severely  punished,  and  also  to 
become  the  laughing-stock  of  those  who  profess  his  faith. 
The  same  traveller  has  also  recorded  an  instance  of  a  modern 
Arab  prince  having  treated  a  Persian  envoy  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  Hanun  treated  David's  ambassadors,  which  brought  a 
powerful  army  upon  him  in  the  year  1765.2  The  not  trim- 
ming of  the  beard  was  one  of  the  indications  by  which  the 
Jews  expressed  their  mourning.  (2  Sam.  xix.  24.) 

"  All  the  Grecian  and  Roman  women,  without  distinction, 
wore  their  hair  long.  On  this  they  lavished  all  their  art, 
disposing  it  in  various  forms,  and  embellishing  it  with  divers 
ornaments.  In  the  ancient  medals,  statues,  and  basso-re- 
lievos, we  behold  those  plaited  tresses  which  the  apostles 
Peter  and  Paul  condemn,  and  see  those  expensive  and  fan- 
tastic decorations  which  the  ladies  of  those  times  bestowed 
upon  their  head-dress.  This  pride  of  braided  and  plaited 
tresses,  this  ostentation  of  jewels,  this  vain  displaj^  of  finery, 
the  apostles  interdict,  as  proofs  of  a  light  and  little  mind,  and 
inconsistent  with  the  modesty  and  decorum  of  Christian 
women.  St.  Paul,  in  his  first  Epistle  to  Timothy,  in  the 
passage  where  he  condemns  it,  shows  us  in  what  the  pride 
of  female  dress  then  consisted.  I  ivlll,  says  he,  that  women 
adorn  themselves  in  modest  apparel,  with  shamefacedness  and 
sobriety,  not  with  broidkred  hair,  or  gold,  or  pearls,  or 
COSTLY  ARRAY  :  but  (^ivhich  becometh  women  professing  godli- 
ness) with  good  works.  (1  Tim.  ii.  9.)  St.  Peter  in  like  man- 
ner ordains,  that  the  adorning  of  the  fair  sex  should  not  be 
so  much  that  outward  adorning  of  plaiting  the  hair,  and  of 
wearing  of  govd,  or  putting  ox  of  apparel  :  but  let  it  be  the 
hidden  man  of  the  heart,  in  that  which  is  not  corruptible,  even 
the  ornament  of  a  meek  and  quiet  spirit,  which  is  in  the  sight 

>  Rae  Wilson's  Travels  in  the  Holy  Land,  <S:c.  vol.  i.  p.  147. 3d  edition. 
»  Descript  dffl' Arabia,  p.  61. 


of  God  of  great  price.  (1  Pet.  iii.  3.y  On  the  contrarj^  the 
men  in  those  times  universally  wore  their  hair  short,  as  ap- 
pears from  all  the  books,  medals,  and  statues  that  have  been 
transmitted  to  us.  Tiiis  circumstance,  which  formed  a  prin- 
cipal distinction  in  dress  between  the  sexes,  happily  illus- 
trates the  following  passage  in  St.  Paul  (1  Cor.  xi.  14,  15.)  : 
Doth  7iot  even  nature  iiselj  teach  you,  that  if  a  man  have  long 
hair  if  is  a  shame  to  him.  But  if  a  woman  have  long  hair 
it  is  a  GLORY  to  her  .•  for  her  hair  is  given  her  for  a  coverinn; 

"  The  Jewish  and  Grecian  ladies,  moreover,  never  ap- 
peared in  public  without  a  veil.  Hence  St.  Paul  severely 
censures  the  Corinthian  women  for  appearing  in  the  church 
without  a  veil,  and  praying  to  God  uncovered,  by  which  they 
tlirew  off  the  decency  and  modesty  of  the  sex,  and  exposed 
themselves  and  their  religion  to  the  satire  and  calumny  of 
the  heathens.  The  v/hole  passage  beautifully  and  clearly 
exhibits  to  the  reader's  ideas  the  distinguishing  customs 
which  then  prevailed  in  the  different  dress  and  appearance 
of  the  sexes."  (Compare  1  Cor.  xi.  13 — 16.)^ 

V.  Their  legs  were  bare,  and  on  the  feet  they  wore  San- 
dals, or  soles  made  of  leather  or  of  wood,  and  fastened  around 
the  feet  in  various  ways,  after  the  oriental  fashion.  (Gen. 
xiv.  23.  Exod.  xii.  11.  Isa.  v.  27.  Mark  vi.  9.  John  i.  27. 
Acts  xii.  8.)  As  luxury  increased,  magnificent  sandals  con- 
stituted, in  the  East,  a  part  of  the  dress  of  both  males  and 
females,  who  could  afford  such  a  luxur}'.  (Cant.  vii.  1. 
Ezek.  xvi.  10.)  The  sandals  of  Judith  were  so  brilliant, 
that,  notwithstanding  the  general  splendour  of  her  bracelets, 
rings,  and  necklaces,  these  principally  succeeded  in  capti- 
vating the  ferocious  Holofernes.  (Judith  x.  4.  xvi.  9.)^  On 
entering  a  sacred  place  it  was  usual  to  lay  them  aside  (Exod. 
iii.  5.  Josh.  v.  15.),  as  is  the  practice  among  the  Mohamme- 
dans in  the  East  to  this  day.  When  any  one  entered  a  house, 
it  was  customary  to  take  off  the  sandals,  and  wash  the  feet. 
(Gen.  xviii.  4.  xix.  2.)  A  similar  custom  obtains  in  India 
at  the  present  time.^  Among  persons  of  some  rank  it  was 
the  office  of  servants  to  take  off  the  sandals  of  guests,  and 
(after  washing  their  feet)  to  return  them  to  the  owners  on 
their  departure.  (Matt.  iii.  11.  Mark  v.  7.  Luke  iii  16.  John 
xiii.  4,  5.  14 — 16.  iTim.  v.  10.)  Persons,  who  were  in 
deep  affliction,  went  barefoot  (2  Sam.  xv.  30.  xix.  24.  Isa. 
XX.  2 — 1.) ;  which,  under  other  circumstances,  was  consi- 
dered to  be  ignominious  and  servile.  (Deut.  xxv.  9,  10.  Isa. 
xlvii.  2.  Jer.  ii.  25.) 

VI.  Seals  or  Signets,  and  Rings,  were  commonly  worn 
by  both  sexes. 

Pliny''  states  that  the  use  of  Seals  or  Signets  was  rare  at  the 
time  of  the  Trojan  war  ;  but  among  the  Hebrews  they  were 
of  much  greater  antiquity,  for  we  read  that  Judah  left  his 
signet  as  a  pledge  with  Tamar.  (Gen.  xxxviii.  25.)  The 
ancient  Hebrews  wore  their  seals  or  signets,  either^  as  rings 
on  their  fingers,  or  as  bracelets  on  their  arms,  a  custom  which 
still  obtains  in  the  East.  Thus  the  bride  in  the  Canticles 
(viii.  6.)  desires  that  the  spouse  would  wear  her  as  a  seal  on 
his  ann.  Occasionally,  they  were  worn  upon  the  bosom  by 
means  of  an  ornamental  chain  or  ligature  fastened  round  the 
neck.  To  this  custom  there  is  an  allusion  in  Prov.  vi.  21. 
The  expression  to  set  as  a  seal  upon  the  heart,  as  a  seal  upon 
the  arm  (Cant.  viii.  6.),  is  a  scriptural  expression  denoting 
the  cherishing  of  a  true  affection ;  with  the  exhibition  of  those 
constant  attentions  which  bespeak  a  real  attachment.     Com- 

3  Mr.  Emerson's  account  of  the  dress  of  the  younger  females  in  the 
house  of  the  British  consul  in  tlie  Isle  of  Milo,  in  the  Levant,  strilcingly 
ilUistrates  the  above-cited  passages  of  St.  Peter.  He  describes  their  hair 
as  being  plaited  into  long  triple  bands,  and  then  twisted  round  the  head, 
interlaced  v.ith  strings  of  zechins,  mahmoudis,  and  other  colden  coins, 
or  left  to  flow  gracefully  behind  Ihera.  They  also  vfore  four  or  five  gowns 
and  other  GARMENTS,  heaped  on  with  less  taste  than  profusion,  and  all  are 
secured  at  the  waist  by  a  velvet  stomacher,  richly  embroidered,  and  glit- 
tering with  gilded  spangles.  (Emei'son's  Letters  from  the  JEgean,  vol.  ii. 
p.  238.) 

*  Harwood's  Introd.  to  the  New  Test.  vol.  ii.  pp.  101—103. 

5  Dr.  Good's  Sacred  Idyls,  pp.  147.  172.  In  the  East  generally,  and  in 
the  island  of  Ceylon  in  particular,  "the  slices  of  brides  are  made  of  velvet, 
richly  ornamented  with  gold  and  silver,  not  unlike  a  pair  in  the  tower  [of. 
London]  worn  by  queen  Elizabeth."    Callaway's  Oriental  Observ.  p.  47. 

e  An  intelligent  oriental  traveller  has  the  following  instructive  observa- 
tions on  this  subject:— "I  never  understood  the  full  meaning  of  our  Lord's 
words,  as  recorded  in  John  xiii.  10.,  until  I  beheld  the  better  sort  of  natives 
return  home  after  performing  their  customary  ablutions.  The  passage 
reads  thus :  '  He  that  is  washed  needeth  not  save  to  wash  his  feet,  but  is 
clean  every  whit.'  Thus,  as  they  return  to  their  habitations  barefoot,  they 
necessarily  contract  in  their  progress  some  portion  of  dust  on  their  feet ; 
and  this  is  universally  the  case,  however  nigh  their  dwellings  may  be  to 
the  river  side.  When  therefore  they  return,  the  first  thing  they  do  is  to 
mount  a  low  stool,  and  pour  a  small  vessel  of  water  over  their  feet,  to 
cleanse  them  from  the  soil  they  may  have  contracted  in  their  journey 
homev.ards ;  if  they  are  of  the  higher  order  of  society,  a  servant  performs 
it  for  :hem,  and  then  they  are  '  clean  every  whit.' "  Statham's  Indian 
Recollections,  p.  81.  London,  1832. 12mo. 

•"  Nat.  Hist.  lib.  xjuuii.  c.  1. 


158 


ON  THE  DP.ESS  OF  THE  JEWS. 


[Paht  IV. 


pare  also  Hag.  ii.  23.  Jcr.  xxxii.  21.  The  Ii''>ig  is  men- 
tioned in  Isa.  lii.  21.,  end  also  in  the  parahle  of  the  prodigal, 
where  the  f.ither  orders  a  ring  for  his  returning  son  (Luke 
XV.  22.),  nnd  also  hy  the  apostle  James,  (ii.  2.)  The  com- 
pliment of  a  royal  ring  was  a  token  that  the  person,  to  whom 
It  was  g^ven,  was  invested  with  power  and  honrur :  thus 
Pharaoh  took  off  his  ring  from  his  hand,  and  put  it  on  Jo- 
seph's. (Gen.  xli.  42.)  And  Ahasuerus  plucked  off  his  ring 
from  his  finger,  and  hostowcd  it  on  Ilaman  (Esther  iii.  10.), 
and  afterwards  en  !\Iordecai.  (viii.  2.) 
-■  VII.  Although  the  garments  anciently  worn  by  the  Jews 
were  few  in  number,  yet  their  ornaments  were  many,  espe- 
cially those  worn  by  the  women.  The  propliet  Isaiah,  when 
reproaching  the  daughters  of  Sion  with  their  luxury  and 
vanity,  gives  us  a  particular  accoimt  of  their  female  orna- 
ments. ^Isa.  iii.  16 — 21.)'  The  most  remarkable  were  the 
following  : — 

1.  The  Nose  Jewels  (ver.  21.),  or,  as  Bishop  Lowth 
translates  them,  thejiwels  of  the  nostril.  They  were  rings  set 
with  jewels,  pendent  from  the  nostrils,  like  ear-rings  from  the 
ears,  by  holes  bored  to  receive  them.  Ezekiel,  enumerating 
tlie  common  ornaments  of  women  of  the  first  rank,  distinctly 
mentions  the  nose  jewel  (Ezek.  xvi.  12.  marg.  rendering)  ; 
and  in  an  elegant  Proverb  of  Solomon  (Prov.  xi.  22.)  there 
is  a  manifest  allusion  to  this  kind  of  ornament,  which  shows 
that  it  was  used  in  his  time.  Nose  jewels  were  one  of  the 
love-tokens  presented  to  Rebecca  by  the  sei-vant  of  Abraham 
in  the  name  of  his  master.  (Gen.  xxiv.  22.  where  the  word 
translated  ear-ring  ought  to  have  been  rendered  7iose  jcwe/.y 
However  singular  this  custom  may  appear  to  us,  modern 
travellers  attest  its  prevalence  in  the  East  among  women  of 
all  ranks. 3 

2.  The  Ear-ring  was  an  ornament  worn  by  the  men  as 
well  as  the  women,  as  appears  from  Gen.  xxxv.  4.  and 
Exod.  x\xii.  2. ;  and  by  otlier  nations  ns  well  as  the  Jews, 
as  is  evident  from  Num.  xxxi.  50.  and  Judg.  viii.  24.     It 

■  should  seem  that  this  ornament  had  been  heretofore  used  for 
idolatrous  purposes,  since  Jacob,  in  the  injunction  which  he 
gave  to  his  household,  commanded  them  to  put  away  the 
strani^e  s^ock  that  ii-ere  in  ilicir  hand",  and  the  lar-rings  thai 
tcere  in  their  ears,  (Gen.  xxxv.  2.  i.y  It  appears  that  the 
Israelites  themselves  in  subse(juent  times  were  not  free  from 
this  superstition  ;  for  Hosea  (ii.  13.)  represents  Jerusalem  as 
havinfr  decked  herself  with  ear-rings  to  Baalim. 

3.  PiCRFUME  Boxes  (in  our  version  of  Isa.  iii.  20.  rendered 
tablets)  were  an  essential  article  in  the  toilet  of  a  Hebrew 
lady.  A  principal  part  of  the  delicacy  of  the  Asiatic  ladies 
consists  in  the  use  of  baths,  and  the  richest  oils  and  per- 
fumes :  an  attention  to  which  is  in  some  degree  necessary  in 
those  hot  covintries.  Frequent  mention  is  made  of  the  rich 
ointments  of  the  bride  in  the  Song  of  Solomon,  (iv.  10,  11.) 
The  preparation  for  Esther's  introduction  to  king  Ahasuerus 
was  a  course  of  bathing  and  perfuming  for  a  whole  year  :  fix 
months  with  oil  of  myrrh,  and  six  months  with  sweet  odours, 
(Esth.  ii.  12.)  A  diseased  and  loathsome  habit  of  body, 
which  is  denounced  against  the  women  of  Jerusalem — 

An(i  Ihcre  sliall  be,  instead  of  nerfuine,  a  putrid  ulcrr — 

Isa.  iii.  21.    13]).  Lowth's  version. 

instead  of  a  beautiful  skin,  softened  and  made  agreeable  with 
all  that  art  could  devise,  and  all  that  nature,  so  prodigal  in 
those  countries  of  the  richest  perfumes,  could  supply, — must 
have  been  a  punishment  the  most  severe,  and  the  most  morti- 
fying to  the  delicacy  of  these  haughty  daughters  of  Sion.' 

4.  The  Transparent  Garments  (m  our  version  of  Isa.  iii. 
23.  rendered  glasses)  were  a  kind  of  silken  dress,  transj)arent 
like  gauze,  worn  oidy  by  the  most  delicate  women,  and  by 
such  as  dressed  themselves  more  elegantly  than  became 
women  of  good  character.  This  sort  ot  garments  was  after- 
wards in  use  both  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans.*^ 

«  Sclirocder  hag  treated  at  ereat  Icniiih  on  tlic  various  articlos  of  female 
apparel  mentioned  in  Isa.  iiH  IG — 24.  in  hia  Cotninentariiis  I'liilulogico- 
t'ritiiMis  '!c  Vestitu  Miilicruin  Hcl)ra;Ruui.  I.iig.  But.  1730,  4to. 

»  Bp.  Ix>wth  on  l!iniah,  vol.  ii.  p.  17. 

'  Il)iil.  vol.  ii.  p.  tH.  Ilarnicr's  Obscr\ation8,  vol.  iv.  pp.  310—320.  In  the 
East  IiidicM,  a  small  jewel,  in  form  reseiiiLlinif  a  rose,  ornaiuciitH  one 
nostril  of  even  the  poorest  Malabar  woman.  Callaway's  Oriental  Obscr- 
Tation.o,  p.  18. 

«  It  is  probable  that  the  ear-rings,  or  jewels,  worn  by  Jacob's  house- 
hold, had  been  ciinsccratcd  to  suixTstitious  piirpo.ses,  and  worn,  perhaps, 
as  a  kind  of  amulet.  It  appears  that  rings,  wht-ther  on  the  CBrsor  nose, 
were  first  siiperstitiously  worn  in  honour  of  fnlHi.- gods,  and  probably  or 
the  sun,  whose  circular  form  tlipy  might  be  designed  to  represent.  Mai- 
tiionldes  mentions  rings  and  vessels  of  this  kind,  with  the  image  of  the 
sun,  moon,  &c.  impressed  on  tbcin.  These  superstitious  objects  were 
concealed  by  Jacob  in  a  place  known  only  to  himself.  Urotius  on  Gen. 
xxxv  4.     Calmet's  Dictionary,  vo!.  ii.  voce  Ring. 

•  Bp.  Lowth's  Isaiah,  rol.  li.  pp.  19,  GO.  •  Ibid.  p.  49. 


5.  Another  female  ornament  was  a  Chain  about  the  neck 
(Ezek.  xvi.  11.),  which  appears  to  have  been  used  r.lso  by 
the  men,  as  may  be  inferred  from  Prov.  i.  9.  This  was  a 
gener.tl  ornament  in  all  the  eastern  countries  :  thiis  Pharach 
13  said  to  have  put  a  chain  of  gold  about  Joseph's  neck  (Gen. 
xli.  42.)  ;  and  Belshazzar  did  the  same  to  Daniel  (Dan.  v. 
2D.)  ;  and  it  is  mentioned  with  several  other  things  as  part 
of  the  Midianitish  spoil.  (Num.  xxxi.  50.)  Further,  the 
arms  cr  wrists  were  adorned  with  bracelets .-  these  are  in  the 
catalogue  of  the  female  ornaments  used  by  the  Jews  (Ezek. 
xvi.  11.),  and  were  part  of  Rebecca's  present.  They  were  j 
also  worn  by  men  ot  any  considerable  figure,  for  we  read  of  ^ 
Judah's  bracelets  (Gen.  xxxviii.  18.),  and  of  those  worn  by 
Saul.  (2  Sam.  i.  10.) 

G.  We  read  in  Exod.  xxxviii.  8.  of  the  women's  Looking 
Glasses,  which  were  not  made  of  what  is  now  called 
glass,  but  of  polished  brass,  otherwise  these  Jewish  women 
could  not  have  contributed  them  towards  the  making  of  the 
brazen  laver,  as  is  there  mentioned.  In  later  times,  mirrors 
were  made  of  other  polished  metal,  which  at  best  could  only 
reflect  a  very  obscure  and  imperfect  image.  Hence  St.  PauL, 
in  a  very  apt  and  beautiful  simile,  describes  the  defective 
and  limited  knowledge  of  the  present  state  by  that  opaque 
and  dim  representation  of  objects,  which  tliose  mirrors  exhi- 
bited. JS'uw  we  tee  it  Wott^cv  by  means  of  a  mirror,'  darkly; 
not  through  a  glass,  as  in  (  ur  version  of  1  Cor.  xiii.  12. ;  for 
telescopes,  as  every  one  knows,  are  a  very  late  invention. 

7.  lothe  articles  of  apparel  above  enumerated  maybe 
added  Feet  Rings.  (Isa.  iii.  8.  in  cur  version  rendered  tink- 
ling oRNAJiENTS  about  the  feet.)  Most  of  these  articles 
of  fem.ale  apparel  are  still  in  use  in  the  East.  The  East 
Indian  women,  who  accompanied  the  Indo-Anglican  army 
from  India  to  Egypt,  wore  large  rings  in  their  noses,  and  sil- 
ver cinctures  about  their  ankles  and  wrists,  their  faces  being 
painted  above  the  eyebrows.  In  Persia  and  Arabia,  also,  it  is 
well  known  that  the  women  paint  their  faces  and  wear  gold 
and  silver  rings  about  their  ankles,  which  are  full  of  little 
bells  that  tinlde  as  they  walk  or  trip  along.  Cingalese  chil- 
dren often  wear  rings  about  their  ankles;  Malabar  and  Moor 
children  wear  rings,  hung  about  with  hollow  balls,  which 
tinkle  as  they  run.»  The  licensed  prostitutes  whom  Dr. 
Richardson  saw  at  Gheneh  (a  large  commercial  town  of 
Upper  Egypt)  were  attired  in  a  similar  manner.^ 

8.  As  largo  black  eyes  are  greatly  esteemed  in  the  East, 
the  oriental  women  have  recourse  to  artificial  means,  in  order 
to  impart  a  dark  and  majestic  shade  to  the  eyes.  Dr.  Shaw 
informs  us,  that  none  of  the  Moorish  ladies  think  themselvea 
completely  dressed,  until  they  have  tinged  their  eyelids  with 
al-ka-hol,  tliat  is,  with  stibium,  or  the  powder  of  lead  ere. 
As  this  process  is  performed  "  by  first  dipping  into  this  pow- 
der a  small  wooden  bodkin  of  the  thickness  of  a  quill,  and 
then  drawing  it  afterwards  through  the  eyelids,  ov»  r  the  ball 
of  the  eye,  we  have  a  lively  image  of  what  the  prophet  Jere- 
miah (iv.  30.)  may  be  supposed  to  mean  by  renlinjr  the  eyes 
(not  as  we  render  it,  tvilh  painting,  but)  with  i^d,  lead  ore. 
The  sooty  colour  which  in  this  manner  is  communicated  to 
the  eyes  is  thought  to  add  a  wonderful  gracefuhuss  to  per- 
sons of  all  complexions.  The  practice  of  it,  no  doubt,  is  of 
great  anticpiity ;  for,  Ijesides  the  instances  already  noticed, 
we  find,  that  when  Jezebel  is  said  to  have  i)ainted  her  face 
(2  Kings  ix.  30.),  the  original  words  are  n-o;'  1>C2  di:t,  i.  e. 
she  adjusted,  or  set  off,  ho-  ryes  with  the  powdtr  if  lead  ore.  So 
likewise  Ezek.  xxiii.  40,  is  to  be  understood.  Kiren-hvp' 
jmch,  i.  e.  the  horn  of  ])ouk  or  lead  ore,  the  name  of  Job's 

'  The  'F.o-en-Tfoi-,  or  metallic  wirror,  is  mentioned  by  Ihr  author  of  the 
apocrypliid  booic  of  tlie  Wis-dom  of  Solomon  (vii. '.».);  who,  speaking  of 
Wisilom,  says  that  she  in  llir  brif;htntsa  of  l/ie  erirlasthi^  light  anil. 
'ElOIITl'ON  ixaXiiuiiei-  t/ic  UJi.^poKa!  KinitOHnf  t/ir  poirrr  (if'Oidtiiul  Ihc 
iiiiii^n  of  his  i^ooilncss.  The  author,  abo,  of  llie  book  of  Ecf  le.'-iasticu.s, 
cxhorung  to  out  no  trust  in  an  enemy,  says,  Though  he  humble  hinixelf 
(mil  /;o  vTOUcliing,  yet  lake  iruoil  h' ill  mill  btirare  nf  him  ;  and  Ihmi  shiiH 
bf  utilii  him  ii  truifM^x^i  'EiOllTPON,  as  if  l/inu  hailut  triptil  a  mikkor, 
and  thou  shall  knote  that  hin  ri.st  lialh  not  altogether  beeyi  triyeil  ateaj/.^ 
(Ecclus.  xli.  It.)  The  mention  of  rust  in  this  place  manifestly  indicates  the 
ujclallic  composition  of  the  mirror;  whlcli  is  frequemly  uicnlionid  in  tho 
ancii'nl  classic  writers.  Hoc  imrliriilarly  Aiiacreon,  Ode  xi.  3.  and  XX.  0, 
(J.     Dr.  .\.  Clarke,  on  1  Cor.  xiii.  H. 

'  l)r.  .Clarke's  Travi  l.<,  vol.  v.  p  320.  8vo.  edit.  Morier'e  Second  Jour- 
ney in  Persia,  p.  Il.'i.  Ward's  IILstory,  &c.  of  the  Hindoos,  voL  il.  pp.. 
SliU.  3Xi.     Callaway's  Oriental  Dbservelions,  pp.  47,  48. 

•  "This  is  the  only  place  In  I'gypt  where  wetawthe  women  of  Ihetown    «« 
decked  out  i:i  all  llieir  finery,    "rhey  were  of  all  nations  and  of  all  com- 
plexions, and  regularly  licensed,  as  in  many  parts  of  Eurojie,  to  exercise 
their  profession.     Some  of  them  were   hif;hly  paivtril,  and  gorgeously 
allired  with  mstly  nertlaces,  rings  in  thnir  nosrs  and  in  their  ears,  and, 
bracelets  on  their  irrisls  and  arms.    T\\ey  sat  at  the  doors  of  the  houses^ 
and  called  on  the  passengers  as  they  went  by,  in  tho  same  manner  as  we* 
reail  in  the  book  of  I'roverbs."    (vil.  6—23  J   (Richardson's  Travels,  vol.  i. 
p.  UjO.)    The  same  custom  was  observed  by  Pitts,  a  century  before,  at 
Cairo.    See  his  account  of  the  Mahometans,  p.  99. 


Chap.  II.] 


ON  THE  DRESS  OF  THE  JEWS. 


i59 


yoiintTest  daughter,  was  relative  to  this  custom  or  practice."' 
The  modern  Persian,  Egyptian,  and  Arab  women,  continue 
tlie  praclice  of  tingiajj  their  eyeloshes  and  eyelids.^ 

It  was  a  particular  injunction  of  the  Mosaic  law  that  Ihe 
women  shall  nut  wear  that  which  pertaineth  wifo  a  Tuan,  nei- 
ther shall  a  man  J) lit  on  a  woman^s  garment.  (Deut.  xxii.  5.) 
This  precaution  was  very  necessary  against  the  abuses  which 
are  the  usual  consequences  of  such  disguises.  For  a  woman 
drest  in  a  man's  clothes  will  not  be  restrained  so  readily  by 
that  modesty  which  is  the  peculiar  ornament  of  her  sex  ;  and 
a  man  drest  in  a  woman's  nabit  may  without  fear  and  shame 
go  into  companies  where,  without  this  disguise,  shame  and 
'ear  would  hinder  his  admittance,  and  prevent  his  appearing. 

In  hot  countries,  like  a  considerable  part  of  Palestine, 
travellers  inform  us,  that  the  greatest  difference  imaginable 
subsists  between  the  complexions  of  the  women.  Those  of 
any  condition  seldom  go  abroad,  and  are  ever  accustomed  to 
be  shaded  from  the  sun,  with  the  greatest  attention.  Tlicir 
skin  is,  consequently,  fair  and  beautiful.  But  women  in  the 
lower  ranks  of  life,  especially  in  the  country,  being  from  the 
nature  of  their  employments  more  exposed  to  the  scorcliing 
rays  of  the  sun,  are,  in  their  complexions,  remarkably  tawny 
and  swarthy.  Under  such  circumstances,  a  high  value 
would,  of  course,  be  set,  by  the  eastern  ladies,  upon  the  fair- 
ness of  their  complexions,  as  a  distinguishing  mark  of  their 
superior  quality,  no  less  than  as  an  enhancement  of  their 
beauty.  vVe  perceive,  therefore,  how  natural  was  the  bride's 
self-abasing  reflection  in  Cant.  i.  5,  6.  respecting  her  tawny 
complexion  (caused  by  exposure  to  servile  employments), 
among  the  fair  daughters  of  Jerusalem ;  who,  as  attendants 
on  a  royal  marriage  (we  may  suppose),  were  of  the  highest 
rank.^ 

VIII.  To  change  habits  and  wash  one's  clothes  were  cere- 
monies used  by  the  .Tews,  in  order  to  dispose  them  for  some 
holy  action  which  required  particular  puritj'.  Jacob,  after 
his  return  from  Mesopotamia,  required  his  household  to  change 
their  garments,  and  go  with  him  to  sacrifice  at  Bethel.  (Gen. 
XXXV.  2, 3.)  Moses  commanded  the  people  to  prepare  them- 
selves for  the  reception  of  the  law  by  purifying  and  washing 
their  clothes.  (Exod.  xix.  10.)  On  the  other  hand,  the 
BENDING  OF  one's  CLOTHES  is  au  expression  frequently  used 
in  Scripture,  as  a  token  of  the  highest  grief.  Reuben,  to 
denote  nis  great  sorrow  for  Joseph,  rent  his  clothes  (Gen. 
xxxvii.  29.);  Jacob  did  the  like  (ver.  34.);  and  Ezra,  to 
express  the  concern  and  uneasiness  of  his  mind,  and  the 
apprehensions  he  entertained  of  the  divine  displeasure,  on 
account  of  the  people's  unlawful  marriages,  is  said  to  rend 
his  garments  and  his  mantle  (Ezra  ix.  3.) ;  that  is,  both  his 
inner  and  upper  garment :  this  was  also  an  expression  of 
indignation  and  holy  zeal ;  the  high-priest  rent  his  clothes, 
pretending  that  our  Saviour  had  spoken  blasphemy.  (IMatt. 
xxvi.  G5.)  And  so  did  the  apostles,  when  the  people  intended 
to  pay  them  divine  honours.  (Acts  xiv.  14^  The  garments 
of  mourners  among  the  Jews  were  chiefly  sackcloth  and 
haircloth.  The  last  sort  was  the  usual  clothing  of  the  pro- 
phets, for  they  were  continual  penitents  by  profession ;  and 
therefore  Zechariah  speaks  of  the  rough  garments  of  the  false 
prophets,  which  they  also  wore  to  deceive.  (Zech.  xiii.  4.) 
.Tacob  was  the  first  we  read  of  that  put  sackcloth  on  his  loins, 

«  Dr.  Shaw's  Travela,  vol.  i.  p.  413. 

»  Harnier's  Observations,  vol.  iv.  p.  334.  Shaw's  Travels,  vol.  i.  p.  414. 
Movier's  Second  .lounioy,  pp.  61.  145.  The  eyes  of  the  wife  of  a  Greek 
priest,  whom  Mr.  Rae  Wil.son  saw  at  Tiberias,  were  stained  with  black 
powder.     (Travels  in  the  Holy  Land,  «fcc.  vol.  ii.  p.  17.)    "The  Palmyrcne 

women are  the  finest  looking  women  of  all  the  Arab  tribes  of  Syria. 

.....  Like  other  Orientals  of  their  sex,  they  dye  the  tips  of  the  fingers  and 
the  pahns  of  their  hands  red,  and  wear  gold  rings  in  their  ears :  and  the 
iet-black  dye  of  the  hennah  for  the  eyelashes  is  never  forgotten ;  they 
imagine,  and,  perhaps,  with  truth,  that  its  blackness  gives  the  eye  an  addi- 
tional languor  and  interest."    Game's  Letters  from  the  East,  p.  592. 

3  Fry's  Traaslation  of  the  Song  of  Solomon,  p.  36. 


as  a  token  of  mourning  for  Joseph  (Gen.  xxxvii.  34.),  sio-ni- 
fying  thereby  that  since  he  had  lost  his  beloved  son  he  con- 
sidered himself  as  reduced  to  the  meanest  and  lowest  condi- 
tion of  life. 

IX.  A  prodigious  number  of  sumptuous  and  magnificent 
habits  was  in  ancient  times  regarded  as  a  necessary^and  in- 
dispensable part  of  their  treasures.  Horace,  s])eakino-  of 
LucuUus  (who  had  pillaged  Asia,  and  first  introduced  Asiatic 
refinements  among  the  Pomans),  says,  thr.t,  some  persons 
having  waited  upon  him  to  request  the  loan  of  a  hundred  suits 

out  of  his  wardrobe  for  the  Roman  stage,  he  exclaimed '•  A 

hundred  suits!  how  is  it  possible  forme  to  furnish  such  a 
number  1  However,  I  will  look  over  them  and  send  you  what 
I  have." — After  some  time,  he  writes  a  note,  and  tells  them 
he  had  five  thousand,  to  the  whole  or  part  of  which  they 
were  welcome.' 

This  circumstance  of  amassing  and  ostentatiously  display- 
ing in  wardrobes  numerous  and  superb  suits,  as  indispensa- 
ble to  the  idea  of  wealth,  and  forming  a  principal  part  of  the 
opulence  of  those  times,  will  elucidate  several  passages  of 
Scripture.  The  patriarch  Job,  sneaking  of  riches  in  his  time, 
says, —  Though  they  heup  up  silver  as  the  dust,  and  prepare 
ra  ment  as  the  clay.  (Job  xxvii.  16.)  Joseph  gave  his  brethren 
changes  of  raiment,  but  to  Benjamin  he  gave  three  hundred 
pieces  of  silver,  and^re  changes  of  raiment.  (Gen.  xlv.  22.)-' 
Naaman  carried  for  a  presentto  the  prophet  Elisha  ten  changes 
of  raiment,  that  is,  according  to  Calmet,  ten  tunics  and  ten 
upper  garments.  (2  Kings  v.  5.)  In  allusion  to  this  custom 
our  Lord,  when  describing  the  short  duration  and  perishing 
nature  of  eartlily  treasures,  represents  them  as  subject  to  the 
depredations  of  moths.  Lay  not  up  for  yourselves  treasures 
on  earth,  where  moth  and  rust  do  corrupt.  (Matt.  vi.  19.)  The 
illustrious  apostle  of  the  Gentiles,  when  appealing  to  the  in- 
tegrity and  fidelity  with  which  he  had  discharged  his  sacred 
office,  said, — I  have  coveted  no  man''s  gold,  or  silver,  or  apparel. 
(Acts  XX.  33.)  The  apostle  James,  likewise  (just  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  Greek  and  Roman  writers,  when  they 
are  particularizing  the  opulence  of  those  times),  specifies 
gold,  silver,  and  garments,  as  the  constituents  of  riches  : — 
Go  to  now,  ye  rich  men ,-  weep  and  howl  for  your  miseries  that 
shall  come  upon  you.  Your  gold  and  silver  is  cankered,  and 
your  garments  are  moth-eaten.  (James  v.  1.3.  2.)6  The 
fashion  of  hoarding  up  splendid  dresses  still  subsists  in  Pa- 
lestine. It  appears  from  Psal.  xlv.  8.  that  the  wardrobes  of 
the  East  were  plentifully  perfumed  with  aromatics  ;  and  in 
Cant.  iv.  11.  the  fragrant  odour  of  the  bride's  garments  is 
compared  to  the  odour  of  Lebanon."  With  robes  thus  per- 
fumed Rebecca  furnished  her  son  Jacob,  when  she  sent  nini 
to  obtain  by  stratagem  his  father's  blessing.  And  he  (Isaac) 
smdled  the  smell  (ox  fragrance)  of  his  raiment  and  blessed  him, 
and  said.  See  !  the  smell  of  my  son  is  as  Ihe  smell  of  a  field 
which  the  Lord  hath  blessed.  (Gen.  xxvii.  27.)3  In  process 
of  time,  this  exquisite  fragrance  was  figuratively  applied  to 
the  moral  qualities  of  the  mind ;  of  which  we  have  an  exam- 
ple in  the  Song  of  Solomon,  i.  3. 

Like  the  fragrance  of  tliiiie  own  sweet  perfumes 
Is  tliy  name, — a  perfume  poured  forth. » 

*  Ilorat.  Epist.  lib.  i.  ep.  6.  ver.  40 — 44. 

t  Presenting  garments  is  one  of  tlie  modes  of  complimenting  persons  in 
the  East.  See  several  illustrative  instances  in  Burder's  Oriental  Literature, 
vol.  i.  pp.  93,  94. 

6  TIarwood's  Introd.  vol  ii.  pp.  247,  243. 

1  Ur.  Good's  Sacred  Idyls,  p.  122.  In  p.  123.  he  has  quoted  the  foUowihg 
passage  from  Moschus,  in  which  the  same  idea  occurs  with  singular  exact- 
ness : — 

TOu  «jU>ipOT0;  o5",a^ 

Ts/wOdi  Kxi  Kitfi'jjvOi  SKxtvvTO  \»pov  «ur;x>;i/.  Idyl.  B.  91. 

Whose  heavenly  fragrance  far  exceeds 
The  fragrance  of  the  breathing  meads. 

Dr.  Good's  translation  of  Solomon's  Song,  p.  123. 
a  .lowett's  Christian  Researches  in  Syria,  &c.  pp.  97,  93. 

•  Dr.  Good's  version.  • 


160 


JEWISH  CUSTOMS  RELATING  TO  MARRIAGE. 


[Part  R 


CHAPTER  III. 


JEWISH  CUSTOMS  RELATING  TO  MARRIAGE. 


I.  ^lurria^e  accounted  a  sacred  Obligation  by  tli'  Je-ws. — II.  Pohignmy  tolerated. —  Condition  nf  Concubines. — III.  J^'iiptiai 

Contract,  and  E!tJ>ou!.iils. — IV.  A'liptiul  Ceremonits. — V.  Divorces. 


I.  Mariiiage  was  considered  by  the  .lews  as  a  matter  of 
he  strictest  obligation.     Tliey  understood  literally  and  as  a 

precept  these  words  uttered  to  our  first  j)arents,  m  fruitful^ 
and  multiply,  and  rcpltiiith  the  curlli,  (Geii.  i.  28.)  Tlicir 
continual  expectation  of  the  coming  of  tlie  i\I«'ssiali  added 
great  wei<jhl  to  this  oblijfution.  P^very  one  lived  in  the  iiopes 
that  this  blessing  should  attend  their  posterity;  and  Iheretore 
they  thought  themselves  bound'lo  further  the  expectance  of 
him,  by  adding  to  the  race  of  mankind,  of  whose  seed  he  was 
to  be  born,  and  wliose  happiness  ho  was  to  promote,  by  that 
temporal  kingdom  for  which  they  looked  upon  his  appear- 
ance. 

I  lence  celihacy  was  esteemed  a  great  reproach  in  Israel  ; 
fjr,  besides  that  they  thought  no  one  could  live  a  single  life 
without  great  danger  of  sin,  they  esteemed  it  a  counteracting 
of  the  divine  counsels  in  the  promise,  that  ike  need  of  the 
viouuin  should  bruise  the  heed  of  the  serpent.  On  this  account 
it  was  that  Jephthi'-h's  daughter  deplored  her  virginity,  be- 
cause she  thus  deprived  her  father  of  the  hopes  which  lie 
might  entertain  from  heirs  descended  from  lier,  by  whom  his 
name  might  survive  in  Israel,  and,  consequently,  of  his  ex- 
pectation of  having  the  Messiah  to  come  of  his  seed,  which 
was  the  general  desire  of  all  the  Israelilish  women.  For 
the  same  reason  also  sterility  was  regarded  among  the  Jews 
(as  it  i.-)  to  t'liis  day  amon;j  the  modern  Egyptians)'  as  one  of 
the  greatest  misfortunes  tirat  could  liefall  any  woman,  inso- 
mucTi  that  to  have  a  child,  though  the  woman  immediately 
died  thereupon,  wr:s  accounU^d  a  less  affliction  tlian  to  have 
none  at  all;  an  J  to  this  purpose  we  may  observe,  that  the 
midwife  comforts  Rachel  in  her  labour  (even  though  she 
knew  her  to  be  at  the  point  of  death)  in  these  terms.  Fear 
iU)t,f'r  Ih'ju  fhill  bear  this  con  cUo.   (Gen.  XXXV.  17.) 

From  this  exnt^ctation  proceeded  their  exactness  in  causing 
the  brother  of  a  nusband,  who  died  without  issue,  to  maiTy  tlie 
widow  he  left  behind,  and  the  disgrace  tliat  attended  his  refe.s- 
ing  so  to  do  ;  for,  as  the  eldest  son  of  such  a  marriage  became 
the  adopU^l  child  of  the  deceased,  that  child  and  the  posterity 
flowing  froui  liiin  were,  by  a  fiction  of  law,  considered  as  the 
real  olfspring  and  heirs  of  the  deceased  brother.  This  ex- 
plains tiie  words  of  Isaiah,  that  seven  women  should  take  hold 
vf  one  man,  saying,  f  ft  will  eat  our  own  bread,  and  wear  our 
own  apparel ,-  only  Id  us  be  called  by  thy  name,  to  tuhc  away 
our  reproach.  (Isa.  iv.  1.)  This  was  the  reason  also  why  the 
Jews  commonly  married  very  young.  The  age  prescribed  to 
men  by  the  italibins  was  eighteen  years.  A  virgin  was 
ordinarily  married  at  the  age  of  puberty,  that  is,  twelve  years 
complete,  wlience  her  husijand  is  called  the  guide  of  her 
youth  (Prf>v.  ii.  17.),  and  the  husband  of  her  youth  (Joel  i. 
8.)  ;  and  tiie  not  giving  of  maidens  in  marriage  is  in  P.sal. 
Ixxviii.  03  represented  as  one  of  the  effects  of  the  divine 
anger  towards  Israel.  In  like  manner,  among  the  Hindoos, 
the  delaying  of  the  marriage  of  daughters  is  to  this  day  re- 
garded as  a  great  calamity  and  disgrace.^ 

II.  From  the  first  institution  of  marriage  it  is  evident  that 
God  gave  but  one  woman  to  one  man  ;  and  if  it  be  a  true,  as 
it  is  a  common,  observation,  that  there  are  every  where  more 
males  than  females  born  in  the  world,  it  follows  that  those 
men  certainly  act  contrary  to  the  laws  both  of  God  and  na- 
ture who  have  more  than  one  wife  at  the  same  time.  Hut 
though  God,  as  supreme  lawgiver,  had  a  power  to  dis|)ens(; 
with  his  own  laws,  and  actually  did  so  with  the  Jews  for  the 

•  The  most  iiniKirtuniilc  appllcnntfl  tu  Dr.  Hicliar«].-ioii  fur  iiiorlli'ftl  nilvicr 
were  those  wlio  oiiHulled  liiiii  on  accoiinl  of  alcrility,  which  hi  I'VypI  (hn 
ttya)  \»  8liU  con.iiilnrcil  tho  Krcalcst  of  all  eviU.  "Tho  iiiifiirliinati!  miiplc 
beliovn  that  ihi-y  arc  bewitched,  or  unilcr  the  "curse  of  he.-.vt-n,  whirli  they 
fancy  thc^i'iyHlcian  ha.i  the  jKJwer  to  rctnove.  It  In  In  vain  that  he  'IccJHrcH 
Ihc  Inimflicleticy  of  the  healing  urt  to  take  away  llirlr  reproarh.  The  par- 
ties hann  roiiiirl,  >lunninK  and  iinportiitiiiii;  hlui  for  the  li>ve  of  Ood,  lo  pre- 
Bcrllic  lor  thrill,  thai  Ihrv  inny  hiive  children  lik<'  ofli'T  iieopli-.  'Give  iiic 
children,  or  I  ilie,'  »aid  tfic  fretful  8arah  lo  her  liushaiul ;  'Give  ino  child- 
ren, or  I  curse  you,'  say  the  liarren  E)ryplianH  to  their  pliynlrlani"."  Dr. 
Ricnardson'd Travels  nioiizihe  Meditermiiean,  Ac.  vol.  II.  p.  106.  A  nearly 
HiinUar  scene  l.s  doHcrihed  hy  Mr.  II.  II.  Ma'Mi-n,  who  travclleil  in  the  Enut 
between  the  years  IKJl  am!  inS     Travels  in  Turkey,  &o.  vol.  ii.  p.  51. 

«  Ward's  llislory,  4c.  of  the  Hindoos,  vol.  ii.  p.  3/7.  Maurice's  Indian 
Antinuitics,  vol.  vil.  p.  329.  Iluiue'ii  llistory  of  the  Jews,  vol.  ii.  pp. 
300,351. 


more  speedy  peopling  of  the  world,  yet  it  is  certain  there  in 
no  such  toleration  under  the  Christian  dispensation,  and, 
therefore,  tlieir  example  is  no  rule  at  this  day.  Tlie  first  who 
violated  this  primitive  law  of  marriage  was  Lamcch,  who 
tdidi  unto  him  tico  wivts.  (Gen.  iv.  19.)  Aflirwards  we  read 
that  Abraham  had  concubines.  (Gen.  xxv.  G.)  And  his 
practice  was  followed  by  the  other  patriarclis,  which  at  last 
grew  to  a  most  scandalous  excess  in  Solomon's  and  Reho- 
boam's  days.  The  word  concubine  in  most  Latin  authors, 
and  even  with  ns  at  this  day,  signifies  a  woman,  who,  tliough 
she  be  not  married  X6  a  man,  yet  lives  witli  him  as  his  wift  ; 
l)ut  in  the  Sacred  Writings  it  is  understood  in  another  sense. 
There  it  means  a  lawful  wife,  but  of  a  lower  order  and  of  an 
inferior  rank  to  the  mistress  of  the  family;  and,  then  fore, 
she  had  equal  right  to  the  mi'i  tinge-bed  with  the  chief  wife  ; 
and  her  issue  was  reputed  Ifgitimate  in  opj)osition  to  has- 
tsrds  :  hut  in  all  other  respects  these  conculiines  were  iiiferior 
to  the  primary  wife  :  for  tiicy  had  no  aulliority  in  tlie  family, 
nor  any  share  in  household  government.  Kthey  had  been 
5;ervants  in  the  family  before  they  came  to  he  conciil.-ines, 
they  continued  to  be  so  afterwards,  and  in  the  same  subjec- 
tion to  their  mistress  as  before.  The  dignity  of  these  primary 
wives  gave  their  children  the  preference  in  the  succession,  so 
that  the  children  of  concubines  did  not  inherit  tlieir  father's 
fortune,  except  upon  the  failure  of  the  cliihlren  by  these  more 
honourable  wives  ;  and,  therefore,  it  was,  that  the  father 
commonly  provided  for  the  children  by  theS'e  concubines  in 
his  own  lifetime,  by  giving  tliem  a  portion  ef  his  cattle  and 
goods,  which  the  Scripture  calls  gifts.  Thus  Sarah  was 
Abraham's  ])rimary  wife,  by  whom  he  had  Isaac,  who  was 
the  heir  of  his  wealth.  But  besides  her,  he  had  two  ccncu- 
t)ines,  Hagar  and  Keturah  ;  by  these  he  had  other  children 
whom  he  distinguished  from  Isaac,  for  it  is  saiii.  He  gave 
them  gifts,  and  sent  them  away  while  he  yet  lived.  (Gen.  xxv» 
5,  G.)  In  Mesopotamia,  as  appears  from  Gen.  xxix.  26.,  the 
younger  daughter  could  not  be  given  in  marriage  "  before  tlie 
first-born"  or  elder,  and  the  same  practice  continues  to  this 
day  among  the  Armenians,  and  also  among  the  Hindoos, 
with  whom  it  is  considered  criminal  to  give  the  younger 
daughter  in  marriage  before  the  elder,  or  for  a  younger  son 
to  marry  while  his  elder  brother  remains  unma/ned.' 

III.  No  formalities  appear  to  have  been  used  by  the 
Jews — at  least  none  were  enjoined  to  them  hy  Moses — in 
joining  man  and  wife  together.  Mutual  consent,  followd 
by  consummation,  was  deemed  sufficient.  The  manner  in 
which  a  daughter  was  demanded  in  marriage  is  descrilied  in 
the  case  of  Shcehem,  who  asked  Dinah  the  daughter  of  Jacob 
in  inarriagi'  (Gen.  xxxiv.  G— 1'3.)  ;  and  the  nature  ol  the  con- 
tract, togetlier  with  the  mode  of  solemnizing  ilie  marriage,  is 
described  in  Gen.  xxiv.  50,  51.  57.  67.  There  was,  indeed, 
a  previous  espousal'  or  betrothing,  which  was  a  solemn  pro- 
mise of  marriage,  made  by  the  man  ant!  woman  each  to  the 
other,  at  such  a  distance  of  time  as  they  agreed  upon.  This 
was  sometimes  done  by  writing,  sometimes  by  the  delivery 
of  a  piece  of  silver  to  the  bride  in  presence  of  witnesses,  as  a 
pledge  of  their  mutual  engagements.  We  are  informed  by 
the  Jewish  writers  that  kisses  were  given  in  token  of  the 
espousals  (to  which  custom  there  appears  to  be  an  allusion 
in  Canticles  i.  2.),  after  which  the  parties  were  reckoned  as 
man  and  wife.*     After  such  esjiousals  were  made  (which 

'  Home's  History  of  the  Jews,  vol.  il.  p.  3.'2.  Paxton'slltuslr.ntions  of 
f'cripiure,  vol.  lii.  p.  120.  2d  edit.  Ilariloy's  Researches  In  Greece  and  the 
Levniil,  pp.  'i»,  2;iO. 

«  "  Before  the  uiving  of  the  law(sailli  Malmonidcs),  If  tlic  man  and  woman 
had  agreed  about  niai'ria;:c,  he  broiiithi  her  into  his  house  ami  privati  ly 
married  her.  Hut,  aftiT  the  KivinR  of  the  law,  the  Israclilrg  uiiu  com- 
iiianded,  that  if  nnv  were  minded  lo  take  a  woman  for  his  wife,  ho  Kliuuld 
receive  her,  first  before  witnesses,  and  henceforth  let  her  l>e  to  him  to 
wife,— as  it  h  wiillcn,  'If  anv  one  take  a  wife'  Tliis  taking  is  cne  of  (ha 
nlTiriuattvn  prrrepls  of  the  law,  and  is  called  'espousing.'"  l.i^lltfoul'S 
Horir  Hcbr  on  Man.  I.  IH.    (Works,  vol.  .xi.  n.  19.  .Svo.  edit.  IKK  ) 

•  Dr.  Oill's  Coiunient.  on  Hoi.  S'ong  i.  2.  The  saino  ceieuiony  was  prae* 
tised  ainons  the  primitive  Clirlslians.  (Ilingham's  Anliuuilics,  heck  jjiij. 
c.  3.  sect.  C.)  Hy  the  civil  law,  indeed,  the  kis.<  is  made  a  ceremony,  JQ 
somo  respcrts,  of  importance  to  the  validity  of  the  niiplial  contiiut.  (('ud. 
Justin,  lib.  V.  lit.  3.  de  Donation,  ante  N'uplias,  leg.  IC.)  Fry's  Tiiin.'.lsiicii 
of  Uie  Canticles,  p.  33. 


Chap.  III.] 


JEWISH  CUSTOMS  RELATING  TO  MARRIAGE. 


161 


was  generally  when  the  parties  were  yoiTng)  the  woman  con- 
tinued with  her  parents  seve^'al  months,  if  not  some  years  (at 
least  till  she  was  arrived  at  the  age  of  twelve),  before  she 
was  brought  home,  and  her  marriage  consummated.'  That 
it  was  the  practice  to  betroth  the  bride  some  time  before  the 
consummation  of  the  marriage  is  evident  from  Deut.  xx.  7. 
Thus  we- find  that  Samson's  wife  remained  with  her  parents 
a  considerable  time  after  espousals  (Judg.  xiv.  8.) ;  and  we 
are  told  that  the  Virgin  Mary  was  visibly  with  child  before 
she  and  her  intended  husband  came  together.  (Matt.  i.  18.) 
If,  during  the  time  between  the  espousals  and  the  marriage, 
the  bride  was  guilty  of  any  criminal  correspondence  with 
another  person,  contrary  to  the  fidelity  she  owed  to  her  bride- 
groom, she  was  treated  as  an  adulteress  ;  and  thus  the  holy 
Virgin,  after  she  was  betrothed  to  Joseph,  having  conceived 
our  blessed  Saviour,  might,  according  to  the  rigour  of  the 
law,  have  been  punished  as  an  adulteress,  if  the  angel  of  the 
Lord  had  not  acquainted  Joseph  with  the  mystery  of  the 
incarnation. 2 

Among  the  Jews,  and  generally  throughout  the  East,  mar- 
riage was  considered  as  a  sort  of  purchase,  which  the  man 
made  of  the  woman  he  desired  to  marry ;  and,  therefore,  in 
contracting  marriages,  as  the  wife  brought  a  portion  to  the 
husband,  so  the  husband  was  obliged  to  give  her  or  her  parents 
money  or  presents  in  lieu  of  this  portion.  This  was  the  case 
oetween  liamor,  the  father  of  Shechem,  and  the  sons  of 
Jacob,  with  relation  to  Dinah  (Gen.  xxxiv.  12.) ;  and  Jacob, 
having  no  money,  offered  his  uncle  Laban  seven  years'  ser- 
vice,5  which  must  have  been  equivalent  to  a  large  sum.  (Gen. 
xxix.  18.)  Saul  did  not  give  his  daughter  Michal  to  David, 
till  after  he  had  received  a  hundred  foreskins  of  the  Philis- 
tines. (1  Sam.  xviii.  25.)  Hosea  bought  his  wife  at  the  price 
of  fifteen  pieces  of  silver,  and  a  measure  and  a  half  of  barley. 
(Hos.  iii.  2.)  The  same  custom  also  obtained  among  the 
Greeks  and  other  ancient  nations;'  and  it  is  to  this  day  the 
practice  in  several  eastern  countries,  particularly  among  the 
Druses,  Turks,  and  Christians,  who  inhabit  the  country  of 
Haouran,  and  also  among  the  modern  Scenite  Arabs,  or  those 
who  dwell  in  tents.* 

IV.  It  appears  from  both  the  Old  and  New  Testaments, 
that  the  Jews  celebrated  the  nuptial  solemnity  with  great  fes- 
tivity and  splendour.  Many  of  the  rites  and  ceremonies, 
observed  by  them  on  this  occasion,  were  common  both  to  the 
Greek  and  Romans.  We  learn  from  the  Misna,  that  the  Jews 
were  accustomed  to  put  crowns  or  garlands  on  the  heads  of 
newly  married  persons ;  and  it  should  seem  from  the  Song  of 
Solomon  (iii.  11.),  that  the  ceremony  of  putting  it  on  was 
performed  by  one  of  the  parents.  Among  the  Greeks  the 
Dride  was  crowned  by  her  mother;^  and  among  them,  as  well 
as  among  the  Orientals,  and  particularly  the  Hebrews,  it  was 
customary  to  wear  crowns  or  garlands,  not  merely  of  leaves 
or  flowers,  but  also  of  gold  or  silver,  in  proportion  to  the  rank 
of  the  person  presenting  them ;  but  those  prepared  for  the 
celebration  of  a  nuptial  banquet,  as  being  a  festivity  of  the 
first  consequence,  were  of  peculiar  splendour  and  magnifi- 
cence. Chaplets  of  flowers  only  constituted  the  nuptial 
crowns  of  the  Romans.  Some  writers  have  supposed  that 
the  nuptial  crowns  and  other  ornaments  of  a  bride  are  alluded 
to  in  Ezek.  xvi.  8—12. 

We  may  form  some  idea  of  the  apparel  of  the  bride  and 
bridegroom  from  Isa.  Ixi.  10.,  in  whicn  the  yet  future  pros- 
perous and  happy  state  of  Jerusalem  is  compared  to  the  dress 
of  a  bride  and  bridegroom.  The  latter  was  attended  by  nu- 
merous companions :  Samuel  had  thirt}'  young  men  to  attend 
him  at  his  nuptials  (Judg.  xiv.  11.),  who  in  Matt  ix.  15.  and 
Mark  ii.  19.  are  termed  children  of  the  bride-cfiamber.  "At 
every  wedding  two  persons  were  selected,  who  devoted  them- 
selves for  some  time  to  the  service  of  the  bride  and  bride- 
groom.   The  offices  assigned  to  the  paranymph,  or  pacia', 

»  The  same  practice  obtains  in  the  East  Indies  to  this  day.  Ward's  His- 
tory of  the  Hindoos,  vol.  ii.  p.  3J1. 

»  Calmet,  Dissertations,  torn.  i.  p.  279.    Pareau,  Antiq.  Hebr.  p.  440. 

I  The  Crim  Tartars,  who  are  in  poor  circumstances,  serve  an  appren- 
ticeship for  their  wives,  and  are  then  admitted  as  part  of  the  family.  Mrs. 
Holderness's  Notes,  p.  8.  first  edit. 

*  Potter's  Greek  Antiquitieij,  vol.  ii.  p.  279. 

»  Burckhardt's  Travels  in  Syria,  Ac.  pp.  298.  385.  De  la  Roque,  Voyage 
dans  la  Palestine,  p.  222.  See  several  additional  instances  in  Burder's 
Oriental  Literature,  vol.  i.  pp.  56—59.  Young  girls,  Mr.  Buckingham 
informs  us,  are  given  in  marriage  for  certain  sums  of  money,  varying 
from  500  to  1000  piastres,  among  the  better  order  of  inhabitants,  according 
to  their  connexions  or  beauty  ;  though  among  the  labouring  cla.sses  it 
descends  as  low  as  100  or  even  50.  This  sum  being  paid  by  the  bridegroom 
to  the  bride's  father  adds  to  his  wealth,  and  makes  girls  (particularly  when 
handsome)  as  profitable  to  ttieir  parents  as  boys  are  hy  the  wages  they 
earn  by  their  labour.  Buckingham's  Travels  among  the  Arab  Tribes,  pp. 
49.  143. 

«  Dr.  Good's  translation  of  Solomon'^3  Song,  p.  106. 

Vol.  II.  X 


numerous  and  important ;  and,  on  account  of  those,  the  Bap- 
tist compares  himself  to  the  friend  of  the  bridegroom.^  (John 
iii.  29.)  The  offices  of  the  paranymph  were  threefold — before 
— at — and  after  the  marriage.  Before  the  marriage  of  his 
friend  it  was  his  duty  to  select  a  chaste  virorin,  and  to  be  the 
medium  of  communication  between  the  parties,  till  the  day  of 
marriage.  At  that  time  he  continued  with  them  during  the 
seven  days  allotted  for  the  wedding  festival,  rejoicing  in  the 
happiness  of  his  friend,  and  contribiiting  as  much  as  possible 
to  the  hilarity  of  the  occasion.  After  the  marriage,  tide  para- 
nymph was  considered  as  the  patron  and  friend  of  the  wife 
and  her  husband,  and  was  called  in  to  compose  any  differ- 
ences that  might  take  place  between  them.  As  the  forerun- 
ner of  Christ,  the  Baptist  may  be  well  compared  to  the  para- 
nymph of  the  Jewish  marriages.  One  of  the  most  usual  com- 
parisons adopted  in  Scripture  to  describe  the  union  between 
Christ  and  his  Church  is  that  of  a  marriage.  The  Baptist 
was  the  paranymph,^  who,  by  the  preaching  of  repentance  and 
faith,  presented  the  church  as  a  youthful  oride  and  a  chaste 
virgin  to  Christ.  He  still  continued  with  the  bridegroom,  till 
the  wedding  was  furnished  with  guests.  His  joy  was  ful- 
filled when  his  own  followers  came  to  inform  him  that  Christ 
was  increasing  the  number  of  his  disciples,  and  that  all  men 
came  unto  him.  This  intelligence  was  as  the  sound  of  the 
bridegroom's  voice,  and  as  the  pledge  that  the  nuptials  of 
heaven  and  earth  were  completed.  From  this  representation 
of  John  as  the  paranymph,  of  Christ  as  the  bridegroom,  and 
the  Church  as  the  bride,  the  ministers  and  stewards  of  the 
Gospel  of  God  may  learn,  that  they  also  are  required,  by  the 
preaching  of  repentance  and  faith,  to  present  their  hearers  in 
all  purity  to  the  head  of  the  Christian  church.  It  is  for  them 
to  find  their  best  source  of  joy  in  the  blessing  of  the  most 
Highest  on  their  labours — their  purest  happiness  in  the  im- 
provement and  perfecting  of  the  Church  confided  to  their 
care."9 

Further,  it  was  customary  for  the  bridegroom  to  prepare 
garments  for  his  guests  (Matt.  xxii.  11.),  which,  it  appears 
from  Rev.  xix.  8.,  were  white ;  in  these  passages  the  wed- 
ding-garment is  emblematical  of  Christian  holiness  and  the 
righteousness  of  the  saints.  It  was  also  usual  for  the  bride- 
groom, attended  by  the  nuptial  guests,  to  condiict  the  bride  to 
his  house  by  night,  accompanied  by  her  virgin  train  of 
attendants,  with  torches  and  music  and  every  demonstration 
of  joy.  To  this  custom,  as  well  as  to  the  various  ceremonies 
just  stated,  our  Saviour  alludes  in  the  parables  ofthe  wise  and 
foolish  virgins  (Matt.  xxv.  1 — 12.),  and  of  the  wedding-feast, 
given  by  a  sovereign,  in  honour  oi  his  son's  nuptials.  (Matt, 
xxii.  2.)  In  the  first  of  these  parables  ten  virgins  are  repre- 
sented as  taking  their  lamps  to  meet  the  bridegroom  ;  five  of 
whom  were  prudent,  and  took  with  them  a  supply  of  oil, 
which  the  others  had  neglected.  In  the  mean  time,  they  all 
slumbered  and  slept,  untifthe  procession  approached  ;  but,  in 
the  middle  of  the  night,  t/iere  was  a  cry  made.  Behold,  the 
bridegroom  cometh  !  Go  yc  out  to  meet  himjo  On  this,  all  the 
viro-ins  arose  speedily  to  trim  their  lamps.  The  wise  were 
instantly  ready ;  but  the  imprudent  virgins  were  thrown  into 
great  confusion.  Then,  first,  they  recollected  their  neglect : 
their  lamps  were  expiring,  and  they  had  no  oil  to  refresh 
them.  While  they  were  gone  to  procure  a  supply,  the  bride- 
groom arrived  :  they  that  were  ready  went  in  with  him  to  the 

1  "Smaller  circumstances  and  coincidences  sometimes  demonstrate 
the  truth  of  an  as.sertion,  or  the  authenticity  of  a  book,  more  effectually 
than  more  important  facts.  May  not  one  of  those  unimpoi-tant  yet  convinc- 
ing coincidences  be  observed  in  this  passaged  The  Baptist  calls  himself 
the  friend  of  the  bridegroom,  without  alluding  to  any  other  paranymph,  or 
jOlf  W.  As  the  .lews  were  accustomed  to  have  two  paranymphs,  thers 
seems,  at  first  sight,  to  be  something  defective  in  the  Baptist's  comparison. 
But  our  Lord  was  of  Galilee,  and  there  the  custom  was  difTerent  from  that 
of  any  other  part  of  Palestine.  The  Galileans  had  one  paranymph  only.'* 
Townsend's  Harmony  of  the  New  Testament,  vol.  i.  p.  132. 

»  Exemplo  et  vitu,  says  Kuinoel,  conunmii  depromto  Johannes  Baptists 
ostendit,  quale  inter  ipsura  et  Christum  discrimen  intercedat.  Se  ipsum 
coniparat  cnm  paranympho,  Christum  cum  sponso ;  quocuin  ipse  Christus 
se  quoque  comparavit,  ut  patet  e  locis,  Matt.  ix.  15.  and  xxv.  1.  Scilicet, 
0  (pi\o;  ra  i/v^^.n,  est  sponsi  socius,  ei  peculiariter  addictus,  qui  Graecis 
dicebatur  !rKfavu^(piof,  Matt.  ix.  15.  iiot  tou  vu^^wvoj.  Heb.  \'iVW  filius 
]a;dti».— Com.  in  lib.  N.  T.  Hist.  vol.  iii.  p.  227. 

»  Townsend's  Harmony  of  the  New  Test.  vol.  1.  p.  132. 

10  The  Rev.  Mr.  Hartley,  describing  an  Armenian  wedding,  says,—"  The 
large  number  of  young  females  who  were  present  naturally  remmded  ma 
of  the  wise  and  foolish  virgins  in  our  Saviour's  parable.  These  being 
friends  ofthe  bride,  the  virgins,  her  companions  (Psal.  xiv.  14.),  had  come 
to  meet  the  bridegroom..  It  is  usual  for  the  bridegroom  to  come  at  nntf- 
night;  so  that,  literally,  at  midnight  the  cry  is  made.  Behold,  the  bride- 
groom cometh  !  Go  ye  out  to  meet  him.  But,  on  this  occasion,  the  bride- 
groom tarried:  it  was  two  o'clock  before  he  arrived.  The  whole  party 
then  proceeded  to  (he  Armenian  church,  where  the  bishop  was  waiting  to 
receive  them ;  and  there  the  ceremony  was  completed."  Researches  la 
Greece  and  the  Levant,  p.  231. 


162 


JEWISH  CUSTOMS  RELATING  TO  MARRIAGE. 


[Paht  IV 


marriage ,-  and  the  door  was  shtif,^  and  all  admittancp  was  re- 
fused to  the  imprudent  virgins.^  Tlie  solemnities  here  de- 
scribed are  still  practised  by  the  Jews  in  Podolia,'  and  also  b)- 
the  Cliristiimsiu  Syria,''  and  in  Egrypi.s  'I'liese  companions 
of  the  bridegroom  and  bride  are  nieniioned  in  Psal.  xlv.  'J. 
14.,  and  (.'ant.  v.  1.8.  John  the  liajjtist  calls  them  the 
friends  of  the  bridegroom.    (John  iii.  29.) 

From  the  parable,  "  in  which  a  great  king  is  represented  as 
making  a  most  magnificent  entertainment  at  the  marriage  of 
his  son,  we  learn  that  all  the  guests,  who  were  honoured  with 
an  invitation,  were  expected  to  be  dressed  in  a  manner  suit- 
able to  the  splendour  of  such  an  occasion,  and  as  a  token  of 
just  respect  to  the  new-married  counlf — and  that  after  the 
procession  in  the  evening  from  the  bride's  house  was  con- 
cluded, the  guests,  before  they  were  admitted  into  the  hall 
where  tlie  entertainment  was  served  up,  were  taken  into  an 
apartment  and  viewed,  that  it  might  be  known  if  any  stranger 
had  intruded,  or  if  any  of  the  company  were  apparelled  in 
raiments  unsuitable  to  the  genial  solemnity  they  were  going 
to  celebrate;  and  such,  if  found,  were  expelled  the  house 
*ith  every  mark  of  ignominy  and  disgrace.  From  the  know- 
ledge of  this  custom  tne  following  passage  receives  great  light 
and  lustre.  When  the  king  c;une  in  to  see  the  guests,  he  dis- 
covered among  them  a  person  who  had  not  on  a  wedding- 
garment. — He  called  him  qnd  said,  Friend,  how  cainest  tlum 
tn  hither,  not  having  a  iveddini^-garinent  ?  and  he  was  $peech- 
It.'^  : — he  had  no  apology  to  ofler  for  this  disrespectful  neglect. 
The  kin^  then  called  to  his  servants,  and  bade  them  bind  him 
hand  and  foot — to  drag  him  out  of  the  room — and  thrust  him 
out  into  midnight  darkness."  (Matt.  xxii.  12.)^ 

"The  Scripture,  moreover,  informs  us  that  the  marriage- 
festivals  of  the  Jews  lasted  a  whole  week ;"  as  they  do  to  this 
day  among  the  Christian  inhabitants  of  Palestine.'  "  '■'■  Laban 
said,  It  must  not  be  so  done  in  our  country  to  give  the  younger 
before  the  first-born.  Fulfil  her  week,  and  we  will  give  thee 
this  al-o.  (Gen.  xxix.  2ti,  27.)  And  Samson  said  unlo  thtin, 
1  will  now  put  forth  a  riddle  unto  you  .•  //  you  can  certainly 
declare  it  me  within  the  seven  davs  of  the  feast,  and  find  it 


out,  then 


->! 


1  I  will  give  you  thirty  sheets,  and  thirty  change  oj 
garments.  (Judg.  xiv.  12.)  This  week  was  spent  in  Yeast 
ing,  and  was  devoted  to  universal  joy.  To  tlie  festivity  of 
this  occasion  our  Lord  refers: — Can  the  childnn  of  the  bride- 
chamber  nujurn,  as  long  as  the  bridegroom  is  v.uth  them?  but 
the  days  will  come,  when  the  bridegroom  shall  be  taken  from 
them,  and  then  shall  theyfast.^^  (Mark  ii.  19,  20.)" 

The  eastern  people  were  very  reserved,  not  permitting  the 
young  women  at  marriages  to  be  in  the  same  apartments  with 
the  men ;  and,  therefore,  as  the  men  and  women  could  not 

■  »  Mr.  Ward  has  given  the  following  description  of  a  Hindoo  wedding, 
which  fiiniishee  a  utriking  parallel  to  the  parable  of  the  wediliug-feast  in 
the  Gosi>.!l.  "  At  a  marriage,  the  pmression  of  which  I  saw  home  years 
ago,  the  brid'-u'rooiu  cauiu  lro;n  a  di.-,t.'.nce,  and  the  bride  livrd  at  Heraiii- 
pore,  to  wliich  place  the  bridegrootn  was  to  come  by  water.  After  wailing 
two  or  three  hours,  at  length,  near  midnight,  it  wa.s  announcer!,  as  if  in  the 
Tery  words  of  Scripture,  '  Behold,  the  bridegroom  cometh  !  fJo  ye  out  to 
.'  All  the  person;)  employed  now  lighted  their  lamps,  anri  ran 
1  in  their  tiaiids  to  fill  up  their  .sialion.s  In  the  proccs.sion  •  some  of 
lost  llieir  Uiihls,  and  wore  unpii;|>areil,  but  it  was  then  too  late  to 
■   and  the  cavalcaile  movcil  forwa-d  to  the  hc'uscof  the  bride  iit 


meet  hiiii 

V.-''     '' 


whicli  |)lace  the  company  entered  i 
'before  the  house,  covered  with  ai 


a  largo  and  siilcndidly  illuminate 
wh 


friendH,  dressed  in  their  best  apparel,  were  seated  upon  mats.  The  bride 
groom  was  rarried  in  the  arms  of  a  friend,  and  placed  on  a  superb  seat  in 
the  inid.st  of  tlic  company,  wlierc  he  sat  a  short  time,  and  then  wnt  Into 
the  house,  the  door  of  which  was  immediately  shut,  and  guarded  by  .Se- 
poys. I  and  others  cx{)OStulatcd  with  the  (loor-kecjvors,  but  in  vain.  Never 
was  I  so  struck  with  our  Lonl's  beautiful  parable,  ns  at  this  moment  :— 
And  the  tlot/r  tra-i  Khul !"  (Ward'a  View  of  the  History,  Arc.  of  the  Hin- 
doos, vol.  iii.  p|).  171,  172.) 

•>  Allicr,  Hermeneut.  Vet.  Test.  pp.  aX),  201.  Binining,  Anli<)  Grasc.  p. 
95.     Gjliiin  on  the  New  Test.  vol.  i.  i).  1(10. 

»  At  Kamcnetz  Fodolskoi,  Dr.  Ilendrrson  relates,  "we  were  stunned 
by  the  noise  of  a  procesxion,  led  on  by  a  band  of  musicians  playing  on 
tainlK>urines  and  cymbals,  which  passed  our  windows.  On  inr|uiry,  we 
l-'anied  that  It  consisted  of  a  Jewibh  bridegroom,  arcompnnii;d  by  his 
young  frienils,  proceeding  to  the  house  of  the  bride's  father,  in  order  to 
convey  her  home  to  her  future  TcMoucr:.  In  n  short  time  they  returned 
with  such  a  profusion  of  lights,  as  rpiile  illuminated  the  street.  The  liride, 
deeply  veiled,  w.islfd  alung  in  triumph,  accomfianled  ly  her  virgins,  rnch 
with  a  candle  in  her  hand,  who,  with  the  yotmg  men,  sang  and  danced  be- 
fore her  an<l  the  bridegroom.  The  scene  presented  us  with  an  ocular 
UluKtralion  of  the  linponnnt  parable  recordcil  In  the  twcn'v  flftt' 


of  the  flrnp.l  of  MatthfW  ;  and  we  wi:re  parli'-nl  irly  r 
rroj.riaie  imiuri'  of  the  injuiirtion  which  our  .''avinur  gi 

be  ready ;  for  ili-  r...,.r..;  ...,.,...,  ,.,..  ■   i.,,,.  , 

the  arrival  of  '' 

«  K.e.Mr.  J  ■  I 


I     mil 

217 

■7.  K' 


cbnpur 
the  ap- 
ch  anil 
ii<j< Mutely  on 


33.1 


Hne  .Mr.  Uac  \\  ii*>ii  h  Travels  m  (lie  Holy  J.and,  Egypt,  ice.  vol  1. 

third  edition. 

If 


Introdnctln 


ion,  vol.  il.  p  122. 

'  •'  '    "'iminn  llesenrchea  in  Syria  and  PalrBline,  p.  93. 

•  Hii  •   Inlnxl.   vol.   il.   p.   ivjt.     Hrunings  states  tliat  the  Jews  dis 

llnntmsh  between  a  bride  who  isanr/rm  and  one  wh..  is  a  iriilmc  ;  and 
tlMt  the  nuptial  fpaat  oC  the  former  lasted  a  whole  week,  but  for  the  latter 
K  was  limited  to  throo  days.    Anii.i  Hebr.  p.  71. 


amuse  themselves  with  one  another's  conversntion,  the  men 
did  not  sjiend  their  time  merely  in  eating  and  drinking;  for 
their  custom  was  to  propose  questions  arid  hard  problems,  by 
resolving  which  they  exercised  tlie  wit  and  sagacity  of  the 
company.  'I'liis  was  done  at  .Samson's  marriaoe,  where  he 
proposed  a  riddle  to  divert  his  company.  (Judg.  xiv.  12.) 
At  nuptial  and  otlier  feasts  it  was  usual  to  appoint  a  person 
to  superintend  the  preparations,  to  pass  around  among  the 
guests  to  see  that  they  were  in  want  of  nothing,  and  lo  give 
the  necessary  orders  to  the  servants.  Ordinarily,  he  was  not 
one  of  tiie  guests,  and  did  not  recline  with  them  ;  or,  at  least, 
he  did  not  take  his  place  among  them  until  he  hatlperfomied 
all  tliat  was  retjuirea  of  him.  (Kcclus.  xxxii.  1.)  This  officer 
is  by  St.  John  (ii.  8,  9.)  termed  'Ap;^/Tpw>jy;c,  and  'Hyov/Amf  by 
the  author  of  the  book  of  Ecclcsiusticus:  as  the  latter  lived 
about  the  year  190  b.  c,  and  wliile  the  Jews  had  intercourse 
with  the  Greeks,  especially  in  Egypt,  it  is  most  probable 
that  the  custom  of  choosing  a  governcr  of  the  feast  passed 
from  the  Greeks  to  the  Jews,*  Theophylact's  remark  on 
John  ii.  8.  satisf.ictorily  explains  what  was  the  business  of 
the  .■/i;t'T"'"^"'=f  • — '"  That  no  one  might  suspect  tliat  their  taste 
was  so  vitiated  by  excess  us  to  imagine  water  to  be  wine, 
our  Saviour  directs  it  to  be  tasted  by  the  goveriwr  of  the  feast, 
who  cerUiinly  was  scber;  for  those,  who  on  such  occasions 
are  intriistcci  with  this  office,  observe  the  strictest  sobrietj', 
that  every  thing  may,  by  their  orders,  be  conducted  with 
regularit)'  and  decency.'''^ 

At  a  marriage-feast  to  which  Mr.  Buckingham  was  invited, 
he  relates  titat  when  the  master  of  the  feast  came,  he  was 
"seated  as  the  stranger  guest  immediately  beside  him:  and 
on  the  ejaculation  of '  B'  Ism  Allah'  being  uttered,  he  dipped 
his  fingers  in  the  same  dish,  and  had  the  choicest  bits  placed 
before  him  by  his  own  hands,  as  a  mark  of  his  being  consi- 
dered a  friend  or  favourite ;  for  this  is  the  highest  honour  that 
can  be  shown  to  any  one  at  an  eastern  feast." 

"Two  interesting  pa.^sages  of  Striutuie  derive  illustration 
from  this  trait  of  eastern  planners.  Tne  first  is  that,  in  which 
the  Saviour  says,  '  When  thou  art  bidden  of  any  man  to  a 
wedding,  sit  not  down  in  tlio  highest  room  [that  is,  place  or 
station],  lest  a  more  honourable  man  than  thou  be  bidden  of 
him;  and  he  t!iat  bade  thee  and  him  come  and  say  to  thee, 
Give  this  man  place:  and  thou  begin  with  shame  to  take  the 
lowest  room.  But  when  thou  art  bidden,  go  and  sit  down  in 
the  lowest  room ;  that  when  he  that  bade  thee  cometh,  he  may 
say  unto  thee.  Friend,  go  up  higher:  then  shall  thou  have 
worship  in  the  presence  of  them  that  sit  at  meat  with  thee.' 
(Luke  xiv.  8 — 10.)  In  a  country  where  the  highest  import- 
ance is  attached  to  this  distinction,  the  propriety  of  this  ad- 
vice is  much  more  striking  than  if  applied  to  the  manners  of 
our  own ;  and  the  honour  is  still  as  much  appreciated  through- 
out Syria,  Palestine,  and  Mesopotamia,  at  the  present  daj-,  as 
it  was  in  those  of  the  Messiah.  The  otiicr  passage  is  that, 
in  which,  at  the  celebration  of  the  passovcr,  Jesus  says  (Matt. 
xxvi.  23.),  'He  that  dippeth  his  hand  with  me  in  'the  dish, 
the  same  shall  betray  ine.'  As  there  arc  but  very  few,  and 
these  always  the  dearest  friends,  or  most  honoured  guests, 
who  are  seated  sufficiently  near  to  the  master  of  the  least  to 
dip  their  hands  in  the  same  dish  with  him  (probaldy  not  more 
than  three  or  four  out  of  the  twelve  disciples  at  the  last 
Slipper  enjoyed  this  privilege),  the  baseness  of  the  treachery 
is  much  increased,  wnen  one  of  those  few  becomes  a  betrayer; 
and  in  this  light  the  conduct  of  Judas  was.  no  doubt,  meant 
to  be  depicted  by  this  pregnant  expression."" 

V.  Marriage  was  dissolved  among  the  Jews  by  DivoRcr 
as  well  ns  by  dcalh.'^  Our  Saviour  tolls  us,  tliat  Moses  suf- 
fered this  because  of  the  hardness  nf  their  heart,  but  from  the 
beginning  il  was  not  so  (Matt.  xix.  i^.);  meaning  that  they 
were  accustomed  to  this  abuse,  and  to  prevent  greattir  evils, 
such  as  murders,  adulurits,  ^.c.  he  permitted  it:  whence  it 
should  seem  to  have  been  in  use  before  the  law ;  and  we  see 
that  Al)raham  dismi-ssod  Ha<r;ir,  at  tlie  retpiest  of  Sarah.  It 
appears  that  Samson's  father-in-law  understood  that  his 
daughter  had  been  divorced,  since  he  gave  her  to  another. 
f Jti'Tg.  XV.  2.)  Tilt-  Levitt's  wife,  who  was  dishnnonred  at 
Gibtah,  had  forsaken  hir  hu.sband,  and  never  would  have 
roturned,  if  he  had  not  gone  in  pursuit  of  her.  (Jutlg.  xix.  2, 3.) 

•  Robinson's  Oreolc  Lexicon,  voce  'AfX'Tpi«\<nt.    Albcr,  Interprctatio 
HncM!  Scriiilurn!,  tiim.  ix.  p.  83. 
•«  Theophylact  as  cllcd  In  I'arlchiirst's  Greek  Lexicon,  voco  'Apx>r;i. 

xXivac. 

"  Hiirkinshnni's  Travels  in  Mesopotaniliij  vol.  i  pp.  4(X»,  407. 

■>  Among  the  Uedoiiin  Arabs,  a  brother  finds  himsidr  more  dishonoured 
by  the  seduction  of  his  slstor  than  a  man  by  the  Infiilelily  of  his  wife. 
'I  his  will  account  for  the  sanguinary  revenge  taken  by  Simeon  and  I.cvl 
iipun  the  Hhechemiles  for  tho  defilement  of  their  sister  Dinah.  (Gen. 
xxxiv.  2&-<il.)  Uce  D'Arvieux'M  TravoU  in  Arabia  the  l>«i>art,  pp.  213,  !;M4. 


Chap.  IV.] 


BIRTH,  NURTURE,  ETC,  OF  CHILDREN. 


103 


Solomon  speaks  of  a  libertine  woman,  who  had  forsalcen  her 
husband,  the  director  of  her  youth,  and  (by  doing  so  contrary 
to  her  nuptial  vows)  had  fortrotten  the  covenant  of  her  God. 
(Prov.  ii.  17.)  Ezra  and  Nehomiah  oblig-ed  a  great  number 
of  the  Jews  to  dismiss  the  foreign  women,  whom  they  had 
married  contrary  to  the  law  (Ezra  x.  11,  12,  19.);  but  our 
Saviour  has  limited  the  permission  of  divorce  to  the  single 
case  of  adultery.  (Matt.  v.  31,  32.)  Nor  was  this  limitation 
unnecessary ;  for  at  that  time  it  was  common  for  the  Jews  to 
dissolve  this  sacred  union  upon  very  slight  and  trivial  pre- 
tences. A  short  time  before  the  birth  of  Christ,  a  great  dis- 
pute arose  among  the  Jewish  doctors  concerning  the  interpre- 
tation of  the  Mosaic  statutes  relative  to  divorce ;  the  school 
of  Shammai  contending  that  it  was  allowable  only  for  gross 
misconduct  or  for  violation  of  nuptial  fidelity,  while  the  school 
of  Hillel  taught  that  a  wife  might  be  repudiated  for  the 
slightest  causes.    To  this  last-mentioned  school  belonged 


the  Pharisees,  who  came  to  our  Lord,  tempimg  him,  ana 
saying  unto  him,  Is  it  lawful  for  a  man  to  put  away  his  wife 
fur  every  cause — for  any  thing  whatever  that  may  be  dis- 
agreeable in  her"?  (Matt,  xix,  3.)  Upon  our  Lord  s  answer 
to  this  inquiry,  that  it  was  not  lawful  for  a  man  to  repudiate 
his  wife,  except  for  her  violation  of  the  conjugal  honour,  the 
disciples  (who  had  been  educated  in  Jewish  prejudices  and 
principles)  hearing  this,  said — If  the  case  of  the  man  he  so 
with  his  ivife,  if  he  be  not  allowed  to  divorce  her  except  only 
for  adultery,  it  is  not  good  to  marry/  (Matt.  xix.  10.)  This 
facility  in  procuring  divorces,  and  this  caprice  and  levity 
among  the  Jews,  in  dissolving  the  matrimonial  connexion, 
is  confirmed  by  Josephus,  and  unhappily  verified  in  his  own 
example :  for  he  tells  us  that  he  repudiated  his  wife,  though 
she  was  the  mother  of  three  children,  because  he  was  not 
pleased  with  her  behaviour.' 


CHAPTER  IV. 


BIRTH,  NURTURE,  ETC.  OF  CHILDREN."* 

I,   Child-birth. —  Circumcision. — J^aming  of  the  Child. — II,  Privileges   of  the  First-born. — ^III,  JVurture  of  Children.-— YV . 
Poiver  of  the  Father  over  his  Children. — Disposition  of  his  Property. — V,  Adoption. 


1.  In  the  East  (as  indeed  in  Switzerland  and  some  other 
uarts  of  Europe,  where  the  women  are  very  robust),  child- 
birth is  to  this  day  an  event  of  but  little  difficulty  ;^  and  mo- 
thers were  originally  the  only  assistants  of  their  daughters, 
as  any  further  aid  was  deemed  unnecessary.  This  was  the 
case  of  the  Hebrew  women  in  Egypt,  (Exod,  i,  19,)  It  is 
evident  from  Gen,  xxxv.  17.  and  xxxviii.  28.  that  midwives 
were  employed  in  cases  of  difficult  parturition  ;  and  it  also 
appears  that  in  Egypt,  from  time  immemorial,  the  care  of 
delivering  women  was  committed  to  female  midwives. 
(Exod.  i,  15,  et  seq.)  From  Ezek,  xvi,  4.  it  seems  to  have 
been  the  custom  to  wash  the  child  as  soon  as  it  was  born, 
to  rub  il  with  salt,  and  to  wrap  it  in  swaddling-clothes 
(The  Armenians,  to  this  day,  wash  their  new-born  infants  in 
salt  and  water,  previously  to  dressing  them,)  The  birth- 
day of  a  son  was  celebrated  as  a  festival,  which  was  solem- 
nized every  succeeding  year  with  renewed  demonstrations 
of  festivity  and  joy,  especially  those  of  sovereign  princes, 
(Gen.  xl.  20.  Job  i.  4,  Matt.  xiv.  6.)  The  birth  of  a  son  or 
of  a  daughter  rendered  the  mother  ceremonially  unclean  for 
a  certain  period  :  at  the  expiration  of  which  she  went  into 
the  tabernacle  or  temple,  and  offered  the  accustomed  sacri- 
fice of  purification,  viz.  a  lamb  of  a  year  old,  or,  if  her  cir- 
cumstances would  not  afford  it,  two  turtle-doves,  or  two 
young  pigeons.  (Lev.  xii.  1 — 8.  Luke  ii.  22.) 

On  the  eighth  day  after  its  birth  the  son  was  circumcised,  by 
which  rite  it  was  consecrated  to  the  service  of  the  true  God 
(Gen.  xpi.  10.  compared  with  Rom.  iv.  II.) :  on  the  nature 
of  circumcision,  see  pp.  110,  111.  supra.  At  the  same  time 
the  male  child  received  a  name  (as  we  have  already  re- 
marked in  p.  111.) :  in  many  instances  he  received  a  name 
from  the  circumstance  of  his  birth,  or  from  some  peculiari- 
ties in  the  history  of  the  family  to  which  he  belonged  (Gen. 
xvi.  11.  XXV.  25,  26.  Exod.  ii.  10.  xviii.  3,  4.)  ;  and  sonae- 
times  the  name  had  a  prophetic  meaning.  (Isa,  vii,  14.  viii. 
3.  Hos.  i.  4.  6.  9.  Matt.  i.  21.  Luke  i.  13,  60.  63,) 

»  Josephus  de  Vita  sua,  c.  7G.  Ilome's  History  of  the  .Tews,  vol.  ii.  p. 
358.  Harwootl's  Introd.  vol.  ii.  p.  125.  Calmet's  Dissertation  sur  le  Divorce. 
Dissert,  torn.  i.  pp.  390,  391.  The  following  are  some  of  the  principal 
causes  for  which  the  Jews  were  accustomed  to  put  away  their  wives,  at 
the  period  referred  to :— 1.  "It  is  commanded  to  divorce  a  wife,  that  is  not 
of  good  behaviour,  and  is  not  modest,  as  becomes  a  daughter  of  Israel."— 
2.  "  If  any  man  hate  his  wife,  let  him  put  her  away." — 3.  "  The  school  of 
Hillel  saiih,  If  the  wife  coolc  her  husband's  food  illy,  by  over-salting  it,  or 
over-roasting  it,  she  is  to  be  put  away." — 4.  Yea,  "If,  by  any  stroke  fi'om 
the  hand  of  God,  she  become  dumb  or  sottish,"  &c. — 5.  R.  Akibah  said, 
"  If  any  man  sees  a  woman  handsomer  than  his  own  wife,  he  may  put  her 
away;  because  it  is  said,  'If  she  find  not  favour  in  his  eyes.' "—(Light- 
foot's  Horse  Hebraica,  on  Matt.  v.  31.— Works,  vol.  xi.  p.  118.  8vo.  edit.) 
This  last  was  the  cause  assigned  by  Josephus  for  repudiating  his  wife  in 
the  passage  above  cited. 

a  This  chapter  is  compiled  from  Michaelis's  Commentaries,  vol.  i.  pp. 
427—430.  443—447.  Lewis's  Origines  Hebreeae,  vol.  ii.  pp.  240—310.  Cal- 
met's Dictionary,  article  Adoption.  Bruning,  Antiq.  Hebr.  pp.  1— 11. 
Pareau,  Antiquitas  Hebraica,  part  iv.  c.  6.  de  liberorum  procreatione  et 
educatione,  pp.  442—446. 

»  Harmer's  Observations,  vol.  iv.  p.  433.  Morier's  Second  Journey, 
!>.  IOC. 


II.  "  The  First-born,  who  was  the  object  of  special  affec- 
tion to  his  parents,  was  denominated,  by  way  of  eminence, 
the  opening  of  the  womb.  In  case  a  man  married  a  widow 
who  by  a  previous  marriage  had  become  the  mother  of  chil- 
dren, the  first-born  as  respected  the  second  husband  was  the 
child  that  was  eldest  by  the  second  marriage.  Before  the 
time  of  Moses,  the  father  might,  if  he  chose,  transfer  the 
right  of  primogeniture  to  a  younger  child,  but  the  practice 
occasioned  much  contention  (Gen.  xxv.  31,  32.),  and  a  law 
v/as  enacted  overruling  it.  (Deut.  xxi.  15 — 17.)  The  first- 
born inherited  peculiar  rights  and  privileges. — 1.  He  received 
a  double  portion  of  the  estate.  Jacob  in  the  case  of  Reuben, 
his  first-born,  bestowed  his  additional  portion  upon  Joseph, 
by  adopting  his  two  .sons.  (Gen.  xlviii.  5 — 8.)  This  was 
done  as  a  reprimand,  and  a  punishment  of  his  incestuous 
conduct  (Gen.  xxxv.  22.);  but  Reuben,  notwithstanding, 
was  enrolled  as  the  first-born  in  the  genealogical  registers. 
(1  Chron.  V.  1.) — 2.  The  first-born  was  the  priest  of  the 
whole  family.  The  honour  of  exercising  the  prie.'^thood  was 
transferred,  by  the  command  of  God  communicated  through 
Moses,  from  the  tribe  of  Reuben,  to  whom  it  belonged  by 
right  of  primogeniture,  to  that  of  Levi,  (Num.  iii,  12 — 18. 
vili.  18.)  In  consequence  of  this  fact,  that  God  had  taken 
the  Levites  from  among  the  children  of  Israel,  instead  of  all 
the  first-born,  to  serve  him  as  priest,  the  first-born  of  the 
other  tribes  were  to  be  redeemed,  at  a  valuation  made  by  the 
priest  not  exceeding  five  shekels,  from  serving  God  in  that 
capacity,  (Num.  xviiir  15,  IG,  compared  with  Luke  ii.  22. 
et  seq.) — 3.  The  first-born  enjoyed  an  authority  over  those 
who  were  younger,  similar  to  that  possessed  by  a  father 
(Gen.  xxv,  23,  d  seq.  2  Chron,  xxi.  3.  Gen,  xxvii.  29.), 
which  was  transferred  in  the  case  of  Reuben  by  Jacob  their 
father  to  Judah.  (Gen.  xlix.  8—10.)  The  tribe  of  Judah, 
accordingly,  even  before  it  gave  kings  to  the  Hebrews,  was 
every  where  distinguished  from  the  other  tribes.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  authority  which  was  thus  attached  to  the  first- 
born, he  was  also  made  the  successor  in  the  kingdom.  There 
was  an  exception  to  this  rule  in  tlie  case  of  Solomon,  who, 
though  a  younger  brother,  was  made  his  successor  by  David 
at  the  sjjecial  appointment  of  God.     It  is  very  easy  to  see  hi 


Heb.  xii,  23.  Rev.  i,  5,  11,  Job  xviu,  13.) 

III.  In  the  earliest  ages,  mothers  suckled  their  oftspnnff 
themselves,  and,  it  should  seem  from  various  passages  of 
Scripture,  until  they  were  nearly  or  quite  three  years  old  :  on 
the  day  the  child  was  weaned,  it  was  usual  to  make  a  feast. 
(2  Mace,  vii,  27.  1  Sam,  i,  22— 24,  Gen.  xxi.  8.)  The  same 
custom  of  feasting  obtains  in  Persia  to  this  day.*  In  case 
the  mother  died  before  the  child  was  old  enough  to  ba 

«  Jahn's  Archteologia  Biblica,  by  Mr.  Uphara,  i  165. 
»  Morier's  Second  Journey,  p.  107. 


164 


EIRTH,  NURTURE,  ETC.  OF  CHILDREN. 


[Part  IV. 


weaned,  or  was  unable  to  rear  it  herself,  nurses  were  em- 
ployed ;  and  also  in  later  ages  when  matrons  became  too 
delicate  or  too  infirm  to  perform  the  maternal  duties.  These 
nurses  were  reckoned  among  the  principal  members  of  the 
family  ;  and,  in  consequence  of  the  respectable  station  which 
they  sustained,  are  frequently  mentioned  in  sacred  history. 
See  Gen.  xxxv.  8.  2  Kings  xi.  2.  2  Chron.  xxii.  11. 

"T/iC  daughters  rarely  departed  from  the  apartments  av)pro- 
priated  to  the  females,  except  when  they  went  out  with  an 
urn  to  draw  water,  which  was  the  practice  with  those  Avho 
belonged  to  those  humbler  stations  in  life,  where  the  ancient 
simplicity  of  manners  had  not  lost  itsjirevalence.  (Exod.  ii. 
16.  Gen.  xxiv,  IG.  xxix.  10.  1  Sam.  ix.  11,  12.  John  iv.  7.) 
They  spent  their  time  in  learning  those  domestic  and  other 
arts,  which  are  befitting  a  woman's  situation  and  character, 
till  they  arrived  at  that  period  in  life,  when  they  were  to  be 
sold,  or  by  a  better  fortune  given  away,  in  maniage.  (Prov. 
xxxi.  13.  2  Sam.  xiii.  7.)  The  daughters  of  those  who  by 
their  wealth  had  been  elevated  to  high  stations  in  life,  so  far 
from  going  out  to  draw  water  in  urns,  might  be  said  to  spend 
the  whole^of  their  time  within  the  walls  of  their  palaces.  In 
imitation  of  their  mothers,  they  were  occupied  with  dressing, 
with  singing,  and  with  dancing ;  and,  if  we  may  judge  from 
the  representations  of  modern  travellers,  their  apaiiinents 
were  sometimes  the  scenes  of  vice.  (Ezek.  xxiii.  18.)  They 
went  abroad  but  very  rarely,  as  already  intimated,  and  the 
more  rarely,  the  higher  they  were  in  pomt  of  rank,  but  they 
received  with  cordiality  female  visitants.  The  virtues  of  a 
^ood  woman,  of  one  that  is  determined,  whatever  her  station, 
To  discharge  each  incumbent  duty,  and  to  avoid  the  frivolities 
and  vices  at  which  we  have  briefly  hinted,  are  mentioned  in 
terms  of  approbation  and  praise  in  Prov.  xxxi.  10 — 31. 

♦'7%e  «07!5  remained  till  the  fifth  year  in  the  care  of  the 
women  ;  then  they  came  into  the  father's  care,  and  were 
tauglit  not  only  the  arts  and  duties  of  life,  but  were  instructed 
'in  the  Slosaiclaw,  and  in  all  parts  of  their  countrj-'s  religion. 
(Deut.  \-i.  20 — 25.  xi.  19.)  Those  who  wishexl  tc)  have 
them  further  instructed,  provided  they  did  not  deem  it  pre- 
ferable to  employ  private  teachers,  sent  them  away  to  sejnrio 
priest  or  Levite,  who  sometimes  liad  a  number  of  other  chil- 
dren to  instruct.  It  appears  from  1  Sam.  i.  24 — 28.  that 
iliere  was  a  school  near  tlie  holy  tabernacle,  dedicated  to  the 
instruction  of  youth. 

IV.  "  Tlie  authority  to  which  a  father  Avas  entitled  ex- 
tended not  only  to  his  wife,  to  his  own  children,  and  to  his 
servants  of  both  sexes,  but  to  his  children's  children  also.  It 
was  the  custom  anciently  for  sons  nevriy  married  to  remain 
At  their  father's  house,  unless  it  had  been  their  fortune  to 
marry  a  daughter,  who,  having  no  brothers,  was  heiress  to 
an  estate  ;  or  unless  by  some  trade,  or  by  commerce,  they 
had  acquired  sufficient  property  to  enable  them  to  sn])port 
their  own  family.  It  might  of  course  be  expected,  while 
they  lived  in  their  father's  house,  and  were  in  a  manner  the 
pensioners  on  his  bounty,  that  lie  would  exercise  his  autho- 
rity over  the  children  of  his  sons  as  well  as  over  the  sons 
themstdves."  In  this  case  the  power  of  the  father  "  had  no 
narrow  limits,  and,  whenever  he  found  it  necessary  to  resort 
to  measures  of  severity,  he  was  at  liberty  to  inflict  the  ex- 
tremity e)f  punishment.  (Gen.  xxi.  14.  xxxviii.  24.)  This 
power  was  so  restricted  by  Moses,  that  the  father,  if  he 
judged  the  son  worthy  of  death,  was  bound  to  bring  the 
cauSs  before  a  judge.  But  he  enacted,  at  the  same  time,  that 
the  judge  should  pronounce  sentence  of  death  upon  the  son, 
if  on  inquiry  it  could  be  proved,  that  he  had  beaten  or  cursed 
his  father  or  mother,  or  that  he  was  a  spendthrift,  or  saucy, 
or  contumacious,  and  could  not  be  reformed.  (Kxod.  xxi.  15. 
17.  Lev.  XX.  9.  Dcut.  xxi.  18—21.)  The  autliority  of  the 
parents,  and  the  service  and  love  due  to  tiient,  are  re  cognised 
m  the  most  prominent  and  fundament;!!  of  the  mortil  Irnvf 
of  the  Jewish  polity,  viz.  the  Ten  Command ments.  (Kxod. 
XX.  12.) 

*'  The  son,  who  had  acfpiired  property,  was  commanded  to 
exhibit  his  gratitude  to  his  jrarents,  not  only  by  words  and 
in  feeling,  l)ut  by  gifts.  (Malt.  xv."5,  0.  Mark  vii.  11  — 13.) 
The  pow(  r  of  the  father  over  his  offspring  in  tlie  aneient 
times  was  not  only  very  great  for  the  lime  Ixing,  and  wliile 
he  sojourned  with  them  in  the  land  of  the  living  ;  but  \\v.  was 
allowed  als^^to  cast  his  eye  into  the  future,  and  liis  prophetic 
curse  or  blessing  possessed  no  little  cflicacy."'  (Gen.  xiix. 
2—28.) 

It  appears  from  1  Kings  xx.  1.  (marginal  rendering)  that,  in 
the  disposition  of  his  cfTects,  the  fatlier  ( xpresKcd  bin  last 

•  Jalm'i  ArchKoIogltt  Biblica,  l)y  Mr.  I'pham,  M  160,  167. " 


wishes  or  will  in  the  presence  of  witnesses,  and  probably  in 
the  presence  tf  the  future  heirs,  as  Jacob  did,  in  Gen. 
xlviii. ;  and  this,  Michaelis  is  of  opinion,  seems  to  be  what 
is  called  giving  the  inheritance  to  his  sons,  in  Deut.  xxi.  16. 
Testaments  were  not  written  until  long  after  that  period. 
The  following  regulations  obtained  in  the  disposition  of  pro- 
perty : — 

1.  "As  it  respected  sons.-— -The  property  or  estate  of  the 
f.ither,  after  his  decease,  fell  into  the  possession  of  his  sons, 
who  divided  it  among  themselves  equally  ;  with  this  excep- 
tion, that  the  eldest  son  received  two  portions."  It  appears, 
however,  from  Luke  xv.  12.  that  sons  might  demand  and 
receive  their  portion  of  the  inheritance  during  their  father's 
lifetime;  and  that  the  parent,  though  aware  of  the  dissipated 
inclinations  of  the  child,  could  not  legally  refuse  the  applica- 
tion. 

2.  "  As  it  respected  the  sons  of  concubines : — Tlie  portion, 
which  was  given  to  them,  depended  altogether  upon  the  feel- 
ings of  the  father.  Abraham  gave  presents,  to  what  amount 
is  not  known,  both  to  Ishmael  and  to  the  sons  whom  he  had 
by  Keturah,  and  sent  them  away  before  his  death.  It  does 
not  appear  that  they  had  any  other  portion  in  the  estate ;  but 
Jacob  made  tlie  sons,  whom  he  had  by  his  concubinbs,  heirs 
as  well  as  the  others.  (Gen.  xxi.  8 — 21.  xxv.  1 — G.  xlix.  1 — 
27.)  Moses  laid  no  restrictions  upon  the  choice  of  fathers  in 
tiiis  respect;  and  we  should  infer  that  the  sons  of  concubines 
for  the  most  part  received  an  equal  share  with  the  other  sons, 
from  the  fact,  that  Jephthah,  the  son  of  a  concubine,  com- 
plained, that  he  was  excluded  without  any  portion  from  his 
father's  house.    (Jud<T.  xi.  1 — 7.) 

3.  "  As  it  respected  daugldcrs : — The  daughters  not  only 
had  no  portion  in  the  estate,  but,  if  they  were  unmarriea, 
were  considered  as  making  a  part  of  it,  and  were  sold  by  their 
brothers  into  matrimony.  In  case  there  were  no  brothers,  or 
they  all  had  died,  they  took  the  estate  (Num.  xxvii.  1 — 8.)  : 
if  any  one  died  intestate,  and  without  any  offspring,  the  pro- 
perty was  dispose^d  of  according  to  the  enactments  in  Num. 
xxvii.  R— 11. 

4.  "  As  it  respected  servants  .• — The  servants  or  the  slaves 
in  a  family  eoulii  not  claim  any  share  in  the  estate  as  a  right, 
l)ut  the  person  who  made  a  will  mi^ht,  if  he  chose,  make  them 
his  heirs.  (Comj).  Gen.  xv.  3.)  Indeed,  in  some  instances, 
those  who  had  heirs,  recognised  as  such  by  the  law,  did  not 
deem  it  unbecoming  to  bestow  the  whole  or  a  portion  of  their 
estates  on  faithful  and  deserving  servants.  (Prov.  xvii.  2.) 

5.  "  As  it  respected  widvics .- — ^The  widow  of  the  deceased, 
like  his  daughters,  had  no  legal  right  to  a  share  in  the  estate. 
The  sons,  however,  or  other  relations,  were  bound  to  afford 
her  an  adequate  maintenance,  unless  it  had  been  otherwise 
arranged  in  the  will.  She  sometimes  returned  back  again  to 
her  father's  house,  particularly  if  the  support,  which  the  heirs 
gave  her,  was  not  such  as  had  been  promised,  or  was  not  suffi- 
cient. (Gen.  xxxviii.  11.  compare  also  the  story  of  Kiith.) 
The  prophets  very  frequently,  and  undoubtedly  not  without 
cause,  exclaim  apiinst  the  neglect  and  injustice  shown  to 
widows."-  (Isa.  i.  17.  x.  2.  Jer.  vii.  G.  xxii.  3.  Ezek. xxii. 
7.  comp.  Exod.  xxii.  22 — 24.  Deut.  x.  18.  xxiv.  17.) 

V.  Where  there  were  no  sons  to  iidierit  property,  it  appears 
from  various  passages  of  the  New  Testament,  tliat  Adoption, 
— or  the  taking  of  a  stnintfcr  into  a  family,  in  order  to  make 
liim  a  part  of  it,  acknowlexlging  him  as  a  son  and  heir  to  the 
estate, — was  very  generally  practised  in  the  East,  in  the  time 
of  our  Saviour.  Adoption,  however,  docs  not  appear  to  have 
been  used  by  the  edder  Hebrews:  Moses  is  silent  concerning 
it  in  his  law  ;  and  Jacob's  adoption  of  bis  two  grandsons, 
Ephraiin  and  Manasseh  ((Jen.  xlviii.  1.),  is  rather  a  kind  of 
sul)stitutiun,  by  which  he  intended,  that  the  two  sons  of 
Joseph  should  have  each  his  lot  in  Israel,  as  if  they  had  been 
his  own  sons.  'J'hi/  tvn  sdii.i,  Kjihraiin  and  Mutwsi-efi,  are 
mine  ;  as  Jleubcn  and  Simam  llity  shall  be  mine.  But  as  he 
gave  no  inheritance  to  their  father  Josej)h,  the  effect  of  tliis 
adoption  extended  only  to  their  increase  of  fortune  and  inhe- 
ritance ;  tliat  is,  instead  of  one  part,  giving  them  (or  Joseph, 
by  means  of  them)  two  ])arts.  Two  other  kinds  of  adoption 
among  the  Israelites  are  mentioned  in  ihe  Scriptures;  viz. 

1.  H'he  first  consisted  in  the  ohli<^ation  of  a  suniving 
brother  to  marry  the  widow  of  his  brother,  who  had  died  with- 
out cliildren  (I)eut.  xxv.  5.  Hulhiv.  5.  Matt.  xxii.  24.)  ;  so 
that  the  children  of  this  marriage  were  considered  as  belong- 
ing to  tlie  deceased  brother,  and  went  by  his  nanw;  a  practice 
more  ancient  than  Ihe  law,  as  appears  in  the  history  of  Famar ; 
but  this  manner  of  adopting  was  not  practised  among  the 

•  John'*  ArchaMjlogiB  Btblicn,  by  Mr.  I'pham,  5  169. 


Chap.  V.] 


ON  THE  CONDITION  OF  SLAVES  AND  OF  SERVANTS. 


165 


Greeks  and  Romans  :  neither  was  that  kind  of  adoption  in- 
tended by  Sarah,  Leah,  and  Rachel ;  when  they  gave  their 
handinaidens  to  their  husbands.  (Gen.  xvi.  2.  xxx.  3.) 

2.  Various  instances  of  another  kind  of  adoption  are  re- 
corded in  the  Old  Testament,  viz.  that  of  a  father  having  a 
daughter  only,  and  adopting  her  children.  •  Thus,  in  1  Chron. 
ii.  21,  22.,  Machir  the  grandson  of  Joseph,  who  is  called 
father  of  Gilead {th?it  is,  chief  of  that  town),  gave  his  daugh- 
ter to  Hezron,  who  married  her  when  he  was  threescore  years 
old,  and  she  bare  him  Segub.  And  Segub  begat  Jair,  who 
had  three-and-twenty  cities  in  the  land  of  Gilead.  Jair 
acquired  a  number  of  other  cities,  which  made  up  his  posses- 
sions to  threescore  cities.  (Josh.  xiii.  30.  1  Kings  iv.  13.) 
However,  both  he  and  his  posterity,  instead  of  being  reckoned 
to  the  family  of  Judah  as  they  ought  to  have  been  by  their 
paternal  descent  from  Hezron,  are  reckoned  as  sons  of  Ma- 
chir the  father  of  Gilead.  It  further  appears  from  Num.  xxxii. 
41.  that  this  very  Jair,  who  was  in  fact  the  son  of  Segub,  the 
son  of  Hezron,  the  son  of  Judah,  is  expressly  called  Jair  the 
son  of  Manasseh,  because  his  maternal  great-grandfather  was 
Machir,  the  son  of  Manasseh.  In  like  manner,  we  read  that 
Mordecai  adopted  Esther  his  niece:  when  her  father  and 
mother  were  dead,  he  took  her /or  his  own  dauo;hter.  So  the 
daughter  of  Pharaoh  adopted  Moses,  and  he  became  her  son. 
(Exod.  ii.  10.)  So  we  read  in  Ruth  iv.  17.  that  Naomi  had 
a  son  :  a  son  is  bom  to  Naomi  .■  when,  indeed,  it  was  the  son 
of  Ruth,  and  only  a  distant  relation  (or,  in  fact,  none  at  all) 
to  Naomi,  who  was  merely  the  wife  of  Elimelech,  to  whom 
Boaz  was  kinsman. 

By  the  propitiation  of  our  Saviour,  and  the  communication 
of  the  merits  of  his  dedXh, penitent  sinners  become  the  adopted 


children  of  God.  Thus  St.  Paul  v/rites  (Rom.  viii.  15.),  Ye 
have  received  the  spirit  of  adoption,  whereby  we  cry,  Abba, 
Father.  We  wait  for  the  adopticm  of  the  children  of  God.  And 
(Gal.  iv.  4,  5.)  God  sent  forth  his  Son  to  redeem  them  that 
were  under  the  law,  that  we  might  receive  the  adoption  of  sons. 

Among  the  Mohammedans  the  ceremony  of  adoption  is 
performed,  by  causing  the  adopted  to  pass  through  the  shirt  of 
the  person  who  adopts  him.  For  this  reason,  to  adopt  among 
the  Turks  is  expressed  by  saying — to  draw  any  one  through 
one's  shirt ;  and  an  adopted  son  is  called  by  them  Jlkietogli, 
the  son  of  another  life — -because  he  was  not  begotten  in  this.^ 
Something  like  this  is  observable  among  the  Hebrews:  Eli- 
jah adopted  the  prophet  Elisha,  by  throwing  his  mantle  over 
him  (1  Kings  xix.  19.)  ;  and  when  Elijah  Avas  carried  off  in 
a  fiery  chariot,  his  mantle,  which  he  let  fall,  was  takemipby 
Elisha  his  disciple,  his  spiritual  son,  and  adopted  successor 
in  the  office  of  prophet.  (2  Kings  ii.  15.) 

This  circumstance-  seems  to  be  illustrated  by  the  conduct 
of  Moses,  who  dressed  Eleazar  in  Aaron's  sacred  vestments, 
when  that  high-priest  was  about  to  be  gathered  to  his  fathers ; 
indicating  thereby,  that  Eleazar  succeeded  in  the  functions  of 
the  priesthood,  and  was,  in  some  sort,  adopted  to  exercise 
that  dignity.  The  Lord  told  vShebna,  the  captain  of  the  tem- 
ple, that  he  would  deprive  him  of  his  honourable  station,  and 
substitute  Eliakim,  tne  son  of  Hilkiah,  in  his  room.  (Isa. 
xxii.  21.)  I  will  CLOTHE  HIM  WITH  THY  ROBE,  and  strengthai 
him  with  thy  girdle,  and  I  will  commit  thy  government  into  hia 
hand.  St.  Paul,  in  several  places,  says,  that  real  Christians 
put  on  the  Lord  Jesus  ,•  and  that  they  put  on  the  new  man,  in 
order  to  denote  their  adoption  as  sons  of  God.  (Rom.  xiii.  14. 
Gal.  iii.  26,  27.) 


CHAPTER  V. 

ON    THE    CONDITION    OF    SLAVES    AND    OF    SERVANTS,    AND    THE    CUSTOMS    RELATING    TQ    THEM, 
MENTIONED    OR    ALLUDED    TO    IN    THE    NEW    TESTAMENT 

L  Slaves,  hotu  acquired. — II.  Their  Condition  among  the  Hebre-ws. — III.  And  among  other  JVationa. — IV.  Of  hired  Servants 
—  Customs  relating  to  them  and  to  Slaves  alluded  to  in  the  JVeio  Testament. — V.  Different  Kinds  of  Slaves  or  Servants 
mentioned  in  the  Scriptures. 


I.  Slavery  is  of  very  remote  antiquity;  and  when  Moses 
gave  his  laws  to  the  Jews,  finding  it  already  established, 
though  he  could  not  abolish  it,  yet  he  enacted  various  salutary 
laws  and  regulations.  The  Israelites,  indeed,  might  have 
Hebrew  servants  or  slaves,  as  well  as  alien-horn  persons,  but 
these  were  to  be  circumcised,  and  were  required  to  worship 
the  only  true  God  (Gen.  xvii.  12, 13.),  with  the  exception  of 
the  Canaanites. 

Slaves  were  acquired  in  various  ways;  I.  By  Captivity, 
which  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  first  origin  of  slavery 
(Gen.  xiv.  14.  Deut.  xx.  14.  xxi.  10,  11.) ;  2.  By  Debt,  when 
persons  being  poor  were  sold  for  payment  of  their  debts 
(2  Kings  iv.  1.  Matt,  xviii.  25.)  ;  3.  By  committing  a  Theft, 
without  the  power  of  making  restitution  (Exod.  xxii.  2,  3. 
Nell.  V.  4,  5.)  ;  4.  By  Birth,  when  persons  were  born  of 
married  slaves.  These  are  termed  born  in  the  house  (Gen.  xiv. 
14.  XV.  3.  xvii.  23.  xxi.  10.),  home-born  (Jer.  ii.  14.),  and  the 
so^is  or  children  oi  handmaids.  (Psal.  Ixxxvi.  16.  cxvi.  16.) 
Abraham  had  three  hundred  and  eighteen  slaves  of  this  de- 
scription ;  5.  Man-stealing  was  another  mode  by  which  persons 
were  reduced  into  slavery .2  The  seizing  or  stealing  of  a  free- 
born  Israelite,  either  to  treat  him  as  a  slave  or  to  sell  him  as 
a  slave  to  others,  was  absolutely  and  irremissibly  punished 
with  death  by  the  law  of  Moses.  (Exod.  xxi.  16.  Ueut.  xxiv. 
7.)  Although  the  Gospel  is  intended  to  make  no  change  or 
difference  in  the  civil  circumstances  of  mankind  who  are  con- 
verted from  paganism  to  Christianity,  the  master  and  the 
slave  being  equally  called,  as  St,  Paul  argues  at  length  in 
1  Cor.  vii.  17— -24. ;  yet  the  same  Apostle  (1  Tim.  i.  9,  10.), 
when  enumerating  various  classes  of  offenders  who  are  obnox- 
ious to  law,  expressly  denounces  men-stealers,  'wSe^.TtoiiTTdLtt;, 
those  who  kidnap  men,  to  sell  them  for  slaves :  in  other 
words  slave-traders.^ 

>  D'Herbelot  Bibl.  Orient,  p.  47. 

s  Pareau,  Antiq.  Hebr.  pp.  443,  419.  Michaelis's  Commentaries,  vol.  i. 
pp.  158—164. 

»  "The  New  Testament,"  says  Bishop  Ilorsley,  in  one  of  his  speeches 
in  the  House  of  Lords,  "  contains  an  express  reprobation  of  the  slave- 


II.  Slaves  received  both  food  and  clothing,  for  the  most 
part  of  the  meanest  quality,  but  whatever  property  they 
acquired  belonged  to  their  lords  :  hence  they  are  said  to  be 
worth  double  the  value  of  a  hired  servant.  (Deut.  xv.  IS.) 
They  formed  marriages  at  the  will  of  their  master,  but  their 
children  were  slaves,  who,  though  they  could  not  call  him  a 
father  (Gal.  iv.  6.  Rom.  viii.  15.),  yet  were  attached  and 
faithful  to  him  as  to  a  father,  on  wMch  account  the  patriarchs 
trusted  them  with  arms.  (Gen.  xi-wik4.  xxxii.  6.  xxxiii.  1.) 

If  a  married  Hebrew  sold  himself,  he  was;  to  serve  for  six 

■ft 

trade  by  namo.  as  sinful  in  a  very  high  degree.  The  apostle,  St.  Paul, 
ha\in?  spoken  of  persons  lliat  were  lawless  and  disobedient,  ungodly  and 
sinners,  unholy  and  profane,  proceeds  to  specify  and  disiingui.^li  the  seve- 
ral cliaracters  and  descriptions  of  men  to  whom  he  applies  those  very 
general  epithets ;  and  they  are  these, — 'murderers  of  fathers,  murderers 
of  mothers,  man-slayers,  they  that  defile  themselves  with  mankind,  men- 

stealers.'  " ''Tnis  te.\t  condemns  and  prohibits  the  slave-trade  in  onn 

at  least  of  its  most  productive  modes.  But  I  po  fui'tlier  ;  1  maintain  rhat 
this  text;  rightly  interpreted,  condemns  and  prohibits  the  slave-tiadc  gene- 
rally in  all  its  modes  :  it  ranks  the  slave-trade  in  the  descending  scale  of 
crime,  next  after  parricide  and  homicide.  The  original  word,  which  the 
English  Bible  gives  men-stealers,  is  i-vSpx^Tt^ia-Tm.  Our  translators  have 
taken  the  word  in  its  restricted  sense  which  it  bears  in  the  Attic  law ;  in 
which  the  ^''!«>i  ivdoy-^rcJia-^ou  was  a  criminal  prosecution  for  the  specific 
crime  of  kidnapping,  the  penally  of  which  was  death.  But  the  phrase- 
ology of  the  Holy  Scripture,  especially  in  the  preceptive  part,  is  a  popular 
phraseology;  and  iv^pxTroJio-Tj;;,  in  its  popular  sense,  is  a  person  who 
'  deals  in  men,'  literally,  a  slave-trader.  That  is  the  English  word  htcrally 
and  exactly  corresponding  to  the  Greek." "The  Greek  word  is  so  ex- 
plained by  the  learned  grammarian  Eustathius,  and  by  other  grammarians 
of  tlie  first  authority.  Although  the  Athenians  scrupled  not  to  possess 
themselves  of  slaves,  yet  the  trade  in  slaves  among  them  was  infamous." 
(Speeches  in  Parliament,  p.  539.)  The  following  observation  of  a  learned 
modern  critic  is  too  important  to  be  withheld  from  the  reader: — "By 
ivJp^!7oJi(rTi»i;  the  best  commentators  are  agreed  is  meant,  those  who 
kidnapped  and  sold  into  slavery  free  persons.  Now  this  was  reparded  by 
the  law  as  felony  of  the  deepest  dye,  and  was  always  punished  w  ith  death. 
And  as  all  the  crimes  here  mentioned  arc  of  the  most  heinous  kind,  and  as 
rolibery  does  not  elsewhere  occitr  in  the  hst,  so  ivopxroJio-Tais  seems  as 
put  for  robbery  of  the  worst  sort.  Let  then  the  slave-traders  (Christians, 
alas  !)  of  our  times  tremble  :  for  all,  who  in  any  way  participate  in  that  abo- 
minable traffic,  are  ivipan-oJirTai ;  since  ihey  thereby  uphold  a  system, 
which  perpetually  engenders  man-stealing."  (Bloomfield's  Annotations 
on  the  New  Test.  vol.  viii.  p.  301.)— By  the  act  of  parliament  3  &4  Gul.  iv. 
chap,  73.  slavery  was  abolished  throughout  the  British  Colonies. 


1G6 


ON  THE  CONDITION  OF  SLAVES  AND  OF  SERVANTS, 


years,  and  in  the  seventh  he  was  to  go  out  free,  together  with 
nis  wife  and  children  ;  but  if  his  master  had  given  one  of  his 
slavps  to  him  as  a  wife,  she  was  to  remain,  witli  her  children, 
as  the  property  of  his  master.  (Exod.  xxi.  2 — 4.)  The  duty 
of  slaves  was  to  execute  their  lord's  commands,  and  tht  y 
were  for  the  most  part  employed  in  tending  cattle  or  in  rural 
affairs;  and  though  the  lot  ol  some  of  them  was  sufficiently 
hard,  yet  under  a  mild  and  humane  master  it  was  tolerable. 
(Job  xxxi.  13.)  When  the  eastern  people  have  no  male  issue, 
they  frecjuently  marry  their  dauohters  to  their  slaves;  and  the 
same  practice  appears  to  have  obtained  amon<T  tiie  Hebrews, 
as  we  read  in  1  Chron.  ii.  31,  33.  Now  Shesnan  had  no  so7is, 
but  daughters  ;  and  Skeshan  had  a  servant  (slave),  an  Egyp- 
tian, whose  name  was  Jurha ,-  and  She.shan  gave  his  datighter  to 
Jaruha  hit  servant  to  wife.  In  Barbar}',  the  ricii  people  when 
childless  have  been  known  to  purchase  young  slaves,  to  edu- 
c.'.te  thi^m  in  thfir  own  faith,  and  sometimes  to  adopt  them  for 
their  own  children.  The  greatest  men  of  the  Ottoman  empini 
are  well  known  to  havo  been  originally  slaves  brought  up  in 
the  seraglio:  and  the  Mameluke  sovereigns  of  Egypt  were 
originally  slaves.  Thus  the  advancement  of  the  Hebrew  cap- 
tive Joseph  to  be  viceroy  of  Egypt,  and  of  Daniel,  another 
Hebrew  captive,  to  be  chief  minister  of  state  in  Babylon, 
corresponds  with  the  modern  usasres  of  the  East. 

In  order  to  mititrate  the  conditions  of  slaves,  various  sta- 
tutes were  enacted  by  Moses.  Thus,  1.  They  were  to  be 
treated  with  humanity  :  the  law  in  Lev.  xxv.  39 — 53.,  it  is 
true,  speaks  expressly  of  slaves  who  were  of  Hebrew  de- 
scent ;  but,  as  alien-born  slaves  were  engrafted  into  the  He- 
brew church  by  circumcision^,  there  is  no  doubt  but  that  it 
applied  to  all  slaves. — 2.  If  a  man  struck  his  servant  or  maid 
with  a  rod  or  staff,  and  he  or  she  died  under  his  hand,  he 
was  to  be  punished  by  the  magistrate ;  if,  however,  the  slave 
survived  for  a  day  or  two,  the  master  was  to  go  unpunished, 
as  no  intention  of  murder  could  be  presumed,  and  the  loss 
of  the  slave  was  deemed  a  sufficient  punishment.  (Exod. 
xxi.  20, '21.) — 3.  A  slave  who  lost  an  eye  or  a  tooth  by  a 
blow  from  his  or  her  masttvr,  acquired  his  or  her  liberty  in 
consequence.  (Exod.  xxi.  v!6,  27.) — ^1.  All  slaves  were  to 
rest  from  their  labours  on  the  Sabbath,  and  on  the  great  fes- 
tivals. (Exod.  XX.  10.  Deut.  v.  It.) — 5.  They  were  to  be 
invited  to  certain  feasts.  (Deut.  xii.  17,  18.  xvi.  11.) — G.  A 
master  who  had  betrothed  a  female  slave  to  hinisilf,  if  slie 
did  not  please  him,  was  to  permit  her  to  be  redeemed,  and 
was  prohibited  from  selling  ner  to  a  strange  nation,  seeing  he 
Iiad  dealt  dcceilfulli/  ivith  her.  If  he  had  betrothed  her  to  his 
son,  he  was  to  deal  with  her  after  the  manner  of  daughters. 
If  he  took  another  wife,  her  food,  raiment,  and  duty  of  mar- 
riage, he  was  not  to  diminish.  And  if  he  did  not  these  three 
unto  her,  then  slie  was  to  go  out  f-ee  without  money.  (Exod. 
xxi.  7 — 11.) — 7.  Hebrew  slaves  were  to  conti  me  in  slavery 
only  till  the  year  of  jubilee,  when  they  might  re:tirn  to  liberty, 
ana  their  masters  could  not  detain  them  against  their  wills. 
li  they  were  desirous  of  continuing  with  their  masters,  they 
were  to  be  brought  to  thi^id'jes,  before  whom  they  were  1o 
make  a  declaration  that  fwtliis  lime  they  disclaimed  the  pri- 
vilege of  this  law ;  and  had  their  ears  bojed  through  with  an 
awl  against  the  door-posts  of  their  master's  house,'  aftfr 
which  they  had  no  longer  any  nower  of  recovering  their 
liberty  until  the  next  year  of  jubilee,  after  forty-nine^years. 
(Exod.  xxi.  3,  (3.)  'lliis  very  significant  ceremony  implied 
that  they  were  closely  attached  to  that  house  and  family ;  and 
that  they  were  bound  to  hiar,  and  punctually  to  obey,  all  their 
master's  orders — 8.  If  a  Hebrew  by  birth  was  sold  to  a  stran- 
^fx  or  alien  dwelling  in  the  vicinity  of  the  land  of  Israel,  his 
relations  were  to  redeem  hirn,  and  such  slave  was  to  make 
powl  the  purchase-money  if  he  were  able,  paying  in  propor- 
tion to  the  number  of  years  that  remained,  until  the  3'ear  of 
jubilee.  (Lev.  xxv.  47 — 55.)  Lastly,  if  a  slave  of  another 
nation  fled  to  the  Hebrews,  he  was  to  bo  received  hospitably, 

>  Borinr  uf  tht  ear  was  an  ancient  custom  in  tile  East :  il  is  thus  refcr- 
rc'J  10  \>y  JuvL'iml : — 

....  Liticrtinim  prior  est :  "  Prior,"  inqult,  "  Efo  adsom, 

Ciir  linieain,  (luluteinvc  lociitn  defentlKrc  1  quainviH 

Nnlin  ail  I-J  up  lira  I  cm,  mullen  quod  in  AUiiB  fem:.<<tr.b 

Argutrint,  licet  ipse  nogem."  Sal.  I.  102—105. 

Thi?  frc'>'iinnn,  hiisiiinK  through,  replies,  "Firnt  conic  is  still 

First  Hci'vcd  ;  ami  1  may  claim  my  riclit,  nnti  will, 

Tlioii((h  iiorn  a  »/are— ('t  wijre  boolIi;»8  lo  ileny 

What  thetn  oofied  ears  betray  to  every  eye.)"  Gipporo. 

Calm<-1,  to  uhom  wn  arc  IndobtnJ  Tor  ItiiH  fact,  qnotos  a  Rnyini  from  Prtro- 
iiiii»  .\rbilcr,  at  atipvijnH  the  same  iliiiiir ;  and  anollier  of  ('ircrcj,  In  wliirli 
1j'-  rallies  a  Libyan  who  prcltrided  h«!  did  not  hear  him.— "It  is  not,"  said 
the  philiisnpli.r,  "tifiiin<f  ynur  rnra  ari:  not  mi^ciently  BOiuu)." — Com- 
rocatwre  Liit^rai,  sur  I'lrlxude  xx\  C.  torn.  I.  p.  (jOI. 


[Paut  IV. 
(Deut.  xxiii. 


and  on  no  account  to  be  given  up  to  his  master. 
15,  16.)2 

III.  Although  Moses  inculcated  the  duty  of  humanity  to- 
wards slaves,  and  enforced  his  statutes  by  various  strong 
sanctions,  yet  it  appears  from  Jer.  xxxiv.  8 — 22.  that  their 
condition  was  sometimes  very  wretched.    It  cannot,  how- 
ever, be  denied  that  their  situation  was  much  more  tolerable 
among  the  Hebrews  than  among  other  nations,  especially 
the  Greeks  and  Romans.^     Nor  is  this  a  matter  of  astonish- 
ment :  for  the  Israelites  were  bound  to  exercise  the  duties 
of  humanity  towards  these  unhappy  persons  by  weight)'  sanc- 
tions and  motives,  which  no  otlicr  nation  had,  whcse  slaves 
had  no  Sabbath,  iio  day  of  rest,  no  legal  protection,  and  who 
were  subject  to  the  cruel  caprice  of  their  masters,  whose  ab- 
solute property  they  were,  and  at  whose  mercy  their  lives 
every  moment  lay."*     "For  the  slightest  and  most  trivial 
offences  they  were  cruelly  scourged  and  condemned  to  hard 
labour;  and  the  petty  tyrant  of  his  family,  when  exasperated 
by  any  real  or  apprehended  injury,  could  nail  them  to  a  cross, 
and  make  them  uie  in  a  lingering  and  most  miserable  man- 
ner.    These  slaves,  generally,  were  wretched  captives,  who 
had  been  taken  prisoners  in  unfortunate  battles,  or  had  fal- 
len into  their  enemies'  hands  in  the  siege  of  cities.     These 
miserable  captives,  ancient  history  informs  us,  were  either 
butchered  in  cold  blood,  or  sold  by  auction  for  slaves  to  the 
higliest  bidder.    'I'he  unhappy  prisoners  thus  bought  and 
enslaved  were  sometimes  thrust  into  deep  mines,  to  be 
drudges  through  life  in  darkness  and  despair:  sometimes 
were  pent  up  in  private  workhouses,  and  condemned  to  the 
most  laborious  and  ignoble  occupations  :  frequently  the  toils 
of  agriculture  were  imposed  upon  them,  and  the  severest  task 
unmercifully  exacted  from    them:'    most  commonly  they 
were  employed  in  the  menial  offices  and  drudgery  of  domes- 
tic life,  and  treated  with  the  greatest  inhumanity.     As  the 
last  insult  uj)on  their  wretchedness,  they  were  branded  in 
the  forehead,  and  a  note  of  eternal  disgrace  and  infamy  pub- 
licly and  indelibly  impressed  upon  them  !     One  cannot  tnink 
of  this  most  contumelious  and  reproachful  treatment  of  a 
fellow-creature  without  feeling  the  acutest  pain  and  indigna- 
tion.    To  the  above-mentioned  customs  in  the  treatment  of 
slaves,  which  obtained  among  the  ancients,  there  are  several 
allusions  in  the  New  Testament.     Thus  St.  Paul,  in  refer- 
ence to  the  custom  of  purchasing  slaves,  on  whose  heads  a 
price  was  then  fixed,  just  as  upon  any  other  commodity,  and 
who,  when  bought,  were  the  entire  and  unalienable  property 
of  tlio  purchaser,  by  a  very  beautiful  and  expressive  simili- 
tude ropresenft  Christians  as  the  servants  of  Christ ;  informs 
them  that  an  immense  price  had  been  paid  for  them :  that 
they  were  not  at  their  own  disposal ;  but  in  every  respect, 
both  as  to  body  and  rmnd,  were  the  sole  and  absolute  pro- 
perty of  God.      Ye  are  not  your  otvn ;  for  y  are  bought  with 
a  price :  thertf/re  glorify  God  in  your  body  and  in  your  spirit, 
which  are  God''s.  (1  Cor.  vi.  20.)      So  also   again:   Ye  are 
bought  with  a  price :  be  not  ye  the  servants  of  men.  ( 1  Cor.  vii. 

»  Jahn,  Arcliiol.  Uiblica,  §  171. 

»  Amoii^  the  Uolriaiis  more  parucularly,  slaves  wore  hcXd—pronnHis— 
pro  nwrluis — pro  rjuatlrupedi/ius — for  no  men — for  dead  men— for  ieasia  ; 
nay,  were  in  a  much  worse  slate  llian  any  catlle  whatever.  Tiiey  liad  no 
htad  in  the  state,  no  7inme,  no  tribe  or  re(.'ister.  Tliey  were  not  capable 
of  being  injured,  nor  ci>uid  ihcy  lalcc  by  puichas-e  or  descent ;  they  had 
no  lieirt;,  and  could  inaice  no  will.  E.vciupjve  of  wlinl  was  called  ihcir 
piciiliuni,  whatever  tliey  ac(iuired  wa.*:  llieir  iinsler's  ;  Ihey  could  neitlier 
plead  nor  be  pleaded,  but  were  euiirely  e.\cluiled  from  ail  civil  concerns : 
were  not  enlilled  to  tlie  riuhls  of  matrimony,  and,  therefore,  lind  no  riliof 
in  case  of  ailultery  ;  norwire  they  proper  olijrcis  of  cognation  nor  aninily. 
Tliey  MiiRlil  be  solil,  tran.-'ferred,  or  pawned,  like  oilier  uoods  or  personal 
estate;  lor  goods  (hey  were,  and  as  such  they  were  esteemed.  Taylor's 
r.lemenls  of  tlie  Roman  Civil  Law,  p. -129.  ■Ito.  Adam's  Sunuaary  of  Koman 
Aniiijultics,  pp.  :<8,  .19. 

«  .l^alm,  Archxol.  1111)1.5  172. 

»  The  folli>vviuii[  pa.v.s(ige  from  Mr.  Jowetl's  Christian  Ilesearclics  in  the 
Mediterranean  will  i^ive  an  idea  of  the  rigour  willi  wliich  slaves  are  treated 
fo  ilii.i  day  in  the  V.\M.  Tlic  coinhiclor  of  a  nilrf  factory  for  the  Pat^lia  of 
I'.dypt  bavinx  rexeiveil  command.^  lo  prepare  a  Inrije  cpmnlily  of  nitre  in 
great  haste, — "for  this  purpose  he  was  building  siiiall  reservoirs  and 
ducts,  with  old  picked  bricks,  gallierci)  from  ruins  ;  and  whicli  are  betlor 
than  the  modern  bjiked  bricks.  A  great  nundier  of  young  persons  of  both 
8o.\es  were  enj!a:«''d  in  the  work,  carryins  burdens.  T<)  give  vivaciiy  to 
their  proceediutH,  tiny  are  rn/uind  lo  iting :  and  lo  keep  llirm  dilijient- 
l/i^re  trtre  tiisk  tna»teri  Ktanding  at  inlcrrals  of  nhoul  ten  feel,  tcith 
uliips  in  lh>:ir  handu,  ttihich  tlfy  used  riryfretdy.  We  seemed  to  behold 
tile  manners  of  the  ancient  Egyptian.'^,  Fxodus  v."  Jowell's  Hesearchcs, 
p.  130.  May  not  the  i:omiiinnd  lo  ginf;  also  e.Yplain  I'sal.  r.x.xxvii  U,  \A 
''The  Mallems"  (or  heads  of  tlistrictt;  of  Coptic  Cbrirlians  in  Egypt),  the 
same  traveller  elsewhere  remark.-<,  "Iransacl  liusiness  between  the 
bashaw  and  tlio  peasanls.  lie  piinislics  tliem,  if  Uie  peasants  prove  that 
lliey  opiiress  ;  ami  yel  he  reipures  frniu  them  Ihal  ihe  work  of  those  who 
are  under  Iheni  shall  be  fnltilled.  They  strikingly  illuslrale  the  case  of 
tho  officers,  placed  by  the  Fstypfiaii  task-masters  over  tlie  rliildrrn  of 
Israel;  and,  like  theirs,  the  Sliiilcms  ofien  find  ihal  iheir  case  is  evil. 
H.  c  Exod.  v.  0—29."  Ibid.  p.  1C8.  See  also  Mr.  Carnc's  LeUers  from  the 
East,  pp.  71,  72. 


Chap.  V.] 


AND  THE  CUSTOMS  RELATING  TO  THEM. 


167 


23.)     St.  Paul  usually  styles  himself  the  servant  of  Christ ; 
and  in  a  passage  In  his  epistle  to  the  Galatians,  alluding  to 
the  signatures  with  which  slaves  in  those  days  were  branded, 
he  tells  them  that  he  carried  about  with  him  plain  and  indeli- 
ble characters  impressed  in  his  body,  which  evinced  him  to 
be  the  servant  of  his  master  Jesus.     Fro7n  hencefurth  let  no 
man  trouble  me,  for  I  bear  in  niy  body  the  marks  of  the  Lord 
Jesus.''''  (Gal.  vi.  17.)'      It  was  a  doctrine  of  the  pharisaic 
Jews,  that  proselytes  were   released  from   all  antecedent, 
civil,  and  even  natural  relations  ;  and  it  is  not  improbable 
that  some  of  the  Jewish  converts  might  carry  the  same  prin- 
ciple into  the  Christian  community,  and  teach  that,  by  the  pro- 
fession of  Christianity,  slaves  were  emancipated  from  their 
Christian  masters.     In  opposition  to  this  false  notion,  the 
same  great  apostle  requires  that  all  who  are  under  the  yoke 
of  servitude  oe  taught  to  yield  due  obedience  to  their  mas- 
ters, and  animadverts  with  great  severity  upon  those  false 
teachers,  who,  from  mercenary  views,  taught  a  different  doc- 
trine.   (iTim.  vi.  1 — -10.)      Against  this  principle   of  the 
judaizing  zealots,  St.  Paul  always  enters  his  strong  protest, 
and  teaches  tliat  the  profession  of  Christianity  makes  no  dif- 
ference in  the  civil  relations  of  men.     See  1  Cor.  vii.  17 — 24. 
IV.  Though  slavery  was  tolerated   and  its  horrors  were 
mitigated  by  the  wise  and  humane  enactments  of  Moses,  yet 
in  the  progress  of  time  as  hired  servants  would  be  necessary, 
various  regulations  were  in  like  manner  made  by  him,  to 
ensure   them   from   being   oppressed.     Like   slaves,   hired 
labourers  were  to  partake  of  the  rest  of  the  Sabbath,  and  also 
to  share  in  the  produce  of  the  sabbatical  year :  their  hire  was 
to  be  paid  every  day  before  sunset  (Lev.  xix.  13.  Deut.  xxiv. 
14,  15.)  ;  but  what  that  hire  was  to  be,  the  Hebrew  legisla- 
tor has  not  determined,  because  the  price  of  labour  must 
have  varied  according  to  circumstances.     From  the  parable 
of  the  proprietor  of  a  vineyard  and  his  labourers,  which  is 
related  in  Matt.  xx.  1 — 15.,  "  we  learn  these  three  particu- 
lars concerning  the  servants  in  Judaea,  or  at  least  in  Jerusa- 
lem : — That  early  in  the  morning  they  stood  in  the  market 
place  to  be  hired — that  the  usual  wages  of  a  day-labourer 
were  at  that  time  a  denarius,  or  about  seven-pence  halfpenny 
of  our  money — and  that  the  customary  hours  of  working 
were  till  six  in  the  evening.     Earlj"^  in  the  morning  the  mas- 
ter of  a  family  rose  to  hire  day-labourers  to  work  in  his  vine- 
yard.2     Having  found  a  number  he  agreed  to  pay  them  "a 
DENARIUS  for  the  WAGES  of  the  DAY,  and  sent  them  into  his 
vineyard.     About  nine  o'clock  he  went  again  into  the  market- 
place, and  found  several  others  unemployed,  whom  he  also 
ordered  into  his  vineyard,  and  promised  to  pay  them  what 
was  reasonable.     At  twelve  and  three  in  the  afternoon,  he 
went  and  made  the  same  proposals,  which  were  in  the  same 
manner  accepted.     He  v^ent  likewise  about  five  o'clock,  and 
found  a  number  of  men  sauntering  about  the  market  in  idle- 
ness, and  he  said  to  thein,  Why  do  you  consume  the  whole 
day  in  this  indolent  manner  1     There  is  no  one  hath  thought 
fit  to  give  us  any  employment,  they  replied.     Then  go  you 
into  the  vineyard  among  my  other  labourers,  and  you  shall 
receive  what  is  just.     In  the  evening  the  proprietor  of  the 
vineyard  ordered  his  steward  to  call  the  workmen  together, 
beginning  from  the  last  to  the  first,  to  pay  them  their  wages 
without  any  partiality  or  distinction.     When  those,  therefore, 
came,  who  had  been  employed  about  five  in  the  afternoon, 
they  received  a  denarius  a  piece.     When  those,  who  had  been 
hired  in  the  morning,  saw  them  return  with  such  great  wages, 
they  indulged  the  most  extravagant  joy,  imagining  that  their 
pay  would  vastly  exceed  that  of  the  others ;  but  how  great 
was  their  disappointment,  when  they  received  from  the  stew- 
ard each  man  a  denarius  !  This  supposed  injurious  treatment 
caused  them  to  raise  loud  clamours  against  the  master.  And 
they  complained  to  him  of  his  usage  of  them,  saying,  the  last 
labourers  you  hired  only  worked  a  single  hour,  anfyou  have 

given  them  the  same  wages  as  you  have  given  us,  who  have 
een  scorched  with  excessive  heat,  and  sustained  the  long 
and  rigorous  toil  of  the  whole  day.  He  turned  to  one  who 
appeared  the  most  petulant  of  them,  and  directed  this  reply, 

«  Harwood's  Introduction,  vol.  ii.  pp.  144—146. 

2  The  same  custom  obtains  to  this  day  in  Persia.  In  the  city  of  Hama- 
dan  there  is  a  maidanor  square  in  front  of  a  large  mosque.  "  Here,"  says 
Mr.  Morier,  "we  observed  every  morning  before  the  sun  rose,  that  a 
numerous  band  of  peasants  were  collected  with  spades  in  their  hand-s, 
waiting,  as  they  informed  us,  to  be  hired  for  the  day  to  work  in  the  sur- 
roundmg  fields.  This  custom,  which  I  have  never  seen  in  any  other  part 
of  Asia,  forcibly  struck  me  as  a  most  happy  illustration  of  our  Saviour's 
parable  of  the  labourers  in  the  vineyard  in  the  20th  chapter  of  Matthew, 
particularly  when  passing  by  the  same  place  late  in  the  day,  we  still  found 
others  standing  idle,  and  remembered  his  words,  Why  stand  ye  here  all 
the  day  idle7  as  most  applicable  to  their  situation  ;  for,  in  putting  the  very 
eame  question  to  them,  they  answered  us,  Because  no  ma?i  hath  hired 
Mfi."    Morier's  Second  Journey  through  Persia,  p.  265. 


Friend,  I  do  thee  no  injustice ;  was  not  our  agreement  for  a 
denarius  ?  Take  what  justice  entitles  thee  to,  without  re- 
pining, and  calmly  acquiesce  in  the  faithful  performance  cf 
our  original  agreement — a  principle  of  benevolence  disposes 
me  freely  to  bestow  upon  the  last  persons  I  hiied  what  equity 
obliged  me  to  give  to  you. 

"  It  has  been  observed  that  slaves  were  condemned  to  the 
mines,  where  their  uncomfortable  lives  were  consumed  in  the 
most  rigorous  and  servile  drud^ry.  It  is  natural  to  suppose 
that  those  wretches,  born  to  better  hopes,  upon  their  first 
entrance  into  these  dismal  subterraneous  abodes  of  darkness 
and  despair,  with  such  doleful  prospects  before  them,  would 
be  transfixed  with  the  acutest  distress  and  anguish,  shed 
bitter  unavailing  tears,  gnash  their  teeth  for  extreme  misery, 
and  fill  these  gloomy  caverns  with  piercing  cries  and  loud 
lamentations.  Our  Lord  seems  to  allude  to  this,  and,  con- 
sidered in  this  view,  the  imagery  is  peculiarly  beautiful  and 
expressive,  when  he  represents  the  wicked  servant  and  un- 
faithful steward  bound  hand  and  foot  and  cast  into  utter 
darkness,  where  there  would  be  weeping,  wailing,  and 
gnashing  of  teeth !  (Matt.  viii.  12.  xxii.  13.)  The  reader  will 
be  pleased  with  the  ingenious  remarks  of  the  learned  and  judi- 
cious Dr.  Macknight  on  this  passage : — '  In  ancient  times  the 
stewards  of  great  families  were  slaves  as  well  as  the  servants 
of  a  lower  class,  being  raised  to  that  trust  on  account  of  their 
fidelity,  wisdom,  sobriety,  and  other  good  qualities.  If  any 
steward,  therefore,  in  the  absence  of  his  lord,  behaved  as  is 
represented  in  the  parable,  it  was  a  plain  proof,  that  the  vir- 
tues on  account  of  which  he  was  raised  were  counterfeit,  and 
by  consequence  that  he  was  a  hypocrite.  Slaves  of  this 
character,  among  other  chastisements,  were  sometimes  con- 
demned to  work  in  the  mines.  And  as  this  was  one  of  the 
most  grievous  punishments,  when  they  first  entered,  nothing 
was  heard  among  them  but  weeping  and  gnashing  of  teeth, 
on  account  of  the  intolerable  fatigue  to  which  they  were  sub- 
jected in  these  hideous  caverns  without  hope  of  release. 
There  shall  be  weeping  and  gnashing  of  teeth.'^ 

"  Crucifixion  was  a  servile  punishment,  and  usually  in- 
flicted on  the  most  vile,  worthless,  and  abandoned  of  slaves. 
In  reference  to  this  it  is  that  St.  Paul  represents  our  Lord 
taking  upon  him  the  form  of  a  servant,  and  becoming  subject  to 
death,  even  the  death  of  the  cross  (Phil.  ii.  8.)  ;  cnrcifixion 
was  not  only  the  most  painful  and  excruciatino;,  but  the  most 
reproachful  and  ignominious  death  that  could  be  suffered. 
Hence  it  is  that  the  apostle  so  highly  extols  the  unexampled 
love  for  man  and  magnanimity  of  Jesus,  u'ho  for  the  Joy  set 
before  kirn  endured  ike  cross,  despising  the  shame  (Heb.  xii. 
2.)  and  infamy  even  of  such  a  death.  It  was  this  exit  which 
Jesus  made,  that  insuperably  disgusted  so  many  among  the 
heathens;  who  could  never  prevail  with  themselves  to  believe 
that  religion  to  be  divine,  whose  founder  had  suffered  such 
an  opprobrious  and  infamous  death  from  his  countrymen. 
And  for  men  to  preach  in  the  world  a  system  of  truths  as  a 
revelation  from  the  Deity,  which  were  first  delivered  to  man- 
kind by  an  illiterate  and  obscure  Jew,  pretending  to  a  divine 
mission  and  character,  and  who  was  for  such  a  pretension 
crucified,  appeared  to  the  heathens  the  height  of  infatuation 
and  religious  delusion.  The  preaching  of  the  cross  was  to 
them  fijolishness  (1  Cor.  i.  23.)  ;  and  the  religion  of  a  crucified 
leader,  who  had  suffered  in  the  capital  of  liis  own  country 
the  indignities  and  death  of  a  slave,  carried  with  it,  in  their 
estimation,  the  last  absurdity  and  folly,  and  induced  them  to 
look  upon  the  Christians,  and  the  wretched  cause  in  which 
they  were  embarked,  with  pity  and  contempt.  Hence  St. 
Paul  speaks  of  the  offence  of  the  cross,''  the  great  and  invin- 
cible disgust  conceived  by  the  men  of  those  times  against  a 
religion  whose  founder  was  crucified  !  Hence  he  speaks  of 
not  being  ashamed  of  the  Gospel  froni  the  circumstance 
which  made  such  numbers  ashamed  of  it,  nay,  of  glorying 
in  the  cross*  of  Christ;  though  the  consideration  of  the  igno- 
minious and  servile  death  he  suffered  was  the  very  obstacle 
that  made  the  heathens  stumble  at  the  very  threshold  of 
Christianity,  and  filled  them  with  insurmountable  prejudices 
against  it.'  s 

V.  Among  the  Greeks  slaves  were  commonly  termed  J'cu\ci, 
in  opposition  to  the  fKevB-tpci,  or  those  who  were  free  bom ;  and, 
by  some  of  the  comic  writers,  nximu.  They  were  also  fire- 
quently  termed  vcufic.  These  appellations  also  occur  in  the 
New  Testament,  where  we  find  them  characterized  by  dif- 
ferent names,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  services  which 

3  Dr.  Macknight's  Harmony,  p.  522.  2d  edit.  1703. 

4  X^vSxXcv  TOv  trrxvp'.v.      Gal.  V.  11. 

'  Grad  forbid  that  I  should  elory  save  in  the  cross  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ.  GaL  vi.  14.  «  Harwood's  Introduction,  vol.  ii.  pp.  147—152. 


168 


DOMESTIC  CUSTOMS  AND  USAGES  OF  THE  JEWS. 


[Part  IV, 


they  performed.  Thus  in  Acts  xii.  20.  we  meet  with  a  cham- 
berlani ,-  . . .  lilastus,  i  i-nri  tou  Ki<T«rcf,  who  had  charge  of  the 
ro}'al  bedchamber,  or,  in  modern  language,  the  royal  cham- 
berlain. These  persons  often  had  great  influence  with  tlieir 
masters.'  Those,  who  had  large  flocks  of  sheep  and  herds 
of  cattle,  which  they  intrusted  to  ?rs//uR«;,  inferior  shepherds, 
appointed  a  chief  shepherd,  a/>;^fTa///w,  to  superintend  them. 
In  1  Pet.  V.  4.  this  appellation  is  applied  to  tlie  chief  teacher 
of  religion,  that  is,  Jesus  Christ,  wlio  is  to  come  as  judge. 
Kings  are  often  termed  u  ^c//ufvsc  Tm  K*m,  because  they  watch 
for  the  safety  and  wtrlfare  of  their  subjects ;  and  tlie  same 
figure  is  transferred  to  religious  teachers,  who  strive  by  their 
instructions  and  exliortations  to  promote  the  highest  interests 
of  mankind.  The  it/t^itsc  and  cliuv:/u'.(  appear  to  be  synony- 
mous terms  for  him  who  had  the  chief  cnarge  or  oversight 
of  the  property  or  domestic  affairs  of  any  one.  This  class 
of  men  had  authority  over  the  slaves  of  a  family,  and  seem 
to  have  sometimes  been  slaves  themselves.  ^Luke  xii.  43. 
1  Cor.  iv.  2. J  Besides  the  general  care  of  aflairs,  the  boys 
of  a  family  also  appear  to  have  been  intrusted  to  their  charge ; 
at  least  m  regard  to  pecuniary  matters.  (Gal.  iv.  4.) 
Schleusner  considers  the  imTfK,7ro(  in  this  passage  as  the 
guardian  appointed  by  the  law  or  by  the  magistrate,  and  the 
ciit:r:/a;f  as  one  who  was  appointed  by  will.  Opposed  to 
r'iavaj)  were  the 'E^-;^t<i  or  nired  labourers  (Matt.  xx.  1.), 
wliether  they  were  r«a^j.;/,  or  cultivators  of  tlie  soil  (Luke 


XX.  9,  10.),  'AjUTnyovryci,  or  vine-dressers  (Luke  xiii.  7.)  ;  or 
euMf-A,  or  door-keepers.  (Mark  xiii.  34.  John  xviii.  16,  17.) 
But,  whatever  was  the  nature  of  their  service,  each  was  re- 
quired to  prosecute  that  particular  work  which  was  deemed 
most  suitable  for  him  by  his  master  or  lord,  whether  the 
latter  was  at  home  or  abroad  (Mark  xiii.  34.  Luke  xii.  42. 
xiv.  17.  xvii.  7,  8.),  with  all  honesty  and  fidelity.  (Tit.  ii. 
9,  lO.y 

Among  the  Greeks  those  slaves  who  had  conducted  them- 
selves well  were  manumitted,  or  released  from  bondage. 
The  Greeks  termed  those  who  were  thus  liberated  an-'j.nj^^Kcu!, 
or  freed  men  ;  which  word  is  applied  by  St.  Paul  to  him  who 
is  called  into  the  church  of  Christ,  while  a  slave,  in  order  to 
denote  that  he  is  free  indeed,  as  being  made  by  Christ  a  par- 
taker of  all  the  privileges  of  the  children  of  God.  (1  Cor.  vii. 
22.)  In  some  of  the  Grecian  states,  the  son  and  heir  was 
permitted  to  adopt  brethren,  and  communicate  to  them  the 
same  privileges  whicli  he  himself  enjoyed.  To  this  some 
commentators  have  supposed  that  Jesus  Christ  refers  in  John 
viii.  32. 

Lastly,  when  slaves  proved  ungrateful  to  their  former  mas- 
ters or  patrons,  they  might  be  again  reduced  into  bondage, 
both  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  To  this  usage  St. 
Paul  raaj'  refer  Avhen  he  exhorts  the  Galatian  believers  in 
Christ  not  to  suffer  the  judaizing  teachers  again  to  entangle 
them  in  the  yokt  nf  bondage.  (Gal.  v.  1,)' 


CHAPTER  VI. 


DOMESTIC  CUSTOMS  AND  USAGES  OF  THE  JEWS. 


I.  Forms  of  Salutation  and  Politeness. — Reverence  to  Superiors. — II.  J\ToJe  of  receiviiig-  Guests  or  Visitors. — III.  Conversation 
and  Bathing. — IV.  Food  and  Entertainments. — V.  Mode  of  Travelling. — VI.  Jlosfntulitif  a  sacred  Duty  among  the  Jeius.^ 
Account  of  the  Tesscrx  Hospitales  of  the  Greeks  and  Jiomans. 


I.  "  V.\niou3  are  the  modes  of  address  and  politeness 
whirh  custom  has  established  in  ditlercnt  nations.  The 
Orientals  were  very  exact  in  the  observances  of  outward  de- 
comm  :  and  we  may  collect,  from  several  passages  in  the 
Old  and  New  Testament,  that  their  salutations  and  expres- 
sions of  regard  on  meeting  each  other  were  extremely  tedious 
and  tiresome,  containing  many  minute  inquiries  concerning 
the  person's  welfare,  and  the  welfare  of  his  family  and 
friends  ;  and  when  they  parted,  concluding  with  many  reci- 
procal wishes  of  happiness  and  benediction  on  each  other."' 
The  ordinary  formulae  of  salutation  wore — The  Lord  be  with 
thee  ! — The  Ldtrd  hlens  thee  ! — and  Blessed  be  tttou  of  the  Lord.' 
but  the  most  common  salutation  was  Peace  (that  is,  may  all 
manner  of  prosperity)  he  ivilh  thee!  (Ruth  li.  4.  Judg.  xix. 
20.  1  Sam.  xxy.  G.  Psal.  cxxix.  8.)  In  the  latter  ages  of 
the  Jewish  polity,  much  time  appears  to  have  been  sp'ent  in 
the  rigid  obser\'ance  of  these  ceremonious  forms,  for  wliich 
the  uiodern  inhabitants  of  the  East  continue  to  be  remark- 
able.' "  When  our  Lord,  therefore,  in  his  commission'io  the 
seventy,  whom  he  despatched  into  the  towns  and  villages  of 
Judaea  to  publish  the  Gospel,  strictly  ordered  them  io"salute 


•  Pee  Atlam'a  Roman  Anlirjuities,  p.  453 
«m'ii  Or.  Lcxicoa,  in  vi 
N      .  IVHianierili,  pp.  45,  4(j. 


r. 


ii'ii  Or.  Lcxicoa,  in  vocibud;  Stosch's  Compendium  Arclitco- 
'••Hianieriii,  pp.  45,  4(j. 
Hi  iiiiiiiii,  f'OiupeuJiuui  Gra^carULQ  j'l  prorania  Sacrarum,  p.  80.  Kuinijel, 
on  John  viii.  ?fi. 

*  Of  (lie  minute,  not  to  B,-\y  frivoloii.9,  iii'inirif.s  an'I  Riiliititinn!)  nbove 
mentloneil,  tliP  following  is  a  atriliinf;  illuftlraii..n  : — "  Evory  passer  hy," 
ii4yK  the  Rov.  Mr.  JowcU,  "  has  his  'Alia  y'jiira/ceJt,'—'  Ooil  bieRs  you  ' 
C  nncmation  is  somftiniCM  amoiii;  strani^urs  niaile  up  of  a  vrry  laice  pro- 
p  irlion  of  these  phm.ses  ;  for  example, — 'Good  morniiii:.'  An.swir,  ' 'l.iy 
V.J  ir  (lay  be  enriched!' — '  Uy  secini;  you.' — 'You  hive  Liiliclitened  the 
lii)_;i.sL-  by  your  presence.' — '  Are  you  h;ipi>y  T — '  Happy  ;  and  you,  nlso.' — 
'  Vou  are  i.omforlablo,  I  am  comfortable  ;  iiii^niiln;;  '1  niii  cninfurlnble.  If 
you  are.'  These  senlenceH  are  oflen  repealfMl ;  and,  aOer  any  pause,  it  is 
usual  to  turn  to  your  neighbour  and  resuuie  these  courtesies  many  times." 
Jjweii'H  Chrislian  Researches  in  Hyria,  p.  90.- 

•  H'-riouM  and  taciturn  as  the  nativi-n  nf  the  East  usually  are,  they  grow 
talkativn  when  itiey  n»eet  an  acjuainlnnce,  and  salulp  him.  This  custom 
has  come  from  A.sia  with  the  Arabs,  and  sprearl  over  the  north  coast  of 
Africi.  A  modern  traveller  relates  the  reciprocal  salutailon.s  wilh  whlcb 
thosa  arc  received  who  return  with  tlie  carivans.  "  People  go  n  griMt 
way  to  meet  them  :  at  soon  as  they  are  perceli-erl,  the  (luohltoniiis  mid 
8.iIulation  beniiis,  and  continucH  with  the  repetition  of  the  K.nne  phniscH : 
'How  do  you  do?  Oocl  be  praiMod  that  you  are  come  in  p^'ar.-  !  (;,,  I  eive 
you  peace !  How  fares  it  with  you  V  the  higher  the  ruiil<  of  the  p.rKon 
returniiif  home,  the  longer  does  the  salutation  last."  See  lloriK'iiian'.'i 
Jourua!.  S;olberg'.-4  Mislory  of  Relijlon,  vol.  iii.  p  lU.  IlurJ.r'.s  Orir-nml 
Literature,  vol.  I.  p.  4ttG. 


no  man  by  the  way  (Luke  x.  4.),  he  designed  only  by  this 
prohibition  that  they  should  employ  the  utmost  expedition; 
that  they  should  suffer  nothing  to  retard  and  impede  them  in 
their  progress  from  one  place  to  another ;  anti  should  not 
lavish  those  precious  moments,  which  ought  to  be  devoted 
to  the  sacred  and  arduous  duties  of  their  oflice,  in  observing 
the  irksome  and  unmeaning  modes  of  ceremonious  inter- 
course. Not  that  our  Lord  intended  that  his  disciples  should 
studiously  violate  all  common  civility  and  decency,  and  in- 
dustrious!)' offend  against  all  the  rules  of  courteousness  and 
decorum,  since  he  commanded  them  upon  their  entrance  into 
any  house  to  salute  it  (IMatt.  x.  12.),  and  observe  the  cus- 
tomary form  of  civility  in  wishing  it  peace  (Luke  x.  5.)  or 
univ/^rsal  hai)piness.  This  iniiincfion,  to  salute  no  one  on  the 
road,  means  only  that  they  siiould  urge  their  course  with 
speed,  and  not  suffer  their  attention  to  be  diverted  from  the 
duties  of  their  commission.  There  is  a  passatre  in  the  Old 
Testament  parallel  to  this,  and  which  beautifully  illustrates 
it.  Klisha,  despatching  his  servant  Gehazi  to  recover  the 
son  of  the  Shunamite,  strictly  enjoins  him  to  make  all  the 
expedition  posisible,  which  is  thus  expressed  :  Gird  up  thy 
loins  and  take  my  staff  in  thine  hand,  and  go  thy  way.  Jf 
thou  meet  any  man,  salute  him  not,  and  if  any  salute  thee,  a;i- 
sicT  him  noi  again.  (2  Kings  iv.  29.) 

"  In  all  countries  these  modes  of  address  and  politeness, 
though  the  terms  are  expressive  of  the  jirofoundest  respect 
and  homage,  yet  through  consfhnt  u.se  and  frequency  of  repe- 
tition soon  degenerate  into  mere  verbal  forms  and.words  of 
course,  in  which  the  hiart  has  no  share.  They  are  a  frivo- 
lous unmeaning  fonnulary,  perpctnally  uttered  without  the 
iniiid's  ever  annexing  any  idea  to  them.  To  these  empty, 
insigiiific;\nt  fimis,  whieh  men  mechanically  repeat  at  meet- 
ing or  taking  leave  of  each  other,  there  is  a  beautiful  allusion 
in  the  following  expression  of  our  Lord  in  that  consolatory 
discourse  wliicdi  he  delivend  to  his  vipostles  when  he  saw 
them  dejected  and  disconsolate,  on  his  plainlv  assuring  them 
that  he  wouhl  soon  leave  them  and  go  to  the'  Father,  /'rnre 
I  leave  with  i/ou  :  my  ptarr  I  give  unto  you  : — vut  as  the  world 
giveth,  gire  i  unto  yon.  (John  xiv.  27.)  Since  I  must  shortly 
be  taken  from  you,  I  now  bid  you  adieu,  sincerely  wishing 
you  every  happiness ;  not  as  the  world  giveth,  give  I  unto 
you  ;  not  in  the  unmeaning  ceremonial  maniifr  the  world 
repeats  this  salutation  :  for  my  wishes  of  peace  and  happiness 


Chaf.  VI.] 


FORMS  OF  SALUTATION  AND  POLITENESS. 


169 


to  you  are  sincere,  and  my  blessing  and  benediction  will  de- 
rive upon  you  every  substantial  felicity.  This  sheds  light 
and  lustre  upon  one  of  the  finest  and  most  beautiful  pieces  of 
imagery  which  the  genius  and  judgment  of  a  writer  ever  cre- 
ated. In  the  eleventh  chapter  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews, 
the  author  informs  us  Avith  what  wann,  anticipating  hopes  of 
the  Messiah's  future  kingdom  those  great  and  good  men,  wlio 
adorned  the  annals  of  former  ages,  were  animated.  These 
all,  says  he,  died  in  faith,  they  closed  their  eyes  upon  the 
world,  but  they  closed  them  in  the  transporting  assurance 
that  God  would  accomplish  his  promises.  They  had  the 
firmest  persuasion  that  the  Messiah  would  bless  the  world. 
By  faith  they  antedated  these  happy  times,  and  placed  them- 
selves, in  idea,  in  the  midst  of  all  their  fancied  blessedness. 
They  hailed  this  most  auspicious  period :  saluted  it,  as  one 
salutes  a  friend  whose  person  we  recognise,  at  a  distance. 
These  all  died  in  faith,  died  in  the  firm  persuasion  that  God 
would  accomplish  these  magnificent  promises,  though  they 
themselves  had  not  enjoyed  them,  but  only  had  seen  them 
afar  otf :  God  had  only  blessed  them  with  a  remote  prospect 
of  them.  They  were,  therefore,  persuaded  of  them,  they  had 
the  strongest  conviction  of  their  reality — they  embraced 
them — with  transport  saluted'  them  at  a  distance,  confessing 
that  they  were  but  strangers  and  pilgrims  upon  earth,  but 
were  all  travelling  towards  a  city  which  had  foundations, 
whose  builder  and  maker  is  God. "2 

Respect  was  shown  to  persons  on  meeting,  by  the  saluta- 
tion of  Peace  he  with  you .'  and  laying  the  right  hand  upon  the 
bosom:  but  if  the  person  addressed  was  of  the  highest  rank, 
they  bowed  to  the  earth.  Thus  Jacob  bowed  to  the  ground 
seven  times  until  he  came  near  to  his  brother  Esau.  (  Gen.  xxxiii. 
3.)  Such  was  the  piety  of  ancient  times,  that  masters 
saluted  their  labourers  with  "  The  Lord  be  with  you  /"  to 
which  they  answered,  "  The  Lord  bless  thee  /"^  Sometimes 
the  hem  of  the  person's  garment  was  kissed,  and  even  the 
dust  on  which  he  had  to  tread.  (Zech.  viii.  23.  Luke  viii.  4-1. 
Acts  X.  26.  Psal.  Ixxii.  9.)  Near  relations  and  intimate 
acquaintances  kissed  each  other's  hands,  head,  neck,  beard 
(wnich  on  such  occasions  only  could  be  touched  without 
affront),  or  shoulders.  (Gen.  xxxiii.  4.  xlv.  14.  SSam.xx.  9. 
Luke  XV.  20.  Acts  xx.  37.)  The  modern  Arabs  salute  their 
chiefs  by  kissing  either  cheek  alternately. ^  Whenever  the 
common  people  approach  their  prince,  or  any  person  of 
superior  rank,  it  was  customary  for  them  to  prostrate  them- 
selves before  him.  "  In  particular,  this  homaTO  was  univer- 
sally paid  to  the  monarchs  of  Persia  by  those  who  were  admit- 
ted into  their  presence ;  a  homage,  in  which  some  of  the  Greek 
commanders,  possessed  of  a  truly  liberal  and  manly  spirit, 
peremptorily  refused^  to  gratify  them.  In  imitation  of  these 
proud  sovereigns,  Alexander  the  Great  exacted  a  similar  pros- 
tration. This  mode  of  address  obtained  also  among  the  Jews. 
When  honoured  with  admittance  to  their  sovereign,  or  intro- 
duced to  illustrious  personages,  they  fell  down  at  their  feet, 
and  continued  in  this  servile  posture  till  they  were  raised. 
There  occur  many  instances  01  this  custom  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament. The  wise  men  who  came  from  the  East,  when 
they  saw  the  child  Jesus  with  his  mother  Mary,  fell  down 
ana  worshipped  him .  Great  numbers  of  those  who  approached 
our  Saviour /f//  down  at  his  feet.  We  read  of  several  of  the 
common  people  who  prostrated  themselves  before  him  and 
worshipped  him.  Cornelius,  at  his  first  interview  with 
Peter,  wnen  he  met  hxm,  fell  dmvn  before  him  and  worshipped 
him,  and  remained  in  this  submissive  attitude  till  Peter  took 
him  up;  saying.  Stand  up:  I  also  am  a  man.  In  the  Old 
Testament  we  read  that  Esther /e//  down  at  the  feet  of  Aha- 
suerus.  These  prostrations  among  the  eastern  people  appear 
to  us  to  the  last  degree  unmanly  and  slavish  f  but  it  seems 

1  'A.ir-zxT%iJ.ivot.  The  word  always  used  in  salutations.  See  Romans 
xvi.  passim.  a  Harwood's  Introduction,  vol.  ii.  pp.  279—233. 

»  Nui  unlilie  the  above,  are  the  salutations  in  use  at  this  time  among  the 
Turks.  "Say  to  a  Turk,  according  to  custom,  'May  your  morning  be  pro- 
pitious !'  he  replies,  'May  you  be  the  pledge  of  God  !'  Ask  a  Turk,  'I.s 
your  health  good  V  he  answers,  '  Glory  be  to  God !'  Salute  him  as  you 
pass  hiin  rapidly  in  travelling,  he  exclaims,  'May  God  be  merciful  to  you  !' 
At  partina  he  addresses  you,  '  To  God  I  commend  you  !'  and  is  answered, 
'May  Gud  be  with  you.'  "—Hartley's  Researches  in  Greece,  p.  233. 

*  Irby'3  and  Mangles'  Travels,  p.  2G2. 

'  Vereorne  civilati  mese  sit  opprobrio,  si  quum  ex  ea  sim  profectus, 
(jua;  caeteris  gcntibus  imperare  consueverit,  potius  barbarorum  quam 
illius  more  fungarl  C.  Nepos.  Conon.  p.  153.  The  Athenians  punished  a 
person  with  death  for  submitting  to  this  slavish  prostration.  Athenienses 
autetn  Tiinagoram  inter  officium  salntationis  Darium  regem  more  gentis 
illius  adulatuin,  capitali  supplicio  affecerunt ;  unius  civis  humilibus  blan- 
ditiis  totius  urbis  sua;  decus  Peraicis  domination!  summissum  graviter  fe- 
rentes.     Valerius  Ma.xiiuus,  lib.  vi.  cap.  3.  p.  5G1.    Torrenii,  LeidiB,  1726. 

«  Qui  abi  in  castraRomanaetprcetorium  pervenerunt,  more  adulantium, 
accepto,  credo,  ritu  ex  ea  regione  ex  qua  oriundi  erant,  procubuerunt. 
Conveniens  oratio  tam  humili  adulationi.  Livius,  lib.  xxx.  cap.  16.  torn.  iii. 
p.  131).  edit.  Ruddiraan. 

Vol.  II.  Y 


that  the  inhabitants  of  the  oriental  countries  have  always 
used  more  illiberal  and  humiliating  forms  of  address  and 
homage  than  ever  obtained  in  Europe. 

"  It  was  also  customary  in  those  times,  whenever  a  popular 
harangue  was  about  to  be  delivered,  and  the  people  stood 
convened,  for  the  orator,  before  he  entered  on  his  discourse, 
to  stretch  forth  his  hand  towards  the  multitude  as  a  token  of 
respect  to  his  audience,  and  to  engage  their  candid  attention. 
Frequent  instances  of  this  polite  address  of  an  orator  to  the 
assembled  multitude  occur  in  the  classics.  In  like  manner 
we  read  that  St.  Paul,  before  he  commenced  his  public  apology 
to  the  multitude,  bespoke  their  respect  and  candour  bj'  beckon- 
ing with  his  hand  to  them.  Paul  said,  '  I  am  a  man  who 
am  a  Jew  of  Tarsus,  a  city  of  Cilicia,  a  citizen  of  no  mean 
city  ;  and  I  beseech  thee  suifer  me  to  speak  unto  the  people.' 
And  when  he  had  given  him  license,  Paul  stood  on  the  stairs 
and  beckoned  vjith  his  hand  unto  the  people.  Thus,  also,  in 
the  account  of  the  tumult  which  happened  at  Ephesus,  when 
the  whole  city  was  filled  with  contusion,  some  clamouring 
one  thing,  some  another,  and  the  mob  which  Demetrius  had 
raised  were  instigated  to  the  last  excesses  of  violence  and 
fury,  though,  as  is  usual  in  mobs,  the  majority  of  them,  as 
the  sacred  historian  tells  us,  knew  not  what  it  was  that  had 
brought  them  together ;  in  the  midst  of  this  confused  scene 
we  read  that  the  Jews  pushed  forward  and  placed  one  Alex- 
ander on  an  eminence.  He,  being  exalted  above  the  crowd, 
intended  in  a  formal  harangue  to  exculpate  the  Jews  from 
any  concern  in  the  present  disturbance.  Accordingly  he 
beckoned  to  them,  with  his  hand — making  use  of  this  respectful 
customary  address  to  ensure  their  favourable  regard,  before 
he  delivered  his  designed  apolog)'.  But  this  specious  and 
popular  artifice,  it  seems,  did  not  avail  the  orator;  for  the 
moment  the  mob  understood  he  was  a  Jew,  they  pierced  the 
air  with  their  confused  cries,  repeating,  for  two  hours  together, 
Great  is  Diana  of  the  Ephesians  ! 

"From  time  immemorial  it  has  also  been  the  universal 
custom  in  the  East  to  send  presents  one  to  another.  No  one 
waits  upon  an  eastern  prince,  or  any  person  of  distinction, 
without  a  present.  This  is  a  token  of  respect  which  is  never 
dispensed  with.  How  mean  and  inconsiderable  soever  the 
gift,  the  intention  of  the  giver  is  accepted.  Plutarch  informs 
UP  that  a  peasant  happening  to  fall  in  the  way  of  Artaxerxes 
the  Persian  monarch  in  one  of  his  excursions,  having  nothing 
to  present  to  his  sovereign,  according  to  the  oriental  custom, 
the  countryman  immediately  ran  to  an  adjacent  stream,  filled 
both  his  hands,  and  oflfered  it  to  his  prince.  The  monarch, 
says  the  philosopher,  smiled  and  graciouslj'^  received  it,  highly 
pleased  with  the  good  dispositions  this  action  manifested.'' 
All  the  books  of  modern  travellers  into  the  East,  Sandys, 
Thevenot,  Maundrell,  Shaw,  Pococke,  Norden,  Hasselquist," 
Li^ht,  Clarke,  Morier,  Ouseley,  Buckingham,  and  others, 
"  abound  with  numberless  examples  of  this  universally  pre- 
valent custom  of  waiting  upon  great  men  with  presents — 
unaccompanied  with  which,  should  a  stranger  presume  to 
enter  their  houses,  it  would  be  deemed  the  last  outrage  and 
violation  of  politeness  and  respect.  It  was,  therefore,  agree- 
ably to  this  oriental  practice  which  obtains  in  all  these  coun- 
tries to  this  day ,8  that  the  wise  men,  when  they  entered  the 
house  to  which  the  star  had  directed  them,  and  saw  the  cliild 
and  his  mother,  after  they  had  prostrated  themselves  before 
him,  and  paid  him  the  profoundest  homage,  as  the  evangelist 
informs  us,  opened  their  treasures,  and  testified  their  sense 
of  the  dignity  of  his  person,  by  respectfully  making  him  rich 
presents,  consisting  of  gold,  frankincense,  and  myrrh."^ 

II.  When  any  person  visited  another,  he  stood  at  the  gate 
(as  is  still  usual  in  India)io  and  knocked,  or  called  aloud,  until 
the  person  on  whom  he  called  admitted  him.  (2  Kings  v.  9 
— 12.  Prov.  viii.  54.  Acts  x.  17.  xii.  13.  16.)  If  the  visitor 
was  a  person  of  extraordinary  dignity,  it  was  /justomarj'  to 
send  persons  of  rank,  who  were  followed  by  others  of  still 
greater  rank,  to  meet  him,  and  do  him  honour.  Thus  Balak 
sent  princes  more  and  more  honourable  to  meet  Balaam  (Num. 
xxii.  15.),  and  the  same  custom  obtains  to  this  day  in  Persia." 
A''isitors  were  always  received  and  dismissed  witlp  great 
respect.  On  their  arrival  water  was  brought  to  wash  their 
feet,  water  was  also  poured  upon  their  hands  (2  Ivings  iii. 

1  Pkilarch's  Morals,  vol.  p.  i.  299.  edit.  Gr.  Stephani. 

8  The  common  present  now  made  to  the  great  in  these  countries  is  a 
hoTse :  an  ass  might  formerl);  answer  the  same  purpose,  and  to  tliis  Moses 
probably  alludes  in  Num.  xvi,  15.  as  well  as  Samuel  (I  Sam.  xii.  3.).  par- 
ticularly a3as.ses  were  then  deemed  no  dishonourable  beast  for  the  saddle. 
See  Border's  Oriental  Literature,  vol.  i.  p.  243. 

9  Hanvood's  Introduction,  vol.  ii.  pp.  '^—289.  • 
'0  Staiham's  Indian  Recollections,  p.  113. 

i»  Morier's  Second  Journey,  p.  129. 


170 


DOMESTIC  CUSTOMS  AND  USAGES  OF  THE  JEWS. 


[Paet IV 


11.'  Gen.  xviii.  4.  xLx.  2.),  and  the  guests  were  anointed  with 
oil,  David  alludes  to  this  in  Beal.  xxiii.  5.  The  same  prac- 
tice obtained  in  our  Saviour's  time.  Thus  we  find  Alary 
Mao-dalene  approaching  him  at  an  entertainment,  and,  as  a 
mark  of  the  highest  respect  and  honour  she  could  confer, 
breaking  an  alabaster  vase  full  of  the  richest  perfume  and 
pourinsj  it  on  his  head.^  Our  Lord's  vindication  to  Simon, 
of  the  behaviour  of  this  woman,  presents  us  with  a  lively 
idea  of  the  civilities  in  those  times  ordinarily  paid  to  guests 
on  their  arrival,  but  which  marks  of  friendship  and  respect 
had  (it  seems^  been  neglected  by  this  Pharisee,  at  whose 
house  Jesus  Cnrist  then  was.  lie  turned  to  the  woman,  and 
titid  unto  Simon,  Seest  thou  this  woman?  I  entered  into  thine 
house,  and  thou  gavest  me  no  water  for  my  feet,  but  she 
hath  WASHED  MV  FEET  With  her  tears,  and  wiped  them  with  the 
hairs  of  her  head.  Thou  gavest  me  no  kiss  :  hut  this  ivoman, 
since  I  came  in,  hath  not  ceased  to  kiss  mv  feet.  Mine  head 
with  OIL  thou  didst  not  anoint ;  but  this  woman  hath  anointed 
MV  FEET  with  ointment.  (Luke  vii.  44 — 4G.)  To  this  prac- 
tice of  anointing,  Solomon  alludes  (Prov.  xxvii.  9.);  and 
among  the  Babylonians  it  was  usual  to  present  stvceji  odours. 
(Dan.  ii.  46.)  It  is  still  the  custom  in  Egypt,  ainong  the 
Arabs  and  other  nations,  thus  to  treat  their  guests,  and, 
when  they  are  about  to  depart,  to  burn  the  richest  perfumes.-* 
The  ceremony  of  washing  the  feet  is  still  observed  among  the 
Christians  of  Assalt  in  Palestine,  towards  all  strangers  who 
come  amongst  them  as  guests  or  visitors. '  An  elevated  seat, 
in  the  comer  of  the  room,  was  considered  as  the  post  of 
honour.  (Isa.  xxxviii.  2.)^  Among  the  Asiatic  sovereigns 
it  is  a  common  custom  to  give  both  garments  and  money  to 
ambassadors,  and  persons  of  distinction  whom  they  wish  to 
honour :  hence  they  keep  in  their  wardrobes  several  hundred 
changes  of  raiment  ready  for  presents  of  this  kind.  This 
usage  obtained  in  Egypt,  where  Joseph  gave  changes  of 
raiment  to  his  brethren,  and  to  his  brother  Benjamin  three 
hundred  pieces  of  silver,  besides  five  changes  of  raiment. 
(Gen.  xlv.  22.)  That  sueh  were  given  by  way  of  reward 
and  honour,  see  Judg.  xiv.  12. 10.  Rev.vi.  11.  and  vii.  9. 14.*' 
III.  "  Conversation,  in  which  the  ancient  Orientals  indulged 
like  other  men,  in  order  to  beguile  the  time,  was  held  in  the 
gate  of  the  city.  Accordingly,  tliere  was  an  open  space  near 
the  gate  of  the  city,  as  is  the  case  at  the  present  day  in  Mau- 
ritania, which  was  fitted  up  with  seats  for  tlie  accommodation 
of  The  people.  (Gen.  xix.  1.  Psal.  Ixix.  12.)  Those  who 
were  at  leisure  occupt'-d  a  position  on  these  seats,  and  either 
amused  tliemselves  with  witnessing  those  who  came  in  and 
those  \\  lio  went  out,  and  with  any  trifling  occurrences  that 
might  offer  themselves  to  their  notice,  or  attended  to  the  ju- 
dicial trials,  which  were  commonly  investigated  at  public 
places  of  this  kind,  viz.  the  gate  of  the  city.  (Gen.  xix.  1. 
xxxiv.  20.  Psal.  xxvi,  4,  5.  Ixix.  I2.  cxxvii,  5.  Ruth  iv.  11. 
Isa,  xiv.  31.)  Intercourse  by  conversation,  though  not  very 
frequent,  was  not  so  rare  among  the  ancient  Orientals,  as 
among  their  descendants  of  modern  Asia,  except  perhaps  in 
Palestine.'     Nor  is  this  to  be  wondered  at,  since  the  fathers 

«  "The  oriental  lueltiorl  of  wasliiiig  is  universally  different  from  that 
iiractised  in  tiic  West.  Nowhere  is  water  poured  previously  into  a  Ijasin  ; 
l)Ut  the  servant  pours  water  from  a  pitclier  upon  the  hands  of  his  master. 
The  custom  of  washing  hands  prevails  also  to  this  day.  The  servant  goes 
round  to  all  the  gueiit.s,  with  a  pitcher  and  with  a  vessel  to  receive  the 
water  falling  from  the  hands,  and  performs  the  office  attributed  to  Elisha," 
in  2  King.s  iii.  11.  "The  same  service  is  repeated  when  the  repast  is 
ended."     Ilarilcy'.s  Resiarchejs  in  (irecce,  pp.  233,  231. 

■«  It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  Oltn  of  Roses,  which  is  the  finest  perfume 
iiuportcd  from  the  East  at  this  time,  is  contained  in  pots  or  vases,  with 


coverg  go  firmly  luted  to  the  lop,  that  it  recpiires  force  and  breaking  to 
separate  them,  before  the  ix.'rfuine  c       ' 
plain  the  action  of  Mary  Ma);dalene  1 


the  ix.'rfuirie  can  be  poured  out.    Docs  not  this  ex- 


>  Bee  several  instances  of  this  custom  in  Ilarmcr'a  Observations,  vol.  ii. 
pp.  373—302. 

«  I<ti(-kin);ham's  Travels  among  the  Arab  Tribes,  p.  21. 

»  Bp.  Lowth's  Isaiah,  vol.  ii.  pp.  212,  2-13. 

«  Jahn,  Archieol.  Hild.  ii  I7u,  177.    Ilanvood,  vol.  II.  n.  117. 

'  "It  is  no  uncommon  lliiniti"  says  tlie  Kev.  Mr.  Jowelt,  "lo  sec  an 
individual,  or  a  group  of  ner.sons,  even  when  very  well  dressed,  siuint; 
with  their  feet  drawn  umler  them,  upon  the  bare  earth,  pan.^lrii;  whole 
hitiirsin  idle  converiialion.  Europeans  would  require  a  chair  ;  but  thi'  nn- 
tivci  here  prefer  the  ground  :  in  the  heat  of  summer  and  uiilwmn  it  is 
plea-sant  to  them  to  while  away  their  time  in  this  maimer,  und'r  the  shade 
of  a  trcW  Richly  adorned  females,  an  well  as  men,  may  often  be  seen 
thus  nmusini;  theuiHclves.  As  may  nalurallybc  expected,  with  whatever 
care  they  may  at  llrst  siuini{  down  choo.se  their  place,  yet  the  llowintt  dre.-is 
by  doKn-en  Kalhers  up  tlie  dii.st :  as  this  occurs,  they  from  lime  to  lime 
aris'',  adjust  thfiiisflves,  shake  otl  the  dusi,  and  lh<  n  nit  ilown  aj;aiii.'' 
Tbi«  usaj{e  henutifiilly  illustrates  Isa.  Iii.  2.  Shake  tlii/nrl//iom  Ihi'duul— 
ariit — ait  down,  O  JiruHulem.    The  sense  of  these  expressions,  lo  nn  Ori- 


ental, is  extremely  natural.     "The  captive  dauphterof /ion,  bruiiKlit  down 

lo  Ihe  dust  of  HiilTiriiis  anil  opprc 

herself  from  that  du.st ;  and  then,  with  grace  and  digniiy,  and  composure 


ring  anil  oppression,  is  cninmamled  lo  arise  ami  shake 


anti  sicurity,  to  nil  dmrn:  lo  lake,  as  it  were,  again,  herseui  and  her  rank 
amid  lh«  company  of  the  nnlions  of  the  earth,  which  hml  before  :ill!ic|fd 
her,  and  trampled  her  to  the  earth."  Jowelt's  Christian  Researches  in 
Syria,  pp.  282,  283. 


drank  wine,  while  the  descendants  are  obliged  to  abstain  from 
it;  and  we  are  well  assured,  that  the  effect  of  this  exhilarating 
beverage  was  to  communicate  iio  little  vivacity  to  the  cha- 
racters of  the  ancient  Asiatics,  at  least  to  that  of  the  Hebrews. 
(Seelsa.  XXX.  29.  Jer.  vii.  34.  xxx.  19.  Amos  vi.  4, 5.)  The 
ancient  Asiatics,  among  whom  we  include  the  Hebrews,  were 
delighted  with  singing,  with  dancing,  and  with  instruments 
of  music.  PrcTienading,  so  fashionable  and  so  agreeable  in 
colder  latitudes,  was  wearisome  and  unpleasant  in  the  warm 
climates  of  the  East,  and  this  is  probably  one  reason  why 
the  inhabitants  of  those  climates  preferred  holding  intercourse 
with  one  another,  while  sitting  near  tlie  gate  of  the  city,  or 
beneath  the  shade  of  the  fig  tree  and  the  vine.  (1  Sam.  xxii. 
6.  Micah  iv.  4.)  It  is  for  the  same  reason  also  that  we  so 
frequently  hear  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  of  persons  sitiir.g 
down,  as  in  the  following  passage :  '  Blessed  is  the  man  that 
standtth  not  in  the  way  of  sinners,  nor  sitfelh  in  the  scat  of  the 
scornful.''  (See  Psal.  i.  1.  cvii.  32.  Ixxxix.  7.  cxi.  1.  Ixiv.  2. 
1.  20.  xxvi.  .5.) 

"  The  bath  was  always  very  agreeable  to  the  inhabitants 
of  the  East  (Ruth  iii.  3.  2  Sam,  xi,  2,  2  Kings  v,  10,);  and 
it  is  not  at  all  surprising  that  it  should  hav.'  been  so,  since  it 
is  not  only  cooling  ana  refreshing,  but  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary in  order  to  secure  a  decent  degree  of  cleanliness  in  a  cli- 
mate where  there  is  so  much  exposure  to  dust.  The  bath  is 
frequently  visited  by  eastern  ladies,  and  may  be  reckoned 
among  their  principal  recreations.  Those  Egyptians,  who 
lived  at  the  earliest  period  of  which  we  have  any  account, 
were  in  the  habit  of  bathing  in  the  waters  of  the  Nile,  (Exod. 
ii.  5.  vii,  13 — 25.)  It  was  one  of  the  civil  laws  of  the  He- 
brows,  that  the  bath  should  be  used.  The  object  of  the  law, 
without  doubt,  was  to  secure  a  proper  degree  of  cleanliness 
among  them.  (Lev.  xiv.  2,  xv,  1 — 8.  xvii.  15,  IG.  xxii.  6. 
Num.  xix.  7.)  We  may,  therefore,  consider  it  as  probable, 
that  public  baths,  soon  after  the  enactment  of  this  law,  were 
erected  in  Palestine,  of  a  construction  similar  to  ihatof  tho<se 
which  are  so  frequently  sci-^n  at  the  present  day  in  the  East. 

"  The  Orientals,  when  engaged  in  conversation,  are  very 
candid  and  mild,  and  do  not  feel  themselves  at  lil)erty  di- 
rectly to  contradict  the  person  with  whom  they  are  conversing, 
although  they  may  at  the  same  time  be  conscious  that  he  is 
telling  them  falsehoods.  The  ancient  Hebrews,  in  particular, 
very  rarely  used  any  terms  of  reproach  more  severe  than 
those  of  jiOB'  (saTaji),  advertwy  or  opposer,  hit  (Racan),  co/i- 
temptihle,  and  sometimes  h^i  (n«bol),  fool,  an  expression 
which  means  a  wicked  man  or  an  atheist.  (Job  ii.  10.  Psal. 
xiv.  1.  Isa.xxxii,  G.  Matt,  v,  22.  xvi.  23,)  When  any  thing 
was  said,  which  was  not  acceptable,  the  dissatisfied  person 
replied,  let  it  suffice  thee  (Deut.  iii.  2G,),  or,  it  is  enough. 
(Luke  xxii,  38,)  In  addressing  a  superior,  the  Hebrewsdid 
not  commonly  use  the  pronouns  of  the  first  and  second  per- 
sen ;  but,  instead  of  /,  they  said  thy  sa-vant,  and  instead  of 
thou,  they  employed  the  words  mi/  lord.  Instances  of  this 
mode  of  expression  occur  in  Gen.  xxxii.  4.  Ixiv.  16.  19.  xlvi. 
31.  Dan.  x.  17.  and  Luke  i,  38, 

"  The  formula  of  assent  or  affirmation  was  as  follows  : 
Thou  hast  said,  or  thou  hast  rightly  naid.  We  are  informed 
by  the  traveller  Aryda,  that  this  is  the  prevailing  mode  of  a 
person's  expressing  his  assent  or  affirmation  to  this  day,  in  the 
vicinity  of  IMount  Lebanon,  especially  wliere  he  uucs  not 
wish  to  assert  any  thing  in  express  terms.  This  tixplains  the 
answer  of  the  Saviour  to  the  high-priest  Oaiajjhas  in  INlatt. 
xxvi,  G4,,when  he  was  asked,  whether  he  was  tlie  Christ  the 
Son  of  God,  and  rejilied,  av  ktsc,  thou  hast  said. 

"To  spit  in  company  in  a  room,  which  was  covered  with  a 
carpet,  was  an  indication  of  great  rusticity  of  manners;  but  in 
case  there  was  no  carpet,  it  was  not  accounted  a  fault  in  a 
person,  provided  he  spat  in  the  corner  of  the  room.  The 
expre>;sion,  therefore,  in  Deut,  xxv,  7 — 9,,  viz,  he  shall  spit 
in  his  face,  is  to  be  understood  literally,  the  more  so  on  tliis 
account,  because  in  other  placi  s,  where  spitting,  buffeting, 
&c.  are  mentioned,  they  occur  under  circumstances,  where 
there  existed  a  great  excitement  of  feeling,  and  because  there 
are  not  wanting  insUuices  of  even  tjreater  rudeness  and  vio- 


loiice,  than  that  of  siiiltiiig  in  one's  face.  (Matt,  xxvi,  G7. 

,1  Kings 
G,  xxv.  6.  2  Sam.  xvi.  G,  70     'I'lie  Orientals,  as  is  very  well 


Mark  xiv.  05.  comp.  1  Kings  xxii.  24.  Isa,  Ivii.  4,  Ezek, 


known,  are  fond  of  taking  a  nap  at  noon,  to  which  they  are 
strongly  invited  by  the  oppressive  heat  of  their  climate. 
(2  Sam,  iv,  5,  xi.  2.  Matt,  xiii,  25,)  The  phrase,  to  cover 
onc\i  feet,  is  used  in  certain  instances  to  express  the  custom 
of  retiring  to  rest  or  sleeping  at  this  time.  (Judg.  iii.  24. 
1  Sam.  xxiv.  4.)"8 
•  Mr.  Uphain's  translation  of  Jahn'a  ArcliiBologia  Bibllca,  pp.  194—196  . 


Chap.  VI.] 


FOOD  AND  ENTERTAINMENTS. 


171 


IV.  The  Jews  rose  early,  about  the  dawn  of  day,  when 
they  breakfasted.  They  dined  about  eleven  in  the  forenoon, 
and  supped  at  five  in  the  afternoon.  From  this  circum- 
stance of  their  breakfasting  so  early,  Dr.  Lightfoot  endeavours 
to  account  for  the  language  of  the  evangelists  John  (xix.  14.) 
and  Mark  j^xv.  25.)  concerning  our  Lord's  crucifixion.  The 
former  notices  the  time  from  the  preparation  of  the  passover  ; 
and  the  latter,  the  time  of  the  day.  The  preparation  began  at 
the  dawn  or  cock-crowing.  From  this  custom,  too,  the  term 
to  rise  early  denotes  diligence,  either  in  doing  good  or  evil. 
Supper  appears  to  have  been  the  principal  meal  among  the 
Jews,  as  it  was  among  the  Greeks  and  Komans.' 

From  the  whole  of  the  sacred  history,  it  is  evident  that  the 
food  of  the  Jews  was  of  the  simplest  nature,  consisting  prin- 
cipally of  milk,  honey ,2  rice,  vegetables,^  and  sometimes  of 
locusts,  except  at  the  appointed  festivals,  or  when  they  offered 
their  feast-ofterings ;  at  these  times  they  ate  animal  food,  of 
which  they  appear  to  have  been  very  fond  (Num.  xi.  4.), 
when  (as  is  done  at  this  day  throughout  the  East)  the  guests 
dipped  their  hands  in  the  dish.  (Ruth  ii.  14.  Matt.  xxvi.  23. 
John  xiii.  26.)'  The  pottage  of  lentiles  and  bread,  which 
Jacob  had  prepared,  and  which  was  so  tempting  to  the  im- 
patient Esau  as  to  make  him  sell  his  birthright,  shows  the 
simplicity  of  the  ordinary  diet  of  the  patriarchs.  (Gen.  xxv. 
34.)  The  same  diet  is  in  use  among  the  modern  Arabs,*  and 
in  the  Levant.''  Isaac  in  his  old  age  Xon^ediiox savoury  meat, 
which  was  accordingly  prepared  for  him  (Gen.  xxvii.  4. 17.)  ; 
but  this  was  an  unusual  thing.  The  feast  with  which  Abra- 
ham entertained  the  three  angels  was  a  calf,'  new  cakes 
baked  on  the  hearth,  together  with  butter  (g"Aee)  and  milk.s 
(Gen.  xviii.  6,  7.)  We  may  form  a  correct  idea  of  their 
ordinary  articles  of  food  by  those  whi*(%were  presented  to 
David  on  various  occasions  by  Abigail  (1  Sam.  xxv.  18.), 
by  Ziba  (2  Sam.  xvi.  1.),  andf  by  fiarzillai.  (2  Sam.  xvii. 
28,  21).) 

The  most  useful  and  strengthening,  as  well  as  the  most 
common,  article  of  food,  was,  doubtless,  bread.  Frequent 
mention  is  made  of  this  simple  diet  in  the  Holy  Scriptures,^ 
which  do  not  often  mention  the  flesh  of  animals  :  though  this 
is  sometimes  included  in  the  eating  of  bread,  or  making  a  meal, 
as  in  Matt,  xv.  2.  Mark  iii.  20.  vii.  2.  Luke  xiv.  1.  and  John 
vi.  23.     Sometimes  the  ears  were  gathered  and  the  grain 


eaten,  before  the  corn  was  reaped ;  in  the  earliest  times,  after 
it  had  been  threshed  and  dried,  it  was  eaten  without  any  fur- 
ther preparation.  This  was  called  parched  co}-n.  Subse- 
quently, the  grain  was  pounded  in  a  mortar,  to  which  prac- 
tice Solomon  alludes.  (Prov.  xxvii.  22.)  In  later  times, 
hov/ever,  it  was  in  general  ground  into  flour,  fermented  with 
leaven,  and  made  into  breaa;  though  on  certain  occasions,  as 
at  the  departure  of  the  Israelites  from  E^pt,  they  baked 
tinleaveiied  bread.  (Exod.  xii.  34 — 39.)  In  the  East  the 
grinding  of  corn  was,  and  still  is,  the  work  of  female  slaves  : 
It  is  extremely  laborious,  and  is  esteemed  the  lowest  employ- 

«  Compare  Mark  vi.  21.  Luke  xiv.  16.  and  John  xii.  2. ;  and  see  Abp. 
Potter's  Antiquities  of  Greece,  vol.  ii.  p.  353.  and  Dr.  Adam's  Summary  of 
Roman  Antiquities,  p.  433. 

^  Tile  ancients  used  honey  instead  of  sugar,  and  seem  to  have  relished 
it  much.  Ilence  it  is  figuratively  used  as  an  image  of  pleasure  and  happi- 
ness in  Psal.  cxix.  103.  Prov.  xxiv.  13, 14.  and  Sol.  Song  iv.  11.  When  taken 
in  great  quantities  it  causes  vomiting,  and  is  consequently  used  by  a  figure 
(Prov.  xxv.  16.)  to  express  fastidiousness,  or  any  nauseating  sensation. 
(.lahn's  Biblical  Archajology,  §  77.)  In  consequence  of  the  too  liberal  use 
of  honey,  as  a  substitute  for  sugar,  by  the  modern  inhabitants  of  the  Cy- 
clades  Islands  in  the  Levant,  many  of  them  are  affected  with  scrofulous 
diseases.  May  not  this  effect  be  alluded  to  in  Prov.  xxv.  27. 1  (Emerson's 
Letters  from  the.a5gean,  vol.  ii.  p.  233.) 

»  In  later  times,  vi'hen  the  Jews  were  dispei'sed  among  the  heathen 
nations,  they  ollen  abstained  from  eating  flesh,  as  it  might  have  been 
offered  to  idols  and  sold  in  shambles  ;  they  therefore  subsisted  entirely  on 
vegetables.    To  this  circumstance  Saint  Paul  alludes  in  Rom.  xiv.  2. 

«  See  examples  in  Shaw's  Travels,  vol.  i.  p.  418.  and  Jowett's  Christian 
Researches  in  Syria,  p.  284. 

'  Irby's  and  iVlangles'  Travels,^.  275. 

«  In  the  island  of  Santorin,  Mr.  Emerson  speaks  of  soup  made  of  lentils; 
which,  when  stewed,  are  of  a  reddish  tinge,  and  so  far  agree  with  the  red 
pottage  of  Jacob,  mentioned  in  Gen.  xxv.  30.  34.  (Letters  from  the  ..Egean, 
vol.  ii.  p.  127.) 

1  A  young  kid  seethed  in  milk  is  to  this  day  a  delicacy  set  before 
strangers  by  the  Bedouin  Arabs.  Buckingliam's  Travels  among  the  Arab 
Tribes,  p.  7. 

•  Milk  and  honey  were  the  chief  dainties  of  the  ancients,  as  they  still  are 
among  the  Arabs,  and  especially  the  Bedouins.  Hence  the  land  of  Canaan 
is  described  as  a  land  flowing  with  milk  and  honey.  (Exod.  iii.  8.)  Butler 
is  also  an  article  much  in  use,  as  is  attested  by  all  modern  travellers.  See 
particularly  Burckhardt's  Travels  in  Syriji,  p.  385.  Irby's  and  Mangles' 
Travels  in  Egypt,  &c.  pp.  263.  481,  482. 

»  Thus,  in  Gen.  xviii.  5.  and  1  Sara,  xxviii.  22.  we  read,  I  will  fetch  a  mor- 
sel of  BREAD. — Gen.  xxi.  14.  Abraham  took  bread,  and  a  bottle  of  water, 
and  gave  it  unto  Hagar. — Gen.  xxxvij.  25.  Tia-^  sat  down  to  eat  bread. 
—Gen.  xliii.  31.  Joseph  said,  Set  on  bread.— Exod.  ii.  20.  Call  him  that  he 
may  eat  bread. — Exod.  xvi.  3.  We  did  eat  bread  to  the  full. — Deut.  ix.  9. 
/  neither  did  eat  bread,  nor  drink  water, — 1  Sam.  xxviii.  20.  Saul  had 
EATEN  no  BRSAO  all  the  dai/i  &c. 


ment  in  the  house.'O  The  lightest  bread,  which  was  made  of 
the  finest  flour,  and  was  rnade  quickly  upon  the  hearth,  they 
ca  ed  cakes  (Gen.  xviii.  6.)  ;  the  larger  and  coarser  sort  were 
ca  led  loaves.  (1  Sam.  xxi.  3.)  The  cakes  were  anciently 
baked  upon  the  hearth  (Gen.  xviii.  6.)  :  afterwards,  this  was 
done  upon  the  coals,  being  probably  laid  upon  some  grate. 
( 1  Kings  XIX.  60  But  the  Holy  Bread  was  baked  in  an  oven. 
{Lev,  11.  4.)  lhe/«e/,  used  for  this  and  other  culinary  pur- 
poses, consisted  of  thorns,  wood  of  all  kinds,  and  in  genera] 
as  their  sure  supply,  the  dung  of  cows,  asses,  or  camels,'' 
dried  and  collected  into  heaps  (Lam.  iv.  5.)  :  grass,  also,  was 
employed  for  the  same  purpose,  (Matt.  vi.  30.)  The  know- 
ledge of  this  circumstance  illustrates  Eccles.  vii.  6.  Psal. 
Iviii.  9.  Amos  iv.  11,  Zech.  iii.  2.  Isa.  vii,  4,  and  especially 
Ezek.  iv.  12.  In  order  to  show  the  extremity  of  distress,  to 
which  the  Jews  would  be  reduced  in  the  captivity,  the  pro- 
phet was  to  prepare  the  most  common  provisions  and  to  Imke 
the  bread  with  human  dung.  Nothing  could  paint  more 
stronrfy  a  case  of  extreme  necessity  than  this ;  and  the  Jews 
would  so  understand  this  sign. '2 

The  Hebrews  were  forbidden  to  eat  many  things  which 
were,  anl  are,  eaten  by  other  nations ;  some  animals  being 
unclean  according  to  the  Mosaic  Law  (those,  for  instance, 
which  were  either  actually  impure  and  abominable,  or  were 
esteemed  so) ;  others  being  set  apart  for  the  altar,  certain 
parts  of  which  it  was,  consequently,  not  lawful  to  eat. 

The  regulations  concerning  clean  and  unclean  animals  are 
principally  recorded  in  Lev.  xi.  and  Deut.  xiv. ;  and  accord- 
ing to  them,  the  following  articles  are  reckoned  unclean,  and, 
consequently,  are  interdicted  to  the  Hebrews ;  viz.  1.  Quadru- 
peds, which  do  not  ruminate,  or  which  have  cloven  feet ; — 
3.  Serpents  and  creeping  insects ;  also  certain  insects  which 
sometimes  fly,  and  sometimes  advance  upon  their  feet;  but 
locusts,  in  all  their  four  stages  of  existence,  are  accounted 
clean ; — 3.  (Certain  species  of  birds,  many  of  the  names  of 
which  are  obscure ; — 4,  Fishes  without  scales,  and  also  those 
without  fins; — 5.  All  food,  all  liquids,  standing  in  a  vessel, 
and  all  wet  seed  into  which  the  dead  body  of  any  unclean 
beast  had  fallen ; — 6.* All  food  and  liquids,  which  stood  in 
the  tent  or  chamber  of  a  dying  or  dead  man,  remaining 
meanwhile   in   an   uncovered   vessel    (Num,   xix,    15,) ; 

7,  Every  thing  which  was  consecrated  by  any  one  to  idols 
(Exod.  xxxiv.  15.) :  it  was  this  prohibition,  that  in  the  pri- 
mitive church  occasioned  certain  dissensions,  upon  which 
Paul  frequently  remarks,  especially  in  1  Cor,  viii,  10.;— 

8.  A  kid  boiled  in  the  milk  of  its  mother.  (Exod.  xxiii,  19 
xxxiv.  26.  Deut.  xiv.  21.)  This  was  prohibited  either  to 
enforce  the  duty  of  humanity  to  animals,  or  to  guard  the 
Hebrews  against  some  idolatrous  or  superstitious  practice  of 
the  heathen  nations. 

The  consecrated  animal  substances  interdicted  to  the  He« 
brews  were,  1.  Blood  (Lev.  xvii.  10.  xix.  26.  Deut.  xii 
16 — 23,  24.  XV.  23.)  ; — 2.  Animals  which  had  either  died  of 
disease  or  had  been  torn  by  wild  beasts,  though  strangers 
mi^ht  eat  them  if  they  chose  (Exod.  xxii.  31.  Deut.  xiv. 
26.)  ; — 3.  The  fat  covering  the  intestines,  termed  the  net  oi 
caul; — 4.  The  fat  upon  the  intestines,  called  the  inesentery, 
&c. ; — 5.  The  fat  of  the  kidneys  ; — 6.  The  fat  tail  or  rump 
of  certain  sheep.  (Exod.  xxix.  13 — 22,  Lev.  iii.  4 — 9, 10.  ix. 

19.)'3 

Many  ingenious  conjectures  have  been  assigned  for  these 
prohibitions  ;  but  the  fcScriptures,  which  are  our  safest  guide 
in  inquiries  of  this  kind,  expressly  inform  us,  that  the  desitrn 
of  them  was  both  moral  and  political.  This  is  declared  In 
Lev.  XX.  24 — 26.  /  am  the  lyord  your  God,  who  have  sepa- 
rated  you  from  other  people ,-  ye  shall  therefore  put  difference 
between  clean  beasts  and  unclean  ,•  and  ye  shall  not  make  your- 
selves abominable  by  beast  or  by  fowl,  or  by  any  living  thing 
that  crccpeth  on  the  ground,  which  I  have  separated  from  you  as 
U7iclea?i :  and  ye  shall  be  holy  unto  me,  for  I  the  Lord  am  holy, 
and  have  severed  you  from  other  people  that  ye  should  be  mine. 
As  if  the  Almighty  had  said,  "  I  have  selected  you  from,  and 
have  exalted  you  far  above,  the  heathen  and  idolatrous  world. 
Let  it  be  your  care  to  conduct  yourselves  worthy  of  this  dis- 
tinction.  Let  the  quality  of  your  food,  as  well  as  the  rites  of 

">  Bp.  Lowth's  Isaiah,  vol.  ii.  p.  294. 

«i  "Mahomet,  our  camel-driver,  made  bread  :  he  kneaded  the  dough  in 
a  leathern  napkin  ;  and,  mixing  a  good  deal  of  salt  with  it,  made  a  flat  round 
cake,  about  half  an  inch  thick,  and  baked  it  on  dried  camels'  dung." 
Irby's  and  Mangles'  Travels,  p.  172.  A  similar  mode  of  preparing-cakes  is 
describe*.)  by  Mr.  Rae  Wilson.  Travels  in  the  Holy  Land,  <fec.  vol.  ii.  p. 
150.  3d  edition. 

»»  Boothroyd's  translation  of  the  Bible,  vol.  i.  p.  60. 

"  Jahn,  Archteol.  Bibl.  §  143.  The  Mosaic  ordinances  respecting  clean 
and  unclean  beasts  are  fully  considered  by  Michaelis,  Commentaries 
vol.  ii.  pp.  219—254. 


172 


DOMESTIC  CUSTOMS  AND  USAGES  OF  THE  JEWS. 


[Pabt  rv. 


your  worship,  display  your  peculiar  and  holy  character.  Let 
even  your  manner  of  eating  be  so  appropriate,  so  pure,  so 
nicely  adjusted  by  my  law,  as  to  convince  yourselves  and  all 
the  world,  that  you  are  indeed  separated  from  idolaters,  and 
devoted  to  me  alone."  A^eeably  to  this  declaration  Moses 
tells  the  Israelites  (Deut.  xiv.  2,  3.  31.),  77te  Lord  liat/i 
chosen  you  to  be  a  peculiar  people  unto  himself,  above  all  the 
nations  that  are  upon  the  earth.  Thou  shall  not  eat  am/  abomi- 
nabU  thine;,  i'e  shall  not  eat  any  thing  that  dieth  of  itself ;  ye 
shall  give  it  to  a  stranger  or  sell  it  to  an  alien,  for  ye  are  a  holy 
■people.  In  other  words,  "  Since  God  has  invested  you  with 
singular  honour  and  favour,  you  ought  to  reverence  your- 
selves :  you  ought  to  disdain  the  vile  food  of  heathen  idola- 
ters. Such  food  you  may  lawfully  give  or  sell  to  foreigners, 
but  a  due  self-respect  forbids  you  to  eat  it."  The  immediate 
and  primary  intention  of  these  and  other  similar  regulations 
was  to  break  the  Israelites  of  the  ill  habits  to M^iich  they  had 
been  accustomed  in  Egypt,  or  which  they  had  indulged  while 
in  that  country;  and  to' keep  them  for  ever  distinct  from  that 
corrupt  people,  both  in  principles  and  practices,  and  by  parity 
of  reason  from  all  other  idolatrous  nations.  Another  reason 
for  the  distinction  was,  that,  as  the  .Tews  were  jfeculiarly 
devoted  to  God,  they  should  be  reminded  of  that  relation  by 
a  particularity  of  diet,  which  should  serve  emblematically  as 
a  sign  of  their  obligation  to  study  moral  purity.  Further, 
it  has  been  suggested,  as  a  reason  for  the  distinctions  be- 
tween clean  and  unclean  food,  not  only  that  the  quality 
of  the  food  itself  is  an  important  consideration  {cka7i  animals 
affording  a  copious  and  wholesome  nutriment,  while  unclean 
animals  yield  a  gross  nutriment,  which  is  often  the  occasion 
of  scrofulous  and  scorbutic  disorders)  ;  but  also,  that  to  the 
eating  of  certain  animals  may  be  ascribed  a  specific  influence 
on  the  moral  temperament.' 

Their  ordinary  oeverage  was  water,  which  was  drawn  from 
the  public  wells  and  fountains  (John  iv.  G,  7.),  and  which 
was  to  be  refused  tomg  one.  (Matt.  xxv.  35.)  The  water  of 
the  Nile,  in  Egypt,  after  it  has  been  deposited  in  jars  to 
settle,  all  modern  travellers  attest,^  is  singularly  delicious  as 
well  as  extraordinarily  wholesome,  and^s  drunk  in  very  large 
ouantities  ;  while  that  of  the  few  wells,  which  are  found  in 
mat  country,  is  not  potable,  being  both  unpleasant  and  insalu- 
brious. Wlien  the  modem  inhabitants  depart  thence  for  any 
time,  they  speak  of  nothing  but  the  pleasure  they  shall  find 
on  their  return,  in  drinking  the  water  of  the  Nile.  The 
knowledge  of  this  circumstance  gives  a  peculiar  energy  to 
those  wo7ds  of  Moses,  when  he  denounced  to  Pharaoh,  that 
the  waters  of  the  Nile  should  be  turned  into  blood,  even  in 
the  very  filterinf  vessels;  and  that  the  Egyptians  should 
ha/he  to  drink  of  the  water  of  the  river.  (Exod..  vii.  17 — I'J.) 
That  is,  they  should  loathe  to  drink  of  that  water  which  they 
used  to  preler  to  all  the  waters  of  the  universe,  and  so  eagerly 
to  long  for,  and  should  prefer  to  drink  of  well-water,  which 
in  their  country  is  so  detestable.^  After  the  settlement  of  the 
Israelites  in  Canaan,  they  drank  wine  of  dilTerent  sorts, 
wliich  was  preserved  in  skins.  Red  wine  seems  to  have  been 
the  most  esteemed.  (Prov.  xxiii.  31.  Rev.  xiv.  20.)  In  the 
time  of  Solomon,  spiced  wines  were  used,  mingled  with  the 
j«ice  of  the  pomegranate.  (Songviii.  2.)'  When  J ud tea  was 
under  the  dominion  of  the  Romans,  medicated  wines  (as  we 
have  seen)  were  given  to  those  who  were  to  be  crucified,  in 
order  to  blunt  the  edge  of  pain,  and  stun  the  acuteness  of 
sensibility.'  The  strong  drink  -o8»  (sHtcea^,  mentioned  in 
Lev.  x.  9.,  and  niany  other  passages  of  Holy  Writ,  means 
any  kind  of  fermented  liquors,  whether  prepared  from  corn, 
dates,  apples,  or  any  other  kind  of  fruits.  One  of  the  four 
prohibited  drinks  among  the  Mohammedans  is  called  sakar, 

«  Tappan's  LccUircs  on  Heb.  Ai.tiq.  pp.  260—204.  Dr.  narri8'.-5  Nat. 
HisL  uf  ihe  Uibic,  pp.  xxxi.— xxxvii.  (Aiuerican  ciJil.)  or  pi),  xxiv.— ixx.  of 
tlio  London  edition.  Hci:  ajso  the  Ucv.  \V.  Jones's  Zoulogia  Ettiica. 
(Works,  vol.  iii.  pp.  1  —  116.) 

»  Sco  particularly  Belzoni's  Kesearchcs  In  Eitypt,  n.  32.i.  4to.  edit.  Tur- 
nT'sTuur  ill  the  Levant,  vol.  li.  p.  Cll.  and  i)r.  UicliorJson'ii  Travels 
aloni;  the  Sljorf  m  of  tlif>  Mediterranean,  vol.  I.  j).  '<i. 

•  Hamier'ft  Oliservations,  vol.  iii.  pp.  .Wl— GO).  See  also  n  Narrative  of 
the  Paoha  of  Egypt's  K.xpfdition  to  Dongola  and  Scnnaar,  by  an  American, 
pp.  I.'/),  151.     (Ixjiidon,  \i-2i.  8vo  ) 

«  Wpir.cd  win'!8  were  not  peculiar  to  the  Jews.  Tlie  celebrated  Persian 
poet,  Hafi/,  speaks  of  wine— "  richly  bitter,  richly  HWeeU"  The  Romans 
lined  iheir  ves.sels  (amphura-)  with  odorous  (ruinH,  to  Rive  Ihe  wine  a  warm 
bitter  flavour;  and  It  is  said  that  the  Poles  and  Sp:uiiards  adopt  a  similar 
mclhoil,  in  ordi-r  to  impart  to  their  wines  a  favourite  relish.  (Odes  of 
IIafi7,  Irnn-ilatedby  N<itl,  p.  30.  note.)  The  juice  of  the  pijiiiesranatn  tree  Is 
of,  .cd  in'tlic  F..i3t,  to  give  a  plnahant  uubarld  tlavoiir  to  a  variety 

of  ;  ami  wh>rr  the  laws  of  the  Koran  are  ii'>l  allowed  to  inter- 

po  ,  .  ;..  ir  prohibltiona  are  disregarded,  a  delicious  wine  is  frequently 
manufacturod  from  this  juice  alone.  Harucr'i  Obfcnralions,  vol.  11.  pp. 
145,  1 40. 

»  See  p.  7L  of  this  volume. 


which,  though  it  has  the  same  general  meaning  as  the  He- 
brew word,  especially  signifies  palm  wine.'' 

The  patriarchs,  like  the  moaern  inhabitants  of  the  East, 
were  accustomed  to  take  their  meals  under  the  shade  of  trees. 
Thus  Abraham  stood  by  the  angels  nndtr  the  tree,  and  they 
did  eat.  (Gen.  xviii.  8.)  The  ancient  Hebrews  did  not  eat 
indifferently  with  all  persons;  they  would  have  been  polluted 
and  dishonoured  in  their  own  opinion,  by  eating  with  people 
of  another  religion,  or  of  an  odious  profession.  In  Josepn's 
time,  they  neither  ate  with  the  Egyptians  nor  the  Egyptians 
with  them  (Gen.  xliii.  32.) ;  nor  iu  our  Saviour's  time  with 
the  Samaritans  (John  iv.  9.) ;  and  the  Jews  were  scandalized 
at  Jesus  Christ's  eating  with  publicans  and  sinners.  (Matt, 
ix.  11.)  As  there  were  several  sorts  of  meats,  whose  use 
was  prohibited,  they  could  not  conveniently  eat  with  those 
who  partook  of  them,  fearing  some  pollution  by  touching 
them,  or  if  by  accident  any  part  of  them  should  fall  upon 
them.  The  ancient  Hebrews  at  their  meals  had  each  liis 
separate  table.  W'hen  Joseph  entertained  his  brethren  in 
Egypt,  he  seated  each  of  them  at  his  particular  table,  and  he 
himself  sat  down  separately  from  the  Egyptians  who  ate 
with  him:  but  he  sent  to  his  brethren,  out  of  the  provisions 
which  were  l)efore  him.  (Gen.  xliii.  31.  et  seq.)  Elkanah, 
Samuel's  father,  who  had  two  wives,  distributed  their  por- 
tions to  them  separately.  (1  Sam.  i.  4,  5.)  In  Homer,  each 
of  the  guests  has  his  little  table  apart;  and  the  master  cf  the 
feast  dfstributes  meat  to  each.  We  are  sure  that  this  is  still 
practised  in  China ;  and  many  in  India  never  eat  out  of  the 
same  dish,  nor  on  the  same  taole,  and  they  believe  they  can- 
not do  so  without  sin ;  and  this,  not  only  in  their  own  country, 
but  when  travelling,  and  in  foreign  lands.'  The  antique 
manners  which  we#rt)serve  in  Homer  we  likewise  ])erceivt; 
in  Scripture,  with  regard  to  eating,  drinking,  and  entertain' 
ments.  We  find  great  plenty,  but  little  delicac)';  great 
respect  and  honour  paid  to  the  guests  by  ser^'ing  them  plen- 
tifully :  thus  Joseph  sent  his  brother  Benjamin  a  portion  five 
times  larger  than  his  other  brethren  ;  and  Samuel  set  a  whole 
quarter  of  a  calf  before  Saul.  From  Neh.  viii.  10.  12.  and 
Esth.  ix.  19.  22.  it  appears  to  have  been  customary  to  .send  a 
portion  of  what  remained  from  their  public  feasts  to  those  for 
whom  nothing  was  prepared,  or  who  were  by  any  circum- 
stances prevented  from  being  present  at  them.  The  wnm'  n 
did  not  appear  at  table  in  entertainments  with  the  men.  This 
would  have  been  then,  as  it  is  at  this  day  throughout  the 
East,  an  indecency.  Thus  Vashti  the  queen  made  a  feast  for 
the  women  in  the  royal  house,  ivhich  belonged  to  Masuerus 
(Esth.  i.  9.),  while  the  Persian  monarch  was  feasting  his 
noldes. 

In  India,  feasts  are  given  in  the  open  halls  and  gardens, 
where  a  variety  of  strangers  are  admitted,  and  much  fami- 
liarity is  allowed.  This  easily  accounts  tor  a  circumstance 
in  the  history  of  Christ  which  is  attended  with  considerable 
difficulty; — the  penitent  Mary  coming  into  the  apartment 
where  he  was,  and  anointing  his  feet  with  the  ointment,  and 
wiping  them  with  the  hair.s  of  her  head.  (Luke  vii.  11.) 
This  familiarity  is  not  only  common,  but  is  far  from  being 
deemed  either  disrespectfulor  displeasing.^  From  the  para- 
bles of  the  nuptial  feast  (Matt.  xxii.  2 — 1.)  and  of  the  great 
supper  (Luke  xiv.  IG,  17.)  it  appears  anciently  to  have  been 
the  custom  for  the  parties  invited  not  to  go  to  the  entertain- 
ment until  it  was  announced  to  be  ready.  A  similar  usage 
obtains  in  modern  I'er.sia ;  when  Sir  Harford  Jones,  during 
his  political  mission  thither  in  1H08-;I,  dined  with  the  Khan 
of  Rushire,  the  envoy  and  his  suite  did  not  go  to  the  khan's 
residence,  until  the  latter  had  sent  a  messenger  to  say  that 
the  entertainment  was  remly  for  his  reception.'^  From  1  Sam. 
xvi.  11.  (marginal  rendering)  and  Psal.  cxxviii.  3.  it  should 
seem  that  the  ancient  Hebrews  sat  down  round  about  a  mat 
or  low  table,  cross-lpgge<l,  in  the  same  manner  as  is  still 
l)raclised  in  the  East:  afterwards,  however,  they  imitated 
the  Persians  and  (^haldirans,  who  reclined  on  table-neds  while 
eating;  some  traces  of  which  are  observable  in  the  Rook  of 
Proverbs  (xxiii.  1.),  in  Anios  (vi.  I.  7.),  Ezekiel  (xxiii.  11.), 
and  Tobit  (ii.  4.);  but  this  practice  was  not  general.  We 
see  expressions  in  the  sacrca  authors  of  those  thiie.^,  which 
prove  that  they  also  bat  at  table.     At  Ahasuerus's  banquet 

•  C.  B.  MIchnclis,  Dlsscrtatlo  Philologies  natnrclia  qurodam  cf  nrtlflcilla 
codicis  sacrl  ex  Alconiii"  ilhiRtrniis,  5  12.  In  Pott's  and  Rupeni's  iSylloge 
Coiiiiiicntalioneiii  riieoliij.ticaruiu,  toni.  ii.  jip.  49,  .'lO. 

1  .Sne  example:;  in  Ward's  View  of  the  lli.siory,  6cc.  of  the  Hindooci,  vol 
ii.  p.  311.  Uonaudot,  Notes  sur  Ic  Voyage  lies  deux  Arabcs  li  la  Chine, 
pp.  VZi,  \■i^. 

•  Forbcs's  Orienl.il  Memoirs,  vol.  iii.  pp.  1.S3.  IW. 

•  Morlcr's  Journey  through  Persia  in  Uic  Years  1903-9,  p.  73.  London, 
1812.  4to. 


Cfti.p.  YI.] 


HOSPITALITY,  A  SACRED  DUTY  AMONG  THE  JEWS. 


173 


^Edth.  i.  6,)  the  company  lay  on  beds,  and  also  at  that  which 
Esther  gave  the  king  and  Haman.  (Esth.  vii.  8.)  Our  Sa- 
viour in  like  manner  reclined  at  table  (as  already  described 
in  p.  151.),  when  Mary  Magdalene  anointed  his  feet  with 
perfume  (Matt.  xxvi.  7.),  and  when  John,  at  the  last  supper, 
rested  his  head  on  his  bosom.  (John  xiii.  25.)  Previously 
to  taking  food,  it  was  usual  to  implore  the  divine  blessing, 
as  we  see  by  the  example  of  Samuel,  which  is  alluded  to  m 
1  Sam.  ix.  13. ;  and  it  should  seem  from  1  Tim.  iv.  4.  that 
the  same  laudable  practice  obtained  in  the  time  of  the  apostle 
Paul. 

The  modern  Jews,  before  they  sit  down  to  table,  after  the 
example  of  their  ancestors,  carefully  wash  their  hands.  They 
speak  of  this  ceremony  as  being  essential  and  obligatory. 
After  meals  they  wash  them  again.  When  they  sit  down  to 
table,  the  master  of  the  house,  or  chief  person  in  the  company, 
taking  bread,  breaks  it,  but  does  not  divide  it ;  then  putting  his 
hand°on  it,  he  recites  this  blessing:  Blessed  be  thou,  0  Lord 
our  God,  the  king  of  the  world,  who  producest  the  bread  of  the 
earth.  Those  present  answer,  Amen.  Having  distributed 
the  bread  among  the  guests,  he  takes  the  vessel  of  the  wine 
in  his  right  hand,  saying,  Blessed  art  thou,  0  Lard  our'God, 
king  of  the  world,  who  hast  produced  the  fruit  of  the  vine. 
They  then  repeat  the  23d  Psalm.i  They  take  care,  that  after 
meals  there  shall  be  a  piece  of  broad  remaining  on  the  table : 
the  master  of  the  house  orders  a  wlass  to  be  washed,  fills  it 
with  wine,  and  elevating  it,  says,  Let  us  bless  him  of  whose 
benefits  we  have  been  partaking ;  the  rest  answer,  Blessed 
be  he,  who  has  heaped  his  favours  on  us,  and  by  his  good- 
ness has  now  fed  us.  Then  he  recites  a  pretty  long  prayer, 
wherein  he  thanks  God  for  his  many  benefits  vouchsafed  to 
Israel :  beseeches  him  to  pity  Jerusalem  and  his  temple,  to 
restore  the  throne  of  David,  to  send  Elias  and  the  Messiah, 
to  deliver  them  out  of  their  long  captivity.  All  present 
answer,  Amen.  They  recite  Psal.  xxxiv.  9,  10. ;  and  then, 
after  passino-  the  glass  with  a  little  wine  in  it  round  to  those 
present,  he  brinks  what  is  left,  and  the  table  is  cleared.^ 

V.  When  persons  journeyed,  they  provided  themselves 
with  every  necessary,  as  there  w^ere  no  inns  for  the  reception 
of  travellers.  Women  and  rich  men  frequently  travelled  on 
asses  or  camels,  which  carried  not  only  their  merchandise, 
but  also  their  household  goods  and  chattels,  and  queens  were 
carried  in  palanquins  (Cant.  iii.  7.)  ;^  and  it  appears  that  the 
Jews  often  travelled  in  caravans  or  companies  (as  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  East  do  to  this  day),  especially  when  they  went 
up  to  Jerusalem  at  the  three  great  annual  festivals.  The 
l^talms  of  Ascensions,  or  of  Degrees,  as  they  are  commonly 
entitled  (cxx. — cxxxiv.),  are  supposed  to  have  received  this 
appellation  from  the  circumstance  of  their  being  sung  by  the 
more  devout  Jews,  when  they  were  ascending  or  travelling 
up  to  the  Holy  City  on  these  occasions.  The  company, 
amonor  which  Joseph  and  Mary  supposed  Jesus  to  have  been 
on  th^r  return  from  the  passover,  wnen  he  w-as  twelve  years 
old  (Luke  ii.  42 — 44.),  was  one  of  these  caravass.''  The 
Ceylonese  travel  in  a  similar  way  at  festivals  to  particular 
})1aces  of  worship.* 

VI.  In  the  East,  anciently,  as  well  as  in  modern  times, 
tbere  were  no  inns,  in  which  the  traveller  could  meet  with 
i^freshment.  Shade  from  the  sun,  and  protection  from  the 
plunderers  of  the  night,  is  all  that  the  caravansaries  afford. 
Hence  hospitality  was  deemed  a  sacred  duty  incumbent  upon 
every  one.  The  Sacred  Writings  exhibit  sevCTal  instances 
of  hospitality  exercised  by  the  patriarchs,  and  the  writings 
of  moaern  travellers  show  that  similar  hospitality  still  exists 
in  the  East.^  Abraham  received  three  angels,  iavited  them, 
served  them  himself,  and  stood  in  their  presence ;  Sarah  his 
wife  took  care  of  the  kitchen,  and  baked  bread  for  his  guests. 
(Gen.  xviii.  2,  3,  &c.)^      Lot  waited  at  the  city-gates  to 

1  See  Buxtorf  s  Synas.  and  Leo  of  Modena,  part  ii.  c.  10. 

»  Calinel's  Dissertations,  torn.  i.  pp.  342 — 350. 

'  In  our  common  version  n".3D  (MaraH)  is  rendered  bed.  Mr.  Harmer 
first  suggested  that  a  palanquin  was  intended ;  and  he  has  been  followed 
by  Dr.  Good  in  his  version  of  Solomon's  Song.  The  mode  of  travelling  or 
taking  the  air  in  a  couch,  litter,  or  vehicle  of  this  name,'  supported  on  the 
shoulders  of  slaves  or  servants,  is  extremely  comuion\ll  over  the  East  at 
the  present  day,  and  is  unquestionably  of  immemorial  date.  These  palan 
quins  are  often  of  most  elegant  and  superb  manufacture,  as  well  as  most 
Toluptuously  soft  and  easy.  Of  this  description  was  the  couch  or  palan- 
quin of  Solomon.    Good's  translation  of  the  Song  of  Solomon,  p.  103. 

♦  See  the  various  passages  of  Harmer's  Obsei-vations,  referred  to  in  his 
Index,  article  Caravans.  Ward's  History  of  the  Hindoos,  vol.  ii.  p.  33S. 
Fragments  supplemeatai-y  to  Calmet,  No.  I. 

»  Callaway's  Oriental  Observations,  p.  74. 

«  See  Light's  Travels  in  Ecvpt,  &c.  p.  82.  Mr.  Belzoni's  Researches  in 
Eg>'pt,  p.  61.     Burckiiardt's  Travels  in  Syria,  pp.  21.  295. 

'  Mr.  Buckingham  has  described  an  interesting  trait  of  oriental  hospi- 
tality in  an  Arab  sheik  of  Barak,  the  chief  of  a  Turcoman  tribe  dwelling 
In  the  vicinity  of  Aleppo,  on  the  plain  of  Barak,  which  is  very  similar  to 


receive  guests.  (Gen.  xix.  1.)  When  the  inhabitants  of  So- 
dom meant  to  insult  his  guests  he  went  out,  he  spoke  to 
them,  he  exposed  himself  to  their  fury,  and  offered  rather  to 
give  up  his  own  dauo'hters  to  their  brutality  than  his  guests. 
(Gen.  xix.  5 — 9.)  The  same  is  observable  in  the  old  man 
of  Gibeah,  who  had  received  the  young  Levite  and  his  wife. 
(Judg.  xix.  16,  17.)  St.  Paul  (Heb.  xiii.  2.)  uses  Abra- 
ham's and  Lot's  example  to  encourage  the  faithful  to  the 
exercise  of  hospitality,  saying,  that  they  who  have  practised 
it  have  merited  the  honour  of  receiving  angels  under  the  form 
of  men.  In  the  East,  on  account  of  the  intense  heat  of  the 
weather  during  summer,  they  were  accustomed  to  travel  by 
night.  The  circumstance  will  explain  the  parable  of  the  im- 
portunate guest  who  arrived  at  midnight  (Luke  xi.  5 — 8.)  ; 
in  which  the  rites  of  hospitality,  common  among  the  Orien- 
tals, are  generally  recognised  and  supposed  to  be  acted  upon, 
though  not  in  so  prompt  a  manner  as  was  usual. s 

The  primitive  Christians  made  one  principal  part  of  their 
duty  to  consist  in  the  exercise  of  hospitality.  Our  Saviour 
tells  his  apostles,  that  whoever  received  them  received  him- 
self; and  that  whosoever  should  give  them  even  a  glass  of 
water,  should  not  lose  his  reward.  (Matt.  xxv.  41.  45.)  At 
the  day  of  judgment,  he  will  say  to  the  wicked.  Depart,  ye 
cursed,  into  everlasting  fire :  I  was  a  stranger,  and  ye  received 

me  not ; inasmuch  as  ye  have  not  done  it  unto  the  least 

of  these,  ye  have  not  done  it  unto  me.  St.  Peter  (1  Eph.  iv.  9.) 
requires  the  faithful  to  use  hospitality  to  their  brethren  with- 
out murmuring  and  complaint.  St.  Paul  in  several  of  his 
Epistles  reconunends  hospitality,  and  especially  to  bishops. 
(1  Tim.  iii.  2.  Tit.  i.  8.)  The  primitive  Christians  were  so 
ready  in  the  discharge  of  this  duty  that  the  very  heathens  ad- 
mired them  for  it.  They  were  hospitable  to  all  strangers, 
but  especially  to  those  of  the  same  faith  and  communion. 
Believers  scarcely  ever  travelled  without  letters  of  recom- 
mendation, which  testified  the  purity  of  their  faith  ;  and  this 
procure<i  them  a  hospitable  reception  wherever  the  name  of 
Jesus  Christ  was  known.  Calmet  is  of  opinion,  that  the  two 
last  Epistles  of  St.  John  may  be  such  kind  of  letters  of  com- 
munion and  recommendation  as  were  given  to  Christians  who 
travelled. 

Instances  of  hospitality  among  the  early  Greeks  abound  in 
the  writings  of  Homer,  whose  delineations  of  manners  and 
customs  reflect  so  much  light  on  the  Old  Testament,  espe- 
cially on  the  Pentateuch ;  and  that  ancient  hospitality,  which 
the  Greeks  considejred  as  so  sacred  and  inviolable,  is  still  par- 
tially preserved.  When  the  traveller  makes  a  second  torn 
through  the  country,  he  can  hardly  do  any  thing  more  offen- 
sive to  the  person  by  whom  he  was  entertained  in  his  first 
journey,  than  by  not  again  having  recourse  to  the  kindness 
of  his  former  host.  Travelling  would,  indeed,  be  impracti- 
cable in  Greece,  if  it  were  not  facilitated  by  this  noble  senti- 
ment; for  the  Protogerio  are  not  found  in  all  parts  of  the 
country,  and  the  miserable  khans  or  caravansaries  are  gene- 
rally constructed  only  in  towns  or  on  highways. 

Travelling,  in  the  greater  part  of  Greece,  seems  to  have 
been,  anciently  at  least,  as  difficult  as  it  is  at  the  present  day ; 
and  that  circumstance  gave  rise  to  the  laws  of^  hospitality. 
This  reciprocal  hospitality  became  hereditary  in  families 
even  of  different  nations ;  and  the  friendship  which  was  thus 
contracted  was  not  less  binding  than  the  ties  of  affinity,  or 
of  blood.  Those  between  whom  a  regard  had  been  cemented 
by  the  iniercourse  of  hospitality  were  provided  with  some 
particular  mark,  which,  being  handed  down  from  father  to 
son,  established  a  friendship  and  alliance  between  the  fami- 
lies for  several  generations ;  and  the  engagement  thus  entered 
into  could  not  be  dispensed  with,  unless  publicly  disavowed 
in  a  judicial  manner,  nothing  being  considered  so  base  as  a 

the  hospitable  conduct  of  Abraham,  related  in  Gen.  xviii.  "  When  we 
alighted  at  his  tent-door,  our  horses  were  taken  from  us  by  his  son,  a 
young  man  well  dressed  in  a  scarlet  cloth  benish  and  a  shawl  of  silk  for  a 
turban.  The  sheik,  his  father,  was  sitting  beneath  the  awning  in  front  of 
the  tent  itself;  and,  when  we  entered,  rose  up  lo  receive  us,  exchanging 
the  salute  of  welcome,  and  not  seating  himself  until  all  his  g.uests  were 

accommodated." "Soon  aftei-wards,  warm  cakes  prepared  on  the 

hearth,  cream,  honey,  dried  raisins,  butter,  lebben,  and  wheat  boiled 
in  milk,  were  sej-ved  to  the  company.  Neither  the  sheik  himself  nor 
any  of  his  family  partook  with  us,  but  stood  around  to  wait  upon  their 
guests."  Buckingham's  Travels  in  Mesopotamia,  vol.  i.  pp.  30.  32.  (8vo. 
edit.) 

8  Captains  Irby  and  Mangles  on  two  occasions  partook  of  Arab  hospi- 
tality, in  a  manner  which  strikingly  illustrates  the  parable  above  cited. 
"We  arrived  at  a  camp  late  at  night ;  and,  halting  before  a  tent,  found  the 
owner,  with  his  wife  and  children,  had  just  retired  to  rest :  when  it  waa 
astonishing  to  see  the  good  humour  with  which  they  all  arose  again,  and 
kindled  a  fire,  the  wife  commencing  to  knead  the  dough  and  prepare  our 
supper,  our  Arabs  making  no  apology,  but  taking  all  as  a  matter  of  course, 
though  the  nights  were  bitterly  cold,"  Travels  in  Egypt,  Nubia,  Syria,  &c. 
p.  278 


174 


ON  THE  OCCUPATIONS  OF  THE  JEWS. 


[Past  IV 


violation  of  it.  This  mark  was  the  avuC'.K'.v  ^wn-i  of  the 
Cfteeks,  and  the  tessera  hospilalig  of  the  Latins.  The  avf^Q^xo^ 
was  sometimes  an  astrag-al,'  probahly  of  lead,  which  beinif 
cut  in  lia^ves,^  one  half  was  kept  by  the  host,  and  tlie  other 
by  the  person  whom  he  had  entertained.  On  subsequent 
occasions  they  or  their  descendants,  by  whom  the  symbol 
was  recognised,  pave  or  received  hospitality  on  comparing 
the  two  tallies.  Mr.  Dodwell  found  some  half  astragals  of 
lead  in  Greece,  which  had  probably  served  for  this  pur- 
pose. ^ 

The  ancient  Romans  divided  a  tosera  lengthwise,  into  two 
eaual  parts,  as  signs  of  hospitality,  upon  each  of  which  one 
01  the  parties  wrote  his  name,  and  interchanged  it  v.  ith  the 
other.  The  production  of  this,  when  they  travelled,  gave  a 
mutual  claim  to  the  contracting  parties  and  their  descendants, 
for  reception  and  kind  treatment  at  each  other's  houses,  as 
occasion  offered.  These  tesserx  were  sometimes  of  stone, 
shaped  in  the  form  of  an  oblong  square ;  and  as  they  were 
carefully  and  privately  kept,  so  that  no  one  might  claim  the 


privileges  of  them,  besides  the  person,  for  whom  they  were 
intended,  this  circumstance  gives  a  beautiful  and  natural  ex- 
planation of  the  following  passage  in  Rev.  ii.  17.  where  it  is 
said,  To  him  that  overcunutn,  wiU  I  give  a  white  stone,  and  in 
the  stone  a  new  name  vmtten,  which  no  man  knoweth,  saving 
he  that  receiveth  it.  In  this  passage  the  venerable  translators 
of  our  authorized  version,  by  rendering  it  a  whites/one,  seem 
to  have  confounded  it  with  the  calculus  or  small  globular  stone, 
which  was  commonly  used  for  balloting,  and  on  some  other 
occasions.  The  original  words  are  -{yiif'.y  kwk'a,  which  do  not 
specify  either  the  matter  or  the  form,  but  only  the  use  of  it. 
By  this  allusion,  therefore,  the  promise  made  to  the  church 
at  Pergamos  seems  to  be  to  this  purpose : — "  To  him  that 
overcometh,  will  I  give  ■a.  pledge  of  my  affection,  which  shall 
constitute  him  myj'ricnd,  and  entitle  him  to  privileges  and 
honours,  of  which  none  else  can  know  the  value  or  extent." 
And  to  this  sense  the  following  words  very  well  agree,  which 
describe  this  stone  or  tessera,  as  having  in  it  a  new  name 
ivritlen,  which  no  man  knoweth,  saving  he  that  receiveth  it.* 


CHAPTER  VII. 

ON  THE  OCCUPATIONS,  LITERATURE,  STUDIES,  AND  SCIENCES  OF  THE  HEBREWS. 

SECTION  I. 


RURAL  AND  DOMESTIC  ECONOMY  OF  THE  JEWS. 


I.  Mattagkhevt  of  Cattle  by  the  Jews. — Various  .Animals  reared  by  them. — II.  Laws  of  Moses  respecting  AoBicrLTunr,. — 
III.  ^Manures  knotvn  and  used  by  the  Jews. — IV.  Their  Mode  of  ploughing,  sowing,  and  reaping. — V.  Different  Jl'ays  of 
threa/nng  out  Com. — VI.  Vineyards,  and  the  Culture  of  the  Vine  and  Olive. — Gardens. — VII.  .illusions  in  the  Scriptures 
to  t/ie  rural  and  domestic  Economy  of  the  Jews. 


JuD^A  was  eminently  an  agn"icultural  country ;  and  all  the 
Mosaic  statutes  were  admirably  calculated  to  encourage  agri- 
culture as  the  chief  foundation  of  national  prosperity,  and  also 
to  preserve  the  Jews  detached  from  the  surrounding  idolatrous 
nations. 

I.  After  they  had  acquired  possession  of  the  promised 
land,  the  Jews  applied  themselves  wholly  to  agriculture  and 
the  tending  of  cattle,  following  the  example  of  their  ances- 
tors, the  patriarchs,  who  (like  the  Arabs,  Bedouins,  Turco- 
mans, and  numerous  tribes  of  eastern  Asia)  were  generally 
husbandmen  and  shepherds,  and  whose  chief  riches  consisted 
in  cattle,  slaves,  and  the  fruits  of  the  earth.  Adam  brought 
up  his  two  sons  to  husbandry,  Cain  to  the  tilling  of  the 
ground,  and  Abel  to  the  feeding  of  sheep.  (Gen.  iv.  2.)  Jabal 
was  a  grazier  of  cattle,  of  wliom  it  is  said,  that  he  was  the 
father  of  such  as  dwell  in  tents  (ver.  20.),  that  is,  he  travelled 
with  his  cattle  from  j)lace  to  place,  and  for  that  end  invented 
the  use  of  tents,  which  he  carried  with  him  for  shelter. 
After  the  Deluge,  Noah  resumed  his  agricultural  labours, 
which  had  been  interrupted  by  that  catastrophe.  (Gen.  ix. 
20.)  The  chief  wealth  of  the  patriarchs  consisted  iii  cattle. 
(Gen.  xiii.  2.  compared  with  Job  i.  3.)  Abraham  and  Lot 
must  have  had  vast  herds  of  cattle,  when  they  were  olilitjed 
to  separate  because  the  land  could  not  contain  them  (Gen. 

«  Tlic  nstrai;a1  was  a  hono  of  the  hinder  feet  of  cloven-footed  animals. 
I'lln.  Nat.  HiHt.  It.  xi.  cc.  45,  46. 

1  JucoLii  Nicholui  Louiibiii  MiHcell.  Enipliill.  p.  4.  c.  19.  Samuclls  PotitI 
Misct'l.  1>.  2.  c.  I.     Note  on  v.  013.    liuriiiid.  Mudea,  Sinnj  ti  nri><,Tiiv 

>  Mr.  DodwBll'g  ClASBJcal  Tour  in  fJreecp,  vol.  i.  p.  .'>I9.  Plautns,  in  his 
play  called  I'^i-nuluB  (ni-t  5.  bc.  2.),  rcprcBentii  Iliinno,  the  Cartliaxiiuan,  ns 
retaining  a  .'<yinljul  oi  hu.spitality  rccipiocitlly  wllh  Aiitr Jainaa  of  (Julydun ; 
but  Aniitlamaa  being  dead,  ho  addresses  hiinselC  to  his  son  Agorastocles, 
and  sayn,-^ 

"  8i  ita  est,  toRRcram 

Confcrrc,  si  vis,  hospitalein — eccaio  atluli." 
Agorostoclcs  answers : — 

"  Agodum  hoc  cslcndc,  est  par  probo,  nam  liabco  doinum." 
To  Which  Ilitnno  :— 

"O  ml  hoapcB,  salve  miiltum,  nam  mlhl  tuus  pater 
Pulcr  Hum  (.Tfio  liospcs  Antiilnnmii  fiiit; 
IIicc  mihl  hoKpitalis  tessera  cum  illo  fuit." 
Agorastoclf  8  proceeds  :— 

"  Ergo  hic  apud  mc  hospltium  tlhl  prochcbltur." 
"If  this  be  the  case,  here  Is  the  tally  of  hospitality,  which  I  have 
brouRlit;  compare  it  if  you  iiieasc— Show  it  mo  ;  it  is  indeed  tlic  tally  lo 
that  which  1  have  at  home  ;— My  il.Mr  host,  you  arc  heartily  Wflcomo  :  for 
your  falh'T  Antidanuu  was  my  hml :  this  waH  rlie  tolten  of  liDfpilnlily  bo. 
twccn  hirii  and  mo :  and  you  shall,  therefore,  bc  kindly  received  In  my 
twuBO."    lUU.  p.  620. 


xiii.  6.^ ;  and  strifes  between  the  different  villagers  and  herds- 
men ot  Syria  still  exist,  as  well  as  in  the  days  of  those  pa- 
triarchs.* Jacob,  also,  must  have  had  a  great  number,  since 
he  could  afford  a  present  to  his  brother  Ksau  oi  five  hundred 
and  eighty  head  of  cattle.   (Gen.  xxxii.  13 — 17.)*'    It  was 

«  Waril'.9  Dissertations  upon  several  passages  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures, 
pp.  229— y32.  London,  1759.  Svo.  Dr.  T.  M.  Harris's  Dissertation  on  the 
Tesspra  Ho.sjiitalis  of  the  Ancient  Ron)aii9,  annexed  to  hi.s  Di.scourses  on 
the  Principles,  Tendency,  and  Design  of  Free-Masonry.  Charlestown 
(JVIassachu-si'tts),  Anno  Lucis  590L  This  writer  has  also  pivcn  several 
proofs  of  tiie  i>revalrncc  of  a  similar  practice  ainoii;;  the  ancient  Chris- 
tians, wlio  carried  tlic  te.sscra  wiih  them  in  their  travels  as  an  inlrodnction 
to  the  fi  iend.sliip  and  brotherly  kindness  of  their  fellow-C'lirisiians.  Afier- 
ward.-!,  lierctics,  to  enjoy  those  privileges,  counterfeited  the  tessera.  The 
Christians  then  altered  the  inscription.  This  was  frccjtiontly  done  till  Ilie 
Nicene  Council  iitave  their  sanction  to  those  marlced  with  the  iiiilinlRof  the 
words  lUrcp,  Tio,-,  Aytov  Iliiu/cx  ;  which  B.  Ilildelirand  calls  Tesaertt 
Canonicm.  The  impostor  Peregrinus,  as  we  learn  from  Luciuti  (Op.  toni 
iii.  p.  32.5.  Amst.  1743),  fcijnrd  himself  a  Chrintian,  that  he  might  not  only 
be  clollied  and  fed  by  llie  Christians,  but  also  be  assisted  on  his  traveli!, 
and  enriched  by  their  generosity  ;  LJut  his  artifice  was  detected  and  cJt- 
posed.  The  procuriii;;  of  a  tessera  (Dr.  Harris  remark.---),  as  a  mark  of 
ovanjjclization,  answered  all  tlie  purposes,  and  saved  all  the  trouble,  of 
formal  written  certificates,  and  introductory  letters  of  recommendation. 
The  daiii-'i'r  of  it.s  beitis  used  by  imjKistors,  as  in  the  rasr*  of  Peregrinus.. 
rendered  it  necessary  lo  preserve  the  token  with  ijreat  care,  and  never  to 
produce  it  but  u|)on  special  occasions.  Notwithstandind  the  simplicity  of 
tliis  method,  it  cr)nlinucd  in  use  until  the  time  of  Hurclmrdis,  archbishop 
of  Wiirms,  wlio  ilourislicd  A.  n.  1100,  and  who  mentioiis.il  in  a  visiialion 
charge.     (Ilatris's  Srinuin.o,  «ir.  pp.  .'ilO,  :!'.JI.) 

»  Kichardsoii's  Travels  alnng  the  Meditermnean,  vol,  ii.  p.  1%. 

•  The  following  descriptimi  of  tlio  removal  of  an  Arab  horde  will  afford 
the  rcaclera  lively  idea  of  tlic  primitive  maiuiers  of  the  patri.-irchs :— "It 
was  entertaining  enougli  to  see  the  horde  of  Arabs  deciunp,  as  nothinc 
could  l>e  more  regular.  First  went  the  sheep  and  goal-herds,  each  with 
their  Hocks  in  divisions,  accordinu  as  the  chirf  of  each  family  directed; 
tlun  fiilliAvcd  the  i-aiiiols  and  a.^Mi-j,  loadiMl  with  the  lent.*,  furniture,  and 
kitchen  utcnsil.-i ;  these  were  lollowed  by  the  old  men,  women,  boys,  and 
girls,  on  foot.  Tlie  children  that  cannot  walk  arc  carried  on  tlie  backs  of 
the  young  women,  or  the  boys  and  girls  ;  and  the  smallest  of  the  lambs  and 
kids  are  carried  under  the  arms  of  the  rhildn-n.  To  each  tent  belong 
many  dogs,  ainonst  which  arc  some  greyhnunds;  some  tents  have  from 
irn  to  fiiurteen  dons',  and  from  twenty  to  thirty  men,  women,  anil  children, 
bi'loncinc  to  thfiii.  Tin-  procrHsion  is  closed  by  the  chief  of  the  tribe,  whoia 
itii'y  calird  Ihiili  M\i\  riilhpr(''mir  iiii'ans  prince),  moimtedon  the  very  best 
hiir.se,  and  siirrDUndcd  by  the  brads  of  each  fmnily,  all  on  horses,  with 
many  servants  on  foot.  lii'tw>-en  each  funilly  is  a  division  or  space  of  one 
hundred  yanls,  or  more,  when  they  migrate ;  and  such  great  regularity  Is 
observed,  that  neither  camels,  asses,  sheep,  nor  dogs,  ml.r,  but  each  keeps 
lo  the  divlsiDU  lo  which  it  bilongs  without  Iho  least  trouble.  They  had 
hern  heri>  elcht  days,  anri  were  golna  foiir  hours'  journey  lo  the  north, 
west,  to  atintluT  spriiiR  of  water.  This  tribe  consi.stnl  of  about  eight 
hundred  and  fifty  men,  women,  and  children.  Their  Ilockr  of  sheep  and 
goals  were  about  five  thousand,  besides  a  great  number  of  camels,  horses, 
and  asses.  Horses  and  greyhounds  Ihey  breeil  anil  train  up  fir  sale  :  they 
nellher  kill  nor  sell  their  ewe  laudis.  At  sr-f  times  a  chapter  in  the  Koran 
is  read  bv  the  chief  of  raeli  family,  either  in  or  near  each  tent.  Ihe  whole 
family  lieine  anihered  round  :\iid  verv  attentive."  Parson's  Travels  from 
Aleppo  to  Bagdad,  pp.  1U9,  110.    London,  IBOS.  4lo. 


Sect.  I.] 


MANAGEMENT  OF  CATTLE, 


175 


their  oTeat  flocks  of  cattle  which  made  them  in  those  primi- 
tive times  put  such  a  price  upon  wells.  These  were  posses- 
sions of  inestimable  value  in  a  country  where  it  seldom 
rained,  and  where  there  were  but  few  rivers  or  brooks,  axid, 
therefore,  it  is  no  wonder  that  we  read  of  so  many  contests 
about  them. 

In  succeeding  ages,  we  find,  that  the  greatest  and  weal- 
thiest men  did  not  disdain  to  follow  husbandry,  however 
mean  that  occupation  is  now  accounted.'  Moses,  the  great 
lawgiver  of  the  Israelites,  was  a  shepherd.  Shamgar  was 
taken  from  the  herd  to  be  a  judge  in  Israel,  and  Gideon  from 
his  threshing-floor  (Judg.  vi.  11.),  as  were  Jair  and  Jephthah 
from  the  keeping  of  sheep.  When  Saul  received  the  news 
of  the  danger  to  which  the  city  of  Jabesh-gilead  was  exposed, 
he  was  coming  after  the  herd  out  of  the  field,  notwithstandinw 
he  was  a  king.  (1  Sam.  xi.  5.)  And  king  Y)-d.viA,  from  feed- 
ing the  ewes  great  with  young,  was  brought  to  feed  Jacob  his 
people  and  Is7-ael  his  inheritance  (Psal.  Ixxviii.  71.)  ;  and  it 
should  seem,  from  3  Sam.  xiii.  23.,  that  Absalom  was  a  large 
sheep-owner.  King  Uzziah  is  said  to  be  a  lover  of  hus- 
bandry (3  Chron.  xxvi.  10.) ;  and  some  of  the  prophets  were 
called  from  that  employment  to  the  prophetic  dignity,  as 
Elisha  was  from  the  plough  (1  Kings  xix.  19.),  and  Amos 
from  being  a  herdsman.  But  the  tending  of  the  flocks  was 
not  confined  to  the  men  :*  in  the  primitive  ages,  rich  and 
noble  women  were  accustomed  to  keep  sheep,  and  to  draw 
water  as  well  as  those  of  inferior  quality.  Thus,  Rebecca, 
the  daughter  of  Bethuel,  Abraham's  brother,  carried  a  pitcher, 
and  drew  water  (Gen.  xxiv.  15.  19.),  as  the  women  of  Pales- 
tine still  generally  do :  Rachel,  the  daughter  of  Laban,  kept 
her  father's  sheep  (Gen.  xxix.  9.) ;  and  Zipporah,  with  her 
six  sisters,  had  the  care  of  their  father  Jethro's  flocks,  who 
was  a  prince,  or  (which  in  those  times  was  an  honour  scarcely 
inferior)  a  priest  of  Midian.  (Exod.  ii.  16.)  Repeated  in- 
stances occur  in  Homer  of  the  daughters  of  princes  tending 
flocks,  and  performing  other  menial  services.^ 

1.  Among  the  larger  animals  kept  by  the  Hebrews  or 
Jews,  NEAT  CATTLE  claim  first  to  be  noticed,  on  account  of 
their  great  utility.  They  are  termed  collectively  ip3  (BaKOR), 
and  though  they  are  of  so  small  stature  in  the  East,  yet  they 
attain  to  considerable  strength.  (Prov.  xiv.  4.)  The  bulls 
of  Bashan  were  celebrated  for  their  strength.  (Psal.  xxii.  12.) 
The  castration  of  bulls,  or  the  males  of  the  ox-tribe,  as  well 
as  of  other  male  animals,  which  was  common  among  other 
nations,  was  prohibited  to  the  Hebrews.  (Lev.  xxii.  24,  25.) 
Oxen  v/ere  used  both  for  draught  and  for  tillage,  as  is  still 
the  case  in  the  East:  they  were  also  employed  in  treading 
out  ^e  corn,  during  which  they  were  not  to  be  muzzled 
(Deut.  XXV.  4.) ;  and  were  driven  by  means  of  ox-goads 
(Judg.  iii.  31.),  which,  if  they  resembled  those  used  in  more 
recent  times  in  the  East,  must  have  been  of  considerable 
size.''     Calves,  or  the  young  of  the  ox-kind,  are  frequently 

«  Honourable  as  the  occupation  of  a  shepherd  was  among  the  Hebrews, 
it  was  an  abomination  to  (he  Egyptians  (Gen.  xlvi.  34.)  at  the  time  when 
Jacob  and  his  children  went  down  into  Egypt.— From  the  fragmenfs  of  the 
ancient  historian  Manetho,  preserved  in  Josephus  and  Africanu.s,  it  appears 
that  that  country  had  been  invaded  by  a  colony  of  Nomades  or  Shepherds, 
descended  from  Cash,  who  established  themselves  there,  and  had  a  suc- 
cession of  kings.  After  many  wars  between  them  and  the  Egyptians,  in 
which  some  of  their  principal  cities  were  burnt,  and  great  cruelties  were 
committed,  they  were  compelled  to  evacuate  the  country ;  but  not  till  they 
had  been  in  possession  of  it  for  a  period  of  nine  hundred  years.  This  alone 
was  sufficient  to  render  shepherds  odious  to  the  Egyptians ;  but  they  were 
Still  more  obrwxious,  because  they  killed  and  ate  those  animals,  particu- 
larly tlie  sheep  and  the  o.\-,  whicli  were  accounted  most  sacred  amonj 
thein.  See  Bryant's  Analysis  of  Ancient  Mythology,  vol.  vi.  pp.  193 — 211. 
8vo.  edit. 

«  From  Hector's  address  to  his  horses,  it  appears  that  his  wife,  Andro- 
mache, though  a  princess,  did  not  think  it  beneath  her  dignity  to  feed  those 
animals  herself    Iliad,  viii.  185 — 1S9. 

»  See  particularly  Iliad,  lib.  vi.  59.  78.    Odyss.  lib.  vi.  57.  xii.  131. 

♦  The  intelligent  traveller,  Maundrell,  in  his  journey  from  Jerusalem  to 
Aleppo,  relates,  that  when  he  was  near  Jerusalem,  he  came  to  a  certain 
place,  where  (says  he)  "the  country  people  were  every  where  at  plough 
in  the  fields,  in  order  to  sow  cotton  :  it  was  observable,  that  in  ploughing, 
they  used  goads  of  an  extraordinary  size;  upon  measuring  of  several,  I 
found  them  to  be  about  eight  feet  long,  and,  at  the  bigger  end,  six  inches 
in  circumference.  They  were  armed  at  the  lesser  end  with  a  sharp 
prickle,  for  driving  of  the  oxen,  and  at  the  other  end  with  a  small  spade,  or 
paddle  of  iron,  strong  and  massy,  for  cleansing  the  plough  from  the  clay 
that  encumbers  it  in  working.  May  we  not  from  hence  conjecturo,  that  it 
was  with  such  a  goad  as  one  of  these,  that  Shamgar  made  that  prodigious 
slaughter  related  of  himl  I  am  confident  that  whoever  should  see  one  of 
these  instruments,  would  judge  it  to  be  a  weapon,  not  less  fit,  perhaps  fit- 
ter, than  a  sword  for  such  an  execution  :  goads  of  this  sort  1  saw  always 
used  hereabouts,  and  also  in  Syria;  and  the  reason  is,  because  the  same 
single  person  both  drives  the  oxen,  and  also  holds  and  manages  the  plougli ; 
which  makes  it  necessary  to  use  such  a  goad  as  is  above  described,  to  avoid 
the  encumbrance  of  two  instruments."  Maundrell's  Travels,  p.  110.  In 
January,  1816,  Mr.  Buckingham  observed  similar  goads  in  use,  at  Ras-el- 
Hin,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  modern  town  of  Sour,  which  stands  on  the  site 
of  ancient  Tyre  (Travels  in  Palestine,  p.  57.) ;  and  the  Rev.  Mr.  Hartley,  in 
March,  191%  mot  with  the  same  kind  of  goads  in  Greece.  (Missionary 
UcL'istcr,  May,  ia30,  p  223.) 


mentioned  in  Scripture,  because  they  were  commonly  used 
in  sacrifices.  The  failed  calf  (1  Sam.  xxviii.  24.  Luke  xv. 
23.)  was  stall-fed,  with  a  special  reference  to  a  particular 
festival  or  extraordinary  sacrifice. 

2.  So  useful  to  the  Hebrews  were  asses,  that  the  coveting 
of  them  is  prohibited  in  the  decalogue,  equally  with  oxen" 
in  the  East  they  attain  to  a  considerable  size  and  beauty. 
Princes  and  people  of  distinction  did  not  think  it  beneath 
their  dignity  to  ride  on  asses  (Num.  xxii.  21.  Judo-,  j.  4. 
V.  10.  X.  4.  2  Sam.  xvi.  3.) ;  when,  therefore,  .Tesus  L;hrist 
rode  into  Jerusalem  on  an  ass,  he  was  received  like  a  prince 
or  sovereign.  (Matt.  xxi.  1 — 9.)  The  Hebrews  were  for- 
bidden to  draw  with  an  ox  and  an  ass  .together  (Deut.  xxii. 
10.),  probably  because  one  was  a  clean  animal,  and,  conse- 
quently, edible,  while  the  other  was  declared  to  he  unclean, 
and,  consequently,  unfit  for  food.  The  habits  and  speed  of 
Avild  asses,  which  anciently  were  numerous  in  Arabia  Deserta 
and  the  neighbouring  countries,  are  described  with  great 
force  and  poetical  beauty  in  Job  xxxix.  5 — 8.   ■ 

Mules,  which  animals  partake  of  the  horse  and  ass,  were 
probably  unknown  in  the  earlier  ages.  It  is  very  certain 
that  the  Jews  did  not  breed  them,  because  they  Avere  forbid- 
den to  couple  together  two  creatures  of  different  gpecies. 
(Lev.  xix.  19.)  They  seem  to  have  been  brought  to  the 
Jews  from  other  nations ;  and  the  use  of  them  was  become 
very  common  in  the  time  of  David,  and  they  formed  a  con- 
siderable part  of  the  royal  equipage.  (2  Sam.  xiii.  29.  xviii.  9. 
1  Kings  i.  33.  38.  44.  x.  25.  2  Chron.  ix.  24.) 

3.  Horses  were  not  used  by  the  Jews  for  cultivating  the 
soil :  indeed,  though  they  abounded  in  Egypt  in  the  time  of 
Moses  (as  may  be  inferred  from  Exod.  ix.  3.  xiv.  6,  7.  9. 
23 — 28.  XV.  4.),  yet  we  do  not  find  any  mention  of  their 
being  used  before  the  time  of  David,  who  reserved  only  a 
hundred  horses  for  his  mounted  life-guard,  or  perhaps  for  his 
chariots,  out  of  one  thousand  which  he  captured  (2  Sam.  viii. 
4.),  the  remainder  being  houghed,  according  to  the  Mosaic 
injunction.  Solomon  carried  on  a  trade  in  Egyptian  horses 
for  the  benefit  of  the  crown. ^ 

4.  Camels  are  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures : 
anciently,  they  were  very  numerous  in  Judea,  and  throughout 
the  East,  where  they  were  reckoned  among  the  most  valua- 
ble live  stock.  The  patriarch  Job  had  at  first  three  thousand 
(Job  i.  3.),  and,  after  his  restoration  to  prosperity,  six  thou- 
sand, (xiii.  12.)  The  camels  of  the  Midianites  and  Arnalek- 
ites  were  ivithout  number,  as  the  sand  by  the  sea-side  for  mul- 
titude. (Judg.  vii.  12.)  So  great  was  the  importance  attached 
to  the  propagation  and  management  of  camels,  that  a  particu- 
lar officer  w^  appointed  in  the  reign  of  David  to  superintend 
their  keepers ;  and  as  the  sacred  historian  particularly  men- 
tions that  he  was  an  Ishmaelite,  we  may  presume  that  he  was 
selected  for  his  office  on  account  of  his  superior  skill  in  the 
treatment  of  these  animals.  (1  Chron.  xxvii.  30.) 

Two  species  of  camels  are  mentioned  in  the  Scripture,  viz. 
1.  the  Sdj  (GflMOL)  or  common  camel,  which  has  two  bunches 
on  its  back,  that  distinguish  it  from,  2.  the  -03  (BOKf/R),  or 
dromedary,  which  has  only  one  bunch.  The  dromedary  is 
remarkable  for  its  fleetness.  Both  species  are  now,  as  well 
as  anciently,  much  used  for  travelling  long  journeys.  The 
camels'  furniture,  mentioned  in  Gen.  xxxi.  34.,  is  most  pro- 
bably the  large  seat  or  pack-saddle,  invariably  observed  in 
the  East  upon  the  back  of  camels.  "When  taken  off,  at  the 
close  of  a  journey,  it  would  equally  afford  a  place  of  conceal- 
ment for  the  images,  and  a  convenient  seat  for  Rachel.^  The 
Arabs  eat  both  the  flesh  and  milk  of  camels,  which,  however, 
were  forbidden  to  the  Israelites,  as  being  unclean  animals. 
(Lev.  xi.  4.  Deut.  xiv.  7.)  A  coarse  cloth  is  manufactured 
of  camels'  hair  in  the  East,  which  is  used  for  making  the 
coats  of  shepherds  and  camel  drivers,  and  also  for  the  cover- 
ing of  tents.  It  was,  doubtless,  this  coarse  kind  which  was 
worn  by  John  the  Baptist,  and  which  distinguished  him  from 
those  residents  in  royal  palaces,  who  wore  soft  raiment. 
(Matt,  iii.  4.  xi.  8.) 

5.  Among  the  smaller  cattle.  Goats  and  Sheep  were  the 
most  valuable,  and  were  reared  in  great  numbers  on  account 
of  their  flesh  and  milk;  the  latter  animals  were  also  of  great 
value  on  account  of  their  wool,  which  was  shorn  twice  in  the 
year.  Sheep-shearing  was  a  season  of  great  festivity. 
(2  Sam.  xiii.  23 — 27.  1  Sam.  xxv.  2,  &c.)  Jahn  enumerates 
three  varieties  of  sheep,  but  Dr.  Hanis  specifies  only  two 
breeds  as  being  found  in  Syria;  viz.  1.  The  Bedouin  sheep, 

«  Michaelis's  Commentaries,  vol.  ii.  pp.  394,  395.  In  pp.  431—514.  there  is 
an  elaborate  dissertation  on  the  ancient  history  and  uses  of  horses.  For 
the  reason  why  the  Israelitish  sovereigns  were  prohibited  from  multiplying 
horses,  see  p.  43.  of  the  present  volume. 

•  Hartley's  Researches  in  Greece,  p.  232. 


176 


ON  THE  OCCUPATIONS  OF  THE  JEWS. 


[Paiit  IV.  Chap.  VH. 


which  differs  little  in  its-ajipearance  from  our  common  breed, 
except  that  the  tail  is  somewhat  longer  and  thicker;  and,  2. 
A.  breed  which  is  of  more  frequent  occurrence  than  die  other, 
and  which  is  much  more  valued  on  account  of  the  extraordi- 
nary bulk  of  its  tail,  which  has  been  noticed  by  all  travellers. 
The  ancient  Hebrews,  like  the  modern  Arabs,  were  accus- 
tomed to  give  names  of  endearment  to  favourite  sheep 
(2  Sam.  xii.  3.") ;  the  shepherds  also  called  them  generally 
by  name,  and  llie  sheep  knowing  the  sheplierd's  voice  obeyed 
the  call  (John  x.  3.  14.),  while  they  disregarded  the  voice 
of  strangers.'  They  also  appear  to  have  numbered  them 
(Jer.  xxxiii.  13.),  as  the  slicpiierds  count  tlieir  flocks  in 
modern  Greece,  by  admitting  them  one  by  one  into  a  pen.2 

It  was  the  duty  of  the  shepherds  to  conduct  the  flocks  to 
p'.^sture,  and  to  protect  them  from  the  attacks  of  thieves  and 
wild  beasts  (John  x.  10 — 12.) :  for  this  purpose  they  were 
furnished  with  a  crook  (Psal.  xxiii.  4.)  and  with  a  sling  and 
stones.  David  was  equipped  with  his  shepherd's  staff  and 
sling  when  lie  went  forth  to  encounter  the  Philistine  giant 
Cioliaih.  (1  Sam.  xvii.  40.)  And  as  it  sometimes  happened 
that  the  owners  of  large  flocks  made  very  hard  bargains  with 
their  shepherds  (as  Laban  did  with  Jacob,  Gen.  xxxi. 
38 — 10^),  Moses  made  various  enactments  in  this  respect 
which  are  equally  characterized  by  their  equity  and  huma- 
nity. In  guarding  and  managing  their  flocks  dogs  were  of 
great  use;  though  these  animals,  being  declared  Ijy  the  law 
of  Moses  to  be  unclean,  were  held  in  great  contempt  among 
the  Jews.  (1  Sam.  xvii.  43.  xxiv.  14.  2  Sam.  ix.  8.  2  Kings 
yiii.  13.)  They  had  them,  however,  in  considerable  numbers 
in  their  cities,  where  they  were  not  confined  in  the  houses  or 
courts,  but  were  forced  to  seek  their  food  where  they  could 
find  it.  The  Psalmist  compares  violent  men  to  dogs,  that  go 
about  the  city  by  nigiit  in  quest  of  food,  and  growl  if  they  be 
not  satisfied,  (P^al.  lix.  6.  14, 15.)  Being  frequenily  almost 
starved,  they  devour  corpses.  (1  Kings  xiv.  11.  xvi.  4. 
xxi.  Id.) 

When  the  sheep  were  pastured  in  the  open  country,  the 
shepherds  were  accustomed  to  keep  watch  in  turns  liy  night. 
The  shepherds  to  whom  the  glad  tidings  of  the  Messiah's 
advent  were  announced  were  thus  employed.  (Luke  ii.  8.) 
The  Jews,  however,  had  shecpfolds,  which  were  enclosures 
without  roofs,  surrounded  by  walls,  with  doors  at  which  the 
animals  entered  :  here  they  were  confined  both  at  the  season 
of  sheepshearing,  as  well  as  during  the  night.  (John  x.  1. 
Num.  xxxii.  IG.  2  Sam.  vii.  8.  Zeph.  ii.  6.)^  In  Palestine 
flocks  anciently  were,  as  they  still  are,  tended,  not  only  by 
the  owner,  but  also  by  his  sons  and  daughters,  as  well  as 
servants.  Consequently  they  were  exposed  tc^ll  the  vicis- 
situdes of  the  seasons,  which  circumstance  explains  the 
observation  of  Jacob,  who,  in  remonstrating  with  the  merce- 
nary Laban,  says  that  in  the  day  the  drougJu  consumed  him, 
ana  Hit  frost  bif  ni^hl,  and  lus  skep  departed  from  his  eyes. 
(Gen.  xxxi.  40e'>^ 


:i; 


II.  Moses,  followinjr  the  example  of  the  Egyptians,  made 
AGiiicui/ruKE  the  basis  of  the  state.  He  accordingly  ap- 
pointed to  every  citizen  a  certain  quantity  of  land,  and  gave 
him  the  right  of  cultivating  it  himsi;lf,  and  of  transmitling  it 
to  his  heirs.  The  person  who  had  thus  come  into  possession 
could  not  alienate  the  property  for  any  longer  period  than 
until  the  next  jubilee:  a  regulation  which  prevented  the  rich 
from  coming  into  the  possession  of  large  tracts  of  land,  and 
then  leasing  them  out  to  the  poor,  in  small  parcels ; — ;i  prac- 
tice which  anciently  prevailed,  and  exists  to  this  day  in  the 
fclast.  The  law  of  IVIoscs  further  enacted,  that  tlie  vendor  of 
a  piece  of  land,  or  his  nearest  relative,  had  a  right  to  redeem 
the  land  sold,  whenever  they  chose,  by  paying  the  amount 
of  profits  up  to  the  year  of  ju!)ilee  (Ruth  iv.  4.  Ji:r.  xxxii.  7 
H.);  and  l)y  a  third  law  the  Israelites  were  recpiired  (as  was 
the  case  among  the  Egyplians  after  the  time  of  Joseph,  Gen. 
xlvii.  18 — 26.)  to  pay  a  tax  of  two-tenths  of  their  income 
unto  God;  whose  servants  they  were  to  consider  themselves, 
and  whom  they  were  to  obi'y  as  their  king.  (Lev.  xxvii.  30, 
31.  Deut.  xii.  17—19.  xiv.  22—29.)  The  custom  of  mark- 
ing tlie  boundaries  of  lands  by  st^jnes  (thougii  it  prevailed  a 
long  time  before  Moses,  Job  xxiv.  2.)  w;i.s  continued  and 
perpetuated  by  an  express  law,  wiiich  prohibited  tiie  removal 

r- 

•  The  IcclanilnrH  to  tliis  day  call  llicir  dlicep  \>y  name  (Dr.  IIcnilcriion'H 
Travula  in  IcwUnd,  vol.  I.  pp.  isy^  190.);  so  iilno  il.i  ihi'  iinidorii  (.'rerks. 
(Ilarlley'B  Journal  of  a  Tour  to  182a  Mlasio.iary  llfyist-.r,  May,  1S30, 
p.  223.) 

»  liarlley's  ResearcluB  in  Greece,  p. 

■  Parcau,  Anllq.  Hi  t.r.  pp.  412—410. 


238. 
.lahn  ct  Aclcr-rinann, 


ArchfTol.  IJilil. 


ii4C— ."jl.     llarrlx'H  Nat.  IIi.sl.  uf  the  DiLilc,  at  t!n;  arliclcH,  Asses,  Mutes, 
IIomcM,  C'.iiiicia,  Shrcp,  anil  Ddgd. 
•  Roc  Wilson's  Travels  in  Uio  Uoly  LanJ,  vol.  i.  p.  400.  SJ  edition. 


of  such  landmarks  (Ueut.  xix.  14.),  and  denounced  a  curse 
against  the  person  who  removed  them  without  authority. 
(Deut.  xxvii.  17.)  In  giving  this  law,  Moses  reminded  the 
isr^lites,  that  it  was  God  who  gave  them  the  land ;  thus 
insinuating  that  the  landmarks  should  all  in  some  sense  be 
sacred  to  the  giver.  Among  t!ie  Romans,  they  actually  were 
held  sacred.  Indeed,  they  can  be  so  easily  removed,  and, 
consequently,  a  man  be  so  unobservedly  deprived  of  his  pro- 
perty, that  it  becomes  necessary  to  call  in  the  aid  of  the  fear 
of  God  to  prevent  it;  and  this  Moses,  who  gave  his  laws  by 
divine  command,  did  with  peculiar  propriety. 

These  regulations  having  been  made  in  respect  to  the 
tenure,  encumbrances,  &c.  of  landed  property,  Josnua  divided 
the  whole  countrj'  which  he  had  occupied,  first,  among  the 
several  tribes,  and,  secondly,  among  individual  Israelites, 
running  it  out  with  the  aid  of  a  measuring  line.  (Josh.  xvii. 
5 — 14.  compared  with  Amos  vii.  17.  Mic.  ii.  5.  Psal.  Ixxviii. 
55.  and  Ezek.  xl.  3.)  From  this  circumstance  the  line  is 
frequently  used,  by  a  figure  of  speech,  for  the  heritage  itself. 
(See  instances  in  Psal.  xvi.  6.  and  Josh.  xix.  9.  Heb.)* 

The  fixing  of  every  one's  inheritance  in  the  family  to  which 
it  had  been  appropriated  in  the  first  division  of  Canaan  was 
doubtless  one  great  reason,  which  made  the  Jews  chiefly 
follow  husbandry  and  impjove  their  estates ;  for  though  (as 
we  have  seen)  an  inheritance  might  have  been  alienated  for 
a  time,  yet  it  always  returned  in  the  year  of  jubilee.  Their 
being  prohibited,  also,  to  take  any  interest  from  their  brethren 
for  the  iree  of  money,  and  the  strict  injunctions  laid  upon 
them  by  Jehovah,  with  respect  to  their  dealings  and  com- 
merce with  foreigners,  deprived  them  so  much  of  the  ordinary 
advantages  thence  arising,  that  they  were  in  a  manner  obliged 
to  procure  their  living  from  the  fruits  and  produce  of  the 
earth,  the  improvement  of  which  constituted  tlieir  chief  care. 

III.  Although  the  Scriptures  do  not  furnish  us  with  any 
details  respecting  the  state  of  agriculture  in  Judea,  yet  we 
may  collect  from  various  passages  many  interesting  hints 
that  will  enable  us  to  form  a  tolerably  correct  idea  of  the  high 
state  of  its  cultivation.  From  the  parable  of  the  vineyard  let 
forth  to  husbandmen  (Matt.  xxi.  33,  34.)  we  learn  that  rents 
of  land  Avere  paid  by  a  part  of  the  produce ;  a  mode  of  pay- 
ment formerly  practised  by  the  Romans,''  which  anciently 
obtained  in  this  country,'  aiwl  which  is  still  practised  by  the 
Italians. ^ 

The  soil  of  Palestine  is  very  fruitful,  if  the  dews  and  vernal 
and  autumnal  rains  are  not  withheld :  but  the  Hebrews,  not- 
withstanding the  richness  of  the  soil,  endeavoured  to  increase 
its  fertility  in  various  ways.  With  the  use  of  Manures,  the 
Jews  were  unquestionably  acquainted.  Doves'  dung  (2  Kings 
vi.  25.)  appears  to  have  oeen  very  highly  valued  by  the  Jews, 
as  to  this  day  it  is  by  the  Per.'^ians.s  Salt,  either  by  itself 
or  mixed  in  the  dunghill  in  order  to  promote  putrefaction,  is 
specially  mentioned  as  one  article  of  manure  (Matt.  v.  13. 
Luke  XIV.  34,  35.) ;  and  as  the  river  Jordan  annually  over- 
flowed its  banks,  the  mud  depositt  d  when  its  waters  subsided 
must  have  served  as  a  valuaole  irrigation  and  top-dressing, 
particularly  to  the  pasture  lands.  It  is  probable  that,  aftej 
the  waters  had  thus  subsided,  seed  was  sown  on  the  wet  soft 
ground  ;  in  allusion  to  which  Solomon  says.  Cant  thy  bread 
(corn  or  seed)  upon  the  waters :  for  thou  sluilt  find  it  a^ain, 
with  increase,  afhr  numy  days.  (Eccles.  xi.  1.)  And  Isaiah, 
promising  a  time  of  poace  and  plenty,  says.  Blessed  are  ye 
that  sow  oesiat  all  waters,  and  send  forth  thither  the  feet  of 
the  ox  and  the  ass.  (Isa.  xxxii.  30.) 

In  Kgypt,  such  vegetable  promictions  as  require  more 
moisture  than  that  which  is  produced  by  the  inundation  of 
the  Nile  are  refreshed  by  water  drawn  out  of  the  river,  and 
afierwards  deposited  in  capacious  cisterns.  When,  therefore, 
their  various  sorts  of  pulse,  melons,  sugar-canes,  &c.  all  of 

•  .Talin  ct  Ackorraann,  Archacol.  Bibl.  5  65.  MirliacliB's  Coraincntariea^ 
vol.  iii.  pp.  873,  371. 

•  S.m;  Plin.  KpiBl.  Ill),  ix.  Ep.  37.     Horal.  Epist.  lib.  i.  Ep.  14.  42. 

I  Tho  lidliUtn  Hook,  a  survey  of  llio  Klalc  of  the  bishopric  of  Durham, 
iimdc  in  11h:j,  bliuvvs  what  jjroporlion  of  (lie  rent  was  paid  in  cows,  sheep. 
nips,  fowls,  eggf),  6c.c.,  the  remainder  being  made  up  chiclly  by  manual 
labour. 

•  See  Hhmt's  VostlRos  of  Ancient  Maimers  and  Customs  in  Modem 
Italy,  p.  220.     l^ondon,  1823,  8vo. 

»  "The  dung  of  pigooiiR  is  the  dearest  manure  that  the  Porplnns  use ; 
and  as  they  n|>ply  it  ahnoHt  onlirely  for  the  roaring  of  melons,  it  in  pro- 
balilr,  on  llint  iicrouiil,  that  the  melons  of  iHiiali.in  am  eo  much  liner  than 
those  of  othf-r  cilirs.  Tlin  revenue  of  a  pigeon-house  is  about  a  Inindred 
tomauns  pnr  annum  ;  and  the  great  value  of  thl.s  dung,  which  rears  a  fruit 
that  is  indifpensable  to  the  existence  of  the  nativi-s  during  the  great  heata 
of  summer,  will  probnlily  throw  some  light  upon  that  pas.sage  in  Scripture, 
whcrt\,  in  the  laiiiinc  of  Hninarla,  tlif>  fourth  part  of  a  oab  of  doves'  ilung 
v.as  .vil'l  for  fivp  pieces  of  nilver.    2  Kings^vi  2."«  "     Morier's  SpcoikI  .lour- 


!y  through  IVrjda,  p.  141.    Sec  alsu  Sir  R.  K.  i'ortcr's  Travels  in  Pcrbia, 
1. 1,  p.  151. 


Sect.  I.] 


AGRICULTURE  OF  THE  JEWS. 


177 


which  are  commonly  ploughed  in  rills,  require  to  be  re- 
freshed, they  strike  out  the  plugs  which  are  nxed  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  cisterns  :  whence  the  water,  gushing  out,  is  con- 
ducted from  one  rill  to  another  by  the  gardener,  who  is  always 
ready,  as  occasion  requires,  to  stop  and  divert  the  torrent,  by 
turni7ig  the  earth  against  it  by  his  foot,  and  at  the  same  time 
opening,  with  his  mattock,  a  new  trench  to  receive  it.  A 
similar  mode  of  irrio-ating  lands  obtains  in  the  island  of  Cy- 
prus' and  also  in  Innia.^  This  method  of  imparting  moisture 
and  nourishment  to  a  land,  rarely,  if  ever,  refreshed  with  rain, 
is  often  alluded  to  in  the  Scriptures,  where  it  is  made  the  dis- 
tinguishing quality  betw^een  Egypt  and  the  land  of  Canaan. 
Fur  the  land,  says  Moses,  whither  thougoest  in  to  possess  it,  is 
not  as  the  land  qf  Egypt  from  whence  ye  came  out,  where  thou 
sowedst  thy  seed,  and  wateredst  it  with  thy  foot  as  a  garden  of 
herbs  :  but  the  land,  whither  ye  go  to  possess  it,  is  a  land  of 
hills  and  valleys,  and  drinketn  water  of  the  rain  of  heaven. 
(Deut.  xi.  10,  ll.y  This  mode  of  irrigation  is  alluded  to  in 
rsal.  i.  3.,  where  the  good  man  is  compared  to  a  fruitful 
tree,  planted  by  the  rivers  of  water  a^o^aViJ  (paLGeY-Mavm), 
that  is,  the  streams  or  divisions  of  the  waters,  meaning  those 
which  are  turned  on  and  off  as  above-mentioned  by  the  culti- 
vator.'* The  prophet  Jeremiah  has  imitated,  and  elegantly 
amplified,  the  passage  of  the  Psalmist  above  referred  to 

"He  shall  be  like  a  tree  planted  by  the  water-side, 
And  which  sendeth  forth  her  roots  to  the  aqueduct : 
She  shall  not  fear  when  the  heat  cometh, 
But  her  leaf  shall  be  green  ; 

And  in  the  year  of  drought  she  shall  not  be  anxious, 
Neither  shall  she  cease  from  bearing  fruit."       Jer.  xvii.  8. 

From  this  image  the  son  of  Sirach  has  most  beautifully 
illustrated  the  influence  and  the  increase  of  religious  wisdom 
in  a  well-prepared  heart : — 

"  I  also  came  forth  as  a  canal  from  a  river, 
And  as  a  conduit  flowing  into  a  paradise. 
I  said,  1  will  water  my  garden, 
And  I  will  abundantly  moisten  my  border ; 
And,  lo  !  my  canal  became  a  river, 
And  my  river  became  a  sea."  Ecclus.  xxiv.  30,  31. 

This  gives  us  the  true  meaning  of  the  following  elegant 
proverb : — 

"The  heart  of  the  king  is  like  the  canals  of  waters  in  the  hand  of  Jehovah  ; 
Whithersoever  it  pleaseth  him,  he  inclineth  it."  Prov.  xxi.  1. 

The  direction  of  it  is  in  the  hand  of  Jehovah,  as  the  distri- 
bution of  the  water  of  the  reservoir,  through  the  garden  by 
different  canals,  is  at  the  will  of  the  gardener. 

Solomon  mentions  his  own  works  of  this  kind  : — 

"I  made  me  gardens  and  paradises ; 
And  I  planted  in  them  all  kinds  of  fruit  trees, 
1  made  me  pools  of  water, 
To  water  with  them  the  grove  flourishing  with  trees." 

Eccles.  ii.  5.  9. » 

IV.  In  the  first  ages  of  the  world,  men  were  chiefly  em- 
ployed in  digging  and  throwing  up  the  earth  with  their  own 
hands ;  but  Noah  advanced  tlie  art  of  husbandry  (Gen.  ix. 
20.),  and  contrived  fitter  instruments  for  ploughing  than  were 
known  before.  This  patriarch  is  called  a  man  of  the  ground, 
but  in  our  translation,  a  husbandman,  on  account  of  his  im- 
provements in  agriculture,  and  his  inventions  for  making  the 
earth  more  tractable  and  fruitful.  It  was  a  curse  upon  the 
earth  after  the  fall,  that  it  should  bring  forth  thorns  and  this- 
tles :  these  obstructions  were  to  be  removed,  which  required 
much  labour,  and  the  ground  was  to  be  correoted  by  plough- 
ing. 

'-  The  earliest  mention  made  in  the  Old  Testament  of  a 
Plough  is  in  Deut.  xxii.  10.  where  the  Israelites  are  prohi- 
bited from  ploughing  with  an  ox  and  an  ass  together ,-  a  plain 
intimation  mat  it  had  been  customary  with  the  idolatrous  na- 
tions of  the  East  to  do  so.    In  .Syria,  the  plough  is  still 

1  Rae  Wilson's  Travels,  vol.  i.  p.  185.  3d  edition. 

»  Statham's  Indian  Recollections,  p.  429. 

>  Dr.  Shaw's  Travels  in  Barbary,  &c.  vol.  ii.  pp.  26o,  2G7. 

*  Dr.  A.  Clarke  on  Psal.  i.  3.  See  also  Burder's  Oriental  Literature, 
vol.  ii.  p.  1. 

5  Bp.  Lowth's  Isaiah,  vol.  ii.  pp.  SI,  25.  Maundrell  (p.  83.)  has  given  a 
description  of  the  remains,  as  they  are  said  to  be,-  of  these  very  pools 
made  by  Solomon,  for  the  reception  and  preservation  of  the  waters  of  a 
spring,  rising  at  a  little  distance  from  theui ;  which  will  give  us  a  perfect 
notion  of  the  contrivance  and  design  of  such  reservoirs.  "As  for  the 
pools,  they  are  three  in  number,  lymg  in  a  row  above  each  other  ;  being 
so  disposed,  that  the  waters  of  the  uppermost  may  descend  into  the  second, 
and  those  of  the  second  into  the  third.  Their  figure  is  quadrangular  ;  the 
breadth  is  the  same  in  all,  amounting  to  about  ninety  paces  :  in  their  length 
there  is  some  difference  between  them ;  the  first  bemg  one  hundred  and 
sixty  paces  long ;  the  second,  two  hundred;  the  tliird,  two  hundred  and 
twenty.  They  are  all  lined  with  wall,  and  plastered,  and  contain  a  great 
depth  of  water." 

Vol.  II.  Z 


drawn,  frequently  by  one  small  cow,  at  most  with  two,  and 
sometimes  only  by  an  ass.s  In  Persia,  Mr.  Morier  states 
that  it  is  for  the  most  part  drawn  by  one  ox  only,  and  not  un- 
frequently  by  an  ass.'  In  Egypt  they  plough  with  two 
oxen.3  The  plough  appears  to  have  been  furnished  with  a 
share  and  coulter,  probably  not  very  unlike  those  which  are 
now  in  use.  (1  Sam.  xiii.  20,  21.  Isa.  ii.  4.  Joel  iii.  10. 
Mic.  iv.  3.)  "  The  plough  in  use  at  Nazareth  is  not  moved 
upon  wheels.  The  share,  which  is  small,  scarcely  grazes 
the  earth  ;  and  it  has  only  one  handle  or  shaft,  with  a  small 
piece  of  wood  across  the  top,  for  the  husbandman  to  gui(!e  it, 
resembling  the  head  of  a  staff  or  the  handle  of  a  spade.  The 
man  holds  this  in  his  right  hand,  with  which  he  goads  the 
the  oxen.  The  whole  machine  is  made  so  extremely  light, 
that  a  person  might  with  facility  carry  it  in  his  arms.  The 
share  is  covered  with  a  piece  of  broad  iron  pointed  at  the 
end,  so  that  it  might  be  converted  into  a  weapon  of  warfare. 
In  all  probability,  it  is  to  this  peculiarity  that  one  of  the  pro- 
phets refers,  when  he  calls  on  the  nations  to  relinquish  rural 
occupations,  and  converts  their  ploughs  into  instruments  of 
battle.  (Joel  iii.  10.)  Another  of  the  sacred  writers  has  re- 
versed this  recommendation,  and  applied  it  to  the  tranquillity 
with  which  it  is  prophesied  [that]  the  church  shall  be 
ultimately  blessed  in  tne  latter  days.  (Isa.  ii.  4.)"9 

The  method  of  managing  the  ground,  and  preparing  it  for 
the  seed,  was  much  the  same  witTi  the  practice  of  the  present 
times  ;  for  Jeremiah  speaks  of  ploughing  up  the  fallow  ground 
(Jer.  iv.  3.),  and  Isaiah  of  harrowing  or  breaking  up  the 
clods  (Isa.  xxviii.  24.)  ;  but  Moses,  for  wise  reasons,  doubt- 
less, gave  a  positive  injunction,  that  they  should  not  sow 
their  fields  with  mingled  seed. 

The  kind  of  grain  sown  by  the  Jews  were  fitches,  cummin, 
wheat,  barley,  and  rye.  (Isa.  xxviii.  25.)  The  cultivated 
fields  were  guarded  by  watchmen  (as  they  still  are  in  the 
East,)  who  sit  upon  a  seat  hung  in  a  tree,  or  in  a  lodge  or 
watch-tower  made  of  planks,  and  keep  off  birds,  beasts,  and 
thieves.  (Jer.  iv.  16,  17.  Isa.  xxiv.  20.)  It  was  lawful  for 
travellers  to  pluck  ears  from  the  standing  corn  in  another's 
field,  and  to  eat  them ;  but  they  were  on  no  account  to  use  a 
sickle.  (Deut.  xxii.  25.  compared  with  Matt.  xii.  1.  Markii. 
23.  and  Luke  vi.  1.)  Their  corn  fields  were  infested  with 
a  worthless  kind  of  weed  resembling  corn  {^i^f-viov),  in  our 
version  rendered  tares  ;  but  it  is  evident  that  this  is  a  differ- 
ent production  from  our  tare  or  vetch,  which  is  a  very  useful 
plant.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  lolium  temulentum,  a 
species  of  darnel  growing  among  com,  to  which  it  bears 
some  resemblance.  Bread,  which  may  Jbe  made  from  a  mix- 
ture of  darnel  ground  with  corn,  will  produce  giddiness  and 
sickness  ;  an  effect  which  the  straw  is  known  to  have  upon 
cattle. 

There  were  three  months  between  their  sowing  and  their 
first  reaping,  and  four  months  to  their  full  harvest :  their 
barley  harvest  was  at  the  Passover,  and  their  wheat  harvest 
at  the  Pentecost.  The  reapers  made  use  of  sickles,  and  "ac- 
cording to  the  present  custom  they  filled  their  hands  with 
the  corn,  and  those  who  bound  up  the  sheaves  their  bosom  : 
there  was  a  person  set  over  the  reapers  (Ruth  ii.  5.)  to  see 
that  they  did  their  work,  that  they  had  provision  proper  for 
them,  and  to  pay  them  their  wages  ;  the  Chaldees  call  him 
Rab,  the  master,  the  ruler,  or  governor  of  the  reapers.  Wo- 
men were  employed  in  reaping  as  well  as  the  men ;  and  the 
reapers  were  usually  entertained  above  the  rank  of  common 
servants,  though  in  the  time  of  Boaz  we  find  nothing  pro- 
vided for  them  but  bread  and  parched  corn  ;  and  their  sauce 
was  vinegar  (a  kind  of  Aveak  wine),  which,  doubtless,  was 
very  cooFing  in  those  hot  countries.  (Ruth  ii.  HA  The 
poor  were  allowed  the  liberty  of  gleaning,  though  the  land- 
owners were  not  bound  to  admit  them  immediately  into  the 
field  as  soon  as  the  reapers  had  cut  down  the  corn  and  bound 
it  up  in  sheaves,  but  after  it  was  carried  off:  they  might 
choose  also  among  the  poor,  whom  they  thought  most 
worthy  or  most  necessitous.  A  sheaf  left  in  the  field,  even 
though  discovered,  was  not  to  be  taken  up,  but  to  be  left  for 
the  poor.  (Deut.  xxiv.  19.)  The  conclusion  of  the  harvest, 
or  carryino-  home  the  last  load,  was  with  the  Jews  a  season 
of  joyous  festivity,  and  was  celebrated  with  a  harvest  feast. 
(Psal.  cxxvi.  6.  Isa.  ix.  3.  xvi.  9,  10.)  The  com  being 
pulled,'o  or  cut,  and  carried  in  wagons  oi  carts  (Num.  vii. 

«  Dr.  Russel's  History  of  Aleppo,  vol.  i.  p.  73. 

1  Morier's  First  Travels  in  Persia,  p.  60, 

B  Dr.  Richardson's  Travels,  vol.  ii.  p.  167. 

3  Rae  Wilson's  Travels,  vol.  i.  p.  401.  3d  edition. 

10  In  crossing  one  of  the  plains  of  the  Turcomans,  "wc  passed,"  saya 
Mr.  Buckingham,  "a  party  of  husbandmen  gathering  in  the  harvest,  the 
greater  portion  of  the  grain  being  now  fully  ripe.    They  plucked  up  tkt 


178 


ON  THE  OCCUPATIONS  OF  THE  JEWS 


[PART  IV.  Chap.  VII. 


3 — 8.  Isa.  xxviii.  27,  28.  Araos  ii.  13,),  was  either  laid  up 
in  stacks  (Exod.  xxii.  6.)  or  bams  (Matt.  vi.  26.  xiii.  30. 
Luke  xii.  IS.  21.)  ;  and  when  threshed  out,  was  stored  in 
granaries  or  ^rners.  (Matt.  iii.  12.)  David  liad  sturchonscs 
tn  the  fields,  m  the  cities,  and  in  the  villages,  and  in  the  castles. 
(I  Chron.  xxvii.  25.) 

V.  After  the  grain  was  carried  into  the  bam,  the  next  con- 
cern was  to  thresh  or  beat  the  corn  out  of  the  ear,  which  pro- 
cess was  performed  in  various  ways.  Sometimes  it  was 
done  by  horses  (Isa,  xxviii.  23.),  as  is  the  practice  to  this 
day  among  the  Koords,"  and  by  oxen,  that  trod  out  the  corn 
with  their  hoofs  shod  with  brass.  (Mic.  iv.  12,  13.)  This 
mode  of  threshing  is  exuressly  referred  to  by  Hosea  (x.  II.), 
and  in  the  prohibition  ot  Moses  ajraiiist  muzzling  the  ox  that 
treadcth  out  thecom  (Dent.  xxv.  4.),  and  it  obtains  in  Persia^ 
and  India'  to  this  day,  where  oxen  are  employed  ;  as  buffa- 
loes are  in  Ceylon,  asses  in  North  Africa,  and  horses  in 
Crim  Tatary.''  Another  mode  of  threshing  was,  by  draw- 
ing a  loaded  cart  with  wheels  over  the  corn,  backwards  and 
fonvards ;  so  that  the  wheels  nmning  over  it,  forcibly  shook 
out  the  grain  (Isa,  xxviii,  2>^.)  ;  but  the  most  common  mode 
appears  to  have  been  that  which  is  in  use  in  this  countn,', 
VIZ,  by  flails.  Thus  the  fitches  are  said  to  be  beaten  cut 
with  a  staff,  and  the  cummin  with  a  rod.  In  this  manner 
Gideon  and  Araunah  or  Oman  threshed  out  their  wheat 
Hudg.  vi.  11.  1  Cliron,  xxi,  20,);  for  it  is  represented  as 
their  own  personal  action. 

The  threshing  floors  were  places  of  great  note  among  the 
ancient  Hebrews,  particularly  that  of  Araunah  the  .lebusitc, 
which  was  the  spot  of  ground  chosen  by  king  David  on 
which  to  build  the  altar  of  God  (2  Sam.,  xxiv.  25.),  and  this 
•was  the  very  place  where  the  temple  of  Solomon  was  after- 
wards erected.  (2  Chron.  iii.  1.)  These  floors  were  covered 
at  the  top  to  keep  off  the  rain,  but  lay  open  on  all  sides,  that 
the  wind  might  come  in  freely  for  the  winnowing  of  the  corn  ; 
which  being  done,  they  were  shut  up  at  night,  with  doors 
fitted  to  them,  that  if  any  body  lay  there,  he  might  be  kept 
warm,  and  the  com  be  secured  from  the  danger  of  robbers 
(Kuth  iii.  6.)  :  the  limo  of  winnowing,  or  sepwrating  the  corn 
from  the  chaff,  was  in  the  evening,  when  the  heat  of  the  day 
was  over,  and  cool  breezes  began  to  rise  ;  for  this  purpose, 
they  had  the  same  implements  which  are  in  common  use ;  for 
Isaiah  speaks  of  winnowing  with  the  shovel,  and  with  t fie  fan, 
(Isa.  xxx.  24.)  The  grain,  being  threshed,  was  thrown  into 
the  middle  of  the  threshing  floor;  it  was  then  exposed  with 
a  fork  to  a  gentle  wind  (Jer.  iv.  11,  12.),  which  separated 
the  broken  straw  and  the  chaff:  so  that  the  kernels,  and  clods 
of  earth  with  grain  cleaving  to  them,  and  the  ears  not  yet 
thoroughly  threshed,  fell  upon  the  ground.  The  clods  of 
earth,  as  is  customary  in  the  East  at  the  present  day,  were 
collected,  broken  in  pieces,  and  separated  from  the  grain  by 
a  sieve;  whence  the  operation  of  sifting  is,  in  prophetic  lan- 
guage, a  symbol  of  misfortune  and  overthrows.  (Amos  ix.  9. 
Luke  xxii.  31.)  The  heap  thus  winnowed,  which  still  con- 
tained many  ears  that  were  broken  but  not  fully  threshed  out, 
was  again  exposed  in  the  threshing-floor,  and  several  yoke 
of  oxen  were  driven  over  it,  for  the  purpose  of  treading  out 
the  remainder  of  the  grain.  At  length  the  grain,  mingled 
with  the  chaff,  was  again  exposed  to  the  wind  by  a  fan,  which 
bore  off  the  chaff,  so  that  the  pure  wheat  fell  upon  the  floor. 
(Ruth  iii.  2.  Isa.  xxx.  24.)  In  the  figurative  language  of 
prophecy,  this  process  is  symbolical  of  the  dispersion  of  a 
vaniiuished  people  (Isa.  xli.  15,  10.  .ler.  xv.  7.  ii.  3.),  and 
also  of  the  final  separation  between  the  righteous  and  the 
wicked.  (Job  xxi.  18.  Psal.  i.  4.  xxxv.  5.  Matt.  iii.  12.  Luke 
iii.  17.)  JTho  scattered  straw,  as  much  at  least  as  was  re- 
quired for  the  manufacturing  of  bricks  and  for  the  fodder  of 
cattle,  was  collected  ;  but  the  residue  was  reduced  to  ashes 
by  fire :  from  this  custom  the  sacred  writers  have  derived  a 
figurative  illustration  to  denote  the  destruction  of  wicked 
men.  (Isa.  v.  24.  xlvii.  11.  Nah.  i.  10.  Mai.  iv.  1.  Matt. 
iii.  12.) 

After  the  com  was  threshed,  it  was  dried  either  in  the  sun, 
or  by  a  fire,  or  in  a  furnace.  'I'his  is  called  parched  corn 
(Lev.  xxiii.  14.  1  Sam.  xvii.  17.  and  xxv.  18.),  and  was 

torn  hy  Iht  molt,  n.  praclico  often  spoken  of  In  Iho  .Srripturcs,  Ihoufth 
rca[iiri)i  Foetna  to  lie  made  the  cnrliest  anJ  most  frcriuciil  mention  of." 
Travoln  in  Mctiopotninm,  vol.  i.  p.  12. 

«  IluclcinKlinrii'M  Truscla  In  Mcgopoiamla,  vol.  I.  p.  418. 

»  Hir  R.  K.  Porter'8  Travels  in  nporRJa,  Pcriln,  Ac.  vol.  11.  p.  00. 

'  ftfcTurnor'B  Emliansy  to  Tlilbel,  p.  li^l. 

*  WnnVs  HiHiory,  Ac.  of  the  Hindoos,  vol.  11.  p.  721).  Dr  Davy's  Travcl.s 
In  Uio  Interior  of  Ceylon,  p.  275.  (Lomlon,  IfOl),  wliTC  n  tliresliini;  lloor  is 
delineated.  Capt.  Lyon's  Tonr  in  Mourzoiilc  nnti  FczMn,  p.  1C9.  Mr». 
H  .!  lorncs.^'s  Noicb  on  tlio  Crim  Tnlara,  p.  97.  (London,  182L)  Sco  alw 
Kr.  Dodwell'ii  Cloaslcal  Tour  in  Urcccc,  vol.  11.  p.  )0. 


sometimes  used  in  this  manner  for  food  without  any  farther 
preparation,  but  generally  the  parching  or  drying  of  it  was  in 
order  to  make  it  more  fit  for  grinding.  Tliis  process  was 
performed  either  in  mortnrs  or  mills,  both  of  which  are  men- 
tioned in  Num.  xi.  8.  And  Solomon  sneaks  of  the  former, 
when  he  compares  the  braying  of  a  fool  in  a  mortar  to  the 
like  practice  used  with  wheat.  (Prov.  x.xvii.  22.)  But  mills 
were  chiefly  emplo)'^ed  for  this  purpose ;  and  they  were  deemed 
of  such  use  and  necessity,  tiiat  the  Israelites  were  strictly 
forbidden  to  take  the  nether  or  upper  niill-stone  in  pledge  ;  the 
reason  of  which  is  added,  because  this  was  taking  a  man'3 
life  in  pledge  (Deut.  xxiv.  0.),  intimating  that  while  the  mill 
ceases  to  ^rind,  people  are  in  danger  of  being  starved. 

Tiie  grinding  at  mills  was  accotu^tod  an  inferior  sort  of 
work,  and,  therefore,  prisoners  and  captives  were  generally 
put  to  It.  To  this  work  Samson  was  set,  while  he  was  in 
the  prison-house.  (Judg.  xvi.  21.)  There  hand-mills  were 
usually  kept,  by  which  prisoners  earned  their  living.  (Lam. 
v.  13.)  The  expression  in  Isa.  xlvii.  2. — Take  the  millstones 
and  grind  meal, — is  part  of  the  description  of  a  slave.  In 
fiarbary,  most  fumilies  grind  their  wlioat  and  barley  at  home, 
having  two  portable  mill-stones  for  that  purpose  :  the  upper- 
most of  which  is  turned  round  by  a  small  handle  of  wood  or 
iron,  that  is  placed  in  the  rim.  "When  this  stone  is  large,  or 
expedition  is  required,  a  second  person  is  called  in  to  assist; 
and  it  is  in  that  country  usual  for  the  women  alone  to  be  thus 
employed,  who  seat  themselves  over-against  each  other  with 
the  mill-stones  between  them.  TTiis  practice  illustrates  the 
propriety  of  the  expression  of  sitting  uchind  the  mill  (Exod. 
xi.  5.\  and  also  the  declaration  of  our  Lord,  that  two  women 
shall  be  grinding  at  the  mill;  the  one  shall  be  taken  and  the 
other  left.  (Matt.  xxiv.  41.)*  From  Jer.  xxv.  10.  and  Rev. 
xviii.  22.,  it  appears  that  those  who  were  occupied  in  grind- 
ing beguiled  their  laborious  task  by  singing,  as  the  Barbary 
women  continue  to  fck)  to  this  day. 

VI.  Palestine  abounded  with  generous  wine;  and  in  some 
districts  the  grapes  were  of  superior  quality.  Tlie  canton 
allotted  to  Judah  was  celebrated  on  this  account;  and  it  is, 
perhaps,  with  reference  to  this  circumstance,  that  the  venera- 
nle  patriarch  said  of  his  son  Judah, — th  washed  his  garments 
i.\  wj.NR,  and  his  clothes  in  the  blood  of  gi!apes.  (Hen.  xlix. 
11.)  In  this  district  were  the  vales  of  Sorek  and  of  Eshcol ; 
and  the  cluster  which  the  Hebrew  spies  carried  from  this 
last  place  was  so  large  as  to  be  carried  on  a  staff  between  two 
of  them.  (Num.  xiii.  23.) 

Tlie  Jews  planted  their  vineyards  most  commonly  on  the 
south  side'J  ot  a  hill  or  mountain,  the  stones  being  gathered 
out  and  the  space  hedged  round  with  thorns  or  walled.  (Isa. 
V.  1 — G.  compared  with  Psal.  Ixxx.  8 — IG.  and  Matt.  xxi. 
33.)  A  good  vineyard  consisted  of  a  thousand  vines,  and 
produced  a  rent  of  a  thousand  siluerlings,  or  shekels  of  silver. 
(Isn.  vii.  23.)  It  recpiired  two  hundred  more  to  pay  the 
dressers.  (Song  of  Solomon  viii.  11,  12.)  In  these  the 
keepers  and  vine-dressers  laboured,  digging,  planting,  prun- 
ing, and  propping  the  vines,  gathering  the  grapes,  and  making 
wine.  This  was  at  once  a  laborious  task,  and  often  reckoned 
a  base  one.  (2  Kings  xxv.  12.  Song  of  Solomon  i.  G.  Isa.  Ixi. 
5.)  Some  of  the  best  vineyards  were  at  Engedi,  or  perhaps 
at  Baal-hamon,  which  might  not  be  far  disUtnt,  and  at  Sio- 
mah.  (Song  of  Solomon  i.  14.  viii.  11.  l.sa.  xvi.  9.)  Vines 
also  were  trained  upon  the  walls  of  the  houses'  (Psal. 
cx.xviii.  .').),  and  purged  or  cleaned  by  lopping  off  every  use- 
hss  and  uidriiill'ul  brnncli,  and  sujHrlliious  excrescence,  in 
order  that  the  fruitful  branciies  miglit  l)e  rendered  more  pro- 
ductive. (John  XV.  a.)*!     I'he  tnnes  with  the  tender  grapes  gave 

•  Dr.  Shaw's  Travels  iti  U.ii-l>ary,  vol.  i.  p.  416. 

•  Tliosi(//..<of  tlio  sun-iimnt  liillsnear  Nabloii.s  (the  ancient  Sheehem) — 
the  moiimniiis  of  the  liciifht  of  hrart — "  secui  |)eculiaily  adapted  for  the 
irainins  of  vines.  Tliey  are,  however,  almost  totally  neglected;  forming, 
i!oiibtic»M,  a  remnrkalile  contrast  to  their  slate  in  the  days  of  Israel's  pros- 
perity, wheathe  drunkard*  of  Ephruim  (isa.  xxviii.  1.  3.  7.)  prided  Ihem- 
Hrlvcs  in  tno  abuiidnnre  and  slriiinili  of  their  wines.  IIow  celebrated 
tlirue  jinrt.s  one.-  W'Tf  for  tlii.s  arliiie  df  prrMlucc  we  Irarn  from  several 
notices  in  the  Old  Testament:  Gideon,  liy  a  happy  comparison,  thus  ctis- 
pnrnjjcs  his  own  8cr%'ie,es,  in  the  presence  of  the  F.plirannitus — la  not  the 
ni.BANixn  nf  the  urniirn  of  Ephraim  brtter  lliiin  tlir  ritiln/^r  of  Ahiextr  1 
(Jiidz.  viii.  2.)  And  tlie  resioraii<iii  of  Israel  is  rlcticril)C(l,  partly  l>y  lliclr 
retnrn  In  the  rearlne  of  vineyards,  which  should  yield,  as  formerly  they 
had  done,  an  abiiiubnt  vinlaye."  (Jer.  xxxi.  0.)  Jowett's  Chriiilian  Re- 
8carrh''H  in  s^yria,  Ac.  p.  .'*>!. 

'  The  tiaiiin  moile  of  nilliire  Is  prnrtlsod  in  Persia  to  this  day.  Mr. 
Morier  has  ijivin  an  cnernvini;  on  wood  ilhislralive  of  this  custom,  which 
beautifully  cliicldalcs  the  patriarch  Jacob's  comparison  of  Joseph  lo  a 
fruitful  houpft,vi\\o3c  branches  run  overlheuall.  (Ocn.  xlix.  22.)  Second 
Jouriiey,  p.  iii. 

•  In  modern  Oreecc  the  vine  is  rnl  or  purned  In  the  f.)lIowin;;  manner  : 
— "Only  two  or  thn-o  of  the  prinripal  HProuts  are  permitted  to  grow  up 
frotn  llie  root :  the  reit  an-  rut  olT,  and  this  prarllcc  is  often  called  by  the 
Oreelci  ri.HANiNo."  ll<-v.  John  Ifaril'-y's  Joiirn.il  of  a  Tour  In  Greece,  la 
IdSd.    {;Mis8ioiiary  Retsistcr,  May,  ISIO.  p-  '££>.) 


Sect.  I.j 


VINEYA^S  OF  THE  lEWS. 


a  good  smell  early  in  the  spring  (Sonw  of  Solomon  ii.  13.), 
as  we  learn,  also,  from  Isa.  xviii.  5.  ajare  the  harvest,  that  is, 
the  barky  harvest,  when  the  hud  is  perfect,  and  the  sour  grape 
is  ripening  in  the  Jloiver,  It  was  also  usual  to  erect  tempo- 
rary huts  or  sheds,  made  of  boughs  and  reeds,  to  shelter  the 
servant  who  was  employed  to  guard  the  fruit  when  nearly 
ripe  from  birds  and  other  creatures  of  prey  Tlsa.  i.  11.),'  and 
particularly  from  the  ravages  of  wild  boars  (Psal.  Ixxx.  13.), 
which  to  this  day  are  as  destructive  in  Greece,^  as  they 
anciently  were  in  Palestine.  As  soon  as  the  vintage  was 
completed,  these  sheds  were  either  taken  down  or  suffered  to 
perish.  From  this  circumstance  Job  derives  a  beautiful 
simile,  to  illustrate  the  short  duration  of  the  prosperity  of  the 
wicked,  (xxvii.  18.)'  But  it  appears  from  Isa.  v.  1,  2.  Matt. 
xxi.  33.  and  Mark  xii.  1.,  that  towers  were  erected  for  this 
purpose,  as  they  still  are  in  some  parts  of  Palestine.'' 

"  The  vintage  followed  the  wheat  harvest  and  the  thresh- 
ing (Lev.  xxvi.  5.  Amos  ix.  13.),  about  June  or  July,  when 
the  clusters  of  the  grapes  were  gathered  with  a  sickle,  and 
put  into  baskets  (Jer.  vi.  9.),  carried  and  thrown  into  the 
wine-vat,  or  wine-press,  where  they  were  probably  first  trod- 
den by  men  and  then  pressed.  (Kev.  xiv.  18 — 20.)  It  is 
mentioned,  as  a  mark  of  the  great  work  and  power  of  the 
Messiah,  /  have  trodden  the  figurative  wine-press  alone  ,•  and 
of  the  people  there  ivas  none  with  me.  (Isa.  Ixiii.  3. ;  see  also 
Rev.  xix.  15.)  The  vintage  was  a  season  of  great  mirth. 
Of  the  juice  of  the  squeezed  grapes  were  formed  wine  and 
vinegar.  The  wines  of  Helbon,*  near  Damascus,  and  of 
Lebanon,  where  the  vines  had  a  fine  sun,  were  reckoned 
most  excellent.^  (Ezek.  xxvii.  18.  Hos.  xiv.  7.)  The 
wines  of  Canaan,  being  very  heady,  were  commonly  mixed 
with  water  for  common  use,  as  the  Italians  do  theirs ;  and 
sometimes  they  scented  them  with  frankincense,  myrrh, 
calamus,  and  other  spices  (Prov.  ix.  2.  5.  Song  of  Solomon 
viii.  2.)  :  they  also  scented  their  wine  with  pomegranates, 
or  made  wine  of  their  juice,  as  we  do  of  the  juice  of  currants, 
gooseberries,  &c.  fermented  with  sugar.  W  ine  is  best  when 
old  and  on  the  lees,  the  dregs  havmg  sunk  to  the  bottom, 
(Isa.  XXV.  6.)     Sweet  w-ine  is  that  which  is  made  from 

trapes  fully  ripe.  (Isa.  xlix.  2G.)  The  Israelites  had  two 
inds  of  vinegar,  the  one  was  a  weak  wine,  which  was  used 
for  their  common  drink  in  the  harvest  field,  &c.  (Ruth  ii. 
14.),  as  the  Spaniards  and  Italians  still  do;  and  it  was  pro- 
bably of  this  that  Solomon  was  to  furnish  twenty  thousand 
baths  to  Hiram,  for  his  servants,  the  hewers  that  cut  timber 
in  Lebanon.  (2  Chron.  ii.  10.)  The  other  had  a  sharp  acid 
taste,  like  ours;  and  hence  Solomon  hints,  that  a  sluggard 
vexes  and  hurts  such  as  employ  him  in  business ;  as  vinegar 
is  disagreeable  to  the  teeth,  and  smoke  to  the  eyes  (Prov.  x. 
26.);  zwA  as  vinegar  ^QxrceA.  upon  nitre  s'^oWs  its  virtue  :  so 
he  that  singeth  songs  to  a  heavy  heart  does  but  add  to  its  grief. 
(Prov.  XXV.  20.)  The  poor  were  allowed  to  glean  grapes, 
as  well  as  corn  and  (jther  articles  (Lev.  xix.  10.  Deut.  xxiv. 
21.  Isa.  iii.  14.  xvii.  6.  xxiv.  13.  Mic.  vii.  1.);  and  the 
gleaning  of  the  grapes  of  Ephraim  was  better  than  the  vintage 
of  Abiezer.  (Judg.  viii.  2.)  The  vineyard  was  not  to  be 
pruned  and  dressed  in  the  Sabbatical  year.  (Lev.  xxv.  3, 
4.)  The  vessels  in  which  the  wine  was  kept  were,  proba- 
bly, for  the  most  part,  bottles,  which  were  usually  made  of 
leather,  or  goat-skms,  firmly  sewed  and  pitched  together. 
The  Arabs  pull  the  skin  off  goats  in  the  same  manner  that 
we  do  from  rabbits,  and  sew  up  the  places  where  the  legs 
and  tail  were  cut  off,  leaving  one  for  the  neck  of  the  bottle, 
to  pour  from ;  and  in  such  bags,  they  put  up  and  carry,  not 

>  Isa.  i.  8.  And  the  daughter  of  Zion  is  left  as  a  cottage  in  a  vineyard, 
as  a  lodge  in  a  g-arrfera  of  cucumbers.     "There  is  a  small  species  of 

cucumber  of  which  the  natives  of  India  are  very  fond Large  fields  of 

these  are  sometimes  planted ;  which,  when  nearly  arrived  to  maturity, 
require  incessant  watching  to  protect  them  from  the  attacls  of  man  and 
beast."    Statham's  Indian  Recollections,  p.  90. 

'^  Hartley's  Researches  in  Greece,  pp.  234,  233. 

»  Dr.  Boothroyd  on  Job  xxvii.  18. 

«  In  the  route  between  Jerusalem  and  the  convent  of  Saint  Elias  (which 
is  situated  about  an  hour's  distance  from  that  city),  Mr.  Buckingham  was 
particularly  struck  with  the  appearance  of  several  small  and  detached 
stjuare  towers  in  the  midst  of  the  vine  lands.  These,  his  guide  informed 
hun,  were  used  as  watch-towers,  whence  watchmen  to  this  day  look  out,  in 
order  to  guard  the  produce  of  the  lands  from  depredation.  This  fact  will 
explain  the  use  and  intention  of  the  tower  mentioned  in  Matt.  xxi.  33.  and 
Mark  xii.  1.  Similar  towers  were  seen  by  Captains  Irby  and  Mangles,  as 
they  passed  between  numerous  vineyards,  some  of  which  appeared  to  be 
antique.    Travels  in  Egypt,  <fec.  p.  342. 

'  At  one  time  the  wine  of  Helbon  (which  place  Strabo  terms  Chalybon) 
was  held  in  such  repute,  that  it  was  appropnated  exclusively  to  the  use  of 
the  kings  of  Persia.    Strabon,  Geographia,  torn.  ii.  p.  1043.  edit.  Oxon. 

*  Lebanon  and  its  vicinity  still  produce  excellent  wine ; — at  least  a  dozen 
sorts,  all  of  which  are  cheap.    Carnc's  Letters  from  the  East,  p.  239. 


179 

only  their  liquors,  but  dry  things  which  are  not  apt  to  be 
broken ;  by  which  means  they  are  well  preserved  from  wet, 
dust,  or  insects.  These  would  in  time  crack  and  w^^  out. 
Hence,  when  the  Gibeonites  came  to  Joshua,  pretending  that 
they  came  from  a  far  country,  amonrrst  other  things  they 
brought  wine  bottles  old  and  rent,  antf  hound  up  where  they 
had  leaked.  (Josh.  ix.  4.  13.)  Thus,  too,  it  was  not  expe- 
dient to  put  new  wine  into  old  bottles,  because  the  fermenta- 
tion of  it  would  break  or  crack  the  bottles.  (Matt.  ix.  17.) 
And  thus  David  complains,  that  he  is  become  like  a  bottle 
in  the  smoke ,-  that  is,  a  bottle  dried,  and  cracked,  and  worn 
out,  and  unfit  for  service.  (Psal.  cxix.  83.)  These  bottles 
were  probably  of  various  sizes,  and  sometimes  very  large ; 
for  when  Abigail  went  to  meet  David  and  his  four  hundred 
men,  and  took  a  present  to  pacify  and  supply  him,  tu'o  hun- 
dred loaves,  and  jive  sheep  ready  dressed,  &c.  she  took  only 
TWO  bottles  of  wine  (1  Sam.  xxv.  18.) ;  a  very  disproportion- 
ate Quantity,  unless  the  bottles  were  large.  But  the  Israel- 
ites had  bottles  likewise  made  by  the  potters.  (See  Isa.  xxx. 
14.  margin,  and  Jer.  xix.  1.  10.  xlviii.  12.)  We  hear  also 
of  vessels  called  barrels.  That  of  the  widow,  in  which  her 
meal  was  held  (1  Kings  xvii.  12.  14.)  was  not,  probably, 
very  large ;  but  those  four  in  which  the  water  was  brought 
up  from  the  sea,  at  the  bottom  of  Mount  Carmel,  to  pour  upon 
Elijah's  sacrifice  and  altar,  must  have  been  large.  (1  Kings 
xviii.  33.^  We  read  likewise  of  other  vessels,  which  tKe 
widow  01  Shunem  borrowed  of  her  neighbours,  to  hold  the 
miraculous  supply  of  oil  (2  Kings  iv.  2 — 6.) ;  and  of  the 
wafer-pots,  or  jars,  or  jugs,  of  stone,  of  considerable  size,  in 
which  our  Lord  caused  the  water  to  be  converted  into  wine. 
(John  ii.  6.)  Grapes,  among  the  Israelites,  were  likewise 
dried  into  raisins.  A  part  of  Abigail's  present  to  David  was 
an  hundred  clusters  of  raisins  (1  Sam.  xxv.  18.)  ;  and  when 
Ziba  met  David,  his  present  contained  the  same  quantity. 
(2  Sam.  xvi.  1.;  see  also  1  Sam.  xxx.  12.  and  1  Chron. 
xii.  40.)"  7 

It  was  a  curse  pronounced  upon  the  Israelites,  that,  upon 
their  disobedience,  they  should  plant  vineyards  and  dress 
them,  but  they  should  neither  drink  of  the  wine  nor  eat  the 
grapes,  for  the  worms  should  eat  them.  (Deut.  xxviii.  39.) 
It  seems  that  there  is  a  peculiar  sort  of  worms  that  infest  the 
vines,  called  by  the  Latins  Vol  vox  and  Convolvulus,  because 
it  wraps  and  rolls  itself  up  in  the  buds,  and  eats  the  grapes 
up,  when  they  advance  towards  ripeness,  as  the  Roman  au- 
thors explain  it.» 

Besides  other  fruits  that  were  common  in  Judeea,  as  dates, 
fip,  cucumbers,^  pomegranates,  they  had  regular  plantations 
of^  olives,  Avhich  were  a  very  ancient  and  profitable  object  of 
horticulture.  So  early  as  the  time  of  Noah  (Gen.  \'iii.  11.) 
the  branches  of  the  olive  tree  were,  and  since  that  time  hava 
been  among  all  nations,  the  symbol  of  peace  and  prosperity. 
Oil  is  first  mentioned  in  Gen.  xxviii.  18.  and  Job  xxiv.  11. 5 
which  proves  the  great  antiquity  of  the  cultivation  of  thij 
tree.  Olives,  in  Palestine,  are  of  the  best  growth,  and  afford 
the  finest  oil ;  whence  that  country  is  oflen  extolled  in  the 
Scriptures  on  account  of  this  tree,  and  especially  in  opposi« 
tion  to  Egypt,  which  is  destitute  of  good  olives.  (Num. 
xviii.  12.  Deut.  vii.  13.  xi.  14.  xii.  17.  xviii.  4.)  The  olive 
delights  in  a  barren,  sandy,  dry,  and  mountainous  soil ;  and 
its  multiplied  branches  (which  are  very  agreeable  to  the  ey« 
as  they  remain  green  throughout  the  winter)  have  caused  it  to 
be  represented  as  the  symbol  of  a  numerous  progeny, — a 

'  Investigator,  No,  iv.  pp.  307— 309.— The  pleasing  and  instructive  Essay 
on  the  Agriculture  of  the  Israelites  (by  the  Rev.  James  Plumptre),  in  tha 
first,  third,  and  fourth  numbers  of  this  journal,  contains  the  fullest  accouul 
of  this  interesting  subject  extant  in  the  English  language. 

8  Bochart.  Ilieroz.  p.  3.  1.  iv.  c.  27. 

3  On  the  cultivation  of  this  valuable  article  of  food  in  the  East,  Mr. 
Jowelt  has  communicated  the  following  interesting  particulars.  During 
his  voyage  to  Upper  Egypt,  in  February,  1819,  he  says,  "  We  observed  the 
people  making  holes  in  the  sandy  soil  on  the  side  of  the  river.  Into  these 
holes  they  put  a  small  quantity  of  pigeons'  dung  and  feathers,  with  the  seed 
of  melons  or  cucumbers.  The  vafue  of  this  manure  is  alluded  to  in  2 
Kings  vi.  2-5.  The  produce  of  this  toil  I  had  an  opportunity  of  seeing,  in 
due  season  ;  that  is  the  following  month  of  June.  Extensive  fields  of  ripe 
melons  and  cucumbers  then  adorned  the  sides  of  the  river.  They  grew  in 
such  abundance,  that  the  sailors  freely  helped  themselves.  Some  guard, 
however,  is  placed  upon  them.  Occasionally,  but  at  long  and  desolate  in- 
tervals, we  may  observe  a  litde  hut  made  of  reeds,  just  capable  of  contain- 
ing one  man  ;  being,  in  fact,  little  more  than  a  fence  against  a  north  wind. 
In  these  I  have  observed,  sometimes,  a  poor  old  man,  perhaps  lame, 
feebly  protecting  the  property.    It  exactly  illustrates  Isaiah  i.  8.    And  the 

daughter  of  Zion  is  left as  a  lodge  in  a  garden  of  cucumbers.    The 

abundance  of  these  most  necessary  vegetables  brings  to  mind  the  mur- 
murs of  the  Israelites ;  Num.  xi.  5,  6.  We  remember t/te  cucumbers, 

and  the  melons,  and  the  leeks,  and  the  onions,  and  the  garlick;  but  now 
our  soul  is  dried  avoay."  Jowett's  Researches  in  the  Mediterranean, 
&c.  p.  127. 


180 


ON  THE  ARTS  CULTIVATED  BY 


[PautIV.  Chap.  Vn. 


blessinff  which  was  agcribed  to  the  peculiar  favour  of  God. 
(Psal.  lii.  8.  cxxviii.  3.  Jer.  xi.  16.  Hos.  xiv.  6.)  The  oil, 
extilfcted  from  it  by  a  press,  enable  the  Jews  to  carry  on  an 
extensive  commerce  with  the  Tyrians  (Ezek.  xx^^i.  17.  com- 
pared with  1  Kings  v.  11.);  they  also  sent  presents  of  oil  to 
the  Ivings  of  Kgj^pt.  (Hos.  xii.  1.)  The  berries  of  tlie  olive 
trcft  were  sometimes  plucked  or  carefully  shaken  off  by  the 
nand  before  they  were  ripe.  (Isa.  xvii.  G.  xxiv.  13.  Deut. 
xxiv,  20.)  It  appears  from  Mio.  vi.  15.  that  the  presses  for 
^tracting  the  oil  wore  worked  with  the  feet ;  the  best  and 
purest  oil,  in  Exod.  xxvii.  20.  termed  pure  oil-olive  beaten, 
was  tliat  obtained  by  only  beating  and  squeezing  the  olives, 
■without  subiectintr  ihem  to  the  press. 

Among  the  judgments  witli  which  God  threatened  the 
Israelites  for  their  sins,  it  was  denounced,  that  though  they 
had  olive  trees  through  all  their  coasts,  yet  they  should  not 
anoint  themselves  with  the  oil,  for  the  olive  sliould  cast  her 
fruit  (Deut.  xxviii.  10.);  being  blasted  (as  the  Jerusalem 
Targuni  explains  it)  in  the  very  blossom,  the  buds  should 
drop  off  for  want  of  rain,  or  the  fruit  should  be  eaten  with 
worms.  IMaimonides  observes,'  that  the  idolaters  in  those 
countries  pretended  by  certain  magical  arts  to  preserve  all 
manner  oi  fruit,  so  that  the  worms  should  not  gnaw  the  vines, 
nor  either  buds  or  fruits  fall  from  the  trees  (as  he  relates  their 
words  out  of  one  of  their  books)  :  in  order,  therefore,  that  he 
might  deter  the  Israelites  from  all  idolatrous  practices,  Moses 
pronounces  that  they  should  draw  upon  themselves  those  very 
punishments,  which  they  endeavoured  by  such  means  to 
avoid. 

The  ancient  Hcl)rews  were  very  fond  of  Gardens,  which 
are  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Sacred  Writings,  and  derive 
their  appellations  from  the  prevalence  of  certain  trees ;  as  the 
garden  of  nuts  zni  o(  pomegranates.  (Sol.  Song  vi.  11.  iv.  13.) 
The  modern  inhabitants  of  the  East  take  equal  delight  in 
gardens  with  the  ancient  Hebrews,  on  account  of  the  refresh- 
ing shade  and  delicious  fruits  which  they  afford,  and  also 
because  the  air  is  cooled  by  the  waters  of  which  tlicir  gar- 
dens are  never  allowed  to  be  destitute.  ( 1  Kings  xxi.  2.  2  Kings 
XXV.  4.  Eccles.  ii.  5,  G.  John  xviii.  1.  xix.  41.)  Tiic  Jews 
were  ^eatly  attached  to  gardens,  as  places  of  burial :  hence 
they  Irequently  built  sepulchres  in  them.  (2  Kings  xxi.  18. 
Mark  xv.  46.)  A  pleasant  region  is  called  a  garden  of  the 
Lord,  or  of  God,  that  is,  a  region  extremely  pleasant.  See 
examples  in  Gen.  xiii.  10.  Isa.  li.  3.  and  Lzck.  xxxi.  8.2 

VII.  The  sacred  poets  derive  many  beautiful  ^Vixusioks 
and  Images  from  the  rural  and  domestic  economy  of  the 
Jews ;  and  as  the  same  pursuits  were  cherished  and  followed 
by  them  during  the  manifestation  of  our  Redeemer,  "  it  is 
natural  to  imagine  that  in  the  writings  of  Jews  there  must 
occur  frequent  allusions  to  the  implements  and  arts  of  agri- 
culture, and  to  those  rustic  occupations  which  in  general 
formed  the  study  and  exercise  of  this  nation.  Hence  the 
beautiful  images  and  apt  sUnilitudes  in  the  following  pas- 
sages : — No  one  having  put  his  hand  to  the  plough  and  look' 
ing  back  [h  fit  for  thelcingdom  of  God. —  Ye  are  God''s  iius- 
BANDRV,  or  cultivated  field,'— ,>!  workman  that  needeth  not  to  be 
as/uimcd,  rightly  dividing'  the  word  of  truth. —  fVhercfore  lay 
apart  all  filthincss  and  supcrjhiity  of  naughlincfs,  and  receive 
with  luctkncsB  the  engrafted  word.—  Whatsoever  a  yuan  soweth, 
tliat  shall  he  reap  :  he  thai  soweth  to  /Ac y/ti/fc— lives  a  sensual 
Wio—sluill  from  the  flesh  reap  destruction,  hut  he  that  soweth 
to  t/ie  spirit, — lives  a  rational  life— JsAa//  from  t/ie  spirit  rkap 
everlasting  life. — Consider  the  ravcfis,  they  sow  not,  neither  do 
they  REAP,  or  gather  into  barns,  yet  your  licavenly  Father 
feeddh  them, — lam  the  good  shkvheud,  and  know  my  shekp, 
and  am  known  of  mine.— .Fear  not,  little  flock,  it  is  your 
Fatlier^s  grxjd pleasure  to  give  you  the  kingdom.  How  striking 
is  the  parable  of  the  sower,  whicli,  by  seed,  scatlfired  promis- 
cuously, and  in  every  direction  by  a  hunbandmun,  and 
meeting  a  various  fate,  according  to  the  respective  nature 
of  the  soil  into  which  it  fell,  represents  the  different  re- 
ception which  Gospel  doctrine  would  experience  in  tiic 
•world,  according  to  the  different  dispositions  and  princinlcs 
of  that  mind  into  which  it  was  admitted  !     Ik  that  aowttli  the 

«  More  Ncvoch.  p.  3.  c.  3T. 

»  Ikenll  Aiu!r|uii,iio!i  Hebr.  pp.  W3— 5W.  Parenn,  Antlq.  Ilcbr.  pp.  •IOC 
—411.    Jnhti  el  Aclcoriiiann,  Arclioool.  Biljl.  ii  C7-70. 

•  1  Cor.  iii.  9.    wisu  yi.pyio». 

*  2  Tim.  li.  15.  Ecyalnv  oij^oto^ouvtii.  A  bonutlful  nnd  expressive 
lin«Ku  lakun  from  a  liusliQiKjiuan  OfVuTHi)  drawina  \\U  furrow  evi'n,  miJ 
culling  the  groun'l  in  a  tllrtcl  line.  EmcHtl  says,  iiiiit  tlic  r.ognnic  wonls 
cf *0To;4.»  in  used  by  CIcmcDH  Alcxanilrinua,  Euycbiua,  ami  oihcrf,  for 
•  pJ;5o£.«— riglit  iloclriiio.  In^ilil.  Intern.  Nov.  Test.  p.  109.  (Edit.  17'J2.) 
A  limilar  reuiark  is  also  Uiaclo  by  Schoclsiicr,  voce  »f  Jcto/ui,*. 


GOOD  SEED  ts  the  Son  of  Man;  the  field  is  the  world;  the 
GOOD  SEED  are  the  children  of  the  kingdom  ;  the  tares  are  tJie 
children  of  the  wicked  one ;  the  enemy  that  sowed  them  is  the 
devil;  the  harvest  is  the  aid  of  the  icorld ;  and  the  reapers 
arc  tlie  angels,  .is  thcrcfwe  the  tares  are  gathered  and  burnt 
in  the  fire,  so  shall  it  be  in  the  end  of  the  world. —  Whose  fan  is 
in  his  hand,  and  he  will  tlwroughly  purge  his  floor,  and 
gather  his  wheat  into  the  garner,  but  he  will  burn  up  the 
CHAFF  with  unquenchable  FIRE.  I5y  what  an  apt  and  awful 
similitude  docs  St.  Paul  represent  God's  rejection  of  the 
Jews  and  admission  of  the  heathens,  by  the  boughs  of  an 
olive  being  lopped  off,  and  the  scion  of  a  young  olive 
ingrafted  into  tlie  old  tree  I  (liom.  xi.  17.  &c.)" — a  prac- 
tice which  still  obtains  in  the  INIorea  or  Peloponnesus  ;* 
"  and,  by  continuing  the  same  imageiy,  how  strictly  does  he 
caution  the  Gentiles  against  insolently  exulting  over  the  mu- 
tilated branches  and  cherishing  the  vain  conceit  that  the 
boughs  were  lopped  off  merely  that  they  might  be  ingrafted ; 
for  if  God  spared  not  the  native  branches,  they  had  greater 
reason  to  fear  lest  he  would  not  spare  them ;  that  they  should 
remember  that  the  Jews  througn  their  wilful  disbelief  of 
Christianity  were  cut  off,  and  that  they,  the  Gentiles,  if  they 
disgrace  their  religion,  would  in  like  manner  forfeit  the 
divine  favour,  and  their  present  flourishing  branches  be  also 
cut  down !  To  inspire  the  Gentile  Christians  with  humility, 
he  concludes  with  assuring  them  that  the  Jewish  nation, 
though  they  had  experienced  the  severity  of  God,  as  he  calls 
it,  were  not  totally  forsaken  of  the  Almighty:  that  the 
branches,  though  cut  down  and  rol)bcd  of  their  ancient  ho- 
nours, were  not  abandoned  to  perish  :  when  the  Jews  returned 
from  their  infidelity  they  would  be  ingrafted  : — an  omnipotent 
hand  was  still  able  to  reinsert  them  into  their  original  stock. 
For  if  thou,  O  heathen,  the  scion  of  an  unfruitful  wild  olive, 
wert  cut  out  of  thy  own  native  barren  tree,  and,  by  a  process 
repugnant  to  the  ordinary  laws  of  nature,  Avert  ingrafted  into 
the  fruitful  generous  olive — h&w  much  more  will  not  those, 
who  naturally  belong  to  the  ancient  stock,  be,  in  future  time, 
ingrafted  into  their  own  kindred  olive  !  With  what  singular 
beauty  and  propriety  is  the  gradual  progress  of  religion  in  the 
soul,  from  the  oegiuning  to  Us  maturity,  represented  by  seed 
committed  to  a  generous  soil,  which,  after  a  few  successions 
of  day  and  night,  imperceptibly  vegetates — peeps  above  the 
surface — springs  higlier  and  higher — and  spontaneously  pro- 
ducing, first,  the  verdant  blade — then  the  ear — aftcrAvards  the 
swelling  grain,  gradually  filling  the  ear  (Mark  iv.  27, 28.) ;« 
and  when  the  time  of  harvest  is  come,  and  it  is  arrived  at  its 
maturity,  it  is  then  reaped  and  collected  into  the  storehouse. 
Ueautitul  illustrations  and  images  like  these,  taken  from  rural 
life,  must  seal  the  strongest  impressions,  particularly  upon 
the  minds  of  Jews,  wlio  were  daily  employed  in  these  occu- 
pations, from  which  these  pertinent  similes  and  expressive 
comparisons  were  borrowed."' 


SECnON  II. 


on  the  arts  cultivated  by  the  HEBREWS  OR  JEWS. 

I.  Origin  of  the  arts. — State  of  them  from  the  deluge  to  tlie  time 
of  J\lQsea. — II.  State  of  the  arts  from  the  time  of  Jifosis  until 
the  captivity. — III.  State  of  the  arts  after  the  captivity,— 
IV.  ..iccounl  of  some  of  the  arts  practised  by  the  Jcius. — 
1.  Writing  ; — JMaterials  used  for  this  purpose  ; — letters;—.' 
Form  of  books. — 2.  Engraving. — 3.  Painting. — V.  ,llusic 
and  musical  instruments. — VI.  Dancing, 

I.  The  arts,  which  are  now  brought  to  such  an  admirable 
stale  of  perfection,  it  is  universally  allowed,  must  have  origi- 
nated partly  in  necessity  and  partly  in  accident.  At  first  they 
must  nave  been  very  imjiertect  and  very  limited ;  but  the 

»  TboHfv.  J.ihn  Ilnrtloy,  wlio  iravoUcil  inOrocco  in  IKS,  says,—"]  had 
my  atlcntlon  tilructtiJ  to  the  practice  of  itrnlling  the  olivo  IrocH,  to  wlilch 
St.  Paul  alluilcs.  (Uom.  xi.  17.  W.  23,  !il.)  LoRothclcs"  (hlH  frirnd  and 
guide)  '•  Kliiiwed  iiio  a  f<'W  uilil  olives  ;  hut  by  far  thi^  greater  nuinher  aro 
liucli  aa  havu  been  grafted.  Ho  inforuis  inc  that  It  in  ilie  universal  practice 
in  (ireece  to  Hraii,  from  a  good  tree,  upon  the  wild  olive."  (Missionary 
Ri>'islor,  May,  ISJO,  p.  2iV) 

•  8emlniH  moilo  hpargenda  sunt,  quod  qnnmvlg  tit  cxiguuin,  cum  occu- 
pavit  Kloneum  locum,  vires  suas  cxiilicat,  ct  ex  nilniiiio  in  nm.<iiiios  auclus 
(liiruncliiur.    Sei.ecM  Opera,  torn.  ii.  epNt.  38.  p.  131.  cdii.  Urunovil.  1072. 

1  Uarwoud'a  liitrodutiion,  vol.  ii.  pp.  107— 1 12. 


Sect.  II.] 


THE  HEBREWS. 


inquisitive  and  active  mind  of  man,  seconded  by  his  wants, 
soon  secured  to  them  a  greater  extent,  and  fe^ver  imperfec- 
tions. Accordingly,  in  the  fourth  generation  after  the  crea- 
tion of  man,  we  find  mention  made  of  artificers  in  brass  and 
iron,  and  also  of  musical  instruments.  (Gen.  iv.  21,  22.) 
Those  communities,  which,  from  local  or  other  causes,  could 
not  flourish  by  means  of  agriculture,  would  necessarily  direct 
their  att,ention  to  the  encouragement  and  imptovement  of  the 
arts.  These,  consequently,  advanced  with  great  rapidity, 
and  were  carried  to  a  high  pitch  so  far  back  as  the  time  of 
Noah ;  as  we  may  learn  from  the  very  large  vessel  built 
under  his  direction,  the  construction  of  which  shows  that  they 
must  have  been  well  acquainted  with  some  at  least  of  the 
mechanical  arts.  They  nad  also,  without  doubt,  seen  the 
operations  of  artificers  in  other  ways  besides  that  of  building, 
and  alter  the  deluge  imitated  their  Avorks  as  well  as  they 
could.  Hence  it  is,  that  shortly  after  that  event,  we  find 
mention  made  of  utensils,  ornaments,  and  many  other  things 
which  imply  a  knowledge  of  the  arts.     Compare  Gen.  ix.  21. 


181 


omp; 
xviii. 


4—6.  xix.  32. 


xi.  1—9.  xii.  7,  8.  xiv.  1 — 16.  xvii.  10. 
xxxi.  19.  27.  34. 

II.  Egypt  in  the  early  age  of  the  world  excelled  all  other 
nations  in  a  knowledge  of  the  arts.  Altliough  the  Hebrews 
during  their  residence  in  Egypt  applied  themselves  to  the 
rearing  of  cattle,  yet  they  could  not  remain  four  hundred 
years  in  that  country  V/ithout  becoming  initiated  to  a  consi- 
derable degree  into  that  knowledge  v/hich  the  Egyptians 
possessed.  Among  other  labours  imposed  upon  them,  was 
the  buildincr  of  treasure  cities  (Exod.  i.  11 — 14.),  and,  ac- 
cording to  Josephus,  they  were  employed  in  erecting  pyra- 
mids.' Moses,  it  is  true,  did  not  enact  any  special  laws  in 
favour  of  the  «r/.?,  nor  did  he  interdict  them  or  lessen  them  in 
the  estimation  of  the  people ;  on  the  contrary,  he  speaks  in 
the  praise  of  artificers.  (Exod.  xxxv.  30 — 35.  xxxvi,  1.  et 
seq,  xxxviii.  22,  23,  &c.)  The  grand  object  of  Moses,  in  a 
temporal  point  of  view,  was  to  promote  agriculture,  and  he 
thought  it  best,  as  was  done  in  other  nations,  to  leave  the  arts 
to  the  ingenuity  and  industry  of  the  people. 

Soon  after  the  death  of  Joshua,  a  place  was  expressly  al- 
lotted by  Joab,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  to  artificers :  for  in  the 
genealogy  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  delivered  in  1  Chron.  iv.  14., 
we  read  of  a  place'called  the  Valky  of  Craftsmen,  and  (verse 
21.  23.)  of  a  family  of  workmen  of  fine  linen,  and  another 
of  potters :  and  when  Jerusalem  was  taken  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, the  enemy  carried  away  all  the  craftsmen  and  smiths. 
(2  Kings  xxiv.  14.)  But  as  a  proof  that  their  skill  in  manu- 
factures, and  trade  therein,  could  not  be  very  extensive,  we 
find  that  the  prophet  Ezekiel  (chap,  xxvii.),  in  describing  the 
affluence  of  tne  goods  which  came  to  Tyre,  makes  mention 
of  nothing  brought  thither  from  Judaea,  except  wheat,  oil, 
grapes,  and  balm,  which  were  all  the  natural  products  of 
their  ground.  It  appears  that  the  mistress  of  the  family 
usually  made  the  clothing  for  her  husband,  her  children,  and 
herself,  and  also  for  sale.  (Exod.  xxxv.  25.  1  Sam.  ii.  19. 
Prov.  xxxi.  18 — 24.  Acts  ix.  39.)  Employment,  conse- 
quently, as  far  as  the  arts  were  concerned,  was  limited  chiefly 
to  those  who  engaged  in  the  more  difficult  performances ;  for 
instance,  those  who  built  chariots,  hewed  stones,  sculptured 
idols  or  made  them  of  metal,  or  who  made  instruments  of 
gold,  silver,  and  brass,  and  vessels  of  clay,  and  the  like. 
(See  Judg.  xvii.  4.  Isa.  xxix.  16.  xxx.  14.  Jer.  xxviii.  13.) 
In  the  time  of  Saul,  mention  is  made  of  smiths,  who  manu- 
factured implements  of  agriculture  as  well  as  arms ;  but  who 
were  carried  off  by  the  Philistines,  in  order  that  they  might 
be  enabled  to  keep  the  Israelites  more  effectually  in  subjec- 
tion. (1  Sam.  xiii.  19 — 22.)  Among  the  Hebrews,  artificers 
were  not,  as  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  servants  and 
slaves,  but  men  of  some  rank  and  wealth :  and  as  luxury  and 
riches  increased,  they  became  very  numerous.  (Jer.  xxiv.  1. 
xxix.2. 2Kings  xxiv.  14.)  Building  and  architecture,  however, 
did  not  attain  much  perfection  prior  to  the  reign  of  the  accom- 
plished Solomon.  We  read,  indeed,  before  the  Israelites  came 
into  the  land  of  Canaan,  that  Bezaleel  and  Aholiab  (who  were 
employed  in  the  construction  of  the  tabernacle)  excelled  in 
all  manner  of  workmanship  (Exod.  xxxv.  30 — 35.),  but  we 
are  there  told,  that  they  had  their  skill  by  inspiration  from 
God,  and  it  does  not  appear  that  they  had  any  successors; 
for  in  the  days  of  Solomon,  when  the  Hebrews  were  at  rest 
from  all  their  enemies,  and  were  perfectly  at  liberty  to  follow 
out  improvements  of  every  kind,  yet  they  had  no  professed 
artists  that  could  undertake  the  work  of  the  temple  ;  so  that, 

1  Antiq.  lib.  ii.  c.  9.  §  1. 


in  the  commencement  of  his  reign,  Solomon  was  obliffed  to 
send  to  Hiram  king  of  Tyre  for  a  skilful  artist  (2  Chron.  ii. 
7.),  by  whose  direction  the  model  of  the  temple  and  all  the 
curious  furniture  of  it  was  both  designed  and  finished.  From 
the  Syrians  the  Israelites  must  have  learned  much,  because, 
long  after  the  reign  of  Solomon,  there  were  numerous  native 
artisans  employed  m  carpentry  and  building  (2  Kings  xii. 
.  Tt  ,  ^^";  ^— ^0  ;  ai«^  among  the  captives  carried  away 
by  Nebuchadnezzar,  all  the  craftsmen  and  smiths  are  generally 
noticed.  (2  Kings  xxiv.  14.)  But  besides  these,  mention  ia 

made  of  particular  manufactures,  as  potters  (Jer.  xviii,  2 4  ) 

fullers  (2  Kings  xviii.  17.  Isa.  vii.  3.  Mai.  iii.  2.  Mark  ix 
30,   bakers  (Jer.  xxxvii.  21.    Hos.  vii.  4.),  and  barbers! 
(Ezek.  V.  1.) 

HI.  During  the  captivity  many  Hebrews  (most  commonly 
those  to  whom  a  barren  tract  of  the  soil  had  been  assigned) 
applied  themselves  to  the  arts  and  to  merchandise.  Subse- 
quently, when  they  were  scattered  abroad  among  difierent 
nations,  a  knowledge  of  the  arts  became  so  popular,  that  the 
Talmudists  taught  that  all  parents  ought  to  teach  their  chil- 
dren some  art  or  handicraft.  They  indeed  mention  many 
learned  men  of  their  nation,  who  practised  some  kind  of 
manual  labour,  or,  as  we  should  say,  followed  some  trade. 
Accordingly,  we  find  in  the  New  Testament,  that  Joseph  the 
husband  of  Mary  was  a  carpenter,  and  that  he  was  assisted 
by  no  less  a  personage  tlian  our  Saviour  in  his  labours.  (Matt, 
xiii.  55.  Mark  vi.  3.)  Simon  is  mentioned  as  a  tanner  in  the 
city  of  Joppa.2  (Acts  ix.  43.  x.  32.)  Alexander,  a  learned 
Jew,  was  a  cop])er-smith  (2  Tim.  iv.  14.) ;  Paul  and  Aquila 
were  tent  makers,  vKxvoTroiot.  Not  only  the  Greeks,  but  the 
Jews  also,  esteemed  certain  trades  infamous.  At  any  rate, 
the  Rabbins  reckoned  the  driver  of  asses  and  camels,  barbers, 
sailors,  shepherds,  and  inn-keepers,  in  the  same  class  with 
robbers.  Those  Ephesians  and  Cretans,  who  were  lovers 
of  gain,  a.icr;)(^po>ief^iuc  (1  Tim.  iii.  8.  Tit.  i.  7.),  were  men,  as 
we  may  learn  from  ancient  writers,  who  were  determined  to 
get  money,  in  however  base  a  manner.  In  the  apostolic  age, 
the  more  eminent  Greek  tradesmen  were  united  into  a  society, 
(Acts  xix.  2o.y 

IV.  Account  of  some  of  the  principal  Arts  practised 
BY  THE  Jews.  '^ 

1.  Writing. — We  meet  with  no  notice  of  this  art  in  the 
Old  Testament  before  the  copy  of  the  law  was  given  by  God 
to  Moses,  which  was  written  (that  is,  engraven)  an  two  tables 
of  sto7ie  by  the  finger  of  God  (Exod.  xxxi.  18.),  and  this  is 
called  the  writing  of  God.  (^Exod.  xxxii.  16.)  It  is,  there- 
fore, probable  that  God  himself  was  the  first  who  taught 
letters  to  Moses,  who  communicated  the  knowledge  of  them 
to  the  Israelites,  and  they  to  the  other  eastern  nations.-*  En- 
graving or  sculpture  seems,  therefore,  to  be  the  most  ancient 
way  of  writing,  of  which  we  have  another  very  early  instance 
in  Exod.  xxxix.  30.,  where  we  are  told  that  "holiness  to 
the  Lord"  was  written  on  a  golden  plate,  and  worn  on  the 
high-priest's  head.  And  we  find  that  the  names  of  the 
twelve  tribes  were  commanded  to  be  written  on  twelve  rods. 
(Num.  xvii.  2.)  To  this  mode  of  writing  there  is  an  allu- 
sion in  Ezek.  xxxvii.  16.^  In  later  times  the  iews  made 
use  of  broad  rushes  or  flags  for  writing  on,  which  grew  in 
great  abundance  in  Egypt,  and  are  noticed  by  the  prophet 
Isaiah  when  foretelling  the  confusion  of  that  country.     (Isa. 


2  The  trade  of  a  tanner  was  esteemed  by  the  Jews  so  contemptible,  tkat 
•all  wto  followed  it  were  required  to  mention  the  same  before  their  ra«niage, 

uncier  the  penalty  of  the  nuptials  being  void.  It  is  recorded  in  the  iMisna, 
that,  after  the  death  of  a  man  whose  brother  had  exercised  the  trade  of  a 
tanner,  the  wise  men  of  Sidon  determined,  that  the  widow  of  the  deceaseri 
was  permitted  to  decline  intermarrying  with  that  brother.  Townsend's 
Harmony  of  tl>e  New  Test.  vol.  ii.  p.  103. 

3  Jahn's  Archroologia  Biblica,  by  Mr.  Upham,  §§  80—84.  Pareau,  Antiq. 
Hebr.  pp.  419-^23. 

<  We  know  that  the  inhabitants  of  Yemen  or  the  Southern  Arabia  wera 
accustomed,  in  the  remotest  ages,  to  inscribe  their  laws  and  wise  sayings 
upon  stone.  See  Meidanii  Proverb.  Arab.  p.  45.  (cited  in  Burder's  Orien. 
tal  Literature,  vol.  i.  p.  198.)  and  Dr.  A.  Clarke's  Conunentai-y,  on  Exod, 
x.Y.xii.  15. 

»  Writing  on  billets  or  sticks  was  practised  by  the  Greeks.  Plutarch,  in 
his  Life  of  Solon  (Vifx,  torn.  i.  p.  90.  ed.  Bryan.),  and  Aulus  Gcllius  (Noct. 
Att.  lib.  ii.  c.  12.),  inform  us  that  the  vei7  ancient  laws  of  that  philosopher, 
prescfrved  at  Athens,  wcreJtecribed  on  tablets  of  wood  called  Axoncs.  In 
later  times  a  similar  mode  ^\\-riting  wa.s  piactised  by  the  aboriginal  Bri- 
tons, who  cut  their  letters  upon  sticks,  which  were  most  commonly  squared, 
and  sometimes  formed  into  three  sides  ;  consequently  a  single  stick  con- 
tained either  fouror  three  lines.  (See  Ezek.  xxxvii.  16.)  The  squarcswere 
used  for  general  subjects,  and  for  stanzas  of  four  lines  in  poetry  ;  the  tri- 
lateral ones  were  adapted  to  triades,  and  for  a  peculiar  kind  of  ancient 
metre,  called  Trihan  or  triplet,  and  Englyn  Milvyr,  or  the  warrior's 
verse.  Several  sticks  with  writing  upon  them  were  put  together,  forming 
a  kind  of  frame,  which  was  called  Peilhynen  or  elucidator ;  and  was  so 
I  contrived  that  each  stick  might  be  turned  for  the  facility  of  reading,  tha 


182 


ON  THE  ARTS  CULTIVATED  BY 


[Part  IV.  Chap.  VII. 


six.  6,  7.)    VTriting  on  palm  and  other  leaves  is  still  prac- 
tised in  the  East.i 

The  other  eastern  nations  made  use  chiefly  of  parchment, 
being  the  thin  skins  of  animals  carefully  dressed.    The  best 

end  of  each  running  out  alternately  on  both  sides  of  the  frame.    The  sub- 
Joined  cut 

e        n ©       r.        ©      n         ©       r 


ts  an  engraved  specimen  of  ancient  British  writing,  copied  from  Dr.  Fry's 

elegant  "work  cntiiled  Pnntograpliia.  (p.  307.)  The  following  is  a  literal 
reading  in  the  modern  orthogruphy  of  Wales,  with  a  correct  translation ; — 

"Aryv  y  doeih  yw  pnvyll : 
Bid  ezain  alllud : 
Cyvncwid  a  haelion  : 
Dlcngid  rliywan  eid  rhygadam  : 
Enwav.'g  irniciail  o'  i  voc  : 
Goiacn  awcl  yn  nghy  ving  ; 
Uir  oreistez  i  ocan  : 
Llawcr  car  byw  i  Indeg." 

TRANSLATION. 

"  The  weapon  of  the  wise  is  reason : 
Let  the  exile  he  moving  : 
Commerce  with  generous  ones : 

Let  the  very  feeble  run  awav  ;  let  the  very  po.scrfu!  proceed  ; 
The  swineherd  is  proud  of  iiis  swine  : 
A  gale  is  almost  ice  in  a  narrow  place  : 
Long  pen'jnce  to  slander  : 
Tae  frail  Lideg  has  many  living  relations." 

A  continuation  of  this  mode  of  writinc  may  be  found  in  the  Runic  or  Clog, 
'.a  corruption  of  Log}  Almanacks,  which  prevailed  among  the  northern 
Dationa  ofKurope  so  late  even  as  the  sixteenth  century.  Sec  adoscriplion 
and  engraving  of  one  in  Dr.  Plot's  Natural  History  of  .Staffordshire,  pp. 
41B— 15S. 

«  In  tlio  Kloanian  Library,  there  are  upwards  of  twenty  manuscripts 
written  on  leaves,  written  in  the  San!!krit,  Uurman,  Peguan,  Ceyhjnese, 
and  other  lanauagea.  (Aysr.ouglj's  Catalogue  of  the  Slijanc  Library,  pp. 
<jai— OCT,.)  In  T.injnrc  and  ntlicr  parts  of  India,  tiic  palmyra  loaf  is  used. 
<I)r.  C.  Buchanan's  "Clirislian  KescarcheH  in  Asia,"  pp.  70,  71.  Hvo.  edit.) 
''i'iie  coiBfnon  buoks  of  the  liurmans,  like  those  of  the  Hindoos,  pai-ticu. 
larly  of  such  as  inhabit  the  soulhcru  parts  of  India,  are  competed  nf  ilie 
palmyra  leaf,  on  which  the  lellerH  arc  enaraved  with  a  .stylus.  (.Symes's 
Account  of  an  EinbaKsy  to  Ava,  vol.  ii.  p.  400.  8vo.)  In  tlieir  more  elegant 
ijooks,  the  Uurmans  write  on  sheets  of  ivory,  or  on  very  fine  white  pnliny- 
<ru  leaves  :  the  ivory  is  stained  black,  and  the  margins  are  ornameatrd  with 
Tilding,  while  the  characters  axe  enamelled  or  gilt.  On  the  palmyra  Icavrs 
'.  "  characters  are  in  generator  black  onamet :  and  the  ends  of  the  hiaves 

td  njarcins  are  painted  with  (lowers  m  various  bright  colours.  A  hole 
.)iroii):li  Loth  ends  of  each  leaf  serves  to  connect  the  whole  into  a  volume 
by  means  of  two  strlngp,  which  also  pass  through  the  two  wooden  boards 

lat  serve  for  binding.  In  the  finer  binding  of  these  kindrt  of  bookc.  Ilie 
•oards  arc  lacquered  ;  the  edges  of  the  leaves  are  cut  smooth  ami  gilt, 
vnd  the  (itlr  |3  writli;ii  on  the  upper  hoard.  The  two  boards  are  by  .i  knot 
■r  jewel  secumd  at  a  little  flistance  from  the  Imardj^,  so  an  to  pr'viiii  the 


Siiok  from  railing  to  pieces,  hut  siifhi'lrntly  ili.'-tant  to  admit  ot'  the  ujiper 
Mives  being  turned  iiacic,  while  the  lower  on|nkre  read.  The  more  ele- 
,^t  books  are  in  general  wrapped  up  in  silk  oRi,  and  bound  round  by  a 


.•ftrtcr,  in  which  the  natives  ingeniously  contrive  to  weavi-  tlin  till.'  <i(  ilio 
lOok.  (Asiatic  KcHcarcheK,  voL.iv.  p.  ailO.  8vo.  t.lit.)  ThcCeylonose  Home- 
lioiefl  ujake  use  of  the  p(dni  leal',  but  generally  pri'frr  lliu!  of  lh<i  'I'ntipnt 
tret,  on  account  of  its  superior  hreadth  and  lliickneK.i.  Krorn  these  leaves, 
which  are  of  immense  size,  ihoy  cut  out  slips  frotn  a  foot  to  a  foot  and  a 
half  long,  and  ahout  two  mrhes  broad.  These  Rllp<  bein?  smonthril  and 
all  exirescences  pared  olT  wiili  tlic  knife,  they  are  nady  for  one  wiihout 
any  other  preparation  :  a  fine-pointed  steel  pencil,  like  a  bodkin,  and  set 
in  a  wocili;n  or  ivory  hamlle,  ornaiiimted  according  to  the  owner's  l««te, 
«  employed  to  writ*,  or  rather,  to  engrave,  their  characters  on  IhcK.'  udi- 
pot  ilips,  which  arc  very  thick  and  toug.'i.    In  order  to  render  the  charac- 


was  made  at  Per^amos,  whence  it  was  called  Charia  FergO' 
mena.  It  is  probable  that  the  Jews  learned  the  use  of  it 
from  them,  and  that  this  is  what  is  meant  by  a  roll  (Ezra  vi. 
2.),  and  a  roll  of  a  book  (Jer.  xxxvi.  2.),  and  a  scroll  rolled 
together  (Isa.  xxxiv.  4.):  fur  it  could  not  be  thin  and  weak 
paper,  but  parchment  which  is  of  some  consistency,  that 
was  capable  of  being  thus  rolled  up.  St.  Paul  is  tlie  only 
person  who  makes  express  mention  of  parchment.    (2  Tim. 

IV.  13.)  In  Job  xix.  21.  and  in  Jer.  xvii.  1.  there  is  mention 
made  of  pens  of  iron,  with  which  they  probably  made  the 
letters,  when  they  engraved  on  lead,^  stone,^  or  other  hard 
substances :  but  lor  softer  materials  they,  in  all  probability, 
made  use  of  quills  or  reeds;  for  we  are  told  of  some  in  the 
tribe  of  Zebfllun  who  handled  the  pen  of  the  writer.     (Judg. 

V.  1-1.)  David  alludes  to  the  pea  of  a  ready  writer  (Psal. 
xlv.  1.),  and  Baruch,  as  we  are  told,  wrote  the  words  ol 
Jeremiah  wilii  ink  in  a  book.  (Jer.  xxxvi,  18.)  It  is  highly 
probable  that  several  of  the  prophets  wrote  uj)on  tablets  of 
wood,  or  some  similar  substance.  (Compare  Isa.  xxx.  8. 
and  Habakkuk  ii.  2.)  Such  tablets,  it  is  well  known,  were 
in  use  long  before  the  time  of  Homer  (who  lived  about  one 
hundred  and  fifty  years  before  the  prophet  Isaiah).  Zecha- 
rias,  the  father  of  John  the  Baptist,  wnen  required  to  name 
his  son,  asked  for  a  writing-luble,  ttd/ukiSicv  (Luke  i.  63.); 
and  such  tablets  were  also  in  use  among  the  Romans  and 
other  ancient  nations,  and  are  yet  to  be  seen  in  modern 
Greece,  where  they  are  called  by  the  same  name.''  They 
were  not  finally  disused  in  western  Europe  until  the  four- 
teenth century  of  the  Christian  a^ra.  Tliey  were,  in  (General, 
covered  with  wax,  and  the  writing  was  executed  with  stylea 
or  pens,  made  of  gold,  silver,  brass,  iron,  copper,  ivory,  or 
bone,  which  at  one  end  were  pointed  for  the  purpose  of  in- 
scribing the  letters,  and  smooth  at  the  other  extremity  for 
the  purpose  of  erasing.*  In  Barbary  the  children,  who  ar-^ 
sent  to  school,  write  on  a  smooth  thin  board  slightly  daubo .' 
over  with  whiting,  which  may  be  wijied  off  or  renewed  r'. 
pleasure.  The  Copts,  who  are  employed  by  the  great  men 
of  Egypt  in  keeping  their  accounts,  &.c.  make  use  of  a  kind 
of  pasteboard,  from  which  the  writing  is  occasionally  wiped 
off  with  a  wet  sjjonge.  To  this  mode  of  writing  tliere  is  an 
allusion  in  Neh.  xiii.  14.,  and  especially  in  Num.  v.  23,; 
where,  in  the  case  of  the  woman  suspected  of  adultery,  who 

tcrs  more  visible  and  distinct,  they  rub  them  over  with  oil  mixed  with 
pulverized  charocal,  which  process  also  renders  them  so  permanent,  that 
tlioy  never  can  be  elTaced.  When  one  slip  is  insufficient  to  contain  all  that 
they  intend  to  write  on  any  particular  siiliject,  the  Ceylonese  string  se\  oral 
together  by  passing  a  piece  of  twine  tljrougli  them,  and  attach  tiiem  to  a 
hoard  in  the  same  way  as  we  file  newspapers.  (Percival's  Account  of  the 
Island  of  Ceylon,  p.  'iO-5.)  The  Bramin  manuscripts,  in  the  Tclinga  lan- 
guage, scut  to  Oxiord  from  Fort  St.  George,  are  written  on  the  haves  of 
the  Ampana,  or  Palma  Malabarica.  In  the  Maldive  Islands,  the  natives 
are  said  to  write  on  the  leaves  of  the  Macarciqueaii,  which  are  a  futhoui  and 
a  half  (n(?!e_/et'0  long,  and  about  a  foot  broarl;  and  in  other  parts  of  the 
East  Indies,  the  leaves  of  the  plaiitain  tree  are  euipluyed  for  the  same 
purjinse. 

>  The  eminent  antiquary,  Montfancon,  informs  us  that  in  1G99  he  bought 
at  Rome  a  book  wholly  composed  of  lead,  about  four  inches  in  length,  oy 
three  inches  in  width,  and  containing  Egyptian  Gnostic  fieures  and  unin- 
telligible writing.  Not  only  the  two  pieces  which  formed  the  c<iver,  but 
al.so  all  the  leaves  (six  in  nuudier),  the  stick  inserted  into  the  rings  which 
h'^lil  the  leaves  together,  the  hinges,  and  the  nails,  were  all  of  lead,  without 
exception.  Anliquite  lixpliqutc,  lorn.  ii.  p.37S.  It  Is  not  known  what  haa 
become  of  this  curious  article. 

»  "  The  most  ancient  people,  before  the  invention  of  books  and  before  iho 
use  of  8culi)ture  upon  atones  and  other  small  fragments,  represented  things 
great  and  noble  u))on  entire  rocks  and  mountains  :  the  custom  was  nut  laid 
1  aside  for  many  agi;s.  Semirainis,  to  |)trpetuatf  her  memory,  is  reported 
to  have  cut  a  whole  rock  into  the  shape  of  herself  Hannibal,  long  after  the 
invention  of  books,  engraved  chaniclers  upiui  the  .\lpine  rocks,  as  a  ii  sti- 
mony  of  hiu  passage  over  them  ;  which  characters  were  remaining  ahout 
two  centuries  ago,  according  to  I'aulus  Jovius.  It  a|)pear8  partimlarly  to 
have  beea  the  custom  of  the  northern  nations,  tvoin  that  icm.LrkahlC  in- 
scription mentioned  by  Saxo,  and  several  ages  arter  him  di'linraltd  and 
published  by  Olaiis  VVorniius.  It  wss  Inscribed  by  Harold  Hyldeland,  to 
the  memory  of  his  father,  and  was  cut  out  in  the  side  of  a  ruck,  In  Runic 
characters,  each  li'tterof  tlie  inscription  beiiut  acpiurter  of  an  ell  long,  and 
111"-  length  of  the  whole  thirty-four  ells."  (WIm-'s  Lftirr  lo  Di.Munl, 
\).  2r>.)  The  custom  was  eastern  as  well  as  noil  hern,  as  appears  from  that 
rrinnikable  instance  which  occurs  in  Captain  Hamilton's  Account  of  I  he 
Enst  Initirs,  vol.  ii.  p.  ?ll.  The  author,  afiL-r  giving  a  short  histtuy  of  the 
successful  attack  which  the  Dutch  made  upon  the  island  of  Ainoy  in  China, 
\.  D.  V'ATy,  nd(N.  "Tills  liinory  Is  writti'n  in  large  t'hina  rljarart'er.'f  on  the 
face  of  a  siiiuoili  rock,  that  faces  the  entrance  of  the  harbour,  and  may  be 
fairly  seen  as  we  piujsuut  and  into  the  harbour.'  Burdcr'u  Oriental  Litera- 
ture, vol.  i.  p.  wri. 

•  "  M  Kariiena,  It  Is  still  usual  for  schoolboys  to  have  a  small  clean 
boaril,  un  which  the  master  writes  the  alphabet,  or  any  other  le.sson, 
which  he  intends  his  scholars  to  read.  As  boon  as  one  lesson  is  finished, 
the  writing  Is  marked  out  or  scraped  out ;  and  tlie  board  may  IIuim  h.'  con- 
llnunlly  employed  for  writing  new  lessons.  Not  only  does  this  iiisirument 
'liarmoni7.e  In  lis  use  with  the  writinittahlc  mentioned  in  Luke  I.  C;)  ;  but 
the  (Jo-nks  rail  It  by  the  very  same  name,  !r'»««'J'<i'."  Rev.  John  Hart- 
ley's Tour  In  Greece,  In  T^JS.  (MIs-ionary  ReKi^tf  r,  May,  lS3n.  pn.  2.TI,  232.) 

'  On  this  subject  and  on  the  substancoa  geuerallv  ciiiployeii  lor  writing, 
both  In  ancient  and  modern  times,  see  an  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Bio- 
liograpliy,  by  the  author  of  this  work,  voL  i.  pp.  31— 7i 


Sect.  IL] 


THE  HEBREWS. 


183 


was  to  take  an  oath  of  cursing,  it  is  said  that  the  priest  shall 
write  the  curses  in  a  book,  and  blot  them  out  with  the  bitter 
ivater.  It  appears  that  these  maledictions  were  written  with 
a  kind  of  inK  prepared  for  the  purpose,  without  any  calx  of 
iron  or  other  material  that  could  make  a  permanent  dye; 
and  were  then  washed  off  the  parchment  into  the  water 
which  the  woman  was  obliged  to  drink :  so  that  she  drank 
the  very  words  cf  the  execration.  The  ink  used  in  the  East 
is  almost  all  of  this  kind ;  a  wet  sponge  will  completely 
obliterate  the  finest  of  their  writings.^  'I  ne  ink  was  carried 
in  an  implement,  termed  by  our  translators  an  inkhorn,  which 
was  stuck  into  the  girdle  (Ezek.  ix.  2,  3.),  as  it  still  is  in 
the  Levant.2 

Epistles  or  Letters,  which  are  included  under  the  same 
Hebrew  word  with  Books  (viz.  icD,  sepHCR),  are  very  rarely 
mentioned  in  the  earlier  ages  of  antiquity.  The  first  notice 
of  an  epistle  in  the  Sacred  Writings  occurs  in  2  Sam.  xi. 
It. :  but  afterwards  they  are  more  frequently  mentioned. 
In  the  East,  letters  are  to  this  day  commonly  sent  unsealed  : 
but,  when  they  are  sent  to  persons  of  distinction,  they  are 
placed  in  a  valuable  purse,  which  is  tied,  closed  over  with 
clay  or  wax,  and  then  stamped  with  a  simet.  The  same 
practice  obtained  in  ancient  times.  See  Isa.  viii.  6.  xxix. 
11.  (marginal  rendering),  Ne*.  vi.  5.  Job  xxxviii.  14. 
The  book  which  was  shown  to  the  apostle  John  (Rev.  v.  1. 
vi.  1,  2,  &c.)  was  sealed  with  seven  seals,  which  unusual 
number  seems  to  have  been  aflUxed,  in  order  to  intimate  the 
great  importance  and  secrecy  of  the  matters  therein  contained. 
The  most  ancient  epistles  be^in  and  end  without  either 
salutation  or  farewell ;  but  under  the  Persian  monarchy  it 
was  very  prolix.  It  is  given  in  an  abridged  form  in  Ezra 
!v.  7 — 10.  and  v.  7.  The  apostles,  in  their  epistles,  used 
the  salutation  customary  amon^  the  Greeks,  but  they  omitted 
the  usual  farewell  (;t^pav)  at  the  close,  and  adopted  a  bene- 
diction more  conformable  to  the  spirit  of  the  Gospel  of 
Christ,  When  Paul  dictated  his  letters  (as  he  most  fre- 
quentl}'^  did),  he  wrote  the  benediction  at  the  close  with  his 
own  hand.     See  an  instance  in  2  Thess.  iii.  17.' 

Books  being  written  on  parchment  and  similar  flexible 
materials,  were  rolled  round  a  stick  or  cylinder;  and  if  thev 
were  very  long,  round  two  cylinders,  from  the  two  extremi- 
ties. Usually,  the  writing  was  only  on  the  inside.  The 
writing  on  Ezekiel's  roll  (Ezek.  ii.  9,  10.)  being  on  both 
sides,  indicated  that  the  prophecy  would  be  long.'  The 
reader  unrolled  the  book  to  the  place  which  he  wanted, 
uyArm^u;  to  i^^Chicv,  and  joUed  it  up  again,  when  he  had  read 
it,  Tirv^u;  TO  ^SiCxiiv  (Luke  iv.  17 — 20.)  ;  whence  the  name 
nVjD  (MCGtVLan),  a  volume,  or  thing  rolled  up.  (Psal.  xl.  7. 
Isa.  xxxiv.  4.  Ezek.  ii.  9.  2  Kings  xix.  14.  Ezra  vi.  2.) 
The  leaves  thus  rolled  round  the  stick,  and  bound  with  a 
string,  could  be  easily  sealed.  (Isa.  xxix.  11.  Dan.  xii.  4. 
Rev.  V.  1.  vi.  7.)  Those  books  which  were  inscribed  on 
tablets  of  wood,  lead,  brass,  or  ivory,  were  connected  toge- 
ther by  rings  at  the  back,  through  which  a  rod  was  passed 
to  carry  them  by.  In  Palestine,  when  persons  are  reading 
privately  in  a  book,  "  they  usually  go  on,  reading  aloud  with 
a  kind  of  singing  voice,  moving  their  heads  and  bodies  in 
time,  and  making  a  monotonous  cadence  at  regular  intervals, 
— thus  giving  emphasis;  although  not  such  an  emphasis, 
pliant  to  the  sense,  as  would  please  an  English  ear.  Very 
often  they  seem  to  read  without  perceiving  the  sense ;  and 
to  be  pleased  with  themselves,  melrely  because  they  can  go 
through  the  mechanical  act  of  reading  in  any  way."  This 
practice  may  enable  us  to  "understand  how  it  was  that 
Philip  should  hear  at  what  passage  in  Isaiah  the  Ethiopian 
Eunuch  was  reading,  before  he  was  invited  to  come  up  and 
sit  with  him  in  the  chariot.     (Acts  viii.  30,  31.)     The 

«  Uarmer's  Observations,  vol.  iii.  p.  127.    Dr.  A.  Clarke  on  Num.  v.  23. 

a  Emerson's  Letters  from  the  ^^ean,  vol.  ii.  p.  64.  "This  implement 
is  one  of  considerable  antiquity ;  it  is  common  througho\U  the  Levant,  and 
we  met  with  it  often  in  the  houses  of  ihe  Greeks.  To  one  end  of  a  long 
brass  tube  for  holding  pena  is  attached  the  little  case  containing  the  moist- 
ened sepia  used  for  ink,  wliich  is  closed  with  a  lid  and  snap,  and  the  whole 
stuck  with  much  importance  in  the  girdle.  This  is,  witliout  doubt,  the 
instrument  borne  by  the  individual,  whom  Ezekiel  mentions  as  one  man 
clothed  in  linen,  with  a  tcriter's  inkhorn  by  his  side.  (Ezek.  ix.  2.)"  Ibid, 
p.  64.  note. 

3  Jahn's  Archa3ol.  Hebr.  by  Mr.  tJpham,  §§  S8,  89.  Pareau,  Antiq.  Hebr 
pp.  426-^28. 

«  In  the  monastery  of  Megaspelaion,  in  Greece,  the  Rev.  Mr.  Hartley 
observed  two  beautiful  rolls  of  the  same  description  with  that  mentioned  in 
Ezek.  ii.  9,  10.,  and  containing  the  Liturgies  of  St.  Chrysostom  and  that 
attributed  by  the  Greeks  to  St.  James.  "You  began  to  read  by  unfolding, 
and  you  continued  to  read  and  unfold,  till  at  last  you  arrived  at  the  stick  to 
which  the  roll  was  attached.  Then  you  turned  the  parchment  round,  and 
continued  to  read  on  the  other  side  of  the  roll ;  folding  it  gradually  up, 
until  you  completed  the  Liturgy.  Thus  it  was  written  within  and  without." 
Hartley's  Researclies  in  Greece,  p.  238. 


Eunuch,  though  probably  reading  to  himself,  and  <iot  par- 
ticularly designing  to  be  heard  bv  his  attendants,  would 
read  loud  enough  to  be  understood  by  a  person  at  some  dis- 
tance." 5 

2.  Though  the  art  of  Carving  or  Engraving  was  not  in- 
vented by  the  Hebrews,  yet  that  it  was  cultivated  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  is  evident  not  only  from  the  cherubim  which 
were  deposited  first  in  the  tabernacle  and  afterwards  in  Solo- 
mon's temple,  but  from  the  lions,  which  were  on  each  side 
of  his  throne  (1  Kings  x.  20.),  and  from  the  description 
which  Isaiah  (xliv.  13—17.)  has  given  us  of  the  manner  ia 
which  idols  were  manufactured. 

3.  By  whomsoever  Painting  was  invented,  this  art  ap- 
pears to  have  made  some  progress  in  the  more  advanced 
periods  of  the  Jewish  polity.  In  Ezek.  xxiii.  14,  15.  m*j.o, 
tion  is  made  of  men  portrayed  upon  the  wall,  the  images  of 
the  Chaldeans  portrayed  with  vermilion,  girded  with  girdles 
upon  their  loins,  exceeding  in  dyed  attire  upon  their  heads,  ail 
of  them  princes  to  look  to.  Jeremiah  mentions  apartments 
which  were  painted  with  vermilion,  (xxii.  14.)  But  as  all 
pictures  were  forbidden  by  the  Mosaic  law,  as  well  as 
images  (Lev.  xxyi.  1.  Num.  xxxiii.  52.),  it  is  most  pro- 
bable that  these  pictures  were  copied  by  tlie  Jews  from  some 
of  their  heathen  neighbours,  after  they  had  been  corrupted 
by  intercourse  with  them. 

4.  The  art  of  Music  was  cultivated  with  great  ardour  by 
the  Hebrews,  who  did  not  confine  it  to  sacred  purposes,  but 
introduced  it  upon  all  special  and  solemn  occasions,  such  as 
entertaining  their  friends,  public  festivals,  and  the  like :  thus 
Laban  tells  Jacob  that  if  he  had  known  of  his  leaving  him, 
he  would  have  sent  him  aivay  with  mirth  and  with  swigs,  with 
tabrei  and  with  harp,  (Gen.  xxxi.  27.)  Isaiah  says,  that 
the  harp  and  ihe  viol,  the  iabret  and  pipe,  are  in  their  feasts 
(Isa.  V.  12.)  ;  and,  to  express  the  cessation  of  these  feasts, 
he  says,  the  mirth  oftabrels  ceaseth,  the  joy  of  the  harp  ceasetk, 
(Isa.  xxiv.  8.)  It  was  also  the  custom  at  the  coronation  of 
kings.  (2  Cnron.  xxiii.  13.)  And  it  was  the  usual  manner 
of  expressing  their  mirth  upon  their  receiving  good  tidings 
of  victory,  and  upon  the  triumphal  returns  of  their  generals, 
as  may  be  seen  in  Judg.  xi.  34.  and  1  Sam.  xviii.  6.  That 
music  and  dancing  were  used  among  the  Jews  at  their  feasts 
in  latter  ages,  maybe  inferred  from  the  parable  of  the  prodi- 
gal son.  (Luke  xv.  25.)  Besides  their  sacred  music,  the 
Hebrew  monarchs  had  their  private  music.  Asaph  was 
master  of  David's  royal  band  of  musicians.  It  appears  that 
in  the  temple-service  female  musicians  were  admitted  as 
well  as  males,  and  that  in  general  they  were  the  daughters 
of  Levites.  Heman  had  fourteen  sons  and  three  daughters 
who  were  skilled  in  music;  and  Ezra,  when  enumerating 
those  who  returned  with  him  from  the  Babylonish  captivity, 
reckons  two  hundred  singing  men  and  singing  women. 
The  Chaldee  paraphrast  on  Eccles.  ii.  8.,  where  Solomoa 
says  that  he  had  meri  singers  and  women  singers,  understands 
it  of  singing  women  of  the  temple. 

In  the  tabernacle  and  the  temple,  the  Levites  (both  men 
aiid  women)  were  the  lawful  musicians ;  but  on  other  occa- 
sions the  Jews  were  at  liberty  to  use  any  musical  instru- 
ments, with  the  exception  of  the  silver  trumpets,  which  were 
to  be  sounded  only  by  the  priests,  on  certain  solemn  and 
public  occasions.     (Num.  x.  1 — 10.) 

The  invention  of  musical  instruments  is  ascribed  to  Jubal. 
(Gen.  iv.  21.)  The  following  are  the  principal  Musical 
Instruments  mentioned  in  the  Sacred  Writings  i^ — 

(1/)  Pulsatile  Instruments. — These  were  three  in  number, 
viz.  The  tabret,  the  cymbal,  and  the  sistrum. 

i.  The  Tabret,  Tabor,  or  Timbrel,  t\n  (ti^ph),  was  com- 
posed of  a  circular  hoop,  either  of  wood  or  brass,  which  was 
covered  with  a  piece  of  skin  tensely  drawn  and  hung  round 
with  small  bells.  It  was  held  in  the  left  hand,  and  beaten 
to  notes  of  music  with  the  right.  After  the  passage  of  the 
Red  Sea,  Miriam  the  sister  of  Moses  took  a  timorel,  and 
beo;an  to  play  and  dance  with  the  women  (Exod.  xv.  20.) : 
in  like  manner  the  daughter  of  Jephthah  came  to  meet  her 
father  with  timbrels  and  dances,  after  he  had  discomfited 
and  subdued  the  Ammonites.  (Judg.  xi.  34.)  The  ladies 
in  the  East,  to  this  day,  dance  to  the  sound  of  this  instru- 
ment. The  earliest  notice  of  the  tabret  occurs  in  Gen. 
xxxi.  27.  * 

The  Cymbal,  SsSx  (tscltscl),  Psal.  cl.  5.  consisted 


11. 


of  "two  large  and  broad  plates  of  brass,  of  a  convex  form ; 

t  Jowett's  Christian  Researches  in  Syria,  p.  121. 

6  For  some  remarks  on  the  titles  of  certain  Psalms,  which  are  supposed 
to  have  been  derived  either  from  musical  instrumRnts  or  the  tunes  to  whiclj 
they  were  isung,  see  part  i.  ehap.  iij.  sect,  it  $  vj.  infra, 


184 


LITERATUKE  AXD  SCIENCES  OF  THE  JEWS. 


[Paiit  IV.  Chap.  VH. 


which,  beingr  strtick  against  each  other,  made  a  hollow  ring- 
ing sound.'  They  form,  in  our  days,  a  part  of  every  military 
band. 

iii.  The  Slsfrum,  o^yjpjo  (MfNAf/NoiM),  which  in  our  ver- 
sion of  2  Sam.  vi.  5.  is  misrendered  cornets,  was  a  rod  of 
iron  bent  into  an  oval  or  oblong  shape,  or  square  at  two  cor- 
ners and  curved  at  the  others,  and  turnished  with  a  number 
of  moveable  rings;  so  that,  when  shaken  or  struck  with 
another  rod  of  iron,  it  emitted  the  sound  desired. 

(2.)  IVind  Instruments. — Six  of  these  arc  mentioned  in 
the  Scriptures,  viz.  The  organ,  the  llute  and  hautboy,  dulci- 
mer, liorn,  and  trumpet. 

i.  The  Organ,  jjp  (co^b),  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the 
Old  Testament,  and  its  invention  is  ascribed  to  Jubal  in 
Gea.  iv.  21. ;  but  it  cannot  have  been  like  our  modem  organs. 
It  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  kind  of  flute,  at  first  composed 
of  one  or  two,  but  afterwards  of  about  seven  pipes,  made  of 
reeds  of  unequal  length  and  thickness,  which  were  joined 
together.  It  corresponded  most  nearly  to  the  a-^fi}^  or  pipe 
01  Pan  among  the  Greeks. 

ii.  iii.  The  b^^n  (ch«lil),  and  the  apj  (ncrpb),  which  our 
translators  have  rendered  pipes,  are  supposed  to  have  been  the 
flute  and  hautboy. 

iv.  The  n'jiocio  (sumpunjah),  or  Dulcimer  f  Dan.  iii.  5.), 
was  a  wind  instrument  made  oi  reeds  ;  by  the  vSyrians  called 
iiatnbotijah,  by  the  Greeks  Xuy.CvKii,  and  by  the  Italians  Znm- 
pogna. 

V.  The  Horn  or  Crooked  Tnimpet  was  a  very  ancient  in- 
strument, made  of  the  horns  of  oxen  cut  off  at  the  smaller 
extremity.  In  progress  of  time  ram's  horns  were  used  for 
the  same  purpose.     It  was  chiefly  used  in  war. 

vi.  The  form  of  the  straight  Frurnpet  is  well  known :  it 
was  used  bv  the  priests  (Num.  x.  8.  1  Chron.  xv.  21.)  both 
on  extraordinary  occasions  (Num.  x.  10.),  and  also  m  the 
daily  service  of  the  temple.  (2  Chron.  vii.  G.  xxix.  2G.)  In 
time  of  peace,  when  tlie  people  or  the  rulers  were  to  be  con- 
vened together,  this  trumpet  was  blown  softly  :  but  when  the 
camps  were  to  move  forward,  or  the  people  were  to  march  to 
war,  it  was  sounded  with  a  deeper  note. 

(3.)  iStringed  Instruments. — These  were  the  harp  and  the 
psaltery. 

i.  The  Harp,  ti:3  (k/nclp.),  seems  to  have  resembled  that 
in  modern  use:  it  was  the  most  ancient  of  all  musical  instru- 
ments. (Gen.  iv.  21.)  It  had  ten  strings,  and  was  played  by 
David  with  the  hand  (1  Sam.  xvi.  23.) ;  but  Josephus^  says, 
that  it  was  played  upon  or  struck  with  a  plectrum. 

ii.  Tlie  Psalteru  hzi  (xfnn.),  obtained  its  name  from  its 
resemblance  to  a  bottle  or  flagon  :  it  is  first  mentioned  in  the 
Psalms  of  David,  and  the  invention  of  it  is  ascribed  to  the 
Phoenicians.  In  Psal.  xxxiii.  2.  and  cxliv.  9.  it  is  called  a 
ten-atringed  instrument,  l)ut  in  Psal.  xcii.  3.  it  is  distinguish- 
ed from  the  latter.  Jost  ])lius^  says,  that  it  had  twelve 
sounds  (or  strings),  and  was  struck  or  played  upon  by  the 
fingers.^ 

EtTects  the  most  astonishing  are  attributed  in  the  Scrip- 
tures to  the  Hebrew  rnusic,  of  the  nature  of  which  we  know 
hni  very  little.  Several  examples  are  recorded,  in  the  sacred 
history,  of  the  power  and  charms  of  music  to  sweeten  the 
temper,  to  compose  and  allay  the  passions  of  the  mind,  to 
revive  the  drooping  spirits,  and  to  dissipate  melancholy.  It 
had  this  effect  on  Saul,  when  David  played  to  him  on  his 
liarp.  (ISanu  xn.  IC.  23.)  And  when  Elisha  was  desired 
by  Jeho.^aapliat  to  tell  him  what  his  success  against  tiic  king 
of  Moab  would  be,  the  prophet  required  a  minstnd  to  be 
brought  unto  him;  and  wh^n  he  played,  it  is  said  that  tlic 
linnan^  the  I^/rd  cume  upon  hhn  (2  Kiiigs  iii.  15.);  not  lliat 
the  gift  of  prophecy  was  the  natural  cfiect  of  music,  but  the 
meaning  is,  that  music  disposed  the  organs,  tlie  humours, 
and  in  short  the  whole  mind  and  spirit  of  the  projdiet,  to 
receive  these  supernatural  impressions. 

(1.)  Dancing  was  an  ordinary  concomitant  of  music 
among  the  Jews.  Sometimes  it  was  used  on  a  nliginus 
account:  thus  Miriam  with  lier  women  glorified  God  (itfur 
the  deliverance  from  the  Egyptians),  in  dances  as  well  as 
pongs  (Exnd.  XV.  20.),  and  David  danced  after  tht;  ark. 
(2  Sam.  vi.  IG.)  It  was  a  thing  common  at  the  Jewish  feasts 
(Judg.  xxi.  19.  21.)  and  in  public  triumphs  {Judg.  xi.  31), 
and  at  all  seasons  of  mirth  and  rejoiriiiir.  (i'sal.  xxx.  11. 
Jer.  xxxi.  4.  13.  Luke  xv.  25.)  The  idolatrous  Jews  made 
* 

>  Jo.scphun,  A.it.  Jud.  lib.  vii.  c.  12. 

»  Ant.  Jiiil.  lib.  vii.  c.  12.  •  Ibiil. 

«  (-'alrnet,  I)is.scrlalioii  btir  loR  IniitniincnR  <lc  Muai(|(ir  iltn  llotireuji,  )>rc. 
fixed  U>  hi8  (Joniiiicnlary  un  the  I'mIiiih.  Jaiin,  Arcliicuiogiii  ilibhca,  )i  91 
—96.    BrowQ'a  Anti<iuibci  of  the  Jews,  vol.  i.  i>p.  316—321. 


it  a  part  of  their  worship  which  they  paid  to  the  golden  calf. 
(Exod.  xxxii.  19.)  The  Amalekitcs  danced  after  their  vie 
tory  at  Ziklag  (ISam.  xxx.  IG.),  and  Job  makes  it  part  of 
the  character  of  the  nrosperous  wicked  (that  is,  of  those 
who,  placing  all  their  nappiness  in  the  enjoyments  of  sense, 
forget  God  and  religion),  that  their  children  dance.  (Job 
xxi.  11.)  The  dancmg  of  the  profligate  Herodias's  daugliter 
pleased  HerJd  so  highly,  that  ne  promised  to  give  her  what- 
ever she  asked,  and  accordingly,  at  her  desire,  and  in  compli- 
ment to  her,  he  commanded  John  the  Baptist  to  be  beheaded 
in  prison.  (Matt.  xiv.  G — 8.)  Most  probably  it  resembled 
the  voluptuous  performances  of  the  dancing  girls  who  still 
exhibit  in  the  East.* 


SECTION  III. 

ON  THE  LITERATURE  AND  SCIENCES  OF  THE  HEBREWS. 

I.  Schools. —  Oil  the  schools  of  the  prophets  in  particular. — II. 
Jlppellation  given  to  the  Jeieish  doctors  or  teachers, — III. 
Their  method  of  teaching. — IV.  Studies  of  the  Jeivs. — 1. 
History. — 2.  Poetry. — 3.  Oratory. — 4.  Ethics. — 5.  Physics. 
— 6.  .Arithmetic. — 7.  JMatliematics. — 8.  Astronomy. — 9.  .is- 
trology. — 10.  Surveying. — 11.  JMechanic  Arts. — 12.  Geo' 
graphy. 

1.  Schools  have  ever  been  considered  among  polished 
nations  as  the  chief  support  of  states:  in  them  are  formed 
the  ministers  of  religion,  judges,  and  magistrates,  as  well  as 
the  people  at  lar^e :  anci  there  are  taught  religion,  laws, 
history,  and  all  these  sciences,  the  knowledge  of  which  i.>- 
of  the  greatest  importance  to  the  well-being  of  nations,  and 
to  the  comfort  of  private  life.  The  Jewish  writers  pretend 
that  from  the  earliest  ages  there  have  been  schools;  and  that, 
before  the  Deluge,  they  were  under  the  direction  of  the  patri- 
archs :  but  these  notions  have  long  since  been  deservedly 
rejected  for  want  of  authority. 

Although  the  Hebrews  confined  their  pursuits  to  agricul- 
ture and  llie  management  of  cattle,  yet  we  have  no  reason  to 
conclude  that  they  were  a  nation  of  ignorant  rustics.  Of  that 
which  most  concerns  man  to  know, — their  religious  and  moral 
duties, — they  could  not  be  ignorant,  since  the  father  of  every 
family  was  bound  to  teach  the  laws  of  Moses  to  his  children. 
(Deut.  xxxii.  6.  Psal.  Ixxvii.  5.)  We  have,  however,  no 
evidence  of  the  existence  of  any  schools,  strictly  so  called, 
earlier  than  the  time  of  Samuel :  and  as  the  Scriptures  do 
not  mention  the  schools  of  the  projjhcts,  before  him  who  was 
both  a  judge  and  a  prophet  in  Israel,  we  may  venture  to  as- 
cribe those  schools  to  him.  It  is  not  improbable  that  the 
almost  total  cessation  of  the  sj)irit  of  prophecy  under  the 
ministry  of  Eli,  and  the  degeneracy  of  the  priesthood,  first 
.'ccasioned  the  institution  of  these  seminaries,  for  the  better 
education  of  those  who  were  to  succeed  in  the  sacred  minis- 
try. From  1  Sam.  x.  5.  10.  xix.  20.  2  Kings  ii.  5.  and  xxii. 
14.,  it  appears  that  the  schools  of  the  prophets  were  first 
erected  in  the  cities  of  the  Levites;  whicn  for  the  more  con- 
venient instruction  of  the  people  were  dispersed  ihroujrh  the 
several  tribes  of  Israel.  In  tnese  places  convenient  edilices 
were  built  for  the 
who  were  thence 

presided  some  venerable  and  divinely-inspired  ])rophet,  who 
18  called  their  father.  (2  Kings  ii.  12.)  Samuel  was  one, 
and,  perhaps,  the  first  ot  tiiose  fathers  (1  Sam.  xix.  20.),  and 
Eiijan  was  another  (2  Kings  ii.  12.),  who  was  succeeded  by 
Elisha  in  this  office.  (2  Kings  vi.  1.)  The  sons  of  the  pro- 
phets lived  together  in  a  society  or  community  (2  Kings  iv. 
38.)  ;  they  were  instructed  in  the  Unowh'dtre  of  the  law,  and 
of  the  jirinciples  of  their  religion,  as  well  as  in  the  sacred 
art  of  psalmody,  or  (as  it  is  tirmed  in  1  Sam.  x.  5.  and 
1  Chron.  XXV.  1.  7.)  prophesying  with  harps,  psalteries,  and 
cymbals.  At  the  conclusion  of  their  lectures  and  religious 
exercises,  they  were  accustomed  tc  eat  together  with  tlieir 
masters,  ('•.ihin  t  is  of  opinion  tliaf  these  schools  subsisted 
until  tiie  Ilabylonish  ca|>livity  :  -.md  it  should  seem  that  the 
captives  resorted  to  such  establishments,  to  hear  the  prophets, 
when  there  were  any,  in  tlie  jilaces  where  they  resided. 
E/.ekiel  relates  various  conversations  which  ho  had  with  the 
ehhrs  of  Israel  who  came  to  consult  him :  the  people  also 
assembled  about  him,  apparently  for  the  purpose  of  hearing 

•  Camr's  Lcuors  A-om  (he  Eaat,  p.  1C5.    rorcau,  Aotiq.  llcbr.  p.  431 
Ilonic'a  Ili&i.  of  the  Jews,  vol.  Ii.  pp.  939,  310. 


3  abode  of  the  prophets  and  their  disciples, 
termed  the  Smif  aj  the  Pyojihrts ;  over  whom 


Sect.  IV.] 


LITERATURE  AND  SCIENCES  OF  THE  JEWS. 


185 


him  and  being  instructed  by  him ;  but  tbey  were  not  very 
careful  to  reduce  his  instructions  to  practice.  (Ezek.  viii.  1. 
xiv.  1.  XX.  1.)  It  is  not  improbable  that  from  the  schools  of 
the  prophets  God  chose  such  persons  as  he  deemed  fit  to 
exercise  the  prophetic  office,  and  to  make  known  his  will  to 
the  people.  The  greater  prophets  employed  these  scholars 
or  young  prophets  to  carry  prophetic  messages.  In  2  Kin^s 
ix.  1.,  Elisha  sent  one  of  the  sons  of  the  prophets  to  anomt 
Jehu  king  of  Israel :  and  in  1  Kings  xx.  15.,  the  young  pro- 

Ehet,  who  was  sent  to  re-prove  Ahah  for  sparine  IJen-Hadad, 
ing  of  SjTia,  is  by  the  Chaldee  paraphrast  called  one  of  the 
sons  or  disciples  of  the  prophets.  Hence  Amos  relates  it  as 
an  unusual  circumstance,  that  he  was  no  prophet ,  not  one  oi 
those  distinguished  men  who  presided  over  these  seminaries, 
— neither  a  prophefs  son,  educated  from  his  youth  in  the  schools 
of  the  prophets  ;  but  that  he  was  an  herdsman  and  a  gatherer 
of  sycamm-e  fruit,  who  did  not  pursue  the  studies  and  mode  of 
living  peculiar  to  the  prophets,  when  the  Lord  took  him  as  he 
was  fotlowins;  thejhck,  and  commanded  him  to  go  and  pro- 
phesy unto  his  people  Israel.  (Amos  vii.  14,  15. )»  To  the 
schools  of  the  prophets  succeeded  the  synagogues  ;  but  it 
appears  that  in  the  time  of  Jesus  Christ  eminent  Jewish 
doctors  had  their  separate  schools  ;  as  Gamaliel,  the  preceptor 
of  St.  Paul,  and  probably  also  Tyrannus. 

II.  Various  Appellations  were  anciently  given  to  learned 
men.  Among  the  Hebrews  they  were  denominated  d'ddh 
(^HaKfiTMiM),  as  among  the  Greeks  they  were  called  <7'.^ci,  that 
is,  wise  men.  In  the  time  of  Christ,  the  common  appellative 
for  men  of  that  description  was  ypt./ujua.'rsj;,  in  the  Hebrew 
nDiD  (sophcr),  a  scribe.  They  were  addressed  by  the  hono- 
rary title  of  Mabbi  3^^,  '3t  (r«b,  RflBBi),  that  is,  great  or  master. 
The  Jews,  in  imitation  of  the  Greeks,  had  their  seven  wise 
men,  who  were  called  Babboni,  pi.  Gamaliel  was  one  of 
the  number.  They  called  themselves  the  children  of  wis- 
dom ;  expressions  which  correspond  very  nearly  to  the  Greek 
<fiKc<r:p:;.  (INIatt.  xi.  19.  Luke  vii.  35.3  The  heads  of  se*ts 
were  called /a/Aers  (Matt,  xxiii.  9.),  and  the  disciples,  ai-iinSn 
(talmudim),  vrere  denominated  sons  or  children.^  The  Jew- 
ish teachers,  at  least  some  of  them,  had  private  lecture-rooms, 
but  they  also  taught  and  disputed  in  synagogues,  in  temples, 
and,  in  fact,  wherever  they  could  find  an  audience.  The 
method  of  these  teachers  was  the  same  with  that  which  pre- 
vailed among  the  Greeks.  Any  disciple  who  chose  might 
propose  Questions,  upon  which  it  was  the  duty  of  the  teachers 
to  remark  and  give  their  opinions.  (Luke  ii.  46.)  The 
teachers  were  not  invested  with  their  functions  by  any  formal 
act  of  the  church  or  of  the  civil  authority ;  they  were  self- 
constituted.  They  received  no  other  salary  than  some  volun- 
tary present  from  the  disciples,  which  was  called  an  honorary, 
Tifjoi,  HONORARIUM.  (1  Tim.  V.  17.)  They  acquired  a  subsist- 
ence in  the  main  Iry  the  exercise  of  some  art  or  handicraft. 
According  to  the  Talmudists  they  were  bound  to  hold  no 
conversation  with  women,  and  to  refuse  to  sit  at  table  with 
the  lower  class  of  people.  (John  iv.  27.  Matt.  ix.  11.)  The 
subjects  on  which  they  taught  were  numerous,  commonly 
intricate,  and  of  no  great  consequence;  of  which  there  are 
abundant  examples  in  the  Talmud. ^ 

III.  After  the  Jews  became  divided  into  the  two  great 

«  Calraet,  Dissertation  sur  les  Ecolcs  des  Hebreux,  Dissert,  torn.  i.  pp. 
372—37(5.,  and  Dictionary,  voce  Scliools.  Stillinglleet's  Origines  Sacr»,  pp. 
9^—101.  8th  edition,  Basnage's  Hist,  of  the  Jews,  pp.  410,  411.  Witsii  Mis- 
cellanea Sacra,  lib.  i.  c.  10.  §  10.  p.  79.  Bp.  Story's  Essay  concerning  the 
Nature  of  the  Priesthood,  pp.  3a— 42. 

*  "It  was  anciently  the  custom  of  preceptors  to  address  their  pupils  by 
the  title  ofsoiis :  thus,  the  disciples  of  the  prophets  are  called  the  sons  of 
the  prophets.  (1  Kings  x.^.  35.  2  Kings  ii.  3.  iv.  38.)  St.  Paul  styles  Timothy 
his  son.  (1  Tim.  i.  2.  2  Tim.  i.  2.)  St.  John  styles  those,  to  whom  his  first 
epistle  was  sent,  his  children  (ii.  1.  v.  21.)  ;  and  thus  the  royal  sage  (Prov. 
i.  8.)  addresses  his  young  hearers,  exhorting  them  not  to  contemn  the 
advice  and  admonition  of  their  parents  ;  because  obedience  to  parents  is  a 
duty,  second  only  in  importance  to  obedience  to  God."  Holden's  Transla- 
tion of  Proverbs,  p.  88. 

»  A  sort  of  academical  degree  was  conferred  on  the  pupils  in  the  Jewish 
seminaries,  which,  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  were  established 
at  Babylon  and  Tiberias,  and  of  which  Basnage  has  given  a  copious  account 
in  his  History  of  the  Jews,  book  v.  c.  5.  pp.  410—411.  (London,  1703.  folio.) 
The  circumstances  attending  the  conferring  of  this  degree  are  described 
by  Maimonides  (Jadchazaka,  lib.  vi.  4  )  as  follows :— 1.  The  candidate  for 
the  degree  was  examined,  both  in  respect  to  his  moral  character  and  his 
literary  acquisitions.  2.  Having  undergone  this  examination  with  approba. 
tion,  the  disciple  then  ascended  an  elevated  seat.  IMatt.  xxiii.  2.  3.  A  writ- 
ing tablet  was  presented  to  him,  to  signify,  that  he  should  write  down  his 
acquisitions,  since  they  might  escape  from  hi.^  memory,  and,  without  being 
written  down,  be  lost.  4.  A  key  was  presented,  to  signify  that  he  might 
now  op-?n  to  others  the  treasures  of  knowledge.  (Luke  xi.  52.)  5.  Hands 
were  laid  upon  him ;  a  custom  derived  from  Num.  xxvii.  18.  6.  A  certain 
power  or  authority  was  conferred  upon  him,  probably  to  be  exercised 
over  his  own  disciples.  7.  Finally,  ho  was  saluted  in  the  school  of  Tibe. 
rias,  with  the  tide  of  Rabbi,  a-i,  in  the  school  of  Babylon,  with  that  of 
Master,  no  (Jahn's  Archeeologia  Biblica,  by  Mr  Uoham.  105.) 
OL.  II.  A  2 


sects  of  Sadducees  and  Pharisees,  each  sect  had  its  separate 
school.  The  Method  of  teaching  in  these  schools  may  be 
easily  collected  from  the  Gospels  and  Acts.  The  Doctors  or 
Teachers  generally  sat.  Thus  our  Lord  sat  down  previously  to 
delivering  his  sermon  on  the  mount  (Matt.  v.  1.);  as  Gama- 
liel also  did  in  his  school.  (Actsxxii.  3.)  Sometimes,  how- 
ever, the  Jewish  teachers,  like  the  Greek  philosophers,  were 
accustomed  to  have  their  disciples  around  them,  wherever 
they  went,  and  to  discourse,  as  occasion  arose,  on  things 
either  human  or  divine.  In  this  way  our  Lord  delivered 
some  of  his  most  interesting  instructions  to  his  apostles. 
Allusions  to  this  practice  occur  in  INIatt.  iv.  20.  x.  38.  xvi. 
24.  Mark  i.  18.  xvi.  24.  The  Fupils  generally  sat  below 
their  preceptors.  St.  Paul  tells  the  Jews  that  he  sat  or 
studied  at  the  feet  of  Gamaliel.  (Acts  xxii.  3.)  Philo  relates 
that  the  children  of  the  Essenes  sat  at  the  feet  of  their  mas- 
ters, who  interpreted  the  law,  and  explained  its  figurative 
sense,  after  the  manner  of  the  ancient  philosophers.  The 
author  of  the  commentary  on  the  first  Epistle  to  the  Corin- 
thians, published  under  the  name  of  St.  Ambrose,  sa3's,  on 
ch.  xiv.,  that  the  Jewish  rabbins  sat  on  elevated  chairs ;  while 
scholars  who  had  made  the  greatest  proficiency  sat  on  benches 
just  below  them,  and  the  junior  pupils  sat  on  the  ground  on 
hassocks.  But  in  the  Talmud,''  it  is  stated  that  the  masters 
sat  down  while  the  scholars  stood.* 

IV.  The  Jews  did  not  become  distinguished  for  their  intel- 
lectual acquirements  before  the  time  of  David,  and  especially 
of  Solomon,  who  is  said  to  have  surpassed  all  others  in  wis- 
dom; a  circumstance  which  was  the  ground  of  the  many 
visits  which  were  paid  to  him  by  distinguished  foreigners. 
(1  Kings  V.  9 — 12.)  His  example,  which  was  truly  an  illus- 
trious one,  was,  beyond  question,  imitated  by  other  kings. 
The  literature  of  the  Hebrews  was  limited  chiefly  to  religion, 
the  history  of  their  nation,  poetry,  philosophy,  ethics,  and 
natural  history ;  on  which  last  subject  Solomon  v^rcte  many 
treatises,  no  longer  extant.  The  Hebrews  made  but  little 
progress  in  science  and  literature  after  the  time  of  Solomon. 
During  their  captivity,  it  is  true,  they  acquired  many  foreign 
notions,  with  v/nich  they  had  not  been  previously  acquainted : 
and  they,  subsequently,  borrowed  much,  both  of  truth  and 
of  falsehood,  from  the  philosophy  of  the  Greeks.  The  author 
of  the  book  of  Wisdom,  with  some  others  of  the  Jewisli 
writers,  has  made  pretty  good  use  of  the  Greek  philosophy. 
It  is  clear,  notwithstanding  this,  that  the  Jews  after  the  cap- 
tivity fell  below  their  ancestors  in  respect  to  Hl'tory ,-  as  the 
published  annals  of  that  period  are  not  of  a  kindred  character 
with  those  of  the  primitive  ages  of  their  country. 

1.  That  the  art  of  Historical  Writing  was  anciently 
much  cultivated  in  the  East,  the  Bible  itself  is  an  ample  tes- 
timony ;  for  it  not  only  relates  the  prominent  events,  from  the 
creation  down  to  the  fifth  century  before  Christ,  but  speaks 
of  many  historical  books,  which  have  now  perished;  and 
also  of  many  monuments  erected  in  commemoration  of  remark- 
able achievements,  and  furnished  with  appropriate  inscrip- 
tions. The  Babylonians,  also,  the  Assyrians,  the  Persians, 
and  Tyrians,  had  their  historical  annals.  Among  the  Egyp- 
tians there  was  a  separate  order,  viz.  the  priests,  one  part  of 
whose  duty  it  was  to  write  the  history  of  their  countrj'.  In 
the  primitive  aires  the  task  of  composing  annals  fell  in  most 
nations  upon  the  priests,  but  at  a  later  period  the  king  had 
his  own  secretaries,  whose  special  business  it  was  to  record 
the  royal  sayings  and  achievements.  The  prophets  among 
the  Hebrews  recorded  the  events  of  their  own  times,  and,  in 
the  earliest  periods,  the  genealogists  interwove  many  histo- 
rical events  with  their  accounts  of  the  succession  of  families. 
Indeed,  it  should  not  be  forgotten,  that  ancient  history  gene- 
rally partakes  more  of  a  genealogical  than  a  chronological 
character.  Hence  the  Hebrew  phrase  for  genealogies  rnSin 
(toldoth)  is  used  also  for  history  (Gen.  vi.  9.  x.  1.);  and 
hence  no  epoch  more  ancient  than  that  of  Nabonnassar  is 
any  where  found.  In  the  Bible,  howeA'er,  this  defect,  in  re- 
gard to  a  regular  chronological  system,  is  in  a  manner  com- 
pensated by  the  insertion  in  various  places  of  definite  periods 
of  time,  and  by  chronological  genealogies.  In  giving  a  con- 
cise account  of  the  genealocry  of  a  person,  the  Hebrews,  as 
well  as  the  Arabs,  took  the  liberty  to  omit,  according  to  their 
own  pleasure,  one  or  more  generations.  fRuth  iv.  18 — 22. 
Ezra  \\i.  1 — 5.  Matt.  i.  8-.)  It  was  consiaered  so  much  of 
an  honour  to  have  a  name  and  a  place  in  these  family  annals, 
that  the  Hebrews,  from  their  first  existence  as  a  nation,  had 
public  genealogists,  denominated  ditbib',  -ere?  (sHOTeR,  sho- 
tcrim). 

«  Tit.  MegiUah.  •  Caliuet,  Dissertations,  torn.  i.  pp.  377,  378. 


18G 


LITERATURE  AND  SCIENCES  OF  THE  JEWS. 


[Part  IV.  Chap.  VII 


Not  only  the  Hebrews,  but,  if  we  may  credit  Herodotus 
and  Diodorus  SicuUis,  the  Egyptians  also  assi^rned  a  certain 
period  to  a  generation.  According  to  their  estimation,  three 
generations  made  an  hundred  years.  In  the  time  of  Abraham, 
however,  when  men  lived  to  a  greater  age,  an  hundred  years 
made  a  generation.  This  is  clear  from  Gen.  xv.  13.  16.,  and 
from  the  circumstance,  that  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob  dwelt 
two  hundred  and  fifteen  years  in  the  land  of  Canaan,  and  yet 
there  were  only  two  generations. 

The  study  of  history  among  the  Jews  was  chiefly  confined 
to  the  affairs  of  their  own  nation.  Much  information,  how- 
ever, may  be  obtained  from  their  historical  and  other  writings, 
for  the  better  understanding  the  states  of  other  foreign  nations 
with  which  they  became  very  closely  connected :  and  the 
most  ancient  historical  documents  of  the  Hebrews  throw  more 
light  upon  the  origin  of  nations,  and  the  invention  and  pro- 
gress of  the  arts,  than  any  other  writings  that  are  extant. 

2.  Poetry  had  its  origin  in  the  first  ages  of  the  world, 
when  undisciplined  feelings  and  a  lively  imagination  natu- 
rally supplied  strong  expressions,  gave  an  expressive  modu- 
lation to  the  voice,  and  motion  to  the  limbs.  Hence  poetry, 
music,  and  dancing,  were  in  all  probability  contemporaneous 
in  their  origin.  As  the  nature  and  genius  of  the  poetry  of 
the  Hebrews  has  already  been  discussed  at  some  length  in 
the  first  volume  of  this  work,  it  is  sufficient  here  to  remark, 
that  the  effusions  of  the  inspired  Hebrew  muse  infinitely  sur- 
pass in  grandeur,  sublimity,  beauty,  and  pathos,  all  the  most 
celebrated  productions  of  Greece  and  Rome.  Not  to  repeat 
unnecessarily  the  observations  already  offered  on  this  topic, 
we  may  here  briefly  remark,  that  the  eucharistic  song  of 
Moses,  composed  on  tlie  deliverance  of  the  Israelites  and 
their  miraculous  passage  of  the  Red  Sea  (Exod.  xv.  1 — 19.), 
is  an  admirable  hymn,  full  of  strong  and  lively  images.  The 
song  of  Deborah  and  Barak  (Judg.  v.),  and  that  ot  Hannah 
the  mother  of  Samuel  (1  Sam.  ii.  1.),  have  many  excellent 
flights,  and  some  noble  and  sublime  raptures.  David's 
lamenlation  on  the  death  of  Saul  and  Jonathan  (2  Sam.  i.  19.) 
is  an  incomparable  elegy.  The  gratulatory  hymn  (Isa.  xii.) 
and  Hezekiah's  song  ofpraise  (isa.  xxviii.)  are  worthy  of 
every  one's  attention.  Tne  prayer  of  Habalckuk  (iii.)  con- 
tains a  sublime  description  of  the  divine  majesty.  Besides 
these  single  hymns,  we  have  the  book  of  Psalms,  Proverbs, 
Ecclesiastes,  "Canticles,  and  Lamentations ;  all  of  which  are 
composed  by  different  poets,  according  to  the  usage  of  those 
times.  The  Psalms  are  a  great  storehouse  of  heavenly  devo- 
tion, full  of  affecting  and  sublime  thoughts,  and  with  a 
variety  of  expressions,  admirably  calculated  to  excite  a  thank- 
ful remembrance  of  God's  mercies,  and  for  moving  the  pas- 
sions of  joy  and  grief,  indignation  and  hatred.  They  consist 
mostly  of  pious  and  affectionate  prayers,  holy  meditations, 
and  exalted  strains  of  praise  and  thanksgiving.  The  allusions 
are  beautiful,  the  expressions  tender  and  moving,  and  the 
piety  of  the  authors  is  singularly  remarkable.  The  Proverbs 
of  Solomon  are  a  divine  collection  of  many  admirable  sen- 
tences of  morality,  wonderfully  adapted  to  instruct  us  in  our 
duty  to  God  ancl  man.  The  book  of  Ecclesiastes  teaches 
us,  in  a  very  lively  manner,  tlie  insufficiency  of  all  earthly 
enjoyments  to  make  a  man  happy.  Tlie  Canticles  or  Song 
of  Solomon,  under  the  parable  of  a  man's  affection  to  his 
spouse,  in  very  tender  yet  elegant  expressions,  shows  us  the 
ardent  love  of  Christ  to  his  church  and  people;  and  the  La- 
mentations of  Jeremiah  contain  a  very  mournful  account  of 
the  state  of  Jerusalem,  as  destroyed  by  the  Chaldreans. 

3.  Okatokv  does  not  appear  to  have  been  cultivated  by 
the  Hebrews ;  although  tiie  sacred  writers,  following  llie 
impulse  of  their  genius,  have  left  such  specimens  in  their 
writings,  as  the  most  disting'uishcd  orators  might  imitate 
with  advantage*.  W'ant  of  eloauence  was  objected  as  a 
defect  against  the  apostle  Paul  (1  ('or.  i.  17.),  who,  not- 
withstanding, possessed  a  highly  cultivated  mind,  and  was 
by  no  means  deficient  in  strong  natural  eloquence. 

4.  Traces  of  Ethics,  tliat  is,  of  the  system  of  prevailing 
moral  opinions,  may  he  found  in  the  book  of  Jolt,  in  the 
37lh,  '{fMh,  and  C3d  Psalms,  also  in  the  books  of  Proverl)s 
and  Ecclesiastes,  but  chiefly  in  the  apocryphal  bof)k  of 
Wisdom,  and  the  writings  of  the  son  of  Siraeh.  During 
the  captivity,  the  Jews  actjuired  many  new  notions,  and 
appropriated  them,  as  occasion  offered,  to  their  own  pur- 
poses. Thry  at  length  became  aequainled  witli  the  philoso- 
phy of  the  Greeks,  which  makes  its  appearance  abundantly 
in  the  book  of  Wisdom.  After  the  captivity,  the  language 
in  wiiir-h  the  sacred  l)ooks  were  written  was  no  longer 
vernacular.  Hence  arose  the  need  of  an  interpreter  on  Uie 
labbaiic  year,  a  time  when  the  whole  law  was  read ;  and 


also  on  the  sabbath  in  the  synagogues,  which  had  been 
recently  erected,  in  order  to  make  the  people  understand 
what  was  read.  These  interpreters  learnt  the  Hebrew  lan- 
guage at  the  schools.  The  teachers  of  these  schools,  who, 
for  the  two  generations  preceding  the  time  of  Christ,  had 
maintained  some  acquaintance  with  the  Greek  philosophy, 
were  not  satisfied  with  a  simple  interpretation  of  the  Hebrew 
idiom,  as  it  stood,  but  shaped  the  interpretation  so  as  to 
render  it  conformable  to  their  philosophy.  Thus  arose  con- 
tentions, which  gave  occasion  tor  the  various  sects  of  Phari- 
sees, Sadducees,  and  Essenes.  In  the  time  of  our  Saviour, 
divisions  had  arisen  among  the  Pharisees  themselves.  No 
less  than  eighteen  nice  questions,  if  we  may  believe  the 
Jewish  Rabbins,  were  contested,  at  that  period,  between  the 
schools  of  Hillel  and  Shammai.  One  of  which  questions 
was  an  inquiry,  "  What  cause  was  sufficient  for  a  bill  of 
divorced'  If  the  Shammai  and  Hillel  of  the  Talmud  are 
the  same  with  the  learned  men  mentioned  in  Josephus,  viz. 
Sameas  and  PoUio,  who  flourished  thirty-four  years  before 
Christ,  then  Shammai  or  Sameas  is  undoubtedly  the  same 
with  the  Simeon  who  is  mentioned  in  Luke  ii.  25.  34.,  and 
his  son  Gamaliel,  so  celebrated  in  the  Talmud,  is  the  same 
with  the  Gamaliel  mentioned  in  Acts  v.  34.  xxii.  3. 

5.  Physics,  or  Natural  Philosophy,  has  secured  but 
little  attention  in  the  East ;  but  a  knowledge  of  the  animal, 
vegetable,  and  mineral  kingdoms,  or  the  science  of  Natural 
History,  was  always  much  more  an  object  of  interest. 
Whatever  knowledge  of  this  science  the  Hebrews  subse- 
quently had,  they  most  probably  derived  partly  from  the 
Canaanitish  mercnanls,  partly  from  the  Egj'ptians,  and  other 
nations  with  whom  they  had  intercourse.  The  book  of  Job 
evinces  that  its  author  possessed  an  intimate  knowledge  of 
the  works  of  nature.  The  agricultural  and  pastoral  habits 
of  the  Hebrews  were  favourable  to  the  acquisition  of  this 
science ;  and  how  much  they  loved  it  will  be  evident  to  any 
o«e  who  peruses  the  productions  of  the  sacred  poets,  espe- 
cially those  of  David.  But  no  one  among  the  Hebrews 
could  ever  be  compared  to  Kino-  Solomon  ;  who  spu/ce  of 
trees,  from  tlie  cedar  that  is  in  Liocuion,  even  to  the  hys-'op  that 
spriyigefh  out  of  the  wall,  and  also  of  beasts  and  if  fowl, and  of 
creepini^  things  and  of  fishes,  (I  Kings  iv.  33.)  The  nu- 
merous images  which  our  Saviour  derived  from  tne  works  of 
nature,  attest  how  deeply  he  had  contemplated  them. 

C.  Arithmetic. — '1  he  more  simple  methods  of  arithmetical 
calculation  are  spoken  of  in  the  Pentateuch,  as  if  they  were 
v,-ell  known.  The  merchants  of  that  early  ])eriod  must,  for 
their  own  convenience,  have  been  possessed  of  some  method 
of  operating  by  numbers. 

7.  Mathematics. — By  this  term  we  understand  Geometry, 
Mensuration,  Navigation,  &c.  As  far  as  a  knowledge  of 
them  was  absolutely  required  by  the.  condition  and  employ- 
ments of  the  people,  we  may  well  suppose  that  knowledge 
to  have  actually  existed ;  although  no  express  mention  is 
made  of  these  sciences. 

8.  Astronomy. — The  interests  of  agriculture  and  naviga- 
tion required  some  knowledge  of  astronomy.  An  evidence 
that  an  attempt  was  made  at  a  very  early  jieriod  to  regulate 
the  year  by  the  annual  revolution  of  the  sun,  may  be  found 
in  the  fact,  that  the  Jewish  months  were  divided  into  thirty 
days  each.  fSee  Gen.  vii.  11.  viii.  4.)  In  Astronomy,  the 
Egyptians,  Babylonians,  and  Pluenicians  exhibited  great 
superiority.  We  are  informed  there  were  magicians  or  en- 
chanters in  Egypt  (Exod.  vii.  11.  Lev.  xx.  27.  xix.  31. 
Dent,  xviii.  20.),  denominated  in  Hebrew  D'crrc,  because 
they  computed  eclipses  of  tlie  sun  and  moon,  and  jtretended 
to  the  people,  that  they  produced  them  by  the  efficacy  of 
tlieir  own  enchantments.  Astronomy  does  not  appear  to 
iiave  been  much  cultivated  by  the  Hebrews :  the  laws  of 
Moses,  indeed,  by  no  means  favoured  this  science,  as  the 
neight)ouring  heathen  nations  worshipped  the  host  of  heaven  ; 
hence  the  sacred  writers  rarely  mention  any  of  the  constella- 
tions by  name.  See  Job  ix.  'J.  xxxviii.  31,  32.  Isa.  xiii. 
10.  Amos  v.  8.  2  Kings  xxiii.  5. 

9.  Astrology. — It  is  hy  no  means  surprising  that  the 
Hebrews  did  not  devote  greater  attention  to  astronomy,  since 
the  study  of  ostmloi;}/,  which  was  intimately  connected  with 
that  of  astronomy,  and  was  very  highly  estimated  among 
the  neighbouring  nations  (Isa.  xlvii.  9.  Jer.  xxvii.  9.  1.  35. 
Dan.  ii.  13.  4H.),  was  interdicted  to  the  Hebrews.  (Deut. 
xviii.  10.  Lev.  XX.  27.)  Daniel.indeed,  studied  the  art  of 
astrology  at  Babylon,  but  he  did  not  practise  it.  (Dan.  i. 
20.  ii.  2.)  The  astrologers  (and  those  wise  men  mentioned 
in  Matt.  ii.  1.  ef  sn/.  appear  to  have  been  such)  divided  the 
heavens  into  apartments  or  habitations,  to  each  one  of  which 


Sect.  IV.] 


COMMERCE  AND  NAVIGATION''OF  THE  HEBREWS. 


187 


apartments  they  assigned  a  ruler  or  president.  This  fact 
developes  the  origin  of  the  word  0i^£cuk,  Sot  Sya,  or  the 
Lord  of  the  (celestial)  dwelling.  (Matt.  x.  25.  xii.  24.  27. 
Mark  iii.  22.  Luke  xu  15—19':) 

10.  Measures  of  length  are  mentioned  in  Gen.  vi.  15,  16. 
A  knowledge  of  the  method  of  measuring  lands  is  implied 
in  the  account  given  in  Gen.  xlvii.  20 — 27.  Mention  is  made, 
in  the  books  of  Job  and  Joshua,  of  a  line  or  rope  for  the  pur- 
pose of  taking  measurements,  ^p,  San-  It  was  brought  by 
the  Hebrews  out  of  Egypt,  where,  according  to  the  unani- 
mous testimony  of  antiquity,  Surveying  first  had  its  origin, 
and,  in  consequence  of  the  inundations  of  the  Nile,  was  car- 
ried to  the  greatest  height.  It  was  here,  as  we  may  well 
conclude,  th^t  the  Hebrews  acquired  so  much  knowledge 
of  the  principles  of  that  science,  as  to  enable  them,  with  tne 
aid  of  the  measuring  line  above  mentioned,  to  partition  and 
set  off  geographically  the  whole  land  of  Canaan.  The 
weights  used  in  weighing  solid  bodies  (Gen.  xxiii.  15,  16.), 

Erovided  they  were  similar  to  each  other  in  form,  imply  a 
nowledge  of  the  rudiments  of  stereometry. 

11.  The  Mechanic  Arts. — No  express  mention  is  made 
.•>f  the  mechanic  arts ;  but  that  a  knowledge  of  them,  not- 
withstanding, existed,  may  be  inferred  from  the  erection  of 
Noah's  ark,  and  the  tower  of  Babel ;  from  the  use  of  balances 
in  the  time  of  Abraham ;  also  from  what  is  said  of  the  Egyp- 
tian chariots,  in  Gen.  xli.  43.  xlv.  19.  1.  9.  and  Exod.  xiv. 
6,  7. ;  and  from  the  instruments  used  by  the  Egyptians  in 
irrigating  their  lands.  (Deut.  xi.  10.)  It  is  implied  in  the 
mention  of  these,  and  subsequently  of  many  other  instru- 
ments, that  other  instruments  still,  not  expressly  named,  but 
which  were,  of  course,  necessary  for  the  formation  of  those 
which  are  named,  were  in  existence. 

12.  Geography. — Geographical  notices  occur  so  frequently 
in  the  Bible,  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  say  much  on  this 
point;  but  see  Gen.  x.  1 — 30.  xii.  4 — 15.  xiv.  1 — 16.  xxviii. 
2 — 9.  xlix.  13,  &c.  Perhaps,  however,  it  deserves  to  be 
repeated,  that  in  the  time  of  Joshua,  the  whole  of  Palestine 
was  subjected  to  a  geographical  division.  (Josh,  xviii.  9.) 
It  is  evident,  then,  from  their  geographical  knowledge,  as 
well  as  from  other  circumstances  already  mentioned,  that 
there  must  have  existed  among  the  Hebrews  the  rudiments, 
if  nothing  more,  of  geographical  science. 


SECTION  IV. 

ON  THE    COMMERCE   AND   NAVIGATION   OF   THE    HEBREWS. 

..  Commerce  of  the  JMidianites,  Egyptians,  and  Phcenicians. — 
II.  J\Iode  of  transporting  goods. — III.  Commerce  of  the 
Hebre^vs,  particularly  under  Solomon  and  his  successors. — 
W.  J\'otice  of  ancient  shipping. — V.  JMoney,  -weights,  and 
measures. 

I.  The  Scriptures  do  not  afford  us  any  example  of  trade, 
more  ancient  than  those  caravans  of  Ishmaelites  and  Midian- 
ites,  to  whom  Joseph  was  perfidiously  sold  by  his  brethren. 
These  men  were  on  their  return  from  Gilead,  with  their 
Ccimels  laden  with  spices,  and  other  rich  articles  of  merchan- 
dise, which  they  were  carrying  into  Egypt;  where,  doubt- 
less, they  produced  a  great  return,  from  the  quantities  con- 
sumed in  that  country  lor  embalming  the  bodies  of  the  dead. 
From  their  purchasing  Joseph,  and  selling  him  to  Potiphar, 
it  is  evident  that  their  traffic  was  not  confined  to  the  commo- 
dities furnished  by  Gilead.  But  the  most  distinguished 
merchants  of  ancient  times  were  the  Phoenicians,  who  bought 
the  choicest  productions  of  the  East,  which  they  exportea  to 
Africa  and  Europe,  whence  they  took  in  return  silver  and 
other  articles  of  merchandise,  which  they  again  circulated 
in  the  East.  Their  first  metropolis  was  Sidon,  and  after- 
wards Tyre,  founded  about  250  years  before  the  building  of 
Solomon''s  temple,  or  1251  before  the  Christian  era ;  and 
wherever  they  went,  they  appear  to  have  established  peace- 
ful commercial  settlements,  mutually  beneficial  to  themselves 
and  to  the  natives  of  the  country  visited  by  them.  The  com- 
merce of  Tyre  is  particularly  describedf  in  Isa.  xxiii.  and 
Ezek.  xxvii.  xxviii. 

II.  The  commerce  of  the  East  appears  to  have  been  chiefly 
carried  on  by  land :  hence  ships  are  but  rarely  mentioned  in 
the  Old  Testament  before  the  times  of  David  and  Solomon. 
There  were  two  principal  routes  from  Palestine  to  Egypt; 

»  Jahn'a  Archseologia  Biblica,  by  Upham,  i%  9S— 100.  lOi.  106.  Pareau, 
Antiquitas  Hebraica,  pp.  433—438. 


VIZ.  one  along  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  from 
Gaza  to  Pelusium,  which  was  about  three  days' journey: 
and  the  other  from  Gaza  to  the  Elanitic  branch  of  the  Ara- 
bian Gulf,  Avhich  now  passes  near  Mount  Sinai,  and  requires 
nearly  a  month  to  complete  it.  Although  chariots  were  not 
unknown  to  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  East,  yet  they 
chiefly  transported  their  merchandise  across  the  desert  on 
camels,  a  hardy  race  of  animals,  admirably  adapted  by  nature 
for  this  purpose :  and  lest  they  should  be  plundered  by  rob- 
bers, the  merchants  used  to  travel  in  large  bodies  (as  they 
now  do),  which  are  called  caravans ,-  or  m  smaller  compa- 
nies termed  kafilis  or  kafl^s.  (Job  vi.  18,  19.  Gen.  xxxvii. 
25.  Isa.  xxi.  13.) 

III.  Although  the  land  of  Canaan  was,  from  its  abundant 
produce,  admirably  adapted  to  commerce,  yet  Moses  enacted 
no  laws  in  favour  of  trade;  because  the  Hebrews,  beinor 
specially  set  apart  for  the  preservation  of  true  religion,  coulS 
not  be  dispersed  among  idolatrous  nations  without  being  in 
danger  ot  becoming  contaminated  with  their  abominable 
worship.  He  therefore  only  inculcated  the  strictest  justice 
in  weights  and  measures  (Lev.  xix.  36,  37.  Deut.  xxv.  13, 
14.) ;  and  left  the  rest  to  future  ages  and  governors.  It  is 
obvious,  however,  that  the  three  great  festivals  of  the  Jews, 
who  were  bound  to  present  themselves  before  Jehovah  thrice 
in  the  year,  would  give  occasion  for  much  domestic  traffic, 
which  the  individuals  of  the  twelve  tribes  would  carry  on 
with  each  other  either  for  money  or  produce.  From  Judg. 
V.  17.  it  should  seem  that  the  tribes  of  Dan  and  Asher  had 
some  commercial  dealings  with  the  neighbouring  maritime 
nations;  but  the  earliest  direct  notice  contained  in  the  Scrip- 
tures of  the  commerce  of  the  Hebrews  does  not  occur  before 
tiie  reign  of  David.  This  wise  and  valiant  prince,  by  many 
victories,  not  only  enlarged  the  boundaries  of  his  empire, 
but  also  subdued  the  kingdom  of  Edom  (which  he  reduced 
into  a  province),  and  made  himself  master  of  the  two  ports 
of  Elath  and  Ezion-geber  on  the  Red  Sea.  Part  of  the 
wealth  acquired  by  his  conquests  he  eniployed  in  purchasing 
cedar-timber  from  Hiram  1.  kin^  of  Tyre,  with  whom  he 
maintained  a  friendly  correspondence  as  long  as  he  lived ; 
and  he  also  hired  Tyrian  masons  and  carpenters  for  carrying 
on  his  works.2  This  prince  collected,  for  the  building  of  the 
temple,  upwards  of  eight  hundred  millions  of  our  money, 
according  to  Dr.  Arbuthnot's  calculations. ^  On  the  death 
of  David,  Solomon  his  successor  cultivated  the  arts  of  peace, 
and  was  thereby  enabled  to  indulge  his  taste  for  magnificence 
and  luxury,  more  than  his  father  could  possibly  do.  Being 
blest  with  a  larger  share  of  wisdom  than  ever  before  fell  lo 
the  lot  of  any  man,  he  directed  his  talents  for  business  to  the 
improvement  of  foreign  commerce,  which  had  not  been  ex- 
pressly prohibited  by  Moses.  He  employed  the  vast  wealth 
amassed  by  his  father  in  works  of  architecture,  and  in  strength- 
ening and  beautifying  his  kingdom.  The  celebrated  temple 
at  Jerusalem,  the  fortifications  of  that  capital,  and  many  en- 
tire cities  (among  which  was  the  famous  Tadmor  or  Palmy- 
ra), Avere  built  by  him.  Finding  his  own  subjects  but  little 
qualified  for  such  undertakings,  he  applied  to  Hiram  II.  king 
of  Tyre,  the  son  of  his  father's  friend  Hiram,  who  furnishea 
him  with  cedar  and  fir  (or  cypress)  timber,  and  large  stones, 
all  properly  cut  and  prepared  for  building;  which  the  Tyrians 
carried  by  water  to  the  most  convenient  landing-place  in 
Solomon's  dominions.  Hiram  II.  also  sent  a  great  number 
of  workmen  to  assist  and  instruct  Solomon's  people,  none 
of  whom  had  skill  to  hew  timber  like  unto  the  Sidonians  (1 
Kings  V.  5,  6.),  as  the  Israelites  ihAi  called  the  Tyrians, 
from  their  having  been  oriainally  a  colony  from  Sidon. 
Solomon,  in  return,  furnished  the  Tyrians  with  corn,  wine, 
and  oil ;  and  he  even  received  a  balance  in  gold.  (1  Kings 
V.  9 — 11.  2  Chron.  ii.  10.)  It  is  not  improbable,  however, 
that  the  gold  was  the  stipiilated  price  for  Solomon's  cession 
of  twenty  towns  to  the  Tyrians ;  which  Hiram,  not  liking 
them,  afterwards  returned  to  him.     (1  Kings  ix.  12,  13.) 

The  great  intercourse  of  trade  and  friendship,  which  Solo- 
mon had  with  the  first  commercial  people  in  the  western 
world,  inspired  him  with  a  strong  desire  to  participate  in  the 
advantages  of  trade.  His  father's  conquests,  as  we  have 
already  seen,  had  extended  his  territories  to  the  Red  Sea  or 
the  Arabian  Gulf,  and  had  given  him  the  possession  of  a  good 
harbour,  whence  ships  might  be  despatched  to  the  rich  coun- 
tries of  the  south  and  east.     But,  nis  own  subjects  being 

>  Eupolemus,  an  ancient  writer  quoted  by  Eusebius  (De  Prrep.  Evang. 
lib.  is.),  says  that  David  built  ships  in  Arabia,  in  which  he  sent  men  skilled 
in  mines  and  metals  to  the  Island  of  Ophir.  Some  modem  authors, 
improving  upon  this  rather  suspicious  authority,  have  ascribed  to  David 
the  honour  of  being  the  founder  of  the  great  East  Indian  commerce. 

3  Tables  of  Ancient  Coins,  pp.  35.  203. 


Igg  COMMERCE  AND  NAVIGATION  OF  THE  HEBREWS 

totally  ignorant  of  tKe  arts  of  building  and  navigating  vessels, 
he  ao-ain^had  recourse  to  the  assistance  of  Hiram.     The  king 


[Part  IV 


of  Tyre,  who  veas  desirous  of  an  opening  to  the  oriental  com- 
merce, the  articles  of  which  his  subjects  were  obliged  to 
receive  at  second  hand  from  the  Arabians,  entered  readily 
into  the  views  of  the  Hebrew  monarch.  Accordingly,  Tyriaii 
carpenters  were  sent  to  build  vessels  for  both  kings  at  Ezion- 
geber,  Solomon's  port  on  the  Ked  Sea;  whither  Solomon 
Himself  also  went  to  animate  the  workmen  by  his  presence. 

Solomon's  ships,  conducted  by  Tyrian  navigators,  sailed 
m  company  with  those  of  Hiram  to  some  rich  countries, 
called  Ophir  (most  probably  Sofala  on  the  eastern  coast  of 
Africa),  and  Tarshish,  a  place  supposed  to  be  somewhere  on 
the  same  coast.'  The  voyage  required  three  years  to  accom- 
plish it ;  yet,  notwithstanding  the  length  of  time  employed  in 
It,  the  returns  in  this  new  channel  of  trade  were  prodigiously 
great  and  profitable,  consisting  of  gold,  silver,  precious  stones, 
valuable  woods,  and  some  exotic  animals,  as  apes  and  pea- 
cocks. We  have  no  information  concerning  the  articles  ex- 
ported in  this  trade  :  but,  in  all  probability,  the  manufactures 
of  the  Tyrians,  together  with  the  commodities  imported  by 
them  from  other  countries,  were  assorted  with  the  corn,  wine, 
and  oil  of  Solomon's  dominions  in  making  up  the  cargoes  ; 
and  his  ships,  like  the  late  Spanish  galleons,  imported  the 
bullion,  partly  for  the  benefit  of  his  industrious  and  commer- 
cial neiglibours.  (I  Kings  vii. — x.  2  Chron.  ii.  viii.  ix.) 
Solomon  also  established  a  commercial  correspondence  with 
Egj'pt;  whence  he  imported  horses,  chariots,  and  fine  linen- 
yarn  :  the  chariots  cost  six  hundred,  and  the  horses  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty,  shekels  of  silver  each.  (I  Kings  x.  28,  29. 
2  Chron.  i.  IG,  17.) 

After  the  division  of  the  kingdom,  Edom  being  in  that  por- 
tion which  remained  to  the  house  of  David,  the  Jews  appear 
to  have  carried  on  the  oriental  trade  from  the  two  ports  of 
Elath  and  Ezion-gebcr,  especially  the  latter,  until  the  time 
of  Jehosha])hat,  whose  fleet  was  wrecked  there  (1  Kings 
xxii.  48.  2  Chron.  xx.  36,  37.)  During  the  reign  of  Jelio- 
ram,  the  wicked  successor  of  Jehoshaphat,  the  Edomites 
shook  off  the  yoke  of  the  Jewish  sovereigns,  and  recovered 
their  ports.  From  this  lime  the  Jewish  traffic,  through  the 
Red  S(!a,  ceased  till  the  reign  of  Uzziah  ;  who,  having  reco- 
vered Elath  soon  after  his  accession,  expelled  the  Edomites 
thence,  and  having  fortified  the  place,  jjcopled  it  with  his 
own  subjects,  wlio  renewed  their  former  commerce.  This 
appears  to  have  continued  till  the  reign  of  Ahaz,  when  Rezin, 
king  of  Damascus,  having  oppressed  and  weakened  Judah 
in  conjunction  with  Pekah,  kmg  of  Israel,  took  advantage  of 
this  circumstance  to  seize  Elath;  whence  he  expelled  the 
Jews,  and  planted  it  with  Syrians.  In  the  following  year, 
however,  Elath  fell  into  the  hands  of  Tiglathpileser,  king  of 
Assyria,  who  conquered  Rezin,  but  did  not  restore  it  to  his 
friend  and  ally,  king  Ahaz.2  Thus  finally  terminated  the 
commercial  prosperity  of  the  kingdoms  of  Judah  and  Israel. 
After  the  captivity,  indeed,  during  the  reigns  of  the  Asraonaeaii 
princes,  the  Jews  became  great  traders.  In  the  time  of 
Pompey  the  Great  there  were  so  many  Jews  abroad  on  the 
ocean,  even  in  the  character  of  pirates,  that  king  Antigonus 
was  accused  before  him  of  having  sent  them  out  on  purpose. 
During  the  period  of  time  comprised  in  the  New  Testament 
history,  Joppa  and  Caesarea  were  the  two  principal  ports ; 
and  corn  continued  to  be  a  staple  article  of  export  to  Tyre. 
(Acts  xii.  20.)3 

During  the  Babylonish  captivity,  the  Jews  seem  to  have 
applied  tliemselves  much  more  tlian  they  liad  previously 
done  to  commercial  pursuits;  for  though  some  of  them 
cultivated  the  soil  at  the  exhortation  of  Jeremiah  (xxix.  4, 

«  It  Ih  r.erl-iin  that  under  Plinraoli  Ncdio,  two  Inmdrcil  vcars  ."iftnr  Hie 
time  of  .Solomon,  iIiIh  voyajje  was  ni;ido  by  the  EKyptiang.  (IJerodolus,  lib. 
Iv.  c.  42.)  They  sailed  from  the  R';(l  Hca,  and  rclurne<l  by  the  Meililerra- 
nean,  and  Iboy  iierforincd  It  in  thn-c  years ;  jtist  (lie  same  liinr  that  the 
voyajffi  under  Solomon  had  lajten  up.  It  appears  likewise  from  Pliny 
(Nat.  lli.sl.  lib.  ii.  c.  C7.),  that  the  p.isHUgo  round  ihe  Cape  of  f.'cjod  Ilnpc 
was  known  and  frequently  praetisid  bi-forc  his  time  :  by  Il.mno  the  Car- 
IbaEinian,  when  Carthage  was  in  ail  its  glory  ;  by  one  Eudii.vus,  in  the  time 
of  I'lob-my  I«ilhyrus,  kinc  of  r.«ypt ;  and  Cielius  Aniipater,  an  bi.'torian  of 
good  credit,  Bouiewhat  earlier  than  I'liny,  Icstifies  that  he  had  sei.-n  a  mer- 
chant who  had  made  the  voyage  from  Oades  to  ylilthinpia.  111'.  Lowth, 
howrver,  buijuosus  Tarshish  to  be  Tarlessu.'f  In  Hpain.  Isaian,  vol.  ii. 
pp.  31,  33. 

»  During  this  period,  the  Jews  seem  to  have  liad  privileged  streets  at 
Daniasrus,  as  the  Syrians  had  in  Samaria.  (1  Kincs  XJt.  31  )  In  later  liirios, 
ilurinif  the  crusadeH,  the  Genoese  anil  Venetians,  wlio  huil  assisted  the 
Latin  kiii(;i  of  JerusalrT.-i,  had  glrecla  assigneil  to  I  hem,  with  ureat  liberties 
and  exr.lu>(lvc  jurisdiclions  therein.  See  Ilaruier's  Observations,  vol.  lii. 
pp.  489—492. 

•  Jahn,  Archasol.  Ileor.  ii  107—111.  Marpherson's  Annals  of  Com- 
merce, vol.  1.  pp.  22—21.  26.  Prideaux's  Conuectlon,  vol.  i.  pp.  6—10. 
8th  edit. 


5.)  yet  many  others  appear  to  have  gained  their  subsistence 
by  buying  and  selling.  Hence,  immediately  after  their 
restoration,  there  were  Jewish  traders,  who,  regardless  ot 
the  rest  of  the  sabbath-day  which  was  enjoined  by  Moses, 
not  only  bought  and  sold  on  that  sacred  day  (Neb.  xiii.  15.), 
h\it  also  extorted  unjust  usury.  (Neh.  v.  1 — 13.)  In  later 
times,  foreign  commerce  was  neatly  facilitated  by  Simon 
Maccabaius,  who  made  the  fortified  city  of  Jonpa  a  commo- 
dious uort  (1  Mace.  xiv.  5.),  and  by  Herod  tlie  Great,  who 
erectea  the  city  of  Coesarea,  which  he  converted  into  a  very 
excellent  harbour,  which  was  always  free  from  the  waves  of 
the  sea  by  means  of  a  magnificent  mole.'' 

IV.  Respecting  the  size  and  architecture  of  the  Jewish 
ships,  we  have  no  information  whatever.  The  trading  vessels 
of  the  ancients  were,  in  general,  much  inferior  in  size  to 
those  of  the  moderns  :  Cicero  mentions  a  number  of  ships 
of  burden,  none  of  which  were  below  two  thousand  ampho- 
rae, that  is,  not  exceeding  fifty-six  tons  ;*  and  in  a  trading 
vessel,  in  all  probability  of  much  less  burden,  bound  with 
corn  from  Alexandria  in  Egypt  to  Rome,  St.  Paul  was 
embarked  at  Myra  in  Lycia.  From  the  description  of  his 
voyage  in  Acts  xxvii.  it  is  evident  to  what  small  improve- 
ment the  art  of  navigation  had  then  attained.  Tliey  had 
no  anchors,  by  which  to  moor  or  secure  their  vessels  ;  and 
it  is  most  probable  that  the  crew  of  the  vessel  on  board  of 
which  the  apostle  was  embarked,  drew  her  up  on  the  beach 
of  the  several  places  where  they  stopped,  and  made  her  fast 
on  the  rocks,  as  the  ancient  Greeks  did  in  the  time  of  Ho- 
mer,*' which  practice  also  still  obtains  in  almost  evcrj'  island 
of  Greece.'  Further,  they  had  no  compass  by  which  they 
could  steer  their  course  across  the  tracldess  deep ;  and  the 
sacred  historian  represents  their  situation  as  peculiarly  dis- 
tressing, when  the  sight  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars  was 
intercepted  from  them.  (Acts  xxvii.  20.)  The  vessel  being 
overtaken  by  one  of  those  tremendous  gales,  which,  at 
certain  seasons  of  the  year  prevail  in  the  Mediterraneans 
(where  they  are  now  called  Levanters),  fkey  had  much  work  to 
coDie  by  the  ship's  io«/,  which  appears  to  have  been  towed 
along  after  the  vessel,  agreeably  to  the  custnm  that  still  ob- 
tains in  the  East,  where  the  skins  are  fastened  to  the  sterns  of 
the  ships  ( Ifi.) ;  which  Iiuvins;  taken  up,  that  is,  having  drawn 
it  up  close  to  the  stern,  they  proceeded  to  under-gird  the  ship. 
(17.)  We  learn  from  various  passages  in  the  Greek  and 
Roman  authors,  that  the  ancients  had  recourse  to  this  expe- 
dient in  order  to  secure  their  vessels,  when  in  imminent 
danger  ;5  and  this  method  has  been  used  even  in  modern 
times.'" 

Much  ingenious  conjecture  has  been  hazarded  relative  to 
the  nature  of  the  rudder-bands,  mentioned  in  Acts  xxvii. 
40. ;  but  the  supposed  diflficulty  will  be  obviated  by  attend- 
ing to  the  structure  of  ancient  vessels.  It  was  usual  f«r  all* 
large  ships  (of  which  description  were  the  Alexandrian 
corn  ships)  to  have  two  rudders,  a  kind  of  very  large  and 
broad  oars,  which  were  fixed  at  the  head  and  stern.  The 
bands  were  some  kind  of  fastenings,  by  which  thr.^e  rudders 
were  hoisted  some  way  out  of  the  water  ;  for  as  they  could 
be  of  no  use  in  a  storm,  and  in  the  event  of  lair  weather 
coming  the  vessel  could  not  do  without  thorn,  this  was  a 
prudent  way  of  securing  them  from  beintr  broken  to  pieces 
oy  the  agitation  of  the  waves.  These  bands  being  loosed, 
the  rudders  would  fall  down  into  their  proper  places,  and 

«  .Tosephus,  Ant.  .lud.  lib.  xv.  c  9.  §  6.    Parcau,  Antiq.  Hebr.  pp.  418, 41'* 
>  Gpi^t-  ad  Famiilares,  lib.  xii.  cp.  15. 

•  llud,  lib.  1.  43.').  et  pastiini. 

1  Emerson's  Keiters  from  Ilie  jT-i^ean,  vol.  ii.  p.  121.  The  lollowinj  pHf- 
sages  of  Acts  xxvii.  will  derive  elucidation  from  the  above  practice:  it  will 
be  observed  lliatal  sellmg  sail  there  is  no  mention  made  ol  heaving  up  Iho 
anchor;  but  there  occur  such  phra-^es  cs  the  following: — Andentrrini; 
into  n  ship  rif  Atlninnjllitini,  we  l..\rNriii;n,  vieaiiivg  to  sail  l>y  the  roast 
qf  Asia,  (verse  2.)  And  when  the  south  whid  blew  softly,  sitpposintf  that 
they  hiul  ol.lained  their  purpcsp,  loosing  thkncb,  thiy  saifed  close  by 
Crrlr.  (13.)  And  ai;ain,  And  trhin  irr  had  launched  from  tiienci;,  tf« 
Htiilid  under  Cyprus,  because  the  winds  were  contrary.  (4.)  Ibid.  pp. 
121,  \J2. 

•  Mr.  Emerson  has  described  the  phenomena  attending  one  of  these 
gales  in  his  Letters  from  the  A'.gean,  vol.  il.  rp.  14i>— 152. 

»  Haphflius  and  Wctstein,  in  loe.  have  collected  numerous  testimonies. 
Sec  also  Ur.  Ilarwood's  Introduction,  vol.  ii.  pp.  239,  240. 

ID  The  process  nf  under-Kinlin^t  a  ship  is  llms  performed  :— A  slout  cablo 
i.s  lilipjiud  imdiT  the  ve.-..sel  »'.  Iho  prow,  which  the  seninen  can  conihict  to 
any  part  of  the  ship's  keel,  and  then  fasten  the  two  ends  on  the  deck,  to 
keep  the  planks  frnm  slarting.  As  many  rounds  as  may  bo  necessary 
mav  be  thus  taken  about  the  vessel.  An  instance  of  this  kind  is  mentioned 
in  Lord  Anson's  Voynj-e  roiuid  the  World.  HpoakinR  of  a  Spanish  man-of- 
war  in  a  slorin,  Ihe  writer  says,-"  They  were  oliliRcd  In  throw  overboard 
all  thi-ir  npper-deck  jiuns  :  and  take  six  turns  of  (4c  cahlr  round  thf  s/Jp 
to  prevent  her  opening."  (j).  'J4.  4to.  edit.)  Hl>.  Pcarre  and  Dr.  A.  Clarke 
on  ActK  xxvii.  17.  Two  Insl.mcee  of  under-cinlinn  a  ship  are  noticed  in  the 
Chevalier  do  Johnstone's  Memoirs  of  the  llebcUion  in  1745—6.  (LpnUoii,. 
1822.  8vo.)  pp.  421.  4M.  ■ 


Chap.  VIII.] 


AMUSEMENTS  Or  THE  JEWS 


189 


serve  to  steer  the  vessel  into  the  creek  which  they  now  had 
in  view.' 

It  was  the  custom  of  the  ancients  to  have  images  on 
their  ships  both  at  the  head  and  stern  ;  the  first  of  which 
was  called  T[u.j>:ta-n/xo?,  or  the  sign,  from  which  the  vessel 
was  named,  and  the  other  Avas  that  of  the  tutelar  deity  to 
whose  care  it  was  committed.  There  is  no  doubt  but  they 
sometimes  had  deities  at  the  head :  in  which  case  it  is 
most  likely,  that  if  they  had  any  figure  at  the  stern,  it  was 
the  same  ;  as  it  is  hardly  probable,  that  the  ship  should 
be  called  by  the  name  of  one  deity,  and  be  committed  to 
the  care  of  another.  The  constellation  of  the  Dioscuri, 
that  is,  of  Castor  and  Pollux  (Acts  xxviii.  11.),  was 
deemed  favourable,  to  mariners ;  and,  therefore,  for  a  good 
omen,  they  had  them  painted  or  carved  on  the  head  oi  the 
ship,  whence  they  gave  it  a  name,  which  the  sacred  his- 
torian uses.2 

The  Egyptians  commonly  used  on  the  Nile  a  light  sort  of 
ships  or  boats  made  of  the  reed  papyrus.^  Isaiah  alludes  to 
them  (xviii.  2.),  in  our  version  rendered  vessels  of  bulrushes  J 
Boats  of  similar  frail  materials  are  still  in  use  in  the 
East.5 

V.  Commerce  could  not  be  carried  on  without  Coin,  nor 
without  a  system  of  Weights  and  Measures. 

Although  the  Scriptures  frequently  mention  gold,  silver, 
brass,  certain  sums  of  money,  purchases  made  with  money, 
current  money,  and  money  of  a  certain  weight ;  yet  the  use 
of  coin  or  stamped  Money  appears  to  have  been  of  late  intro- 
duction among  the  Hebrews.  Calmet  is  of  opinion,  that  the 
ancient  Hebrews  took  gold  and  silver  only  by  weight,  and 
that  they  regarded  the  purity  of  the  metal,  and  not  the  stamp. 
The  practice  of  weighing  money  is  stated  by  M.  Volney  to 
be  general  in  Syria,  E^ypt,  and  Turkey :  no  piece,  however 
effaced,  is  there  refused.  The  merchant  draws  out  his  scales 
and  weighs  it,s  as  in  the  days  of  Abraham,  when  he  pur- 
chased the  cave  of  Machpelah  for  a  sepulchre.  (Gen.  xxiii. 
16.)''  The  most  ancient  mode  of  carrying  on  trade,  unques- 
tionably, was  by  way  of  barter,  or  exchanging  one  commo- 
dity for  another ;  a  custom  which  obtains  in  some  places  even 


to  this  day.  In  process  of  time  such  metals  as  were  deemed 
the  most  valuable  were  received  into  traffic,  and  were  weighed 
out;  until  the  inconveniences  of  this  method  induced  men  to 
give  to  each  metal  a  certain  mark,  v/eight,  and  degree  of 
alloy,  in  order  to  determine  its  value,  and  save  both  buyers 
and  sellers  the  trouble  of  weighing  and  examining  the  metal. 
In  some  cases,  the  earliest  coins  bore  the  impression  of  a 
particular  figure;  in  others,  they  were  made  to  resemble 
objects  of  nature.  The  coinage  of  money  was  of  late  date 
among  the  Persians,  Greeks,  and  Komans.  The  Persians 
had  none  coined  before  the  reim  of  Darius  the  son  of  Hys- 
taspes,  nor  had  the  Greeks  (whom  the  Romans  most  proba- 
bly imitated)  any  before  the  time  of  Alexander.  We  have 
no  certain  vestiges  of  the  existence  of  coined  money,  among 
the  Egyptians,  before  the  time  of  the  Ptolemies ;  nor  had  the 
Hebrews  any  coinage  until  the  government  of  Judas  Macca- 
baeus,  to  whom  Antiochus  Sidetes,  king  of  Syria,  granted  the 
privilege  of  coining  his  own  money  in  Judaea.  Before  these 
respective  times,  all  payments  were  made  by  weight ;  this 
will  account  for  one  and  the  same  word  {shekel,  which  comes 
from  shakal,  to  weigh'),  denoting  both  a  certain  weight  of  any 
commodity  and  also  a  determinate  sum  of  money.s  The 
holy  pliancy  of  temper  with  which  believers  should  conform 
to  all  the  precepts  of  the  Gospel  is  by  St.  Paul  represented 
by  a  beautiful  allusion  to  the  coining  of  money,  in  which  the 
liquid  metals  accurately  receive  the  figure  of  the  mould  or 
die  into  Avhich  they  are  poured.  (Rom.  vi.  17.)9 

Weights  and  Measures  were  regulated  at  a  very  early 
period  in  Asia.  Moses  made  various  enactments  concernino- 
them  for  the  Hebrews ;  and  both  weights  and  measures,  whicS 
were  to  serve  as  standards  for  form  and  contents,  were  depo- 
sited at  first  in  the  tabernacle,  and  afterwards  in  the  temple, 
under  the  cognizance  of  the  priests.'"  On  the  destruction  of 
Solomon's  temple  these  standards  necessarily  perished;  and 
during  the  captivity  the  Hebrews  used  the  weights  and  mea- 
sures of  their  masters. 

For  tables  of  the  weights,  measures,  and  money  used  in 
commerce,  and  which  are  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  the  reader 
is  referred  to  No.  II.  of  the  appendix  to  this  volume. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


AMUSEMENTS  OF  THE  JEWS. ALLUSIONS  TO  THE  THEATRES,  TO  THEATRICAL  PERFORMANCES,  AND 

TO  THE  GRECIAN  GAMES  IN  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 

I.  Recreations  of  the  Je-ivs  in  domestic  Life. — II.  Military  Sports. — III.  Introduction  of  gymnastic  and  theatrical  Exhibi- 
tions among  the  .lews. — IV,  .Allusions  to  the  Theatres  and  to  theatrical  Performances  in  the  JVew  Testament, — V.  illusions 
to  the  Grecian  Games,  particularly  the  Olympic  Games. — 1.  Qualifications  of  the  Candidates. — Preparatory  Discipline  to 
•which  they  were  subjected. — 2.  Foot  Race. — 3.  Rewards  of  the  Victors. — 4.  Beautiful  Allusions  to  these  Games  in  the  JVew 
Testament  explained.  • 


The  whole  design  of  the  Mosaic  institutes,  being  to  pre- 
serve the  knowledge  and  worship  of  the  true  God  among  the 
Israelites,  will  sufficiently  account  for  their  silence  respect- 
ing recreations  and  amusements.  Although  no  particular 
circumstances  are  recorded  on  this  subject,  we  meet  with  a 
few  detached  facts  which  show  that  the  Hebrews  were  not 
entirely  destitute  of  amusements. 

I.  The  various  events  incident  to  Domestic  Life  afforded 

them  occasions  for  festivity.     Thus,  Abraham  made  a  great 

I  Eisner  and  Wetstein  on  Acts  xxvii.  40. 
a  Valpy's  Gr.  Test.  vol.  ii.  on  Acts  xxviii.  11. 

3  Ex  ipso  quidem  papyro  navigia  texunt.  Pliny,  Hist.  Nat.  lib.  xiii.  11. 
The  same  fact  is  attested  by  Lucau :  conseritur  bibula  Meniphitis  cymba 
papyro.    Pharsal.  lib.  iv.  136. 

4  Bp.  Lowth  on  Isaiab  xvlii.  2. 

6  The  Hon.  Capt.  Keppel,  giving  an  account  of  an  excursion  up  the  river 
Tigris,  thus  describes  the  boat  in  which  he  embarked :— "  It  was  in  shape 
like  a  large  circular  basket ;  the  sides  were  of  willow,  covered  over  with 
bitumen,  the  bottom  was  laid  with  reeds.  This  sort  of  boat  is  common  to 
the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris,  and  is  probably  best  adapted  to  the  strong 
currents  common  to  these  rivers.  May  not  these  boats  be  of  the  same 
kind  as  the  vessels  of  bub-ushes  upon  the  waters  alluded  to  by  Isaiah  ? 
(xviii.  2.)"    Narrative  of  Travels  from  India,  vol.  i.  pp.  197,  19S. 

«  In  a  piece  of  sculpture  discovered  by  Captains  Irby  and  Mangles  at  El 
Cab,  the  ancient  Eleethias  in  Egypt,  there  was  represented  a  pair  of 
scales :  at  one  end  was  a  man  writing  an  account,  while  another  was  weigh- 
ing some  small  articles,  probably  loaves  of  bread.  The  weight  was  in  the 
.  fotm  of  a  cow  couchant.    Travels  in  Egypt,  Nubia,  &c.  pp.  130—132. 

'  Volney's  Travels  in  Syria,  *.c.  vol.  ii.  p.  425.  In  considerable  payments 
an  agent  of  exchange  is  sent  for,  who  counts  paras  by  thousands,  rejects 
rieces  of  false  money,  and  weighs  all  the  sequins  either  separately  or 
together.  (Ibid.)  This  may  serve  to  illustrate  the  phrase,  current  money 
vith  Ike  merchant,  in  Gen.  xxiii.  16. 


feast  on  the  day  when  Isaac  was  weaned.  (Gen.  xxi.  8.) 
Weddings  were  always  seasons  of  rejoicing  (see  pp.  161, 
\&2.  supra):  so  also  were  the  seasons  of  sheep-shearing 
ri  Sam.  XXV.  36.  and  2  Sam.  xiii.  23.);  and  harvest-home! 
(See  p.  177.)  To  which  may  be  added,  the  birth-days  of 
sovereigns.  (Gen.  xl.  20.  Mark  vi.  21.)  Of  most  of  these 
festivities  music  (see  p.  183.)  and  dancing  (see  p.  184.) 
were  the  accompaniments.  From  the  amusement  of  children 
sitting  in  the  market-place,  and  imitating  the  usages  common 
at  wedding  feasts  and  at  funerals,  Jesus  Christ  takes  occa- 
sion to  compare  the  pharisees  to  sullen  children  who  will  be 
pleased  with  nothing  which  their  companions  can  do,  whe- 
ther they  play  at  weddings  or  funerals  ;  since  they  could  not 
be  prevailed  upon  to  attend  either  to  the  severe  precepts  and 
life  of  John  the  Baptist,  or  to  the  milder  precepts  and  habits 
of  Christ.  (Matt.  xi.  16,  17.")"  The  infamous  practice  of 
gamesters  who  play  with  loaded  dice  has  furnished  St.  Paul 
with  a  strong  metaphor,  in  which  he  cautions  the  Christians 
at  Ephesus  against  the  cheating  sleight  of  men  (Eph.  iv.  14.), 
whether  unbelieving  Jews,  heathen  philosophers,  or  false 

8  Calmet's  Dictionary,  vol.  ii.  article  Money.  See  a  full  account  of  tho 
money  coined  by  the  Maccaba;an  princes,  in  F.  P.  Bayer's  Dissertatio  Do 
Numis  Hebr£eo-Samaritanis.    Valentiee  Edetanorum.  1781.  4to. 

9  Cox's  Horse  Romaua;,  p.  33. 

«o  Michaelis  has  fully  discussed  the  wisdom  and  propriety  of  the  Mosaio 
regulations  concerning  weights  and  measures,  in  his  Commentaries  on  tho 
Laws  of  Moses,  vol.  iii.  pp.  378—397. 

"  Kuinoel  on  Matt.  xi.  17. 


190 


ALLUSIONS  TO  THE  THEATRES,  AND  TO 


[Part  IV. 


teachers  in  tiie  church  itself,  who  corrupted  the  doctrines  of 
the  Gospel  for  worldly  purposes,  while  they  assumed  the 
appearance  of  great  disinterestedness  and  piety.' 

II.  MiLiTARV  Sports  and  exercises  appear  to  have  been 
common  in  the  earlier  periods  of  the  .Tewish  history.  By 
these  the  Jewish  youth  were  taught  the  use  of  the  bow 
(1  Sara.  XX.  20.  30—35.),  or  the  hurling  of  stones  from  a 
sling  with  unerring  aim.  (Judg.  xx.  16.  1  Chron.  xii.  2.) 
Jerome  informs  us,  that  in  his  days  (the  fourth  century)  it 
was  a  common  exercise  throughout  Dudroa  for  the  young  men, 
who  were  ambitious  to  give  proof  of  their  strength,  to  lift 
up  round  stones  of  enormous  wcij^ht,  some  as  hwh  as  their 
knees,  others  to  their  navel,  shoulders,  or  head,  while  others 
placed  them  at  the  top  of  their  heads,  with  their  hands  erect 
and  joined  together,  lie  further  states,  that  he  saw  at  Athens 
an  extremely  heavy  brazen  sphere  or  globe,  which  he  vainly 
endeavourea  to  lift ;  and  that  on  inquiring  into  its  use,  he 
was  informed,  that  no  one  was  permitted  to  contend  in  the 
games  until,  by  his  liftincr  of  this  weight,  it  was  ascertained 
who  could  be  matched  with  him.  From  tliis  exercise  Jerome 
elucidates  a  difficult  passage  in  Zech.  xii.  3.,  in  which  the  pro- 

Ehet  compares  Jerusalem  to  a  stone  of  wreat  weight,  which 
eing  too  neavy  for  those  who  attempted  to  lift  it  up,  or  even 
to  remove  it,  falls  back  upon  them,  and  crushes  them  to  picces.2 

III.  Among  the  great  changes  which  were  effected  in  the 
manners  and  customs  of  the  Jews,  subsequently  to  the  time 
of  Alexander  the  Great,  may  be  reckoned  the  introduction  of 
GvMNASTic  Sports  and  Games,  in  imitation  of  those  cele- 
brated by  the  Greeks ;  who,  it  is  well  known,  were  passion- 
ately fond  of  theatrical  exhibitions.  These  amusements  they 
earned,  with  their  victorious  arms,  into  the  various  countries 
of  the  East ;  the  inhabitants  of  which,  in  imitation  of  their 
masters,  addicted  themselves  to  the  same  diversions,  and 
endeavoured  to  distinguish  themselves  in  the  same  exercises. 
The  profligate  high-priest  Jason,  in  the  reign  of  Antioclms 
Epiphanes,  first  introduced  public  games  at  Jerusalem,  where 
he  erected  a  gymnasium,  or  "  place  for  exercise,  and  for  the 
training  up  of  youth  in  the  fashions  of  the  heathen."  (2  Mace. 
iv.  9.)  "  The  avowed  purpose  of  these  athletic  exercises 
was,  the  strengthcidng  of  the  body;  but  the  real  design  went 
to  the  grailual  change  of  Judaism  for  heathenism,  as  was 
clearly  indicated  by  the  pains  which  many  took  to  efface  the 
mark  of  circunuision.  The  games,  besides,  were  closely 
connected  with  idolatry ;  for  they  were  generally  celebrated 
in  honour  of  some  pagan  god.  The  innovations  of  Jason 
were  therefore  extremely  odious  to  the  more  pious  part  of  the 
nation,  and  even  his  own  adherents  did  not  enter  fully  into 
all  his  views."'  They  also  produced  a  demoralizing  effect 
upon  the  Jews.  Even  the  very  priests,  neglecting  the  duties 
of  their  sacred  office,  hastened,  to  be  partakers  of  these  un- 
lawful sports,  and  were  ambitious  of  obtaining  the  prizes 
awarded  to  the  victors.  (10 — 15.)  The  restoration  of  divine 
worship,  and  of  the  observance  of  the  Mosaic  laws  and  insti- 
tutions under  the  Maccaba^an  princes,  put  an  end  to  these 
spectacles.  They  were,  however,  revived  by  Herod,  who, 
in  order  to  ingratiate  himself  with  the  emperor  Aug-ustilfe 
(b.  c.  7.),  built  a  tlieatre  at  Jerusalem,''  and  also  a  canacious 
amphitheatre,  without  the  city,  in  the  plain;  and  wno  also 
erected  similar  edifices  at  Ca;sarea,*  and  appointed  games  to 
be  solemnized  every  fifth  year  with  great  splendour,  and 
amid  a  vast  concourse  of  spectators,  who  were  invited  by 
proclamation  from  the  neignbouring  countries.  Josephus' 
narrative  of  these  circumstances  is  not  sufficiently  minute  to 
enable  us  to  determine  with  accuracy  a// the  exhibitions  which 
took  place  on  these  occasions.  But  we  may  collect,  that  they 
consisted  of  wrestling,  chariot-racing,  music,  and  combats  of 
wild  boasts,  which  either  fought  with  one  another,  or  with 
men  who  were  under  sentence  of  death  : — a  barbarous  amuse- 
ment which  has  liappily  been  abolished  by  the  beneficent 
influence  of  the  Gospel.  Further,  the  most  distinguished 
wrestlers  were  invited  to  attend  by  the  promise  of  very  great 
rewards  to  the  victors.  The  Gentiles  were  highly  deiiglitcd 
with  these  exhibitions,  which  were  so  utterly  ropufriiant  to 
tlio  laws  and  customs  of  the  Jews,  that  they  regarded  them 
with  the  utmost  horror  and  detestation.' 

•  Dr.  Mackniuht  on  Eph.  iv.  14. 

»  Jcromt!  on  Zirli.  ^ii,  J.   (O,).  torn.  Ml.  col.  17S0.  edit.  Dcnodictin.)    W. 
Itowtli  on  /I'l'h.  xii.  J. 
1  Jalin'8  Hist,  of  the  Hebrew  Commonwealth,  vol.  i.  p.  308. 
«  Jospjihus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xv.  c.  8.  i  1. 

•  Dell.  .Iiid.  lib.  i.  c.  21.  t8.  The  (lifTercnt  pMMget  of  Jmophiis  arc 
Gxaiiiiiic'd  In  detail  by  iMcliliom  <  <i  wlioiri  wo  nro  Indnbtrd  for  the  far.lH 
above  stated)  in  hisCoiiimijntaliu<i<- Judii.-oriim  KoHcenica  insorted  in  the 
■econd  vuluine  of  t)ic  Coinmcntalionos  docielalis  Rcgi.'Q  Uottingcnsis  Ke- 
centiorcs.    Gottingic,  1S13.  4to. 

.  •  Joicphui,  Ant.  Jud.  lib,  zv.  c.  &  ti  1,  2. 


IV.  In  all  countries  the  stage  has  ever  furnished  different 
languages  with  some  of  the  most  beautiful  Metaphors  and 
Allusions  that  adorn  tliem.''  In  every  tongue  we  read  of  the 
drama  of  human  life  :"  its  scenes  are  described  as  continually 
shifting  and  varying :  mortal  life  is  represented  as  an  intri- 
cate plot,  which  will  gradually  unfold  and  finally  wind  up 
into  harmony  and  happiness;  and  the  world  is  styled  a  mag- 
nificent theatre,  in  which  God  has  placed  us, — assigned  to 
ever}'  man  a  character, — is  a  constant  spectator  how  he  sup- 
ports this  character, — and  will  finally  applaud  or  condemn 
according  to  the  good  or  bad  execution  of  the  part,  whatever 
it  is,  he  has  been  appointed  to  act.^  The  drama  was  insti- 
tuted to  exhibit  a  striking  picture  of  human  life,  and,  in  a 
faithful  mirror,  to  hold  up  to  the  spectator's  view  that  mis- 
cellany of  characters  wnich  diversify  it,  and  tliose  inter- 
changes and  reverses  of  fortune  which  chequer  it.'o  It  is 
scarcely  necessary  to  remark,  though  the  observation  is  pro- 
per for  the  sake  of  illustrating  a  very  beautiful  passage  in 
one  of  St.  Paul's  Epistles,  that  a  variety  of  scenes  is  painted, 
which  bj'  means  of  the  requisite  machinery  are  very  fre- 
quently shifting,  in  order  to  show  the  characters  in  a  variety 
of  places  and  fortunes.  To  the  spectator,  lively  and  affecting 
views  are  by  turns  displayed,  sometimes,  for  example,  of 
Thebes,  sometimes  of  Athens,"  one  while  of  a  palace,  at 
another  of  a  prison;  now  of  a  splendid  triumph,  and  now 
of  a  funeral  procession, — every  thing,  from  the  beginning  to 
the  catastropne,  perpetually  varying  and  changing  according 
to  the  niles  and  conduct  of  the  drama.  A^eeably  to  this, 
with  what  elegance  and  propriety  does  St.  Paul,  whom  we 
find  quoting  Menander,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  writers  of 
the  (ireek  comed)',  represent  the  fashion  of  this  world  as 
continually  passing  away,'^  and  all  the  scenes  of  this  vain 
and  visionary  life  as  perpetually  shifting !  "  The  imagery," 
says  Grotius,  "  is  talcen  from  the  theatre,  where  the  scenery 
is  suddenly  changed,  and  exhibits  an  appearance  totally  dif- 
ferent."''  And  as  the  transactions  of  the  drama  are  not  real, 
but  fictiiious  and  imaginary,  such  and  such  characters  being 
assumed  and  personated,  in  whose  joys  or  griefs,  in  whose 
domestic  felicities  or  infelicities,  in  whose  elevation  or  de- 
pression, the  actor  is  not  really  and  personally  interested,  but 
onl}'  supports  a  character,  perhaps  entirely  foreign  from  his 
own,  and  represents  passions  and  affections  in  which  his  own 
heart  has  no  share  :  how  beautiful  and  expressive,  when  con- 
sidered in  this  light,  is  that  passage  of  Scripture  wherein  the 
apostle  is  inculcating  a  Christian  indifference  for  this  world, 
and  exhorting  us  not  to  suffer  ourselves  to  be  unduly  affected 
cither  by  the  joys  or  sorrows  of  so  fugitive  and  transitory  a 
scene!  (I  Cor.  vii.  29 — 31.^  But  this  I  say,  brethren,  tht 
time  is  short.  It  remaineth  that  both  tlici/  that  have  wives  be  as 
though  they  had  none :  and  they  that  weep  as  though  they  icept 
not :  and  they  that  7-ejoice  as  though  they  rejoiced  not :  aiid  they 
that  buy  as  though  they  possessed  not :  and  they  that  use  this 
ivorld  us  not  abusing  it.^^    For  the  fashion  of  this  worhl  passeth 

■>  For  the  following  account  of  the  theatrical  representations,  and  of  the 
Orcnian  panics  alluded  to  in  the  New  Tuslamcnl,  the  author  is  indebted  to 
Ur.  Harvvooil's  Iniroiluclion,  vol.  il.  setltions  I.  and  4.,  coUalod  with  Briin- 
ini!'.s  C'oiii|ieiuliuMi  Aiiliciuilntuin  Gixcaruui  o  profanis  Sacranini,  pp.  302 
—370.,  from  wliich  irciitisn  Ur.  H.  appears  to  have  derived  a  considerable 
portion  of  his  materials. 

Epierain  In  Antholog. 

Quomodo  Tabula,  sic  vita  :  non  qu'lm  din,  sed  quAui  bene  acta  sii,  relert. 
Nihil  ad  rem  perlinel,  quo  loco  do:4inas  :  qnocunque  voles  di'..<lnc  :  tantdm 
lH)n:un  cl.iusulam  imponc.  fileneca,  rpisl.  Ix.xvii.  loin.  li.  p.  306.  edit.  _Elz. 
1073.  O.si.  II  nuuiv^-.v  itmKvil  T>i;  o-xii»>|{  i  •b»()»A.»5»v  ffm]n-y>i  a>,>.' o«» 
iiirsv  Tu  vir?! /uipii,  a>.>.s  tu  Tpi»,  «»Xu<f  ii»-»<'  if  A"»l9'  T»i  isiai  t«i  Tpi» 
xov  TO  ifaii%  ij-i.  Mar.  Antoninus,  lib.  xii.  p.  236.  edit.  Oxon.  Tlic  words 
of  the  P..;ahni.st,— "  wc  spend  our  days  as  a  talc  that  is  told,"— have  been 
.iiip|ioMcd  to  be  an  allusion  to  a  dramatic  fable.  The  ium);cry,  considered 
In  iliia  view,  would  he  Klrikinj;,  did  wc  know  that  tlio  early  Jews  ever  had 
any  Kccnical  representations. 

0  Kpirtiti  Enchirid.  cat).  17.  p.  CM.  Vpton.  Epictcti  Wsscrlatlones  ab 
Arriano.  hh.  iv.  p.  D80.  llpton. 

'»  M.  Antoninus,  lib.  xi.  5  vl.  p.  201.  edit.  Oxon. 

u  Mudd  mo  Thcbis,  inodfl  ponit  Athonis. 

Ilorat.  Epist.  lib.  ii.  vcr  213. 

'»  Cnr.  vii.  31.     na(,»yii  ytf  to  r^n/'o  tov  xct^cu  toutou, 

"  Dicliur,  vAfayxv  to  c-/.t{n%  th,-  (tkiivik,  ubi  sccna  hivertilur,  aliamquc 
piano  ostcnJit  fucicin.  Grotius,  ad  loc.  Mais  cnmmu  Grotius  rcinanjuu 
(luo  cottc  reflexion  <lcl'  Apotre  enl  emprunli>e  dii  tln-.-ltrc,  ct  que  le  mot 
Grec  »-Z'."»,quc  I'on  traduit  la  fmuri',  8ij;uific  propreinenl  un  personungo 
lie  thtalre,  ou  unc  di-coration  dans  Eurijiido  et  dans  Aristophane,  ct  ijuc 
les  (irersdisolent  pour  iimri|uor  Ic  changement  do  nn^ne,  ou  dc  di'oraliop 
du  theatre  v»f  »>  n  t5  r/,r,itx  t>i,-  <r»iiir!,  on  croil  qu'il  faudroit  tradiire,  La 
face  do  ce  mondc  chaii)!P,  ce  qui  cnnvicnt  parfaltemcnt  aii  dcst;cin  do 
I'Apiltro  dans  ccitc  conjoncture.  Projct  U'une  Nouvcllc  Version,  par  Ic 
Cone,  p.  f.71.     Roller.  10%, 

i«  Ka)»;<;|)«/ui.oi  Is  very  unhappily  rendered  abuse.  It  lo  hero  Ufod  In  a 
ironil  sense,  ns  the  wliole  puswite  reipiires.  From  the  transiency  of  Inunan 
life  the  apostle  observrn,  that  tlioso  who  are  now  u.iing  this  world's  happi- 
ness will  foon  be  as  ihono  who  had  never  enjoyed  It.  The  Greek  writers 
uKc  Wi'ff/.i^ii'*'  or  AMfjcf*'-,"*'  to  abuse. 


Cui.r  vm.] 


THEATRICAL  PERFORMANCES  IN  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


191 


away.  If  we  keep  in  mind  the  supposed  allusion  in  the  teit 
(the  fashion  of  this  world  passeth  away),  we  shall  discern  a 
peculiar  beauty  and  force  in  his  language  and  sentiment.  For 
the  actors  in  a  play,  whether  it  be  comedy  or  tragedy,  do  not 
act  their  own  proper  and  personal  concerns,  but  only  perso- 
nate and  mimic  the  characters  and  conditions  of  other  men. 
And  so  when  they  weep  in  acting  some  tragical  part,  it  is  as 
though  they  wept  not ;  and  there  is  more  show  and  appear- 
ance, than  truth  and  reality,  of  grief  and  sorrow  in  the  case. 
Ou  the  other  hand,  if  they  rejoice  in  acting  some  brighter 
scene,  it  is  as  though  they  rejoiced  not ;  it  is  but  a  feigned 
semblance  of  joy,  and  forced  air  of  mirth  and  gayety,  which 
they  exhibit  to  the  spectators,  no  real  inward  gladness  of 
heart.  If  they  seem  to  contract  marriages,  or  act  the  mer- 
chant, or  personate  a  gentleman  of  fortune,  still  it  is  nothing 
but  fiction.  And  so  when  the  play  is  over,  they  have  no 
wives,  no  possessions  or  goods,  no  enjoyments  of  the  world, 
in  consequence  of  such  representations.  In  like  manner,  by 
this  apt  comparison,  the  apostle  would  teach  us  to  moderate 
our  desires  and  aflections  towards  every  thing  in  this  world ; 
and  rather,  as  it  were,  to  personate  such  things  as  matters  of 
a  foreign  nature,  than  to  incorporate  ourselves  with  them,  as 
our  own  proper  and  personal  concern.' 

"  The  theatre  is  also  furnished  with  dresses  suitable  to 
every  age,  and  adapted  to  every  circumstance  and  change  of 
fortune.  The  persons  of  the  drama,  in  one  and  the  same 
representation,  frequently  support  a  variety  of  characters : 
the  prince  and  the  beggar,  the  young  and  the  old,  change 
their  dress  according  to  the  characters  in  which  they  respect- 
ively appear,  by  turns  laying  aside  one  habit  and  assuming 
another,  agreeably  to  every  condition  and  age.^  The  apostle 
Paul  seems  to  allude  to  this  custom,  and  his  expressions  re- 
garded in  this  light  have  a  peculiar  beauty  and  energy,  when 
he  exhorts  Christians  to  put  off  the  old  man  with  his  deeds, 
and  to  PUT  on  the  new  man.  (CoIobs.  iii.  9,  10.  Eph.  iv. 
82,  23,  24.)  That  ye  put  off,  concerning  the  former  co^iver- 
sation,  the  old  man,  which  is  corrupt  according  to  the  deceitful 
lusts :  and  be  renewed  in  the  spirit  of  your  minds,  and  that  ye 
PUT  ON  THE  NEW  MAN,'  tvMch  after  God  is  created  in  righteous- 
nees  and  true  holiness. 

"  It  is,  moreover,  well  known,  that  in  the  Roman  theatres 
and  amphitheatres,  malefactors  and  criminals  were  con- 
demned to  fight  with  lions,  bears,  elephants,  and  tigers,  for 
which^  all  parts  of  the  Roman  dominions  were  industriously 
ransacked,  to  afford  this  very  polite  and  elegant  amusement 
to  this  most  refined  and  civilized  people.  The  wretched 
miscreant  was  brought  upon  the  stage,  regarded  with  the 
last  ignominy  and  contempt  by  the  assembled  multitudes, 
made  a  gazin^-stock  to  the  world,  as  the  apostle  expresses 
it ;  and  a  wild  beast,  instigated  to  madness  by  the  shouts 
and  light  missive  darts  of  the  spectators,  was  let  loose  upon 
him,  to  tear  and  worry  him  in  a  miserable  manner.  To  this 
sanguinary  and  brutal  custom  the  following  expressions  of 
the  author  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  allude,  (x.  32, 33.) 
Ye  endured  a  great  fight  of  afflictions,  partly  whilst  ye  were 
made  a  gazing-stock,  both  by  reproaches  and  afflictions.  The 
original  is  very  emphatical ;  being  openly  exposed  as  on  a 
public  theatre  to  ignominious  insults  and  to  the  last  cruel- 
ties.* In  another  passage  also,  St.  Paul,  speaking  of  the 
determined  fierceness  ana  bigotry  with  which  the  citizens 
of  Ephesus  opposed  him,  uses  a  strong  metaphorical  expres- 
sion taken  from  the  theatre: — If  after  the  manner  of  men  I 
have  fought  with  beasts  at  Ephesus.  Not  that  the  apostle 
appears  to  have  been  actually  condemned  by  his  enemies  to 

••Brekell's  Discourses,  p.  31S. 

*  £(vxi  yxf  cfcoiov  TO)  uyn^w  •jTrOTf.ptrt^  rQv  cro'^ov  05  otv  te  Qtprtrcv  u.v  t£ 
Ayxizif^vov'iq  'srpoTajTTOv  uvxKx^y^  sxxlipzv  ijsroxpivgToc*  urf C(r>])C0v7c«f ,  Diogcnes 
Laertius,  lib.  vii.  p.  468.  edit.  Meibomii.  1G92. 

3  Mihi  cjuidem  dubiura  non  est  quin  hocc  loquendi  ratio  ducta  sit  ab  acta- 
'•ibtis,  qui,  habitumutato,  vestibusque  depositis,  alias  partes  agunt,  aliosque 
se  esse  produnt,  quam  qui  in  sccna  esse  videbantur.  Krebsii  Observationes 
n  Nov.  Test,  p  312.    LipsicC,  1755. 


* : Quodcunqne  tremendum  est 

Dentibus,  aut  insigne  jubis,  aut  nobile  cornu, 
Aut  rigidum  setis  capi'tur,  decus  omne  timorque 
Sylvarum,  non  caule  latent,  non  mole  resistunt.— Claudian. 
I  OKiJir/ioi;  T£  xai  3-A.i|s(ri  ©s«7(ji2;o,c/.jvoi,  exposed  on  a  public  stage. 
Dispensatorem  ad  beslias  dedit.  Hoc  est,  seipsum  tradtecere.  Id  est,  says 
one  of  the  commentators,  ludibrio  exponere.  Petronius  Arbiter,  p.  220. 
edit.  Barman.  1709.  t-ltiixlpia-xv  eautcu?.  They  openly  exposed  them- 
selves.  Polybius,  p.  364.  Hanov.  1C19.  Eusebius  relates  that  Attalus,  a 
Christian,  was  led  round  the  amphitheatre,  and  exposed  to  the  insults  and 
violence  of  the  multitude,  ntpia^jji!  xux^w  tou  a.aji^sxTpou.  Eusebius 
Hist.  Eccles.  lib.  v.  p.  206.  Cantab.  Solebant  olim  gladiatores  et  bestiarii^ 
antequam  certamen  obirent  per  ora  populi  circumduci.  Valcsii  not.  in  loc. 
There  is  a  striking  passage  in  Philo,  where,  in  the  same  strong  metaphori- 
cal imagery  the  apostle  here  employs,  Flaccus  is  represented  deploring 
the  public  isnominy  to  which  he  was  now  reduced.  See  Philonis  Opc-a^ 
torn.  ii.  p.  512.  edit.  Mangey. 


combat  with  wild  beasts  in  the  theatre,"— as  Roman  citizens 
were  never  subjected  to  such  a  degradation:  "he  seems 
only  to  have  employed  this  strong  phraseology,  to  denote 
the  violence  and  ferocity  ot  his  adverbaries,  which  resemb'ed 
the  rage  and  fury  of  brutes,  and  to  compare  his  contention 
with  these  fierce  pagan  zealots  and  fanatics,  to  the  common 
theatrical  conflict  of  men  with  wild  beasts.''^  • 

Let  it  be  farther  observed,  for  the  elucidating  a  very 
striking  passage  in  I  Cor.  iv.  9.  that  in  the  Roman  amphi- 
theatre the  bestiarii,  v:h.o  in  the  morning  combated  with  wild 
beasts,  had  armour  with  which  to  defend  themselves,  and  to 
annoy  and  slay  their  antagonist.  But  the  last  who  were 
brought  upon  the  stage,  which  was  about  noon,''  were  a  mi- 
serable number,  quite  naked,  without  any  weapons  to  assail 
their  adversary — with  immediate  and  inevitable  death  before 
tliem  in  all  its  hoiTors,  and  destined  to  be  mangled  and 
butchered  in  the  direst  manner.  In  allusion  to  this°custom, 
with  what  sublimity  and  energy  are  the  apostles  represented 
to  be  brought  out  last  upon  tlie  stage,  as  being  devoted  to 
certain  death,  and  being  made  a  public  spectacle  to  the 
world,  to  angels  and  men!  For  I  think  that  God  hath  set 
forth  us  the  apostles  lad,  as  it  were  appointed  to  death .-  for 
tve_  are  made  a  sjnctucle  to  the  world,  to  angels  and  men.  Dr. 
Whitby's  illustration  of  this  distinguished  passage  is  accu- 
rate and  judicious.  "  Here  the  apostle  seems  to  allude  to 
the  Roman  spectacles,  tu;  Tm  d->ipt'.jua.^aiv  km  (Aa-^iJ^ynt^  avicc- 
<^'.vcu,  that  of  the  bestiarii  and  the  gladiators,  where  in  the 
morning  men  were  brought  upon  the  theatre  to  fight  with  wild 
beasts,  and  to  them  was  allowed  armqur  to  defend  themselves, 
and  smite  the  beasts  that  did  assail  them  :  but  in  the  meri- 
dian spectacle  were  brought  forth  the  gladiators  naked,  and 
vt'ithout  any  thing  to  defend  them  from  the  sword  of  the 
assailant,  and  he  that  then  escaped  was  only  reserved  for 
slaughter  to  another  day ;  so  that  these  men  might  well  be 
called  i.Ti^-uvu.rici,  men  appointed  for  death ;  and  this  beina 
the  last  appearance  on  the  theatre  for  that  day,  they  are  sail 
here  to  be  set  forth  £o-;)^«t5/,  the  last." 

v.  But_  the  most  splendid  and  renowned  solemnities, 
which  ancient  history  has  transmitted  to  us,  were  the  Olym- 
pic Games.  Historians,  orators,  and  poets,  abound  with 
references  to  them,  and  their  sublimest  imagery  is  borrowed 
from  these  celebrated  exercises.  "These  games  were  so- 
lemnized every  fifth  year  by  an  infinite  concourse  of  people 
from  almost  all  parts  of  the  world.s  They  were  celebrated 
with  the  greatest  pomp  and  magnificence:  hecatombs  of 
victims  were  slain  in  honour  of  the  immortal  gods;  and  Elis 
was  a  scene  of  universal  festivity  and  joy.  There  were 
other  public  games  instituted,  as  the  Pythian,  Nemean, 
Isthmian ;  which  could  also  boast  of  the  valour  and  dexterity 
of  their  combatants,  and  show  a  splendid  list  of  illustrious 
names,  who  had,  from  time  to  time,  honoured  them  with 
their  presence.  But  the  lustre  of  these,  though  maintained 
for  a  series  of  years,  was  obscured,  and  almost  totally 
eclipsed  by  the  Olympic.  We  find  that  the  most  formidable 
and  opulent  sovereigns  of  those  times  were  competitors  for 

«  The  same  metaphors  are  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment. Herod  is  called  a  fox  ;  Go  and  tell  that  fo.x.  (Luke  xiii.  32.)  Hypo- 
crites are  called  wolves  in  sheep's  clothing.  (Matt.  vii.  15.)  Rapacious  and 
mercenary  preachers  are  styled  wolves,  that  will  enter  and  ravase  the  fold : 
There  will  enter  among  you  grievous  wolves,  not  sparing  the  ifock.  (Acts 
XX.  29.)  The  apostle  uses  a  harsher  metaphor  to  denote  the  malice  and 
rage  of  his  adversaries:  Beware  of  dogs.  (Phil.  iii.  2.)  Had  St.  Paul  been 
thus  engaged,  says  Dr.  Ward,  it  is  difficult  to  apprehend  how  he  could  have 
escaped  without  a  miracle.  For  those  who  conquered  the  beasts  were 
afterwards  obliged  to  fight  with  men  till  they  were  killed  themselves.  It 
seems  most  reasonable,  therefore,  to  understand  the  expression  [i5i(p>o;«». 
%>i<r»]  as  metaphorical,  and  that  he  alludes  to  the  tumult  raised  by  Deme- 
trius. He  uses  the  like  metaphor,  and  with  respect  to  the  same  thing 
(1  Cor.  iv.  9.),  and  again  (13.),  alluding  to  another  custom.  As  to  the  expres^ 
sion,  K:it'  xuip-MTrav  in  1  Cor.  xv.  32.  the  sense  seems  to  be  humanittis 
loquendo.  Dr.  Ward's  Dissertations  on  Scripture,  dissert,  xlix.  pp.  200,  201. 
The  very  same  word  which  the  apostle  here  employs  to  denote  the  vio- 
lertce  and  fury  of  his  adversaries  is  used  by  Ignatius  in  the  hke  metaphori- 
cal sense,  Airo  Supitt?  /tJS%pi  Poommj  ©HPIOMAXa  Sio.  yif;  XXI  ^a\xa-a-ti;, 
vvKTo;  XXI  y.ftipx;.  AH  the  way  from  Syria  to  Rome,  by  sea  and  by  land,  by 
night  and  by  day,  do  I  fight  with  wild  beasts.    Ignatii  Epist.  ad  Rom.  pi 

94.  edit.  Oxon.  1708.    npopuXoeo-o-w  Ja  v/>i»i  «:to  twv  ^i^pttvv  Kv-d'pwsrOjuop^wv.    I 

advise  you  to  beware  of  beasts  in  tlie  shape  of  men,  p.' 22.  So  also  the 
Psalmist,  My  soul  is  among  lions,  even  the  sons  of  men,  whose  teeth  are 
spears  andarroics.  (Psal.  Ivii.  4.)  Break  their  teet/i,  O  God,  in  their  mouths. 
Break  out  the  great  teeth  of  the  t/oung  lions,  O  Lord.  (Psal.  Iviii.  6.)  See 
also  Lakemacher's  Observationes  Sacrfe,  part  ii.  pp.  194 — 196. 

'  Matutinarura  non  ultima  prajda  ferarum.  Martial,  xiii.  95.  Casu  in 
aieridianum  spectaculum  incidi — quicquid  ante  pugnatumcst,  misericordia 
fuit,  nunc  omissis  nugis  mera  homicidia  sunt:  nihil  habent  quo  tegantur, 
ad  ictum  totis  corporibus  expositi — non  galeS,  non  scuto  repellitur  ferrura. 
Seneca,  torn.  ii.  epist.  vii.  pp.  17,  18.^  edit.    Gronov.  1672.    Ajrox^u^io  ixiv 

•&>)p<»  i\xxi(rrx,  avcrpwTTOi  di  mX\o*,  oi  fnv  uA.X>tXoi$  fix'/,o[*ivtii^  qi  Si  xxi  vtt* 
zx.siv'jiv  avxKcftivoi.  Dion.  Cassius,  lib.  Ix.  p.  951.  Reimar.  See  also  pp. 
971,  972.  cjusdem  editionis.  See  also  Beausobre's  note  on  ICor.  iv.  9.  and 
Lipsii  Saturnalia,  torn.  vi.  p.  951. 

8  Josephns,  De  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  i.  cap.  21.  |12.  ed.  Havercamp.  Arriaai 
Epictetus,  lib.  iii.  p.  456.  edit.  Upton.  1741. 


192 


ALLUSIONS  TO  THE  GRECIAN  GAMES,  &c. 


[Part  IV 


the  Olympic  crown.  "We  see  the  kinoes  of  Macedon,'  the 
tyrants  of  Sicily ,2  the  princes  of  Asia  Minor,  and  at  last  the 
lords  of  imperial  Rome,  and  emperors  of  the  world,'  incited 
by  a  love  cf  glory,  the  last  infirmity  of  noble  minds,  enter 
their  names  amona  the  candidates,  and  contend  for  the  envied 
palm ; — ^judging  their  felicity  completed,  and  the  career  of 
all  "human  glory  and  greatness  happily  terminated,  if  they 
could  but  interweave  the  Olympic  garland  Avith  the  laurels 
they  had  purchased  in  fields  of  blood.'  The  various  games, 
which  the  Romans  celebrated  in  their  capital  and  in  the 
principal  cities  and  towns  of  Italy,  with  such  splendour, 
ostentation,  and  expense,  seem  to  have  been  instituted  in 
imitation  of  the  Grecian;  though  these  were  greatly  inferior 
in  point  of  real  merit  and  intrinsic  glory :  for  though  the 
Romans  had  the  gymnastic  exercises  of  the  stadium  and  the 
chariot-race,  yet  the  mutual  slaughter  of  such  numbers  of 
gladiators,  the  combats  with  lions,  bears,  and  timers,  though 
congenial  to  the  sanguinary  ferocity  and  brutality  of  these 
people, — for  no  public  entertainment  could  be  made  agreea- 
ble without  these  scenes, — must  present  spectacles  to  the 
last  degree  shocking  to  humanity;  for  every  crown  here 
won  was  dipt  in  blood. 

1.  "The  Olympic  exercises  principally  consisted  in  nm- 
ning,  wrestling,  and  the  chariot-race ;  for  leaping,  throwing  the 
dart,  and  discus,  were  parts  of  that  they  called  the  Pantathlon. 
The  candidates  were  to  be  freemen,  and  persons  of  unexcep- 
tionable morals.5  A  defect  in  legitimacy  or  in  personal 
character  totally  disqualified  them.  It  was  indispensably 
necessary  for  them  previously  to  submit  to  a  severe  regimen.« 
At  their  own  houses  they  prescribed  themselves  a  particular 
course  of  diet ;  and  the  laws  required  them,  when  they  had 
given  in  their  names  to  be  enrolled  in  the  list  of  competitors, 
to  resort  to  Elis,  and  reside  there  thirty^  days  before  the  games 
commenced;  where  the  reo-imen  and  preparatory  exercises 
were  regulated  and  directed  by  a  number  of  illustrious  per- 
sons who  were  appointed  every  day  to  superintend  them. 
This  form  of  diet  they  authoritatively  prescribed,  and  reli- 
giously inspected,  that  the  combatants  might  acquit  them- 
selves in  the  conflict  in  a  manner  worthy  the  Grecian  name, 
worthy  the  solemnity  of  the  occasion,  and  w^orthy  those 
crowds  of  illustrious  spectators  by  whom  they  would  be  sur- 
rounded. There  are  many  passages  in  the  Greek  and  Roman 
classics  which  make  mention  of  that  extreme  strictness,  tem- 
perance, and  continence  which  the  candidates  were  obliged 
to  observe. 

Qui  studot  optatam  cursu  contin?crc  metam, 
Multa  tulit  fcciique  pucr  ;  sudavit  ct  alsit: 


Abstinuit  venere  et  vino. 


Hor.  An.  Poet.  ver.  412. 


A  youth,  who  hopes  th'  Olympic  prize  to  gain, 
All  arts  must  try,  and  every  toil  sustain  ; 
Th'  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  must  often  prove,- 
And  shun  the  weak'ning  joys  of  wine  and  love. 


Francis. 


The  following  is  a  very  distinguished  passage  in  Arrian's 
discourses  of  Emctetus,  which  Both  represents  to  the  reader 
the  severity  of  this  regimen  and  the  arduous  nature  of  the 
subsequent  contention  :« — "  Do  you  wish  to  conquer  at  the 
Olympic  games  1 — But  consider  what  precedes  and  follows, 
ana  then  i?  it  be  for  your  advantage,  engage  in  the  affair.  You 
must  conform  to  rules ;  submit  to  a  diet,  refrain  frorn  dainties, 
exercise  your  body  whether  you  choose  it  or  not,  in  a  stated 
hour,  in  heat  and  cold :  you  must  drink  no  cold  water,  nor  some- 
limes  even  wine.    In  a  word,  you  must  give  yourself  up  to 

>  Philip.  Eadem  qnoc|nc  die  nimtinm  pater  ejus  IPhilippus]  daurum  vie- 
toriarum  accepit :  alterius,  belli  Ulyrici,  alterius,  certammis  Olympici,  in 
quod  fiuadrigarum  currua  miserat.  Justin,  lib-  xii.  cap.  10.  p.  J-iU.  odil.  l.ro- 
nov.  1719.  Cui  Alcxandro  lanta  omnium  virtutum  natunA  ornamcnta  cxsti- 
tore,  ut  ctiam  Olympio  ccrtauiine  vario  ludicrorum  gcnere  conlcnderit. 
Justin,  lib.  vil.  cap.  2.  p.  217.  ,      ,,,  ,      , ,    ^       ^ 

»  Hiero  king  of  Syracuse.  See  Pindar's  first  Olympic  ode  :  his  first  Py- 
thian ode.  Thuron  king  of  Agrigcntujn.    Sec  the  second  and  third  Olympic 

»  Nero.  See  Dion  Casslus,  torn.  li.  pp.  1032,  1033.  10C6.  edit.  Roimar. 
Aurijcavit  [NeroJ  nlurlfariam,  Olymriiis  eti.im  dcccmjugem.  Suetonius  m 
Vila  Neronis,  p.  605.  edit.  var.  Lug.  llat.  1CG2. 

•  Suntquos  cnrriculo  pnlvorom  Olympicum 
Collcgissc,  juvat :  nietaqiio  forvidis 
Evitata  rolis,  palmaquc  iiobllis 

Tcrrarura  dominos  cvcliit  ad  Ucos.  Ilornt.  lib.  i.  ode  1. 
»  Tlic  candidates  were  oliliged  to  undergo  an  examination  of  another  kind, 
consisting  of  the  following  iuliTrogatorics  :— 1.  Wore  llicy  frecmin  7 
2.  Were  they  Grecians  1  3.  Were  their  characters  clear  from  all  infamous 
and  immoral  stain*  1  West's  Dissertation  on  the  Olympic  Clauics,  p.  152. 
edit.  I2mo. 
B  Arriani  Epictelus,  lib.  lii.  p.  •15C.  Tipton. 

■>  Phll03tra(U3,  do  VIti  ApoUonil,  lib.  v.  cap.  13.  p.  227.  edit.  Olearii.  Lip- 
Bine,  I7(;9.  _  „ 

•  Enicictus,  lib  iil.  c.  15.  See  also  Epictcti  Enchriidlon.  cop.  Z).  p.  710. 
edit.  Upton. 


your  master,  as  to  a  physician.  Then,  in  the  combat  you 
may  be  thrown  into  a  ditch,  dislocate  your  arm,  turn  your 
ankle,  swallow  abundance  of  dust,  be  whipped,  and,  after  all, 
lose  the  victory.  Wb^n  you  have  reckoned  up  all  this,  if 
your  inclination  still  holds,  set  about  the  combat."^ 

2.  "  After  this  preparatory  discipline,  on  the  day  appointed 
/or  the  celebration,  a  herald  callea  over  their  names,  recited 
'to  them  the  laws  of  the  games,  encouraged  them  to  exert  all 
their  powers,  and  expatiated  upon  the  blessings  and  advan- 
tages of  victory.  He  then  introduced  the  competitors  into 
the  stadium,  led  them  around  it,  and,  with  a  loud  voice,  de- 
manded if  any  one  in  that  assembly  could  charge  any  of  the 
candidates  with  being  infamous  in  his  life  and  morals,  or 
could  prove  him  a  slave,  a  robber,  or  illegitimate."*  They 
were  then  conducted  to  the  altar,  and  a  solemn  oath  exacted 
from  them,  that  they  would  observe  the  strictest  honour  in 
the  contention.  Afterwards,  those  who  were  to  engage  in  the 
foot-race  were  brought  to  the  barrier,  along  which  they  were 
arranged,  and  waitetl,  in  all  the  excesses  of  ardour  andi  impa- 
tience, for  the  signal.  The  cord  being  dropped,  they  all  at 
once  sprung  forward,"  fired  with  the  love  of  glory,  conscious 
that  the  eyes  of  all  assembled  Greece  were  now  upon  them, 
and  that  the  envied  palm,  if  they  won  it,  would  secure  them 
the  highest  honours,  and  immortalize  their  memory.  It  is 
natural  to  imagine  with  what  rapidity  they  would  urge  their 
course,  and,  emulous  of  glory,  stretch  every  nerve  to  reach 
the  goal.  This  is  beautifully  represented  m  the  following 
elegant  epigram  (translated  by  Mr.  West)  on  Arias  of  Tarsus, 
victor  in  the  stadium : — 

The  speed  of  Aria?,  victor  in  the  race, 
Bring.s  to  thy  founder,  Tarsus,  no  disgrace  ; 
For,  able  in  the  course  with  him  to  vie. 
Like  liiin,  he  seems  on  fcather'd  feet  to  fly. 
The  barrier  when  he  quits,  the  dazzled  sight 
In  vain  essays  to  catch  liim  in  his  lllght. 
Lost  is  the  racer  through  the  wliolc  career, 
Till  victor  at  the  goal  he  reappear 

In  all  these  athletic  exercises  the  combatants  contended 
naked  ;'^  for  though,  at  first,  they  wore  a  scarf  round  the  waist, 
yet  an  unfortunate  casualty  once  happcnimr,  when  this  dis- 
engaging itself,  and  entangling  round  the  feet,  threw  the  per- 
son down,  and  proved  the  unhappy  occasion  of  his  losing  the 
victory,  it  was,  after  this  accident,  adjudged  to  belai<i  aside.'^ 

3.  "  Chaplets  composed  of  the  sprigs  of  a  wild  olive,'^  and 
branches  of  palm,  were  publicly  placed  on  a  tripod  in  the 
middle  of  the  stadium,''^  full  in  the  view  of  the  competitors, 
to  inflame  them  with  all  the  ardour  of  contention,  ana  all  the 
spirit  of  the  most  generous  emulation.  Near  the  goal  was 
erected  a  tribunal,  on  which  sat  the  presidents  of  the  games, 
called  Hellanodics,  personages  venerable  for  their  years  and 
characters,  who  were  the  sovereign  arbiters  and  judges  of 
these  arduous  contentions,  the  impartial  witnesses  of  the 
respective  merit  and  pretensions  of  each  combatant,  and  with 
the  strictest  justice  conferred  the  croWn. 

4.  "  It  is  pleasing  and  instructive  to  observe,  how  the  se- 
veral particulars  here  specified  concerning  these  celebrated 
solemnities,  which  were  held  in  the  highest  renown  and  glory 
in  the  days  of  the  apostles,  explain  and  illustrate  various  pas- 
sages in  their  writings,  the  beauty,  energy,  and  sublimity  of 
which  consist  in  the  metaj)horical  allusions  to  these  games, 
from  the  various  gymnastic  exercises  of  which  their  elecfant 
and  impressive  imagery  is  borrowed.  Thus  the  writer  of  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (an  epistle  which,  in  point  of  com- 
position, may  vie  with  the  most  pure  and  elahorate  of  the 
Greek  classics)  says,  IVhcreforc  seeing  toe  also  are  compared 
about  with  so  great  a  cloud  of  witnesses,  kt  us  lay  aside  every 

"  Mrs.  Carter's  translation  of  .\rrian,  pp.  2Cf ,  2C9.    London,  1753.  Ito. 

10  .Sec  West's  Dissertation  on  the  ()lyiii|)ic  Games,  p.  191.  12iiio. 

u signoqiie  ropentc 

Corripiunt  epatia  niidilo,  limcnijue  relinquunt 
EfTusi,  nimbo  similes  :  siiuul  ultima  sicnant. 

Virgil,  .fflneid.  v.  ver.  315 

<«  Thucydidcs,  lib.  I.  5  C>.  tom.  i.  pp.  16,  17.  ed.  Olasg. 

i>  In  the  xivih  Olympiad,  one  Orsinpus,  a  nicer,  happened  to  bo  thrown 
down  by  bis  scarf  langliiig  about  liis  feet,  and  was  l<illed;  th(Migh  others  say 
that  he  only  lost  the  victory  l)y  Ilmt  fall ;  but  whirhcver  way  it  was,  occa- 
sion was  token  from  thenco  to  make  a  law,  that  nil  the  athletes  for  the  future 
should  contend  naked.    West's  Dissertation,  p.  (i6.  12uio. 

11  To  yifi»<  iff'Tiv  oux  apyuprf,  ou^i   xp"'^oc,  ou  /ziji'  oufi  kotii'Oii  flrri^ave;  i| 

iriKivov.  Joscphiisconlra  Apion.  lib.  ii.  $30.  p.  4^.  Havercamp.  Strabo, 
in  his  geogi-aphical  description  of  the  Elian  territories,  mentions  a  greJVe 
of  wild  olives.  Eo-ri  J'»>.(ro{  o^piixaixv  !TK<ipi;,  Strabo,  lib.  vlli.  p.  343. 
ediL  Paris,  11J20.  Probably  from  this  grove  the  Olympic  crowns  were  com- 
posed. 

•  »To  pxrito  thooniiilalionoflho  competitors,  by  placing  in  ilielrviewtho 
object  of  thiir  aiiibilion,  those  crowns  were  laid  upon  a  tripod  or  table, 
which  during  the  cames  was  brought  out  and  placed  in  the  luiddle  of  the 
stadlutu.    West's  Dissertation,  p.  174.  12mo, 


Chap.  VIII.] 


IN  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


193 


tveiglit,  and  the  sin  which  doth  so  easily  beset  us,  and  let  us  run 
vjith  patience  the  race  that  is  set  before  us ,-  looking  unto  Jesus, 
the  author  and  finisher  of  our  faith,  ivho  for  the  joy  that  was  set 
before  him,  endured  the  cross,  despising  the  shame,  and  is  set 
down  at  the  right  hand  of  the  majesty  on  high.  For  consider 
him  that  endureth  such  contradiction  of  sinners  against  himself, 
lest  you  be  vjearied  atid  faint  in  your  minds.  Wherefore  Uft 
up  the  hands  that  hang  down,  and  the  feeble  knees ,-  and  makS 
straight  paths  for  your  feet,  lest  that  which  is  lame  be  turned  out 
of  the  way.  (Hcb.  xii.  1 — 3.  12,  13.)  In  allusion  to  that  pro- 
aigious  assembly,  from  all  parts  of  the  world,'  which  was 
convened  at  Olympia  to  be  spectators  of  those  celebrated 
games,  the  apostle  places  the  Christian  combatant  in  the 
midst  of  a  most  august  and  magnificent  theatre,  composed  of 
all  those  great  and  illustrious  characters,  whom  in  the  pre- 
ceding chapter  he  had  enumerated,  the  fancied  presence  of 
whom  should  fire  him  with  a  virtuous  ambition,  and  animate 
him  with  unconquered  ardour  to  run  the  race  that  was  set 
before  him.  JVherefore  seeing  xve  are  compassed  about  with 
such  a  cloud  of  witnesses  .-2  whose  eyes  are  upon  us,  who  expect 
every  thirty  from  the  preparatory  discipline  we  have  received, 
and  who  long  to  applaud  and  congratulate  us  upon  our  victory : 
let  us  lay  aside  every  weight,'^  and  the  sin  that  doth  so  easily  beset 
tis;'^  let  us  throw  off  every  impediment,  as  the  competitors  for 
the  Olympic  crown  did,  and  that  sin  that  would  entangle  and 
impede  our  steps,  and  prove  the  fatal  cause  of  our  losing  the 
victory ;  and  let  us  rim  with  patience  the  race  set  before  us  ,■ 
like  those  who  ran  in  the  Grecian  stadium,  let  us,  inflamed 
with  the  idea  of  glory,  honour,  and  jmmortality,  urge  our 
course  with  unremitting  ardour  toward  the  destmed  happy 
goal  for  the  prize  of  our  high  calling  in  God  our  Saviour, 
looking  unto  Jesus  the  autho)-  and  finisher  of  our  faith .-  as  the 
candidates  for  the  Olympic  honours,  during  the  arduous  con- 
tention, had  in  view  those  illustrious  and  venerable  per- 
sonages from  whose  hands  they  were  to  receive  the  envied 
palm,  and  who  were  immediate  witnesses  of  their  respective 
conduct  and  merit;  in  imitation  of  them,  let  us  Christians 
keep  our  eyes  steadfastly  fixed  upon  Jesus  the  original  intro- 
ducer and  perfecter  of  our  relioion,  who,  if  we  are  victorious, 
will  rejoice  to  adorn  our  temples  with  a  crown  of  glory  that 
will  never  fade ;  who,  for  the  joy  set  before  hitn,^  endured  the 
cross,  despising  the  shame,  and  is  now  set  doivn  at  the  right  hand 
of  God :  Jesus  himself,  to  seize  the  glorious  palm  which  his 
God  and  Father  placed  full  in  his  view  in  order  to  inspirit 
him  with  ardour  and  alacrity,  in  the  race  he  had  set  before 
him,  cheerfully  submitted  to  sorrows  and  sufferings,  endured 
the  cross,  contemning  the  infamy  of  such  a  death,  and,  in 
consequence  of  perseverance  and  victory,  is  now  exalted  to 
the  highest  honours,  and  placed  on  the  right  hand  of  the  Su- 
preme Majesty.  For,  consider  him  that  endureth  such  contra- 
diction of  sinners  against  himself,  lest  ye  be  vjearied  and  faint 
in  your  minds  ;^  consider  him  who  conflicted  v,'ith  such  oppo- 
eition  of  wicked  men  all  confederated  against  him,  and  let 
reflections  on  his  fortitude  prevent  your  being  languid  and 
dispirited ;  therefore  lift  up  the  hands  which  hang  down,  and 
the  feeble  knees.''     And  make  straight  paths  for  your  feet,  lest 

'  Not  merely  the  inhabitants  of  Athens,  of  Lacod<x-mon,  and  of  Nicopolis, 
but  the  inhabitants  of  the  wliole  world  are  convened  to  be  spectators  of  the 
Olympic  exercises.    Arriani  Epictelus,  lib.  iii.  p.  456.  Upton.  , 

a  Ns<?6!  ^upTopujv.  Acloud  of  witnes.ses.  Tliis  form  of  expression  occurs 
In  the  politest  writers.  See  Iliad,  x.  133.  Mnc\A,  vii.  793.  Andron.  Rho- 
dii  Argonauticon,  iv.  398.  Appian,  Pise.  i.  403.  and  Euripidis  Ileculaa, 
ver.  907. 

3  Oj-xti/  esffo^t^svoi  5i-=evT«.  A  stadio  sumpta  similitudo  :  ibi  qui  cursuri 
sunt,  omnia  qua;  oneri  esse  possunt,  deponunt.  Grot,  in  loc.  Monet  ut 
eyxoi'  abjiciamus,  quo  vocabulo  crassa  omnis  et  tarda  moles  significatur. 
Beza. 

«  Eu!rspiir7»Tov.  Entangled  by  wrapping  round.  An  allusion  to  the  gar- 
ments of  the  Greeks  which  were  long,  and  would  entangle  and  impede  their 
steps,  if  not  thrown  off  in  the  race.    See  Ilallet,  in  loc. 

'  iipoxEi/^sv;);  auTo,  %ap»;.  The  joy  placed  full  in  his  view.  In  the  Olym- 
pic exercises  the  prize  was  publicly  placed  in  the  view  of  the  combatants 
to  fire  their  emulation.  The  following  note  of  Krebsius  is  very  elegant  :— 
Elegantissima  metaphora  est  vocis  wpoxsi^fvii^,  e  veterum  certaminum 
ralione  ducta.  Proprie  enim  ■CTpoxsio-S-xi  dicunturxa  a^\x,  so.  prcemiacer- 
taminis,  qua;  publice  proponuntur  in  propatulo,  ut  eorum  aspectus,  cer- 
taque,  eorum  adipiscendorum  spes,  certaturos  alacriores  redderet  ad  cer- 
tamen  ineundum,  victoriamque  reportandam.  J.  Tob.  Krebsii  Observat.  in 
N.  T.  e  Joseph,  p.  377.     Lips.  1755.  8vo. 

e  Ux  i^yi  >ixf^>,Ti,  Txi;  luji;'-'?  i/"""  '.xkvcf^svoi.  Ha3c  duo  verbaapalaBstra et 
ab athletisdesunipta  sunt,  qui  proprie  dicuntur  xa.ttvf.i' et|uz«'s  £>t/^u£o-^xi, 
cum  corporis  viribus  debilitati  et  fracti,  omnique  spe  vincendi  abjcctii, 

victas  manus  danl  adversario Ncque  dubium  est  quin  apostolus  eo 

respexerit.    Krebsius,  p.  390. 

.1  Am   Txg   ■axfiifitvx;   Z£ipa;  xa<   t«  irapas^eXu/asi/a  yov»Te»  <»vop9-«<raT«. 

Quemadmodum  Paulus  saspissime  delectatur  loquendi  formulis  ex  re  pa- 
Itcstrica  netitis  ;  ita  dubium  non  est,  quin  hie  quoque  respexisse  eo  videa- 
tur.  Athletis  enim  et  luctatoribus  tribuntur  -^rxfu/ievxi  x^'f'-s  et  ■^^xfxKsKv 
ft.vx  yovtiTx,  cum  luclando  ita  defatigati,  viribusque  fracti  sunt,  ut  neque 
manus  neque  pedes  officio  suo  fungi  possint,  ipsique  adeo  victos  se  esse 
fateri  cogantur.    Krebsius,  p.  392. 

Vol.  II.  2C 


thai  which  is  lame  be  turned  out  of  the  way  .-  exert  in  the  Chris- 
tian race  those  nerves  that  have  been  relaxed,  and  collect 
those  spirits  which  have  been  sunk  in  dejection:  make  a 
smooth  and  even  path  for  your  steps,  and  remove  every  thino- 
that  would  obstruct  and  retard  your  velocity. 

"  The  following  distinguished  passage  in  St.  Paul's  first 
Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  (ix.  24 — 27.)  abounds  with 
agonistical  terms.  Its  beautiful  and  striking  imagery  is 
totally  borrowed  from  the  Greek  stadium.  KncmTye  not 
that  they  who  run  in  a  race,  run  all,  but  one  receiveth  the 
prize  ?  So  run,  that  ye  may  obtain.  And  every  man  that 
striveth  for  the  mastery,  is  temperate  in  all  things.  Now  they 
do  it  to  obtain  a  corruptible  crown ;  but  we  an  inco)-ruptible, 
1  therefore  so  run,  not  as  uncertainly  ,■  so  fight  I,  not  as  one 
that  beateth  the  air  .■  but  I  keep  under  my  body,  and  bring  it 
into  subjection ,-  lest  that  by  any  means,  when  I  have  preached 
the  Gospel  to  others,!  myself  should  be  a  cast-away  :  know  you 
not  that  in  the  Grecian  stadium  great  numbers  run  with  the 
utmost  contention  to  secure  the  prize,  but  that  only  one  person 
wins  and  receives  ]  With  the  same  ardour  and  perseverance  do 
you  run,  that  you  may  seize  the  garland  of  celestial  glory. 
Every  one,  also,  who  enters  the  list  as  a  combatant,  sul)mits 
to  a  very  rigid  and  severe  regimen. s  They  do  this  to  gain 
a  fading  chaplet,^  that  is  only  composed  of  the  decaying 
leaves  of  a  wild  olive,  but  in  our  view  is  hung  up  the 
unfading  wreath  of  immortality.'"  With  this  in  full  pros- 
pect I  run  the  Christian  race,  not  distressed  with  wretched 
uncertainty  concerning  its  final  issue."  I  engage  as  a  com- 
batant, but  deal  not  my  blows  in  empty  air.'2  But  I  inure 
my  body  to  the  severest  discipline,  and  bring  all  its  appetites 
into  subjection  :  lest,  when  Thave  proclaimed'^  the  glorious 
prize  to  others,  I  should,  at  last,  be  rejected  as  unworthy''' 
to  obtain  it.  This  representation  of  the  Christian  race  must 
make  a  strong  impression  upon  the  minds  of  the  Corinthi- 
ans, as  they  were  so  often  spectators  of  those  games,  which 
were  celebrated  on  the  Isthmus,  upon  which  their  city  was 
situated.  It  is  very  properly  introduced  with.  Know  you 
NOT ;  for  every  citizen  in  Corinth  was  acquainted  with  every 
minute  circumstance  of  this  most  splendid  and  pompous  so- 
lemnity. St.  Paul,  in  like  manner,  in  his  second  Epistle  to 
Timothy  (ii.  5.),  observes,  that  if  a  man  strive  for  mastery, 
yet  is  he  not  crowned  unless  he  strive  lawfully  :  he  who  con- 
tends in  the  Grecian  games  secures  not  the  crown,  unless  he 
strictly  conform  to  the  rules  prescribed. 

"  What  has  been  observed  concerning  the  spirit  and 
ardour  with  which  the  competitors  engaged  in  the  race, 
and  concerning  the  pu"ize  they  had  in  view  to  reward  their 
arduous  contention,  will  illtistrate  the  following  sublime 
passage  of  the  same  sacred  writer  in  his  Epistle  to  the 
Philippians  (iii.  12 — 14.)  : — Not  as  though  I  had  already 
attained,  either  were  already  perfect ;  but  I  follow  after,  if 

8  fTm;  Js  0  xyMvi'C^ofiivoi  ■nuvrx  syxfxTs\jiTxi.  We  have  already  noticed 
how  rigid  and  severe  this  regimen  was,  and  what  temperance  and  conti- 
nence [iy/.(,xTiix]  those  who  entered  their  names  in  the  list  of  combatants 
wore  previously  obliged  to  observe.  Multa  tulit  fecitque  puer,  sudavit  et 
alsit :  abstinuit  venere  et  vino,  says  Horace.  See  .^liani,  Var.  Hist.  lib.  xi. 
cap.  3.  p.  684.  Gronovii  Lug.  Bat.  1731,  and  Plato  de  Legibus,  hb.  viii.  pp. 
139,  140.  edit.  SeiTani,  1578,  and  Eust^thius  ad  Hom.  Iliad  ii.  p.  1472. 

9  i.^zprov  (rri^xvov.  The  chaplet  that  was  bestowed  on  the  victor  in  the 
Olympic  games  was  made  of  wild  ohve,  the  crowns  in  the  Isthmian  games 
were  composed  of  parsley.  These  chaplets  were  fading  and  transitory. 
AiJaus  X.XI  TOi,-  i\ifiiKix.ois  a-Ts^xvav  fnv  ou  jjpuo-ou;,  xKK'  lio-jrtp  lu  oKvfcyrix, 

xoTivojv.  Plutarch.  Cato,  jun.  p.  1433.  edit.  Gr.  Steph.  8vo.  See  also  Por- 
phyrins de  Antro  Nympharum,  p.  240.  edit.  Cantab.  1655.  Philonis  Opera, 
torn.  ii.  p.  463.  edit.  Mangey.  Tou?  j-ap  t»  in-bfux  vixsovra;  oi  KopivSio.  tsuJ 
(r<?.4vcoi'  cTTs^Mvcjo-iv.  Those  who  conquer  in  the  Isthmian  games  the  Corin- 
thians crown  with  parsley.  Polyceni  Stratag.  lib.  v.  p.  376.  edit.  Casaubon. 
1589. 

10  'H^£i;  Je,  a^dapTov.  With  what  ardour  in  the  Christian  race  this  glo- 
rious crown  should  inspire  us  is  well  represented  by  Irenseus.  Bonuei 
igitur  agonista  ad  incorruptelas  agonem  adhortatur  nos,  uti  coronemur,  et 
preciosani  arbitremur  coronam,  videlicet  qua3  p«r  agonem  nobis  acquiritur, 
sed  non  ultro  coalitam.  Et  quant  6  per  agonem  nobis  advenit,  tantfi  estpre- 
ciosior:  ciuantS  autem  preciosior,  tanto  earn  semper  diligamus.  Irenseus, 
lib.  iv.  p.  377.  edit.  Grab.  T.he  folly  also  of  Christians  in  being  negligent  and 
remiss,  when  an  incorruptible  crown  awaits  their  persevering  and  victori- 
ous constancy  and  Virtue,  is  also  beautifully  exposed  by  Justin  Martyr.  See 
his  Apol.  ii.  p.  78.  edit.     Paris.  1636. 

11  So  v;e  understand  oux  xSviK'nf.  Mr.  West  renders  it,  in  the  illustration 
he  has  given  us  of  this  passage  ;  I  so  rim,  as  not  to  pass  undistinguished: 
and  then  adds  the  following  note  :  'iJs  oux  aiyiK'js^,  may  also  signify  in  tilis 
place,  as  if  I  was  unseen,  not  unobserved,  i.  e.  as  if  I  was  in  the  presence 
of  the  judge  of  the  games,  and  a  great  number  of  spectators.  West's  Dis- 
sei-tation,  p.  253.  12mo. 

la  OuTw  T^uxTsui',  al;  oox  a'pct  Sifjiv.  This  Circumstance  is  often  mentioned 
in  describing  the  engagements  of  combatants ;  thus,  Virgil  has,  Entellus 
vires  in  ventum  effuclit.  jEneid.  v.  443.  Vacuas  agit  inconsuUa  per  auras 
Brachia.  Valerius  Flaccus,  iv.  302.  rpit  J'  n^pa  tu;J/s  ixit^xv.  Iliad,  T.  446. 
See  also  Oppian.  Piscat.  lib.  ii.  ver.  450.     Rittershus.  Lug.  Bat.  ,1597. 

13  Akkdk;  -/.iifu^x;  •  proclaimed,  as  a  herald,  the  prize  to  others.  A  herald, 
xnpov,  made  proclamation  at  the  games  what  rewards  would  be  bestowed 
on  the  conquerors. 

««  AToxi^os  j'svm/iMi.  Be  disapproved;  be  rejected  as  unworthy ;  come 
off  withont  honour  and  approbation. 


194 


DISEASES  MENTIONED  IN  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


[Part  IV.  Chap.  IX 


that  I  may  apprehend  that  for  which  also  I  am  apprehended 
of  Christ  Jesus.  Brethren,  I  count  nut  myself  to  have  appre- 
hended:  but  this  one  thing  T do,  forgetting  those  things  nitich 
are  behind,  and  reaching  forth  unto  those  things  which  arc 
Before,  I  press  towards  the  mark,  for  the  prize  of  tlie  high 
calling  of  God  in  Christ  Jesus :  Not  tliat  already  I  have 
:icquired  this  palm ,-  not  that  I  have  already  attained  per- 
li'Ction  ;  but  I  pursue  my  course,  that  I  may  seize  that  crown 
of  immortality,  to  the  liope  of  which  I  was  raised  by  the 
gracious  appointment  of  Christ  Jesus.  Mj  Christian  breth- 
ren, I  do  not  esteem  myself  to  have  obtained  this  glorious 
prize:  but  one  thing  occupies  my  whole  attention;  forget- 
ting what  1  left  behind,  I  stretch  every  nerve  towards   the 


prize  before  me,  pressing  with  eager  and  rapid  steps,  towards 
the  goal,  to  seize  the  immortal  palm^  which  God,  bj'  Christ 
Jesus,  bestows.  This  aflecting  passage,  also,  of  the  same 
apostle,  in  the  second  Epistle  of  Timothy,  written  a  little 
before  his  martyrdom,  is  beautifully  allusive  to  the  above- 
mentioned  race,  to  the  crown  that  awaited  the  victory,  and 
to  the  Hellanodics  or  judges  who  bestowed  it : — /  fiave 
^jugld  a  good  fight,  I  have  finished  my  course,"  I  have  kept 
the  faith.  Henceforth  there  is  laid  up  for  mc  a  crown  of  ri^ht' 
cousness,  which  tne  Lord,  the  righteous  Judge,  shall  give  me  at 
that  day .-  and  not  to  me  only,  but  to  all  them  alw  that  lev, 
his  appearing.'^  (2  Tim.  iv.  7,  8.) 


CHAPTER  IX. 

ON    THE    DISEASES    MENTIONED    IN    THE    SCRIPTURES,    TREATMENT    OF    THE    DEAD,  AND 

FUNERAL    RITES. 

SECTION  I. 


ON  THE  DISEASES  MENTIONED  IN  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


Orierin  and  Progress  of  the  Jlrt  of  Medicine  in  the  East. — II.  J\'olice  of  Remedies  in  use  among  the  Jews. — III.  Jlccount 
of  some  particular  Diseases  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures  ;  viz.  1.  The  Leproay  ; — 2.  Elephantiasis,  the  Disease  of  Job; — 
3.  Disease  of  the  P/iilistines  ; — i.  Of  Kinff  Saul; — 5.  Of  King  Jehoram  ; — 6.  Of  King  Hezekiah  ; — 7.  Of  J\'ebuchadnezzar  ; 
— 8.  Palsy; — 9.  Issue  of  Blood ; — 10.  Blindness; — 11.   The  lieality  of  demoniacal  Possessions  proved. 


1.  The  diseases  to  which  the  human  frame  is  subject  would 
naturally  lead  men  to  try  to  alleviate  or  to  remove  them: 
hence  sprang  the  Art  ok  Medicine.  In  the  early  ages  of 
the  world,  indeed,  there  could  not  be  much  occasion  for  an 
art  which  is  now  so  necessary  to  the  health  and  hajipiness 
of  mankind.  The  simplicity  of  their  manners,  the  plainness 
of  their  diet,  their  tem])prance  in  meat  and  drink,  and  their 
active  life  (being  generally  occupied  in  the  field,  and  in  rural 
affairs),  would  naturally  tend  to  strengthen  the  body,  and  to 
afford  a  greatfr  share  of  health  than  what  we  now  enjoy.  So 
long  as  our  first  parents  continued  in  that  state  of  upright- 
ness in  which  they  were  created,  there  was  a  tree,  emphati- 
callj'  termed  the  tree  of  life,  the<fruit  of  which  was  divinely 
apj)ointed  for  the  preservation  of  health ;  but  after  the  fall, 
being  expelled  from  Eden,  and,  consequently,  banished  for 
ever  from  that  tree,  they  became  liable  to  various  diseases, 
which,  doubtless,  they  would  endeavour  to  remove,  or  to  miti- 
gate in  various  ways.  From  the  longevity  of  the  patriarchs 
it  is  evident  that  diseases  were  not  very  frequent  in  the  early 
ages  of  the  world,  and  they  seem  to  iiave  enjoyed  a  sum- 
riently  vigorous  old  age,  except  that  the  eyes  became  dim 
and  the  sight  feel)le.  (Gen.  xxvii.  I.  xlviii.  10.)  Hence  it  is 
recorded  as  a  remarkable  circumstance  concerning  Moses, 
that  in  extreme  old  ago  (for  he  was  an  hundred  and  twenty 
years  old  when  he  died)  his  eye  was  not  dim,  nor  his  natural 
force  abated.  (Deut.  xxxiv.  1.) 

The  Jews  ascribed  the  origin  of  the  healing  art  to  God  him- 
self (Ecclus,  xxxviii.  1,2.),  and  the  Egyptians  attributeii  the 
invention  of  it  to  their  god  Tliaut  or  HermeSjOr  to  Osiris  or  Isis. 

Anciently,  at  Babylon,  the  sick,  when  they  were  first 
attacked  by  a  disease,  were  left  in  the  streets,  for  the  purpose 
of  learning  from  those  who  might  pass  thcin  what  i)r<ictices 
or  what  medicines  had  been  of  assistance  to  them,  when 
afflicted  with  a  similar  discsase.  This  was,  perhaps,  done 
also  in  other  countries.  Tlio  Egyptians  carried  their  sick 
into  the  temple  of  Serapis;  the  Greeks  carried  theirs  into 
those  of  j'Esculapius.  In  both  of  these  temples  there  were 
preserved  written  receipts  of  the  means  by  which  various 
cures  had  been  effected.  With  the  aid  of  these  recorded  re- 
medies, the  art  of  healing  assumed  in  the  progress  of  time 
the  aspect  of  a  science.  It  assumed  such  a  form,  first  in 
Egypt,  and  at  a  much  more  recent  pi  riod  in  (Greece;  but  it 
was  not  long  before  those  of  tiie  former  were  surpassed  in 
excellence  by  the  physicians  of  the  latter  country.  That  the 
Egyptians,  however,  had  no  little  skill  in  medicine,  may  be 
gathered  from  what  is  said  in  the  Pentateuch  respecting  the 
marks  of  leprosy.  That  some  of  the  medical  prescriptions 
should  fail  of  bringing  the  expected  relief  is  by  no  means 
Btrange,  since  Pliny  himself  mentions  8omc  which  are  far 


from  producing  the  effects  he  ascribes  to4hem.  Physicians 
are  mentioned  first  in  Gen.  1.  2.  Exod.  xxi.  19.  Job  xiii.  4. 
Some  acquaintance  with  chirurgical  operations  is  implied  in 
the  rite  of  circumcision.  (Gen.  xvii.  11 — 14.)  Ihere  is 
aniple  evidence  that  the  Israelites  had  some  acouaintance 
with  the  internal  structure  of  the  human  system,  although  it 
does  not  appear  that  dissections  of  the  human  body,  for  medi- 
cal purposes,  were  made  till  as  late  as  the  time  of  Ptolemy. 
That  physicians  sometimes  undertook  to  exercise  their  skill, 
in  removing  diseases  of  an  internal  nature,  is  evident  from 
the  circumstance  of  David's  playing  upon  the  harp  to  cure 
the  malady  of  Saul.  (1  Sam.  xvi.  16.)  The  art  of  healing 
was  committed  among  the  Hebrews,  as  well  as  among  the 
Egyptians,  to  the  priests;  who,  indeed,  were  obliged,  by  a 
law  of  the  state,  to  take  cognizance  of  leprosies.  (Lev.  xiii. 
1 — 14.  57.  Deut.  xxiv.  8,  9.)  Reference  is  made  to  physi- 
cians who  were  not  priests,  and  to  instances  of  sickness, 
disease,  healing,  &c.  in  the  following  passages ;  viz.  1  Sam. 

o-Kssrov  Jiiuxoj  iri  to  Afxiiiov.  Every  term  liere  pinployeii  by  the  aposllr. 
is  a<;nni3tical.  The  whole  passaftc  boaiilifiilly  rcprcs-  ttts  that  ardour  which 
firt'il  the  coinbatanis  when  engaged  in  the  race.  Tti-ir  spirit  and  conten- 
tion are  in  a  very  stril<lnK  nianner  descriljed  in  tlic  ("'lowing  truly  poetical 
lines  ofOppian,  which  happily  illustrate  this  jmssagi' : — 

£r3E^/ui}$  iffii^^tv-rti,  «-=roTff"UTOi  t»txt%ytvv» 
n^09rp3TiTGBivo/Aivci  SiKixiv  T1X.OS  lyxOffOvniT 
T.^uvurxt  Travtv  Ji  n-ovoy  vvTVn  ti  wiX -t^rjii, 
Nixijj  Ti  yKvxvSojpov  iKnv  Kf>»TC^j  re  '  :  ^vpi^f% 
Aijui,  xtii  x«pTO<  af^Xnv  ■p;i5aM<ri:«i. 

Oppian  Pise.  lib.  Iv.  vcr.  101.  edit.  RiUcrshusii. 

Afl  when  the  thirst  of  praise  and  conscious  force 

Invit(!lhe  labour.^  of  the  pantinj  roi'nsR, 

I'rone  from  the  lists  the  bloniMiritt  rivals  Strain, 

And  sprinKexullini;  to  the  di.stant  plain, 

Alleriiiitc  feel  with  ninililciiifaKiired  bound 

Impetuous  trip  alons  the  relluent  cround, 

In  every  breaxt  aiidjilious  passions  rise, 

To  uei/c  the  goal,  and  snatch  th'  luiinortnl  prize. 

Jones's  translation. 

Instat  r.mis  aiiriea  suns  vlncentilius,  ilium 

Prttitcriiuni  tcilincns,  cxtrcnios  iilier  cunlcm: 

Homt.  Satyr,  lib.  i.  f?af.  i.  W,,  116. 
t  Toi/  APOMOK  T<Ti>.ix>.    I  have  finished  my  rack.    The  wti"'-  ■■  .^■-•■;« 
is  beaulifully  allusive  to  the  celebrated  izames  and  exercises  nl  i  i. 

Aj'-/uo(  properly  signifies  a  race.  Theocritus,  Myl.  iii.  ver.  4i.  -  .  is 
F.lectra,  ver.  (/J3.  Sec  also  vcr.  C^G — GS8.  Kiiripidis  Andromsrhe,  mt.  o'J'J. 
Kuripidis  I|ihiKenia  In  Auli>tp,  ver.  212.  Strabo,  lib.  iii.  n.  l.w.  edit.  Turis, 
lOJ).  Xi-nophontl.sMeniorab.  pp.  210,  211.  O.xon.  1711.  So  this  word  outfhl 
to  be  rendercil.  (Acts  xx.  21.)  lint  nuw  nf  tlmo  Ihiuga  more  vtt,  ncithrr 
count  I  my  life  tlear  unto  viysrif:  so  that  I  might  fmiah  my  COURSR  tri/A 
jny ;  riKt tj-irm  rev  ^POMON  fizv  :  finish  the  Hhorl  lacc  of  hiiiunn  life  with 
lionour  and  applause.  It  is  a  beauliful  and  Htrikini  allusion  to  tlio  race  in 
these  celcbralfd  xames. — In  the  fiflh  volume  of  Bishop  Iiurni''.'<  Works, 
there  Is  an  animaii.'d  discourse  on  the  Cliristian  race ;  the  mnicrialsof  which 
are  partly  ilerived  from  Dr.  Ilarwoud's  IntruducUon  to  the  New  TcMaxnent 
vol.  li.  suet.  4. 


Sect.   I.] 


DISEASES  MENTIONED  IN  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


Luke  iv.  23.  v.  31.  viii.  43.     Joseplius,  Antiq.  Jud.  lib. 

See  also  Lightfoot'B  Horee  Ilcbraicse  on  Mark 

105. 184.     Pareau,  Antiq.  Hebr. 


»  Mai'k  V.  26, 
xvii.  c.  6.  §  5. 

4  Schabbath,  p.  110. 
V.  41. 

3  Jahn,  Archaeol.  Biblica,  by  Upham, 
^.p.  164.  166. 

•*  Josephus,  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  i.  c.  33.  §  5. 

'  Bp.  Lowth's  Tsaiah,  vol.  ii.  p.  10. 

«  Dr.  K.  Clarke's  Commentary  on  John  v.  3. 

■>  This  dreadful  disorder  has  Its  name  from  the  Greek  Ata-p«,  from  x«a-if, 
a  scale    because  in  this  disease  the  body  was  often  covered  witin  thin  white 


xvi.  16.  1  KinCTS  i.  2 — 4.  2  Kin^s  viii.  29.  ix.  15.  Isa.  i.  6. 
Jer.  viii.  22.  Lzek.  xxx.  21.  The  probable  reason  of  king 
Asa's  not  seeking  help  from  God,  but  from  the  physicians,  as 
mentioned  in  2  Chron.  xvi.  12.,  was,  that  they  had  not  at 
that  period  recourse  to  the  simple  medicines  vrhich  nature 
offered,  but  to  certain  superstitious  rites  and  incantations ;  and 
this,  no  doubt,  was  the  ground  of  the  reflection  which  was 
cast  upon  him.  About  the  time  of  Christ,  the  Hebrew  phy- 
sicians both  made  advancements  in  science,  and  increased  in 
numbers.'  It  appears  from  the  Talmud,^  that  the  Hebrew 
physicians  were  accustomed  to  salute  the  sick  by  saying, 
"  Arise  from  your  disease.''''  This  salutation  had  a  miraculous 
effect  in  the  mouth  of  Jesus.  (Mark  v.  41.)  According  to 
the  Jerusalem  Talmud,  a  sick  man  was  judged  to  be  m  a 
way  of  recovery,  who  began  to  take  his  usual  food.  (Com- 
*  pare  Mark  v.  43.)  The  ancients  were  accustomed  to  attri- 
bute the  origin  of  diseases,  particularly  of  those  whose  natural 
causes  they  did  not  understand,  to  the  immediate  interference 
of  the  Deity.  Hence  they  were  denominated,  by  the  ancient 
Greeks,  M*fl-T/>«?,  or  the  scourges  of  God,  a  word  which  is 
employed  in  the  New  Testament  by  the  physician  Luke  him- 
self (vii.  21.),  and  also  in  Mark  v.  29.  34.^ 

II.  Concerning  the  remedies  actually  employed  by  the 
Jews  few  particulars  are  certainly  known.  Wounds  were 
bound  up,  after  applying  oil  to  them  (Ezek.  xxx.  21.  Isa.  i. 
G.),  or  pouring  in  a  liniment  composed  of  oil  and  wine  (Luke 
X.  34.),  oil  being  mollifying  and  healing,  while  wine  would 
be  cleansing  and  somewhat  astringent.  Herod  was  let  down 
into  a  bath  of  oil.''  Great  use  was  made  of  the  celebrated 
balm  of  Gilead.  (Jer.  viii.  22.  xlvi.  11.  li.  8.)     The  com- 

fiarison  in  Prov.  iii.  8.  is  taken  from  the  plasters,  oils,  and 
rictions,  which,  in  the  East,  are  still  employed  on  the  abdo- 
men and  stomach  in  most  maladies :  the  people  in  the  vil- 
lages being  ignorant  of  the  art  of  making  decoctions  and 
potions,  and  of  the  doses  proper  to  be  administered,  generally 
make  use  of  external  medicines.^  When  Jesus  Christ  autho- 
rized his  apostles  to  heal  the  sick  (Matt.  x.  8.),  the  evangelist 
Mark  relates  that  they  anointed  with  oil  many  that  were  sick, 
and  healed  them.  (vi.  13.)  From  the  expressions  in  Prov. 
iii.  18.  xi.  30.  xiii.  12.  and  xv.  4.  Calmet  thinks  it  proba- 
ble that  the  Jews  had  salutary  herbs  and  plants  which  they 
called  the  tree  of  life,  and  which  we  should  now  call  medi- 
cinal herbs  and  plants,  in  opposition  to  such  as  are  poisonous 
and  dangerous,  which  they  call  the  tree  of  death.  Some 
modern  neologian  expositors  have  imagined,  that  the  Pool  of 
Bethesda  at  Jerusalem  was  a  bath,  the  waters  of  which  de- 
rived their  sanative  power  from  the  entrails  of  the  victims 
offered  in  sacrifice  being  v/ashed  therein  (John  v.  2 — 7.), 
and  that  by  the  angel  was  simply  intended  a  man,  who 
was  sent  to  stir  up  from  the  bottom  the  corrupt  ediment ; 
which  being  distributed  through  the  water,  the  pores  of  the 
person  who  bathed  in  it  were  penetrated  by  this  matter,  and 
liis  disorder  repelled.  "  But  this  is  a  miserable  evasion,  to 
get  rid  of  the  power  and  goodness  of  God,  built  on  the 
merest  conjecture,  [and]  selt-contradictions,  and  every  way 
as  unlikely  as  it  is  insupportable.  It  has  never  yet  been 
proved,  that  the  sacrifices  were  ever  washed ;  and,  could  even 
this  be  proved,  who  can  show  that  they  were  washed  in  the 
Pool  of  Bethesda]  These  waters  healed  a  man  in  a  moment 
of  whatsoever  disease  he  had.  Now,  there  is  no  one  cause 
under  heaven  can  do  this.  Had  only  one  kind  of  disorder 
been  cured  here,  there  might  have  been  some  countenance 
for  this  deistical  conjecture — but  this  is  not  the  case ;  and  we 
are  obliged  to  believe  the  relation  just  as  it  stands,  and  thus 
acknowledge  the  sovereign  power  and  mercy  of  God,  or 
take  the  desperate  flight  of  an  infidel,  and  thus  get  rid  of 
the  passage  altogether."^ 

in.  Various  diseases  are  mentioned  in  the  Sacred  Writ- 
ings, as  cancers,  consumption,  dropsy,  fevers,  lunacy,  &c. 
Concerning  a  few  disorders,  the  nature  of  which  has  exer- 
cised the  critical  acumen  of  physicians  as  well  as  divines, 
the  following  observations  may  be  satisfactory  to  the  reader. 
1.  Of  all  the  maladies  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures,  the 
most  formidable  is  the  disorder  of  the  skin,  termed  Leprosy,' 


195 


fc.-n^ff  "f  ^'°  7'?-Pi°"'  °^  ^^^i^h  is  patches  of  smootn 
lammated  scales,  ot  different  sizes  and  of  a  circular  form, 
rhis  disease  was  not  peculiar  to  the  Israelites,  but  anciently 
was  endemic  m  Palestine,  as  it  still  is  in  E™  and  other 
countries.  In  the  admirable  description  of  "the  cutaneous 
affections  to  which  the  Israelites  wele  subject  after  their  de- 
fr  /l/T  IW^'  ^'''"  by  Moses  in  the  thirteenth  chap- 
ter of  the  book  of  Leviticus,  there  are  three  which  distinctfv 
belong  to  the  leprosy.s  All  of  them  are  distinguished  bv  thi 
name  of  mna  (BeHRar),  or  "  bright  spot ;"  viz! 

1.  The  pT\2  (bohak),  which  imports  brightness  but  in  a 
subordinate  degree,  being  a  dull  white  spot :  it  is  not  conta- 
gious, and  does  not  render  a  person  unclean,  or  make  it 
necessary  that  he  should  be  confined.  Michaelis  describes 
a  case  of  bohak  from  the  traveller  Niebuhr,  in  which  the 
spots  were  not  perceptibly  elevated  above  the  skin,  and  did 
not  change  the  colour  of  the  hair:  the  spots  in  this  species 
ot  leprosy  do  not  appear  on  the  hands  or  abdomen,  but  on  the 
neck  and  face  they  gradually  spread,  and  continue  sometimes 
only  about  two  months,  though  in  some  cases  as  long  as  two 
years,  when  they  gradually  disappear  of  themselves.  This 
disorder  is  neither  infectious  norliereditary,  nor  does  it  occa- 
sion any  inconvenience.9 

ii.  Two  species  called  npix  (tsorct),  that  is,  venom  or 
malignity,  viz.  the  nw"?  mna  (BeHRax  lebena),  or  bright 
white  behrat  (Lev.  xiii.  38,  39,),  nna  mn3  (BeiiRar  cecHa), 
dark  or  dusky  behrat,  spreading  in  the  skin.  (Lev.  xiii.  3.) 
Both  these  are  contagious  ;  in  other  words,  render  the  per- 
son affected  with  It  unclean,  and  exclude  him  from  society. 
(1.)  In  the  behrat  cecha  (the  Leprosis  Lepriasis  nigricans 
of  Dr.  Good's  nosological  system)  the  natural  colour  of  the 
hair,  which  m  Egypt  and  Palestine  is  black,  is  not  changed, 
as  Moses  repeatedly  states,  nor  is  there  any  depression  of 
the  dusky  spot,  while  the  patches,  instead  of  keeping  sta- 
tionary to  their  first  size,  are  perpetually  enlargino-  their 
boundary.  The  patient  labouring  under  this  form  "of  the 
disease  was  pronounced  unclean  by  the  Hebrew  priest 
and,  consequently,  was  sentenced  to  a  separation  from  his 
family  and  friends :  whence  there  is  no  doubt  of  its  having 
proved  contagious.  Though  a  much  severer  malady  than 
the  common  leprosy,  it  is  far  less  so  than  the  species 
described  in  the  ensuing  paragraph ;  and  on  this  account  it 
IS  dismissed  by  Moses  with  a  comparatively  brief  notice. 

(2.)  The  behrat  lebena,  {Leprosis  Lepriasis  Candida,  or 
leuce  of  Dr.  Good's  Nosology,)  or  bright  white  leprosy,  is 
by  tar  the  most  serious  and  obstinate  of  all  the  forms  which 
the  disease  assumes.  The  pathognomonic  characters,  dwelt 
upon  by  Moses  in  deciding  it,  are  "a  glossy  white  and 
spreading  scale  upon  an  elevated  base,  the  elevation  depress- 
ed in  the  middle,  but  without  a  change  of  colour,  the  black 
hair  on  the  patches,  which  is  the  natural  colour  of  the  hair 
in  Palestine,  participating  in  the  whiteness,  and  the  patches 
thenaselves  perpetually  widening  their  outline."  Several 
ot  these  characters  taken  separately  belong  to  other  lesions 
or  blemishes  of  the  skin,  and,  therefore,  none  of  them  were 
to  be  taken  alone ;  and  it  was  only  when  the  whole  of  them 
concurred  that  the  Jewish  priest,  in  his  capacity  of  physi- 
cian, was  to  pronounce  the  disease  a  tsorat,  or  malignant 
leprosy. 

Common  as  this  form  of  leprosy  was  among  the  Hebrews, 
during  and  subsequent  to  their  residence  in  Egypt,  we  have 
no  reason  to  believe  that  it  was  a  family  complaint,  or  even 
known  amongst  them  antecedently :  whence  there  is  little 
doubt,  notwithstanding  the  confident  assertions  of  Manetho 
to  the  contrary,  that  they  received  the  infection  from  the 
Egyptians,  instead  of  communicating  it  to  them.  Their 
subjugated  and  distressed  state,  however,  and  the  peculiar 
nature  of  their  employment,  must  have  rendered  them  very 
liable  to  this  as  well  as  to  various  other  blemishes  and 
misaffections  of  the  skin ;  in  the  productions  of  which  there 
are  no  causes  more  active  or  powerful  than  a  depressed  state 
of  body  or  mind,  hard  labour  under  a  burning  sun,  the  body 
constantly  covered  with  the  excoriating  dust  of  brick-fields 


scales,  so  as  to  cive  it  the  appearance  of  snow.  Hence  the  hand  of  Moses 
is  said  to  have  been  leprous  as  snotc  (Exod.  iv.  6.)  ;  and  Miriam  is  said  to 
have  become  leprous,  white  as  snow  (Num.  xii.  10.) ;  and  Gehazi,  when 
struck  judicially  with  the  disease  of  Naaman,  is  recorded  to  have  gone  out 
from  the  presence  of  Elisha,  a  leper,  as  white  as  snow.  (2  Kings  v.  27.)  Dr. 
A.  Clarke  on  Lev.  xiii.  1. 

8  For  this  account  of  the  leprosy,  tlie  author  is  almost  wholly  indebted 
to  the  late  Dr.  Good's  Study  of  Medicine,  vol.  v.  pp.  587—597.  2d  edition. 

»  Michaelis's  Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of  aioses,  vol.  iii.  pp.  233,234. 
"  That  all  this,"  he  adds,  "  with  equal  force  and  truth,  should  still  be  found 
exactly  to  hold,  at  the  distance  of  3500  years  from  the  time  of  Moses, 
ought  certainly  to  gain  some  credit  to  his  laws,  even  with  those  who  will 
not  allow  them  to  be  of  divine  authority."  (p.  234 


196 


DISEASES  MENTIONED  IN  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


[Pabt  IV.  Chap.  IX. 


and  an  impoverished  diet ;  to  all  of  which  the  Israelites 
were  exposed,  whilst  under  the  Egyptian  bondajre. 

It  appears,  also,  from  the  Mosaic  account,  that  in  conse- 
quence of  these  hardships  there  was,  even  after  the  Israelites 
had  quitted  Egypt,  a  general  predisposition  to  the  contagious 
form  of  leprosy,  so  that  it  often  occurred  as  a  consequence 
of  various  other  cutaneous  aflections.  Eiglit  different  ble- 
mishes in  the  skin,  which  had  a  tendcncA^  to  terminate  in 
this  terrible  disease,  are  enumerated  by  iVfoses,  and  describ- 
ed by  Dr.  Good,  to  whose  elaborate  treatise  the  reader  is 
referred.  The  effects  of  leprosy,  as  described  by  travellers 
who  have  witnessed  the  disorder  in  its  most  virulent  forms, 
are  truly  deplorable.'  The  Mosaic  statutes  respecting  leprosy 
are  recorded  in  Lev.  xiii.  and  x\v.  Num.  v.  I — 1.  and  Deut. 
xxiv.  8,  9.     They  are  in  substance  as  follows  : — 

(1.)  On  the  appearance  of  any  one  of  the  cutaneous  affections 
above  noticed  on  any  person,  the  party  was  to  be  inspected 
by  a  priest,  both  as  acting  in  a  judicial  capacity,  and  also  as 
being  skilled  in  medicine.  The  signs  of  the  disease,  which 
a»e  circumstantially  pointed  cut  in  the  statute  itself,  accord 
with  those  which  have  been  noticed  by  modern  physicians. 
*'  If,  on  the  first  inspection,  there  remained  any  doubt  as  to 
the  spot  being  really  a  symptom  of  leprosy,  the  suspected 
person  was  shut  up  for  seven  days,  in  order  that  it  might  be 
ascertained,  whether  it  spread,  disappeared,  or  remained  as 
it  was ;  and  this  confinement  might  be  repeated.  During 
tins  time,  it  is  probable  that  means  were  used  to  remove  the 
spot.  If  in  the  mean  time  it  spread,  or  continued  as  it  was, 
without  becoming  paler,  it  excited  a  strong  suspicion  of  real 
leprosy,  and  the  person  inspected  was  declared  unclean.  If 
it  disappeared,  and  after  his  liberation  became  again  manifest, 
a  fresh  inspection  took  place. 

{•2.)  "The  imclean  were  separated  from  the  rest  of  the 
people.  So  early  as  the  second  year  of  the  Exodus,  lepers 
were  obliged  to  reside  without  the  camp  (Num.  v.  1 — 4.); 
and  so  strFctly  was  this  law  enforced,  that  the  sister  of  Moses 
herself,  becoming  leprous,  was   expelled  from  it.     (Num. 

xii.  14 IG.)     W" hen  the  Israelites  came  into  their  own  land, 

and  lived  in  cities,  the  spirit  of  the  law  thus  far  operated, 
that  lepers  were  obliged  to  reside  in  a  separate  place,  which 
was  called  (n'S'cnno)  beth  ch'<phschith,  or  the  house  of 
uyickanncss  ;  and  from  this  seclusion  not  even  kings,  when 
they  became  leprous,  were  exempted.  (2  Kings  xv.  5.) 
As,  however,  a  leper  cannot  always  be  within  doors,  and 
may,  consequently,  sometimes  meet  clean  persons,  he  was 
obliged,  in  the  first  place,  to  make  himself  known  bv  his 
dress,  and  to  go  about  with  torn  clothes,  a  bare  heaa,  and 
his  chin  covered  ;  and  in  the  next  place,  when  any  one  came 
too  near  him,  to  cry  out  that  he  was  Unclean.  (Num.  xiii. 
45,  46.)" 

(3.)  Although  a  leper,  merely  meeting  and  touching  a 
person,  could  not  have  immediately  infected  hirn,  yet,  as 
such  a  rencontre  and  touch  would  have  rendered  him  Leviti- 
cally  unclean,  in  order  to  prevent  leprosy  from  spreading,  in 
consequence  of  close  communication,  "  it  was  an  established 
rule  to  consider  a  leprous  person  as  likewise  unclean  in  a 
Levitical  or  civil  sense ;  and,  consequently,  vvhoever  touched 
hitn,  became  also  unclean ;  not  indeed  medically  or  l)hysi- 
cally  so, — tliat  is,  infected  by  one  single  touch, — but  still 
unclean  in  a  civil  sense. 

(4.)  "  On  the  other  hand,  however,  for  the  benefit  of  those 
found  clean,  the  law  itself  specified  those  who  were  to  be 
pronounced  free  from  the  disorder;  and  such  persons  were 
then  clear  of  all  reproach,  until  they  again  fell^  under  accusa- 
tion from  manifest  symptoms  of  infection.  Tiie  man  who, 
on  the  first  inspection,  was  found  clean,  or  in  whom  the 
supposed  symptoms  of  leprosy  disappeared  during  coufinc- 
ment,  was  declared  clean:  only,  in  the  latter  case,  he  was 
obliged  to  have  his  clothes  washed.  If,  again,  he  ir.id 
actuTilly  had  the  disorder,  and  got  rid  of  it,  the  law  required 
iiiui  to  make  certain  offerings,  in  the  course  of  which  he  was 
pronounced  clean."  ' 

(5.)  The  leprous  person  was  to  use  every  effort  in  his 
power  to  be  healed;  and,  therefore,  was  strictly  to  follow 
the  directions  of  the  priests.  Tliis,  Miciiaelis  is  of  opinion, 
may  fairly  be  inferreu  from  Deut.  xxiv.  8. 

(O.)  When  healed  of  his  leprosy,  the  person  was  to  go 


•  Mr.  Unrkpr,  llio  nijont  nf  (ho  DritUh  and  Foroiifn  Hiblc  Sorlety,  when 
al  DaiiiaHius  in  llif  yi-nt  l-^JT',  (Inscriliinz  lln-  honpilnl  nf  ('lirislinii  lepers, 
jiayH,  'JIow  iifllii'iiiiR  wiiH  llirir  silmtimi  uivl  ii|i|"'ir.ince  !  Smiif  were 
williniil  noHcs  mill  liiicerif,  liniiu  e:i(i;ii  lip  l>y  tlio  discui',  niut  dllii-rs  were 
dilTi^r.-nlly  cli.ifi(jure<J."  Tweiily»ixlli  Keporl  of  llic  Uiblo  tJocioty,  App. 
I).  111. 

«  Micliaelis'a  Commcntarlos,  tol.  III.  pp.  273—287. 


and  show  himself  to  the  priests,  that  he  mi^ht  be  declared 
clean,  and  oflfer  the  sacrifice  enjoined  in  that  case;  and, 
when  purified,  that  he  might  be  again  admitted  into  civil 
society.     (Matt.  viii.  4.  Lev.  xiv.  11 — 32.) 

(7.)  Lastly,  As  this  disease  was  so  offensive  to  the  Israel- 
ites, God  commanded  them  to  use  frequent  ablutions,  and 
prohibited  them  from  eating  swine's  flesh  and  other  articles 
of  animal  food  that  had  a  tendency  to  produce  this  disease. 

Tiie  peculiar  lustrations  which  a  person  who  had  been 
healed  of  a  leprosy  was  to  undergo  are  detailed  in  Lev.  xiv. 
— See  an  abstract  of  them  in  p.  134.  of  this  volume. 

2.  The  Disease  with  which  the  patriarch  .Ton  was  afflicted 
(ii.  7.)  has  greatly  exercised  the  ingenuity  of  commentators, 
who  have  supposed  it  to  be  the  contagious  leprosy,  the  small 
pox,  and  the  Elephantiasis,  or  Leprosy  of  the  Arabians. 
The  last  opinion  is  adopted  by  Drs.  Mead  and  Good,  and  by 
Michaelis,  and  appears  to  be  best  supported.  This  dreadful 
malady,  which  the  ancient  medical  writer  Paul  of  ^gineta 
has  accurately  characterized  as  an  universal  nicer,  was  named 
elephantiasis  by  the  Greeks,  from  its  rendering  the  skin  of 
the  patient  like  that  of  an  elephant,  scabrous  and  dark  co- 
loured, and  furrowed  all  over  with  tubercles,  loathsome 
alike  to  the  individual  and  to  the  spectators.  When  it  attains 
a  certain  height,  as  it  appears  to  have  done  in  this  instance, 
it  is  incurable,  and,  consequently,  affords  the  unhappy  patient 
no  prospect  but  that  of  long-continued  misery.' 

3.  The  Disease  of  the  Philistines,  mentioned  in  1  Sam. 
V.  6.  12.  and  vi.  17.,  has  been  supposed  to  be  the  dysentery; 
but  it  was  most  probably  the  haemorrhoids  or  bleeding  piles, 
in  a  very  aggravated  degree.  Jahn,  however,  considers  it 
as  the  effect  of  the  bite  of  venomous  solpugas."* 

4.  The  Disease  of  Saul  (I  Sam.  xvi.  14.)  appears  to 
have  been  a  true  madness,  of  the  melancholic  or  attrabila- 
rions  kind,  as  the  ancient  physicians  termed  it;  the  fits  of 
which  returned  on  the  unha))py  monarch  at  uncertain  periods, 
as  is  frequently  the  case  in  this  sort  of  malady.  The  remedy 
applied,  in  the  judgment  of  experienced  physicians,  was  an 
extremely  proper  one,  viz.  playing  on  the  harp.  The  cha- 
racter of  the  modern  oriental  music  is  expression,  rather 
than  science :  and  it  may  be  easily  conceived  how  well 
adapted  the  unstudied  and  artless  strains  of  David  were  to 
soothe  the  perturbed  rniud  of  Saul ;  which  strains  were  bold 
and  free  from  his  courage,  and  sedate  through  his  piety.* 

5.  The  Disease  of  Jehouam  King  of  Israel. — This 
sovereign,  who  was  clothed  with  the  double  infamy  of  being 
at  once  an  idolater  and  the  murderer  of  his  brethren,  was 
diseased  internally  for  two  years,  as  had  been  predicted  by 
the  prophet  Elijah;  and  his  bowels  are  said  at  last  to  have 
fallen  out  by  reason  of  his  sickness.  (2  Chron.  xxi.  12 — 15. 
18,  19.)  This  disease.  Dr.  Mead  says,  beyond  all  doubt 
was  the  dysentery,  and  though  its  continuance  so  long  a 
time  was  very  uncommon,  it  is  by  no  means  a  thing  unheard 
of.  The  intestines  in  time  become  ulcerated  by  t1ie  opera- 
tion of  this  disease.  Not  only  blood  is  discharged  from 
them,  but  a  sort  of  mucous  excrements  likewise  is  thrown 
off,  and  sometimes  small  pieces  of  the  flesh  itself;  so  that 
apparently  the  intestines  are  emitted  or  fall  out,  which  is 
sufficient  to  account  lor  the  expressions  that  arc  used  in  the 
statement  of  king  Jehoram's  disease." 

G.  The  Disease  with  WHICH  1 1 ezeki ah  was  afflicted 
(2  Kings  XX.  7.  Isa.  xxxviii.  21.)  has  been  variously  sup- 
posed to  be  a  pleurisy,  the  plague,  the  elephantiasis,  and 
the  quinsey.  Hut  Dr.Mead  is  of  oi)inion  that  the  malady 
was  a  fever  which  lerminattnl  in  an  abscess;  and  for  pro- 
moting its  su])puration  a  cataplasm  of  figs  was  admirably 
adapted.  The  case  of  H<'zeki,di,  however,  indicates  not 
only  the  limited  knowledge  of  the  .lewish  physicians  at  that 
time,  but  also  that  though  Ciod  can  cure  by  a  miracle,  yet 
he  also  gives  sagacity  to  discover  and  apply  the  most  natural 
remedies.' 

7.  Concerning  the  nature  of  NEnrcHAnNEZZAu's  Malauv 
(Dan.  iv.  25,  'Jli.  31 — 33.)  learned  men  are  greatly  divided, 
but  the  most  pntbable  account  of  it  is  that  given  by  Dr. 
Mead;  who  remarks  that  all  the  circumstances  of  it,  as 
related  by  Daniel,  so  perfectly  agree  with  hypochondriacal 
madness,  that  to  kim  it  appears  evident  that  Ncnuchadnezzar 
was  seized  with  this  distemper,  and  under  its  influence  ran 
wild  into  the  fields;  and  that  fancying  himself  transformed 
into  an  ox,  he  fed  on  grass  in  the  manner  of  cattle.     For 

»  Mpad's  Mcdica  Sacra,  pp.  1—11.  CI.oncIon,  17B6.)    Good's  translation  of 
Jot),  p.  22. 
«  Aichn-ol.  nil)I.  §  186.  •  Mead's  Medica Sacra,  p.  80-33. 

•  Mead's  Medica  Sncra,  p.  36.    Jahn's  ArcliiDol.  Uibl.  &  1(17. 
'  Mcdica  rtacm,  p.  37. 


Sect.  I.] 


DISEASES  MENTIONED  IN  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


197 


every  sort  of  madness  is  a  disease  of  a  disturbed  imagina- 
tion ;  under  which  this  unhappy  man  laboured  full  seven 
vearsr  And  through  neglect  of  taking  proper  care  of  him- 
self, his  hair  and  nails  grew  to  an  excessive  length ;  by 
which  the  latter,  growing  thicker  and  crooked,  resembled  the 
claws  of  birds.  Now,  the  ancients  called  persons  affected 
with  this  species  of  madness  \y»*v3-p-iTs/  {wolf-men)  or  numv- 
d-p^TTot  [dog-men) ;  because  they  went  abroad  in  the  night 
imitating  wolves  or  dogs ;  particularly  intent  upon  opening 
the  sepulchres  of  the  dead,  and  had  their  lews  much  ulcer- 
ated, either  by  frequent  falls,  or  the  bites  of  dogs.i  In  like 
manner  are  the  daughters  of  Proetus  related  to  have  been 
mad,  who,  as  Virgil  says, — 

Implerunt  falsis  mvgitibits  agros.'^ 

With  miinick'd  mooings  filled  the  fields. 

Fer,  as  Servius  observes,  Juno  possessed  their  minds  with 
sucli  a  species  of  madness,  that  fancying  themselves  cows, 
they  ran  into  the  fields,  bellowed  often,  and  dreaded  the 
plough.  But  these,  according  to  Ovid,  the  physician  Me- 
lampus, — 

per  carmen  et  herbus 

Eripuit  furiis.3 

Snatch'd  from  the  furies  by  his  charms  and  herbs. 

Nor  was  this  disorder  unknown  to  the  moderns;  for 
Schenckius  records  a  remarkable  instance  of  it  in  a  hus- 
bandman of  Padua,  who,  imagining  that  fie  was  a  wolf, 
attacked,  and  even  killed  several  persons  in  the  fields ,-  and 
when  at  length  he  was  taken,  he  persevered  in  declaring  him- 
self a  real  wolf,  and  that  the  onli/  difference  consisted  in  the 
inversion  of  his  skin  and  hair.^  But  it  may  be  objected  to 
this  opinion,  that  this  misfortune  was  foretold  to  the  king, 
so  that  he  might  have  prevented  it  by  correcting  his  morals ; 
and,  therefore,  it  is  not  probable  that  it  befell  him  in  the 
course  of  nature.  But  we  know  that  those  things,  which 
God  executes  either  through  clemency  or  vengeance,  are 
frequently  performed  by  the  assistance  of  natural  causes. 
Thus,  having  threatened  He7.ekiah  with  death,  and  being 
afterwards  moved  by  his  prayers,  he  restored  him  to  life, 
and  made  use  of  figs  laid  on  the  tumour,  as  a  medicine  for 
his  disease.  He  ordered  king  Herod,  upon  account  of  his 
pride,  to  be  devoured  by  worms.  And  no  one  doubts  but 
that  the  plague,  which  is  generally  attributed  to  the  divine 
wrath,  most  commonly  owes  its  origin  to  corrupted  air.* 

8.  The  Palsy  of  the  New  Testament  is  a  disease  of  very 
wide  impcrt,  and  the  Greek  word,  which  is  so  translated, 
comprehended  not  fewer  than  five  different  maladies,  viz. 
(1.)  »i/)o/3/t\v^,  a  paralytic  shock,  v/hich  affected  the  whole 
boay  ; — (2.)  Hemipkgy,  which  affects  and  paralyzes  only 
one  side  of  the  body ;  the  case  mentioned  in  Matt.  ix.  2. 
appears  to  have  been  of  this  sort ; — (3.)  Parapkgy,  which 
paralyzes  all  parts  of  the  system  below  the  neck ; — (4.) 
Catalepsy,  which  is  caused  by  a  contraction  of  the  muscles 
in  the  whole  or  part  of  the  body ;  the  hands,  for  instance. 
This  is  a  very  dangerous  disease  ;  and  the  effects  upon  the 
parts  seized  are  very  violent  and  deadly.    Thus,  when  a 

1)erson  is  struck  with  it,  if  his  hand  happens  to  be  extended, 
le  is  unable  to  draw  it  back  :  if  the  hand  be  not  extended, 
when  he  is  so  struck,  he  is  tmable  to  extend  it.  It  seems  to 
be  diminished  in  size,  and  dried  up  in  appearance ;  whence 
the  Hebrews  were  accustomed  to  call  it  a  withered  hand. 
The  impious  Jeroboam  was  struck  with  catalepsy  (1  Kings 
xiii.  4 — 6.)  ;  the  prophet  Zechariah,  among  the  judgments 
he  was  commissioned  to  denounce  against  the  idol  sTicpherd 
that  leaveth  the  flock,  threatens  that  his  arm  shall  be  dried  up. 
(Zech.  xi.  17.)  Other  instances  of  this  malady  occur  in 
Matt.  xii.  10.  and  John  v.  3.  5. — (5.)  The  Cramp.  This, 
in  oriental  countries,  is  a  fearful  malady,  and  by  no  means 
unfrequent.  It  originates  from  the  chills  of  the  night :  the 
limbs,  when  seized  with  it,  remain  immoveable,  sometimes 
turned  in  and  sometimes  out,  in  the  very  same  position  as 
when  they  were  first  seized.  The  person  afilicted  resembles 
a  man  undergoing  the  torture,  j2utTa.vi^rjjuiva),  and  experiences 
nearly  the  same  sufferings.  Death  follows  this  disease 
in  a  few  days.  Alcimus  was  struck  with  it  (1  Mace.  ix. 
55 — 58.),  as  also  was  the  centurion's  servant,  (Matt. 
viii.  6.) 

9.  The  disease,  which  in  Matt.  ix.  20.  Mark  v.  25.  and 
Luke  viii.  43.  is  denominated  an  Issue  of  Blood,  is  too  well 

«  See  Aetius,  Lib.  Medicin.  lib.  vi.  and  Paul.  jEgineta,  lib.  iii.  c.  16. 
»  Eclog.  vi.  48.  »  Melamorph.  xv.  325. 

«  Observationes  Medica;  Rar.  de  Lycanthrop.   Oba.  1. 
»  Medica  Sacra,  pp.  58—61. 


known  to  require  any  explanation.  Physicians  confess  it  to 
be  a  disorder  which  is  very  difficult  of  cure.  (Mark  v.  2G.y 
How  does  this  circumstance  magnify  the  benevolent  miracle, 
wrought  by  Jesus  Christ  on  a  woman  who  had  laboured 
under  it  for  twelve  years  ! 

10.  The  Blindness  of  the  sorcerer  Elymas  (Acts  xiii.  6 — 
12.)  is  in  the  Greek  denominated  a^xu?,  and  with  great  pro- 
priety, being  rather  an  obscuration  than  a  total  extinction  of 
sight.  It  was  occasioned  by  a  thin  coat  or  tunicle  of  hard 
siibstance,  which  spread  itself  over  a  portion  of  the  eye,  and 
interrupted  the  power  of  vision.  Hence  the  disease  is  like- 
wise called  0-x.cTOf,  or  darkness.  It  was  easily  cured,  and 
sometimes  even  healed  of  itself,  without  resorting  to  any 
medical  prescription.  Therefore  St.  Paul  added  in  his  de- 
nunciation, that  the  impostor  should  not  see  the  sun  for  a  sea- 
son. But  the  blindness  of  the  man,  of  whose  miraculous 
restoration  to  sight  we  have  so  interesting  an  account  in 
John  ix.,  was  total,  and  being  inveterate  from  his  birth,  was 
incuraljle  by  any  human  art  or  skill.  See  an  examination 
of  this  miracle  in  Vol.  I.  pp.  104,  105. 

1 1 .  Lastly,  in  the  New  Testament  we  meet  with  repeated 
instances  of  what  are  termed  Demoniacal  Possession.  The 
reality  of  such  possessions  indeed  has  been  denied  by  some 
authors,  and  attempts  have  been  made  by  others  to  account 
for  them,  either  as  the  effect  of  natural  disease,  or  the  influ- 
ence of  imagination  on-persons  of  a  nervous  habit.  But  it 
is  manifest,  that  the  persons  who  in  the  New  Testament  are 
said  to  be  possessed  with  devils  (more  correctly  with  demons) 
cannot  mean  only  persons  afflicted  with  some  strange  dis- 
ease; for  they  are  evidently  here  as  in  other  places — par- 
ticularly in  Luke  iv.  33 — 36.  41. — distinguished  from  the 
diseased.  Further,  Christ's  speaking  on  various  occasions 
to  these  evil  spirits,  as  distinct  from  the  persons  possessed 
by  them, — his  commanding  them  and  asking  them  questions, 
and  receiving  answers  from  them,  or  not  suffering  them 
to  speak, — and  several  circumstances  relating  to  the  ter- 
rible preternatural  effects  which  they  had  upon  the  pos- 
sessed, and  to  the  manner  of  Christ's  evoking  them, — 
particularly  their  requesting  and  obtaining  permission  to 
enter  the  herd  of  swine  (Matt.  viii.  31,  32.)  and  precipitating 
them  into  the  sea;  all  these  circumstances  can  never  be 
accounted  for  by  any  distemper  whatever.  Nor  is  it  any 
reasonable  objection  that  we  do  not  read  of  such  frequent 
possessions  before  or  since  the  appearance  of  our  Redeemer 
upon  earth.  It  seems,  indeed,  to  have  been  ordered  by  a 
special  providence  that  they  should  have  been  permitted  to 
have  then  been  more  common ;  in  order  that  He,  who  came 
to  destroy  the  works  of  the  Devil,  might  the  more  remarka- 
bly and  visibly  triumph  over  him ;  and  that  the  machina- 
tions and  devices  of  Satan  might  be  more  openly  defeated, 
at  a  time  when  their  power  was  at  its  highest,  both  in  the 
souls  and  bodies  of  men ;  and  also,  that  plain  facts  might 
be  a  sensible  confutation  of  the  Sadducean  error,  which  de- 
nied the  existence  of  angels  or  spirits  (Acts  xxiii.  8.),  and 
prevailed  among  the  principal  men  both  for  rank  and  learn- 
ing in  those  days.  The  cases  of  the  demoniacs  expelled  by 
the  apostles  were  cases  of  real  possession  ;  and  it  is  a  well 
known  fact,  that  in  the  second  century  of  the  Christian  aera, 
the  apologists  for  the  persecuted  professors  of  the  faith  of 
Christ  appealed  to  their  ejection  of^  evil  spirits  as  a  proof  of 
the  divine  origin  of  their  religion.  Hence  it  is  evident  that 
the  demoniacs  were  not  merely  insane  or  epileptic  patients, 
but  persons  really  and  truly  vexed  and  convulsed  by  unclean 
demons.' 


SECTION  n. 


TREATMENT  OF  THE  DEAD. FUNERAL  RITES. 

I.  Jewish  notions  of  death. — II.  Mosaic  laws  relating-  to  the 
dead. — III.  Preparations  for  interment. — IV.  Rites  of  sepul- 
ture.— Lamentations  for  the  dead. — V.  J\i'otice  of  the  tombs 
of  the  Jews. — Monumental  inscriptions. — VI.  Funeral  feasts. 
— Duration  of  mourning. 

So  strong  was  the  love  of  life  among  the  Hebrews,  that 
instances  ot  suicide  are  of  extremely  rare  occurrence  in  the 

s  .Tahn's  Archjeologia  Biblica,  §  199. 

■"  For  a  summary  of  the  evidence  that  the  demoniacs,  mentioned  in  the 
New  Testament,  were  persons  really  possessed  by  evil  spirits,  see  Bp. 
Newion'B  Works,  vol.  iv.  pp.  526—304.,  and  Mr.  Townsend's  Htrmony  of 
the  New  Test.  vol.  L  pp.  157— ICO. 


.98 


TREATMENT  OF  THE  DEAD. 


[Part  IV.  Chap.IX 


history  of  that  people.  Saul,  Ahithophel,  and  the  traitor  Judas 
are  the  only  persons  recorded  to  have  laid  violent  hands  upon 
themselves,  in  a  fit  of  desperation.  (1  Sam.  xxxi.  4,  3. 
2  Sam.  xvii.  23.  Matt,  xxvii.  3 — 5.)  In  the  last  period  of 
the  Jewish  state,  however,  the  custom  of  the  Romans  ap- 
pears to  have  greatly  lessened  the  horror  of  suicide  among 
the  Jews  ;•  but  that  most  terrible  of  all  diseases,  the  leprosy, 
seems  to  have  rendered  its  victims  utterly  regardless  of  life. 
(Job  vii.  15.) 

I.  The  Hebrews,  in  common  with  many  other  ancient 
nations,  especially  in  the  East,  were  accustomed  to  re- 
present death  by  various  terms  which  were  calculated  to 
mitigate  the  appalling  image  inspired  by  that  last  enemy  of 
mankind.  Hence  they  often  called  death  a  journey  or  depar- 
ture. (Josh,  xxiii.  14.  1  Kings  ii.  2.  Eccles.  v.  15.  vi.  G. 
Luke  ii.  29.)  Frequently  also  they  compared  it  to  sleep, 
and  to  rest  after  the  toils  of  life  were  over  (Gen.  xlvii.  30. 
Job  iii.  13.  17 — ID.  Isa.  xiv.  8.  Ivii.  2.  Matt.  ix.  2'J.  xxvii. 
52.  John  xi.  11.  Acts  vii.  GO.  1  Cor.  xi.30.  iThess.  iv.  13. 
2  Pet.  iii.  4.  Rev.  xiv.  13.) ;  and  it  was  a  very  common  ex- 
pression to  say,  that  the  party  deceased  had  gone,  or  was 
gathered  to  his  fathers  or  to  his  people.  (Gen.  xv.  15.  xxv. 
8.  17.  XXXV.  29.  xlix.  29.  33.  Num.  xx.  24.  xxvii.  13.  xxxi. 
2.  Deut.  xxxii.  50.  Jud^.  ii.  10.  2  Kings  xxii.  20.)^ 

n.  By  the  law  of  INIoses  a  dead  body  conveyed  a  legal 

EoUution  to  every  thing  that  touched  it, — even  to  the  very 
ouse  and  furniture, — which  continued  seven  days.  (Num. 
xix.  14,  15,  K).^  And  this  was  the  reason  why  the  priests, 
on  account  of  tlieir  daily  ministrations  in  holy  things,  w  ere 
forbidden  to  assist  at  any  funerals,  but  those  of  their  nearest 
relatives  (Lev.  xxi.  1 — 1.  10 — 12.);  nay,  the  very  dead 
bones,  though  they  had  lain  ever  so  long  in  the  grave,  if  dig- 
ged up,  conveyed  a  pollution  to  any  one  who  touched  them. 
This  circumstance  will  account  for  Josiah's  causing  the  bones 
of  the  false  priests  to  be  burnt  upon  the  altar  at  Bethel 
(2  Chron.  xxxiv.  5.),  in  order  that  these  altars,  being  thus 
polluted,  might  be  held  in  the  greatest  detestation. ^ 

IIL  After  the  principle  of  life  was  extinguished,  the  fol- 
lowing ceremonies  were  performed  by  the  Jews  : — 

1.  The  eyes  of  the  deceased  were  closed  by  the  nearest  of 
kin,  who  gave  the  j)arling  kiss  to  the  lifeless  corpse  :  thus, 
it  was  promised  to  Jacob,  when  he  took  his  journey  into 
Egypt,  that  Joseph  should  put  his  hands  upon  his  ei/e.s  (Gen. 
xlvi.  4.) ;  and  accordinjjly  we  read  that,  when  Jacob  ex- 
pired, Joseph  fell  upon  nis  face  and  kissed  him.  (Gen.  1.  1.) 
From  the  Jews,  Calmet  observes,  this  practice  passed  to  the 
heathens,  who  gave  the  dying  farewell  Idss,  and  received 
their  last  sigh,  in  token  of  tlieir  alfectionate  union. 

2.  'I'lie  next  olfice  was  the  ablution  of  the  cornse,  which 
(except  when  it  was  buried  immediately)  was  laici  out  in  an 
upper  room  or  chamber.  Tlius,  when  Talritha  died,  it  is 
said,  that  they  washed  her  body,  and  laid  it  in  an  upper  cham- 
ber. (Acts  ix.  37.)  'J'his  rite  was  common  both  to  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,'  in  whose  writings  it  is  frequently  men- 
tioned. In  Egypt,  it  is  still  the  custom  to  wash  the  dead 
body  several  times.  ' 

3.  The  bodies  of  persons  of  distinction  were  embalmed  : 
this  process  the  Jews  probably  derived  from  the  Egyptians, 
whose  various  methods  of  embalming  their  dead  with  spices 
and  nitre  are  minutely  described  by  Herodotus,  and  Diodo- 
nis  Siculus.^  Tlie  patriarch  Jacob  was  embalmed  according 
1)  the  Egyptian  process:  his  remains  lay  in  nitre  thirt/j 
days,  for  tlie  jjurpose  of  drying  up  all  superlluous  and  noxious 
moisture;  and  during  the  remaining  Jortij  days,  they  were 
anointed  with  gums  and  spices,  to  preserve  them ;  which 
unction,  it  appears  from  Gen.  1.  2,  3.,  was  the  proper  em- 
balming. The  former  circumstance  explains  the  reason  why 
the  Egyptians  mourned  for  Jaaib  threescore  and  ten  dni/s ,-  the 
latter  explains  the  meaning  of  the  forty  days,  which  were 
fulfilled  for  Israel.* 


In  later  times,  where  the  deceased  parties  were  persons  of 
rank  or  fnrtune,  after  washing  the  corpse,  the  Jews  "  em- 
oalmcd  ii,  by  laying  all  around  it  a  large  quantity  nf  costlv 
spices  and  aromatic  drugs,'  in  order  to  imlnbe  and  absoru 


«  JoBcptnis,  De  noU.  Jtul.  lib.  iii.  c.  fl.  55  4—7. 

»  Pareaii,  Aiiti(|uitaH  Hebr.  pp.  4C8,  WJ. 

»  Huiiic'd Hist.  «r  Oil- Juw8,  viil.  ii,  u.  3C2.  Mithaclls  liaii  cxninincd  at 
length  the  reason  and  inlicv  of  tlic  MoHaic  statulcB  on  lliis  Hubji.xt.  Com- 
niontarle.s,  vol  iii.  pp.  .'f/.J— :«). 

*  Wophoclia  Kleclra,  vcr.so  1 N3.    Virgil,  i^nci.l.  lib.  vl.  218,  219. 

'  lfcro.f.j[u.s,  lib.  ii.  cc.  HO— H.  toin.  li.  pp.  131,  13Z  Oxon.  liJOO.    Dio<lo- 
rus  Miculus,  lib.  i.  cc.  01— !)J.  iidlt.  liipont. 
<  Tuxton's  IlliiutralionH,  vol.  iii.  p.  '^I'J.  2(1  cdrt. 

•  Mall.  xxvi.  V>.  For  in  that  the  hath  poured  this  oinlnurnt  on  my  hodij, 
$fie  did  it  Jot  ni;//unerat,  "■fit  to  ivraf  iita-x  ^i,  to  cuibalin  uic.  The  word 


the  humours,  and  by  their  inherent  virtues  to  preserve  it  as 
long  as  possible  from  putrefaction  and  decay.  Thus  we 
read  that  ISicodemus  brought  a  mixture  of  myrrh  and  aloes, 
about  a  hundred  pounds  weight,  to  perform  the  customary 
oflice  to  tlie  dear  deceased.  This  embalming  was  usually 
repeated  for  several  days  together,  that  the  drugs  and  spices 
thus  applied  might  have  all  their  efficacy  in  the  exsiccation 
of  the  moisture  and  the  future  conservation  of  the  body.s 
They  then  swathed  the  corpse  in  linen  rollers  or  bandages, 
closely  enfolding  and  wrapping  it  in  that  bed  of  aromatic 
drugs  with  which  they  had  surrounded  it.  Thus  we  find 
that  Joseph  of  Arimathea  and  Nicodemus  took  the  body  of 
Jesus  and  wrapt  it  in  linen  clothes  with  the  spices,  as  the  mail' 
ner  of  the  Jews  is  to  bury.  (John  xix.  40.)  This  custom  we 
behold  also  in  the  Egyptian  mummies,  round  which,  Theve- 
not  informs  us,  the  Egyptians  have  sometimes  used  above  a 
thousand  ells  of  filleting,  besides  what  was  wrapped  about 
the  head.  Thus,  when  our  Lord  had  cried  with  a  loud  voice, 
^  Jjuzarus,  come  forth  P  it  is  said,  Me  dead  came  forth,  bound 
hand  and  foot  in  grave-clothes.  (John  xi.  44. )3  We  learn 
from  Scripture,  also,  that  about  the  head  and  face  of  the 
corpse  was  folded  a  napkin,  which  was  a  separate  thing,  and 
did  not  communicate  with  the  other  bandages  in  which  the 
body  was  swathed.  Thus  we  read,  that  the  face  of  Lazarus 
was  bound  about  with  a  napkin  (John  xi.  44.);  and  when 
our  Lord  was  risen,  Peter,  who  went  into  the  sepulchre,  saw 
the  linen  clothes  lie,  and  the  napkin  that  had  been  folded 
round  his  head,  not  lying  with  the  linen  clothes,  but  wreathed 
together  in  a  place  by  itself,  lying  at  some  distance  from  the 
rollers  in  which  his  body  had  been  swathed,  and  folded  up, 
exactly  in  the  state  it  was  when  first  wrapped  round  his  her^d." 
(John  XX.  7.)'o 

Besides  the  custom  of  embalming  persons  of  distinction, 
the  Jews  commonly  used  great  burnings  for  their  ki;igs,  com- 
posed of  large  (|uaulities  of  all  sorts  of  aromatics,  of  which 
they  made  a  fire,  as  a  triumphant  farewell  to  the  deceased. 
In  these  they  were  wont  to  burn  their  bowels,  their  clothes, 
armour,  and  other  things  belonging  to  the  deceased.  Thus, 
it  is  said  of  Asa,  that  Ihcy  made  a  very  great  burning  for  him 
(2  Chron.  xvi.  14.),  which  could  not  be  meant  of  his  corpse 
in  the  fire,  for  in  tne  same  verse  it  is  said,  they  buried  him  in 
/;w  own  sepulchre.  This  was  also  done  at  the  funeral  of  Zede- 
kiah.  (Jer.  xxxiv.  5.)  And  it  was  very  probably  one  reason 
why,  at  the  death  of  Jeliorarn,  the  people  made  no  burning 
for  him  like  the  burning  of  his  fathers  (2  Chron.  xxi.  19.)" 
because  his  bowels  being  ulcerated  by  his  sickness,  they  fell 
out,  and  to  prevent  the  stench,  were  immediately  interred  or 
otherwise  disposed  of;  so  that  they  could  not  well  be  burnt 
in  this  pompous  maimer  after  his  death  ;  though  as  he  was  a 
wicked  king,  this  ceremony  might  possibly  have  been  omit- 
ted on  that  account  also. 

The  burning  of  dead  bodies  in  funeral  piles,  it  is  well 
known,  was  a  custom  prevalent  among  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans, upon  which  occasion  they  threw  frankincense,  myrrh, 
cassia,  and  other  fragrant  articles  into  the  fire :  and  this  in 
such  abundance,  that  Pliny  represents  it  as  a  piece  of  pro- 
fanencss,  to  bestow  such  heaps  of  frankincense  u})on  a  oead 
body,  when  they  olfered  it  so  sparingly  to  their  gods.  And 
though  the  Jews  might  possibly  learn  from  them  the  custom 
of  burning  the  bowels,  armour,  and  other  things  belonging 


to  their  kings,  in  piles  of  odoriferous  spices,  yet  they  very 

ly  for  particular  reasons,  burnt  the  dead  be  " 
themselves.      vVe  are  told,  indeed,  that  the  people  of  Jabesh- 


rarely,  and  only  for  particular  reasons,  burnt  the  dead  bodies 
themselves.  VVe  are  told,  indeed,  that  the  people  of  Jabesh- 
Gilead  took  the  bodies  of  i>uul  and  his  sons  (from  the  place 


does  not  properly  signify  to  bury.  The  note  of  Dc7.a  is  arcurale.  Ad 
runeraiiiluiii  nie,  wf-f  to  imi?.»Ta.  jui.  Vulg.  el  Eru!<ii:us,  ad  m6 
ticpfliisndiun,  iiiul6.  Nam  aliud  est  i^^mv  quuui  i»Ta;i»^iiv  :  ut  Latlola 
si'pelire  est  sepulcliro  coiidere  :  fuiierarc  vero  pollincire,  cadaver  sepul- 
chro  niandaiuluiii  priiiN  curare.  Ileza  ad  Malt.  xxvi.  12.  E*T«oia«-«.  est 
corpus  ad  I'uiius  cuinpoiiuro,  et  oniaiiieutla  sepulchralibus  ornare.  Wet- 
8ti.-iii,  In  loc. 

•  Ihibfbut  fonsneludo,  ut  cRrissiina  catijla,  rt  ((Un^  |iliirinii  fiercnl  cada- 
vera,  noil  seniel  laiituni  unaerciitur,  aed  sa-pius.  pluribusipie  cuntinuis 
i!iel)iis,  dijiiec  exsiccBlo,  ei  uL.sorpl"  vi  aroiuatiini  oiiini  rcliquo  hiiiunre, 
iinnio  tabefact;\  carne  arid'i,  et  ((ua.si  u<nea  rcddita,  diu  servari  possUit 
inlegraet  iminuniaa  pulrefuclinne.     I.ucas  Urugen.si.s,  in  Marc.  xvi. 

•  ^iSt/ttv-Ji — /.iipia.;.  I'havoriniis  explains  Knpia  by  calling  them 
isirsijioi    iiTuii,  sepulchral   bandages.     Kiipi»  a-ti/txiwn  r^  o-xoina  r» 

■  vraQia.      Etyinol. 

•  o  He  went  into  the  sepulchre,  and  then  lie  plainly  saw  the  linen  clothes, 
^3i'>,  alone,  or  without  the  body,  and  iii.fii>»  lying,  llial  is,  uinliHturbed, 
ami  nt  full  length,  as  when  the  boily  was  in  tlicni.  The  cap,  or  napkin,  also, 
which  had  been  upon  our  Lord's  head,  he  found  seuarale,  oral  a  little  din* 
tanco  from  the  open  colfln  ;  but  i»ritv».iyf>i»ov,  folded  up  in  wiealhs,  In 
the  form  of  a  caji,  as  il  had  been  upon  our  laird's  head.  Dr.  liensoa's 
Life  of  Clirisl,  p.  .''■'Jl.  Wrapped  together  In  a  place  by  ilsell  ;  an  if  the 
l»>dy  liad  miraculously  sllpt  out  of  it,  which  indeed  was  the  reui  fact.  Dr. 
Ward's  Uisaertaliuns,  p.  149.  Ilarwuod'f  IntroducUuo,  vol.  U.  pp.  135 
—137. 


Sect.  II.] 


PREPARATIONS  FOR  INTERMENT 


199 


where  the  Philistines  had  hung  tnem  up),  and  came  toJabesh, 
and  burnt  them  there  (1  Sam.  xxxi.  12.)  ;  but  by  this  time  th^ 
bodies  must  have  been  in  such  a  state,  that  they  were  not  fit 
to  be  embalmed ;  or,  perhaps,  they  were  apprehensive  that 
if  they  should  embalm  them,  and  so  bury  them,  the  people 
of  Bethshan  might  at  some  future  time  dig  them  up,  and  fix 
them  a  second  time  against  their  walls ;  and,  therefore,  the 

fteople  of  Jabesh  might  think  it  more  advisable  to  recede 
rom  their  common  practice,  and  for  greater  security  to  imi- 
tate the  heathen  in  this  particular.  Amos  also  speaks  of  the 
burninff  of  bodies  (vi.  10.)  ;  but  it  is  evident  from  the  words 
themselves,  and  from  the  context,  that  this  was  in  the  time 
of  a  great  pestilence,  not  only  when  there  were  few  to  bury 
the  dead,  but  when  it  was  unsafe  to  go  abroad  and  perform 
the  funeral  rites  by  interment,  in  which  case  the  burning  was 
certainly  the  best  expedient. 

In  some  cases  the  rites  of  sepulture  were  not  allowed ;  and 
to  this  it  has  been  thought  that  there  is  an  allusion  in  Job 
xxvii.  19.  It  was  the  opinion  of  the  pagan  Arabs  that,  upon 
the  death  of  any  person,  a  bird,  by  them  called  Manah,  issued 
from  the  brain,  which  haunted  the  sepulchre  of  the  deceased, 
uttering  a  lamentable  scream.  This  notion,  also,  the  late 
professor  Carlyle  thinks,  is  evidently  alluded  to  in  Job  xxi. 
32,,  where  the  venerable  patriarch,  speaking  of  the  fate  of 
the  wicked,  says: — 

He  shall  be  brought  to  the  grave, 

And  shall  watch  upon  tlie  raised  up  heap.i 

The  Jews  showed  a  great  regard  for  the  burial  of  their 
dead  ;  to  be  deprived  of  it  was  thought  to  be  one  of  the  great- 
est dishonours  that  could  be  done  to  any  man  :  and,  there- 
fore, in  Scripture  it  is  reckoned  one  of  the  calamities  that 
should  befall  the  wicked.  (Eccles.  vi.  3.)  In  all  nations 
there  was  generally  so  much  humanity  as  not  to  prevent  their 
enemies  from  burying  their  dead.  The  people  of  Gaza  al- 
lowed Samson's  relations  to  come  and  take  away  his  body 
(Judg.  xvi.  31.)  ;  though  one  would  have  thought  that  this 
last  slaughter  which  he  made  among  them  min£t  have  pro- 
voked them  to  some  acts  of  outrage  even  upon  his  dead  body. 
But  as  he  stood  alone  in  what  he  did,  none  of  the  Israelites 
joining  with  him  in  his  enterprises,  they  might  possibly  be 
apprehensive,  that,  if  they  denied  him  burial,  the  God  of 
Israel,  who  had  given  him  such  extraordinary  strength  in  his 
lifetime,  would  noUrfail  to  take  vengeance  on  them  in  that 
case,  and,  therefore,  they  were  desirous,  it  may  be,  to  get 
rid  of  his  body  (as  afterwards  they  were  of  the  ark),  and 
glad,  perhaps,  that  any  one  would  remove  such  a  formidable 
object  out  of  their  sight.  Jeremiah  prophesied  of  Jehoiakim, 
that  he  should  be  buried  with  the  burial  of  an  ass  (Jer.  xxii. 
19.),  meaning  that  he  should  not  be  buried  at  all,  but  be  cast 
forth  beyond  the  gates  of  Jerusalem,  exposed  to  the  air  and 
putrefaction  above  ground,  as  beasts  are,  which  is  more 
plainly  expressed  afterwards,  by  telling  us,  that  his  body 
should  he  cast  out  in  the  day  to  the  heat,  and  in  the  night  to  the 
frost.  (Jer.  xxxvi.  30.)  The  author  of  that  affecting  elegy, 
the  seventy-ninth  psalm,  when  enumerating  the  calamities 
which  had  befallen  his  unhap])y  countrymen,  particularly 
specifies  the  denial  of  the  rites  of  sepulture,  as  enhancing 
their  afflictions.  The  dead  bodies  of  thy  servants  have  they 
e;iven  to  be  meat  unto  the  fowls  of  heaven  ;  the  flesh  of  thy 
saints  unto  the  beasts  of  the  earth.  (Psal.  Ixxix.  2.) 

IV.  The  Rites  of  vSepulture  were  various  at  different 
times,  and  also  according  to  the  rank  or  station  of  the  de- 
ceased. 

1.  Before  the  awe  of  Moses,  the  funeral  took  place  a  few 
days  after  death.  (Gen.  xxiii.  19.  xxv.  9.  xxxv.  29.)  In  Egypt, 
a  longer  time  elapsed  before  the  last  offices  were  performed 
for  Jacob  and  Joseph,  on  account  of  the  time  w^hich  was 
requisite  for  the  Egyptian  process  of  embalming,  in  order 
that  the  corpse  might  be  preserved  for  a  long  time.  (Gen. 
xlix.  29.  1.  3,  24 — 26.)  As  it  is  probable  that  the  Israelites, 
when  in  Egypt,  had  been  accustomed  to  keep  their  dead  for 
a  considerable  period,  the  Mosaic  laws,  respecting  the  un- 
cleanness  which  arose  from  a  dead  body,  would  compel 
them  to  a  more  speedy  interment.  At  length,  after  the 
return  from  the  Babylonish  captivity,  it  became  customary 
for  the  Jews  to  bury  the  dead  on  the  same  day,  and  as  soon 
as  possible  after  the  vital  spark  was  extinguished.  Jahn 
affirms  (but  without  assigning  any  authority  for  his  asser- 
tion), that  the  Jews  did  this  in  imitation  of  the  Persians ;  but 
it  is  more  likely,  that  the  custom  arose  from  a  superstitious 
interpretation  of  Deut.  xxi.  22,  23,,  which  law  enjoined,  that 

»  Carljle's  Specimens  of  Arabian  Poetry,  p.  14.  2d  edit. 


the  body  of  one  who  had  been  hanged  on  a  tree  should  be 
taken  down  before  night.  The  burial  of  Tabitha  was  de- 
layed, on  account  of  the  disciples  sending  for  the  apostle 
Peter.  (Acts  ix.  37.)  ^ 

2.  Tlie  poorer  classes  were  carried  forth  to  interment  lyino- 
on  an  open  bier  or  couch,  as  is  the  universal  practice  in  the 
East  to  this  day,  not  screwed  into  a  coffin.  Iii  this  way  the 
son  of  the  widow  of  Nainwas  borne  to  his  grave  without  the 
city  :  and  it  should  seem  that  the  bearers  at  that  time  moved 
with  as  much  rapidity  as  they  do  at  the  present  time  among 
the  modern  Jews. 2  The  rich,  and  persons  of  rank,  were  car- 
ried forth  on  more  costly  biers.  Josephus  relates  that  the 
body  of  Herod  was  carried  on  a  golden  bier,  richly  embroi- 
dered ;'  and  we  may  presume,  that  the  bier  on  which  Abner 
was  carried  was  more  costly  than  those  used  for  ordinary  per- 
sons. (2  Sam.  iii.  31.) 

But  whatever  the  rank  of  the  parties  might  be,  the  superin- 
tendence and  charge  of  the  funeral  were  undertaken  by  the 
nearest  relations  and  friends  of  the  deceased.  Thus,  Abra- 
ham interred  Sarah  in  the  cave  of  Machpelah  (Gen.  xxiii.  19.); 
Isaac  and  Ishmael  buried  Abraham  (Gen.  xxv.  9.) ;  Esau 
and  Jacob  buried  Isaac  (Gen.  xxxv.  29.) ;  Moses  buried 
Aaron  on  Mount  Hor  (Num.  xx.  29.)  ;  the  old  prophet  laid 
the  disobedient  prophet  in  his  own  grave  (1  Kings  xiii.  30.)  ; 
Joseph  of  Arimathea  interred  Jesus  Christ  in  his  own  new 
tomb  (Matt,  xxvii,  59,  60.)  ;  and  the  disciples  of  John  the 
Baptist  performed  the  last  office  for  their  master.  The  sons 
and  numerous  relations  of  Herod  followed  his  funeral  pro- 
cession.^  Sometimes,  however,  servants  took  the  charge  of 
interring  their  masters,  as  in  the  case  of  Josiah  king  of  Judah. 
(2  Kings  xxiii.  30.)  Devout  men  carried  Stephen  to  his 
burial.  (Acts  viii.  X,*.)  The  funeral  obsequies  were  also  at- 
tended by  the  friends  of  the  deceased,  both  men  and  women, 
who  made  h.ud  lamentations  for  the  deceased,  and  some  of 
whom  were  hired  for  the  occasion.  David  and  a  large  body 
of  the  Israelites  mourned  before  Abner.  (2  Sam  iii.  31,  32.) 
Solomon  mentions  the  circumstance  of  mourners  going  about 
the  streets  (Eccles.  xii.  5.) ;  who,  most  probably,  were  per- 
sons hired  to  attend  the  funeral  obsequies,  to  wail  and  lament 
for  the  departed.^  From  Jer.  ix.  17.  it  appears,  that  women 
were  chiefly  employed  for  this  purpose ;  and  Jerome,  in  his 
commentary  on  that  passage,  says,  that  the  practice  was  con- 
tinued in  Judaea,  down  to  his  days,  or  the  latter  part  of  the 
fourth  century.^  In  Jer.  xlviii.  36.,  the  use  of  musical  instru- 
ments by  these  hired  mourners  is  distinctly  recognised  ;  and 
Ainos  (v.  17.)  alludes  to  such  mourning  as  a  well-known 
custom. 

In  the  time  of  Jesus  Christ  and  his  apostles,  the  funeral 
dirges  sung  by  these  hired  mourners  were  accompanied  by 
musical  instruments.  "  The  soft  and  plaintive  melody  of  the 
flute  was  employed  to  heighten  these  doleful  lamentations 
and  dirges.  Thus  we  read,  that  on  the  death  of  the  daugh- 
ter of  Jairus,  a  company  of  mourners,  with  players  on  the 
flute,  according  to  the  Jewish  custom,  attended  upon  this  sor- 
rowful occasion.  When  Jesus  entered  the  governor's  house, 
he  saw  the  minstrels  and  the'people  wailing  greatly.  (Matt, 
ix.  23.)  The  custom  of  employing  music  to  heighten  public 
and  private  grief  was  not  in  that  age  peculiar  to  the  Jews. 
We  find  the  flute  also  employed  at  the  funeral  solemnities  of 
the  Greeks  and*Romans,  in  their  lamentations  for  the  de- 
ceased, as  appears  from  numerous  testimonies  of  classic 
authors. "'5  The  same  custom  still  obtains  among  the  Moors  iu 
Africa,  the  Turks  in  Palestine,  and  the  modern  Greeks.  "At 
all  their  principal  entertainments,"  says  Dr.  Shaw,  "  and  to 
show  mirth  and  gladness  upon  other  occasions,  the  women 
welcome  the  arrival  of  each  guest,  by  squalling  out  for  seve- 

a  Not  to  detail  the  observations  of  the  earlier  travellers,  it  may  suffice  to 
adduce  three  instances  from  recent  and  intelligent  English  travellers.— 
At  Cairo,  says  Mr.  Came,  "we  met  an  Arab  funeral:  about  twenty  men, 
friends  of  the  deceased,  advanced  under  a  row  of  palm  trees,  singmg  in  a 
mournful  tone,  and  bearing  the  body.  The  corpse  was  that  of  a  woman 
neatly  dressed  in  while,  and  borne  on  an  oxjcji  bier,  with  a  small  awning  of 
red  silk  over  it."  (Letters  from  the  East,  p.  109.)  At  Baghtchisarai  in  the 
Crimea,  Dr.  Henderson  saw  a  corpse  conveyed  to  the  i)ublic  cemetery  of 
the  Christians  :  it  "  was  simply  wrapped  round  with  a  white  cloth,  laid  upon 
a  hicr  or  board,  and  borne  by  four  men  to  the  grave.  This  mode  of  per- 
forming  tlie  funeral  obsecpjies  obtains  equally  among  the  Jews,  Christians, 
and  Mohammedans  in  these  parts,  with  the  exception  of  the  European 
families,  who  naturally  conform  to  the  rite  of  their  ancestors."  (Biblical 
Kesearchcs,  p.  304.)  Mr.  Hartley  observed  a  similar  mode  of  interment 
in  Greece.  "The  corpse  is  always  exhibited  to  full  view:  displaced  upon 
a  bier  %vhich  is  borne  aloft  upon  the  shoulders,  and  is  dressed  in  the  best 
and  gayest  garments  possessed  by  the  deceased."  (Researches  in  Greece, 

P- 118.)  „„   ,  „ 

3  Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xvii.  c.  8.  §  3.    Bell.  Jud.  lib.  1.  c.  33.  §  9. 

«  Holden's  translation  of  Ecclesiastes,  p.  171. 

5  Dr.  Blayney's  translation  of  Jeremiah,  p.  270.  8vo.  edit. 

s  Harwood's  Introduction,  vol.  ii.  pp.  132. 134.,  where  various  pasagesof 
classic  authors  are  cited. 


200 


TREATMENT  OF  THE  DEAD. 


[Paut  IV.  Chap.  X. 


ral  times  tojrether,  Loo!  Loo!  Loo!'  At  their  funerals, 
also,  and  upon  other  melancholy  occasions,  they  repeat  the 
same  noise,  only  they  make  it  more  deep  and  hollow,  and 
end  each  period  with  some  ventriloquous  sighs.  The  aA*A»- 
^cvT«c  5rc?.X'u,  or  wailing  greatly  (as  our  version  expresses  it, 
NIark  V.  38.),  upon  the  death  of  Jairus's  daughter,  was,  pro- 
bably, performed  in  this  manner.  For  there  are  several 
women,  hired  to  act  upon  these  lugubrious  occasions,  who, 
like  the  prsrjicx,  or  mourning  women  of  old,  are  skilful  in 
lamentation  (Amos  v.  16.),  and  great  mistresses  of  these  me- 
lancholy expressions  :  and,  indeed,  they  perform  their  parts 
with  such  proper  sounds,  gestures,  and  commotions,  that  they 
rarely  fail  to  work  up  the  assembly  into  some  extraordinary 
pitch  of  thoughtfulncss  and  sorrow.  The  British  factory  has 
often  been  very  sensibly  touched  with  these  lamentations, 
■whenever  thev  were  made  in  the  neighbouring  houses."^ 
The  Rev.  William  Jowett,  during  his  travels  in  Palestine, 
arrived  at  the  town  of  Napolose,  which  stands  on  the  site  of 
the  ancient  Shechem,  immediately  after  the  death  of  the 
governor.  "  On  coming  within  sight  of  the  gate,"  he  relates, 
"  we  perceived  a  numerous  company  of  females,  who  were 
singing  in  a  kind  of  recitative,  far  from  melancholy,  and  beut- 
ing'time  with  their  hands.  On  our  reaching  the  gate,  it  was 
suddenly  exchanged  for  most  hideous  plaints  and  shrieks ; 
which,  with  the  "feeling  that  we  were  entering  a  city  at  no 
time  celebrated  for  its  liospitality,  struck  a  very  dismal  im- 
pression upon  my  mind.  They  accomnanied  us  a  few  paces, 
imt  it  soon  appeared  that  the  gate  was  tneir  station ;  to  which, 
having  received  nothing  from  us,  they  returned.  We  learned 
in  the  course  of  the  evening  that  these  were  only  a  small  de- 
tachment of  a  very  numerous  body  of  cunning  women,  who 
were  filling  the  whole  city  with  their  cries, — taking  up  a 
wailing  with  the  design,  as  of  old,  to  make  the  eyes  of  all 
the  iniiabitants  run  down  with  tears,  and  tluir  ei/elids  gutJi  out 
ivith  waters.  (Jer.  ix.  17,  18.)  For  this  good  service  they 
would,  the  next  morning,  wait  upon  the  government  and 

Jrincipal  persons,  to  receive  some  trifling  fee."-*     The  Uev. 
ohn  Hartley,  during  his  travels  in  Greece,  relates,  that,  one 
morning,  while  taking  a  solitary  walk  in  jKgina,  the  most 

K'aintive  accents  fell  upon  his  ear  which  he  had  ever  heard, 
e  followed  in  the  direction  from  which  the  sounds  pro- 
ceeded, and  they  conducted  him  to  the  newly-made  grave  of 
a  young  man,  cut  down  in  the  bloom  of  life,  over  which  a 
woman,  hired  for  the  occasion,  was  pouring  forth  lamentation 
and  inmirning  and  wo,  with  such  doleful  strains  and  feelings, 
as  could  scarcely  have  been  supposed  other  than  sincere.'' 

In  proportion  to  the  rank  of  tno  deceased,  and  the  estima- 
tion in  which  his  memory  was  held,  was  the  number  of  per- 
sons who  assisted  at  his  funeral  obsequies,  agreeably  to  the 
very  ancient  custom  of  the  East.  'I  nus,  at  the  funeral  of 
Jacob,  there  were  present  not  only  Joseph  and  the  rest  of  his 
family,  but  also  the  servants  and  elders  (or  superintendents 
of  Pharaoh's  house)  and  the  principal  Egy])tians,  who  attended 

»  Dr.  Shaw  conceives  this  word  to  bo  a  corruption  of  Hallelujali.  lie 
remarks,  \Ka>.v.,  a  wonl  of  llie  like  sound,  was  used  by  an  army  cither  tic- 
fore  ihey  C'lvc  tlie  onset,  or  wlicn  tlioy  liad  obtained  the  victory.  Tlie 
Turks  to  ttiis  day  call  out,  Allah!  Alluli !  Allah!  upon  the  like  occasion. 
Travfls,  vol.  i.  p.  435.  note*.  (8vo,  edit.) 

a  Ibid.  pp.  I'fj,  4.'36. 

»  Jowcrt'8  Christian  Researches  in  Syria,  p.  191.  The  mourning  of  itie 
MonteneerinH  bi.Mrs  a  great  resemblance  to  that  of  l!ic  oriental  nations. 
On  l!ie  d'.-alti  of  any  one,  nothing  i.s  heard  but  tears,  cf  ies,  and  j;roan.s  from 
the  whole  family  :  the  women,  in  particular,  beat  themselves  in  a  fright  fid 
manner,  pluck  off  their  hair  and  tear  their  face.s  nn<l  bosoms.  The  de- 
ceased person  is  laid  out  for  twenly-four  hours,  in  the  hou.se  where  he  ex- 
pires, with  the  face  uncovered;  and  is  perfmued  with  essences,  and 
strewed  with  (lowers  and  aromatic  leaves,  after  the  custom  of  the  ancirnls. 
The  lamentations  are  rmeweil  every  moment,  particularly  on  the  arrival 
of  a  fre.sh  person,  and  cspi'cially  of  the  priest,  .lust  before  the  defunil  i.s 
carrieilont  of  the  house,  his  relations  whisper  inliisear,  and  give  him  com- 
ini.s.sions  for  the  other  world,  to  their  denartid  relatives  or  friends.  After 
the.se  singular  addresses,  a  pall  or  winding  sbcet  Is  thrown  over  the  di-ad 
person,  whose  face  continues  uncovered,  and  he  Is  carried  to  church :  while 
on  the  road  thither,  women,  liirrd  for  the  piirposi',  chant  his  pral*>s,  aui'd 
thfir  tears.  I'revlously  to  ileposiling  him  in  tlicgromiil,  the  ne.rtof  kin  tic 
a  piece  of  cake  to  his  neck,  and  jiul  a  j)lece  of  money  in  bis  band,  after 
llic  manner  of  the  ancient  Oreeks.  During  this  ceremony,  as  ulsu  while 
they  are  carrying  bim  to  the  buriab^round,  a  variety  of  aposlmplies  Is 
addressed  I"  the  defimcl,  which  are  interrupted  oidy  by  nionrnl'iil  solis, 
asking  birii  why  he  rpiilted  them  1    Why  he  abandoned  his  I'nniily?    lie, 

whose  poor  wife  loved  blin  so  tenderly,  and  pii)viile  I  ■ '  iiig  for  bim 

to  cat  I    Whose  rhildren  obeynl  bim  with  such  re  bis  fri' nds 

•uccoureil  bim  whenever  be  wanted  as.si.stance  i  wb^' ;  Isucb  br'nu- 

tiful  (locks,  and  all  whose  undertakings  were  blessed  by  licaven  !  When 
Ihc  funeral  riles  nre  performed,  the  curate  and  mourners  return  home, 
and  partake  of  .-» \ir;<ni\  enterlaiinnrnt,  which  is  freoui  iitly  Interrupted  by 
iovial  (.oriL's,  inl'i  orivi  d  wilti  prayers  in  bon(>urof  tm-  il'i  eaxed  One  of 
the  guests  is  cojnriil  v-;oneclto  chant  a  "  lament"  impromptu,  wblrb  usually 
draws  tear*  from  tlip  whole  eouipany  ;  (be  performer  is  airompanied  by 
three  or  four  monochonl.s.  whose  harsh  discord  excites  boib  laughter  anil 
(•-arsat  the  .same  time.  \uy»jip.  Itisloriipic  ot  1' ilillfjue  ii  Montenegro,  par 
M.  le  Colonel  Vjalla  do  Soinnu'-res,  torn.  i.  pp.  275— LTS.    I'aris,  ISA).  Svo 

*  Hartley's  Researches  la  Greece,  pp.  11^  120 


to  do  honour  to  his  memory,  and  who  accompanied  the  pro- 
jpession  into  the  hmd  of  Canaan.  (Gen,  1.  7 — 10.)  At  the 
burial  of  Abner,  David  commanded  Joab  and  all  the  -people 
that  were  with  him  to  rend  their  garments,  and  gird  them- 
selves with  sackcloth,  and  to  moxirn  before  Abner,  or  make 
lamentations  in  honour  of  tliat  general;  and  the  kin^  himself 
followed  the  bier.  "(2  Sam.  iii.  31.)  JlllJuduh  ana  the  inha- 
bitants of  Jerusalem  did  honour  to  Hezekiah  at  his  death, 
(2  Chron.  xxxii.  33.)  Much  people  of  the  city  were  with  the 
widow  of  Nain,  who  was  following  her  only  son  to  the 
grave.  (Luke  vii.  12.)  Josephus  informs  us  that  Herod  was 
attended  to  Herodiuin  (a  journey  of  twenty-five  days),  where 
he  had  commanded  that  he  should  be  interred,  first,  by  hia 
sons  ancl  his  numerous  relations;  next,  by  his  guards,  and 
after  them  by  the  whole  army,  in  the  same  order  as  when 
they  marched  out  to  war;  and  that  these  were  followed  by 
five  hundred  of  his  domestics,  carrying  spices.^ 

Further,  it  was  usual  to  honour  tiie  memory  of  distin- 
guished individuals  by  a  funeral  oration  or  poem:  thus 
David  pronounced  a  eulog-y  over  the  grave  ot  Abner.  (JJ 
Sain.  iii.  33,  31.)  Upon  tlie  death  of  any  of  their  princes, 
who  had  distinguished  themselves  in  arms,  or  who,  by  any 
religious  actions,  or  by  the  promotion  of  civil  arts,  had 
merited  well  of  their  country,  they  used  to  make  lamentations 
or  mournful  songs  for  them:  from  an  expression  in  2  Chron. 
XXXV.  25.  Behold  they  arc  written  in  the  Lamentations,  we 
may  infer  that  they  had  certain  collections  of  this  kind  of 
composition.  The  author  of  the  book  of  Samuel  has  pre- 
served the  exquisitively  beautiful  and  affecting  elegy  which 
David  composed  on  occasion  of  the  death  of  Saul  and  Jona- 
than; but  we  have  no  remains  of  the  mournful  poem  which 
Jeremiah  made  upon  the  immattire  death  of  the  pious  king 
J osiah,  mentioned  in  the  last-cited  chapter:  which  loss  is 
the  more  to  be  deplored,  because  in  all  jirobability  it  was  a 
masterpiece  in  its  kind,  since  never  was  there  an  author 
more  aeeply  affected  with  his  subject,  or  more  capable  of 
carrying  it  through  all  the  tender  sentiments  of  sorrow  and 
compassion,  than  Jeremiah.  But  no  funeral  obsequies  were 
conferred  on  those  who  laid  violent  hands  on  themselves : 
hence  we  do  not  read  that  the  traitor-suicide  Judas  was  la- 
mented by  the  Jews  (Malt,  xxvii.  1.),  or  by  his  fellow-dis- 
ciples. (Acts  i.  16.) 

Among  many  ancient  nations,  a  custom  prevailed  of  throw- 
ing pieces  of  gold  and  silver,  together.with  other  precious 
articles,  into  the  sepulchres  of  those  who  were  buried  :  tliis 
custom  was  not  adopted  by  the  Jews.  But  in  Ezek.  xxxii. 
27.  there  is  an  allusion  to  the  custom  which  obtained  among 
almost  all  ancient  nations,  of  adornino-  the  sepulchres  of 
heroes  with  their  swords  and  other  military  trophies.  The 
prophet,  foretelling  the  fall  of  Menhcch  and  Tubal,  and  all 
iter  multitude,  says  that  they  are  gone  down  to  full  (or  the 
invisible  state)  with  their  locapons  of  war,-  and  ihiy  have 
laid  their  swords  under  their  heads.  In  ]\Iingrelia,  Sir  John 
Chardin  informs  us,  they  all  sleep  with  their  swords  under 
their  heads,  and  their  other  arms  by  their  sides ;  and  they 
bury  them  in  the  same  manner,  their  arms  bt-ing  placed  in 
the  same  position.  This  fact  greatly  illustrates  the  passage 
above  cited,  since,  according  to  Bochart  and  other  learned 
geographers,  Meshech  and  Tubal  mean  Mingrelia,  and  the 
circumjacent  country."' 

V.  The  most  simple  ToMns  or  monuments  of  old  consisted 
of  hillocks  of  earth,  heaped  up  over  the  grave,  of  whicli  we 
liave  numerous  examples  in  our  own  country.  In  the  East, 
where  persons  have  \)een  murdered,  hea|)S  of  stones  are 
raised  over  them  as  signs ,-  and  to  this  custom  the  prophet 
Ezekiel  appears  to  allude,  (xxxix.  l^.)' 

The  earliest  sepulchres,  in  all  probability,  were  caverns. 
Aljraham  purchased  tht^  cave  of  .Machpelali  of  Ephron  the 
Ilittilefora  family  l)urial-i)lace.  ((Jen.  xxiii.  8 — IH.)  Here 
were  interred  Abnihani  and  S.irah,  Isanc  and  Rcbekah;  here 
also  Jacob  buried  Leah,  and  charged  his  sons  to  deposit  his 
remains.  (Gen.  xlix.  2'J — 32.  1.  13.)  The  ancient  Jews 
seem  to  have  attached  much  imporlance  to  inlerineiit  in  the 
sei)ulclire  yf  their  fatlnus,  and  particularly  to  being  buried 
in  thi;  land  of  Canaan  ((Jen.  xlvii.  31).  Xlix.  29.  1.  2.').),  in 
which  alVection  for  the  country  of  their  ancestors  tin-)'  are 
not  surpassed    by   their  descendants,   the    modern    Jews. 

» .losophns,  Am.  .lud.  llli.  xvl.  c.  S.  ^  X 

•  ilarmrr's  Observations  on  .Scripture,  vol.  iii.  pp.  55,  56. 

■>. -thaw's  Travels,  vol.  i.  I'tcf  p.  xvhi.  ,    ,   .    , 

•  The  modi  111  Jews,  in  the  lime  of  Uabbi  ftiloinon  Jarcbl,  burled  Ihelr 
dead  iinni'^dialely,  ;in.l  put  wooden  props  In  the  tombs  bv  their  side,  by 
leaning  on  wliicb  they  would  be  enabled  to  arise  more  eiisdy  at  Ihe  resur- 
rection of  mankind  from  denlh.  Thev  fiiribcr  peisuaile  llienisi>lves  that 
all   the  bodies  of  Jews  dying  out  oI^I*alc6liiie,  wherever  they  may  bo 


Sect.  II.] 


TOMBS. 


201 


In  Psal.  xsrviii.  1.  cxliii.  7.  and  Prov.  i.  12.  the  grave  is 
represented  as  a  pit  or  cavern,  into  vi'hich  a  descent  is  neces- 
sary ;  containincr  donnitories  or  separate  cells  for  receiving 
the  dead  (Isa.  xiV.  15.  Ezek.  xxxii.  23.),  so  that  each  person 
may  be  said  to  lie  in  his  own  house  (Isa.  xiv.  18.),  and  to 
rest  in  his  own  bed.  (Isa.  Ivii.  2.)  These  sepulchral  vaults 
seem  to  have  been  excavated  for  the  jise  of  the  persons  of 
high  ranic  and  their  families.  The  vanity  of  Shebna,  who 
was  reproved  for  it  by  Isaiah,  is  set  forth  by  his  being  so 
studious  and  careful  to  have  his  sepulchre  on  high,  in  a  lofty 
vault,  and,  prol)a}ily,  in  an  elevated  situation,  that  it  might 
be  the  more  conspicuous.  (Isa.  xxii.  16.)'  Of  this  kind  of 
sepulchres  there  are  remains  still  extant  at  Jerusalem,  some 
orwhich  are  reported  to  be  the  sepulchres  of  the  kings  of 
Judah,2  and  others,  those  of  the  Judges.^ 

The  following  description  of  the  Tombs  of  the  Kings  (as 
they  are  termed),  which  are  situated  near  the  village  of 
Gournou,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  river  Nile,  will  illustrate 
the  nature  of  the  ancient  sepulchres,  which  Avere  excavated 
out  of  the  mountains.  "  Further  in  the  recesses  of  the 
mountains,  are  the  more  magnificent  Tombs  of  the  Kino-s ; 
each  consisting  of  many  chambers,  adorned  with  hierogly- 
phics. The  scene  brings  many  allusions  of  Scripture  to  the 
mind ;  such  as  Mark  v.  2,  3.  5.,  but  particularly  Isaiah  xxii. 
16.  Thou  hast  hewed  thee  out  a  sepulchre  here,  as  he  that  hew- 
eth  him  out  a  sepulchre  on  high,  and  that  gravefh  a  habitation 
for  himself  in  a  rock;  for  many  of  the  smaller  sepulchres 
are  excavated  nearly  halfway  up  the  mountain,  which  is 
very  high.  The  kings  have  their  magnificent  abodes  nearer 
the  foot  of  the  mountain ;  and  seem,  according  to  Isaiah  xiv. 
18.,  to  have  taken  a  pride  in  resting  as  magnificently  in  death 
as  they  had  done  in  life — Jill  the  kings  of  the  nations,  even  all 
of  them,  lie  in  glory  ;  every  one  in  his  own  house.  The  stuc- 
coed walls  Avithin  are  covered  with  hieroglyphics.  They 
cannot  be  better  described  than  in  the  words  of  Ezekiel,  viii. 
8 — 10.  Then  said  he  unto  me.  Son  of  man,  dig  now  in  the 
wall;  and  when  I  had  digged  in  the  wall,  behold  a  door.  And 
he  said  unto  me,  gain;  atid  behold  the  wicked  abominations 
that  they  do  here.  So  I  went  in,  and  saw :  and  behold  every 
form  of  creeping  things  and  abominable  beasts,  a72d  all  the 
idols  of  the  house  of  Israel  portrayed  upoii  thetvall  round  about. 
The  Israelites  were  but  copyists  :  the  master-sketches  are  to 
be  seen  in  all  the  ancient  temples  and  tombs  of  Egypt."'' 

Farther,  "  it  appears  from  the  Scriptures,  that  the  Jev/s 
had  family  sepul^chres  in  places  contiguous  to  their  own 
houses,  and  generally  in  their  gardens  :"  and  the  same  usage 
obtained  among  the  Romans  and  other  nations.-^  "  Such 
was  the  place  in  which  Lazarus  was  interred ;  and  such, 

interred,  will  perform  a  subterraneous  journey  into  Palestine,  in  order  that 
they  may  participate  in  the  resurrection.  S.  Jarchi  on  Gen.  xlvii. — Alber, 
Inst.  Ilerui.  Test.  torn.  i.  p.  319. 

1  Bp.  I.owth  on  Isaiah,  vol.  ii.  pp.  120.  170.  328,  329.  " 

a  "Above  half  a  mile  from  the  wall"  of  Jerusalem,  "are  the  Tombs  of 
the  Kings.  In  midst  of  a  hollow,  rocky  and  adorned  with  a  few  trees,  is  tlie 
entrance.  You  then  find  a  large  apartment,  above  fifty  feet  long,  at  the 
side  of  which  a  low  door  leads  into  a  .series  of  small  chambers,  hewn  out 
of  the  rock,  of  the  size  of  the  human  body.  There  are  six  or  seven  of 
tliese  low  and  dark  apartments,  in  which  are  hewn  recesses  of  different 
shapes  for  tlie  reception  of  bodies."  (Game's  Letters  from  the  East,  p. 
Ii9t.    Three  Weeks  in  Palestine,  p.  75.) 

»  The  "Sepulchres  of  the  Judges,  so  called,  are  situated  in  a  wild  spot, 
about  two  miles  from  the  city.  They  near  much  resemblance  to  those  of  the 
Kings,  but  are  not  so  handsome  or  spacious."  (Carne's  Letters  from  the 
East,  p.  294.)  "  No  shadow,  not  even  of  a  rock,  is  spread  over  these  long 
enduring  relics,  in  which  tradition  has  placed  the  ashes  of  the  rulers  of 
Israel.  They  consist  of  several  divisions,  each  containing  two  or  three 
apartments  cut  out  of  the  sohd  rock,  and  entablatures  are  carved  with 
some  skill  over  the  entrance.  No  richly  carved  relics,  or  fragments  of 
sarcophagi  remain  here,  as  in  the  tombs  of  the  kings ;  and  their  only  use 
is  to  shelter  the  wandering  passenger  or  the  benighted  traveller,  who  finds 
no  other  resting-place  in  the  wild  around."  (Carne's  Recollections  of  the 
East,  pp.  13.5,  136.) 

*  .lowctt's  Researches  in  the  Mediterranean,  p.  13.3. 

'  Thus,  the  Mausoleum  of  Augustus  was  erected  in  a  garden.  Dr.  Mtin- 
ter  has  collected  numerous  classical  inscriptions,  which  attest  the  applica- 
tion of  gardens  to  sepulchral  purposes.  (Symbols  ad  Interprctatiunem 
Evangelii  Johaimis  ex  Marmoribus,  pp.  29,  30.)  The  modern  inhabitants 
of  Mount  Lebanon  have  their  sepulchres  in  gardens.  The  Rev.  Mr.  Jowett, 
during  his  visit  to  Deir-el-Kamar,  the  capital  of  the  Druses  on  that  moun- 
tain, says,  that  while  walking  out  one  evening  a  few  fields'  distance  with 
the  son  of  his  host,  to  see  a  detached  garden  belonging  to  his  father,  the 
young  man  pointed  out  to  him  near  it  a  small  solid  stone  building,  very 
solemnly  adding,  "  Kabbar  Beily — the  sepulchre  of  our  family."  It  had 
neither  door  nor  window.  ''He  then"  (adds  Mr.  J.)  "directed  my  atten- 
tion to  a  considerable  number  of  similar  buildings  at  a  distance  ;  which  to 
the  eye  are  exactly  like  houses,  but  which  arc,  in  fact,  family  mansions  for 
the  dead.  They  have  a  most  melancholy  appearance,  which  made  him 
shudder  while  he  explained  their  use.". .  .."Perhaps  this  custom,  which 
prevails  particularly  at  Deir-el-Kamar,  and  in  the  lonely  neighbouring  parts 
of  the  mountain,  may  have  been  of  great  antiquity,  and  may  serve  to  ex- 
plain some  Scripture  phrases.  The  prophet  Samuel  was  buried  in  his 
hoJise  at  Ramah  (1  Sam.  xxv.  1.);  it  could  harcUy  be  in  his  dwelling-house. 
Joab  was  buried  in  his  own  house  in  the  loildemess.  (1  Kings  ii.  34.)" 
Jowett's  Christian  Researches  in  Palestine,  p.  280. 

.   Vol.  II.  2C 


also,  was  the  grave  in  which  the  body  of  our  Lord  was  de- 
posited. .Toseph  of  Arimathea,  a  person  of  distinction,  by 
St.  Mark  called  an  honourable  counsellor"  (Mark  xv.  43.), 
or  member  of  the  sanhedrin,  "mindful  of  his  mortality,  had 
hewn  out  of  the  rock  in  his  garden  a  sepulchre,  in  which  he 
intended  his  own  remains  should  be  reposited.  Now  in  the 
place  lokere  he  was  crucified  there  was  a  garden,  and  in  the 
garden  a  new  sepulchre,  tvherein  was  no  man  yet  laid.  When 
Joseph,  therefore,  had  taken  the  body  of  Jesus,  and  wrapped 
it  in  a  clean  linen  cloth,  he  carried  it  into  the  tomb  which  he 
had  lately  hollowed  out  of  the  rock ;  and  rolled  a  great  stone 
to  the  low  door  of  the  sepulchre,  eflectually  to  block  up  the 
entrance,  and  secure  the  sacred  corpse  of  the  deceased,  both 
from  the  indignities  of  his  foes,  and  the  officiousness  of  his 
friends.  Sometimes,  also,  they  buried  their  dead  in  fields, 
over  whom  the  opulent  and  families  of  distinction  raisfd 
superb  and  ostentatious  monuments,  on  which  they  lavished 
great  splendour  and  magnificence,  and  which  they  so  reli- 
giously maintained  from  time  to  time  in  their  pristine  beauty 
and  glory. "s  To  this  custom  our  Saviour  alludes  in  the  fol- 
lowing apt  comparison  :  Wo  unto  you,  scribes  and  Pharisees^ 
hypocrites  !  for  ye  are  like  unto  whited  sepulchres,  which  in- 
deed appear  beautiful  outward,  but  are  within  full  of  dead 
men''s  bones,  and  of  all  uncleanness.  Even  so  ye  also  outvmrdly 
appear  righteous  to  men,  but  within,  ye  are  full  of  hypocrisy 
and  iniquity.  (Matt,  xxiii.  27.)'  Biit  though  the  sepulchres 
of  the  rich  were  thus  beautifietn,  the  graves  of  the  poor  were 
oftentimes  so  neglected,  that  if  the  stones  by  which  they 
were  marked  happened  to  fall,  they  were  not  set  up  again, 
by  which  means  the  graves  themselves  did  not  appear ;  they 
were  olS^kil,  that  is,  not  obvious  to  the  sight,  so  that  men 
might  tread  on  them  inadvertently.  (Luke  xi.  44.)^  From 
Jer.  xxvi.  23.  we  may  collect  that  the  populace  of  the  lowest 
order  (Heb.  sons  or  children  of  the  people)  were  buried  in  a 
public  cemetery,  having  no  distinct  sepulchre  to  themselves, 
as  all  persons  of  rank  and  character,  and  especially  of  so 
honourable  an  order  as  that  of  the  prophet,'^,  used  to  have.9 

After  the  deceased  had  been  committed  to  the  tomb,  it  was 
customary  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  to  put  the  tecrs 
shed  by  the  surviving  relatives  and  friends  into  lachrymatory 
urns,  and  place  these  on  the  sepulchres,  as  a  memorial  of 
their  distress  and  affection.  From  Psal.  Ivi.  8.  it  should  seem 
that  this  custom  was  still  more  anciently  in  use  among  the 
eastern  nations,  especially  the  Hebrews.  These  vessels  were 
of  different  materials,  ana  were  moulded  into  different  forms. 
Some  were  of  glass,  and  some  were  of  earthenware,'"  being 
diminutive  in  size  and  of  delicate  workmanship. 

In  order  to  do  honour  to  the  memory  of  the  dead,  their 
sepulchres  were  sometimes   distinguished   by  monuments. 

6  Harwood's  Introduction,  vol.  ii.  pp.  139.  141,  142.  The  sepulchres, 
described  and  delineated  by  Mr.  Emerson,  completely  elucidate  the  form 
of  the  Jewish  tombs.    Letters  from  the  .^gcan,  vol.  ii.  pp.  55 — 59. 

1  The  foUowinn  passage  from  Dr.  Shaw's  Travels  affords  a  striking  illustra- 
tion of  Matt,  xxiii.  27.  "If  we  e.xccpt  a  few  persons,  who  are  buried  within 
the  precincts  of  the  sanctuaries  of  their  Rlarabutts,  the  rest  are  carried 
out  at  a  smaller  distance  from  their  cities  and  villages,  wlicre  a  great  extent 
of  ground  is  allotted  for  the  purpose.  Each  family  has  a  particular  part 
of  it  wallec)  in,  like  a  garden,  where  the  bones  of  their  ancestors  have 
remained  for  many  generations.  For  in  these  enclosures  the  graves  are 
all  distinct  and  separated,  each  of  them  having  a  stone  placed  upright  both 
at  the  head  and  feet,  inscribed  with  the  name  and  title  of  the  deceased; 
while  the  intermediate  space  is  either  planted  with  flowers,  bordered  round 
with  stones,  or  paved  with  tiles.  The  graves  of  the  principal  citizens  are 
further  distinguished,  by  having  cupolas  or  vaulted  chambers  of  three,  four 
or  more  square  yards  built  over  them:  and  as  these  very  frequently  lie 
open,  and  occasionally  shelter  us  from  the  inclemency  of  the  weather,  the 
demoniac  (Mark  v.  5.)  might  with  propriety  enough  have  had  his  dwelling 
among  the  tombs  :  and  others  are  said  (Isa.  l.fv.  4.)  to  remain  among  the 
graves  a7id  to  lodge  in  the  monuments  {mountains).  And  as  all  these  dif- 
ferent sorts  of  tombs  and  sepulchres,  with  the  very  walls  likewise  of  their 
respective  cupolas  and  enclosures,  are  constantly  kept  clean,  whitewashed, 
and  beautified,  they  continue  to  illustrate  those  expressions  of  our  Saviour 
where  he  mentions  the  garnishing  of  sepulchres,  and  compares  the  scribes, 
Pharisees,  and  hypocrites  to  whited  sepulchres,  which  indeed  appear  beau- 
tiful outward,  but  within  were  full  of  dead  men's  bones  and  all  unclean- 
ness."   Shaw's  Travels,  vol.  i.  pp.  395,  396. 

8  Macknight's  Harmony,  sect.  87.  vol.  ii.  p.  473. 

»  Dr.  Blanev's  Jeremiah,  p.  349. 

'»  Dr.  Chandler's  Life  of  David,  vol.  i.  p.  106.  Among  the  valuable  re- 
mains of  ancient  art  collected  by  Dr.  E.  D.  Clarke  among  the  ruins  of 
Sicyon,  in  the  Peloponnesus,  were  lachrymatories  of  more  ancient  form 
and  materials  than  any  thing  he  had  ever  before  observed  of  the  same 
kind;  "the  lachrymatory  phials,  in  which  the  Sicyonians  treasured  up 
their  tears,  deserve  rather  the  name  of  bottles ;  they  are  nine  inches  long, 
two  inches  in  diameter,  and  contains  as  much  fluid  as  would  fill  a  phial  of 
three  ounces;  consisting  of  the  coarsest  materials,  a  heavy  blue  clay  or 
marie. . . .  Sometimes  the  vessels  found  in  ancient  sepulchres  are  of  sue 
diminutive  size,  tliat  they  are  only  capable  of  holding  a  few  drops  of  fluid 
in  these  instances  there  seems  "to  be  no  other  use  for  which  they  were 
fitted.  Small  lachrymal  phials  of  glass  have  been  found  in  the  tombs  of  the 
Romans  in  Great  Britain;  and  the  evident  allusion  to  this  practice  in  t)ic 
Sacred  Scriptures— Pm<  thoscmy  tears  into  tliy  bottle  (Psal.  lyi.  8.) — seems 
decisive  as  to  the  purpose  for  which  these  vessels  were  designed."  Tra- 
vels in  various  Countries  of  Europe,  &c.  vol.  vi.  pp.  541,  542. 


202 


MOURNING  FOR  THE  DEAD 


[Paht  IV.  Chap.  IX. 


The  custom  of  erecting  these  seems  to  have  obtained  even 
from  the  patriarchal  age.  Thus,  Jacob  erected  a  pillar  upon 
the  grave  of  his  beloved  wife  Rachel.  (Gen.  xxxv.  20.)  1  his 
is  the  earliest  monument  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures  :  it  is 
evident  from  that  passage  that  it  was  standing  when  Moses 
wrote  ;  and  its  site  seems  to  have  been  known  in  the  time  of 
Samuel  and  Saul.  (1  Sam.x.2.)  The  monument  now  shown 
in  the  vicinity  of  Bethlehem,  as  Rachel's  tomb,  is  a  modern 
and  Turkish  structure,  which  »*«//,  perhaps,  be  the  true  place 
of  her  interment.'  In  later  times,  inscriptions  appear  to  have 
been  placed  on  tombstones,  denoting  the  persons  who  were 
there  interred.  Such  was  the  title  or  inscription  discovered 
by  Josiah,  which  proved  to  be  the  burial-place  of  the  prophet 
who  was  sent  from  Judah  to  denounce  the  divine  judgments 
at^inst  the  altar  which  Jeroboam  had  erected  more  than  three 
centuries  before.  Simon  Maccabaeus  built  a  splendid  monu- 
ment at  Modin  in  honour  of  his  father  and  his  brethren. 
(1  Mace.  xiii.  -25 — 30.)  In  the  time  of  Jesus  Christ,  it  appears 
that  the  hypocritical  scribes  and  Pharisees  repaired  and 
adorned  the  tombs  of  the  prophets  whom  their  ancestors  had 
murdered  for  their  faithfulness,  under  a  sanctimonious  ap- 
pearance of  respect  for  their  memory.  The  ancient  Arabs 
raised  a  heap  of  stones  over  the  body  of  the  dead  (Job  xxi. 
3-2.  marginal  rendering),  which  was  guarded.  In  tlie  year 
1820,  >fr.  Rae  Wilson  observed  on  the  plain  of  Zebulun,  not 
far  from  Cana,  piles  of  stones  covering  over  or  marking  the 
place  of  graves.  Similar  cairns,  also  the  remains  of  remote 
antiquity,  exist  both  in  England  and  in  Scotland.^  Among 
the  Hebrews,  great  heaps  of  stones  were  raised  over  those 
whose  death  was  either  mfamous,  or  attended  with  some  very 
remarkable  circumstances.  Such  were  the  heaps  raised  over 
the  o-rave  of  Achan  (Josh.  vii.  26.),  over  that  of  the  km g  of 
Ai  (viii.29.),  and  over  that  of  Absalom  (2  Sam.  xviii.  17.) ; 
all  which  were  sepulchral  monuments  to  perpetuate  the  place 
of  their  interment. 

VI.  A  Funeral  Feast  commonly  succeeded  the  Jewish 
burials.  Thus,  after  Abner's  funeral  was  solemnized,  the 
people  came  to  David  to  eat  meat  with  him,  thou<rh  they 
could  not  persuade  him  to  do  so.  (2  Sam.  iii.  35.)  He  was 
the  chief  mourner,  and  probably  had  invited  them  to  tins 
banquet.  Of  this  Jeremiah  speaks  (xvi.  7.^,  where  he  calls 
it  the  cup  of  comulaliun,  which  they  drank  fur  their  Jather  or 
their  mulher ;  and  accordingly  the  place  where  this  funeral 
entertainment  was  made,  is  called  in  the  next  verse  the 
house  of  feasting.  Rosea  calls  it  the  bread  (f  mourners. 
(IIos.  ix.  4.)  Funeral  banquets  are  still  in  use  among  the 
oriental  Christians."  .  ,     ,      -, 

The  usual  tokens  of  mourning  by  which  the  Jews  ex- 
pressed their  grief  and  concern  for  the  death  of  their  friends 
and  relations,  were  by  rending  their  garments,  and  putting 
on  sackcloth  (Gen.  xxxvii.  31.),  sprinkling  dust  on  their 
heads,  wearing  of  mourning  apparel  ^2  Sam.  xiv.  2.),  and 
covering  the  face  and  the  head.  (2  Sam.  xix.  4.)  They 
were  accustomed  also  in  times  of  public  mourning  to  go  up 
to  the  roofs  or  platforms  of  their  houses,  there  to  bewail 
their  misfortunes,  which  practice  is  mentioned  in  Isaiah  xv. 
3.  and  xxii.  1.  Anciently,  there  was  a  peculiar  space  of 
time  allotted  for  lamenting  the  deceased,  which  they  called 

«  M:ninflrell's  .loiirnev  from  AIcjipo,  p.  117.  "It  has  all  the  appearance 
of  on«  of  those  tombs  often  erected  to  the  memory  of  a  Turkish  .Saiilon." 
Game's  l.ell<rs,  p.  '^7.  ,  .,  ■    ,     ,-.• 

»  Rae  IVilsi.n'K  Travels  in  the  Holy  I.and,  vol  ll.  p.  5.  third  edition. 

•  Uaruier'a  Observations,  vol.  iii.  p.  19. 


the  days  of  mourning.  (Gen.  xxvii.  41.  and  1.  4.)  Thus 
the  Egyptians,  who  had  a  great  regard  for  the  patriarch 
Jacob,  lamented  his  death  threescore  and  ten  days.  (Gen. 
1.  3.)  The  Israelites  wept  for  Moses  in  the  plains  of  Moab 
thiify  duys.  (l)eut.  xxxiv.  8.)  Afterw^ards,  among  the  Jews, 
the  funeral  mourning  was  generally  confined  to  seven  days. 
Hence,  besides  the  mourning  for  Jacob  in  Egypt,  Joseph 
and  his  company  set  apart  seven  days  to  mourn  for  his  father, 
when  they  approached  the  Jordan  with  his  corpse.  (Gen. 
1.  10.)  In  the  time  of  Christ,  it  was  customary  for  the 
nearest  relative  to  visit  the  grave  of  the  deceased  and  to 
weep  there.  The  Jews,  who  had  come  to  condole  with 
Mary  on  the  death  of  her  brother  Lazarus,  on  seeing  her  go  - 
out  of  the  liouse,  concluded  that  she  was  going  to  the  grave 
to  iceep  there.  (John  xi.  31.)  The  Syrian  women  are  still 
accustomed,  either  alone''  or  accompanied  by  some  attendants, 
to  visit  the  tombs  of  their  relatives,  and  mourn  their  loss : 
and  the  same  usage  obtains  almost  throughout  the  East, 
among  Jews  as  well  as  Christians  and  Mohammedans;  and 
in  Persia,  Egypt,*  Greece,  Dalmatia,  Bulgaria,  Croatia, 
Servia,  Wallacnia,  and  Illyria. 

It  does  not  appear  that  there  was  any  general  mourning 
for  Saul  and  his  sons,  who  died  in  battle:  but  the  national 
troubles,  which  followed  upon  his  death,  might  have  pre- 
vented it.  David,  indeed,  and  his  men,  on  hearing  the  news 
«f  their  death,  mourned  and  wept  for  them  until  even. 
(2  Sam.  i.  12.)  And  the  men  of  Jabesh-Ciilead  fasted  for 
them  seven  days  (1  Sam.  xxxi.  13.),  which  must  not  be  un- 
derstood in  a  strict  sense,  as  if  they  took  no  food  during  that 
time,  but  that  they  lived  very  abstemiously,  ate  little,  and 
that  seldom,  using  a  low  and  spare  diet,  and  drinking  water 
only. 

How  long  widows  mourned  for  their  husbands  is  nowhere 
told  us  in  Scripture.  It  is  recorded,  indeed,  of  Bathsheba, 
that  when  she  heard  that  (jriah  her  husband  was  dead,  she 
mourned  fn-  him  (2  Sam.  xi.  26.)  ;  but  this  could  neither  be 
long  nor  very  sincere. 

<  "A  female,  wUli  part  of  her  robe  dra\vii  over  her  head,  or  veiled,  was 
seen  seated  by  the  tombs  of  her  relatives  on  the  summit  of  Mount  Moriah, 
or  along  its  sides,  just  beneath  the  walls  of  Jerusalem."  Carne's  Letters, 
p.  Sli. 

«  "  We  arrived"  (at  one  of  the  villages  of  Elephantlna,  an  Island  In  the 
Nile)  "just  in  time  to  witness  a  coronagh,  or  wailing  for  the  ilead.  A  poor 
woman  of  the  village  had  that  morning  received  the  mulancholy  intelligence 
dial  her  Imsliaml  had  been  drowned  in  the  Nile.  He  hud  been  interred 
witliout  her  tmowledge,  near  the  spot  where  llie  body  was  found  ;  and  she, 
along  with  several  of  her  female  friends,  was  paying  the  unavailing  tribute 
of  lamentation  to  his  departed  sliade."  (Kichiirdson's  Travels,  vol.  i.  p. 
:i3o.)  "One  morning,"  says  the  same  intelligent  traveller,  "when  standing 
among  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  Syene,  on  the  rocky  promontory  above  the 
ferry,  I  saw  a  parly  of  thirteen  females  cross  the  Mle  to  perforin  the  lugu- 
brious dirge  at  the  mansions  of  the  dead.  They  set  up  a  piteous  wall'on 
entering  the  boat,  after  which  they  all  cowered  up  together,  wrapt  in  their 
dirty  robes  of  bcteen.  On  landing  they  wound  their  way  slowly  and 
silently  along  the  outside  of  the  walls  of  the  ancient  town,  till  they  arrived 
at  their  place  of  destination,  when  some  of  them  placed  a  sprig  of  flowers 
on  the  grave,  and  sat  down  silently  beside  it;  others  cast  them.selves  on 
the  ground,  and  threw  dust  over  their  lieads,  uttering  mournful  lamenta- 
tions, which  they  continued  to  repeat  at  intervals,  during  the  short  time 
that  1  witnessed  their  procedure."  (Ibid.  vol.  i.  p.  3(X).)  Mr.  Jowctt  wit- 
nor^sed  a  similar  scene  at  Manfeloul  a  more  remote  town  of  Upper  Kgypt. 
Christian  Researches  in  the  Mediterranean,  p  162.  Albcr,  Inst,  llerm. 
Vet.  Test,  toiii.  i.  pp.  311—319.  Calmct,  Uisserlation  sur  les  Fiinernillea 
des  Uibreux.  Di.ssert.  tom.  i.  pp.  290— SOU.  I'areau,  Antlquitas  Uebraiea, 
pp.  472—177.  Jahn,  Archa'ol  liibl.  55  2U1— 211.  Siosch,  Compendium 
Archajologia?  a-^conomica;  Novi  Testamenti.  pp  121— 1.3-,  Brnnings,  Com- 
prndium  Anlicpiilatum  fJrrcarum,  pp.  3f*>— ^(Xl.  ;  and  his  Compendium 
Aiitiipiitaliim  Hebi;eaniiii,  pp.  2;'i7— 264.  The  subject  of  Hebrew  sepul- 
chres is  very  fully  di.scussed  by  Nicolai,  in  his  treatise  Dp  Sejiulchris  Ile- 
l)ra;orum  (Lug.  Hiit.  170*;),  which  is  ilUi.-itraled  with  si  vi  r.il  curious  plates 
some  of  which,  however,  ilumsl  be  confessed,  are  rather  foucifuL 


ON  THE 


ANALYSIS    OF    SCRIPTURE. 


PART  y. 

ANALYSIS    OF   THE    OLD    TESTAMENT. 


CHAPTER  I. 

ON    THE    PENTATEUCH,    OR    FIVE    BOOKS    OF    MOSES. 

SECTION  L 

GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS   ON  THE   PENTATEUCH. 
I.  Title. — n.  Argument  of  the  Pentatetich. — HI.  J^Totice  of  other  Writings  ascribed  to  Moses, 


I.  The  Pentateuch,  1)y  which  title  the  five  hooks  of 
Moses  are  collectively  designated,  is  a  word  of  Greek  origi- 
nal,' which  literally  signifies  five  hooks,  or  volumes  ;  hy  the 
Jews  it  is  frequently  termed  mm  (torah)  the  Law,  or  the  Law 
OF  Moses,  because  it  contains  the  ecclesiastical  and  political 
ordinances  issued  by  God  to  the  Israelites.  Tlie  Pentateuch 
forms,  to  this  day,  but  one  roll  or  volume  in  the  Jewish 
manuscripts,  being  divided  only  into  paraschioth  and  siderim, 
or  larger  and  smaller  sections.^  This  collective  designation 
of  the  books  of  Genesis,  Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers,  and 
Deuteronomy,  is  of  very  considerable  antiquity,  though  we 
have  no  certain  information  Vv'hen  it  was  first  introduced. ^ 
As,  however,  the  names  of  these  books  are  evidently  derived 
from  the  Greek,  and  as  the  five  books  of  Moses  are  expressly 
mentioned  by  Josephus,^  who  wrote  only  a  few  years  after 
our  Saviour's  ascension,  we  have  every  reason  to  believe 
that  the  appellation  of  Pentateuch  was  prefixed  to  the  Sep- 
tuagint  version  by  the  Alexandrian  translators. 

II.  This  division  of  the  sacred  volume  comprises  an  ac- 
count of  the  creation  of  the  world,  and  of  the  fall  of  man,  the 
outlines  of  the  early  annals  of  the  world,  and  a  full  recital  of 
the  Jewish  law,  and  of  the  events  which  happened  to  the  Isra- 
elites from  their  becoming  a  distinct  people  to  their  departure 
out  of  Egypt,  and  their  arrival  on  the  confines  of  the  land 
of  Canaan, — a  period  of  two  thousand  five  hundred  and 
fifteen  years  according  to  the  vulgar  computation,  or  of  three 
thousand  seven  hundred  and  sixty-five  years,  according  to 
the  computation  established  by  Dr.  Hales.  "  It  is  a  wide 
description  gradually  contracted ;  an  account  of  one  nation, 
preceded  by  a  general  sketch  of  the  first  State  of  mankind. 
The  books  are  written  in  pure  Hebrew,  with  an  admirable 
diversity  of  style,  always  well  adapted  to  the  subject,  yet 
characterized  with  the  stamp  of  the  same  author ;  they  are 
all  evidently  parts  of  the  same  work,  and  mutually  strength- 
en and  illustrate  each  other.  They  blend  revelation  and 
history  in  one  point  of  view ;  furnish  laws,  and  describe 
their  execution ;  exhibit  prophecies,  and  relate  their  accom- 
plishment. "^ 

III.  Besides  the  Pentateuch  the  Jews  ascribe  to  Moses 
ten  psalms,  from  psalm  xc.  to  xcix.  inclusive.  There  is, 
however,  no  solid  evidence  to  prove  that  these  psalms  were 
composed  by  him ;  for  the  title  of  the  ninetieth  psalm 
("  a  prayer  of  Moses  the  man  of  God''''),  which,  they  pretend, 

I  IlivTitTsuxof,  from  5r£i;r£,  five,  and  tsu^oj,  a  book  or  volume.  Bible  de 
Vence,  torn.  i.  p.  310. 

a  For  an  account  of  these  divisions,  see  Vol.  I.  p.  213. 

»  The  author  of  the  treatise  Be  Mwido,  which  is  commonly  ascribed  to 
Philo  Judceus,  was  of  opinion  that  Moses  himself  divided  his  work  into  five 
books ;  but  he  assigned  no  authority  for  such  opinion.  Jesus  Christ  and 
his  apostles  never  cite  the  five  books  of  Moses  under  any  other  name  than 
that  o( Moses,  or  the  Laie  of  Moses;  as  the  Jews  ordinarily  do  to  this  day. 
Calmet  conjectures  that  Ezra  divided  the  Pentateuch  into  five  books.  Dis- 
sertations, torn.  ii.  p.  23. 

*  In  his  Jewish  Antiquities,  Josephus  terms  the  Pentateuch  the  "Holy 
Books  of  Moses"  (lib.  x.  c.  iv.  §2.) ;  and  in  his  Treatise  against  Apion  (hb. 
i.  c.  8.),  when  enumerating  the  sacred  writings  of  the  Jews,  he  says  that 
"five  of  them  belong  to  Moses." — Some  critics  have  imagined  that  this  dis- 
tinction of  the  Pentateuch  into  five  separate  books  was  known  to  and  recog- 
nised by  St.  Paul  (1  Cor.  xiv.  19.),  by  the  term^^i-e  words ;  but  the  context 
of  that  passage  does  not  authorize  such  a  conjecture. 

»  Bp.  Gray's  Key  to  the  Old  Testament,  p.  76.  5th  edit. 


must  be  applied  also  to  the  nine  following  psalms,  is  not 
sufficient.  The  greater  part  of  the  titles  of  the  psalms  is 
not  original,  nor,  indeed,  very  ancient;  and  some  of  them 
are  evidently  misplaced  :  we  find  also  in  these  psalms  the 
names  of  persons,  and  other  marks,  which  by  no  means 
agree  with  Moses. 

Further,  some  of  the  ancient  fathers  have  thought  that 
Moses  was  the  author  of  the  book  of  Job :  Origen,  in  his 
commentary  on  Job,  pretends  that  Moses  translated  it  out  of 
Syriac  into  Hebrew^ ;  but  this  opinion  is  rejected  both  by 
Jews  and  Christians.  Besides,  if  this  book  had  really  been 
composed  by  Moses,  is  it  likely  that  the  Jews  would  have 
separated  it  from  the  Pentateuch  1^ 

There  are  likewise  ascribed  to  Moses  several  apocryphal 
books ;  as  an  Apocalypse,  or  Little  Genesis,  the  Ast-ension  of 
Moses,  the  Assumption  of  Moses,  the  Testament  of  Moses, 
and  the  Mysterious  Books  of  Moses.  The  principal  part  of  the 
"  Little  Genesis"  was  transferred  by  Cedrenus  into  his  chro- 
nological histor}' :'  it  was  extant  in  Hebrew  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury of  the  Christian  oera,  for  we  find  it  cited  by  Jerome.  From 
the  apocalypse  just  noticed,  it  has  been  pretended  that  Saint 
Paul  copied  Gal.  v.  6.  and  vi.  15. ;  and  it  has  been  imagined 
that  what  is  said  in  the  Epistle  of  Jude  (verse  9.),  respecting 
the  archangel  Michael's  contention  with  Satan  for  the  body 
of  Moses,  was  taken  from  the  apocryphal  Ascension  of  Mo- 
ses. Such  was  the  opinion  of  Origen,  who,  though  he  cites 
it  in  another  place,  alludes  to  it  as  not  being  in  the  canon.s 
All  these  pretended  Mosaic  writings,  however,  are  confess- 
edly spurious,  and  are  supposed  to  have  been  fabricated  in 
the  early  ages  of  Christianity. 

*^*  On  the  difference  between  the  Hebrew  and  Samaritan 
Pentateuchs,  or,  rather,  editions  of  the  Pentateuch,  see  Vo- 
lume I.  p.  204. ;  for  a  view  of  the  Genuineness  and  Credi- 
bility of  the  Pentateuch,  see  Volume  I.  pp.  32 — 38. ;  and 
for  a  List  of  the  principal  Commentators  on  this  portion  ot 
the  Sacred  Scriptures,  see  Volume  II.  Bibliographical  Ap- 
pendix, Part  II.  Chap.  V.  Sect.  III.  §  4. 


SECTION  II. 

on  the  book  of  genesis. 

I.  Title. — XL  Author   and   date. — HI.    General   argument. — 

IV.   Scope. — V.   Types   of  the   Messiah. — VI.   Synopsis 

VII.  JJteral  sense  of  the  first  three  chapters  of  Genesis  vin- 
dicated. 

1.  The  first  book  of  the  Pentateuch,  which  is  called  Ge- 
nesis (rENE2l2),  derives  its  appellation  from  the  title  it 

»  The  book  of  Job  was  composed  many  ages  before  the  time  of  Mosea 
See  chap.  iii.  sect.  i.  infra,  of  this  volume. 

1  Cedrenus,  enumerating  the  authorities  consulted  by  him,  says,  that  he 
"  collected  not  a  few  things  from  the  Little  Genesis,  i^ro  th5  At^rrm 
nvETewj.  Historia  Compendiaria,  torn.  i.  p.  2.  edit.  Venet.  1729.  Cedrenus 
frequently  cites  this  apocryphal  book  in  the  course  of  his  work. 
"  See  the  passages  of  Origen  at  length  in  Dr.  Lardner's  works,  vol.  ii.  pp 
-512.  8vo.  or  vol.  i.  pp.Ml— 557.  Ito. 

203 


483—512. 


204 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  V.  Chap.  I 


bears  in  the  Greek  Septuagint  Version,  BIBA02  rENESEnS ; 
wliich  signifies  the  Book  of  tlie  Generation  or  Production, 
because  it  commences  with  the  liistory  ot"  the  generation  or 

groduction  of  all  things.  The  Jews  name  the  uooks  of  the 
•Id  Testament  either  from  their  authors,  or  the  principal 
subjects  treated  in  them, — as  the  five  books  of  Moses,  and 
the  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah, — or  from  the  first  Hebrew 
word  with  which  they  begin  :  ilms,  the  book  of  Genesis  is 
in  Hebrew  called  nTN-a  bcreshith,  that  is,  in  the  beginning, 
from  its  initial  word.' 

IL  Although  nothing  is  more  certain  than  that  this  book 
was  written  by  IMoses,^  yet  it  is  by  no  means  a^eed  ichen  he 
composed  the  history  which  it  contains.  Kuseoius  and  some 
eminent  critics  after  him  have  conjectured,  that  it  was  writ- 
ten while  he  kept  the  flocks  of  Jethro  his  father-in-law,  in 
the  wilderness  of  Midian.  But  the  more  probable  opinion 
is  that  of  Theodoret,  which  has  been  adopted  by  Molden- 
liawer  and  most  modern  critics,  viz.  that  Moses  wrote  this 
book  after  the  departure  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt  and  the 
promulgation  of  the  law  from  Mount  Sinai ;  for,  previously 
to  his  receiving  the  divine  call  related  in  Exodus  iii.,  he  was 
only  a  private  individual,  and  was  not  endued  with  the  spirit 
of  prophecy.  Without  that  spirit  he  could  not  have  recorded, 
with  so  much  accuracy,  the  history  of  the  creation,  and  the 
subsequent  transactions  to  his  own  time :  neither  could  he 
have  tciretold  events  then  future,  as  in  the  predictions  con- 
cerning the  Messiah,  and  those  respecting  the  descendants 
of  Ishmael  and  the  sons  of  Jacob  ;  the  verification  and  con- 
firmation of  which  depei)ded  on  circumstances,  that  had  nei- 
ther taken  place  nor  could  have  happened  at  the  time  when 
the  history  was  written  in  which  they  are  recorded  :  but 
which  circumstances,  we  know,  did  take  place  exactly  as 
they  were  foretold,  and  which  may  be  suid,  even  now,  to 
have  an  actual  accomplishment  before  our  eyes.  A  third 
conjecture  has  been  offered  by  some  Jewish  writers,  after 
rabbi  Moses  Ben  Nachman,  who  suppose  that  God  dictated 
to  Moses  all  the  contents  of  this  book,  during  the  first  forty 
days  that  he  was  permitted  to  hold  a  couununication  with 
the  Almighty  on  Mount  Sinai,  and  that  on  his  descent  he 
committed  the  whole  to  writing.  This  hypothesis  they 
found  on  Exodus  xxiv.  12.  where  Jehovah  says  unto  Moses, 
—Come  up  io  me  in  the  mount,  and  be  thou  there,  and  I  will 
givet/iee  the  tables  of  stone,  and  the  law,  and  the  precepts,  which 
I  have  written  to  teach  t/iem  : — understanding  by  the  tables, 
the  decalogue ,-  by  the  precepts,  all  the  ceremonial  andjudicia. 
ordhiunces ;  and  by  the  law,  all  the  other  writings  of  Moses, 
whether  historical  or  doctrinal.'  "  It  is,  however,"  as  a  pious 
writer  has  well  remarked,  "  as  impossible,  as  it  is  of  little 
consequence,  to  determine  M'hich  of  these  opinions  is  best 
founded  ;  and  it  is  sufficient  for  us  to  know,  that  Moses  was 
assisted  by  the  spirit  of  infallible  truth  in  the  composition  of 
this  sacred  work,  which  he  deemed  a  proper  introduction  to 
the  laws  and  judgments  delivered  in  the  subsequent  books." 

in.  The  book  of  Genesis  comprises  the  history  of  about 
23G9  years  according  to  the  vulgar  computation  of  time,  or 
of  3G19  years  according  to  the  larger  computation  of  l)"-. 
Hales.  Besides  the  history  of  the  creation,  it  contains  an 
account  of  the  original  innocence  and  fall  of  man ;  the  propa- 
gation of  mankind  ;  the  rise  of  religion ;  the  general  detection 
and  corruption  of  the  world  ;  the  deluge ;  the  restoration  of 
the  world;  the  division  and  peopling  of  the  earth;  the  call 
of  Abraham,  and  the  divine  covenant  with  him ;  together  with 
the  first  patriarchs,  to  the  death  of  Joseph.  This  book  also 
comprises  some  important  prophecies  respecting  the  Mes- 
siah. See  iii.  15.  xii.  3.  xviii.  18.  xxii.  lb.  xxvi.  4.  xxviii. 
14.  and  xlix.  10. 

IV.  The  Scope  of  the  book  of  Genesis  may  be  considered 
as  twofold  : — 1.  To  record  the  history  of  the  world  from  tlie 
commencement  of  time ;  and,  2.  To  relate  the  origin  of  the 
church,  and  the  events  which  befell  it  during  many  ages. 
The  design  of  Moses  in  this  book  will  be  better  understood, 

«  To  avoid  iinncccssary  reft  rnnces  to  tlic  same  aulhorilics,  It  may  hero 
be  slatcil,  ilnl  l>e?i(li'8  the  IrealiMes  rffcrreillo  for  particular  facts  aiularnii- 
incnts,  in  tliis  and  the  followiiiR  seclionH  of  the  prcnent  vohime,  the  aiitli<ir 
ha*  IhrmighoulconsiilteiltlindisnerUtionH  of  Cahiiel,  Carpzov's  Introihirtio 
(ul  Libro»  llil.licos  VetcriB  Temamenli,  Jalin'H  InlrtJdiiclio  In  I.ihroH  Sacros 
Vetcris  FiEderlH,  and  Arkerniann's  expurjian-d  eihtion  of  it ;  the  prefaces  of 
Albcr  in  liin  Interprelalio  Sarrre  Hcripiura:,  Meid«Kuer's  Kncliiridion  Hibli- 
cutn.on  wliich  treaiiHc  Van  Til'u  0|ius  Analytlcuia  i«  a  conuiientary,  and 
Moldenhawer'.s  liiirodiiclio  in  omnes  Libros  ( "anonicoit  Veteris  et  Novi  Tcs- 
laincnti.  Of  all  these  works  an  account  will  be  found  In  the  Ajipcndix  to 
vol.  ii.  For  the  plan  of  the  prefaces  to  most  of  the  bookH^f  the  Old  and  New 
Testament,  the  author  in  indebted  to  tlio  eicullcnt  works  of  .Moldenbawcr 
and  Ileidei^ijcr. 

»  .Sec  this  fact  fully  prnvcl,  supra,  vol.  1.  pp.  32 — ."«. 
•■  »  Pareu.-<,  Prolcg.   in  Gcne.-an,  pp.  9,  10.     Fiancofurti,  1C17.    Roberts's 
Clavis  XlibliorujD,  p.  &•  folio  edit. 


if  we  consider  the  state  of  the  world  when  the  Pentateuch 
w*as  written.  Mankind  was  absorbed  in  the  grossest  idola- 
try, which  for  the  most  part  had  originated  in  the  neglect,  the 
perversion,  or  the  misapprehension  of  certain  truths,  that  had 
once  been  universally  known.  Moses,  therefore,  commences 
his  narrative  by  relating  in  simple  language  the  truths  thus 
disguised  or  perverted.  In  pursuance  of  this  plan,  he  relates, 
in  the  book  of  Genesis,  the  true  origin  and  history  of  all 
created  things,  in  opposition  to  the  erroneous  notions  enter- 
tained by  the  heathen  nations,  especially  by  the  Egyptians : 
the  origmof  sin,  and  of  all  moral  and  physical  evil ;  the  esta- 
blishment of  the  knowledge  and  worship  of  the  only  true 
God  among  mankind  ;  their  declension  into  idolatry ;  the 
promise  ot  the  Messiah;  together  with  the  origin  of  the 
church,  and  her  progress  and  condition  for  many  ages.  Fur- 
ther, it  makes  known  to  the  Israelites  the  providential  his- 
tory of  their  ancestors,  and  the  divine  promises  made  to  them ; 
ana  shows  them  the  reason  why  the  Almighty  chose  Abra- 
ham and  his  posterity  to  be  a  peculiar  people  to  the  exclu- 
sion of  all  other  nations,  viz.  that  from  them  should  spring 
the  Messiah.  This  circumstance  must  be  kept  in  view 
throughout  the  reading  of  this  book,  as  it  will  illustrate  many 
otherwise  unaccountable  circumstances  there  related.  It  was 
this  hope  that  led  Eve  to  exclaim, — I  have  gotten  a  man,— 
the  Lord.  (Gen.  iv.  1.  Heb.)  The  polygamy  of  Lamech  may 
be  accounted  for  by  the  hope  that  the  Messiah  would  be  born 
of  some  of  his  posterity,  as  also  the  incest  of  Lot's  daugh- 
ters (Gen.  xix.  31 — 38.),  Sarah's  impatience  of  her  barren- 
ness (Gen.  xvi.),the  polygamy  of  Jacob  (Gen.  xxix.),  the 
consequent  jealousies  between  Leah  and  Rachel  (Gen.  xxx.), 
the  jealousies  between  Ishmael  and  Isaac,  and  especially 
Rebekah's  preference  of  Jacob  to  Esau.  It  was  these  jea- 
lousies, and  these  pretensions  to  the  promise  of  the  Messiah, 
that  gave  rise  to  the  custom  of  calling  God  the  God  cf  Abra- 
ham, the  God  of  Isaac,  and  the  God  of  Jacob ;  and  not  the 
God  of  Lot,  Ishmael,  and  Esau,  the  promise  having  been 
particularly  made  and  repeated  to  those  three  patriarchs.'' 

V.  Types  of  the  Messiah  are  Jldam,  as  being  a  public 
person  and  federal  head  (compare  Rom.  v.  14.  Gr.  and  1  Cor. 
XV.  45.);  Melchizedek  (Psal.  ex.  4.  Heb.  vi.  20.  and  vii.); 
and  Isaac.   (Gen.  xxii.  with  Heb.  xi.  18,  19.) 

VI.  The  Jews  divide  the  book  of  Genesis  into  twelve 
paraschioth  or  larger  sections,  and  forty-three  siderim  or 
smaller  sections ;  in  our  Bibles  it  consists  of  fifty  chapters, 
the  general  contents  and  leading  divisions  of  which  are  ex- 
hibited in  the  following  Synopsis  : — 

Part  I.   The  Origin  of  the  World.  (Ch.  i.  ii.) 

Part  II.   The  History  of  the  former  World,  (iii. — vii.) 

Sect.  1.  The  fall  of  man  and  his  expulsion  from  Paradise, 
(iii.) 

Sect.  2.  The  history  of  Adam  and  his  descendants  to  Noah, 
(iv.  v.) 

Sect.  3.  The  increase  of  wickedness  in  the  world,  and  its 
destruction  by  the  deluge,   (vi.  vii.) 
Part  111.   Tlic  General  History  of  Maixkind  after  Vie  Deluge. 

(viii. — xi.) 

Sect.  1.  The  restoration  of  the  world,   (viii.) 

Sect.  2.  The  into.xication  of  Noah,  (i.v.) 

Sect.  3.  The  peopling  of  the  world  by  his  descendants,   (x.) 

Sect.  4.  The  confusion  of  tongues  and  dispersion  of  man- 
kind, (xi.) 
Part  IV.   The  Particular  History  of  the  Patriarclis.  (xii. — 1.) 

Sect.  I.  History  of  Abraham  and  his  family  (xi. — xx.),  the 

birth  of  Isaac  (xxi.),  trial  of  Abraham  (xxii.),  the  death  of 

Sarah   (xxiii.),  marriage  of  Isaac   (.xxiv.),  and  deatli  of 

Abraham,  (xxv.) 

Sect.  2.  Tiic  history  of  the  church  under  the  patriarch  Isaac. 

(x.xv.  xxvi.) 
Sect.  3.  The  history  of  the  church  under  the  patriarch  Jacob. 

(xxvii. — xxxvi.) 
Sect.  4.  The  history  of  the  church  under  the  patriarch  Jo- 
seph, (xxxvii. — 1.) 
§i.  The  afflictions  of  .Jacob  andJo.scph:— Joseph  sold  into  Ecypt  (xxxvii.), 
the  iiice.st  of  Judah  (xxxviii),  the  imprisonment  of  Joseph  by  Poliphar 
CxxAix.  xl.) 
Sii.  The  deliverance  and  prosperity  of  Joseph  :— his  promotion  in  the 
court  of  Pharaoh  {.vii.),  the  journeys  of  his  brethren  in  Ivitypt  to  pur- 
chase corn  (xlii— xlv.),  the  descent  of  .lacob  into  that  rounlry,  and 
seitleiiient  Ih.re  with  his  family  (xlvi.— xlviii.),  his  prophetic  bcncdlc- 
tions  of  his  children  (xlix.),  the  burial  of  Jacob,  and  Uio  death  and 
burial  of  Joseph.  (1.) 

*  Allix'sKeileriions  upon  Gonosis.  Bishop  Watson's  Collection  of  Tracu 
vol.  i.  pp.  247—259. 


SZCT.    II.] 

For  a  summary  of  the  religious  doctrines  and  moral  pre- 
cepts of  the  patriarchal  times,  as  exhibited  in  the  book  of 
Genesis,  see  Volume  I.  pp.  li'2,  143. 

VII.  From  an  imaginary  difficulty  in  explaining  the  lite- 
ral sense  of  the  first  tliree  chapters  of  Genesis,  (a  difficulty, 
however,  which  exists  not  with  the  devout  reader  of  the 
sacred  volume),  some  learned  men,"  who  admit  the  Penta- 
teuch to  have  been  written  by  Moses,  have  contended  that 
the  narrative  of  the  creation  and  fall  is  not  a  recital  of  real 
events,  but  an  ingenious  philosophical  mythos,  or  fable,  in- 
vented by  Moses  after  the  example  of  ancient  Greek  writers, 
to  give  the  greater  weight  to  his  legislative  enactments !  and 
designed  to  account  for  the  origin  of  human  evil,  and  also 
as  an  introduction  to  a  history,  great  part  of  which  they 
consider  to  be  a  mere  poetic  fiction.  But  the  inventors  of 
this  fiction  (for  such  only  can  we  term  it)  have  assumed  that 
as  proved  which  never  had  any  existence;  for  the  earliest 
Grecian  cosmogony  extant,  namely,  that  of  Hesiod,  was  not 
composed  until  at  least  five  hundred  and  forty-five  years 
after  the  death  of  Moses  !  Further,  the  style  of  these  chap- 
ters, as,  indeed,  of  the  whole  book  of  Genesis,  is  strictly 
historical,  and  betrays  no  vestige  whatever  of  allegorical  or 
figurative  description;  this  is  so  evident  to  any  one  that 
reads  with  attention,  as  to  need  no  proof.  And  since  this 
history  was  adapted  to  the  comprehension  of  the  commonest 
capacity,  Moses  speaks  according  to  optical,  not  physical 
truth :  that  is,  he  describes  the  effects  of  creation  optically, 
or  as  they  would  have  appeared  to  the  eye,  and  without  any 
assignment  of  physical  causes.  In  doing  which  he  has  not 
merely  accommodated  his  narrative  to  the  apprehension  of 
mankind  in  an  infant  state  of  society,  and  employed  a 
method  of  recital  best  suited  to  a  vulgar  capacity ;  but  he 
thereby  also  satisfies  an  important  requisition  of  experimen- 
tal philosophy,  viz.  to  describe  eiiects  accurately  and  faith- 
fully, accordmg  to  their  sensible  appearances :  by  which 
means  the  mind  is  enabled  to  receive  a  clear  and  distinct 
impression  of  those  appearances,  and  thus  to  reduce  them  to 
their  proper  causes,  and  to  draw  from  them  such  conclusions 
as  they  are  qualified  to  yield  ;  for  the  determination  of  causes 
must  toUow  an  acquaintance  with  their  effects.^  "  Besides, 
if  it  be  granted  tnat  Moses  was  an  inspired  lawgiver,  it 
becomes  impossible  to  suppose  that  he  wrote  a  tabulous 
account  of  the  creation  and  fall  of  man,  and  delivered  it 
as  a  divine  revelation,  because  that  would  have  been 
little,  if  at  all,  short  of  blasphemy ;  we  must,  therefore,  be- 
lieve this  account  to  be  true,  or  that  it  was  declared  and 
understood  by  the  people,  to  whom  it  was  addressed,  to  be 
allegorical.  No  such  declaration  was  ever  made;  nor  is 
there  any  mention  of  such  an  opinion  being  generally  preva- 
lent among  the  Jews  in  any  early  writing.  The  rabbis  in- 
deed, of  later  times,  built  a  heap  of  absurd  doctrines  upon 
this  history :  but  this  proves,  if  it  proves  any  thing,  that 
their  ancestors  ever  understood  it  as  a  literal  and  true  ac- 
count; and,  in  fact,  the  truth  of  every  part  of  the  narrative 
contained  in  the  book  of  Genesis  is  positively  confirmed  by 
the  constant  testimony  of  a  people,  who  preserved  a  certain 
unmixed  genealogy  from  father  to  son,  through  a  long  suc- 
cession of  ages :  and  by  these  people  we  are  assured,  'that 
their  ancestors  ever  did  believe  that  this  account,  as  far  as  it 
fell  within  human  cognizance,  had  the  authority  of  uninter- 
rupted tradition  from  their  first  parent  Adam,  till  it  was 
written  by  the  inspired  pen  of  Moses."^ 

Further,  in  adcfition  to  the  collateral  testimony  already 
adduced,''  to  the  credibility  and  reality  of  the  facts  related  in 
the  first  three  chapters  of  the  book  of  Genesis,  there  are 
numerous  incidental  references,  in  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ment, to  the  creation,  temptation,  and  fall  of  our  first  parents, 
which  clearly  prove  that  they  were  considered  as  acknow- 
ledged Facts,  not  requiring  proof,  and  handed  down  from 
primitive  tradition.  Of  these  we  select  the  following  in- 
stances, out  of  very  many  which  might  have  been  cited  : — 

«  This  notion  is  current  among  the  divines  of  Germany,  and  the  modern 
Socinians  in  this  country  :  it  is  particularly  enlarged  upon  by  Bauer,  (Herm. 
Sacr.  pp.  351 — 360.),  and  by  Gramberg  (Libri  Geneseos  Adumbratio  nova, 
pp.  16—18.  Lipsiaj,  1828,  8vo.) ;  and  it  is  adopted  by  Dr.  Geddes  in  his  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible  (vol.  i.),  and  also  in  his  Critical  Remarks,  of  which  the 
reader  wilLfind  a  masterly  refutation  from  the  pen  of  the  late  eminently 
learned  Bisnop  Horsley,  in  the  British  Critic  (O.  s.),  vol.  xix.  pp.  6 — 13.  The 
younger  Kosenmuller  had  adopted  this  mythical  interpretation  in  the  first 
edition  of  his  Scholia  on  the  Old  Testament;  but  maturer  consideration 
having  led  him  to  see  its  erroneousness,  he,  greatly  to  his  honour,  returned 
to  the  proper  and  literal  interpretation  in  the  new  edition  of  his  Scholia, 
lately  published.    (Dublin  Christian  Examiner,  May,  1827,  p.  338.) 

3  Penn's  Comparative  Estimate  of  the  Mineral  and  Mosaical  Geologies, 
vol.  i.  p.  163.  (2d  edit.)  In  pp.  165—268.  there  is  an  elaborate  examination 
and  vindication  of  the  literal  interpretation  of  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis. 

3  Bishop  Tomline's  Elements  of  Christ.  Tbeol.  vol.  i.  p.  64. 

«  See  vol.  i.  pp.  69—78. 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  GENESIS 
1 


205 


Allusions  to  the  creation. — Psal.  xxxiii.  9.  lie  spake 
a7id  it  tvas  done;   he  cojotAXDEi),  and  it  stood  fast.     This  is 

manifestly  an  allusion  to  Gen.  i.  3.  et  seq. Psal.  xxiv.  2.     Jfe 

(Jehovah)  hath  founded  it  (the  earth)  vfion  the  seas,  ana 
established  it  upon  the  foods. — 2  Pet.  iii.  5.  jBy  the  word  of 
the  Lord  the  heaveiis  ivere  of  old,  and  the  earth  standing  out 
of  the  -water  and  in  the  -water.  In  these  two  passages,  the 
sacred  writers  allude  to  Gen.  i.  6.  9. — 2  Cor.  iv.  6.  Gon,  ivho 
COMMANDED  I.IGHT  to  shine  out  of  darkiicss,  hath  shined  into 
our  hearts,  to  give  the  light  of  the  kno-iuledge  of  the  glory  of 
God  in  the  face  (rather  person)  of  Jesus  Christ.  Here  St. 
Paul  alludes  to  Gen.  i.  3.  in  so  specific  a  manner,  that  it  is  im- 
possible not  to  perceive  the  designed  reference.  From  Eccl.  vii. 
39.  and  Eph.  iv.  24.  compared  with  Col.  iii.  10.  and  Jam.  iii.  9. 
we  learn,  that  the  divine  image,  in  which  man  is  said  to  have 
been  created,  is  the  moral  image  of  God,  viz.  uprightness  or 
righteousness,  trtie  holiness,  and  kno-wledge.  And  the  creation 
of  our  first  parents,  related  as  a  fact  in  Gen.  i.  27,  28.,  is  expli- 
citly mentioned  as  a  real  fact  by  our  Lord,  in  Matt.  xix.  4.  and 
Mark  x.  G.,  as  also  by  the  apostle  Paul.     Compare  1  Cor.  xi.  9. 

2.  Allusions  to  the  temptation  and  fall  of  our  first  parents, 
ivhich  are  related  in  Gen.  iii. — Job  xxxi.  33.  If  I  covered  my 
transgressions  like  Adam,  by  hiding  mine  iniquity  in  my  bosom. 
— Matt.  xxv.  41.  Depart  from  me,  ye  cursed,  into  everlasting 
fire,  prepared  for  the  devil  and  his  angels. — John  viii.  44.  Ye 
are  of  your  father  the  devil,  and  the  works  of  your  father  ye 
will  [rather,  wish  to]  do.  He  was  a  murderer  from  the  be- 
ginning, and  abode  not  in  the  truth,  because  there  is  no  truth  in 
him.  When  he  spcaketh  a  lie,  he  speaketh  of  his  own,  for  he 
is  a  liar,  and  the  father  of  it. — 1  Tim.  ii.  13,  14.  Adam  was  first 
formed,  then  E%'e  :  and  Adam  was  not  deceived ;  but  the  woman 
having  been  deceived,  was  in  the  transgression. — 2  Cor.  xi.  3. 
The  serpent  begrdled  Eve  through  his  subtilty. —  1  John  iii.  8. 
He  that  committeth  sin  is  of  the  devil;  for  the  devil  sinneth 
from  the  beginning.  For  this  purpose  was  the  Son  of  God  mani- 
fested, that  he  might  destroy  the  -works  of  the  devil. 

The  reality  of  the  facts  recorded  in  the  first  three  chapters  of 
the  book  of  Genesis  was  acknowledged  by  the  Jews  who  lived 
previously  to  the  time  of  Christ.  Vestiges  of  this  belief  are  to 
be  found  in  the  apocryphal  books  of  Wisdom  and  Ecclesiasticus. 
— God  created  man  to  be  im?nortal,  and  tnade  him  an  image 
of  his  oivn  eternity.  JVevertheless,  through  envy  of  the  devil, 
came  death  into  the  -world,  and  they  that  hold  of  his  side  do 
find  it.  (Wisd.  ii.  23,  24.) — Wisdom  (that  is,  the  eternal  Son 
of  God)  preserved  the  first  formed  father  of  the  world,  who 
was  created  alone ;  and  broxight  him  out  of  his  fall  (by  the 
promised  seed  of  the  woman,)  and  gave  him  power  to  rule  all 
things,  (x.  1,  2.) — Of  the  -woman  came  the  beginning  of  sin} 
and  through  her  -we  all  die.    (Ecclus.  xxv.  24.) 

If  words  have  any  meaning,  surely  the  separate  and  inde« 
pendent  testimonies,  here  collected  together,  prove  that  the 
Mosaic  narrative  is  a  relation  of  real  facts.^  To  consider  the 
whole  of  that  narrative  as  an  allegory  "  is  not  only  to  throw 
over  it  the  veil  of  inexplicable  confusion,  and  involve  tha 
whole  Pentateuch  in  doubt  and  obscurity,  but  to  shake  to  itg 
very  basis  Christianity,  which  commences  in  the  promise, 
that '  the  seed  of  the  woman  should  bruise  the  head  of  th« 
serpent.'  In  reality,  if  we  take  the  history  of  the  fall  in 
any  other  sense  than  the  obvious  literal  sense,  we  plunge 
into  greater  perplexities  than  ever.  Some  well-meaning 
pious  commentators  have,  indeed,  endeavoured  to  reconcile 
all  difficulties,  by  considering  some  parts  of  the  Mosaic  his< 
tory  in  an  allegorical,  and  otner  parts  in  a  literal  sense ;  but 
this  is  to  act  in  a  manner  utterly  inconsistent  with  the  tenor 
and  spirit  of  that  history,  and  with  the  views  of  a  writer, 
the  distinguishing  characteristics  of  whose  production  are 
simplicity,  purity,  and  truth.  There  is  no  medium  nor  pal- 
liation ;  the  whole  is  allegorical,  or  the  whole  is  literal. "^ 

In  short,  the  book  of  Genesis,  understood  in  its  plain,  ob- 
vious, and  literal  sense,  furnishes  a  key  to  many  difficulties 
in  philosophy,  which  would  otherwise  be  inexplicable.  Thus 
it  has  been  reckoned  a  great  difficulty  to  account  for  the  in- 
troduction of  fossil  shells  into  the  bowels  of  the  earth :  but 
the  scriptural  account  of  the  deluge  explains  this  fact  better 
than  all  the  romantic  theories  of  philosophers.'  It  is  impos- 
sible to  account  for  the  origin  of  such  a  variety  of  languages 
in  a  more  satisfactory  manner  than  is  done  in  the  narrative 

'  The  arguments  to  prove  the  literal  sense  of  the  first  three  chapters  of 
Genesis,  which  we  have  necessarily  given  with  brevity,  are  ably  and  fully 
staled  in  Mr.  Holden's  elaborate  Dissertation  on  the  Fall  of  Man,  London, 
1823,  6vo. 

«  Maurice's  Histoiy  of  Hindostan,  vol.  i.  p.  868. 

1  Sec  vol.  i.  pp.  71,  72. 


206 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Vaut  v.  Chap  I 


of  the  confusion  of  tongues  which  took  place  at  Babel. 
(Gen.  xi.  1 — 9.)  And  allhoucjh  some  futile  obioctions  have 
been  made  against  the  r.hronoloory  of  this  book,  because  it 
makes  the  world  less  ancient  tlian  is  necessary  to  support 
the  theories  of  some  modern  self-styled  philosophers ;  yet 
even  here,  as  we  have  already  shown  by  an  induction  of  par- 
ticulars,' the  more  rigorously  it  is  examined  and  compared 
with  the  extravagant  and  inipruhable  accounts  of  the  Chal- 
dffun,  Egyptian,  Chinese,  and  Hindoo  chronology,  the  more 
firmly  are  its  veracity  and  authenticity  cstablislied.  "In 
fine,  without  this  history,  tlie  world  would  be  in  comparative 
darkness,  not  knowing  whence  it  came,  or  whither  tt  goilh. 
In  the  first  page  of  this  sacred  book,  a  child  may  learn  more 
in  an  hour,  than  all  the  philosop/iers  in  the  world  learned 
without  it  in  a  thousand  years."'* 


SECTION  III. 

ON  THE  BOOK  OF  EXODUS. 

I.   T^tle. — II.  Author  and  date. — III.   Occasion   and  suhject- 
matlev. — IV.   Scope. — V.  Ti/Jies  of  the  Messiah. — VI.   Sif- 
■nnpsis  of  its   contents. — VII.  Remarks   on  the  plagues  in- 
flicted upon  the  Egyptians. 

I.  The  title  of  this  book  is  derived  from  the  Septuagint 
Version,  and  is  significant  of  the  principal  transaction  whicli  it 
records,  namely,  the  EH0a02,  Exodus,  or  departure  of  the 
Israelites  from  Egypt.  IJy  the  Jews,  and  in  the  Hebrew 
copies,  it  is  termed  hidb'  h'jhi  Vc-Aleh  Shehoth,  "Meic  are 
the  words,^''  from  the  initial  words  of  the  book,  or  sometimes 
merely  JShemoth.  It  comprises  a  history  of  the  events  that 
took  place  during  the  period  of  115  years,  from  the  year  of 
the  world  2369  to  -2511  inclusive,  from  the  death  of  Joseph 
to  the  erectifin  of  the  tabernacle.  Twenty-five  passages,  ac- 
cording to  Rivet,  are  quoted  from  Exodus  by  our  Saviour 
and  his  apostles,  in  express  words ;  and  nineteen  allusions  to 
the  sense  are  made  in  the  New  Testament. 

II.  That  Moses  was  the  author  of  this  book  we  have 
already  shown,  though  the  time  when  it  \yas  written  cannot 
be  precisely  dctcnnined.  As,  however,  it  is  a  history  of 
matters  of  iact,  it  was  doubtless  written  after  the  giving  of 
the  law  on  Mount  Sinai  and  the  erecting  of  the  tabernacle ; 
for  things  cannot  be  historically  related  until  they  have  actu- 
ally taken  place,  and  the  author  of  this  book  was  evidently 
an  eye  and  ear-witness  of  the  events  he  has  narrated. 

III.  The  book  of  Exodus  records  the  cruel  persecution  of 
the  Israelites  in  Egypt  under  Pharaoh-Kameses  11.  ;  the 
birth,  exposure,  and  preservation  of  Moses  ;  his  subsequent 
flight  into  Midian,  his  call  and  mission  to  Pharanh-Ameno- 
j)hi3  11.;  the  miracles  performed  by  him  and  by  his  brother 
Aaron  :  the  ten  plagues  also  miraculously  inflicted  on  the 
Egyptians;  the  institution  of  the  passover,  and  the  departure 
of''the  children  of  Israel  from  Egypt;  their  passage  across 
the  Red  S.-a,  and  the  destruction  of  the  Egyi)tian  army  :  the 
subsequent  iourneyings  of  the  Israelites  in  the  desert,  their 
idolatry,  ana  frequent  murmurings  against  God  ;  the  promul- 
gation of  the  law  from  Mount  Sinai,  and  the  erection  of  the 
tabernacle. 

IV.  The  Scope  of  Exodus  is  to  preserve  the  memorial  of 
the  dr-pnrtnre  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt,  and  to  represent 
the  church  of  God,  nfflicfcd  and  preserved  ;  together  with  the 
providential  care  of  God  towards  her,  and  the  iudgments 
Inflieted  on  her  enemies.  It  plainly  points  out  the  arcom- 
ydishment  of  the  divine  promises  and  prophecies  delivered  to 
Al)raham,  that  his  posterity  would  be  very  numerous  (com- 
pare Gen.  XV.  5.  xvii.  A — (J.  and  xlvi.  27.  witli  Num.  i.  1  — 
3.  40.)  ;  and  that  they  would  be  afflicted   in  a  land  not  their 

I  own,  whence  they  should  depart  in  the  fourth  generation 
I  with  great  substance.  (Gen.  xv.  13 — 10.  with  Kxod.  xii. 
35.  10,  41.)  Further,  "in  Israel  passing  from  Egynt, 
through  the  Red  Soa,  the  Wilderness,  and  Jordan,  to  the 
promised  land,  this  book  adumbrates  the  state  of  the  church 
m  the  wilderness  of  this  world,  until  her  arrival  at  the  hea- 
venly (Canaan, — an  eternal  rest."^  St.  Paul,  in  1  Cor.  x.  1, 
&c.  and  in  various  parts  of  his  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  has 
Khown  that  those  things  prefigured,  and  were  applicable  to, 
the  Christian  church.  A  careful  study  of  the  mediation  of 
Moses  will  greatly  facilitate  our  understanding  the  mediation 
of  Jesus  Christ. 

•  Sen  vol.  i.  pp.  72— 71. 

•  Fuller's  Expository  Dinconrscfl  on  GcnesiB,  vol.  1.  p.  1. 

•  RobcrU'v  Clavli  Ulbliuruin,  p.  \'i. 


V.  Types  of  the  Messiah  are  .iaron  (Hob.  iv.  14 — 10. 
V.  4,  o.') ; — the  Paschal  Lamb  (Exod.  xii.  -10.  with  John  xix. 
30.  and  1  Cor.  v.  7,  8.); — the  Manna  (Excd.  xvi.  15.  with 
1  Cor.  X.  3.); — the  Rock  in  Ilureb  (Exod.  xvii.  0.  with 
1  Cor.  X.  4.)  ; — the  Mary  Seat  (Exod.  xxxvii.  G.  with  Rom. 
iii.  25.  Heb.  iv.  10.) 

VI.  By  the  Jews  the  book  of  Exodus  is  divided  into 
eleven  paraschioth  or  chapters,  and  twenty-nine  siderim  or 
sections  :  in  our  Bibles  it  is  divided  into  forty  chapters,  the 
contents  of  which  are  exhibited  in  the  annexed  Synopsis  :'— 

Part  I.  Jlccount  if  the  Transactiims  previously  to  the  Depar- 
iure  of  the  Lraelites  from  Egypt. 

Skct.  I.  The  oppression  of  the  children  of  Israel,   (ch.  i.) 
Sect.  2.  The  youth  and  transactions  of  Mcses.  (ch.  ii. — vi.) 
Sect.  3.  The  hardening  of  Pharaoh's  heart,  and  the  inflic- 
tion of  the  ten  plagues,  (ch.  vii. — xi.) 

Part  II,   The  Narrative  of  the  Departure  of  the  Israelites. 

(civ,  xii. — xiv.) 
Part  III.   Transactions  subsequent  to  their  Exodus,  (ch.  xiv. 

— xviii.) 

Sect.  1.  The  miraculous  passage  of  the  Red  Sea,  and  tho 
thanksgiving  of  MosCs  and  the  people  of  Israel,  on  their  de- 
liverance from  Pharaoh  and  his  host.  (ch.  xiv.  xv.  1 — 22.) 

Sect.  2.  Relation  of  various  miracles  wrought  in  behalf  of  tho 
Israelites,  (ch.  xv.  23 — 27.  xvi.  xvii.) 

Sect.  3.  The  arrival  of  Moses's  wife  and  children  with  Je« 
thro.  (ch.  xviii.) 

Part  IV.   TAe  Promulgation  of  the  Law  on  Mount  Sinai. 

Sect.  1.  The  preparation  of  the  people  of  Israel  by  Moses,  for 
the  renewing  of  the  covenant  with  God.  (ch.  xix.) 

Se'  T.  2.  The  promulgation  of  the  moral  law.   (ch.  xx.) 

Sect.  3.  The  judicial  law.   (ch.  xxi. — xxiii.) 

Sect.  4.  The  ceremonial  law,  including  the  construction 
and  erection  of  the  tabernacle,  (ch.  xxiv. — xxxi.  xxxv. — 
xl.)  In  ch.  xxxii. — xxxiv,  arc  related  the  idolatry  of  the 
Israelites,  the  breaking  of  the  two  tables  of  the  law,  the 
divine  chastisement  of  the  Hebrews,  and  the  renewal  of 
the  tables  of  the  covenant. 

VII.  The  circumstances  attending  the  plagues  inflicted 
upon  the  Egyptians  are  fully  considered  by  Mr.  Bryant  in 
his  learned  treatise  on  this  subject  (8vo.  London,  1810), 
from  which  the  following  particulars  arc  abridged.  As  many 
of  the  Israelites  were  followers  of  the  idolatry  that  surroundf- 
ed  them,  these  miracles  were  admirably  adapted  to  display 
the  vanity  of  the  idols  and  false  gods,  adored  by  their  op- 
pressors, the  proud  and  learned  Egyptians. 

1.  By  the  first  plague — fVu/er  turned  into  Lhxid  (Exod. 
vii.  14 — 25.) — was  demonstrated  the  superiority  of  Jehovah 
over  their  imaginary  river-gods,  and  the  baseness  of  the 
elements  which  they  reverenced.  The  Nile  was  religiously 
honoured  by  tlie  Egyptians,  who  valued  themselves  much 
upon  the  excellency  of  its  waters,  and  esteemed  all  the  na- 
tives of  the  river  as  in  some  degree  sacred.  The  Nile  was 
turned  into  blood,  which  was  an  object  of  peculiar  abhor- 
rence to  the  Egyptians. 

2.  In  the  plague  oi  frogs  fExod.  viii.  1 — 15.)  the  object 
of  their  idolatrous  worship,  the  Nile,  was  made  an  instru- 
ment of  their  punishment.  Frogs  were  deemed  sacred  by 
the  Egyptians;  but  whether  from  reverence  or  abhorrence  is 
uncertain.  By  this  plague,  the  waters  of  the  Nile  became 
a  second  time  polluted,  and  the  land  was  equally  defiled. 

3.  The  plague  of  lice  (Exod.  viii.  1() — 19.)  reproved  the 
absurd  supersUtion  of  the  Egpytians,  who  thought  it  would 
be  a  great  profanation  of  the  temi)le  into  which  they  wore 
going,  if  they  enU-red  it  with  any  animalcula  of  tins  sort 
upon  them.  The  people,  and  particularly  the  priests,  never 
wore  woollen  garments,  but  only  linen,  because  linen  is  least 
apt  to  produce  lice.  The  judgment,  inflicted  by  Moses  in 
this  plague,  was  so  proper,  that  the  priests  and  magicians 
immediauily  perceived  from  what  hand  it  came,  and  con- 
fessed that  "this  was  the  finger  of  God. 

4.  'I'he  i)lague  of  flirs  (Exod.  viii.  20—32.)  wlgch  was 
inflicted  in  the  midst  of  winter,  and  not  in  the  midst  of  sum- 
mer, when  Egypt  swarms  with  flies,  would  show  tho 
Egyptians  the  folly  of  the  god,  whom  tlioy  worshipped, 
that  he  might  drive  away  the  gad-fly,  whose  sling  is  ex- 
tremely paiid'ul. 

5.  The  fifth  |)lague — (he  murrain  among  cattlf  f  Exod.  ix. 
1 — 7.)  destroyed  the  living  objects  of  their  stupid  worship. 
The  saered  bull,  the  cow,  or  heifer,  the  ram,  and  the  he-goal, 
fell  dead  before  Uieir  worshippers.     When  the  distemper 


CECT 


IV. 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  LEVITICUS. 


207 


inflicted  by  this  judgment  spread  irresistibly  over  the  coun- 
try, the  Eo-yptians  not  only  suifered  a  severe  loss,  but  also 
beheld  their  deities  and  their  representatives  sink  before  the 
God  of  tlie  Hebrews. 

6.  As  the  Egyptians  were  celebrated  for  their  medical 
skill,  and  their  physicians  were  held  in  the  highest  repute, 
tl\e  sixth  plague, — the  infliction  of  boils  accompanied  luith 
blains  (Exod.  ix.  8 — 12.),  which  neither  their  deities  could 
avert,  nor  the  art  of  man  alleviate,  would  further  show  the 
vanity  of  their  gods.  Aaron  and  Moses  were  ordered  to  take 
ashes  of  the  furnace,  and  to  scatter  them  towards  heaven, 
that  they  might  be  wafted  over  the  face  of  the  country.  This 
was  a  significant  command.  The  ashes  were  to  be  taken 
from  that  fiery  furnace,  which  in  the  Scripture  was  used  as 
a  type  of  the  slavery  of  the  Israelites,  and  of  the  cruelty 
which  they  experienced  in  Egypt.  (Deut.  iv.  20.)  The 
process  has  still  a  further  allusion  to  an  idolatrous  and  cruel 
rite,  which  was  common  among  the  Egyptians,  and  to 
which  it  is  opposed  as  a  contrast.  They  had  several  cities 
styled  T>-phonian,  such  as  Heliopolis,  Idythia,  Abaris,  and 
Busiris.  In  these,  at  particular  seasons,  they  sacrificed  men.' 
The  objects  thus  destined,  were  persons  with  bright  hair, 
and  a  particular  complexion,  such  as  were  seldom  to  be 
found  among  the  native  Egyptians.  Hence,  we  may  infer 
that  they  were  foreigners;  and  it  is  probable,  that  whilst 
the  Israelites  resided  in  Egypt,  they  were  chosen  from  their 
body.  They  were  burnt  alive  upon  a  high  altar,  and  thus 
sacrificed  for  the  good  of  the  people.  At  the  close  of  the 
sacrifice,  the  priests  gathered  together  the  ashes  of  these 
victims,  and  scatterecf  them  upwards  in  the  air,  with  the 
view,  probably,  that  where  any  atom  of  this  dust  was  car- 
ried, a  blessing  might  be  entailed.  The  like  was,  therefore, 
done  by  Moses,  though  with  a  different  intention,  and  to  a 
more  certain  effect. 

7.  The  plague  o{  hail,  rain,  and  fire  (Exod.  ix.  13 — 35.), 
demonstrated  that  neither  Osiris,  who  presided  over  fire,  nor 
Isis,  who  presided  over  water,  could  protect  the  fields  and 
the  climate  of  Egypt  from  the  thunder,  the  rain,  and  the 
hail  of  Jehovah.  These  phenomena  w^ere  of  extremely  rare 
occurrence,  at  any  period  of  the  year :  they  now  fell  at  a 
time  when  the  air  was  most  calm  and  serene. 

8.  Of  the  severity  of  the  ravages,  caused  by  the  plague 
of  locusts,  (Exod.  X.  1 — 20.^  some  idea  may  be  conceived 
from  the  account  of  those  insects  in  this  volume,  p.  39. 
The  Egyptians  had  gods,  in  whom  they  trusted  to  deliver 
their  country  from  these  terrible  invaders.  They  trusted 
much  to  the  fecundity  of  their  soil,  and  to  the  deities,  Isis 
and  Serapis,  who  were  the  conservators  of  all  plenty.  But 
by  this  judgment  they  were  taught  that  it  was  impossible 
to  stand  before  Moses  the  servant  of  God.  The  very  winds, 
which  they  venerated,  were  made  the  instruments  of  their 
destruction ;  and  the  sea,  which  they  regarded  as  their  de- 
fence against  the  locusts,  could  not  afford  them  any  pro- 
tection. 

9.  The  ninth  plague  consisted  in  three  days''  darkness  over 
all  the  land  of  Egypt.  (Exod.  x.  21 — 27.)  The  Egyptians 
considered  li^ht  and  fire,  the  purest  of  elements,  to  be  pro- 
per types  of  God.  They  regarded  the  sun,  the  great  fountain 
of  lignt,  as  an  emblem  of  iiis  glory  and  salutary  influence 
on  the  world.  The  sun  was  esteemed  the  soul  of  the  world, 
and  was  supposed  with  the  moon  to  rule  all  things :  and  not 
only  to  be  the  conservators,  but  the  creators  of  all  things. 
Accordingly  they  worshipped  them,  as  well  as  night  and 
darkness.  This  miraculous  darkness  would,  therefore,  con- 
firm still  further  (if  further  confirmation  were  wanting)  the 
vanity  of  their  idol-deities. 

10.  The  infliction  of  the  tenth  and  last  plague — the  de- 
struction of  the  first-born  (Exod.  xi.  1 — 8.  xii.  29,  30.)  was 
most  equitable ;  because,  after  the  Egyptians  had  been  pre- 
served oy  one  of  the  Israelitish  family,  they  had  (contrary 
to  all  right,  and  in  defiance  of  the  stipulation  originally 
made  with  the  Israelites  when  they  first  went  into  Egypt,) 
enslaved  the  people  to  whom  they  had  been  so  much  in- 
debted ;  had  murdered  their  children,  and  made  their  bond- 
age intolerable.  We  learn  from  Herodotus,^  that  it  was 
the  custom  of  the  Egyptians  to  rush  from  the  house  into  the 
street,  to  bewail  the  dead  with  loud  and  bitter  outcries  :  and 
every  member  of  the  family  united  in  the  bitter  expressions 
of  sorrow.  How  great,  then,  must  their  terror  and  their 
grief  have  been,  when,  at  midnight,  the  Lord  smote  all  the 
first-born  of  the  land,  of  Egypt,  from  the  first-born  of  Pha- 
raoh tiiat  sat  on  his  throne,  unto  ilte  first-born  of  the  captive 


that  was  in  the  dungeon.  ,•  and  all  the  first-born  of  cattle .-  and 
when  Pharaoh  rose  up  in  the  night,  he,  and  all  his  servants^ 
and  all  the  Egyptians  ;  and  there  uas  a  great  cry  in  Egypt"; 
for  there  was  not  a  house  where  there  was  not  one  dead  ! 


«  Plutarch,  Is.  et  Osir.  v.  1.  p.  380.  D. 


«  Lib.  ij.  cc.  85,  dS. 


SECTION  IV. 


ON   THE  BOOK  OF  LEVITICUS. 

I.  Title,   author,  and  date. — II.  Scope, — III.  Synopsis  of  its 

contents. 

I.  The  third  book  of  the  Pentateuch  (by  the  Jews  termed 
NipM  va-YiKRA,  and  he  culled,  from  its  initial  word)  is  in  the 
Septuagint  styled  AEriTiKON,  and  in  our  version  Leviticus, 
or  the  Levitical  book,  because  it  principally  contains  the 
laws  concerning  the  religion  of  the  Israelites,  which  chiefly 
consisted  of  various  sacrifices  ;  the  charge  of  which  was 
committed  to  Aaron  the  Levite  (as  he  is  termed  in  Exod.  iv. 
14.)  and  to  his  sons,  who  alone  held  the  priestly  office  in  the 
tribe  of  Levi ;  which  St.  Paul  therefore  calls  a  "  Levitical 
priesthood."  (Heb.  vii.  11.)  In  the  Babylonish  Talmud  it 
is  called  the  law  of  the  priests,  which  appellation  is  retaineri 
in  the  Arabic  and  Syriac  versions. 

The  author  of  this  book,  it  is  universally  admitted,  was 
Moses  ;  and  it  is  cited  as  his  production  in  several  books  of 
Scripture.  By  comparing  Exod.  xl.  17.  with  Num.  i.  1.  we 
learn  that  this  book  contains  the  history  of  one  month,  viz.' 
from  the  erection  of  the  tabernacle  to  the  numbering  of  the 
people  who  were  fit  for  war,  that  is,  from  the  beginning  of 
the  second  year  after  Israel's  departure  from  Egj-pt  to  the 
beginning  of  the  second  month  of  the  same  year,  Avnich  was 
in  the  year  of  the  world  2514,  and  before  Christ  1490. 
The  laws  prescribed  upon  other  subjects  than  sacrifices 
have  no  chronological  marks  by  which  we  can  judge  of  the 
times  when  they  were  given. 

II.  The  general  Scope  of  this  book  is,  to  make  knoAvn  to 
the  Israelites  the  Ltvitical  laws,  sacrifices,  and  ordinances, 
and  by  those  "  shadows  of  good  things  to  come,"  to  lead  the 
Israelites  to  the  Messiah  (Heb.  x.  1.  with  Gal.  iii.  24.)  : 
and  it  appears  from  the  argument  of  Saint  Paul,  that  they 
had  some  idea  of  the  spiritual  meaning  of  these  various  in- 
stitutions. (1  Cor.  X.  1 — 4.) 

This  book  is  of  great  use  in  explaining  numerous  passages 
of  the  New  Testament,  especially  the  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brews, which,  in  fact,  would  be  unintelligible  without  it. 
In  considering,  however,  the  spiritual  tendency  of  Leviticus, 
care  must  be  taken  not  to  apply  the  types  too  extensively  : 
the  observation  of  Jerome  as  to  its  spiritual  import  is  un- 
doubtedly very  pious  and  just,  but  few  persons  will  acquiesce 
in  his  remark,  that  "  almost  every  syllable  in  this  book  breathes 
a  spiritual  sacrament."^ 

III.  Leviticus  is  dividedby  the  Jews  into  nine  paraschioth, 
which  in  our  Bibles  form  twenty-seven  chapters :  it  consists 
of  four  leading  topics  ;  comprising 

Part  I.  The  Laws  concerning  Sacrifices,  in  which  the  differ- 
ent kiiids  of  sacrifices  are  enumerated,  together  with  their 
concomitant  rites ,-  as, 

Sect.  1.  The  Burnt  Offering  (Lev.  i.),  which  prefigured  tha 
full,  perfect,  and  sufficient  sacrifice  of  Christ,  "  to  put  away 
sin ;"  and  who,  by  his  "  one  offering  hath  perfected  forever 
them  that  are  sanctified."  (Heb.  ix.  26.  x.  14.  1  John  i.  7.) 

Sect.  2.  The  Meat  Offerings.  (Lev.  ii.) 

Sect.  3.  The  Peace  Offering  (Lev.  iii.),  which  represented 
both  Christ's  oblation  of  himself,  whereby  he  became  our 
peace  and  salvation  (Eph.  ii.  14 — 16.  Acts  xiii.  47.  Heb. 
V.  9.  ix.  28.)  and  also  our  oblation  of  praise,  thanksgiving, 
and  prayer  to  God. 

Sect.  4.  The  Offeriiig  made  for  sins  of  ignorance  (Lev.  iv. 
v.),  which,  being  consumed  without  the  camp,  signified 
Christ's  suffering  "  without  the  gate,  that  he  might  sanctify 
the  people  with  his  own  blood."  (Heb.  xiii.  11 — 13.) 

Sect.  5.  The  Trespass  Offering  for  sins  knoivingly  com- 
mitted (Lev.  vi.  vii.),  in  which  sacrifice  the  guilt  was  con- 
sidered as  being  transferred  to  the  animal  offered  up  to  Je- 
hovah, and  the  person  offering  it,  as  redeemed  from  the 

3  "  Singula  sacrificia,  immo  sin^ulm  pene  syUabcn,  et  vestes  Aaron,  et 
totus  Ordo  Leviticus  spirant  ceelestia  sacramenta." — Epist.  ad  Paulinuci, 
§  7.  This,  and  the  subsequent  references  to  .Jerome's  Prefaces,  are  made 
to  the  collection  of  them,  which  is  prefixed  to  the  Frankfort  edition  of  the 
Latin  Vulgate.  (1826.  8vo  ) 


208 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Paiit  V.  Chap.  I 


penalty  of  sin.     Thus  Jesus  Christ  is  said  to  have  made  liis 
soul  an  offering  for  sin.  (Isa.  liii.  10.  with  2  Cor.  v.  21.) 
Part  II.   The  Inslituiion  of  the  Priesthood,  in  tvhich  the  con- 
secration of  daron  and  his  sons  to  the  sacred  ojjice  is  related, 
together  with  the  punishment  of  Nudab  and  Jil/iku.  (Lev. 
viii. — X.) 
Pa.rt  in.   The  Laws  concerning  Purifications  both  of  the  peo- 
ple and  the  Priests.  (Lev.  xi. — xxii.) 

Among  these,  the  regulations  concerning  leprosy  (xiii.)  as  re- 
presenting the  universal  taint  of  sin,  and  those  concerning 
the  scape-goat  and  the  great  day  of  atonement  (xvi.),  de- 
mand particular  attention;  as  typifying  the  death  and  resur- 
rection of  Christ,  and  the  atonement  made  therehy  (Heb. 
ix.  7 — 12.  24 — 27.)  ;  while  tlicy  at  the  same  time  inculcate 
the  hatf  fulness  of  fein,  and  the  necessity  of  internal  purity. 
Chapters  xviii.  and  xix.  contain  various  cautions  lo  the  Is- 
raelites to  avoid  the  sinful  practices  of  the  Egj-ptians  and 
Canaanitcs,  with  laws  adapted  to  the  peculiar  circumstances 
and  situations  of  the  children  of  Israel,  interspersed  with 
several  moral  precepts  inculcating  the  duties  of  humanity 
and  mercy,  and  the  necessity  of  strict  integrity. 

Part  IV.   7'Ac  Laws  concerning  the  Sacred  Festivals,  Vows, 
Things  devoted,  and  Tithes. 

Chapter  xxiii.  treats  of  the  seven  great  festi%-als,  viz.  the  Sab- 
bath, the  passover,  the  feast  of  first-fruits,  the  feast  of  Pente- 
cost, the  feast  of  trumpets,  the  great  day  of  atonement,  and 
the  feast  of  tabernacles.  The  celebration  of  these  solemn 
festivals  w.is  of  singular  use  for  maintaining  the  system  of 
divine  worsliip  among  the  Israelites  ;  for  distinguishing  them 
from  all  other  people  ;  for  the  solemn  commemoration  of  the 
many  and  great  benefits  conferred  on  them  by  Jehovah  ;  for 
tlic  preservation  and  continuance  of  the  public  ministry ; 
for  prescr^ing  purity  and  imity  in  divine  worship;  and, 
lastly,  for  prefiguring  the  manifold  and  great  blessings  be- 
stowed on  mankind  by  the  Messiah.  In  chap,  xxiv,  vari- 
ous ceremonial  and  judicial  rites  are  enjoined  :  and  in  chap. 
XXV.  is  recapitulated  the  law  respecting  the  sabbatical  year 
which  had  before  been  given  (see  Exod.  xxiii.  10,  11.)  ;  the 
observance  of  the  jubilee  is  enjoined,  with  various  precepts 
respecting  mercy,  benevolence,  &c.  The  jubilee  was  typi- 
cal of  the  great  time  of  release,  the  Gospel-dispensation. 
(See  Isa.  Ixi.  1 — 3.  with  Luke  iv.  19.)  Chap.  xxvi.  presents 
various  prophetic  promises  and  threatenings  which  have 
signally  been  fulfilled  among  the  Jews.  (Compare  v.  22. 
with  Num.  xxi.  6.  2  Kings  ii.  24.  and  xvii.  25.  with  Ezek. 
V.  17.)  The  preservation  of  the  Jews  to  this  day,  as  a  dis- 
tinct people,  is  a  living  comment  on  v.  44.  The  twenty- 
seventh  and  last  chapter  comprises  regulations  concerning 
VOWS,  and  things  devoted,  as  well  as  the  tithes  .which  were 
to  be  dedicated  to  the  service  of  the  tabernacle. 


SECTION  V. 


ON   THE    BOOK   OF   NUMBERS. 


I.  Title,  author,  date,  and  argument. — II.  Scope. — III.  Tyjyes 
of  the  jyfe.iftialt. — IV.  Prediction  of  the  Messiah. — V.  Chro- 
nolofftj. — VI.  Synopsis  of  it*  contents. — VII.  Oljserx-ations  on 
the  books  of  the  wars  of  the  Lord,  mentioned  in  JVumbera 
xzi.  14. 

I,  I.v  conformity  with  the  Hebrew  custom,  tliis  fourth  book 
of  Moses  is  usually  Icrinnd  •>3ti,  v«-j^DrtB'/K,  and  he  .spake, 
because  it  commences  with  that  word  in  the  orij^inal  text:  it 
is  also  called  naico,  wyiinwan,  ^^  Jn  the  Desert,"  whicii  is  the 
fifth  word  in  the  first  verse,  because  it  relates  the  transactions 
of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness.  By  the  Alexandrian 
translators  it  was  entitled  APie.MOi,  which  appellation  was 
adopted  by  the  Greek  fatlnrs  ;  and. by  the  L-.itiii  translators 
it  was  termed  Nunuri,  Numbers,  whc-nce  our  English  title  is 
derived  ;  because  it  contains  an  accoimt  of  the  niunbi-rinnr  of 
the  children  of  Israel,  related  in  chapters  i. — iii.  and  xxvi. 
It  appears  from  xxxvi.  1.3.  to  have  been  written  by  Moses  in 
the  plains  of  Moab.  Besides  the  numeration  and  marsiiallinpr 
of  the  Israelites  ff)r  their  journey,  several  laws  in  addition  to 
those  delivered  in  Exodus  and  Leviticus,  and  likewise  several 
remarkable  events,  are  recorded  in  this  book. 

II.  The  ScoPK  of  the  Hook  of  Numbers  is,  to  transmit  to 
posterity,  for  a  perpetual  example,  the  providential  care  of  the 


Almighty  over  the  Israelites,  during  their  wanderings  in  the 
wildirness,  and  the  temptations  and  muruiuriiigs  there  by 
which  they  provoked  and  offended  their  lleavenl)'  Protector; 
so  that,  at  length,  he  .'^ware  in  his  wrath  that  tluy  should  not 
enter  into  his  rest.  (Psal.  xcv.  11.)  St.  Paul,  warning  the 
converted  Hebrews,  expressly  stales  that  they  could  not^enter 
into  the  land  of  Canaan  because  of  their  unbelief  (Heb.  iii. 
ly.)  ;  and  in  1  Cor.  x.  1. — 11.  he  states  that  all  these  things 
happcnvduntu  them  for  ensamples,  and  they  are  written  f-r  our 
adntonilion.  The  method  pursued  in  this  book  is  precisely 
that  which  would  be  adopted  by  the  writer  of  an  itinerary  ; 
the  respective  stations  are  noted  ;  and  the  principal  occur- 
rences that  took  place  at  each  station  are  related,  omitting 
such  as  are  of  comparatively  less  importance.  This  circum- 
stance is  an  additional  internal  proof  that  Moses  was  the 
author  of  tlie  Book  of  Numbers,  which  is  cited  as  his  work 
in  many  parts  of  Scripture. 

III.  Types  of  tiik  Messiah,  in  this  book,  are.  The  Waier 
that  issued  from  the  Pock  (Num.  xx.  with  1  Cor.  x.  4.  1 1 .)  ;  and 
the  elevation  of  the  Brazen  Serpent.  (Num.  xxi.  with  John 
iii.  14.) 

IV.  This  book  contains  only  one  Prediction  concerning 
the  Messiah,  viz.  Numbers  xxiv.  17.  19.  which,  Rosenmijller 
and  some  other  eminent  biblical  critics  have  contended, 
cannot  apply  to  Jesus  Christ.  This  passage,  it  is  true,  in  its 
primary  and  literal  meaning,  intimates  that  from  the  ])eople 
of  Israel  shoi\ld  arise  a  mitrhty  prince,  who  would  obtain  an 
entire  conquest  and  bear  rule  over  the  kingdoms  of  Moab  and 
Edom :  and  it  was  fulfilled  in  David,  for  it  is  expressly 
recorded  of  him,  that  he  finally  subdued  those  nations. 
(2  Sam.  viii.  2.  14.)  But,  in  its  full  import,  it  has  invariably 
been  considered  as  referring  to  that  illustrious  personage,  of 
whom  David  was  a  type  and  a  progenitor  :  and  is,  in  fact,  a 
splendid  prediction  of  the  final  and  universal  sway  of  the 
Messiah,  when  the  middle  wall  of  partition  shall  be  broken 
down,  and  both  Jews  and  Gentiles  shall  become  cue  fold 
under  one  shepherd.  This  explanation  is  perfectly  consonant 
to  many  other  prophecies  concerning  the  Saviour  ;  which,  in 
similar  language,  describe  him  as  aciiuiring  dominion  over 
heathen  countries,  and  destroying  the  enemies  of  his  church : 
and  it  is  observable,  that,  iii  several  of  these  ancient  predic- 
tions, some  particular  opposers,  as  the  Moabites  and  Edom- 
ites,  are  put  for  the  "adversaries  of  the  Lord,"  in  general. 
(See  Psal.  ii.  8.  Ixxii.  8.  ex.  G.  Isa.  xi.  14.  and  xxv.  10.)' 

In  this  passage,  an  eminent  critic  observes,  that  Balaam, 
in  prophetic  vision,  descries  the  remote  coming  of  Shiloh, 
under  the  imagery  of  a  star  and  a  sceptre,  or  an  illustrious 
prince.  Though  it  was  foretold  that  "the  sceptre  should 
de])art  from  Judah"  at  his  coining,  this  proi)hecy  confirms  to 
him  a  proper  sceptre  of  his  own :  and  our  Lord  claimed  it 
when  he  avowed  himself  a  "A7n^"  to  Pilate,  but  declared 
that  his  "kingdom  was  not  of  this  world."  (John  xviii.  SO, 
37.)  This  branch  of  the  prophecy  was  fulfilled  about  IGOO 
years  after ;  when,  at  the  birth  of  Christ,  "  the  Magi  from 
the  East"  (who  are  supposed  by  Theophylact  to  have  been 
the  posterity  of  Balaam)  came  to  Jerusalem,  saying,  "Where 
is  the  [true]  born  king  of  the  Jewsl  for  we  have  seen  his 
star  at  its  rising,  and  are  come  to  worship  him.  "2  (Matt.  ii. 
1,2.; 

V.  The  book  of  Numbers  contains  a  history  of  the  Israel- 
ites, from  the  beginning  of  the  second  month  of  the  second 
year  after  their  departure  from  Egypt,  to  the  beginning  of 
the  eleventh  month  of  the  fortieth  year  uf  their  journeyings, 
— that  is,  aj)criod  of  thirtj'-eight  years  and  nine  or  ton  inontRs. 
((Compare  Num.  i.  and  xxxvi.  \',i.  with  Deut.  i.  3.)  Most 
of  the  transactions  here  recorded  took  place  in  the  second  and 
thirty-eighth  years :  the  dates  of  the  facts  related  in  the  middle 
of  the  book  caimot  be  i)rccisely  ascertained. 

VI.  According  to  the  Jewish  division,  this  portion  of  Holy 
Writ  contains  ten  paraschiolh  or  chapters ;  in  our  Bibles  it 

•  Robinson's  Scripture  Cliarnrtprs,  vol.  i.  n.  4S0.— The  same  aulhor  adds 
— "  JpsiiH,  tlicii,  U  Itic  '  .Star,'  wliich  Ilidnain  forrtold  ;  '  the  bri;;ht  nnrj  morn- 
ing mnr,'  wliicli,  'ihroucli  Ihc  loiidi-r  iiiiTcy  of  our  (JimI,  hath  vissilrcl  us' 
(Luke  i.  7S.  Rev.  xxii.  IC.) ;  niiil  lo  liirii  nloo  'llic  sccjuru'  of  uiilvtrsnl  go- 
vernment Is  rouiiiiillril.  '  He  shall  have  domiuion  ;'  lor  '  ho  nitisl  rrijtn  till 
hf  liaOi  put  iiUcncMiiesimiler  his  feet.'  (ICor.  xv.^'.)    Ualnnin  looked  for- 
wsrdio  the  lime  of  his  coininf;,  whicli  Is  iisunlly  called,  ns  inNuni.  xxiv.  U., 
'the  latter  day.t:'  and  concerning  him,  he  nan!,  'I  shall  see  hlin,  hut  nol 
now;  I  shall  hehoM  him,  l.iit  not  nigh  ;'  which  niighl  iutimale,  that  liis  ap- 
pcaranre  was  fur  removed,  ami  that  he  should  see  him  only  hy  the  spirit  of 
.,......>.,,.•    Hut  it  may  also  refer  lo  the  second  ailvent  of  the  Saviour,  when 

1  !i  Ilalnim  and  every  despiser  of  his  grace  '  sliiill  see  him'  in  hia 

ill  l>i-!iol.l  him,  hill  nol  nigh  :'  for  Ihcy  shall  he  driven  xut  from 

iiuii  ttiiii  shame  and  confusion,  and  '  be  punished  with  cverlaslins  destruc 

lion  from  ihe  presence  of  the  Lord,  and  from  the  glory  of  his  power." 

3  Dr.  Haies's  Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  ii.  book  I.  p.  229. 


Sect.  V.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  NUMBERS. 


209 


consists  of  thirty-six  chapters,  which  comprise  four  principal 

parts  or  sections. 

Part  I.   The  Census  of  the  Israelites,  comprising, 
Sect.  1.  The  enumeration  of  the  twelve  tribes,  and  the  mar- 
shalling of  them  into  a  regular  camp ;  "  each  tribe  by  itself 
under  its  own  captain  or  chief,  distinguished  by  its  own 
pecuhar  standard."   (Num.  i.  ii.) 

The  standards  or  banners  of  the  tribes  are  not  men- 
tioned by  Moses  (ii.  2.) ;  but  they  seem  to  be  pointed  out 
by  Rev.  iv.  7.  with  which  the  tradition  of  the  Jews  agrees. 
The  standard  of  Judah  is  a  lion ;  of  Reuben,  a  man ;  of 
Ephraim,  an  ox;  of  Dan,  an  eagle.  This  agrees  with 
the  vision  of  the  cherubic  figures  in  Ezekiel  i.  10.' 
Sect.  2.  The  sacred  or  ecclesiastical  census  of  the  Levites ; 
the  designation  of  them  to  the  sacred  office,  and  the  appoint- 
ment of  them  to  various  services  in  the  tabernacle,  (iii.  iv.) 
Besides  the  conveniency  which  would  naturally  result 
from  the  numeration  and  marshalling  of  the  tribes,  this 
census  would  demonstrate  to  the  Israelites  (as  it  does  to  us), 
how  faithful  God  had  been  to  the  promise  made  to  the  pa- 
triarchs Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  of  multiplying  and  pre- 
serving their  posterity.  By  this,  also,  they  were  preserved 
from  all  intermixture  with  their  vicious  and  idolatrous  neigh- 
bours ;  each  true-born  Israelite  being  obliged  and  enabled  to 
deliver  a  clear  account  of  the  tribe,  and  even  the  family, 
from  which  he  was  descended ;  which  was  of  still  higher 
and  more  special  importance  for  preserving  the  certain  and 
unexceptionable  genealogy  of  Christ  the  Messiah,  who  was 
to  be  born  of  this  nation,  according  to  original  and  repeated 
promise.2 

Part  II.  TTie  Institution  of  various  Legal  Ceremonies, — as, 
Sect.  1.  The  purification  of  the  camp,  by  the  removal  of  all 
unclean  persons  from  it,  and  the  trial  of  the  suspected  adul- 
teress by  the  waters  of  jealousy.  (Num.  v.) 

Sect.  2.  The  institution  of  the  Nazareate.  (vi.) 

Sect.  3.  An  account  of  the  oblations  made  to  the  tabernacle 

by  the  princes  or  heads  of  tribes,  (vii.) 
Sect.  4.  The  consecration  of  the  Levites.  (viii.) 
Sect   5.  The  celebration  of  the  passover.  (ix.) 
Sect.  6.  Regulations  concerning  the  moving  or  resting  of  the 

camp  of  Israel  during  their  progress,  (x.) 

Part  III.  The  History  of  their  Journey  from  Mount  Sinai  to 
the  Land  of  Moab,  comprising  an  Account  of  their  Eight 
Murmurings  in  the  Way. 

Sect.  1.  The  first  Murmuring  of  the  People  on  account  of 
the  length  of  the  -ways  which  was  punished  by  fire  at 
Taberah.  (xi.  1—3.) 

Sect.  2.   Their  Loathing  of  JManna,  and  Murmuring  for 

Flesh,  punished  by  the  sending  of  quails  and  a  pestilence. 

(xi.  4—35.) 
Sect.  3.  The  Murmuring  of  Aaron  and  Miriam  at  Moses, 

for  which  Miriam  was  smitten  with  a  leprosy,  but  was  healed 

at  the  intercession  of  Moses,   (xii.) 

Sect.  4.  The  instructions  given  to  the  spies  who  were  sent  to 
explore  the  promised  land,  and  their  "evil  report"  of  it. 
(xiii.)  The  Murmuring  of  the  People  at  Kadesh-Barnea  ; 
for  which  all  of  them,  who  were  twenty  years  old  and  up- 
ward, were  deprived  of  entering  into  Canaan :  and  the  men 
that  brought  up  "  the  evil  report  of  the  land  died  by  the 
plague,"  excepting  Joshua  and  Caleb.  In  ch.  xv.  some  or- 
dinances are  given  for  conducting  the  worship  of  Jehovah 
in  the  land  of  Canaan. 

Sect.  5.  The  Murjnuring  and  Rebellion  of  Korah,  Dathan, 
and  Abiram,  and  their  followers,  with  their  punishment, 
(xvi.  1—40.) 

Sect.  6.  The  Murmuring  of  the  People  against  Moses  and 
Aaron,  on  account  of  their  preceding  judgment,  and  their 
punishment,  with  Aaron's  intercession  for  them.^  (xvi.  41 

«  Reeves's  edition  of  the  Bible,  vol.  i.  on  Num.  ii.  2. 

»  Pyle's  Paraphrase,  &c.  on  the  Old  Test.  vol.  ii.  p.  150. 

» In  Aaron  making  intercession  for  the  rebel  Israelites,  we  behold  a 
lively  type  of  Jesus  Christ,  who  is  a  merciful  and  faithful  high-priest,  in 
things  pertaining  to  Qod,  to  make  intercessionfor  the  sins  of  i/ie  people. 


— 50.)  The  miraculous  budding  of  Aaron's  rod  among  the 
rods  of  the  tribes,  as  a  confirmation  of  his  priesthood,  and 
as  a  monument  against  the  rebels  (xvii.) ;  which  was  suc- 
ceeded by  some  directions  concerning  the  dignity  and  supe- 
riority of  the  priestly  office  over  that  of  the  Levites,  and 
respecting  the  maintenance  of  both  (xviii.),  together  with 
regulations  concerning  the  water  of  separation  made  with 
the  ashes  of  a  red  heifer,  and  its  use  for  the  purification  of 
those  who  were  unclean,  (xix.) 

Sect.  7.  Their  Murmuring  in  the  Desert  of  Zinfor  Water, 
the  unbelief  of  Moses,  the  perfidy  of  the  Edomites,  and 
Aaron's  death,  (xx.) 

Sect.  8.  Their  Murmuring,  as  "  they  journeyed  to  compass 
the  land  of  Edom,"  when  "  the  soul  of  the  people  was  dis- 
couraged because  of  the  length  of  the  way,"  and  also  their 
loathing  of  manna,  by  them  contemptuously  termed  "  light 
bread,"  for  which  they  were  punished  with  fiery  serpents, 
but  on  repentance  were  healed  by  looking  at  a  brazen  ser- 
pent, (xxi.) 

Part  IV.  A  History  of  the  Transactions  which  took  place 
in  the  Plains  of  Moab  (xxii. — xxxvi.)  ;  including, 

Sect.  1 .  The  machinations  of  their  enemies  against  them,  their 
frustration,  and  the  prophecies  of  Balaam  respecting  the 
Jews  and  their  enemies,"*  the  ensnaring  of  the  Israelites  to 
commit  idolatry  by  the  Moabites,  with  their  consequent 
punishment,  (xxii. — xxv.) 

Sect.  2.  A  second  enumeration  of  the  people  (xxvi.)  ;  in 
which  are  displayed  "  the  singular  providence  of  God,  and 
the  further  accomplishment  of  his  promise  to  the  patriarchs, 
in  multiplying  the  people  of  Israel  so  exceedingly,  that  in 
all  the  tribes  there  were  only  61,020  men"  less  than  at  the 
first  census,*  "  notwithstanding  the  whole  of  that  murmuring 
generation"  (with  the  exception  of  Joshua,  Caleb,  and  a 
few  others)  "perished  in  the  wilderness.''^ 

Sect.  3.  The  remaining  chapters  relate  the  appointment  of 
Joshua  to  be  the  successor  of  Moses,  and  various  regula- 
tions concerning  sacrifices,  and  the  partition  of  the  pro- 
mised land,  (xxvii. — xxxvi.)  The  thirty-third  chapter  con- 
tains a  recapitulation  of  the  several  stages  of  the  journey- 
ings  of  the  Israelites.  As  the  best  elucidation  of  this  subject, 
the  reader  is  referred  to  the  accompanying  Map,  together 
with  the  table  on  the  following  page. 

(Heb.  ii.  17.)  "Does  not  He,  while  the  pestilence  of  sin  is  raging  in  the 
world  at  large,  or  in  the  bodies  of  individuals,  stand  between  us  and  sin 
with  the  incense  of  his  intercession,  and  the  offering  of  his  blood,  and 
make  an  atonement  and  stay  the  plague,  and  death  eternal,  to  all  who  have 
a  lively  faith  in  Him'?  He  is  able  to  save  them  unto  the  tittermost  that 
come  unto  God  by  hiin,  seeing  he  ever  liveth  to  make  intercessionfor  them. 
(Heb.  vii.  25.)"  Plumptre's  Popular  Commentary  on  the  Bible,  vol.  i. 
p.  253. 

*  On  the  accomplishment  of  all  these  prophecies  delivered  by  Balaam, 
consult  Bishop  Newton's  Dissertations,  vol.  i.  diss.  v.  and  the  Dissertation 
sur  les  Projihoties  de  Balaam,  in  the  Bible  de  Vence,  torn.  iii.  pp.  274 — 313. 
"Though  God  had  probably  rejected  Balaam  as  an  apostate  prophet,  he 
deigned  to  employ  him  on  this  signal  occasion  as  the  herald  of  the  divine 
oracles ;  to  illustrate  the  impotcncy  of  the  heathen  arts,  and  to  demonstrate 
the  power  and  foreknowledge  of  the  Divine  Spirit."  (Bp.  Gray.)  Bishop 
Butler  has  a  fine  discourse  on  the  character  of  Balaam,  Works,  vol.  i. 
serm.  vii. 

'  Roberts's  Clavis  Bibliorum,  p.  26.  The  following  comparative  state- 
ment will  show  how  much  some  of  the  tribes  had  increased,  and  others 
had  diminished,  since  the  first  enumeration ; — 


Ch.i. 

Ch.  xjrvi 

Reuben 

46,500 

43,730 

Simeon 

59,300 

22,200 

Gad 

45,650 

40,500 

Judah 

74,600 

76,500 

Issachar     . 

54,400 

64,300 

Zebulon 

57,400 

60,500 

Manasseh  . 

32,200 

52,700 

Ephraim     . 

40,500 

.        32,500 

Benjamin  . 

35,400 

45,600 

Dan 

62,700 

.        64,400 

Asher 

41,500 

53,400 

Naphtali     . 

53,400 

45,400 

Tot 

al  603,550 

601,730 

2,770 

37,100 
5,150 
1,900 
9,900 
3,100 

a0,50O 
6,000 

10,200 
1,700 

11,900 
8,000 

1,820 


decrease 
decrease 
decrease 
increase 
increase 
increase 
increase 
decrease 
increase 
increase 
increase 
decrease 

decrease  on  the 
v>hole  in  3  years. 


Decrease  in  all  61,020.    Increase  in  all  59,020 
Ch.  iii.  Ch.  xrvi. 

Levites  22,300       ;       23,300       .       increase  1,000 

Mr.  Reeves's  edition  of  the  Bible  with  Notes,  on  Num.  xxvi.  62. 
Dr.  A.  Clarke  on  Num.  xxvi.  51. 

»  Roberts's  Clavis  Bibliorum,  p.  26.  §  4. 


Vol.  II. 


3D 


210 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Paht  V.  Chap.  I' 


TABLE  OF  THE  STATION'S  OF  THE  ISRAELITES  IN  THE 
WILDERNESS.' 

(.From  Dr.  Haka' a  Analysis  of  Chronology,  Vol.  /./jp.  395— 100.) 


15. 


20. 


40 


•  S 


1.  Rameses,  near  Cairo 

2.  Succoth 

3.  Ethain,  or  Adsjcnid 

4.  Pihahiroth,  or  Valley  of  ^ 

Betlea 

5.  Shur ;— Ain  Musa 

6.  Desert    of    Slmr,    or 

Elham 

7.  Marah,— "  bitter"    wa-  f 

tors  henled         .         .  \ 

8.  Elim,  Valley  of  Corondel 

9.  Encampmeut    by    the ) 

Kert  Sea     .        .        .\ 

10.  Desert  of  Sin,  Valley  of  ^ 

U.Tharan     .        .        .  S 
Manna,  for  forty  years 
Quails,  for  8  day  . 
Sabbath    renewed,  or 

revived 

11.  Dopkah.    . 

12.  Aluth     .... 

13.  nephidim 

Water,  from  the  rock  ) 
Ma.ssah      .        .        .\ 
Amalekites  defeated 
Jethro's  visit 
Judges  appointed     . 

14.  Mount  Sinai,  or  lloreb 
The  Decalogue  given 
The  Cijvenant  made     . 
The  Golden  Calf     . 


E.xod.  xii. 

xii. 

xiii. 

—  xiv. 


XV. 
XV. 


:i 


The  Covenant  renewed 
The    first   Muster,  or 

Numbering 
The  Tabernacle  erected 
Aaron  cpnsecrated  and  i 

his  sons     .       .        .\ 
Sacrifices  of  Atonement 
The  second  Passover  . 
Tlie  second  Muster 
Nadab  and  Abihu  de 

Btroyed 

15.  Desert  of  Faran 

16.  Taberah 
Murmuring  of  the  pco-  i 

plo      .         .         .         .  < 

17.  Kibioih  nattaavah,  orj 

Tophel      .        .        .< 

Quails,  for  a  month  . 
Plague  of  the  People    . 
Council  of  LXX.  ap- 
pointed 

18.  Hazcroth         : 

Miriam's  Leprosy 

19.  KadPshHarnea,inRith-) 

mah,  or  "the  De- > 
scrt"  of  Sin,  or  Paran  ) 

Tw.-'Ivc  Spies  sent   . 

Thi.ir  return 

The  people  rebel    . 

Sentenced  to  wander ) 
forty  years        .        .  \ 

Ten  of  the  Spies  dc- } 
stroycd      .        .        .  s 

The  People  defeated  by  ) 
the  Arnnlekiica         .  \ 

R»-brllion  of  Korah,  &c. 

Bu'Mitig  of  Aaron's  Rod 

20.  Rinimon  Parcz 

21.  I.ibnah,  orLcban 
■/2.  Rissah     . 

■/■'..  Kil.flathah  . 
21.  .Miiiint  Shaphar 
23.  Ilaradath,  or 

Hazar  Addar,  or  Ad&r 


ac.  Makeloth 

27.  Tahath     . 

28.  Tarath  . 

29.  Mitcah 

3U.  Ita.shnionah,  or 

Aunon,  or  Sclroonah 


31. 
.32. 

;n, 

31. 
35. 


lieeroth    . 

Mo.scroth,  or  Moacra 
Hon<'jnakan,  or  Hanca 
Mr'  !"nd,  or 


Ktcbatlia,  or  Elath 


.36.  Dirona 

'ir.  K/.K.ii  rjcbcr,  or 

l>i/.ahnb    . 
38.  Kadaiih  Dnmpa 
after  .3-^  yrars 

Miriajii'K  Death 


XVI. 

XV  i. 


37. 
37. 
20. 


22. 

23. 

27. 


13. 
35. 

23. 


—  xvii. 

—  xvii. 

—  xviii. 

—  xviii. 

—  xi.x. 
-r-  .\x. 

—  xxiv. 

—  x.txii. 
Neh.   i.x. 
Exod.  xxxiv. 

xxxviii 

xl. 

Lev.  viii. 

i.x. 

Num.  ix. 

iii. 

Lev.  X. 
Num.  X. 

—  X. 

—  xi. 

—  xi. 
Deut.  i. 


1. 

6. 

13. 
5. 

25. 
1. 
1. 
7. 

.IS 

27. 

.20. 

17. 

6. 

I. 
5. 
3. 

:1 

12. 
33. 

3. 


Num. 
Deut. 
Nuin 

xi. 
xii. 

Num 

xii. 
xxxii 

xiii. 
xiii. 
xiv. 

XIV. 

xxxii. 
xiv. 

xiv. 

XV  i. 
xvii. 


Deut.  i. 


Num.  xxxlv. 
Josh.  XV. 


Num.  XX. 

.loHh.    XV. 

Deut.  X. 


1:( 

10. 

■|:( 

2. 

26. 

2. 

33.? 

13.^ 

37. 

45. 

1. 
10. 


l\ 


again 


:i 


ii. 

1  Kings  ix.        26 


i\ 


DcuL  i. 

1. 

11. 

11. 

Num.  XX. 

1. 

Nuiu.xxxiii.  3. 

—  xxxiii.  3. 

—  xxxiii.  5. 

—  xxxiii.  7. 


•  xxxiii.  6. 

■  xxxiii.  8. 
'  xxxiii.  9. 
-  xxxiii.  10. 

■  xxxiii.  II. 


•  xxxiii.  12. 
.  xxxiii.  13. 
'  xxxiii.  11. 


'  xxxiii.  15. 


'  xxxiii.  16. 

•  xxxiii.  17. 
xxxiii.  18. 


Y. 

M. 

D. 

Water  from  the  rock; 

Meribah    .        .        .  S 

Moses  and  Aaron  offend 

Num.  XX. 

XX. 

13. 

12.; 
14.5 

xx\n. 

39. 

Mount  Hor,  or  Seir,  on  ) 
the  edge  of  Edom    .  \ 

!^. 

Num.  xxxiii.  37 

XX. 

Aaron's  Death 

XX. 

23. 

xxxiu.  33. 

40 

5. 

King  Arad  attacks  the  ^ 
Israelites  .        .        .  S 

xxi. 

1. 

40. 

Kibroth  Ilatataavab,  or ) 

Deut.  1. 

1. 

Tophel,  again    .        .  \ 

41. 

Zahiionah,  or  Hashmo- ) 
nah,  again                 .  S 

The  People   bitten   by  ) 
fiery  Sorpents  .        .  S 

The    Brazen    Serpent  / 
erected      .        .        .  S 

Num.  xxi. 

8. 

xxxiii.  41, 

12. 

Punon 

x.xxiii.  42. 

13. 

Oboth   .... 

xxi. 

10. 

xxxiii.  43, 

■11. 

Jim,  or  Jie  Abarim  in  ) 

xxxiii.  44. 

the  border  of  Moab  .  s 

45. 

The  valley  and  brook  \ 
Zered        .        .        .  S 

xxi. 

Deut.  ii. 

12. 
13. 

46. 

Arnon 

Num.  xxi. 

12. 

47. 

Beer,  or  Beer  Elim     . 

xxi. 

Isaiah  xv. 

16. 

8. 

48. 

.Tahaz 

.Num.  xxi. 

23. 

49. 

Ileshbon 
Sihon  defeated 

xxi. 

24. 

50. 

Jaazar  .... 

xxi. 

32. 

51. 

Edrei 

Og  defeated . 

xxi. 

33. 

53. 

Dibon  Gad 

5.3. 

Ahnon  Diblathaim 

Ezek.  vi. 

14. 

xxxiii.  45 

51. 

Mattanah . 

Num.  xxi 

18. 

xxxiii.  46. 

55. 

Nahiliel 

xxi. 

19. 

.56. 

Bamoth.   . 

xxi. 

19. 

57. 

Pi.sgah  .... 

xxi. 

20. 

.53. 

Abariui    . 

t 

59. 

Shiitim,  or  Abel  Shit- ) 

tim     .        .        .        .  S 

Num.  XXV. 

w 

xxxiii.  47 

In  llie  Plains  of  Moab 

Josh.  iii. 

xxxiii.  48. 

Idolatry  of  Baal  Peor  . 

Num.  xxT. 

3. 

Midianites  punished 

XXV. 

17. 

The  third  Muster. 

xxvi. 

2. 

40. 

11. 

1. 

Last  exhortation  of  Moses 

Deut.  i. 

2. 

10. 

12. 

1. 

Jodhua   appointed    his^ 
successor .       .        .  5 

Num.  xxvii. 

13. 

Deut.  xxxiv. 

9. 

Death  of  Moses 

xxxiv. 

5. 

A  Month's  Mourning    . 

xxxiv. 

8. 

41. 

1. 

1. 

60. 

Joshua  sends  two  Spies 

Josh.  ii. 

1. 

41. 

1. 

10. 

Passage  of  the   river  ^ 

Jordan       .        .        .  S 

iv. 

29. 

'  xxxiii.  19. 
.  xxxiii.  20. 
■  xxxiii.  21. 

•  xxxiii.  22, 

•  xxxiii.  '.ii 

'  xxxiii.  21. 


xxxiii.  25. 
xxxiii.  20. 
xxxiii.  27. 
xxxiii.  2fl. 
xxxiii.  29. 


xxxiii.  30. 
x.txiii.  31 
xxxiii  32. 

xxxiii.  33. 


•  xxxiii.  3). 
'  xxxiii.  35. 

.  xxxiii.  30. 


•  in  the  Bible  de  Vcnce,  torn.  Iii.  pp.  30.') — ^ItJS.  there  is  an  elaborate  Oco- 
(raphical  DiMcrtatloa  sur  let  xiii.  Statioua  dca  Uraelllct. 


VII.  Few  passages  in  the  Pentateuch  have  more  exercised 
the  ingenuity  of  biblical  critics,  than  the  Book  of  the  JVarsof 
the  Lord  mentioned  iti  Num.  xxi.  M.  Aben-E/.ra,  Hottin- 
ger,  and  others,  are  of  opinion  that  it  refers  to  this  book  of 
the  Pentateuch,  because  in  it  are  related  various  battles  of  the 
Israelites  with  the  Amorites :  Hezelius,  and  after  him  Mi- 
chaelis,  think  it  was  an  Amoritish  \\-riting,  containing  tri- 
umphal songs  in  honour  of  the  victories  obtained  by  fsihon 
king  of  the  Amorites,  from  which  Moses  cited  the  words  that 
immediately  follow.  Fonscca  and  some  others  refer  it  to  the 
book  of  Judges.  Le  Clerc  understands  it  of  the  wars  of  the 
Israelite.?,  who  fought  under  the  direction  of  .Jehovah,  and, 
instead  of  book,  he  translates  it,  with  most  of  the  Jewish 
doctors,  narration ;  and  proposes  to  render  the  verse  thus:— 
"  Wherefore,  in  the  narration  of  tlie  wars  of  the  Lord,  tliere 
is  (or  shall  be)  mention  of  what  he  did  in  the  Red  Sea,  and 
in  the  brooks  of  Arnon." — Lastly,  Dr.  Lightfoot  considers 
this  book  to  have  been  some  book  of  remembrances  and  direc- 
tions written  by  Moses  for  Joshua's  private  instniction,  for 
the  prosecvitioa  of  the  wars  after  his  decease.  (See  Exod. 
xvii.  11 — 16.)  This  opinion  appears  to  us  the  most  simple, 
and  is,  in  all  probability,  the  true  one. 


SECTION  VI. 

ON  THE  BOOK  OF  DEUTERONOMY. 

I.  Title,  dale,  and  chronology, — II.  Scope, — III.  Predictiona 
of  the  JMessiah. — IV.  Synopsis  of  contents. — V.  Observa- 
tions.— Tiililc  or  harmony  of  the  ^Mosaic  law, 

I.  The  Jews  call  this  fifth  book  of  Moses  o'"Oin  nSn 
(Ai,fH  H«ocn«niM),  that  is,  "ThcJieare  theitxjrda"  because  the 
orifjinal  commences  with  these  words :  by  some  rabbins  it  is 
called  n"Mn  n«'D  (m/snoi  toroh),  or  the  repetition  of  the  law, 
while  others  tenn  it  nco  nnsin  (sfPHCR  tukhhuth),  or  the 
n(xjk  of  /{i/tnxfs,  on  accDunt  of  the  numerous  reproofs  of  the 
Israelites  by  Moses.  The  Greeks  and  Latins  respectively 
cull  it  AF.TTRPONOMION,  Deulcronomium  (whence  our 
English  title  Deuteronomy  is  derived),  that  is  lo  say,  th%. 


-  oy  jnr.  newieii,  luiroa.  to  Jjcut.  m  vol.  I.  Of  tijs  Commentary  on  the  I     «  On  the  prophecies  contained  in  this  chapter,  see  Bishop  Nowton,  vol.  i 
Bible,  Ito  edit.  I  ()i6?,  vli, 


ftECT.    "VX 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  DEUTERONOMy. 


211 


second  law  \^:^vTipc,;  N'o^uoc),  because  it  contains  a  second  state- 
ment of  the  laws  whicli  Moses  had  formerly  promulgated  to 
the  Israelites.  From  a  comparison  of  Deut.  i.  5.  with  xxxiv. 
1.  it  appears  to  have  been  written  by  Moses  on  the  plains  of 
Moab,  a  short  time  before  his  death ;  and  this  circumstance 
will  account  for  that  affectionate  earnestness  with  which  he 
addresses  the  Israelites.  The  period  of  time  comprised  in  this 
book  is  five  luriar  weeks,  or,  according  to  some  cnronologers, 
about  two  months,  viz.  from  the  first  day  of  the  eleventh 
month  of  the  fortieth  year  after  the  exodus  of  Israel  from 
Egypt,  to  the  eleventh  day  of  the  twelfth  month  of  the  same 
year,  a.  m.  2553,  b.  c.  1451.  From  the  account  of  Moses's 
death  recorded  in  the  thirty-fourth  chapter  of  this  book,  and 
the  insertion  of  some  explanatory  words  in  other  parts  of 
Deuteronomy,  it  has  been  insinuated  that  Moses  could  not 
have  been  its  author  :  but  the  following  remark  will  clearly 
prove  this  notion  to  be  unfounded.  The  words  of  Moses  (as 
we  have  already  had  occasion  to  remark)  evidently  conclude 
with  the  thirty-third  chapter :  the  thirty-fourth  was  added  to 
complete  the  history,  the  first  eight  verses  probably  imme- 
diately after  his  death  by  his  successor  Joshua,  the  last  four 
by  some  latfer  writer,  probably  Samuel  or  Ezra,  or  some  pro- 
phet that  succeeded  Samuel.  Another  and  equally  satisfac- 
tory solution  of  this  diflEiculty  is  the  following ;  viz.  that  what 
now  forms  the  last  chapter  of  Deuteronomy,  was  formerly  the 
first  of  Joshua,  but  was  removed  thence,  and  joined  to  Deu- 
teronomy by  way  of  supplement.  This  opinion  will  not 
appear  improbable,  when  it  is  considered  that  sections  and 
other  divisions,  as  well  as  points  and  pauses,  were  invented 
long  since  these  books  were  \\T:itten :  for,  in  those  early  ages 
several  books  were  connected  together,  and  followed  each 
other  on  the  same  roll.  The  beginning  of  one  book  might, 
therefore,  be  easily  transferred  to  the  end  of  another,  and  in 
process  of  time  be  considered  as  its  real  conclusion,  as  in  the 
case  of  Deuteronomy ;  especially  as  the  supplemental  chapter 
contains  an  account  of  the  last  transactions  and  death  of  the 
great  author  of  the  Pentateuch. ' 

II.  The  Scope  of  the  book  of  Deuteronomy  is,  to  repeat  to 
the  Israelites,  before  Moses  left  them,  the  chief  laws  of  God 
which  had  been  given  to  them ;  that  those  who  were  not  born 
at  the  time  when  they  were  originally  delivered,  or  were  in- 
capable of  understanding  them,  might  be  instructed  in  these 
laws,  and  excited  to  attend  to  them,  and,  consequently,  be 
better  prepared  for  the  promised  land  upon  which  they  were 
entering.  With  this  view  the  sacred  historian  recapitulates 
the  various  mercies  which  God  had  bestowed  upon  them  and 
their  forefathers,  from  their  departure  out  of  Egypt ;  the  vic- 
tories which  by  divine  assistance  they  had  obtained  over  their 
enemies ;  their  rebellion,  ingratitude,  and  chastisements.  The 
moral,  ceremonial,  and  judicial  laws  are  repeated  with  addi- 
tions and  explanations ;  and  the  people  are  urged  to  obedience 
in  the  most  affectionate  manner,  from  the  consideration  of  the 
endearing  promises  made  to  them  by  God,  which  he  would 
assuredly  perform,  if  they  did  not  frustrate  his  designs  of 
mercy  by  their  own  wilful  obstinacy.  That  no  person  might 
thereafter  plead  ignorance  of  the  divine  law,  he  commanded 
that  it  should  be  read  to  all  the  people  at  the  end  of  every 
seventh  year;  and  concluded  his  ministerial  labours  among 
the  Israelites  by  a  most  admirable  ode,  which  he  commanded 
every  one  to  learn,  and  by  giving  his  prophetic  benediction 
to  the  twelve  tribes. 

III.  This  book  contains  only  one  Prophecy  relative  to 
THE  Messiah,  viz.  Deut.  xviii.  15.  18,  19.,  which  was  ful- 
filled fifteen  hundred  years  after  it  had  been  delivered,  and  is 
expressly  applied  to  Jesus  Christ  in  Acts  iii.  22,  23.  and  vii. 
37.  ;2  it  also  comprises  several  very  remarkable  predictions 
relative  to  the  Israelites,  some  of  which  are  fulfilled  before 
our  eyes.  "  These  prophecies,"  it  has  been  justly  remarked,^ 
"  become  more  numerous  and  distinct  towards  the  close  of 
his  life.  His  denunciations  with  respect  to  the  future  state 
of  the  Israelites ;  the  sufferings,  the  dispersions,  and  the  de- 
vastations to  which  they  were  to  be  subject ;  the  prophetic 
blessings  which  he  pronounced  on  the  different  tribes  by 
name ;  the  clear  foresight  which  he  had  of  the  rapid  victories 
of  their  invaders,  and  of  the  extreme  miseries  which  they 
were  to  experience  when  besieged ;  his  express  predictions 
relating  to  the  future  condition  of  the  Jews,  which  we  see 

»  Alexander's  Hebrew  and  English  Pentateuch,  cite_  by  Dr.  Clarke  on 
Deut.  xxxiv.,  who  is  of  opinion  that  this  chapter  stiould  constitute  the  first 
chapter  of  the  book  of  Joshua. 

*  On  the  accomplishment  of  this  prediction,  see  Vol.  I.  ch.  I.  Sec.  II.  App. 
Bishop  Newton's  Sixth  Dissertation,  and  Dr.  Jortin's  Remarks  on  Ecclesi- 
astical History,  vol.  i.  pp.  130—149.  edit.  1768. 

»  By  Mr.  Hewlett,  lutrod.  to  Deut  in  vol.  i.  of  his  Commentary  on  the 
Bible,  Ito  edit. 


accomplished  m  the  present  day :— all  the^e  circumstances, 
when  united,  bear  ample  testimony  to  the  truth  and  authen- 
ticity of  this  sacred  book,  and  present  to  our  minds  a  memo- 
rable instance  of  the  divine  justice." 

IV.  The  Jews  divide  this  book  into  ten  paraschioth  or 
chapters  :  in  our  Bibles  it  consists  of  thirty-four  chapters,  the 
contents  of  which  may  be  arranged  under  the  four  tollowino- 
heads : —  ° 

Paut  I.  ^  Repetition  of  the  History  related  in  the  preceding 
Books;  comprising. 

Sect.  1.  A  relation  of  the  events  that  took  place  in  the  wilder- 
ness, from  their  leaving  Mount  Horeb  until  their  arrival  at 
Kadesh.  (Deut.  i.) 

Sect.  2.  Their  journey  from  Kadesh  till  they  came  to  the  land 
of  the  Amorites,  and  the  defeat  of  Sihon  their  king,  and  of 
Og  king  of  Bashan,  together  with  the  division  of  their  terri- 
tories among  the  tribes  of  Reuben  and  Gad  and  the  half 
tribe  of  Manasseh.  (ii.  iii.) 

Sect.  3.  An  exhortation  to  obey  the  divine  law,  and  to  avoid 
idolatry,  founded  on  their  past  experience  of  the  goodness 
of  God.  (iv.) 

Part  II.  A  Repetition  of  the  Moral,  Ceremonial,  and  Judicial 
Law ;  containing, 

Sect.  1.  Jl  Repetition  of  the  Jtforal  Law  or  Ten  Command- 
ments (v.  1 — 22.)  and  its  effect  upon  the  people  of  Israel 
(v.  22 — 33.)  ; — an  exposition  of  the  first  commandment, 
with  an  exhortation  to  love  God  with  all  their  hearts  (vi.)  ; 
— an  exposition  of  the  second  commandment  against  idola- 
try, prohibiting  any  intercourse  with  the  idolatrous  nations, 
and  enjoining  the  extirpation  of  the  Canaanites  and  every 
vestige  of  their  idolatry  (vii.)  ; — strong  motives  to  obedi- 
ence, arising  from  a  review  of  their  past  mercies,  and  from 
the  consideration  that  Jehovah  was  about  to  conduct  them 
into  the  promised  land,  not  on  account  of  their  own  right- 
eousness, but  of  his  great  mercy,  (viii.  ix.  x.  xi.) 
Sect.  2.  .?  Repetitioii  of  the  Ceremonial  La\u  (xii. — xvi.)  ; 
— a  .command  to  abolish  all  idolatr)',  and  regulations  for  the 
worship  of  God  (xii.)  ; — laws  against  false  prophets,  and 
idolatrous  cities  (xiii.)  ; — prohibition  against  disfiguring 
themselves  in  mourning  (xiv.  1,  2.)  ; — a  recapitulation  of 
the  law  concerning  clean  and  unclean  animals  (xiv.  3 — 21.), 
— and  the  payment  of  tithes  to  the  Levites  (xiv.  22 — 29.)  ; 
— regulations  concerning  the  year  of  release  (xv.)  ; — con- 
cerning the  stated  annual  feasts,  the  Passover,  Pentecost, 
and  Feast  of  Tabernacles  (xvi.  1 — 17.)  ; — the  election  of 
judges,  and  administration  of  justice  (xvi.  18 — 20.)  ; — a 
prohibition  against  planting  groves  or  setting  up  idols  near 
the  altar  of  God.  (xvi.  21,  22.) 
Sect.  3.  A  Repetition  and  Exposition  of  the  Judicial  Law 
(x^^i. — xxvi.)  ; — a  command  to  put  idolaters  to  death,  regu- 
lations for  determining  difficult  controversies,  and  concern- 
ing the  election  and  qualifications  of  a  king  (xvii.)  ; — the 
maintenance  of  the  priests  and  Levites  (xviii.  1 — 8.)  ; — 
cautions  against  following  the  abominations  of  the  Gentile 
nations,  especially  divination  (xviii.  9 — 14.)  ; — a  prediction 
relative  to  the  great  prophet  that  should  arise  (xviii.  15 — 
19.)  ; — criteria  for  distinguishing  false  prophets  from  true 
ones  (xviii.  20 — 22.)  ; — laws  relative  to  the  cities  of  refuge 
(xix.  1 — 10.),  the  treatment  of  murderers  (xix.  11 — 13.), 
and  the  evidence  of  witnesses  (xix.  15 — 21.)  ; — laws  con- 
cerning war  and  the  treatment  of  the  Canaanites  (xx.)  ; — the 
expiation  of  uncertain  murder,  marriage  with  captives, 
rights  of  the  first-born,  punishment  of  a  disobedient  son, 
&c.  (xxi.)  ; — regulations  concerning  things  lost  or  strayed, 
the  distinguishmg  of  the  sexes  by  their  apparel,  punishment 
of  adultery,  «&c.  (xxii.)  ; — who  may  or  may  not  enter  into 
the  congregation — prohibition  against  all  uncleanness — 
regulations  concerning  usury,  vows,  and  trespasses  (xxiii.)  ; 
^-of  divorces,  the  privileges  of  newly  married  men,  pledges, 
manstealing,  wages,  the  execution  of  justice,  and  gleanings 
(xxiv.)  ; — concerning  lawsuits  and  punishments,  weights 
and  measures,  &c.  (xxv.)  : — ceremonies  to  be  observed  in 
offering  first-fruits  (xxvi.  1 — 15.)  ; — the  covenant  between 
God  and  the  Israelites,  (xxvi.  1 6 — 1 9.) 
Part  III.  The  Confirmation  of  the  Law ,-  for  which  purpoi^ 
the  law  was  to  be  written  on  stones,  aim  set  up  on  iiount 
Ebal,  (xxvii.) ; — prophetic  promises  to  the  obedient,  and 
curses 'against  the  disobedient  (xxviii.);' — an  exhortation  to 
obedience  from  a  review  of  their  past  mercies,  and  to  dedicate 

*  On  the  prophecies  contained  In  tliis  chapter,  see  Bishop  Nowton,  vol.  i 
(Jib?,  vii, 


212 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Past  V.  Chap.  I 


themselves  and  their  posterity  to  God  (xxix.)  ; — promises  of 
pardtm  to  the  repentant  (xxx.  1 — 14.)  ; — good  and  evil  set 
before  them.  (xxx.  15 — 20.) 

Part  IV.   The  Personal  History  of  Moses,  until  his  Death  ,- 
containing, 

Sect.  1.  His  appointment  of  Joshua  to  be  his  successor  (xxxi. 
1 — 8.)  ; — and  his  delivery  of  a  copy  of  the  law  to  the  priests, 
to  be  deposited  in  the  ark,  and  pubhcly  read  every  seventh 
year  (xxxi.  9 — 14.)  ; — a  solemn  charge  given  to  Joshua, 
&c.  (xxxi.  15-^27.) 

Sect.  2.  The  people  convened  to  hear  the  prophetical  and  his- 
torical ode  of  Moses  (xxxi.  28 — 30.),  which  occupies  nearly 
the  whole  of  chapter  xxxii. 

Sect.  3.  His  prophetic  blessing  of  the  twelve  tribes,  and  their 
peculiar  felicity  and  privilege  in  having  Jehovah  for  their 
God  and  protector,  (xxxiii.) 

Sect.  4.  The  death  and  burial  of  Moses,  (xxxiv.) 

V.  "  The  book  of  Deuteronomy  and  the  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brews contain  tlie  best  comment  on  the  nature,  desio-n,  and 
use  of  the  law  :  the  former  may  be  considered  as  an  evan- 

gelical  commentary  on  the  four  precedincr  books,  in  wliich 
le  spiritual  reference  and  signification  of  the  different  parts 
of  the  law  are  given,  and  given  in  such  a  manner  as  none 
could  give,  who  had  not  a  clear  discovery  of  the  glory  which 
was  to  be  revealed.  It  may  be  safely  asserted  that  very  few 
parts  of  the  Old  Testament  Scriptures  can  be  read  with 
greater  profit  by  the  genuine  Christian  than  the  book  of  Deu- 
teronomy."' 

The  prophetic  ode  of  Moses  is  one  of  the  noblest  composi- 
tions in  the  sacred  volume  ;  it  contains  a  justification  on  the 
part  of  God  against  the  Israelites,  and  an  explanation  of  the 
nature  and  design  of  the  divine  judgments.  The  exordium. 
Bishop  Lowth  remarks,  is  singularly  magnificent :  the  plan 
and  conduct  of  the  poem  is  just  and  natural,  and  well  accom- 
modated to  the  subject,  for  it  is  almost  in  the  order  of  an  his- 
torical narration.  It  embraces  a  variety  of  subjects  and  sen- 
timents ;  it  displays  the  truth  and  justice  of  God  ;  his  pater- 
nal love,  and  his  unfailing  tenderness  to  his  chose^  people; 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  their  ungrateful  and  contumacious 
spirit.— The  ardour  of  the  divine  indignation,  and  the  heavy 
denunciations  of  vengeance,  are  afterwards  expressed  in  a 
remarkable  personification,  which  is  not  to  be  paralleled  from 
all  the  choicest  treasures  of  the  muses.  The  fervour  of 
wratli  is  however  tempered  with  the  mildest  beams  of  lenity 
and  mercy,  and  ends  at  last  in  promises  and  consolation.  The 
eubject  and  style  of  this  poem  near  so  exact  a  resemblance  to 
the  prophetic  as  well  as  to  the  lyric  compositions  of  the  He- 
brews, that  it  unites  all  the  force,  energy,  and  boldness  of  the 
latter,  with  the  exquisite  variety  and  grandeur  of  the  former,^ 
The  following  useful  Table  or  Harmony  of  the  entire 
Jewish  law,  digested  into  proper  heads,  with  references  to 
the  several  parts  of  the  Pentateuch  where  the  respective  laws 
occur,  will  assist  the  IJible  student  in  investigating  the  tenor 
and  design  of  the  Mosaic  Institutes,  and  also  facilitate  his 
references  to  every  part  of  them.  It  is  copied  from  Mr.  Wil- 
son's •'  Archaeological  Dictionary,"  article  Law  ;  where  it  is 
stated  to  be  "  taken  from  a  manuscript  in  the  Library  of  St. 
John  Baptist's  College"  (Oxford),  "given  by  Archbishop 
Laud,"  and  probably  either  compiled  by  him  or  by  his  direc- 
tion. It  is  divided  into  three  classes,  exhibiting  the  Moral, 
Ceremonial,  and  Political  Law. 

The  First  Class. 

The  JMoral  Lavs  -written  on  the  Two  Tables,  containin:'-  the 
Ten  Commandments. 


Tho  first  Table,  which  Includes 
The  Fifbt  Coiiiiiiaiiilineril,   . 

The  Second  Coiuinandinent,    . 

Tl>o  Third  Comtnaiidment, 

The  Fourth  Comniajidmcnt,    . 

Tho  Horond  Tnlilo,  including 
Tho  Fifth  ('iiiimiiindiiinni,    . 
Th(!  Hixili  CiiiniiiFiiiiliMcnt, 
Tho  Srvrnlh  C'ornin.'diitriicnt, 
The  Eightli  ('iiiiuii.-iiirliiii'nl,      . 
The  Nuilh  C'oiiiiiiuiiiliui-iii, 
The  Tenth  Coiiitiinii.tiiiciit, 
The  sum  of  hoth  Inlileii, 


XxoA. 

T.CTltle. 

Ifninli. 

Hinp. 

chap. 

CllU|l. 

LU  13. 

— 

( 

afJ.23^1. 

19.26.IS. 

'JO.  23. 

^_ 

•JDXVM. 
31.  35. 

10.23.20 

— 

20.  22. 

10. 

_ 

'JO, 

10. 

— 

an. 

la  10. 

— 

20  22. 

19. 

— 

\S).  23. 

IS*. 

— 

an. 



— 

19. 

— 

Unit. 

CtldJI, 

r.,  0. 

l.r.,G,7,8. 
ID,  11,12, 

13.  • 
D. 


5. 
D. 
G.  23. 
5. 
D. 

n. 

6. 


•  l)r 

•  liishop  I/)wth'a  Lectures  on ^ 

ToL  li.  pp.  '£fi,  257.  of  Vt.  Gregory's  iranalatiou! 


A.  Clarke,  Pref  to  Deiii.  n.  ii,  in  vol.  I.  of  hid  Conitnontary. 

ilebrcw  Poetry,  Lect.  5«.  aithc  btflnnlng, 


The  Second  Class. 


The  Ceremonial  Law  may  be  fitly  reduced  to  the  foUoivinsr 


Heads  :  viz. 


Of  the  holy  place,       .... 
Of  the  matter  and  structure  of  the 

tabernacle, 

Of  the  instruments  of  the  same ;  viz. 

The  laver  of  brass,     .... 

The  altar  of  burnt-offering,    . 

The  altar  of  incense,  .... 

The  candlestick  of  pure  gold. 

The  table  of  show-bread,    . 

Of  the  priests  and  their  vestments  for 

glory  and  beauty, 
Of  the  choosing  of  the  Levites,  . 
Of  the  priest's  olfice  in  general,     . 

Of  their  ofGcc  in  teaching, 

Of  their  oiBce  in  blessing. 

Of  their  olfice  in  offering,  which  func 

tion  largely  spreading  itself  is  divided 

into  these  heads;  viz. 
What  the  sacrifices  ought  to  be,     . 
Of  the  continual  fu'e,  .... 
Of  the  manner  of  the  burnt-offerings, 

of  the  peace-offerings, 

of  the  sacrifices  accord- 
ing to  their  several  kinds ;  viz. 
For  sin  committed  through  ignortince 

of  the  law, 

For  sin  committed  through  ignorance 

of  the  fact,        .... 
For  sin  committed  wittingly,   yet   not 

through  impiety,  .... 
The  special  law  of  sacrifices  for  sin,  . 
Of  things  belonging  to  the  sacrifices. 
Of  the  show-bread,     .... 

Of  the  lamps, 

Of  the  .sweet  incense, 

Of  the  U8C  of  ordinary  oblations,  where 

of  there  were  several  kinds  observed 

by  the  priests ;     .        .        .        . 
Of  the  consecration  of  the  high-priests 

and  other  priests. 
Of  the  consecrations  and  oflSce  of  tlie 

Levites, 

Of  the  dwellings  of  the  Levites, 

Of  the  anointing  the  aliar,  and  all  the 

instruments  of  the  tabernacle,    . 
Of  the  coiiliiiual  daily  sacrifices, 
Of  the  continual  sabbath-days'  sacrifice, 
Of  the  solemn  sacrifice  fur  feast-days, 

which  were  diverse,  and  had  pecu 

liar  ritesjilistiiiguishcd  into  these;  viz 
Of  trumpets,     .^       .        .        .        . 
Of  kalends  or  beginning  of  months, 
Of  the    three  most   solemn  feasts  in 

general, 

Of  the  feast  of  passover, 

Of  the  feast  of  pentecost,   . 
Of  the  feast  of  tabernacles,    . 
Of  the  feast  of  blowing  the  trumpets, 
Of  the  feast  of  e.\piation,    . 

Of  the  first-fruits 

Of  tithe.s, 

Of  fruits  growing  and  not  eaten  of. 

Of  the  first-born 

Of  the  sabbatical  year,  . 

Of  the  year  of  jubilee, 

Of  vows  ill  general. 

What  persons  ought  not  to  make  vows 

What  things  cannot  be  vowed, 

Of  redemption  of  vows, 

Of  tho  vows  of  the  Nazarites, 

Of  the  laws  proper  for  the  priests;  viz. 

Of  pollulioiis, 

Of  the  liighpriest's  mourning. 

Of  his  marriage,  .... 

Of  the  mourning  of  the  ordinary  priests. 

Of  llieir  marriage 

Of  their  being  forbid  tho  useofwine,&c 

Of  sanctified  meats, 

Of  the  office  of  the  Levites;  viz. 
'I'l'.iching,        .  .... 

Offering, 

Other  promiscuous  corenionlal  laws;  viz 
Of  uiicleannesa  in  genorul. 
Of  uncleanness  in  meats;  viz.       ' 
Of  blood,       ....       Oen   ix 

Of  fat 

Of  dead  cnrrnssca 

Oilier  meats  and  diverse  living  crea 

lures, 

Of  unrieRiinoss  In  (he  issue  of  seed 

and  blond, 

In  (he  dead  bodies  of  wen,     . 

In  the  li'proHV 

Of  clrruniriMlon,     .        .         .  Gen.  xvil. 

Of  the  wiiter  of  expiation, 

Of  (he  nuiiirning  of  ilio  Israclitos, 

Of  nil.xtnres, 

Of  iheir  cariiirnts  and  writing  (ho  law 

IiriVBlely 

Of  yoiiiiK'  birds  not  to  be  t«Kcn  with 

(he  dam, 

Of  (heir  jiaddlc  slaves,    . 


Exnd. 
chap. 


20. 
:»,26,27. 
35. 

30. 
27. 
30. 
25. 
25,  20. 

28. 


27. 
30. 


29,  30. 


29,  30. 

29. 


23,  34. 
12,13-25 

34. 
23,  24. 
23.  34. 

30. 
22,23.34, 


13,22.34 
23. 


-! 


Zi. 


LeThic. 
chap. 


17. 


19.  10. 


22. 

0. 
0,7. 
3.7. 


4. 

5.7. 

G. 

6,7. 

2.  6,  7. 

'M. 

24. 


6.8. 


23. 

23. 

23. 
23. 
23. 
16.  13. 
2 

21. 
19. 

23. 
25. 
27. 

27. 


22. 
21. 
21. 
21. 
21. 
10. 

17. 19. 
22. 


15.  19. 

'.  17.  19. 

3.7. 

17. 

11.  20. 

15.  12. 

13,  M. 

12. 

19. 
19. 


Xumb. 
clinp. 


18.  3.  8. 
3.  18. 


15. 
8. 


8. 
35. 


29. 
2S. 


10. 
28. 


9.28. 

28. 
29. 
29. 
29. 
15. 
18. 


30. 
30. 


^6.13. 

3,  4.  IS 
6. 


19. 
5. 

19. 


l.-i. 


Dmt- 
chap. 

12. 


18.12.17 
31. 


15.  n. 


16 

16 

16. 
16. 


36, 
12.14.30 

15. 


13. 
23. 


i2.i5.ia 

17.27.3L 
10. 


12. 
11. 
IL 
23. 
SI. 


14. 
22. 

o.ii.att. 

22. 
23. 


Sect.  VI.] 


ON  THE  HISTORICAL  BOOKS. 


The  Third  Class. 
The  Political  Law. 


N.  B.  The  magistrate  is  the  keeper 
of  the  precepts  of  both  Tables,  anil  to 
have  respect  to  human  society  ; — there- 
fore the  political  laws  of  the  Israelites 
are  referred  to  both  the  Tables,  and  are 
to  be  reduced  to  the  several  precepts 
of 

The  Moral  Law. 
Laws  referred  to  the  first  Table,  namely, 
1st,   to    the    1st   and    2d  command- 
ments ;  viz. 
Of  idolaters  and  apostates, 
Of  abolishing  idolatry,     . 
Of  diviners  and  false  prophets,  . 
Of  covenants  with  other  gods, 
2d.  To  the  third  commandment ;  viz. 

Of  blasphemies, 

3d.  To tlie  fourth  commandment;  viz. 

Of  brealcing  the  sabbath. 

Political  laws  referred  to  the  second 

table: 
1st,  To  the  fifth  commandment,  viz. 

Of  magistrates  and  their  authority, 

Of  the  povfer  of  fathers, 
2d.  To  the  sixth  commandment ;  viz. 
Of  capital  punishments. 
Of  wilful  murder,     .... 
Of  manslaughter  unwittingly   commit- 
ted, and  of  the  cities  of  refuge, 
Of  heinous  injury,  .        •        .        . 
Of  punishments  not  capital, 
Of  the  law  of  war,  .... 
3d.  To  the  seventh  commandment ;  viz. 
Of  unlawful  marriages. 

Of  fornication 

Of  whoredom, 

Of  adultery  and  jealousy, 

Of  copulation  against  nature, 

Of  divorcements,  .         .        •        . 


Eitnd. 

tevitic. 

chap. 

cbap. 

22. 

20. 

23,  24. 

— 

22. 

19,  20. 

23.  31. 

— 

— 

24. 

31.  36. 

— 

18.  30. 

21. 

20. 

21. 

21. 

21. 



21. 

24. 

Ifuinb. 

I)  cut. 

cbap. 

chap. 

13.  ir. 

— 

7.   12. 



18. 

— 

7. 

15. 

— 

15. 

— 

11.  \ 

16,   17. 
23. 

— 

21. 



21.  24. 

35. 

19. 

22. 
22. 


IS.  20. 

19. 

21. 
19.  20. 
18.  20. 


35. 


5. 


19.21.22. 

25. 

25. 
20.  23. 

7.22. 
23. 
22. 


21. 


Other  matrimonial  laws,    . 

4th.  To  the  eighth  commandment ;  viz. 

Of  the  punishment  of  thefts, 

Of  sacrilege,    .        .        .        Joshua  vil. 

Of  not  injuring  strangers. 

Of  not  defrauding  hirelings,        . 

Of  just  weights,       .        .  .        . 

Of  removing  the  land-mark, 

Of  lost  goods, 

Of  stray  cattle^ 

Of  corrupted  judgments, 

Of  fire  breaking  out  by  chance, 

Of  man-stealing,       .... 

Of  the  fugitive  servant, 

Of  gathering  fruits,  .... 

Of  contracts ;  viz. 

Borrowing, 

Of  the  pledge, 

Of  usury, 

Of  selling, 

Of  the  thing  lent,     .... 
Of  a  thing  committed  to  be  kept. 

Of  heirs 

5th.  To  the  ninth  commandment ;  viz. 

Of  witnesses, 

The  establishing  the  political  law,  . 
The  establishing  the  divine  law  in  ge 
neral 

From  the  dignity  of  the  lawgiver,    . 

From  the  excellency  of  the  laws, 

From  the  promises. 

From  the  threatenings, 


Exod.    Levitlc. 
cbap.       chap. 


21. 
I 

22. 
22,  23. 


22. 

!S,  23. 

23. 

22. 


22. 

22. 
21. 
22. 
22. 


18.  20. 


19. 
19. 
19. 


Xnmb. 
cliap. 


15.19.23, 
24. 

23. 


19. 


19.  23. 


25. 
25. 


-\ 


19,20.22. 

^  18.  2fl, 
26. 


-) 


213 

Seut. 

chap. 


26,27.33, 
36. 


15. 


21,22.24, 
25. 


10. 

■il.14,15. 
25. 
19. 

22. 
16.  24. 

24. 

23. 

23,  24. 

15. 
24. 
23. 
15. 


^  21 

17    19. 

4. 
!3. 11.  29, 

30,  31. 
•^,  6,  7,  3. 
10.26.27. 

4.  26. 
4,  5,  6.  7. 
10,11,12. 
4.  7.  11. 
27,28,29, 
30. 


In  studying  the  Pentateuch,  particularly  the  four  last 
books,  the  "Lectures"  of  the  Kev.  Dr.  Graves,  and  the 
"  Horaj  Mosaicae"  of  the  Rev,  G.  S.  Faber,  will  be  found 
of  great  use. 


CHAPTER  II. 


ON  THE   HISTORICAL  BOOKS. 


SECTION  L 


GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  HISTORICAL  BOOKS. 


This  division  of  the  Sacred  Writings  comprises  twelve 
books ;  viz.  from  Joshua  to  Esther  inclusive  :  tne  first  seven 
of  these  books  are,  by  the  Jews,  called  the  former  prophets, 

Srobably  because  they  treat  of  the  more  ancient  periods  of 
ewish  history,'  and  because  they  are  most  justly  supposed 
to  be  written  ay  prophetical  men.  The  events  recorded  in 
these  books  occupy  a  period  of  almost  one  thousand  years, 
which  commences  at  the  death  of  Moses,  and  terminates  with 
the  great  national  reform  efl'ected  by  Nehemiah,  after  the 
return  of  the  Jews  from  the  Babylonish  captivity. 

It  is  evident,  from  an  examination  of  the  historical  books, 
that  they  are  collections  from  the  authentic  records  of  the 
Jewish  nation  ;  and  it  should  seem,  that  thouofh  the  substance 
of  the  several  histories  was  written  under  divine  direction, 
when  the  events  were  fresh  in  memory,  and  by  persons  who 
were  evidently  contemporary  with  the  transactions  which 
they  have  narrated,  yet  that  under  the  same  direction  they 
were  disposed  in  the  form,  in  Avhich  they  have  been  trans- 
mitted to  us,  by  some  other  person,  long  afterwards,  and  pro- 
bably all  by  the  same  hand,  and  about  the  same  time. 
Nothing,  indeed,  is  more  certain  than  that  very  ample  me- 
moirs or  records  of  the  Hebrew  republic  were  written  from 
the  first  commencement  of  the  theocracy,  to  which  the  authors 
of  these  books  very  frequently  refer.  Such  a  practice  is  ne- 
cessary in  a  well  constituted  state :  we  have  evidence  from 
the  Sacred  Writings  that  it  anciently  obtained  among  the 
heathen  nations  (compare  Esther  ii.  23.  and  vi.  1.);  and 
there  is  evident  proof  that  it  likewise  prevailed  among  the 
Israelites  from  the  very  beginning  of  their  polity.  (See  Exod. 
xvii.  14.)  Hence  it  is  that  we  find  the  book  of  Jasher  re- 
ferred to  in  Josh.  X.  13.  and  2  Sam.  i.  18.,  and  that  we  also 
find  such  frequent  references  to  the  Chronicles  of  the  Kings 

«  Oa  the  Jewish  Divisions  of  the  Canon  of  Scripture,  see  Vol.  I.  p.  203. 


of  Israel  and  Judah  in  the  books  of  Samuel  and  Kings,  and 
also  to  the  books  of  Gad,  Nathan,  and  Iddo.  This  conjec« 
ture  is  further  strengthened  by  the  two  following  circum-" 
stances,  namely,  first,  that  the  days  when  the  transactions 
took  place  are  sometimes  spoken  of  as  being  long  since  past,' 
and,  secondly,  \hzX  things  are  so  frequently  menFioned  as  re- 
maining to  this  day  (as  stones,^  names  of  places,^  rights  and 
possessions,^  customs  and  usages)  •,^  Avhich  clauses  wera 
subsequently  added  to  the  history  by  the  inspired  collectora 
in  order  to  confirm  and  illustrate  it  to  those  of  their  own  acre. 
The  learned  commentator  Henry,  to  whom  we  are  indebted 
for  these  hints,  thinks  it  not  unlikely  that  the  historical  books, 
to  the  end  of  Kings,  were  compiled  by  the  prophet  Jeremiah, 
a  short  time  before  the  captivity :  he  founds  this  opinion  upon 
1  Sam.  xxvii.  6.,  where  it  is  said  of  Ziklag,  that  it  '■'■  pertahu 
eth  to  the  kings  of  Judah  to  this  day;''"'  which  form  of  expression, 
he  very  justly  remarks,  commenced  after  the  time  of  Solo- 
mon, and  consequently  terminated  at  the  time  of  the  captivity. 
The  remaining  five  books,  from  1  Chronicles  to  Esther,  ha 
thinks  it  still  more  probable,  were  compiled  by  Ezra  the 
scribe,  some  time  after  the  captivity;  to  whom  uninterrupted 
testimony  ascribes  the  completion  of  the  sacred  canon. 

But,  although  we  cannot  determine  with  certainty  the 
authors  of  the  historical  books,  "  yet  we  may  rest  assured 
that  the  Jews,  who  had  already  received  inspired  books 
from  the  hands  of  Moses,  would  not  have  admitted  any 
others  as  of  equal  authority,  if  they  had  not  been  fully  con- 
vinced that  the  writers  were  supernaturally  assisted.     Next 

1  Thus  in  1  Sam.  ix.  9.,  "  he  that  is  now  called  a  prophet  was  btforetime 
called  a  seer." 
3  See  Josh.  iv.  9.  vii.  26.  viii.  29.  x.  27.  1  Sam.  vl.  l.S. 
«  See  Jo.sh.  v.  9.  vii.  26.  Judg.  i.  26.  xv.  19.  xviii.  12.  2  Kings  xiv.  7, 
5  See  Judg.  i.  21.  and  1  Sara,  xxvii.  6. 
«  See  1  dam.  v.  5.  and  2  Kings  xvii.  41, 


214 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  V.  Chaf.  II. 


to  the  testimony  of  Christ  and  his  apostles,  which  corrobo- 
rates all  our  reasoning  respecting  the  inspiration  of  the  Old 
Testament  (and,  when  distinct  arguments  for  any  particular 
book  cannot  be  found,  supplies  their  place),  we  must  de- 
pend, in  the  case  before  us,  upon  the  testimony  of  the  Jews. 
And  although  the  testimony  of  a  nation  is  far  from  being,  in 
every  instance,  a  sufficient  reason  for  believing  its  sacred 
books  to  be  possessed  of  that  divine  authority  which  is 
ascribed  to  them ;  yet  the  testimony  of  the  Jews  has  a  pe- 
culiar title  to  be  credited,  from  the  circumstances  in  which 
it  was  delivered.  It  is  tlie  testimony  of  a  people,  who,  having 
already  in  their  possession  genuine  inspired  books,  were  the 
better  able  to  judge  of  others  which  advanced  a  claim  to 
inspiration ;  and  who,  we  have  reason  to  think,  far  from  be- 
ing credulous  willi  respect  to  such  a  claim,  or  disposed  pre- 
cipitately to  recognise  it,  proceeded  with  deliberation  and 
care  in  examining  all  pretensions  of  this  nature,  and  rejected 
them  when  not  supported  by  satisfactory  evidence.  Tliey 
had  been  forewarned  that  false  prophets  should  arise,  and  de- 
liver their  own  fancies  in  the  name  of  the  Lord ;  and,  while 
llicy  were  thus  put  upon  their  guard,  they  were  furnished 
with  rules  to  assist  them  in  distinguisliing  a  true  from  a 
pretended  revelation.  (Deut.  xviii.  20 — 22.)  We  have  a 
proof  that  the  ancient  Jews  exercised  a  spirit  of  discrimina- 
tion in  this  matter,  at  a  period  indeed  later  than  that  to 
which  we  refer,  in  their  conduct  with  respect  to  tlie  apocry- 
phal books ;  for,  although  they  were  written  by  men  of 
their  own  nation,  and  assumed  the  names  of  the  most  emi- 
nent personatres, — Solomon,  Daniel,  f^zra,  and  Baruch, — yet 
they  rejected  them  as  human  compositions,  and  left  the  in- 
fullihk  church  to  mistake  them  for  divine.  The  testimony, 
then,  of  the  Jews,  who  without  a  dissentinnr  voice  have  as- 
serted the  inspiration  of  the  historical  books,  authorizes  us 
to  receive  tliem  as  a  part  of  the  oracles  of  God,  which  were 
committed  to  their  care."' 

The  historical  books  are  of  very  great  invportance  for  the 
right  understanding  of  some  other  parts  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment :  those  poriions,  in  particular,  which  treat  on  the  life 
and  reign  of  David,  furnish  a  very  instructive  key  to  many 
of  his  psalms;  and  the  prophetical  books  derive  much  light 
from  these  histories.  But  tne  attention  of  the  sacred  writers 
was  not  wholly  confined  to  the  Jewish  people :  they  have 
given  us  many  valuable,  though  incidental,  notices  concern- 
ing the  state  of  the  surrounding  nations ;  and  the  value  of 
these  notices  is  very  materially  enhanced  by  the  considera- 
tion, that,  until  the  time  of  Lzra  and  Nehemiah,  the  two 
latest  Jewish  historians,  little  or  no  dependence  can  be 
placed  upon  the  relations  of  heathen  writers.^  But  these 
nooks  are  to  be  considered  not  merely  as  a  historj'  of  the 
Jewish  church  :  they  also  clearly  illustrate  the  proceedings 
of  God  towards  the  children  of  men,  and  form  a  perpetual 
comment  on  the  declaration  of  the  royal  sage,  that  "  Right- 
eousness cxalteth  a  nation,' but  sin  is  a  reproach  to  any  peo- 
ple." (Prov.  xiv.  34.)  \Vhile  they  exhibit  a  mournful  but 
impartial  view  of  the  depravity  of  the  human  heart,  and  thus 
prove  that  "  man  is  very  far  gone  from  original  righteous- 
ness ;"  thoy  at  the  same  time  show  "  the  faithfulness  of  God 
to  his  promises,  the  certain  destruction  of  his  enemies,  and 
his  willingness  to  extend  mercy  to  the  returning  penitent. 
They  manifest,  also,  the  excellency  of  true  religion,  and  its 
tendency  to  promote  happiness  in  this  life,  as  well  as  in  that 
which  is  to  come;  and  they  furnish  us  with  many  propheti- 
cal declarations,  the  striking  fnllilinent  of  which  is  every 
way  calculated  to  strengthen  our  faith  in  the  word  of  God. 


1 


SECTION  n. 

ON   THB    BOOK   OF   JOSHUA. 

Jluthor,  tfenuinenesii,  and  credibility  of  this  book. — II.  Jlrgu- 
merit. — III.  Scope  and  deaiirn. — IV.  Synofisis  of  its  contentg. 
—  V.  Oltservationt  c»  the  book,  of  Jusher  mentioned  in 
Jothna  X.  13. 

I.  The  book  of  Joshua,  which  irt'  all   the  copies  of  the 
Old  Testament  immediately  follows  the  Pentatf;uch,  is  thus 

>  Dick's  E.SRay  on  the  Inspirallon  of  the  Bcripliucii,  pp.  1!M.  1%. 
*  Herodotus  and  TTiiicyiliilcH,  the  two  most  anilrnt  iirufunr  historians 
CXtnnt,  wrrc  c<>iit'iii|iir:iiy  wilh  Kzrn  ami  Ni.'ln'iiii.ili.  ami  roiiM  not  wrilr 


denominated,  because  it  contains  a  narration  of  the  achieve- 
ments of  Joshua  the  son  of  Nun,  who  had  been  the  minister 
of  Moses,  and  succeeded  him  in  the  command  of  the  chil- 
dren of  Israel ;  but  by  whom  this  book  was  written  is  a 
question  concerning  which  learned  men  are  by  no  means 
agreed. 

1.  From  the  absence  of  Chaldee  words,  and  others  of  a 
later  date,  some  are  of  opinion,  not  only  that  the  book  is  of 
very  great  antinnity,  but  also  that  it  was  composed  by  Joshua 
himself.  Of  this  opinion  were  several  of  the  fathers,  and 
the  talmudical  writers,  and  among  the  moderns,  Gerhard, 
Diodati,  Huet,  Alber,  Bishops  Patrick,  Tomline,  and  Gray, 
and  Dr.  A.  Clarke,  who  ground  their  hypothesis  principally 
upon  the  following  arguments  : — 

(1.)  "Joshua  is  said  (ch.  xxiv.  26.)  to  have  written  the 
transactions  there  recorded  "  in  the  book  of  the  law  of  God,^^ 
so  that  the  book  which  bears  his  name  forms  a  continuation 
of  the  book  of  Deuteronomy,  the  last  two  chapters  of  which 
they  think  were  written  by  Joshua.  But,  if  we  examine 
the  context  of  the  passage  just  cited,  we  shall  find  that  it 
refers,  not  to  the  entire  book,  but  solely  to  the  renewal  of 
the  covenant  with  Jehovah  by  the  Israelites. 

(2.)  In  the  passage  (ch.  xxiv.  29.  et  seo.)  where  the  death 
and  burial  of  Joshua  are  related,  the  style  dillers  from  the 
rest  of  the  book,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  style  of  Deut. 
xxxiii.  and  xxxiv.,yaries,  in  which  the  decease  and  burial  of 
Moses  are  recorded  ;  and  Joshua  is  here  called,  as  Moses  is 
in  Deuteronomy,  the  servant  of  God,  which  plainly  proves 
that  this  passage  was  added  by  a  later  hand. 

(3.)  Tne  author  intimates  (ch.  v.  1.)  that  he  was  one  of 
those  who  passed  into  Canaan. 

(4.)  The  whole  book  breathes  the  spirit  of  the  law  of 
Moses,  which  is  a  strong  argument  in  lavour  of  its  having 
been  written  by  Joshua,  me  particular  servant  of  Moses. 

The  last  three  of  these  arguments  are  by  no  means  desti- 
tute of  weight,  but  they  are  opposed  by  others  which  show 
that  the  book,  as  we  now  have  it,  is  not  coeval  with  the 
transactions  it  records.  Thus,  we  read  in  Josh.  xv.  63.  that 
the  children  of  Judah  could  not  drive  out  the  Jebusitcs,  the 
inhabitants  of  Jerusalem,  ^^  but  the  Jebusitcs  dwell  with  the 
children  of  JtidaJi  at  Jerusalem  to  this  day.''''  Now  this  joint 
occupation  of  Jerusalem  by  these  two  classes  of  inhabitants 
did  not  take  place  till  after  Joshua's  death,  when  the  children 
of  Judah  took  that  city  (Judg.  i.  8.),  though  the  Jebusitcs 
continued  to  keep  possession  of  the  strong  hold  of  Zion, 
whence  they  were  not  finally  expelled  until  the  reign  of 
David.  (2  Sam.  v.  6 — 8.)  The  statement  in  Josh.  iv.  9. 
(that  the  stones  set  up  as  a  memorial  of  the  passage  of  the 
Israelites  over  Jordan  are  standing /o//t(s  day)  was  evidently 
added  by  some  later  writer.  The  same  remark  will  apply 
to  Josh.  XV.  13 — 19.  compared  with  Judg.  i.  10 — 15.  Josh, 
xvi.  10.  with  Judg.  i.  29.  and  to  Josh.  xix.  47.  collated  with 
Judg.  xviii.  29.  Since,  then,  it  appears  from  internal  evi- 
dence that  the  book  was  not  written  by  Joshua  himself,  the 
question  recurs  again,  by  whom  was  the  boo':  compcsed  or 
compiled'?  Dr.  Lightfoot  ascribes  it  to  Phinoas;  Calvin 
thinks  their  conjecture  most  probable,  who  refer  the  writing 
of  this  book,  or  at  least  the  compilation  of  the  history,  to  the 
high-priest  Eleazar  (whose  death  is  recorded  in  the  very  last 
verse  of  the  book) ;  because  it  was  the  high-priest's  duty 
not  only  to  teach  the  people  orally,  but  also  by  writing  to 
instruct  posterity  in  the  ways  of  God.'  Henry,  as  we  have 
already  seen,'  ascribes  it  toJenmiah;  and  Moldenhawcr* 
and  Van  Til,  to  Sanmel.''  But,  by  whatever  pruphet  or  in- 
spired writer  this  book  was  composed,  it  is  evident  from 
comparihg  Josh.  xv.  63.  with  2  Sam.  v.  tj — 8.  that  it  was 
written  before  the  seventh  year  of  David's  reign,  and,  conso 
quently,  could  not  have  been  written  by  Ezra. 

Further,  if  the  book  of  Judges  were  not  vyritten  later  than 
the  beginning  of  Saul's  reign,  as  some  eminent  critics  are 
disposed  to  think,  or  later  than  the  seventh  year  of  David's 
reign,  which  is  the  opinion  of  others,  the  book  of  Joshua 
must  necessarily  have  been  written  btfin-c  one  or  other  of 
those  dates,  because  the  author  of  the  book  of  Judges  not 
only  repeats  some  things  verbatim  from  Joshua,'  and  slightly 
touches  upon  others  which  derive  illustration  from  it;!*  but 
also,  in  two  several  instances  (Judg.  i.  1.  and  ii.  C— 8.), 

•  Calvin,  I'rolcR.  in  Jog.  op.  torn.  I.  in  fint.    This  Rrettt  rpformpr,  )iow- 
fV(;r,  lenves  tliu  (lutulioii  unaclciiuincJ,  ab  bfiiig  at  most  conjectural  and 


Willi  any  certanity  ol" events  niucli  hntoro  llicir  nwn  tunc.  Uixliup  Stillinfi- 
flt'et  h'is  ndniirafity  provpil  tlic  ol).-;curity,  dcfcctH,  ami  iiniortaiiily  of  all 
viciciit  i)rofanc  hittlury,  in  lUo  tirnl  bouli  uf  hilt  Urivinu*  tJucro:,  pp.  1— GC. 
eih  edit,  folio. 


lutroil.  ad  Llbros  Diblicos,  p.  36. 


uncertain. 

•  See  p.  213.  supra. 

•  Opus  AniUylicum,  vol.  1.  p.  410.  ,  ~v  , 
1  J^.l^.  ii.  (i— y.  ta  repealed  from  Josh.  xxiv.  38—31.  and  Juug.  i.  29.  frotn 

Josh.  XVI.  10. 

•  Thus  Juil«.  1.  10-15.  20.  derives  light  from  Josh.  xr. 


Sect.  II.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  JOSHUA. 


215 


commences  his  narrative  frem^the  death  of  Joshua,  which 
was  related  in  the  close  of  the  preceding  book.  If  the  book 
of  Joshua  had  not  been  previously  extant,  the  author  of 
Judges  would  have  begun  his  history  from  the  occupation 
and  division  of  the  land  of  Canaan,  which  was  suitaole  to 
his  design  in  writing  that  book. 

2.  Whoever  was  the  author  of  the  book  of  Joshua,  it  is 
manifest,  from  the  following  considerations,  that  it  was 
compiled  from  ancient,  authentic,  and  contemporary  docu- 
ments : — 

(1.)  The  example  of  Moses,  who  committed  to  writing 
the  transactions  of  his  own  time,  leads  us  to  expect  that 
some  continuation  would  necessarily  be  made,  not  only  to 
narrate  the  signal  fulfilment  of  those  promises,  which  had 
Eeen  given  to  the  patriarchs,  but  also  to  preserve  an  account 
of  the  division  of  the  land  of  Canaan  among  the  particular 
tribes,  as  a  record  for  future  ages ;  and  thus  prevent  disputes 
and  civil  wars,  which  in  process  of  time  miglit  arise  between 
powerful  and  rival  tribes. 

(2.)  This  remark  is  corroborated  by  express  testimony : 
for  in  Josh,  xviii.  we  not  only  read  that  the  great  captain 
of  the  Israelites  caused  a  survey  of  the  land  to  he  made  and 
described  in  a  book,  but  in  xxiv.  25.  the  author  relates  that 
Joshua  committed  to  writing  an  account  of  the  renewal  of 
the  covenant  with  God  ;  whence  it  is  justly  inferred  that  the 
other  transactions  of  this  period  were  preserved  in  some 
authentic  and  contemporaneous  document  or  commentar)'. 

(3.)  Without  some  such  document  the  author  of  this  book 
could  not  have  specified  the  limits  of  each  tribe  with  so  much 
minuteness,  nor  have  related  with  accuracy  the  discourses  of 
Caleb  (Josh.  xiv.  6 — 12.)  ;  neither  could  he  have  correctly  re- 
lated the  discourses  of  Phinehas  and  the  delegates  who  accom- 
panied him,  to  the  tribes  beyond  Jordan  (Josh.  xxii.  16 — 20.), 
nor  the  discourses  of  the  tribes  themselves  (xxii.  21 — 30.), 
nor  of  Joshua  (xxiii.  and  xxiv.)  ;  nor  could  he  have  so  ar- 
ranged the  whole,  as  to  be  in  perfect  harmony  with  the  law 
c^'  Moses. 

(4.)  Without  a  contemporaneous  and  authentic  document, 
the  author  would  not  have  expressed  himself,  as  in  ch.  v.  1., 
as  if  he  had  been  present  in  the  transactions  which  he  has 
related,  nor  would  he  have  written,  as  he  has  done  in  vi.  25., 
that  "  she  dwelleth  in  Israel  unto  this  day  ;  "  and  this  docu- 
ment he  has  expressly  cited  in  x.  13,  by  the  title  of  the 
"  Book  of  Jasher,  "  or  of  the  Upright.^  To  these  proofs  may 
be  added  the  two  following,  viz  : 

(5.)  "  The  absence  of  any  traces  of  disputes  or  civil  wars 
among  the  tribes,  concerning  their  respective  boundaries. 

"  Some  document  of  acknowledged  authority,  accurately 
settlincr  the  bounds  of  the  several  tribes,  must  have  existed 
from  the  very  partition,  by  reference  to  which  disputes  of 
this  kind  might  be  settled,  or  the  peaceful  state  of  the  grow- 
ing tribes  would  have  been  entirely  without  any  example  in 
the  history  of  mankind. 

(6.)  "  Without  the  existence  of  contemporaneous  and  au- 
thoritative records,  the  allotment  of  thirteen  cities  to  the 
priests  (ch.  xxi.  13 — 19.)  would  have  been  nugatory. 
Aaron's  family  could  not  have  been,  at  the  time  of  the  allot- 
ment, sufficiently  numerous  to  occupy  those  cities.  But  it 
13  altogether  unlikely  that  these,  with  the  adjoining  lands, 
vvere  left  entirely  unoccupied  in  expectation  of  their  future 
owners.  To  afford  security,  therefore,  to  the  sacerdotal 
family  for  their  legitimate  rights,  when  they  should  be  in  a 
condition  to  claim  them,  some  document  contemporaneous 
with  the  appropriation  must  have  existed.  Without  such  a 
document,  innumerable  disputes  must  have  arisen,  whenever 
they  attempted  to  claim  their  possessions.  "^ 

3.  Ecjually  clear  is  it  that  the  author  of  this  book  has 
made  his  extracts  from  authentic  documents  with  religious 
fidelity,  and,  consequently,  it  is  worthy  of  credit :  for, 

(1.)  In  the  first  place  he  has  literally  copied  the  speeches 
of  Caleb,  Phinehas,  of  the  tribes  beyond  Jordan,  and  of 
Joshua,  and  in  other  passages  has  so  closely  followed  his 
authority,  as  to  write  in  v.  1.  "un/<7  lue  were  passed  over,'''' 
and  in  vi.  25.  that  Rahab  "  dwelleth  in  Israel  unto  this  day," 
Hence,  also,  the  tribes  are  not  mentioned  in  the  geographical 
order  in  which  their  respective  territories  were  situate,  but 
according  to  the  order  pursued  in  the  original  document, — 
namely,  according  to  the  order  in  Vv'hich  they  received  their 
tracts  of  land  by  lot.  (Josh.  xv. — xix.)  Lastly,  in  conformity 
to  his  original  document,  the  author  has  made  no  honourable 

»  Jahn  and  Ackermann,  Iiitrod.  in  Libros  Sacros  Vet.  Feed,  part  ii.  §§ 
25-38. 

«  For  the  two  preceding  remarks,  the  author  is  indebted  to  the  Rev.  Dr. 
Turner's  and  Mr.  Whittinghara's  translation  of  Jahn'3  Introduction,  p.  227. 
New  York,  1827. 


mention  of  Joshua  until  after  his  death ;  whence  it  is  highly 
probable  that  the  commentary,  from  which  this  book  was 
compiled,  was  originally  written  by  Joshua  himself. 

(2.)  This  book  was  received  as  authentic  by  the  Jews  in 
that  age  when  the  original  commentary  was  extant,  and  the 
author's  fidelity  could  be  subjected  to  the  test  of  examina- 
tion ;  and, 

(3.)  Several  of  the  transactions  related  in  the  book  of 
Joshua  are  recorded  by  other  sacred  writers  with  little  or  no 
material  variations ;  thus,  we  find  the  conquest  and  division 
of  Canaan,  mentioned  by  Asaph  (Psal.  Ixxviii.  53 — 65.  com- 
pared with  Psal.  xliv.  2 — 4.) ;  the  slaughter  of  the  Canaan- 
ites  by  David  (Psal.  Ixviii.  13 — 15.);  the  division  of  the 
waters  of  Jordan  (Psal.  cxiv.  1 — 5.  Hah.  iii.  8.);  the 
terrible  tempest  of  hailstones  after  the  slaughter  of  the 
southern  Canaanites  (Hab.  iii.  11 — 13.)  compared  with  Josh. 
x.  9 — 11.);  and  the  setting  up  of  the  tabernacle  at  Shiloh 
(Josh,  xviii.  1.),  in  the  books  of  Judges  (xviii.  31.)  and 
Samuel.  (1  Sam.  i.  3.  9.  24.  and  iii.  21.) 

(4.)  Lastly,  every  thing  related  in  the  book  of  Joshua  not 
only  accurately  corresponds  with  the  age  in  which  that  hero 
lived,  but  is  further  confirmed  by  the  traditions  current  among 
heatlien  nations,  some  of  which  have  been  preserved  by  an- 
cient and  profane  historians  of  undoubted  character.'''  Thus 
there  are  ancient  monuments  extant,  which  prove  that  the 
Carthaginians  were  a  colony  of  Tyrians  who  escaped  from 
Joshua  ;  as  also  that  the  inhabitants  of  Leptis  in  Atj'ica  came 
originally  from  the  Sidonians,  who  abandoned  their  country 
on  account  of  the  calamities  with  which  it  was  overwhelmed.'' 
The  fable  of  the  Phoenician  Hercules  originated  in  the  history 
of  Joshua  ;*  and  the  overthrow  of  Og  the  king  of  Bashan, 
and  of  the  Anakims  who  were  called  giants,  is  considered  as 
having  given  rise  to  the  fable  of  the  overthrow  of  the  giants.s 
The  tempest  of  hailstones  mentioned  in  Josh.  x.  11.  was 
transformed  by  the  poets  into  a  tempest  of  stones,  with  which 
(they  pretend)  Jupiter  overwhelmed  the  enemies  of  Hercules 
in  Arim,  which  is  exactly  the  country  where  Joshua  fought 
with  the  children  of  Anak.' 

The  Samaritans  are  by  some  writers  supposed  to  have 
received  the  book  of  Joshua,  but  this  opinion  appears  to  have 
originated  in  mistake.  They  have  indeed  two  books  extant, 
bearing  the  name  of  Joshua,  which  differ  very  materially 
from  our  Hebrew  copies.  One  of  these  is  a  chronicle  of 
events  from  Adam  totlie  year  of  the  Hijra  898,  corresponding 
with  A.  D.  1492  ;s  and  the  othef  is  a  similar  chronicle  badly 
compiled,  from  the  death  of  Moses  to  the  death  of  Alexander 
Severus.  It  consists  of  forty-seven  chapters,  filled  with  fa- 
bulous accounts,  written  in  the  Arabic  language,  but  in  Sa- 
maritan characters.9 

II.  The  book  of  Joshua  comprises  the  history  of  about 
seventeen  years,  or,  according  to  some  chronologers,  of 
twenty-seven  or  thirty  years  :  "  it  is  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant documents  in  the  old  covenant;  and  it  should  never  be 
separated  from  the  Pentateuch,  of  which  it  is  at  once  both 
the  continuation  and  the  completion."  The  Pentateuch  con- 
tains a  history  of  the  acts  of  the  great  Jewish  legislator,  and 
the  laws  upon  which  the  Jewish  church  was  to  be  establish- 
ed :  and  the  book  of  Joshua  relates  the  history  of  Israel 
under  the  command  and  government  of  Joshua,  the  conquest 
of  Canaan,  and  its  subsequent  division  among  the  Israelites; 
together  with  the  provision  made  for  the  settlement  and  es- 
tablishment of  the  Jewish  church  in  that  country. 

III.  From  this  view  of  the  argument  of  Joshua,  we  may 
easily  perceive  that  the  Scope  and  Design  of  the  inspired 
writer  of  this  book  were  to  demonstrate  the  faithfulness  of 
God,  in  the  perfect  accomplishment  of  all  his  promises  to 

s  See  particularly  Justin,  lib.  xxxvi.  c.  2.  and  Tacitus,  Hist.  lib.  v.  cc.  2, 
3.  On  the  falsely  alleged  contradictions  between  the  sacred  and  profane 
historians,  see  Vol.  I.  Part  VI.  chap.  vii. 

*  AUix's  Reflections  upon  the  Books  of  the  Old  Testament,  chap.  ii. 
(Bishop  Watson's  Collection  of  Theological  Tracts,  vol.  i.  p.  354.) 

'  Procopius  (Vandal,  lib.  ii.  c.  10.)  cites  a  Plioenician  inscription ;  con* 
taining  a  passage  which  he  has  translated  into  Greek,  to  the  following  pur- 
port:—" We  am  they  xoho  fine  from  the  face  of  Jesus  (the  Greek  name  of 
Joshna)  the  rohher,  the  son  bf  Nave."  Suidas  cites  the  inscription  thus:— 
"  We  are  the  Canaanites  whom  Jesus  the  robber  expelled.''  The  differ- 
ence between  these  two  writers  is  not  material,  and  may  be  accounted  for 
by  the  same  passage  being  differently  rendered  by  different  translators,  or 
being  quoted  from  memory,— no  unusual  occurrence  among  profane 
writers. 

6  Polybius,  Frag.  cxiv.  Sallust.  Bell.  Jugurthin.  c.  xxii. 

1  AUix's  Reflections,  ut  supra.  Huet,  Demonstratio  Evangelica,  vol.  I. 
pp.  273—282.  Amstel.  1680.  8vo.  Some  learned  men  have  supposed  that 
the  poetical  fable  of  Phiieton  was  founded  on  the  miracle  of  the  sun  standing 
still  (Josh.  X.  12—14.);  but  on  a  calm  investigation  of  the  supposed  resenj' 
blance,  there  does  not  appear  to  be  any  foundation  for  such  an  opinion. 

8  Jahn  and  Ackermann,  Introd.  in  Libros,  Vet.  Foed.  part  ii.  I  27.  note. 

«  Fabricii  Codex  Apocryphus  Veteris  Testamenti,  p.  876.  et  seq. 


21G 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Paht  V.  Chap.  II 


the  patriarclis,  Abraham  (Gen.  xiii.  15.),  Isaac  (xxvi.  4.), 
Jacob  (xxxv.  12.),  and  Joseph  (1.  21.),  and  also  to  Moses 
(Exod.  lii.  8.),  that  the  children  of  Israel  should  obtain  pos- 
session of  the  land  of  Canaan.  At  the  same  time  we  behold 
the  divine  power  and  mercy  signally  displayed  in  cherishing, 

Sroteciing,  and  defending  nis  people,  amid  all  the  trials  and 
ifficulties  to  which  they  were  exposed  ;  and  as  the  land  of 
Canaan  is  in  the  New  Testament  considered  as  a  type  of 
heaven,  the  conflicts  and  trials  of  the  Israelites  have  been 
considered  as  figuratively  representing  the  spiritual  conflicts 
of  believers  in  every  age  of  the  church.  Although  Joshua, 
whose  piety,  courage,  and  disinterested  integrity  are  con- 
spicuous throughout  his  whole  history,  is  not  expressly 
mentioned  in  tlie  New  Testament  as  a  type  of  the  Messiah, 
yet  lie  is  universally  allowed  to  have  been  a  very  eminent 
one.  He  bore  our  Saviour's  name;  the  Alexandrian  version, 
giving  his  name  a  Greek  termination,  uniformly  calls  him 
JiKTM/c— Jesus ;  which  appellation  is  also  given  to  him  in 
Acts  vii.  45.  and  Heb.  iv.  8.  Joshua  saved  the  people  of 
God  (as  the  Israelites  are  einphatically  styled  in  the  Scrip- 
tures) from  the  Canaanites :  Jesus  Christ  saves  his  people 
from  their  sins.  (Matt,  i  21.) 

A  further  design  of  this  book  is  to  show  the  portion  which 
was  allotted  to  each  tribe.  With  this  view,  the  author  more 
than  once  reminds  the  Israelites  that  not  one  thing  had  failed 
of  all  the  good  things  which  the  Lord  spake  concerning 
them  ;  and  that  "  all  had  come  to  pass  unto  them,  and  not 
one  thing  had  failed  thereof."  (ch.  xxiii.  14.  with  xxi.  45.) 
Further,  the  historian  does  not  notice  any  subsequent  altera- 
tion of  the  division :  for  the  conquest  of  the  cities  of  He- 
bron and  Debir,  mentioned  by  Caleb  in  ch.  xv.  13 — 19., 
took  place  under  Joshua,  and  is  introduced  in  Judg.  i.  10 — 
15.  20.,  only  as  a  retrospective  notice  of  an  event  of  a  preced- 
ing age.  \Vhat  is  said  of  the  tribes  of  Judah,  Ephraim,  and 
Manasseh  (Josh.  xv.  G3.  xvi.  10.  xvii.  12.),  does  not  prove 
that  the  book  is  of  recent  origin ;  although,  as  the  passages 
are  not  connected  with  the  series  of  the  narration,  they  may 
possibly  be  interjjolations.  Lastly,  the  places  (xv.  9.  xviii. 
25.),  in  which  Kirjath-jearim  is  ascribed  to  the  tribe  of  Judah 
and  Gibeon,  Beeroth  and  Kephira  to  that  of  Benjamin,  al- 
though they  were  cities  of  the  Gibeonites,  have  no  relation 
to  the  transaction  mentioned  in  2  Sam.  iv.  2.  and  xxi.  6.,  for 
Gibeon  was  afterwards  given  (Josh.  xxi.  17.)  to  the  priests  : 
wlience  it  is  evident  that  these  cities  were  left  in  possession 
of  the  Gibeonites,  who  were'' servants  of  the  sanctuary,  and 
merely  subjected  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  tribes  to  which 
they  are  ascribed.' 

IV.  The  book  of  Joshua  may  be  conveniently  divided  into 
three  parts :  viz. 

Part  1.   The  History  of  the  Occupation  of  Canaan  by  the 
Israelites  (cc.  i. — xii.) ;  comprising. 

Sect.  1.  The  call  and  confirmation  of  Joshua  to  be  captain- 
general  of  that  people,  (i.) 
Sect.  2.  The  sending  out  of  the  spies  to  bring  an  account  of 

the  city  of  Jericho,  (ii.) 
Sect.  3.  The  miraculous  passage  of  the  Israelites  over  Jordan 

(iii.),  and  the  setting  up  of  twelve  memorial  .stones,  (iv.) 
Sjkct.  4.  The   circumcision  of  the  Israelites  at  Gilgal,  and 
their  celebration  of  the  first  passovcr  in  the  land  of  Canaan  ; 
the   appearance   of  the  "  captain  of  the  Lord's  host"  to 
Joshua  near  Jericho,  (v.) 
Sect.  6.  The  capture  of  Jericho  (vi.)  and  of  Ai.  (vii.  viii.) 
Sect.  6.  The  politic  confederacy  of  the  Gibeonites  with  the 

children  of  Israel,  (ix.) 
Sect.  7.  The  war  with  the  Canaanitiah  kings,  and  the  miracle 

of  the  sun's  standing  still,  (x.) 
Sect.  8.  The  defeat  of  Jabin  and  his  confederates,  (xi.) 
Sect.  9.  A  summary  recapitulation  of  the  conquests  of  the 
Israelites  both  under  Moses  in  the  eastern  part  of  Canaan 
(xii.  1 — 6.),  and  also  under  Joshua  himself  in  the  western 
part.  (xii.  7—24.) 
Part  II.   The  Division  of  the  conquered  Land ;  containing, 
Sect.  1.  A  general  division  of  C anaan.  (xiii.) 
Sect.  2.  A  particular  apportionment  of  it  among  the  Israelites, 
including  the  portion   of  Caleb  (xiv.)  ;  the  lot  of  Judah 
(xv.)  ;  of  Ephraim  (xvi.)  ;  of  Manasseh  (xvii.)  ;  of  Benja- 
min (xviii.)  ;  and  of  the  six  trilnis  of  Simeon,  Zebulun,  Issa- 
char,  Asher,  Naphtali,  Dan,  and  of  Joshua  himself,   (xix.) 
Sect.  3.  The  appointment  of  the  cities  of  refuge  (xx.)  and  of 
the  Levitical  cities,  (xxi.) 

>  John's  Introaaclion  bjr  Prof.  Turner,  p.  221. 


The  circumstances  observed  in  the  division  of  the  promised  land  he 
speak  a  iriost  wise  and  careful  prdKsion  for  a  constant  and  uninterrupted 
diddnclion  of  tribes,  f;iniili<.'S,  and  t;enealou;ie8  among  the  Hebrews  ;  thence 
111  jircaervc  and  clearly  to  ascertain  the  genealogy  of  Christ,  theirs  and  our 
iireat  Messiah  ;  "  the  end  of  tlie  law  fur  riiihtcout-ness  ;''  in  whom  were  to 
be  completed  all  tlte  purposes  of  this  dispensation  :  it  pleasing  God,  by  the 
apparent  completion  of  remarkable  prophecies  relating  tlierelo,  to  make 
this  one  of  the  satisfactory  and  convincing  evidences  of  his  divine  mission.' 

Sect.  4.  The  dismission  from  the  camp  of  Israel  of  the  militia 
of  the  two  tribes  and  a  half  who  settled  on  the  other  side  of 
Jordan,  their  consequent  return,  and  the  transactions  result- 
ing from  the  altar  which  they  erected  on  the  borders  of  Jor- 
dan in  token  of  their  communion  with  the  children  of 
Israel,   (xxii.) 

Part  III.   The  Hying  Addresses  and  Counsels  of  Joshua,  his 
Death  and  Burial,  isfc. 

Sect.  1.  Joshua's  address  to  the  Israelites,  in  which  he 
reminds  them  of  the  signal  benefits  conferred  on  them  by 
God,  £md  urges  them  to  "  cleave  unto  the  Lord  their  God," 
(xxiii.) 

Sect.  2.  Joshua's  dying  address  to  the  Israelites,  and  renewal 

of  the  covenant  between  them  and  God.  (xxiv.  1 — 28.) 

These  valedictory  speeches  of  Joshua  to  the  Israelites,  like  those  of  Mo 
ses,  give  us  an  idea  of  a  truly  great  man,  and  of  a  wise  and  religious  gover- 
nor, the  only  aim  of  whose  power  is  the  glory  of  God,  and  the  lasting  hap 
piness  of  tlie  community  over  which  he  presides.— An  admirable  example 
to  be  imitated  in  due  proportion  by  all  the  princes  of  the  earth.' 

Sect.  3.  The  death  and  burial  of  Joshua,  the  burial  of  Joseph's 

bones,    and  the  death  of   Eleazar  the  high-priest,  (xxiv. 

29— 3a) 

It  is,  however,  necessary  to  remark,  that  there  is  some  acci- 
dental derangement  of  the  order  of  the  chapters  in  this  book 
occasioned,  probably,  by  the  ancient  mode  of  rolling  up 
manuscripts.  If  chronologically  placed,  they  should  be  read 
thus  :  first  chapter  to  the  nmth  verse  ;  then  the  second  chap- 
ter ;  then  from  the  tenth  verse  to  the  end  of  the  first  chapter  ; 
after  which  should  follow  the  third  and  consecutive  chapters 
to  the  eleventh;  then  the  twenty-second  chapter,  and  the 
twelfth  to  the  twenty-first  chanter,  inclusive;  and,  lastly,  the 
twenty-third  and  twenty-fourtn  chaptere. 

V.  A  considerable  difference  of  opinion  subsists  among 
learned  men  concerning  the  book  oi  Jasher,  mentioned  ia 
Josh.  x.  13.  In  addition  to  the  observations  already  offered,'' 
we  may  remark,  that  Bishop  Lowth  is  of  opinion,  that  it  was 
a  poetical  book,  no  longer  extant  when  the  author  of  Joshua 
and  Samuel  lived  and  wrote.* 


SECTION  IIL 


ON   THE    BOOK   OF   JUDGES. 


I.  Title. — II.  Date  and  author. — III.  Scope,  chronology,  and 
synopsis  of  its  contents. — IV.  Observations  on  tome  difficuU 
passages  in  this  book. 

1.  The  book  of  Judges  derives  its  name  from  its  containing 
the  history  of  the  Israelites  from  the  death  of  Joshua  to  the 
time  of  Eli,  under  the  administration  of  thirteen  Judges, 
whom  God  raised  up  on  special  occasions  to  deliver  his 
people  from  the  oppression  of  their  enemies,  and  to  manage 
and  restore  their  affairs.     Concerning  their  powers  and  func- 

3  Pylc's  Paraphrase  on  the  Old  Testament,  vol.  il.  p.  3. 

•  Ibid.  p.  4.  «  See  Vol.  I.  p.  67. 

•  The  book  of  Jasher  is  twice  quotcd,^r»/ In  Josh.  x.  13.  where  the  quo- 
tation is  evidently  poetical,  and  forms  exacll;  three  distiches. 

"  Sun,  stand  thou  still  upon  Gibeon, 

And  lliou  moon,  in  the  valley  of  Ajalon  ; 

Anrl  the  sun  stood  still,  and  the  nmon  stayed  her  course, 

Unlll  the  people  were  avenged  of  their  entuiies. 

And  the  sun  tarried  in  Ihc  midst  of  the  heavens, 

And  liasted  not  to  go  down  in  a  whole  day." 
The  second  passage  where  the  hook  of  Jasher  is  cited  is  in  2  Sam.  I.  18^ 
where  David's  lamentation  over  Saul  is  said  to  be  extracted  from  it.  The 
custom  of  the  Hebrews,  in  giving  titles  to  llieir  books  from  the  initial  word 
is  well-known:  thus  GcnosTs  Is  calle<l  Hereshith,  ic.  They  also  some- 
times named  the  book  from  some  rernarkaldc  wonl  in  the  firslsontcncc  : 
thus  the  book  of  Numbers  is  sometimes  called  Bfiniilbar.  We  also  find 
in  their  writings  canticles  which  had  been  produced  on  Imporiont  occa- 
sions, introduced  by  some  form  of  this  kind  :  axjas/iar  (then  sang),  or  re- 
jashuT  peloni,  Ac.  Thus  or  jaskir  Moshrh,  "  then  sang  Mobcb"  (Exod. 
XV.  1.  the  Bamarltan  Pentateuch  reads  jasher);  velhathar  Dfborah. 
"  and  Doborali  sang."  (Judg.  v.  1.)  See  also  the  inscription  of  Psal.  xviii.) 
Thus  the  book  of  Jasher  is  supposed  to  have  been  sonic  collection  of 
sacred  song-i,  coniposed  at  difTi-renl  limes  and  on  diflTercnt  ocra.sions,  and 
to  have  had  tliis  lillo,  because  the  book  ilself  and  most  of  the  soncs  began 
in  general  willi  this  word,  vejathar.  Lowth's  Prn-lcct.  pp.  306,  307.  notes; 
or  Dr.  Gr.gory's  iranslatlnn,  vol.  ii.  pp.  IK,  Ifvl.  twiu.  The  book  of  Jasher, 
puhli.«hed  lU  I.omlon  in  17rd,  and  reprinted  al  Uristol  in  IhJO,  is  u  shameless 
literary  forgerv.  An  account  of  il  will  be  found  in  U>c  Bibliographical  Ap- 
pendix to  Vol.  II. 


Sect.  III.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  JUDGES. 


217 


tions  see  Vol.  ll.  p.  42.  Tlie  Judges  frequently  acted  by  a 
divine  suggestion,  and  were  endowed  with  preternatural 
strength  and  fortitude  (compare  ii.  18.  vi.  14.  34.  xi.  29.  and 
xiv.  6.  19.)  :  it  is  necessary  to  bear  this  in  mind  when  perus- 
ing the  relation  of  some  of  their  achievements,  which  were 
justifiable  only  on  the  supposition  of  their  being  performed 
under  the  sanction  of  a  divme  warrant,  which  supersedes  all 
general  rules  of  conduct.  Besides,  "  in  some  cases  (such  as 
that  of  Samson's  suicide)  they  may  have  abused  their  endow- 
ments, since  the  preternatural  gifts  of  God  are  ec[ually  liable 
to  abuse  with  those  which  he  bestows  in  the  ordmary  course 
of  nature."! 

II.  From  the  expression  recorded  in  Judg.  xviii.  30.  some 
have  imagined  that  this  book  was  not  written  till  after  the 
Babylonisli  captivity,  but  this  conjecture  is  evidently  errone- 
ous ;  for,  on  comparing  Psal.  Ixxviii.  60,  61.  and  1  Sam.  iv. 
11.  with  that  passage,  we  find  that  the  captivity  intended  by 
the  historian  was  a  particular  captivity  oithe  inhaTjitants  of 
Dan,  which  tookplace  about  the  time  the  ark  was  taken  by 
the  Philistines.  Besides,  the  total  absence  of  Chaldee  words 
sufficiently  proves  the  date  of  the  book  of  Judges  to  have 
been  many  centuries  anterior  to  the  great  Babylonish  cap- 
tivity. This  book,  however,  was  certainly  written  before 
the  second  book  of  Samuel  (compare  2  Sam.  xi.  21.  with 
Judg.  ix.  53.),  and  before  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  David. 
(Compare  2  Sam.  v.  6.  with  Judg.  i.  21.) 

There  is  a  considerable  diversity  of  opinion  as  to  the  per- 
son by  whom  this  book  of  Judges  was  written  ;  it  being,  by 
some  writers,  ascribed  to  Phinehas,  Hezekiah,  Jeremiah, 
Ezekiel,  or  Ezra,  who  compiled  it  from  the  memoirs  of  his 
own  time  which  were  left  by  each  Judge  ;  while  others  think 
that  it  was  compiled  by  some  prophet  out  of  the  public  regis- 
ters or  records  that  were  kept  by  the  priests  and  Levites. 
But  the  best  founded  opinion  seems  to  be,  that  it  was  written 
by  the  prophet  Samuel,  the  last  of  the  Judges ;  and  in  this 
opinion  the  Jews  themselves  coincide. 

III.  The  book  of  Judges  comprises  the  history  of  about 
three  hundred  years  :  it  consists  of  three  parts ;  the  first  em- 
braces the  history  of  the  Elders,  who  ruled  the  Israelites  after 
the  death  of  Joshua,  and  the  subsequent  transactions,  to  the 
commencement  of  their  troubles,  (ch.  i. — iii.  40  The  second 
part  contains  the  history  of  the  Judges  from  Othniel  to  Eli 
(ch.  iii.  5. — xvi.) ;  and  the  third,  which  narrates  several 
memorable  actions  performed  not  long  after  the  death  of 
Joshua  (ch.  xvii.  21.),  is  thrown  to  the  end  of  the  book,  that 
it  might  not  interrupt  the  thread  of  the  narrative.  "  This  his- 
torj'',  observes  Dr.  Priestley,  "  abundantly  verifies  the  fre- 
quent warnings  and  predictions  of  Moses ;  according  to 
which,  the  people,  being  under  the  immediate  government  of 
God,  were  m  the  most  exemplary  manner  to  be  rewarded  for 
their  obedience,  and  punished  for  their  disobedience,  and 
especially  for  their  conformity  to  the  religions  of  their  neigh- 
bours, whom  God  had  devoted  to  destruction  on  account  of 
their  polytheism  and  idolatry."  There  is  considerable  difii- 
culty  in  settling  the  chronology  of  this  book,  several  of  the 
facts  related  in  it  being  reckoned  from  different  teras,  which 
cannot  now  be  exactly  ascertained  ;  many  of  the  Judges  also 
are  generally  supposed  to  have  been  successive  who  in  all 
probability  were  contemporaries,  and  ruled  over  different  dis- 
tricts at  the  same  time.  In  the  following  synopsis  it  is 
attempted  to  reduce  the  chronology  to  something  like  order, 
and  also  to  present  a  correct  analysis  of  the  book. 

Part  I.  The  State  of  the  Israelites  after  the  death  of  Joshua^ 
until  they  began  to  turn  aside  from  serving  the  Lord.  (i. — iii. 
4.)  B.  c.  1443—1413. 

Part  II.  The  History  of  the  Oppressions  of  the  Israelites,  and 
their  Deliverances  by  the  Judges,  (iii.  5. — xvi.) 

Sect.  1.  The  subjection  of  the  Eastern  Israelites  to  the  king 
of  Mesopotamia,  and  their  deliverance  by  Othniel.  (iii.  5 — 11.) 
B.  c.  1413—1405. 

Sect.  2.  The  subjection  of  the  Eastern  Israelites  to  the  king 
of  Moab,  and  their  deliverance  by  Ehud.  The  Western 
Israelites  delivered  by  Shamgai-.  (iii.  12 — 31.)  b.  c.  1343 — 
1305. 

Sect.  3.  The  Northern  Israelites,  after  being  oppressed  by 
Jabin,  king  of  Canaan,  are  delivered  by  Deborah  and  Barak. 

•  Prof.  Turner's  translation  of  Jahn's  Introduction,  p.  343.  note. 

»  The  triumphal  Ode  of  Deborah  is  analyzed  at  considerable  length  by 
Bishop  Lowth  (Lect.  no.  ^.).  who  considers  it  as  a  specimen  of  the  per- 
fectly subhme  ode.  In  the  fourth  and  fifth  verses,  the  extraordinary  dis- 
plays of  the  Divine  Maiesty,  which  the  Israelites  had  witnessed  at  Mount 

Vol.  II.  2E 


-  (iv.)  The  thanksgiving  song  of  Deborah  and  Barak.2  (v.) 
B.  c.  1285. 

Sect.  4.  The  Eastern  and  Northern  Israelites,  being  for  tlieif 
sins  delivered  into  the  power  of  Midian,  are  delivered  by 
Gideon. — History  of  Gideon  and  his  family,  including  the 
judicature  of  Abimelech.  (vi. — ix.)  b.  c.  1252 — 1233. 

Sect.  5.  History  of  the  administrations  of  Tola  and  Jair.  The 
Israelites,  being  oppressed  by  the  Ammonites,  are  delivered 
by  Jephthah.  The  administrations  of  the  Judges,  Ibzan, 
Elon,  and  Abdon.  (x. — xii.)  b.  c.  1233—1157. 

Sect.  6.  The  birth  of  Samson. — Servitude  of  the  Israelites  to 
the  Philistines,  and  their  deliverance  by  Samson,  with  an 
account  of  his  death,  (xiii. — xvi.)  b.  c.  1155 — 1117. 

Part  III.  .^n  Account  of  the  Introduction  of  Idolatry  among 
the  Israelites,  and  the  consequent  Corruption  of  Religion  arm 
Manners  among  the?7i ,-  for  which  God  gave  them  up  into  the 
hands  of  their  enemies,  (xvii. — xxi.) 

Sect.  1.  Account  of  the  idol  of  Micah  and  its  worship,  at  first 
privately  in  his  family  (xvii.)  and  afterwards  pubUcly  in  the 
tribe  of  Dan.  (xviii.)  b.  c.  1413. 

Sect.  2.  Account  of  a  very  singular  violence  and  detestable 
murder,  committed  by  the  Benjamites  of  Gibeah  (xiv.)  ;  the 
war  of  the  other  tribes  with  them,  and  the  almoa^  total 
extinction  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  (xx.  xxi.)  b.  c.  1413. 
IV.  The  book  of  Judges  forms  an  important  link  in  the 
history  of  the  Israelites,  and  is  very  properly  inserted  between 
the  books  of  Joshua  and  Samuel,  as  the  Judges  were  the  in- 
termediate governors  between  Joshua  and  the  kings  of  Israel . 
It  furnishes  us  with  a  lively  description  of  a  fluctuating  and 
unsettled  nation ;  a  striking  picture  of  the  disorders  and  dan- 
gers which  prevailed  in  a  republic  without  magistracy ;  when 
the  highways  were  unoccupied,  and  the  travellers  walked 
through  by-ways  (v.  6.) ;  when  few  prophets  were  appointed 
to  control  the  people,  and  every  one  did  that  which  was  right 
in  his  oion  eyes.  (xvii.  6.)  It  exhibits  the  contest  of  true 
religion  with  superstition ;  displays  the  beneficial  effects  that 
flow  from  the  former,  and  represents  the  miseries  and  evil 
consequences  of  impiety  ;  it  is  a  most  remarkable  history  of 
the  long-suffering  of  God  towards  the  Israelites,  in  which  we 
see  the  most  signal  instances  of  his  justice  and  mercy  alter- 
nately displayed.  The  people  sinned  and  were  puiiished ; 
they  repented  and  found  mercy.  Something  of  this  kind  we 
find  in  every  page :  and  these  things  are  written  for  our  warn- 
ing. None  should  presume,  for  God  is  just;  none  need 
despair,  for  God  is  merciful.'  From  the  scenes  of  civil  dis- 
cord and  violence  which  darken  this  history,  St.  Paul  has 
presented  us  with  some  illustrious  examples  of  faith,  in  the 
characters  of  Gideon,  Barak,  Samson,  and  Jephthah.  Inde- 
pendently of  the  internal  evidences  of  its  authenticity  which 
are  to  be  found  in  the  style  of  this  book,  the  transactions  it 
records  are  not  only  cited  or  alluded  to  by  other  sacred 
writers  besides  St.  Paul,^  but  are  further  confirmed  by  the 
traditions  current  among  the  heathen  writers.  Thus,  we  find 
the  memorial  of  Gideoirs  actions  preserved  by  Sanchoniatho, 
a  Tyrian  writer  who  lived  soon  after  him,  and  whose  anti- 
quity is  attested  by  Porphyry,  who  was  perhaps  the  most 
inveterate  enemy  to  Christianity  that  ever  lived.*  The  Vul- 
pinaria,  or  feast  of  the  foxes,  celebrated  by  the  Romans  in  the 
month  of  April  (the  time  of  the  Jewish  harvest,  in  which 
they  let  loose  foxes  with  torches  fastened  to  their  tails), s  was 
derived  from  the  story  of  Samson,  which  was  conveyed  into 

Sinai,  are  described  in  very  poetical  language,  and  compared  with  the  Di- 
vine interposition  in  behalf  of  Israel.  The  presence  of  God  had  thrown  all 
nature,  as  it  were,  into  convulsions ,  the  thunders  and  hghtnings  were  at 
tended  by  impetuous  showers  of  rain ;  and  Mount  Smai  was  m  such  a<5i[a- 
tion  that  it  seemed  to  be  melted  from  before  the  Lord.  (Scott,  m  loc.)  rbc 
transaction  at  Mount  Sinai,  which  furnished  this  magnificent  and  sublime 
passage,  took  places,  c.  1491 :  the  deliverance  of  the  Israelites,  under  De 
borah  and  Barak,  b.  c.1285,  or  according  to  some  cbronologers,  e.  c  1296, 
that  is,  nearly  two  hundred  years  before.  Yet,  misled  by  the  neologian 
interpretation  of  the  late  Professor  Eichhorn,  Professor  Jahn  has  gravely 
ascribed  the  victory  of  Barak  over  Sisera,  to  his  taking  advantage  of  a  rag- 
ing tempest.  (Introd.  in  Lil^ros  Vet.  FtEd.  part  ii.  §  37.)  This  smion  is 
almost  a  servile  transcript  of  Eichhorn.  Prof  Turner  and  Mr  fitting, 
ham  have  exposed  the  fallacy  of  these  mischievous  interpretations  m  the 

notes  to  their  translation  o/jahn.  (PP- 2«-2f  ■> ,.  V/^.'^fi^^Zr,','?  In* 
expurgated  edition  of  Jahn  has  altogether  omitted  this  section,  without  ap- 
prizing the  reader  of  such  omission.  /•  »„  T„J.,«»  «  »i 
3  Bp.  Gray's  Key,  p.  157.    Dr.  A.  Darke's  Pref  to  Judge^  p.  vi 
*  Compare  Psal.  ikiviii.  56-m.  Ixxxiii.  11, 12.  cvi.  34-4b.  1  Sam.  xil.  9-11. 

'"I'He'ixpreJsry'affitm'lanc^oniatho  to  have  derived  many  of  the  fact« 

related  u'CisiaLry,  ..  x..  O.o^..,.— ^  Vc^^J^'^'^ll^i^Zel 
.lerumbalus,  or  Jerubaal,  another  name  for  Gideon.     Bocharti  1  haieg. 
lib.  ii.  C.7. 
»  Ovid,  Fasti,  lib.  iv.  684.  et  seq. 


218 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  Y.  Chap  II 


Italy  by  the  Phoenicians:  nnd  to  mention  no  more,  in  the 
history  of  Samson  and  Delilah,  \ve  find  the  oricrinal  of  Nisus 
and  his  dauofhters,  who  cut  off  those  fatal  Ir.'.irs,  iij)on  \\  hioh 
the  victory  d«^pended.' 


SECTION  IV. 

ON  THE  BOOK  OF  RUTH. 


Itl- 


t: 


I.   Title  and  arj^vment. — II.  Ttnte  and  chronoto^y. — III. 
thor. — IV.  Scope. — Y.   Spiofisis  of  ils  ccutents. 

I.  The  book  of  Rutli  is  crenerally  considered  as  an  appendix 
to  that  of  Judges,  and  an  introduction  to  ihnt  of  Samuel  ;  it 
is  therefore  placed,  and  with  great  ])ropriety,  between  the 
hooks  of  Judn;es  and  Samnel.  In  the  ancient  .lewish  canon 
of  the  Old  Testament,-  Judges  nml  Ruth  formed  but  one 
book,  because  tlie  transactions  whicli  it  coritained  happened 
in  the  time  of  the  Judges;  althougli  the  modern  Jews  sepa- 
rate it  from  both,  and  make  it  the  second  of  tlie  five  Migilloth 
or  volumes  which  they  place  together  tow  ards  the  end  of  the 
Old  Testament.  It  is  publicly  read  by  them  in  the  syna- 
gogues on  the  feast  of  weeks  or  of  Pentecost,  on  account  of 
The'  harvest  being  mentioned  in  it,  the  first-fruits  of  which 
were  oftcred  to  God  on  that  festival.  Tliis  book  derives  its 
name  from  Ruth  the  Moabitess,  whose  history  it  relatt-s,  and 
whom  the  (Mialdee  paraphrast  supposes  to  have  been  the 
daughter  of  Eglon  King  of  Moab;  but  this  conjecture  is 
utterly  unsupported  by  Scripture ;  nor  is  it  at  all  likely  that 
a  king's  daughter  would  abandon  her  native  country,  to  seek 
bread  in  another  land,  and  marry  a  stranger. 

II.  Augustine'  refers  the  time  of  this  history  to  the  regal 
government  of  the  Israelites;  Joseplms  the  Jewish  historian, 
and  some  others  of  later  date,  to  the  time  of  Kli;  Moldcn- 
hawer,  after  some  Jewish  writers,  assigns  it  to  the  time  of 
Khud;  Rabbi  Kimchi  and  other  Jewish  authors  conceive 
Moaz,  who  married  Ruth,  to  have  been  the  same  person  as 
(bzan,  whojudwd  Israel  immediatelvafirr  Jcphthah  ;  Junius, 
eomparing  the  book  of  Ruth  with  Matt,  i.,  is  of  opinion,  that 
the  events  recorded  in  this  history  took  place  in  the  days  of 
Deborah ;  and  the  learned  Archbishop  Usher,  that  they  liap- 

t>ned  ill  tlie  *.ime  ot^vShamgar.  As  the  famine  which  c;iused 
!limelech  to  leave  his  country,  "came  to  pass  in  the  days 
when  the  Judges  ruled''  (Ruth  i.  1.),  13ishop  Patrick  has 
referred  the  beginning  of  tiiis  history  to  the  judicature  of 
tiideon,  about  the  year  of  the  world  •27.'30,  at  which  time  a 
famine  is  related  to  have  happened.  (Judg.  vi.  3 — C.)''  Con- 
riiderable  didiculty  has  arisen  in  settling  the  chronology  of 
this  book,  in  consequence  of  its  being  mentioned  by  Saint 
Matthew  (i.  5.  C), — that  Salmon  the  father  of  Roaz  (who 
married  Riitii)  was  married  to  liahab  (by  wliom  is  generally 
understood  liahab  the  harlot,  who  protected  the  spies  when 
Joshua  invaded  the  land  of  Canaan  1 :  and  yet  that  Boazwas 
the  grandfather  of  David,  who  was  liorii  about  three  hundred 
and  sixty  years  after  the  siege  of  Jericho. — a  leiigtii  of  time, 
durinw  whicii  it  is  dilficult  to  conceive  that  only  three  per- 
sons, lioaz.Obed,  and  Jesse,  should  have  intervened  between 
Rahab  and  David.  13ut  this  didiculty  rnay  readily  be  solved, 
cither  by  supposing  that  some  inlermrdiate  names  of  little 
•wnscquenco  were  omitted  in  the  public  genealogies  copied 
by  the  evangelist  (as  we  know  to  have  l)ien  the  rase  in  some 
other  instances);  or  by  concluding,  with  Archbishop  Usher, 
that  the  ancestors  of  David,  being  men  of  extraordinary  jiii^ty, 
or  designed  to  be  cons])icuous  because  the  Messiah  was  to 
•lescend  from  them,  were  blesst  d  with  longer  life  and  greater 
strength  than  ordinarily  fill  to  the  lot  of  irit-n  in  thatage.^  Jt 
is  certain  that  Jesse  was  accounted  an  old  man  when  his  son 
David  was  but  a  jrouth  (seel  Sam.  xvii.  1:2.);  and,  since 

^  "  Ovid,  M''t«m.  lib.  vili.  fnlv  1.  IW.  do  I.avniir  In  liis  Crmfrrncr  tlr  la 
fnliln  avfc  C lltKl^iirp.  Sninl',  torn.  li.  jip.  1  — l^) ,  Iiiih  hIiowii  llmt  Hiiniscin, 
ilie  jiiitffc  of  itic  iHracIilcs,  Id  itic  nrlfriiwil  and  i-S;;<-rillal  llcrculcs  of  pn^jan 
mytnnlocy ;  thiu  fiimiiitiinK  nn  additional  firiMtf  how  iiiiicli  Uic  Jicnlhrns 
have  hcfn  Indfdjli-d  to  iho  fljlili!.  An  Ills  InntiHo  is  \>y  no  nicanfl  of  roin- 
mon  ornirri-nrp,  llir>  roadT  will  find  nn  iihri'lgpd  tranntallon  of  llin  piigc.i 
i-ilcd  in  Dr.  A.  (Mnrkr'H  r.oniinonlnry  on  Jiidij.  xvi. 

«  Jtriiiiio  px)irrK8ly  siiilcs  Ihril  this  w.th  llie  cnsr  in  liis  liirc— Ucindn 
ji'ibtoxunt  WoplirMiin,  id  n8t  Juiliniin  librutn,  ct  in  cundrm  ronipinftiint : 
rjuia  in  dit'biH  Jiidicuin  facta  cJiih  nnrriitiir  lilstoria.  (l'rol(')rii!<  (i3lralii<i.) 
Kiincbiiis,  wbr-n  nivitig  Orijfnn'H  calalogUR  of  the  aacrcd  book*,  confirina 
Jrronin'H  account.    Keel.  Ili'ii.  lib.  vi.  c.  20. 

>  I)c  Doct.  ChrtHt  Id),  ii.  c.  8. 

«  Jospphim,  Ant  .bid.  lib.  v  c.  0.  {  I.  Seder  Oliun,  r.  12.  MoldnihiMPr, 
Jiilrod  ad  I.ibroti  (.anoniros  Vet  pt  Nov.  Tesl.  p.  111.  KimrbiUin  Kiilh, 
c. '  Juiiiii.%  Annolat.  in  Kuth  1.  Rialion  Patrick  on  Rulb  1.  1.  LcuimIoii, 
P    lol.  Hub  pp.  18.  86.  ^ 

,   *  Cbronologia  »acr»;  part  I.  c.  12.  pp.  00, 70.  ed.  Oencvi,  1722,  folio. 


Boaz  is  represented  as  the  great  grandfather  of  the  roya. 
Psalmist,  it  is  evident  that  the  date  of  the  history  of  Ruth 
cannot  be  so  low  as  the  time  of  Eli  assigned  by  Josephus, 
nor  so  high  as  the  time  of  Shangar :  the  most  probable  period, 
therefore,  is  that  stated  by  Bishop  Patrick,  viz,  during  the 
judicature  of  Gideon,  or  about  the  year  of  the  world  2759, 
B.  c.  1211. 

III.  Like  the  hook  of  Judges,  Ruth  has  been  ascribed  to 
Hezekiah,  and  also  to  Ezra ;  but  the  most  probable,  and,  in 
deed,  generally  received  opinion,  is  that  of  the  Jews,  who 
state  it  to  have  been  written  by  the  prophet  Samuel,  From 
the  genealogy  recorded  in  iv.  17 — 22.  it  is  evident  that  this 
history  could  not  have  been  reduced  into  its  present  form  be- 
fore the  time  of  Samuel. 

IV.  The  Scope  of  this  book  is  partly  to  deliver  the  gene- 
alogy of  king  David  through  the  line  of  Ruth,  a  heathen 
proselyte  to  the  Jewish  religion,  and  the  wife  of  Boaz,  whose 
adoption  into  the  line  of  Christ  has  generally  been  considered 
as  a  pre-intimation  of  the  admission  of  the  Gentiles  into  the 
Christian  church.  It  had  been  foretold  to  the  Jews  that  the 
Messiah  should  be  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  and  it  was  after- 
xrards  further  revealed  that  he  should  be  of  the  family  of  Da- 
vid :  and,  therefore,  it  was  necessar}',  for  the  full  understand- 
ing of  these  ])rophecies,  that  the  history  of  the  family,  in  that 
tribe,  should  be  written  ir/we  these  prophecies  were  revealed, 
to  prevent  tlie  least  suspicion  of  fraud  or  design.  And  thus 
this  hook,  these  prophecies,  and  their  accomplishment,  serve 
to  illustrate  each  other."  A  further  design  of  this  book  is  to 
evidence  the  care  of  Divine  Providence  over  those  who  sin- 
cerely fear  God,  in  raising  the  pious  Ruth  from  a  state  of  the 
deepest  adversity  to  that  of  the  highest  prosperity. 

V.  The  book  of  Ruth,  which  consists  of  four  chapters, 
may  be  conveniently  divided  into  three  sections  ;  containing, 

Skct.  1.  An  arcount  of  Naomi,  from  licr  departure  from  Ca- 
naan info  Moab,  with  her  liusband  Elimclcch,  to  her  return 
thence  into  tlie  land  of  Israel  with  her  daughter-in-law  Kuth. 
(ch.  i.)  B.  c.  1241—1231. 

Sect.  2.  The  interview  of  Boaz  with  Ruth,  and  their  marriage, 
(ii.  iii,  v.  1, — 12.) 

Skct.  .1.  The  birth  of  Obcd,  the  son  of  Boaz  by  Ruth,  from 
whom  David  wa.s  descended,  (iv.  13 — 18.) 

The  whole  narrative  is  written  with  peculiar  simplicity ; 
and  the  interviews  between  Boaz  and  Ruth  display  the  most 
unalTected  piety,  liberalit)',  and  modesty;  and  their  reverent 
observance  of  the  Mosaic  law,  as  well  as  of  ancient  customs, 
is  portrayed  in  very  lively  and  animated  colours. 


SECTION  V. 

ON  THE  TWO  BOOKS  OF  SAMUEL. 

I.  Title. — II.  Authors. — III.  Arffument,  scope,  and  anali,sit 
of  tlic  fvst  book  of  Samuel. — IV.  .Irqiunrnt,  scope,  ana 
anah/sis  of  the  second  hook-  of  Samuel, — V.  General  o4- 
sci-vations  on  these  tivo  books. 

I.  In  the  Jewish  canon  of  Scripture  these  two  books  form 
but  one,  termed  in  Hebrew  the  Book  of  Samuel,  probably 
because  the  greater  part  of  the  first  book  was  written  by  that 
j)rophet,  whose  history  and  transactions  it  relat(>s.  The  nooks 
of  Samuel  aj)pear  to  have  derived  their  appellati<m  from 
I  (!hron  xxix.  2!). :  where  the  transactions  of  David's  reign 
are  said  to  be  wrlthn  iu  the  IhkiIi  (llcb.  ironl.s)  if  Samuel  tht, 
Kctr.  1.1  the  S(>ptnagint  versiuu  lluy  are  called  the  first  and 
scfond  books  ol  Kings,  or  of  the  Kingdoms;  in  the  Vulgate 
they  are  designated  as  the  first  and  stcond  books  of  Kings, 
and,  by  Jerome,  they  are  termed  the  hooks  of  the  Kingdoms ; 
as  beino^  two  of  the  four  l)ooks  in  which  the  history  of  the 
kings  of  Israel  and  Judah  is  related. 

II.  Jahn  is  of  opinion,  that  the  books  of  Samuel  and  the 
two  books  of  Kings  were  written  by  one  and  the  same  per- 
son, and  publisheilabout  the  forty-lourlh  year  of  the  Babylo- 
nish captivity:  and  he  has  endeavoured  to  support  his  con- 
jecture with  much  ingenuity,  though  unsuccessfully,  by  the 
uniformity  of  |)laii  and  style  which  he  thinks  are  discernible 
in  these  books.  The  more  prevalent,  as  well  as  more  proba- 
ble opinion,  is  that  of  the  Talmudists,  which  was  adopte<l 
by  the  n\ost  h  arncd  fathers  of  the  Christian  church  (who 
unquestionably  had  better  means  of  ascertaining  tiiis  point 
than  we  iiave) :  viz.  that  the  first  twenty-four  chapters  of  the 

•  Dcdford'a  Scripture  Chronology,  book  v.  c.  5. 


Sect.  V.] 


ON  THE  TWO  BOOKS  OF  SAMUEL. 


219 


first  book  of  Samuel  were  written  by  the  prophet  whose  name 
they  bear ;  and  that  the  remainder  of  tbat  book,  together  with 
the  whole  of  the  second  book,  was  committed  to  writing  by 
the  prophets  Gad  and  Nathan,  agreeably  to  the  practice  of 
the  prophets  who  wrote  memoirs  of  the  transactions  of  their 
respective  times.  That  all  these  three  persons  were  writers 
is  evident  from  1  Ohron.  xxix.  29. ;  where  it  is  said  :  Nmo 
ike  acts  of  David,  first  and  last,  behold  they  are  loritten  in  the 
book  of  Samuel  the  seer,  and  in  the  book  of  Nathan  the  prophet, 
and  of  Gad  the  seer  .■  the  memoirs  of  these  prophets  are  here 
referred  to  as  distinct  books :  but  it  would  be  natural  for 
Ezra,  by  whom  the  canon  of  Jewish  Scripture  was  completed, 
to  throw  all  their  contents  into  the  two  books  of  Samuel. 
It  is  certain  that  the  first  book  of  Samuel  was  written  before 
the  first  book  of  Kings;  a  circumstance  related  in  the  former 
book  being  referred  to  in  the  latter.  (1  Sam.  ii.  31.  with  1 
Kings  ii.  27.) 

The  first  acts  of  David  declared  in  1  Chron.  xxix.  29.  to 
have  been  recorded  by  Samuel,  were  such  as  happened  before 
the  death  of  Samuel ;  and  these  end  with  the  twenty-fourth 
chapter  of  the  first  book  of  Samuel.  What  parts  of  the  re- 
maining history  of  David  were  written  by  Nathan,  and  what 
by  Gad,  is  at  present  very  difficult  to  distinguish  with  exact- 
ness. Mr.  Reeves  has  conjectured,  with  great  probability, 
that  as  it  appears  from  1  Sam.  xxii.  5.  that  Gad  was  then  with 
David  in  the  hold  or  place  where  he  kept  himself  secret  from 
Saul ;  and  since  it  is  thought  that  Gad,  being  bred  under 
Samuel,  was  privy  to  his  having  anointed  David  king,  and 
had,  therefore,  resolved  to  accompany  him  during  his  trou- 
bles; it  has,  from  these  circumstances,  been  supposed  that 
the  history  of  wliat  happened  to  David,  from  the  death  of 
Samuel  to  his  being  made  kin^  at  Hebron  over  all  Israel,  was 
penned  by  the  prophet  Gad.  rle  seems  the  most  proper  per- 
son for  that  undertaking,  having  been  an  eye-witness  to  most 
of  the  transactions. 

The  first  mention  of  the  prophet  Nathan  occurs  in  2  Sam. 
vii.  2.  a  short  time  after  David  was  settled  at  Jerusalem. 
Nathan  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the  subsequent  part  of 
David's  reign  ;  and  lie  was  one  of  those  who  were  appointed 
by  David  to  assist  at  the  anointing  of  Solomon,  (l  Kings 
i.  32.)  As  this  event  took  place  not  long  before  David  s  death, 
it  is  probable  Nathan  might  survive  the  royal  Psalmist ;  and, 
as  he  knew  all  the  transactions  of  his  reign  from  his  settle- 
ment at  Jerusalem  to  his  death,  it  is  most  likely  that  he  wrote 
the  history  of  the  latter  part  of  David's  reign;  especially  as 
there  is  no  mention  of  Gad,  after  the  pestilence  sent  for 
David's  numbering  the  people,  which  was  about  two  years 
before  his  death,  during  v«hich  interval  Gad  might  have  died. 
Gad  must  have  been  advanced  in  years,  and  might  leave  the 
continuation  of  the  national  memoirs  to  Nathan.  For  these 
reasons,  it  is  probably  thought  that  Nathan  wrote  all  the  re- 
maining chapters  of  the  second  book  of  Samuel,  after  the  first 
five.i 

III.  The  FIRST  BOOK  of  Samuel  contains  the  history  of  the 
Jewish  church  and  polity,  from  the  birth  of  Samuel,  during 
tiie  judicature  cf  Eli,  to  the  death  of  Saul,  the  first  king  ot 
Israel;  a  period  of  nearly  eighty  years,  viz.  from  the  year  of 
the  world  2369  to  2949.  Its  Scope  is,  first,  to  continue  the 
history  of  the  Israelites  under  the  two  last  Judges,  Eli  and 
Samuel,  and  their  first  monarch  Saul,  and  the  reason  why 
their  form  of  government  was  changed  from  an  aristocracy  to 
a  monarchy  ;  thus  affording  a  strong  confirmation  of  the  au- 
thenticity of  the  Pentateuch,  in  which  we  find  that  this 
change  had  been  foretold  by  Moses,  in  his  prophetic  declara- 
lion  to  the  assembled  nation,  a  short  time  before  his  death, 
and  upwards  of  four  hundred  years  before  the  actual  institu- 
tion of  the  regal  government.  This  book  also  exhibits  the 
preservation  of  the  church  of  God  amidst  all  the  vicissitudes 
of  the  Israelitish  polity ;  together  with  signal  instances  of 
the  divine  mercy  towards  those  who  feared  Jehovah,  and  of 
judgments  inflicted  upon  his  enemies.  It  consists  of  three 
parts :  viz. 

Part  I.  TVie  Transactions  under  the  Judicature  of  Eli.  (ch. 

i. — iv.) 

Sect.  1.  The  birth  of  Samuel  (ch.  i.),  with  the  thanksgiving 
and  prophetical  hymn  of  his  mother  Hannah,  (ii.)  The 
tenth  verse  of  this  chapter  is  a  prediction  of  the  Messiah. 
"  This  admirable  hymn  excels  in  simplicity  of  composition, 
closeness  of  connection,  and  uniformity  of  sentiment;  breath- 
ing the  pious  effusions  of  a  devout  mind,  deeply  impressed 
with  a  conviction  of  God's  mercies  to  herself  in  particular, 
and  of  his  providential  government  of  the  world  in  general ; 
»  Mr.  Beeves,  Preface  to  1  Sam. 


exalting  the  poor  in  spirit  or  the  humble-minded,  and  abasing 
the  rich  and  arrogant;  rewarding  the  righteous,  and  punish- 
ing the  wicked."  2 

Sect.  2.  The  call  of  Samuel,  his  denunciations  against  Eli  by 
the  command  of  God,  and  his  establishment  in  the  prophetic 
office,  (iii.) 

Sect.  3.  The  death  of  Eli,  and  the  capture  of  the  ark  of  God 
by  the  Philistines,  (iv.) 

Part  II.   The  History  of  the  Israelites  during  the  Judicature 
of  Samuel. 

Sect.  1.  The  destruction  of  the  Philistines'  idol  Dagon  (v.)  ; 
the  chastisement  of  the  Philistines,  their  restoration  of  the 
ark,  and  the  slaughter  of  the  Bethshemites  for  profanely 
looking  into  the  ark.  (vi.) 

Sect.  2.  The  reformation  of  divine  worship,  and  the  repent- 
ance of  the  Israelites  at  Mizpeh,  with  the  disconfiture  of  the 
Philistines,  who  were  kept  under  during  the  remainder  of 
Samuel's  judicature,  (vii.) 

Sect.  3.  The  Israelites'  request  for  a  regal  government ;  the 
destination  of  Saul  to  the  kingly  office  (viii.  ix.)  ;  his  inau 
guration  (x.) ;  and  victory  over  the  Ammonites,  (xi.) 

Sect.  4.  Samuel's  resignation  of  the  supreme  judicial  power 
(xii.)  ;  though,  in  a  civil  and  religious  capacity,  he  "judged 
Israel  all  the  days  of  his  fife."  (1  Sam.  vii.  1.5.) 

Part  III.   The  History  of  Saul,  and  the  Transactions  during 
his  Reign. 

Sect.  1.  The  prosperous  part  of  Saul's  reign,  comprising  his 
war  with  the  Philistines,  and  offering  of  sacrifice  (xiii.), 
with  his  victory  over  them,  (xiv.) 

Sect.  2.  The  rejection  of  Saul  from  the  kingdom  in  conse- 
quence of  his  rebellion  against  the  divine  command  in 
sparing  the  king  of  Araalek,  and  the  best  part  of  the  spoil. 

(XV.) 

Sect.  3.  The  inauguration  of  David,  and  the  events  that  took 
place  before  the  death  of  Saul  (xvi. — xxviii.) ;  including, 

§  i.  The  anointing  of  David  to  be  king  over  Israel  (xvi.)  ;  his  combat 
and  victory  over  Goliatli.  (.vvii.) 

§  ii.  The  persecutions  of  David  by  Saul ;— his  exile  and  covenant  with 
Jonathan  (.wiii.) ;  his  flight  (six.) ;  friendship  with  Jonathan  (xx.) ; 
his  going  to  Nob,  where  he  and  his  men  ate  of  the  shew-bread,  and 
Goliath's  sword  was  delivered  to  him;  his  flight,  first  to  the  court  of 
Achish  king  of  Gath,  and  subsequently  into  the  land  of  Moab  (xxi 
xxii.  1 — ■}.) ;  the  slaughter  of  the  priests  at  Nob,  with  the  excepiiju 
ofAbiatliar.  (xxii.  5— 23.) 

§  iii.  The  liberation  of  Keilah  from  the  Philistines  by  David  (xxiii.  1 — 
6.);  his  flight  into  the  wilderness  of  Ziph  and  Maon  (xxiii.  7 — 20.) 
Saul's  life  in  David's  power  at  Engedi,  who  spares  it  (xxiv.) ;  the  in- 
human conduct  of  Nabal  (xxv.);  Saul's  life  spared  a  second  time 
(xxvi.);  David's  second  flight  to  Achish  king  of  Gath.  (xxvii.) 

Sect.  4.  The  last  acts  of  Saul  to  his  death ;  including, 

§  i.  Saul's  consultation  of  the  witchs  of  Endor.  (xxviii.) 

§  ii.  The  encampment  of  the  Philistines  at  Aphck,  who  send  back 

David  from  their  army,  (xxix.) 
§  iii.  David's  pursuit  and  defeat  of  the  Amalekites  who  had  plandcrcij 

Ziklag,  and  from  whom  he  recovers  the  spoil,  (xxx.) 
§  iv.  The  suicide  of  Saul,  and  total  discomfiture  of  the  Israelites. 

(xxxi.) 

IV.  The  SECOND  BOOK  of  Samuel  contains  the  history  of 
David,  the  second  king  of  Israel,  during  a  period  of  nearly 
forty  years,  viz.  from  the  year  of  the  world  2948  to  2988 ;  ana, 
by  recording  the  translation  of  the  kingdom  from  the  tribe  of 
Benjamin  to  that  of  Judah,  it  relates  the  partial  accomplish- 
ment of  the  prediction  delivered  in  Gen.  xlix.  10.  The  victo- 
ries of  David,  his  wise  administration  of  civil  government, 
his  efforts  to  promote  true  religion,  his  grievous  sins,  and  deep 
repentance,  together  with  the  various  troubles  and  judgments 

2  Dr.  Ilales's  Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  ii.  book  i.  p.  3,?2. 

3  Few  passages  of  Scripture  have  been  discussed  wilii  more  warmth 
than  the  relation  contained  in  tliis  23lh  chapter  of  Ihc  first  book  of  Samuel : 
soiue  commentators  liavc  conjectured  that  the  whole  was  a  juggle  of  the 
Pythoness  whom  Saul  consulted ;  others,  that  it  was  a  mere  visionaiy 
scene  ;  Augustine  and  others,  that  it  was  Satan  himself  who  as.sumed  the 
appearance  of  Samuel ;  and  others,  Uuit  it  was  the  ghost  of  Samuel,  raised 
by  infernal  power,  ot  by  force  of  magical  incantation.  All  these  hypo- 
theses, however,  contradict  the  hisloricai  fad  as  related  by  the  author  of 
this  book  :  for  it  is  evident  from  the  Hebrew  original  of  I  Sam.  xxviii.  14. 
more  closely  translated,  and  compared  throughout  with  itself,  that  it  was 
"  Samuel  himself"  whom  Saul  beheld,  and  who  (or  his  spirit)  was  actually 
raised  immediately,  and  before  the  witch  had  any  time  to  utter  any  incan- 
tations, by  the  power  of  God,  in  a  glorified  form,  and  wearing  the  appear- 
ance of  llie  ominous  mantle  in  which  was  the  rent  that  signified  the  rend- 
ing of  the  kingdom  fron)  Saul's  family.  The  rcaii'/u  of  Samuel's  appearance 
on  this  occasion  was  a  doctrine  of  the  primitive  .Icwish  church  (compare 
Ecclus.  xlvi.  20.),  and  was  also  thus  understood  by  .losephus,  who  has  not 
only  translated  tlie  original  passage  correctly,  but  likewise  expressly  states 
that  the  soul  of  Samuel  inquired  why  it  was  raised.  Antiq.  .lud.  lib.  vi.  11. 
§  2.  Dr.  Hales's  Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  ii.  book  i.  pp.  3.55 — 360.,  where 
the  subject  is  fully  discussed  and  proved.  See  also  Calmet's  Dissertation 
sur  I'Apparition  de  Samuel,  Commentaire  I.itteral.  torn.  ii.  pp.  331—336. 
That  it  was  Samuel  himself  is  further  evident  fVom  the  clearness  and  truth 
of  the  prediction  (which  could  only  come  from  God)  ;  for  "  on  the  »norro«r,'- 
that  is,  very  shortly  after,  Saul  and  his  sons  were  slain. 


220 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[T'abt  V.  Chap.  II. 


iaflicted  upon  him  and  his  people  by  God,  are  all  fully  de- 
scribed, riiis  book  consists  oi  three  principal  divisions,  re- 
'ating  the  triumphs  and  the  troubles  oi  David,  and  his  trans- 
actions subsequent  to  his  recovery  of  the  throne,  whence  he 
was  driven  for  a  short  time  by  the  rebellion  of  his  son 
Absalom. 

Part  1.   The  Triumphs  of  David,  (ch.  i. — x.) 

Sect.  1.  His  elegant,  tender,  and  pathetic  elegy  over  Saul 

and  Jonathan,  (i.) 
Sect.  2.  His  triumph  over  the  house  of  Saul,  and  confirma- 
tion in  the  kingdom,  (ii. — iv.) 
Sect.  3.  His  victories  over  the  Jebusitcs  and  rhilistincs  (v.), 
and  the  bringing  up  of  the  ark  to  Jerusalem,  (vi.)    David's 
pravcr  to  God  on  that  occasion,  and  the  divine  promises 
made  to  him  (vii.);  which,  though  they  primarily  related 
to  the  establishment  of  the  throne  in  his  posterity,  yet  ulti- 
mately prefigured  the  everlasting  kingdom  of  the  Messiah. 
(Compare  vii.  12 — 16.  with  Heb.  i.  5.) 
Sect.  4.  His  victories  over  the  Pliihstines,  Ammonites,  and 
other  neighbouring  nations,  (viii. — x.) 
Part  IT.   The  Troubles  of  David,  and  their  Cause,  together  ivith 
his  Repentance,  and  subsequent  Mecoverjj  of  the  Divine  Fa- 
tour,  (ch.  xi. — xix.) 

Sect.  1.    The    cause   of  David's    troubles, — his  first  g^reat 
ofl'cnce  against  God, — his  sin  in  the  matter  of  Uriah,  and 
the  divine  judgments  denounced  against  him  on  that  ac- 
count,  (xi.  xii.) 
Sect.  2.  The  punishments  in  consequence  of  that  sin,  first, 
from  domestic  troubles  in  the  sin  of  Amnon  (xiii.)  ;  and, 
secondly,  public  troubles,  in  the  rebellion  of  Absalom,  which, 
for  a  short  time,  exiled  David  from  the  throne  (xiv. — xvii.)  ; 
the  death  of  Absalom  (xviii.)  and  David's  mourning  on  his 
account,  (xix.) 
Part  III.  David^s  Restoralion  to  his  Throne,  and  subsequent 
Transactions,  (ch.  xx. — xxiv.) 
Sect.  1.  David's  return  to  Jerusalem,  and  the  insurrection  of 

Shebd  quelled,  (xx.) 
Sect.  2.  His  punishment  of  the  sons  of  Saul,  and  successful 

battles  with  the  Philistines,  (xxi.) 
Sect.  3.  His  psalm  of  praise,  on  a  general  review  of  the  mer- 
cies of  his  life,  and  the  many  and  wonderful  deliverances 
which    he    had    experienced,    (xxii.)      This   divine    ode, 
which  contains  the  noblest  images,  perliaps,  that  were  ever 
expressed  in  words,  also  occurs  in   the  book  of  Psalms 
(Psal.  xviii.),  with  a  few  variations.     We  have  it  here,  as 
originally  composed  for  his  own  closet  and  his  own  harp ; 
but  there  we  have  it  as  delivered  to  the  chief  musician  for 
the  service  of  the  church,  with  some  amendments.     For, 
though  primarily  calculated  for  the  royal  proi)hct's  immedi- 
ate use,  yet  it  might  indifferently  assist  the  devotion  of 
others,  when  giving  thanks  for  their  deliverances  :  or,  it  was 
intended  that  his  people  should  thus  join  with  him  in  his 
thanksgivings;  because,  being  a  public  person,  his  deliver- 
ances were  to  be  accounted  pulilic  blessings,  and  called  for 
public  acknowledgments. 
Sect.  4.  The  last  words  of  David,  forming  a  supplement  or 
conclusion  to  the  preceding  sublime  hymn  (xxiii.  1 — 7.), 
which  are  followed  by  an  enumeration  of  his  mighty  men. 
(xxiii.  8—39.) 
Sect.  5.  David's  seconr/ great  oflfencc  against  God,  in  number- 
ing tliej»cople;  its  punishment ;  David's  penitential  inter- 
cession and  sacrifice,  (xxiv.)' 
V.  This  second  book  of  Samuel  bears  an  exact  relation  to 
thcpreccdin};,  and  is  likewise  connected  with  that  which  suc- 
ceeas.     We  see  throughout  the  ciTccts  of  that  enmity  arrainsl 
other  nations,  which  had  been  implanted  in  tiio  minds  of  the 
Israelites  by  the.  Mosaic  law,  and  which  gradually  tended  to 
the  extirpation  of  idolatry.     "  This  book,  like  wise,  as  well  as 
the  former,  contains  other  intrinsic  proofs  of  its  verity.     Hy 
describinrr  without  disguise  the  misconduct  of  those  charac- 
ters, who  were  hijrhly  reverenced  amoiifr  the  pcoj)le,  llie 
sacred  writer  demonstrates  his  impartial  siiicerity  :  and,  by 
appealinjr  to  monuments  that  attested  the  veracity  of  his  rela- 
tions when  ho  wrote,  he  furnished  every  possible  evidence  of 

•  Tho  ofTcncc  of  Dnvlil  Roems  to  have  ctiicfly  rnnsi«tpj  in  his  pcrslitinK 
to  rcqiiiri!  a  iiiti'ilcr  of  all  hiH  giilijectH  able  tn  bear  nniiH,  without  (he  (hvlnc 
comiiiaii>l,  without  nftcoBniljr,  in  a  lime  of  nrofoiiixl  pence,  to  indiiliio  an 
iille  runiiij  an(\prcfumpiiott,  rh  if  he  put  III:;  IruRt  morf  in  tho  nunilji^r  of 
I  Is  than  ill  tliu  ilivine  protiiMion  ;  ami  ih--  n'.Tiiicf  of  hin  pi^iplc 

have  hceniiiiiiilar,  always c-latcil  as  tli<!y  wi'ii\  nn'l  provokmn  the 
u..,  .  ...  ilic  I.ofil  ill  proapcrity  by  theli-  foriCtfulno^^  of  him.  Dcut.  vi.  10 
^l-i.    Dr.  Ilaloa's  Aiulysis,  vol.  U.  p.  3b3. 


his  faithful  adherence  to  truth.  The  books  of  Samuel  connect 
tlie  chain  of  sacred  history  by  detailing  the  eircuiretances  of 
an  interesting  period.  They  describe  the  reformation  and  im- 
provements of  the  Jewish  church  established  by  David  :  and 
as  they  delineate  minutely  the  life  of  that  monarch,  they  point 
out  his  typical  relation  to  Christ.  Many  heathen  authors 
have  borrowed  from  the  books  of  Samuel,  or  have  collected 
from  other  sources,  many  particulars  of  those  accounts  which 
he  gives."2  In  the  falls  of  David  we  behold  the  strength  and 
prevalence  of  human  corruption :  and  in  his  repentance  and 
recovery,  the  extent  and  efficacy  of  divine  grace. 

The  two  books  of  Samuel  are  of  very  considerable  im- 
portance for  illustrating  the  hook  of  Psalms,  to  which  they 
may  he  considered  as  a  key.  Thus,  Psalm  iii.  will  derive 
much  light  from  2  Sam.  xv.  14.  et  seq. ; — Psal.  iv.  from  1  Sam. 
xxii.  xxiii.  xxvi. ; — Psal.  vii.  from  2  Sam.  xvi.  2.  11. ; — Psal 
xxiv.  from  2  Sam.  vi.  12.  et  seq. ; — Psal.  xxx.  from  1  Sam.  v. 
11.; — Psal.  xxxii.  and  li.  from  2 Sam.  xii.; — Psal.  xxxiv. 
from  2  Sam.  xxi.  10 — 15. ; — Psal.  xxxv.  from  2  Sam.  xv.— 
xvii. ; — i'sal.  xlii.  and  xliii.  from  2  Sam.  xvii.  22 — 24. ; — 
Psal.  Hi.  from  1  Sam.  xxii.  9. ; — Psal.  liv.  from  1  Sam.  xxiii. 
19.  and  xxvi.  1.; — Psal.lv.  from  2  Sam.  xvii.  21,  22.; — 
Psal.  Ivi.  from  1  Sam.  xxi.  1 1 — 15. ; — Psal.  Ivii.  from  1  Sam. 
xxii.  1.  and  xxiv.  3. ; — Psal.  lix.  from  1  Sam.  xix.  II.; — 
Psal.  Ix.  from  2  Sam.  viii.  3 — 13.  and  x.  15 — 19.; — Psal. 
Ixiii.  from  1  Sam.  xxii.  5.  and  xxiii.  14 — 16. ; — Psal.  Ixviii. 
from  2  Sam.  vi.  3 — 12.; — Psal.  Ixxxix.  from  2  Sam.  vii.  12. 
d  seq.;  and  Psal.  cxlii.  from  1  Sam.  xxii.  Land  xxiv.  1. 
et  seq. 


SECTION  VI. 

ON    THE    TWO    BOOKS    OF    KINGS. 

I.  Order  and  title  of  these  books. — II.  Author. — HI.  Argxt- 
ment  and  syiiopais  of  the  first  book  of  Kings. — IV.  Argv- 
ment  and  synopsis  of  the  second  book  of  Kings. — V.  Gene- 
ral obsei-vations  on  these  books. 

I.  The  two  books  of  Kings  are  closely  connected  with 
those  of  Samuel.  The  origin  and  gradual  increa.se  of  the 
united  kingdom  of  Israel  under  Saul  and  his  successor  David, 
having  been  described  in  the  latter,  the  books  now  under  con- 
sideration relate  its  height  of  glory  under  Solomon,  its  divi- 
sion into  two  kingdoms  under  his  son  and  successor  Reho- 
boam,  the  causes  of  that  division,  and  the  consequent  decline 
of  the  two  kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Judah,  until  their  final  sub- 
version ;  the  ten  tribes  being  carried  captive  into  Assyria  by 
Shalmanescr,  and  Judah  and  Benjamin  to  Babylon  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar. In  the  most  correct  and  ancient  editions  of  the 
Hebrew  Bible,  the  two  books  of  Kinors  constitute  but  one, 
with  a  short  space  or  break  sometimes  uetween  them.  Some 
of  the  early  fathers  of  the  Christian  church  seem  to  have 
begim  the  first  book  of  Kings  at  the  death  of  David,  (ii.  12.) 
The' more  modern  copies  of  the  Hebrew  Bible  have  the  same 
division  with  our  authorized  version:  though  in  the  time  of 
the  Masorctcs,  they  certainly  fonued  only  one  book  ;  as  both 
(like  the  books  of  Samuel)  are  included  unde;  one  enumera- 
tion of  sections,  versions,  &c.  in  tho  Masora.  They  have  evi- 
dently been  divided,  atsome  unknown  period,  into  two  parts, 
for  the  convenience  of  reading. 

The  titles  to  these  books  nave  been  various,  though  it  ai>- 
penrs  from  Origen  that  they  derived  their  name  from  the  ini- 
tial words  in  T73i,  vn-.vifi.'cii  div/d,  Noxij  king  David  ,■  in  the 
same  manner  as  (we  have  seen)  the  book  of  (ienesis  does.  In 
the  Septuagint  Greek  version,  it  is  simidy  termed  BASiAtlflN 
oi  reigns  or  kingdoms,  of  which  it  calls  Samuel  the  first  and 
second,  and  these  two  the  third  and  fourth.  The  Vulgate 
Latin  version  entitles  it,  Liber  Jlegum  frrtius,-  arrundum  lie- 
braroa,  J.ibcr  Miiinchivi,  that  is,  the  third  book  of  Kings,-  ac- 
cording til  the  Uelirewn,  the  first  book  of  Malachim,  'I'he  old 
Syriac  version  has  :  llvrr  fnllows  l/ic  book  of  t/ie  King.i  who 
Jlourishrd  among  the  ancient  people ,-  and  in  this  are  also 
exhibited  the  hisltn-}/  of  the  prophets,  who  fl/iurishcd  in  their 
times.  In  tiic  Arabic  il  is  thus  entitled  : — In  the  name  of  the 
most  merciful  and  roni/ia.inionate  God ;  the  book  of  Solomon,  the 
son  of  David  the  prophet,  whose  bencdictitms  be  upon  us. — Amen.* 

If.  ('oncerning  the  author  or  authors  of  these  books,  the 
sentiments  of  learned  men  are  extremely  divided.  Some  have 
been  of  opinion  that  David,  Solomon,  and  Hezekiah  wrote 
the  history  of  their  own  reigns ;  others,  that  Nathan,  Gad, 


»  np.  Omy'a  Key,  n  ISl.  • 

•  Dr.  A.  Ci*rkc'«  Pr«f.  to  I  Klnji,  p 


Sect.  VI.] 

Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  and  other  prophets  who  flourished  in  the 
kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Judah,  undertook  the  office  of  histo- 
flographers.  We  know  that  several  of  tlie  prophets  wrote 
the  lives  of  those  kings  who  reigned  in  their  times ;  for  the 
names  and  writings  of  these  prophets  are  mentioned  in  seve- 
ral places  in  the  books  of  Kings  and  Chronicles  ;  which  also 
cite  or  refer  to  the  original  annals  of  the  kings  of  Israel  and 
Judah,  of  which  those  books  have  transmitted  to  us  abridg- 
ments or  summaries.  Thus,  in  1  Kings  xi.  41.  we  read  of 
the  acts  of  Solomon,  which  acts  were  recorded  in  the  book  of 
Nathan  the  prophet,  and  in  the  prophecy  of  Ahijah  the  Shilon- 
ite,  and  in  the  visions  of  Iddo  the  seer  (2  Chron.  ix.  29.)  ; 
which  Iddo  was  employed,  in  conjunction  with  Shemaiah 
the  prophet,  in  writing  the  acts  of  Rehoboam.  (2  Chron.  xii. 
15.)  We  also  read  of  the  book  of  Jehu  the  prophet,  relating 
the  transactions  of  Jehoshaphat  (2  Chron.  xx.  34.  1  Kings 
xvi.  I.) ;  and  Isaiah  the  prophet  wrote  the  acts  of  king  [Jz- 
ziah  (2  Chron.  xxvi.  22.),  and  also  of  Hezekiah  (2  Chron. 
xxxii.  32.)  ;  and  it  is  highly  probable  that  he  wrote  the  his- 
tory of  the  two  intermediate  kings  Jotliam  and  Ahaz,  in 
whose  reigns  he  lived.  (Isa.  i.  1.) 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  two  descriptions  of  writers 
were  concerned  in  the  composition  of  the  books  of  Kings : — 
first,  those  original,  primitive,  and  contemporary  authors, 
who  wrote  the  annals,  journals,  and  memoirs  of  their  own 
times,  from  v,fhich  the  authors  of  our  sacred  history  subse- 
quently derived  their  materials.  These  ancient  memoirs  have 
not  descended  to  us ;  but  they  unquestionably  were  in  the 
hands  of  those  sacred  penmen,  whose  writings  are  in  our 
possession,  since  they  cite  them  and  refer  to  them.  The 
second  class  of  writers  consists  of  those,  by  whom  the  books 
of  Kings  were  actually  composed  in  the  form  in  which  we 
now  have  them.  The  Jews  ascribe  them  to  Jeremiah  ;  and 
their  opinion  has  been  adopted  by  Grotius  and  other  eminent 
commentators ;  others  again  assign  them  to  the  prophet  Isaiah. 
But  the  most  probable  opinion  is,  that  these  books  were  di- 
gested into  their  present  order  by  Ezra.  The  following  are 
the  grounds  on  which  this  opinion  is  founded  and  supported  : — 

1.  The  general  uniformity  of  style  and  manner  indicates 
that  these  books  w^e  written  by  one  person. 

2.  The  author  *idently  lived  after  the  captivity  of  Ba- 
bylon :  for,  at  the  end  of  the  second  book  of  Kings,  he 
speaks  of  the  return  from  the  captivity.  (2  Kings  xxv. 
22,  &c.) 

3.  He  says  that  in  his  time  the  ten  tribes  were  still  captive 
in  Assyria,  whither  they  had  been  carried  as  a  punishment 
for  their  sins.  (2  Kings  xvii.  23.) 

4.  In  the  seventeenth  chapter  of  the  second  book  of  Kings, 
he  introduces  some  reflections  on  the  calamities  of  Judah  and 
Israel,  which  demonstrate  that  he  wrote  after  those  calamities 
had  taken  place.     Compare  2  Kings  xvii.  6 — 24. 

5.  He  almost  every  where  refers  to  the  ancient  memoirs 
which  he  had  before  him,  and  abridged. 

6.  There  is  also  every  reason  to  believe,  that  the  author 
was  a  PRIEST  or  a  prophet.  He  studies  less  to  describe  acts 
of  heroism,  successful  battles,  conquests,  political  address, 
&c.  than  what  regards  the  temple,  religious  ceremonies,  fes- 
tivals, the  worship  of  God,  the  piety  of  princes,  the  fidelity 
of  the  prophets,  tne  punishment  of  crimes,  the  manifestation 
of  God's  anger  against  the  wicked,  and  his  regard  for  the 
righteous.  He  every  where  appears  greatly  attached  to  the 
house  of  David.  He  treats  on  the  kings  of  Israel  only  inci- 
dentally ;  his  principal  object  being  the  kingdom  of  Judah, 
and  its  particular  affairs. 

Now,  all  these  marks  correspond  with  Ezra,  a  learned 
priest,  who  lived  both  during  and  subsequently  to  the  capti- 
vity, and  might  have  collected  mmierous  documents,  which, 
from  the  lapse  of  time  and  the  persecutions  of  the  Jews,  are 
now  lost  to  us.  Such  are  the  reasons  on  which  Calmet  has 
ascribed  the  books  of  Kings  to  Ezra,  and  his  opinion  is  ge- 
nerally received.  There  are,  however,  a  few  circumstances 
that  seem  to  militate  against  this  hypothesis,  which  should 
be  noticed,  as  not  agreeing  with  the  time  of  Ezra.  Thus, 
in  I  Kings  viii.  8.  the  ark  of  the  covenant  is  represented  as 
being  in  the  temple  "  to  this  day :"  and  in  1  Kings  xii.  19. 
the  kingdoms  of  Israel  are  mentioned  as  still  subsisting.  In 
1  Kings  vi.  1.  37,  38.  the  author  mentions  the  months  of  Zif 
and  Bui,  names  which  were  not  in  use  after  the  captivity. 
Lastly,  the  writer  expresses  himself  throughout  as  a  contem- 
porary, and  as  an  author  who  had  been  an  eye-witness  of 
what  he  wrote.  But  these  apparent  contradictions  admit  of 
an  easy  solution.  Ezra  generally  transcribes  verbatim  the 
memoirs  which  he  had  in  his  possession  without  attempting 


ON  THE  TWO  BOOKS  OF  KINGS. 


221 


to  reconcile  them."  This  clearly  demonstrates  his  fidelity, 
exactness,  and  integrity.  In  other  places  some  reflections  oi 
illustrations  are  inserted,  which  naturally  arise  from  his  sub- 
ject ;  this  shows  him  to  have  been  fully  master  of  the  mattei 
he  was  discussing,  and  that,  being  divinely  inspired,  he  was 
not  afraid  of  intermixing  his  own  words  with  those  of  the 
prophets,  whose  writings  lay  before  him. 

The  divine  authority  of  these  books  is  attested  by  tho 
many  predictions  they  contain :  they  are  cited  as  authentic 
and  canonical  by  Jesus  Christ  (Luke  iv.  25 — 27.),  and  by 
his  apostles  (Actsvii.  47.  Rom.  xi.  2 — 4.  James  v.  17,  18.), 
and  tney  have  constantly  been  received  into  the  sacred  canon 
by  the  Jewish  and  Christian  churches  in  eveiy  age.  Their 
truth  and  authenticity  also  derive  additional  confirmation  from 
the  corresponding  testimonies  of  ancient  profane  writers.^ 

III.  The  FIRST  Book  of  Kings  embraces  a  period  of  one 
hundred  and  twenty-six  years,  from  the  anointing  of  Solomon 
and  his  admission  as  a  partner  in  the  throne  with  David, 
A.  M.  2989,  to  the  death  of  Jehoshaphat,  a.  m.  3115.  It  relates  ' 
the  latter  part  of  David's  life;  his  death,  and  the  accession 
of  Solomon,  whose  reign  comprehended  the  most  prosperous 
and  glorious  period  of  the  Israelitish  history ;  and  prefigured 
the  peaceful  reign  of  the  Messiah ;  Solomon's  erection  and 
consecration  of  the  temple  at  Jenisalem  (the  beauty  and  per- 
fection of  which  was  a  type  of  the  beauty  and  perfection  of 
the  church  of  God)  ;  his  awful  defection  from  the  true  reli- 
gion ;  the  sudden  decay  of  the  Jewish  nation  after  his  death, 
when  it  was  divided  into  two  kingdoms, — under  Rehoboam, 
who  reigned  over  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  comprising  the 
tribes  of  Judah  and  Benjamin,  and  under  Jeroboam,  who  was 
sovereign  of  the  other  ten  tribes  that  revolted  from  the  house 
of  David,  and  which  in  the  Sacred  Writings  are  designated 
as  the  kingdom  of  Israel ;  the  reigns  of  Rehoboam's  succes- 
sors, Abijam,  Asa,  and  Jehoshaphat;  and  those  of  Nadab, 
Baasha,  Elah,  Zimri,  Omri,  Tibni,  the  wicked  Ahab,  and 
Ahaziah  (in  part),  who  succeeded  Jeroboam  in  the  throne 
of  Israel.  For  the  particular  order  of  succession  of  these 
monarchs,  and  of  the  prophets  wlio  flourished  during  their 
respective  reigns,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  chronological 
table  inserted  in  Appendix  II.  to  this  volume.  The  first 
book  of  Kings  may  be  divided  into  two  principal  parts  ; 
containing,  1.  The  history  of  the  undivided  kingdom  under 
Solomon ;  and,  2.  The  history  of  the  divided  kingdom  un- 
der Rehoboam  and  his  successors,  and  Jeroboam  and  his 
successors. 

Part  I.   The  History  of  Solomo^i's  Reign  (ch.  i. — xi.)  contains 

a  narrative  of. 

Sect.  1.  The  latter  days  of  David;  the  inauguration  of  Solo- 
mon as  his  associate  in  the  kingdom,  and  his  designation  to 
be  his  successor,  (i.  ii.  1 — 11.) 

Sect.  2.  The  reign  of  Solomon  from  the  death  of  David  to 
his  undertaking  the  erection  of  the  temple,  (ii.  13 — 46 
iii.  iv.) 

Sect.  3.  The  preparations  for  building  the  temple,  (v.) 

Sect.  4.  The  building  of  the  temple  (vi.)  and  of  Solomon's 
own  house,  together  with  the  preparation  of  the  vessels  and 
utensils  for  the  temple  service,  (vii.) 

Sect.  5.  The  dedication  of  the  temple,  and  the  sublime  prayer 
of  Solomon  on  that  occasion,  (viii.) 

Sect.  6.  Transactions  during  the  remainder  of  Solomon's 
reign : — his  commerce ;  visit  from  the  queen  of  Sheba ;  the 
splendour  of  his  monarchy ;  his  falling  into  idolatiy,  and 
the  adversaries  by  whom  lie  was  opposed  until  his  death, 
(ix.  X.  xi.) 

Part  II.    The  History  of  the  two  Kingdoms  of  Judah  and 

Israel,  (ch.  xii.  xxii.) 

Sect.  1.  The  accession  of  Rehoboam,  and  division  of  the  two 
kingdoms,  (xii.) 

Sect.  2.  The  reigns  of  Rehoboam  king  of  Judah,  and  of  Jero- 
boam I.  king  of  Israel,  (xiii.  xiv.) 

Sect.  3.  The  reigns  of  Abijam  and  Asa  kings  of  Judah,  and 

>  The  consideration  that  these  books  were  digested  from  memoirs,  writ- 
ten by  different  persons  who  lived  in  the  respective  times  of  which  they 
vvroie,  will  help  to  reconcile  what  is  said  of  Hezekiah  in  2 Kings  Aviii.  5. 
tliat,  afler  hint,  none  teas  lii-e  him  uj  all  the  k-ings  of  Judah,  with  what  is 
said  of  Josiah  in  chap,  xxiii.  2o.  that,  Ukn  unto  him  was  there  no  king  be- 
fore him;  for,  what  is  said  of  Hezekiah  was  true,  till  the  eighteenth  year* 
of  Josiah,  when  that  pious  sovereign  began  the  reformation  of  which  so 
much  is  said  in  the  sacred  history.  "  JSIr.  Reeves,  Pref  to  Books  of  Kings. 

2  .Fosephus,  Antiq.  Jud.  lib.  viii.  c.  2.  Eusebius,  Prep.  Evang.  lib.  x. 
Grotius  de  Veritate,  lib.  iii.  c.  10.,  and  Alli.\,  Rejections  upon  the  Books  of 
the  Old  Testament,  chap.  ii.  have  collected  several  instances  of  the  confir- 
mation of  the  sacred  historians  from  profane  authors.  On  tJiis  subject  also 
consult  the  testimonies  given  in  Vol.  1.  pp.  69—78.  supra. 


222 


ANALYSIS  OP  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Paht  V,  Chap.  II. 


the  contemporary  reigns  of  Nadab,  Baasha,  Ehih,  Zimri, 
Omri,  and  the  commencement  of  Ahab's  reign,  (xv.  xvi.) 
Sect.  4.  The  reign  of  Jehoshaphat  king  of  Judah,  and  of  his 
contemporaries  Ahab  and  Ahaziah  (in  part),  during  which 
the  prophet  Elijah  flourished,  (xvii. — xxii.) 

IV.  The  SECOND  Book  of  King3  continues  the  contempo- 
rary history  of  the  two  kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Judah,  from 
the  death  ot  Jehoshaphat,  a.  m.  3115,  to  the  destruction  of 
the  city  and  temple  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  a.  m. 
.3  UG,  a  period  of  three  hundred  years.  The  last  three  verses 
of  the  preceding  book  have  been  improperly  disjoined  from 
this.  The  history  of  the  two  kingdoms  is  interwoven  in  this 
hook,  and  presents  a  long  succession  of  w  icked  sovereigns 
in  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  from  Ahaziah  to  Hoshea,  in  whose 
reign  Samaria  was  captured  by  Shalmaneser  king  of  Assyria, 
and  the  ten  tribes  were  taken  captive  into  that  country.  In 
the  kingdom  of  Judah,  we  find  some  few  pious  princes 
among  many  who  were  corrupt.  Sixteen  sovereigns  filled 
tl\e  Jewish  throne,  from  Jehoram  taZedekiah,  in  whose  reign 
tiie  kingdom  of  Judah  was  totally  subverted,  and  the  peoine 
carried  into  captivity  to  Babylon.  During  this  period  nu- 
merous prophets  nourished,  as  Klijah,  Elisha,  Jonah,  Joel, 
Amos,  Hosoa,  Isaiah,  Micah,  Nahnm,  Jeremiah,  Habakkuk, 
Daniel,  Kzckiel,  &c.  The  second  book  of  Kings  comprises 
twenty-five  chapters,  which  may  be  divided  into  two  parts; 
containing,  1.  The  history  of  the  two  monarchies,  until  the 
end  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel ;  and,  2.  The  history  of  Judah 
alone  to  its  subversion. 

Paht  I.   The  Contemporary  History  of  the  Kingdnma  of  Israel 
and  Judah,  to  the  End  of  the  former,  (ch.  i.— xvii.) 

SzcT.  1.  The  contemporary  reigns  of  Jehoshaphat,  and  of  his 
associate  Jchorani,  kings  of  Judah,  and  of  Ahaziah  and 
Joram,  kings  of  Israel;  the  translation  of  Elijah,  and  desig- 
nation of  Elisha  to  be  his  successor  in  the  prophetic  office ; 
miracles  wrought  by  him.   (i. — viii.  2.) 

Sect.  2.  The  contemporary  reigns  of  Jehoram  king  of  Judali 
alone,  and  his  successor  Ahaziah,  and  of  Jehoram  king  of 
Israel,  (viii.  3—29.) 

Sect.  .3.  Jehu  appointed  king  over  Israel ;  Jehoram  put  to 
death  by  him  ;  the  reign  of  Jehu  ;  death  of  Ahaziah  king  of 
Judah,  and  the  usurpation  of  Athaliah.  (ix.  x.  xi.  1 — 3.) 

Skct.  4.  The  reign  of  Jchoash  king  of  Judah,  and  the  con- 
temporary reigns  of  Jchoahaz  and  his  son  Jchoash  kings  of 
Israel ;  the  death  of  the  prophet  Elishu ;  and  the  miracle 
performed  at  his  grave,  (xi.  4 — 21.  xii.  xiii.) 

Sect.  5.  The  reigns  of  Amaziah,  Azariah,  or  Uzziah,  and 
Jotham,  kings  of  Judah,  and  the  contemporary  reigns  of 
Jchoash,  or  Joash,  Jeroboam  II.,  Zcchariah,  Shalluni,  Mena- 
hem,  Pekahiah,  and  Pckah.  (xiv.  xv.) 

Sect.  6.  The  reign  of  Aliaz  king  of  Judah  ;  interregnum  in 
the  kingdom  of  Israel  after  the  death  of  Pekah  terminated 
by  Hoshea  the  last  sovereign,  in  the  ninth  year  of  whose 
reign  Samaria  his  capital  was  taken  by  the  king  of  Assyria, 
whither  the  ten  tribes  were  taken  into  captivity  ;  the  sub- 
version of  the  kingdom  of  Israel ;  and  the  mixture  of  religion 
introduced  l)y  the  Cuthites  who  were  transplanted  to  Sama- 
ria, (xvi.  xvii.) 

J'  vnr  II.    The  Ill^iin-y  if  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Kingdom 
of  Jiul'dh.  (ch.  xviii.  xxv.)     • 

Sect.  1.  The  reign  of  Hezekiah ;  his  war  with  tho  Assyrians; 
their  army  destroyed  by  a  plague  ;  the  recovery  of  Heze- 
kiah from  a  mortal  disease;  the  Babylonish capliNity  foretold  ; 
his  death,  (xviii.  xix.  xx.t 

Sect.  2.  The  reigns  of  Manasseh  and  Amon.  (xxi.) 

Sect.  3.  The  reign  of  Josiah.  (xxii.  xxiii.  1 — 30.) 

Sect.  4.  The  reigns  of  Jehoahaz,  Jehoiikim,  Jrhoiachin,  and 
Zedi'kiah  the  last  king  of  Judah  ;  Jerusalem  taki  n  ;  the 
temple  burnt ;  and  the  Jews  carried  into  c:\^tivity  to  Baby- 
lon, (xxiii.  31 — 37.  xxiv.  xxv.) 

V.  Tho  two  hooks  of  Kings,  particularly  the  second, 
abounfl  wiili  impressive  aitd  lively  narratiom;  anil  the  strict 
?mpartiality  with  wliich  the  author  of  each  book  lias  related 
f  vents  and  circumstances  dishonourable  t'l  hi.s  nation, alTords 
a  convincing  evidence  of  his  fidelity  and  iiilrgrily.  'I'liey 
delineate  the  long-sulTcring  of  (Jod  towards  liis'^pcople,  and 
tys  severe  chastisements  for  their  inicpiilous  abust;  of  his 


mercy ;  at  the  same  time  they  mark  most  clearly  the  vera 
city  of  God,  both  in  his  promises  and  in  his  threatenings,  and 
show  the  utter  vanity  of  trusting  in  an  arm  of  flesh,  and  the 
instability  of  humankingdoms,  from  which  piety  and  justice 
are  banished. 


SECTION  VII. 


ON  THE  BOOKS  OF  CHRONICLES. 


I.   Title. — n.  .Iiithorand  date. — IIL   Scope— lY.  Analysis  of 
the  two  books  of  C'/ironicles. — V.   Observations  on  them, 

I.  The  ancient  Jews  comprised  the  two  books  of  Chroni- 
cles in  one  book  :  but  in  the  Hebrew  Bibles,  now  printed  for 
their  use,  they  have  adopted  the  same  division  which  is  found 
in  our  Bibles,  apparently  (Calmet  thinks)  for  the  purpose  of 
conforming  to  our  mode  of  reference  in  concordances,  the  use 
of  whicli  they  borrowed  from  the  Romish  church.  The 
Jews  entitle  these  books  o»d\t  '"^an,  D'BRtv  najwMiM,  that  is. 
The  JVurd-f  of  Days,  or  JJnnals  ,-  probably  from  the  circum- 
stance of  their  being  compiled  out  of  diaries  or  annals,  in 
which  were  recorded  the  various  events  related  in  these  books. 
In  the  Sept^uagint  version  they  are  termed  n.'VPAAEinOMF.NA 
(Paraleipomeiia),  the  thing.s  that  were  Irft  or  omitted ,-  because 
many  things  which  were  omitted  in  the  fonner  part  of  the 
sacred  history  are  here  not  only  supplied,  but  some  narra- 
tions also  are  enlarged,  while  others  are  added.  The  Greek 
translators  of  that  version  seem  to  have  considered  these 
books  as  a  supplement,  either  to  Samuel  and  to  the  books  of 
Kings,  or  to  the  whole  Bible.  The  appellation  of  Chroni- 
cles was  given  to  these  books  by  Jerome,  because  they  con- 
tain an  abstract,  in  order  of  time,  of  the  whole  of  the  sacred 
history,  to  the  time  when  they  were  written.^ 

II.  These  books  were  evidently  compiled  from  others, 
which  were  written  at  dillVrent  time.?,  some  before  and  others 
after  the  Babylonish  captivity :  it  is  most  certain  that  the 
books  of  Chronicles  are  not  the  original  r^ords  or  memorials 
of  the  transactions  of  the  sovereigns  otTsrael  and  Judah, 
which  are  so  often  referred  to  in  the  boohs  of  Kings.  Those 
ancient  registers  were  much  more  copious  than  the  books  of 
Chronicles,  whicli  contain  ample  extracts  from  original  docu- 
ments, to  which  they  very  frequently  refer. 

Concerning  the  author  of  these  books  we  have  no  distinct 
information.  Some  have  conjectured  that  he  was  the  same 
who  wrote  tho  books  of  Kings :  but  the  great  difference, 
Calmet  remarks,  in  the  dates,  narratives,  genealogies,  and 
proper  names, — together  with  the  repetitions  of  the  same 
things,  and  frequently  in  the  same  words, — strongly  militates 
against  this  hypothesis.  The  Hebrews  commonly  assign 
the  Chronicles  to  Ezra;  who,  they  say,  composed  them 
after  the  return  from  the  captivity,  and  was  assisted  in 
this  work  by  the  prophets  Zcchariah  and  Haggai,  who  were 
then  living.  This  opinion  they  endeavour  to  support,  y?r."t/, 
from  the  similarity  of  style  (the  last  ti\ree  verses  of  tlie  se- 
cond book  of  (.'hroiiicles  corri^sponding  very  nearly  with  the 
first  three  verses  of  Hzra),  from  the  recai)itnlations  and  gene- 
ral rellections  which  are  sometimes  made  on  a  long  series 
of  events  r^sectiw//;/,  the  author  lived  after  the  captivity, 
since,  in  the  last  chapter  of  tln^  second  bogk  he  recites  the 
decree  of  (^yrus,  which  granted  liberty  to  the  Jews,  and  he 
also  continues  the  genealo'jy  <'f  David  to  '/erubbabel,  the 
chief  of  thosi;  who  niturncd  from  the  ca|itivity  :  thirdly,  these 
books  contain  certain  terms  and  exj)r<  ssions,  which  they 
think  are  peculiar  to  the  ]u  rsin  ami  times  of  Ezra. 

However  plausible  these  observations  may  be,  there  arc 
other  marks  discernible  in  tlie  books  of  Chronicles,  which 
tend  to  prove  that  Ezra  ilid  not  conijiose  them.  In  \.\\c  first 
place,  the  author  continues  \\w.  genealogy  of  Zeruhbabil  to 
tin'  twelfth  generation  :  but  Ezra  did  not  live  to  that  time, 
and,  consequently,  could  not  Ir.ivt!  written  the  genealogy  in 
(|uestion  : — secondly,  the  writt^r  of  these  books  was  neither  a 
contemj)orary  nor  an  original  writer;  but  compiled  and 
abridged  them  from  ancient  memoirs."  genealogies,  annals, 
registers,  and  other  works  which  he  fre<iuently  (luotes,  and 
from  which  he  sometimes  gives  copious  extracts,  without 

«  Til  the  first  volume  of  IJisliop  Wnison'*  CoUcjIlon  of  Trncts  ^x<\^.  13^1— 
I.V.)  Ilirrc  arc  soiiio  niiminilile  rrlli'Clinng  on  llio  imTnl  rniiscs  of  tlio 
llibylonisli  rnptiviiy,  nn'l  tin-  jirupricty  of  tlinl  iliHpfiisafioii,  wliicli  will  am- 
ply rr|>ny  llic  Irmilili'  of  pi>riis;il. 

»  fnliiicl'ii  oiiil  Dr.  Clarke's  Prefaces  to  the  two  Books  of  Chronicles. 


Sect.  VII.] 


ON  THE  BOOKS  OF  CHRONICLES. 


223 


changing  the  words,  or  attempting  to  reconcile  inconsisten- 
cies. It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  t!ie  author  of  these  books 
lived  after  the  captivity,  and  derived  his  materials  from  the 
memoirs  of  writers  contemporary  with  the  events  recorded, 
and  who  flourished  long  before  his  time.  The  authenticity 
of  these  books  is  abundantly  supported  by  the  general  mass 
of  external  evidence;  by  which  also  their  divine  authority  is 
fully  established,  as  well  as  by  the  indirect  attestations  of 
our  Lord  and  his  apostles.' 

III.  The  principal  Scope  of  these  books  is  to  exhibit  with 
accuracy  the  genealogies,  the  rank,  the  functions,  and  the  or- 
der of  the  priests  ana  Levites;  that,  after  the  captivity,  they 
might  more  easily  assume  their  proper  ranks,  ana  re-enter  on 
their  ministry.  The  author  had  further  in  view,  to  show  how 
*the  lands  had  been  distributed  among  the  families  before  the 
captivity;  so  that  the  respective  tribes  might  on  their  return 
obtain,  as  far  as  was  practicable,  the  ancient  inheritance  of 
their  fathers.  He  quotes  old  records  by  the  name  of  ancient 
things  (1  Chron.  iv.  22.),  and  recites  four  several  rolls  or 
numberings  of  the  people ; — one  taken  in  the  time  of  David, 
a  second  in  the  time  of  .Teroboam,  a  third  in  the  time  of 
Jotham,  and  a  fourth  in  the  time  of  the  captivity  of  the  ten 
tribes.  In  other  places  he  speaks  of  the  numbers  which  had 
been  taken  by  order  of  king  David,  but  which  Joab  did  not 
finish.  Hence  we  may  perceive  the  extreme  accuracy  affect- 
ed by  the  .lews  in  their  historical  documents  and  genealogies  : 
the  latter,  indeed,  could  not  be  corrupted /ormey/y  (for  most 
of  the  people  could  repeat  them  memoriter)  ;  although,  from 
frequent  transcription,  much  confusion  has  been  introduced 
into  many  of  the  names,  which  it  is  now,  perhaps,  impossi- 
ble to  clear  up.  It  is,  however,  most  evident  that  the  basis 
of  the  books  of  Chronicles  was  a  real  history  and  real  gene- 
alogies :  for  such  particulars  of  names  and  other  circum- 
stances would  never  have  been  invented  by  any  person,  as  no 
imaginable  purpose  could  be  answered  by  it ;  and  the  hazard 
of  making  mistakes,  and  being  thereby  exposed  when  they 
were  first  published,  would  be  very  great. 

IV.  The  Chronicles  are  an  abridgement  of  all  the  sacred 
history,  but  more  especially  from  the  origin  of  the  Jewish 
ualion  to  their  return  from  the  first  captivity.  The.  first 
Ijook  traces  the  rise  and  propagation  of  the  people  of  Israel 
from  Adam,  and  afterwards  gives  a  circumstantial  account  of 
the  reign  and  transactions  of  David.  In  the  second  Book  the 
narrative  is  continued,  aird  relates  the  progress  and  dissolution 
of  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  to  the  very  year  of  the  return  of  the 
Jews  from  the  Babylonish  captivity  :  as  very  little  notice  is 
taken  of  the  kings  of  Israel,  it  is  not  improbable  that  this  book 
was  chiefly  extracted  from  the  records  of  the  kingdom  of  Ju- 
dah. The  period  of  time  embraced  in  the  books  of  Chronicles 
is  about  3 168  years  ;  and  they  may  be  commodiously  divided 
into  four  parts;  viz. — 1.  The  genealogies  of  those  persons 
through  v/hom  the  Messiah  was  to  descend,  from  Adam  to  the 
captivity,  and  to  the  time  of  Ezra  ; — 2.  The  histories  of  Saul 
and  David  ; — 3.  The  history  of  the  united  kingdoms  of 
Israel  and  Judah  under  Solomon ;  and,  4.  The  history  of  the 
kingdom  of  Judah  after  the  secession  of  the  ten  tribes  from 
Eehoboam,  to  its  utter  subversion  by  Nebuchadnezzar. 
Part  I.  Genealogical  Tuhlts  from  Mam  to  the  time  of  Ezra. 
(1  Chron.  i.— ix.  1—34.) 

Sect.  1.  Genealogies  of  the  patriarchs  from  Adam  to  Jacob, 
and  of  the  descendants  of  Judah  to  David,  and  his  posterity 
to    Zcrubbabel,  from  whom  the   Messiah  was  to  descend. 
(1  Chron.  i. — iii.) 
Sect.  2.  Genealogies  of  other  descendants  of  Judah  by  Pharez, 
and  of  the  remaining  eleven  sons  of  Jacob,  (iv. — viii.  ix.  1.) 
Sect.  3.  Genealogies    of  the    first  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem, 
after  their  return  from  the  Baby lonish^aptivity.  (ix.  2 — 34.) 
This  long  scries  of  genealogies  is  a  sisnal  testimony  to  llie  origin  and 
preservation  of  the  Jewish  church  among  mankind  ;  and  of  tlie  lul- 
lilment  of  the  divine  promises  to  Abraham,  that  his  seed  should  be 
multiplied  as  the  sand  upon  the  sea-sliore.  (Gen.  .\xii.  17.)    These 
genealogies  are  also  of  very  great  importance,  as  exiiibiling  tlie 
detail  of  the  sacred  line,  through  which  the  promise  of  tlie  Messiah 
was  transmitted  :  so  tliat  "when  in  the  fulness  of  time  this  promised 
Mediator  was  revealed  in  the  llesh,  the  church  and  the  people  of 
God  might  infallibly  know  that  this  was  that  very  promised  seed  of 
the  woman,  the  son  of  Abraham  and  the  son  of  David."*    In  perus- 
ing the  Hebrew  genealogies,  it  will  be  necessary  to  remember  that 
the  terms  ^-falher"  "  soyi,"  "  begat,"   and  "  Ocgotten,"  v/h\ch  are 
of  such  frequent  occurrence  in  them,  do  not  always  denote  imme- 
diate procreation  or  filiation,  but  extend  to  any  distant  progenitor.' 

»  Compare  1  Chron.  xxiii.  13.  with  Ileb.  v.  4.  and  xxiv.  10-  with  Luke  i. 
5.  ;  2  Chron.  ix.  1.  with  Matt.  xii.  42.  and  Luke  x\.  31. ;  and  2  Chron.  xxiv. 
20.  21.  with  Matt,  xxiii.  3.5.  and  Luke  xi.  51. 

2  Roberts's  Clavis  Biblioruni,  p.  105. 

3  Thus  in  Gen.  xxix.  5  I.aban  i.-^  called  the  son  of  Nahor,  though,  in  fact, 
he  was  only  his  "grandson"  by  Bethuel.  Similar  instances  are  often  to 
be  found  in  the  Scriptures. 


It  is  further  to  be  observed,  that  "  tlicse  genealogical  tables  are  ex- 
ceedingly brief.  Nolhing  is  to  be  found  of  the  tribe  of  Dan.  Tliat 
of  Benjamin  is  twice  introduced.  (1  Chron.  vii.  6—12.  and  viii.)  The 
genealogies  of  the  priests  and  Levites  are  given  most  in  detail,  and 
terminate  with  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.  They  are,  however, 
very  far  from  being  complete  :  even  those  of  the  high-priests,  ex- 
tending through  one  thousand  years,  comprehend  only  twenty-two 
successions,  where  thirty  might  be  expected.  (1  Chron.  vi.)  Those 
of  the  tribe  of  Judah  are  (iretty  copious  (1  Chron.  ii.  3—17.  iv.  1— 
22.),  and  llie  register  of  David's  descendants  runs  down  to  the  fourth 
centui7  before  Christ.  (1  Chron.  iii.)  All  these  tables  relate  to  dis- 
tinguished families  and  individuals  :  they  occasionally  contain  manv 
important  historical  notices,  which  prove  that  historical  matter's 
were  occasionally  introduced  in  the  original  tables.  See  I  Chron  iv 
9,  10.  V.  19—22.  and  vii.  21— 23."< 

Part  II.  The  Histories  of  Saul  and  David.  (1  Chron.  ix.  35 

44.  X.— xxix.  1—22.) 

Sect.  L  The  pedigree  of  Saul  and  his  death.  (1  Chron.  ix 

35—44.  X.) 
Sect.  2.  The  history  and  transactions  of  the  reign  of  David  , 

including, 

§  i.  His  inauguration;  list  of  his  worthies,  and  account  of  his  forces. 
(xi.  xii.) 

§  ii.  Tlie  bringing  up  of  the  ark  from  Kirjath-jearim,  first  to  the  housf- 
of  Oljededoiu,  and  thence  to  Jerusalem  ;  and  the  solemn  service  and 
thanksgiving  on  that  occasion,  (xiii.— xvi.)  David's  inteuticn  of 
Ijuilfling  a  temple  apjiroved  of  by  Jehovah,  (xvii.) 

§  iii.  The  victories  of  David  over  the  Philistines,  IMoabites,  Syrians, 
and  Edoiiiites  (xviii.) ;  and  over  the  Ammonites,  Syrians,  and'Philis- 
tiiies.  (Aix.  XX.) 

§  iv.  David  takes  a  census  of  the  people  ;  a  plague  inflicted,  which  id 
stayed  at  his  intercession.  (xx\.  1 — 27.) 

§  v.  An  account  of  David's  regulations  for  the  constant  service  of  the 
temple  : — His  preparations  and  directions  concerning  the  building  of 
it  (xxi.  27 — 30.  xxii.  xxiii.  1.);  regulations  concerning  the  Levites 
(-txiii.  2 — 32.);  the  priests  (xxiv.),  singers  (xxv.),  and  porters  or 
keepers  of  the  gates,  (xxvi  ) 

§  vi.  Kcgulations  ior  the  administration  of  his  kingdom  ;  list  of  his  mili- 
tary and  civil  officers,  (xxvii.) 

§  vii.  David's  address  to  Solomon  and  his  princes  concerning  the 
building  of  the  temple  (xxviii.) ;  the  liberal  contributions  of  David 
and  his  subjects  for  this  purpose,  and  his  thanksgiving  for  them, 
(xxi-f.  1—22.) 

Part  III.  The  History  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Israel  and 
Judah  under  Solomon.  (1  Chron.  xxix.  23 — 30.  2  Chron, 
i. — ix.) 

Sect.  \.  The  second  inauguration  of  Solomon: — Death  of 
David ;  the  piety,  wisdom,  and  grandeur  of  Solomon. 
(1  Chron.  x.xix.  23—30.  2  Chron.  i.) 

Sect.  2.  Account  of  the  erection  and  consecration  of  the  tem- 
ple, and  of  some  other  edifices  erected  by  him.  (2  Chron.  ii. 
—viii.  16.) 

Sbct.  3.  The  remainder  of  Solomon's  reign  tojiis  death,  (viu. 
17,  18.  ix.) 

Part  IV.  The  History  cf  the  Kingdom  of  Judah,  from  the  se^ 
cessioJi  of  the  Ten  Tribes,  tinder  Jeroboam,  to  its  Termiyiation 

by  Nebuchadnezzar.  (2  Chron.  x. — xxxvi.) 

« 

Sect.  1.  The  accession  of  Rchoboam  to   the  throne  of  the 

united   kingdom;    its   division;    Jerusalem   plundered   by 

Shishak.  (2  Chron.  x. — xii.) 
Sect.  2.  The  reigns  of  Abijah  and  Asa  kings  of  Judah.  (xiii. 

— xvi.) 
Sect.  3.  The  reign  of  Jehoshaphat.  (xvii. — ^xx.) 
Sect.  4.  The  reigns  of  Jchoram  and  Ahaziah ;  the  usurpation 

of  Athaliah.  (xxi.  xxii.) 
Sect.  5.  The  reign  of  Joash.  (xxiii.  xxiv.) 
Sect.  6.  The  reigns  of  Amaziah,  Uzziah,  and  Jotham.  (xxv. 

— xxvii.) 
Sect.  7.  The  reign  of  Ahaz.  (xxviii.)  '' 

Sect.  8.  The  reign  of  Hczekiah.  (xxix. — xxxii.^ 
Sect.  9.  The  reigns  of  Manasseh  and  Ammon.  (xxxiii.) 
Sect.  10.  The  reign  of  Josiah.  (xxxiv.  xxxv.) 
Sect.  11.  The  reigns  of  Jehoahaz,  Jehoiakim,  Jehoiachin,  and 

Zedekiah,  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  and  of  the  temple. 

(xxxvi.)  ^ 

*  .Tahn's  Introduction  by  Prof  Turner,  p.  2G0. 

'  The  last  two  verses  of  the  second  book  of  Chronicles  are  evidently  the 
beginning  of  the  book  of  Ezra,  wliich  follows  next  in  the  order  of  the 
canon  ;  and  must  have  been  copied  from  it  before  the  transcriber  was 
aware  of  his  error  :  but,  finding  his  mistake,  he  abruptly  broke  oflT,  and  be- 
gan the  book  of  Ezra  at  the  customary  distance,  without  publishing  his 
error  by  erasing  or  blotting  out  those  lines  which  lie  had  inadvertently 
subjoined  to  the  book  of  Clironicles.  Tliis  copy,  however,  being  in  otlier 
respecls  ol^auihorily,  has  been  followed  in  all  subsequent  copies,  as  well  as 
in  all  the  ancient  versions.  This  circumstance  affords  a  proof  of  the  scru- 
pulous exactness  with  which  the  copies  of  the  canonical  books  were  after- 
wards taken.  No  writer  or  translator  would  take  upon  himself  to  correct 
even  a  manifest  error.  How  then  can  we  think  that  any  other  alteration, 
diminution,  or  addition,  would  voluntarily  be  made  by  any  of  the  Jewish 
nation,  or  not  have  been  detected  if  it  had  been  attempted  by  any  person^ 
Dr.  Kennicott,  Diss.  i.  pp.  191—191.  Dr.  Priestley,  Notes  on  Scripture, 
vol.  ii.  p.  94. 


224 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  V.  Chap,  11 


V.  Independently  of  the  important  moral  and  reli^ous  in- 
struction to  be  derived  from  the  two  books  of  Chronicles,  as 
illustrating  the  divine  dispensation  towards  a  highly  favoured 
but  unnrrafeful  people,  the  second'  hook  Is  extremely  valuable 
in  a  critical  point  of  view  ;  not  only  as  it  contains  some  blsto- 
rical  particulars  which  are  not  mentioned  in  any  other  part  of 
the  Old  Testament,  but  also  as  it  afl'ords  us  many  genuine 
readings,  which,  by  the  inaccuracy  of  transcribers,  are  now 
lost  in  the  older  books  of  the  Bible.  The  discrepancies  be- 
tween the  books  of  Kings  and  Chronicles,  though  very 
numerous,  are  not  of  any  great  moment,  and  admit  of  an  easy 
solution,  being  partly  caused  by  various  lections,  and  partly 
arising  from  the  nature  of  the  books ;  which  being  supple- 
mentary to  those  of  Samuel  and  Kings,  omit  what  is  there 
related  more  at  large,  and  sujiply  what  is  there  wanting.'  It 
should  further  be  recollected,  that,  ttftcr  the  captivity,  the 
Hebrew  language  was  slightly  varied  from  what  it  had  for- 
merly been  "that  diflcrent  places  had  received  new  names,  or 
undercrone  sundry  vicissitudes  :  that  certain  things  were  now 
better\nown  to  the  returned  .Tew'S  under  other  appellations, 
than  under  those  by  which  they  had  formerly  been  distin- 
guished ;  and  that,  from  the  materials  to  which  the  author 
had  access  (and  which  frequently  were  different  from  those 
consulted  by  the  writers  of  the  royal  histories),  he  has 
selected  those  passages  which  appeared  to  him  best  adapted 
to  his  purpose,  and  most  suitable  to  the  time  in  which  he 
wrote.  It  must  also  be  considered,  that  he  often  elucidates 
©bscure  and  ambiguous  words  in  former  books  by  a  different 
mode  of  spelling  them,  or  by  a  different  order  of  the  words 
employed,  even  when  he  does  not  use  a  distinct  phraseology 
of  narration,  which  he  sometimes  adopts.'^ 

As  the  books  of  Samuel,  Kings,  and  Chronicles  relate  the 
same  histories,  they  should  each  be  constantly  read  and  col- 
lated together  ;  not  only  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  a  more 
comprehensive  view  of  Jewish  history,  but  also  in  order  to 
illustrate  or  amend  from  one  book  what  is  obscure  in  either 
of  the  others. 

The  following  table  of  the  more  remarkable  parallel  pas- 
sages of  the  hooks  of  Chronicles  and  those  of  Samuel  and 
Kings  will  assist  the  reader  in  his  collation  of  these  books :' — 


1  Chron.  x.  1— H. 

1  Chron.  xi.  1—9.       .... 

1  Chron.  xi.  10—41. 

1  Chron.  xiii.  1 — 14.  .        -        .        - 

1  Chron.  xiv.  1—7.        .        .        .        . 

1  Chron.  xvii. 

1  Chron.  x\iii. 

1  Chron.  xix. 

I  Chron.  xx.  1—3.         .        .        .        . 
I  Chron.  xx.  4 — 8.     .        .        -        • 

1  Ctiron.  xxi. 

2  Chron.  I.  3-13.     .... 

2  (-liron.  i.  14—17.        .        .        .        . 

2  Chron.  ii.       -  ^   • 

i  Chron,  iii.  iv.     ?       . 

2  Chron.  v.  2.  vii.  10.         ... 

2  Chron.  vii.  11— 22.     .       .       .       . 

i  Chron.  vhi. 

2  Chron.  \x.  1—12 

2  Chron.  ix.  13—31.  .... 
•2  Chron.  X.  I.  xi.  4.      - 
2  Chron.  xii.  2— 11.   .... 
2  Chron.  xvi.  I — 6.       .        .        .        . 

2  Chron.  xviii. 

2  Chron.  x.t.  31-37.     ... 
2  Chron.  xxi.  6 — 10.  .... 
2  Chron.  xxii.  2— ti.      .        .        .        . 
2  Chron.  xxii.  10.  xxiii.  21. 
2  Chron.  xxlv   1— U.    ... 
2  Chron.  xxv.  1-^.  11.  17— ai.  27,  28. 

2  Chron.  xxvi.  1,  2 

2  Chron.  xxvii.  1—3. 

2  Chron  xxviii.  1—4.  .        -        .        ■ 

2  Chron.  xxix.  1,2 

2  Chron.  xxxii.  'J-21.  ... 

2  <.;hrQn.  xxxii.  21 — 31. 

2  Chron.  xxxiii.  1  —  10.  ■ 

2  Chron.  xxxiv.  1,  2.  8-28.       - 

2  Chron.  xxxiv.  20—33. 

.' Chron.  XXXV.  18.  20— 25. 

.'  fMiron.  xx.wi.  1.  -         •         • 

~  Chron.  xxxvi.  2 — 1. 


wiih 


1  Sam.  xxxi. 

2  Sam.  V.  1—10. 

1  Sam.  xxiii.  8 — 39. 

2  Sam.  vi.  3-11. 
2!<am.  V.  11—25. 
2  Sam.  vii. 

2  .Sam.  viii. 

2  Sam.  X. 

2  Sam.  xi.  1.  xii.  30.  etaeq. 

2  Sam.  xxi.  18—22. 

2  Sam.  xxiv. 

1  King.s  iii  4—14. 

1  Kinps  X.  2l5 — 29. 

1  Kings  V.  15—32. 

1  Kings  vi.  vii. 

1  Kins-'i?  viii. 

1  Kini,'s  ix.  1—9. 

1  Kinfis  xi.  15—28. 

1  Kiiifis  X.  1 — 13. 

1  Kings  X.  M— 29. 

1  Kings  xii.  1 — 24. 

1  Kings, xiv.  25—28. 

1  Kings  XV.  17-22. 

1  Kings  xxii.  2—35. 

1  Kings  xxii.  41—50. 

2  Kings  viii.  17—24. 
2  Kings  viii.  2G— 2'J. 
2  Kings  xi. 

2  Kings  xii.  1 — 10. 

2  Kings  xiv.  1—14.  19,  20. 

2  Kings  xiv.  21,  22. 

2  Kings  XV.  3:1.  :J5. 

2  King.s  xvi.  2 — 4. 

2  Kings  xviii.  2,  .3. 

2  Kings  xviii.  17--37 

2  Kings  XX.  1—19. 

2  Kings  .\xi.  1—10. 

2  Kings  xxii. 

2  Kings  xxiii.  1—20. 

2  Kings  xxiii.  22,  Jil. 

2  Kingi  xxiii.  20,  30. 

2  Kings  xxiii.  31—31. 


'  Tlipnhove  reinnrlt  will  lif  clearly  llliistr.iloirby  rompnring  2  Kin 
H.  with  '.('Chron.  xxxvi.  *'t.  nrnl  Jfr.  xxxvi.  V). ;  1  KiniM  .w.  '.'..  witli  2< 
XV.  19.  ;  1  Kiiigy  xxii.  II.  with  2Chron.  xvii.O.  :    '  '•  ■   ■     -    -.7. Willi  'Jl 
xxii.  9.     H'l;  111?...  I'mrfMsor  Duhlrr's  loarni'd   i'  i  "  Dc  l.il 

ParnlifKitni'ii. »  aniinriliiti-  ni(|iio  fide  hintorica'  -        ntnruti  ct  1 

1S19);  In  whirli  lie  inn  insliUitnl  a  minute  rollaluMi  of  llir  liookn  of 
nicies  with  llio  oooIcb  of  Samuel  nml  of  Kings;  and  ha:-  sall»fiict<irilv 
i-alcrl  llicir  gciiiiin><iii'.-i-'.  .iikI  crodiLility  against  the  insinuations  and 
lions  of  Hijini'  rr'ciiii  sii|iiic.l  (rprmaii  critics. 

»  Calinol'K  Diclioriary,  arliclo  Chriinirlrs,  in  firm. 

»  This  lal.le  is  ropici  from  Prof.  Turner's  aiid  Mr.  WliUtingham'g 
laiion  of  .lahn,  p.  272.  note. 


•5  XXIV. 

limn. 
Jill  on. 
roriiin 

i|iNi,T, 

<!liro. 

viiidi- 
objcc- 


trans- 


SECTION  VIII. 


ON   THE    BOOK   OF   EZRA. 


I.  Title  and  author. — II.  Argnment,  scope,  and  synopsis  of  ita 
contents. — III.  Observations  on  a  spurious  passage  ascribed 
to  Ezra. 

I.  The  books  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  were  anciently 
reckoned  by  the  Jews  as  one  volume,  and  were  divided  by 
tliem  into  the  first  and  second  books  of  Ezra.  The  same  di- 
vision is  recognised  by  the  Greek  and  Latin  churches  :  but 
the  third  book,  assigned  to  Ezra,  and  received  as  canonical  by 
the  Greek  church,  is  the  same,  in  substance,  as  the  book 
which  properly  bears  his  name,  but  interpolated.  And  the 
fourlh  nook,  which  has  been  attributed  to  him,  is  a  manifest 
forgery,  in  which  the  marks  of  falsehood  are  plainly  discern- 
ible, and  which  was  never  unanimously  received  as  canonical 
either  by  the  Greek  or  by  the  Latin  cluirch,  although  some 
of  the  fathers  have  cited  it,  and  the  Latin  church  has  bor- 
row^ed  some  words  out  cf  it.  It  is  not  now  extant  in  Greek, 
and  never  was  extant  in  Hebrew. 

It  is  evident  that  the  author  of  the  bonk  of  Ezra  was  per- 
sonally present  at  the  transactions  recorded  in  it,  the  narrative 
being  in  the  first  person.  It  also  bears  upon  the  face  cf  it 
every  character  of  natural  simplicity,  and  contains  more  par- 
ticulars of  time,  persons,  and  places,  than  could  have  been 
introduced  by  any  other  individual.  That  the  last  fourchap- 
ters  of  this  book  were  written  by  Ezra  himself  there  can  be 
no  doubt,  as  he  particularly  describes  himself  in  the  beginning 
of  the  seventh  chapter,  and  likewise  frequently  introduces 
himself  in  the  subsequent  chapters.  1  he  Jews,  indeed, 
ascribe  the  whole  of  this  book  to  Ezra,  and  their  opinion  is 
adopted  by  most  Christian  commentators.  But  as  tne  writer 
of  the  first  six  chapters  appears,  from  ch.  v.  4.,  to  have  been 
at  Jerusalem  in  the  reign  of  Darius  Hystaspes,  ai^.d  it  is  evident 
from  the  beginning  oi  the  seventh  chapter  that  Ezra  did  not 
go  thither  until  the  reign  of  Artaxerxes  Longimanus  (a  dis- 
tance of  sixty  years),  some  persons  bave  ascribed  the  first  six 
cliaptcrs  to  a  more  ancient  author.  Tiiis,  however,  does  not 
necessarily  follow :  and  we  apprehend  it  will  appear  that 
these  chapters  were  written  by  Ezra  as  well  as  the  last 
four : — 

In  the  first  place,  from  the  intimute  connection  of  the  sixth 
chapter  with  the  f^evenih:  for  the  diversity  of  speech  and  nar- 
ration observable  in  them  may  readily  be  accounted  for  by 
the  circumstance  of  Ezra's  having  coi>io(l,  or  extracted  from, 
the  authentic  memoirs,  which  he  fnund  on  his  arrival  at  Jeru- 
salem, of  the  transactions  that  had  happened  since  the  rclux^i 
of  the  Jews  from  the  Babylonish  captivity. 

Secondly,  the  same  mcthud  of  narration  prevails  in  both 
parts:  fo.,  as  in  the  second  part  fch.  vii.  12 — 26.),  the  royal 
decree  is  inserted,  entire,  in  the  Chaldee  dialect;  so,  in  the 
first  part,  the  edict  of  Cyrus,  the  epistle  of  the  Samaritans  fo 
the  Psendo-Smerdis,  and  his  reply  to  them,  together  with 
part  of  the  fourth  chapter,  are  also  given  in  ('haldee. 

And,  lastly,  in  the  third  place,  it  is  not  likely  that  a  short 
historical  com])eiulium,  like  the  book  of  Ezra,  should  be  the 
work  of  more  than  one  autiior:  nor  ought  we  to  assign  it  to 
several  authors,  unless  we  had  either  express  declarations 
or  internal  evidence  that  they  were  concerned  in  it ;  all  these 
evidences  are  wanting  in  the  book  of  Ezra. 

This  book  is  written  in  Chaldee  from  chapter  iv.  8.  to 
chapter  vi.  18.  and  chapter  vii.  12 — 2().  As  this  portion  of 
Ezra  chiefly  consists  of  <etters,  conversations,  and  decrees, 
expressed  in  that  language,  the  lulelity  of  the  historian  pro- 
baoly  iniluced  him  to  take  down  the  very  werds  which  were 
used.  The  jx  "ple,  too,  having  been  accustomed  to  the 
Chaldee  during  llie  captivity,  were  in  all  probability  better 
actjuainted  with  it  than  with  the  Hebrew  ;  for  it  appears  from 


of  Moses  as  it  had  be 


lat  tney  < 
rn  deliv 


ered  in  the  ori<rinal  Hebrew 


Nehemiah's  account  thatthey  did  not  all  nndersland'  the  law 

of  INlos 

tongue. 

11.  The  book  of  F^zra  harmonizes  most  strictly  with  tho 
prophecies  of  Haggai  :'.n(l  '/eehariab,  which  it  materially  clu 
cidates.  (^('omjiart'  J'^zra  v.  with  Hagg.  i.  12.  and  Zecii.  iii. 
iv.)  It  evinces  the  paternal  care  of  J(  hovah  over  his  chosen 
people,  wliosc  histtiry  it  relates  from  the  time  of  the  edict 
issued  by  Cyrus,  to  the  twentieth  year  of  Arta.xerxeB  Longi- 
manu>, — a  jieriod  of  about  seventy-nine  or,  according  to  some 
chronologers,  nf  one  hundred  years.  This  bi'ok  consists  of 
two  jjrineijial  rlivisions  :  the  first  contains  a  narrative  of  the 
return  of  the  Jews  from  Babylon  under  the  conduct  of  Zerub- 


tCT.  IX.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  NEHEMIAH. 


225 


babel ;  and  the  second  gives  an  accdunt  of  the  reformation  of 
religion  under  Ezra. 

Part  I.  From  the  Return  of  the  Jews  under  Zerubbabel  to  the 
Rebuilding  of  the  Temple,  (eh.  i. — vi.) 
Sect.  1.  The  edict  of  Cyrus,  permitting  the  Jews  to  return  into 
Judsea  and  rebuild  the  temple  ;  account  of  the  people  who 
first  returned  under  the  conduct  of  Zerubbabel,  and  of  their 
ofl'erings  towards  rebuilding  the  temple,  (i.  ii.)     On   this 
joyous  occasion  it  is  probable  that  the  hundred  and  twenty- 
sixth  psalm  was  composed. 
Sect.  2.  The  building  of  the  temple  commenced,  but  hindered 

by  the  Samaritans,  (iii.  iv.) 
Sect.  3.  The  temple  finished  in  the  sixth  year  of  Darius  Hys- 
taspcs,  by  the  encouragement  of  the  decree  issued  in  the 
second  year  of  his  reign,  (v.  vi.) 

The  history  contahied  in  the  book  of  Esther  should  be  read  after  these 
two  chapters,  as  it  relates  to  this  period  of  Jewish  history. 

Part  II.   The  Arrival  of  Ezra  at  Jerusalem,  and  the  Reforma- 
tion made  thereby  him.  (vii. — x.) 

Sect.  1.  The  departure  of  Ezra  from  Babylon  with  a  commis- 
sion from  Artaxerxes  Longimanus.  (vii.) 
Sect.  2,  Account  of  h1is  retinue  and  arrival  at  Jerusalem,  (viii.) 
Sect.  3.  Narrative  of  the  reformation  effected  by  him.  (ix.  x.) 

The  zeal  and  piety  of  Ezra  appear,  in  this  book,  in  a  most 
conspicuous  point  of  view :  his  memory  has  alvi^ays  been 
held  in  the  highest  reverence  by  the  Jews,  who  consider  him 
as  a  second  Moses  :  though  not  expressly  styled  a  prophet, 
he  wrote  under  the  influence  of  the  Divine  Spirit,  and  the 
.canonical  authority  of  his  book  has  never  been  disputed. 
He  is  said  to  have  died  in  the  liundred  and  twentieth  year  of 
bis  age,  and  to  have  been  buried  at  Jerusalem. 

III.  In  Justin  the  Martyr's  conference  with  Trypho  the 
Jew,  there  is  a  very  extraordinary  passage  respecting  the 
typical  import  of  the  passover,  cited  by  that  father :  in  which 
Ezra,  in  a  speech  made  before  the  celebration  of  the  passover, 
expounds  the  mystery  of  it  as  clearly  relating  to  Christ ;  and 
which,  Justin  concludes,  was  at  a  very  early  day  expunged 
from  the  Hebrew  copies  by  the  Jews,  as  too  manifestly 
favouring  the  cause  of  Christianity.  The  passage  may  be 
thus  translated:' — '■^ And  Ezra  said  unto  the  people,  This 
PASSOVER  is  our  Saviour  and  our  refuge  ;  a7id  if  ye  shall  un- 
derstand and  po7ider  it  in  your  heart,  that  we  are  about  to  hum- 
ble HIM  in  this  sign,  and  afterwards  shall  believe  on  hum,  then 
this  place  shall  not  be  made  desolate  far  ever,  saith  the  Lord  of 
hosts.  But  if  ye  will  not  believe  on  hi>i,  ?ior  hear  his  preach- 
ing, ye  shall  be  a  laughing-stock  to  the  Gentiles.''^  As  this  pas- 
sage never  existed  in  the  Hebrew  copies,  and  is  not  now  to 
be  found  eitlicr  in  them  or  in  any  copies  of  the  Septua- 
gint  version,  it  is  tire  opinion  of  most  critics  that  it  originally 
crept  into  the  Greek  Bibles  from  a  marginal  addition  by  some 
early  Christian,  rather  than  that  it  was  expunged  from  the 
later  copies  by  the  Jews. 


SECTION  IX. 

ON  THE  BOOK  OF  NEHEMIAH. 

I.  Title  and  author. — IT.  Argument  and  synopsis  of  its  con- 

te7its. 

I.  The  hook  of  Nehemiah,  we  have  already  observed,  is 
in  some  versions  termed  the  second  book  of  Ezra  or  Esdras, 
from  an  opinion  which  anciently  obtained,  and  was  adopted 
by  Athanasius,  Epiphanius,  Chrysostom,  and  other  eminent 
fathers  of  the  church,  that  Ezra  was  the  author  of  this  book. 
In  the  modern  Hebrew  Bibles  it  has  the  name  of  Nehemiah 

Prefixed  to  it,  which  is  also  retained  in  our  English  Bibles, 
'he  author  of  this  book  was  not  the  Nehemiah  who  returned 
to  Jerusalem  from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel. 

That  Nehemiah,  whose  name  this  book  bears,  and  who 
was  cup-bearer  to  Artaxerxes  Logirnanus,  was  the  author  of 
it,  there  cannot  be  any  reasonable  doubt :  the  whole  of  it 
being  written  in  his  name,  and,  what  is  very  unusual  when 
compared  with  the  preceding  sacred  historians,  being  written 
in  the  first  person.  The  insertion  of  the  greater  part  of  the 
register  in  chap.  xii.  1 — 2G.  (which  is  supposed  to  militate 
against  this  generally  received  opinion)  may  be  accounted 

,«  .Justin.  Martyr.  Dial,  cum  Tryphone,  pp.  2)2,  293.  edit,  by  Thirlby,  or 
vol.  ii.  p.  196.  ed.  Oberthcr.  Mr.  Whitaker  (Origin  of  Arianism,  p.  o05.) 
advocat.3S  its  genuineness  ;  and  concludes  that  the  passage  in  question  ori- 
ginally stood  in  Ezra  vi.  19—22.,  probably  between  ttie  20th  and  21st  verses. 
Dr.  Grabe,  Dr.  Thirlby,  and  after  them  Archbp.  Magee  (Di.sc.  on  Atone- 
ment, vol.  i.  p.  305.  note),  doubt  its  gcnuinenes.s.  Dr.  A.  Clarke  is  disposed 
to  believe  it  authentic.  (Disc,  on  Eucharist,  p.  83.) 

Vol.  II  2  F 


foY  by  supposing  it  either  to  have  been  added  by  some  subse 
quent  author,  or,  perhaps,  by  the  authority  of  the  great  syna 
go^ue :  for  it  seems  to  be  unconnected  with  the  narrative  of 
Neheniiah,  and,  if  genuine,  must  ascribe  to  him  a  degree  of 
longevity  which  appears  scarcely  credible.^ 

II.  Nehemiah,  according  to  some  writers,  was  of  the  tribe 
of  Levi,  but,  in  the  opinion  of  others,  of  the  royal  house  of 
Judah  :  as  the  office  he  held  in  the  Persian  court  (that  of 
cup-bearer)  was  a  post  of  great  honour  and  influence  it  is 
certain  that  he  was  a  man  of  illustrious  family ;  and  of  his 
integrity,  prudence,  and  piety,  the  whole  of  this  book  presents 
abundant  evidence.  He  arrived  at  Jerusalem  thirteen  years 
after  Ezra,  with  the  rank  of  governor  of  the  province,  and 
vested  with  full  power  and  authority  to  encourao-e  the  re- 
building of  the  walls  of  that  city,  and  to  promote  tl^e  welfare 
of  his  countrymen  in  every  possible  waj'. 

Having  governed  Judaja  for  twelve  j^ears  (Neh.  xiii.  6.), 
Neheniiah  returned  to  his  royal  patron  (ii.  6.),  and  after  a 
short  time  he  obtained  permission  to  return  to  his  country, 
where  he-  is  supposed  to  have  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life. 
His  book  may  be  conveniently  divided  into  four  parts ;  viz. 
Part  I.   The  Departure  of  Nehemiah  from  Shushan,  with  a 
Royal  Commission  to  rebuild  the  Walls  of  Jerusalem,  and 
his  first  Arrival  there,  (ch.  i.  ii.  1 — II.) 
Part  II.  Account  of  the  Building  of  the  Walk,  notwithstand- 
ing the  Obstacles  interposed  by  Sanballat.  (ii.  12 — 20.  iii. 

vii.  4.) 

Part  III.   The  first  Reformation  accomplished  by  Nehemiah; 
containing. 

Sect.  1.  A  register  of  the  persons  who  had  first  returned  from 
Babylon,  and  an  account  of  the  oblations  at  the  temple, 
(vii.  5—72.) 

Sect.  2.  Account  of  the  reading  of  the  law,  and  the  celebra- 
tion of  the  feast  of  tabernacles,   (viii.) 

Sect.  3.  A  solemn  fast  and  humihation  kept ;  and  the  renewal 
of  the  covenant  of  the  Israelites  with  Jehovah,  (ix.  x.) 

Sect.  4.  List  of  those  who  dwelt  at  Jerusalem,  and  of  other 
cities  occupied  by  the  Jews  that  returned  ;  register  and  suc- 
cession of  the  high-priests,  chief  Levites,  and  principal 
singers,  (xi.  xii.  1—26.)  The  completion  and  dedication  of 
the  wall.   (xii.  27 — 47.) 

Part  IV.  The  Second  Reformation  accomplished  by  Nehemiah 
on  his  second  return  to  Jerusalem,  and  his  Correction  of  ike 
Abuses  which  had  crept  in  during  his  Absence,  (xiii.) 
In  Nehemiah  we  have  the  shining  character  of  an  able 
governor,  truly  zealous  for  the  good  of  his  country  and  for 
the  honour  of  his  religion  :  who  quitted  a  noble  and  gainful 
post  in  the  greatest  court  in  the  world ;  generously  spent  the 
riches  he  had  there  acquired  for  the  public  benefit  of  his  fel 
low  Israelites  ;  and  waded  through  inexpressible  difficulties 
with  a  courage  and  spirit,  which  alone  could,  with  the  divinfe 
blessing,  procure  the  safety  and  reform  the  manners  of  such 
an  unhappy  and  unthoughtful  nation. ^  The  administration 
of  this  pious  and  truly  patriotic  governor  lasted  about  thirty- 
six  years,  to  the  year  of  the  world  3574  according  to  some 
chronologers,  but  Dr.  Prideaux  has  with  more  probability 
fixed  it  to  the  year  3595.  The  Scripture  history  closes  with 
the  book  of  Nehemiah. 


SECTION  X. 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  ESTHER. 


I.   Title. — II,  Author. — III.  Argument. — IV.   Synopsis   of  its 

contents. 

I.  This  book,  which  derives  its  name  from  the  person 
whose  history  it  chiefly  relates,  is  by  the  .Tews  termed  Me- 
gillah  Esther,  or  the  volume  of  Esther.  The  history  it  con- 
tains comes  in  between  the  sixth  and  seventh  chapters  of 
Ezra  :  its  authenticity  was  questioned  by  some  of  the  fathers 
in  consequence  of  the  name  of  God  being  omitted  through- 
out,'' but  it  has  always  been  received  as  canonical  by  the 
Jews,  who  hold  this  book  in  the  highest  estimation,  placing 
it  on  the  same  level  with  the  law  of  Moses.  Theyhelieve 
that  whatever  destruction  may  attend  the  other  Sacred  Writr 

a  Prideaux,  Connection,  sub  anno  458,  vol.  i.  p.  296.  et  seq.  8th  edition. 

'  Pyle'.s  Paraphrase  on  the  Old  Testament,  vol.  iv.  p.  6'12. 

*  On  this  account,  Professor  Do  Wctte,  who  objects  to  all  the  other 
books  of  the  Old  Testament,  their  theocratico-mylholocical  spirit,  con^ 
(ienins  this  for  its  want  of  reliijiou  !  (Prof.  Turner's  Translation  of  Jahn,  p. 
289.)    Such  is  the  consistency  of  neologian  critics  ! 


226 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Paiit  V.  Chap.   II. 


mors,  the  Pentateuch  and  the  booli  of  Estlierwill  alwa)-sbe 
preserved  by  a  special  providence. 

II.  Concerning  tlie  autlior  of  this  book,  the  opinions  of 
biblical  critics  are  so  greatly  divided,  that  it  is  difficult  to 
determine  by  whom  it  was  written.  Auijustine  and  some  of 
the  fathers  of  the  Christian  cliurch  ascribe  it  to  Ezra.  By 
other  writers  it  is  ascribed  to  the  joint  labours  of  the  m-eat 
synagogue,  who,  from  the  time  oi  Ezra  to  Simon  the  Just, 
superintended  the  edition  and  canon  of  Scripture.  Philo  the 
Jew  assigns  it  to  Joachin,  the  son  of  Joshua  the  high-prieet, 
who  returned  with  Zerubbabel.  Cellcrier  ascribes  it  to  an 
unknown  author,  who  was  contemporary  with  the  facts 
recorded  in  this  book.'  Others  think  it  was  composed  by 
Mordccai :  and  others,  again,  attribute  it  to  Esther  and  Mor-  j 
decai  jointly.  The  two  latter  conjectures  are  grounded  on 
the  following  declaration  in  Esther  ix.  20.  23.: — .ind  Mitr- 
decai  wrute  these  things,  and  sent  letters  unlo  all  the  Jews  that 
were  in  all  the  provinces  of  king  Ahasucrus ,-  and  the  Jews 
undertook  to  do  as  Ihci/  had  begun,  and  as  Mordecai  had  writ- 
ten unto  them.  But  the  context  of  the  passage  clearly  shows 
that  these  words  do  not  relate  to  the  book  itself,  but  to  the 
circular  letters  which  Mordecai  sent  to  the  Jews  in  all  the 

firovinces  of  the  Persian  empire,  announcing  the  mighty  de- 
iverancc  from  their  enemies  which  had  been  vouchsated  to 
them,  and  instituting  a  ptqjctual  anniversary  in  commemora- 
tion of  such  deliverance.2  The  institution  of  this  festival, 
and  its  continued  observance  to  the  present  time,  is  a  con- 
vincing evidence  of  the  reality  of  the  history  of  Esther,  and 
of  the  genuineness  of  the  boolc  which  bears  her  name :  since 
it  is  impossible,  and,  in  fact,  inconceivable,  that  a  nation 
should  institute,  and  afterwards  continue  to  celebrate,  through 
long  siiccession  of  ages,  this  solemn  annual  festival,  merely 
^cause  a  certain  man  among  them  had  written  an  agreeable 
fable  or  romance. 

A  more  probable  opinion  (and  which  will  enable  us  satis- 
factorily to  account  for  the  omission  of  the  name  of  God  in 
this  book)  is,  that  it  is  a  translated  extract  from  the  memoirs 
of  the  reign  of  the  Persian  monarch  Ahasucrus.  The  Asiatic 
sovereigns,  it  is  well  kmnvn,  caused  annals  of  their  reigns  to 
be  kept :  numerous  pasf-:;ges  in  tl)e  books  of  Kings  and 
Chronicles  prove  that  ilie  kings  of  Israel  and  Judah  had  such 
annals;  and  the  book  of  Esther  itself  attests  that  Ahasuerus 
had  similar  historical  records,  (ii.  23.  vi.  1.  x.  2.)  It  was 
indispensably  necessary  that  the  Jews  should  have  a  faith- 
ful narrative  of  their  history  under  Queen  Esther.  Now, 
from  what  more  certain  source  could  they  derive  such  history 
than  from  the  memoirs  of  the  king  her  consort  1  Eith(  r  Ezra, 
or  Mordecai,  had  authority  or  credit  enough  to  obtain  such  an 
extract.  In  this  case,  we  can  better  account  for  the  relainiufr 
of  the  Persian  word  I'urini,  as  well  -js  for  the  details  which 
we  read  concerning  the  empire  of  Aliasuerus,  and  (which 
couM  otherwise  be  of  no  use  whatever  for  the  history  of 
Esther)  for  the  exactness  with  which  the  names  of  his  minis- 
ters and  of  Haman's  sons  arc  recorded.  The  circumstance 
of  this  history  being  an  extract  from  the  Persian  annals  will 
also  account  for  the  Jews  being  mentioned  only  in  the  third 
person,  and  why  Esther  is  so  freciuently  (Jesigiiated  by  the 
title  of  iiueen,  and  Mordecai  by  the  ei)ithet  of  "the  .lew." 
It  will  also  account  for  those  numerous  parentheses  which 
interrupt  the  narrative  in  order  to  subjoin  the  illustrations 
which  were  necessary  for  a  Jewish  rcadc^r;  and  by  the  abrupt 
termination  of  the  narrative  by  one  sentence  relative  to  tiie 
power  of  Ahasuerus,  and  another  concerning  Mordecai's 
greatness.     Finally,  it  is  evident  tliat  the  author  of  this  ex- 

•  Introiliiclion  I'l  h  I.cclurf  dcs  I.ivrcs  .Saials(An<'icii  TnslanieiiO,  ^i.  320. 
a  For  an  acc<>iint  ol  iliia  lUiiUvaJ,  ciillcU  Uic  fcasl  uf  I'urim,  sue  Nol.  II. 
Paa  III.  Chap.  IV.  i  \UI. 


tract,  whoever  he  was,  wished  to  make  a  final  appeal  to  the 
source  whence  he  derived  it.  (x.  2.)  This  very  plausible 
conjecture,  we  anprehend,  will  satisfactorily  answer  the  ob- 
■jection  that  this  book  contains  nothing  peculiar  to  the  Israel- 
ites, except  Mordecai's  genealogy.  There  is,  unquestionably, 
no  mention  made  of  Divine  Providence,  or  of  the  name  of 
God,  in  these  memoirs  or  chronicles  of  Ahasuerus;  and  if  the 
author  of  the  extract  had  given  it  a  more  Jewish  complexion, 
— if  he  had  spoken  of  the  God  of  Israel, — instead  oi  render- 
ing his  narrative  more  credible,  he  would  have  deprived  it 
of  an  internal  character  of  truth.^ 

III.  The  transactions  recorded  in  this  book  relate  to  the 
time  of  Artaxerxes  Longimanus,^  the  same  who  reigned 
during  the  time  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah.  They  commence 
about  the  year  of  the  world  3514,  and  continue  through  a 
period  not  exceeding  eighteen  or  twenty  years.  The  book 
of  Esther  relates  the  elevation  of  a  Jewish  captive  to  the 
throne  of  Persia,  and  the  providential  deliverance  of  herself 
and  people  from  the  machinations  of  the  cruel  Haman  and 
his  associates,  whose  intended  miscliief  recoiled  upon  them- 
selves :  thus  allbrding  a  practical  comment  on  the  fieclaration 
of  the  royal  sage: — "Though  hand  join  in  hand,  the  wicked 
shall  not  be  nn])unished :  but  the  seed  of  the  righteous  shall 
be  delivered."  (Prov.  xi.  21.) 

IV.  The  book  consists  of  two  parts :  detailing, 

Part  I.  The  Promotion  of  Esther ,-  and  the  essential  IService 
rendered  to  the  King  by  Mordecai,  in  detecting  a  Flat  against 
his  Life.  (i.  ii.) 

Part  II.  The  Jidvaneement  of  Human  :  his  Designs  against 
the  Jews,  and  their  Frustration. 

Skct.  1.  The  promotion  of  Haman,  and  the  occasion  of  which 
he  availed  himself  to  obtain  an  edict  for  massacring  the 
Jews,   (iii.) 

Sect.  2.  The  consequent  affliction  of  the  Jews,  and  the  mea- 
sures puriiucd  l>y  them,  (iv.) 

Sect.  3.  'i'he  defeat  of  Human's  particular  plot  against  the 
life  of  Mordecai.  (v.  vi.  vii.) 

Sect.  4.  The  defeat  of  his  general  plot  against  the  Jews, 
(viii.  ix.  1 — IG.) 

Sect.  .5.  The  institution  of  the  festival  of  Purim,  to  comme- 
morate their  deliverance  (ix.  17 — 32.);  and  the  advancement 
of  Mordecai.   (x.) 

In  our  copies  the  book  of  Esther  terminates  with  the  third 
verse  of  the  tenth  chapter:  but  in  the  (J reek  and  Vulgate 
Bibles,  there  are  ten  more  verses  annexed  to  it,  together  with 
six  additional  chapters  which  the  Greek  and  Reman  churches 
account  to  be  canonical.  As,  however,  they  are  not  ex- 
tant in  Hebrew,  they  arc  expunged  from  the  sacred  canon  by 
Protestants,  and  are  supposed  to  have  been  compiled  by  some 
Hellenistic  Jew. 

'  Cnijiicrpl,  Bioi;ra])hlo  Sacri'e,  torn.  i.  pp.  3C1 — ,?03.  (.\ni.=!cnlain,  1925  ) 
«  Clnuii(iloj;pr.s  are  grciidy  divided  in  opinion  who  was  iho  Ahasuerus 
of  the  sacred  historian.  Scaliger,  wlio  lias  hecn  followed  by  Jahn.  has  ad- 
vanccil  many  ins;enious  arguments  lo  show  ihal  il  wa.-i  Xerxes  who  was 
iiiti'nded;  Arrhhishop  lUlier  supposes  to  liave  been  Darius  the  son  oj' 
Ily.st;it;pc.-».  Tlie  nio.-il  probable  opinion  i.'-  thai  of  Dr.  I'riiliaiix  ((.'oiincclion, 
sub  aiiiio4.W,  vol.  1.  pp.  270.  el  m'/) ;  wlio,  alter  a  very  miiiiile  discussion, 
inaiiitaiiis  that  the  Aha.suenlsofE^lllcr  was.^rlaxcrxeBl.oii;;iiiianus,  p.ri'cc- 
ably  to  tlie  arcnuiil  of  .lo.sephiLs.  (Anti(|  .liid.  lib.  xi.  c.  ti  )  <>(  the  Hejima- 
Kilit  version,  and  of  the  apocryphal  adililions  to  the  Look  of  leather.  The 
opinion  of  Prideaux  is  adopted  by  Bishops  Toiiiline  and  CJruy,  and  (ho  very 
uci-iMMle  chronoloifer,  Dr.  Hales.  (See  (.'ray's  Kev,  p  '.^-..i?.  Toniline's 
Kleineiiis,  vol.  i.  p.  'Xi.  Dr.  llales's  Analysis,  vol.  Ii.  book  i.  p.  fiV-M.  tl  ati}. 
We  iiiny  llnreiore  conrhide,  that  the  pr  rioission  civen  to  Neheiiiiali  lo  to. 
build  the  walls  of  .lerusalrni  was  owiim  lotlie  inlliiciicc  of  Kslhcr  and  Mor- 
decai, and  ihat  the  euiancipation  of  the  .lew.^  from  the  Persian  yoke  wui 
gradually,  tliou;;h  silently,  eircrted  by  the  same  inlliienre.  It  i.s  not  inijiro- 
bable  (hat  the  jiious  reason,  assigned  by  Artaxi-rxi-s  (V>.ra  vii.  'J3.)  for  the 
reculations  giveu  to  Ezra,  oriKinaleil  in  ihe  correct  viewd  of  rtligion  wlJch 
were  couiiuunicatcd  tu  him  by  his  queen  Esther. 


8ZCT.  I.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  JOB. 


227 


CHAPTER  III. 


ON  THE  POETICAL  BOOKS. 


Though  some  of  the  Sacred  Writings,  which  present  them- 
selves to  our  notice  in  the  present  chapter,  are  anterior  in 
point  of  date  to  the  Historical  Books,  yet  they  are  usually 
classed  by  themselves  under  the  title  of  the  Poetical  Books  ,- 
because  they  are  almost  wholly  composed  in  Hebrew  verse. 
This  appellation  is  of  considerable  antiquity.  Gregfory  Na- 
•zianzen  calls  them  the  Five  Metrical  Books ,-  Amphilochius, 
bishop  of  Iconium,  in  his  iambic  poem  addressed  to  Seleucus' 
enumerates  them,  and  gives  them  a  similar  denomination ;  as 
also  do  Epjphanius  and  Cyril  of  Jerusalem. •  The  Poetical 
Books  are  five  in  number,  viz.  Job,  Psalms,  Proverbs,  Ec- 
clesiastes,  and  the  Canticles  or  Song  of  Solomon :  in  the 
Jewish  canon  of  Scripture  they  are  classed  among  the 
Hagiographa,  or  Holy  Writings  ;  and  in  our  Bibles  they  are 
placed  between  the  Historical  and  Prophetical  Books. 


SECTION  I. 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  JOB. 


f.  Title  of  the  book. — 11.  Reality  of  Job's  person. — III.  Age 
in  lohich  he  lived. — IV.  Scene  of  the  poem  of  Job. — V.  Au- 
thor and  canonical  authority. — VI.  Structure  of  the  poem. 
VII.  Argument  and  scope. — VIII.  Sl>urious  addition  to  this 
book  in  the  Scptuagint  Version. — IX.  Rides  for  studying 
this  book  to  advantage. — X.  Synopsis. — XI.  Idea  of  the 
patriarchal  theology,  as  contained  in  tite  book  of  Job. 

1.  This  book  has  derived  its  title  from  the  venerable  patriarch 
Job,  whose  prosperity,  afflictions,  and  restoration  trom  the 
deepest  adversity,  are  here  recorded,  too-ether  with  his  exem- 
plary and  unequalled  patience  under  all  his  calamities.  No 
book,  perhaps,  has  more  exercised  the  ingenuity  of  critics 
and  commentators  than  this  of  Job ;  and  t^iough  the  limits 
necessarily  assigned  to  this  article  prevent  us  Irom  detailing 
all  the  various  and  discordant  hypotheses  which  have  been 
offered  concerning  it,  yet  a  briet  retrospect  of  the  principal 
opinions  that  have  been  entertained  respecting  this  portion  of 
Scripture  can  at  no  time  be  either  uninteresting  or  unimpor- 
tant. 

II.  Although  this  book  professes  to  treat  of  a  real  person, 
yet  the  actual  existence  of  the  patriarch  has  been  questioned 
oy  many  eminent  critics,  who  have  endeavoured  to  prove  that 
the  whole  poem  is  a  mere  fictitious  narration,  intended  to 
instruct  through  the  medium  of  parable.  This  opinion  was 
first  announced  by  the  celebrated  Jewish  Rabbi  Maimonides,^ 
and  has  since  been  adopted  by  Le  Clerc,  Michaelis,  Semler, 
Bishop  Stock,  and  others.  The  reality  of  Job's  existence, 
on  the  contrary  (independently  of  its  being  the  uniform  be- 
lief of  the  Jewish  and  Christian  church),  has  been  maintain- 
ed with  equal  ability  by  Leusden,  Calmet,  Heidegger,  Carp- 
zov,  Van  Til,  Spanheim,  Moldenhawer,  Schultens,  Ilgen, 
Archliishop  Magee,  Bishops  Patrick,  Sherlock,  Lowth, 
Tomline,  and  Gray,  Drs.  Kennicott  and  Hales,  Messieurs 
Peters  and  Good,  firs.  Taylor  and  Priestley,  and,  in  short, 
by  almost  every  other  modern  commentator  and  critic. 

The  principal  arguments  commonly  urged  against  the  re- 
ality of  Job's  existence  are  derived  from  the  nature  of  the 
exordium  in  which  Satan  appears  as  the  accuser  of  Job ; 
from  the  temptations  and  sufferings  permitted  by  the  Al- 
mighty Governor  of  the  world  to  befall  an  upright  character ; 
from  the  artificial  regularity  of  the  numbers  by  which  the 
patriarch's  possessions  are  described,  as  seven  thousand, 
three  thousand,  one  thousand,  five  hundred,  &c. 

With  regard  to  the  first  argument,  the  incredibility  of  the 
conversation  which  is  related  to  have  taken  place  between 
the  Almighty  and  Satan,  "  who  is  supposed  to  return  with 
7iews  from  the  terrestrial  regions," — an  able  commentator  has 
remarked.  Why  should  such  a  conversation  be  supposed  in- 
credible "?  The  attempt  at  wit  in  the  word  news  is  somewhat 
out  of  place ;  for  the  interrogation  of  the  Almighty,  "  Hast 

«  Greg.  Naz.  Carm.  33.  v.  16.    Op.  torn.  ii.  p.  93.    Paris,  1611.    Epipha- 
nius  (le  Pond,  et  Mens.  p.  5-33.    Suicer's  Thesaurus,  torn.  ii.  voce  <r^>:f  ^. 
»  Moreh  Nevochim,  part  ii.  sect.  'Zi. 


thou  fixed  thy  view  upon  my  servant  Job,  a  perfect  and  up 
right  manT'  (i.  8.)  instead  of  aiming  at  the  acquisition  of 
news,  is  intended  as  a  severe  and  most  appropriate  sarcasm 
upon  the  fallen  spirit.  "Hast  thou, — who,  with  superior 
faculties  and  a  more  comprehensive  knov/ledge  of  my  will, 
hast  not  continued  perfect  and  upright, — fixed  thy  view  upon 
a  subordinate  being,  far  weaker  and  less  informed  than  thy- 
self, who  has  continued  so  T" — "  The  attendance  of  the  apos- 
tate at  the  tribunal  of  the  Almighty  is  plainly  designed  to 
show  us  that  good  and  evil  angels  are  equally  amenable  to 
him,  and  equally  subject  to  his  authority  ; — a  doctrine  com- 
mon to  every  part  of  the  Jewish  and  Christian  Scriptures, 
and,  except  in  the  mythology  of  the  Parsees,  recognised  by, 
perhaps,  evety  ancient  system  of  religion  whatever.  The 
part  assigned  to  Satan  in  the  present  work  is  that  expressly 
assigned  to  him  in  the  case  ci  Adam  and  Eve  in  the  garden 
of  Eden,  and  of  our  Saviour  in  the  Vi-ilderness ;  and  which  is 
assigned  to  him  generally,  in  regard  to  mankind  at  large,  by 
all  the  evangelists  and  apostles  whose  writings  have  reached 
us,  both  in  their  strictest  historical  narratives,  and  closest 
argumentative  inductions.  And  hence  the  argument  which 
should  induce  us  to  regard  the  present  passage  as  fabulous, 
should  induce  us  to  regard  all  the  rest  in  the  same  light  which 
are  imbued  with  the  same  doctrine  : — a  view  of  the  subject 
which  would  sweep  into  nothingness  a  much  larger  portion 
of  the  Bible  than,  we  are  confident,  M.  Michaelis  would 
choose  to  part  with. 

"The  other  arguments  are,  comparatively,  of  small  mo- 
ment. We  want  not  fable  to  tell  us  that  good  and  upright 
men  may  occasionally  become  the  victims  of  accumulated 
calamities;  for  it  is  a  living  fact,  which,  in  the  mystery  of 
Providence,  is  perpetually  occurring  in  every  country  :  while 
as  to  the  roundness  of  the  numbers  by  which  the  patriarch's 
possessions  are  described,  nothing  could  have  been  more 
ungraceful  or  superfluous  than  for  the  poet  to  have  descended 
to  units,  had  even  the  literal  numeration  demanded  it.  And 
although  he  is  stated  to  have  lived  a  hundred  and  forty  years 
after  his  restoration  to  prosperity,  and  in  an  ajra  in  which  the 
duration  of  man  did  not,  perhaps,  much  exceed  that  of  the 
present  day,  it  should  be  recollected,  that  in  his  person  as 
well  as  in  his  property  he  was  specially  gifted  by  the  Al- 
mighty :  that,  from  various  passages,  he  seems  to  have  been 
younger  than  all  the  interlocutors,  except  Elihu,  and  much 
younger  than  one  or  two  of  them  :  that  his  longevity  is  par- 
ticularly remarked,  as  though  of  more  than  usual  extent :  and 
that,  even  in  the  present  age  of  the  world,  we  have  well 
authenticated  instances  of  persons  having  lived,  in  different 
parts  of  the  globe,  to  the  ao-e  of  a  hundred  and  fifty,  a  hun- 
dred and  sixty,  and  even  a  hundred  and  seventy  years. ^ 

"  It  is  not  necessary  for  the  historical  tnith  of  the  book  of 
Job,  that  its  language  should  be  a  direct  transcript  of  that 
actually  employed  by  the  different  characters  introduced  into 
it ;  for  in  such  case  we  should  scarcely  have  a  single  book 
of  real  history  in  the  world.  The  Iliad,  the  Shah  Nameh, 
and  the  Lusiad,  must  at  once  drop  all  pretensions  to  such  a 
description ;  and  even  the  pages  of  Sallust  and  Cajsar,  of 
liollin  and  Hume,  must  stand  upon  very  questionable  au- 
thority. It  is  enough  that  the  real  sentiment  be  given,  and 
the  general  style  copied  :  and  this,  in  truth,  is  all  that  is 
aimed  at,  not  only  in  our  best  reports  of  parliamentary 
speeches,  but  in  many  instances  (which  is  indeed  much 
more  to  the  purpose),  by  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament, 
in  their  quotations  from  the  Old."' 

Independently  of  these  considerations,  which  w^e  think 
sufficiently  refute  the  objections  adduced  against  the  reality 
of  Job's  existence,  we  may  observe,  that  there  is  every  pos- 
sible evidence  that  the  book,  which  bears  his  name,  contains 
a  Irteral  history  of  the  temptations  and  sufferings  of  a  real 
character. 

In  the  first  place,  that  Job  was  a  real,  and  not  a  fictitious 

3  See  Pantalogia,  art.  Life;  and  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  art.  Lon 
geviiy. 

*  Dr.  Good's  Introductory  Dissertation  to  his  version  of  Joli,  pp.  xv.— 
xvii.  See  also  Archbishop  Mairee's  Discourses  and  Dissertations  oi  the 
Atonement,  vol.  ii.  pp.  49—53.  JDr.  Gregory's  translation  of  Bishop  Lowth'* 
Lectures,  vol.  ii.  pp.  358-3/0.  in  notes. 


228 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Past  V.  Chap.  HI 


character,  may  be  inferred  from  the  manner  in  which  he  is 
mentioned  in  the  Scriptures.  Thus,  the  prophet  Kzekiel 
speaks  of  him: — Though  these  three  men,  Nvah,  Daniel,  and 
Job,  were  in  it,  they  should  deliver  but  their  oicn  souls  by  their 
righteousness,  saith  the  Lord  God,  (Ezck.  xiv.  11.)'  In  this 
passajre  the  prophet  ranks  Noah,  Daniel,  and  Job,  together, 
as  powerful  intercessors  with  God  ;  the  first  for  his  family  ; 
the  second  for  the  wise  men  of  Babylon ;  and  the  third  for 
his  friends :  now,  since  Noah  and  Daniel  were  unciuestionably 
Teal  characters,  we  must  conclude  the  same  of  Job.  Behold, 
says  the  apostle  James,  ice  count  them  happy  which  endure.- 
ye  have  heard  of  the  patience  of  Job,  and  have  seen  the  end  of 
the  Lord,  that  the  Lord  is  very  pitiful,  and  of  tender  mercy. 
(James  v.  11.)  It  is  scarcely  to  be  believed  that  a  divinely 
inspired  apostle  would  refer  to  an  imaorinary  character  as  an 
example  of  patience,  or  in  proof  of  the  mercy  of  God.^  But, 
besides  the  authority  of  tlic  inspired  writers,  we  have  the 
Btrongest  internal  evidence,  from  the  book  itself,  that  Job 
was  a  real  person :  for  it  expressly  specifies  the  names  of 
persons,  places,  facts,  and  other  circumstances  usually  related 
m  true  histories.  Thus  we  have  the  name,  country,  piety, 
wealth,  «fcc.  of  Job  described  (ch.  i.)  ;  the  names,  number, 
and  acts  of  his  children  are  mentioned  ;  the  conduct  of  his 
wife  is  recorded  as  a  fact  (ii.)  ;  his  friends,  their  names, 
countries,  and  discourses  with  him  in  his  afflictions,  are  mi- 
nutely delineated,  (ii.  11.  &c.)  And  can  we  rationally 
imagine  that  these  were  not  realities  ? 

Further,  no  reasonable  doubt  can  be  entertained  respecting 
the  real  existence  of  Job,  when  we  consider  that  it  is  proved 
by  the  concurrent  testimony  of  all  eastern  tradition :  he  is 
mentioned  by  the  author  of  the  book  of  Tobit,  who  lived 
during  the  \ssyrian  captivity ;'  he  is  also  repeatedly  men- 
tioned by  Mohammed^  as  a  real  character.  The  whole  of 
his  history,  with  many  fabulous  additions,  was  known  amnntr 
the  Syrians  and  Chaldscans;  many  of  the  noblest  families 
among  the  Arabians  are  distinguished  by  his  name,*  and 
boast^f  being  descended  from  hiin.  So  late  even  as  the  end 
of  the  fourth  century,  we  are  told,  that  there  were  many  per- 
sons who  went  into  Arabia  to  see  Job's  donghill,^  which,  in 
the  nature  of  things,  could  not  have  subsisted  throug^h  so 
many  ages ;  but  the  fact  of  superstitious  persons  making 
pilgrimages  to  it  sufficiently  attests  the  reality  of  his  exist- 
ence, as"  also  do  the  traditionary  accounts  concerning  the 
place  of  Job's  abode. ^ 

III.  Since,  then,  the  book  of  Job  contains  the  history  of  a 
real  character,  the  next  point  to  be  considered  is  the  age  in 
which  he  lived, — a  question  concerning  which  there  is  as 
great  a  diversity  of  opinion,  as  upon  any  other  subject  con- 
nected with  tills  venerable  monument  of  sacred  antiquity. 
Thus,  some  think  that  he  lived  in  the  days  of  Moses,  from  a 
supposed  resemblance  between  the  style  of  Moses  and  that 
of  Job  ;  others  in  the  time  of  the  Judges,  from  an  expression 
in  Job  xxvii.  12.,  because  at  that  time  all  was  vanity,  and 
every  man  did  that  which  was  good  in  his  own  eyes.  Others, 
again,  refer  him  to  the  time  of  Ahasuerus  or  Artaxerxes 
Longimanus,  on  account  of  the  search  then  made  for  beauti- 
ful w^omcn,  from  whom  the  monarch  might  select  a  consort 
f  Esth.  ii.  2.  &c.),  and  because  Job's  daugliters  are  mentioned 
(Job  xlii.  15.)  as  being  the  fairest  in  the  whole  land.  Some 
make  him  to  have  been  contemporary  with  Solomon  and  the 
queen  of  Sheba,  if  not  Solomon  himself,*'  because  the  Sabeans 

«  To  evade  Ihp  strong  proof  alTordod  by  Ezcklcl's  express  recognition  of 
Uie  reality  of  Job's  pTWjn,  .lalin  remarks  llial  finitioiis  personai'fS  may  be 
brouelil  upon  llic  sla^c  alonu  wilh  real  ;  os  is  cviil'-iil  from  l.nkc  xvi.  I'.t— 
31.,  where  Aornliaiii  Is  mlrodnrcd  wilh  the  fictitious  cliurarli.-rs  I-izarus 
and  the  rich  inati.  But  thore  is  an  evident  diflVrrnce  boiwefn  a  (larnbli' 
expresKly  purporting  to  bu  fictitioiia,  and  a  solenm  ndnike  or  warinni;  to  a 
wholi'  niilion.  llcsides,  in  Luke,  the  circuiustancH  prrdiratcd  of  all  the 
rharncters  arc  fictitious;  In  Kzekirl  they  are  unrpn-HtiDriiibly  true  wilh  re- 
lation to  Noah  and  Daniel,  and  niluht  be  p-osi.nably  exfuMtHd  to  be  ho  in 
the  other  instiiiHO  associated  with  these  two.  (I'rof.  Turner's  translation 
of  Jail II   p.  '167.  note.) 

•  Eli'infiitHofChriHiiari  Theolocy,  vol.  1.  p  M. 

»  Tiibit  ii.  12.  In  the  Vulgate  veriiion,  which  is  suppose*!  tolinve  been  exe- 
cuted from  a  tuoro  extended  history  of  TobIt  than  iheorlgtnal  ofthe  Greek 
version. 

•  Sal  '.s  Koran,  np.  271.  375.  4to.  edit  Pee  also  D'llerbclot's  Dibliolheiiuc 
Orlenlalp,  voce  y|i///(,  loin.  I.  p.  H5.  4to  edit. 

»  As  Ihe  filher  of  the  relfbr.iled  Hiillan  S  iludin  CFJrnanrin,  IIIfI.  Rara- 
ten.  p.  3);  and  bI.^o  Halriilin  liiiiiself,  whose  dynasty  is  known  in  the  liast 
by  the  iiniiK-  f]f  Ainbinh  or  Jobiles,     D'JIrrbrl'it,  loin.  i.  pp.  1 1'",,  117. 

•  (.'hrysostoTii.  ri,|  n(p|)   Anli'ich.  n<i"i.  5.     Op.  mm.  il.  p.  r>;i.  A. 

'  Thevenoi'x  \'uyiij'-,  p.  417.  I.a  Koque,  Voyajes  en  Svrie,  torn.  1.  p.  339. 

•  Staeudlin  (a  iiiu.li'rii  fJfriimn  critic,  who  plainly  disbelieves  any  iiifliil- 
ralion  of  ihn  Ohl  Tcst.iiM'iit),  takrs  a  middle  course.  Conceiving  that  he 
has  dipcovcrrd  in  ll.i-  book  nf  Job  phrases,  sentiments,  and  jiiitiires  of 
inannrrs  which  belong  to  a  later  date,  and  that  its  rciiiiposilii.n  m  iiicire  ela- 
Ijoratc  and  exipiiaile  than  that  ofthe  R'-neraliiy  of  the  other  Hebrew  books, 
he  does  not  ascribe  to  il  such  a  remote  anliquily  as  many  scholars  of  the 
present  day  suppose :  but  since  It  exliibita  other  indubilabU  marks  of  a 


iirration  to 


are  noticed  in  Job  i.  15.  &c. ;  and  others,  with  Nebuchadnez 
zar,  because  the  Chaldceans  are  introduced  in  Job  i.  17. 
Lastly,  some  state  him  to  have  lived  in  the  time  of  Jacob, 
whose  daughter  Dinah  they  suppose  him  to  have  married : 
and  this  conjecture  they  rrround  upon  the  resemblance  be- 
tween the  expression  in  Job  ii.  10.  {thou  spcakest  like  a  foolish 

tvoman)  and  that  in  Gen.  xxxiv.  7.  ( hath  wrought  folly 

in  [more  correctly  againsf]  Lrael.y  The  puerility  of  these 
conjectures  sufliciently  indicates  tlieir  weakness ;  one  thing, 
however,  is  generally  admitted  with  respect  to  the  age  of 
Job,  viz.  the  remote  antiquity  of  the  period  when  he  must 
have  lived.  Even  those  who  contend  for  the  late  production 
of  the  book  of  Job,  are  compelled  to  acquiesce  in  this  par- 
ticular. Grotius  thinks  the  events  of  the  history  are  such 
as  cafinot  be  placed  later  than  the  sojourning  of  the  Israel- 
ites in  the  Wilderness.  Bishop  Warburton,  in  like  manner, 
admits  them  to  bear  the  marks  of  high  airtiquity ;  and 
Michaelis  confesses  the  manners  to  be  perfectly  Abrahamic, 
that  is,  such  as  were  common  to  all  the  seed  of  Abraham, 
Israelites,  Ishmaelites,  and  Idumseans.'"  The  following  are 
the  principal  circumstances  from  which  the  age  of  Job  may 
be  collected  and  ascertained:" — 

1.  The  Usserian,  or  Bible  chronology,  dates  the  trial  of 
Job  about  the  j'^ear  1520  before  the  Cnristian  cera,  twenty- 
nine  years  before  the  departure  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt; 
and  that  the  book  was  composed  before  that  event,  is  evident 
from  its  total  silence  respecting  the  miracles  which  accom- 
panied the  exode :  such  as  the  passage  of  the  Red  Sea, the 
destruction  of  the  Egj'ptians,  the  manna  in  the  desert,  &c. ; 
all  of  which  happened  in  the  vicinity  of  Job's  country,  and 
were  so  apposite  in  the  debate  concernintr  the  ways  of  Pro- 
vidence, that  some  notice  could  not  but  nave  been  taken  of 
them,  if  they  had  been  coi  val  with  the  poem  of  Job. 

2.  That  it  was  composed  before  Abraham's  migrai 
Canaan  may  also  be  inferred,  from  its  silence  respecting  the 
destruction  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  and  the  other  cities  of 
the  plain,  which  were  still  nearer  to  Idumaja,  where  the 
scene  is  laid. 

3.  The  length  of  Job's  life  places  him  in  the  patriarchal 
times.  He  survived  his  trial  one  hundred  and  forty  years 
(xlii.  IC),  and  was  probably  not  less  than  sixty  or  seventy 
at  that  time :  for  we  read  that  his  seven  sons  were  all  grown 
up,  and  had  been  settled  in  their  own  houses  for  a  consider- 
able time.  (i.  4,  5.)  He  speaks  of  the  "sins  of  his  youth" 
(xiii.  26.),  and  of  the  prosperity  of  "  his  youth ;"  and  yet 
Eliphaz  addresses  him  as  a  novice : — "  With  us  are  both  the 
very  aged,  much  elder  than  thy  father.''''  (xv.  10.) 

4.  That  he  did  not  live  at  an  earlier  period  may  be  collect- 
ed from  an  incidental  observation  of  Bildad,  who  refers  Job 
to  their  forefathers  for  instruction  in  wisdom : 

Inquire,  I  pray  thee,  of  tbc/ormeraee, 

And  prepare  thyself  to  the  search  of  their  fathers  : 

Assigning  as  a  reason,  the  comparative  shortness  of  life  and 
consequent  ignorance  of  the  present  generation  : 

(For  we  are  but  ot  yesterday,  and  know  nothing 
Deeausc  our  days  ujwn  earth  are  a  shadott). 

But  the  "  fathers  of  the  former  age,"  or  grandfathers  of  the 

g resent,  were  the  contemporaries  of  Pelrg  and  Joktan,  in  tlie 
fih  generation  after  the  deluge :  and  ihi^v  might  easily  have 
learned  wisdom  from  the  fountain-head  by  conversing  with 
Siiem,  or  perhaps  with  Noah  himself;  whereas,  in  the  seventh 
generation,  the  standard  of  human  life  was  reduced  to  about 
two  hundred  years,  which  was  a  shadow  compared  with 
the  longevity  of  Noah  and  his  sons. 

5.  'lT\e  general  air  of  antiquity  which  pervades  the  man- 
ners recorihd  in  the  pot  ni,  is  a  mrther  evidence  of  its  remote 
dale.     The  manners  and  customs,  indeed,  critically  corrcs- 

venerablc  antiquity,  he  is  led  to  .-suppose  that  il  was  composed  by  some 
Hebrew  author  of  a  lowerage,  perli;\ps  by  Snlnmon  himself,  out  of  certain 
very  ancient  remains  of  poetry,  history,  and  iihilosephy,  to  which  thai  au- 
thor added  some  iliinus  of  hi;;  own,  and  had  thrown  llie  whole  into  its  pre- 
sent praclical  form  and  arraiiceiiu'nl.-^Slaeiidlin's  I'/iml  M>raiis  Ilrhreto- 
rumunlr  Clirisluiii  Hist,  ((.'olliiis  17CVI,)  citeil  in  Ur.  siiiiih's  Scripture 
Testimony  ofthe  Messiah,  vol.  i.  p.  210. 

•  Merreriis,  I'ra'f  ad  Job.  'rlie  Hishop  of  Kill.nla  (Pr.  Stock),  after 
Hisliop  Warliiirlon,  rofcrs  the  time  of  Job  lo  that  of  Rzra,  whom  he  sup- 
poses 111  be  its  aulti'r.  (Preface  lo  his  Iranslnlion  of  Job,  pp.  v.  vi  )  Ilia 
arxument.4  are  very  Inreelv  examined  and  refuted  by  Arcldnshop  Mngce, 
Discourses,  vol.  II.  pp.  W— 1D4.  See  also  lirilish  Critie,  vol.  xxix.  <).  S.  pp. 
3C9-:j72. 

>»  flrotiiis  Prief  ad  Job.  Warbnrtnn's  Divine  Logalion.  book  vl.  sect.  2. 
Michaelis,  Nota;  el  F.pimcira  in  l.owthii  rrielectioncs,  p.  HI.  Magee,  vol. 
ii.  p.  57. 

>i  These  ob8er\-Bilons  are  digested  from  the  united  remarks  of  Dr.  rialcs, 
In  his  Analysis  of  {!hronol"gv,  vol.  ii.  bonk  I.  pp.  6&— 09.  and  of  Archbishop 
Magcc,  in  hia  Discourses,  vol.  ii.  pp.  68— C3. 


Sect.  L] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  JOB. 


229 


pond  with  that  early  period.  Thus,  Job  speaks  of  the  most 
ancient  kind  of  UTiting,  by  sculpture,  (xix.  24.)  :  his  riches 
also  are  reckoned  by  his  cattle,  (xlii.  12,)'  Further,  Job 
acted  as  high-priest  in  his  family,  according  to  the  patriarchal 
usage  (Gen.  viii.  20.)  :  for  the  institutioi^of  an  established 
priestliood  does  not  appear  to  have  taken  place  anywhere 
until  the  time  of  Abraham.  Melchizedec  king  of  Salem  was 
a  priest  of  the  primitive  order  (Gen.  xiv.  18.) :  such  also 
was  Jethro,  the  father-in-law  of  Moses,  in  the  vicinity  of 
Idumaea.  (Exod.  xviii.  12.)  The  first  regular  priesthood 
was  probably  instituted  in  Egypt,  where  Joseph  was  mar- 
ried to  the  daughter  of  the  priest  of  On.  (Gen.  xli.  45.) 

6.  The  slavish  homage  of  prostration  to  princes  and  great 
men,  which  prevailed  m  Egypt,  Persia,  and  the  East  in 
general,  and  which  still  subsists  there,  was  unknown  in 
Arabia  at  that  time.  Though  Job  was  one  of  the  "  greatest 
men  of  all  the  East,"  we  do  not  find  any  such  adoration  paid 
to  him  by  his  contemporaries,  in  the  zenith  of  his  prosperity, 
among  the  marks  of  respect  so  minutely  described  in  the 
twenty-ninth  chapter.  "  When  the  young  men  saw  him, 
they  hid  themselves  (rather,  shrunk  back),  through  respect  or 
rustic  bashful  ness ;  the  aged  arose  and  stood  up  in  his  presence 
(more  correctly,  ranged  themselves  about  him),  the  princes 
refrained  from  talking,  and  laid  their  hand  upon  their  mouth  ,- 
the  nobles  held  their  peace,  and  were  all  attention  while  he 
spoke."  All  this  was  highly  respectful  indeed,  but  still  it 
was  manly,  and  showed  no  cringing  or  servile  adulation. 
With  this  description  correspond  "the  manners  and  conduct 
of  the  genuine  Arabs  of  the  present  day, — a  majestic  race, 
who  were  never  conquered,  and  who  have  retained  their 
primitive  customs,  features,  and  character,  with  scarcely  any 
alteration.2 

7.  The  allusion  made  by  Job  to  that  species  of  idolatry 
alone,  which  by  general  consent  is  admitted  to  have  been  the 
most  ancient,  namely,  Zabianism,  or  the  worship  of  the  sun 
and  moon,  and  also  to  the  exertion  of  the  judicial  authority 
against  it  (xxxi.  26 — 28.),  is  an  additional  and  most  com- 
plete proof  of  the  high  antiquity  of  the  poem,  as  well  as  a 
decisive  mark  of  the  patriarchal  age.' 

6.  A  further  evidence  of  the  remote  antiquity  of  this  book 
is  the  language  of  Job  and  his  friends ;  who,  being  all  Idu- 
m«ans,  or  at  least  Arabians  of  the  adjacent  country,  yet  con- 
versed in  Hebrew.  This  carries  us  up  to  an  age  so  early  as 
that  in  which  all  the  posterity  of  Abraham,  Israelites,  Idu- 
maeans,  and  Arabians,  yet  continued  to  speak  one  common 
language,  and  had  not  branched  into  different  dialects.'' 

9.  Lastly,  Dr.  Hales  has  adduced  a  new  and  more  particu- 
lar proof,  drawn  from  astronomy,  which  fixes  the  time  of  the 
Jiatriarch's  trial  to  184  years  before  the  birth  of  Abraham : 
or,  by  a  retrograde  calculation,  the  principal  stars  referred  to 
in  Job,*  by  the  names  of  Chimah  and  Chesil,  or  Taurus  and 
Scorpio,  are  found  to  have  been  the  cardinal  constellations  of 
spring  and  autumn  in  the  time  of  Job,  of  which  the  chief 
stars  are  Mdebaran,  the  bull's  eye,  and  .iniares,  the  scor- 
pion's heart.  Knowing,  therefore,  the  longitudes  of  these 
stars  at  present,  the  interval  of  time  from  thence  to  the 
assumed  date  of  Job's  trial  will  give  the  difference  of  their 
longitudes,  and  ascertain  their  positions  then,  with  respect  to 
the  vernal  and  autumnal  points  of  intersection  of  the  equinoc- 
tial and  ecliptic ;  which  difference  is  one  degree  in  TIJ  years, 
according  to  the  usual  rate  of  the  precession  of  t/ie  equinoxes.^ 

I  The  word  keschitah,  which  is  translated  a  piece  of  money  (xlii.  11.), 
there  is  good  reason  to  understand  as  signifying  a  lamb.  See  Archbishop 
Magee's  critical  note.  Discourses,  vol.  ii.  pp.  59—61. 

'>  They  are  thus  described  by  Sir  William  Jone.s  : — "  Their  eyes  are  full 
of  vivacity  ;  their  speech  voluble  and  articulate ;  their  deportment  manly 
and  dignified ;  their  apprehension  quick ;  their  minds  always  present  and 
attentive  ;  with  a  spirit  of  independence  appearing  in  the  countenance  of 
the  lowest  among  them.  Men  will  always  differ  in  their  ideas  of  civiliza- 
tion, each  measuring  it  by  the  habits  and  prejudices  of  their  own  country ; 
but  if  courtesy  and  urbanity,  a  love  of  poetry  and  eloquence,  and  the  prac- 
tice of  exalted  virtues,  beajusterproofof  civilized  society,  we  have  certain 
proof  that  the  people  of  Arabia,  both  on  plains  and  in  cities,  in  republican 
and  monarchical  states,  were  eminently  civilized  for  many  ages  before  their 
conquest  of  Persia."  Asiatic  Researches,  vol.  ii.  p.  3.  or  Works,  vol.  iii.  p. 
00.  8vo.  edit.  !l--  - 

»  Bishop  Lowth's  Lectures,  vol.  ii.  p.  355.  note.  Although  Sir  William 
Jones  could  obtain  but  little  accurate  information  concerning  the  Zabian 
faith,  yet,  he  remarks,  "  This  at  least  is  certain,  that  the  people  of  Yemen 
(Arabia)  very  soon  fell  into  the  common  but  fatal  error  of  adoring  the  sun 
and  the  firmament :  for  even  the  third  in  descent  from  Yoktan,  who  was 
consequently  as  old  as  Nahor,  took  the  surname  of  Abdu-shams,  or  ser- 
vant of  the  sun :  and  his  family,  we  are  assured,  paid  particular  honour  to 
that  luminary.  Other  tribes  worshipped  the  planets  and  fixed  stars." 
Asiatic  Researches,  vol.  ii.  p.  8.  or  Sir  William  Jones's  Works,  vol.  iii. 
p.  57. 

*  Bishop  Lowth,  lect.  xxxii.  vol.  ii.  pp.  350,  351.    . 
»  ix.  9.  xxxviii.  31,  32. 

•  For  an  explanation  of  this  astronomical  phenomenon,  and  its  applica- 
tion to  clu'onclogy,  see  Dr.  Hales's  Analysis,  vol.  i.  pp.  185—187.    For  the 


f  In  A.  D 
longitude. 


1808,  Aldebaran  was  in  2  signs,  7  deg.  east 
But  since  the  date  of  Job's  trial,  b.  c.  2338, 
added  to  1800,  makes  4138  years,  the  precession  of  the  equi- 
noxes amounted  to  1  sign  27  deg.  53  min.  which,  being  sub- 
tracted from  the  former  quantity,  left  Aldebaran  in  only  9 
deg.  7  min.  longitude,  or  distance  from  the  vernal  intersec- 
tion, which,  falling  within  the  constellation  Tauras,  conse- 
quently rendered  it  the  cardinal  constellation  of  spring,  as 
Pisces  is  at  present. 

"In  A.  D.  1800,  Antares  was  in  8  signs  6  deg.  58  min.  east 
longitude,  or  2  signs  6  deg.  58  min.  east  of  °the  autumnal 
intersection ;  from  which  subtracting,  as  before,  the  amount 
of  the  precession,  Antares  was  left  only  9  deg.  5  min.  east. 
Since,  then,  the  autumnal  equinox  was  found  within  Scorpio, 
this  was  then  the  cardinal  constellation  of  Autumn,  as  Pirgo 
is  at  present. 

"  Since,  then,  these  calculations  critically  correspond  with 
the  positions  of  the  equinoxes  at  the  assumed  date  of  Job's 
trial,  but  disagree  with  the  lower  dates  of  the  a^e  of  Moses, 
and  still  more  of  Ezra,  furnishing  difierent  cardinal  constel- 
lations, we  may  rest  in  the  assumed  date  of  the  trial  as  cor- 
rect. Such  a  combination  and  coincidence  of  various  rays 
of  evidence,  derived  from  widely  different  sources,  history, 
sacred  and  profane,  chronology,  and  astronomy,  and  all  con- 
verging to  the  same  common  focus,  tend  strongly  to  establish 
the  lime  of  Job's  trial  as  rightly  assigned  in  the  year  b.  c. 
2337  (2130  of  the  common  computation),  or  818  years  after 
the  deluge;  184  years  before  the  birth  of  Abraham;  474 
years  before  the  settlement  of  Jacob's  family  in  Egypt,  and 
G89  years  before  their  exode  or  departure  from  thence.'^  The 
preceding  arguments  receive  additional  weight,  from  a  con- 
sideration of  the  manner  in  M'hich  God  has  vouchsafed  to 
deal  with  mankind.  In  Gen.  xi.  we  read  that  the  erection 
of  the  tower  of  Babel  for  idolatrous  purposes  had  occasioned 
the  dispersion.  Idolatry  "  was  gradually  encroaching  still 
further  on  every  family,  which  had  not  yet  lost  the  know- 
ledge of  the  true  God.  Whoever  has  studied  the  conduct  of 
Providence,  will  have  observed,  that  God  has  never  left  him- 
self without  witnesses  in  the  world,  to  the  truth  of  his 
religion.  To  the  old  world,  Noah  was  a  preacher,  and  a 
witness  ;  to  the  latter  times  of  patriarchism,  Abraham  and  his 
descendants ;  to  the  ages  of  the  Levitical  law,  Moses,  David, 
and  the  Prophets  :  and  to  the  first  ages  of  Christianity,  the 
apostles  and  the  martyrs  were  severally  witnesses  of  die 
truth  of  God.  But  we  have  no  account  whatever,  unless  Job 
be  the  man,  that  any  faithful  confessor  of  the  one  true  God 
arose  between  the  dispersion  from  Babel  and  the  call  of 
A.braham.  If  it  be  said,  that  the  family  of  Shem  was  the 
visible  church  of  that  age;  it  will  be  answered,  that  it  is 
doubtful  whether  even  this  family  were  not  also  idolaters : 
for  Joshua  tells  the  Israelites  (Josh.  xxiv.  2.),  that  the  an- 
cestors of  Abraham  were  worshippers  of  images. 

"  Job,  therefore,  in  the  age  of  error,  may  be  considered  as 
the  faithful  witness,  in  his  day,  to  the  hope  of  the  Messiah : 
he  professed  the  true  religion,  and  his  belief  in  the  following 
important  truths :  the  creation  of  the  world  by  one  Supreme 
Being ;  the  government  of  that  world  by  the  Providence  of 
God ;  the  corruption  of  man  by  nature ;  the  necessity  of  sa- 
crifices, to  propitiate  the  Deity ;  and  the  certainty  of  a  future 
resurrection.  These  were  the  doctrines  of  the  patriarchal 
a^e,  as  well  as  of  the  Jewish  and  Christian  covenants. 
1  hey  are  the  fundamental  truths  of  that  one  system  of  reli- 
gion, which  is  alone  acceptable  to  God,  by  whatever  name 
It  may  be  distinguished  in  the  several  ages  of  the  world."? 

On  the  evidence  above  offered  respecting  the  antiquity  of 
the  book  of  Job,  the  reader  will  form  his  own  conclusions. 
At  this  distance  of  time,  it  is,  perhaps,  difficult  to  determine 
its  precise  date ;  but  topics  like  these  are  of  comparatively 
little  importance,  and  do  not  affect,  in  any  degree,  either  the 
sentiments  expressed,  or  the  moral  inculcated,  in  this  part 
of  the  inspired  volume. 

IV.  The  country,  in  which  the  scene  of  this  poem  is  laid, 
is  stated  (Job  i.  1.)  to  be  the  land  of  Uz,  which  by  some 
geographers  has  been  placed  in  Sandy,  and  by  others  in 
Stony,  Arabia.  Bochart  strenuously  advocated  the  former 
opinion,  in  which  he  has  been  powerfully  supported  by 
Spanheim,  Calmet,  Carpzov,  Heidegger,  and  some  later 

calculations  given  in  the  text,  he  makes  acknowledgments  to  Dr.  Brinkley 
Andrews,  professor  of  astronomy  in  the  university  of  Dublin  (now  Bishop 
of  Cloyne) :  subsequently  to  the  making  of  this  calculation,  Dr.  H.  disco- 
vered that  it  had  been  anticipated  and  published  at  Paris  by  M.  Dueou- 
tant,  in  1765. 

•>  Townsend's  Old  Testament  arranged  in  Historical  and  Chronological 
Order,  vol.  i.  p.  29.  note. 


230 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  V.  Chap,  fll 


writers ;  Mictiaehs,  Ilgeii,  and  Jahn,  place  the  scene  in  ?iic 
valley  of  Damasi^us;  but  Bishop  Lowlh  and  Archhisliop 
Ma^ee,  Dr.  Hales,  Dr.  Good,  and  some  later  critics  and 
philologers,  have  shown  that  tlie  scone  is  laid  in  Idumsa. 

That  the  land  of  Uz,  or  Gmitz  (Job  i.  1.),  is  evidently 
Idunnaca,  appears  from  Lam.  iv.  21.  Uz  was  the  grandson 
of  Seir  the  Horite.  (Gen.  xxxvi.  20,  >21.  28.;  1  Chron.  i. 
.^8.  l^.)  Seir  inhabiti-d  that  mountainous  tract  which  was 
called  by  his  name  antecedent  to  the  time  of  Abraham,  but, 
his  posterity  being  expelled,  it  was  occupied  by  the  Idu- 
maeans.  (Deut.  ii.^l^.)  Two  other  men  are  mentioned  of 
ihe  name  of  Uz;  one  the  grandson  of  Shem,  the  other  the 
so:tK)f  Nachor,  the  brother  of  Abraham ;  hut  whether  any 
district  was  called  after  their  name  is  not  clear.  Idumiea  is 
a  part  of  Arabia  Petrsa,  situate  on  the  southern  extremity 
of  the  tribe  of  Judah  (Num.  xxxiv.  3.  Josh.  xv.  1.  21.): 
the  land  of  Uz,  therefore,  appears  to  have  been  between 
Egypt  and  Philistia  (^Jer.  xxv.  20.),  where  the  order  of  the 
places  seems  to  have  oeen  accurately  observed  in  reviewing 
the  different  nations  from  Egypt  to  Babylon;  and  the  same 
people  seem  again  to  be  described  in  exactly  the  same  situa- 
tions. (Jer.  xlvi. — 1.)  Nor  does  the  statement  of  the  inspired 
writer,  that  Job  uas  the  greatest  of  all  the  men  of  the  East 
(Job  i.  3.),  militate  against  the  situation  of  the  land  of  Uz. 

The  expressions,  men  if  the  East,  children  of  the  East,  or 
Efistem  people,  seems  to  have  been  the  general  appellation 
for  that  mingled  race  of  people  (as  they  are  called,  Jcr.  xxv. 
20.)  who  inhabited  the  country  between  Egypt  and  the 
Euphrates,  bordering  upon  Judwa  from  the  south  to  the  east; 
the  Idumjeans,  the  Amalekites,  the  Midianites,  the  Moabites, 
the  Ammonites  (see  Judg.  vi.  3.  and  Isa.  xi.  14.)  ;  of  these 
the  Idumacans  and  Amalekites  certainly  possessed  the  south- 
ern parts.  (See  Num.  xxxiv.  3.  xiii.  2'J. ;  1  Sam.  xxvii.  8. 
10.)  This  appeara  to  be  the  true  state  of  the  case:  the 
whole  region  between  Egypt  and  the  Euphrates  was  called 
the  East,  at  first  in  respect  to  Egypt  (where  the  learned 
Joseph  Mede  thinks  the  Israelites  acquired  this  mode  of 
speating),'  and  afterwards  absolutely  and  without  any  rela- 
tion to  situation  or  circumstances.  Abraham  is  said  to  have 
sent  the  sons  of  his  concubines,  Hagar  and  Keturah,  "  east- 
ward to  the  country  which  is  commonly  called  the  East" 
(Gen.  xxv.  0.),  where  the  name  of  the  region  seems  to  have 
been  derived  from  the  same  situation.  Solomon  is  reported 
"to  have  excelled  in  wisdom  all  the  Eastern  people,  and  all 
Egypt"  (1  Kings  iv.  30.):  that  is,  all  the  neighbouring 
people  in  that  quarter :  for  there  were  people  beyond  the 
houndaries  of  Egypt,  and  bordering  on  the  south  of  Judaea, 
who  were  famous  for  wisdom,  namely,  the  Idumaeans  (see 
Jer.  xlix.  7. ;  Obad.  8.),  to  whom  we  may  well  believe  this 
passage  might  have  some  relation.  Thus  Jehovah  addresses 
the  Bahylonians  :  "  Arise,  ascend  unto  Kedar,  and  lay  waste 
the  children  of  the  East"  (Jer.  xlix.  28.),  notwithstanding 
these  were  really  situated  to  the  west  of  Babylon.  Although 
Job,  therefore,  ne  accounted  one  of  the  Orientals,  it  by  no 
means  follows  that  his  residence  must  be  in  Arabia  Descrta. 

In  effect,  nothing  is  clearer  than  that  the  history  of  an  in- 
habitant of  Idumwa  is  the  subject  of  the  poem  which  bears 
the  name  of  Job,  and  that  all  the  persons  introduced  into  it 
were  Idumacans,  dwelling  in  Iduma»a,  in  other  words,  Edom- 
ite  Arabs.  These  characters  are.  Job  himself,  of  the  land 
of  Uz;  Eliphaz  of  Teman,  a  district  of  as  rnuch  repute  as 
Uz,  and  which,  it  appears  from  the  joint  testimony  of  Jere- 
miah, Ezekiel,  Amos,  and  Obadiah,^  formed  a  principal  part 
of  Idnma?a;  Bildad  of  Shuah,  who  is  always  mentioned  in 
conjunction  with  Sheba  and  Dedan,  the  first  of  whom  was 
pronably  namcfd  after  one  of  the  lirothers  of  Joktan  or  Kahlan, 
and  the  last  two  from  two  of  his  sons,  all  of  them  being 
uniformly  placed  in  the  vicinity  of  Idumma  (Gen.  xxv.  2,  3. ; 
Jer.  xlix.  8.)  ;  Zophar  of  Naama,  a  city  importing  pleasant- 
ness, which  is  also  stated  by  Joshua  (xv.  21.  11.)  to  have 
been  situate  in  Iduma;a,  and  to  have  lain  in  a  southern  di- 
rection towards  its  coast,  on  the  shores  of  the  Ked  Sea;  and 
Klihu  of  Buz,  which,  as  the  name  of  a  place,  occurs  only 
once  in  sacred  writ  (Jer.  xxv.  23.),- but  is  there  mentioned 
in  conjunction  with  Teman  and  i)edan;  and  hence,  iieccs- 
sarily,  like  them,  a  border  city  npon  Uz  or  Iduma-a.  Allow- 
ing this  cliorojrraphy  to  be  correct  (and  such,  upon  a  fair 
review  of  t'-.u-u,  we  may  conclude  it  to  be),  tin  re  is  no  difli- 
culty  in  conceiving  that  hordes  of  nomndif  Ghald«!ans  as 
well  as  Sabeans, — a  people  addicted  to  rapine,  and  roving 
about  at  immense  distances  for  the  soke  of  |ihii)d(  r, — ^Imnlil 

'  Mcde'K  Wiirk^,  p.  :fO. 

»  Jer.  xlix.  7.  M. ;  Ezck.  xxv.  13, ;  Amo«l.  U,  12. ;  Obad  8,  9. 


have  occasionally  infested  the  defenceless  country  of  Idumaea 
and  roved  from  the  Euphrates  even  to  Egypl.^ 

To  the  preceding  considerations  we  may  add,  that  "  the 
contents  oi  the  book,  and  the  customs  which  it  introduces, 
agree  with  the  opinion,  that  lduma;a  was  the  country  of  Job's 
friends.  Idumaea,  in  the  earliest  ages,  was  distinguif  hed  for 
its  wise  men,  and  sentences  of  Arabian  wisdom  flow  from  the 
mouths  of  Jolfand  his  friends.  The  Jordan  is  represented  as 
a  principal  stream,  as  it  was  to  the  Edomitcs ;  and  chiefs, 
such  as  those  of  Edom,  are  frequently  mentioned.  The  addi- 
tion,' which  is  found  at  the  end  of  the  Septuagint  version, 
places  Jol)'s  residence  on  the  confines  of  Idumaea  and  Arabia."* 
V.  The  different  parts  of  the  book  of  Job  are  so  closely 
connected  together,  tnat  they  cannot  be  detached  from  each 
other.  The  exordium  prepares  the  reader  for  what  follows, 
supplies  us  with  the  necessary  notices  concerning  Job  and 
his  friends,  unfolds  the  scope,  and  places  the  calamities  full 
in  our  view  as  an  object  of  attention.  The  epilogue,  or  con- 
clusion, again,  has  reference  to  the  exordium,  ana  relates  the 
happy  termination  of  Job's  trials ;  the  dialogues  which  in- 
tervene flow  in  regular  order.  Now,  if  any  one  of  these 
Sarts  were  to  be  taken  away,  the  poem  would  be  extremely 
efective.  Without  the  prologue  the  reader  would  be  ut- 
terly ignorant  who  Job  was,  who  were  his  friends,  and  the 
cause  of  his  bein^  so  grievously  afflicted.  AVith*ut  the  dis- 
course of  Elihu  (xxxii. — xxxvii.),  there  would  he  a  sudden 
and  abrupt  transition  from  the  last  words  of  Job,  to  the  ad- 
dress of  God,  for  which  Elihu's  discourse  prepares  the 
reader.  And  without  the  epilogue  or  conclusion,  we  should 
remain  in  ignorance  of  the  subsequent  condition  of  Job. 

Hence  it  is  evident,  that  the  poem  is  the  composition  of  a 
single  Author,  but  who  that  was,  is  a  question  concerning 
which  the  learned  are  very  much  divided  in  their  sentiments. 
Elihu,  Job,  Moses,  Solomon,  Isaiah,  an  anonymous  writer 
in  the  reifjn  of  Manasseh,  Ezekiel,  and  Ezra,  have  all  been 
contendecTfor.  The  arguments  already  adduced  respecting 
the  age  of  Job,"  prove  that  it  could  not  he  either  of  the  latter 
persoiis.  Dr.  Lightfoot,  from  an  erroneous  vers^ion  of  xxxii. 
16,  17.,  has  conjectured  that  it  is  the  production  of  Elihu: 
hut  the  correct  rendering  of  that  passage^  refutes  this  notion. 
Ilgen  ascribes  it  ])robably  to  a  descendant  of  Elihu.  Lu- 
ther, Grotius,  and  Doedeflein,  arc  disposed  to  regard  it  as 
the  ])roJuction  of  Solomon  ;  Cellerier  considers  it  us  the  pro- 
duction of  an  u:iknown  author.^  Another  and  more  generally 
received  opinion  attributes  liiis  book  to  IMoses  :  this  conjec- 
ture is  founded  on  some  apparently  stHking  coincidences  of 
sentiment,'  ns  well  as  from  some  marks  of  later  date  which 
arc  supposed  to  he  discoverable  in  it.  But,  independently  of 
the  characters  of  antiquity  already  referred  to,  and  which 
place  the  book  of  Job  very  many  centuries  before  the  time 
of  Moses,  the  total  absence  of  every  the  slightest  allusion  to 
the  manners,  customs,  ceremonies,  or  history  of  the  Israel- 
ites, is  a  direct  evidence  that  the  great  legislator  of  the  He- 
brews was  not,  and  could  not  have  been,  the  author.  To 
which  may  be  added,  that  the  style  of  Job  (as  Bishop  Lowth 
has  remarked)  is  materially  diflcrent  from  the  poetical  style 
of  Moses  ;  for  it  is  much  more  compact,  conciseor  condensed, 
more  accurate  in  the  poetical  conformation  of  the  sentences: 
as  may  be  observed  also  in  the  prophecies  of  Balaam  the 
Mesopotamian,  a  foreigner,  indeed,  with  respect  to  the 
Israelites,  hut  not  unacquainted  either  with  their  language  or 
with  the  worship  of  the  true  God. 

Upon  the  whole,  then,  we  have  suflicient  ground  to  con- 
clude that  this  book  was  not  the  production  of  Moses,  but  of 
some  earlier  age.  Bishop  Lowth  favours  the  opinion  of 
Schultens,   Peters,  and    others  (which  is  also  adopted  by 

»  Di.-hop  I^wlh's  Lectures,  vol  ii.  pp.  347—351.    Good's  Introd.  Diss,  to 

Jiil>,  pp.  ii.— xi. 

•  liee  ii  irniislntion  of  llii«  .iiMilion  in  pp. '^34,  23r>.  note,  iu/ra. 
''  I'rof.  Tiirncr'«  lrnn«!alion  of  Julni,  p.  471.  note. 

«  Sei;  i  HI.  |ip.  'i.*-— '-"30.  of  this  volume. 

1  Sec  Gooil'H  liaiislniion  of  .lob.  in  lor.  pp.  3Rn,  381.  Bishop  Lowlh,  taking 
tlio  pa.s.«iij(c  in  ipioslion  us  il  isluii.ld  in  our  iMisli:^)!  Ilil)lo»,  ■'  \'  'h.il 
this  coiijcclurr  of  l.tiiliifool  h  kim  ius  iii  first  nighi  rather  com  ;  iiy 

llie  exordium  of  ilic  firm  spfrrh  of  Klihu  (xxxii.  Ifi,  Ii>. ),  in  wl :    ma 

tu  aHMUiiic  the  rharaclrr  of  iho  aullior,  by  coniinuinc  llin  nnrrnitvo  in  lii« 
own  person.  Hut  lluil  pnHs.igi!  which  aiipears  to  intcirnpt  Iho  speech  of 
Kliiiu,  and  to  bo  n  part  of  ihc  narrative,  die  Dirhop  conc<  ivos  to  bo  nothing 
more  Ihnn  an  t.poslrophe  to  .lob,  <'r  iMisisilily  to  hiiiiBelf :  for  It  mniiil'eslly 

I'lwodlKjichB;  wliilr,  on  till nlrar'y,  Il  is  well  known  that  nil  tlie 

l>arls— all  in  which  iho  author  liinisi'lf  appeara— aro  corlainljr 
i^i  M.,  11  111  proko.     Lecture  xxxii.  v..)    m   !■    '■'■'J. 

•  Iniiihlniiloii  :i  |a  Lecture  d.  s  I  '  •  (AnrlenTrstajiienl),  p.  109. 

•  Dr.  (Jood,  who  adopts  :hiB  hyp'i  .-ollectrd  th<ne  ncoiiiingroin- 
cidencef",  Iiilrod.  Dies  pp.  Ivi.— l.\ii.  Ai.  lil.iKhop  .M.iaeo  Iiom  examined  and 
refuted  at  couMideruble  lenirth  the  aniuinent>  of  Jiuct,  Dr.  Keiiiiicotr, 
Heaih,  Ih.iliop  Warbtirtnu,  and  others  who  hive  aJvocatcUthaaamc  ncuoa. 
Diacounei  ou  the  Atonement,  vol.  ii.  pp.  6j  -80. 


S£CT.    L] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  JOB. 


231 


Bishop  Tcmline  and  Dr.  Hales),  who  suppose  Job  himself,  or 
some  contemporary,  to  have  been  the  author  of  this  poem  : 
and  there  seems  to  be  no  good  reason  for  supposing  that  it 
was  not  written  by  Job  himself.  It  appears,  mdeed,  highly 
probable  that  Job  was  the  writer  of  his  own  story,  of  whose 
inspiration  we  have  the  clearest  evidence  in  the  forty-second 
chapter  of  this  book,  in  Avhich  he  thus  addresses  the  Al- 
mighty : — "  T  have  heard  of  thee  by  the  hearing  of  the  ear, 
hut  now  mine  eye  seeth  thee."  (xlii.  5.")  It  is  plain  that  in 
this  passage  some  privilege  is  intendea  which  he  never  had 
enjoyed  before,  and  which  he  calls  the  sight  of  God. 

He  had  heard  of  him  by  the  "  hearing  of  tlie  ear,"  or  the 
tradition  delivered  down  to  him  from  his  forefathers,  but  he 
now  had  a  clear  and  sensible  perception  of  his  being  and  di- 
vine perfections, — some  light  thrown  in  upon  his  mind  which 
carried  its  own  evidence,  and  of  which,  perhaps,  we  can 
form  no  notion,  because  we  have  never  felt  it,  but  which  to 
him  had  all  the  certainty  and  clearness  even  of  sight  itself — 
some  manifestations  ot  the  Deity  made  to  him  in  vision, 
such  as  the  prophets  had,  and  from  which  they  derived  their 
very  name  of  seers.  If  we  allow  Job  himself  to  have 
been  the  writer  of  the  book,  two  important  advantages  \yill 
be  evidently  obtained  : — First,  all  objections  to  historical 
truth  will  vanish  at  once  :  no  one  could  tell  us  his  own  story 
so  well  as  Job,  nor  have  we  any  reason  to  question  its  vera- 
city. The  dialogue,  too,  will  then  appear  to  have  been  the 
substance  of  a  real  conversation,  for  no  dialogue  was  ever 
more  natural.  If  the  story  be  told  us  in  verse,  or  in  the 
prophetic  style  and  language,  as  the  first  of  these  was  a  prac- 
tice of  the  highest  antiquity,  the  other  adds  the  most  sacred 
and  unquestionable  authority  to  it :  so  that  neither  truth  nor 
ornament  is  here  wanting,  any  more  than  dignity  of  subject, 
to  render  this  a  book  of  inestimable  value.  The  second  ad- 
vantage alluded  to  is  this, — that  if  Job  himself  were  the 
writer  of  the  book,  then  every  point  of  history  and  every 
doctrine  of  religion  here  treated  of,  which  coincide  with 
those  delivered  in  the  books  of  Moses,  are  an  additional 
proof  and  confirmation  of  the  latter,  as  Ijeing  evidently  de- 
rived from  some  other  source,  not  borrowed  from  tiie  Penta- 
teuch.i 

"  But  whether  we  suppose  Job  the  author  of  the  book,  or 
not,  its  great  antiquity,  and  even  its  priority  to  the  age  of 
Moses,  seems  to  stand  on  strong  grounds.  And,  upon  the 
whole,  perhaps  we  may  not  unreasonably  conjecture  the  his- 
tory of  the  book  to  be  this : — ^I'he  poem,  being  originally 
written  cither  by  Job,  or  some  contemporary  of  his,  and  ex- 
isting in  the  time  of  Moses,  might  fall  into  his  liands,  whilst 
residing  in  the  land  of  Midian,  or  afterwards  when  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Idumaea ;  and  might  naturally  be  made  use 
of  Cy  him,  to  represent  to  the  Hebrews,  either  whilst  re- 
pining under  their  Egyptian  bondage,  or  murmuring  at  their 
long  wanderings  in  the  wilderness,  the  great  duty  oi  submis- 
sion to  the  will  of  God.  The  encouragement  which  this  book 
holds  out,  that  every  good  man  suffering  patiently  will  finally 
be  rewarded,  rendered  it  a  work  peculiarly  calculated  to 
minister  mingled  comfort  and  rebuke  to  the  distressed  and 
discontented  Israelites,  and  might,  therefore,  well  have  been 
employed  by  Moses  for  this  purpose.  We  may  also  sup- 
pose, that  Moses,  in  transcribing,  might  have  made  some 
small  and  unimportant  alterations,  which  will  sufficiently 
account  for  occasional  and  partial  resemblances  of  expression 
between  it  and  the  Pentateuch,  if  any  such  there  be. 

"  This  hypothesis  both  furnishes  a  reasonable  compromise 
between  the  opinions  of  the  great  critics,  who  are  divided 
upon  the  point  of  Moses  being  the  author ;  and  supplies  an 
answer  to  a  question  of  no  small  difficulty,  w'hich  hangs 
upon  almost  every  other  solution ;  namely,  when,  and  where- 
fore, a  book  treating  manifestly  of  the  concerns  of  a  stranger, 
and  in  no  way  connected  with  their  affairs,  was  received  by 
the  Jews  into  their  sacred  canon  1  For  Moses  having  thus 
applied  the  book  to  their  use,  and  sanctioned  it  by  his  au- 
thority, it  would  naturally  have  been  enrolled  among  their 
sacred  wiitings:  and  from  the  antiquity  of  that  enrolment, 
no  record  would  consequently  appear  of  its  introduction."^ 
Indeed,  it  is  difficult  to  account  for  its  introduction  into  the 

«  Peters'  Critical  Dissertation  on  Job,  p.  123.  etseq. 

'  Magee's  Discourses,  vol.  ii.  p.  8VJ.  This  notion,  ArchbisliopSIagec  re- 
marks, is.  not  without  support  from  many  respectable  authorities.  The 
encient  commentator  on  .lob,  uniler  the  title  of  Origen,  ha.s  handed  down  a 
piece  of  traditional  history,  whicli  perfectly  accords  with  it.  See  Patrick's 
Preface  to  Job.  Many  of  the  most  respectable  early  writers  seem  to  have 
a<1opted  the  same  idea,  as  may  be  seen  in  Huet  (Dem.  Evang.  p.  326),  and, 
with  some  slight  variation,  it  has  been  followed  by  that  learned  author. 
Patrick  also  and  Peter  speak  of  it  as  a  reasonable  hypothesis.  (Crit.  Diss. 
Frcf  pp.  xxxiv.  xx.xv.)  And  certainly  it  possesses  Ihis  decided  advantage, 
lfc.it  it  solves  all  the  f>hen.omcna.    Ibid.  pp.  83,  8i, 


canon  of  the  Jewish  Scriptures  on  any  other  supposition  than 
that  it  was  written  by  a  Hebrew  ;  since  the  language  is  He 
brew,  and  it  is  written  in  the  style  of  Hebrew  poetry.  "The 
Hebrews  were  jealous  of  their  religions  prerog-atives.  Would 
they  have  admitted  into  their  sacred  volume"a  poem  written 
by  a  foreigner]  The  supposition  that  the  [original]  author 
travelled  or  resided  a  considerable  time  in  Aralna  will  ac- 
count for  the  Arabian  images  and  words  contained  in  it."' 

The  poem  of  Job  being  thus  early  introduced  into  the 
sacred  volume,  we  have  abmidant  evidence  of  its  subsequent 
recognition  as  a  canonical  and  inspired  book,  in  the  circum- 
stance of  its  being  occasionally  quoted  or  copied  by  almost 
every  Hebrew  w-riter  who  had  an  opportunity  of  referring  to 
it,  from  the  a^e  of  Moses  to  that  of  Malachi;  especially" by 
the  Psalmist,  ny  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  and  Ezekiel  (not  to  men- 
tion Several  of  the  apocryphal  writers).'  The  reality  of  Job's 
person,  we  have  already  remarked,^  was  particularly  recog- 
nised by  the  prophet  Ezekiel'^  (xiv.  14.  18.  20.),  aiicl,  conse- 
quently, the  reality  and  canonical  authority  of  his  book :  a 
similar  admission  of  it  was  made  by  the  apostle  James  (v. 
11.) ;  and  it  is  expressly  cited  by  St.  Paul  (compare  1  Cor. 
iii.  19.  and  Job  v.  13.),  v/ho  prefaces  his  quotation  by  the 
words,  "//!  is  written,'^  agreeably  to  the  common  forin  of 
quoting  from  other  parts  of  Scripture.  All  these  testimonies, 
direct  and  collateral,  when  taken  together,  afford  such  a  body 
of  convincing  evidence  as  fully  justifies  the  primitive  fathers 
and  early  councils  in  their  reception  of  it  as  an  inspired  book  : 
and, — independently  of  its  completing  the  Jewish  and  Chris- 
tian canons  of  Scripture,  by  uniting  as  full  an  account  as  is 
necessary  of  the  patriarchal  dispensation,  with  the  two  other 
dispensations  by  which  it  was  progressively  succeeded, — 
the  enrolment  of^  the  histor}'  of  Job  in  the  sacred  volume  may, 
perhaps,  have  been  designed  as  an  intimation  of  the  futuro 
admission  of  the  Gentiles  into  the  church  of  Christ.' 

VI.  All  commentators  and  critics  are  unanimously  agreed, 
that  the  poem  of  Job  is  the  most  ancient  book  extant:  but 
concerning  its  species  and  structure  there  is  a  considerable 
diversity  of  opinion,  some  contending  that  it  is  an  epic  poem, 
while  others  maintain  it  to  be  a  drama. 

M.  Ilgen  on  the  Continent,  and  Dr.  Good  in  our  own 
country,  are  the  only  two  commentators  that  have  come  to 
the  writer's  knowledge,  who  advocate  the  hypothesis  that 
the  book  of  Job  is  a  regular  epic.  The  former  critic  contends 
that  it  is  a  regular  epic,  the  subject  of  whicli  is  tried  and 
victorious  innocence ;  and  that  it  possesses  unity  of  action, 
delineation  of  character,  plot,  and  catastrophe, — not  exactly, 
indeed,  in  the  Grecian,  but  in  the  Oriental  stj'le.s  Dr.  Goods 
observes,  that,  were  it  necessarj'  to  enter  minutely  into  the 
question,  this  poem  might  easily  be  proved  to  possess  all  the 
more  prominent  features  of  an  epic,  as  laid  down  by  Aris- 
totle himself,  such  as  unity,  completion,  and  grandeur  in  its 
action ;  loftiness  in  its  sentiments  and  language ;  multitude 
and  variety  in  the  passions  which  it  developes.  Even  the 
characters,  though  not  numerous,  are  discriminated  and  well 
supported ;  the  milder  and  more  modest  temper  of  Eliphaz 
(compare  Job  iv.  2,  3.  with  xv.  3.)  is  well  contrasted  with 
the  forward  and  unrestrained  violence  of  Bildad ;  the  terse- 
ness and  brevity  of  Zophar  with  the  pent-up  and  overflowing 
fulness  of  Elilui:  while  in  Job  himself  we  perceive  a  dig- 
nity of  mind  that  nothing  can  humiliate,  a  firmness  that  no- 
thing can  subdue,  still  habitually  disclosing  themselves 
amidst  the  tumult  of  hope,  fear,  rage,  tenderness,  triumph, 
and  despair,  with  which  he  is  alternately  distracted.  This 
hint  is  offered  by  Dr.  Good,  not  with  a  view  of  ascribing  any 
additional  merit  to  the  poem  itself,  but  merely  to  observe,  so 
far  as  a  single  fact  is  possessed  of  authority,  that  mental 
taste,  or  the  internal  discernment  of  real  beauty,  is  the  same 

'  United  States'  Review  and  Literary  Gazette,  vol.  ii.  p.  34-3. 

«  Huet,  Dcmonstr.  Evang.  torn.  i.  pp.  324,  3-25.,  and  Dr.  Good,  in  the  notfiS 
to  his  version  of  Job,  have  pointed  out  numerous  instances  of  passages 
thus  directly  copied  or  referred  to. 

5  Seep.  228.  supra,  of  this  volume. 

6  As  Job  lived  so  many  ages  before  the  time  of  the  prophet  Ezekiel, 
mere  oral  tradition  of  such  a  person  could  not  have  subsisted  through  so 
Ions  a  period  of  time,  without  appearing  at  last  as  uncertain  or  fabulous. 
There  must,  therefore,  have  been  some  history  of  Job  in  Ezekiel's  time ; 
no  other  history  but  that  which  we  now  have,  and  which  has  alway.s  had  a 
place  in  the  Hebrew  code,  was  ever  heard  of  or  pretended.  Therefore  this 
must  have  been  the  history  of  Job  in  Ezekiel's  time,  and  must  have  been 
generally  known  and  read  as  true  and  authentic,  and,  consequently,  must 
have  been  written  near  to  [rather  in]  V.iQ  age  when  the  fact  was  tran.sacted, 
and,  not  in  afler-times,  when  its  credibility  would  have  bren  greatly  dimi- 
nished. Dr.  Taylor's  Scheme  of  r^cripture  Divinity,  ch.  22.  in/me,  (in  Bishop 
Watson's  Collection  of  Tracts,  vol.  i.  p.  93.) 

'  Grcgorii  Projfat.  in  Jobum.     Magoe,  vol.  ii.  p.  84.     Good's  Job,  p.  Ixiv. 

8  Ilgen,  Jobi  antiquissimi  Carminis  Ilebraici  Natura  atque  Virtutes,  cap. 
3.  pp.  40—89. 

9  Introd.  Diss,  to  Job,  section  2. 


232 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT, 


[Pakt  V.  Chap.  Ill 


in  all  ages  and  nations,  and  that  the  rules  of  the  Greek  critic 
are  deduced  from  a  principle  of  universal  impulse  and  ope- 
ration. 

The  dramatic  form  of  this  poem  was  strenuously  affirmed 
by  Calmet,  Carpzov,  and  some  other  continental  critics,  and 
after  them  by  Dr.  Garnett,  and  Bishop  Warburton ;  who,  in 
support  of  tliis  opinion,  adduced  the  metrical  form  of  its 
style,  excepting  in  the  introduction  and  conclusion,— its  sen- 
timents, which  are  delivered,  not  only  in  verse,  but  in  a  kind 
of  poetry  animated  by  all  the  sublimity  and  floridness  of 
description  (whence  he  concludes  this  book  to  be  a  work  of 
imaorination), — and,  in  short,  the  whole  form  of  its  composi- 
tion?   Bishop  Lowth  has  appropriated  two  entire  lectures' 
to  an  examination   of  this    question  ;   and   after   inquiring 
whether  the  poem  is  possessed  of  any  of  the  properties  ol 
the  Greek  drama,  and  considering  a  variety  of  circumstances 
which  are  hcri.'  necessarily  omitted,  he  affirms,  without  hesi- 
tation, that  the  poem  of  Job  contains  no  plot  or  action  what- 
ever, not  even  of  the  most  simple  kind ;  that  it  uniformly 
exhibits  one  constant  chain  of  things,  without  the  smallest 
chano-e  of  feature  from  beginning  to  end  ;  and  that  it  exhibits 
such'a  representation  of  manners,  passions,  and  sentiments 
as  might  i)e  naturally  expected   in  such  a  situation.     But 
thoufli  the  book  of  Job  is  by  no  means  to  be  considered  as  a 
draiifa  written  witli  fictitious  contrivance ;  or  as  resembling 
in  its  construction  any  of  those  much  admired  productions 
of  the  Grecian  dramatic  poets  which  it  preceded  by  so  many 
centuries, — yet,  he  concludes,  it  may  still  be  represented  as 
being  so  far  dramatic,  as  the  parties  are  introduced  speaking 
with  great  fidelity  of  character ;  and  as  it  deviates  from  strict 
historical  accuracy  for  the  sake  of  effect.     It  is  a  complete 
though  peculiar  work,  and  regular  in  its  subject  as  well  as 
in  the  distribution  of  its  parts :  the  exordium  and  conclusion 
are  in  prose,  but  all  the  intermediate  dialoj^ues  arc  in  metre. 
But,  whatever  rank  may  be  assigned  to  Job  in  a  comparison 
with  the  poets  of  Greece,  to  whom  we  must  at  least  allow 
the  merit  of  art  and  method ;  among  the  Hebrews  it  must 
certainly  be  allowed,  in  this  respect,  to  be  unrivalled.     Such 
is  a  brief  outline  of  Bishop  Lowth's  arguments  and  conclu- 
sions, which  have  been  generally  adopted. 

It  only  remains  that  we  notice  the  opinion  of  Professor 
Bauer,2  viz.  that  the  book  of  Job  approximates  most  nearly 
to  the  Mekamut  or  moral   discourses  of  the   philosophical 
Arabian  poets.     He  has  simply  announced  his  hypothesis, 
without  offijring  any  reasons  in  its  support;  but  the  following 
considerations  appear  not  unfavourable  to  the  conjecture  ot 
Bauer.    The  Meluiraa  treats  on  every  topic  which  presented 
itself  to  the  mind  of  the  poet,  and  though  some  parts  are 
occasionally  found  in  prose,  yet  it  is  generally  clothed  in  all 
the  charms  of  poetry  which  the  vivid  imagination  of  the 
author  could  possibly  bestow  upon   it.     The  subjects  thus 
discussed,  liowever,  are  principally  ethical.    The  Arabs  have 
several  works  of  this  description,  which  are  of  considerable 
antiquity  ;  but  the  most  celebrated  is  the  collection  of  Mckd- 
inats,  composed  by  the  illustrious  poet  Hariri,'  which  are 
read  and  admired  to  this  day.     Now,  it  will  be  recollected, 
that  the  scene  of  the  book  of  Job  is  laid  in  the  land  of  Uz  or 
Idumaea,  in  the  Stony  Arabia;  the  interlocutors  are  Edomite 
Arabs  ;  the  beginning  and  termination  are  evidently  in  prose, 
though  the  dialogue  is  metrical ;  the  language  is  pure  He- 
brew, which  we  know  for  a  considerable  time  was  the  com- 
mon dialect  of  the  Israelites,  Idumaeans,  and  Arabs,  who 
were  all  descended  from  Abraham ;  the  manners,  customs, 
and  allusions,  too,  which,  it  is  well  known,  have  not  varied 
in  any  material  degree,  are  supported  by  those  of  the  modern 
Arabs.     Since,  then,  the  book  of  Job  is  allowed  on  all  sides 
to  be  a  poem,  single  and  unparalleled  in  the  sacred  volume, 
may  we  not  consider  it  as  a  prototype  of  the  Mckdma  of  the 
Arabians'?    This  conjecture,  which  is  offered  with  defere 


ncc 


,  3SC.    The  Arnbir,  word  Mpki'mm  s'mni- 


«  I.cct.  xxxiil.  ani  r.xxxv. 

»  Uaiitr,  ILriMfti'iilica  Hacrn,  p  ..,,,.       ,.  ,  .     , 

fies  an  asafiiil.ly  mid  convcrBation,  or  diDcoiirso  (D'llcrheloi,  Hj|jli(.th(<iii.> 
Oriciilale,  vol.  li.  p.  r;<JO.) ;  ihi;  iinme  is  derived  from  Hio  circuiiistaiicf;  of 
thcHc  compositions  bciiv?  read  ut  ilic  nicciiTigii  or  conversazioni  of  ciuintnt 
literary  cliaraclers. 

■  He  composr-d  his  Mekftma,  or  Mcc^nnal,  as  D'llcrholol  biicIIb  the  word, 
at  the  rcfinrstof  Abu  Hhlrvan  Kholod,  vi/.ir  of  tliu  H(rljiikHiiIiaii  Mahiiioud. 
It  is  CKlcfiuod  a  niasterpicco  of  Arabian  pocwy  and  clocpiuncn  ;  and  con- 
lists  of  fifly  iliHcourscsor  declanialory  conversations  on  various  topics  of 
moralilv,  onrli  of  which  derives  Us  name  from  the  place  where  it  was  re- 
cited. Mo  highly  were  these  productions  of  Hariri  vaUicd,  that  Zainaksliarl, 
the  most  learned  of  the  Arabian  Krainniarians,  pronounced  that  tliey  ourIiI 
only  to  be  written  on  silk.  Tlie  Mckmnat  of  Hariri  wrrc  nublisliiMl  by 
Bchullens,  and  nix  of  his  "  Assemblies"  were  IranHlatnl  into  lOiiKlish  from 
the  Arabic,  and  published  by  Professor  Clinppflow,  In  8vo.  London,  1707. 
Bee  an  account  and  extract  from  this  work  iu  tho  Monthly  Review,  O.  S. 
Tol  xxrvii.  pp.  22-28. 


to  the  names  and  sentiments  of  Bo  many  learned  men,  pos- 
sesses at  least  one  advantage ;  it  furnishes  a  compromise 
between  the  opinions  of  the  great  critics  who  are  divided  in 
sentiment  upon  the  class  of  poetry  to  which  this  book  is  to 
be  referred,  and  perhaps  reconciles  difficulties  which  could 
not  otherwise  be  solved  respecting  its  real  nature. 

The  reader  will  now  determine  for  himself  to  which  class 
of  poetry  this  divine  book  is  to  be  referred.  After  all  that 
has  been  said,  it  is,  perhaps,  of  little  consequence  whether 
it  be  esteemed  a  didactic  or  an  ethic,  an  epic  or  dramatic 
poem ;  provided  a  distinct  and  conspicuous  station  be  assign- 
ed to  it  in  the  highest  rank  of  Hebrew  poesy  :  for  not  only  is 
the  poetry  of  the  book  of  Job  equal  to  that  of  any  other  of 
the  Sacred  Writings,  but  it  is  superior  to  them  all,  those  of 
Isaiah  alone  excepted.  As  Isaiah,  says  Dr.  Blair,  is  the 
most  sublime,  David  the  most  pleasing  and  tender,  so  Job  is 
the  most  descriptive  of  all  the  inspired  poets.  A  peculiar 
glow  of  fancy  and  strength  of  description  characterize  this 
author.  No  writer  whatever  abounds  so  much  in  metaphors. 
He  may  be  said  not  only  to  describe,  but  to  render  visible, 
whatever  he  treats  of.  Instances  of  this  kind  every  where 
occur,  but  especially  in  the  eighteenth  and  twentieth  chap- 
ters, in  which  the  condition  of  the  wicked  is  delineated.' 

VII.  The  subject  of  this  book  is  the  history  of  a  reat 
sufferer,  the  patriarch  Job,  who  at  the  period  in  question  was 
an  emir,  or  Arab  prince  of  distinguished  wealth,  eminence, 
and  authority,  resident  in  the  country  of  Uz  or  Idumaea. 
His  three  friends,  Eliphaz,  Bildad,  and  Zophar,  were  also 
probably  emirs  of  the  cities  or  places  whence  they  are  de- 
nominated ;  but  of  Elihu,  the  fourth  interlocutor  in  the  poem, 
we  have  no  notice  whatever.^    The  principal  object  offered 
to  our  contemplation  in  this  production  is  the  example  of  a 
good  man,  eminent  for  his  piety,  and  of  approved  integrity, 
suddenly  precipitated  from  the  very  summit  of  prosperity 
into  the  lowest  depths  of  misery  and  ruin:  who,  having  been 
first  bereaved  of  his  wealth,  his  possessions,  and  his  children, 
is  afterwards  afflicted  with  the  most  excruciating  anguish  ot 
a  loathsome  disease  which  entirel}'  covers  his  body.  (i.  ii.) 
He  sustains  all  with  the  mildest  submission,  and  the  most 
complete  resignation  to  the  will  of  Providence :  In  all  thif, 
saj's  the  historian,  Jub  sinned  not,  nor  charged  God  foolishly. 
(i.  22.)     And  after  the  second  trial.  In  all  this  did  not  Job  sin 
with  his  lips,  (ii,  10.)     The  author  of  the  history  remarks 
upon  this  circumstance  a  second  time,  in  order  to  excite  the 
observation  of  the  reader,  and  to  render  him  more  attentive 
to  what  follows,  which  properly  constitutes  the  true  subject 
of  the  poem;  namely,  the  conduct  of  Job  with  respect  to  his 
reverence  for  the  Almighty,  and  the  changes  whicii  accumu- 
lating misery  might  produce  in  his  temper  and  behaviour. 
Accordingly  we  find  that  another  still  more  ex<iuisitc  trial  of 
his  patience  yet  awaits  him,  and  which,  indeed,  as  the  writer 
seems  to  intimate,  he  scarcely  appears  to  have  sustained  with 
equal   firmness,   namel}',  the  unjust  suspicions,   the  bitter 
reproaches,  and  the  violent  altercations  of  his  friends,  who 
had  visited  him  on  the  pretence  of  affording  consolation. 
Here  commences  the  plot  or  action  of  the  poem :  for  when, 
after  a  long  silence  of  all  parties,  the  grief  of  .Tob  breaks 
forth  into  passionate  exclamations  and  a  vehement  execration 
of  the  day  of  his  birth  (iii.);  the  minds  of  his  friends  are 
suddenly  exasperated,  their  ititentions  are  changed,  and  theii 
consolation,  it  indeed  they  originally  intendetl  any,  is  con- 
verted into  contumely  atid  reproaches.     Kliphaz,  the  first  of 
these  three  singular  comforters,  reproves  his  impatience ; 
calls  in  question  his  integrity,  by  indirectly  insinuating  that 
God  does  not  infiict  such  punishments  upon  the  righteous ; 
and,  finally,  admonishcb  him  that  the  chastisement  of  God 

*  Uliiir's  Lectures,  vol.  iii.  p.  IW^. 

»  I'roiii  till!  circumstance  of  Kliphaz,  Zophar,  ami  Bildad  being  termed 
kind's  ill  the  SeptunKiiit  version,  some  critics  have  6uppo.-;cd  tliat  they  oa 
well  as  Job  were  inonarrhs:  but  this  conjiclurc  is  destitute  of  support. 
For,  I.  Job  is  not  represented  u.^  losiii),'  bis  kin;;doiii,  but  his  children,  ser- 
vants, and  tlocks  |  2.  He  possessed  no  army  or  forces  with  which  he  could 
pursue  the  predatory  Sabieans  and  Clialdii-ans ;  3-  Though  his  friends  ac- 
cu.sed  him  of  various  crime.-i,  and  amoni;  others  of  harshly  treatinji  his  ser- 
vants, yet  they  nowhere  charce  him  with  tyranny  towards  his  subjects, 
4.  Job  gives  an  account  of  ids  private  life  and  conduct  toward.s  his  domes- 
tics, but  is  totally  siliuil  ns  to  bis  conduct  towards  his  subjects;  lastly, 
when  he  docs  mention  kiiiRs(iii.  11.  xxix.  25,),  he  by  no  means  places  him- 
self upon  an  r((ualilv  with  them.  Jlence  wc  see  tho  crroncousness  of  the 
appendix  to  llic  rteptu.ujint  version  of  Job,  of  which  some  notice  is  taken 
in  p.  2:11.  ill/ill,  and  which  makes  him  to  be  the  same  as  Jobab  Hlne of  the 
K<loinitcs.  (f;en.  xxxvi.  33.)  It  is  equally  clear  that  Job  was  not  subject  to 
any  sovereign,  for  neither  he  nor  his  friends  make  any  mention  of  hlsnllt- 
giaiice  to  any  king ;  on  the  contrary,  when  he  entered  the  «u(c  of  the  city 
where  the  iii,iKio.trute8SBt  in  a  judiiuil  eal>aiity,  the  first  plme  w.-is  reserved 
to  huii,  and  his  opinion  wim  asked  with  tho  utmost  deference.  I-romall 
these  circumstances,  therefore,  coupled  with  his  extensive  flocks  and 
ample  possessions,  wo  conclude  with  Herder,  Jahn,  and  Dr.  Good,  thai  lio 
was  emir,  prince,  or  chief  magistrate  of  tho  ci»y  of  l)z. 


Sect.  1.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  JOB. 


233 


is  not  to  be  despised,  (iv.  v.)     The  next  of  them,  not  less 
intemperate  in  liis  reproofs,  takes  it  for  granted,  that  the 
children  of  Job  had  only  received  the  reward  due  to  their 
oifences ;  and  with  regard  to  himself,  intimates,  that  if  he  be 
innocent,  and  will  apply  with  proper  humility  to  the  divine 
mercy,  he  may  be  restored,  (viii.)     The  third  upbraids  him 
with  arrogance,  with  vanity,  and  even  with  falsehood,  because 
he  has  presumed  to  defend  himself  against  the  unjust  accu- 
sations of  his  companions,  and  exhorts  him  to  a  sounder 
mode  of  reasoning,  and  a  more  holy  life,  (xi.)     They  all, 
with  a  manifest  though  indirect  allusion  to  Job,  discourse 
very  copiously  concerning  the  divine  judgments,  which  are 
always  openly  displayed  against  the  wicked,  and  of  the  cer- 
tain destruction  of  hypocritical  pretenders  to  virtue  and  reli- 
gion.    In  reply  to  this.  Job  enumerates  his  sufferings,  and 
complains  bitterly  of  the  inhumanity  of  his  friends,  and  of 
the  severity  which  he  has  experienced  from  the  hand  of  God ; 
he  calls  to  witness  both  God  and  man,  that  he  is  unjustly 
oppressed ;  he  intimates,  that  he  is  weak  in  comparison  with 
God,  that  the  contention  is,  consequently,  unequal,  and  that, 
be  his  cause  ever  so  righteous,  he  cannot  hope  to  prevail. 
(vi.  vii.)     He  expostulates  with  God  himself  still   more 
vehemently,  and  with   greater  freedom,  afhrming,  that  he 
does  not  discriminate  characters,  but  equally  afflicts  the  just 
and  the  unjust,  (x.)     The  expostulations  of  Job  serve  only 
to  irritate  siill  more  the  resentment  of  his  pretended  friends ; 
they  reproach  him  in  severer  terms  with  pride,  impiety,  pas- 
sion, and  madness ;  they  repeat  the  same  arguments  respecting 
the  justice  of  God,  the  punishment  of  the  wicked,  and  their 
certain  destruction  after  a  short  period  of  apparent  prosperity. 
This  sentiment  they  confidently  pronounce  to  be  confirmed 
both  by  their  experience  and  by  that  of  their  fathers ;  and 
they  maliciously  exaggerate  the  ungrateful  topic  by  the  most 
splendid  imagery  and  the  most  forcible  language,  (xi.)     On 
the  part  of  Job,  the  general  scope  of  the  argument  is  much 
the   same   as   before,    but   the   expression   is   considerably 
heightened ;  it  consists  of  appeals  to  the  Almighty,  assevera- 
tions of  his  ov/n  innocence,  earnest  expostulations,  complaints 
of  the  cruelty  of  his  friends,  melancholy  reflections  on  the 
vanity  of  human  life,  and  upon  his  own  severe  misfortunes, 
ending  in  grief  and  desperation  :  he  affirms,  however,  that  he 
places  his  ultimate  hope  and  confidence  in  God ;  and  the 
more  vehemently  his  adversaries  urge  that  the  wicked  only 
are  objects  of  the  divine  wrath,  ana  obnoxious  to  punish- 
ment, so  much  the  more  resolutely  does  Job  assert  their 
perpetual  impunity,  prosperity  and  happiness,  even  to  the 
end  of  their  existence.     The  first  of  his  opponents,  Eliphaz, 
incensed  by  this  assertion,  descends  directly  to  open  crimina- 
tion and  contumely :  he  accuses  the  most  upright  of  men  of 
the  most  atrocious  crimes,  of  injustice,  rapine,  and  oppression : 
inveighs  against  him  as  an  impious  pretender  to  virtue  and 
religion,  and  with  a  kind  of  sarcastic  benevolence  exhorts 
him  to  penitence.     Vehemently  affected  with  this  reproof. 
Job,  in  a  still  more  animated  and  confident  strain,  appeals  to 
the  tribunal  of  All-seeing  Justice,  and  wishes  it  Avere  only 
permitted  him  to  plead  his  cause  in  the  presence  of  God 
himself.     He  complains  still  more  intemperately   of  the 
unequal  treatment  of  Providence ;  exults  in  his  own  integrity, 
and  then  more  tenaciously  maintains  his  former  opinion  con- 
cerning the  impunity  of  the  wicked.     To  this  another  of  the 
triumvirate,  Bildad,  replies,  by  a  masterly  though  concise 
dissertation  on  the  majesty  and  sanctity  of  the  Divine  Being, 
indirectly  rebuking  the  presumption  of  Job,  who  has  dared 
to  question  his  decrees.    In  reply  to  Bildad,  Job  demonstrates 
himself  no  less  expert  at  wielding  the  weapons  of  satire  and 
ridicule  than  those  of  reason  and  argument ;  and  reverting  to 
a  more  serious  tone,  he  displays  the  infinite  power  and  wis- 
dom of  God  more  copiously  and  more  poetically  than  the 
former  speaker.     The  third  of  the  friends  making  no  return, 
and  the  others  remaing  silent.  Job  at  length  opens  the  true 
sentiments  of  his  heart  concerning  the  fate  of  the  wicked ; 
he  allows  that  their  prosperity  is  unstable,  and  that  they  and 
their  descendants  shall  at  last  experience  on  a  sudden  that 
God  is  the  avenger  of  iniquity.     In  all  this,  however,  he 
contends  that  the  divine  counsels  do  not  admit  of  human 
investigation,  but  that  the  chief  wisdom  of  man  consists  in 
the  fear  of  God.     He  beautifully  descants  upon  his  former 
prosperity ;  and  exhibits  a  striking  contrast  between  it  and 
his  present  affliction  and  debasement.     Lastly,  in  answer  to 
the  crimination  of  Eliphaz,  and  the  implications  of  the  others, 
he  relates  the  principal  transactions  of  his  past  life;   he 
asserts  his  integrity  as  disjplayed  in  all  the  duties  of  life, 
and  in  the  sight  of  God  ancl  man ;  and  again  appeals  to  the 
Vol.  II.  2  G 


justice  and  omniscience  of  God  in  attestation  of  his  vera- 
city. 

If  these  circumstances  were  fairly  collected  from  the  gertfe- 
ral  tenor  and  series  of  the  work,  as  far  as  we  are  able  to 
trace  them  through  the  plainer  and  more  conspicuous  pas- 
sages, it  will  be  no  very  difficult  task  to  explain  and  define 
the  subject  of  this  part  of  the  poem,  Avhich  contains  the  dis- 
pute between  Job  and  his  friends.  The  argument  seems 
chiefly  to  relate  to  the  piety  and  integrity  of  Job,  and  turns 
upon  this  point,  whether  he,  who  by  the  divine  providence 
and  visitation  is  so  severely  punished  and  afflicted,  ought  to 
be  accounted  pious  and  innocent.  This  leads  into  a  more 
extensive  field  of  controversy,  into  a  dispute,  indeed,  which 
less  admits  of  any  definition  or  limit,  concerning  the  nature 
of  the  divine  counsels  in  the  dispensations  of  happiness  and 
misery  in  this  life.  The  antagonists  of  Job  in  this  dispute, 
observing  him  exposed  to  such  severe  visitations,  conceiving 
that  this  affliction  had  not  fallen  upon  him  unmeritedly,  ac 
cuse  him  of  hypocrisy,  and  falsely  ascribe  to  him  the  guilt  ot 
some  atrocious  out  concealed  offence.  Job,  on  the  contrary, 
conscious  of  no  crime,  and  wounded  by  their  unjust  suspi- 
cions, defends  his  own  innocence  before  God  with  rather 
more  confidence  and  ardour  than  is  commendable;  and 'so 
strenuously  contends  for  his  own  integrity,  that  he  seems 
virtually  to  charge  God  himself  with  some  degree  of  injus- 
tice.i 

The  argument  of  Job's  friends  may,  in  substance,  be  com- 
prised in  the  following  syllogism  : 

God,  tcho  is  just,  bestows  blessings  upon  the  godly,  but  afflicts  the  wicked: 
But  Job  is  7nost  heavily  afflicted  by  Gcd: 

Therefore  Job  is  wicked,  and  deserves  the  punishment  of  his  sins  ;  and 
therefore  he  is  bound  to  repent,  that  is,  to  con/ess  and  betcail  his  sins. 

To  the  major  proposition  Job  replies,  that  God  afflicts  7wt  only 
the  wicked,  hut  also  the  pious,  in  order  that  their  faith,  pa- 
tience, and  other  virtues,  may  be  proved,  and  that  the  glory 
of  God  may  become  more  conspicuously  manifest  in  their 
wonderful  deliverances.  But  overwhelmed  with  grief  and 
the  cruel  suspicions  of  his  friends,  he  defends  his  cause  witli 
hard  and  sometimes  impatient  expressions. 

This  state  of  the  controversy  is  clearly  explained  by  what 
follows  :  for  Avhen  the  three  friends  have  ceased  to  dispute 
with  Job,  because  he  seemeth  just  in  his  own  eyes  (xxxii.  1.), 
that  is,  because  he  has  uniformly  contended  that  there  was 
no  wickedness  in  himself  which  could  call  down  the  heavy 
vengeance  of  God,  Elihu  comes  forward,  justly  offended 
with  both  parties  ;  with  Job,  because  he  justified  himself  in 
preference  to  God  (xxxii.  2.  compare  xxxv.  2.  'xl.  8.),  that  is, 
because  he  defended  so  vehemently  the  justice  of  his  own 
cause,  that  he  seemed  in  some  measure  to  arraign  the  justice 
of  God :  against  the  three  friends,  because  though  they  were 
unable  to  answer  Job,  they  ceased  not  to  condemn  him  (xxxii. 
3.),  that  is,  they  concluded  in  their  own  minds  that  Job  was 
impious  and  wicked,  while,  nevertheless,  they  had  nothing 
specific  to  object  against  his  assertions  of  his  own  innocence, 
or  upon  which  they  might  safely  ground  their  accusation. 

The  conduct  of  Euhu  evidently  corresponds  with  this 
state  of  the  controversy ;  he  professes,  after  a  slight  prefa- 
tory mention  of  himself,  to  reason  with  Job,  unbiassed 
equally  by  favour  or  resentment.  He  therefore  reproves  Job 
from  his  own  mouth,  because  he  had  attributed  too  much  to 
himself;  because  he  had  affirmed  himself  to  be  altogether 
free  from  guilt  and  depravity ;  because  he  had  presumed  to 
contend  with  God,  and  had  not  scrupled  to  insinuate,  that 
the  Deity  was  hostile  to  him.  He  asserts,  that  it  is  not  ne- 
cessary for  God  to  explain  and  develope  his  counsels  to 
men ;  that  he  nevertheless  takes  many  occasions  of  admo- 
nishing them,  not  only  by  visions  and  revelations,  but  even 
by  the  visitations  of  his  providence,  by  sending  calamities 
and  diseases  upon  them,  to  repress  their  arrogance  and  re- 
form their  obduracy.  He  next  rebukes  Job,  because  he  had 
pronounced  himself  upright,  and  affirmed  that  God  had  acted 
mimically,  if  not  unjustly,  towards  him,  which  he  proves  to 
be  no  less  improper  than  indecent.  In  the  third  place,  he 
objects  to  Job,  that  from  t'le  miseries  of  the  good  and  the 
prosperity  of  the  wicked,  he  has  falsely  and  perversely  con- 
cluded, that  there  was  no  advantage  to  be  derived  from  the 
practice  of  virtue.  On  the  contrary,  he  affirms,  that  when 
the  afflictions  of  the  just  continue,  it  is  because  they  do  not 
place  a  proper  confidence  in  God,  ask  relief  at  his  hands, 

Eatiently  expect  it,  nor  demean  themselves  before  him  with 
ecoming  humility  and  submission.  This  observation  alone, 

»  Lowtli's  Lectures,  No.  xxxii.  vol.  ii.  pp.  371—378. 


234 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  V.  Chap.  Ill 


he  adds  very  properly,  is  at  once  a  sufficient  reproof  of  the 
contumacy  of  Joo,  and  a  full  refutation  of  tlie  unjust  suspi- 
eions  of  nis  friends,  (xxxv.  4.)  Lastly,  he  explaius  tlie 
purposes  of  the  Deity,  in  chastening  men,  which  are  in 
general  to  prove  and  to  amend  them,  to  repress  their  arro- 
gance, to  afford  hira  an  opportunity  of  exemplifying  his  jus- 
tice upon  the  obstinate  am!  rebellious,  and  of  showing  favour 
to  the  humble  and  obedient.  He  supposes  God  to  liave 
acted  in  this  manner  towards  Job  :  on  tliat  account  he  ex- 
horts him  to  humble  himself  before  his  righteous  Judge,  to 
beware  of  appearing  obstinate  or  contumacious  in  his  sight, 
and  of  relapsing  into  a  repetition  of  his  sin.  He  entreats 
him,  from  the  contemplation  of  the  divine  power  and  ma- 
jesty, to  endeavour  to  retain  a  proper  reverence  for  the  Al- 
mighty. To  tlipse  frequently  iiit<>rmitted  and  often  repeated 
admonitions  of  Kliiui,  Job  makes  no  return. 

The  address  of  God  himself  follows  that  of  Eliliu,  in 
which,  disdaining  to  descend  to  any  particular  explication  of 
his  divine  counsels,  but  instancing  some  of  the  stupendous 
effects  of  his  infinite  power,  he  insists  upon  the  same  topics 
which  Elihu  had  before  touched  upon.  In  the  first  place, 
having  reproved  the  temerity  of  Job,  he  convicts  him  of  ig- 
norance, in  being  unable  to  comprehend  the  works  of  his 
creation,  which  were  obvious  to  every  eye ;  the  nature  and 
structure  of  the  earth,  the  sea,  the  light,  and  the  animal 
kingdom.  He  then  demonstrates  his  weakness,  by  chal- 
lenging him  to  prove  his  own  power  by  emulating  any  single 
exertion  of  the  divine  energy,  and  then  referring  him  to  one 
or  two  of  the  brute  creation,  with  which  he  is  unable  to 
contend  : — how  much  less,  therefore,  with  the  Omnipotent 
Creator  and  Lord  of  all  things,  who  is  or  can  be  accountable 
to  no  being  whatever]  (xli.  2,  3.)' 

The  scope  of  this  speech  is,  to  humble  Job,  and  to  teach 
others  by  his  example  to  acquiesce  in  the  dispensations  of 
Jehovah,  from  an  unbounded  confidence  in  his  equity,  wis- 
dom, and  goodness: — an  end  this,  which  (13ishop  Stock 
truly  remarks)  is,  indeed,  worthy  of  the  interposition  of  the 
Deity.  The  method  pursued  in  the  speech  to  accomplish  its 
design,  is  a  series  of  questions  and  descriptions,  relative  to 
natural  things,  admirably  fitted  to  convince  this  complainant, 
and  all  others,  of  their  incapacity  to  judge  of  God  s  moral 
administration,  and  of  the  danger  of  striving  with  their  Maker. 
Nothing,  in  the  whole  compassof  language, can  equal, much 
less  surpass,  the  inimitable  frrandcur  and  sublimity  of  this 
divine  address,  which  extends  from  chapter  xxxviii.  to  xli. 

On  the  conclusion  of  the  speech  of  Jehovah,  Job  humbles 
himself  before  God,  acknowledging  his  own  ignorance  and 
imbecility,  and  "  repents  in  dust  and  ashes."  He  then  offers 
sacrifice  for  his  friends,  and  is  restored  to  redoubled  pros- 
perity, honour,  and  comfort. 

From  a  due  consideration  of  all  these  circumstances, 
Bishop  Lowth  concludes  that  the  principal  object  of  the 
poem  IS  this  third  and  last  trial  of  Job  from  tUe  injustice  and 
unkindncss  of  his  accusing  friends ;  the  consequence  of 
which  is,  in  the  first  place,  the  anger,  indignation,  and  con- 
tumacy of  Job,  and  afterwards,  his  composure,  submission, 
and  penitence.  The  design  of  tiie  poem  is,  therefore,  to 
teach  men,  that,  having  a  due  respect  to  the  corruption,  in- 
firmity, and  ignorance  of  human  nature,  as  well  as  to  the 
infinite  wisdom  and  majesty  of  God,  they  are  to  reject  all 
confidence  in  their  own  strength,  in  their  own  righteousness, 
and  to  preserve  on  all  occasions  an  unwavering  and  unsullied 
faith,  and  to  submit  with  becoming  reverence  to  his  decrees. 
It  is,  however,  to  be  carefully  observed,  that  the  subject  of 
the  dispute  between  Job  and  his  friends  differs  from  the  sub- 
ject ofthe  poem  in  general ;  and  llial  the  end  of  the  poetical 
part  differs  from  the  design  of  the  narrative!  at  large.  For, 
the  bishop  remarks,  although  the  design  and  suliject  of  the 

f)oem  be  exactly  as  they  are  above  defined,  it  may,  ncverlhe- 
ess,  be  granted  that  the  whole  history,  taken  together,  con- 
tains an  example  of  patience,  togetln-r  with  its  ri;ward ;  and 
he  considers  much  of  the  perplexity  in  whieli  the  sul)ject 
has  been  involved,  as  arising  principally  from  this  point  not 
having  been  treated  with  Buflicient  distinctness  by  the 
learned. 

Moldenhawer  and  some  other  critics  have  considered  the 

fassage  in  Job  xix.  25 — 27.  as  a  predietion  of  the  Messiah, 
t  cannot,  however,  be  clearly  shown  tliat  this  book  contains 
any  propliecies,  strictly  so  called ;  because  tlu^  passages 
which  might  be  adduced  as  prophetical  may  also  be  consi- 
dered as  a  profession  of  faitli  in  a  ])romis(  if  Redeemer,  and 
concerning  a  future  resurrection.     A  learned  commentator 

« Lowth'8  Leclurei,  No.  xjtxii.  tol.  II  pp.  378— 3S2, 


of  the  present  day  has  remarked,  that  -here  are  but  few  parts 
of  the  Old  Testament  which  declare  more  explicitly  the 
grand  outlines  of  revealed  truth,  nay  even  of  evangelical 
doctrine :  so  that  they,  who  speak  of  it  as  consisting  chiefly 
oi  natural  relifrion,  seem  entirely  to  have  mistaken  its  scope. 
The  book  of  Job,  lie  continues,  is  full  of  caution  and  encou- 
ragement to  the  tempted  and  afllicted,  and  of  warning  to 
those  who  hastily  judge  their  brethren.  It  throws  great 
light  upon  the  doctrine  of  Providence,  and  upon  the  agency 
and  influence  of  evil  spirits  under  the  control  of  God.  In  the 
patriarch  Job  we  see  an  eminent  type  of  the  suffering  and 
glorified  Saviour,  and  a  pattern  of  tne  believer's  "passing 
through  much  tribulation  to  the  kingdom  of  God."  In  short, 
the  wMiolo  is  replete  with  most  important  instniction :  and 
among  the  rest  we  are  reminded  of  the  ill  effects  of  acrimo- 
nious religious  dispute.  These  four  pious  men  argued  toge- 
ther, till,  becoming  angry,  they  censured  and  condemned 
each  other,  and  uttered  many  irreverent  things  concerning 
the  divine  character  and  government;  and  having  lost  their 
temper,  they  would  also  have  lost  their  labour,  and  have  been 
at  more  variance  than  ever,  if  another  method  had  not  been 
taken  to  decide  the  controversy. * 

"  The  character  of  each  person  is  well  sustained  through 
the  whole  book:  Job,  every  where  consistent,  pious,  con- 
scious of  his  own  uprightness,  but  depressed  by  misery, 
weighed  down  by  disease,  and  irritatea  by  the  clamoroun 
accusations  of  his  friends,  is  hurried  on  to  make  some  rash 
assertions.  Confident  in  his  own  innocence,  his  appeals  to 
God  are  sometimes  too  bold,  and  his  attacks  upon  his  friend  { 
too  harsh,  but  he  always  ends  in  complaints,  and  excuse  ? 
his  vehemence  on  account  of  the  magnitude  of  his  calamity. 
His  friends,  all  sincere  worshippers  of  the  true  God,  and 
earnest  advocates  of  virtue,  agree  in  the  opinion,  that  divine 
justice  invariably  punishes  tlie  wicked,  and  rewards  th'? 
good  with  present  happiness.  They  endeavour  to  prove  thin 
by  appeals  to  more  ancient  revelations,  to  the  opinions  of 
those  who  lived  in  former  times,  and  to  experience, — appre 
hensive  lest  the  contrary  assertion  of  Job  should  injure 
morals  and  religion.  They  all  speak  of  angels.  Neverthe 
less,  they  differ  from  cacli  other  in  many  other  matters 
Eliphaz  is  superior  to  the  others  in  discernment  and  in  deli- 
cacy. He  begins  by  addressing  Job  mildly,  and  it  is  not 
until  irritated  by  contradiction,  that  he  reckons  him  amontr 
the  wicked. — Bildad,  less  discerning  and  less  polished, 
breaks  out  at  first  in  accusations  ag-ainst  Job,  and  increases 
in  vehemence:  in  the  end,  however,  he  is  reduced  to  a  meie 
repetition  of  his  former  arguments. — Zophar  is  inferior  to 
his  companions  in  both  these  respects ;  at  first,  his  discourfie 
is  characterized  by  rusticity ;  his  second  address  adds  but 
little  to  the  first;  and  in  the  third  dialogue  he  has  no  reply 
to  make. — Elihu  manifests  a  degree  of  veneration  for  Job 
and  his  friends,  but  speaks  like  an  inflated  youlii,  wishing 
to  conceal  his  self-sufficiency  under  the  ajipearance  of  mo  ■ 
desty. — God  is  introduced  in  all  his  majesty,  speaking  from 
a  tenipestuous  cloud  in  the  style  of  one,  willi  whose  honour 
it  is  not  consistent  to  render  an  account  of  his  government 
and  to  settle  the  agitated  question,  which  is  above  the  read 
of  human  intellect.  He,  therefore,  merely  silences  the  dis 
putants.  The  feelings  of  the  interlocuters,  as  is  natural,  be 
come  warm  in  tlie  progress  of  the  controversy,  and  each 
speaker  returns  to  tne  stage,  with  an  increased  degree  of 
eagerness  and  impetuosity.* 

Vlil.  At  the  end  of  the  Septuagint  version  of  this  book 
after  the  account  of  Job's  death  (xlii.  10.),  there  is  the  foi 
lowing  addition  :  Tr)gu.TT*4  it,  t^a/v  avtTurtrd-tj  at/rcv,  yuiS-'  « 
i  Kug/:{  tviTnTiv. — "  But  it  is  written  that  he  shall  rise  again 
along  irith  those  wham  the  Ijord  raiseth  up.'^  Where  it  wa$ 
so  written  concerning  Job,  is  not  easily  to  be  found,  unless 
in  his  own  cclebrateu  confession,  /  know  that  mt/  HenECMF.n 
liveth,  &c.  (xix.  25—27.)  The  remark,  however,  is  so  fai 
of  importance  as  it  proves  the  popular  belief  of  the  doctrine 
l/ifore  the  coming  ot  Christ, — a  belief,  to  which  this  inesti- 
mable book,  w«>  may  rest  assured,  contributed  not  a  little.' 
To  this  additional  passage  there  is  also  annexed  in  the  Sep- 
tuagint version  a  subscription  or  appendix,  containing  a 
brief  genealogical  account  of  the  patriarch,  derived  from  an 
old  Syriac  version,*  and  identifying  him  with  Jobab,  king 

«  Srotl'M  Prpfarc  to  Jnl). 

»  Prof  TuriuT'ii  tranNliitinn  of  Jalin'H  Inlroiliictlon,  p.  ifyi. 

•  Dr.  IInli'g'8  AnnlyHiH  of  CliriMiology,  vnl.  ii.  luM)k  I.  p.  ll»2. 

»  ThlH  KiitifirHplion  \h  nlso  found  in  llii-  Arnl)ic  version,  wlicro  it  is  leM 
rlrcunisl.-inllHl,  and  in  lln!  old  I.alin  Viilciilc  irniiKlntioii  of  .lul).  Tlie  follow- 
ing vcrHion  jsBivtn  frnm  llie  Sfpliingint  in  ninlinp  Walloii'n  Polynlott,  vol. 
ni.  p.  F<V  :  — "  This  Ir  tranxinlcd  out  of  n  Ixiok  In  Ihc  Syrian  lani;iia>{C  ;  for 
he  dwelt  in  llie  lanO  of  Autitle,  on  the  confinei  of  iJuoia-a  and  Arabia. 


Sect.  L] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  JOB. 


233 


of  the  Edomitea,  and,  CGnseqiiently,  making  him  nearly 
contemporary  witn  Moses.  This  subscription  was  received 
and  credited  by  the  pseudo-Aristeas,  Philo,  and  Polyhistor : 
it  was  also  believed  m  the  time  of  Origen,  and  is  preserved 
by  Theodotion  at  the  end  of  his  version  of  the  book  of  Job. 

This  genealogy  is  received  by  Calmet  and  Herder'  as 
genuine,  out  it  is  manifestly  spurious ;  for  not  only  was  it 
never  extant  in  the  Hebrew  copies,  but,  even  admitting  the 
genealogy  in  question  to  be  prior  to  the  time  of  our  Saviour, 
It  is  too  recent  to  be  admitted  as  evidence  in  a  fact  of  such 
remote  antiquity,  especially  as  it  is  drawn  only  from  conjec- 
ture supported  by  the  slender  resemblance  between  the  two 
names  Job  and  Jobab  :  and  when  we  consider  that  it  is  con- 
tradicted by  the  arguments  already  adduced  to  prove  that 
the  patriarch  lived  so  many  ages  anterior  to  the  great  legis- 
lator of  the  Hebrews,^  as  well  as  by  the  internal  evidence 
derived  from  the  poem  itself  respecting  the  rank  and  condi- 
tion of  Job,  we  cannot  doubt  for  a  moment  that  the  subscrip- 
tion is  both  erroneous  and  spurious. 

IX.  Although  the  preceding  view  of  the  scope  and  argu- 
ment will  convey  to  the  reader  an  accurate  idea  of  this  very 
ancient,  but  in  many  passages  confessedly  obscure  poem ; 
yet  the  following  rules  contain  so  many  useful  hints  for  the 
right  understanding  of  its  contents,  that,  long  as  this  section 
necessarily  is,  the  author  is  unwilling  to  omit  them.^ 

RULES   TO    BE    OBSERVED    IN   STUDVING   THE    BOOK   OF   JOB. 

1.  He  that  would  rightly  explain  this  book  must,  as  much  as 
he  can,  imagine  himself  in  the  same  afflicted  condition. 

2.  Every  daring  thought,  or  ardent  expression,  which  occurs 
in  the  speeches  of  this  afflicted  and  exasperated  man,  is  not  to 
be  vindicated  ;  yet,  as  he  was  a  great  man,  and  a  prince,  he  may 
be  allowed  to  use  bold  and  animated  language. 

3.  We  shall  certainly  judge  amiss,  if  we  think  every  thing 
wrong  which  will  not  suit  with  the  politeness  of  our  manners. 
Allowance  must  be  made  for  the  simplicity  of  those  times. 

4.  In  judging  of  Job's  character,  we  must  set  the  noble  strains 
of  his  piety  against  the.  unguarded  expressions  of  his  sorrow. 

5.  It  is  not  his  innocence,  strictly  speaking,  which  Job  insists 
on,  but  his  sincerity,  (chap.  vii.  20,  21.) 

6.  Except  their  hard  censures  of  Job,  his  friends  speak  well 
and  religiously. 

7.  His  friends  encouraged  Job  to  hope  for  a  temporal  deliver- 
ance (chap.  V.  18,  &c.  vii.  20,  &c.  xi.  14,  &c.) ;  but  Job  de- 
spaired of  it,  and  expected  his  bodily  disorder  would  terminate 
in  death  (chap.  vi.  11,  12.;  vii.  6,  7,8.  21.;  xvii.  1.  13,  14,  15.; 
xix.  10.);  though,  in  the  increasing  heat  of  the  dispute,  they 
seem  to  drop  this  sentiment  in  their  following  answers,  as  if 
they  supposed  Job  to  be  too  bad  to  hope  for  any  favour  from 
God.  He  hoped,  however,  that  his  character  would  be  cleared 
in  the  day  of  judgment;  though  he  was  greatly  concerned  that 
it  could  not  be  cleared  before  ;  that,  after  a  life  led  in  the  most 
conspicuous  virtues,  his  reputation,  in  the  opinion  of  his  nearest 
friends,  would  sit  under  a  black  cloud,  and,  with  regard  to  the 
ignorant  and  profane,  leave  an  odious  reproach  upon  a  profession 
of  religion.  This  touched  him  to  the  heart,  exasperated  all  his 
sufferings,  and  made  him  often  wish,  that  God  would  bring  him 
to  his  trial  here  in  this  life,  that  his  integrity  might  be  vindicated, 
and  that  all,  friends  and  enemies,  might  understand  the  true  end 
or  design  of  God  in  his  sufferings,  and  the  honour  of  religion 
might  be  secured,  (chap.  x.  2,  3.)  It  is  good  unto  thee,  that 
thou  shouhlst — shine  vpon  the  counsel  of  tl^e  tvicked?  who 
from  my  case  take  occasion  to  reproach  and  vilify  true  religion, 
and  to  confirm  themselves  in  their  wicked  and  idolatrous  prac- 
tices, (chap.  viii.  20—22.;  xi.  17—20.;  xvi.  9—11.) 


and  having  married  an  Arabian  woman,  he  had 
Now  he  himself  was  the  son  of 


His  first  name  was  Jobab 
by  her  a  son  whose  name  was  Ennon. 

Zave,  one  of  the  sons  of  Esau  :  so  that  he  was  the  titth  in  descent  from 
Abraliam.  Now  these  were  the  kings  who  reigned  in  Edom,  over  wliich 
country  he  also  bare  rule.  The  first  was  Balak  the  son  of  Boor,  and  the 
name  of  his  city  was  Dannaba:  and  after  Balak,  Jobab,  who  is  called  Job  : 
and  after  him,  Ason,  who  was  general  over  the  region  of  Thaemanitis  (Te- 
man) ;  and  after  him,  Adad,  the  son  of  Barad,  who  smote  iVIadiam  in  the 
land  of  Moab :  and  the  name  of  his  city  was  Gethaim.  And  the  friends 
who  came  to  Job  were  Eliphaz  of  the  sons  of  Esau  king  of  the  Tha?ma- 
nites:  Baldad,  the  sovereign  of  tlie  Saucheans  (Shuhites) ;  and  Sophar 
(Zophar),  the  king  of  the  Minains"  (Naainathites). 

»  Calmet's  Dictionary,  vol.  i.  art  Job.  Herder  on  Hebrevy  Poetry  in 
M.  R.  (O.  S.)  vol.  Ixxx.  p.  644. 

a  §111.  pp.  228,229.  supra. 

»  These  rules  are  extracted  from  Dr.  John  Taylor's  Scheme  of  Scripture 
Divinity,  chap,  xxiii.  in  Bishop  Watson's  Collection  of  Theological  Tracts, 
vol.  i.  pp.  97,  98.  Dr.  Taylor  of  Norwich  was  an  eminent  divine  of  the  last 
century  ;  who  was  distinguished  for  his  command  of  temper,  benevolent 
feeling,  and  deep  accjuaintance  with  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  Scriptures. 
His  Scheme  of  Divinity,  it  is  deeply  to  be  regretted,  was  Arian,  and,  there- 
fore, cannot  be  recommended  to  students,  indiscriminately. 


8.  He  could  only  affirm  his  integrity,  but  could  give  no  special 
satisfactory  reason  why  God  should  afflict  him  in  a  manner  so 
very  extraordinary,  and  beyond  all  preceding  cases  that  were 
ever  known  in  the  world.  This  very  much  perplexed  and  em- 
barrassed his  mind,  and  laid  him  under  a  great  disadvantage  in 
the  dispute.  And  for  one  thing,  it  is  on  this  account  that  he  is 
so  earnest  to  come  to  a  conference  with  God,  to  know  his  mind 
and  meaning  (chap.  x.  2.)  ;  Shoio  me  ivherefore  thou  contend- 
est  -with  me?^  He  knew  very  well  he  could  not  absolutely 
justify  himself  before  God.  (chap.  ix.  2 — 17.)  For  he  breaks 
me  -with  a  tempest,  he  midtiplieth  my  luoimds  ivithout  a  cause, 
or  without  any  apparent  reason,  (chap.  vii.  12.  20.)  The  whole 
twenty-third  chapter  relates  to  this  point ;  in  which  he  wishes 
he  could  come  to  the  dwelling-place  of  God  (ver.  3.),  and  spread 
his  case  before  him,  and  argue  about  it  at  large  (ver.  4.),  for  he 
had  turned  his  thoughts  every  way,  and  could  make  nothing  of 
it  (ver.  8,  9.),  only  he  was  sure  God  knew  he  was  an  upright 
man.  (ver.  10 — 12.)  But  (ver.  13.)  he  is  in  07ie  inNj,  or  in 
unity,  supreme  above  all  others,  absolutely  entire,  keeping  hia 
mind  and  designs  to  himself}  and  none  can  turn,  or  oblige  him 
to  alter  his  resolution.  All  that  we  can  say  is,  that  he  doth 
whatever  is  agreeable  to  his  own  wisdom.  For  (ver.  14.)  what 
he  hath  resolved  to  infflct  npon  me  he  hath  accomplished;  and 
many  such  things  he  doth,  of  which  he  will  not  give  us  the 
reason.  To  the  same  purpose  understand  chap,  xxvii.  2 — 4.  14. 
and  chap,  xxviii.  2.  He  hath  taken  aivay  my  judgment,  i.  e. 
the  rule  by  which  I  might  judge  of  the  reason  of  my  afflictions. 
This  point,  in  reference  to  God,  Elihu  tells  him  (chap,  xxxiii. 
13.)  he  had  urged  to  no  purpose,  seeiiig  he  gives  no  account 
of  his  matters,  or  will  not  reveal  to  us  the  secrets  of  his  provi- 
dence. 

9.  In  such  a  noble  performance,  if  any  thing  seems  to  be  said 
not  in  consistency,  or  not  in  chtyacter,  we  should  rather  suspect 
our  own  judgment  than  the  good  sense  of  the  author.  Thefaxdt 
is  not  in  the  book,  but  in  our  understanding. 

10.  That  sense  which  best  agrees  with  the  subject,  or  the  point 
in  hand,  or  which  stands  in  the  best  connection  with  the  context, 
should  always  be  judged  the  best  sense. 

X.  Nothing,  perhaps,  has  contributed  more  to  render  the 
poem  of  Job  obscure,  than  the  common  division  into  chapters 
and  verses  j  by  which,  not  only  the  unity  of  the  general  sub- 
ject, but  frequently  that  of  a  single  paragraph  or  clause,  is 
broken.  The  commentators,  critics,  and  analysts,  indeed,  are 
not  agreed  as  to  the  exact  number  of  parts  of  which  it  con- 
sists :  thus  Heidegger  and  the  elder  Carpzov  institute  two 
leading  divisions,  with  a  multitude  of  subdivisions;  Van 
Til  divides  it  into  four  leading  parts,  Moldenhawer  into  three, 
and  Mr.  Noyes  into  two,*  with  a  number  of  subordinate 
heads  ;  Dr.  Good  divides  it  into  six  books  or  parts ;  and  Dr 
Hales  into  five  parts,  independently  of  the  exordium  and  con< 
elusion :  but  as  these  are  requisite  to  the  unity  of  the  book, 
it  does  not  appear  that  they  should  be  excluded  from  the  ar« 
rangement.  The  poem,  then,  may  be  conveniently  divided 
into  six  parts :  the  first  of  these  contains  the  exorditim  or 
narrative  part  (ch.  i,  ii.)  ;  the  second  comprises  ih.e  first  de- 
bate or  dialogue  of  Job  and  his  friends  (iii. — xiv.)  ;  the  third 
includes  the  secowrf  series  of  debate  or  controversy  (xv. — xxi.) ; 
the  fourth  comprehends  the  third  series  of  controversy  (xxii. 

*  See  Bishop  Patrick's  Paraphrase  on  Job  x.  2—8. 

'  The  following  Synopsis  exhibits  the  divisions,  and  subdivisions,  adopted 
by  Mr.  Noyes  in  his  "Amended  Version  of  the  Book  of  Job :"  (Cambridge, 
North  Am.  1S27.)— 
I.  Historical  Introduction  in  Prose.  Ch.  I.  M. 
II.  Controversy  in  Verse.  Ch.  III. — XLII.  7. 

The  Speech  of  Job,  in  which  he  curses  his  birth-day,  is  succeeded  by 
I.  The  first  series  of  Controversy.  Ch.  IV.— XlV, 

1.  Speech  of  Eliphaz.  Ch.  IV.  V. 

2.  Answer  of  Job.  Ch.  VI.  VII. 

3.  Speech  of  Bildad.  Ch.  VHI. 
-..  Answer  of  Job.  Ch.  IX.  X. 

5.  Speech  of  Zophar.  Ch.  XI. 

6.  Answer  of  Job.  Ch.  XII.  XIII.  XIV. 

n.  Second  series  of  Controversy.  Ch.  XV. — XXI. 

1.  Speech  of  Eliphaz.  Ch.  XV. 

2.  Answer  of  Job.  Ch.  XVI.  XVII. 

3.  .Speech  of  Bildad.  Ch.  X\1U. 

4.  Answer  of  .Tob.  Ch.  XIX. 

5.  Speech  of  Zophar.  Ch.  XX. 

6.  Answer  of  Job.   Ch.  XXI. 

HI.  Third  series  of  Controversy.  Ch.  XXII— XXXI. 

1.  Speech  of  Eliphaz.  Ch.  XXII. 

2.  Answer  of  Job.  Ch.  XJtlll.  XXIV. 

3.  Speech  of  Bildad.  Ch*KXV. 

4.  Answer  of  Job.  Ch.  XXVI.— XXXI. 

IV.  The  Judgment  of  Elihu  respecting  the  Discussion.    Ch.  XXXIL. 

—XXXVII. 
V.  iTie  Speech  of  the  Deity,  which  terminates  the  Discussion.   Ch. 
XXXVIII —XLII.  7. 
III.  The  Conclusion,  in  Prose.  Ch.  XLII.  7.  to  the  end. 


23(5 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  V.  Chap,  m 


— xxxi.)  ;  in  the  fifth  part  EUhu  sums  up  the  argument  (xxxii. 
— xxxvii.),  and  in  the  sixth  part  Jehovah  determines  the  con- 
troversy; Job  humbles  himself,  is  accepted,  and  restored  to 
health  and  prosperity,  (xxxiii. — xlii.) 

Part  I.    The  Exordium,  containing  the  Narration  of  JuVs 

Circumstances  and  Trials  (eh.  i.  ii.)  wkich  is  written  in 

prose. 

Sect.  1.  The  situation  and  circumstances  of  Job.  (i.  1 — 6.) 

Sect.  2.  The /est  trial  of  Job  by  Satan,  with  divine  permis- 
sion, in  the  loss  of  his  property  and  children ;  the  integrity 
of  Job  declared,   (i.  7 — 22.) 

Sect.  3.  The  second  trial  of  Job  by  Satan,  in  the  severe  af- 
fliction of  his  person  (ii.  1 — 10.),  and  the  visit  of  his  friends 
to  console  him. 
Part  IL   The  first  Dialogue  or  Controversy  between  Job  and 

his  friends,  (iii. — xiv.) 

Sect.  1.  The  complaint  of  Job  on  his  calamitous  situation, 
which  is  the  ground-work  of  the  following  arguments,  (iii.) 

Sect.  2.  The  speech  of  Eliphaz,  in  which  he  reproves  the 
impatience  of  Job,  and  insinuates  that  his  sufferings  were 
the  punishment  of  some  secret  iniquity,   (iv.  v.) 

Sect.  3.  Job's  reply,  in  which  he  apologizes  for  the  intempe- 
rance of  his  grief  by  the  magnitude  of  his  calamities^^rays 
for  speedy  death,  accuses  his  friends  of  cruelty,  and  expos- 
tulates with  God,  whose  mercy  he  supplicates,   (vi.  vii.) 

Sect.  4.  The  argument  of  Elipliaz  resumed  by  Bildad,  who 
reproves  Job  with  still  greater  acrimony,  and  accuses  him  of 
irreligion  and  impiety,  (viii.) 

Skct.  5.  Job's  rejoinder,  in  which,  while  he  acknowledges  the 
justice  and  sovereignty  of  God,  he  argues  that  his  afflictions 
are  no  proof  of  his  wickedness,  and  in  despair  again  wishes 
for  deatli.  (ix.  x.)     This  passionate  reply  calls  forth. 

Sect.  6.   Zophar,  who  prosecutes   the  argument   begun  b}' 
EHphaz,  and  continued  by  Bildad,  with  still  greater  severity  ;  i 
and  exhorts  him  to  repentance,  as  the  only  means  by  which 
to  recover  his  former  prosperity,  (xi.) 

Sect.  7.  The  answer  of  Job,  who  retorts  on  his  friends,  cen- 
suring their  ])retensions  to  superior  knowledge,  and  charging 
them  with  false  and  partial  pleading  against  him,  and  ap- 
peals to  God,  professing  his  hope  in  a  future  resurrection, 
(xii. — xiv.)  • 

•'art  III.   The  second  Dialogue  or  Controversy  (xv. — xxi.)  ; 

in  which  we  have, 

Sect.  1.  The  argument  renewed,  nearly  in  the  same  manner 
as  it  had  been  commenced  by  Eliphaz,  who  accuses  Job  of 
impiety  in  justifying  himself,  (xv.) 

Sect.  2.  Job's  reply,  who  complains  of  the  increasing  un- 
kindness  of  his  friends,  protests  his  innocency,  and  looks 
to  death  as  his  lajst  resource,   (xvi.  xvii.) 

Sect.  3.  Bildad,  going  over  his  former  line  of  argument,  with 
increased  asperity,  applies  it  to  Job,  whose  aggravated  suf- 
ferings, he  urges,  are  justly  inllicted  upon  him.  (xviii.) 

Sect.  4.  Job's  appeal  to  the  sympathy  of  his  friends,  and 
from  them  to  God  :  professing  his  faith  in  a  future  resur- 
rection, he  cautions  his  friends  to  cease  from  their  invec- 
tives, lest  God  should  chastise  them,   (xix.) 

Sect.  5.  Job's  appeal  is  retorted  upon  himself  by  Zophar 
(xx.)  ;  to  whom  the  patriarch  replies  by  discussing  at  large 
the  conduct  of  Divine  Providence,  in  order  to  evince  the 
fallacy  of  Zophar's  argument  of  the  short-hved  triumph  of 
the  wicked,   (xxi.) 

Part  IV.   Tlie  third  Debate  or  Controversy  (xxii. — xxxi.)  ;  in 

ivluch. 

Sect.  1.  Eliphaz  resumes  the  charge,  representing  Job's  vin- 
dication and  appeal  as  displeasing  to  God  :  contends  that 
certain  and  utter  ruin  is  the  uniform  lot  of  the  wicked,  as 
was  evinced  in  the  destruction  of  the  old  world  by  the  dc- 
'  luge  ;  nnd  roncludcs  with  renewed  exhortation  to  repent- 
ance and  prayer,   (xxii.) 

Skit.  2.  In  reply.  Job  ardently  desires  to  plead  his  cause  be- 
fore God,  whose  onmiprescnce  he  drlitieates  in  the  sublim- 
cst  language,  urging  that  his  sufli-ritigH  were  designed  as 
trials  of  his  faith  and  integrity  ;  and  he  shows  in  various 
instances  that  the  wicked  freciuently  cucppe  punishment  in 
this  life,  (xxiii.  xxiv.) 


C(iue 


Sect.  .3.  The  rejoinder  of  Bildan,  who  rej)eat.4  his  former  pro- 
position, that,  since  no  man  is  without  sin  in  the  siglit 
of  God,  conseiiuently  Job  cannot  be  justified  in  hiu  night. 
Cxxv.) 


Sect.  4.  The  answer  of  Job,  who,  having  reproved  the  harsh 
conduct  of  Bildad,  re-vindicates  his  own  conduct  with  great 
warmth  and  animation,  and  takes  a  retrospect  of  his  for- 
mer character  in  the  relative  situations  of  life,  as  a  husband, 
as  a  master,  and  as  a  magistrate :  and  concludes  by  repeat- 
ing his  ardent  wish  for  an  immediate  trial  with  his  calum- 
niator before  the  tribunal  of  God.  (xxvi — xxxi.) 

Part  V.  Contains  the  summing  up  of  the  whole  argtt 
ment  by  EUhu ;  who,  having  condemned  the  conduct  of  alt 
the  disputants,  whose  reasonings  were  not  calculated  to  pro- 
duce conviction  (xxxii.),  proceeds  to  contest  several  of  Job's 
positions,  and  to  show  that  God  frequently  afflicts  tlie  chil- 
dren of  men  for  the  best  of  purposes,  and  that  in  every  in- 
stance our  duty  is  submission.  He  concludes  with  a  grana 
description  of  the  omnipotence  of  the  Creator,  (xxxiii. — 
xxxvii.) 

Part  Vl.  The  Termination  of  the  Cotitroversy,  and  the  Re- 
storation of  Job  to  his  fornw  Prosperity  (xxxviii. — xlii.)  ; 
containing. 

Sect.  1.  The  appearance  of  Jehovah  to  pronounce  judg- 
ment ;  who  addrcr^ses  Job,  out  of  a  whirlwind,  in  a  most 
sublime  and  magnificent  speech,  the  substance  of  which  is 
nearly  a  counterpart  to  that  of  Elihu.  In  it  arc  illustrated 
the  omn^otence  of  God,  and  man's  utter  ignorance  of  his 
ways,  and  works  of  creation  and  providence,  (xxxvii. — xli.) 

Sect.  2.  The  submission  of  Job,  which  is  accepted,  his  re- 
storation to  his  former  prosperity,  and  the  increase  of  his 
substance  to  double,  (xlii.  1 — 10.) 

Sect.  3.  A  more  particular  account  of  Job's  restoration  and 
prosperity.  (xHi.  11 — 17.)' 

XI.  Independently  of  the  important  instruction  and  bene- 
fit which  may  be  derived  from  a  devout  perusal  of  the  book 
nf  Job,  this  divine  poem  is  of  no  small  value,  as  transmit- 
ting to  us  a  faithful  delineation  of  the  patfiarchal  doctrines 
of  religion ;  that  confirms  and  illustrates  the  notices  of  that 
religioii  contained  in  the  book  of  Genesis,  an  outline  of  which 
has  been  given  in  the  first  volume.^  On  this  account,  we 
trust,  the  reader  will  not  be  reluctantly  detained,  if  we  take 
a  brief  retrospect  of  the  patriarchal  creed, — more  especially 
as  some  very  learned  men  have  denied  that  it  contained  any 
reference  either  to  fallen  angelic  spirits,  or  to  a  future  resur- 
rection of  the  body  from  the  grave,  and  consequently  to  a 
future  state  of  existence. 

The  two  grand  articles  of  patriarchal  faith,  from  the  earli- 
est days,  according  to  Saint  Paul  (Heb.  xi.  G.),  were,  1. 
That  there  is  a  God,  and,  2.  That  he  is  a  rewardtr  of  them 
that  diligently  seek  him.  These  articles  are  particularly  con- 
tained in  Job's  declaration, 

I  know  that  my  Redeemer  livcth, 

And  ttiat  he  shall  stand  at  ttie  laUer  day  upon  the  earth. 

But  there  are  several  other  important  points  of  doctrine 
either  directly  stated,  or  which  may  be  legitimately  inferred 
from  diflerent  parts  of  this  book ;  they  may  be  reduced  to 
the  following  nine  articles : — 

1.  The  creation  of  the  -world  by  one  supreme,  omnipresent, 
and  eternal  lieitiff,  of  boundless  wisdom,  irresistible  power,  in- 
describable glory,  indexible  justice,  and  inlimtc  goodness.  This 
first  great  principle  of  what  is  usually  called  natural  religion,  is 
laid  down  throughout  the  whole  book  as  an  incontestal)le  truth ; 
but  it  is  particul^irly  illustrated  in  the  speech  of  Jehovah  him- 
self in  Job  xxxvii. — xli. 

2.  Tlie  government  of  the  -world  by  the  perpetual  and  svper- 
inteiiding  providence  of  God.  This  article  of  the  patriarchal 
creed  is  particularly  noticed  in  Job  i.  !).  21. ;  ii.  10. ;  v.  8 — 27. ; 
ix,  4 — 13.;  and  in  almost  every  other  chapter  of  the  book :  in 
every  instance,  tliis  doctrine  is  proposed,  not  as  a  matter  of  nice 
speculation,  but  as  laying  mankind  under  the  most  powerful 
obligations  to  lear  and  serve,  to  submit  to  and  trust  in  their 
CreaU)r,  Loni,  and  lUder. 

3.  That  tlie  providential  government  of  the  .filmighly  is 
carried  on  by  the  ministration  of  a  heavenly  hierarchy  (i.  6, 
7.;  iv.  18,  19.;  v.  1.;  xxxiii.  22,  23.),  which  is  composed  of 

1  Pr.  Ilnlps  is  of  opinion  tliat  the  last  six  verses  of  this  chapter,  11—17. 
(wliirh  parliciiliiri/.e  Itii^  iiirreHm?  of  .lull's  fuinily,  the  names  (ifhlM  iluiigh- 
li-id,  who,  iiccordiiig  lo  primilive  ii.s.ijjr  wori;  nimle  eolii'ircsficN  \silh  llicir 
hrolhtTB,  louether  wllh  Iho  nnmbei  uf  years  (UiriiiR  whicli  lie  survived  his 
IrJHl),  fnrrii  nn  appendix;  which  WB«  |ii(ihnlily  add^'il  in  liiirr  limes  from 
iradition,  eilher  l.y  Moses,  who  resided  so  Ioiik  in  I'is  n'iKhlioiirhood,  or 
by  Samuel,  or  by  Ihe  person  (whoever  lie  wn»)  Hint  Inlroduoed  the  book 
Into  the  Hncred  canon.     Aiialytiis  of  ("hronology,  vol.  ii.  book  i.  p.  ItJl. 

»  Heo  Vol.  I.  Chap.  V.  Sect.  1.  5  1.  pp.  112,  lia. 


Sect.  II.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  PSALMS. 


237 


various  ranks  and  orders,  possessing  different  names,  dignities, 
and  offices.' 

4.  An  apostacy  or  defection  in  some  rank  or  order  of  these 
powers  (iv.  18.;  xv.  15.)  ;  of  which  Satan  seems  to  have  been 
one,  and  perhaps  chief,  (i.  6 — 12. ;  ii.  3 — 7.) 

6.  The  good  and  evil  powers  or  principles,  equally  formed 
by  the  Creator,  and  hence  equally  denominated  "  Sons  of  God ;" 
both  of  them  employed  by  him  in  the  administration  of  his  Pro- 
vidence :  and  both  amenable  to  him  at  stated  courts,  held  for  the 
purpose  of  receiving  an  account  of  their  respective  missions.^ 
(i.6,  7.;  ii.  1.) 

6.  That  Zabianism,  or  the  idolatrotis  -worship  of  the  stars, 
tvas  a  judicial  offence,  cognizable  by  the  pelilim  or  judges ; 
who  were  arbitrators,  consisting  of  the  heads  of  tribes  or  fami- 
lies, appointed  by  common  consent  to  tiy  offences  against  the 
community,  and  to  award  summary  justice.^  Such  was  the 
case  of  the  Trans-jordanite  tribes,  who  were  suspected  of  apos- 
tacy, and  were  threatened  with  extirpation  by  the  heads  of  the 
ten  tribes  on  the  western  side  of  Jordan.  (Josh,  xxii,  1 6 — 22.)'' 

7.  Original  sin,  or  "  that  corruption  of  the  nafure  of  every 
man  that  naturally  is  engendered  of  the  offspring  of  Adain."^ 
"  It  is  certain,"  as  Bishop  Burnet  has  well  remarked,  "  that  in 
Scripture  this  general  corruption  of  our  nature  is  often  men- 
tioned :"°  and  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  this  article  of  doc- 
trine, however  repugnant  to  the  pride  of  man,  should  be  omitted 
in  the  book  of  Job.  Accordingly  we  find  it  expressly  asserted 
in  chap.  xiv.  4. ;  xv.  14 — 16.  and  xxxv.  3. 

8.  The  propitiation  of  the  Creator  in  the  case  of  human 
transgressions  by  sacrifices  (i.  5. ;  xlii.  8.),  and  the  mediation 
a7id  intercession  of  a  righteous  person,  (xlii.  8,  9.)  In  his  in- 
tercession for  his  friends.  Job  is  generally  regarded  as  a  type  of 
Him  "  who  ever  liveth  to  make  intercession"  for  transgressors. 
If  any  evidence  were  wanting  to  prove  sacrifices  of  divine  insti- 
tution, the  declaration  in  xlii.  8.  alone  would  be  sufficient.' 

9.  That  there  will  be  a  day  of  future  resurrection  (xiv. 
7 — 11.  with  verses  12 — 15,  of  the  same  chapter),  judgment 
(xix.  25 — 29.),  and  retribution  to  all  manldnd.  (xxvii,  8. ;  xxxi, 
13,  14.) 

The  passage,  in  which  Job  expresses  his  firm  faith  in  a 
Redeemer  (xix.  25 — 29.),  has  been  greatly  contested  amoncr 
critics ;  some  of  whom  refer  it  simply  to  his  deliverance 
from  his  temporal  distresses,  maintaining  that  it  has  no  allu- 
sion whatever  to  a  future  state ;  while  others  understand  it 
in  the  contrary  sense,  and  consider  it  a  noble  confession  of 
faith  in  the  Redeemer.  The  latter  opiniun  has  been  ab!}^  ad- 
vocated by  PfeifFer,  the  elder  .Schultens,  Michaeiis,  Velthu- 
sen,  RosenmiiUer,  Dr.  Good,  and  the  Rev.  Drs.  Hales  and 
J.  P.  Smith,  and  is  now  glherally  received.  The  following 
is  Dr.  Hales's  version  of  this  sublime  passage  of  Job : — 

I  know  that  my  Repeemer  [is]  living, 

And  that  at  the  last  [day] 

Ho  will  .Trise  [171  judgment]  upon  dust  [mankind]. 

And  after  my  skin  be  mangled  thus, 

Yet  ever  from  my  flesh  shall  I  see  God : 

Whom  I  shall  see  for  me  [cmny  side], 

And  mine  eyes  shall  bcliolrt  him  not  estranged; 

[Though]  my  reins  be  [now]  consumed  within  me. 

But  ye  should  say,  "  Why  persecute  we  him  [further]V' 

Since  the  strength  of  the  ai-giiment  is  found  in  me, 
Fear  ye  for  yourselves,  from  the  face  of  the  sword; 
For  [divine]  wrath  [punisheth]  iniquities  [with]  Ihe  sword; 
That  ye  may  know  there  is  a  judgment.' 

'  As  obedim,  servants;  malackiin,  angels;  melizim,  Sntercpssars ;  me- 
mitim,  destinies  or  destroyers  ;  alep,  the  miliad  or  thousand  ;  kcdosim, 
SANCTi,  the  heavenly  saints  or  hosts  generally.  Good's  Introd.  Diss,  to  his 
Version  of  Job,  p.  Ixv.  See  ch.  iv.  18.  x.K.viii.  22,  23.  v.  1.  xv.  15.  of  his 
translation,  compared  with  p.  Ixxiv.  of  his  Dissertation,  and  his  notes  on 
the  passages  cited. 

a  Ibid.  p.  ixv. 

3  Job  xxxi.  26 — 28.    Dr.  Hales,  to  whose  researches  we  are  indebted  for 
(he  sixth  article  of  the  patriarchal  creed,  translates  the  28th  verse  thuS : — 
Even  this  would  be  d,  judicial  crime, 
For  I  should  have  lied  unto  God  above. 
Dr.  Hales's  Analysis,  vol.  ii.  book  i.  pp.  105,  10(5. 
Article  ix.  of  the  Confession  of  the  Anglican  Church. 

«  Burnett  on  Art.  ix.  p.  139.  Having  cited  several  passages  at  length,  he 
thus  concludes :  "  These,  with  many  other  places  of  Scripture  to  the  same 
purpose,  when  they  are  joined  to  the  universal  experience  of  all  mankind 
concerning  the  corruption  of  our  whole  race,  lead  us  tc  settle  this  point, 
that  in  fact  it  has  overrun  ourwliole  kind,  the  contagion  is  spread  over  all." 

■•  Archbp.  Magee  has  collected  all  the  evidence  on  this  important  sub- 
iect  with  great  ability.  Discourses  on  the  Atonement,  vol.  ii.  part  i.  pp. 
25^6. 

8  Dr.  Hales's  Analysis,  vol.  ii.  pp.  83—86.  For  the  very  elaborate  notes 
with  which  he  has  supported  and  vindicated  his  translation,  we  must 
refer  the  reader  to  his  work.  Other  illustrations  of  this  passage  may  be 
seen  in  Pfeiffer's  Dubia  Ve.xata  Scripturaj,  Centuria  III.  No.  39.  (Op. 
tom.  i.  pp.  1G9— 272.) ;  and  Dr.  Smith's  Scripture  Testimony  to  the  Messiah, 
vol.  i.  pp.  199—211.  In  Dr.  A.  Clarke's  Commentary,  there  is  a  good  illus- 
tration of  Job  xix.  25—29. 


Nor  was  the  morality  of  Job  less  excellent  than  his  theo- 
logy.     He  thus  expresses  his  undeviating  obedience  to  the 
laws  of  God,  and  his  delight  therein  : — 
xxiii.  11.  My  foot  hath  held  his  steps, 

His  way  have  I  kept  and  not  declined  : 
12.  Neither  have  I  gone  back  from  the  commandment  of  His  lips, 
I  have  esteemed  the  words  of  His  mouth, 
More  than  my  necesseury/ood. 

From  this  and  other  passages.  Dr.  Hales  with  great  pro- 
bability thinks  it  evident,  that  there  was  some  collection  of 
certain  precepts,  or  rules  of  religion  and  morality,  in  use 
among  the  patriarchs  ; — such  were  the  precepts  of  the  Noa- 
chidae  or  sons  of  Noah  :  and  there  is  great  reason  to  believe, 
that  the  substance  at  least  of  the  decalogue,  given  at  Sinai 
was  of  primitive  institution.  Compare  Gen.  ix.  I — 6.  How 
well  the  venerable  patriarch  observed  the  duties  of  morality, 
will  be  manifest  to  every  one  who  will  take  the  trouble  of 
perusing  chap,  xxix.  11 — 17.  and  xxxi.  6 — 22. 

There  is  a  remarkable  reference  in  the  book  of  Job  to  the 
former  destruction  of  the  world  by  water,  and  to  its  final 
dissolution  by  fire  ;  which  was  prophesied  by  Enoch  before 
the  deluge,  whence  it  must  have  been  known  to  Noah ;  and 
no  doubt  transmitted  by  him  to  his  family ;  and  so  might  be 
communicated  to  Job  and  his  friends.  It  occurs  in  the  last 
speech  of  Eliphaz,  the  most  intelligent  of  the  three. 

xxii.  15.  Dost  [not]  Ihou  keep  the  old  leay, 
Which  wicked  men  have  trodden  1 

16.  Who  were  cut  off,  before  their  time, 
Thejlood  overtlirew  their  foundation  : 

17.  Who  said  unto  God,  "  Depart  from  tis:" 
And,  "  What  can  the  Almighty  do  for  us?" 

18.  Yet  he  filleth  their  houses  with  good, 

Though  the  counsel  of  tlie  wicked  was  far  from  Him. 
*  19.  The  righteous  saw,  and  were  glad, 

And  the  innocent  [Noah]  derided  them  : 
20.  "  Is  not  their  substance  cut  down  7 

And  the  fire  shall  consume  the  remnant  of  them  .'" 

As  if  Noah  had  said.  Though  this  judgment  by  watt-r, 
however  universal,  may^  not  so  thoroughly  purge  the  eartl;, 
as  that  iniquity  shall  not  spring  up  again,  and  wicked  men 
abound  :  yet  know  that  a  final  judgment  by  fire  will  utterly 
consume  the  remnant  of  such  siimers  as  shall  then  be  found 
alive,  along  with  the  earth  itself." 


SECTION  II. 

ON  THE  BOOK  OF  PSALMS. 

I.  General  title  of  this  book. — II.  Structure  of  the  Psalms. — 
III.  Their  canonical  authority. — IV.  Authors  to  whom  they 
are  ascribed. — 1.  JVIoses. — 2.  David. — 3,  Asaph. — 4,    The 

sons    of  Korah. — 5.  Jeduthvn. — 6.  Heman    and   Ethan 

7.  Solomon. — 8.  Anonymous  psalms. — V.  Chronological  ar- 
rangement  of  the  Psalms  by  Calmet. — VI.  Collection  of  the 
Psalms  into  a  volume. — VII.  The  inscnptions  or  titles  pre- 
fixed  to  the  different  psalms. — VIII.  Probable  meaning  of 
the   word   Selah. — IX.  Scope    of    the    book    of  Psalms. — 

X.  Rules  for  better  understanding  them XI,  A  table  of 

the  psalms  classed  according  to  their  several  subjects, 

I.  This  book  is  entitled  in  the  Hebrew  n^Sinn  idd  (sePHCR 
TeHiL/iM),that  is  the^BooA-  of  Hymns  or  Praises ,-  because  the 
greater  part  of  them  treat  of  the  praises  of  God,  while  the 
remainder  consist  either  of  the  complaints  of  an  afllicted  soul, 
or  of  penitential  effusions,  or  of  the  prayers  of  a  heart  over- 
whelmed with  grief.  In  the  Roman  edition  of  the  Sep- 
tuagint  Version  printed  in  1587,  which  professes  to  follow 
the  Vatican  manuscript,  this  book  is  simply  denominated 
TAAMOI,  the  Psa/ws;  and  in  the  Alexandrian  manuscript, 
preserved  in  the  British  Museum,  it  is  entitled  ^aathpton 
MET'  HAAiS,  the  Psaller  with  Odes  or  Hymns.'c    The  Syriac 

9  Dr.  Hales's  Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  ii.  book  i.  pp.  Ill,  112. 
'0  These  Odes  or  Hymns,  which  are  thirteen  in  number,  are  printed  in 
Dr.  Grabo's  edition  of  the  Septuagint :  they  are  thus  entitled : — 

1.  The  Ode  of  Moses  in  Exodus,  (ch.  xv.  v.  1.  et  seijg.) 

2.  The  Ode  of  Moses  in  Deuteronomy,   (ch.  xxxil.  v.  1.  segq.) 

3.  The  Prayer  of  Hannah  the  Mother  of  Samuel.  (1  Sam.  ch.  ii.  v.  1.  segg.) 

4.  The  Prayer  of  Isaiah  (in  the  margin,  of  Hezekiah).   Isa.  ch.  xxvi. 

V.  9.  seqq. 

5.  ThePrayer  of  Jonah.   (Jon.  ch.  ii.  v.  3.  sej7.) 

6.  The  Prayer  of  Habakkuk  (Sept.  Ambakoum).  Hab.  ch.  iii.  v.  2.  segq. 

7.  The  Prayer  of  Hezekiah.  (Isa.  ch.  xxxviii.  v.  10.  seqq.) 

8.  The  Prayer  of  Manasseh.   (2  Chron.  ch.  xxxiii.  according  to  some 
copies,  but  one  of  the  apocryphal  pieces  in  our  Bibles.) 

9.  The  Prayer  of  Azariah.   (Dan.  ch.  iii.  v.  26.  segg.) 

10.  The  Hymn  of  our  Fathers.  (Dan.  ch.  iii.  v.  52.  seqg.) 

11.  The  Prayer  of  Mary,  the  Mother  of  God.  (Luke  ch.  i.  v.  46.  segq.) 

12.  The  Prayer  of  Simeon.  (I,uke  ch.  ii.  v.  29.  seqq.) 

13.  A  Mornmg  Hymn,  the  first  part  of  which  nearly  corresponds  with  the 
sublime  hymn  in  the  post-communion  service  of  the  church  of  England, 


23S 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  V,  Chap.  III. 


Version,  in  Bishop  Walton's  Polyglott,  denominates  it  the 
JBcKik  of  Fsiilms  of  David,  the  King  and  Prophet ,-  and  the 
Arabic  Version  commences  with  the  first  Book  of  Psalms  of 
David  the  Prophet,  King  of  the  Sons  of  Israel. 

II.  August!,  De  Wette,  and  some  other  German  critics, 
have  termed  the  Book  of  Psalms  the  Hebrew  Anthology, 
that  is,  a  collection  of  the  lyric,  moral,  historical,  and  elegiac 
poetry  of  the  Hebrews.  This  book  presents  every  possible 
variety  of  Hebrew  poetry.  All  the  Psalms,  indeed,  niay  be 
termed  poems  of  the  lyric  kind,  that  is,  adapted  to  music,  but 
with  great  variety  in  the  style  of  composition.  Thus  some 
are  simply  odes.  "An  ode  is  a  dignified  sort  of  song,  nar- 
rative of  the  facts,  either  of  public  history,  or  of  private  life, 
in  a  highly  adorned  and  figured  style.  But  the  figure  in  the 
Psalms  is  that,  which  is  peculiar  to  the  Hebrew  language,  in 
M-hich  the  figure  gives  its  meaning  with  as  much  perspicuity 
as  the  plainest  speech."'  Others,  again,  are  ethic  or  didactic, 
"  delivering  grave  maxims  of  life,  or  the  precepts  of  religion, 
in  solemn,'^but  for  the  most  part  simple,  strains."  To  this 
class  we  may  refer  the  hundred  and  nineteenth,  and  the  other 
alphabetical  psalms,  which  are  so  called  because  the  initial 
letters  of  each  line  or  stanza  follow  the  order  of  the  alnliabet.'-* 
Nearly  one-seventh  part  of  the  Psalms  is  composed  of  elegiac, 
or  pathetic  compositions  on  mournful  subjects.  Some  are 
enigmatic,  AeVi'eiwg  the  doctrines  of  religion  in  enigmata, 
sentences  contrived  to  strike  the  iinagination  forcibly,  and  yet 
easy  to  be  understood ;  while  a  few  may  be  referred  to  the 
class  of  idyls,  or  short  pastoral  poems.  I3ut  the  greater  part, 
accordinor  to  Bishop  Horsley,  is  a  sort  of  dramatic  ode,  con- 
sisting of  dialotrues  between  certain  persons  sustaining  certain 
characters.     "In  these  dialojjue-psalms  the  persons  are  fre- 

3|uently  the  psalmi.^t  himself,  or  the  chorus  of  priests  and 
jpvites,  or  the  hader  of  the  Levitical  band,  opening  the  ode 
with  a  proem  declarative  of  the  subject,  and  very  often  closing 
the  whole  with  a  solemn  admonition  drawn  from  what  the 
otlier  persons  say.  Tlie  other  persons  are,  Jehovah,  some- 
times as  one,  sometimes  as  another  of  the  three  persons; 
Christ  in  his  incarnate  state,  sometimes  before,  sometimes 
after  his  resurrection ;  the  human  soul  of  Christ,  as  distin- 
guished from  the  divine  essence.  Christ,  in  his  incarnate 
state,  is  personated  sometimes,  as  a  priest,  sometimes  as  a 
king,  sometimes  as  a  conqueror;  and  in  those  psalms  in 
which  he  is  introduced  as  a  conqueror,  the  resemblance  is 
very  remarkable  between  this  conqueror  in  the  book  of 
Phaims,  and  the  warrior  on  the  white  horse  in  the  book  of 
Jtevelations,  who  goes  forth  with  a  crown  on  his  head  and  a 
bow  in  his  hand,  conquering  and  to  conquer.  And  the  con- 
quest in  the  Psalms  is  followed,  like  the  conquest  in  the  Re- 
velations, by  the  marriage  of  the  conqueror.  These  are  cir- 
cumstances of  similitude,  which,  to  any  one  versed  in  the 
prophetic  style,  prove  beyond  a  doubt  that  the  mystical  con- 
queror is  the  same  personage  in  both."'' 

III.  The  rijrht  of  the  book  of  Psalms  to  a  place  in  the 
sacred  canon  has  never  been  disputed  :  they  are  frequently 
alluded  to  in  the  Old  Testament,  and  are  often  cited  bv  our 
Lord  and  his  apostles  as  the  work  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  They 
are  generally  termed  the  Psalms  of  David,  that  Hebrew 
monarch  being  their  chief  author.     Origen,  (/'hrysostom,  Au- 

frustine,  Ambrose,  Euthymius,^  and  others  ot  the  ancient 
athers,  indeed,  were  of  opinion  that  hi;  was  their  sole  author  : 
but  they  were  opposed  by  Hilary  and  Atlianasius^  (or  the 
author  of  the  synopsis  attributed  to  him),  Jerome,  Eusebius, 
and  other  fathers  of  equal  eminence.  And  indeed  this  notion 
i<i  manifestly  erroneous;  for  an  attentive  examination  of  the 
Psalms  will  immediately  prove  them  to  be  the  compositions 
of  various  authors,  in  various  ages,  some  much  more  ancient 
than  ^e  time  of  David,  some  of  a  much  later  age ;  and 
others  were  evidently  composed  during  the  liabylonish  cap- 
tivity. Some  modern  commentators  have  even  r  ferred  a  few 
to  the  time  of  the  Maccabees :  but  for  this  o|)inion,  as  we 
bliall  show  in  a  subsequent  page,''  there  does  not  apjiear  to 

»  nighop  IIorBley's  IrnnsUlion  of  Ihfi  PsiIidh,  vdl.  i.  p.  xv. 

*  Thf  Mlphabetical  p.saliiis  arc  jtxv.  xxxiv.  xxxvii.  cxl.  cxii.  cxix.  and 
cxlv.  f)n  ilie  i)cc"uliar  sirnrluri;  of  llic  Hebrew  alphabetical  poems,  see 
Vol.  I    Part  I!.  Cliap.  I!    »  V|.  l.gupra. 

»  llistiiip  llorHli-y'H  PKaliiiB,  vol.  i.  p.  xvi. 

*  ChryitoHtoiii  m  Psal.  I.  AtnbroH.  Pr.'rfat.  In  P.xnl.  I.  Aiieuslin  ile 
Civilale  Del,  lib.  xvil.  c.  II.  Theotloret,  Pr.X'f.  In  P.snl.  (.'a.sHloilorii.s, 
ProlpK.  In  Piial.  Emliyinlus,  Pra-f.  in  Psal.  Pliilasiriuii,  Ilxros.  129.  Iluel. 
Uoiii.  Kv.  torn.  i.  prf)i).  Iv.  p.  330. 

>  |{ilarli  PruIcK.  In  Psul.  et  comment.  In  P.ial.  rxxxi.  AthansHli 
SyiiopsLs.  IIIiTonyiiil  Episi.  ad  i^onhroiiiuin.  Kusfbil  Ciesariensis  Pra-f. 
ill  P.saliiioii,  i)p.  7,  8.  et  in  Inprrip.  Psal.  p.  Vi.  ct  in  Piial.  xll.  Ix.  Ixil.  (;al- 
met,  Prxf.  Ui.nerale  sur  Ick  Pdcaumca.  (Com.  torn.  Iv.  pp.  v.  vl.)  IIucl, 
Ut  utipra. 

*  aee  p.  210.  infra. 


be  any  foundation.     Altogether  they  embrace  a  period  of  about 
nine  hundred  years. 

The  earliest  composer  of  sacred  hymns  unquestionably 
was  Moses  (Exod.  xv.) ;  the  next  who  are  mentioned  in  the 
Scriptures,  are  Deborah  (Judg.  v.)  and  Hannah  (1  Sam.  ii  ): 
but  It  was  David  himself,  an  admirable  composer  and  per- 
former in  music  (1  Sam.  xvi.  18.  Amos  vi.  5.),  who  gave  n 
regular  and  noble  form  to  the  musical  part  of  the  Jewish 
service,  and  carried  divine  poetry  and  psalmody  to  perfec- 
tion;  and  therefore  he  is  called  the  sweet  psalmist  of  Israel. 
(2  Sam.  xxiii.  1.)  He,  doubtless  by  divine  authority,  ap- 
l)ointed  the  sinoring  of  psalms  by  a  select  company  of  skil- 
ful persons,  in  the  solemn  worship  of  the  tabernacle  (1  Chron. 
vi.  31.  xvi.  4 — 8.);'  which  Solomon  continued  in  the  first 
temple  (2  Chron.  v.  12,  13.),  and  it  was  re-established  by 
Ezra,  as  soon  as  the  foundation  of  the  second  temple  was 
laid.  (Ezra  iii.  10,  11.)  Hence  the  Jews  became  well  ac- 
ciuainted  with  these  songs  of  Sion ;  and,  havinor  committed 
tliem  to  memory,  were  celebrated  for  their  melodious  singing 
among  the  neighbouring  countries.  (Psal.  cxxxvii.  3.)  The 
continuance  dj'  this  branch  of  divine  worship  is  confirmed 
by  the  practice  of  our  Lord,  and  the  instructions  of  St.  Paul 
(Matt.  xxvi.  30.  I\Iark  xiv.  26.  Eph.  v.  VJ.  Col.  iii.  IG. 
compared  with  Rev.  v.  9.  xiv.  1,  2,  3.)  ;  and  the  practice  of 
divine  psalmody  has  subsisted  through  every  succeeding  age 
to  our  own  time,  not  more  to  the  delight  than  to  tire  edifica- 
tion of  the  church  of  Christ.  "There  are,  indeed,  at  this 
time"  ([to  use  the  words  of  a  sensible  writer),^  "very  few 
professing  Christians  who  do  not  adopt  these  sacred  hymns 
in  their  public  and  private  devotions,  either  by  reading  them, 
composing  them  as  anthems,  or  singing  poetical  translations, 
and  imitations  of  them.  In  this  particular  there  ever  has 
existed,  and  there  still  exists,  a  wonderful  communion  of 
saints.     The  language,  in  which   Moses,  and   David,  and 


for  similar  mercies,  and  mourn  under  similar  trials;  they  are 
looking  for  the  same  blessed  hope  of  their  calling,  even  ever- 
lasting life  and  salvation,  through  the  prevailing  intercession 
of  the  Messiah.  The  ancient  believers,  indeed,  worshipped 
him  as  about  to  appear;  we  adore  him  as  having  actually 
appeared,  and  put  away  sin  by  the  sacrifice  of  himself.  They 
saw,  as  through  a  glass,  darkly  :  but  we  face  to  face." 

IV.  The  Jewish  writers  ascribe  the  book  of  Psalms  to  ten 
difl'erent  authors,^  viz.  Adam,  to  whom  they  ascribe  the 
ninety-second  psalm;  Melchizedec ;  Abraham,  whom  they 
call  Ethan,  antl  give  to  him  the  eighty-ninth  psalm  ;  Moses, 
Asaph,  Heman,  Jeduthun,  and  tli#three  sons  of  Korah  :  and 
they  make  David  to  be  merely  the  collector  of  them  into  one 
volume  or  book.  But  this  opinion  is  evidently  fabulous:  for, 
1.  The  ninety-second  psalm,  which  is  ascribed  to  Adam,  ap- 
pears from  Its  internal  structure  and  style  to  be  of  a  later 
date,  though  no  author  is  mentioned  in  its  title  or  inscrip- 
tion :  besides,  if  Adam  had  left  any  sacred  odes,  it  is  more 
than  probable  that  some  notice  would  have  been  taken  of 
them  in  the  book  of  Genesis,  which,  however,  is  totally 
silent  concerning  any  such  compo.sitions.  2.  That  the  hun- 
dred and  tenth  i)aalm,  which  is  attributed  to  Melchizedec, 
was  certainly  written  by  David,  is  (?viilcnt,  not  only  from  the 
title,  which  claims  him  for  its  author,  bvU  also  froni  its  style 
and  maniHT,  which  correspond  with  the  acknowledged  pro- 
durtions  of  the  royal  proiihet;  and  especially  from  the  testi- 
mony of  Jesus  Christ  and  his  apostle  Peter.  (Matt.  xxii.  4! 
— 15.  Mark  xii.  3t).  Luke  xx.  12.  Acts  ii.  31.)  And,  3.  It 
is  most  certain  that  David  was  the  author  of  very  many 
psalms,  not  merely  of  those  which  have  his  name  in  their 
respective  titles,  but  likewi.se  of  several  others,  to  which  his 
name  is  not  prefixed,  especially  of  psalms  ii.  and  xcv.,  as 
we  are  assured  by  the  inspired  apostles.  (.\cts  iv.  25,  20. 
Heb.  iv.  7.)  To  make  David,  therefore,  merely  the  collector 
and  editor  of  those  divine  compositions,  is  afike  contradic- 
tory to  the  clearest  evidence,  derived  from  the  book  of  Psalms 
itself,  and  from  the  testimony  of  the  inspired  writers  of  the 
New  Testament,  as  well  as  contrary  to  tiie  whole  current  of 
anliijuily. 

A  careful  investigation  of  these  divine  odes  will  enable 

1  On  ths  dulijecl  nf  Jewish  psniniody,  there  Is  niuchcurlovis  information 
colleclcd  in  "'flu- Tcinplf  Music;  or,  an  r.s8ay  roncerniiig  tln"  Melliod 
of  Hingine  llie  P^alm.H  of  Daviil  In  the  Ti-niplc,  before  tlic  llnbylonliib 
Captivity.     Uy  Artliiir  itcilfoni.     I.onilon,  l/UO."  8vo. 

•  The  editor  of  ilio  4io.  Uible  of  lUlO,  with  ihe  notei  of  several  of  tht 
venerable  rcfonnersi. 

•  FranciscI  Junii  Prolog,  ad  Librum  Psalraorum,  f  2. 


Sect.  II.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  PSALMS. 


239 


ns  to  form  a  better  opinion  concerning  their  respective  au- 
thors, whom  the  modern  Jews,  and  all  modem  commentators, 
understand  to  be  Moses,  David,  Solomon,  Asaph,  Heman, 
Ethan,  Jeduthun,  and  the  three  sons  of  Korah.  Other  authors 
have  been  conjectured  by  some  eminent  critics,  whose  hypo- 
theses will  presently  be  noticed. 

1.  To  Moses  the  Talmudical  writers  ascribe  ten  psalms, 
viz.  from  xc.  to  xcix.  inclusive.  The  nineteenth  psalm,  in 
the  Hebrew  manuscripts,  is  inscribed  with  his  name ;  and 
from  its  general  coincidence  in  style  and  manner  with  his 
sacred  hymns  in  Exod.  xv.  and  Deut.  xxxii.  it  is  generally 
considered  as  the  composition  of  the  great  lawgiver  of  the 
Jews.  But  Dr.  Kennicott  and  other  critics  think  that  it  was 
written  in  a  later  age,  and  consequently  cannot  be  of  that 
date  which  the  title  imports :  because  in  the  time  of  Moses 
most  of  the  persons  mentioned  in  Scripture  lived  to  an  age 
far  exceeding  the  standard  of  threescore  years  and  ten  or  four- 
score, which  m  the  ninetieth  psalm  is  assigned  as  the  limit 
of  human  life.  But  this  "  opmion  seems  founded  on  the  ex- 
ceptions from  the  general  rule,  rather  than  on  the  rule  itself. 
The  life  of  Aaron,  Moses,  Joshua,  and  Caleb,  unquestionably 
exceeded  the  age  of  fourscore  considerably,  and  ran  on  from 
a  hundred  and  ten  to  a  hundred  and  twenty ;  but  all  these 
were  probably  instances  of  special  favour.  The  decree 
which  abbreviated  the  life  of  man,  as  a  general  rule,  to 
seventy  or  eighty  3rears,  was  given  as  a  chastisement  upon 
the  whole  race  of  Israelites  in  the  wilderness ;  and,  with 
these  few  exceptions,  none  of  them  at  the  date  of  this  psalm 
could  have  reached  more  than  seventy,  and  few  of  them  so 
high  a  number.  But  it  does  not  appear  that  the  term  of  life 
was  lengthened  afterwards.  Samuel  died  about  seventy 
years  old,  David  under  seventy-one,  and  Solomon  under 
sixty ;  and  the  history  of  the  world  shows  us  that  the  ab- 
breviation of  life  in  other  countries  was  nearly  in  the  same 
proportion."'  The  other  nine  psalms,  xci.  to  xcix.,  are  attri- 
Duted  to  Moses  by  the  Jews,  by  virtue  of  a  canon  of  criticism 
which  they  have  established,  namely,  that  all  anonymous 
psalms  are  to  be  referred  to  that  author  whose  name  occurred 
in  the  title  last  preceding  them.^  But  for  this  rule  no  foun- 
dation whatever  exists :  it  is  certain  that  the  ninety-ninth 
psalm  could  nxit  have  been  written  by  Moses,  for  in  the  sixth 
verse  mention  is  made  of  the  prophet  Samuel,  who  was  not 
born  till  two  hundred  and  ninety-hve  or  six  years  after  the 
death  of  Moses. 

2.  The  name  of  David  is  prefixed  to  seventy-one  psalms 
in  the  Hebrew  copies,  to  which  the  Septuagint  version  adds 
eleven  others :  but  it  is  evident,  from  the  style  and  subject- 
matter  of  the  latter,  that  many  of  them  cannot  be  the  compo- 
sition of  David,  particularly  the  hundred  and  second,  which 
is  in  no  rcsiTett  whatever  applicable  to  him,  but  from  its  subject- 
matter  must  be  referred  to  some  pious  Jew  who  composed  it 
after  the  return  from  the  Babylonish  captivity,  while  the 
temple  was  in  ruins,  and  the  country  in  a  state  of  desolation. 
The  hundred  and  thirty-eighth  psalm,  also,  though  attributed 
in  the  Septuagint  to  David,  could  not  have  been  written  by 
him,  for  reference  is  made  in  it  to  the  temple,  which  was  not 
erected  till  after  his  death  by  Solomon.  On  the  contrary, 
some  of  the  psalms  thus  ascribed  to  David  in  the  Septuagint 
version  are  unquestionably  his,  as  well  as  some  which  are 
anonymous :  of  the  former  class  is  the  ninety-fifth,  and  of 
the  latter  the  second  psalm,  both  of  which  are  cited  as 
David's  psalms  by  the  inspired  writers  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament. Compare  Acts  iv.  25 — 28.  xiii.  33.  Heb.  iii.  7 — II. 
iv.  7—13. 

Many  of  the  psalms,  which  bear  the  royal  prophet's  name, 
were  composed  on  occasion  of  remarkable  circumstances  in 
his  life,  his  dangers,  his  afflictions,  his  deliverances.  "  But 
of  those  which  relate  to  the  public  history  of  the  natural  Is- 
rael, there  are  few  in  which  the  fortunes  of  the  mystical 
Israel  are  not  adumbrated ;  and  of  those  which  allude  to  the 
life  of  David,  there  are  none  in  which  the  Son  of  David  is 
not  the  principal  and  immediate  subject.  David's  complaints 
against  his  enemies  are  Messiah's  complaints,  first  of  the 
unbelievi-ng  Jews,  then  of  the  heathen  persecutors,  and  of 
the  apostate  faction  in  later  ages.  David's  afflictions  are 
Messiah's  sufferings.  David's  penitential  supplications  are 
Messiah's,  under  the  burden  of  the  imputed  guilt  of  man. 
David's  songs  of  triumph  and  thanksgiving  are  Messiah's 

>  Extract  from  Dr.  Good's  (unpublished)  Version  of  the  Book  of  Psalms, 
in  Professor  Gregory's  Memoirs  of  his  Life,  p.  316. 

»  Tliis  opinion  is  very  ancient :  it  was  adopted  by  Origcn  (Select,  in 
Psahnos,  Opp.  torn.  ii.  p.  574.  edit.  Benedict.),  and  by  Jerome  (Epist.  cxxxix. 
ad  Cyprianum,  p.  388.  edit.  Plantin.),  who  says  it  was  derived  from  a  tra- 
dition recorded  by  lultus,  patriarch  of  the  Jews.  Advers.  Ruffin.  lib.  i- 
«ap.  3.  p.  235.    Rosenniiiller,  Scholia  in  Psalmos,  tom.  i.  p.  zii. 


songs  of  triumph  and  thanksgiving  for  his  victory  over  sin, 
and  death,  and  hell.  In  a  word,  there  is  not  a  page  in  this 
book  of  Psalms,  in  which  the  pious  reader  will  not  find  his 
Saviour,  if  he  reads  with  a  view  of  findino-  him."' 

From  the  variety  of  circumstances  and  situations  in  which 
David  was  placed  at  different  times,  and  the  various  affec- 
tions which  consequently  were  called  into  exercise,  we  may 
readily  conceive  that  his  style  is  exceedingly  various.  The 
remark,  indeed,  is  applicable  to  the  entire  book  of  Psalms, 
but  eminently  so  to  the  odes  of  David.  Hence  it  is  tha^ 
those,  which  are  expressive  of  the  natural  character  and  state 
of  man,  and  of  sin,  seem  to  bear  marks  of  difficulty,  and,  as 
it  were,  disgust  in  their  composition.  "  The  sentences  are 
laboured  and  move  heavily,  and  cannot  be  perused  with  that 
lively  pleasure,  which,  on  the  contrary,  is  received  from  those 
themes  of  the  psalmist  which  place  before  us  the  glorious 
attributes  of  God,  and  express  either  His  love  to  man,  or  the 
believer's  love  to  Him.  These  strains  flow  with  vigorous 
and  well  adapted  expressions,  as  if  the  subject  was  fefttobe 
most  delightful,  entered  on  with  alacrity,  and  pursued  with 
holy  joy."^  Some  of  David's  psalms  possess  great  subli- 
mity, as  the  twenty-fourth;  but  softness,  tenderness,  and 
pathos,  are  their  prevailing  characteristics. 

3.  With  the  name  of  Asaph,  a  very  celebrated  Levite,  and 
chief  of  the  choirs  of  Israel  in  the  time  of  David  (1  Chron. 
xvi.  4,  5.),  twelve  psalms  are  inscribed,  viz.  1.  Ixxiii. — . 
Ixxxiii.  But  the  seventy-fourth  and  seventy-ninth  psalms 
evidently  cannot  be  his,  because  they  deplore  the  overthrow 
of  Jerusalem  and  the  conflagration  of  the  temple,  and  in 
point  of  style  approach  nearest  to  the  Lamentations  of  Jere- 
miah. Either,  therefore,  they  are  erroneously  ascribed  to 
him,  or  were  composed  by  another  Asaph,  who  lived  during 
the  captivity.  The  subjects  of  Asaph's  psalms  are  doctrinal 
or  preceptive :  their  style,  though  less  sweet  than  that  of 
David,  is  much  more  vehement,  and  little  inferior  to  the 
grandest  parts  of  the  prophecies  of  Isaiah  and  Habakkuk. 
The  fiftieth  psalm,  in  particular,  is  characterized  by  such  a 
deep  vein  of^  thought  and  lofty  tone  of  sentiment  as  place 
him  in  the  number  of  poets  of  the  highest  order.  In  Asaph 
the  poet  and  the  philosopher  were  combined.  "  He  was," 
says  Eichhorn,  "one  of  those  ancient  wise  men,  who  felt 
the  insufficiency  of  external  religious  usages,  and  urged  the 
necessity  of  cultivating  virtue  and  purity  of  mind."  It  may 
be  well  said  of  him,  as  of  the  scribe  in  the  New  Testament, 
that  he  was  not  far  from  the  kingdom  of  God.^ 

4.  Ten  psalms,  viz.  xlii. — xlvii.  Ixxxiv.  Ixxxv.  Ixxxvii. 
and  Ixxxviii.  are  inscribed,  '■'■For  the  sons  of  Korah  :"  but 
who  these  persons  were  is  not  altogether  certain ;  and  such 
is  the  uncertainty  of  the  prepositional  prefix,  that  the  most 
eminent  critics  have  not  been  able  to  decide  whether  these 
psalms  were  written  by  them,  or  were  composed  for  them, 
and  to  be  performed  by  them  with  music  in  the  temple. 
Professor  Stuart  thinks  it  probable  that  they  were  the  de- 
scendants of  Korah,  who  perished  in  the  rebellion.  (Num. 
xvi.)  It  is  certain  that  all  his  children  did  not  perish  with 
him  (Num.  xvi.  11.)  :  it  is  certain  also  that  some  of  their  de- 
scendants were  among  those  who  presided  ^sver  the  tabernacle 
music.  (1  Chron.  vi.  22.  37.)  In  1  Chron.  ix.  19.  we  find 
Shallum  a  descendant  of  Korah,  mentioned  as  one  of  the 
overseers  of  the  tabernacle,  and  it  appears  that  he  beionged 
to  a  family  called  Korahites.  These  last  are  mentioned  also 
in  1  Chron.  xxvi.  1.  and  2  Chron.  xx.  19.  as  being  among 
those  engaged  in  sacred  music.  Hence  it  would  appear,  that 
there  were  men  of  eminence  among  the  Korahites  in  the 
time  of  David  and  Solomon ;  and  the  probability  is,  that  the 
psalms  above  enumerated,  which  bear  their  names,  belong  to 
them  as  authors.  In  style  they  differ  very  sensibly  from  the 
compositions  of  David  ;  and  they  are  some  of  the  most  ex- 
quisite of  all  the  Ivric  compositions  which  the  Book  of 
Psalms  contains.  The  title  was,  probably,  affixed  by  some 
editor  of  a  later  age,  who  knew  only  the  general  report  that 
the  psalms  in  question  belonged  to  the  sons  of  Korah,  and 
could  obtain  nothing  certain  as  to  the  individuals  who  were 
their  respective  authors.^ 

5.  By  whom  psalms  xxxix.  Ixii.  and  Ixxvii.  were  com- 

»  Bishop  Ilorsley's  Psalms,  vol.  i.  p.  x. 

«  Memorial  Sketches  of  the  late  Rev.  David  Brown,  p.  93.— a  verv  in- 
structive piece  of  clerical  biography.  Mr.  B.,  to  whom  we  are  indebted 
for  the  above  remark,  was  most  accurately  intimate  with  the  psalms  in 
their  original  Hebrew.  "He  accustomed  himself  to  them,"  says  his 
biographer,  "in  the  original,  as  the  raediuiM|t  his  most  private  and 
earnest  devotions,  whether  of  contrition,  supf^Kion,  or  praise.  In  all 
affliction,  and  in  all  rejoicing,  he  alike  called  upOTGoU  in  the  language  of 
David."  Ibid. 

»  Noyes's  translation  of  the  Psalms,  p.  xiii. 

•  Stuart's  Hebrew  Christomaihy,  p.  206. 


240 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Paht  V.  Chap,  m 


posed,  is  not  now  known :  their  titles  are  inscribed  to  Jedu- 
THUN,  who  was  one  of  the  three  directors  of  music  in  the 
national  worship,  mentioned  in  1  Chron.  xxv.  1. 

6.  To  Heman  the  Ezrahite  is  ascribed  the  eiglity-cipfhth 
psalm;  and  to  Ethan  the  Ezrahite  the  followm;^  psalm. 
They  were  both  probably  descendants  from  Zerah,  who  is 
mentioned  in  1  Chron.  ii.  C. ;  but  at  what  time  they  lived  is 
uncertain.  They  are,  however,  supposed  to  have  nourished 
during  the  Babylonish  captivity. 

7.  It  is  hij^hly  probable  that  many  of  Ihe  psalms  were 
composed  durTng  the  reign  of  Solomon,  who,  we  learn  from 
1  Kino-s  iv.  32.  "wrote  a  thousand  and   five  songs,"  "' 


or 


poems.  ,  •  .    ,         ,  • 

There  are  only  two  psalms,  however,  which  bear  his 
name,  viz.  the  seventy-second  and  the  hundred  and  twenty- 
seventh  psalms.  The  title  of  the  former  may  be  translated 
for  as  well  as  of  Solomon  ;  and,  indeed,  it  is  evident,  from 
considering  its  style  and  subject-matter,  that  it  could  not 
have  been  composed  by  him.  But,  as  he  was  inaugurated 
just  before  David's  death,  it  was  in  all  probability,  one  of 
David's  latest  odes.  The  hundred  and  twenty-seventh  psalin 
is  most  likely  Solomon's,  composed  at  the  time  of  his  nuj)- 
tials :  it  strongly  and  beautifully  expresses  a  sense  of  depen- 
dence upon  Jehovah  for  every  blessing,  especialW  a  nume- 
rous ofl'spring,  which  we  know  was  an  object  of  the  most 
ardent  desire^to  the  Israelites. 

8.  Besides  the  preceding,  there  are  upwards  of  thirty 
psalms  which  in  the  Hebrew  Bibles  are  altogether  Anony- 
mous, although  the  Septuagint  version  gives  names  to  some 
of  them,  chitTfly,  ii  should  seem,  upon  conjecture,  for  w'hich 
tliere  is  little  or  no  foundation.  Thus  the  Alexandrian  Greek 
translators  ascribe  the  hundred  and  thirty-seventh  psalm  to 
Jeremiah,  who  could  not  have  written  it,  for  he  died  before 
the  return  of  the  Jews  from  the  Babylonish  captivity,  which 
Joyous  event  is  most  pleasingly  commemorated  in  thai  ode. 
In  like  manner,  the  hundred  una  forty-sixth  and  hundred  and 
forty-seventh  psalms  are  attributed  by  them  to  the  prophets 
Haf<rai  and  Zcchariah,  for  no  other  reason,  it  should  seem, 
tivan"becduse  psalm  cxlvi.  7 — 10.  treats  of  the  deliverance 
of  the  captives  and  those  who  were  oppressed,  and  cxlvii. 
of  the  restoration  of  the  Jewish  church.  Psalms  ii.  and  xcv. 
however,  as  we  have  already  remarked,'  though  anonymous, 
are  ascribed  by  the  inspired  apostles  to  David.  Some  mo- 
dern critics  have  imagined,  that  there  are  a  few  of  the  un- 
titled psalms  which  were  composed  so  lately  as  the  time  of 
the  Maccabees.  Thus  Rudinger  assigns  to  that  period  psalms 
i.  xliv.  xlvi.  xiix.  and  cviii. ;  Herman  Vonder  Hardt,  psalm 
cxix. ;  and  Venema,  psalms  Ixxxv.  xciii.  and  cviii.^^  This  late 
date,  however,  is  impossible,  the  canon  of  the  Old  Testament 
Scriptures  being  closed  by  Ezra,  nearly  three  centuries  be- 
fore the  time  of  the  Maccabees.  But  "  whether  David,  or 
any  other  prophet,  was  employed  as  the  instrument  of  com- 
municating to  the  church  such  or  such  a  particular  psalm  is 
a  question"  which,  if  it  cannot  always  be  satisfactorily  an- 
swered, needs  not  disiiuiet  our  minds.  When  we  discern, 
in  an  epistle,  the  well-lcnown  hand  of  a  friend,  we  are  not 
solicitous  about  the  pen  with  which  it  was  written. "^ 

V.  The  following  ('hronological  Arrangement  of  the 
Psalrns,  after  a  careful  and  judicious  examination,  has  been 
adopted  by  Calmet,'  who  has  further  sjiecified  the  probable 
occasions  on  which  tliey  were  composed  : — 

1.  I'saltna  iif  widch  the  Dale  is  uncertain.  These  are  eight 
in  number ;  viz. 

Psal.  i.  This  is  a  preface  to  the  whole  book,  and  is  by  some 
ascribed  to  David,  by  others  to  Ezra,  wlio  is  supposed  to 
have  collected  the  pwalms  into  a  volume. 

P«al.  iv.  Tlie  cxpreKsions  of  a  devout  person  amid  the  cor- 
rupt manners  of  the  age.     An  evenuin  prayer. 

PhuI.  viii.  The  prerogatives  of  man  :  and  the  glory  of  Jesus 
Christ. 

Psal.  xix.  A  Iwautiful  eulogy  on  the  law  of  God.  A  psalm 
of  praise  to  the  Creator,  arisinR  from  a  consideration  of 
his  works,  as  displayed  in  the  creation,  in  the  heavens,  an\l 
in  the  stars. 

•  Bcc  p.  230.  mpra. 

»  Ro»<;niiirill<  r,  Scholia  In  Psalmoi,  Prolcgom.  c.  2.  pp.  xl.— xix.  lie 
•/^loplK  the  mit<'n:il)lo  hypothcilR  of  RmlinKPr. 

>  lll!iliop  iioniR'MfJHiinirntary  on  the  Hsaliaa,  vol.  I.  Prcf.  p.  v. 

«  Cuiiiiiicnliiirc  «^BbI,  i<>ni.  iv.  np.  Ixil.— Ixvl.     An  Bomc  of  t!-'  V  ■■'•?■?,• 
In  the  Viilif.itr  I,.in^^r.ii()ii,  whirh  was  iiscil  by  Cnliin-t,  nrt-  ■: 
niimliortd  m  a  iliir.Tinl  iii:iiiiicr  froiri  tli.il  In  wliiL-li  llioy  np,' 
!:''!.'.<,  wc  havrj  adapted  lite  rcfvreiices  (o  the  psalios  to  Ihe  aultiurucd 
Eii^li.-iU  vcrsiou. 


Psal.  Ixxxi.  This  psalm,  which  is  attributed  to  Asaph,  was 
sung  in  the  temple,  at  the  feast  of  trumpets,  held  in  the 
beginning  of  the  civil  year  of  the  Jews,  and  also  at  the 
feast  of  t;ibernacles. 

Psal.  xri.  This  moral  psalm,  though  assigned  to  ^^oses,  was 
in  all  probability  composed  during  or  after  the  captivity.    It 
treats  on  the  happiness  of  tliose  who  place  their  whole  con 
fidence  in  God. 

Psal.  ex.  The   advent,  kingdom,  and  generation  of  the  Mes 
siah  ;  composed  by  Dr.vid. 

Psal.  c^xxi.x.  A  psalm  of  praise  to  God  for  his  all-seemg 
providence  and  infinite  wisdom. 

2.  Psalms  composed  by  David  during  the  Persecution  of 
Saul.    These  are  seventeen  ;  namely, 

Psal.  xi.  David,  being  entreated  by  his  friends  to  withdraw 

from  the  court  of  tSaul,  professes  his  confidence  in  God. 
Psal.  xxxi.  David,  proscribed  by  Saul,  is  forced  to  withdraw 

from  his  court. 
Psal.  xxxiv.  Composed  by  David,  when,  at  the  court  of  Achish 

king  of  Gath,  he  counterfeited  madness,  and  was  permitted 

to  depart. 
Psal.  hi.  Composed  in  the  cave  of  Adullam,  after  David's 

escape  from  Achi.sh. 
Psal.  xvi.    David  persecuted  by  Saul,  and  obliged    to  take 

refuge  among  the  Mdabites  and  Philistines. 
Psal.  liv.  David  pursued  by  Saul  in  the  desert  of  Ziph,  whence 

Saul  was  obliged  to  withdraw   and   repel  the   Philistines, 

David's  thanksgiving  for  his  deliverance. 
Psal.  lii.  Composed  by  David  after  Saul  had  sacked  the  city 

of  Nob,  and  put  the  priests  and  all  their  families  to  the 

sword. 
Psal.  cix.    Composed  during  Saul's  unjust   persecution   of 

David.    The  person,  against  whom  this  psalm  was  directed, 

was  most  probably  Doeg.    Bishop  Horsley  considers  it  as  a 

prophetic  malediction  against  the  Jewish  nation. 
Psal.  xvii.  A  prayer  of  David  during  Saul's  bitterest  perse- 
cution of  him. 
Psal.  xxii.  David,  persecuted  by  Saul,  personates  the  Messiah, 

persecuted  and  put  to  death  by  the  Jews. 
Psal.  x\ XV.  Composed  about  the  same  time,  and  under  th< 

same  persecution. 
Psal.  Ivii.  David,  in  the  cave  of  En-gedi,  implores  divine  pro 

tection,  in  sure  prospect  of  which   he  breaks  forth  into 

grateful  praise.  (1  Sam.  xxiv.  I.) 
Psal.  Iviii.  A  continuation  of  the  .same  subject.      Complaints 

against  Saul's  wicked  counsellors. 
Psal.  cxiii.  David  in  the  cave  of  En-gedi. 
Psal.  cxl.cxli.  David,  under  severe  persecution,  implores  hcli 

of  God. 
Psal.  vii.  David  violently  persecuted  by  Saul. 

3.  Psalms  composed  by  David  at  the  beginning  of  his  Reign 
and  after  the  Death  of  Saul.  Of  this  class  there  are  six 
teen ;  viz. 

Psal.  ii.  Written  by  David,  after  he  had  fixed  the  scat  of  his 
government  at  Jerusalem,  notwithstanding  the  malignant 
opposition  of  his  enemies.  It  is  a  most  noble  prediction  of 
the  kingdom  of  the  Messiah. 

Psal.  Ixviii.  Composed  on  occasion  of  conducting  the  ark 
from  Kirjalh-jearim  to  Jerusalem. 

Psal  ix.  and  xxiv.  Sung  by  David  on  the  removal  of  the  ark 
from  the  house  of  Ol)cdedom  to  Mount  Sion. 

Psal.  ci.  David  describes  the  manner  in  which  he  guided  his 
j)eople  in  justice  and  e<piity. 

Psal.  xxix.  A  solemn  thanksgiving  for  the  rain  that  fell  oftei 
David  had  avenged  the  Gibeonites  on  the  house  of  Saul, 
by  whom  they  had  been  unjustly  persecuted.  2  Sam.  xxi. 
et  seq, 

Psal.  XX.  Composed  by  David  when  he  wa-s  on  the  point  of 
marching  nguinst  the  .Ammonites  and  Syrians  who  had 
leagued  together  ngniust  him.  2  Sam.  x. 

Psal.  xxi.  A  continuation  of  the  preceding  subject  David's 
thankitgiving  for  his  victory  over  the  Ammoniti's. 

Psal.  vi.  xxxviii.  and  xxxix.  Composed  by  David  during  sick- 
ness; nltlunigh  no  notice  is  taken  of  tiiis  sicknes.s  in  the 
history  of  Ihivid,  yet  it  is  the  opinion  of  almost  every  com- 
mentator that  these  p.salms  refer  to  some  dangerous  illness 
from  which  his  recovery  was  long  doubtful. 

Psal.  xl.  A  psalm  of  thanksgiving  for  his  recovery  froTi  sick 
ness. 


Sect.  II.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  PSALMS. 


241 


Psal.  li.  xxxii.  and  xxxiii.  were  all  composed  by  David  after 
Nathan  had  convinced  him  of  his  sin  with  Bathsheba.' 

4.  Psalms  during  the  Rtbellion  of  Absalom.  This  class 
comprises  eight  Psalms. 

Psal.  iii.  iv.  Iv.  Composed  when  David  was  driven  from  Jeru- 
salem by  Absalom. 

Psal.  Ixii.  David  professes  his  trust  in  God  during  the  unnatu- 
ral persecution  of  his  son. 

Psal.  Ixx.  Ixxi.  A  prayer  of  David  when  pursued  by  Absalom. 

Psal.  cxliii.  Written  during  the  war  with  Absalom. 

Psal.  cxUv.  A  thanksgiving  for  his  victories  over  Absalom, 
Sheba,  and  other  rebels.    2  Sam.  xviii.  20. 

5.  The  Psalms  written  between  the  Death  of  Absalom  and 
tKe  Captivity  are  ten  in  number ;  viz. 

Psal.  xviii.  David's  solemn  thanksgiving  for  all  the  blessings 

he  had  received  from  God.     Compare  2  Sam.  xxii. 
Psal.  XXX.  Composed  on  occasion  of  dedicating  the  altar  on 

the  threshing-floor  of  Araunah.     2  Sam.  xxiv.  25. 
Psal.  xlv.    Composed  on  the   marriage  of   Solomon  with  a 

king's  daughter.     It  is  throughout  prophetical  of  the  victo- 
rious Messiah. 
Psal.  Ixxviii.  Composed  on  occasion  of  Asa's  victory  over  the 

forces  of  the  king  of  Israel.     See  2  Chron.  xvi.  4.  6. 
Psal.  Ixxxii.  Instructions  given  to  the  judges,  during  the  reign 

of  Jehoshaphat  king  of  Judah.     See  2  Chron.  xix.  5,  6. 
Psal.  Ixxxiii.  A  triumphal  ode,  composed  on  occasion  of  Je- 

hoshaphat's   victory  over   the  Ammonites,   Moabites,  and 
0      other  enemies.     See  2  Chron.  xx.  1.  et  seq. 

Psal.  Ixxvi.  Composed  after  the  destruction  of  Sennacherib's 

army.     See  2  Chron.  xxxii. 
Psal.  Ixxiv.  and  Ixxix.     A  lamentation  for  the  desolation  of 

the  temple  of  Jerusalem :  it  was  most  probably  composed 

at  the  beginning  of  the  captivity. 

6.  Psalms  composed  during  the  Captivity ,-  the  authors  of 
which  are  unknown.  Calmet  ascribes  them  chiefly  to  the 
descendants  of  Asaph  and  Korah. 

Their  subjects  are  wholly  of  a  mournful  nature,  lamenting 
the  captivity,  imploring  deliverance,  and  complaining  of 
the  oppression  of  the  Babylonians.  These  psalms,  forty  in 
number,  are  as  follow : — x.  xii.  xiv.  xv.  xxv.  xxvi.  xxvii. 
xxviii.  xxxvi.  xxxvii.  xlii.  xliii.  xliv.  xlix.  1.  liii.  Ix.  Ixiv. 
Ixvii.  Ixix.  Ixxiii.  Ixxv.  Ixxvii.  Ixxx.  ixxxiv.  Ixxxvi.  Ixxxviii. 
Ixxxix.  xc.  xcii.  xciii.  xciv.  xcv.  xcix.  cxx.  cxxi.  cxxiii. 
cxxx.  cxxxi.  cxxxii. 

7.  Psalms  composed  after  Cyrus  issued  his  Edict,  allowing 
the  Jews  to  return  from  their  Captivity. 

This  class  consists  of  thanksgiving  odes  for  their  release,  and 
also  on  occasion  of  dedicating  the  walls  of  the  city,  as  well 
as  of  the  second  temple.  They  abound  with  the  most  live- 
ly expressions  of  devotion  and  gratitude,  and  amount  to 
fifty-one ;  viz.  cxxii.  Ixi.  Ixiii.  cxxiv.  xxiii.  Ixxxvii.  Ixxxv. 
jr'vL  xlvii.  xlviii.  xcvi.  to  cxvii.  inclusive,  cxxvi.  cxxxiii.  to 
.jxxxvii.  inclusive,  cxlix  cl.  cxlvi.  cxlvii.  cxlviii.  lix.  Ixv. 
lyvi.  Ixvii.  cxviii.  cxxv.  cxxvii.  cxxviii.  cxxix.  cxxxviii. 

According  to  this  distribution  of  Calmet,  only  forty-five 
of  these  psalms  were  composed  by  David. 

VI.  At  W'hat  time  and  by  whom  the  book  of  Psalms  was 
collected  into  one  volume,  we  have  no  certain  information. 
Many  are  of  opinion  that  David  collected  such  as  were  ex- 
tant in  his  time  into  a  book  for  the  use  of  the  national  wor- 
ship :  this  is  not  unlikely ;  but  it  is  manifest  that  such  a 
collection  could  not  include  all  the  psalms,  because  many  of 
David's  odes  are  scattered  throughout  the  entire  series.  Some 
have  ascribed  the  general  collection  to  the  friends  or  servants 
of  Hezekiah  before  the  captivity  ;  but  this  could  only  apply 
to  the  psalms  then  extant,  for  we  read  that  Hezekiah  caused 
the  words  or  psalms  of  David  to  be  sung  in  the  temple  when 
he  restored  the  worship  of  Jehovah  there  (2  Chron.  xxix.  25 
— €0.) :  the  collection  by  the  men  of  Hezekiah  could  not 
comprise  any  that  were  composed  either  under  or  subsequent 
to  the  captivity.  That  the  psalms  were  collected  together 
at  different  times  and  by  different  persons  is  very  evident  from 
an  examination  of  their  contents.  Accordingly,  in  the  Maso- 
re  tic  copies  (and  also  in  the  Syriac  version)  they  are  divided 
into  five  books ;  viz. 

1.  The  FIRST  BOOK  is  entitled  inN  neo  (sfPHCR  achod)  :  it 
comprises  psalms  i.  to  xli.  and  concludes  thus : — Blessed  be 

»  Dr.  Hales  refers  to  this  period  psalm  ciii.  which  is  a  psalm  of  thanks- 
giving. He  considers  it  as  David's  eucharistical  ode,  after  God  had  par- 
doned his  ereat  sin.    Analysis  of  Clironology,  vol.  il.  pp.  376,  377. 

^'i>L.  II.  3H 


the  Lord  God  of  Israel,  from  everlasting  to  everlasting.  Amen 
and  Amen.  (xli.  13.)  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  the  titles 
of  all  these  psalms  (excepting  i.  ii.2  x.  xxxiii.)  ascribe  them 
to  David  :  hence  it  has  been  supposed  that  this  first  book  of 
psalms  was  collected  by  the  Hebrew  monarch. 

2.  The  SECOND  book  is  termed  ij8»  -\cd  (sepHCR  shcni  )  :  it 
includes  psalms  xlii.  to  Ixxii.  and  ends  with — Blessed  be  the 
Lord  God  of  Israel,  who  only  doeth  wondrous  things.  And 
blessed  be  his  glorious  name  for  ever :  and  let  the  whole  earth  be 
filled  with  his  glory.  Amen  and  Amen.  The  prayers  of  David 
the  son  of  Jesse  are  ended.  (Ixxii.  18 — 20.)  From  this  termi- 
nation of  the  second  book  of  Psalms,  some  have  conjectured 
that  David  also  collected  it,  as  nineteen  out  of  the  thirty-one 
bear  his  name :  but  it  is  more  likely  that  the  concluding 
sentence  of  psalm  Ixxii.  simply  means  the  psalms  of  David 
in  that  book,  because  several  of  his  compositions  are  to  be 
found  in  the  following  books  or  collections. ^  «. 

3.  The  THIRD  BOOK  is  called  W'b^  idd  (sfPHCR  shclishi)  : 
it  comprehends  psalms  Ixxiii.  to  Ixxxix.  which  is  thus  con- 
cluded :  Blessed  be  the  houD  for  evermwe.  Amen  and  Amen. 
(Ixxxix.  52.)  Of  the  seventeen  psalms  included  in  this 
book,  one  only  is  ascribed  to  David ;  one  to  Heman ;  and 
one  to  Ethan  :  three  of  the  others  are  directed  to  the  sons  of 
Korah,  without  specifying  the  author's  name;  and  eleven 
bear  the  name  of  Asaph,  who  has  been  supposed  to  be  the 
collector  of  this  book.  ^^m'  i 

4.  The  FOURTH  BOOK  is  inscribed  ^jjan  nco  (sepHCR  ReB?NGi), 
and  also  contains  seventeen  psalms,  viz.  from  xc.  to  cvi. 
This  book  concludes  with  the  following  doxology :  Blessed 
be  the  Lord  God  of  Israel,  from  everlasting  to  everlasting  .•  and 
let  all  the  people  say.  Amen.  Praise  ye  the  Lord.  (cvi.  48.) 
One  of  these  psalms  is  ascribed  to  Moses,  and  two  have  the 
name  of  David  in  their  title.  The  rest  have  no  authors' 
names,  or  titles  prefixed  to  them.  The  collector  of  this  book 
is  unknown. 

5.  The  FIFTH  and  last  book  is  called  ^B'^dh  idd  (sepHeR 
CHaMiSHi),  and  consists  of  forty-four  psalms,  viz.  from  psalm 
cvii.  to  the  end  of  cl.  It  terminates  the  whole  book  of 
Psalms  thus : — Let  every  thing  that  hath  breath  praise  the 
Lord.  Praise  ye  the  Lord.  (cl.  6.)  Of  these  forty-four 
psalms,  fifteen  are  ascribed  to  David :  the  rest  have  for  the 
most  part  no  titles  at  all,  and  are  anonymous.  This  book  is 
supposed  to  have  been  collected  in  the  time  of  Judas  Mac- 
cabseus,  but  by  whom  it  is  impossible  to  conjecture.'' 

This  division  of  the  Psalms  into  five  books  is  of  great 
antiquity,  because  it  was  in  existence  before  the  Septuagint 
Greek  version  w'as  executed  ;*  and  as  there  are  many  ChaHee 
words  in  tbose  composed  during  or  after  the  Babylonish  cap- 
tivity, the  most  probable  opinion  is,  that  the  different  collec- 
tions then  extant  were  formed  into  one  volume  by  Ezra, 
when  the  Jewish  canon  of  Scripture  was  completed.  But 
whatever  subordinate  divisions  may  have  existea,  it  is  certain 
that  the  Psalms  composed  but  one  book  in  that  canon :  for 
they  are  cited  by  our  Lord  collectively  as  the  "  Psalms " 
(Luke  xxiv.  44.),  and  also  as  "  the  Book  of  Psalms  "  (Luke 
XX.  42.),  by  which  last  title  they  are  cited  by  St.  Peter  in 
Acts  i.  20. ;  and  they  are  reckoned  only  as  one  book  in  all 
subsequent  enumerations  of  the  Scriptures,  both  by  Jews  and 
Christians. 

The  number  of  the  canonical  psalms  is  one  hundred  and 
fifty :  but  in  the  Septuagint  version,  as  well  as  in  the  Syriac, 
Arabic,  and  ./Ethiopic  translation,  there  is  extant  another 
which  is  numbered  en.  Its  subject  is  the  combat  of  David 
with  Goliath  (related  in  1  Sam.  xvii.)  but  it  is  evidently 

1  The  second  psalm,  however,  is  expressly  declared  to  be  David's  in 
Acts  iv.  2!5,  26. 

»  Bishop  Horsley,  however,  is  of  opinion  that  this  is  the  close  of  tho 
particular  psalm  in  question,  and  not_  a  division  of  the  book,  as  if  these 
first  seventy-two  psalms  were  all  of  David's  composition.  "  The  sense  is, 
that  David  the  son  of  Jesse  had  nothing  to  pray  for,  or  to  wish,  beyond 
tho  great  things  described  in  this  psalm.  Nothing  can  be  more  animated 
tlian  this  conclusion.  Having  described  the  blessings  of  Messiah's  reign, 
he  closes  the  whole  with  this  magnificent  doxology  :— 

"  Blessed  be  Jehovah  God, 
God  of  Israel  alone  performing  wonders ; 
And  blessed  be  his  name  of  glory, 
And  let  his  glory  fill  the  whole  of  the  earth. 
Amen  and  Amen. 
Finished  are  the  prayers  of  David,  the  son  of  Jesse." 

Bishop  HorsLey's  Psalms,  vol.  ii.  p.  195. 

«  Rosenmiiller,  Scholia  in  Psataos,  Proleg.  pp.  xx.— xxv.  c.  3.  da 
Psalmorum  Collectione,  Partitione,  et  Numero ;  Roberts's  Clavis  Biblio- 
rum,  p  166. 

»  Euscbius  and  Theodoret,  in  their  respective  Prefaces  to  the  book  of 
Psalms,  consider  this  book  as  ranking  next  in  priority  to  the  Pentateuch ; 
on  vphich  account  it  was  divided  into  five  parts  or  books,  like  the  writings 
of  Moses. 


242 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Paut  V.  Chap,  lU- 


spurious,  for,  besides  that  it  possesses  not  a  particle  of  Da- 
vid's genius  and  style,  it  never  was  extant  in  the  Hebrew, 
and  has  been  uniformly  rejected  by  the  fathers,  and  by  every 
council  that  has  been  held  i»  the  (Christian  church.  It  is 
certainly  very  ancient,  as  it  is  found  in  the  Codex  Alexan- 
drinus.' 

Althouorh  the  number  of  the  psalms  has  thus  been  ascer- 
tained and  fixed,  yet,  between  the  Hebrew  originals  and  the 
Greek  and  Vulg-ate  Latin  versions,  there  is  considerable 
diversity  in  the  arrangement  and  distribution.  Li  the  latter, 
for  instance,  what  is  numbered  as  the  nint/i  psalm  fonns  two 
distinct  psalms,  namely  ix.  and  x.  in  the  Hebrew ;  the  tenth 
psalm  commencing  at  verse  22.  of  the  Greek  and  Latin 
translations;  so  that,  from  this  place  to  tlie  hundred  and 
thirteenth  psalm  inchisive,  the  quotations  and  numbers  of  the 
Hebrew  are  ditferent  from  these  versions.  Again,  psalms 
cxiv.  and  cxv.  of  the  Hebrew  form  but  one  psalm  in  the 
Greek  and  Latin,  in  which  the  hundred  and  sixteenth  psalm 
is  divided  into  two.  In  the  Greek  and  Latin  copies  also,  the 
Imndred  and  forty-seventh  psalm  is  divided  into  two,  thus 
completing  the  number  of  one  hundred  and  fifty.  The  Pro- 
testant churches,  and  our  authorized  J'^nglish  version,  adhere 
to  the  Hebrew  notation,  which  has  been  invariably  followed 
in  the  present  work. 

The  following  table  exhibits  at  one  view  the  different  nu- 
merations in  the  Hebrew  and  in  the  Septuagint  version  : — 

Psal.  i. — viii.  in  the  Hebrew  are     Psal.  i. — viii.  in  LXX. 

Psal.  ix.  X.     -         -         - 


Psal.  xi. — cxiii.   - 
Psal.  cxiv.  cxv. 
Psal.  cxvi. 
Psal.  cxvii. — cxlvi. - 
Psal.  cxlvii. 
Psal.  cxlviii. — cl.    - 
To  which  Ls  added, 


Psal.  ix.  in  LXX. 
Psal.  X. — cxii.  in  LXX. 
Psal.  cxiii.  in  LX^X. 
Psal.  cxiv.  cxv,  in  LXX. 
Psal.  cxvi. — cxiv.  in  LXX. 
Psal.  cxlvi.  cxlvii.  in  LXX. 
Psal.  cxlviii. — cl.  in  LXX. 
Psal.  cli.  in  LXX. 


VII.  To  most  of  the  psalms'  are  prefixed  insouiptions  or 
TITLES,  concerning  the  import  of  wliich  expositors  and  in- 
terpreters are  by  no  means  agreed.  Some  hold  them  in  the 
profoundest  reverence,  considering  them  as  an  original  part 
of  these  divine  odes,  and  absolutely  necessary  to  the  riglit 
understanding  of  them,  while  others  regard  the  titles  as  sub- 
sequent additions,  and  of  no  importance  whatever.  In  one 
thing  only  are  they  all  unanimous,  namely,  in  the  obscurity 
of  these  titles. 

That  all  the  inscriptions  of  the  psalms  are  canonical  and 
inspired,  we  have  no  authority  to  alfirm.  Augustine,  Hilary, 
Theodoret,  Cassiodorus,  and  many  other  ancient  fathers, 
admit  that  they  have  no  relation  to  the  body  of  the  psalm, 
and  that  they  contribute  nothing  to  the  sense.  Tlie  Septua- 
gint and  other  Greek  versions  liave  added  titles  to  some  of 
the  psalms,  which  have  none  in  the  Hebrew  :  the  Protestant 
and  Romish  churches  have  determined  nothing  concerning 
them.  If  the  titles  of  the  psalms  had  been  esteemed  ca- 
nonical, would  it  have  been  permitted  to  alter  them,  to  sup- 
press them,  or  to  add  to  them'?  Which  of  the  commenta- 
tors, Jewish  or  Christian,  Catholic  or  Protestant,  thinks  it 
incumbent  upon  him  to  follow  the  title  of  the  psalm  in  his 
commentary  i  And  yet  both  Jews  and  Christians  receive 
the  book  of  Psalms  as  an  integral  part  of  Holy  Writ.  Al- 
though, therefore,  many  of  the  titles  prefixed  to  the  psaliua 

'  «  Tlic  following  is  a  translation  of  tliis  pretended  psalm,  from  tlif^  Soptiia- 
Ijint.  made  as  complete  an  possibln  by  I)r.  A.  Clarke,  from  the  ilitVireiu 
vcr-iiong.    Hon  liis  Conjiiicnlarp'  on  I'.-ialm  cli. 

"A  pialm  in  t/in  hand  irrifin/^  of  Dariil,  hr^yovil  the  nurnhnr  of  thi^ 
jitalmt,  compoacd  by  David,  trAcra  he  Juuglit  in  single  comhat  tritli  Civ- 
Hath." 

"  1.  I  wa«  the  least  among  my  brethren,  and  the  youngest  In  my  father's 
hoiis*  ;  ami  I  knot  also  my  father's  sheep.  2.  My  Immui  made  the  orRan. 
and  my  fingers  jointed  the  psaltery.      3.  And  who  lold  it  to  mylxirdl 


lArnI).  AncFwho  is  he  who  laucht  inn?)  The  I.oiin  himself,— He  is  my 
master,  ami  the  h'-arcr  of  all  that  call  upon  him.  1.  lie  sctit  his  an'.'el, 
and  took  mc  away  from  my  fiiher'H  Ktn-ep:  and  anointed  me  willi  the  nil 
of  his  anointing."  [0//i(>r«  A«re  the  oil  of  his  mercy.)  5.  "My  hrcthrrn 
were  taller  and  more  beautiful  than  I :  neverlhelcss,  the  Loan  delichti'd 
riot  in  them.  C.  I  went  out  lo  mcel  the  I'liili:<lim'.  nnd  he  curiCMl  me  hy 
his  Idols.  7.  (In  the  strrnnth  of  the  I.oid  I  ra.st  tlirre  stones  at  liini.  / 
tmofe  him  in  tlie  forehead,  ond  felled  liim  lo  llie  earlli.  Ara'i.]  8,  And  1 
drew '.111  liH  iiwn  sword  frfiin  iu  sheath,  and  cut  otV  hi:*  head,  and  lonk 
»way  the  reproach  from  tlie  children  of  Israel."— IIow  vapid!  How  un- 
like the  s<'ings  of  Hion,  composed  by  the  s^veel  psalmift  of  Israel ! 

«  The  number  of  psalms  without  titles  in  the  Hrbrcw  i^criptures  is 
Iwcnty-six.  viz  i.  il.  x.  xxiv.  xxxiii.  xllii  Ixxi.  xci.  xeiu.  to  xiix.  iiichu'ive, 
civ.  cv.  cvii.  cxiv.  to  cxix.  Inclucive,  cxxxvi.  and  cxxxvii.  ;  by  the  TulmiiOi- 
f  al  writers  tlioy  are  terincil  nryhnn  jtBulm*.  The  untitled  psalms  in  our 
F.nglish  version  amoimi  to  llilrly-seven  ;  but  many  of  these  are  llidlelujah 
p.aUiis,  which  have  Inst  their  inscription.^,  because  the  voneralilo  transla- 
tors  have  rendered  the  Hebrew  word  Hallelujah  by  the  expresiilnn  "  Praise 
the  Lord,"  which  Ihey  h-\ve  made  a  part  of  UiC  psaUu,  thuuyh  In  the 
i^ptuaginl  version  1  stanUa  as  a  distinct  title. 


are  of  very  questionable  authority,  as  not  being  extant  in 
Hebrew  manuscripts,  and  some  of  them  are  undoubtedly  not 
of  equal  antifuiily  with  the  text,  being,  in  all  probability, 
conjectural  adwitions,  made  hy  the  collectors  of  the  psalms, 
at  diflbrent  periods,  who  undertook  to  supply  the  deficiency 
of  titles  from  their  own  judgment  or  fancy,  without  a  due 
regard  to  manuscripts,  yet  we  have  nn  reason  to  suppose  that 
very  many  of  them  are  not  canonical  parts  of  the  psalms; 
because  tfiey  are  perfectly  in  unison  with  the  oriental  manner 
of  giving  titles  to  books  and  poems. 

It  is  well  known  that  the  seven  poems,  composed  in  Ara- 
bic by  as  many  of  the  most  excellent  Arabian  bards  (ana 
which,  from  being  originally  suspended  around  the  caaba  oi 
temple  at  Mecca,  were  called  Mualhikaf,  or  suspended),  were 
called,  ul  Modliadhehat,  or  the  golden  verses,  because  they 
were  written  in  characters  of  gold  on  Egyptian  papyrus. 

Mi<rht  not  the  six  psalms,  Nvliich  bear  the  title  of  Mc/i/am, 
or  golden,'  be  so  called  on  account  of  their  having  been  on 
some  occasion  or  other  written  in  letters  of  gold,  and  hunw 
up  in  the  sanctuary]  D'Hcrbclot,  to  whom  we  are  indebted 
for  the  preceding  fact,  also  relates  that  Siierfeddin  al  Kaus- 
siri,  an  Arabian  poet,  called  one  of  his  poems,  in  praise  ot 
Mohammed  (who  he  aflirmod,  had  cured  him  of  a  paralytic 
disorder  in  his  sleep).  The  Ilubit  of  a  Ihrveah ;  and,  because 
he  is  there  celebrated  for  having  (as  it  is  pretended)  given 
sight  to  a  blind  person,  this  poem  is  also  eifljtled  by  its 
avithor  The  Bri<rht  Star.'*  D'Herbelot  further  tells  us  that  a 
collection  of  moral  essays  was  named  The  Garden  of  Jlne- 
monies. 

The  ancient  Jewish  taste,  Mr.  Harmer  remarks,  may  reai> 
sonably  be  supposed  to  have  been  of  the  same  kind :  and 
agreeable  to  this  is  the  explanation  given  by  some  learned 
men  of  David's  commanding  the  l/otv  to  he  taught  the  chil- 
dren of  Israel  ('2  Sam.  i.  18.) ;  which,  they  apprehend,  did 
not  relate  to  the  use  of  that  weapon  in  war,  but  to  the  hymn 
which  he  com])oscd  on  occasion  of  the  deatli  of  Saul  and 
Jonathan ;  and  from  which  they  think  that  he  entitled  this 
elegy  the  Uow.  The  twenty-second  psalm  might  in  like 
manner  be  called  The  Hind  of  the  Murning  Llijiklh  Slui' 
har)  ;  the  fift)'-sixth,  The  Dumb  in  diatanl  Places  (Jonefh- 
eknircclwkini)  ,-  the  sixtieth.  The  Lily  if  the  Testimony  (Sho' 
shan-cduth)  ,•  the  eightieth,  T%e  Lilies  of  the  Testimony  (Sko- 
shannin-cdiith),  in  the  plural  number;  and  the  forty-,*ifth, 
simply  'iViC  Lilies  (^Shoyhannini).  That  these  appellations 
do  not  denote  musical  instruments,  Mr.  Harmer  is  of  opin- 
ion, is  evident  from  the  names  of  trumpet,  timbrel,  harp, 
psaltery,  and  other  instruments  with  which  psalms  were 
sun^,  being  absent  from  those  titles.  If  they  signified  tunes 
(as  lie  is  disposed  to  think),  they  must  signily  the  tunes  tc 
which  such  songs  or  hymns  were  sung  as  were  distinguished 
by  these  names ;  and  so  the  inmiiry  will  terminate  in  this 
point,  whether  the  psalms  to  wliich  these  titles  are  affixed 
were  called  by  these  names,  or  wluiher  they  were  some 
other  psalms  or  songs,  to  the  tune  of  which  these  were  to  be 
sung.  Now,  as  we  do  not  find  the  bow  riferred  to,  nor  the 
same  name  twice  made  use  of,  so  far  as  our  information  goes, 
it  seems  most  probable  that  these  are  the  names  of  the  very 
psalms  to  which  they  are  prefixed.  The  forty-second  psalm. 
It  may  be  thought,  might  -very  well  have  been  entitled  the 
J  find  of  the  Alurning ,-  because,  as  that  panted  after  the 
water-brooks,  so  panted  the  soul  of  the  psalmist  after  God; 
but  the  twenty-second  psalm,  it  is  certain,  might  equally  well 
be  distinguishiid  by  lliis  title, — Dogs  have  cncomjmsscd  me, 

•  Psalms  vi.  Ivi.  Ivii.  Mii.  lix.  Ix.  U'Hcibclut,  Dibliolhequc  OricntalOj 
vol  i.  pp.  :kj  41.y 

♦  D'llcrlielot,  UiblioihOque  Oricniale,  vol.  II.  p.  C24.  It  were  easy  to 
multiply  examples  of  this  kind  from  the  works  of  oriental  writers;  a 
few  must  siilhcc: — Among  the  works  of  modirn  Hebrew  poets,  enumera- 
ted by  Sarchi,  in  VIsEs.say  on  Hebrew  Poetry  (pp.  11(5 — 120.),  A  Trtaliseon, 
MuTalu,  by  llnbbl  ('lonimoushen  Clunimou.s,  istcrmed /I  7Vi>«/ &V«ne  ; a co|- 
lectlnn  oi Fistirul  Odts  and  Hymns  lor  llie  Jewish  year,  by  II.  .hmepli  tSa- 
lom,  is  de.sicnaled  S'/)f<c/(i.A(i/'/<f«Hfj/ ,•  ft  colleclionor.S'(/;i^s  by  H.  I.e\i  Her 
Abralinm  IlarChaiiii,  onvariou.-;  scientific  topics,  is  called  The  Talileta  ant, 
iJiirriiigs ;  a  <  'vll'ctiun  of  I'ruycrs  ialUc  date  of  Penitence  ;  and  anoliic: 
of  S'inifi  nnd  Ifyiniut  on  moral  Topics,  has  the  bigh-soimtling  iippellatlor. 
if  The  ISiiiK-  if  the  (JiiiT,t.—\n  Casiri's  IIrI  of  works  written  by  the  cele- 
brated .'^paiMHli-Aral)  stHlesmnn  Il.n-ni  Klialdi,  Ibis  aiilhi>r's  Ilty'ury  of 
(iriinudti  is  enlillid  A  Specimen  of  the  Full  M<'On  :  his  Vhronulugy  of 
the  Kint;s  of  Africii   ami  Spain  lias  llie   lofty  appellation  of  the  Silieii. 

Vest  enihriiidcri d  tcilh  the  Aeedla  ;  his  Lives  if  eniincnl  Spanish  Arnbt, 
who  were  distinguished  fur  their  learning  and  virtue,  arc  termed  fy<i^tatit 
I'liintt ;  a  ir.ict  on  Conslanry  of  Mind  is  Approrcd  ISutter  ;  and,  lo  men- 
tlcm  no  iimre,  a  Ireati.si- on  the  Choice  if  Si  ntrtics  is  dici(;iialed  /'ur« 
6"o'</.  These  wnrks  are  still  exiaiil  among  the  Araliic  mnniisrripts  pre- 
sorvril  ill  the  library  of  the  Kscurial.  (Casirl,  llibliolheca  Arabico.Escu- 
rialensis,  loin.  ii.  p.  72.)  The  (iuJia  tan,  licdof  lioses,  or  Ftoicrr  Oarden 
of  the  PcrsLui  poet  8ady,' has  been  Irnnslulcd  Into  English  by  Mi.  Glad- 
win ;  ami  the  linhnr  JJnn'ish,  OT  Garden  of  Knoirledi;c,  o(  UiC  Persian 
bard  Kiuaut-Oollah,  by  Mr.  Scott.  Dr.  A.  CTarko  has  collected  some  ail- 
ilitional  instances  in  his  ConimcDtory  on  the  Bible.    Sec  Psalm  Ix.  Title. 


Sect.  II.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  PSALMS. 


the  assembly  of  the  wicked    have  enclosed   me ;^  and  as  the 

f)sahnist,  in  the  forty-second  psahii,  rather  chose  to  compare 
limself  to  a  harl  than  a  liind  (see  ver.  I.),  the  twenty- 
second  psalm  much  better  answers  this  title,  in  which  he 
speaks  of  his  hunted  soul  in  the  feminine  gender,  Deliver  nty 
soul  from  the  sword,  my  darling  (which  in  the  original  is 
feminine)  from  ihe  power  of  Ike  dog.  Every  one  that  reflects 
on  the  circumstances  of  David,  at  the  time  to  which  the 
fiftv-sixth  psalm  refers  (see  1  Sam.  xxi.  11 — 15.  xxii.  1.), 
ana  considers  the  oriental  taste,  will  not  wonder  to  see  that 
psalm  entitled  the  dumb  in  distant  places ,-  nor  are  lilies  more 
improper  to  be  made  the  title  of  other  psalms,  with  proper 
distinctions,  than  a  garden  of  anenionies  is  to  be  the  name  of 
a  collection  of  moral  discourses.^ 

Besides  the  psalms,  whose  titles  have  thus  been  consider- 
ed and  explained,  there  are  forty-Jive  called  Mismcrr  ox  psalms  ,- 
viz.  iii.  iv.  v.  vi.  viii.  ix.  xii.  xiii.  xv.  xix.  xx.  xxi.  xxii. 
xxiii.  xxiv.  xxix.  xxxi.  xxxvii.  xxxix.  xl.  xli.  xlvii.  xlix.  1. 
li.  Ixii.  Ixiii.  Ixiv.  Ixxiii.  Ixxv.  Ixxvii.  Ixxix.  Ixxx.  Ixxxii. 
Ixxxiv.  Ixxxv.  xcviii.  c.  ci.  cix.  ex.  cxxxix.  cxl.  cxli.  and  cxlii. 
One  is  called  Shir,  or  song  (Psal.  xlvi.)  ;  seven  are  called 
MismorjShir,  or  psalm-songs,  viz.  xxxi.  Ixv.  Ixvii.  Ixviii. 
Ixxv.  Ixxvii.  and  cxii. ;  and  five  are  called  Shir-Mismor,  or 
song-psalms,  xlviii.  Ixvi.  Ixxxiii.  Ixxxviii.  and  cviii.  In  what 
respects  these  titles  differed,  it  is  now  impossible  to  ascer- 
tain, as  Rabbi  Kimchi,  one  of  the  most  learned  Jews,  inge- 
nuously acknowledges  ;  but  we  may  infer  that  they  combined 
both  music  and  singing,  which  are  indicated  by  the  respect- 
ive words  psalm  and  song,  with  some  modifications.  In  the 
Septuagint  version  these  are  called  a  psalm  of  anode,  and  an 
ode  of  a  psalm.  Four  are  called  Theophtlah,  or  prayers, 
namely,  xvii.  Ixxxvi.  xc.  and  cii.  ;  and  the  hundred  and 
forty-fifth  psalm  is  called  Teldllah,  or  praise.  So  excellent, 
indeed,  was  this  composition  always  accounted,  that  the  title 
of  the  whole  Book  ot  Psalms,  Sepher  Teliillim,  or  the  Book 
of  Praises,  was  taken  from  it.  It  is  wholly  filled  with  the 
praises  of  God,  expressed  with  such  admirable  devotion  that 
the  ancient  Jews  used  to  say,  "  He  could  not  fail  of  being  an 
inhabitant  of  the  heavenly  Canaan,  who  repeated  this  psalm 
three  times  a  day."^ 

Fifteen  psalms,  cxx.  to  cxxxiv.  are  entitled  Shir-Hcimma- 
chaloth,  literally  Songs  of  the  Steps  (in  our  English  version, 
Songs  of  Degrees) ;  or,  as  Bishop  Lowth  terms  them,  Odes 
of  jTsccnsion,^  They  are  supposed  to  have  derived  this  name 
from  their  being  sung,  when  the  people  came  up  either  to 
worship  in  Jerusalem,  at  the  annual  festivals,  or  perhaps 
from  the  Babylonish  captivity.  In  Ezra  vii.  9.  the  return 
from  captivity  is  certainly  called  "  the  ascension,  or  coming 
up  from  Babylon,''''  The  hundred  and  twenty-sixth  psalm 
favours  the  latter  hypothesis  '.  but  as  some  of  these  odes 
were  composed  before  the  captivity,  the  title  may  refer  to 
either  of  these  occasions,  when  the  Jews  went  up  to  Jeru- 
salem, which,  it  will  be  recollected,  stood  on  a  steep  rocky 
ascent,  in  large  companies,  after  the  oriental  manner,  and 
perhaps  beguiled  their  vv^ay  by  singing  these  psalms.  For 
such  an  occasion,  Jahn  remarks, ^  the  appellation  of  ascen- 
sions was  singularly  adapted,  as  the  inhabitants  of  the  East, 
when  speaking  of  a  journey  to  the  metropolis  of  their  coun- 
try, delight  to  use  the  word  ascend. 

To  ten  psalms,  viz.  cvi.  cxi.  cxii.  cxiii.  cxxxv.  cxlvi.  to 
cl.  inclusive,  is  prefixed  the  title  Hallelujah,  which,  as 
already  intimated,  forms  part  of  the  first  verse  in  our  Eng- 
lish translation,  and  is  rendered — Praise  the  Lord. 

The  title  Maschil  is  prefixed  to  psalms  xxxii.  xlii.  xliv.  Iii. 
liii.  liv.  Iv.  Ixxiv.  Ixxviii.  Ixxxviii.  Ixxxix.  and  cxlii. ;  and 
as  it  is  evidently  derived  from  the  Hebrew"  root  ^yv  sHUKUh, 
to  be  wise,  to  behave  wisely  or  prudently,  Calmet  thinks  it 
merely  signifies  to  give  instruction,  and  that  the  psalms  to 
which  it  is  prefixed  are  peculiarly  adapted  to  that  purpose  : 
Rosenmiiller  coincides  with  him,  as  tar  as  his  remark  ap- 
plies to  psalm  xxxii.,  but  rather  thinks  it  a  generic  name  for 
a  particular  kind  of  poem. 

It  only  remains  that  we  briefly  notice  those  psalms,  whose 

1  According  to  Dr.  Shaw,  the  eastern  raode  of  hunting  is,  by  assembling 
great  numbers  of  people,  and  enclosing  the  creatures  they  liunt.  Travels 
in  Barbary  and  the  Levant,  4to.  p.  235.  or  vol.  i.  pp.  422,  423.  8vo.  edit. 

«  Hariner's  Observations,  vol.  iii.  pp.  146—149. 

»  Bishop  ralrick,  i)i  he.  And  therefore  he  thinks  it  was  composed 
alprhabetically,  i.  c.  every  verse  beginning  with  a  letter  of  the  Hebrew 
alphabet,  in  order  that  it  might  be  the  more  readily  committed  to  memory. 

«  Bishop  Lowth,  Prselect.  xxv.  in  fine. 

'  Introd.  ad  Vet.  Feed.  pp.  471,  472.  Calmet  and  Dr.  T.  A.  Clarissc  are 
of  opinion  that  the  whole  of  the  Psalms  of  Ascensions  were  sung  at  the 
time  of  the  return  from  the  captivity.  Dissert,  sur  les  Pseaumes  quinze 
graduels.— Dissert,  torn.  ii.  part  ii.  pp.  323, 334.  Clarissc,  Psalmi  Quindc- 
ciin  Ilammaaioth,  p.  23. 


243 


titles  are  generally  considered  as  names,  either  of  musical 
instruments  or  of  tunes. 

T.c:!i'.JP'^  ^"^-^  r^  ^^^^%  ^^J^'^S'wth,  which  is  prefixed  to 
psalms  IV  VI  liv.lv.  Ix.  Ixi.  Ixxvi.:  it  signifies  stringed 
ins  ruments  of  music  to  be  played  on  by  the  fingers.  Cal- 
met  proDoses  to  translate  the  titles  of  those  psalms,  where 
thi6  word  IS  to  be  found,  in  the  following  manner :— .4  Psalm 
oj  JJavid,  to  the  master  of  music  who  presides  over  the  strinsed 
instruments.  ° 

2.  Nehiloth,  which  is  in  the  title  of  psalm  v.,  is  supposed 
to  have  been  a  wind  instrument;  but  whether  of  the  organ 
kind  as  Rosenmiiller  thinks,  or  of  the  flute  kind  as  Calmet 
supposes,  it  is  now  impossible  to  determine. 

3.  Sheminith  (Psalms  vi,  and  xii.)  is  supposed  to  have 
been  an  octochord,  or  harp  of  eight  strings  ;  from  the  circum- 
stance of  Its  being  united  with  the  Neginoth  in  the  title  of 
Psalm  vi.,  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  an  accompaniment  to 
the  latter  instrument. 

4.  Sliiggaion  (Psalm  vii.),  according  to  Houbigant,  Park- 
hurst,  and  some  others,  means  a  wanderinor  song;  and  is  so 
called,  because  it  was  composed  by  David  when  a  fugitive 
from  the  persecution  of  Saul.  But  Calmet  says,  that  ii  sig- 
nifies a  song  of  consolation  in  distress,  synonymous  with  an 
elegy,-  with  him  coincide  Dr.  Kennicott  and  Rosenmiiller, 
who  derive  the  word  from  an  Arabic  root,  importing  that  the 
inspired  writer  of  this  psalm  was  overwhelmed  with  sorrow 
and  anxiety  at  tlie  time  he  composed  it. 

5.  Gittith  (Psalms  viii.  Ixxxi.  Ixxxiv.),  according  to  Rabbi 
Jarchi,  signifies  a  musical  instrument  brought  from  Gath : 
but  ai?  the  original  Hebrew  denotes  wine-presses,  Calmet 
thinks  that  it  probably  is  an  air  or  song  which  was  sumr  at 
the  time  of  vintage.  Rosenmiiller  prefers  the  former  dertva- 
tion  :  both,  however,  may  be  true.  The  instrument  bearing 
this  name  might  have  been  used  by  the  people  of  Gath,  from 
whom  it  might  have  been  adopted  by  the  Jews,  with  whom 
it  afterwards  became  a  favourite  instrument  during  the  fes- 
tivity and  dances  of  the  vintage. 

6.  For  Mufhlabben,  which  appears  in  the  title  of  Psalm  ix., 
upwards  of  twenty  manuscripts  of  Dr.  Kennicott's  collation, 
and  more  than  forty  of  De  Rossi's,  read  almiith,  which  .signi- 
fies virgins.  Calmet  thinks  that  a  chorus  of  virgins  is  intend- 
ed, and  that  La  Ben,  that  is  to  Ben,  refers  to  Ben  or  Benaiah, 
who  was  their  precentor,  and  who  is  mentioned  in  1  Chron. 
XV.  18.  20. 

7.  Mahalath  (Psalm  liii.)  denotes  a  dance,  such  as  was 
used  at  some  peculiar  festivals  and  occasions.  (Compare 
Exod.  XV.  20.  Judg.  xxi.  21.  1  Sam.  xviii.  6.)  According 
to  Calmet,  the  title  of  this  ode  is  —  "  An  instructive  psalin 
of  David  for  the  chief  master  of  dancing ;  or,  for  the  chorus 
of  singers  and  dancers."  Mahalath-Leannoth  (Psalm  Ixxxix.) 
probably  means  a  responsive  psalm  of  the  same  description.'' 

VIII.  Of  the  word  Selah,  which  occurs  upwards  of  seventy 
times  in  the  book  of  Psalms,  and  three  times  in  the  prophecy 
of  Habakkuk,  it  is  by  no  means  easy  to  determine  the  mean- 
ing: in  the  Septuagint  it  occurs  still  more  frequently,  beinci  ^ 
placed  where  it  does  not  occur  in  the  Hebrew  original,  an3 
rendered  by  aia^aamA  {diapsalma),  which  signifies  a  rest 
or  pause,  or,  according  to  Suidas,  a  change  of  the  song  or 
modulation.  Some  imagine  that  it  directed  the  time  of' the 
music,  and  was  perhaps  equivalent  to  our  word  slow,  or 
according  to  some  of  our  provincial  dialects,  "  slaw,-''''  which, 
in  a  rapid  pronunciation  might  easily  be  taken  for  Selah. 
Dr.  Wall  conjectures  that  it  is  a  note,  directing  that  the  last 
words  to  which  it  is  added  should  be  repeated  by  the  chorus ; 
and  observes,  that  it  is  always  put  after  some  remarkable  or 
pathetic  clause.  Parkhurst  and  others  are  of  opinion,  that  it 
was  intended  to  direct  the  reader's  particular  attention  to  the 
passage :  others,  that  it  makes  a  new  sense  or  chancre  of 
the  metre.  Jerome  says,  that  Selah  connects  what  follows 
with  what  went  before,  and  further  expresses  that  the  words 
to  which  it  is  affixed  are  of  eternal  moment;  that  is,  are  not 
applicable  to  any  particular  person  or  temporary  circum- 
stances, but  ought  to  be  remembered  by  all  men,  and  for 
ever :  whence  tlie  Chaldee  paraphrast  renders  it  "  for  ever." 
Aquila,  Symmachus,  Geier,  Forster,  Buxtorf,  and  others,  are 
of  opionion  that  Selah  has  no  signification  but  that  it  is  a 
note  of  the  ancient  music,  th«  use  of  which  is  now  lost. 
Aben  Ezra  says,  that  it  is  like  the  conclusion  of  a  prayer, 
answering  nearly  to  amen.  Meiboraius,  and  after  him  Jahn, 
think  that  it  means  a  repeat,  and  that  it  is  equivalent  to  the 
Italian  Da  Capo.     Calmet  is  of  opinion  that  the  ancient  He- 

•  Calmet,  Commentaire  Litterale,  torn.  iv.  pp.  xi.-xiv.  liii.  liv,  Rosen- 
mriUer,  Scholia  in  Psahiios,  torn.  i.  cap.  4.  De  Psalmorum  Inscriplionibus, 
et  Explicatio  Dictionum  in  Psalmorum  Titulis  obviaruin,  pp.  xxv,— Iviii. 


244 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  V.  Chap.  Ill 


brew  musicians  sometimes  put  Selah  in  the  marf^in  of  their 
psalters,  to  show  where  a  musical  pause  was  fo  be  made, 
and  where  the  tune  ended;  just  as  in  the  copies  of  the  Gos- 
pr-ls,'  which  were  solemnly  read  in  the  early  ages  of  the 
Christian  church,  the  Greek  word  Tsxof,  ielos,  or  the  Latin 
word  finis,  was  written  in  the  margin,  either  at  length  or 
with  a  contraction,  to  mark  the  place  where  the  deacon  was 
to  end  the  lesson;  the  divisions  of  chapters  and  verses  being 
unknown  at  that  time ;  or  else  he  thinks,  the  ancient  Hebrews 
sanff  nearly  in  the  same  manner  as  the  modem  Arabians  do,2 
witS  lontr  pauses,  ending  all  at  once,  and  beginning  all  at 
once;  an'd  therefore  it  was  necessary,  in  the  public  services, 
to  mark  in  the  margin  of  the  psalm  as  well  the  place  ot  the 
pause  as  the  end,  in  order  that  the  whole  choir  might  suspend 
their  voices,  or  recommence  their  siniring  at  the  same  tiipe. 
Rosenm  iller,  after  Herder  and  A.  F.  Pfcitfer,  declares  in 
favour  of  Selah  being  a  rest  or  pause,  for  the  vocal  perform- 
ers, durinrr  wliich  the  musical  instruments  only  were  to  be 
hea'rd.  >fr.  Hewlett  thinks  it  resembled  our  concluding 
svmpiionics.  It  only  remains  that  we  notice  the  sentiment 
o'f  liabbi  Kimchi,  which  has  been  adopted  by  Grotius  and 
others.  That  eminent  Jewish  teacher  says,  tliat  Selah  is 
both  a  musical  note,  and  a  note  of  emphasis  in  the  sense,  by 
which  we  are  called  to  observe  something  more  than  usually 
remarkable.  It  is  derived  from  the  Hebrew  word  'jSd  s'/lal, 
which  sif^nifies  he  raised  or  elevated ,-  and  denotes  the  eleva- 
tion of  t^e  voice  in  singing  ;  and  at  the  same  time  the  lifting 
up  of  the  heart,  the  serious  considering  and  meditating  upon 
the  thing  that  is  spoken.  .... 

That  this  word  was  of  use  in  music  and  singing  is  evident 
from  the  manner  in  which,  we  have  already  remarlced,  it  was 
rendered  by  the  Septuagint  translators  ;  and  that  it  is  also  a 
mark  of  observation  and  meditation,  may  be  inferred  from 
its  bein<T  joined  in  Psal.  ix.  16.  witii  the  word  Jliggaion, 
which  sfgnifies  meditation.  Now,  though  in  some  passages 
Selah  may  appear  to  be  used  where  there  is  no  empliatic 
word  or  sense,  yet  it  may  be  applied  not  only  to  the  imme- 
diately preceding  word  or  verse,  but  also  to  the  whole  series 
of  verses  or  periods  to  which  it  is  subjoined.  And  if  it  be 
thus  considered,  we  shall  find  that  it  is  used  with  great 
propriety,  and  for  the  best  of  purposes,  viz.  to  point  out  to  us 
somethin<T  well  worthy  of  our  most  attentive  observation ; 
and  that  U  calls  upon  us  to  revolve  in  our  minds,  with  great 
seriousness,  the  matter  placed  before  us.^  ^  ,     ., 

IX.  "The  hearts  of  the  pious  in  all  ages  have  lelt  the 
value'  of  the  Psalms  as  helps  to  devotion ;  and  many  have 
laboured  for  expressions,  in  which  to  set  forth  their  praise. 
All  the  fathers  of  the  church  are  unanimously  eloquent  in 
their  commendation  of  the  Psalms.  Athanasius  styles  them 
an  epitome  of  the  whole  Scriptures  :  Basil,  a  compendium 
of  all  theology ;  Luther,  a  little  Bil)le,  and  the  summary  of 
the  Old  Testament;  and  Melancthon,  the  most  elegant  writ- 
ing in  the  whole  world.  How  highly  the  Psalter  was 
valued  subseouently  to  the  Keformation,  wc  may  easily 
conceive  by  tne  very  numerous  editions  of  it  .which  were 
executed  in  the  infancy  of  ])rinting,.and  by  the  number  of 
commentators  who  have  undertaken  to  illustrate  its  sacred 
pages.  Carpzov,  who  wrote  a  century  ago,  enumerates  up- 
wards of  one  hundred  and  sixty ;  and  of  the  subsequent 
modern  expositors  of  this  book  it  would  perhaps  be  dilhcult 
to  procure  a  correct  account.    "The  Psalms,"  as  their  best 

1  Simon,  Illfltoirc  Crilique  rlii  Nonv.  Tfist.  ch.  xxjtiii. 

»  U'Arvicux'8 Travels  In  Arabia  Uic  Ucserl,  p.  02.  English  translalion, 
171S.  li^iK),  ,         •- 

»  CaUiirl,  Dis«crlatinn  Bur  Sela,  Coinrnontaire,  torn.  iv.  pp.  xvl.— xviii. 
Ilewlotl  in  toe.  RosenmlUler,  «<-,holla  in  Psalinos,  lorn.  i.  pp.  lix.— Ixii.  Dr. 
.tohn  E.lwar(l«,  on  the  Anthonty,  Style,  an.l  IVrfpction  of  Scripture,  vol. 
III.  p.  3".^.  .lalin,  Iiitrod.  ail  Vet.  P'uid.  p.  171.  lliel  anil  Sc:lili-iisiier,  Lexi- 
con in  LXX.  voce  Any*' a«»-  In  ailililion  to  tlie  (jljservatii'ii  already 
offered,  it  may  be  stated  that  Profcsgor  Wilson  has  annniinc  d  the  follow- 
In*  JngenioiM  conjecture  respecting  the  derivation  and  Import  of  the  word 
Belah  :— The  root  of  the  word,  he  remarks,  appears  evidently  to  lie  in  the 
two  first  letters  "^O  which  are  in  contraction  for  ^'^0-  to  rainn,  lo  esnll, 
to  magnify.  The -i  he  coiiiiidcrs  as  an  abbreviation  for  ,-|^1  i  so  that  the 
word  n'70  (scLUH)  Is  a  contracted  form  of  hm'jO,  crlchratc  i/e  Jchurah,  or 
txiilt  the  Lord,  viz.  in  aongt  of  praise  accompanied  with  musical  instru- 
ments, and  Is  nearly  of  the  same  Import  with  .TiSSn,  in  our  characters 
.  Jfallrhijiih,  inOreek  letters  ' AKKtiKtum,  that  Is,  Praise  ye  the  I.ord.  This 
conjerdirp  receivpK  strnnir  confirmBlion  from  Itie  latter  part  of  the  fourth 
verso  of  Pnalin  Ixviil.  which  in  thus  translaleil,  fjzlot  liitii  thai  ritli  l/i  upon 
the  hr.avrru  hy  Ihr  name  jam.  It  is  hi«lily  probable  that  the  meaning  here 
assigned  to  Hclnh  \*  the  true  one,  as  It  corresj)ondB  to  the  diftniiy  ajid  chief 
end  r)f  (levotlonnl  muslr,  in  which  the  singers  and  playcrji  were  fro'vioiilly 
reminded  of  the  sarrcd  intenlion  of  their  solemn  prayers,  praiKi-H,  and 
adoration.  All  Wctc  di  siKiicd  to  magnify  Ihe  naim-,  tlie  ii.iiiire,  llie  per- 
fections, excellences,  anrl  works  of  Jehovah  the  only  Iruc  Ood.  In  this 
sutilime  excrciso  the  church  on  earth  arc  fcllow-worshlpper«.  in  p.-rfrci 
concord  with  the  church  In  heaven.  See  Rev.  xix.  1—3.  (Wilson's  Elc- 
tscDts  of  Hebrew  Cirammar,  pp.  315,  316.  ith  odil.) 


interpreter  in  our  language  has  remarked,  with  equal  piety 
and  beauty,^  "  are  an  epitome  of  the  Bible,  adapted  to  the 
purposes  of  devotion.  They  treat  occasionally  of  tlie  crea- 
tion and  formation  of  the  world  ;  the  dispensations  of  Pro- 
vidence, antl  the  economy  of  grace ;  the  transactions  of  the 
patriarchs  ;  the  exodus  of  the  children  of  Israel ;  their  jour- 
ney through  the  wilderness,  and  settlement  in  Canaan  ;  their 
law,  priesthood,  and  ritual ;  the  exploits  of  their  great  men, 
wrought  through  faith  ;  their  sins  and  captivities;  their  re- 

Eentances  and  restorations  ;  the  sufferings  and  victories  of 
)avid  ;  the  peaceful  and  happy  reijjn  of  Solomon  ;  the  ad- 
vent of  Messiah,  with  its  elTt  els  and  consequences ;  his  in- 
carnation, birth,  life,  passion,  death,  resurrection,  ascension, 
kingdom,  and   priestnood  ;  the  effusion  of  the  Sjjirit ;  the 
conversion  of  the  nations  ;  the  rejection  of  the  Jews ;  the 
establishment,   increase,   and   perpetuity  of    the   Christian 
church ;  the  end  of  the  world ;  the  general  judgment ;  the 
condemnation  of  the  wicked,  and  the  final  triumph  of  the 
righteous  with  their  Lord  and  King.    These  are  the  subjects 
here  presented  to  our  meditations.    We  are  instructed  how  to 
conceive  of  them  aright,  and  to  express  the  different  aflfec- 
tions,  which,  when  so  conceived  of,  they  must  excite  in  our 
minds.   They  are,  for  this  purpose,  adorned  with  the  figures, 
and  set  off  with  all  the  graces,  of  poetry;  the  poetry  itself 
is  designed  yet  farther  to  be  recommended  by  the  charms  of 
music,  thus  consecrated  to  the  service  of  God:  that  so  de- 
light may  prepare  the  way  for  improvement,  and  pleasure 
become  the  handmaid  of  wisdom,  while  every  turbujent  pas- 
sion is  calmed  by  sacred  melody,  and  the  evil  spirit  is  still 
dispossessed  by  the  harp  of  the  son  of  Jesse.     This  little 
volume,  like  the  paradise  of  Eden,  affords  us  in  perfection, 
though  in  miniature,  every  thing  that  groweth  elsewhere, 
eveiy  tree  that  is  pleasant  to  the  sight,  and  good  for  food  : 
and  above  all,  what  was  there  lost,  but  is  here  restored — the. 
tree  of  life  in  the  midst  of  the  irardcn.     That  which  we  read, 
as  matter  of  speculation,  in  the  other  Scriptures,  is  reduced 
to  practice,  when  we  recite  it  in  the  Psalms  ;  in  those,  re- 
pentance and  faith  are  described,  but  in  these  they  are  acted: 
ijy  a  perusal  of  the  former,  we  learn  how  others  served  God, 
but,  by  using  the  latter,  we  serve  him  ourselves.     '  What  is 
there  necessary  for  man  to  know,'  says  the  pious  and  itidi- 
cious  Hooker, '  which  the  psalms  arc  not  able  to  teach  '\     They 
arc  to  beginners  an  easy  and  familiar  introduction,  a  mighty 
augmentation  of  all  virtue  and   knowledge  in  such  as  are 
entered  before,  a  strong  confirmation  to  the  most  perfect 
among  others.     Heroical   magnanimity,  exquisite  justice, 
grave  moderation,  exact  wisdom,  repentance  unfeigned,  un- 
wearied patience,  the  mysteries  of  God,  the  sufferings  of 
Christ,  the   terrors  of  wrath,   the   comforts   of  grace,  the 
Avorks  of  Providence  over  this  world,  and  the  promised  joys 
of  tliat  world  which  is  to  come,  all  good  necessarily  to  he 
either  known,  or  done,  or  had,  this  one  celestial  fountain 
yieldcth.     Let  there  be  any  grief  or  disease  incident  unto 
tlie  soul  of  man,  any  wound  or  sickness  named,  for  which 
there  is  not,  in  this   treasure-house,  a  present  comfortable 
remedy  at  all  times  ready  to  be  found.'*     In  tlie  language  of 
tliis  divine  book,  liiercfore,  the   prayers  and  praises  of  the 
church  have  been  offered  un  to  the  throne  of  grace,  from  age 
to  aije.    And  it  appears  to  nave  been  the  manual  of  the  Son 
of  God,  in  the  days  of  his  flesh  ;  who,  at  the  conclusion  of 
his  last  supper,  is  generally  supposed,  and   that  upon  good 
grounds,  to  have  sung  a  hymn   taken  from  it ;«  who  pro- 
nounced, on   the  cross,  the  beginning  of  the  twenty-second 
psalm,  '  My  God,  my  (Jod,  why  hnst   thou  forsaken  me  V 
and  expired  with  a  part  of  the    thirty-first  psalm    in    his 
mouth,  '  Into  thy  hamis  I  commend  my  spirit.'     'i'hus  He, 
will)  had  not  the  Spirit  by  measure,  in  whom  were  hidden 
all  the  treasures  of  wisdom  and  knowledge,  and  who  spake 
as  never  man  spake,  yet  chose  to  conclude  his  life,  to  solace 
himself  in  his  greatest  agony,  and  at  last  to  breathe  t)ut  his 
soul,  in  the  psalmist's  form  of  words,  rather  than  his  own. 
No  tongue  of  man  or  angel,  as  Dr.  Hammond   justly  ob- 
serves, can  convey  a  higher  idea  of  any  Look,  and  of  their 
felicity  who  use  it  aright."' 

The  nninber  of  psalms,  which  are  throuc;hout  rnore  emi- 
nently and  directly  jiroplntical  of  the  'Messiali,  is  indeed 
coinp:irativ(ly  Hinafl :  but  tlie  passages  of  particular  psalma 
which  are  predictive  of  him  in  various  ways  are  very  nume- 

«  The  late  nishnp  Home. 

»  Hooker,  Kcrlesiasl.  Pol.  book  v,  sect.  37. 

•  Maith'W  Informs  iig,  chap,  xxvi.  30.  iluil  he  and  hli  apostles  avng  on 
liijmn  ;  and  the  hymn  iiHiially  sun?  by  Ihe  .lews,  upon  that  oreasion,  was 
wlial  Ihry  railed  ''the  (treat  Hallcl,"  consisting  of  the  Psalms  from  the 
cxilith  to  the  cxviiith  ini-lu.sivc. 

■>  BIsho})  Homo  on  the  Psaluis,  vol.  I.  Preface,  pp.  I,— It. 


Sect.  HI.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  PROVERBS. 


245 


rous,  no  part  of  the  OIJ  Testament  being  cited  in  the  New 
so  frequently  as  this  book.  That  those  psahns  which  were 
composed  by  David  himself  were  prophetic,  we  have  David's 
own  authority  :  "  which,"  Bishop  Horsley  remarks,  "  may 
be  allowed  to  overpower  a  host  of  modern  expositors.  For 
thus  King  David,  at  the  close  of  his  life,  describes  himself 
and  his  sacred  songs  :  Davids  the  son  of  Jesse  said,  and  the 
man  who  was  raised  up  mi  high,  the  anointed  of  the  God  of 
Jacob,  and  the  sweet  psalmist  of  Israel,  said.  The  Spirit  of 
Jehovah  spake  by  me,  and  his  word  was  in  my  tongue.  (2  Sam. 
xxiii.  1,2.)  It  was  the  word,  therefore,  of  Jehovah's  Spi- 
rit which  was  uttered  by  David's  tongue.  But,  it  should 
seem,  the  Spirit  of  Jehovah  would  not  be  wanting  to  enable 
a  mere  man  to  make  complaint  oi  his  own  enemies,  to  describe 
his  own  sufferings  just  as  he  felt  them,  and  his  own  escajies 
just  as  they  happened.  But  the  Spirit  of  Jehovah  described, 
by  David's  utterance,  what  was  known  to  that  Spirit  only, 
and  that  Spirit  only  could  describe.  So  that,  if  David  be 
allowed  to  have  had  any  knowledge  of  the  true  subject  of 
his  own  compositions,  it  was  nothing  in  his  own  life,  but 
something  put  into  his  mind  by  the  Holy  Spirit  of  God,  and 
the  misapplication  of  the  Psalms  to  the  literal  David  has 
done  more  mischief  than  the  misapplication  of  any  other 
parts  of  the  Scriptures,  among  those  who  profess  the  belief 
of  the  Christian  religion."' 

For  a  table  of  those  portions  of  the  Psalms  which  are 
strictl}'^  prophetical  of  the  Messiah,  see  V^ol.  1.  Part  I.  Chap. 
IV.  Sect.  II.  §  1. 

X.  The  book  of  Psalms  being  composed  in  Hebrew  verse, 
must  generally  be  studied  and  investigated  agreeably  to  the 
structure  of  Hebrew  poetry ;  but  in  addition  to  the  remarks 
already  offered  on  this  subject,^  there  are  a  few  observations 
more  particularly  applicable  to  these  songs  of  Sion,  which 
will  enable  the  reader  to  enter  more  fully  into  their  force  and 
meaning. 

1.  Investigate  the  .Argument  of  each  Psalm. 

Tltis  is  sometimes  intimated  in  tlie  prefixed  title  :  but  as  these  inscrip- 
tions are  not  always  genuine,  it  will  be  preferable,  in  every  case,  to  deduce 
trie  argument  from  a  diligent  and  altcntive  reading  of  the  psalm  itself,  and 
then  to  form  our  opinion  concerning  the  correctness  of  the  title,  if  there 
be  any. 

2.  TVith  this  viei^  examine  the  Historical  Origin  of  the 
Psalm,  or  the  circnmstances  tliat  led  tlie  sacred  poet  to  com- 
pose it. 

Besides  investigating  the  occasion  upon  which  a  psalm  was  written, 
much  advantage  and  assistance  may  be  derived  from  studying  the  psalms 
chronolugicaUy,  and  comparing  them  with  the  historical  books  of  the  Old 
Testament,  particularly  those  which  treat  of  the  Israelites  and  Jews,  from 
the  origin  of  their  monarchy  to  their  return  from  the  Babylonish  captivity. 
Of  thebenelit  that  may  be' obtained  from  such  a  comparison  of  the  two 
books  of  Samuel,  we  have  already  given  some  striking  examples.' 

3.  Ascertain  the  Author  of  the  Psalm. 

This  is  frequently  intimated  in  the  inscriptions;  but  as  these  are  not  al- 
ways to  be  depended  upon,  we  must  look  for  other  more  certain  criteria 
by  which  to  ascertain  correctly  the  real  author  of  any  psalm.  The  hislori- 
cal  circu77isfances,  which  are  very  frequently  as  well  as  clearly  indicated, 
and  the  poetical  character  impressed  on  the  compositions  of  each  of  the 
inspired  poets,  will  enable  us  to  accomplish  this  very  important  object. 
Let  us  take,  for  instance,  the  Psalms  of  bavid-  Not  only  does  he  allude 
to  his  own  per.sonal  cii-cumstances,  to  the  dangers  to  which  he  was  ex- 
posed, the  persecutions  he  endured,  the  wars  in  which  he  was  engaged, 
his  heinous  sin  again'fet  God,  and  the  signal  blessings  conferred  upon  him  ; 
but  his  psalms  are  further  stamped  with  a  peculiar  character,  by  which, 
if  it  be  carefully  attended  to,  we  may  easily  distinguish  him  from  every 
olher  inspired  author  of  the  Psalms.  Hence  we  find  him  repeating  the 
same  words  and  ideas  almost  perpetually  ;  cotnplaining  of  his  afflictions 
and  troubles;  imploring  help  from  God  in  tlie  most  earnest  supplications  ; 
professing  his  confidence  in  God  in  the  strongest  manner;  rejoicing  in  the 
answers  graciously  vouchsafed  to  hi.s  prayers;  and  labouring  to  express 
his  gratitude  for  all  the  blessings  conferred  upon  him.  Again,  in  what 
ardent  language  docs  he  e.vpress  his  longing  desire  to  behold  the  sanc- 
tuary oftiod,  and  join  with  the  muhitude  of  those  who  kept  holyday  ! 
With  what  animation  does  he  describe  the  soleum  pomp  with  which  the 
ark  was  conducted  to  Jerusalem!  &c.  Of  all  the  sacred  poets,  David  is 
the  most  pleasing  and  tender. 

The  style  of  David  has  been  imitated  by  the  other  psalmists,  who  have 
borrowed  and  incorporated  many  of  his  expressions  and  images  in  their 
odes  ;  but  these  imitations  may  easily  be  distinguished  from  their  arche- 
type, by  theabsence  of  that  elegance  and  force  which  always  characterize 
the  productions  of  an  original  author. 

4.  Atteyid  to  the  Structure  of  the- Psalms. 

The  Psalms,  being  principally  designed  for  the  national  worship  of  the 
Jews,  are  adapted  to  choral  singing;  attention,  therefore,  to  the  choral 
structure  of  these  compositions  will  enable  us  better  to  enter  into  their 
spirit  and  meaning.'  Dr.  Good  has  happily  succeeded  in  showing  tlie 
choral  divisions  of  many  of  these  sacred  poems,  in  his  version  of  the 
Psalms. 


>  Bishop  Horsley 's  Psalms,  vol.  i.  p.  xiv.  Calmet  has  a  very  fine  pas- 
sage on  the  scope  of  ihe  book  of  Psalms,  as  pointing  to  the  Messiah  ;  it  is 
too  long  to  cite,  and  would  be  impaired  by  abridgment.    See  his  Commen- 


tai 


re.  vol.  vi.  pp.  vi.  viii.,  or  Dissertations,  torn.  ii.  pp.  197 — 199. 
» .See  Vol.  1.  Part  11.  Chap.  II.  §  VHl. 


»  See  p.  220.  of  this  volume. 

«  Bauer,  Herm.  Sacr.  pp.  392—391. 


XI.  We  shall  conclude  this  section,  the  importance  of 
whose  subject  must  apologize  for  its  apparently  disproportion- 
ate length,  with  the  following  common  but  very  useful   j 

TABLE    OF   THE    PSALMS, 

classed  according  to  their  several  subjects,  and  adapted  to  tho 
purposes  of  private  devotion. 

^  I.  Prayers. 

1.  Prayers  for  pardon  of  sin,  Psal.  vi.  xxv.  xxxviii.  li.  cxxx.  Psalms 
styled  penitential,  vi.  x.xii.  xx.wiii.  li.  cii.  cxxx.  cxiiii. 

2.  Prayers,  composed  when  the  Psalmist  was  deprived  of  an  oppor- 
tunity of  the  public  exerci.^e  of  religion,  Psal.  xlii.  xliii.  Ixiii.  Ix.xxiv. 

3.  Prayers,  in  which  the  Psalmist  seems  extremely  dejected,  though  not 
totally  deprived  of  consolation,  under  his  afflictions,  Psal.  xiii.  xxii.  Lxix. 
Ixxvii.  Ixx.tviii.  cxiiii. 

4.  Prayers,  in  which  the  Psalmist  asks  help  of  God,  in  consideration  of 
his  own  integrity,  and  the  uprightness  of  his  cause,  Psal.  vii.  xvii.  xxvi. 

XXXV. 

5.  Prayers,  expressing  the  firmest  trust  and  confidence  in  God  under 
afflictions,  Psal.  iii.  xvi.  xxvii.  xxxi.  liv.  Ivi.  Ivii.  Ixi.  Ixii.  Ixxi.  Ixxxvi 

6.  Prayers,  composed  when  the  people  of  God  were  under  afHiction  or 
persecution,  Psal.  xliv.  Ix.  Ixxiv.  Ixxix.  Ixxx.  Ixxxiii.  Ixxxix.  xciv.  cii. 
cxxiii.  cxxxvii. 

7.  The  following  are  likewise  prayers  in  time  of  trouble  and  affliction, 
Psal.  iv.  V.  xi.  xxviii.  xli.  Iv.  lix.  Ixiv.  Ixx.  cix.  cxx.  cxl.  cxli.  cxiiii. 

8.  Pra^-ers  of  intercession,  Psal.  xx.  Ixvii.  cxxii.  cxxxii.  cxliv. 

II.  Psalms  of  Tha7ik8giving. 

1.  Thanksgivings  for  mercies  vouchsafed  to  particular  persons,  Psal.  ix. 
xviii.  xxii.  xxx.  xxxiv.  xl.  Ixxv.  ciii.  cviii.  cxvi.  cxviii.  cxxxviii.  cxliv. 

2,  Thanksgivings  for  mercies  vouchsafed  to  the  Israelites  in  general, 
Psal.  xlvi.  xlviii.  Ixv.  lx-\'i.  Ixviii.  Ixvi.  l.xx.xi.  Ixxxv.  xcviii.  cv.  cxxiv.  c.xxvi. 
cxxi.x.  cxxxv.  c.\xx\'i.  c.xlix. 

III.  Psalms  of  Praise  and  Adoration,  displaying  the  Attri- 
butes of  God. 

1.  General  acknowledgments  of  God's  goodness  and  mercy,  and  par- 
ticularly his  care  and  protection  of  good  men,  Psal.  xxiii.  xxiv.  xxxvl.  xci. 
c.  ciii.  cvii.  cxvii.  cxxi.  cxlv.  cxlvi. 

2.  Psalms  displaying  the  power,  majesty,  glory,  and  other  attributes  of 
the  Divine  Being,  Psal.  viii.  xix.  xxiv.  xxix.  xxxiii.  xlvii.  1  ixv.  Ixvi.  Ixxvi. 
Ix.xvii.  xciii.  xcv.  xcvi.  xcvii.  xcix.  civ.  cxi.  cxiii.  cxiv.  cxv.  cxxxiv.  cxxxix. 
cxlvii.  cxlviii.  cl. 

IV.  Instructive  Psahns. 

1.  The  different  characters  of  good  and  bad  men, — the  happiness  of  the 
one,  and  the  misery  of  the  other, — are  represented  in  the,  following 
psalms : — i.  v.  vii.  ix.  x.  xi.  xii.  xiv.  xv.  xvii.  xxiv.  xxv.  xxxii.  xxxiv.  xxxvi. 
xxxvii.  I.  Iii.  liii.  Iviii.  Ixxii.  Ixxv.  Ixxxiv.  xci.  xcii.  xciv.  cxii.  cxix.  cxvi.  cxxv. 
cx.wii.  cxxviii.  cx.xxiii. 

2.  The  excellence  of  God's  laws,  Psal  xix.  cxix. 

3.  The  vanity  of  human  life,  Psal.  xxxix.  xlix.  xc. 

4.  Advice  to  magistrates,  Psal.  Ixxxii.  ci. 

5.  The  virtue  of  humility,  Psal.  cxxxi. 

V.  Psalms  more  eminently  and  directly  Prophetical, 
Psal.  li.  xvi.  xxii.  xl.  xiv.  Ixviii.  Ixxii.  Ixxxvii.  ex.  cxviii. 

VI.  Historical  Psalms. 
Psal.  Ixxviii.  cv.  cvi. 


SECTION  III. 

ON  THE  BOOK  OF  PROVERBS. 

I.  Title,  author,  and  canonical  authority. — II.  Scope, — IH. 
Synopsis  of  its  contents. — IV.  Observations  on  its  style, 
use,  and  importance. 

I.  The  book  of  Proverbs'  has  always  been  ascribed  to 
Solomon,  whose  name  it  bears,  though,  from  the  frequent 
repetition  of  the  same  sentences,  as  well  as  from  some  vari- 
ations in  style  which  have  been  discovered,  doubts  have  been 
entertained  whether  he  really  was  the  author  of  every  maxim 
it  comprises.  "  The  latter  part  of  it,  from  the  beginning  of 
the  twenty-fifth  chapter,  forming  evidently  an  appendix,  was 
collected  after  his  death,  and  added  to  what  ap])ears  to  have 
been  more  immediately  arranged  by  himself.''^  The  proverbs 
in  the  thirtieth  chapter  are  expressly  called  The  wm-ds  of 
Agar  ihe  son  of  Jakeh  i  and  the  thirty-first  chapter  is  entitled 
The  words  of  king  Lemuel.  It  seems  certain  that  the  collection 
called  the  Proverbs  of  Solomon  was  arranged  in  the  order 
in  which  we  now  have  it  by  different  hands ;  but  it  is  not 
therefore  to  be  concluded  that  they  are  not  the  productions 
of  Solomon,  who,  w^e  are  informed,  spoke"  no  less  than  three 
thousand  proverbs.  (1  Kings  iv.  32.)  As  it  is  nowhere  said 
that  Solomon  himself  made  a  collection  of  proverbs  and 

«  On  the  peculiar  nature  of  the  Hebrew  Proverbs,  see  Vol.  I.  Part  II. 
Chapter  I.  Section  VI. 

«  Extract  from  Dr.  Mason  Good's  unpublished  translation  of  the  Book 
of  Proverbs,  in  Prof.  Gregory's  Memoirs  of  his  Life,  p.  259. 

'  It  is  not  said  that  these  proverbs  were  written  compositions,  but  sim- 
ply that  Solomon  spake  them.  Hence  Mr.  Holden  thinks  it  not  improbable 
that  the  Hebrew  monarch  spoke  them  in  assemblies  collected  for  thepur. 
pose  of  hearing  him  discourse.  Attempt  to  Illustrate  the  Book  of  Eccle 
siastes,  p.  xliv. 


246 


A>Ax.YSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Paht  V.  Chap.  Ill 


sentences,  the  rrencral  opinion  is,  that  several  persons  made 
a  collection  of  them,  perhaps  as  they  were  uttered  by  him. 
Hezekikh,  amon^  others,  as  mentioned  in  the  twenty-fifth 
chapter:  Agur, Isaiah,  and  Ezra  might  have  done  the  same. 
The  Jewish  writers  affirm  that  Solomon  wrote  the  Canticles, 
or  song  bearing  his  name,  in  his  youth,  the  Proverbs  in  his 
rijier  years,  and  Ecclesiastes  in  his  old  asre. 

Michaelis  has  observed,  that  the  book  of  Proverbj  is 
frequently  cited  by  the  apostles,  who  considered  it  as  a  trea- 
sure of  revealed  morality,  whence  Christians  were  to  derive 
their  rules  of  conduct ;  and  the  canonical  authority  of  no 
book  of  the  Old  Testament  is  so  well  ratified  by  tlie  evidence 
of  quotations  as  that  of  the  Proverbs:'  whence  he  justly 
infers  that  every  commentator  on  the  Greek  Testament  ought 
to  be  intimately  acquainted  with  the  Septuagint  version  of 
the  book  of  Proverbs,  and  that  every  Christian  divine  should 
consider  it  as  the  chief  source  of  scriptural  morality .2 

II.  The  Scope  of  this  book  is,  '•  to  instruct  men  in  the 
deepest  mysteries  of  true  wisdom  and  understanding,  the 
height  and  perfection  of  which  is,  the  true  knowledge  of  the 
(iivuie  will,  and  the  sincere  fear  of  the  Lord.  (Prov.  i.  2 — 7. 
ix.  10.)"^  To  this  end,  the  book  is  filled  with  the  choicest 
sententious  aphorisms,  infinitely  surpassing  all  the  ethical 
sayings  of  tlie  ancient  sages,  and  comprising  in  themselves 
distinct  doctrines,  duties,  &c.  of  piety  towards  God,  of  equity 
2nd  benevolence  towards  man,  and  of  sobriety  and  temper- 
ance; together  with  precepts  foif  the  right  education  of 
children,  "and  for  the  relative  situations  of  subjects,  magis- 
trates, and  sovereigns. 

lU.  The  book  of  Proverbs  is  divided  by  Moldenhawer  and 
Heidegger  (whose  arrangement  was  followed  in  the  former 
editions  of  this  work)  into  five  parts :  but  the  late  Dr.  John 
Mason  Good  has  divided  it  into  four  distinct  books  or  parts, 
'*  each  of  which,"  he  observes,  '*  is  distinguished  both  by  an 
obvious  introduction  and  a  change  of  style  and  manner, 
though  its  real  method  and  arrangement  seem,  hitherto,  to 
have  escaped  the  attention  of  our  commentators  and  interpre- 
ters."' . 
Part  I.   T/ic  Prutm  or  Exordium,  (ch.  i. — ix.) 

In  this  part  heavenly  wisdom  and  the  true  knowledge  of  God 
are  set  forth  with  great  copiousness  and  variety  of  expression, 
as  the  only  source  and  foundation  of  true  virtue  and  happi- 
nciw.  "  It  is  chiefly  confined  to  the  conduct  of  juvenesccnce 
or  early  life,  before  a  permanent  condition  is  made  choice  of. . . . 
All  the  most  formidable  dangers  to  which  this  season  of  life  is 
exposed,  and  the  sins  which  most  ea.-ily  bcsrt  it,  aro  ijainlcd 
tkith  the  hand  of  a  master.  And,  whilst  the  progress  and  issues 
of  vice  are  exhibited  under  a  variety  of  the  most  striking  de- 
lineations and  metaphors  in  their  utmont  deformity  and  horror, 
all  the  Wautics  of  languat^c,  and  all  the  force  of  eloquence,  arc 
poured  forth  in  the  diversified  form  of  earnest  expostulation,  in- 
sinuating tenderness,  captivating  argument,  picturesque  descrip- 
tion, daring  personification,  and  subfime  allegory,,  to  win  the 
ingenuous  youth  to  virtue  and  piety,  and  to  fix  him  in  the  steady 
pursuit  of  his  duties  towards  God  and  towards  man.  Virtue  is 
pronounced  in  the  very  outset  to  be  essential  wisdom  ;  and  vice 
or  wickedness,  essential  folly :  and  the  personifications,  thus 
forcibly  struck  out  at  the  opening  of  the  work,  are  continued  to 
its  cLse.  The  only  wise  man,  therefore,  is  declared  to  be  the 
truly  goml  and  virtuous,  or  he  that  fears  God  and  reverences  his 
law  :  whilst  the  man  of  vice  or  wickedness  is  a  fool,  a  dolt,  an 
iijf.ituatcd  sot,  a  stiihborn,  frovvard,  or  perverse  wretch,  and  an 
abomination  to  Jehovah."'  This  portion  of  the  book  of  Pro- 
verbs, says  Bishop  Lowth,  is  varied,  elegant,  sublime,  and  truly 

»  Micliaclis'g  ItitMflnrllnn  to  the  N<!W  TpRtftmenI,  vol.  i.  pp.  207,  209. 

'  Tin:  f<illiiwinE  table  of  llie  ((UoUiliniiK  from  Iho  liook  of  I'rovf  rlis  in 
tlic  '^^  ■  ••  '  iiiicnl  is  civpii  from  Moldonliawcr  (IntruJiiclio  In  Libros 
V.v.  el  NV>v.  Tp.it.  p.  a3.)  and  Uom  Carpiov  Litroductio  ab 

Libi.  ,    og  Vel.  Tc*t.  p.  \!i\. 

Prov.  i.  16.        •       •       -    cit<j(J  in    Uom.  iii.  10.  13. 

Prov.  ill.  7. Iloni.  xii.  10. 

Prov.  iil.  U,  12.  •  -    Heb.  xii  5.  e.  Rev.  iii.  19. 

Pro*.  Hi.  ai.  .        -        •  JnriKH  iv.  6. 

Prov.  X.  xii. 1  Pel.  \t-  >*. 

Prov.  xi.  31. 1  l'«l.  iv.  IS. 

Prov.  xvii.  p.  ....        .    Hoin.  xii  17.  1  Tliens.  v.  I.'').  1  Pet.  iii.  9. 

Prov.  XNii.  27 Jauipt  i  I'.t. 

Prov.  XX.  9 1  John  i  '^. 

Prov.  XX.  2r) Matt,  xv   J.  Marie  vil.  10. 

Prov.  XX.  '.ti.     ■        .        .        .        •     Roni.  xii.  17. 

Prov.  XXV.  Wl Rom.  xii.  !Jt>. 

Prov.  xxvi.  II 2  Pet  II.  2i. 

»  Robcrf<i'»  f'ldvld  niM'onim,  n.  600. 

«  Ui.ssoriRii'in  on  the  Hook  of  I'roverbs,  In  Profe»Bor  Orejory's  Menjolrfl 
of  Dr.  Good.  p.  292. 

»  DlRaartailon  on  the  Book  of  Proverbf,  In  Profe«»or  OtQ%tirj'»  Mo- 
iooirs  of  Or.  Qoud,  p.  291. 


poetical :  the  order  of  the  subject  is,  in  general,  excellently  pr&- 
scr^•cd,  and  the  parts  arc  very  aptly  connected.  It  is  embellished 
with  many  beautiful  descriptions  and  personifications :  the  dic- 
tion is  polished,  and  abounds  witli  all  the  ornaments  of  poetry, 
so  that  it  scarcely  yields  in  elegance  and  splendour  to  any  of 
the  Sacred  Writings.^ 

I'.viiT  II.  To  which  is  prefixed  the  Title  of  "  The  Proverbs 
of  SoUtrnon,^^  comprises  snort  sententious  Declarations  for  the 
Use  of  persons  who  have  advanced  from  Youth  to  Munhotd. 
(ch.  .X. — xxii.  1(3.) 

These  sententious  declarations  arc  generally  unconnected, 
although  sometimes  a  connection  with  the  preceding  sentence 
may  be  discovered.  They  treat  on  the  various  duties  of  man 
towards  God,  and  towards  bis  fcllow-mcn  in  every  station  of 
life.  "  The  great  object  in  each  of  the  proverbs  or  axioms  of  the 
present  part  is,  to  enforce  a  moral  principle  in  words  so  few,  that 
they  may  l>e  easily  learnt,  and  so  curiously  selected  and  arranged, 
that  they  may  strike  and  fix  the  attention  instantaneously  :  whilst 
to  prevent  the  mind  from  becoming  fatigued  by  a  long  series  of 
detached  sentences,  thcj'  are  perpetually  diversified  by  the  most 
playful  changes  of  style  and  figure."' 

Part  III.  Contains  a  Miscellaneous  Collection  of  Proverbs, 
principally  relating  to  rich  Men  and  Nobles,  (ch.  xxii.  17. 
— xxiv.) 

Part  IV.  "/s  a  Posthumous  appendix,  consisting  of  various 
Parabolic  Compositions,  written  and  communicated  by  Solo- 
mon on  different  Occasions,  but  jxcver  published  by  himself 
in  an  arranged  Form ;  yet  altogether  worthy  of  the  Place 
they  hold  in  the  Sacred  Scriptures^^  (ch.  xxv. — xxxi.) 

Sect.  1.  Comprises  a  collection  of  Solomon's  Proverbs,  which 
(as  the  title  shows,  xxv.  1.)  was  made  by  the  learned  under 
the  reign  of  Hezekiah.  (xxv. — xxix.)  The  proverbs  in  this 
section  are  unconnected,  and  some  of  them  are  repetitions 
of  the  moral  ai)horisms  which  are  delivered  in  the  former 
part  of  the  hook. 
Sect.  2.  Is  compo-sed  of  the  ethical  precepts  delivered  by 

"  Agur  the  son  of  Jakeh"  to  his  friends  Ithiel  and  Ucal. 
That  Agur,  Jakeh,  Ithiel,  and  Ucal,  are  proper  names,  admits 
of  no  contradiction,  though  it  is  iinpossiUe  at  this  distance  of 
time  to  ascertain  who  they  were.  Jerome  mistook  the  proper 
name  Agur  for  an  appellative,  and  in  the  Latin  A''ulgate  has 
translated  the  expression  thus,  without  any  meaning: — *■  Verba 
Congregantis,  filii  Vomcntis,"  which,  in  the  Anglo-Romish  ver- 
sion from  the  Vulgate,  is  with  equal  unintclligibility  rendered, 
"  The  Words  of  Gatherer,  the  son  of  A'omiter."  Some  critics 
arc  of  opinion,  ihut,  by  Jakob,  David  is  meant,  and  by  Agur, 
Solomon  ;  and  some  fanciful  expositors  think  that  Ithiel  and  Ucal 
mean  Christ :  but  these  hypotho.sps  are  cvainiiied  and  refuted  by 
Mr.  Holdcn.9  The  same  close  observniion  of  nature,  and  sen- 
tentious form,  which  characterize  the  precepts  of  Solomon,  are 
to  be  found  in  the  proverbs  of  Agur,  wlio!;c  admirable  prayer 
(xxx.  7 — 0.)  will  ever  be  justly  admired  for  its  piety,  and  for 
the  contented  spirit  which  it  breathes.  It  exactly  corresponds 
with  the  jietition  in  the  Lord's  Prayer — Give  us  this  day  rc> 
UfT.v  n/Awir-.y  eri'MTM, — not  oitr  daili/  bread, — hut  bread  or  food 
siijfirieut  for  7/s.'" 

Sect.  3.  Contains  the  admonitions  given  to  King  Lemuel"  by 
his  mother  a  queen,  when  be  was  in  the  flower  of  youth 
and  high  expectation,  (xxxi.) 
These  admonitory  verses  "  arc  an   inimitable  production,  as 
well  in  respect  to  their  netiial  materials,  as  the  delicacy  with  which 
they  arc  selected.     Instead  of  attem|)ting  to  lay  down  riiJes  con« 
ccrning  matters  of  state  and  political  government,  tlie  illustrious 
writer  confines  hrrsrlf.  with  the  nicest  andmost  l)ecoming  art,  to 
a  recommendation  of  the  «eullcr  virtues  of  temperance,  iH-nevo- 
leiice,  and  mercy  ;  and  a  minute  and  unparalleled  delineation  of 
the  female  character,  which  mi>»ht  bid  fairest  to  promote  the  hap- 
piness of  her  son  in  connubial   life.      The  description,  though 
strictly  in  consonance  with  the  domestic  economy  of  the  highest 
sphere  of  life,  in  the  early  jieriod  referred  to,  and  especially  in 
the  East,  is  of  universal  application,  and  cannot  bo  studied  too 


n  IlHtircw  Poetry,  by  Dr.  Orofory,  vol.  li.  p.  IM. 
(;r.'Kory's  M<  inoirs  of  Dr.  G.mmI,  p.  293.     In   np.  299—303, 
lirably  eliici'luiud  the  beauUful  chonees  of  style  In  Uio  tlUrd 


«  Lectures  on  nntircw  Poetry,  by  Dr.  Oroforjr,  voj^li.  p^  IM. 

1  ProfoHsor  (i 

Dr.  G.  has  Hilmir - 

part  of  Ihc  book  of  rroverb*. 

•  ibi.i.  p.  :«>.",. 

•  Trim.slaiioii  of  the  Rook  of  Proverbs,  pp.  xvil.— juv.  36C,  3C7. 
i»  Ibid,  p  372. 

•  «  SoiMi-  i-rliIcK  have  conjccUirpd  thai  I.«>inunl  is  another  name  for  Solo- 
mon ;  but  tliis  hypothesis  ia  Haiinfactorily  rrfulpd  by  Mr.  Holden,  in  hla 
Altempl  inwards  .in  Itnprovcil  Trannlalion  of  the  Boolc  of  Proverbs,  "Pra- 
liuiinary  Dissurtaiion,"  pp.  xviii.— jliv. 


StCT.  IV.] 


closely."'  In  the  exquisite  description  of  a  virtuous  woman, 
in  xxxi.  10 — 31.,  the  initial  letters  of  the  verses  follow  the  order 
of  the  Hebrew  alphabet. 

IV.  The  Proverbs  of  Solomon  hold  a  conspicuous  rank 
among  the  metrical  books  of  the  Old  Testament.  Not  only 
are  they  admirably  adapted  to  convey  instruction  by  the 
treasures  of  practical  wisdom  which  they  open  to  us,  but 
they  also  afford  us  a  noble  specimen  of  the  didactic  poetiy 
of  the  Hebrews,  the  nature  of  v/hich  they  enable  us  to  un- 
derstand by  means  of  the  antithetic  parallels  with  which  they 
abound.2  Much,  indeed,  of  the  elegance,  acuteness,  and 
force,  which  are  discernible  in  Solomon's  wise  sayings,  is 
derived  from  the  antithetic  form,  the  opposition  of  diction 
and  sentiment.  Hence  a  careful  attention  to  the  parallelism 
of  members  (which  topic  has  already  been  largely  discussed 
in  the  first  volume  of  this  work)  will  contribute  to  remove 
that  obscurity  in  which  some  of  the  proverbs  appear  to  be 
involved.  Sometimes,  also,  one  member  or  part  of  a  pro- 
verb must  be  supplied  from  the  other ;  or,  as  Glassius  has 
expressed  it  in  other  words,  sometimes  one  thing  is  expressed 
in  one  member,  and  another  in  the  other,  and  yet  both  are  to 
be  understood  in  both  members.  Thus,  in  Prov.  x.  14.  we 
read, 

Wise  men  lay  up  knowledge  : 

But  the  mouth  of  the  fooliih  is  near  destruction. 

The  meaning  of  which  is,  that  vv-ise  men  communicate,  for 
the  benefit  of  others,  the  wisdom  they  have  acquired  and 
preserved ;  while  fools,  being  destitute  of  that  knowledge, 
soon  exhaust  their  scanty  stock,  and  utter  not  merely  useless 
but  even  injurious  things.     Again, 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  ECCLESIASTES.  247 

against  themselves  to  be  inserted  in  the  sacred  canon ;  and 


A  wise  son  maketh  a  glad  father  : 
But  a  foolish  son  is  the  heaviness  of  his  mother. 

Prov. 


X.  1. 


Both  the  father  and  mother  are  to  be  understood  in  the  two 
members  of  this  passage,  although  in  the  first  the  father  only 
is  noticed,  and  in  the  second  the  mother  only  is  mentioned. 
Lastly,  many  things  which  are  spoken  generally,  are  to  be 
restrained  to  particular  individuals  and  circumstances :  as, 
however,  this  rule  has  already  been  illustrated  at  length,  it 
will  not  be  necessary  to  multiply  additional  examples.^  The 
author,  with  much  pleasure,  refers  his  readers  to  the  Rev. 
Mr.  Holden's  "Attempt  towards  an  Improved  Translation  of 
the  Proverbs  of  Solomon,"  with  Notes,  as  the  best  critical 
help  to  an  exact  understanding  of  this  fine  compendium  of 
ethics  that  is  extant  in  the  English  language. 


I. 


SECTION  IV. 

ON   THE    BOOK    OF   ECCLESIASTES. 

Title,  author,  and  canonical  authority. — II.  Scope  and 
si/Jiopsis. — III.  Observations.  « 

The  title  of  this  book  in  our  Bibles  is  derived  from  the 
Septuagint  version,  EKKAHSTasths  signifying  a  preacher, 
or  one  who  harangues  a  public  congregation.  In  Hebrew 
it  is  termed,  from  the  initial  word  rhr\:t  (KOHeLCTH),  "  the 
Preacher;"  by  whom  may  be  intended,  either  the  person 
assembling  the  people,  or  he  who  addresses  them  when 
convened.  Although  this  book  does  not  bear  the  name  of 
Solomon,  it  is  evident  from  several  passages  that  he  was  the 
author  of  it.  Compare  ch.  i.  12.  16.  ii.  4 — 9.  and  xii.  9, 10. 
The  celebrated  Rabbi  Kimchi,  however,  ascribes  it  to  the 
prophet  Isaiah;  and  the  Talmudical  writers  to  Hezekiah, 
Grotius,  from  some  foreign  expressions  which  he  thinks  are 
discoverable  in  it,  conceives  that  it  was  composed  by  order 
of  Zerubbabel  for  his  son  Abihud ;  ,Tahn,  after  some  later 
German  critics,  for  the  same  reason,  thinks  it  was  written 
after  the  Babylonish  captivity ;  and  Zirkel  imagines  that  it 
was  composed  about  the  time  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  from 
some  traces  of  the  notions  of  the  Pharisees  and  Sadducees 
which  he  conceives  he  has  discovered  in  this  book,  and 
a^inst  which  he  supposes  it  to  be  directed.^  But  it  is  not 
likely  that  those  Jewish  sects  would  permit  a  work  levelled 

1  Dr.  Good's  Dissertation  on  the  Book  of  Proverbs,  in  Dr.  Gregory's 
Memoirs  of  his  Life,  p  30.J. 

»  On  the  Nature  of  the  Scripture  Proverbs,  see  Vol.  I.  Part  II.  Book  II. 
Chap.  I.  Sect.  VI. 

3  See  Vol.  I.  Part  II.  Book  II.  Chap.  VI.  Sect.  I. 

*  Theopinion  of  these  and  of  other  vyriters  are  satisfactorily  refuted  by 
the  Rev.  Mr.  Holden,  in  his  "  Attempt  to  Illustrate  the  Book  of  Ecclesias- 
es."    (8^'o.  London,  1822.)  Preliminary  Discourse,  pp.  v.— xxviii. 


With  regard  to  the  foreign  expressions  alleged  by  Grotius 
(supposing  alt  of  them  to  be  really  foreign  expressions, 
which,  however,  is  not  the  case),'  their  appearance  may  be 
accounted  for  by  the  circumstance  of  Solomon's  having  in- 
dulged in  sinful  intercourse  "with  strange  women"  (1  Kino-s 
xi.  1,  2.),  whose  language  he  probably  acquired.  '^ 

The  beautiful  descriptions  which  this  book  contains  of  the 
phenomena  in  the  natural  world,  and  their  causes,  of  the 
circulation  of  the  blood  (as  the  late  Bishop  Horsley  thouo-ht),* 
and  of  the  economy  of  the  humau  frame,  all  show  itlto  be 
the  work  of  a  philosopher.  It  is  generally  supposed  to  have 
beeii  written  by  Solomon  in  his  old  age,  alter  he  had  repented 
of  his  sinful  practices,  and  when,  having  seen  and  observed 
much,  as  well  as  having  enjoyed  every  thing  that  he  could 
wish,  he  was  fully  convinced  of  the  vanity  of  every  thing 
except  piety  towards  God.  The  Rabbinical  writers  inform  us^ 
and  their  account  is  corroborated  by  Jerome,  that  the  Jews, 
who,  after  the  captivity,  collected  the  Inspired  Writings  into 
the  canon,  at  first  refused  to  admit  this  book  into  the  sacred 
code,  in  consequence  of  some  heresies  and  contradictions, 
which,  from  inattention  to  the  author's  scope  and  design, 
they  imagined  to  exist  in  it.  But,  after  considering  the  ex- 
pressions it  contains  towards  the  close,  relative  to  the  fear 
of  God  and  the  observation  of  his  laws,  they  concluded  to 
receive  it ;  and  its  canonical  authority  has  been  recognised 
ever  since.  There  can,  indeed,  be  no  doubt  of  its  title  to 
admission :  Solomon  was  eminently  distinguished  by  the 
illumination  of  the  divine  Spirit,  and  had  even  twice  wit- 
nessed the  divine  presence.  (1  Kings  iii.  5.  ix.  2.  xi.  9.) 
The  tendency  of  the  book  is  excellent  when  rightly  under 
stood ;  and  Solomon  speaks  in  it  with  great  clearness  of  the 
revealed  truths  of  a  future  life  and  of  a  future  judgment.' 

Bishop  Lowth  has  classed  this  hook  among  the  didactic 
poetry  of  the  Hebrews  :  but  Mr.  Des  Voeux^  considers  it  as 
a  philosophical  discourse  written  in  a  rhetorical  style,  and 
interspersed  with  verses,  which  are  introduced  as  occasion 
served  ;  whence  it  obtained  a  place  among  the  poetical  books. 
To  this  opinion  Bishop  Lowth  subsequently  declared  his 
assent. 

II.  The  Scope  of  this  book  is  explicitly  announced  in  ch. 
i.  2.  and  xiii.  13,,  viz.  to  demonstrate  the  vanity  of  all  earthly 
objects,  and  to  draw  off  men  from  the  pursuit  of  them,  as  an 
apparent  good,  to  the  fear  of  God,  and  communion  with  him, 
as  to  the  highest  and  only  permanent  good  in  this  life,  and 
to  show  that  men  must  seek  for  happiness  beyond  the  grave. 
We  may  therefore  consider  it  as  an  inquiry  into  that  most 
important  and  disputed  question, — W^hat  is  the  Sovereign 
Good  of  man, — that  which  is  ultimately  good,  and  which  in 
all  its  bearings  and  relations  is  conducive  to  the  best  inte- 
rests of  man  I  What  is  that  good  for  the  sons  of  men,  which 
they  should  do  under  the  heaven  all  the  days  of  their  life? 
(ii.  3.)  "This  is  the  object  of  the  preacher's  inquiry;  and, 
after  discussing  various  erroneous  opinions,  he  finally  deter- 
mines that  it  consists  in  True  Wisdom.  The  scope  of  the 
whole  argument,  therefore,  is  the  praise  and  recommendation 
of  WisDo.M,  as  the  supreme  good  to  creatures  responsible  for 
their  actions.  In  this  wisdom  is  not  included  a  single  par- 
ticle of  that  which  is  worldly  and  carnal,  so  frequently  pos- 
sessed by  men  addicted  to  vice,  the  minions  of  avarice,  and 
the  slaves  of  their  passions  ;  but  that  which  is  from  above, 
that  which  is  holy,  spiritual,  and  undefiled,  and  which,  in 
the  writings  of  Solomon,  is  but  another  word  for  Religion. 
Guided  by  this  clue,  we  can  easily  traverse  the  intricate 

«  Of  the  four  words  which  Grotius  asserts  to  be  foreign,  viz.  TO  (sir)  a 
THORN,  Eccl.  vii.  6.  nJ'3X  (ABJONaH)  desire,  xii.  5.,  "Itffl  (PosnaR)  to  inter- 
pret, viii.  1.,  and  XDU  (gumotz)  a  pit,  x.  8., — two  only  can  at  all  be  con- 
sidered as  belonging  to  his  argument ;  for  the  Jirst  occurs  in  Exod.  xTi.  3. 
and  2  Kings  iv.  39.  (Heb.),  and  the  second  may  be  derived  from  the  He- 
brew root  n3«  (AsaH)  to  wish:  and  although  the  last  two  are  at  present 
only  to  be  found  in  the  Chaldee.  it  does  not  therefore  necessarily  follow 
that  they  are  not  Hebrew,  for  how  many  other  words  are  there  in  the  He- 
brew language,  the  roots  of  which  are  now  only  to  be  found  in  the  kindred 
Arabic  or  Chaldee  dialect  t  And  if  they  shall  be  deemed  genuine  Hebrew 
words,  there  surely  is  no  reason  why  the  last  two  words  above  cited  should 
not  equally  be  true  and  proper  Hebrew.  It  is  indeed  wonderful,  as  Wit- 
sius  has  long  ago  remarked,  to  observe  of  what  trilling  pretexts  learned 
men  sometimes  avail  themselves,  in  order  to  support  paradoxes.  (Witsii, 
Miscellanea  Sacra,  lib.  i.  p.  227.  Alber,  Intcrpretatio  Scripturae,  torn.  viii. 
p.  189.)  But  the  philological  speculations  of  Grotius  are  surpassed  by 
those  of  the  late  Professor  Eicnhorn,  which  are  satisfactorily  refuted  fey 
Mr.  Holden  in  his  translation  of  Ecclesiastes,  Prel.  Diss.  p.  xiii. 

«  Bp.  Horsley's  Sermons,  vol.  iii.  pp.  189,  190.  Mr.  Holden  has  refuted 
this  hypothesis,  Ecclesiastes,  pp.  173,  174. 

'  Carpzov,  Introd.  ad  Libros  Vet.  Test,  part  ii.  p.  222.  Bp.  Gray's  Key, 
P-292.  ,     . 

8  In  his  "Philosophical  and  Critical  Essay  on  the  Book  of  Ecclesiastos,' 
4to.  London,  1760. 


248 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Pau-c  V.  Chap.  H* 


winding  and  mazes  in  which  so  many  commentators  upon 
the  Ecclesiastes  have  been  lost  and  bewildered.  By  keep- 
ing- steadily  in  view  the  preacher's  object,  to  eulogize 
Heavenly  Wisdom,  the  whole  admits  of  an  easy  and  natural 
interpretation;  light  is  diffused  around  its  obscurities;  con- 
nection is  discovered  in  that  which  was  before  disjointed; 
the  argument  receives  additional  force,  the  sentiments  new 
beauty  ;  and  every  part  of  the  discourse,  when  considered  in 
reference  to  this  object,  tends  to  develope  the  nature  of  True 
Wisdom,  to  display  its  excellence,  or  to  recommend  its  ac- 
quirement. 

"  Hence  he  commences  with  the  declaration  that  all  is  va- 
nity,^  which  is  not  to  be  understood  as  implying  any  censure 
upon  the  works  of  creation,  for  God  does  nothing  in  vain, 
everything  being  properly  adapted  to  its  end,  and  excellently 
fitted  to  (fisplay  the  power,  wisdom,  and  goodness  of  the 
Almifhty.  Yet  when  the  things  of  this  ^yorld  are  applied 
to  improper  purposes ;  when  they  are  considered  as  the  end, 
while  they  are  only  intended  to  be  the  means ;  and  are  rested 
in  as  the  source  of  happiness  which  they  were  not  designed 
to  afford,  vanity  is  discovered  to  be  their  character;  that 
which  is  most  excellent  becomes  useless,  if  not  injurious,  by 
the  abuse ;  and  the  works  of  Omnipotence,  however  wise  and 
good  in  themselves,  are  unprofitable  to  those  who  misuse  and 
pervert  them.  It  were  a  kind  of  blasphemy  to  vilify  what- 
ever lias  proceeded  from  Omniscient  Power ;  and  Solomon 
can  only  oe  supposed  to  pronounce  all  things  here  below 
vain,  wlien  they  are  applied  to  a  wrong  use,  by  the  ignorance 
and  wickedness  of  man.  Nor  does  he  so  denonunate  all 
things  universally  and  without  any  exception,  but  only  all 
eartRly  things,  as  wealth,  pleasure,  pomp,  luxury,  power,  and 
whatever  is  merely  human  and  terrestrial.  If  these  are 
placed  in  competition  with  divine  and  heavenly  things,  or 
are  foolishly  regarded  as  the  means  of  real  happiness,  they 
become  useless  and  un])rofitable,  because  they  are  uncertain 
and  transitory,  never  fully  satisfying  the  desires  of  the  soul, 
nor  producing  permanent  felicity.  If  worldly  things  are 
vain  in  these  respects,  it  would,  nevertheless,  be  presumption 
and  impiety  to  represent  them  as  actually  bad.  They  are 
good  in  themselves,  and,  when  rightly  used,  tend  only  to 
pood,  since  they  contribute  to  the  enjoyment  of  life,  and,  in 
an  eminent  degree,  to  the  ultimate  and  real  interest  of  man. 
But  if  they  are  pursued  as  the  only  'portion  in  this  life,'  as 
constituting  the  happiness  of  beings  formed  for  immortality, 
they  are  not  estimated  on  right  principles,  and  the  result  will 
bo  vexation  and  disappointment.  Their  vanity  then,  arises 
from  the  folly  and  baseness  of  men,  who,  in  forgetfulness  of 
etf-rnitv,  are  too  apt  to  retrard  this  world  as  their  sole  and 
final  abode,  and  to  expect  that  satisfaction  from  them  wliich 
they  cannot  give.  Nor  are  they  to  be  condemned  on  this 
account.  Tliat  they  are  insufficient  to  render  man  happy  is 
itself  the  ordination  of  Infinite  Wisdom,  and,  consequently, 
best  suited  to  a  probationary  state ;  wisely  calculated  for  thi^ 
trial  of  man's  virtue,  and,  by  weaning  him  from  too  fond 
attachment  to  tilings  on  earth,  to  stimulate  his  desires  and 
exertions  after  the  blessedness  of  another  life. 

"  In  prosecuting  iiis  inquiry  into  the  (Uiief  Good,  Solomon 
has  divided  his  work  into  two  parts.  The  first,  wliich  ex- 
tends to  the  tenth  verse  of  the  sixth  chapter,  is  taken  up  in 
demonstralintr  the  vanity  of  all  earthly  conditions,  occupa- 
tions, and  pleasures;  the  second  part,  which  includes  the 
remainder  of  the  book,  is  occupied  in  eulogizing  W  isnoM, 
and  in  describing  its  nature,  Us  excellence,  its  beneficial 
effects.  This  division,  indeed,  is  not  adhered  to  throughout 
with  logical  accuracy ;  some  deviations  from  strict  method 
arc  allowable  in  a  popular  discourse ;  and  the  author  occa- 
sionally diverges  to  topics  incidentally  suggested  ;  but,  amidst 
these  dirrressions,  the  distinctions  of  the  two  parts  cannot 
escape  tlie  attentive  reader.  It  is  not  the  manner  of  the 
sacred  writers  to  form  their  discourses  in  a  regular  series  of 
deductions  and  concatenated  arguments  :  ibi-y  ad(»i)t  a  species 
of  composition,  less  logical  indeed,  but  better  adapted  to 
common  capacities,  in  which  the  subject  is  still  ke|)t  in  view, 
though  not  handled  according  to  the  rules  of  dialectics. 
Even  St.  I'.iul,  whose  reasoning  powers  are  un(|iU!stionable, 
frequently  digresses  from  his  subject,  breaks  oil  ahriiplly  in 
the  middle  of  his  argument,  and  departs  from  the  strictness 

<  Tlic  finest  rommenfary  on  this  nphoriiim,  Vanity  of  vnm'tirn,  nil  it 
Ta-iitu,  was  unintciitiiinally  fiirninli'-d  by  llic  I^itn  rrli-bmlpil  K.irl  of  (Jhi-ii- 
1-1  iM'fil  in  one  of  Ilia  pomhiiiiioiis  lettem.  See  the  i)aKiiair<!  nt  li'tiifdi  In 
His'ioii  11>}TD'}'K  Work*,  VI. 1  V.  <)i«cour<»e  xtii.  pp.  1*V— l-ff.,  win  re  (tii- 
fruti'ful  picture,  exhibiie'l  liy  s  'lyliii?  iimn  of  the  worlJ,  li  clniirubJr  lui- 
pruvcil  tu  lite  cilificaliuu  o(  llic  rcaiJ>;r. 


of  order  and  arrangement.  In  the  same  way  has  the  roya( 
preacher  treated  the  subject;  not  with  exact,  phiior.oDhicii 
method,  but  in  a  free  and  popular  manner,  giving  an  uncoi 
trolled  range  to  his  capacious  intellect,  and  suffering  hinisnif 
to  be  borne  along  by  the  exuberance  of  his  thoughts  ar-f 
the  vehemence  of  nis  feelings.  But,  though  the  method leaj 
disposition  of  his  ideas  is  occasionally  interrupted,  his  plan 
is  still  discernible;  and  perhaps  he  never  wanders  more  irom 
his  principal  object  than  most  of  the  other  writers  in  the 
Sacred  Volume. 

For  the  preceding  view  of  the  scope  of  this  admirably 
instructive  oook,  the  author  is  indebted  to  Mr.  Ilolden^ 
learned  and  elaborate  attempt  to  illustrate  it.^  The  following 
Synopsis  (which  is  also  borrowed  from  Mr.  Holden)  \iiV. 
give  the  reader  a  clear  view  of  its  design : — 

Part  I.  The  vanity  of  all  earthly  conditions  occupa 

TIONS,  AND  PLEASURES. 

Sect.  I.  The  vanity  of  all  earthly  things,  (i.  2.) 

Sect.   H.    The   unprofitableness   of  human  labour,  and  the 

transitorincss  of  human  life.  (i.  3 — 11.) 
Sect.    IIL  Tlie  vanity  of  laborious  inquiries  into  the  ways 

and  works  of  man.  (i.  12 — 18.) 
Sect.  IV.  Luxury  and  pleasure  arc  only  vanity  and  vexation 

of  spirit,   (ii.  1 — 11.) 
Sect.  V.  Though  the  wise  excel  fools,  yet,  as  death  happens 

to  them  both,  human  learning  is  but  vanity,  (ii.  12 — 17.) 
Sect.  VI.  The  vanity  of  human  labour,  in  leaving  it  they 

know  not  to  whom.  (ii.  18 — 23.)' 
Sect.  VII.    The  emptiness  of  sensual  enjoyments,    (ii.  24 

— 2G.) 
Sect.  VIII.  Though  there  is  a  proper  time  for  ihe  execution 

of  all  human  purposes,  yet  are  they  useless  and  vain ;  tho 

divine  counsels,  however,  arc  immutable,  (iii.  1 — M.) 
Sect.   IX.    The  vanity  of  human  pursuits  proved  from  the 

wickedness  prevailing  in  courts  of  justice,  contrasted  with 

the  righteous  judgment  of  God.  (iii.  15 — 17.) 
Sect.  X.  Though  life,  con.'jidcrcd  in  itself,  is  vanity,  for  men 

die  as  well  as  beasts,  yet  in  the  end,  it  will  be  very  different 

with  the  spirit  of  man  and  that  of  beasts,   (iii.  18 — 22.) 
Sect.  XI.  ^'anity  is  increased  unto  men  by  oppression,  (iv. 

1-3.) 
Sect.  XII.  The  vanity  of  prosperity,  (iv.  4.) 
Sect.  XIII.  The  vanity  of  folly,  or  of  preferring  the  world  to. 

True  Wisdom,  (iv.  5,  6.) 
Sect.  XIV.  The  vanity  of  covetousness.  (iv.  7,  8.) 
Sect.  XV.  Though  society  has  its  advantages,  yet  dominion 

and  empire  are  but  vanity,   (iv.  9 — 16.) 
Sect.  XVI.  Errors  in  the   performance  of  divine  worship, 

which  render  it  vain  and  unprofitable,  (v.  1 — 7.) 
Sect.  XVII.    The    vanity  of   murnniring  at  injustice ;    for 

though  the  oppression  of  the  poor  and  the  perversion  of 

judgment  greatly  prevail,  they  do  not  escape  the  notice  of 

the  Almi^ihty.   (v.  8,  9.) 
Sect.  XVIII.  The  vanity  of  riches;  with  an  admonition  as 

to  the  moderate  enjoyment  of  them.   (v.  10 — 20.) 
Sect.  XIX.  The  vanity  of  avarice,  (vi.  1 — 9.) 

Part  II.  The  nature,  excellence,  and  beneficial  effects 

OF    WISDOM    OU    Ri:LICilON. 

Sect.  XX.  Since  all  human  designs,  labours  and  enjoyments 

arc  vain,  it  is  natural  to  imjuire.  What  is  gorn\  for  man  ? 

What  is  his  Supreme  Good  ]   (vi.  10 — 12.)     Tho  answer 

is  contained  in  the  remainder  of  the  book. 
Skct.  XXI.  The  praise  of  character  and  reputation,  (vii.  1.) 
Sect.   XXII.  Affliction    improves   the  heart,   and  exults   the 

chararter  of  the  wise.   (vii.  2 — 10.) 
Sect.  XXIII.  The  excellence  of  Wisdom,  (vii.  11  —  14.) 
Sect.  XXIV.  An  objection,  with  the  answer,  (vii.  1.5.  viii.  7.) 
Sect.  XXV.  Tho  evil  of  wickedness  shows  the  advantage  of 

True  Wisdom,  (viii.  8—13.) 
Sect.  XXVI.  An  objection,  with  the  answer,  (viii.  14.  ix.  1.) 
Sk(  T.  XXVII.  An  objection,  with  the  answer,  (ix.  2.  x.  17.) 
S«T.  XXVIII.  The  bniiefuluess  of  sloth,   (x.  18.) 
Sect.  -V.XIX.  The  power  of  weallb.  (x.  19.) 
Sect.  XXX.  An  exhortation  against  sjieaking  evil  of  digni 

lies.   (x.  20.) 
Sect.  .VXXI.  Exhortation  to  charity  and  benevolence,  (xi 

1  —  10.) 

»  Prcliui.  Diaa.  pp.  Uv.  Uvlii.— ImU. 


Sect.  V.] 


ON.  THE  SONG  OF  SOLOMON. 


249 


Sect.  XXXII.  An  exhortation  to  the  early  cultivation  of  re- 
ligious habits,    (xiii.  1 — 7.) 
Skct.  XXXIII.  The  conclusion,  (xii.  8— 14.)i 

III.  Bishop  Lowth  pronounces  the  style  of  this  book  to 
be  singular :  its  language  is  generally  low,  frequently  loose 
and  unconnected,  approaching  to  the  incorrectness  of  conver- 
sation; and  it  possesses  very  little  poetical  character,  even 
in  the  composition  and  structure  of  the  periods :  which  pe- 
culiarity, he  thinks,  may  be  accounted  for  from  the  nature 
of  the  subject.  Leusden  says,  that  in  his  time  (the  close  of 
the  seventeenth  century)  the  book  of  Ecclesiastcs  was  read 
in  the  Jewish  synagogues  on  the  feast  of  tabernacles  ;  be- 
cause, as  that  feast  commemorates  the  gladness  and  content 
with  which  their  forefathers  dwelt  in  tents,  so  this  book, 
while  it  shows  the  vanity  of  all  earthly  things,  inculcates  on 
every  one  the  duty  of  rejoicing  and  being  content  with  such 
tilings  as  God  in  his  providence  thinks  fit  to  bestow. 


SECTION  V. 


ON   THE   SONG   OF   SOLOMON. 


I.  Author. — n.  Canonical  authority. — III.  Structure  of  the 
poem. — Its  subject  and  scope. — The  Song^  of  Solomon  a 
sublime  mystical  allegory. 

Few  poems  have  excited  more  attention,  or  have  found 
more  translators  and  commentators,  than  the  Song  of  Songs,- 
but  the  learned  are  not  yet  agreed  respecting  its  arrangement 
and  design.  The  majority  consider  it  as  an  inspired  book, 
and  certainly  on  the  best  evidence,  while  others  affirm  it  to 
be  merely  a  human  composition :  the  former  regard  it  as  a 
sacred  allegory;  the  latter,  as  a  mere  amatory  effusion. 

I.  In  addition  to  other  divine  compositions  of  Solomon, 
we  are  informed  (1  Kin^s  iv.  32.)  that  his  songs  were  a  thou- 
sand and  Jive,  of  which  the  present  book  is  supposed  to  be  one. 
In  the  first  verse  it  is  called,  by  way  of  eminence  and  dis- 
tinction, according  to  the  Hebrew  idiom  aniiyn  -\^s^  (shir 
hashirim),  that  is,  a  Song  of  So7igs,  or,  the  most  beautiful 
Song.  Of  this  ancient  poem  the  author  is  asserted,  by  the 
unanimous  voice  of  antiquitjs  to  have  been  Solomon;  and 
this  tradition  is  corroborated  Ijy  many  internal  marks  of  au- 
thenticity .2  In  the  very  first  verse  it  is  ascribed  to  the  He- 
brew monarch  by  name  :  he  is  the  subject  of  the  piece,  and 
the  principal  actor  in  the  conduct  of  it.  Allusions  are  made 
to  the  rich  furniture  of  his  palace  (i.  5.)  ;  to  the  horses  and 
chariots  which  he  purchased  of  Pharoah  king  of  Egypt  (i.  9. 
compared  with  1  Kings  x.  28,  29.)  ;  to  Aminadab,  who  was 
eminent  for  such  chariots,  and  who  married  one  of  Solomon's 
daughters  (vi.  12.  with  1  Kings  iv.  11.) ;  to  his  building  of 
the  temple  under  the  figure  of  a  palanquin  or  coach  for  his 
bride  (iii.  9,  10.)  ;  to  the  materials  of  which  it  was  formed. 
In  short,  all  the  leading  circumstances  in  Solomon's  life,  in 
a  religious  point  of  view,  appear  to  be  either  alluded  to  or 
implied  in  this  ancient  poem,  and,  therefore,  render  it  proba- 
ble that  it  was  the  production  of  some  writer  in  his  age,  if 
it  were  not  his  own  composition.  From  the  occun-ence, 
however,  of  a  few  Aramaean  words,  some  later  critics  have 
imagined  that  this  book  was  written  in  the  latter  years  of 
the  Jewish  monarchy,  not  long  before  the  captivity ;  but  this 
conjecture  is  repelled  by  the  internal  evidences  above  cited 
in  favour  of  Solornon ;  and  the  occasional  appearance  of 
Arama;an  words  will  be  satisfactorily  accounted  for  when  we 
recollect  the  extensive  commercial  intercourse  that  existed  be- 
tween Solomon  and  the  neighbouring  nations.  Dr.  Kennicott 
was  of  opinion  that  this  poem  is  many  ages  later  than  Solo- 
mon, from  the  uniform  insertion  of  the  yod  in  all  copies,  in 
spelling  the  name  of  David ;  but  this  remark  is  not  conclusive, 
for  the  name  of  David  occurs  but  once  (iv.  4.)  :  and,  after  it 
had  been  written  erroneously  by  a  scribe  in  the  time  of  Ezra, 
it  might  have  been  inadvertently  copied  by  a  subsequent 
transcriber.^ 

«  Prelim.  Diss.  pp.  cix.  ex.  Mr.  Des  Voeux,  in  his  learned  and  inge- 
nious work  on  Ecclesiastes,  was  of  opinion  that  the  royal  author's  design  was 
to  prove  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  or  rather  the  necessity  of  another 
State  after  this  life,  by  such  arguments  as  may  be  deduced  from  reason  and 
experience.  But  Mr.  Holden  has  satisfactorily  sliown  that  this  is  not  the 
primary  design  of  the  book  in  question  ;  though  it  contains  some  strong 
proofs  of  this  article  of  religious  faith.     See  his  Prelim.  Diss.  pp.  xlvii.— Ix. 

'  Calmet  states  that  some  of  the  rabbins  ascribed  this  poem  to  Isaiah  ; 
but  this  opinion  has  long  since  been  rejected;    Dissert,  torn.  ii.  p.  258. 

=  Dr.  Kennicott,  Diss.  i.  pp.  20 — 22.  Hewlett's  Commentary  on  the  Song 
of  Solomon,  Supplementary  Obsen-ations,  in  fine.  A  writer  of  the  present 
day  (Mr.  Bellamy),  who  has  distinguished  himself  by  his  bold  and  para- 
doxical assertions,  has  stated  his  opinion  to  be,  that  it  waa  a  book  of  great 

Vol.  II.  2  1 


II..  If  the  canon  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  was  settled  by 
Ezra  (which  we  have  already  seen  was  most  probably  the 
case),  there  can  be  no  doubt  but  that  the  Song  of  Solomon  is 
a  sacred  book ;  for,  to  use  the  strong  language  of  Bishop 
Warburton,  "Ezra  wrote,  and  we  may  believ'e  acted,  'by 
the  inspiration  of  the  Most  High,'  amid  the  last  blaze  indeed!, 
yet  in  the  full  lustre  of  expiring  prophecy.  And  such  a  man 
would  not  have  placed  any  boolc  that  was  not  sacred  in  the 
same  volume  with  the  law  and  the  prophets."^  In  addition 
to  this  evidence,  the  following  considerations  will  authorize 
us  to  infer,  that  the  Song  of  Solomon  was,  from  the  most 
early  period,  deemed  a  sacred  book,  and  ranked  with  the 
Hagiographa  or  Holy  Writings  of  the  .Tews,  and  thence 
was  received  among  the  canonical  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. 

A  Greek  translation  of  it  is  extant,  which  without  contra- 
diction is  ascribed  to  the  Jewish  authors  of  the  Septuagint, 
who  flourished  about  two  centuries  before  Christ,  and  which 
still  forms  a  part  of  the  Alexandrian  version.  With  the 
same  conviction  of  the  sacred  character  of  the  work,  it  was 
rendered  into  Greek  in  the  second  century  of  the  Christian 
aera,  by  Aquila,  Symmachus,  and  Theodotion.  Origen,  who 
wrote  early  in  the  third  century,  on  the  authority  of  those 
learned  Jews  who  were  contemporary  with  him,  and  whom 
he  was  in  the  habit  of  consulting  respecting  the  authority 
and  literal  import  of  their  sacred  books,  inserted  it  in  his 
Hexapla,  and  wrote  some  homilies  upon  it,  explaining  its 
mystical  sense,  which  have  in  part  been  translated  into  Latin 
by  Jerome.  Further,  that  the  ancient  Jews,  without  excep- 
tion, considered  it  as  a  divinely  inspired  production,  appears 
from  the  allegorical  signification  annexed  to  it  in  the  Cnaldee 
paraphrase.  Josephus,  in  his  answer  to  Apion,  gives  a 
catalogue  of  the  Jewish  books,  and  in  the  third  class  of 
such  as  related  to  moral  instruction  includes  the  Song  of 
Songs.*  From  the  Jewish  synagogue  this  book  was  received 
into  the  Christian  church  without  any  doubt  of  its  divine 
authority :  it  occurs  in  the  catalogue  of  books  of  the  Old 
Testament  made  by  Melito,  Bishop  of  Sardis  in  Lydia,  who 
is  placed  by  Cave  about  the  year  170,  who  travelled  into 
Palestine  on  piirpose  to  learn  the  number  of  these  books, 
and  who  made  the  first  catalogue  of  the  HebreAV  Scriptures. « 
It  is  cjted  by  Ignatius,  who  had  been  a  disciple  of  the  apostle 
Saint  John  about  the  beginning  of  the  second  century,  as  a 
book  of  authority  in  the  church  at  Antioch.  It  is  enumerated 
in  the  list  of  canonical  books  occurring  in  the  synopsis 
attributed  to  Athanasius,  who  flourished  in  the  third  century, 
and  in  the  catalogues  of  Jerome  and  Rufinus,  towards  the 
close  of  the  fourth  century,  in  which  also  we  find  it  cited  in 
the  Apostolical  Constitutions,  and  also  in  the  Apostolical 
Canons  ;^  since  which  time  the  Song  of  Songs  has  maintain- 
ed its  place  in  the  sacred  canon. 

But,  though  the  Song  of  Songs  has  come  down  to  us  thus 
strongly  recommended  "by  the  voice  of  antiquity,  its  divine 
authority  has  been  questioned  in  modern  days.  Theodore, 
Bishop  of  Mopsuestia,  a  bold  critic,  and  a  determined  fee  to 
allegorical  interpretations,  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries, 
is  said  to  have  spoken  in  disrespectful  terms  of  this  poem, 
as  well  as  of  the  oook  of  Job  :  but,  as  those  accounts  appear 
among  the  charges  and  accusations  of  his  enemies,  Dr. 
Lardner  doubts  the  accuracy  of  such  representation.^  In  the 
early  part  of  the  last  century,  Simon  and  Le  Clerc  questioned 
its  authenticity,  but  were  refuted  by  the  elder  Carpzov;  and, 
subsequently,  the  eccentric  writer  Whiston  boldly  affirmed 

antiquity  in  the  time  of  the  Hebrew  king,  and  is  the  same  which  is  referred 
to  in  the  Psalms  by  tlie  words  "  dark  sayiiigs  of  old.''  He  thinks  it  possi- 
ble that  Solomon  collected  and  incorporated  the  materials  of  this  book,  as 
David  did  other  sacred  songs  of  prophecy  and  praise,  which  were  in  u.se 
in  the  church  before  his  time  ;  but  affirms  that  the  idea  of  Solomon  being 
tlie  author  of  this  Song  of  Songs  is  founded  on  a  mis-translation  of  the  He- 
brew word  Lishlomoh,  which  occurs  in  the  first  verse.  As  Mr.  B.  refers  to 
a  work  not  yet  published  in  support  of  his  hypothesis,  it  is  impossible  to 
form  a  correct  judgment  respeclingt  it :  but  we  may  be  permitted  to  ob- 
serve, tliat  the  internal  evidences  above  noticed,  which  makes  so  strongly 
against  Dr.  Kennicott,  afford  pretty  strong  corroboration  of  the  universally 
received  opinion,  as  well  as  of  the  uniform  belief  of  the  Jews,  who  surely 
were  acquainted  with  their  native  tongue.  See  the  Classical  Journal,  vol. 
XV.  p.  190. 

•  Bishop  Gleig's  edition  of  Stackhouse,  vol.  i.  p.  xxiii. 

«  Josephus  cont.  Apion,  book  i.  c.  8.  Euscbius,  following  the  Jewish 
historian,  makes  the  Song  of  Songs  the  fifteenth  of  the  number  of  canoni- 
cal books.     Eccl.  Hist.  lib.  vi.  c.  25. 

6  Eusebius  has  preserved  this  catalogue  of  Melito  in  his  Eccl.  Hist,  lib 
K-.  c.  36. 

'  Constit.  Apostol.  lib.  vi.  cc.  1.3.  18.  torn.  i.  pp.  345.  351.  Edit.  Amst.  1724. 
Canon.  Apostol.  No.  Ixxvi.  Ibid.  p.  453.  Both  these  productions,  though 
pretending  to  be  of  apostolical  origin,  are  spurious  compilations  of  the 
fourth  century.  See  Dr.  Lardner's  Works,  vol.  iv.  pp.  320—354.  Svo. ; 
Ito.  vol.  ii.  pp.  421 — 441. 

0  Jortin's  Remarks  on  Eccl.  Hist.  vol.  i.  p.  157.  2d  edit.  Dr.  Lardner's 
Works,  8vo.  vol.  iv.  pp.  509,  510. ;  4to.  vol.  ii.  p.  K8. 


250 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  V.  Chap.  Ill, 


it  to  be  a  dissolute  love-song,  composed  by  Solomon  >vhen 
advanced  in  years  and  dissolute  in  practice,  and  that,  conse- 
quently, it  ought  to  be  excluded  from  the  canon  of  the  sacred 
books.  This  preposterous  notion  (for  nothing  like  proof  has 
been  offered  in  its  support)  has,  with  some  slight  modifica- 
tion, been  adopted  by  several  later  writers ;  and  Semlcr, 
among  others,  declines  taking  any  notice  of  it,  as  a  work 
manifestly  spurious.'  Tliese  objections,  however,  are  suffi- 
ciently counteracted  by  tlie  strong  internal  evidences  of  the 
authenticity  of  the  Canticles,  as  well  as  by  the  uninterrupted 
current  of  Jewish  and  Christian  anticiuity. 

III.  That  this  book  is  a  poem,  all  critics  and  expositors 
are  agreed ;  though  they  are  by  no  means  unanimous  to  what 
class'of  Hebrew  poetry  it  is  to  be  referred.  Michaelis,  to 
whose  profound  researches  biblical  students  are  so  deeply 
indebted,  is  of  opinion  that  the  object  of  this  poem  was 
simply  to  inculcate  the  divine  approbation  of  marriage ;  and 
Mendf  Isohn,  a  learned  German  Jew,  considers  it  as  a  repre- 
sentation, by  Solomon's  son,  of  a  trial  of  skill  between  a 
shepherd  and  sliepherdess;  but  the  ideas  of  Mr.  Harmrr^ 
appear  much  more  rational,  who,  though  unwilling  to  give  it 
the  name  of  an  epithalamium  or  nuptial  dialogue,  considers 
it  to  be  a  nuptial  song,  which  will  best  be  explained  by 
compositions  of  a  similar  nature  in  Kastcrn  countries.  Bos- 
suet,  Bishop  of  IMeaux,  is  of  opinion  that  this  song  is  a 
regular  drama,  which  is  to  be  explained  by  the  consideration 
that  tlie  Jews  were  wont  to  celebrate  their  nuptials  for  seven 
days  together,  distinguished  by  peculiar  solemnities.  He 
accordingly  divides  it  in  the  following  manner: — 

DAY         1      -----     -      CHAP.  i. — ii.  C. 

2 ii.  7—17. 

3 iii. — v.  1. 

4 V.  2. — vi.  9. 

5  --------     -  vi.  10. — vii.  11. 

6 --  vii.  12. — viii.  3. 

7 --  viii.  4 — 14. 

Calmet,'  Bishop  Percy,'  and  ]Mr.  Williams^  agree  with 
Bossuct.  Bishop  Lowth,  indeed,  \flio  has  devoted  two  of 
his  learned  and  elegant  lectures  to  an  examination  of  this 
poem,  adopts  the  opmion  of  Bossuet,  not  as  absolute  demon- 
stration, but  as  a  very  ingenious  and  probable  conjecture 
upon  an  extremely  obscure  subject.  lie  therefore  deter- 
mines it  to  be  a  iucrtd  pastoral  drama,  though  deficient  in 
some  of  the  essential  requisites  of  a  regular  dramatic  com- 
position.' 

Bauer,'  however,  affirms  this  poem  to  be  an  idyl ;  the 
same  opinion  is  intimated  by  Jahn,  who  makes  it  consist  of 
eight  idyls:'  but  neither  of  these  eminent  critics  assign  any 
reasons  for  their  opinion.  Probably  they  derived  it  from  Sir 
William  Jones,  who,  having  compared  this  poem  with  sorru? 
of  tlie  cussidfM  or  idyls  of  the  Araoian  poets,  concludes  with 

«  ApparaluR  ad  liberalem  Vet.  Tpsl  Interpreialioncm,  pp.  209—214. 

•  Outlines  of  a  Coiniiicnlary  on  Solomon's  Song.  (8vo.  London,  1768,  re- 
printed in  1775.) 

»  Caliiiet,  CommenUire  Litt6ral,  tom.  v.  pp.  C9, 69.,  or  DIssertationcs,  torn. 
W.  pp.  260— 2C2. 

*  In  his  "  .S(in(C  of  Solomon,  newly  translated  from  the  original  Ilebrew, 
\lilh  a  <-''imiMi-iitary  and  Annotalion.s."     I'Ji.no   17Ct. 

»  In  "The  Son;;  of  rsoniKs,  whicli  i."  by  Solomon  ;  a  new  Translation,  with 

Commentary  and  Notes."    8vo.  1801. 

<  Tlicre  iB,  liowRver,  one  circumstance  in  vfliich  Bishop  Ixjwth  thinks 
the  Sonji;  of  Sonsts  hears  a  very  strilcing  affmily  to  tiio  Greek  clrania  ;  the 
:horua  of  virgins  seems  in  every  respect  congenial  to  the  tragic  chorus  of 
the  Greeks.  They  are  constantly  present,  and  prrpareil  to  fulfil  all  llic 
duties  of  advice  and  consolation  ;  tliey  converse  freouenlly  with  the  prin- 
cipal characters  ;  they  arc  (|iitstioncd  hy  them,  and  ihcy  r.'lurn  aii-swcrs 
lo  their  inc|uirie» ;  tli'ey  lake  part  in  the  whole  business  of  the  poem,  and 
it  does  not  Rppear  that  they  <iuit  the  scene  U|)on  any  occasion.  Some  of 
the  learned  have  ronicclurcd,  that  Theocritus,  who  was  contemporary 
with  the  seventy  Greek  translators  of  the  Scriptures,  and  liveil  with  them 
in  the  court  of  I'lolemy  Philadelplius,  was  not  unarf|unlnled  with  the  heau- 
liesof  this  poem,  and  that  he  has  almoirt  literally  introduced  some  |ias8iic<'s 
tiom  it  into  his  cl'';;;iiit  idvU.  ((Jonipare  Caul.  I.  '^■  vi.  lit.  with  'I'licoc.  xviii. 
30.  a>.  ;  Cant.  iv.  II.  withTheoc.  xx.  'Jt'i.  ;  fnnt.  viii.  6,  7.  with  Theoc.  Jtxiil. 
23 — 26.)  It  mijthlalsn  be  Bii«pecle<l,  that  the  fJreeklmifcdinns  wore  indebted 
for  their  chorus  to  this  poem  of  Holomon,  were  not  the  prohabililies  on  the 
other  side  muchgrealer,  that  the  Greeks  were  uia<le  nc>|<i:iinled  with  It  at 
too  late  a  perioil ;  and  were  it  not  eviilent,  that  the  chorus  of  the  Greeks 
ria<l  a  very  diflTerent  oriiiln  ;  were  it  not  evident,  indei  il,  ihii  the  chorus 
wa«  n<»l  added  to  the  fable,  but  the  fable  tnjhe  chorus,  rralirt.  xxx.  in 
finf,  or  vol.  il.  pp.  3(»7,  SB.  of  Dr.  Gregory'*  trantlatlon. 

'  Ilerm.  Sacr.  p  3n»5. 

•  Introd.  arl  I.ibros  Sacroa  Vclerin  Foedcrin,  pp.  GOC— W9.     Jahn  divides 

he  poeru  Wi  the  following  manner  :— 

%     ■OltO  1  .         -         .         .      CHAP    1. 1.— II.  7. 

2 ii.  8.-lil.  R 

3 Iii.  6.— V.  I. 

4 V.  2— vl.  9. 

5 Vi.  lO.-vlll.a 

C viii.  4— 7. 

7 vlll.  8-12. 

8 viii.  13,  11. 


expressing  his  judgment  that  this  song  ought  to  be  classed 
among  the  Hebrew  idyls.a 

Supported  by  the  hi^h  authority  of  this  distinguished 
scholar,  Dr.  Good,>o  after  Signor  Melesegenio  (a  learned 
Italian  translator  of  this  poem),  considers  the  Song  of  Songs 
as  forming,  not  one  continueil  and  individual  poem,  but  a 
scries  of  poems,  each  di.stinct  and  independent  of  the  other. 
These  he  designates  "  ^'aacd  Idyls^''  and  makes  them  to  be 
tvL'tlve  in  number ;  viz. 

Idyl  1 -    chap.  i.  1 — 8. 


2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 

10 
11 
12 


i.  9.— ii.  7. 

ii.  8—17. 

iii.  1 — 5. 

iii.  6. — iv.  7. 

iv.  8. — V.  1. 

V.  2. — vi.  10. 
vi.  11—13 
vii.  1—9. 
vii.  10. — viii.  4. 
viii.  5 — 7. 
viii.  8 — 14. 


In  support  of  this  mode  of  arrangement,  Dr.  Good  remarks 
that  the  Song  of  Solomon  cannot  be  one  connected  poem, 
since  the  transitions  are  too  abrupt  for  the  wildest  flights  of 
the  Oriental  muse,  and  evidently  imply  a  variety  of  open- 
ings and  conclusions ;  while,  as  a  regular  drama,  it  is  defi- 
cient in  almost  every  requisite  that  could  give  it  such  a 
classification  ;  having  neither  dramatic  fable  nor  action,  invo- 
lution nor  catastrophe,  and  being  withotit  beginning,  middle, 
or  end."  But  in  opposition  to  these  strictures  it  may  be 
observed,  that  bold  transitions  are  so  much  the  character  of 
Eastern  poetry,  that  this  circumstance  alone  cannot  decide 
against  the  individuality  of  the  poem. 

Further,  the  subject  of  the  poem  is  the  same  from  begin- 
ning to  end;  the  personages  introduced  as  speakers  are  the 
same  ;  and,  though  to  a  modern  reader  tlie  transitions  in 
many  places  may  seem  abrupt,  and  the  thoughts  unconnect- 
ed, yet  the  conduct  of  the  piece  is  not  suspended,  but  is  car- 
ried on  under  a  fable  regularly  constructea,  and  terminating 
in  a  conclusion  interesting  and  unexpected. 

With  the  eminent  critics  above  cited  we  concur  in  con- 
sidering the  Song  of  Solomon  as  a  series  of  Ilebrew  idyls, 
like  the  Cassides  of  the  poets  of  Arabia.  With  regard  to 
the  fair  bride  in  whose  honour  this  collection  of  exquisite 
poems  was  primarily  composed,  Bossuet,  Calmet,  Harmer,'* 
Bishops  Percy  and  Lowtn,  in  short,  we  believe  all  modem 
commentators,  have  supposed  the  object  of  Solomon's  at- 
tachment to  be  the  royal  danirhterof  Pharaoh  king  of  Eg>'pt. 
Dr.  Good,  however,  contends,  and  we  think  successfully, 
that  she  was  a  native  of  Palestine,  and  esjioused  some  years 
later :  it  is  not  easy  to  believe  that  so  impassioned  a  compo- 
sition as  the  Song  of  Songs  should  have  resulted  from  a  stale 
alliance.  "  The  matrimonial  connection  of  the  Hebrew 
pfionarch  with  the  Egyptian  princess,"  Dr.  Good  observes, 
"was  probably,  indeed,  a  connection  of  political  interest 
alone ;  for  we  liave  no  reason  to  conceive  that  it  had  been 
preceded  by  any  personal  intimacy  or  interchange  of  affec- 
tion :  the  offer  was  proposed  by  him  on  his  first  accession  to 
the  throne,  prior  to  his  having  received  from  Jithovah  the 
gift  of  sujierior  wisdom;  at  a  time  when,  according  to  Arch- 
bishop Usher,"  he  could  not  have  been  more  than  twenty 
years  of  age,  when  he  was  surrounded  by  a  vast  body  of  op- 

fionents  and  competitors,  and  when  an  alliance  with  the  royal 
iiniily  of  Egypt  was  likely  to  be  of  essential  advantage  to 
him:  from  w'hicii  also,  as  a  further  proof  of  his  political 
views  in  such  an  union,  he  received  the  city  of  (Jezer  as  a 
dowry  with  the  princess  (1  Kings  ix.  IG.) — a  city  captured 
by  Pharaoh  from  the  (^aiiaanites,  and  rased  to  the  ground, 
probably  from  the  obstinacy  of  its  resistance;  but  afterwards 
rebuilt  by  Solomon,  and  converted  into  a  place  of  considera- 
ble distinction.  The  matrimonial  connection  here  celebrated, 
on  the  cttntrary,  appears  to  have  proceeded  from  recipro- 
cal affection  alone ;  and  from  the  gentleness,  modesty,  and 

»  Pol'seoa  Asialica;  Conimentarii,  cap.  iii.  (Works,  vol.  Iv.  or  vl.  p.  71 
8vo.  eilit.) 

•  0  In  his  "Song  of  Rones,  or  Sacred  Idvls,  Irnnslited  from  the  Hebrew, 
v»lth  Notes,"  i=vo.  1H03.  Tlie  Kev.  Mr.  Fry  hasad.ipled  Dr.  Gooil'a  arrange- 
ment of  the  Cnnlicles  into  twelve  idyls,  in  liis  Iranslatiun  of  lliia  book  of  the 
royal  poet.     I.ondon,  IHU.  8vo. 

II  Good's  Song  of  .Songs.     Preface,  p.  iv. 

«i  On  the  NU)i|)osliion  thaVSolomon  married  nn  Egyplinn  princess,  Ihia 
learned  and  initenious  writer  considers  Ihe  ^ong  o(  ."'olomon  as  a  lively 
emblem  of  the  Messiah's  ailmilling  the  Gentiles  lo  equal  privilege*  Mrllb  lb« 
Jews.    Outlines  of  a  new  Conunint&ry,  pp.  74—61. 

»  An.  .Mund.  2ir71— 29gL 


Sect.  V.] 


ON  THE  SONG  OF  SOLOMON. 


251 


{ 


delicacy  of  mind,  ■which  are  uniformly  and  perpetually  attri- 
buted to  this  beautiful  and  accomplished  fair  one,  she  must 
have  been  well  worthy  of  royal  love.  Instead  of  being  of 
Egyptian  origin,  she  herself  informs  us  that  she  was  a  native 
of  yfiaron  (Cant.  ii.  1.),  which  was  a  canton  of  Palestine. 
Though  not  of  royal  blood,  and  it  should  seem  from  Cant.  i. 
6.  of  low  extraction  in  comparison  of  her  ro}'al  bridegroom, 
i'et  she  must  have  been  of  noble  birth  ;  for  she  is  addressed 
y  her  attendants  under  the  appellation  of  princess  or  noble 
lady  (Cant.  vii.  1.)  ;  and  though  she  could  not  augment  by 
her  dowry  the  dimensions  of  the  national  territory,  she  pos- 
sessed for  her  marriage-portion  a  noble  and  fruitful  estate  in 
Baal-hammon  (Cant.  viii.  12.),  ingeniously  supposed  by  Mr. 
Harmer  to  have  been  situated  in  the  delightful  valley  of 
Bocat  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Balbec,'  leased  out  to  a 
variety  of  tenants,  with  whose  number  we  are  not  acquaint- 
ed, but  every  one  of  whom  paid  her  a  clear  rental  of  a  thou- 
sand shekels  of  silver,  amounting  to  about  120/.  16s.  8d. 
sterling.  From  the  possession  of  this  property  it  is  natural 
to  conceive  that  her  lather  was  deceased  ;  more  especially  as 
the  house  in  which  she  resided  is  repeatedly  called  the 
house  of  her  mother  (Cant.  iii.  4.  viii.  2.),  as  it  was  her 
mother  who  betrothed  her  to  the  enamoured  monarch  (Cant. 
viii.  5.),  and  as  no  notice  of  any  kind  is  taken  of  the  exist- 
ence 01  her  father.  She  appears  to  have  possessed  two  dis- 
tinct families,  and,  consequently,  to  have  had  two  marriages : 
for  in  Cant.  i.  G.  the  royal  bride  speaks  of  an  offspring  con- 
siderably older  than  herself,  whom  she  denominates  not  her 
father's  hut  her  7nother''s  children,  who  seem  to  have  taken 
an  undue  advantage  of  her  infancy,  and  to  have  behaved 
with  great  unkindness  towards  her.  For  these  she  nowhere 
expresses  any  degree  of  affection ;  but  for  an  ow7i  brother 
and  sister, — the  former  an  infant,  and  the  latter  considerably 
younger  than  herself, — she  evinces  the  tenderest  regard  of 
the  most  aflectionate  bosom.     (Cant.  viii.  1.  8.) 

"  Of  the  age  of  this  unrivalled  beauty,  at  the  time  of  her 
nuptials,  we  are  nowhere  infonned.  Being  in  possession 
of  an  estate  bequeathed  to  her  by  her  father,  or  some  collateral 
relation,  she  must,  at  least,  have  acquired  her  majoritj'  ac- 
cording to  the  Hebrew  ritual ;  yet,  from  the  circumstance  of 
her  brother's  being  an  unweaned  infant,  she  could  not  have 
exceeded  the  prime  of  life ;  and  from  the  exquisite  delinea- 
tions of  her  person  by  her  companions  as  well  as  by  her 
lover,  she  must  have  been  in  the  full  flower  of  youth  and 
beauty.  As  to  the  age  of  king  Solomon,  we  may  fairly  cal- 
culate it,  from  collateral  circumstances,  to  have  been  about 
twenty-five  or  twenty-six,  and,  consequently,  that  the  nup- 
tials were  celebrated  about  the  year  1010  before  the  birth  of 
Christ.  At  the  age  of  twenty,  he  contracted  Ms  marriage 
of  political  interest  with  the  Egyptian  princess ;  and  if  he 
had  not  at  this  period  complied  with  the  luxurious  fashion 
of  his  age,  and  opened  his  harem  for  the  reception  of  the 
most  beautiful  women  who  could  be  found,  and  would  con- 
sent to  live  with  him,  it  is  obvious  that  this  establishment 
commenced  very  shortly  afterwards. "^ 

Before  we  proceed  to  offer  any  further  remarks  on  the 
style  of  this  sacred  poem,  justice  requires  that  we  notice 
another  view  of  it  which  has  been  given  by  a  learned  and 
ingenious,  though  anonymous,  writer  in  Dr.  Rees's  New 
Cyclopedia,  which  appears  to  be  a  modification  of  the  opinion 
entertained  by  Mr.  Harmer,  above  noticed.  He  regards  it 
as  a  parable,  in  the  form  of  a  drama ;  in  which  the  bride  is 
considered  as  representing  true  religion ;  the  royal  lover  as 
the  Jewish  people ;  the  younger  sister  as  the  Gospel  dis- 
pensation. The  gradual  expansion  of  it,  from  its  first  dawn 
m  the  garden  of  Eden,  to  its  meridian  effulgence  produced 
by  the  death  and  resunection  of  Christ,  is  supposed  to  be 
portrayed  in  these  beautiful  words  : — "  Who  is  he  that  look- 
eth  forth  as  the  morning,  fair  as  the  moon,  bright  as  the 
sun,  and  serene  as  the  starry  hcstT'  (See  vi.  10.)  The 
epilogue  in  chap.  viii.  respecting  the  younger  brother  and 
sister,  he  further  conceives,  demonstrates  that  its  views  ter- 
minate in  the  temple  service :  while,  at  the  same  time,  the 
allusion  at  the  close  to  the  rise  of  the  Gospel  and  the  con- 
version of  the  Gentiles,  which  took  place  so  many  hundred 
years  after  Solomon,  proves  that  the  author  wrote  under 
divine  inspiration.  The  metaphorical  sense,  thus  capable 
of  being  put  upon  every  part  of  the  poem,  the  anonymous 
writer  apprehends  justifies  the  high  appellation  of  the  Sono- 
of  Songs,  which  has  been  given  to  it ;  and  also  accounts  fo'r 
its  being  regarded,  by  Jews  and  Christians,  as  a  sacred 


»  Outlines  of  a  New  Commentary,  pp.  35,  36. 
»  Good's  Song  of  Songs,  pp.  xi.— *vi 


composition,  and  for  its  reception  first  into  the  Jewish  and 
then  into  the  Christian  church. ^ 

Fromi  this  view  of  the  subject,  it  is  impossible  to  withhold 
the  praise  of  learning,  piety,  and  ingenuity;  but  we  conceive 
the  Sonw  of  Solomon  to  have  a  more  extended  meanino-  than 
this  author  admits ;  and  we  cannot  accede  to  his  arrange- 
ment and  exposition  of  its  argument,  for  the  following 
reasons : — 

It  has  been  a  question  in  all  ages,  whether  the  literal  and 
obvious  meaning  of  the  Song  of  Solomon  be  the  whole  that 
was  ever  intended  by  the  royal  bard ;  or  whether  it  does  not, 
at  the  same  time,  afford  the  veil  of  a  sublime  and  mystical 
allegory  delineating  the  bridal  union  between  Jehovah  and 
his  pure  and  uncorrupted  church  1  Michaelis  and  most  of 
the  modern  critics  on  the  Continent  advocate  the  former 
opinion  ;  in  which  they  are  followed  by  some  eminent  critics 
in  our  own  country,''  but  the  latter  opinion  is  adopted  by 
most  commentators,  Jewish  and  Christian. 

Among  those  who  hold  it  to  be  allegorical,  there  is  also 
much  disam-eement ;  some  conceiving  it  to  be  no  more  than 
a  simple  allegory,  while  Bishop  Lowth  and  others  consider 
it  as  a  mystical  allegory,*  and  are  of  opinion  that  under  the 
figure  of  a  marriage  is  typified  the  intimate  connection  be- 
tween God  and  his  church,  of  which  a  more  concise  model 
was  furnished  in  the  forty -fifth  psalm.  That  this  view  of 
the  subject  is  correct,  we  think  will  appear  from  the  fol- 
lowing considerations,  principally  extracted  from  Bishop 
Lowth  :s — 

The  narrowness  and  imbecility  of  the  human  mind,  he 
observes,  being  such  as  scarcely  to  comprehend  or  attain  a 
clear  idea  of  any  part  of  the  divine  nature  by  its  utmost  ex- 
ertions ;  God  has  condescended,  in  a  manner,  to  contract  the 
infinity  of  his  glory,  and  to  exhibit  it  to  our  understandings 
under  such  imagery  as  our  feeble  optics  are  capable  of  con- 
templating. Thus  the  Almighty  may  be  said  to  descend, 
as  it  were,  in  the  Holy  Scriptures,  from  the  height  of  his 
majesty,  to  appear  on  earth  in  a  human  shape,  with  human 
senses  and  affections,  in  all  respects  resembling  a  mortal — 
"  with  human  voice  and  human  form."  This  kind  of  alle- 
gory is  called  anthropopathy,  and  occupies  a  considerable 
portion  of  theology,  properly  so  called, — that  is,  as  delivered 
in  the  Holy  Scriptures.  The  principal  part  of  this  imagery 
is  derived  from  the  passions ;  nor,  indeed,  is  there  any  one 
affection  or  emotion  of  the  human  soul  which  is  not,  with  all 
its  circumstances,  ascribed  in  direct  terms,  without  any 
qualification  whatever,  to  the  supreme  God ;  not  excepting 
those  in  which  human  frailty  and  imperfection  is  most 
evidently  displayed,  viz.  anger  and  grief,  hatred  and  revenge. 
That  love,  also,  and  that  of  the  tenderest  kind,  should  bear 
a  part  in  this  drama,  is  highly  natural  and  perfectly  con- 
sistent. Thus,  not  only  the  fondness  of  paternal  affection  is 
attributed  to  God,  but  also  the  force,  the  ardour,  and  the 
solicitude  of  conjugal  attachment,  with  all  the  concomitant 
emotions,  the  anxiety,  the  tenderness,  and  the  jealousy  inci« 
dental  to  this  passion. 

After  all,  this  figure  is  not  in  the  least  productive  of  ob- 
scurity ;  the  nature  of  it  is  better  understood  than  that  of 
most  others ;  and  although  it  is  exhibited  in  a  variety  of 
lights,  it  constantly  preserves  its  native  perspicuit)\  A  pe- 
culiar people,  of  the  posterity  of  Abraham,  was  selected  by 
God  from  among  the  nations,  and  he  ratified  his  choice  by  a 
solemn  covenant.  Tliis  covenant  was  founded  upon  recipro- 
cal conditions ;  on  the  one  part,  love,  protection,  and  sup- 
port ;  on  the  other,  faith,  obedience,  and  worshii)  pure  and 
devout.  This  is  that  conjugal  union  between  God  and  hia 
church ;  that  solemn  compact  so  frequently  celebrated  by 
almost  all  the  sacred  writers  under  this  imao;e.  It  is,  indeed, 
a  remarkable  instance  of  that  species  of  metaphor  which 
Aristotle 'calls  analogical;^  that  is,  when  in  a  proposition 
consisting  of  four  ideas,  the  first  bears  the  same  relation  to 
the  second  as  the  third  does  to  the  fourth,  and  the  corres- 
ponding words  may  occasionally  change  their  places  without 
any  injury  to  the  sense.  Thus,  in  this  form  of  expression, 
God  is  supposed  to  bear  exactly  the  same  relation  to  the 
church  as  a  nusband  to  a  wife ;  God  is  represented  as  the 
spouse  of  the  church,  and  the  church  is  betrothed  to  God. 
Thus  also,  when  the  same  figure  is  maintained  with  d  dif- 
ferent mode  of  expression,  aiid  connected  with  different  cir- 
cumstances, the  relation  is  still  the  same :  thus  tlie  piety  of 

3  Dr.  Rees's  Cyclopaedia,  vol.  vi.  article  Canticles. 
*  Among  others  by  Mr.  Hewlett  in  his  valuable  Commentary. 
'  On  the  nature  of  this  species  of  allegory,  see  Vol,  I.  Part  U  Chap.  1, 
Sect.  IV. 
0  Pra?iect.  xxxi.  vol.  ii.  pp.  312—321. 
'  Poot.  chap.  Mdi.  and  Rhet.  iii.  3. 


252 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Pabt  V.  Chap.  Ill 


the  ppop'e,  their  impiety,  their  idolatry,  and  rejection,  stand 
.n  the  same  relation  with  respect  to  the  sacred  covenant;  as 
3hastity,  modesty,  immodesty,  adultery,  divorce,  with  respect 
to  the  marriage-contract.  And  this  notion  is  so  very  fami- 
liar and  well  understood  in  [Scripture,  that  the  word  adultery 
(or  whoredom)  is  commonly  used  to  denote  idolatrous  wor- 
ship, and  so  appropriate  does  it  appear  to  this  metaplioricnl 
purpose,  that  it  very  seldom  occurs  in  its  proper  and  literal 
sense. 

Of  this  mode  of  speaking,  the  sacred  writers  furnish  us 
with  abundance  of  examples.  Thus  the  evangelical  propliet, 
when  treating  of  the  reconciliation  of  the  church  to  Jehovah, 
and  her  restoration  to  the  divine  favour,  among  many  images 
of  a  similar  nature,  introduces  the  following: — 

For  thy  husband  is  (hy  Maker ; 

Jehovali,  God  of  Hosts,  is  liis  name  : 

And  thy  Uedeeiner  is  llie  Holy  One  of  Israel ; 

The  God  of  the  whole  earth  shall  he  be  called.— Isa.  liv.  5,  6. 

And  in  another  passage  in  the  form  of  a  comparison  : — 

For  as  a  youni;  man  wcildeth  a  virgin, 

So  shall  thy  Kestorer  wed  thee: 

And  as  a  bri<legroom  rejoicoth  in  his  bride, 

So  sliall  thy  God  rejoice  in  thee. — Isa.  Ixii.  5. 

Tlie  same  image  a  little  diversified,  and  with  greater 
freedom  of  expression,  as  better  adapted  to  the  display  of 
indignation,  is  introduced  by  Jeremiah  (ii.  2.  iii.  1,  &c.), 
when  he  declaims  against  the  defection  of  the  Jews  from 
the  worship  of  the  true  God.  Upon  the  same  princinle  the 
former  part  of  the  prophecy  of  Rosea  ought  also  to  oe  ex- 
plained ;  and  whetner  that  part  of  the  prophecy  be  taken  in 
the  literal  and  historical  sense,  or  whether  it  be  esteemed 
altogether  allegorical,  still  the  nature  and  princi])lcs  of  this 
figure,  which  seems  consecrated  in  some  measure  to  tliis 
subject,  will  evidently  appear.  None  of  the  prophets,  how- 
ever, have  applied  the  image  with  so  much  boldness  and 
freedom  as  Lzekiel,  an  author  of  a  most  fervid  imagination, 
who  is  little  studious  of  elegance,  or  cautious  of  offendiiip^. 
His  great  freedom  in  the  use  of  this  image  is  particularly 
displayed  in  two  parables  (xvi.  and  xvii.),  in  which  he  de- 
scnbes  the  ingratitude  of  the  Jews  and  Israelites  to  their 
great  Protector,  and  their  defection  from  the  true  worship, 
under  imagery  assumed  from  tiie  character  of  an  adulterous 
wife,  and  the  meretricious  loves  of  two  unchaste  women. 
If  these  parables  (which  are  put  into  the  mouth  of  God  him- 
self with  a  direct  allegorical  application,  and  in  which,  it 
must  be  confessed,  that  delicacy  does  not  appear  to  be  par- 
ticularly studied,  according  to  our  refined  notions  of  deli- 
cacy)' De  well  considered,  we  are  persuaded  that  the  Song 
of  iSolomon  (which  is  in  every  part  chasto  and  elegant)  win 
not  appear  unworthy  of  the  aivine  sense  in  which  it  is 
usually  taken,  either  in  matter  or  style,  or  in  any  degree 
inferior  either  in  gravity  or  purity  to  the  other  remains  ol  the 
sacred  poets.  To  these  instances  we  may  add  the  forty-fifth 
psalm,  which  is  a  sacred  epithalaniiuni,  of  tlie  allegorical 
application  of  which  to  the  i.nion  between  God  and  the 
church  no  doubt  has  hithert  >  been  entertained  ;  though  many 
suspect  it,  and  not  without  good  reason,  to  have  been  j)ro- 
diiced  upon  the  same  occasion,  and  with  the  same  relation 
to  a  real  fact,  as  the  Song  of  Solomon.  Neither  ought  we 
to  omit,  that  the  writers  of  the  New  T<  stami  nt  have  freely 
admitted  llie  same  image  in  tlie  .sam";  allegorical  souse  wilii 
their  predecessors,  and  have  finally  consecrated  it  by  their 
authority. 

Thus  John  the  Baptist  beautifully  rf  presents  Christ  as  the 
bridegroom;  himself,  as  bis  friend  or  bridesman,  and  the 
church  as  his  snoase.''  (John  rii.  '2H.)  Our  Lord  also  adopts 
the  title  of  I3ri<iegroom  in  INlatt.  ix.  15.;  and  likewise  in  the 
parable  of  the  virgins  or  bride's  maids  attf  ndaiit  upon  the 
marriage.  (Matt.  xxv.  1.)  "The  Lamb's  wift- '.'  also,  tin- 
church,^  is  represented  as  a  "  bride  adonied  for  her  husband" 

t  On  the  alleged  Immorality  of  the  inngungc  of  Scri|iiuTi',  sec  Vol.  I.  j). 
ICC. 

«  "In  the  prophetical  hook  of  the  Bong  of  Solomon."  Rnvs  Hishop  IIorB- 
ley,  "the  union  of  Christ  and  his  churrli  Ih  dcBcribcd  in  inmciH  tuki-n 
entirely  from  the  miilUiil  paHSion  and  early  lovo  of  Solomon  and  his 
bride.  Read  the  Soiii;  of  Holomon,  you  will  find  the  Hcd)rcw  kine,  if  yon 
know  any   thing  of  his   hi«lory,   proiliirtrl,    indrcd,  ax  llii-  cinbli-m  of  n 

Peatfr  p'>rKoiuigc  ;  but  you  will  find  Him  in  every  page."    Senuonu,  vol. 
p  73.  i'  <(li(. 

i  ComiiKiitatora  in  communion  with  the  RomlHh  rhiircli,  not  content 
with  C|inHidcring  the  ^mtn  of  .Solomon  a.s  adumbratinc  tlio  union  of  ChriHt 
and  his  church,  extend  it  also  to  the  union  of  Chrlut  with  the  Virgin  Mary. 
Kuch  is  the  notion  iif  the  elegant  Italian  trun.^lutor,  Meluiiigcnio.  (Good'a 
Bone  of  Salomon.  I'ref  p.  xxxTv.)  In  the  short  preface  prefijieil  to  this 
nook  in  the  Uuhhn  edition  of  the  Aniilo. Romish  Ilililc  (I  '  "%.)  it  is 

nfTirnied,  that  "the  spoiLse  of  f.'hrist  is  tlie  church,  iiior.  .i.slothe 

happii-.st  part  of  It,  viz.  purjc-.t  souls,  every  one  of  whu  :.  ...  !.,  .  iidoved  ; 
but,  above  all  others,  the  Immaculate  and  ever  blessed  virgin  mother.'."' 


(Rev.  xxi.  2 — 9.),  who  ought  to  be  "without  spot"  (Eph. 
v.  27.),  as  the  Shulamite  is  represented  to  be.  (Song  iv.  7.)  fl 
And,  surely,  if  this  most  beautiful  pastoral  poem  riad  not  " 
been  understood  in  a  spiritual  sense,  it  would  not  have  been 
admitted  into  the  sacred  canon  by  the  ancient  Jewish 
church.^  Nor  is  this  inconsistent  with  the  opinions  of  the 
ancient  Jews,  who,  as  well  as  Saint  Paul  ana  other  Chris- 
tian writers,  found  the  ISIessiah  almost  every  where  in  the 
Scriptures.  Indeed,  they  always  believed  their  economy  to 
be  peculiarly  under  the  protection  of  the  Messiah,  in  some 
one  or  other  of  his  characters,  as  the  Great  Angel  of  the 
covenant,  the  King  of  Israel,  or  the  Son  of  God.  In  particu- 
lar, they  applied  to  him  the  forty-fifth  psalm  (which,  of  all 
Scripture,  most  resembles  the  Song  of  Songs)  ;  for  the  Chal- 
dee  paraphrase  on  the  second  verse  expressly  says, — "  Thy 
fairness,  0  King  Messiah  !  exceedeth  the  sons  of  men."  In 
the  same  manner  they  applied  the  seventy-second,  hundred 
and  tentli,  and  various  other  psalms,  as  well  as  many  pas- 
sao^s  of  the  prophets. 

Bishop  Lowth  restricts  this  sublime  allegory  to  the  uni- 
versal cnurch,  and  conceives  that  it  has  no  reference  what- 
ever to  the  si)iritual  state  of  individuals;  than  which  he 
conceives  nothing  can  be  more  inconsistent  with  the  nature 
and  ground-work  of  the  allegory  itself,  as  well  as  with  the 
general  practice  of  the  Hebrew  poets.  With  regard  to  the 
Psalms,  Bishop  Home  (we  think)  has  demonstrated  their 
spiritual  a])plication  not  only  to  the  church  generally,  but 
also  to  believers  who  compose  the  individual  members  of 
that  church ;  and  that  the  Song  of  Solomon  is  to  be  legiti- 
mately and  soberly  interpreted  in  the  same  way,  it  is  appre- 
hended, will  satisfactorily  appear  from  the  following  addi- 
tional observations : — 

Tlie  church  is  to  be  considered  as  composed  of  individual 
believers;  and  that  there  is  an  analogy  between  the  conduct 
of  God  towards  his  church  in  crenera),  and  his  conduct  to- 
wards individuals,  is  plainly  intiicatcd  in  many  parts  of  the 
New  Testament.  Thus,  sometimes  the  sacred  writers  com- 
pare the  whole  body  of  believeis  to  a  temple,  in  which  thry 
form  living  stones,  neing  built  on  the  only  foundation,  Christ 
Jesus;  at  other  times,  they  consider  individual  believers  as 
temples  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  (iCor.  iii.  IG,  17.  Ej)h.  ii.  20 
— 22.)  So,  also,  they  sometimes  speak  of  the  church  as  one, 
— the  bride  the  Lanio's  wife;  and  at  other  times,  of  distinct 
churches  or  individual  believers,  as  severally  married  to  the 
Lord.  (Rev.  xxi.  9.  2  Cor.  xi.  2.)  In  this  manner,  St.  Paul 
allegorizes  the  history  of  Hagar  and  her  mistress,  referring 
to  the  two  dis])ensations,  while  at  the  same  time  lie  makes 
a  practical  application  of  it  to  the  consciences  of  the  Gala- 
lians.  ^Gal.  iv.  22—31.) 

Further,  we  consider  th*  allenory  as  designed  for  tlio 
puqioses  of  piety  and  devotion,  wmch  cannot  be  so  well 
answered  without  such  an  application.  Though  this  argu- 
ment may,  at  first  view,  appear  weak,  it  will  be  strengthened 
when  we  recollect  the  doctrine  of  the  New  Testament,  that, 
"  whatsoever  things  were  written  aforetime  were  written  for 
our  learning;"  and  that  their  grand  design  i«,  "  to  make  us 
wise  unto  salvation,  through  faith  which  is  in  Cliiist  Jesus." 
This  shows  both  the  propriety  and  importance  of  a  particular 
application  of  scriptural  truths  to  the  circumstances  and  ex- 
peritsnce  of  indiviilu-.ils.  Religion  is  a  personal  thing;  and 
that  professor  is  a  hypocrite,  the  feelings  of  whose  heart  arc 
not  iiiHuenccd  by  it,  as  well  as  the  actions  of  his  life.^ 

The  fact  is,  that  much  of  the  language  of  this  j)o<  m  has 
been  misunderstood  by  expositors,  some  of  whom,  not  en- 
tering into  the  spirit  and  meaning  of  Oriental  poesy,  have 
caused  particular  passages  to  be  considered  as  coarse  and 

<  I)r.  II;iles's  Annlysi.-i,  vol.  il.  p.  400. 

•  Wilii'iii  s's  linn.sliition  ol  the  .Soiia  of  Songs,  pp.  113—115.  In  further 
confirmation  of  ihc  prccodinc  view  of  the  s|)irilual  desif^n  of  this  sacred 
oriental  poem,  we  may  observe,  that  this  allegoric  mode  of  de:icribing  the 
aacred  union  belween  mankind  at  \:\Tfic,  or  nn  mdiviihial  and  pious  sonl, 
and  the  great  Creator,  \s  common  to  almost  all  Eastern  poets  from  the 
earliest  down  to  the  preseiU  a;;e.  Without  such  nn  esoteric  or  lijuritual 
interpretation,  it  ih  imjiossible  to  undi'rsliuid  many  pasRigcs  of  the  I'ersian 
points  .''aili  and  Ilati/:  and  the  Turkish  conunentaiors  on  them  have  uni- 
formly III. IS  lnl<-rpreted  them  ;  lliougli  in  mnny  instances  they  have  pur- 
sued their  mystic  meuning  to  an  undue  length.  A  similar  embleuiallc 
mysticism  Is  equally  cun.-'iiicuiius  in  the  bards  of  India  ;  and  tin'  V>>(l,in(i8 
or  Iliniloo  cominenlators  liitve  in  like  manner  attributed  u  <touli|e.  that  is, 
a  literal  and  spiritual  nieiinliiK  to  their  compositions.  This  is  particularly 
the  case  with  the  Gliii);ovinda,  or  Songs  of  Juyaileva,  Ihe  subject  of  uhicli 
is  the  loves  of  (,°hrii<hna  and  lladha,  ur  the  reciprocal  atlrniiion  between 
the  divine  goodness  and  Ihe  soul  of  man  ;  and  llie  style  and  imngcry  of 
wliich,  like  those  of  the  royal  Hebrew  poel,  arc  In  the  highest  degree 
(lowtry  and  amatory.  Good's  tiuiig  of  Songs,  p.  xxii.  Ki..>ieni.iker,  Con- 
lirum  Canlieoruin  illuslratutn  ex  llierogrHpiiia  Oriente.liiim,  pi).  23 — 40. 
Sir  William  Jones  has  |.'ivrn  si'vcral  examples  of  the  mystical  or  allegorical  ■ 
language  of  tho  celebrated  I'ersian  poet,  llafix,  in  his  Uissertallon  on  Ihe 
Mystical  Poetry  of  the  Tersiaiis  and  liinduos.  (\A'ork8,  vol.  iv.  p.  '££1.  Q\o,) 


Sect.  I.] 


ON  THE  PROPHETS  AND  THEIR  WRITINGS. 


253 


indelicate,  which,  in  the  original,  are  altogether  the  reverse; 
while  others  (as  the  learned  Dr.  Gill  for  instance)  have  so 
confounded  the  literal  and  allegorical  senses  as  to  give 
neither,  distinctly  or  completely ;  at  the  same  time,  they 
have  applied  the  figures  to  such  a  variety  of  objects,  as  to 
leave  the  reader  still  to  seek  the  right,  and,  by  their  minute 
dissection  of  the  allegory,  they  have  not  only  destroyed  its 
consistency  and  beauty,  but  have  also  exposed  the  poem  to 
the  unmerited  ridicule  of  profane  minds.'  Much,  unques- 
tionably, has  been  done,  by  later  writers,  towards  elucidating 
the  language  and  allusions  of  the  Song  of  Songs  by  the  aid 
of  Oriental  literature  and  manners :  but,  after  all  the  labours 
of  learned  me«,  there  will  perhaps  be  found  many  expres- 
sions which  are  very  difficult  to  us,  both  as  to  the  literal 
meaning,  and  the  spiritual  instruction  intended  to  be  convey- 
ed by  them;  and  some  descriptions  must  not  be  judged  by 
modem  notions  of  delicacy.  I3ut  the  grand  outlines,  soberly 
interpreted,  in  the  obvious  meaning  of  the  allegory,  so  ac- 
cord with  the  affections  and  experience  of  the  sincere  Chris- 
tian, "  that  he  will  hardly  ever  read  and  meditate  upon  them, 
in  a  spirit  of  humble  devotion,  without  feeling  a  conviction 
that  no  other  poem  of  the  same  kind,  extant  in  the  world, 
could,  without  most  manifest  violence,  be  so  explained  as  to 
describe  the  state  of  his  heart  at  different  times,  and  to  ex- 
cite admiring,  adoring,  grateful  love  to  God  our  Saviour,  as 
this  does."2 

With  regard  to  the  style,  says  Bishop  Lowth,  this  poem 
is  of  the  pastoral  kind,  since  the  two  principalpersonages 
are  represented  in  the  character  of  shepherds.  The  circum- 
stance is  by  no  means  incongruous  to  the  manners  of  the 
Hebrews,  whose  principal  occupation  consisted  in  the  care 
of  cattle  (Gen.  xlvi.  32 — 34.)  ;    nor  did  they  consider  this 


employment  as  beneath  the  dignity  of  the  highest  characters. 
Least  of  all,  could  it  be  supposed  to  be  inconsistent  with  the 
character  of  Solomon,  whose  father  was  raised  from  the 
sheepfold  to  the  throne  of  Israel.  The  pastoral  life  is  not 
only  most  delightful  in  itself,  but  from  the  particular  circum- 
stances and  manners  of  the  Hebrews,  is  possessed  of  a  kind 
of  dignity.  In  this  poem  it  is  adorned  with  all  the  choicest 
colouring  of  language,  with  all  the  elegance  and  variety  of 
the  most  select  imagery.  "  Every  part  of  the  Canticles," 
says  the  learned  and  eloquent  Bossuet,  "abounds  in  poetical 
beauties;  the  objects,  which  present  themselves  on  every 
side,  are  the  choicest  plants,  the  most  beautiful  flowers,  the 
most  delicious  fruits,  the  bloom  and  vigour  of  spring,  the 
sweet  verdure  of  the  fields,  flourishing  and  wen-watered 
gardens,  pleasant  streams,  and  perennial  fountains.  The  other 
senses  are  represented  as  regaled  with  the  most  precious 
odours  natural  and  artificial :  with  the  sweet  sinmng  of  birds, 
and  the  soft  voice  of  the  turtle ;  with  milk  and  honey,  and 
the  choicest  of  wine.  To  these  enchantments  are  added  all 
that  is  beautiful  and  graceful  in  the  human  form,  the  endear- 
ments, the  caresses,  the  delicacy  of  love ;  if  any  object  be 
introduced  which  seems  not  to  harmonize  with  this  delightful 
scene,  such  as  the  awful  prospect  of  tremendous  precipices, 
the  wildness  of  the  mountains,  or  the  haunts  of  lions,  its 
effect  is  only  to  heighten  by  the  contrast  the  beauty  of  the 
other  objects,  and  to  add  the  charms  of  variety  to  those  of 
grace  and  ele^ance.''^ 

The  ("haldee  paraphrase  of  this  book  is  a  long  and  tire 
some  application  of  it  throughout  to  the  circumstances  of  the 
history  of  the  Jews.     The  Greek  version  of  it  is  toleral)ly 
exact ;  and  Bos,  in  the  Frankfort  edition  of  the  Septuagint 
(1709),  ascribes  it  to  Symmachus. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


ON    THE     PROPHETS. 


SECTION  I. 


GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  PROPHETS  AND  THEIR  WRITINGS. 

I.  The  prophetical  Books,  -why  so  called. — II.  Different  kinds  of  Prophets  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures. — III.  Situation  of  the 
Prophets,  and  their  Manner  of  Living: — IV.  Mosaic  Statutes  concerning-  Prophets. — Evidences  of  a  Divine  Mission. — 
v.  Qualifications  of  the  Prophets. — VI.  JVature  of  the  prophetic  Inspiration. — VII  Antiquity  and  Succession  of  the  Prophets, 
— VIII.  Collection  of  their  Writings,  arid  Mode  of  armouncing  their  Predictions. — IX.  JVumber  and  Order  of  the  Prophetic 
Books. 


I.  We  now  enter  on  the  fourth  or  prophetical  part  of  the 
Old  Testament,  according  to  the  division  which  is  generally 
adopted,  but  which  forms  the  second  division,  according  to 
the  Jewish  classification  of  the  sacred  volume.  This  portion 
of  the  Scriptures  is  termed  Prophetical,  because  it  chiefly 
consists  of  predictions  of  future  events ;  though  many  histo- 
rical passag<?s  are  interspersed  through  the  writings  of  the 
prophets,  as  there  are  also  many  predictions  of  future  events 
scattered  through  those  books  which  are  more  strictly  histo- 
rical. But  these  books  also  contain  very  many  passages 
which  relate  to  other  subjects,  such  as  the  nature  and  attri- 
butes of  God ;  the  religious  and  moral  duties  of  man ;  reproofs 
of  idolatry  and  other  sins ;  exhortations  to  the  practice  of 
true  religion  and  virtue;  together  with  advices  and  warnings 
respecting  the  political  state  of  the  country,  and  the  adminis- 
tration of  affairs,  Avhich  in  the  theocratical  form  of  govern- 
ment were  sent  to  the  kings  and  princes  of  the  Hebrews  by 
the  prophets  as  ambassadors  of  their  supreme  monarch, 
Jehovah.  The  authors  of  these  books  are,  by  way  of  emi- 
nence, termed  Prophets^  that  is,  divinely  inspired  persons, 

J  The  chief  error  of  all  the  translators  of  this  book,  Dr.  Good  observes 
with  creat  truth,  "results  from  their  having  given  xerAoi  renderings  of 
the  Hebrew  terms  and  idiorns,  which  ought  merely  to  have  been  translated 
equivalently ;  a  method,  by  which  any  language  in  the  world,  when  inter- 
preted into  another,  may  not  only  occasionally  convey  a  meaning  altogether 
different  from  what  the  author  intended,  but  convert  a  term  or  phrase  of 
perfect  purity  and  delicacy,  in  its  original  import,  into  one  altogether  indeli- 
cate and  unchaste."  Song  of  Songs,  p.  xxvi.  Dr.  Good  illustrates  this 
remark  by  some  well-chosen  examples,  which  want  of  room  compels  us 
to  omit ;  but  the  result  of  its  application,  we  may  be  permitted  to  observe, 
was  his  very  elegant  and  delicate  version,  in  which,  though  he  adheres 
solely  to  the  literal  sense,  yet  he  decidedly  expresses  himself  (p.  xviii.)  in 
favour  of  the  mystical  meaning  of  the  poem. 
.  a  Scott,  Pref.  to  Sol.  Songs. 


who  were  raised  up  among  the  Israelites  to  be  the  ministers 
of  God's  dispensations.  Jehovah,  at  sundry  times  and  in 
divers  manners,  spake  unto  the  fathers  by  the  prophets :  for 
prophecy  came  not  of  old  time  by  the  will  of  man,  but  Jwly 
men  of  God  spake  as  they  were  moved  by  the  Holy  Spirit. 
(Heb.  i.  1.  •2Pet.  i.  21.) 

II.  To  these  messengers  of  heaven  frecjuent  reference  is 
made  in  various  parts  of  the  Sacred  Writings.  The  term 
Prophet,  indeed,  is  of  general  signification.  It  was  applied 
by  the  heathens  to  all  persons  who  were  supposed  to  be  con- 
versant  with  divine  things ;  and,  in  conformity  to  this  notion, 
St.  Paul,  in  his  Epistle  to  Titus  (i.  12.),  when  citing  a  pas- 
sage from  a  profane  poet,  calls  him  a  prophet,  because  the 
heathens  supposed  their  poets  to  be  inspired.  In  the  histori- 
cal books  of^the  Old  Testament  we  meet  with  frequent  notice 
of  the  school  of  the  prophets,  that  is,  of  seminaries,  where  re- 
lio-ious  truths,  or  the  divine  laws,  were  particularly  taught  i^ 
fo*r  the  pupils  in  these  schools  were  not,  strictly  speaking, 
all  of  them  prophets;  though  God  bestowed  upon  some  of 
them  the  spirit  of  prophecy,  or  of  predicting  future  events. 
(2  Kings  ii.  3.)  Further,  in  the  Old  Testament,  the  prophets 
are  sp^en  of,  as  "  holy  men  of  God,'''  as  "  seers,'^  and  as 
''prophets,"  in  the  most  exalted  sense  of  the  term.  The  first 
denomination  seems  to  have  been  sometimes  applied  to  men 
of  exemplary  piety,  who  assiduously  studied  the  divine  law 
as  communicated  by  their  legislator  Moses ;  who  firm^  be- 
lieved in  the  predictions  of  good  and  evil  that  should  attend 
the  Israelites  according  to  the  tenor  of  their  conduct;  who 
3  Bossuet,  Preef.  in  Canticum  Canticorum,  Oeuvree,  torn.  i.  p.  467.  4to. 

^  *  See  an  account  of  these  schools  in  Part  IV.  Chap.  VII.  Sect.  HI.  5  1 
of  this  volume. 


254 


GENERAL  OBrsERVATIONS  ON  THE 


[Part  V.  CuAP.  IV. 


<vere  observant  of  the  character  of  the  times  in  wliioh  thr-y 
lived ;  and  who  might  be  sble  to  discern  the  natural  and 
inevitable  consequences  of  particular  actions,  without  the 
necessity  of  immediate  inspiration.  These  men  of  God, 
however,  received  peculiar  communications  upon  certain 
emergencies.  Thej'  were  divinely  appointed  to  execute  some 
important  commissions,  and  to  preuict  evonts  which  were 
not  in  the  ordinary  course  of  thinors,  but  far  beyond  the  reach 
of  human  penetration.  It  was  this  which  sometimes  gave 
them  the  title  of  seers.  The  hijrher  class  of  prophets  were 
those  who  foretold  important  events  that  were  to  take  place 
at  distant  periods;  which  no  human  sagacity  could  foresee, 
and  which  were  most  opposite  to  the  natural  conceptions  or 
general  expecbitions  of  mankind:  as  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Eze- 
kiel,  and  the  minor  prophets.' 

III.  The  prophets,  according  to  Augustine,^  were  the  phi- 
losophers, divines,  instructors,  and  guides  of  the  Hebrews 
in  piety  and  virtue.  These  holy  men  were  the  l)ulwarks  of 
religion  against  the  impiety  of  princes,  the  wickedness  of 
indi'viduals,  and  every  kind  of  immorality.  Their  lives,  per- 
sons, and  discourses  were  alike  instructive  and  prophetical. 
Kaiscd  up  by  God  to  be  witnesses  of  his  jpresence,  and  living 
monuments  of  his  will,  the  events  that  frequently  happened 
to  them  were  predictions  of  what  was  about  to  befall  the 
Hebrew  nation.  Although  the  prophets  possessed  great 
authority  in  Israel,  and  were  highly  esteemed  by  pious  sove- 
reigns, who  undertook  no  important  affairs  without  consult- 
intr"  them,  yet  their  way  of  life  was  exceedingly  laborious, 
zw\  they  were  very  poor,  and  greatly  exposed  to  persecution 
and  ill  treatment.  They  generally  lived  retired  in  some 
country  place,  and  in  colleges  or  communities,  where  they 
and  tiieir  disciples  were  employed  in  prayer,  in  manual  la- 
bour, and  in  study.  Their  labour,  however,  was  not  such 
as  required  intense  application,  or  was  inconsistent  with  that 
freedom  from  secular  cares  which  thrir  office  remiircd.  Thus, 
Elishn  quitted  his  plough,  when  Elijah  called  him  to  the 
prophetic  office  (1  Kings  xix.  19,  20.) ;  and  Amos  (vii.  11.) 
tells  us  that  he  tvri3  no  prop/iet,  iieither  a  prophefs  sun,  but  a 
herdsman,  and  a  (gatherer  of  sycamore  fruit.  The  pupils  or 
softs  of  the  prophets,  who  lived  under  the  direction  of  Elij-.di 
and  Elisha,  erected  their  own  dwellings,  for  which  they  cut 
down  the  timber  that  was  requisite.  (2  Kings  vi.  1 — 1.) 

The  apparel  of  the  prophets  was  m  unison  with  the  sim- 
plicity o/  their  private  life.  Elijah  was  clothed  with  skins, 
and  wore  a  leather  girdle  round  his  loins.  (2  Kings  i.  8.) 
Isaiah  wore  sackcloth  (xx.2.),  which  was  the  ordinary  habit 
of  the  prophets.  Zechariali,  speaking  of  the  filse  prophets 
who  imitated  externally  the  true  prophets  of  the  Lord,  says 
that  they  should  not  wear  a  rough  garment  (Heb.  a  garment 
of  hair')  to  deceive.  (Zech.  xiii.  4.)  Their  poverty  was  con- 
spicuous in  their  whole  life.  The  presents  they  received 
were  only  bread,  fruits,  and  honey ;  and  the  first-fruits  '^f  the 
earth  were  given  them,  as  being  persons  who  possessed 
nothing  themselves.  (2  Kings  iv.  42.)  The  woman  of  Shu- 
nom,  who  entertained  Elisha,  put  into  the  prophet's  chamber 
only  what  was  plam  and  absolutely  necessary.  (2  Kings  iv. 
10.)  'J'he^ame  prophet  refused  the  costly  presents  of  Naaman 
(2  Kings  v.  16.),  and  pronounced  a  severe  sentence  upon  his 
Bervant  f  iehazi,  who  had  clandestinely  obtained  a  part  of  them. 
(20 — 27.)  Their  frugality  appears  throughout  their  history  ; 
— for  instance,  the  wild  gourds,  which  one  of  the  nrophels 
ordered  to  be  prepared  for  his  disciples.  (2  Kings  iv.  5h — 11.) 
The  angel  gave  Elijah  only  bread  and  water  for  a  long  jour- 
ney n  Kings  xix.  6 — 8.)  ;  and  Obadiah,  the  pious  governor 
of  Allah's  household,  gave  the  same  food  to  the  prophets 
whose  lives  he  saved  in  a  cave.  (1  Kings  xviii.  1.  1.3.) 
Their  recluse,  abstemious  mode  of  living,  and  mean  apparel, 
sometimes  exposed  them  to  contempt  among  the  gay  and 
courtly:  it  was  probably,  the  singular  dress  and  appearance 
of  Elislia  which  occasioned  the  impious  scoffs  of  the  young 
I  men  of  liethel.  QJKinpj  ii.  2.3.)  But,  in  general,  the  pro- 
phets were  regarded  with  high  esteem  and  veneration  by  the 
wise  and  good,  and  even  by  persons  of  the  first  rank  in  the; 
state.  (1  Kinfs  xvi'ii.  7.)  It  does  not  appear  that  the  prophrts 
were  bound  Cy  any  vow  of  celibacy";  for  Sainurl  had  ciiil- 
dren.and  the  Scriptures  mention  the  wives  of  Isaiah  (viii.  3.) 
and  Hosea.  (i.  2.)  Hut  the  jjrophets  maintained  a  very 
guarded  intercourse  with  the  female  sex,  as  is  evident  in  the 
condact  of  Elisha  towards  his  benevolent  hostess.  (2  Kings 
iv.  27.) 

«  Dr.  Co^an'i  Theological  Disqnialtion,  p.  275.  ct  teq.  Dr.  Grpgoi  y 
Bharpf 'h  i^ecoocJ  Arguuicnt  in  I),  fence  of  Chrlitionltjr  from  I'mpliccy, 
|ip.  I— 2». 

«  Do  CivltAta  Del  lib.  xvUl.  c.  41. 


But,  however  they  might  be  respected  by  pious  monarchs, 
the  prophets  were  frequently  exposed  to  cniel  treatment  from 
wickid  princes,  whose  impiety  they  reprehended,  and  to  in- 
sults and  jeers  from  the  people,  whose  immoral  practices 
they  censured  and  condemned ;  and  many  of  them  were  even 
put  to  violent  deaths.  (Ilcb.  xi.  35 — 39.)  Yet,  amid  all 
these  persecutions  and  this  injurious  treatment,  they  despised 
dangers,  torments,  and  death,  and  with  wonderful  intrepidity 
attacked  whatever  was  contrary  to  the  law  and  worship  of 
Jehovah,  contemning  secular  honours,  riches,  and  favours 
with  astonisliing  disinterestedness.^ 

IV.  "  Propliecy  being  necessary  in  the  early  aqes  for  the 
preservation  of  the  knowledge  of  God,  in  the  Ih-lirew  com- 
monwealth prophets  were  not  merely  tolerated,  as  some  have 
supposed,  but  they  were  also  promised,  lest  the  Hebrews 
should  have  recourse  to  soothsayers  who  were  idolaters,  and 
would  seduce  them  into  idolatry.  (Deut.  xviii.  9 — 22.)  But, 
that  advantage  might  not  be  talceu  of  this  institution  by  false 
prophets,  Moses  dicreed,  that  impostors  should  suffer  capital 
punishment;  and  furnished  the  judges  with  two  distinguish- 
ing marks,  by  which  a  false  prophet  might  be  known. 

"  1.  The  prophet,  who  should  endeavour  to  introduce  the 
worship  of  other  gods  beside  Jehovah,  was  to  be  considered 
as  an  impostor;  and,  as  a  rebel  against  their  king,  to  be 
capitally  punished.  (Deut.  xiii.  2 — 6.) 

"2.  v\  hoover  should  predict  any  thing  which  was  not 
accomplished  by  the  event,  although  he  should  do  it  in  the 
name  of  Jehovah,  was  to  be  condemned  to  death,  as  an 
impostor  who  had  presumed  to  counterfeit  the  seal  of  their 
king.  (Deut.  xviii.  20 — 22.)  Hence  it  is  plain  that  the 
prophets  were  not  sagacious  men,  whose  perspicacity  enabled 
them  to  foresee  future  events ;  for  an  error  committed  by 
such,  and  unaccompanied  by  guilt,  would  never  have  receiv- 
ed from  Moses  so  severe  a  punishment." 

In  consequence  of  these  laws,  "  a  prophet  ran  a  great  risk 
in  undertaking  a  divine  mission,  unless  he  knew,  by  infallible 
proofs,  that  he  had  really  received  the  commands  of  the 
Deity,  and  was  not  deluded  by  his  own  imagination.  Of 
the  nature  of  these  proofs  we  are  not  informed,  although 
some  circumstances  are  recorded,  which  show  that  the 
prophets  were  certainly  possessed  of  them.  For  instance. 
It  is  mentioned  (1  Sam.  iii.  7.),  that,  at  first,  Samuel  did  not 
know  the  voice  of  God ;  and  Jeremiah  (xxxii.  C — 9.)  con- 
fesses, that  it  was  the  correspondence  ot  the  event,  which 
assured  him  that  the  direction  to  buy  the  field  of  his  relative 
had  come  to  him  from  God.  (Compare  also  Jer.  xxviii.  9.) 
The  proofs,  by  which  Moses  was  satisfied  respecting  his 
divine  commission,  are  recorded  at  length  in  Exod.  iii.  1. — 
iv.  17.  Tiiat  the  prophets  had  other  means  of  distinguishing 
divine  revelations  from  iheir  own  ihouwhts,  appears  from 
1  Sam.  xvi.  6,  7.  2  Sam.  vii.  1 — 17.  1  Chron.  xvii.  1 — 16. 
Isa.  xxxviii.  1 — 8.  2  Kings  xx.  1 — 11.  Occasifnally,  the 
impression  made  by  the  revelation  was  so  strong,  that  it  was 
impossible  to  doubt  of  its  origin  ;  so  that  they  confess  them- 
selves unable  to  refrain  from  speaking,  as  in  Jer.  xx.  7 — 10. 
The  means,  indeed,  by  which  they  distinguished  their  own 
thoughts  from  divine  revelations,  they  could  not  express 
in  words ;  just  as  it  is  impossible  to  explain  to  on«  unac- 
quainted with  the  subject,  how  we  know  the  painter  of  a 
picture,  or  the  author  of  a  composition,  solely  by  his  style. 
To  the  hearers  and  first  readers  of  the  prophets  their  divine 
mission  w^as  proved  either  by  miracles  preilictcd,  and  accord 
ingly  perlurmed  ;  or,  if  such  were  not  gnmtcd,  by  the  even 
corresponding  with  the  prophecies:  for  the  prophecies  were 
of  a  twofold  description,  some  relating  to  proximate,  others 
to  remote  events.  Those  of  ihe  former  kind,  which  were 
clear,  and  contained  various  circumstances  of  the  predicted 
events,  which  must  necessnrily  be  beyond  tlie  reach  of 
human  foresight,  alTorded  by  their  completion  a  proof  to  the 
contemporaries  of  the  prophet  that  he  was  a  messenger  of 
God,  and  that  his  predictions  concerning  rcMnote  events, 
coming  from  the  same  source  with  those  which  they  had 
sr-en  fullilh'd,  were  worthy  of  equal  credit. <  The  accorn- 
plishmeiit  of  these  would  afford  to  posterity  the  proof  of  his 
divine  mi.s.sion.  This  conse([uence  was  so  evident,  that  not 
a  few  even  of  the  heathens,  among  whom  Cyrus  may  be 
mentioned  as  a  most  remarkable  instance,  were  convinced 
by  it,  and  acknowledged  that  the  author  of  these  prophecies 

•  Cnlinot,  Prnfaco  GcniTalc  siir  los  Proplw-lo,  Art.  3.  8ur  laManii  re  de 
VIodcMrrupluK's,  Ac.  DiRserl.  toin.  ii.  pp.  .'SH-nil.  ,^     , 

«  Coiiipin-  l.Saiii.  iii.  l'.i— '.21.,  wlir?r<>  llio  gon.TBl  ltno\vl«'(l«:c  of  Iho  fact, 
Hint  Hninufi  was  n  divim-ly  roiiimisjOMnf"!  proptiel,  Is  sln|(>.l  as  a  conse- 
(|UPiiro<>l  (.ioil'sMJin^nofif  of  ills  words  fall  lo  the  ground;  tlial  Is,  oftho 
regular  fulfiiiiicnt  of  his  preilictiuns. 


Sect.  I.] 


PROPHETS  AND  THEIR  WRITINGS. 


255 


must  be  the  one  true  God.'  It  was  necessary,  therefore, 
that  the.  prophets  should  secure  the  credence  of  their  contem- 
poraries 111  that  portion  of  their  prophecies  ^vhich  related  to 
remote  events  by  some  predictions  respecting  events  of 
speedy  occurrence.  This  accounts  for  the  fact,  that  the 
prophets  sometimes  predicted  proximate  events  of  little  mo- 
ment with  as  much  care  as  otners  of  far  more  importance.^ 
Compare  2  Sam.  xii.  14.  xxiv.  II — 14.  1  Kings  xi.  31 — 39. 
xiii.  1 — 5.  xiv.  6.  12.  Isa.  vii.  4 — IG.^  xxxviii.  4 — 8.  Jer. 
xxviii.  16,  17.  xxxvii.  1.  xxxviii.  28."'' 

V.  In  considering  the  circumstances  relative  to  the  Hebrew 
prophets,  the  Qualifications  which  were  requisite  for  the 
prophetic  office  claim  distinctly  to  be  considered :  they  were 
two  in  number,  viz. 

1.  Tiic  first  and  leading  qualification  was,  a  holy  charac- 
ter. 

"  As  this  is  the  uniform  sentiment  of  .Tewish  writers,  so 
it  is  confiiTned  by  the  history  and  lives  of  the  ancient  pro- 
phets, and  by  the  express  testimony  of  St.  Peter,  that  holy 
men  of  God  spake  as  they  were  moved  by  the  Holy  Ghost. 
(2  Pet.  i.  21.)  Though  we  meet  with  some  instances  of 
wicked  men,  to  whom  God,  on  special  occasions,  imparted 
his  secret  counsels,  such  as  the  covetous  Balaam,  and  the 
idolatrous  kings,  Pharaoh,  Abimelech,  and  Nebuchadnezzar  ;5 
yet  we  ma)r  presume,  that  none  but  good  men  were  statedly 
nonoured  with  these  divine  communications ;  and  especially 
that  none  but  such  were  employed  as  penmen  of  the  Sacred 
Writings.  The  declaration,  therefore,  of  Peter,  will,  doubt- 
less, apply  to  all  the  prophetic  writers  of  the  Old  Testament. 
They  were  all  men  of  real  and  exemplary  holiness.  The 
importance  of  personal  piety  and  virtue  in  the  extraordinary 
ministers  of  Jehovah  will  account  for  his  withdrawing  the 
spirit  of  prophecy  from  the  Hebrew  nation  in  the  latter 
stages  of  their  polity,  that  is,  from  Malachi  to  Christ; 
because  during  this  period  their  religious  and  moral  state 
was  universally  corrupt." 

2.  The  mind  of  the  prophet  must  he  in  a  serene  and  com- 
posed FRAME,  in  order  to  receive  the  spirit  of  inspiration. 

"  The  Jewish  doctors  tell  us,  that  a  mind  loaded  with 
fresh  guilt,  oppressed  with  sorrow,  or  disturbed  with  passion, 
could  not  duly  receive  and  exercise  this  heavenly  gift.  Ac- 
cordingly, when  David,  in  his  penitential  psalm,  after  the 
affair  of  Uriah,  prays  that  the  holy  spirit  might  be  restored  to 
him,  that  God  would  give  him  joy  and  gladness  and  a  free 
spirit ;  the  Hebrew  commentators  understand  by  these  ex- 
pressions, that  prophetic  spirit,  which  his  guilt  and  distress 
of  mind  had  banished,  and  that  peaceful  and  cheerful  frame, 
which  would  invite  its  return.  To  prove  that  passion  unfit- 
ted the  mind  for  the  prophetic  impulse,  they  plead  the  story 

1  The  prophets  themselves  occasionally  refer  to  this  evidence  of  their 
divine  mission,  and  draw  plainly  the  distinction  between  Ihe  proximate 
e%'ents,  by  predicting  wliich  tlicy  obtain  credence  for  their  other  prophe- 
cies, and  those  more  remote  whipsh  it  was  their  principal  object  to  foretell. 
Compare  Isa.  xli.  22.  xlii.  9.  xliv.  7,  3.  Jer.  xxviii.  9. — For  an  enumeration 
of  prophecies  of  proximate  events,  and  their  accomplislmient,  see  Allix's 
Reflections  upon  the  Books  of  the  Old  Testament,  ch.  3.  in  Bishop  Wat- 
son's Tracts,  vol.  i.  pp.  3.5.3—361. 

"^  The  subject  of  the  evidence  of  the  divine  mission  of  the  prophets  is 
copiously  discussed  by  Witsius  in  his  Miscellanea  Sacra,  lib.  i.  c.  15.  de 
notis  vera;  prophetiec  et  veri  prophetiii:,  pp.  132 — 159. 

s  See  an  illustration  of  this  prediction  of  a  proximate  event  and  its  fulfil- 
mcnt,  supra,  Vol.  I.  p.  121. 

<  Professor  Turner's  and  Mr.  Whittingham's  translation  of  Jahn's  Intro- 
duction, pp.  313.  315. 

'  The  transient  vouchsafement  of  this  spirit  to  bad  men,  while  it  an- 
swered some  special  purpose  of  divine  wisdom,  admirably  displayed  the 
60verei;rnly  of  God  in  using  the  most  tmlikely  and  wicked  instruments  to 
serve  his  own  design,  in  constraining  even  his  enemies  to  utter  those 
truths  and  preiijctions,  which  promoted  his  honour  and  interest,  and  sealed 
their  own  cori  lemnation  and  ruin.  It  magnified  his  unsearchable  wisdom, 
holiness,  and  jiower  in  compelling  the  most  unhallowed  lips  to  pronounce 
his  pure  messages  witliout  the  least  adulteration,  yea,  with  astonishing 
energy  and  sublimity.  It  enforced  in  the  most  striking  manner  the  essen- 
tial distinction  between  splendid  and  even  miraculous  gifts,  and  sanctify- 
ing grace  ;  between  the  occasional  effusions  of  a  prophetic  spirit,  and 
the  genuine  workings  of  human  depravity.  These  lessons  are  forcibly 
tau2ht  by  the  history  of  Balaam.  This  noted  magician  had  been  allured 
by  B;dak,  king  of  Moab,  to  come  to  him,  with  a  view  to  curse  Israel,  who 
then  lay  encamped  on  his  borders.  The  heathen  nations  believed  that 
prophets  or  diviners  could,  by  religious  charms  or  ceremonies,  decoy  from 
'.heir  enemies  their  tutelar  deities,  engage  the  celestial  powers  against 
them,  and  thus  ensure  their  destruction.  Thus  Homer  represents  the 
capture  of  Troy  as  depending  on  Ihe  removal  from  that  cily  of  the  sacred 
image  of  Minerva.  The  pagans,  previously  to  a  military  engagement,  usu- 
ally employed  a  priest  to  pronounce,  at  the  head  of  the  army,  a  solemn 
imprecation  against  the  adverse  power.  But  though  Balaam  was  invited 
and  fully  inclined  to  perform  this  olBce  against  Israel,  infinite  goodness, 
power,  and  wisdom  turned  the  curse  into  a  blessing,  by  forcing  this  malig- 
nant enemy  of  his  people  to  announce,  in  the  most  lofty  strains,  their  pre- 
sent and  future  glory,  the  triumphs  of  their  divine  Leader  and  future  Mes- 
siah, and  the  signal  destruction  of  his  and  their  adversaries.  We  sec  in 
this  and  similar  instances,  the  singular  beauty  of  the  divine  conduct ; 
which,  by  thus  inspiring  and  controlling  the  minds  of  sinful  men,  turned 
their  counsels  into  foolishness,  and  made  their  wralh  and  wickedness  sub- 
Bervicnt  to  his  praise- 


of  Lhsha  ;  who  being  requested  by  the  three  kir.o-s  of  Judah, 
Israel,  and  Edom,  to  inquire  of  God  for  them  in  their  dis- 
tress for  water  during  a  military  expedition,  was  transported 
with  pious  indignation  against  the  wicked  kino-  of  Israel : 
but  being  willing  to  oblige  the  good  king  of  Judah,  called 
for  a  fhinstrel  or  musician,  for  the  apparent  purpose  of  calm- 
ing his  passion,  and  thus  preparing  him  for  the  spirit  of  in- 
spiration. Accordingly,  while  the  minstrel  played,  we  are 
told,  the  hand  of  the  Lord  came  upon  him.  This  intimates 
one  important  reason  why  the  prophets  and  their  pupils  cul 
tivated  sacred  music ;  and  also  why  those  who  composed 
and  sung  divine  hymns  are  sometimes  styled  prophets  ;  viz. 
because  in  many  cases  this  heavenly  art  was  not  only  assist- 
ed by,  but  wonderfully  fitted  persons  for,  celestial  communi- 
cations."'' 

^  3.  Though  prophecy  was  a  perfectly  gratuitous  gift  of 
God,  and  independent  on  human  industry,  yet  it  did  not  ex- 
clude APPLICATION  AND  STUDY,  for  the  purposc  of  ascertain- 
ino-  the  meaning  of  a  particular  prophecy. 

Thus,  Daniel  prayed  and  fasted  in  order  that  he  might 
know  the  mystery  of  the  seventy  weeks  which  had  been 
predicted  by  Jeremiah.  (Dan.  ix.  2.)  Zechariah  applied 
iiimself  seriously  to  the  study  of  prophecy  (2  Chron.  xxvi. 
5.)  ;  and  St.  Peter  states,  that  this  was  the  employment  cf 
the  ancient  prophets.  (I  Pet.  i.  10,  11.) 

VI.  Great  diversity  of  opinion  has  prevailed  respecting 
the  nature,  extent,  permanency,  and  different  degrees  of  in- 
spiration which  the  prophets  possessed.  Not  to  enter  into  a 
useless  discussion  of  conflicting  sentiments,  we  may  remark, 
that  the  communication  between  God  and  man  is  by  prayer, 
by  the  word  of  God,  and  by  his  works  :  in  old  times  it  was 
also  by  the  prophets,  and  before  them  by  the  angel  of  the 
Lord,  and  the  proper  symbols  of  the  divine  presence.  Man- 
kind, at  first,  consulted  God  by  prayers  and  sacrifices  at  his 
altars.  After  the  promulgation  ot  the  law  from  Mount  Sinai, 
and  the  establishment  of  the  priesthood,  we  find  three  modes 
of  communicating  the  divine  will  mentioned  in  the  Old  Tes- 
tament:—1.  The  Shechinah  .-—2.  The  Urim  and  Thiim- 
mini;  and, — 3.  Revelation  by  Dreams,  Visions,  hy  Inspira- 
tion, or  by  immediate  Conversation  with  the  Deity.  "When 
these  kinds  of  prophecy  ceased  under  the  second  temple,  ac- 
cording^ to  the  Taimudists,  they  were  succeeded,  4.  By  the 
Saih  Kol,  or  voice  from  heaven. 

1.  The  Shechinah  was  the  sitting  or  dwelling  of  God 
between  the  cherubim  on  the  mercy-seat,  or  cover  of  the  ark 
(Psal.  Ixxx.  1.  and  xcix.  1.)  ;  whence  he  delivered  his  an- 
swers in  an  articulate  voice.  (Exod.  xxv.  22.  xxix.  42. 
Num.  vii.  89.) 

2.  The  Urim  and  Thummim,  which  was  on  the  high- 
priest's  breastplate  (Exod.  xxviii.  30.),  was  another  stand- 
ing oracle,  to  be  consulted  on  all  great  occasions  (Num. 
xxvii.  21.  1  Sam.  xxviii.  6.  xxiii.  9.  xxx.  7.  Ezra  ii.  63.); 
and  the  answers  were  returned  by  a  visible  signification  of 
the  divine  will.  This  oracle  was  not  only  venerable  among 
the  Jews,  but  Avas  also  celebrated  among  the  Greeks,  as 
Josephus  informs  us,'  for  its  infallible  answers. 

3.  Another  mode  of  revealing  the  divine  will  was  by 
Dreams  and  Visions,  by  Inspiration,  or  a  Conversation  with 
THE  Deity. 

(1.)  Dreams,  or  (to  adopt  the  elegant  expressions  of  the 
Temanite)  Thoughts  from  the  visions  of  the  night,  when  deep 
sleep  falleth  on  man  (Job  iv.  16.),  are  frequently  mentioned  in 
the  Scriptures  as  channels  by  which  tlie  divine  will  was 
communicated  to  mankind.  Abimelech  was  reproved  and 
admonished  in  a  dream  concerning  Sarah  (Gen.  xx.  3.)  ;  and, 
to  Abraham,  by  a  prophetic  dream,  were  announced  the 
bondage  of  his  posterity  in  Egypt,  and  their  deliverance, 
accompanied  with  the  promise  of  long  life  to  himself  before 
he  should  be  gathered  to  his  fathers.  (Gen.  xv.  12 — 16.) 
The  dreams  of  Joseph,  and  of  Pharaoh  and  his  servants, 
were  divine  (Gen.  xxxvii.  5.  xl.  5.  xli.  1.) ;  as  also  was  that 
of  Nebuchadnezzar  concerning  the  fate  of  many  kingdoms 
(Dan.  ii.  1.)  All  these  were  worthy  of  the  divine  interpo- 
sition, and  carried  the  evidence  of  their  divine  original  by 
the  revelations  they  made,  and  the  strong  impressions  they 
left  upon  the  mind.* 

(2.)  Visions  were  revelations  made  in  a  trance  or  ecstacy, 
during  which  ideas  and  symbolic  representations  were  pre- 
sented to  the  imagination  of  the  prophet,  when  awaj^e,  or 

e  Tappan's  Lectures  on  Jewish  Antiquities,  pp.  191—193. 

■■  Ant.Jud.  hb.  iii.  c.  8.  (al.  9.)  §  9. 
Sharpe's  Second  Argument  in  Defence  of  Christianity  from  Prophecy, 
20— 'is.    Jahn,  Introductio  ad  Vet.  Feed.  §  86.  ID.    Witsii  Miscellanea 


PP 
sacra,  lib. 


i.  c.  5. 


256 


GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE 


[Paht  V.  Chap.  IV 


the  future  was  exhibited  as  it  were  in  distant  prospect. 
Thus,  Isaiah  beheld  the  Lord  sitting  upon  a  lofty  tlirone,  his 
train  filling  the  temple,  above  which  stood  seraphim,  wlio 
alternately  proclaimed  his  praises.  (Isa.  vi.  2,  3.)  VVhile 
Ezekiel  was  among  the  captives  by  the  river  Chebar,  the 
heavens  were  opened,  and  ne  beheld  the  visions  of*God, 
which  he  has  aescribed.  (ch.  i.)  To  this  class  of  divine 
manifestations  is  supposed  to  belong  the  revelation  made  to 
Jeremiah,  concerning  the  girdle  which  he  was  commanded 
to  conceal  near  the  nver  Euphrates,  and  to  resume  it  after  it 
had  become  decayed.  (Jer.  xiii.  1 — 9.)  Indeed,  it  is  not 
credible,  that  the  prophet  should  have  been  sent  twice  upon 
a  journey  of  such  considerable  length  and  difficulty  (for  the 
Euphrates  is  computed  to  have  been  eighteen  or  twenty  days 
distant  from  Jerusalem),  to  a  very  great  loss  of  his  time, 
when  every  purpose  would  have  been  answered  altogether 
as  well,  if  the  transaction  had  been  represented  in  vision. 
The  same  supposition  of  a  vision  must  be  admitted  in  other 
cases  also,  particularly  in  Jer.  xxv.  15 — 29. ;  for  it  would  be 
absurd  to  believe  that  Jeremiah  actually  went  round  with  a 
Mip  in  his  hand  to  all  the  kings  and  nations  enumerated  in 
that  chapter,  and  made  them  drink  of  its  contents.  Micaiah, 
in  vision,  beheld  the  Lord  sitting  upon  his  throne,  surround- 
ed by  the  celestial  host,  and  alF  Israel  scattered  upon  tiie 
hills.  (1  Kings  xxii.  17 — 19.)  Other  instances  of  revela- 
tions by  visions  may  be  seen  in  Num.  xxiv.  15.  Ezck.  iii. 
1.  iv.  5.  12.  15.  viii.  1.  et  seq.  Dan.  vii.  Acts  x.  9,  10.  2 
("or.  xii.  1 — 3.  Many  of  the  scenes  represented  in  the  Apo- 
calypse were  in  vision.'  In  Job  iv.  13 — 1(5.  there  is  a  de- 
scription of  a  vision  by  Eliphaz  the  Temanite,  which,  for 
sublimity,  is  unrivalled  by  any  production  of  ancient  or  of 
modern  poetry.  "  Midnight,  solitude,  the  deep  sleep  of  all 
around,  the  flreadful  chill  and  erection  of  the  hair  over  the 
whole  body, — the  shiverintr  not  of  the  muscles  only,  but  of 
the  bones  themselves, — the  gliding  approach  of  the  spec- 
tre,— the  abruptness  of  his  pause, — his  undefined  and  inde- 
scribable form,  are  all  powerful  and  original  characters, 
which  have  never  been  given  with  equal  effect  by  any  other 
writer."^ 

(3.)  Inspiration  was  a  third  mode  by  which  the  divine 
designs  were  manifested  to  the  prophets  ;  by  which  term  we 
are  to  understand  "  a  sugirestion  of  ideas  to  the  understanding, 
without  such  representations  to  the  fancy  as  the  former  me- 
thods iraply.  Maimonides,  one  of  the  most  rational  and 
learned  of  the  Jewish  doctors,  explains  this  inspiration  to  be 
a  divine  impulse,  enabling  and  urging  the  subject  of  it  to 
utter  psalms  and  hymns,  or  useful  moral  precepts,  or  matters 
civil,  sacred,  and  divine;  and  that,  while  he  is  awake,  and 
has  tlie  ordinary  use  and  vigour  of  his  senses.  Such  was 
the  inspiration  of  Zacharias  and  Elizabeth,  who  on  a  very 
interesting  occasion  are  said  to  have  '  been  filled  with  the  Holy 
Ghost,''  and  to  have  uttered  the  most  sublime  acknowledg- 
ments or  predictions.  (Luke  i.  41,  42.  67 — 79.)  Such,  too, 
was  the  inspiration  of  the  ancient  prophets  in  geiieral,  who 
'  /tpake  as  they  were  nir/ved  by  the  Holy  Ghost. ^  This  eacred 
impulse  was  of  a  calm  and  gentle  nature,  and  thus  was 
clearly  distinguished  from  the  fanatical  inspiration  of  heathen 
diviners.'  But  the  prophets  of  the  true  God  were  only 
'  moved,'  that  is,  calmly  influenced  by  his  inspiring  spirit. 
This  influence,  far  from  suspending,  added  vigour  and  ele- 
vation to  their  own  reason  and  prudence."^ 

(4.)  But  the  most  eminent  of  all  the  modes  of  communi- 
cating the  divine  will  to  man  was,  a  direct  Conversation 
WITH  God.  It  is  especially  recorded  of  Moses,  that  there 
arose  no  prophet  subsequently,  like  unto  him,  whom  the  Lord 
kncwhice  to  face.  (Deut.  xxxiv.  10.)  This  has  been  termed 
the  Mosaical  Inspiration :  it  was  the  highest  degree,  and  was 
characterized  by  the  following  circumstances,  which  distin- 
guished it  from  the  revelations  made  to  the  rest  of  the  pro- 
f»hct8: 1.  Moses  was  made  partaker  of  these  divine  revc- 
ations,  while  he  was  awake  (Num.  xii.  (3 — H.),  wliereas 
God  manifested  himself  to  all  the  other  prophets  in  a  dream 

or  vision. 2.  Moses  prophesied  without  the  mediation  of 

any  angelic  power,  by  an  influence  derived  immediately  from 
(iod,  wliile  in  all  other  prophecies  some  angel  appeared  to 
the  prophet. — 3.  All  the   other   prophets  were   alraid,  and 

I  Wiull  MiiccUanca  Sacra,  Ub.  I.  c  3.  S  \x.  pp.  19,  20-  Dr.  Dlayncy,  on 
Jer.  xUi.  4. 

»  Dr.  Oood'»Trnnshii(in  of  Job,  p.  61. 

»  VlrBil  in  his  Hixlh  yEn.^id  represents  the  iiibyl,  when  the  prophetic  imlril 
enizcJ  her,  .la  perfectly  frantic,  as  s'.ruRgling  in  vain  to  ghakc  off  tlir  ilcity 
that  inspifi'tl  her,  and  atf  irresislil)ly  forced  to  utter  hin  ilictatos.  (JEn.  vi. 
47.  el  sKii.  77.  e<  «efy.)  I.iic.in  describes  Ihc  Pytliian  jirophctess  in  the  Baiue 
ni.iniicr    (Lib.  v.  v.  112— 21S.) 

«  Tappan'g  Lectures  on  Jewish  Antiquities,  p.  199. 


troubled  and  fainted ;  but  Moses  was  not  so.  To  him  the. 
hoRD  spake,  face  to  face,  vs  a  man  speaketh  unto  his  friend 
(Exod.  xxxiii.  11.),  that  is,  freely  and  familiarly,  without 
fear  and  trembling. — I.  Not  one  of  the  other  prophets  could 
utter  predictions  at  their  pleasure;  but  Moses,  on  whom  the 
spirit  of  prophecy  rested  at  all  times,  was  free  to  prophesy, 
and  might  have  recourse  at  any  time  to  the  sacred  oracle  in 
the  tabernacle,  which  spake  from  between  the  cherubim.* 

"In  all  the  cases  here  described,  the  prophfts  could  not, 
without  doubting  the  clearest  and  most  palpable  evidence, 
distrust  the  truth  of  the  revelations  which  they  received  ; 
and,  with  respect  to  us,  we  have  ample  reason,  from  a  col- 
lective consideration  of  their  writings,  to  be  convinced  that 
their  inspiration  was  accompanied  with  sufficient  characters 
to  distinguish  it  from  the  dreams  of  enthusiasm,  or  the  vi- 
sions of  fanoy.""  Though  their  bodily  strength  was  some- 
times overpowered  by  the  magnitude  of  their  revelations,  and 
their  eyes  \yere  dazzled  with  the  splendour  of  the  visionary 
light,  as  in  the  instances  of  Daniel  (x.  5 — 9.)  and  the  apostle 
John  (Rev.  i.  17.),  yet  they  retained  full  possession  ot  their 
understanding,  and  the  free  exercise  of  their  reason.  The 
prophetical  spirit,  seating  itself  in  the  rational  powers,  as 
well  as  in  the  imagination,  never  alienated  the  mind,  but  in 
formed  and  enlightened  it ;  and  those  who  were  actuated  by 
it  always  maintained  a  clearness  and  consistency  of  reason, 
with  strength  and  solidity  of  judgment.  For  God  did  not 
employ  idiots  or  fools  for  the  purpose  of  revealing  his  will, 
but  those  whose  intellects  were  entire  and  perfect,  and  he 
imprinted  so  clear  a  copy  of  his  truth  upon  them,  that  it  be- 
came their  own  sense,  being  digested  fully  into  their  under- 
standings, so  that  they  were  able  to  represent  it  to  others  as 
truly  as  any  person  can  express  his  own  thoughts.'  And 
if  at  any  time  they  did  not  clearly  understand  the  prophetic 
revelation  communicated  to  them",  they  asked  for  an  expla- 
nation:  such  was  the  conduct  of  Daniel  (Dan.  ix.  18 — 23. 
X.  \.  et  seq.),  and  of  Zechariah.  (i.  9.  iv.  4.  vi.  4,  5.) 

When  the  various  kinds  of  prophecy  above  enumerated 
ceased  under  the  second  temple,  they  were  succeeded,  ac- 
cording to  the  Talmudist,  by 

4.  The  Bath  Kol,  voice  from  heaven,  or  the  aerial  regions, 
daughter-voice,  or  daughter  of  a  voice,-  because,  on  the  cessa- 
tion of  the  divine  oracle,  this  came  in  its  place  as  its  daujrh- 
ter  or  successor.  Some  expositors  have  imagined,  tliat  tnis 
voice  is  alluded  to  in  John  xii.  28.,  but  there  appears  to  be  no 
foundation  for  such  a  conjecture.  Dr.  Prideaux,  however, 
has  shown,  that  the  Bath  Kol  was  no  such  celestial  voice  as 
the  Talmudists  pretend,  but  only  a  fantastical  way  of  divi- 
nation of  their  own  invention,  like  the  Series  yirgilianx 
among  the  heathens :  for  as,  with  them,  the  words  of  the 
poet,  upon  which  they  first  dipped,  were  the  oracle  whereby 
they  prognosticated  those  future  events,  concerning  which 
they  were  desirous  of  information ;  so,  among  tlie  Jews, 
when  they  appealed  to  Bath  Kol,  the  next  words  which  they 
heard  from  any  one  were  regarded  as  the  desired  divino 
oracle.8 

Some  of  the  adversaries  of  the  Bible  have  represented  the 
Hebrew  prophets  as  public  incendiaries,  who  perpetually 
denounced,  and  frequently  brought,  calamities  upon  their 
country,  merely  on  account  of  religious  opinions.  For  such 
charge  there  is  no  other  ground  but  this,  viz.  that  the  prophets 
constantly  testified  against  idolatry,  equally  among  rulers 
and  people.  It  will  be  recollected,  that  idolatry  in  ihe  He- 
brew nation  was  high-treason  against  their  own  constitution, 
and  Jehovah'  their  king.  Idolatry  directly  forfeited  their 
territory  and  privileges :  it  was  an  iidet  to  every  abomination ; 
it  defeated  the  great  end  for  which  that  people  was  selected  ; 
and  in  their  fundamental  laws  the  most  destructive  calamities 
were  denounced  against  it.  Consequently,  the  prophets,  in 
boldly  arresting  tliis  evil,  even  at  the  hazard  of  their  own 
lives,  showed  tnemselves  to  be,  not  the  malignant  disturbers, 
but  tlie  tniest  and  mo.'^t  disinterested  friends  of  their  country  : 
especially  as  by  this  conduct  tliey  executed  the  benevolent 
commission  with  which  Jehovah  had  intrusted  them ; — a 
commission  intended  not  to  destroy,  but,  if  possible,  to  save 

»  Smith's  Select  Discourses  on  Prophecy,  cli.  x\.    Witsii  Miscell.  Sacr. 
hb.  I.  c.  7. 
•  Up.  fJray'sKcy,  p.  325. 
1  Smith's  Heler.t  Dis( 

( 

.  Ill  iniiitiiii  jr   (iv^.iii    t»'    uu    tui  •  «|'*v.i.    i.  ui  11.  iiv.i.  V.1U 

heathen  the  Banio  mode  of  diviii.-ilion.  and  used  the  Ihble  in  the  same 
manner  ns  tho  lieathcn  had  cinployed  tlic  poems  of  Virgil.  In  pa  329, 
am  Dr.  Prl.lcaux  ha.s  s.\\rn  boiuc  rein.irlcalile  inutanres  of  this  absurd 
mode  of  pcnelratiog  into  futurity.  See  also  tJmitli'b  Select  Discourses :  on 
Fropliecy,  ch.  10. 


_ 'iscourscR,  pp.  190.  tt  seq. 

•  Prideniix's  Connection,  part  11.  book  5.  sub  anno  107.  vol.  11.  pp.  32^  329. 
The  Christians,  after  ChriHiianily  began  to  be  corruptcd|  learnt  from  tlio 


Sect.  I.] 


PROPHETS  AND  THEIR  WRITINGS. 


that  people,  by  checking  those  crimes  which  were  pregnant 
5vith  ruin." 

VII.  Antiquity  and  Succession  of  the  Prophets. 

Prophecy  is  one  of  the  most  striking  proofs  of  the  true 
religion  ;  and  as  religion  has  existed  in  every  age,  prophecy 
equally  subsisted  from  the  commencement  of  the  world. 

The  Jews-  reckon  forty-eight  prophets,  and  seven  prophet- 
esses ;  Clement  of  Alexandria'  enumerates  thirty-five  propiiets 
who  flourished  subsequently  to  Moses;  and  Epiplianius, 
sixt3'-three  prophets  and  twelve  prophetesses.  Witsius,  and 
some  other  modern  critics,  divide  the  scries  of  prophets  into 
three  periods,  during  which  God  at  sundry  times  ana  in  divers 
manners  spake  untu  the  fattiers  of  the  Jewish  nation  (Heb.  i. 
1.);  viz.  I.  Prophets  who  flourished  before  the  giving  of 
the  Law  of  Moses ; — 2.  Prophets  who  flourished  under  the 
Law; — and,  3.  Prophets  who  flourished  under  the  period 
comprised  in  the  New  Testament. 

L  Prophets  who  flourished  before  the  giving  of  the  Law  of 
Muses  were,  Adam,  Enoch,  Lamech  (Gen.  v.  29.),  Noah, 
Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob,  Joseph,  Job,  and  his  friends,  and 
Balaam.  The  prophetesses  in  this  period  were  Sarah, 
Hagar,  and  Rebecca. 

11.  Prophets  who  flourished  under  the  Law,  of  whom  there  are 
four  series. 

1 .  Prophets  in  the  Desert : — Moses,  Aaron,  the  prophetess 
Miriam,  the  seventy  elders.  (Num.  xi.  16,  17.  24 — 
30.) 

2.  Prophets  in  the  land  of  Canaan  .• — Joshua ;  an  anony- 
mous prophet  (Judg.  vi.  8 — 10.),  another  anonymous 
prophet  who  denounced  the  divine  judgments  to  Eli  (1 
Sara.  ii.  27 — 3G.);  the  prophetesses  Deborah  and  Han- 
nah; Samuel,  Nathan,  Gad,  Asaph,  Heman,  Jeduthun, 
David,  Solomon,  Ahijah  the  Shilonite  (1  Kings  xi.  29. 
xiv.),  Shemaiah  (2  Chron.  xi.  2.  xii.  5.  16.),  Iddo  (2 
Chron.  xii.  15.  xiii.  22.),  the  man  of  God  who  went 
from  Judah  and  prophesied  against  the  altar  erected  by 
Jeroboam  at  Bethel,  and  the  old  prophet  who  dwelt  at 
Bethel  (2  Kings  xiii.  19.),  Azariah  the  son  of  Oded  (2 
Chron.  xv.  1.),  Oded  (2  Chron.  xv.  8.),  who,  perhaps, 
is  the  same  with  Iddo  above  mentioned,  Hananiah  the 
seer  (2  Chron.  xvi.  7.),  Jehu  the  son  of  Hananiah  (2 
Kings  xvi.  1.  2  Chron.  xix.  1.),  Elijah,  Micaiah  the  son 
of  Imlah  (2  Kings  xxii.  25.),  an  anonymous  prophet 
who  rebuked  Ahab  for  suffering  Benhadad  king  of  Sy- 
ria to  escape  (1  Kings  xx.  35 — 13.),  Jahaziel  the  son  of 
Zachariah  (2  Chron.  xx.  14.),  Eliezer  the  son  of  Doda- 
vah  (2  Chron.  xx.  37.),  Elisha,  Zachariah  the  son  of  Je- 
hoiada  (2  Chron.  xxiv.  20,  21.),  an  anonymous  prophet 
who  dissuaded  Amaziah  the  son  of  Joash  from  under- 
taking an  expedition  against  the  Edomites,  with  an  auxi- 
liary army  of  Israelites  (2  Chron.  xxv.  7.),  Obed  (2 
Chron.  xxviii.  9.),  Urijah  the  son  of  Shemaiah,  of  Kir- 

i'ath-Jearim  (Jer.  xxvi.  20.),  Jonah,  Hosea,  Amos,  Joel, 
saiah,  Micah,  Nahum,  Habakkuk,  Obadiah,  Zepha- 
niah,  Jeremiah,  and  the  proplietess  Huldah.  (2  Kings 
xxii.  14.) 

3.  Prophets  during  the  Babylonish  Captivity .- — Ezekiel  and 
Daniel. 

4.  Prr/phets  after  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  the  Captivity : 
— Haggai,  Zechariah,  and  Malachi,  who  was  the  last  of 
the  prophets  as  it  respects  the  prophetic  office,  but  not 
as  respects  the  gift  of  prophecy,  if  we  may  credit  what 
Josephus  relates  of  the  high-priest  Jaddus  or  Jaddua, 
and  the  relation  of  the  author  of  the  second  book  of 
Maccabees  concerning  Judas  Maccabsus.  (2  Mace,  xv. 
12.) 

in.  Prophets  who  flourished  under  the  Period  comprised  in  the 
New  Testament : — Zacharias,  Simeon,  and  John  the  Bap- 
tist, until  Christ;  and  after  his  ascension,  Agabus  (Acts 
xi.  28.  xxi.  11.),  the  apostles  Paul,  and  John  the  author 
of  the  Apocalypse,  besides  other  prophets  who  are 
mentioned  in  1  Cor.  xii.  28.  xiv.  29 — 32.  Eph.  ii.  20.  iii. 
6.  and  iv.  11.,  of  whom  it  is  not  necessary  to  treat  in  this 
part  of  the  present  volume,  which  is  appropriated  to  the 
consideration  of  the  -svritings  of  those  prophets  who  flou- 
rished under  the  Old  Testament  dispensation,  which  have 
been  transmitted  to  us.^ 
VIII.  The  early  prophets  committed  nothing  to  writing : 

their  predictions    being  only,  or  chiefl}"^,  of  a  temporary 

«  Tappan's  Lectures,  p.  203.  «  Megillah,  c.  I. 

»  Slromata,  lib.  i.  (Op.  torn.  i.  pp.  384— 38a  edit.  Potter.) 

♦  Calinet,  Preface  Gen6rale  sur  les  PropheteS;  Dissertations,  torn,  it  pp 

30o— 307.     Wilsii  Miscell.  Sacr.  lib.  i.  cc.  16—21.  pp.  \(,l—3Zi.    Carpzovii 

Ii.trod.  ad  Libros  Biblicos  Vet  Test  pars  iii.  pp.  68  09. 

VoL.lL  aK 


257 


"i!'^"'^',?]"®  inserted  in  the  historical  books,  together  with 
^^f-  u  tiV^^u  ^*  ^^^^  appears  to  have  been  the  case  with 
■<•'•' J  .-'^"t"^'  Micaiah,  and  others;  but  those  who  were 
gilted  with  the  spirit  of  prophecy  in  its  most  exalted  sense,  and 
were  commissioned  to  utter  predictions,  the  accomplishment 
of  which  was  as  yet  far  distant,  were  directed  to  write  them,  or 
cause  them  to  be  written,  in  a  book.  (Compare  Isa.  viii.  I. 
XXX.  8.  Jer.  XXX.  2.  xxxvi.  2. 28.  Ezck.xliii.il.  Hab*.  ii.* 
2,  &c.)  The  predictions,  thus  committed  to  writing,  were 
carefully  preserved,  under  a  conviction  that  they  contained 
important  truths,  thereafter  to  be  more  fully  revealed,  which 
were  to  receive  their  accomplishment  at  the  appointed 
periods.  It  was  also  the  ofiice  of  the  prophets  to  commit  to 
writiiig  the  history  of  the  Jews ;'  and  it  is  on  this  account 
that,  in  the  Jewish  classification  of  the  books  of  the  Old 
Testament,  we  find  several  historical  writings  arrano-ed 
amono^  the  nrophets.  Throughout  their  prophetic  and  his- 
torical booKS,  the  utmost  plainness  and  sincerity  prevail. 
They  record  the  idolatries  of  the  nation,  and  foretell  the 
judgments  of  God  which  were  to  befall  the  Jews  in  conse- 
quence of  their  forsaking  his  worship  and  sen'ice ;  and  they 
have  transmitted  a  relation  of  the  crimes  and  misconduct  of 
their  best  princes.  David,  Solomon,  and  others, — who  were 
types  of  the  Messiah,  and  who  expected  that  he  would 
descend  from  their  race,  regarding  the  glories  of  their  seve- 
ral reigns  as  presages  of  His, — are  described  not  only  with- 
out flattery,  but  also  without  any  reserve  or  extenuation. 
They  write  like  men  who  had  no  regard  to  any  thing  but 
truth  and  the  glory  of  God. 

The  manlier  in  which  the  prophets  announced  their  pre- 
dictions varied  according  to  circumstances.  Sometimes  they 
uttered  them  aloud  in  a  public  place  ;  and  it  is  in  allusion  to 
this  practice  that  Isaiah  is  commanded  to  "  cry  aloud,  spare 
not,  lift  up  his  voice  like  a  trumpet,  and  show  the  people  of 
God  their  transgressions,  and  the  house  of  Jacob  their  sins." 
(Isa.  Iviii.  1.)  Sometimes  their  predictions  were  affixed  to 
the  gates  of  the  temple,  wiiere  they  might  be  generally  read 
(Jer.  vii.  2.) ;  but,  upon  important  occasions,  "  when  it  was 
necessary  to  rouse  the  fears  of  a  disobedient  people,  and  to 
recall  them  to  repentance,  the  prophets,  as  objects  of  univer- 
sal attention,  appear  to  have  walked  about  publicly  in  sack- 
cloth, and  with  every  external  mark  of  humiliation  and 
sorrow.^  They  then  adopted  extraordinary  modes  of  express- 
ing their  convictions  ot  impending  wratli,  and  endeavoured 
to  awaken  the  apprehensions  of  their  countrymen,  by  the 
most  striking  illustrations  of  threatened  punishment.  Thus 
Jeremiah  made  bonds  and  yokes,  and  put  them  on  his  neck 
(Jer.  xxvii.),  strongly  to  intimate  the  subjection  that  God 
would  bring  on  the  nations  whom  Nebuchadnezzar  should 
subdue.  Isaiah  likewise  walked  naked,  that  is,  without  the 
rough  garment  of  the  prophet,  and  barefoot  (Isa.  xx.),  as  a 
sign  of  the  distress  that  awaited  the  Egyptians.  So,  Jere- 
miah broke  the  potter's  vessel  (xix.)  ;  and  Ezekiel  publicly 
removed  his  household  goods  from  the  city,  more  forcibly  to 
represent,  by  these  actions,  some  correspondent  calamities 
ready  to  fall  on  nations  obnoxious  to  God's  wrath  ;s  this 
mode  of  expressing  important  circumstances  by  action  being 
customary  and  familiar  among  all  eastern  nations."' 

Sometimes  the  prophets  were  commanded  to  seal  and  shut 
up  their  prophecies,  that  the  originals  might  be  preserved 
until  they  were  accomplished,  and  then  compared  with  the 
event.  (Isa.  viii.  16.  Jer.  xxxii.  14.  Dan.  viii.  26.  and  xii. 
4^  For,  when  the  prophecies  were  not  to  be  fulfilled  till 
after  many  years,  and  in  some  cases  not  till  after  several 
ages,  it  was  requisite  that  the  original  writings  should  be 
kept  with  the  utmost  care ;  but  when  the  time  was  so  near 
at  hand,  that  the  prophecies  must  be  fresh  in  ever}'-  person's 
recollection,  or  that  the  originals  could  not  be  suspected  or 
supposed  to  be  lost,  the  same  care  was  not  required.  (Rev. 
xxii.  10.)  It  seems  to  have  been  customary  for  the  prophets 
to  deposit  their  writings  in  the  tabernacle,  or  lay  them  up 
before  the  Lord.  (1  Sam.  x.  25. )3  And  there  is  a  tradition,^ 
that  all  the  canonical  books,  as  well  as  the  law,  were  put 
into  the  side  of  the  ark. 

5  I  Chron.  xxix.  29.  2 Cliron.  xii.  15.  xiii.  22.  xx.  34.  xxvi.  22.  xxxii.  32.  In 
addition  to  the  information  thus  communicated  in  the  sacred  volume,  wo 
are  informed  by  .Josephus,  that,  from  the  death  of  Moses  until  the  reign  of 
Artaxerxes  king  of  Persia,  the  prophets  who  were  after  Moses  committed 
to  writing  the  transactions  of  their  own  times.  Josephus  cent.  Apion. 
lib.  i.  c.  8. 

6  Ezek,  xii.  7.  compared  with  2  Kings  xxv.  4.  5.,  where  the  accomplish- 
ment of  this  typical  prophecy  is  related.    Vide  also  Ezek.  xxxvii.  16 — 20. 

1  Bp.  Gray's  Kev,  pp.  333— .335. 

6  .losephus  confirms  the  statement  of  the  sacred  historian.  Ant.  Jud. 
lib.  iv.  c.  4.  §  6. 

9  Epiphanius,  de  PonJeribus  et  Mensaris,  c.  4.  Damascenus  de  Fide 
OrthodoxS,  lib.  iv.  c.  17. 


258 


ON  THE  PROPHETS  AND  THEIR  WRITINGS. 


[Part  V.  CaAP.  IV.- 


It  is  certain  that  tlie  writings  of  the  ancient  prophets  wore 
rarefully  preserved  during  the  captivity,  and  they  were  fre- 
quently referred  to,  and  cited  by  the  later  projihets.  Thus, 
Vie  prrnhecy  of  Micah  is  quoted  in  Jer.  xxvi.  IS.  a  short 
li:ne  oefore  the  captivity;  and,  under  it,  the  propliecy  of  Jere- 
miah is  cited  in  Dan.  ix.  2.,  and  the  prophets,  generally,  in 
ix.  6.  Zecharidh  not  only  quotes  the  former  propliots  (i.  4.), 
but  suppos'^s  their  writings  to  be  well  known  to  the  people. 
(vii.  7.)  The  prophet  Amos  is  cited  in  the  apocryphal  book 
cf  Tobit  (ii.  C),  as  Jonah  and  the  urophets  in  general  are  in 
xiv.  4,  5.  B.  It  is  evident  that  Kzra,  Nehemiah,  Daniel, 
Zechariah,  and  the  other  prophets,  wiio  flourished  during  the 
captivity,  carefully  preserved  the  writings  of  their  inspired 
predecessors  ;  f-'r  they  very  frequently  cited  and  appealed  to 
Ihera,  and  expected  deliverance  from  their  captivity  by  the 
accomplish mer*.  of  their  predictions. 

Altho\igh  some  parts  of  the  writings  of  the  prophets  are 
clearly  in°prose,  instances  cf  whicii  occur  in  the  prophecies 
of  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  Jonah,  and  Daniel,  yet  the 
other  books,  constituting  by  far  the  larger  portion  cf  the 
prophetic  writings,  are  classed  by  Bishop  Lowth  among  the 
poetical  productrons  of  the  Jews;  and  (with  tlie  excepticn 
cf  certain  passages  in  Isaiah,  llabakknk,  and  Ezekiel,  which 
appear  to  constitute  complete  poems  of  dilTerent  kinds,  odes 
as  well  as  elegies)  form  a  particular  species  of  poesy,  which 
he  distinguishes  by  the  appellation  of  PnoPHETic.  On  the 
nature  of  which  see  Vol.  I.  Part  II.  Chap.  II.  §  VI.  I.; 
and  for  some  Observations  on  the  Interpretation  and  Accoin- 
plishment  of  Scripture  Prophecies,  see  Part  II.  Chap.  IV. 
of  the  same  volume. 

IX.  The  prophetical  books  of  the  Old  Testament  are  six- 
teen in  number  (the  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah  being  usually 
considered  as  an  appendix  to  his  predictions) ;  and  in  all 
modem  editions  of  the  Bible  they  are  usually  divided  into 
two  classes,  viz.  1.  The  Greater  Frophets,  comprising  the 
writings  of  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and  Daniel ;  who 
were  thus  designated  from  the  size  of  their  books,  not  be- 
cause tiie_y  possessed  greater  aiithority  than  the  others.' 
2.  The  Minor  Prophets,  comprising  the  writings  of  Hosea, 
Joel,  Amos,  Jonah,  Obadiali,  iMicah,  Nahum,  Habakkuk, 
Zephaniah,  Haggai,  Zechariah,  and  Malachi.  These  books 
were  anciently  \vritten  in  one  volume  by  the  Jews,  lest  any 
of  them  should  be  lost,  some  of  their  writings  being  very 
short.  The  order,  in  which  the  books  of  the  minor  prophets 
are  placed,  is  not  the  same  in  the  Alexandrian  or  Septuagint 
version  as  in  the  Hebrew.  According  to  the  latter,  they  stand 
as  in  our  translation ;  but  in  the  Greek,  the  series  is  altered 
to  the  followincr  arrangement : — Hosea,  Amos,  IMicah,  Joel, 
Obadiah,  JonaTi,  Nahum,  Habakkuk,  Zephaniah,  Haggai, 
Zechariah,  and  !\Ialachi.  But  this  change  is  of  no  conse- 
quence, since  neither  in  the  original,  nor  in  the  Septuagint, 
are  they  placed  with  exact  regard  to  the  time  when  their 
sacred  authors  respectively  flourislied. 

Tlie  writings  of  the  twelve  minor  prophets  are  particularly 
valuable,  not  only  because  they  have  preserved  a  great  num- 
ber of  predictions  relating  to  the  advent,  life,  death,  and  re- 
surrection of  the  Messiah,  the  calling  of  the  Gentiles,  the 
reje<-tion  of  the  Jews,  the  ruin  of  Jerusalem,  and  the  alno- 
jTition  of  the  ceremonies  of  the  Mosaic  law ;  but  especially 
uiey  have  rtrj^rded  numerous  events,  concerning  the  history 
of  the  kingdoms  of  Judah,  Israel,  Babylon,  Idumaia,  Egypt, 

•  Qui  prop'prea  dicuntur  Minorca,  quia  sennon(>s  corurn  sunt  breves,  in 
CoruMi  coiiiparalioiie  ([ui  Majuirn  idm  vocaulur,  (jiiia  jirolixa  voluiiiiiia 
coudideruiii.    Augustin.  tie  C'lv.  Dei,  lili.  xviii  c.  IS. 


Moab,  and  Ammon.  These  memoriJs  of  events  are  the 
more  \'aluablc,  as  very  few  of  them  are  noticed  in  the  sacred 
history,  and  profane  history  is  almost  totally  wanting  for  the 
periods  which  they  conqjrise.  The  writings  of  the  minor 
prophets,  therefore,  may  be  regarded  as  a  kind  t*'  '••ipple- 
ment  for  the  history  of  their  own  times  and  the  age  .mrae- 
diately  following.^ 

Much  of  the  obscurity,  which  hangs  over  the  prophetic 
writings,  may  be  removed  by  perusing  them  in  the  order  of 
time  ill  whicli  they  were  probably  written.  Different  schemes 
of  arrangement  have  been  proposed  by  various  biblical  critics. 
Van  Til,  whose  order  was  atlopted  by  Professor  F^ranck,  di- 
vides them  into  the  four  following  periods;  viz. 

I.  Prophets  who  dtliiercd  their  Predictions  during  the  Continii- 
cnce  of  the  Jewish  Polity. 

1.  In  JuDAU  and  Israkl,  under  U::iah, — Hosea,  Amos, 
Isaiah  (ch.  i. — vi.) ; — under  Jothum  and  .d/iaz,  Hosea, 
Micah,  Isaiah  (vii. — xii.) ; — under  y/tre^'iaA,  Hosea,  Micah, 
Isaiah,  (ch.  xviii. — xxii.) 

2.  Prophets,  who  delivered  predictions  ai^ainst  otheii  Na- 
tions : — against  A'iiieveh,  under  Pul,  Jonah ; — against  Pa- 
tcsthie,  towards  the  conimcnccnient  of  Hezckiah's  reign, 
Isaiah  (xiv.  23.  xxxii.) ; — against  Jifoeib  (xv.  ivi.)  ;— 
against  Damascna  (xvii.),  and  Effypt.  (xix.  xx.) 

II.  Prophets  icho  delivered  their  Predictions  between  the  carry- 
intr  of  the  Israeliies  into  Captiiity  by  the  Assyrians,  and  the 
Jirst  Expedition  of  Nebuchadnezzar. 

1.  In  JuDAii,  under  Hezekiali,  Hosea  and  Isaiah  (xxiv.  Ivi.) ; 
— under  jManasseli,  Joel  and  Habakkuk; — under  Josiali, 
Zephaniah  and  Jeremiah. 

2.  Prophets  who  delivered  predictions  against  other  Na- 
tions:— against  Js'tneveh  under  Hezckiah,  Nahum; — 
against  Edoin,  Obadiah  ; — against  Arabia,  Isaiah  (xxi.), 
and  Tyre,  (xxxiii.) 

III.  Prophets  durini;  the  Babylonish  Captivity  who  delivered 
their  Predictions. 

1.  Concrnii)!^  the  Jews,  in  Juda?a,  Jeremiah;  in  Babylon, 
Daniel ;  in  Chaldtea,  Ezekiel ;  in  Egypt,  Jercmijh. 

2.  Against  the  exemiks  of  the  Jews,  viz.  against  Babylon, 
Jeremiah  (I.  Ii.)  ;  Egypt  and  Ethiopia,  Jeremiah  (xlvi.) ; 
and  Ezekiel  (xxvi. — xxviii.)  ; — JVToab,  Jeremiah  (xlviii.), 
and  Ammon  (xHx.)  ; — JMoab,  Anunon,  Edom,  and  the 
Philistines,  Ezekiel.   (xxv.) 

IV.  Prophets  who  delivered  Predictions  in  Judxa  after  the 

Captiinty. 

Under  Darius,  Zechariah  and  Haggai ; — afterivards,  Malachi.'' 

Although  the  preceding  arrangement  has  its  advantages 
as  exhibiting  the  order  of  the  prophets,  and  the  kingdoms 
or  nations  concerning  whom  they  prophesied,  yet  it  cannot 
be  conveniently  adopted  for  the  purpose  of  analyzing  the 
writings  of  each  prophet.  The  annexed  table  of  Bishop 
Gray  commodiously  exhibits  the  prcjihets  in  their  supnosed 
order  of  time  according  to  the  tahles  of  Archbishop  New 
come  and  Mr.  Blair,  with  a  few  variations;'  and  though  the 
precise  time,  in  which  some  of  them  delivered  theii  predic- 
tions, cannot,  perhaps,  be  traced  in  every  instance,  yet  it  is 
hoped  that  this  table  will  be  found  sufiiciently  correct  for 
ascertaining  the  chronology  of  their  several  prophecies. 

»  Onlmrl.  PissPitallons,  torn.  ii.  pp.  372—374. 

"  I'laiirkil  IiitriMluciio  ad  I.<-riionein  Prophelaruin,  pp.  39—42. 

«  Uisliop  tirny's  Key,  p.  l-'O. 


Sect.  II.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  AMOS. 


259 


Jonah, 

Before  Cl-.riU. 

Between  856 
and  7:!1. 

Iv.iis}  cf  Judah. 

Km^i  of  tsraeU 
Jehu,  and  Jelioaliaz, 
accordins    to    I5p. 
I.loyd;  but  Jerobo- 
am li.  according  to 
Blair.  (2  Kings  xiv. 
23.) 

Amos, 

Bnweeii  910 
and  "So. 

Uzziah,  ch.  i.  1. 

Jeroboam  II.  ch.  i.  1. 

Uosea, 

Bcnvocn  SlO 
and  7-;3. 

Uzziah,  Jothaii),  Ahaz, 
tlie  tliirdyear  of  He- 
zekiah. 

Jeroboam II.  ch.  1. 1. 

Isaiah, 

Between  SIO 
and  093. 

Uzziah,  Jotham,  Ahaz, 
andllezekiah,  chap, 
i.  1.  andperliapsMa 
nasseh. 

Joel, 

Between  SlO 
and  660,  or 
later. 

Ilzziah,  or  possibly 
Manasseh. 

Micah, 

Between  753 
and  (399. 

Joihain,  Ahaz  and  lie- 
zekiah,  ch.  i.  1. 

Pekah  and  Ilosea. 

Xahum, 

Between  720 
and  693. 

Probably  Inwards  the 
dose  of  Ilezekiah's 
reign. 

• 

Zcphaniah 

Belwe;n  6-!0 
anil  G09. 

In  Iha  reign  of  Josiah. 
ch.  i.  1. 

Jeremiah, 

Between  GiS 
and  55(5. 

In  the  thirteenth  year 
of  Josiah. 

IlabaklJuk, 

Between  G12 

and  .595. 

Probably  in  the  reign 
of  Jehoiakim. 

Daniel, 

Between  GOii 
and  5.34. 

During  all  the  capti- 
vity. 

Obadiah, 

-Hetween  &S; 
an..I  G83. 

Between  the  taking  of 
Jerusalem  by  N'ebu- 
chaihiezzar,  and  the 
dpslruction    of    the 
Edoniitcs  by  hiin. 

Ezckiel, 

Between  595 
and  530. 

During  part  of  the  cap- 
tivity. 

Ilaggai, 

.Vbout52iD  to 

513. 

After  the  return  fioni 
Babylon. 

Zechaiiah, 

From  520  to 
51-5,or  longer. 

Malachi, 

Bttween  436 
aad  420. 

AccordiiiCT  to  this  table,  the  times  when  the  prophets  flou- 
rished may  be  referred  to  three  periods,'  viz.  1.  Before  tlie 
Babylonian  captivity; — 2.  Near  to  and  diuing  that  event; 
— and,  3.  After  the  return  of  the  Jev/s  from  Babylon.  And 
if,  in  these  three  periods,  -we  parallel  the  prophetical  writings 
with  the  historical  books  written  during  the  same  times,  they 
will  materially  illustrate  each  other.  The  second  volume  of 
Mr.  Townsend's  Harmony  of  the  Old  Testament  will  be 
found  of  considerable  service  in  studying  the  writings  of  the 
pronhc-ts. 

r  or  a  sketch  of  the  profane  history  of  the  East,  from  the 
time  of  Solomon  to  the  Babj^lonian  captivity,  illustrative  of 
the  Prophetic  Writings,  see  the  articles  Assyria,  Babylon, 
Egypt,  Media,  and  Persia,  in  the  Historical  and  Geographi- 
cal "Index  in  this  volume. 


SECTION  II. 

OF  THE    PROPHETS  WHO   FLOURISHED   BEFORE  THE  BABYLONIAN 

CAPTIVITY. 
§    1.    OX  THE  EOOIC  OF  THE  PBOPHET  JONAH. 

I.  Title  and  author. — ^H.  Occasion  of  the  prophecy  of  Jonah. — 
III.  Scope. — IV.  Si/nopsis  of  its  contents. 

BEFORE    CHRIST,  856 784. 

1.  This  book  is,  by  the  Hebrews,  called  rMi>  icd  (sepHfR 
josch),  or  the  Book  of  Jonah,  from  its  author  Jonah,  the 

1  Professor  .Tahn  and  Dr.  Ackcrmann  divide  the  prophets  into  four  pe- 
riods; viz.  1.  Those  who  prophesied  under  Uzziat^  Jothani,  Ahaz,  and 
llczekiah  J— 2.  Prophets  whose  a?c  has  not  been  recorded;— 3.  Prophets, 
from  the  aee  of  Josiah  to  the  end  of  the  captivity  ;  and,  4.  Prophets  who 
lived  alter  the  captivity.  The  arrangement  above  given  is  preferably 
adopted,  as  being  more  simple  and  comprehensive. 


and  2  Kings  xiv.  25.)     He  is  supposed  to  have  prophesied 


to  the  ten  tribes  accordmg  to  Bishop  Lloyd,  towards  the 
close  ct  Jehu's  reign,  or  in  the  bpsfinidno-  of  Jchoahaz's 
remi;  though  Witsius,  Blair,  and  Bishop  Newcome,  J-.ihn, 
and  others,  with  greater  probability,  place  him  under  Jero- 
boam II.  about  forty  years  later.  With  the  exception  of  his 
sublime  ode  in  the  second  chapter,  the  book  of  Jonah  is  a 
simple  narrative. 

II.  It  is  very  probable,  that,  at  the  time  Jonah  promised 
the  restoring  and  enlarging  of  the  coas/s  nf  hracl  in  tiic  days 
of  Jeroboam  II.  (2  Kings  xiv.  25.),  when  both  the  kinrr  and 
people  were  exceedingly  wicked,  he  also  invited  them  to  re- 
pentance and  reformation.  But  the  Israelites  still  continuintr 
mnpenitent  and  obdurate,  God  took  occasion  to  send  him  t" 
Nineveh,  the  capital  of  the  Assyrian  empire,  to  denounce 
the  impending  divine  judgments  against  its  abandoned  in- 
habitants. Jonah,  declining  the  commission,  wps  cast  into 
the  sea  from  the  vessel  in  Avhich  he  was  sailing  to  Tarsliish, 
and  was  swallowed  by  a  large  fish  ;  not,  says  Irenaeus,^  that 
he  might  be  swallowed  up,  but  that,  by  his  miraculous  de- 
liverance (preparing  Jonah  to  preach  more  dutifully,  and 
the  Ninevitcs  to  hear  more  effectually),  the  people  of  Israel 


might  be  provoked  to  repent  by  the  repentance  of  Nineveh.-* 
The  liir.e  of  Jonah's  continuance  in  the  belly  of  the  frsh  was 


Grclias,  Huet,  Bochart,  and  other  learned  men  have  re- 
marked, the  story  v.-as  derived  of  Hercules  having  escaped 
alive  out  of  the  ush's  belly.-' 

III.  The  Scope  of  this  book  is  to  show,  by  the  very 
striking  example  of  the  Ninevites,  ths  divine  forbearance 
and  long-suffering  towards  sinners,  who  were  spared  on  their 
sincere  re))entaiice.  From  the  conduct  cf  the  Ninevites, 
Jesus  Christ  takes  occasion  to  reprove  the  perfidiousness  of 
the  Jews.  (Matt.  xii.  41.)  The  evidence  offered  by  Jonah 
was  sufficient  to  convince  and  lead  the  former  to  repentance ; 
while  the  Jews,  who  had  the  greater  evidence  of  miracles, 
and  the  more  convincing  evidence  of  our  Saviour's  doctrine, 
continued  obstinately  impenitent.  Some  critics  have  imagin- 
ed that  the  prophecy  of  Jonah  is  a  parabolic  history;  but 
from  the  manner  in  which  the  sacred  historians  and  Jesi;s 
Christ  speak  of  him  (2  Kings  xiv.  25.  Matt.  xii.  3D.  41.  xvi. 
4.  and  Luke  xi.  29.)  it  is  evident  that  this  book  is  a  true 
narrative  of  a  real  person,  and  that  Jonah  was  a  prophet  of 
considerable  eminence. ' 

IV.  The  book  of  Jonah  consists  of  two  parts;  viz. 
Part  I.  His  first  mission  to  Nineveh,  and  his  attempt  to  floe 

to  Tarshish,  and  its  frustration,  together  with  liis  delivery 
from  flie  stomach  of  the  great  fish  vrhich  had  swallowed 
him.  (ch.  i.  ii.) 
Pajit  II.  His  second  mission,  and  its  happy  result  to  the 
Ninevites,  who,  in  consequence  of  the  prophet's  preaching, 
repented  in  dust  and  ashes  (iii.) ;  and  the  discontent  of 
Jonah,  who,  dreading  lest  his  veracity  as  a  prophet  should 
be  questioned  in  consequence  of  God  s  merciful  change  of 
purpose,  repined  at  the  sparing  of  the  Ninevites  whose 
destruction  he  seems  to  have  expected,  (iv.)  No  reproof 
can  be  more  gentle  than  that  given  by  God  to  the  murmur- 
ing prophet  (10,  11.),  or  present  a  more  endearing  picture 
of  Him  "  whose  tender  mercies  are  over  all  his  works." 


§  2.    ON  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  AMOS. 

r.  Author. — II.   Occasion  of  his  prophecy. — III.  Its  scope. — 
IV.  Synopsis  of  its  contents, — V.  Observations  on  its  style. 

BF.FORE  CHRIST,  810 785. 

1.  Amos  is  the  third  of  the  minor  prophets,  according  to 
the  order  adopted  in  our  modern  Bibles  :  he  is  supposed  to 
have  been  a  native  of  Tekoah,  a  small  town  in  the  kingdom 
of  Judah,  situate  about  four  leagues  to  the  south  of  Jerusa- 
lem. There  is,  however,  no  proof  of  his  being  a  native  of 
this  place,  except  his  retiring  thither  when  driven  from  Bethel 

»  Adversus  Ilajres.  lib.  iii.  c  22. 

»  Roberts's  Clavis  Bibliorumi  p.  6(i7. 

*  See  Grotius  de  Veritate,  lib.  i.  c.  16.  in  notis.  Huet,  Demonsrtr.  Evan- 
fielica,  prop.  iv.  vol.  i.  p.  4-33.  8vo.  edit.  Eocharti  Opera,  fom.  iii.  p.  742. 
et  set/.  PfeilTer  in  Difficiliora  Loca  Scriptura;,  Cenluria  4.  Locus  Ix.xxvL 
(Opp.  torn.  i.  pp.  447,  448.) 

»  The  reality  of  the  history  and  prophecy  of  Jonah  is  fully  proved  against 
the  modern  neologians  by  Alber,  Institutiones  Herincneutica),  Vet.  T?st. 
torn.  iii.  pp.  399-407. 


260 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  V.  Cuap.  IV 


by  Amaziah,  the  hish-pricst  of  Betheh  (Amos  vii,  10.  13.) 
^'alrnel  thinks  lie  was  born  in  the  territories  of  Israel.  ^Ve 
have  more  certain  information  of  his  rank  and  condition  in 
life;  for  he  himself  tells  us  that  he  was  "  no  prophet,  neither 
a  prophet's  son :"  in  other  words,  that  he  was  not  educated 
in  the  schools  of  the  prophets,  but  was  called  to  the  prophetic 
nffice  from  beinw  a  herdsman  and  a  gatherer  (or  cultivator) 
of  sycamore  fruit.  That  he  prophesied  during  tlie  reijrns  of 
Uzziah  king  of  Judah,  and  of  Jerohoain  II.  son  of  Jonsh, 
we  are  not  only  informed  from  the  first  verse  cf  his  predic- 
tions, but  we  also  have  internal  evid«  nee  of  it  from  the 
argument  or  subject-matter  of  his  book.  For  the  nrophct 
describes  the  state  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  particularly  in 
chap.  vi.  12 — 14.,  to  be  precisely  such  as  is  recorded  in 
•2  Kings  xiv.  23.  et  seq.  We  further  learn  from  Amos  i.  1., 
that  h'e  began  to  pmphesy  in  the  second  year  before  the 
earlhcjuake,"  in  the  reign  of  Uzziah ;  which  is,  by  Josejihus 
and  most  commentators,  referred  to  that  ])rince's  usurpation 
of  the  sacerdotal  office  when  he  attempted  to  ofler  incense. 
Consequently  Amos  was  contem]iorary  with  Hosea  (though 
he  is  sappo^:t■d  not  to  have  lived  so  long  as  the  last-mentioned 
prophet),  with  Jonah,  and  probably  also  with  Joel. 

II.  The  Occasion  on  which  Amos  delivered  his  predictions, 
was  the  oppression  of  the  Jews  and  Israelites  by  the  neitrh- 
bouring  nations,  and  the  state  of  the  two  kingdoms  under 
I'zziah  and  Jeroboam  II.  (Amos  i.  compared  with  2  Kings 
xiv.  25  —  27.  and  2  Chron.  xxvi.  6 — 15.)  lint  as  the 
inhabitants  of  thop«  kingdoms,  especially  the  Israelites, 
abandoned  themselves  to  idolatry,  elTeminacy,  avarice,  and 
cruelty  to  the  poor,  contrary  to  the  divine  command,  the 
prophet  takes  occasion  thence  to  reprove  them  with  the 
utmost  severity  for  their  wickedness. 

III.  The  Scope  of  the  book  is  to  certify  to  the  twelve 
tribes  the  destruction  of  the  neighbouring  nations  ;  to  alarm 
those  who  "  were  at  large  in  Zion,"  living  in  a  stale  of  carnal 
sc-curity,  by  the  denunciation  of  imminent  punishment,  to 
lead  them  to  repentance;  and  to  cheer  those  who  were  truly 
jienitent  with  the  promise  of  dtliverance  from  future  captivity. 
and  of  the  greater  prosperity  of  the  Messiah's  kingdom,  of 
which  we  have  a  particular  prediction  in  ch.  ix.  11. 

IV.  The  book  ot  Amos  contains  nine  chapters  or  discourses, 
of  which  Calmet  thinks  that  the  seventh  is  first  in  order  of 
time:  it  may  be  divided  into  three  parts;  viz. 

Part  I.  T/ie  Judgments  of  God  denounced  aga'md  the  neigh- 
bouring Gentile  Nations.-  as  the  Syrians  (ch.  i.  1 — 5.), 
which  see  fulfilled  in  2  Kings  xvi.  'J. ;  the  Philistines  (i. 
fi — ^9.),  recorded  as  accomplished  in  2  Kings  xviii.  8.  Jer. 
xlvii.  1.  5,  and  2  Chron.  xxvi.  G. ;  the  Tyrians  (i.  'J,  10.)  ; 
the  Edomitcs  (i.  11,  12.  compared  with  Jer.  xkv.  9.  21. 
xxvii.  3.  6.  and  1  Mace.  v.  3.)  ;  the  Ammonites  (13 — 15.) ; 
and  the  Moabites.  (ii.  1 — 3.) 
Part  II.  T/ie  divine  Judgnicnln  denounced  against  Juduh  and 
Lrail  (ii.  4.  ix.  1 — 10.) ;  and  herein  we  have, 
Sect.  I.  Tlic  divine  judi^mcnts  against  Judah  (ii.  4,  5.)  whirh 

were  literally  executed  about  two  hundred  years  afterwards. 
Sect.  2.  Against  Israel,  to  whom  the  jirophel's  mission  was 

chiefly  directed,  and  to  whom  we  have  four  di.-tinct  sermons 

dulivcred  by  him;  viz. 

DiscounsE  I.  A  gnirral  rciiroof  amJ  aggravation  of  their  various  sins 
aaiiiiist  (jocL  (li.  C — 16  ) 

Bitco'-RSE  II.  A  (leiuiriciaiion  of  the  <llvinc  jiulimcnts,  with  a  parti- 
cular cntimcralion  of  the  sevrrnl  causes,  (iii  ) 

DiEcomsr.  ni.  A  rc|>roorofltic  Israelites  forUicir  luxury  and  oppres- 
sion, (iv.) 

PTS'.ounsE  IV.  A  lamentation  over  tlie  house  of  Israel,  wllli  an  earnest 
■  xhortatinn  to  them  to  repent,  anil  to  seek  the  I.<uil ;  and  to  ahan- 
ilun  their  idolatry,  hixiiriuus  ease,  ami  sinful  alliances  with  their 
Idolatrous nei^hhours.  (v.  vi.)  In  eh.  v.  G.  the  carryingof  the  I.-srael- 
iicH  into  captivity,  heyond  l)aiiin.<eiis  into  Assyria,  is  rxplicilly 
announced:  sec  its  fulfilment  in  li  Kings  jcv. 'i9.  and  xvii.  ."j — 'Si. 
The  certainty,  marness,  and  severity  of  the  jinlgMielils  thus  de- 
nounced are  confintied  hy  several  prophetic  visions,  c<intnlned  In 
chajtcrs  vii.  viii.'  and  ix.  I— 10. 

Paiit  III.  Consolutirry  or  Kvangelical  Promises  describing  the 

Rcsturntion  of  the  Church  /;//  t/ie  Messiah,  first,  under  the 

type  of  raising  up  the  fallen  tabernacle  of  David  (ix.  11, 

12.);   and,   secondly,   announcing   magnificent  temporal 

blessings ;  viz.  great  abundance,  return  from   captivity, 

'  An  eminent  rnnunentaior  is  of  opinion  tlmt  the  prfiphel  Aimi.s  in  viii. 
9,  10.  foretells  that,  during  their  solcnm  festivals,  the  sun  should  he  dark- 
ened hy  an  ci'lipse,  v^liich  in  thci.sc  days  was  accounlcil  uinimm/i.  and 
■  houUi  turn  iheir  joy  into  mournin;:.  AccorrhiiK  to  Aii'hlii.'<lM>|i  Inher 
(A.  M.  3i\i.),  about  eleven  years  after  Amos  prophoKli-d,  iherr  were  two 
Itrcat  eclipses  of  the  sun,  imn  at  the  feast  of  Lihernarh  s,  the  other  at  the 
llnic  of  the  pa.s.xover.  This  prophecy,  therefore,  may  l)e  con.M^leredas  one 
if  tlioiie  nu(neruus  predictions  winch  wo  have  alrea  'r  shown  have  a  dnu- 
blo  uieaiiin!;,  and  apply  to  mure  than  one  event,  tiec  Lowih's  Commentary 
an  the  I'rnphets,  p.  iw.  4th  edit. 


and  re-establishment  in  their  own  land,  all  of  wh.ich  were 

prophetic  of  the  blessings  to  be  bestowed  .under  the  reign 

of  the  Messiah,  (ix.  13—15.) 

In  order  to  illustrate  the  supernatural  character  of  the  pre- 
dictions contained  in  this  book,  they  ought  to  be  compared 
with  the  history  of  the  times ;  from  which  it  appears,  that, 
when  they  were  made,  the  kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Judah 
were  in  a  very  flourishing  condition.  See  2  Kings  xiv.  1 — 17. 
xvi.  1 — 7.  2  Chron.  xxv.  xxvi.;  also  2  Kings  xiii.  1 — 9. 
'22.  10—20.  25.  2  Chron.  xxv.  17—21.  and  2  Kings  xiv. 
23—28.2 

V.  Jerome  calls  Amos  "rude  in  speech,  but  not  in  know- 
ledge,"^  3ppl)''"p  to  li"^^  what  St.  Paul  modestly  professes 
of  himsell.  (2  Cor.  xi.  0.) 

Calmet  and  many  others  have  followed  tht;  authority  of 
Jerome,  in  speaking  of  this  prophet  as  if  he  were  indeed 
quite  rude,  ineloquent,  and  destitute  of  all  the  embellishments 
of  composition.  The  matter,  however,  as  Bishop  Lowth  has 
remarked,  is  far  otherwise  : — "  Let  any  person  who  has  can- 
dour and  perspicuity  enough  to  judge,  not  from  the  man,  but 
from  his  writings,  open  the  volume  of  his  predictions,  and 
he  will,  I  think,  a^ee  that  our  shepherd  '  is  not  a  whit  be- 
hind the  very  chief  of  the  prophets.  (2  Cor.  xi.  5.)  He  will 
agree,  that  as,  in  sublimity  and  magnificence,  he  is  almost 
equal  to  the  greatest,  so,  in  splendour  of  diction,  and  ele- 
gance of  expression,  he  is  scarcely  inferior  to  anj'.  The  same 
celestial  spirit,  indeed,  actuated  Isaiah  and  Daniel  in  the 
court,  and  Amos  in  the  sheepfolds  :  constantly  selecting  such 
interpreters  of  the  divine  will  as  were  best  adapted  to  the 
occasicn,  and  sometimes  '  from  the  mouth  of  babes  and  suck 
lings  fvirfecting  praise,' — constantly  employing  the  natural 
eloquence  of  some,  and  occasionally  making  others  elo 
quent."^  Many  of  the  most  elegant  images  employed  by 
Amos  are  drawn  from  objects  in  rural  life,  wilh  which  he 
was,  from  his  avocations,  most  intimate!}'  conversant. 


§  3.    ox  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  HOSEA. 
I.  Jlnthor   and   date. — II.    Occasioji   and    scof>e  of  the   pro- 
phecy.— III.    Sy/ioptis   of  its    contents. — IV.   Obsei-vations 
on  its  style. 

BEFORE  ciiniST,  810 — 725. 

I.  Concerning  the  family  of  Hosea,  we  have  no  certain 
information,  except  what  is  furnished  to  us  by  the  first  verse 
of  his  prophecy,  which  states  that  he  was  the  son  of  Beeri, 
whom  some  Jewish  commentators  confcund  with  Beerah, 
a  prince  of  the  Renbenites,  who  was  carried  into  captivity 
witli  the  ten  tribes  by  Tiglath-pileser  king  of  Assyria.  He 
prophesied  during  the  reigns  of  Uzziah,  Jotham,  and  Ahaz, 
and  in  the  third  year  of  Hezekiah,  kings  of  Judah,  and 
during  the  reign  of  Jeroboam  II.  king  of  Israel ;  and  it  is 
most  probable  that  he  was  an  Israelite,  and  lived  in  the  king- 
dom of  Samaria  or  of  the  ten  tribes,  as  his  predictions  are 
chiefly  directed  against  their  wickedness  and  idolatry.  But, 
wilh  the  severest  denunciations  of  vengeance,  he  blends 
promises  of  mercy;  and  the  transitions  from  the  one  to  the 
other  are  frequently  sudden  and  unexpected.  HosenmiiUei 
and  Jahn,  after  (Calmet,  are  of  opinion  that  the  title  of  this 
book  is  a  subsequent  addition,  and  that  Hosea  did  net  pro- 
phesy longer  than  from  forty  to  sixty  years,  and  that  he  died, 
or  at  least  wrote  his  predictions,  before  the  year  725  before 
the  Christian  aira.  His  writings  unquestionably  were, 
originally,  in  a  metrical  form,  although  that  arrangement  is 
now,  perhaps,  irrecoverably  lost. 

II.  The  ten  tribes  (whom  this  prophet  often  collectively 
terms  Ei>liraim,  Israel,  and  Samaria)  having  revolted  from 
Kchoboam  the  son  of  Sulomon  to  Jeroboam  theson  of  IS'ebat, 
who  set  up  the  two  idol  calves  at  Dan  and  Bethel,  conse- 
quently deprived  themselves  of  the  pure  worship  of  Jehovah 
at  Jerusalem,  and  speedily  fell  into  the  grossest  idolatry.* 
Jeroboam  U.  the  son  of  Joash  was  equally  wicked  with  the 
first  sovereign  of  that  name;  and  the  Israelites  were  but  too 
|)ronc  to  foHovv  the  bad  examples  of  their  wicked  kings, 
especially  if  their  aflairs  were  prosperous,  as  we  learn  those 
of  Jeroboiuii  11.  were.  (Compare  2  Kings  xiv.  25 — 27.)  In 
his  days,  therefons  Jehovah  raised  up  the  prophet  Hosea,  to 
convince  them  of  their  apostacy,  and  recover  Ihein  to  the 
worship  of  the  true  Cod.  Bishop  Ilorsley,  however,  is  of 
opinion  th;'.t  Hosea's  principal  subject  is  that,  which  is  the 

«  Professor  Turner's  translation  of  Jnhn'«  Introilucllon,  p.  325. 

»  Hirrnnyiul  I'lief  Omuncnt.  in  Amos. 

•  IlisliMp  I.nwlh's  I.erturcs,  vol.  il.  led.  xxl.  p.  ^S. 

'  Roberta's  Ciavis  UibliortUD,  p.  C06. 


Sect.  II.  §  3.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  HOSEA. 


261 


Srincipal  subject  of  all  the  prophets,  viz.  "  the  guilt  of  the 
ewisli  nation  in  general,  their  disobedient  refractory  spirit, 
the  heavy  judgnieiits  that  uwaited  them,  their  final  conversion 
to  God,  their  re-establishment  in  the  land  of  promise,  and 
tlieir  restoration  to  God's  favour,  and  to  a  condition  of  the 
greatest  national  prosperity,  and  of  high  pre-eminence  among 
the  nations  of  the  earth,  under  the  immediate  protection  of 
the  Ml  ssiah,  in  the  latter  ages  of  the  world.     He  confines 
himself  more  closely  to  this  single  subject  than  any  other 
prophet.     He  seems,  indeed,  of  all  the  prophets,  if  I  may  so 
express  my  conception  of  his  peculiar  character,  to  have  been 
tlie  most  of  a  Jew.      Comparatively,  he  seems  to  care  but 
little  about  other  people.     He  wanders  not,  like  Isaiah,  Jere- 
miah, and   Ezekiel,  into  the  collateral  history  of  the  sur- 
rounding heathen  nations.     He  meddles  not,  like  Daniel, 
with  the  revolutions  of  the  great  empires  of  the  world.     His 
own  country  seems  to  engross  his  whole  attention ;  her  privi- 
leges, her  crimes,  her  punishment,  her  pardon.     He  predicts, 
ind-eed,  in  the  strongest  and  clearest  terms,  the  ingrafting  of 
the  Gentiles  into  the  church  of  God.     But  he  mentions  it 
only  generally:  he  enters  not,  like  Isaiah,  into  a  minute  de- 
tail of  the  progress  of  the  business.     ]\or  does  he  describe, 
in  any  detail,  the  previous  contest  with  the  ajiostate  faction 
in  the  latter  ages.      He  makes  no  explicit  mention  of  the 
share  which  the  converted  Gentiles  are  to  have  in  the  re- 
establishrnent  of  the  natural  Isre^el  in  their  ancient  seats : 
subjects  which  make  so  striking  a  part  of  the  prophecies  of 
Isaiah,  Daniel,  Zechariah,  Haggai,  and,  occasionally,  of  the 
other  prophets.     He  alludes  to  the  calling  of  our  Lord  from 
Egypt :  to  tiie  resurrection  on  the  third  day  :  he  touches,  but 
only  in  general  terms,  upon  the  final  overthrow  of  the  Anii- 
christian  army  in  Palestine,  by  the  immediate  interposition 
of  Jehovah  ;  and  he  celebrates,  in  the  loftiest  strains  of  tri- 
umph and  exullaticn,  the  Saviour's  final  victory  over  death 
and  hell.      But  yet,  of  all  the  prophets,  he  certainly  enters 
the  least  into  the  detail  of  the  mysteries  of  redemption.    We 
have  nothing  in  him  descriptive  of  the  events  of  the  interval 
between  the  two  advents  of  cur  Lord.     Nothing  ditiuse  and 
circumstantial,  upon  the  great  and  interesting  mysteries  of 
the  incarnation  and   the  atonement.      His  countrj'  and  his 
kindred  is  the  subject  next  his  heart.     Their  crimes  excite 
his  indignation  ;  their  sufferings  interest  his  pity ;  their  future 
exaltation  is  the  object  on  wiiich  his  imagination  fixes  with 
delight.     It  is  a  remarkable  dispensation  of  Providence,  that 
clear  notices,  though  in  general  terms,  of  the  universal  re- 
demption, should  be  found  in  a  writer  so  strongly  possessed 
with  national  partialities.     This  Judaism  seems  to  make  the 
particular  character  of  Hosea  as  a  prophet.     Not  that  the  ten 
tribes  are  exclusively  his  subject.     His  country  is  indeed  his 
particular  and  constant  subject ;  but  his  country  generally, 
in  both  its  branches,  not  in  cither  taken  by  itself."' 

According  to  this  view  of  the  subject,  the  general  argu- 
ment of  Hcsea's  prophecy  "  appears  to  be  the  icrtunes  of  the 
whole  Jewish  nation  in  its  two  great  branches ;  not  the  par- 
ticular concerns  (and  least  of  all  the  particular  temporal  con- 
cerns) of  either  branch  excIusivel3^  And  to  this  grand 
opening  the  whole  sequel  of  the  prophecy  corresponds.  In 
setting  forth  the  vices  of  the  people,  the  picture  is  chiefly 
taken,  as  might  naturally  be  expected,  from  the  manners  of 
the  prophet''s  ovrn  times ;  in  part  of  which  the  corruption, 
in  either  kingdom,  was  at  the  greatest  height ;  after  the 
death  of  Jeroboam,  in  the  kingdom  of  Israel ;  in  the  reign 
of  Ahaz,  in  the  kingdom  of  Judah.  And  there  is  occasion- 
ally much  allusion,  sometimes  predictive  allusion,  to  the 
principal  events  of  tiie  prophet's  times.  And  much  more  to 
the  events  in  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  than  to  those  in  Judah. 
Perhaps,  because  the  danger  being  more  imuiediately  immi- 
nent in  the  former  kingdom,  the  state  of  things  in  that  was 
more  alarming,  and  the  occurrences,  for  that  reason,  more 
interesting.  Still  the  history  of  his  own  times  in  detail  in 
either  kingdom  is  not  the  prophet's  subject.  It  furnishes 
similes  and  allusions,  but  it  makes  no  considerable  part,  in- 
deed it  makes  no  part  at  all,  of  the  action  (if  I  may  so  call 
it)  of  the  poem.  The  action  lies  in  events  beyond  the  pro- 
phet's times ;  the  commencement,  indeed,  within  them ;  but 
the  termination,  in  times  j'et  future ;  and  although  we  may 
hope  the  contrary,  for  aught  we  know  with  certainty,  remote. 
The  deposition  of  Jehu's'family,  by  the  murder  of  Zedekiah, 
the  son  and  successor  of  Jercboam,  was  the  commencement : 
the  termination  will  be  the  restoration  of  the  whole  Jewish 
nation  under  one  head,  in  the  latter  days,  in  the  great  day 
of  Jezriiel;  and  the  intermediate  parts  of  the  action  are  the 

»  Bishop  Ilorslej-'s  Hosea,  Preface,  pp.  vii.  viii. 


judgments  which  were  to  fall,  and  accordingly  have  fallen 
upon  the  two  distinct  kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Jjidah,  typified 
by  Lc-ruhamah  and  Lo-amrr.i."^ 

The  Scope  cf  this  prophet's  prediction  is,  1.  Partly  to 
detect,  reprove,  and  convince  the  Jewish  nation  generallv, 
and  the  Israelites  in  particular,  of  their  many  and  heinous 
sins,  especially  of  their  gross  idolatry ;  the  corrupt  state  cf 
the  kingdom  is  also  incidentally  noticed  ; — 2.  Partly  to  de- 
nounce the  imminent  and  utter  rejection,  final  captivity,  and 
destruction  of  the  Israelites  by  the  Assyrians  (if  the  former 
pcrsi-sted  in  their  wicked  career),  notwithstanding  all  their 
vain  confidence  in  the  assistance  to  be  affordecT  them  by 
Egypt; — and,  3.  Partly  to  invite  them  to  repentance  with 
promises  of  mercy,  and  evangelical  predictions  of  the  future 
restoration  of  the  Israelites  and  Jews,  and  their  ultimate  con- 
version to  Christianity.3 

III.  The  prophecy  of  Hosea  contains  fourteen  chapters, 
which  may  be  divided  into  five  sections  or  discourses,  exclu- 
sive of  the  title  in  ch.  i.  1. ;  viz. 

DiscouBSE  1.  Under  the  figure  of  the  supposed^  infidelify  of  the 
prophet's  wife  is  represented  the  spiritual  infidelity  of  the  Isra- 
elites, a  remnant  of  whom,  it  is  promised,  shall  be  saved  (i.  2 
— 11.),  and  they  are  exhorted  to  forsake  idolatry,  (ii.  1 — 11.) 
Promises  are  then  introduced,  on  the  general  conversion  of  the 
txotlve  tribes  to  Christianity  ;  and  the  gracious  purposes  ot 
Jeliovah  towards  the  ten  tribes,  or  the  kingdom  of  Israel  in 
particular,  are  represented  under  the  figure  of  the  prophet 
taking  back  his  wife  on  her  amendment,  (ii.  1 1 — 23.  iii.) 

Discourse  2.  The  prophet,  in  direct  terms,  inveighs  against  the 
bloodslicd  and  idolatry  of  the  Israelites  (iv.  1 — 14.  17 — 19.), 
against  which  the  inhabitants  of  Judah  are  exhorted  to  take, 
warning.  (1.5,  16.)  In  chap.  v.  1 — 14.  the  divine  judgments 
are  denounced  against  the  priests,  the  people,  and  the  princes 
of  Israel,  to  whom  are  held  out  promises  of  pardon  in  v.  15. 
which  are  continued  through  verses  1 — 3.  of  chap.  vi.  1'he 
metaphors  used  by  the  prophet  on  this  occasion  are  remark- 
ably strong  and  beautiful.  The  resurrection,  the  morning,  and 
the  refreshing  showers,  in  their  season,  supply  them ;  in  a 
more  immediate  sense  they  denote  a  speedy  and  gracious  de- 
liverance, but  in  a  remote  sense  they  refer  to  the  resurrection 
of  Christ  (compare  Hosea  vi.  2.  with  1  Cor.  xv.  4.)  and  the 
blessJMgs  of  the  Gospel. 

Disco'JKSE  3.  The  prophet's  exhortations  to  repentance  proving 
inefiectual,  God  complains  by  him  of  their  obstinate  iniquity 
and  idolatry  (vi.  4 — 11.  vii.  1 — 10.),  and  denounces  that  Israel 
will  be  carried  into  captivity  into  Assyria  by  Sennacherib,  not- 
withstanding their  rehancc  on  Egypt  for  assistance,  (vii.  1 1 — 
16.  viii.) 

DrscounsE  4.  The  captivity  and  dispersion  of  Israel  is  further 
threatened  (ix.  x.)  ;  the  Israelites  are  reproved  for  their  idol- 
atry, yet  they  shall  not  be  utterly  destroyed,  and  their  return 
to  their  own  country  is  foretold,  (xi.)^  Renewed  denuncia- 
tions are  made  on  account  of  their  idolatry,    (xii.  xiii.  1 — 8.) 

DiscounsE  5.  After  a  terrible  denunciation  of  divine  punish- 
ment, intermixed  with  promises  of  restoration  from  captivity 
(xiii.  9 — 16.),  the  prophet  exhorts  the  Israelites  to  repentance, 
and  furnishes  them  with  a  beautiful  form  of  prayer  adapted  to 
their  situation  (xiv.  1 — 3.)  ;  and  foretells  their  reformation 
from  idolatry,  together  with  the  subsequent  restoration  of  all 
the  tribes  from  their  dispersed  state,  and  their  conversion  to 
the  Gospel.  (4—9.) 

IV.  The  style  of  Hosea,  Bishop  Lowth  remarks,  exhibits 
the  appearance  of  very  remote  antiquity;  it  is  pointed,  ener- 
getic, and  concise.  It  bears  a  distinguished  mark  of  poetical 
composition,  in  that  pristine  brevity  and  condensation  which 
is  observable  in  the  sentences,  and  which  later  writers  hava 
in  some  measure  neglected.  This  peculiarity  has  not  escaped 
the  observation  of  Jerome,  who  remarks  that  this  prophet  is 

»  Rishop  Horsley's  Hosea,  Preface,  p.  .xxvii. 

3  Robertii's  (,'lavis  BJbluirurii,  p.  656. 

«  Bishop  Horsley  contends  at  ^n-eat  Iciifflli,  contrary  to  mo.st  intevpreters, 
that  Uie  jiroplict's  marriage  was  a  real  uaiisaction,  and  a  type  of  the  whole 
Jewish  nation,  distinct  parts  of  which  were  typified  by  the  three  children 
.lexrael,  Lo-ruhainah,  and  Lo  ainiiii.  .See  the  Preface  to  his  version  of 
Hosea,  pp.  viii. — xxv.  Witsiu?,  however,  has  shown  that  the  whole  was 
a  figurative  representation.     Misccll.  Sacr.  lib.  i.  pp.  90—92. 

5  The  prediction  in  Hosea  xi.  10,  II.,  respecting  the  return  of  the  Isi-4e!- 
ites  to  their  own  country,  was  partly  fulfilled  in  consequence  of  Cyrus's 
decree  (2  Chron.  xxxvi. '.S,  2?.  Es^ra'i.  1— i.) ;  but,  in  its  fullest  extent,  it 
remains  to  be  accoiriplishod  in  the  future  restoraiion  of  the  Jews  to  their 
own  land.  This  is  one  instance,  among  many,  in  which  the  language  of  the 
prophets  is  adapted  to  two  or  more  events.  VVc  have  the  authority  of  an 
inspired  writer  to  extend  tliis  remark  to  another  part  of  the  .same  chapter. 
(Compare  xi.  1.  with  Matt.  ii.  15.)  Smith's  Summary  View  of  the  Prophet*, 
p.  m. 


263 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  V.  Chap.  IV 


t 


altoofeOiei  laconic  and  sententious.'  "  Rut  this  very  rircuin- 
stnnce,  which  anciently  ^vas  supposfd  to  impart  iineoinmon 
force  and  elegance,  in  the  present  state  of  Ilenrow  literature, 
is  productive  of  so  much  obscurity,  that  although  tho  creneral 
subject  of  this  writer  is  sufficiently  obvious,  he  is  the  most 
difficult  and  perplexed  of  all  the  prophets.  Tliore  is,  how- 
ever, another  reason  for  the  obscurity  of  his  style.  Hosea, 
we  have  seen,  prophesied  during  the  reigns  of  the  four  kings 
I'f  Judah,  Uzziah,  Jolham,  Ahaz,  and  Hezekiati :  the  dura- 
tion of  his  ministry,  therefore,  in  whatever  mnnnor  we  calcu- 
late it,  must  include  a  very  considrral)le  space  of  time.  We 
have  now  only  a  small  volume  of  his  remaining,  which,  it 
saeras,  contains  his  principal  prophecies ;  and  these  are 
f;Xtant  in  a  continued  series,  with  no  marks  of  distinction  as 
to  the  times  when  they  were  published,  or  of  which  they 
t'eat.  It  is,  tlien  fore,  no  wonder  if.  in  perusing  the  pro- 
jihecios  of  Hosra,  we  sometimes  find  ourselves  in  a  similar 
prediciiment  with  those  who  consulted  the  scattered  leaves 
■)f  tlie  sybil. "^ 

§    4.  ON    THE    BOOK    OS"    THE    PROPHET    ISAIAH. 

I.  .  iiithor  am!  date. — II.  Genuineness  of  IsaiuJis  profihecies. — 
III.  Scope. — IV.  ..inafy.^is  nf  the  contents  of  this  book. — 
V.    Observations  on  its  stt/le. 

BEFORE    CHRIST,  810 69S. 

Though  fifth  in  the  order  of  time,  the  writings  of  the  pro- 
phet Isaiah  are  placed  first  in  order  of  the  pro])hetical  books, 
)rincipally  on  account  cf  the  sublimity  and  importance  of 
is  predictions,  and  partly  also  because  the  book,  which 
bears  his  name,  is  larger  than  all  the  twelve  minor  prophets 
put  together. 

I.  Concerning  his  family  and  descent  nothing  certain  has 
been  recorded,  except  what  he  himself  tjlls  us  (i.  1.),  viz. 
that  he  was  the  son  of  Amotz,  and  discharged  the  proj)helic 
office  in  the  din/s  <f  i'zziah,  Jnthnvi,  Ahnz.,  and  f{::tkiah, 
kinffs  <f  Judnh,  who  successively  flourished  between  a.  m. 
r.ll»I  and  3305.  There  is  a  current  tradition  that  ho  was  cf 
llie  blood-royal ;  and  some  writers  have  affirmed  that  his 
fa'.her  Amotz  or  Amos  was  tiie  son  of  .Toash,  and,  eonse- 
qnentlv,  brother  of  Uzziah  king  of  .Fudah.  Jernnie,  on  tlio 
authority  nf  some  rabbinical  writers,  says,  that  the  prophet 
gave  iiis  daw^hter  in  marriage  to  Manassoh  king  ot^Junah; 
but  this  opinion  is  scarcely  credible,  because  Manasseh  did 
not  commence  his  reign  until  about  sixty  years  after  Isaiali 
had  begun  to  discharge  his  prophetic  functions.  He  must, 
in  leed,  iiave  exercised  the  office  of  a  prophet  during  a  long 

fteriod  of  time,  if  he  lived  in  the  reign  of  Manasseh  ;  for  the 
owest  computation,  beginning  from  tlio  year  in  which  Uzziah 
died,  when  he  is  by  some  supposed  to  have  received  his 
tirst  appointment  to  tiiat  office,  brings  it  to  sixty-one  years. 
Hut  the  tradition  of  the  Jews,  which  has  been  adopted  by 
most  Christian  commentators,  that  he  was  put  to  death  by 
Manasseh,  is  very  uncertain;  and  Aben  Ezra,  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  .lewish  wriu^rs,  is  rather  of  opinion  that  he 
died  before  Hezfkiah;  which  Bishop  Lowth  thinks  most 
probable.  It  is,  however,  certaiii,  that  he  lived  at  least  to 
the  fifteenth  or  sixteenth  year  of  Hczekiah;  which  m.akes 
the  lea«t  possible  term  of  the  duration  of  his  prophetic  office 
to  be  about  forty-eight  years. 

The  name  of  Isaiah,  as  Vitringa  has  remarked  after  several 
preceding  commentators,  is  in  some  measure  descriptive  of 
liis  higli  charactfT,  since  it  signilifS  the  S'a/i<ufi(iJt-if-./i/i/n'nh  ,• 
and  was  given  with  sintiular  propriety  to  liini  who  foretold 
the  adv^^nt  of  the  Messiah,  tlirough  li'hom  all  jh-yh  f:h<ill  Ker 
the  taliHition  of  Gad.  ((Compare  Isa.  xl.  5.  with  Luke  iii.  (J. 
and  Acts  iv.  12.)  Isaiah  was  contemporary  with  tlie  pro- 
phets Amos,  Ilosea,  Joe!,  and  .Micah. 

Isaiah  is  unifornilv  spoken  of  in  the  SVri])ti;rcs  as  a  pro- 
)>hct  of  the  highest  digiiity  :  llishoj)  Lowtii  calls  him  the 
prince  of  all  the  prophet's,  and  jirononncfs  the  whole  of  his 
liook  to  be  poetical,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  detached 
passages.  It  is  remarkable,  that  his  wife  is  styled  a  pniphet- 
t.'3  in  viii.  3.,  whence  the  rabbinical  writers  have  concluded 
thai  she  possessed  the  spirit  of  prophecy  :  but  it  is  very  pro- 
bable that  the  prophets'  wives  w»;re  called  projihetcsses,  as 
Ihn  priests'  wives  were  termed  priestesses,  only  from  the 

'  Pr.Tf.  in  xii  Propti. 

•»  Lovirilt'M  Pr.X'ifCl.  xxl.  v.jI.  li.  p.  06.  ni»}inn  Horslcy  itifTiTg  in  opinion 
from  Ili^hnp  I/)wlh,  ns  lo  t)ie  criisc  nf  the  ubsciirily  wliicli  i-i  nlxurvNhli' 
in  ih',' iiioplier.ies  of  Hoxca.  Bislioji  (joriilcy  uscrilx-s  It,  ni>t  in  ili«  griBt 
niitiquily  of  tlie  roin)io«ltion,  nor  lo  any  lliini;  poriih;ir  lo  iln'  l.ini;ii:ii;n  of 
till;  a'Utior'a  n((o,  but  to  IiIh  pociiliar  idioiiiic,  lr'(|j>'iit  ch.iiigi's  ol  (irrson, 
hi<  URp  rifihc  nominative  ease  alisolut*!,  lilf  snumalirs  of  nunil)cr  anil  gen- 
lor,  nnl  th*!  !\iiil.igiiity  of  pronouns.  See  ttic  Preface  to  lilii  vervlou  of 
llusea,  pp.  xjiix.— xliii 


quality  of  their  hnsbands.  Altliough  nothing  farther  is 
recorded  in  the  Scriptures  concerning  the  wife  of  Isaiah,  we 
find  two  of  his  sons  mentioned  in  his  prophecy,  who  were 
types  or  figurative  pledges  of  (Jod's  assurance ;  and  their 
names  and  actions  were  intended  to  awaken  a  religious  atten- 
tion in  the  persons  whom  they  wore  commissioneifto  address 
and  to  instruct.'  Thus,  Shearjashub  (vii.  3.)  signifies  "a 
remnant  shall  return,''''  and  showed  that  the  captives,  who 
should  be  carried  to  Babylon,  should  return  thence  after  a 
certain  time;  and  Malier-slr.ilal-hashbaz  (viii.  1.  3.),  which 


denotes  "  make  speed  (or,  run  (■toiftli/)  lo  the  sjjoil,^^  implied 
that  the  kincdoms  of  Is 
be  i-avaged. 


that  the  kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Syria  would  in  a  short  time 


Besides  the  volume  of  prophecies,  which  we  are  now  to 
consider,  it  appears  from  2  Chron.  xxvi.  22.  that  Isaiah  wrote 
an  account  of  the  .^cts  of  i'zziah  king  of  Judah  :  this  has 
perished  with  some  other  writings  of  the  prophets,  which, 
p.s  probably  not  written  by  insuiraiion,  were  never  admitted 
into  the  canon  of  Scripture.^  There  are  also  two  apocryphal 
books  ascribed  to  him,  viz.  "7'/(e  Ascen.^ion  of  Isa'uih,''''  and 
"  The  Apocalt/pse  ofhaiuh  ,•"  but  these  are  evidentl}'  forgeries 
of  a  later  date ;  and  the  Jpocali/pse  has  long  since  perished.* 

II.  Until  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  Isaiah 
was  universally  reo;nrdcd  both  by  Jews  and  Christians  as  the 
sole  author  of  the  nook  which  bears  his  name.  Koppe  was 
the  earliest  writer  who  intimated  thatEzekiel,  or  some  other 
prophet  who  lived  during  the  exile,  might  have  been  the 
author;  as  Doederlein  was  the  first  of  the  German  commen- 
tators and  critics  who  expressed  a  definite  suspicion  against 
the  genuineness  of  those  predictions  which  were  delivered 
against  the  Gentiles,  but  especially  the  last  twentj'-seven 
chapters.  Justi,  Eiehhorn,  Bauer,  Paulus,  Rosenmiiller, 
Bertholdt,  De  VVeite,  and  others,  have  adopted  the  notions 
of  Doederlein  ;  and  by  various  arguments  have  endeavoured 
to  prove  that  the  chajiters  in  question  first  originated  during 
the  Babylonian  captivity.  'I'hese  arguments  have  been  copi- 
ously examined  and  refuted  by  Professor  Jahn,'' whose  obser- 
vations may  be  arranged  under  the  following  heads: — viz. 
1.  Proofs  that  all  the  prophecies  ascribed  to  Isaiah  are  really 
his  productions  ; — 2.  An  examination  and  refutation,  in  detail, 
of  objections  against  particular  prediction"; — and,  3.  An  exa- 
mination of  the  (piestions  whether  Isaiah  was  the  author  of 
chapters  xxxvi. — xxxix. 

1.  Proofs  that  all  thk  Predictions  ascribed  to  Isaiah 
are  really  his  productions. 

i.  "The  Style  differs  scarce!)" any  in  the  diffi^rent  prophe- 
cies. We  find  every  where  the  same  descriptions  of  particu- 
lar objects,  and  the  same  images,  taken  from  tires,  especially 
cedars,  firs,  and  oaks;  from  the  pains  of  childbirtn,  from 
history,  and  from  the  golden  age.  The  beginning  of  the 
prophecy  constantly  enti^rs  into  the  midst  of  the  subject, and 
every  where  poetical  passages  are  inserted  ;  as  v.  1 — C.  xii. 
1 — G.  xiv.  4 — 20.  XXV.  1 — 5. ;  so,  exaetly  in  the  same  man- 
ner, xlii.  10—13.  iii.  9.  s.  Ixi.  10.  Ixiii.  7.  Ixiv.  11.  Every 
where  the  same  clearness  and  fibscurity,  the  same  repetiiions, 
and  the  same  euphony  of  language,  are  observable.  The 
visions  are  similar;  coinp.  ch.  xxi.  and  ch.  xl.  with  ch.  vi. 
Even  the  same  phrases  occur  repeatedly:  e.  sr,  ^s-\ti  v\fp 
occurs  in  the  first  yrart  .seventeen  times,  in  the  second  tivrlce 
times,  imn,  which  occurs  in  all  the  rest  of  the  Bible  only 
nine  times,  is  found  in  the"fir8t  part  of  luninh  four  times,  in 
the  Si'cond  six.  d'Nxs:!,  which  is  elsewhere  only  to  be  met 
with/';7<r  times  in  the  book  f.f  Job,  is  found  hert;  fwirein  the 
first  part,  and  y/iv  times  in  the  second,  jni:'  is  used  in  Ixv. 
10.  just  as  in  xx\iii.  ".>.  xxv.  2. :  m,T  -<■;«>.  in  xl.  1.  xii.  7.  21. 
ixvi.  9.  just  as  in  i.  11.  18.  xxxiii.  10.,  instead  of  which  the 
other  prophets  say  m7\*  irN,  or  "^cnm.  The  expressions  ap- 
plied to  the  Sabp;ans,  ^^■^c  stretched  out,  or  tall,  xviii.  2.  7., 
and  mo  '•va*,  nien  (f  nic<i.-<urr,  or  fall  mm,  are  peculiar  lo  our 
prophet,  as  well  as  many  others,  which  we  nave  not  room 

'  f;ray'»  Key,  p.  3^.  •  Ibiil.  p.  37a 

•  Asrrn-ijii  ciMiii  Ifi.iiir  rl  .\pornIyp'!i.«  I.sri.v  luu'  halxMii  tniinjnninm. 
Jt'roin  ('oiiiini'iil.  on  li<ai»li,  rli.  Ixiv.  (Op  loin.  Iii.  |i. '17:).)  Hoe  iiIko  toin. 
iv.  p.  :MI-  Tin:  niiiiliu'i'un  nT  \\vcv\\i^\on  of  iNaiuli  l.s  iiiciitioni'<l  by  Epk- 
pli.iniiiM,  nniou^  iliu  books  rccoivt'd  by  llicituc,  foinxlci'  of  tlii>  srcl  of 
IIh!  IFifrnrilfit,  in  ihc  I'oiirlh  cciilury.  Ilxrcs.  07.  \>t.  I.arJniT's  Works, 
vol.  ill.  p.  "lOi. 

*  The  arcninpiits  of  ttie  vnrious  noolocian  objprtor.t  asaini't  ihe  irenuino. 
ncs.i  of  ls:iiali':*  (irediitiiin.'i,  and  csiircially  Ibosi'  of  I'rofi.'S.'ior  GcKonius, 
.Til  ii!io  very  fully  ai.  I  aMy  ri'ncwcil  :inil  rffiUfMl,  /!».</,  Iiv  rrofos.sor  I,ce, 
in  h\*  Sierinons  oiid  DIssprlolionH  on  Ihe  Sindy  of  tlio  ll"ly  Si-.ripinren, 
|))).  167— aOi. ;  and,  HecunH'ii.  by  Dr.  Ilt-naol'^nbera  in  Ilia  "ChrisDloxlf  des 
Alli-n  TcHlaniciiU."  ((.Iirisiolojiy  of  llic  Old  Tcijlaincnl.)  Tlinl  p:ii  I  .  f  Ur. 
II  'a  ir'-aiiiif.  \v!i!c-h  r"  lair!)  lo  ll'io  crnnlo'  iic-is  of  I.<aiali's  pndiclion*,  liaa 
lifon  Irnnslilrd  Inio  En^lixh  by  Prol'i-HKor  Rtiblnuon  of  Andovor  (.Ma!>Ra- 
cliiiHPlln),  ami  will  b'l  loiunl  In  lln!  Hlblii-nl  Heposltory  lor  ibi- year  IS31. 

(vol.  I  pp.  TlKl— 7.11  )  Ak  till!  aiBunicnls  of  Iticsc  lea d  wrilcrs  (Ki  not  admit 

of  .-\bridj;iui.'iit,  tbc  rcailer  Is  nL-ccsEarlly  refarrcd  luibcirpublicoiioni. 


Sect   II  |  4.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  ISAIAH. 


263 


here  to  specifv. — ThesuhUmUy  of  the  style  does  not  vary  more 
throughout  all  the  prophecies,  than  is  usual  in  poems  which 
are  written  by  the  same  author  at  different  times,  as  for  ex- 
ample, the  different  Psalms  of  Uavid  ;  and  the  style  in  all  is 
such  as  coald  by  no  means  be  expected  from  writers  of  the 
age  of  the  Babylonian  captivit}\  It  is  granted  that  style 
does  not  depend  entirely  upon  the  age,  but  in  some  measure 
upon  the  cultivated  genius  of  the  writer;  yet  it  does  not, 
therefore,  become  probable  that  such  poems  should  be  com- 
posed in  the  age  of  tlie  Babylonian  captivity,  so  that  we  may 
assert  this  without  any  historical  testimony  or  tradition  :  more 
especially  as  we  find  nothino-  similar  in  the  writings  of  Jere- 
miah or  Ezekiel,  who  wanted  neither  genius  nor  polish. — The 
language  itself  is  not  the  same  as  that  observable  in  Jeremiah 
and  Ezekiel :  it  is  not  probable  that  any  one  could  have  cul- 
tivated the  knowledge  of  the  Hebrew  during  the  captivity 
more  thoroughly  than  thejs  nor  is  such  a  state  of  the  lan- 
guage discernible  in  Zechariuh,  who  is  usually  cited  as  an 
instance  of  it. — Lastly,  ihe  arrangement  and  method  of  treat- 
ing ike  su/ijed  are  the  same  in  all  these  proj)liecies.  Chap. 
vii.  contains  a  prophecy  interwoven  with  a  history,  which  is 
followed,  ch.  viii. — xii.  by  prophecies  without  titles;  so  also 
in  ch.  xxxix.  the  prophecy  is  woven  into  the  history,  and 
prophecies  without  a  title  follow.  As  in  the  first  part  there 
are  several  prophecies  concerning  Sennacherib  ;  so  also  in  the 
second,  tliere  are  several  concerning  the  overthrow  of  the 
(^haldrean  monarch}'',  and  the  return  of  the  Hebrews  from 
captivity.  As  in  the  vision  in  ch.  vi.  we  read,  that  the  pro- 
phet's efforts  should  not  be  accompanied  by  a  happy  result ; 
so  the  prophet,  ch.  xlii.  IG.  23.  xliii.  8.  xlv.  4.,  and  especi- 
ally xlix.  4.  lix.  G.,  complains  that  his  endeavours  had  been 
unsuccessful. 

ii.  "What  is  said  in  ch.  Ixvi.  1 — 6.  of  the  temple,  does 
not  suit  the  latter  part  of  the  period  of  exile,  in  which  Hag- 
gai  and  Zechariali  speak  altogether  differently  on  the  same 
subject.  INIuch  less  could  any  one  during  the  captivity  write, 
as  in  xlviii.  4 — 8.,  that  the  ruin  and  utter  destruction  of  the 
city  of  Babylon  had  not  yet  been  foretold,  when  Jeremiah  I. 
li.  had  plainly  predicted  it;  or  speak,  as  in  lii.  4.,  of  the 
Egyptians  and  Assyrians  as  the  only  enemies  of  the  He- 
brews, and  pass  over  the  Chaldajans. — The  severe  reproofs, 
Ivi.  9. — lix.  20.  Ixv.  11 — 16.,  especially  those  denounced 
against  the  shepherds,  ?'.  e.  the  kings,  Ivi.  11,  &;c. ;  the  re- 
proaches not  only  on  account  of  idolatry,  but  also  of  the  im- 
molation of  children,  Ivii.  1 — 13.,  and  of  enormous  corruption 
of  morals,  Iviii.  G — 9.  lix.  1 — 8.,  are  entirely  at  variance 
with  the  times  of  the  captivity.  Then,  we  might  rather  ex- 
pect mention  to  be  made  of  tlie  prophecies  of  Jeremiah,  as 
in  Dan.  ix.  2.  and  that  more  should  be  said  respecting  the 
Magians  or  worshippers  of  Ormuzd,  than  that  one  allusion 
to  the  two  principles  of  things,  xlv.  7.,  which  certainly  were 
maintained  by  very  many  in  an  age  older  than  that  of  the 
captivity. 

lii.  "  Jeremiah  shows  that  he  liad  read  these  prophecies, 
seven  years  before  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  Jer.  li.  49 — 
64. ;  for  the  connection  of  the  prophecy  of  Jeremiah  con- 
tained in  Jer.  1.  li.  with  the  predictions  of  Isaiah  is  evident : 
nor  can  it  be  said,  that  the  autlicr  of  the  controverted  pro- 

(ihecies  of  Isaiah,  living  toward  the  end  of  the  captivity, 
lad  read  the  book  of  Jeremiah;  for  he  is  an  original  and 
independent  author,  drawing  entirely  from  his  own  resources, 
and  never  imitating  others  ;  while,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  well 
known  that  Jeremiah  had  read  the  older  prophets,  and  bor- 
rowed much  from  them,  especially  in  his  prophecies  against 
foreign  nations.  Some  passages  have  been  observed  in  other 
prophets  also,  which  have  been  taken  from  the  controverted 
prophecies  of  Isaiah :  as  Zeph.  ii.  14,  &c.  from  Isa.  xiii.  21, 
&c. ;  Ezek.  xxxiv.  from  Isa.  Ivii.  10,  &c. ;  Ezek.  xxvi.  20. 
xxxi.  14 — 17.  xxxii.  18 — 33.  from  Isa.  xiv.  8 — 28.  ;  Ezek. 
xxvi.  13.  from  Isa.  xxiii.  25. ;  Ezek.  xxxviii.  xxxix.  from 
Isa.  Ixvi.  6 — 9.  24.  That  Habakkuk  is  indebted  to  Isaiah, 
has  been  long  since  observed :  compare  Hab.  i.  6.  with  Isa. 
xxiii.  13. 

iv.  "  Cyrus,  in  his  written  proclamation  (Ezra  i.  2.), 
says,  that  the  God  of  heaven  had  given  him  all  kingdoms  of 
the  earth,  and  had  charged  him  to  build  to  Him  a  temple  at 
Jerusalem. — These  words,  as  well  as  the  acts  of  Cyrus, 
namely,  his  dismission  of  the  Jews  to  their  own  country, 
his  grant  of  a  sum  of  money  for  the  building  of  the  temple, 
and  his  restitution  of  the  valuable  holy  vessels,  can  only  be 
explained  on  the  supposition  that  he  had  seen  the  prophe- 
cies of  Isaiah  concerning  him,  as  Josephus  states,  and  was 
.nduced,  by  their  manifestly  divine  origin,  to  confer  such 


great  benefits  upon  the  Jev/s.  Nor  was  Cyrus  the  man  to 
suffer  recent  prophecies  scarcely  yet  published  to  be  palmed 
upon  him  for  ancient ;  not  to  mention  that  there  were  many 
who  would  have  been  orlad  to  discover  to  him  the  fraud,  if 
any  had  existed.  Neither  would  Cyrus  the  Marian,  who 
built  nothing  but  pyres  to  Ormuzd,  have  been  so  easily  led 
to  construct  a  magnificent  temple  to  the  God  of  the  Jews. 

"  It  may,  indeed,  seem  strange  that  the  prophet  should 
say  so  much  concerning  the  return  from  Babylon,  and  yet 
make  no  express  mention  of  the  carrying  away.  But  he  cer- 
tainly does  say  something  concerning  this  subject,  as  xxxix. 
4—7.  vi.  11—13.  v.  5—9.  xi.  11—16.;  and  Micah,  the 
contemporary  of  Isaiah,  speaks  clearly  of  this  carryinn- 
away,  and  of  the  overthrow  of  Jerusalem ;  so  that  it  wculj 
seem  probable  that  Isaiah  had  said  more  on  this  subject, 
which  has  not  been  preserved  to  us.  If  this  were  the  case, 
the  prophet  wl;o  sings  the  glad  return  would  no  more  con 
tradict  himself  by  predicting  the  carrying  away,  than  Jere- 
miah does,  who  has  predicted  both  events.'  To  all  this, 
analogy  is  said  to  be  opposed,  according  to  which,  it  is 
thought,  prophets  do  not  foretell  such  remote  events  as  those 
concerning  the  Chaldreans,  the  Medes  and  Persians,  Cjnus, 
and  the  return  of  the  Hebrews,  which  Isaiah  has  predicted. 
But  this  analogy  is  by  no  means  universal.  Besides,  in  this 
objection  it  is  supposed  that  the  Chaldeeans,  Medes,  and 
Persians,  were  in  the  age  of  Isaiah  obscure  nations,  or  en- 
tirely unknown ;  whereas,  in  fact,  the  Medes,  almost  100 
years  before  Isaiah  and  Hezekiah  (826  before  Christ,  149 
aftpr  the  division),  had,  under  their  king  Arbaces,  joined  an 
alliance  with  Belesis  the  governor  of  Babylon,  and  over- 
thrown the  first  Assyrian  monarchy.  It  is  true  that  the  Me- 
dian anarchy  of  seventy-nine  years  followed,  but  in  the 
tenth  of  Hezekiah  (728  before  Christ,  257  after  the  divi- 
sion), they  elected  JDejoces  king,  who  founded  Ecbatana, 
and  whose  son  Phraortcs  (G63— 643  before  Christ,  310— 
332  after  the  division),  attacking  the  new  kingdom  of  the 
Assyrians,  was  slain  while  besieging  Nineveh  ;  and  under 
Cyaxares  I.,  Zoroaster  found  the  kingdom  of  the  Medes 
again  flourishing.2 — Elam  was  a  celebrated  kingdom  even  in 
the  most  ancient  times,  Gen.  ch.  xiv.,  and  it  is  always  by 
the  ancient  name  dS^jj,  Gen.  x.  22.  xiv.  1.  that  Isaiah  men- 
tions it,  and  never  by  tlie  modern  appellation  did,  which  is 
given  it,  Dan  vi.  28.  Ezra  i.  1,  2.  iv.  5.  2  Chron.  xxxvi. 
22.  s.  The  Elamites  are  mentioned  as  a  part  of  the  army 
of  the  Ass3'rians,  Isa.  xxii.  6.,  which  prophecy  is  certainlv 
Isaiah's,  as  appears  from  v.  8 — 11.  compared  with  2  Chron. 
xxxii.  2 — 5.  Esarhaddon  sent  some  Elamites  among  his 
other  colonists  to  Samaria.  (Ezra  iv.  9.  s.)  At  a  later 
period  Jeremiah,  chap.  xxv.  25.  xlix.  24,  &c.  mentions  Elam 
among  the  nowerful  kingdoms  which  should  be  conquered 
by  the  Chaldsans,  and  Ezekiel,  ch.  xxxii.  24.  beholds  Elam 
oyerthrown.  It  is  only  by  a  long  succession  of  time  and 
victories,  that  nations  are  enabled  to  conquer  the  surrounding 
people,  and  spread  themselves  so  widely  as  to  obtain  sufl^" 
cient  celebrity  to  entitle  them  to  an  -eminent  place  in  his- 
tory. It  was  not,  therefore,  in  a  short  space  of  time  that  the 
Chalda^ans,  Medes,  and  Elamites  or  Persians,  emerged  from 
their  obscurity  into  so  great  a  light  as  to  become  conspicuous 
to  the  world  when  before  they  had  been  utterly  unknown. 
If,  then,  Isaiah  foretells  the  overthrow  of  the  Chaldajans  by 
the  Medes  and  Elamites,  his  prophecy  in  that  age  would 
have  been  neither  more  nor  less  obscure  than  Zechariah's 
(ix.  1.3.)  concerning  the  wars  of  the  Jews  against  the  Greeks 
in  Si^ria.  Isaiah  might  easily  have  used  the  name  Cyriis,  tyio 
(or  Koresh),  xliv.  28.  xlv.  1.,  since  it  means  nothing  more  than 
king;  for  in  the  language  of  the  Parsees  Khor  means  the 
sun,  and  Schid  spknduur,  whence  is  compounded  Korschid, 
t/ie  splendour  of  the  sun,  and  with  the  addition  of  the  word 
PAE  or  PAi,  huhitation,  Korschidpai,  the  habitation  of  the 
splendour  (f  ihe  sun,  which  was  a  customary  appellation  of 
the  kings  of  Persia.  Tliis  appellation  cornipted  into  cno 
(Koresh),  might  become  known  to  the  Hebrews  by  means 
of  merchants  travelling  between  Judcea  and  Persia  ;  and 
Isaiah,  who  did  not  hesitate  to  call  Cyrus  the  anointed,  m»c, 
may  have  called  him  by  the  appellative  of  the  kings  of 

«  Prophets  arc  not,  like  historians,  confined  to  (he  order  of  chronology 
in  announcing  fuuirc  events.  This  is  plain  from  their  writings,  wtiich 
always  give  perspective  views.  Zecljariah  predicted  a  kingdom  for  the 
tiighpriest,  without  noticing  tlie  destruction  of  the  Persian  monarchy  and 
the  division  of  the  Greek  power.  Isaiah  foretold  the  return  of  the  Israel- 
ites from  the  Assyrian  captivity,  without  saying  any  thing  of  the  interven- 
ing revdhitions  by  the  Chalda-ans,  Medes,  and  Persians.  In  prophecy  the 
more  remote  events  are  often  introduced,  while  the  intermediate  are  unno- 
ticed. 

>  Cornp.  Prideaux,  Conn.  Part  I.  Book  I. 


264 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Paht  V.  CuAp.  IV 


Persia,  Tthich  became  afterwards  the  proper  name  of  that 
particular  king."' 

2.  Examination  a5d  Refutation  of  Objections  against 
PAnrict'LAP.  Predictions  of  Isaiah. 

Tliese  may  be  referred  to  three  liends  ;  viz.  i.  Prophecies 
a;^Liinst  the  EjD'ptians,  Elamites,  Idiima'ans,  &c.; — ii.  The 
pTojJiecies  against  Tyre  ; — and,  iii.  Tiie  prophecy  concerning 
the  subversion  of  the  Chalda-o-Uabylonian  empire,  and  the 
return  of  tlie  Hebrews  from  captivity. 

i.  Frophecies  againsl  the  Egyptians,  Elamites,  TJumaeans, 

(1.)  "  Some  have  said  that  the  passage  in  Isa.  ii.  2 — 4.  is 
inserted  by  mistake  by  the  person  whom  they  suppose  to 
have  collected  the  several  prophecies  into  this  one  book, 
about  the  end  of  the  Babylonish  captivity ;  but  others  liave 
already  remarked  that  this  passage  may  have  been  taken  by 
Isaiah  from  Micah  iv.  1—3.,  or  fiy  Micah  from  Isaiah,  or  by 
both  from  some  more  ancient  prophecy. 

(2.)  "  Chapters  xi.  and  xii.  have  been  supposed  not  to 
belong  to  Isaiah,  because  in  ch.  xi.  11 — IC.  the  very  distant 
event'of  the  return  of  the  Israelites  from  Assyria  and  Egypt 
end  other  regions  is  predicted.  But  this  return  was  predicted 
also  by  Micah,  the  contemporary  of  Isaiah,  by  Hosea,  and 
by  Amos. 

(.3.)  "The  prophecy  in  chapters  xv.  xvi.  is  thought  to 
have  been  written  three  years  before  the  devastation  ot  Moab 
by  Nebuchadnezzar,  xiv.  13,  &;c.,  because  Zenhaniah,  ii.  8, 
&c.  and  Jeremiah,  ch.  xlviii.,  threaten  the  Moabites  with  the 
same  calamity.  But  who  can  show  that  Isaiah  did  not  speak 
cf  another  calamity  to  be  inflicted  upon  them  by  the  Assy- 
rians ?  or  who  would  suppose  that  the  Assyrians  spared  the 
Moabites  1  Their  country  was  devastated,  therefore,  as 
Isaiah  foretold,  by  the  Assyrians,  and  then  again  by  the 
Chaldeans,  of  whom  Zi^phaniah  and  .leremiah  prophesied. 
That  this  prophecy  of  Isaiah  was  much  older  than  the  time 
of  Jeremiah,  is  certain ;  for  Jeremiah,  ch.  xlviii.,  borrows 
many  ideas  from  it,  as  must  be  evident  to  every  one  who 
compares  the  two.  That  it  is  the  production  of  Isaiah 
himself  is  shown  by  the  time  of  its  fulfilment  being  stated, 
which  is  according  to  Isaiah's  usual  practice.  See  vii.  14 — 
17.  viii.  4. 

(4.)  "No  other  reason  is  brought  to  prove  that  the  passage 
ch.  xix.  18 — 25.  is  not  Isaiali's,  than  this,  that  in  the  same 
chapter,  ver.  1—15.,  a  propliecy  of  the  calamity  of  Egypt 
iiud  preceded,  whereas  ver.  18—25.  predict  prosperity.  But 
this  is  nothing  more  tlian  is  common  with  the  propliets — to 
promise  better  fortune  after  predicting  calamity.  As  the 
i:gyptians  are  called,  ver.  25.,  the  pconlc  f-f  .Ikuovau,  and 
tiie  Assyrians,  tl»c  work  of  the  hands  of  Jkjiovah,  the 
prophecy  must  necessarily  have  been  the  production  of  a 
Hebrew,  and  it  is  much  more  probable  that  Isaiah  should 
have  written  it,  tiian  any  more  modern  author. 

(5.)  "Isa.  xxii.  1 — 11.  is  rejected  as  spurious,  because 
the  Elamites  are  mentioned,  ver.  (i. :  but  from  a  comparison 
of  ver.  8—11.  with  2  C'hron.  xxxii.  2 — 5.  and  Isa.  vii.,  it 
appears  that  the  subject  is  the  irruption  of  .Sennacherib :  the 
mention  of  the  Elvmites,  therefore,  must  be  at  least  as 
eld  as  the  time  of  Isaiali :  wiiy,  tiien,  seek  for  any  other 
author  than  Isaiah,  who  is  mentioned  in  the  title  of  the 
propliery  1 

(G.)  "They  who  contend  that  it  is  not  natural  that  Isaiali 
should  have  uttered  so  many  prophecies  concerning  the 
irruption  of  Sennacherib  alone,  do  not  consider  that  tliis 
event  was  one  of  great  importance,  and  contributed  very 
iiinch  to  confirm  the  Hebrews  in  their  religion,  so  that  it 
well  deserved  a  multitude  of  proplietic  notices.  Tlie  style 
and  construction,  too,  confirm  the  o|-inion  that  tliey  are  pro- 
ductions of  Isaiah,  since  they  do  not  dilVer  moro  from  each 
other  in  this  rest)ect,  than  do  the  various  Conferences  of 
Hariri,  or  the  different  Psalms  of  David. 

(7.)  "The  prophecy,  Isa.  xxiv. — xxvii.,  is  referred  to  a 
more  recent  date,  on  account  of  tht;  frerpient  occurrenre  of 
pnronoinasiae.  Now  we  know  lh:it  tliese  are  considered 
singular  beauties  in  the  Oriental  style,  and  thnt  Micah,  tiie 
coniempornry  of  Isaiah,  niakf-s  frequent  use  of  them,  so  that 
tliey  an:  no  proof  of  a  recent  date.  Besides,  Is;iinii  liimsidf 
elsewhere  frequently  uses  paronomasia*.  S***?  Isa.  i.  7.  23. 
iii.  1.  5.  vii.  7,  8.  22.  s.  xxix.  10. ;  compare  Hos.  i.  4.  R.  v.  1. 
and  Mic.  i.  14.  s.  iii,  12.  iv.  10. 

(«.)  "Tlie  xxxivtli  rhapter  of  Isaiah,  in  whieli  tiie  drvas- 
tatioii  of  Idumaea  is  predicted,  is  thought  to  be  of  later  origin, 

«  Pi  of.  Turner'!  atiJ  Mr.  VVhialnghain'a  translttion  of  Jalmn  Introduc 
M">a,  pp.  aiO— 300. 


because  the  same  devastation  is  predicted  by  Jeremiah  xHx. 
7.  ss.,  and  by  Ezekiel  xxv.  12.  ss.,  and  after  a  long  time  was 
first  effected  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  which  is  thought  to  be  too 
distant  from  the  time  of  the  prophet.  But  it  has  not  been 
disproved  that  Isaiah  is  speaking,  ch.  xxxiv.,  of  another 
calamity,  to  be  inflicted  on  Iduma?a  by  the  Assyrians,  of 
which  Amos,  ch.  i.  11 — 15.,  had  spoken  before  him. 

(y.)  "The  xxxvtli  chapter  of  Isaiah  is  entirely  destitute 
of  any  thing  which  could  give  ccuntenance  to  the  supposition 
of  a  more  recent  origin,  and  ver.  8.  compared  with  2  Kings 
xvii.  25.  proves  it  to  belong  to  the  age  of  Hezekiah."^ 

ii.   Tke  Prophecy  against  Tyre,     Isa.  xxiii. 

"The  prophecy  concerning  the  destruction  of  Tyre  by  the 
Chaldwans,  Isa.  xxiii.,  points  out  its  own  age  in  ver.  13., 
where  the  Chaldaeans  are  said  to  be  a  recent  nation,  to  whom 
a  district  of  countrj'  lying  on  the  Euphrates  had  been  assigned 
by  the  Assyrians,  who  must,  constqiienily,  have  hern  at  thi:; 
time  the  prevailing  power.  For  as  Habakkuk  also,  who 
lived  under  Manasseh,  asserts  (i.  G.)  that  the  Chalda?ans 
were  a  late  people,  who  were  endeavouring  to  possess  them- 
selves of  the  territories  of  others,  it  is  plain  that  the  time  oi 
the  delivery  of  the  prophecy  in  Isa.  xxiii.  could  not  have 
been  far  distant  from  that  of  Habakkuk.  It  is,  indeed, 
uncertain  whether  Isaiah  lived  till  the  reign  of  Manasseh  ; 
but  as  the  Chaldceans  made  frequent  irruptions  out  of  their 
own  settlements  in  the  eastern  and  northern  parts  of  Armenia 
into  the  more  southern  territories,  during  a  long  period  of  ♦•me, 
witliout  doubt  these  incursions  had  beoun  as  early  as  the 
latter  years  of  the  reign  of  Hezekiah,  since  ihe  kingdom  of 
Assyria  was  at  that  time  so  much  weakened  by  the  assassi- 
nation of  Sennacherib  and  the  intestine  tumults  which  follow- 
ed that  event,  as  to  afford  a  sufficient  inducement  for  such 
expeditions. — Without  sufficient  reason  also  is  it  asserted 
that  the  70  years  mentioned  Isa.  xxiii.  10.  are  a  prophetic 
number  taken  from  Jeremiah  xxv.  11,  12.  xxix.  10.,  and  that 
therefore  the  whole  prophecy  must  be  later  than  the  time  of 
Jeremiah.  If  either  of  the  prophets  borrowed  this  number 
from  the  other,  it  is  certainly  more  reasonable  to  conclude 
that  Jeremiah,  who,  we  know,  has  borrowed  from  prophets 
more  ancient  than  him.self,  took  it  from  the  prophecy  of 
Isaiah,  than  that  tlie  anther  of  this  prophecy,  who  every 
where  else  appears  to  rely  solely  upon  liis  own  resourct-s 
was  indebted  for  it  to  Jeremiah.  VVhat  confirms  this  conclu- 
sion is,  that 
in  character 

event  predicted  is  no  objection ;  for  Amos  had  before  the 
time  of  Isaiah,  denounced  the  destruction  of  Tyre.  The 
Chaldaisms,  Isa.  xxiii.  11.  rMv;-a  icir'?,  will  disappear,  if  we 


particular  specifications  of  time  are  altogether 
with  Isaiah  s  manner.     The  distance  of  the 


point  the  words  .t'JJjd  "vsvh,  to  destroy  her  weakened  or  expelled 

iii.  Prophecies  concerning  the  Subversion  of  ihe  Chaldxo- 
Babylonian  Empire,  and  the  rtiiim  of  the  Ihhrcwsfrum  Cap- 
tivity. (Isa.  xiii.  1 — 14.  23.  xxi.  and  xl. — Ixvi.) 

These  predictions,  it  has  been  affirmed,  must  have  been 
written  in  the  time  of  the  Babylonish  captivity,  for  the  fol- 
lowing reasons;  viz. 

(1.)  "  The  dijfcrence  of  style:  for  in  the  last  twenty-seven 
chapters,  the  better  part  of  the  people  is  distinguished  as  the 
servant  or  worshi/)per  nf  Jkhowh,  xli.  8, !).  xiii.  1,  o:c.  xliv.  1. 
xlviii.  12.  20.  xlix.  7.  Iii.  13.,  which  is  not  tiie  ca.se  in  the 
former  part  of  the  book. — Idolatry  is  exposed  to  derision  and 
contempt,  xl.  11',  20.  xliv.  0 — 17.  xlvi.5 — 7.,  an  exhibition  not 
to  be  found  in  tl-.tse  pas.sages  of  the  former  part;  e.g.  ii.  19. 
wherein  idolatrj'  is  reprehen<led. — The  accomplishment  ot 
former  propliecies  is  fr(  quenlly  ndiced,  xli.  21 — 24.  20 — 2!». 
xliv.  G.  s.  xlv.  21.  xlviii.  5.,  which  argues  a  modern  aulh#r, 
and  i.s  not  to  be  found  in  tlie  first  part. — Lastly,  words  and 
phrases  of  frequent  recurrence  in  the  first  part  are  not  dis- 
coverable in  tiie  second."' 

To  tliis  objection  Professor  Jalin  replies,  that  "  the  lan- 
guage, style,  and  composition  are  certainly  not  such  as  nunt 
7icef.'sarily  lie  ri fernil  to  tlie  time  of  the  captivity,  and  could 
not  have  been  prndiiecd  by  Isaiah.  On  the  contrary,  the 
purity  of  the  language,  the  sublimity  of  the  style,  and  the 
elegance  of  the  cnmpositinn,  are  such  as  couhf  not  be  ex- 
pected from  the  leaden  age  of  Hebrew  literature;  but  show 
their  origin  to  have  been  in  the  silver  age.  The  difference 
(/f  style  in  the  two  parts  is  not  greater  than  the  difference  of 
Micah  i. — v.  from  vi.  vii.,  and  is  less  than  that  which  may 
be  observed  in  Hosea  i.  iii.  compared  with  ii.  iv. — xiv.,  or 

a  Jahn'ii  IniroJuclion  by  Prof.  Tumor  ami  Mr.  Whiltinglmin,  pp.  352,  353. 
»  Ibid  p.  yw. 


Skct.  II.  4  4.] 

in  Amos  i. — vi.  compared  with  vii.  viii.,  or  in  the  different 
psahns  of  David.  The  concurrence  of  some  words  or  piirases 
not  to  be  found  in  the  other  -writings  of  the  age  of  Isaiah 
proves  nothing :  for  it  is  not  to  be  expected  that  in  the  small 
remains  of  Hebrew  literature,  all  the  words  and  phrases  of 
any  particular  age  should  repeatedly  occur.  Yet  there  are 
in  the  writings  in  question  exceedingly  few  words  or  phrases 
of  this  kind.^ — On  the  contrary,  the  accustomed  vehemence 
of  Isai.ih,  the  same  dismemberment  of  objects,  and  the  same 
a-Uithesis  between  Jacob  and  Israel,  are  observable  in  both 
parts  of  these  prophecies.  All  the  difference  is,  that  the 
prophet,  who  in  tlie  first  part  was  censuring  wickedness,  in 
the  latter  endeavours  rather  to  teach'  and  console,  as  the  na- 
ture of  his  subject  required  :  yet  even  here  he  sometimes 
inveighs  against  different  vices,  Ivi.  9. — Ivii.  12.  Iviii.  1 — 7. 
^lix.  1 — 8.  ixv.  11 — 14.  If  Isaiah  wrote  these  prophecies  in 
the  litter  years  of  his  life,  it  is  easy  to  conceive  that  the 
prophet,  now  old  (in  the  time  of  Manasseh,  as  appears  from 
every  part  of  these  prophecies),  filled  with  consolatory  pros- 
pects, chose  rather  to  teach  than  to  rebuke  :  but  it  was  pecu- 
liarly proper  for  a  teacher  to  address  the  people  as  the  servant 
of  God,  to  distinguish  the  better  part  of  the  nation,  and  to 
illustrate  the  madness  of  idolatry;  which  last,  however,  he 
had  done  in  the  first  part,  not  only  ch.  ii.  18.  s.,  but  also  ii. 
8.  viii.  19.  21.,  although  with  more  brevity  than  in  the  latter 
part.  The  notice  of  the  fulfilment  of  former  prophecies  was 
espjcially  adapted  to  convey  instruction,  whether  the  author 
refers  to  the  carrjung  away  of  the  ten  tribes,  or  to  the  de- 
liverance of  the  Jews  from  the  Assyrians,  or  to  some  other 
more  ancient  predictions:  this,  therefore,  is  no  proof  of  a 
modern  date.  Such  remarks  do  not  occur  in  the  first  part  of 
the  book,  because  there  the  prophet  neither  teaches  nor  con- 
soles, but  reproves. — The  occurrence  of  certain  phrases  in 
one  part  which  are  not  to  be  found  in  the  other  might 
prove  a  difference  of  authors,  if  the  genius  of  Isaiah  were 
dry  and  barren  ;  but  not  otherwise." 

(2.)  "  The  pari iciilariti/  of  the  prophecies,  and  the  distance 
of  the  events  fi-om  the  time  of  their  prediction. 

"  In  the  age  of  Isaiah  tliere  was  no  Chaldaan  monarchy, 
nor  were  the  Medes  and  Elamites,  who  are  predicted  to  be 
the  destroyers  of  the  Chaldtean  monarchy,  nations  of  any 
celebrity.  From  the  fourteenth  year  of  Hezekiah  to  the 
founding  of  that  monarchy  was^ninety  years :  it  was  one 
hundred  and  fifteen  to  the  birth  of  Cyrus,  who  was  appoints 
ed  general  of  the  Median  army  in  the  one  hundred  and  fifty- 
fiftli  year  after  Hezekiah,  and  it  was  not  until  the  one  hun- 
dred and  seventy-sixth  year  that  he  overthrew  the  Chaldoean 
monarchy.  Yet  our  prophet  so  long  before  sees  Juda;a  and 
Jerusalem  devastated  by  the  Chalda;ans,  xlv.  26- — 23. ;  dis- 
cerns the  kingdom  which  had  brought  such  destruction  upon 
Judcea  verafingr  to  its  ruin,  and  its  enemies  already  rushing 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  ISAIAH. 


205 


from  the  north,  xlii.  14.  xli.  2.  25.;  and  even  designates 
Cyrus  twice  by  his  very  name  as  the  deliverer  of  the  He- 
brows,  xliv.  28.  xlv.  1." 

In  answer  to  this  objection,  it  is  urged  by  Jahn,  that "  the 
particularity  of  the  predictions  to  be  accomplished  at  a  pe- 
riod so  distant  is  indeed  extraordinary  :  but  the  prophet  fre- 
quently recommends  this  very  circumstance  to  the  attention 
of  the  reader  as  something  remarkable ;  whence  it  appears 
that  even  in  his  age  it  seemed  incredible  to  many,  and  there- 
fore the  fact  that  the  remoteness  of  the  fulfilment  is  noticed 
in  these  prophecies  is  a  proof  of  the  antiquity  of  their  au- 
thor.— It  has  already  been  shown  tha|  the  Chaldeans,  Medes 
and  Persians,  or  Elamites,  were  not  in  the  time  of  Isaiah 
such  obscure  nations  as  that  the  prophet,  when  speaking  of 
them,  could  not  have  been  understood  as  far  as  was  neces- 
sary. That  the  prophets  have  sometimes  spoken  of  very  re- 
mote events  has  been  already  proved  by  several  examples, 
some  of  which  were  even  afforded  by  Isaiah  himself :  to 
these  may  be  added,  that  in  this  same  second  part,  Jesus  the 
Messiah  is  predicted,  ch.  lii.  13. — liii.  12.,  a  passage  so 
clear  that  all  attempts  to  explain  it  of  any  other  are  perfectly 
vain  and  fruitless.  Compare  also  ch.  Iv.  1 — 5.  Indeed,  in 
his  very  first  vision,  ch.  vi.,  the  prophet  foresees  the  entire 
devastation  of  Judaa,  and  the  subsequent  restoration.  Lastly, 
the  propagation  of  religion,  predicted  in  the  same  second 

«  In  his  larger  German  Introduction,  Prof.  Jahn  "  declares  that  after  re- 
peated perusals,  lie  can  find  only  two  such  words:  n>'X,  ch.  Ivi.  14.  Lxiii.  1. 
which  occurs  clsewhoro  only  In  Jer.  ii.  SO.  xxviii.  12.  but  yet  is  not  Ara- 
maean ;  and  a''JJO,  which  is  found  in  Isa.  xli.  25.  and  elsewhere  only  in  Jere- 
miah, EzekicI,  Ezra,  and  Neliemiah,  but  which  cannot  be  a  very  modern 

word,  as  it  was  in  use  auioni;  the  Assyrians.     See  Ezck.  xxiii  t>  1-^  23 

Einleit.  .S.  4S5  "    Nutes  of  Pre/.  Turner  and  Mr.  WlUttingham' 

Vol.  II.  2  L 


part,  was  itself  exceedmgly  distant  from  the  end  of  the  Baby 
Ionian  captivity ;  so  that  even  allowing,  for  argument's  sakef 
the  hypothesis  concerning  the  recent  origin  oi  these  prophe- 
cies to  be  correct,  there  will  yet  remain  a  prophecy  verified 
in  a  remote  posterity,  the  Hebrew  people,  and  more  parlicu- 
larly  the  better  part  of  that  people,  being  pointed  out  as  the 
instruments  of  its  completion.— It  is  certainly  true  that  the 
prophet  discerns  the  hostile  kingdom  of  the  ChaldEco-IBaby- 
lonians,  the  cities  of  Jud^a  overthrown,  the  ruins  of  Jerusa- 
lem, and  the  downfall  of  the  {:;halda;an  monarchy,  and 
names  not  only  the  IMedes  and  Elamites,  but  even  Cyrus 
himself.  But  that  Isaiah,  receiving  such  revelations  in  the 
time  of  Hezekiah  or  Manasseh,  might  so  totally  have  lest 
himself  in  the  contemplation  of  a  very  distant  period,  as  to 
forget  the  present  and  write  only  of  the  future,  will  not  be 
denied  by  any  one  who  has  observed  that  Micah,  Joel,  Ha- 
bakkuk,  and  Nahum  are  altogether  conversant  with  far  dis- 
tant ages.  And  Isaiah  himself  warns  his  reader  of  this, 
ch.  xl.  1.  xli.  7.  21.  Ixvi.  9.,  by  the  expression  nw  -icn>,  the 
Lord  will  say.     Compare  Isa.  xliv.  5." 

(3.)  "  The  prophecies  of  events  as  far  as  the  time  of  Cyrus 
are  clear  and  perspicuous ;  hut  those  ii-hich  refer  to  later  times 
are  obscure ,-  hence  it  may  he  concluded  that  the  author  was 
contempoi-ary  with  Cyrus.— For  if  it  had  pleased  God  to  grant 
such  very  clear  prophecies  in  times  so  far  remote,  and'even 
to  reveal  the  name  of  Cyrus;  why  is  it  said,  ch.  xlv.  14., 
that  the  Hebrews,  after  their  return  to  their  country,  should 
participate  in  the  commerce  of  the  Cushites  and  Sabceans, 
when,  as  is  evident  from  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  and  Malachi,  the 
event  was  not  so?  Nor  were  the  great  promises  made,  ch. 
Ix.  6 — 10.,  ever  fulfilled.  The  contemporaries  of  Isaiah 
certainly  never  could  have  been  able  to  discern  that  those 
things  which  were  prophesied  concerning  Cyrus  should  be 
literally  fulfilled,  but  the  others  only  in  part,  and  figuratively." 

To  this  objection  Jahn  answers,  "That  the" prophecies 
relating  to  times  anterior  to  Cyrus  should  be  the  more  per- 
spicuous, but  those  referring  to  mere  distant  periods  the 
more  obscure,  is  not  to  be  wondered  at;  for  in  visions,  as  in 
prospects,  the  more  distant  objects  appear  the  more  indis- 
tinctly marked.  That  the  Cushites  and  Sabfeans  formerly 
carried  on  a  considerable  commerce  and  brought  merchandise 
to  the  Hebrews  even  after  the  captivity,  cannot  be  doubted  : 
nor  were  the  Hebrews  of  that  time  so  universally  poor  as  is 
pretended  ;  for.  Hag-,  i.,  they  built  ceiled  houses,  and  sup- 
plied funds  for  the  building  of  the  temple,  and,  in  the  time 
of  Nehemiah,  even  for  the  fortifications  of  Jerusalem.  Be- 
sides, these  passages  relate  not  so  much  to  commercial  in- 
tercourse with  these  people,  as  to  their  conversion  to  the 
worship  of  the  true  God.  That  not  a  few  of  them  did  em- 
brace Judaism,  and  visit  the  temple  of  Jerusalem,  as  is  pre- 
dicted ch.  Ix.  6—10.,  is  certain  from  Acts  ii.  10,  11.  and 
viii.  27."^ 

3.  Examination  of  the  Question  avhether  Isaiah  was 
THE  Author  of  Chapters  xxxvi. — xxxix.? 

These  "  chapters  agree  verbally  in  most  respects  with 
2  Kings  xvui.  13 — xx.  19. ;  yet  in  some  they  differ.  Thus 
the  song  of  Hezekiah,  Isaiah  xxxviii.  9—20.,  is  wantino-  in 
2  Kings :  on  the  contrary,  the  reconciliation  of  HezelTiah 
Avith  Sennacherib,  2  Kings  xviii.  14 — 16.,  is  wanting  in 
Isaiah.  What  we  read,  2  Kings  xx.  7.  s.,  concerning" the 
lump  of  figs  to  be  placed  upon  the  boil  of  Hezeki-ah,  is,  in 
Isa.  xxxviii.,  introduced  where  it  does  net  belong :  its  natu- 
ral place  would  have  been  after  ver.  6.  There  ar'e  also  some 
other  discrepancies  of  less  moment,  which  it  is  unnecessary 
to  adduce.  From  all  this  it  appears  that  the  text  of  these 
two  passages  is  so  different  and  yet  so  similar,  that  both 
would  seem  to  have  been  taken  from  one  common  source, 
namely,  from  the  history  of  Hezekiah,  which  Isaiah  wrote, 
2  Chron.  xxxii.  32.  The  speeches  of  the  ambassadors  of 
Sennacherib,  of  Hezekiah,  and  of  Isaiah,  and  the  attention 
paid  to  minute  circumstances,  show  that  the  narration  was 
written  by  a  contemporary  witness  who  was  himself  con- 
cerned, as  it  is  certain  that  Isaiah  was,  in  the  transactions 
which  he  has  recorded.  The  words  nn£3  and  nmns  which 
occur  in  the  narration,  are  not  more  recent  than  the  time  of 
Isaiah,  and  even  if  mo  were  of  Aramaan  origin,  that  would 
not  be  a  proof  of  a  modern  date,  since  some  exotic  words 
had  already  been  introduced  into  the  Hebrew  languao-e,  in 
the  time  of  Isaiah,  as  may  be  observed  in  the  writings  of 
Hosea  and  Amos.  The  word  n>-nn'  has  not  in  this  ''place 
the  signification  which  it  acquired  after  the  captivity,  but 

3  Jahn's  Introduction  by  Prof.  Turner  and  Mr.  Whittingham.  pp.  355 
— 3oo. 


266 


ANALYSIS  OP  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  V.  Chap.  IV 


designates  the  HoLrew  lanoiinnfo,  which  at  that  time  flourish- 
ed only  ill  the  kingdom  of  Judah."' 

III. The  Scope  of  Isaiah's  predictions  is  three-fold;  viz. 

1.  To  dfttcf,  reprove,  and  condemn  the  sins  of  the  Jewish 
people  especiuUy,  and  also  the  iniquities  of  the  ten  tribes  of 
Israel,  and  the  abominations  of  many  Gentile  nations  and 
countries;  denouncin;^  the  severest  judgments  against  all 
sorts  and  degrees  of  persons,  whether  Jews  or  Gentiles. 

2.  To  invite  persons  of  every  rank  and  condition,  both  Jews 
and  Gentiles,  to  repentance  and  reformation,  by  numerous 
promises  of  pardon  and  mercy.  It  is  worthy  of  remark  that 
no  such  promises  are  intermingled  with  the  denunciations 
of  divine  vengeance  against  Babylon,  although  they  occur 
in  the  threalenings  against  every  other  people. 

3.  To  comfort  a'l  t lie  trull/ pious  (in  the  midst  of  all  the 
calamities  and  judgments  denounced  against  the  wicked) 
with  prophetic  promises  of  the  true  Messiah.^  These  pre- 
dictions "seem  almost  to  anticipate  the  Gospel  history,  so 
clearly  do  they  foreshow  the  divine  character  of  Christ  (ch. 
vii.  11.  compared  with  Matt.  i.  18 — 23.  and  Lukei.  27 — 35. ; 
vi.  ix.  6.  XXXV.  1.  xl.  5.  'J,  10.  xlii.  G — 8.  Ixi.  1.  compared 
with  Luke  iv.  18.  Ixii.  11.  Ixiii.  1 — -1.) ;  his  miracles  (ch. 
XXXV.  5,  G.) ;  his  peculiar  qualities  and  virtues  (ch.  ix.  2,  3. 
xl.  11.  xliii.  1 — 3.);  his  rejection  (ch.vt.  9 — 1«-  viii.  11,  15. 
liii.  3.);  and  sufferings  for  our  sins  (ch.  1.  6.  liii.  4 — II.;)'* 
his  death,  burial  (oh.  liii.  8,  9.),  and  victory  over  death  (ch. 
XXV.  8.  liii.  10 — 12.)  ;  and,  lastly,  his  final  glory  (ch.  xlix. 
7.  22,  23.  lii.  13 — 15.  liii.  4,  5".),  and  the  establishment, 
increase  (ch.  ii.  2 — 4.  ix.  7.  xlii.  4.  xlvi.  13.),  and  perfec- 
tion (ch.  ix.  2.  7.  xi.  4 — 10.  xvi.  5.  xxix.  18 — 24.  xxxii.  1. 
xl.  4,  5.  xlix.  9—13.  li.  3—6.  lii.  G— 10.  Iv.  1—3.  lix. 
IG — 21.  Ix.  Ixi.  1 — 5.  Ixv.  25.)  of  his  kingdom  ;  each  speci- 
fically pointed  out,  and  portrayed  with  the  most  striking 
and  discriminating  characters.  It  is  impossible,  indeed,  to 
reflect  on  these,  and  on  the  whole  chain  of  his  illustrious 
nrophecies,  and  not  to  be  sensible  that  they  furnish  tjie  most 
mcontestable  evidence  in  siipport  of  Christianity."* 

IV.  The  predictions  of  Isaiah  are  contained  in  sixty-six 
chapters ;  of  which  the  five  first  are  generally  supposed  to 
have  been  delivered  in  the  reign  of  IJzziah  :  the  sixth  in  the 
reign  of  Jotliam;  the  seventh  to  the  fifteenth  in  the  reign 
of  Ahaz;  and  tlic  remainder  in  that  of  Hezekiah.  Various 
modes  of  classifying  them  have  been  proposed,  in  order  to 
jiri'sent  them  in  the  most  useful  and  lucid  arrangement ;  some 
commentators  and  critics  dividing  them  into  itiree  parts : — 

1.  Evangflic(i-Lc;^ul,  which  contain  denunciations  of  the 
divine  vengeance,  intermixed  with  evangelical  promises  ; — 

2.  /littorical,  comprising  the  narrative  part; — and,  3.  Evan- 
gelical, comprising  prophecies  and  promises  relative  to  the 
deliverance  of  the  Jews  from  captivity,  and  the  yet  greater 
deliverance  of  mankind  from  the  bondage  of  sin,  by  the 
Messiah,  liy  other  writers,  the  book  of  the  prophet  Isaiah 
is  divided  into, — 1.  lieprehenfori/,  including  sharp  reproofs 
and  threatenings  of  the  Jews  for  their  sins,  in  which  are 
mingled  promises  to  the  penitent; — 2.  Minatory,  containing 
threatenings  agaiRSl  the  enemies  of  the  Jewish  church,  and 
also  against  the  Jews  themselves; — 3.  Narrative  or  Jlitfori- 
cal ; — »nd,  4.  Consolatory  and  evangelical  promises  concern- 
ing Messiah  and  the  church.  Other  clashifications  have 
been  proposed,  which  it  is  not  necessary  to  specify ;  but, 
without  adopting  any  of  them,  we  apprehend  that  the  fnilow- 
ing  synopsis  will  be  found  to  exhibit  a  clear  view  of  the 
various  topics  discussed  by  the  royal  prophet.  The  predic- 
tions of  Isaiah,  then,  may  be  dividtd  into  six  parts,  each 
containing  a  number  of  discourses,  delivired  by  thr  pniphct 
to  the  various  nations  or  people  whom  he  was  commissioned 
to  address.* 

«  Jahn's  Introiliirlion,  p  3."0.  Uistiop  I.owtli  consi-lcrB  Uip  iiarr.ilivp- 
cViaplers  in  Isaiuh  u  a  ilincrpiil  copy  of  ihc  rt-lalion  in  llie  Bpronil  Itook  of 
Kiogs,  the  accouni  of  Hezcktali'B  glrkneRK  only  cxccptcil.  Tlic  dllTercncp 
of  tlie  two  copii'S,  lie  ix  of  opinion,  Is  liUle  more  lliuii  wliiil  lian  niunifi-slly 
aiisen  froiri  llie  iiiislaltc.'J  of  iruiiMcrilurd :  lliry  inuliiiilly  rorrri-t  rarti 
other  ;  and  nioHt  of  tlic  inislukcs  may  lie  prrfi-clly  rcclifn-ij  by  a  rollalion 
of  Iho  two  copicH  with  lh<;  nHHi.stnnrc  of  the  ftncioiil  vfrHioiin.  Sdmr'  fow 
sonli-ncK,  or  iiicinbcri)  of  SfMilonrc.i,  aro  omittoil  in  IhiB  copy  of  iKniuli, 
wliich  are  found  in  tho  othiT  copy  of  the  linok  of  Kingx  ;  but  lie  dunblg 
whether  lUme  omis-siona  were  made  by  dcaign  or  by  iniatako.     Isaiah, 

vol.  li.  p.  zrr. 

»  Thi-  xrcipp  of  Isaiali'ii  projiliccicB  above  given  la  abridged  from  Ko- 
licrlii's  ('Uwin  Ilibliiiruiri,  p.  610. 

•  The  Klhi"pian  cnnnrli  appears  to  have  lic<'n  made  a  propolyte  by  faint 
riiili[>'ii  eji|i|iraliiin  of  this  chapter.  Vide  Artu  x'lii.  IR.'.  Tlie  whole  of  it  la 
KO  minutely  descriptive  of  Clirml'B  pasHion,  that  a  fainoim  lUbbi,  likewine, 
on  rcutinff  It,  waa  converted  from  Judaism. — Who,  indeed,  can  resist  Its 
evidence  7 

4  fJray'a  Key,  pi).  369,  370. 

»  These  ceneral  diviitions  of  the  prophecy  arc  arcordine  to  the  acliemc 
proposed  by  Vitringa  (C'ummcrit.  in  Ciaiain,  toD>.  1.  p.  M  )  and  Uishop 


P.\RT  I.  contains  a  general  JJcscripfion  of  the  Estate  and  Con- 
dition  of  the  Jews,  in  the  several  Periods  of  their  History ; 
the  Promulgation  and  Success  of  the  Gospel  and  the  Comiiig 
of  Messiah  to  Judgment,  (ch.  i. — v.) — The  Predictions  in 
this  Section  were  delivered  during  the  Reign  of  Uzziuh  King 
of  Judah. 

Di.scoun.sE  1.  (ch.  i.  throughout.)  The  prophecy  contained  in 
this  first  chapter^  stands  single  and  unconnected,  constituting 
an  entire  piece  of  itself.  If,  as  wc  suppose  to  have  been  the 
case,  it  was  delivered  in  the  reign  of  Uzziah,  the  desolation 
which  it  describes  may  refer  to  the  calamities  which  were 
occasioned  before  that  time  by  Jehoash  king  of  Israel  (compare 
2  Kings  xiv.  12 — 14.)  ;  or,  the  prophet  may  describe  scenes  yet 
future,  as  already  passing  before  his  ej'es,  to  denote  their  cer- 
taint)'.  As,  however,  the  portrait,  which  it  presents  of  thA 
desolate  and  distressed  slate  of  the  land  of  Judah,  agrees  mucn 
belter  with  the  wicked  and  afllicted  reign  of  the  apostate  Ahaz, 
than  with  the  flourishing  circumstances  in  the  reigns  of  Uzziah 
and  Jotham  (who  were  both,  in  the  main,  good  princes)  :  on 
this  account  the  learned  Dr.  John  Taylor  thinks  it  probable 
that  the  prediction  in  this  chapter  was  uttered  in  the  reign  of 
Ahaz.  and  intends  the  invasion  of  Judah  by  Resin  and  Pekah, 
kings  of  Syria  and  Israel."  But  whiclievcr  of  thene  conjec- 
tures may  be  preferred,  the  chapter  contains  a  severe  remon- 
strance against  the  inclinations  to  idolatry,  want  of  inward 
piety,  and  other  corruptions,  prevailing  among  the  Jews  of 
that  time,  intermixed  with  powerful  exhortations  to  repentance, 
grievous  threatenings  to  the  impenitent,  and  gracious  promises 
of  better  times,  when  the  n.ation  Khali  have  been  reformed  by 
the  just  judgments  of  God.  The  whole  of  this  discourse  affords 
a  beautiful  example  of  the  prophet's  elegant  and  impressive 
manner  of  writing. 

DiscounsE  2.  (ch.  ii.  iii.  iv.)  contains  the  following  particulars  : — 

1.  The  kingdom  of  Messiali,  tlie  coiivcrsiun  of  the  Geutile.^  and  their 
admission  into  it.  (ii.  1— o.) 

2.  A  prediction  of  the  pimi.shment  of  the  unbplicvins  Jew.'-,  for  thoir 
idolatrous  practicciJ,  fur  their  confidence  in  their  own  sirencth,  and 
distrust  of  God's  protection;  and  likewise  the  deslruciion  of  i>;oIairy, 
in  conseiiuonce  of  the  eslalilishmciit  of  .Messi«li's  kinciiom.  (ii.  0— '.A).) 

3.  .\  prophecy  of  calamities  of  the  Unliylonian  invasion  (perhaps  also 
of  the  invasion  by  the  Komans),  with  a  particular  nuipliticaiion  of  the 
distress  of  llie  proud  niid  luxurious  daughters  of  !5ion.(ii.  1 — 20. •  iv.  1.) 

4.  A  promise  to  the  remnant  that  should  escape  this  Bevcre  purfialion, 
of  a  restoration  to  thefavo«rand  protection  of  God.  (iv.  2 — G.) 

This  prophetic  sermon  was  probably  delivered  in  the  time  of 
Jotham,  or  perhaps  in  the  reign  of  Uzziah. 
DiscoL'iisE  3.  ch.  V.     This  chapter  likewise  stands  single  and 
alone,  unconnected  with  tlie  preceding  or  following  :  its  sub- 
ject is  nearly  the  same  with  that  of  ch.  i.,  but  it  exceeds  that 
chapter  in  force,  in  severity,  in  variety,  and  elegance.     It  is  a 
general  reproof  of  the  Jews  for  their  wickedness,  which  is  re- 
presented in  the  parable  of  tlie  vineyard  (verses  1 — 5.)  ;  and  it 
-adds  a  more  express  declaration  of  vengeance  by  the  liabylo- 
nian  invasion,  (verses  6 — 30.) 

Part  II.  comprises  the  Predictions  delivered  i?J  the  Ecigns  of 
Jotham  and  Ahaz,  (ch.  vi. — xii.) 

DiscovnsE  1.  The  vision  and  prophecy  of  Isaiah  in  the  reign 
of  Jolham.  (ch.  vi.)'-'  As  this  vLsion  socins  to  contain  a  solemn 
designation  of  Isaiah  to  the  prophetical  olhce,  it  is  supjHJscd 
by  many  interpreters  to  be  the  fir.'^t  in  order  of  his  propiiccies 
Bishop  Lowth.  however,  conjectures  that  this  may  not  be  the 
case,  bccauie  Isaiah  is  tuid,  in  the  general  title  of  hi.s  predic- 
tions, to  have  prophesied  in  the  time  of  Uzziah ;  and  is  of 
opinion,  tliat  it  is  a  new  designation,  to  introduce,  with  tho 
greater  solemnity,  a  general  declaration  of  tlio  whole  courso 

Tomlinc.  (Elements  of  Christ.  Theol.  vol  i.  p.  1(17.)  In  the  nnalyris  of 
the  various  disconr-xen,  or  prophetic  sermons  comprised  under  each  sec- 
111  II,  we  have  principally  followeil  Kisiiop  I.owtli,  iu  his  admirable  transla- 
tion of,  and  imii'.^  upon,  the  prophet  Irniuli. 

«  Comiiienlator*  arc  divided  in  opinion,  wliellier  the  title  In  verse  1.  (,lh» 
vinion  of  Isaiiih)  belonxn  to  the  whole  book,  or  only  to  the  prophecy  con- 
tained i.-i  this  chapter.  The  foriiii-i  part  of  Ihc  title  sceiiiB  properly  to  be- 
long to  this  particiiliir  prophicy  ;  the  latter  part,  which  enuiiierales  the 
kincs  of  Jud.ih,  under  wlmm  Isaiah  exercised  his  prophetic  ofTice,  seems 
to  extend  it  to  the  entire  collection  of  prophecies  delivered  in  the  courso 
of  his  ministry.  Vitringa  (with  whom  llishop  Ixiwth  agrees)  has  solved 
this  doulil  very  judiciously.  He  supposes  that  the  loriner  part  of  Ihc  title 
was  originally  prefixed  to'lhls  single  prophecy  ;  and  Ihnt,  when  the  collec- 
tion of  all  Isaiah's  prophecies  was  made,  the  enumeralion  of  the  kiiigonf 
.Itiduii  was  adiled,  to  make  it  at  t!ic  same  lime  a  projier  liile  to  the  wholo 
book.  As  such  it  it)  plainly  taken  in  2(Jliron.  x.vxii.  32.  where  the  bi  ok  of 
Isaiah  Is  cited  by  the  Ulle  of  "The  Vision  of  Isaiah  the  Prophet,  the  S<.n  of 
I  Amos."  VilrinL'n,  torn.  I.  pp.  25—29.  Uishop  l^owtli's  Isaiah,  vol  ii  p  4. 
'  .Scheme  of  Scripture  iVivinity,  chap,  xxxiv.  in  vol.  i.  of  Uishop  Waison'a 
Collection  of  TracMs,  pp   11.3,  111. 

•  Hce  a  striking  inedallic  illiirtralion  of  laa.  lii.S6.  In  Vol.  I.  p.  01. 

•  Kor  a  particular  ehiciilallnn  of  this  sublime  vision,  sec  flp.  I-owih'a 
Isaiah,  vol.  II.  pp.  72—77.  and  l)r.  Ilalcs'a  Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  II. 
book  I.  pJ3C.  tlteq. 


Sect.  II.  §  4.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  ISAUH. 


of  God's  dispensations  towards  his  people,  and  the  fates  of  the 
nation, — events  which  are  still  depending,  and  will  not  be  fully 
accomplished  until  the  final  restoration  of  Israel. 

Discourse  2.  (ch.  vii. — ix.  7.)  commences  with  an  historical 
account  of  the  occasion  of  the  prophecy  (vii.  1 — 3.),  and  then 
follows  a  prediction  of  the  ill  success  of  the  designs  of  the 
Israelites  and  Syrians  against  Judah  (vii.  1 — 16.)  ;  to  this 
succeeds  the  denunciation  of  the  calamities  that  were  to  be 
brouglit  upon  the  king  and  people  of  Judah  by  the  Assyrians, 
whom  they  had  now  hired  to  assist  them.  (vii.  17 — 25.) 
Those  predictions  are  repeated  and  confirmed  in  ch.  viii.,  the 
ninth  and  tenth  verses  of  which  give  a  repeated  general  assu- 

.  ranee  that  all  the  designs  of  the  enemies  of  God's  people  shall 
ultimately  be  frustrated ;  and  the  discourse  concludes,  after 
various  admonitions  and  threatenings  (viii.  11 — 22.  ix.  1.), 
with  an  illustrious  prophecy  (ix.  2 — 7.),  in  the  first  instance, 
perhaps,  of  the  restoration  of  prosperity  under  Hezekiah,  but 
principally  of  the  manifestation  of  the  Messiah,  the  transcen- 
dent dignity  of  his  character,  and  the  universality  and  eternal 
duration  of  his  kingdom. 

DiscocnsE  3.  (ch.  ix.  8. — x.  4.)  contains  a  distinct  prophecy 
and  a  just  poem,  remarkable  for  the  regularity  of  its  disposi- 
tion and  the  elegance  of  its  plan.  It  has  no  relation  to  the 
preceding  or  to  the  following  prophecy,  but  is  exclusively  ad- 
dressed to  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  and  its  subject  is  a  denunci- 
ation of  vengeance  awaiting  their  enemies. 

Discourse  4.  (ch,  x.  5.  xii.)  foretells  the  invasion  of  Senna- 
cherib, and  the  destruction  of  his  army  (x.  5 — 34.  xi.)  ;  and, 
according  to  Isaiah's  usual  method,  he  takes  occasion,  from  the 
mention  of  a  great  temporal  deliverance  by  the  destruction  of 
the  Assyrian  host,  to  launch  forth  into  a  display  of  the  spirit- 
ual deliverance  of  God's  people  by  the  Messiah,  to  whom  this 
.  prophecy  relates  ;  for  that  this  prophecy  relates  to  the  Messiah 
we  have  the  express  authority  of  St.  Paul  in  Rom.  xv.  12. 
The  hymn  in  ch.  xii.  seems,  by  its  whole  tenor,  as  well  as  by 
many  of  its  expressions,  much  better  calculated  for  the  use  of 
the  Christian  than  for  the  Jewish  church  under  any  circum- 
stances, or  at  any  time  that  can  be  assigned ;  and  the  Jews 
themselves  seem  to  have  applied  it  to  the  times  of  the  Mes- 
siah. 

Part  III.  contains  various  Predictions  against  the  Babylonians, 
./Assyrians,  Fhillstines,  and  other  I\'utions  with  whom  the 
Jews  had  any  intercourse  (ch.  xiii. — xxii.) ;  these  Predic- 
tions arc  contained  in  nine  Prophetic  Poems  or  Discourses. 

Discourse  1.  (ch.  xiii.  xiv.  1 — 28.)  contains  one  entire  prophecy, 
foretelling  the  destruction  of  Babylon  by  the  Medes  and  Per- 
sians :  it  was  probably  delivered  in  the  reign  of  Ahaz,  about 
two  hundred  years  before  its  completion.  The  captivity  itself 
of  the  Jews  at  Babylon  (which  tlie  prophet  does  not  expressly 
foretell,  but  supposes  in  the  spirit  of  prophecy  as  what  was 
actually  to  be  eft'ected),  did  not  take  place  till  about  one  hun- 
dred and  thirty  years  after  this  prediction  was  delivered.  And 
the  Medes,  who  (in  xiii.  7.)  are  expressly  mentioned  as  the 
principal  agents  in  subverting  this  great  monarchy,  and  re- 
leasing the  Jews  from  that  captivity,  were  at  this  time  an 
inconsiderable  people,  having  been  in  a  state  of  anarchy  ever 
since  the  fall  of  the  great  Assyrian  empire,  of  which  they  had 
made  a  part  under  Sardanapalus ;  and  did  not  become  a  king- 
dom under  Deioces,  until  about  the  seventeenth  year  of  Hcze- 
kiah's  reign.  The  former  part  of  this  prophecy,  Bishop  Lowth 
remarks,  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  examples  that  can  be 
given  of  elegance  of  composition,  variety  of  imagery,  and  sub- 
limity of  sentiment  and  diction  in  the  prophetic  style  ;  and  the 
latter  part  consists  of  a  triumphal  ode,  which,  for  beauty  of 
disposition,  strength  of  colour,  grandeiu  of  sentiment,  brevity, 
perspicuity,  and  force  of  expression,  stands  unrivalled  among 
all  the  monuments  of  antiquity.  The  exact  accomplishment 
of  this  prophecy  is  recorded  in  Dan.  v,  Jerome  {in  loc.)  says, 
that,  in  his  time,  Babylon  was  quite  in  ruins  ;  and  all  modern 
travellers  unanimously  attest  that  Babylon  is  so  utterly  anni- 
hilated, that  even  the  place,  where  this  wonder  of  the  world 
once  stood,  cannot  now  be  determined  with  any  certainty. 
On  the  subject  of  this  prophecy,  see  Vol.  I.  p.  126. 

Discourse  2.  (ch.  xiv.  29 — 32.)  contains  severe  prophetic  de- 
nunciations against  the  Philistines,  the  accomplishment  of 
which  is  recorded  in  2  Kings  xviii.  8. 

Discourse  3.  (ch.  xv.  xvi.)  is  a  prophecy  against  the  Moabites ; 
it  was  delivered  soon  after  the  preceding,  in  the  first  year  of 
Hezekiah,  and  it  was  accomplished  in  his  fourth  year  when 
Shalmaneser  invaded  the  kingdom  of  Israel.  He  might,  pro- 
bably, march  through  Moab ;  and,  to  secure  eve.y  thing  be- 


267 

hind  him,  possess  himself  of  their  whole  country,  by  taking 
their  principal  strong  places.  Jeremiah,  says  Bishop  Lowth, 
has  happily  introduced  much  of  this  prophecy  of  Isaiah  into 
his  own  larger  prophecy  against  the  same  people  in  his  forty 
eighth  chapter ;  denouncing  God's  judgments  on  Moab  subse- 
quent to  the  calamity  here  foretold,  and  to  be  executed  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  by  which  means  several  mistakes  in  the  text 
of  both  prophets  may  be  rectified. 

Discourse  4.  (ch.  xvii.)  is  a  prophecy  chiefly  directed  against 
Damascus  or  the  kingdom  of  Syria,  with  whose  sovereign  the 
king  of  Samaria  (or  Israel)  had  confederated  against  the'king- 
do-m  of  Judah.  Bishop  Lowth  conjectures  that  it  was  de- 
livered, soon  after  the  prophecies  of  the  seventh  and  eighth 
chapters,  in  the  commencement  of  Ahab's  reign.  It  was  ful- 
filled by  Tiglath-Pilescr's  taking  Damascus  (2  Kings  xvi.  9.), 
overrunning  a  very  considerable  part  of  the  kingdom  of 
Israel,  and  carrj-ing  a  great  number  of  the  Israelites  also  cap- 
tives  into  Assyria  ;  and  still  more  fully  in  regard  to  Israel,  by 
the  conquest  of  the  kingdom,  and  the  captivity  of  the  people, 
effected  a  few  years  after  by  Shalmaneser.  The  three  last 
verses  of  this  chapter  seem  to  have  no  relation  to  the  prophecy 
to  which  they  are  joined  :  they  contain  a  noble  description  of 
the  formidable  invasion  and  sudden  overthrow  of  Sennacherib, 
which  is  intimated  in  the  strongest  terms  and  most  expressive 
imager),  exactly  suitable  to  the  event. 

Discourse  5.  (ch.  xviii.)  contains  one  of  the  most  obscure  pro- 
phecies in  the  whole  book  of  Isaiah.  Vitringa  considers  it  as 
directed  against  the  Assyrians;  Bishop  Lowth  refers  it  to  the 
Egj'ptians ;  and  Rosenmiiller,  and  others,  to  the  Ethiopians. 

Discourse  6.  (ch.  xix.  xx.)  is  a  prophecy  against  Egj'pt,  the 
conversion  of  whose  inhabitants  to  the  true  religion'is  inti- 
mated in  verses  18 — 25.  of  ch.  xix. 

Discourse  7.  (ch.  xxi.  1 — 10.)  contains  a  prediction  of  the 
^  taking  of  Babylon'  by  the  Medes  and  Persians.  "  It  is  a  pas- 
*  sage  singular  in  its  kind  for  its  brevity  and  force,  for  the  variety 
and  rapidity  of  the  movements,  and  for  the  strength  and  energy 
of  colouring  with  which  the  action  and  event  are  painted." 
The  eleventh  and  twelfth  verses  of  this  chapter  contain  a  pro- 
phecy concerning  Dumah  or  Idumaca,  the  land  of  the  Edom- 
itcs.  Mount  Seir ;  which,  from  the  uncertainty  of  the  occasion 
on  which  it  was  delivered,  as  well  as  from  the  brevity  of  the 
expression,  is  very  obscure.  The  five  last  versos  comprise  a 
prophecy  respecting  Arabia,  which  was  fulfilled  within  a  year 
after  its  delivery. 

Discourse  8.  (ch.  xxii.)  is  a  prophecy  concerning  the  capture 
of  the  Valley  of  A'ision,  or  Jerusalem  (verses  1 — 14.),  the 
captivity  of  Shebna  (15 — 19.),  and  the  promotion  of  Eliakim. 
(20 — 24.)  The  invasion  of  Jerusalem  here  announced  ia 
either  that  by  the  Assyrians  under  Sennacherib;  or  by  tho 
Chaldffians  under  Nebuchadnezzar.  Vitringa  is  of  opinion 
that  the  prophet  had  both  in  view;  viz.  the  invasion  of  th» 
Chaldaeans  in  verses  1 — 5.  and  that  of  the  Assyrians  in  verscj 
8 — 11.  Compare  2  Kings  xxv.  4,  5.  and  2  Chron.  xxxii.  2 — 5. 

Discourse  9.  (ch.  xxiii.)  denounces  the  destruction  of  Tyre  by 
Nebuchadnezzar2  (1 — 17.),  the  restoration  of  its  prosperity, 
and  the  conversion  of  the  Tyrians,  Accordingly  a  Christian 
church  was  early  formed  at  Tyre,  which  became  a  kind  of 
mother-church  to  several  others,  which  were  connected  with 
it.     See  Acts  xxi.  1 — 6.^ 

Part  IV.  contains  a  Prophecy  of  the  great  Calamities  that 
should  befall  the  People  of  God,  His  merciful  Preservation 
of  a  Remnant  of  them,  and  of  their  Restoration  to  their 
Country,  of  their  Conversion  to  the  Gospel,  and  the  Destruc 
tion  of  Antichrist,  (ch.  xxiv. — xxxv.) 

Discourse  1.  (ch.  xxiv.  xxv.  xxvi.)  was  probably  delivered  be* 
fore  the  destruction  of  Moab  by  Shalmaneser,  in  the  begin- 
ning of  Hezekiah's  reign ;  but  interpreters  are  not  agreed 
whether  the  desolation  announced  in  ch.  xxiv.  was  that  caused 
by  the  invasion  of  Shalmaneser,  the  invasion  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, or  the  destruction  of  the  city  and  nation  by  the  Romans. 
Vitringa  is  singular  in  referring  it  to  the  persecution  by  An- 
tiochus  Epiphanes ;  and  Bishop  Lowth  thinks  it  may  have  a 
view  to  all  the  three  great  desolations  of  the  country,  especially 
to  the  last.  In  verses  21 — 23.  it  is  announced  that  God  shall 
at  length  revisit  and  restore  his  people  in  the  last  age ;  and 

«  Bishop  Newton  has  collected  and  illustrated  the  various  predictions  of 
Isaiah  and  other  prophets  against  Babylon.  See  his  Dissertation  on  the 
Prophecies,  vol.  i.  diss.  ix.    See  also  Vol.  I.  p.  126.  supra. 

''■  On  the  accomplishment  of  the  various  prophecies  against  Tyre,  see 
Bishop  Newton's  Dissertations,  vol.  i.  diss.  .^i.  See  also  Vol.  I.  pp.  134,  125. 

'  Scott,  on  Isa.  xiiii.  18. 


268 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[PiHT  V.  Chap.  IV 


then  the  kingdom  of  God  shall  oe  established  in  such  perfec- 
tion as  wholly  to  obscure  and  eclipse  the  glory  of  the  tempo- 
rary, typical,  preparatory  kingdom  now  subsisting.  On  a  re- 
view of  this  extensive  scene  of  God's  providence  in  all  its 
parts,  the  prophet  breaks  out  into  a  sublime  and  beautiful  song 
of  praise,  in  which  his  mind  seems  to  be  more  possessed  by  the 
prospect  of  future  mercies  than  by  the  recollection  of  past 
events  (xxv.) ;  this  is  followed  by  another  hymn  in  ch.  xxvi. 
In  verse  19.  the  deliverance  of  the  people  of  God  from  a  state 
of  the  lowest  misery  is  explained  by  images  plainly  taken  from 
the  resurrection  of  the  dead. 

PrscouRSE  2.  (ch.  xxvii.)  treats  on  the  nature,  measure,  and 
design  of  God's  dealings  with  his  people. 

Dkcoi  USE  3.  (ch.  xxviii.)  contains  a  prophecy  directed  both  to 
the  Israelites  and  to  the  Jews.  The  destruction  of  the  former 
by  Shamianeser  is  manifestly  denounced  in  verses  1 — 5. ;  and 
the  prophecy  "  then  turns  to  the  two  tribes  of  Judah  and  Ben- 
jamin, the  remnant  of  God's  people,  who  were  to  continue  a 
kingdom  after  the  final  captivity  of  the  Israelites.  It  com- 
mences with  a  favourable  prognostication  of  their  affairs  under 
Hezekiah;  but  soon  changes  to  reproofs  and  thrcatenings  for 
their  disobedience  and  profancness."'  In  verses  23 — 29.  the 
wisdom  of  Providence  is  illustrated  by  the  discretion  of  the 
husbandman. 

O.stounsL  4.  (ch.  xxix. — xxxiii.)  predicts  the  invasion  of  Sen- 
nacherib, the  great  distress  of  the  Jews  while  it  continued 
(xxix.  1 — 4.),  and  their  sudden  and  immediate  deliverance  by 
God's  interposition  in  their  favour ;  and  the  subsequent  pros- 
perous stixte  of  the  kingdom  under  Hezekiah ;  interspersed 
with  severe  reproofs  and  threata  of  punishment  for  their 
hypocrisy,  stupidity,  infidelity,  their  want  of  trust  in  God,  and 
their  vain  reliance  on  assistance  from  Egypt;  and  with  pro- 
mises of  better  times  both  immediately  to  succeed  and  to  be 
expected  in  the  future  age.  (18 — 24.  xxx. — xxxiii.) 

DiscouHsK  5.  (ch.  xxxiv.  xxxv.)  makes  one  distinct  prophecy, 
an  entire,  regular,  and  beautiful  poem,  consisting  of  two  parts ; 
the  first  containing  a  denunciation  of  the  divine  vengeance 
against  the  enemies  of  the  people  or  church  of  God ;  the  se- 
cond part  describing  the  flourishing  state  of  the  church  of 
God  consequent  upon  the  execution  of  tliosc  judgments.  It  is 
plain  from  every  part  of  it,  that  this  chapter  is  to  be  undenstood 
of  Gosjjel  times.  The  lifth  and  sixth  verses  of  ch.  xxxv.  were 
literally  accomplished  by  our  Saviour  and  his  apostles.2  In  a 
secondary  sense,  Bishop  Lowth  remarks,  they  may  have  a  fur- 
ther view  ;  and,  running  parallel  with  the  former  part  of  the 
proj)liecy,  may  relate  to  the  future  advent  of  Christ,  to  the  con- 
version of  the  Jews,  and  their  restoration  to  their  own  land ; 
and  to  the  extension  and  purification  of  the  Christian  faith; — 
cventB  predicted  in  the  Holy  Scriptures  as  preparatory  to  it. 

Part  V.  comprises  the  Historical  Part  of  the  Prophecy  of 
Isaiah. 

Ch.  xxxvL  relates  the  history  of  the  invasion  of  Sennacherib, 
and  of  the  miraculous  destruction  of  his  army,  as  a  proper  in- 
troduction to  ch.  X xxvii.,  which  contains  the  answer  of  God  to 
Hezckiah's  j)rayer,  that  could  not  be  properly  understood  with- 
out it.  On  the  subject  of  these  chapters,  see  p.  205.  supra. 
Ch.  xxxviii.  and  xxxix.  relate  Hezckiah's  sickness  and  reco- 
very, and  his  thanksgiving  for  re^<toration  to  health,  together 
with  the  embassy  of  the  king  of  Babylon. 

Part  VL  (ch.  xL — Ixvi.)  comprises  a  series  of  Prophecies,  deli- 
vered, in  all prohahilili/,  lowurdi  the  clo.ieofIIezek'ah\i  Ri:ii;n. 

This  portion  of  Isaiah's  predictions  constitutes  the  most  elegant 
part  of  the  sacred  writings  of  the  Old  Testament.  "The 
chief  subject  is  the  restoration  of  the  church,  'i'his  is  pursued 
with  the  greatest  regularity  ;  conUiining  the  deliverance  of  the 
Jews  from  captivity — the  vanity  and  destruction  of  idols — tlie 
vindication  of  the  divine  power  and  truth — consolations  and 
invitations  to  the  Jews — denunciations  a^^ainst  llieni  for  their 
infidelity  and  iminety — their  rejection,  and  the  callinDj  of  the 
Gentiles — the  happiness  of  the  righteous  ami  the  final  destruc- 
tion of  the  wicked.  But,  as  the  suliji-ct  of  this  very  Iteautiful 
series  of  prophecies  is  chiefly  of  the  consolatory  kind,  they  are 
introduced  with  a  jjromisc  of  the  restoration  of  the  kingdom, 
and  the  return  from  the  Babylonian  captivity,  throni,'h  the 
merciful  interfiosition  of  God.  At  the  same  time,  this  rrdenij)- 
tion  from  Babylon  is  employed  as  an  image  to  sliadow  duI  a 
redemption  of  an  infinitely  higher  and  more  important  nature.^ 

•  Hmiib's  Summary  View  of  the  Prophets,  i>.  W. 

»  (oii.paro  Mau.  x\.  5.  xv.  30.  xxi.  11.  Jolin  v.  8,  9.   Acts  iii.  J.  viii.  7. 

«lv.  K— 1ft. 

»  Suiitli's  iiuiiitnary  View  of  the  Prophets,  p.  (W. 


The  prophet,  Bishop  Lowth  remarks,  connects  these  two  events 
together,  scarcely  ever  treating  of  the  former  without  throwing 
in  some  intimations  of  the  latter  ;  and  sometimes  he  is  so  fully 
possessed  with  the  glories  of  the  future  more  remote  kingdom 
of  the  Messiah,  that  he  seems  to  leave  the  immediate  subject 
of  his  commission  almost  out  of  the  question.  This  part  con- 
sists of  twelve  prophetic  poems  or  discourses. 

DiscocnsE  1.  (ch.  xl.  xli.)  contains  a  promise  of  comfort  to  the 
people  of  God,  interspersed  with  declarations  of  the  omnipo 
tence  and  omniscience  of  Jehovah,  and  a  prediction  of  the 
restoration   of  the  Jews   from  the    Babylonian  captivity  by 
Cyrus. 

DiscouiisE  2.  The  advent  and  office  of  the  Messiah  are  foretold 
(xlii.  1  — 17.)  ;  for  rejecting  whom  the  incredulity  of  the  Jews 
is  reproved.  (18 — 25.)  A  remnant  of  them,  however,  it  is 
promised,  shall  be  preserved,  and  ultimately  restored  to  their 
own  land.  (xUii.  1 — 13.)  The  destruction  of  Babylon  and  the 
restoration  of  the  Jews  are  again  foretold,  as  also  (perhaps"* 
their  return  after  the  Roman  dispersion  (14 — 20.)  ;  and  they 
are  admonished  to  repent  of  those  sins  which  would  otherwise 
bring  the  severest  judgments  of  God  upon  them.   (21 — 28.) 

DistoPHSE  3.  contains  promises  of  the  pouring  out  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  intermingled  with  an  exposure  of  tiie  folly  of  idolatry 
(xliv.  1 — 20.),  which,  in  force  of  argument,  energy  of  expres- 
sion, and  elegance  of  composition,  far  surpasses  any  thing  that 
was  ever  written  upon  the  subject.  The  propliet  then  an- 
nounces by  name  tlie  instrument  of  their  deliverance,  Cyrus, 
(21 — 28.  xlv.  I — 5.);'  and,  after  adverting,  in  splendid  imagery, 
to  the  happy  state  of  the  people  of  God,  restored  to  their  country, 
and  flourishing  in  peace  and  plenty,  in  piety  and  virtue,  he 
proceeds  to  answer  or  prevent  the  objections  and  cavils  of  the 
unbelieving  Jews,  disjioscd  to  murmur  against  God,  and  to 
arraign  the  wisdom  and  justice  of  his  dispensations  in  regard  to 
them ;  in  permitting  them  to  be  oppressed  by  their  enemies, 
and  in  proinisiug  them  deliverance  instead  of  preventing  th;ir 
captivity.  (6 — 25.)  St  Paul  has  borrowed  the  prophet's 
imagery,  and  has  applied  it  to  the  like  purpose  with  equal 
force  ajid  elegance  in  Rom.  ix.  20,  21. 

Drscornsi;  4.  foretells  the  carrying  away  of  the  idols  of  Babylon 
(xlvi.  1 — 5.) ;  the  folly  of  worshipping  them  is  then  strikingly 
contrasted  with  the  attributes  and  perfections  of  Jehovah  (6 — 
13.)  ;  and  the  divine  judgments  upon  Babylon  and  Chaldsea 
are  further  denounced,   (xlvii.) 

Discourse  5.  contains  an  earnest  reproof  of  the  Jews  for  thcii 
infidelity  and  idolatry  (xlviii.  1  — 19.21,22.);  and  foretells 
their  deliverance  from  the  Babylonian  captivity.   (20.) 

DiscorusE  6.  The  Messiah  (whose  character  and  ollice  had  been 
generally  exhibited  in  ch.  xlii.)  is  here  introduced  in  person, 
declaring  the  full  extent  of  his  commission,  which  is,  not  only 
to  restore  the  Israelites,  but  to  be  a  light  to  lighten  the  Gen- 
tiles, to  call  them  to  the  knowledge  and  obedience  of  the  true 
God,  and  to  liring  them  to  be  one  church  together  with  the  Is 
raelites,  and  with  them  to  partake  of  the  same  common  salva 
tion,  procured  for  all  by  the  great  Redeemer  and  Reconciler  ol 
man  to  God.  (xlix.) 

DiscoinsF,  T.  predicts  the  dereliction  of  the  Jews  for  their 
rejection  of  the  Messiah  (I.  1 — 3.),  whose  sufferings  and  exal- 
tation are  foretold.  (4 — 11.)  The  proj)het  exhorts  the  believ- 
ing Jews,  after  tlie  pattern  of  Abraham,  to  trust  in  Christ,  and 
foretells  their  future  restoration  after  the  Babylonish  captivity, 
as  al.so  their  ultimate  conversion  to  Christianity,  (li.  Hi.  1  — 12.) 

DiscorusK  R.  predicts  the  humiliation  of  Christ,  which  had  been 
intimated  in  1.  .'>,  C,  and  oln-iates  the  oft'encc  which  would  be 
occasioned  by  it,  by  declaring  the  important  and  necessary 
cau.se  of  it,  and  foreshowing  the  glory  which  should  follow  it. 
(Iii.  13—15.  liii.) 

Discoi  nsE  9.  foretells  the  amplitude  of  the  church,  when  Jews 
and  Gentiles  should  be  converted,   (liv.) 

Dist  DtiisK  10.  is  an  invitation  to  partake  of  the  blessings  of  the 
Gospel,  from  wlvich  none  .shall  be  excluded  who  come  on  the 
term.t  prescrilted.   (Iv.  Ivi.  1 — 8.) 

DisroriisK  1  I.  denounces  calamities  against  the  inhabitants  of 
Judah,  who  are  sharply  reproved  for  their  idolatry  and  hypo- 
crisy.    Bishop  Lowth  is  of  opinion,  that  the  prophet  probably 

•  I.^a.  xliv.  as.  "There  Is  a  reinnrkalile  beauty  and  prniiriny  In  lliis 
veme.  1.  ('yriis  Is  railed  Ood's  Shepherd. —.'^lieplieril  \v»a  an  epiilict 
wlilcli  Cyriu  look  lo  hiiiiHelf,  niid  which  he  piivo  to  all  cood  kint;'*.  2.  This 
ryrus  blioiilil  »av  lollic  leiiiple — Tlir/fuun-hitioyi  shullhc  laid;  liol,  Thou 
Mhiill  be  liuill.  The. fact  is,  o\t\y  lUr'/ourKliitirm  was  laid  in  ihe  days  of 
CvniR,  the  Anirnonites  havinjj prevented  the  bulldin); ;  um  whh  it  resumed 
ull  Ihe  Heriind  ye.ir  iif  Dariim.  one  of  hin  suercs.'jors.  Thi>re  i.^  oOen  0  pre- 
cision In  llie  oxpres.siouH  of  llie  prophels,  whicli  i<>  as  honouiable  lo  truth, 
as  it  is  unuoilceJ  by  caroless  readers."    l)r.  A.  Clarko,  on  Isa.  xliv.  23. 


i 


Sect.  II.  §  4.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  ISAIAH. 


269 


has  in  view  the  destruction  of  their  city  and  polity  by  the 
Chaldceana,  and  perhaps,  by  the  Romans,  (Ivi.  9 — 12.  Ivii. — 
Ux.  1 — lo.")     The  fifty-ninth  chapter,  he  observes,  is  remark- 
able for  the  beauty,  strength,  and  variety  of  the  images  with 
which  it  abounds,  as  well  as  for  the  elegance  of  the  composit;-on 
and  the  exact  construction  of  the  sentences. 
Discourse   12.   chiefly  predicts  the  general  conversion  of  the 
Jews  to  the  Gospel,  the  coming  in  of  the  fulness  of  the  Gen- 
tiles, the  restoration  of  the  Jews,  and  the  happy  state  of  the 
Christian  church,  (lix.  16 — 21.  Ix. — Ixvi.)      In  ch.  Ix.  and 
Ixi.  the  great  increase  and  flourishing  state  of  the  church  of 
God,  by  the  conversion  and  accession  of  the  heathen  nations 
to  it,  are  "  set  forth  in  such  ample  and  exalted  terms,  as  plainly 
show,  that  the  full  completion  of  the  prophecy  is  reserved  for 
future  times.     This  subject  is  displayed  in  the  most  splendid 
colours,  under  a  great  variety  of  highly  poetical  images,  de- 
.signed  to  give  a  general  idea  of  the  glories  of  that  perfect 
state  of  the  church,  which  we  arc  taught  to  expect  in  the  lat- 
ter times ;  when  the  fulness  of  the  Gentiles  shall  come  in,  and 
the  Jews  shall  be  converted  and  gathered  from  their  disper- 
sions ;  and  the  kingdoms  of  this  world  shall  become  the  king- 
doms of  our  Lord  and  of  his  Christ."   (Bp.  Lowth.)     The 
remarkable  prophecy  in  Ixiii.  1 — 6.,  which  some  expositors 
refer  to  Judas  Maccabreus,  the  learned  prelate  applies  primarily 
to  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  and  the  Jewish  polity  ;  which 
in  the  Gospel  is  called  the  "  coming  of  Christ,"  and  the  "  days 
of  vengeance"   (Matt.  xvi.  28.  Luke  xxi.  22.)  ;  but  he  thinks 
it  may  ultimately  refer  to  the  yet  unfulfilled  predictions,  which 
intimate  a  great  slaughter  of  the  enemies  of  God  and  his  peo- 
ple.    The  two  last  chapters  of  this  prophecy  manifestly  relate 
to  the  calling  of  the  Gentiles,  the  establishment  of  the  Chris- 
dan  dispensation,  and  the  reprobation  of  the  apostate  Jews, 
and  their  destruction  executed  by  the  Romans. 
V.  Isaiah  has,  with  singular  propriety,  been  denominated 
ihe^^''  evangelical  prophef,''^  on  account  of  the  number  and  va- 
riety of  his  prophecies  concerning  the  advent  and  character, 
the  ministry  and  preaching,  the  suffering  and  death,  and  the 
extensive  permanent  kingdom  of  the  Messiah.     Ho  explicit 
and  determinate  are  liis  predictions,  as  well  as  so  numerous, 
that  he  seems  to  speak  rather  of  things  past  than  of  events 
y  Hi  future ;  and  he  may  rather  be  called  an  evangelist,  than 
a  prophet.     No  one,  indeed,  can  be  at  a  loss  in  applying  them 
to  the  mission  and  character  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  to  the  events 
which  are  cited  in  his  history  by  the  writers  of  the  New 
Testament.     This  prophet,  says  Bishop  Lowth,  abounds  in 
such  transcendent  excellencies,  that  he  majr  be  properly  said 
to  afford  the  most  perfect  model  of  prophetic  poetry.     He  is 
at  once  elegant  and  sublime,  forcible  and  ornamented ;  he 
unites  energy  with  copiousness,  and  dignity  with  variety. 
In  his  sentiments  there  is  uncommon  elevation  and  majesty ; 
in  his  imager}',  the  utmost  propriety,  elegance,  dignity,  and 
diversity ;  in  his  language,  uncommon  beauty  and  energy ; 
and,  notwithstanding  the  obscurity  of  his  subjects,  a  surpris- 
ing degree  of  clearness  and  simplicity.     To  these  we  niay 
add,  that  there  is  such  sweetness  in  the  poetical  composition 
of  his  sentences,  whether  it  proceed  from  art  or  genius,  that, 
if  the  Hebrew  poeti-y  at  present  is  possessed  of  any  remains 
of  its  native  grace  and  harmony,  we  shall  chiefly  find  them 
in  the  writings  of  Isaiah  ;  so  that  the  saying  of  Ezekiel  may 
most  justly  be  applied  to  this  prophet, — 


'Thou  art  the  confirmed  cxeinplar  of  measures, 
FuU  of  wisdom,  and  perfect  in  beauty."— Ezek.  x-xviii. 


12. 


I 


Isaiah  also  greatly  excels  in  all  the  graces  of  method,  order, 
connection,  and  arrangement:  though  in  asserting  this  we 
must  not  forget  the  nature  of  the  prophetic  impulse,  which 
bears  away  the  mind  with  irresistible  violence,  and  frequently 
in  rapid  transitions  from  near  to  remote  objects,  from  human 
to  divine;  we  must  likewise  be  careful  in  remarking  the 
limits  of  particular  predictions,  since,  as  they  are  now  extant, 
they  are  often  improperly  connected,  without  any  marks  of 
discriininatio'n ;  which  injudicious  arrangement,  on  some 
occasions,  creates  almost  insuperable  diiliculties. 

Bishop  Lowth  has  selected  the  thirty-fourth  and  thirty-fifth 
chapters  of  this  prophet,  as  a  specimen  of  the  poetic  style  in 
which  he  delivers  his  predictions,  and  has  illustrated  at  some 
length  the  various  beauties  which  eminently  distinguish  the 
pimple,  regular,  and  perfect  poem  contained  in  those  chapters. 
But  the  grandest  specimen  of  his  poetry  is  presented  in  the 
fourteenth  chapter,  which  is  one  of  the  most  sublime  odes 
occurring  in  the  Bible,  and  contains  the  noblest  personifications 
to  be  found  in  the  records  of  poetry. 

The  propliet,  after  predicting  the  liberation  of  the  Jews 


from  their  severe  captivity  in  Babylon,  and  their  restoration 
to  their  own  country  (verses  1 — 3.),  introduce'  a  chorus  of 
them,  expressing  their  surprise  and  astonishment  at  the  sud- 
den downfall  of  Babylon,  and  the  great  reverse  of  fortnnt 
that  had  befallen  the  tyrant,  who,  like  his  predecessors,  had 
oppressed  his  own,  and  harassed  the  neighbouring  kingdoms 
1  hese  oppressed  kingdoms,  or  their  rulers,  are  represented 
under  the  image  of  the  fir  trees  and  the  cedars  of  Libanus 
whicli  is  frequently  used  to  express  any  thing  in  the  political 
or  religious  world  that  is  supereminently  great  and  majestic  • 
the  whole  earth  shouts  for  joy ;  the  cedars  of  Libanus  ultei  a 
severe  taunt  over  the  fallen  tyrant,  and  boast  their  security 
now  he  is  no  more,  (verses  4 — 8.) 

This  is  followed  (9.)  by  one  of  the  boldest  and  most 
animated  personifications  of  Hades,  or  the  regions  of  the 
dead,  that  was  ever  executed  in  poetry.  Hades  excites  his 
inhabitants,  the  shades  of  princes,  and  the  departed  spirits 
of  monarchs.  These  illustrious  shades  arise  at  once  frcm 
their  couches  as  from  their  thrones ;'  and  advancing  to  the 
entrance  of  the  cavern  to  meet  the  king  of  Babylon,  they 
insult  and  deride  him  on  being  reduced  to  the  same  low-  state 
of  impotence  and  dissolution  with  themselves.  (10,  11.) 
The  Jews  now  resume  the  speech  (12.):  they  adaress  the 
king  of  Babylon  as  the  mormng-star  fallen  from  heaven,  as 
the  first  in  splendour  and  dighity  in  the  political  world  fallen 
from  his  hign  state :  they  introduce  him  as  uttering  the  most 
extravagant  vaunts  of  his  power  and  ambitious  desiOTS  in  his 
former  glory ;  these  are  strongly  contrasted,  in  the  close,  with 
his  present  low  and  abject  condition.  (13 — 15.) 

Immediately  follows  a  different  scene,  and  a  most  happy 
image,  to  diversify  the  same  subject,  and  give  it  a  new  turn 
and  additional  force.  Certain  persons  are  introduced,  who 
light  upon  the  corpse  of  the  king  of  Babylon,  cast  out  and 
lying  naked  upon  the  bare  ground,  among  the  common  slain, 
just  after  the  taking  of  the  city,  covered  with  Avcunds,  and 
so  disfigured,  that  it  is  some  time  before  they  ivnow  him. 
They  accost  him  with  the  severest  taunts,  and  bitterly  reproach 
him  with  his  destructive  ambition,  and  his  cruel  usage  of  the 
conquered  :  which  have  deservedly  brought  upon  him  this 
ignominious  treatment,  so  different  from  that  which  those  of 
his  rank  usually  meet  with,  and  which  shall  cover  his 
posterity  with  disgrace.  (16 — 20.) 

To  coinplete  the  whole,  God  is  introduced,  declaring  the 
fate  of  Babylon,  the  utter  extirpation  of  the  royal  family, 
and  the  total  desolation  of  the  city ;  the  deliverance  of  his 
people,  and  the  destruction  of  their  enemies ;  confirming  the 
irreversible  decree  by  the  awful  sanction  of  his  oath.  (21 — 27.) 
"  How  forcible,"  says  Bishop  Lowth,  "  is  this  irnagery, 
how  diversified,  how  sublime !  now  elevated  the  diction,  the 
figures,  the  sentiments !  —  The  Jewish  nation,  the  cedars  of 
Lebanon,  the  ghosts  of  departed  kings,  the  Babylonish 
monarch,  the  travellers  who  find  his  corpse,  and  last  of  all 
Jehovah  himself,  are  the  characters  which  support  this 
beautiful  lyric  drama.  One  continued  action  is  kept  up,  or 
rather  a  series  of  interesting  actions  are  connected  together 
in  an  incomparable  whole ;  this,  indeed,  is  the  principal  and 
distinguished  excellence  of  the  sublimer  ode,  and  is  displayed 
in  its  utmost  perfection  in  this  poem  of  Isaiah,  which  may  be 
considered  as  one  of  the  most  ancient,  and  certainly  one  of 
the  most  finished,  specimens  of  that  species  of  composition 
which  has  been  transmitted  to  us.  The  personifications  here 
are  frequent,  yet  not  confused ;  bold,  yet  not  improbable :  a 
free,  elevated,  and  truly  divine  spirit  pervades  the  whole ; 
nor  is  there  any  thing  wanting  in  this  ode  to  defeat  its  claim 
to  the  character  of  perfect  beauty  and  sublimity.  If,  indeed, 
I  may  be  indulged  in  the  free  declaration  of  my  own  senti- 
ments on  this  occasion,  I  do  not  know  a  single  instance,  in 
the  whole  compass  of  Greek  and  Roman  poetry,  which,  in 
every  excellence  of  composition,  can  be  said  to  equal,  or 
even  to  approach  it."2 

1  "The  image  of  the  dead,"  so  admirably  described  by  the  prophet, 
Bishop  Lowth  observes,  "is  taken  from  their  custom  of  burying,  those  at 
least  of  the  higher  rank,  in  large  sepulchral  vaults  hewn  in  the  rock.  Of 
this  kind  of  sepulchres  there  are  remains  at  Jerusalen  now  extant ;  and 
some  that  are  said  to  be  the  sepulchres  of  the  kings  of  Judah.  bee  Maun- 
drell,  p.  76.  You  are  to  form  to  yourself  an  idea  of  an  immense  subterrane- 
ous vault,  a  vast  gloomy  cavern,  all  round  the  sides  of  which  there  are  cells, 
to  receive  the  dead  bodies :  here  ihe  deceased  monarchs  lie  in  a  distin- 
guished sort  of  state  suitable  to  their  former  rank,  each  on  his  own  couch, 
with  his  arms  beside  him,  his  sword  at  his  head,  and  the  bodies  of  hia 
chiefs  and  companions  round  about  him.  See  Ezek.  xxxii.  27.  On  winch 
place  Sir  .John  Chardin's  manuscript  note  is  as  follows  :— '  En  Mmgrehe  lis 
donnent  tous  leurs  epoes  sous  leurs  tftes,  et  leurs  autres  armes  a  leur  cote  ; 
et  on  les  enterre  de  niesme,  leurs  armes  posces  de  cette  facon.  Bp. 
Lowth's  Translation  of  Isaiah,  vol.  ii.  p.  121.  o.     oc       i    • 

2  Bishop  Lowth's  Lectures  on  Hebrew  PoPtry,  vol.  ii.  pp.  &1— bb.  vol.  i. 
pp.  294—301.  and  his  Translation  of  Isaiah,  vol.  ii.  pp.  230—232.  Jahn,  Introd. 
ad  Vet.  Feed.  p.  367. 


*Z70 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[PillT  V.  CUAP.  IV 


§    5.    CN'  THK  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  JOEL. 

I.  Author  and  date. — II.    Occasion  and  scope. — III.  Anahisis 
of  the  hook. — IV.   Observations  on  its  sti/le. 

BEFORE  CHRIST,  810 — G60,  or  later. 

I.  CoNXERNiNG  the  family,  condition,  anJ  pursuits  of  this 
prophet,  there  is  great  diversity  of  ojiiiiion  amon^  learned 
men.  Although  several  persons  of  the  name  of  .Toel  are  men- 
tioned in  the  6\d  Testament,'  we  have  no  information  con- 
cerniiior  tha  prophet  himself,  except  what  is  contained  in  the 
title  of  his  prediction?  (i.  1.),  that  he  was  the  son  of  Pethucl. 
Accordin<r  to  snme  idle  reports  ctdiected  and  preserved  hy 
thepseudo-Epiphaiiius,2  he  was  of  the  tribe  of  Ht'uben,  and 
was  born  at  13ethhoron,a  town  situated  in  the  confines  of  the 
territories  of  Judah  and  Benjamin. ^  It  is  equally  uncertain 
under  what  soverei'^n  he  flourished,  or  where  he  died.  The 
celebrated  Rabin  lumchi  and  others  place  him  in  the  reign 
of  Joram,  and  are  of  opinion  that  he  foretold  the  seven  years' 
famine  which  prevailed  in  that  king's  roin^n.  ('2Kina3  viii. 
I — 3.)  The  authors  of  the  two  celebrated  .lewish  Chroni- 
cles entitled  Seder  01am  (both  great  and  little),  Jarchi,  and 
several  other  Jewish  writers,  who  are  also  followed  by  Dru- 
siu?,  Archbishop  Ncwcome,  and  other  Christian  commenta- 
tors, maintain  that  he  prophesied  under  ISlanasseh.  Tarno- 
vius,  Eckermann,  Calmet,  and  others,  place  him  in  the  reign 
ofJosi-.ih:  but  Vitringa,'  Moldenhawer,M{osenna;iller,'^  and 
the  majority  of  modern  commentators,  are  of  opinion  (after 
Abarbanel),  that  he  delivered  his  predictions  durmg  the  reign 
of  V-izizh :  consequently  he  was  contemporary  with  Amos 
and  Hosea,  if  indeed  he  did  not  prophesy  before  Amos.  This 
opinion,  which  we  think  more  probable  than  any,  is  sup- 
ported by  the  following  arguments: — 1.  Only  Egypt  and 
Edom  (iii.  10.)  are  enumerated  among  the  enemies  of  Judah, 
no  mention  whatever  being  made  of  the  Assyrians  or  liaby- 
loniaas  : — 2.  Joel  (iii.  4 — 7.)  denounces  the  same  judgments, 
as  Amos  (i.  i) — 11.),  against  the  Tyrians,  Sidonians,  and 
Iduma:ans  (who  had  invaded  the  kinwlom  of  Judah,  carried 
oflf  its  inhabitants,  and  sold  them  as  slaves  to  the  Gentiles') : 
— 3.  It  appears  from  Joel  ii.  15 — 17.  that  at  the  time  he 
flourished  the  Jews  were  in  the  full  enjoyment  of  th.'ir  reli- 

fious  worship  : — 4.  More  prosperous  times  are  promised  to 
udaea,  together  with  uncommon  plenty  (ii.  18,  10.)  : — 
5.  Although  Joel  foretells  the  calamity  of  famine  and  barren- 
ness of  the  land,  it  is  evident  from  Amos  (iv.  G,  7.)  that  the 
Israelites  had  not  only  sutfered  from  the  same  calamity,  but 
were  even  then  labouring  under  it. 

II.  From  the  palmer-worm,  locust,  canker-worm,  cater- 
pillar, &c.  being  sent  upon  the  land  of  Judah,  and  devouring 
us  fruits  (the  certain  forerunners  of  a  grievous  famine),  the 
prophet  takes  occasion  to  exhort  the  Jews  to  repentance,  fast- 
ing, and  prayer,  promising  them  various  temporal  and  spi- 
riuial  blessings. 

III.  'i'his  book  consists  of  three  chapters,  which  may  be 
divided  into  three  discourses  or  parts  ;  viz. 

Paut  I.  13  an  Exhortalion,  both  to  the  Priests  and  to  the  Peo- 
ple, to  repent,  bij  reason  of  the  Famine  bronght  upon  them  by 
ilic  Palmer-worm,  \sfc.  xn  consequence  of  their  Sins  (i.  1 — 
20.)  ;  and  is  fdloior.d  by  a  Denunciation  of  dill  greater  Cu- 
iumitien,  if  they  continued  impenitent,  (ii.  1 — 11.) 

rhiu  discourse  contains  a  double  prophecy,  applicable,  in  its  pri- 
mary sense,  to  a  plat?ue  of  locusts,  wl)ich  was  to  devour  the 
land,  and  was  to  be  accompanied  with  so  severe  a  drought  and 
famine  as  should  cause  the  public  service  of  tiic  tcniplo  to  be 
interrupted;"  and,  in  its  secondary  sense,  it  denotes  the  Baby- 
lonian invasion, — and  perhaps  also  the  invasions  of  the  Per- 
sians, Greeks,  and  Romans,  by  whom  the  Jews  were  succcs- 
sively  subjugated. 

1'art  II.  Jin  Exhortation  to  keep  a  public  and  snlenm  Fast 
(ii.  1-2 — 17.),  with  a  promise  of  removing  the  Calamities  (f 
the  Jews  on  tlieir  llipentance.  (18 — 2G.) 

From  the  fertility  and  prosperity  of  the  land  dcsorilied  in  thcKC 
verses,  the  i)rophct  makes  an  easy  transition  to  the  copious 
blessings  of  the  Gospel,  particularly  the  cflusion  of  the  gifts 
of  the  Holy  Spirit :  with  these  he  connects  the  destruction  of 
the  Jewish  nation  and  polity  in  consequence  of  their  rrjccting 

>  Hcc  Hiiiionli  Onomaaticon  Vet.  Test.  p.  G17. 

"i  Dc  ViiM  I'rophetArum  In  Epiplianii  op.  tout.  ii.  p.  215. 

>  R-lacvli  PalcRtlna,  p.  633. 


thp  Gospel ;  intcr.-;pcrsii:g  promises  of  safety  to  the  faithful 
and  penitent,  which  were  afterward.s  signally  ful.llled  to  the 
Christians  in  that  great  national  calamitj-.  (27 — 32.  Compare 
Acts  ii.  17 — 21.) 

Part  III.  predicts  the  general  Conversion  and  Return  of  the 
Jcic.y,  and  the  destrurlion  rf  their  Opponents,  together  with 
the  glwious  State  of  the  Church  that  is  to  follow,  (iii.) 

IV.  The  style  of  Joel,  though  different  from  that  of  Hosea, 
is  highly  poetical  i^  it  is  elegant,  perspicuous,  and  copious  ; 
and  at  the  same  time  nervous,  animated,  and  sublime.  In 
the  two  first  chapters  he  displays  the  full  force  of  the  pro- 
phetic poetry  ;  and  iiis  description  of  the  plague  of  locusts, 
of  the  deep  naticnal  repentance,  and  of  the  nappy  state  of 
llie  Ciiristian  chuicli,  in  the  last  times  of  the  ucspel,  are 
wrought  up  with  admirable  force  and  beauty. 

§  6.    ON  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  MICAH. 

I.  Avtlior  and  date. — II.  Occasion  and  scope, — III.  Synopsis 
of  its  cnnlcnts. — W .  Propliecics  concerning'  t/ie  JMesaiah. — 

V.  Observations  on  its  style, 

BEFORE  CHIllST,  753 — C99. 

I.  MicAH,  the  third  of  the  miner  prophets,  according  to  the 
arrangement  in  the  Hebrew  and  all  modern  copies,  as  well 
as  in  the  Septuagint,  was  a  native  of  Moraslhi,  a  small  town 
in  the  scutliern  part  of  tlic  territory  of  Judah;  and,  as  we 
learn  from  the  commencement  of  his  predictions,  he  prophe- 
sied in  the  reigns  cf  Jotham,  Ahaz,  and  Hezekiah,  kings  of 
that  country  ;  consequently  he  was  contemporary  with  Isaiah, 
Joel,  Hosea,  and  Ames.  The  time,  place,  and  manner  of  his 
death  are  unknown.  The  genuineness  of  his  prophecies  re- 
lating, to  the  complete  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  and  of  the 
temple,  is  supported  by  the  testimony  of  Jeremiah,  (xxvi. 
18,  10.) 

II.  The  people  of  Judah  and  Israel  being  very  profane  and 
impenitent  in  the  days  of  Isaiah^  (in  consequence  of  which 
the  Assyrian  captivity  was  then  hastening  upon  Israel,  and 
the  Ijabylonian  not  long  after  fell  upon  Judah),  the  prophet 
ISIienli  was  raised  up  to  second  Isaiah,  and  to  confirm  his 
predictions  against  tlie  Jews  and  Israelites,  whcm  he  in- 
vited to  repentance  both  by  threatened  judgments  and  by 
promised  mercies. '<> 

III.  'i'his  book  contains  seven  chapters,  forming  three 
parts ;  viz. 

Introduction  or  title,  i.  1. 
Part  I.  comprises  the  Prophecies  delivered  in  the  Meipia  of 
Joiham  King  of  .Tuduh  (tvith  whom  Pekch  King  (f  Israel 


was  contemporary\  in  which  the  Divine  Judgments  are  de- 

agavnst  oo  '    ' 
2— IG.) 


nounced  agu 


doth  Israel  and  Judah  fur  their  Sins.  (i. 


*  Typii.s  DoclrinH"  PrnpliPl.  cap   Iv.  p.  33.  etfq. 
»  InlrixlucUo  In  I-il)r<>s  Canoiih  dS  vet.  cl  Nov.  Test  pp.  1 

l.n,  131. 


120,  121. 
•  rtiliolia  In  Vet.  Test.  PsrtiH  ^.  [iiima;,  vol.  1.  pp.  l.'H,  131. 
'  The  famine  preilicteil  l)y  Ji  ■  i  .latin  rcfcriiin  iliat  which  look  place  In 
the  time  of  the  Maccabcet.    See  i  Mace.  Ix.  23—27. 


Part  II.  contains  the  Predictions  delivered  in  the  lieigns  oj 
Jlhuz  King  of  Judah  {tcith  whom  his  Smi  Hrzekiah  was  as.vi' 
dated  in  the  Government  during  t/te  latter  Part  of  his  Lift), 
and  of  Pekah  King  of  Israel,  tvho  was  also  contemporary 
with  him.  (ii. — iv.  8.) 

In  this  prophetic  discourse,  Micah  foretells  the  captivity  of  both 
nations  (ii.  1 — .5.),  and  i)articularly  threatens  Israel  for  their 
enmity  to  the  house  of  David  (G — KB.),  and  Jiidiih  for  their 
cruelty  to  the  pious,  (iii.  1 — 7.)  He  ihen  vindicates  bis  pro- 
phetic mission,  and  denounces  to  the  princes  of  Israel,  that, 
tboufrh  they  should  "  build  up  Zion  with  blood,  and  Jerusalem 
with  iniquity,"  for  tbcir  sidjc  Zion  should  be  ploughed  as  a 
field,  and  Jerusalem  should  become  heaps.  (8 — 12.)  Tliis 
prophecy  had  its  utmost  conqiletion  in  the  final  desticclion  of 
the  city  and  temple  by  the  Itoinans.  We  learn  from  Jcr. 
xxvi.  18,  19.  24.,  that  this  particular  prediction  was  uttered  in 
the  time  of  Hezckiub  ;  and  that  in  the  reign  of  Jehoiakim  it 
was  a  means  of  preserving  .Icreniiah  from  being  delivered  into 
the  binds  of  the  people  who  were  desirous  of  putting  him  to 
death.  In  ch.  iv.  1 — 8.  the  glorious  and  peaceful  kingdom  of 
Messiah  is  foretold,  together  with  the  establishment  of  the 
cburrh. 

Part  111.  includes  the  Prnjyhecies  delivered  by  Mica/i  during 
the  Jidgn  of  Ilczekiah  King  of  Judah,  the  first  six  years  of 
wliose  Cuvemment  were  contcmporury  with  the  greater  Purl 

•  Early  In  tho  Inirt  century,  Mr.  Hennann  Vnn  dcr  HarJt,  whom,  from 
\\U  love  of  phllosophicnl  imrudoxes.  Up.  Lowih  Ims  tornied  (lie  ' Hor- 
fl'iuin  of  dcrmnny,"  M[lf\uYlc^  to  r<Mlucc  Jcicl's  rl.-«lo«  to  miubir.  verse. 
!!«;  ncrordlMKly  |Milili.<hecl  the  three  first  clrjli-s  at  Ililinstadl,  la  1709  j  and 
I'g.iin,  Willi  ndiliiions,  atlli''  B)iin<»  place,  In  l/'iO,  in  8vo. 

0  (•..iiiparo'2KiiiK«xv  — ,xi.x.  -.il-hnm.  xxvi.— xxxi.  Isa.  x.t.vv1.— xxxviil. 

■0  Robriln's  Clavls  Uiblloruui,  p.  671 


Skct.  II.  §  7.] 


OX  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  .'fAHUM. 


271 


(f  the  Jleign  rf  Iluishea,  the  last  King  of  Lrael.  (iv.  9 — 13. 
V. — vii. 
In  this  portion  of  the  book  of  Micah,  the  Jews  arc  threatened 
with  the  Babylonish  captivity  (iv.  9,  10.)  :  this  event  took 
place  almost  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  after  Micah'.s  time ; 
and  the  (Jhaldseans,  who  were  to  be  the  instruments  in  eflect- 
ing  it,  had  not  arisen  in  the  prophet's  age  to  any  distinction 
among  the  nations.  The  total  overthrow  of  Sennacherib's 
forces  is  foretold  (11 — 13.) ;  and  the  pious  king  Hezekiah  is 
assured  of  God's  preservation  by  a  new  promise  of  the  Mes- 
siah, who  should  descend  from  him  (and  the  place  of  whose 
nativity  is  particularly  indicated),  and  by  a  prediction  of 
Sennacherib's  murder,  (v.  1 — 15.)  The  people  arc  then  fore- 
warned of  the  judgments  that  would  befall  them  for  their  sins 
in  the  reign  of  Manasseh  (vi.  1 — 16.)  :  the  wickedness  of  whose 
reign  is  further  described,  together  with  his  captivity  and  re- 
turn from  Babylon,  as  also  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  Baby- 
Ion,  and  from  their  general  dispersion  after  they  shall  be  con- 
verted to  the  Gospel,  (vii.) 

IV.  The  book  of  Micah,  who  (we  have  seen)  was  the  con- 
lemporary  of  Isaiah,  contains  a  summary  of  the  prophecies 
delivered  by  the  latter  concerning  the  Messiah  and  tlie  final 
return  of  the  Jews,  which  are  thus  translated  and  arranged 
by  Dr.  Hales : 

CiiAP.  V.  2.  "An J  art  thou,  BelhUhcm  Ephratah,  Utile  to  be  esteemed] 

Among  the  thousands  ofJudu/i? 

From  !hnc  shall  issue  [the  I.eadeu], 

Who  shall  ride  my  pe'qtli.,  tlie  Israel  [of  God] 

(But  hi-i  issuings  are  from  old, 

I'roin  dcrjs  of  eternity). 
ni.  3.  Tliorefoic  lio  will  giv'e  them  up  [for a  season] 

Ihitil  Ihe  tune  that  she  which  shall  bear 

Have  borne  :  then  .s/jaH  return 

7'he  residue  of  thy  brethren  [the  Jeics] 

Along  with  the  outcasts  of  Israel. 
IV.  4.  And  he  shall  stand  and  guide  them 

In,  Ihe  strengtli  of  the  I.o"d, 

In  Ihe  majesty  o/'ths  name  of  the  Lohd  his  (Iod. 

And  ichen  they  return,  He  shall  be  magnified 

Unto  the  ends  of  the  earth, 

.4/id  he  shall  be  their  phage." 

"  This  prophecy,"  Dr.  Hales  remarks,  "  consists  of  four 
parts,  1.  The  human  birth-place  of  Christ.  2.  His  eternal 
generation.  3.  His  temporary  desertion  of  the  Jews,  until 
liis  miraculous  birth  of  the  Virgin,  after  which  they  are  to 
return  willi  the  true  Israelites.  4.  His  spiritual  and  univer- 
sal dominion. 

The  apnlication  of  the  first  part  of  this  prophecy  was  de- 
cided at  tne  time  of  our  Saviouk's  birth,  by  the  most  respect- 
able Jewish  synod  that  ever  sat,  convened  by  Herod,  to 
determine  from  prophecy  the  birth-place  of  the  Messiah, 
which  they  agreed  to  be  Bethlehem,  upon  the  authority  of 
Micah,  which  they  cited.  Their  citation,  of  the  first  part 
only,  is  given  by  the  evangelist  Mattliew,  in  an  improved 
translation  of  the  original,  greatly  superior  to  any  of  the  an- 
cient versions. 

Matt.  ii.  6.  "  And  thou  Bethlehem,  territory  oi  Judah, 

Art  by  no  means  least  among  the  captains  of  Judah; 
From  thee  sliall  is.suc  the  Leader, 
Who  shall  guide  my  people,  the  Israel  [of  God]." 

1.  Here  the  evangelist  has  removed  the  ambiguity  of  the 
fjuestion  proposed  by  the  prophet,  by  supplying  the  answer 
in  the  negative.  As  in  Nathan's  prophecy,  "  Shalt  thou 
build  men  house?''''  (2  Sam.  vii.  5.)  the  parallel  passage 
answers  in  the  negative,  "  T/iou  shall  not  build  me  a  house." 
(1  Chron.  xvii.  4.) 

2.  He  has  supplied  a  chasm  in  the  Masorete  text,  of  nuj, 
Nagld,  a  usual  epithet  of  the  Messiah  (1  Chron.  v.  2.  Isa. 
Iv.  4.  Dan.  ix.  25.),  usually  rendered  'Hy.u^svif,  "Ze«rfer,"  by 
the  Septuagint,  and  retained  here  by  the  evangelist,  as  a 
necessary  distinction  of  his  character,  as  supreme  commander, 
from  "  the  captains  of  thousands,''''  styled  'Hyiy.'.^i,  judiciously 
substituted  for  the  thousands  themselves  in  Micah,  to  mark 

he  analogy  more  correctly. 

3.  He  has  also  determined  the  pastoral  nature  of  the 
Mes.siah's  "  rule"  by  the  verb  Troi^xvu,  "  shall  guide  as  a 
shepherd,''''  afterwards  intimated  by  Micah,  n];-\i,  »«  Tray-Avu, 
as  there  rendered  by  the  Septuagint.  For  He  is  "  the  shepherd 
of  IsraeV  (Gen.  xlix.  24.  Psal.  Ixxx.  1.  V  "  the  chief  shepherd'''' 
(I  Pet.  v.  4.),  and  '■'■  the  good  shepherd"  (John  x.  14.),  who 
appointed  his  apostles  to  '■^ guide  and  pasture  his  slicep," 
(John  xxi.  16.) 

4.  The  human  birth  of  the  Messiah  is  carefully  distin- 
guished by  Micah  from  his  eternal  generation,  in  the  paren- 
thetical clause,  which  strongly  resembles  the  account  of  the 
primeval  birth  of  Wisdom.  (Prov  viii.  22 — 25.) 


5.  The  blessed  virgin  of  Isaiah's  former  prophecy  (vii.  14.) 
is  evidently  alluded  to  by  Micah,  and  also  the  return  of  the 
remnant  of  the  Jews  (Isa.  x.  20,  21.),, and  of  the  final  peace 
ot  his  kingdom.  (Lsa.  ix.  (J,  7.) 

This  prophecy  of  Mi.eah  is,  perhaps,  the  most  important 
single  prophecy  in  the  Old  Testament,  and  the  most  compre- 
hensive, respecting  the  personal  character  of  the  Messi.vh, 
and  iiis  successive  manifestation  to  the  world.  It  crowns  the 
whole  chain  of  prophecies  descrijjtive  of  the  several  limita- 
tions of  the  blessed  seed  of  the  woman  to  the  line  of  Shem  to 
the  family  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  to  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
and  to  the  royal  house  of  David  here  terminating  in  his  birth 
at  Bethlehem,  "  the  city  of  David."  It  carefully  distinguishes 
his  human  nativity  from  his  eternal  generation  ;  fjrctells  the 
rejection  of  the  Israelites  and  Jews  for  a  season ;  their  filial 
restoration,  and  the  univeisaljoeace  destined  to  prevail  throii.ah- 
out  the  earth  in  the  liegentrution.  It  forms,  therefore,  the 
basis  of  the  New  Testament,  which  begins  with  his  human 
birth  at  Betlilehcm,  the  miraculous  circumstances  of  wliich 
are  recorded  in  the  introductions  of  Matthew's  and  Luke's 
Gospels;  his  eternal  generation,  as  the  Oracle  or  WisDOiM, 
in  the  sublime  introduction  of  John's  Gospel :  lii.s  proj-hetic 
character,  and  second  coming,  illustrated  iii  the  ibur  Gospels 
and  Epistles,  ending  with  a  prediction  of  tlie  speedy  approacii 
of  the  latter  in  the  Jipoculypse.  (Rev.  xxii.  20.)' 

V.  The  style  of  Micah  is,  for  the  most  part,  fcrcible, 
pointed,  and  concise,  sometimes  approaching  the  obscurity 
of  Hosea;  in  many  parts  animated  and  sublime,  and  in 
general  truly  poetical.^  His  tropes  are  very  beautil'ul,  and 
varied  according  to  the  nature  of  the  subject. 


§7 

I.  Attthor  and  date. 
III. 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  NAHUM. 


-II.  Scope  and  synopsis  of  its  contents.—' 

Observations  on  its  style. 

befoue  cunisT,  720 — 698. 

I.  N  AHUM,  the  seventh  of  the  minor  prophets,  is  supposed  to 
have  been  a  native  of  Elkosh,  or  Elkosha,  a  village  in  Galilee, 
and  situate  in  the  territory  that  had  been  apportioned  to  the 
tribe  of  Simeon.  There  is  very  great  uncertainty  concerning  the 
precise  time  when  he  lived  ;  some  making  him  contemporary 
with  Jotham,  others,  with  Manasseh,  and  others,  with  Josiah. 
The  most  probable  opinion  is  that  which  places  him  between 
the  Assyrian  and  Bartylonian  captivities,  about  the  year  715 
before  the  Christian  a;ra;  and,  as  the  design  of  this  prophet 
is  to  denounce  ruin  upon  Nineveh  and  the  Assyrians,  for 
their  cruel  tyraimy  over  the  Israelites,  and  as  the  captivity 
of  the  ten  tribes  took  place  in  the  ninth  year  of  Hoshea  king 
of  Israel  (2  Kings  xvii.  6.  &c.  compared  witli  2  Kings  xviii. 
9 — 11.),  it  is  most  likely  thatNahum  prophesied  against  the 
Assyrians  for  the  comfort  of  the  people  of  God  towards  the 
close  of  Hezekiah's  reign,  and  not  long  after  the  subversion 
of  the  kingdom  of  Israel  by  Shalmaneser. 

II.  The  Scope  of  this  prophecy  is,  to  denounce  the  certain 
and  imminent  destruction  of  the  Assyrian  empire,  and  particu- 
larly the  inhabitants  of  its  metropolis  Nineveh  ;  who,  after  a 
transient  repentance  in  consequence  of  Jonah's  preaching, 
had  relapsed  into  their  former  sins,  which  they  even  aggra- 
vated by  their  wickedness.  With  this  denunciation,  tiie 
prophet  introduces  consolation  for  his  countrymen,  whom  he 
encourages  to  trust  in  God. 

His  prophecy  is  one  entire  poem,  which,  opening  with  a 
sublime  description  of  the  justice  and  power  of  God  tempered- 
by  long-suftering  and  goodness  (i.  1  —  8.),  foretells  the 
destruction  of  Sennacherib's  forces,  and  the  subversion  of 
the  Assyrian  empire  (9 — 12.),  together  with  the  deliverance 
of  Hezekiah  and  the  death  of  Sennacherib.  (13 — 15.)  The 
destruction  of  Nineveh  is  then  predicted,  and  described  with 
singular  minuteness,  (ii.  iii.)'  This  prophecy.  Archbishop 
Newcome  observes,  was  highly  interesting  to  the  Jew-s,  as 
the  Assyrians  had  often  ravaged  their  country,  and  had 
recently  destroyed  the  kingdom  of  Israel. 

III.  In  boldness,  ardour,  and  sublimity,  Nahum  is  superior 
to  all  the  minor  prophets.  His  language  is  pure ;  and  the 
exordium  of  his  prophecy,  which  forms  a  regular  and  perfect 
poem,  is  not  merely  magnificent,  it  is  truly  majestic.  The 
preparation  for  the  destruction  of  Nineveh,  and  the  descrip- 
tion of  its  downfall  and  desolation,  are  expressed  in  the  most 

«  Dr.  Ilales's  Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  ii.  book  i.  pp.  462,  463. 

»  Lowth's  Lectures,  vol.  li.  p.  93. 

3  The  best  commentary,  perhaps,  on  this  prophet,  is  the  ninth  of  Bishop 
Newton's  Dissertations  (vol.  i.  pp.  141 — 158.);  in  wliich  he  has  ably  illus- 
trated the  predictions  of  Nahum  and  other  prophets  who  foretold  the  de- 
struction of  Nineveh. 


272 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  V    Chip.  Ill 


vivid  colours    and  with  images  ihat  are  truly  pathetic  and 
sublime.' 

§  8.  ON  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  ZEPHANIAH. 

1.  Author  and  date. — II.  Scope  and  analysis  of  this  book. 
BEFOIIF.  CHniST,  640 — 009. 

I.  This  prophet,  who  was  "  the  son  of  Cnshi,  the  son  of 
Gedaliah,  the  son  of  Amariah,  the  son  of  Hizkiah"  (i.  I.), 
is  supposed  to  haw  been  of  the  tribe  of  Simpoji ;  but,  thouoh 
lie  has  mentioned  his  ancestors  for  no  less  than  four  genera- 
tions, nothinor  certain  can  be  inferred  from  thence,  as  to  the 
family  to  which  he  beloncred.  Wc  learn,  ho\vever,  from  his 
prophecy,  that  he  delivered  his  predictions  in  the  reicrn  of 
Josiah  ;  consequently  he  projdiesied  about  the  time  that  Jere- 
miah entered  on  his  prophetic  office,  and  in  method  and  sub- 
ject he  ureatly  resembles  him. 

On  this  account  Zephaniah  has  been  considered  as  theab- 
brcviator  of  Jeremiah  ;  but  it  is  evident  that  he  prophesied 
before  Jeremiah,  because  the  latter  (Jer.  ii.  5.  20.  2-2.)  seems 
to  speak  of  those  abuses  as  partially  removed,  whicli  the 
former  (Zeph.  i.  1,  5.  9.)  describes  as  existing  in  the  most 
llagitious  extent.  From  his  account  of  the  disorders  prevail- 
ing in  Judah,  it  is  probable  that  he  discharged  the  proplietic 
office  before  the  eighteenth  year  of  Josiali ;  that  is,  before 
this  prince  had  reformed  the  abuses  and  corruj)lions  of  his 
dominions.  The  style  of  Zephaniah  is  poetical,  though  it  is 
not  cliaractcrized  by  any  striking  or  uncommon  beauties. 

II.  In  consequence  of  the  idolatry  and  other  iniquities  pre- 
vailing in  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  whose  inhabitants  had  dis- 
regarded the  denunciations  and  admonitions  of  former  pro- 
phets, Zephaniah  was  commissioned  to  proclaim  the  enormi'y 
of  their  wickedness,  and  to  denounce  the  imminent  desola- 
tion that  awaited  tliem;  to  excite  them  to  repentance,  to  fore- 
tell the  destruction  of  their  enemies,  and  to  comfort  the  pious 
Jews  with  promises  cf  future  blessings. 

His  prophecy,  which  consists  of  three  chapters,  may  be 
divided  into  four  sections ;  viz. 

Sect.  1.  A  denunciation  against  Jud.ih  for  their  idolatry,  (i.) 

Sect.  2.  Repentance  the  only  means  to  avert  the  divine  ven- 
geance, (ii.  I — 3.) 

Sf.cT.  3.  Prophecies  against  the  PhiHstincs  (ii.  4 — 7.),  Moab- 
iles,  and  Ammonites  (8 — 11.),  Ethiopia  (12.),  and  Nine- 
veh. (13—15.) 

Sect.  4.  The  captivity  of  the  Jews  by  the  Babylonians  fore- 
told (iii.  1 — 7.),  together  with  their  future  restoration  and 
the  ultimate  prosperous  state  of  the  church.  (8 — 20.) 


SECTION  in. 

■>N  THE  PROPHETS  WHO  FLOURISHED  NEAR  TO  AND  DURING   THE 
BABYLONIAN  CAPTIVITV. 

§     1.    OX  THE   BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  JEREMIAH. 

I.  Author  and  date. — II.  Occanion  of  his  firopheciea. — Differ- 
ent collections  of  them. — III.  Synopsis  of  their  contents. — 
IV.  Prophecies  concerning-the  Messiah. — V.  Observations 
on  their  style. 

BEFORE  CHRIST,   C28 — 586. 

I.  The  prophet  Jeremiah  was  of  the  sacerdotal  race, being 
(as  he  himself  records)  one  of  the  priests  that  dwelt  at  Ana- 
thoth  (i.  I.)  in  tlie  land  of  Benjamin,  a  city  appropriated  out 
of  that  tribe  to  the  use  of  the  priests,  the  snns  of  Aaron  (Josli. 
xxi.  lb.),  and  situate,  as  we  learn  from  Jerome,  about  lliree 
Roman  miles  north  of  Jerusalem.^  Some  critics  liave  con- 
jectured that  his  father  was  the  same  Hilkiah,  tiie  higli- 
priest,  who  found  the  book  of  the  law  in  the  t<:mple,  in  the 
eighteenth  year  of  the  reign  of  Josiah  (2  Kings  xxii.  8.^  : 
but  for  this  opinion  there  is  no  better  ground  than  tliat  lie 
bore  the  same  name,  which  was  of  frequent  occurrence  among 
the  Jews;  for,  if  Hilkiah  liad  really  been  the  iiigh-pricst,  he 
wouhl  doubtless  have  been  distinguished  by  that  title,  and 
would  not  have  been  placed  on  a  level  with  priests  of  an  or- 
dinary and  inferior  class.  Jeremiah  appears  to  have  been 
very  young  when  he  was  called  to  the  exercise  of  the  pro- 
phetical omcc,  from  which  ho  modestly  endeavoured  to  ex- 
cuse himself,  by  pleading  his  youth  and  incapacity ;  l»ut 
being  overruled  by  the  divine  authority,  he  set  himself  to 

•  I/)wtirs  I.crturcs,  vtil.  il.  p.  99. 

3  ilicronyiiii  Couiin.  in  Jor-  cc.  i.  xi.  and  xxxi.  Eusebii  Onomast.  voce. 


discharge  the  duties  of  his  function^  with  unremitting  dili 
gence  and  fidelity  during  a  course  of  at  least  forty-two  years 
reckoned  from  the  thirteenth  ye;ir  of  Josiah's  reign.  In  the 
course  of  his  ministry  he  met  with  great  difficulties  and  oppo- 
sition from  his  countrymen  of  all  degrees,  whose  pirsecution 
and  ill  usage  sometimes  wrought  so  far  upon  his  mind,  as  to 
draw  from  him  expressions,  in  the  bitterness  of  his  soul, 
which  many  have  thought  difficult  to  reconcile  with  his  reli 
gious  principles;  but  which,  when  duly  weighed,  may  be 
found  to  demand  our  pity  rather  than  censure.  He  was,  in 
truth,  a  man  of  unblemished  piety  and  conscientious  integrity  : 
a  warm  lover  of  ids  country,  wiiose  miseries  he  pathetically 
deplores  ;  and  so  atfectionately  attached  to  his  countrj-men, 
notwithstanding  their  injurious  treatment  of  him,  that  he 
chose  rather  to  abide  with  them,  and  undergo  all  hardships 
in  their  company,  than  separately  to  enjoy  a  state  of  ease  and 
plenty,  whicli  the  favour  of  the  king  of  Babylon  would  have 
secured  to  him.  At  length,  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusa- 
lem, having  followed  the  remnant  of  the  Jews  into  Egj-pt, 
whither  they  had  resolved  to  retire,  though  contrary  to  his 
advice,  upon  the  murder  of  Gedaliah,  whom  the  Chaldseans 
had  left  governor  in  Judaea,  he  there  continued  warmly  to 
remonstrate  against  their  idolatrous  practices,  foretelling  tlie 
consequences  that  would  inevitably  follow.  But  ids  freedom 
and  zeal  are  said  to  have  cost  him  his  life ;  for  tliere  is  a 
tradition,  that  the  JewsatTahpanhes  were  so  offijnded  at  his 
faithful  remonstrances,  that  they  stoned  him  to  death,  which 
account  of  the  manner  of  his  decease,  though  not  absolutely 
certain,  is  at  least  very  likely  to  be  tnie,  considering  the  temper 
and  disposition  of  the  parties  concerned.  Their  wickedness, 
however,  did  not  long  pass  without  its  reward ;  for,  in  a  few 
years  after,  they  were  miserably  destroved  by  the  Babylo- 
nian armies  which  invaded  Egypt,  according  to  the  prophet's 
prediction,  (xliv.  27,  28.V  Some  Jewish  writers,  nowever, 
affirm  that  he  returned  to  Judaea,  while  others  say  that  he  went 
to  Babylon,  and  died  there ;  and  a  third  class  are  of  opinion 
that  he  died  in  f^gypt,  far  advanced  in  years,  and  broken  by 
the  calamities  which  had  happened  both  to  himself  and  his 
country.  This  prophet's  writings  are  all  in  Hebrew,  except 
the  eleventh  verse  of  the  tenth  chapter,  which  is  Chaldee. 
His  predictions  concerning  the  seventy  years  of  the  captivity 
were  known  to  and  read  by  the  prophet  Daniel,  fix.  1.) 

II.  The  idolatrous  apostasy  and  other  criminal  enormities 
of  the  people  of  Judah,  and  the  severe  judgments  which  God 
was  preparing  to  inflict  upon  them,  though  not  without  a  dis- 
tant prospect  of  future  restoration  and  deliverance,  form  the 
principal  subjects  of  the  prophecies  of  Jeremiah ;  except  the 
forty-nfth  chapter,  which  relates  personally  to  Baruch,  and 
the  six  following  chapters,  which  respect  the  fortunes  of 
some  particular  heathen  nations.' 

It  is  evident,  from  various  passages  of  this  book,  that  there 
were  four  distinct  collections  of  Jeremiah's  prophecies.  The 
first  was  that  mentioned  in  chap,  xxxvi.  3.  and  made  bj 
divine  command  in  the  fourth  year  of  the  reign  of  Jehoiakim. 
In  this  collection  were  contained  all  the  precRctions  which  he 
had  delivered  and  published,  to  that  time,  as  well  against 
ether  nations  as  against  the  Jews :  the  prophecies  against 
the  Gentiles  are,  in  our  Bibles,  placed  by  themselves  at  the 
end  of  the  book,  as  being  in  some  measure  unconnected  with 
those  denounced  against  the  Jews  ;  but  in  the  present  copies 
of  the  Septua<;int,  they  follow  immediately  after  the  thir- 
teenth verse  of  the  twenty-fifth  chapter.'  This  first  collec 
tion  comprised  chapters  i. — xx.  xxv.  xxvi.  xxxv.  xxxvi.  xlv. 
— Ii.  inclusive. 

The  second  collection  is  that  mentioned  in  chap.  xxx.  2., 
and  contained  chapters  xxvii. — xxxi.  inclusive  :  it  was  made 
in  the  reign  of  Zedekiah,  and,  as  may  be  inferred  from  xxviii 
1.,  after  the  fourth  year  of  llie  reign  of  Zedekiah. 

The  third  collection  was  made  soon  after  the  destniction 
of  Jerusalem,  as  is  plainly  indicated  by  tiie  prophet  himself 
in  the  general  preface  to  ids  book,  where  he  says  that  the 
word  of  Jehovah  came  to  him  "  in  the  days  of  Josiah  the  son 
of  Amon  king  of  Judah,  in  the  thirteenth  year  of  his  reign  ; 
and  came  in  the  days  of  Jehoiakim  the  son  of  Josiah  king  of 
Judah,  until  the  completion  of  the  eleventh  year  of  Zedekiah 
the  son  of  Josiah  king  of  Judah,  until  the  carri/inir  aiaiu  nf 
Jcrtinakni  into  caplivili^  in  the  fifth  inunth.'^  (i.  1 — 3.)  ('on- 
He(inently,  this  third  collection  imluded  chapters  xxi. — xxiv 
xxxii. — xxxiv.  and  xxxvii. — xxxix. 

'  Dr.  BlRvnny'K  TrnnslaUon  of  Jeremiah,  pp.  221,  222.  2d  edit. 

*  lliid.  p.'^ii 

»  V,At\t7*iv  has  written  an  clalwrale  dls(|uisitPon  on  tlic  variations  l)€tween 
the  Hohr.  w  anil  III.'  r<,|«tuajriiit,  in  the  onter  of  Jcrnniah's  prophciiCB; 
am!  has  given  n  table  illiistralinx  those  variations.  f«oe  his  InlloU.  ad  Lit»cs 
UibUcos  Vel.  Test,  pars  lii.  c.  iii.  5  4.  pp  141—152. 


Sect.  II.  §  1.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  JEREMIAH. 


The  fourth  collection,  containing  chapters  xl. — xliv.  inclu- 
sive, pre!=eats  us  with  an  account  of  Jeremiah  himself,  and 
of  the  other  Jews  who  were  left  in  Judfca  by  the  command 
of  Nebuchadnezzar.  The  fifty-second  chapter  was  probably 
added  by  Ezra'  as  a  preface  to  the  book  of  Lamentations. 
It  is  chiefly  taken  out  of  the  latter  part  of  the  second  book  of 
Kings,  with  additions,  which  Ezra  mi^ht  supply  out  of  the 
inspired  records,  and  forr»s  a  very  useful  appendage  to  the 
prophecies  of  Jeremiah,  as  it  illustrates  their  fulfilment  in  the 
destruction  of  the  kingdom,  city,  and  temple,  which  are  the 
subject  of  the  Lamentations. 

III.  From  the  preceding  statements  it  is  obvious  that  the 
prophecies  of  Jeremiah  are  not  arranged  in  the  chronological 
order  in  which  they  were  originally  delivered;  the  cause  of 
their  transposition  it  is  now  impossible  to  ascertain. 

Professor  Duhler  of  Strasbourg,  in  his  French  version  of 
this  prophet,  divides  the  book  into  fifty-five  sections,  which 
he  disposes  in  the  following  manner ;  viz. 

1.  Discourses  published  during  the  Reign  of  Josiah. 


Chapter 
i.  1—19.    - 
iv.  V.  vi.  XXX. 
ii.  1. — iii.  5. 


Year  of  Reign. 
13. 

-  after  13. 

-  after  13. 


Chapter, 
iii.  G. — iv.  4. 
xvii.  19—27. 
xlvii.  1—7. 


Yeax-  of  Reign, 
after  18. 
after  IS. 
uncertain 


2.  Discourses  published  during  the  Beign  of  Jehoiakim, 

Year  of  Reien. 


Chapter 
vii. — ix.  25. 
xs%i.  1 — 21 
rlvi.  2—12. 
X.  1— IG. 
xiv.  1— V.  21. 
x\i.  1. — xvii.  18. 
xviii.  1—2:3. 
xi.v.  1.— XX.  13. 


Year  of  Rei^n. 
1  or  2. 
1  or  2. 
3  or  4. 
4. 
4. 

uncertain, 
uncertain, 
uncertain. 


Chanter. 
XX.  U.— 18. 
x.iiii.  9—40. 
XXXV.  1 — 19. 
xxx.  1— 33. 
xx.wi.  1—32. 
xlv.  1—5. 
xii.  14—17. 
X.  17—25. 


uncertain. 

4  or  5. 

4  or  5. 

5. 

5. 

7  or  8. 

II. 


3.  Discourses  published  during  the  Reign  of  Jeconiah, 

Chap.  xiii.  1—27. 

4.  Discourses  published  during  the  Reign  of  Zedekiah. 

Chapter        Year  of  Reign.  Chapter        Year  of  Reign. 
~         -  .     .     _  jj^_ 


xxii.  1. — xxiii.  8. 

xi.  1—17. 

xl.  13.— xii.  13.  - 

xxiv.  1 — 10. 

xxix.  1 — 32. 

xxvii.  1. — xxviii.  17. 

xlix.  34—39.       - 

li.  59—64. 

xxi.  1 — 14. 


of  Reign. 

Chapter         Y( 

1. 

xx.xiv.  1 — 7. 

1. 

xxxvii.  1—10. 

1. 

xxxiv.  8 — ^22. 

1. 

xxxvii.  11 — 21.    - 

1  or  2. 

xxxviii.  1 — 28.     - 

4. 

xxxix.  15—18.     . 

4. 

xxxii.  1 — 44. 

4. 

xxxiii.  1—26. 

9. 

xxxix.  1—10. 

10. 
10. 
10. 
10. 
10. 
10. 

11. 

11. 


History  of  Jeremiah,  and  Discourses  addressed  by  him  to 
the  Jews  who  were  left  in  Palestine  after  the  Capture  of 
Jerusalem. 

taken. 


Chapter     Year  after  Jer. 
xxxix.  11    14.       •       1. 
xi.  1.— xii.  18.       -        1. 


Chapter     Year  after  Jer.  taken, 
xlii.  1.— xhii.  7.  -    1. 

XXX.  1.  xxxi.  40.         •     1. 


G.  Discourses  addressed  to  the  Jews  in  Egypt. 

Chapt(>r.  Year  after  Jer.  taken. 

xliii.  S— 13.  ...  1 

xlii.  1— 30.  ....      17  or  13. 
xlvi.  13 — 28.         .  -  •  uncertain. 

7.  Discourses  of  uncertain  Date  concerning  foreign  Nations. 

xlvi.  1. — xlix.  1 — 6.  concerning  the  Ammonites, 

xlviii.  I — 47.  ....  Moab. 

xlix.  7 — 22.  ...  Edom. 

xlix.  23 — 27. ....  Damascus. 

1.  1.— li.  53— G4.  ■  .  •  Babylon. 

8.  ^2n  Historical  .Appendix,  chap.  Iii.  1 — 34. 

A  somewhat  different  arrangement,  and  more  simple  than 
the  preceding,  was  proposed  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Biayney  in  his 
version  of  the  writings  of  Jeremiah ;  who  has  endeavoured, 
with  great  judgment,  to  restore  their  proper  order  by  trans- 
posing the  chapters  wherever  it  appearea  to  be  necessary. 
According  to  his  arrangement,  the  predictions  of  Jeremiah 
are  to  be  placed  in  the  following  order ;  viz. 

1 .  The  Prophecies  delivered  in  the  Reign  of  Josiah^  contain- 
ing chapters  i. — xii.  inclusive. 

2.  Tne  Prophecies  delivered  in  the  Reign  of  Jehoiakim,  com- 
prising chapters  xiii. — xx.  xxii.  xxiii.  xxxv.  xxxvi.  xlv. — 
xlviii.  and  xlix.  1 — 33. 

3.  The  Prophecies  delivered  in  the  Reign  of  Zedekiah,  includ- 
ing chapters  xxi.  xxiv.  xxvii. — xxxiv.  xxxvii. — xxxix.  xlix. 
34—39.  and  1.  li. 

4.  The  Prophecies  delivered  under  the  Government  ofGedaliah, 
from  the  taking  of  Jerusalem  to  the  retreat  of  the  people  into 
Egypt,  and  the  prophecies  of  Jeremiah  delivered  to  the 
Jews  in  that  country;  comprehending  chapters  xl. — xliv. 
inclusive. 

As  this  arrangement  throws  much  light  upon  the  predic- 
tions of  Jeremiah,   it  has  been  adopted  in  the  following 

'  Carpzov  ascribes  it  to  Barucli,  or  some  other  inspired  man.  IntroJ. 
par<:  i'i   p.  152. 

Vol.  IL  2  M 


synopsis,   which   accordingly  consists   of 


273 

parts,   and 


thirty-one  prophetic  discourses  : 

The  Introduction  to  the  book  contains  its  title  (i.  1 — 3.), 
the  call  of  Jeremiah  to  the  prophetical  office,  and  the  com- 
mission given  him  by  God  (4—10.)  ;  the  purport  of  which  is 
explained  by  two  symbolical  images  or  visions,  that  of  an 
almond  tree  (IL)  indicating  the  nearness,  and  the  vision  of 
a  seething-pot  typifying  the  severity,  of  the  divine  judgments. 
The  face  of  the  pot  being  turned  from  the  north  denoted  that 
they  were  to  be  inflicted  by  the  Babylonians  and  Chaldeeans, 
whose  empire  lay  to  the  north  of  Judsa,  and  poured  forth  its 
multitudes  like  a  thick  vapour  to  overspread  the  land. 

Part  I.  comprises  such  Prophecies  as  were  delivered  in  the 
Reign  of  Josiah.  (ch.  ii. — xii.) 

Discourse  1.  God,  by  his  prophet,  professes  to  retain  the  same 
kindness  and  favourable  disposition  for  the  Jews  (ii.  1 — 3.), 
with  whom  he  expostulates  on  account  of  their  ungrateful 
returns  for  his  past  goodness  (4 — 13.),  and  shows  that  it  was 
their  own  extreme  and  unparalleled  wickedness  and  disloyalty 
which  had  already  subjected,  and  would  still  expose  them  to 
calamities  and  misery.  (14 — 30.)  This  discourse  concludes 
with  a  pathetic  address,  exhorting  the  Jews  to  return  to  God, 
with  an  implied  promise  of  acceptance,  and  lamenting  the 
necessity  under  which  he  was,  through  their  continued  ob- 
stinacy, of  giving  them  further  marks  of  his  di.splcasure.  (31 
— 37.  iii.  1 — 5.)  Dr.  Biayney  (to  whom  we  are  indebted  for 
this  analysis  of  Jeremiah's  writings)  thinks  that  thLs  prophecy 
was  delivered  soon  after  the  commencement  of  Jeremiah's 
prophetic  commission. 

Discourse  2.  consists  of  two  parts.  The  first  part  contains  a 
complaint  against  Judah  for  having  exceeded  the  guilt  of  her 
sister  Israel,  whom  God  had  already  cast  off  for  her  idolatrous 
aposta.sy.  (iii.  6 — 12.)  The  charge  of  Judah  with  hypocrisy 
in  the  tenth  verse  points  out  the  date  of  this  prophetic  dis- 
course to  have  been  some  time  after  the  eighteenth  year  of 
Josiah's  reign,  when  the  people,  under  the  influence  of  their 
good  king,  were  professedly  engaged  in  measures  of  reforma- 
tion, which,  however,  are  here  declared  to  have  been  insin- 
cere. The  prophet  is  then  commissioned  to  announce  to 
Israel  the  promise  of  pardon  upon  her  repentance,  and  the 
hope  of  a  glorious  restoration  in  after-times,  which  are  plainly 
indicated  to  be  the  times  of  the  Gospel,  when  the  Gentiles 

themselves  were  to  become  a  part  of  the  church.  (12 21.) 

The  children  of  Israel,  confessing  and  bewailing  their  sins, 
have  the  same  comfortable  assurances,  as  before,  repeated  to 
them.  (22 — 25.  iv.  1,  2.)  In  the  second  part,  which  is  pre- 
faced with  an  address  to  the  people  of  Judah  and  Jerusalem, 
exhorting  them  to  prevent  the  divine  judgments  by  a  timeiv 
repentance  (iv.  3 — 5.),  the  Babylonian  invasion  is  clearly  and 
fully  predicted,  with  all  its  attendant  miseries ;  and  the  um 
versal  and  incorrigible  depravity  of  the  people  is  represented 
at  large,  and  stated  to  be  the  justly  provoking  cause  of  the 
national  ruin.  (iv.  6 — 31.  v.  vi.) 

Discourse  3.  Although  the  date  of  this  prophecy  is  not  pre- 
cisely marked.  Dr.  Biayney  thinks  it  probable  that  it  was  de- 
livered shortly  after  the  preceding,  and,  it  should  seem,  on  the 
following  occasion.  Besides  the  prophets  who  were  com- 
missioned to  announce  the  approaching  calamities  of  Judah 
and  Jerusalem,  there  were  others  who  took  upon  themselves 
to  flatter  the  people  with  opposite  predictions.  They  taught 
them  to  regard  such  threats  as  groundless;  since  God  (thev 
said)  would  have  too  much  regard  for  his  own  honour  to  suf- 
fer his  temple  to  be  profaned,  and  the  seat  of  his  holiness  to 
be  given  up  into  the  hands  of  strangers.  In  the  former  part  of 
this  discourse,  therefore,  Jeremiah  is  commanded  openly  to  re- 
prove the  falsehood  of  those  assertions,  and  to  show,  by  an  ex- 
ample in  point,  that  the  sanctity  of  the  place  would  afford  no 
security  to  the  guilty ;  but  that  God  would  assuredly  do  by  his 
house  at  Jerusalem,  what  he  had  done  unto  Shiloh,  and  would 
cast  the  people  of  Judah  out  of  his  sight,  as  he  had  already 
cast  off  the  people  of  Israel  for  their  wickedness,  (vii.  1 — 16.) 
God  justifies  the  severity  of  his  proceedings  by  a  representa- 
tion of  the  people's  impiety  and  idolatry.  (17 — 20.)  The  pro- 
phet declares  that  their  sacrifices  would  be  unacceptable,  while 
they  continued  deaf  to  the  calls  of  God's  messengers  (21 — 
28.)  ;  he  further  specifies  the  gross  idolatries  with  which  they 
were  defiled,  and  pronounces  a  heavy  sentence  of  divine  ven- 
geance both  on  the  dead  and  on  the  living.  (29 — 34.  viii. 
1 — 3.)  In  the  latter  part  of  this  discourse,  the  prophet,  at 
first,  in  the  name  of  Jehovah,  reproves  the  Jews,  who  vainly 
thought  that  He  would  save  them  because  they  had  his  law 


•274 


AI^ALVSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Paut  V.  Chap.  IV 


among  them,  though  they  kept  not  tliat  law.  (viii,  4 — 17.) 
Next,  in  his  own  person,  Jeremiah  pives  vent  to  liis  himenta- 
tions  at  the  foresight  ol"  tlie  cahtinitios  wliich  the  Ch.ilila?atis 
would  inlhct  upon  the  Jews  (18 — 22.  ix.)  ;  and  earnestly  dis- 
suades his  countrymen  from  idolatry-  (x.  1  — 18.),  setting  forth 
the  vanity  of  idols  in  compaiison  with  the  true  God.  Jeru- 
salem is  then  intrwluced,  as  lamenting  the  completion  cf  her 
Tuin,  and  huml.ly  supplicating  the  divine  mercy.  (19 — 25.) 
In  perusing  this  part  of  tlie  prophet's  discourse,  the  diHercncc 
of  speaken;  must  be  attended  to  ;  tiie  tnuisiticn  from  one  to 
another  being  very  quick,  and  sudden,  but  full  of  animation 
and  energy. 
Discourse  4.  was  probably  delivered  towards  the  close  of  Jo- 
siah's  reign;'  when  the  })Cop!e,  having  forgotten  tiie  solemn 
covenant-eiiga:jements  whii;h  they  h;id  made  in  the  18t!i  year 
of  Jo-iah  (2  King:?  xxii.  3.  xxiii.  3.)  are  supposed  to  have  rc- 
Iipsed  into  their  former  disregard  and  neglect  of  the  divine 
law.  The  prophet  was,  therefore,  sent  to  recall  them  to  their 
duty,  by  proclaiming  anew  the  terms  of  the  covenant,  and 
rebuking  them  shaiply  fir  their  hereditary  disobedience,  (xi. 
1 — S.)  He  denoutlce^•  severe  judgments  against  the  people  of 
Judah  and  Jerusalem  for  their  idolatrous  apostasy.  (9 — 17.) 
Ijcing  informed,  by  divine  revelation,  of  the  conspiracy  of  the 
men  of  Anatholh  ag-.iirist  his  life,  he  prays  against  them,  and 
is  authorized  to  foretell  their  utter  destruction  (18 — -3.)  ;  and, 
emboldened  by  the  success  of  his  prayers,  he  ex[)0stulatps  with 
God  concerning  the  prosperity  of  the  wicked  (xii.  1 — 6.), 
v/ho  answers  the  prophet's  expostulation  (7 — l-J.),  and  pro- 
mises the  future  restoration  of  his  people,  with  a  retaliation  in 
kind  upon  their  heathen  neighbours  who  had  oppressed  them: 
but  with  this  reservation,  that  such  of  them  as  would  embrace 
the  worship  of  the  true  God,  would  be  received  and  incorpo- 
rated into  his  church,  while  the  unbelieving  part  would  utterly 
perish.   (14 — 17.) 

Part  II.  contains  the  Prophecies  delivered  in  the  reign  of  Jcho- 
iakiin. 

DiscotrnsE  1.  comprises  a  single  and  distinct  prophecy  ;  which, 
under  two  symbols,  a  linen  girdle  left  to  rot,  and  the  breaking 
of  bottles  (that  is,  skins)  lilted  with  wine,  foretells  the  uiier 
destruction  that  was  destined  to  fill  on  the  whole  Jewi-h  na- 
tion, (xiii.  1 — 14.)  An  exhortation  to  humiliation  and  re{)cnt- 
ance  is  subjoined  (v.  15 — 21.)  ;  and  their  incorrigible  wick- 
edness and  profligacy  arc  assigned  as  the  cause  of  all  the  evils 
that  imminently  awaited  them.  (22 — 27.)  The  particular 
mcntiun  of  the  downfall  of  tlie  king  and  queen  in  the  18th 
verse,  Dr.  Blayney  thinks,  will  justify  the  opinion  which  a.s- 
cribes  this  prophecy  to  the  commencement  of  the  reign  of 
Jehoiakim,  whose  fate,  willi  that  of  his  queen,  is  in  like  man- 
ner noticed  together  in  ch.  xxii.  18. 

DiscotusE  2.  was,  in  all  probability,  d  livcrcd  shortly  after  the 
preceding.  It  predicts  a  .severe  famine,  to  punish  the  Jews  for 
their  sins,  but  which  docs  not  bring  them  to  repentance  (xiv. 
1 — 22.)  ;  and  announces  God's  jwremptory  decree  to  destroy 
Judah,  unless  they  should  .<-:pcedily  repent,  (xv.  1 — 9.)  The 
prophet,  complaining  that  he  is  become  an  object  of  hatred  by 
reason  of  his  oftice,  receives  an  ar.surance  of  divine  jirotcction, 
on  condition  of  obedience  and  fidelity  on  his  part.   (10 — 21.) 

DiscOLKSE  3.  foretells  the  utter  ruin  of  the  Jews,  in  tlie  type  of 
the  prjphct  being  forbidden  to  marry  and  to  feast  (xvi.  1  — 13.)  ; 
and  immediately  afterwards  announces  their  future  restoration 
(14, 15.),  as  well  as  the  conversion  of  the  Gentiles  (Ifi — 21.)  ; 
accompanied  with  a  severe  reproof  of  the  Jews  for  their  attach- 
ment to  idolatry  (the  fatal  consequences  of  which  are  announc- 
ed), and  also  for  their  too  great  reliance  on  human  aid.  (-wii. 
1—18.) 

DiscovnsE  4.  is  taken  up  with  a  distinct  projihccy  relative  to  the 
strict  observance  of  the  8abbatli-day  (xvii.  19 — 27.),  which 
Jeremiah  was  commanded  to  jiroclaim  aloud  in  all  the  gates 
of  Jerusalem,  as  a  matter  that  concerned  the  conduct  of  each 
individual,  and  the  general  happiness  of  tlie  whole  nation. 

DiscounsE  5.  shows,  under  the  type  of  a  potter,  God's  absolute 
authority  over  nations  and  kingdoms,  to  olter  and  regulate 
their  condition  at  his  own  discretion,  (xviii.  1  — 10.)  The 
prophet  is  then  directed  to  exhort  the  Jews  to  avert  their  im- 
f>cnding  dampers  by  repentance  and  amendment,  and,  on  their 
refusal,  to  foretell  their  destruction.  (11 — 17.)  The  Jews 
conspiring  acninst  him,  Jeremiah  implores  judgment  against 
them.  (18—23.) 

•  Mr.  Itoevog  and  other  commentators  refer  it  to  the  commencement  of 
Jcbolakiiu's  reign,  and  conaequently  after  the  death  ofJosiuh. 


DiscoiKSE  G.  Under  the  type  of  brcoking  a  potter's  vessel,  is 
foretold  the  similar  ruin  and  desolation  of.  the  kingdom  of  Ju- 
dah and  the  city  of  Jerusalem  for  their  sins  (xix.)  ;  and  a 
severe  judgment  is  denounced  against  Pashur  for  apprehending 
and  punishing  Jeremiah  (xx.  1 — G.),  who  complains  of  the 
persecutions  he  met  with.   (7 — IS.) 

DiscornsE  7.  is  supposed  to  have  been  delivered  immediately 
after  the  preceding,  and  in  the  precincts  cf  the  temple,  whence 
the  prophet  is  commanded  to  "  go  down  to  the  house  of  the 
king  of  Judah."  It  commences  with  an  address  to  the  king, 
his  servants,  and  peoiilc,  recommending  an  inviolable  adhe- 
rence to  right  and  justice  as  the  only  means  of  establishing  the 
throne,  and  preventing  the  ruin  of  both  prince  and  people. 
Cxxii.  1 — 9.)  'J'lie  cnptivity  of  Shallum  is  declared  to  be  irre- 
versible. (10 — 12.)  Jehoiakim  is  severely  reproved  for  his 
tyrannical  expressions,  and  his  miserable  end  is  foretold.  (13 
— 19.)  His  family  is  threatened  with  a  continunnce  of  simi- 
lar calamities ;  the  fall  and  cajjtivity  of  his  son  Jcconiah  are 
explicitly  set  forth,  toge;lier  with  the  perpetual  exclusion  of 
Lis  potlerity  from  t!ic  throne.  (20 — 30.)  The  i)rophccy  con- 
cludes with  consoUitory  promis-'es  of  future  blessings,  of  the 
return  of  the  people  from  cajilivity,  and  of  happier  times  under 
better  governors;  of  the  glorious  cstablislinient  of  Mec-iah's 
kingdom ;  and  of  the  suhi^equent  final  restoration  of  all  the 
dispersed  Isriiolites  to  their  own  land,  (xxiii.  1 — 8.) 

DiscoL'USK  8.  denounces  the  divine  judgments  against  false  pro- 
])hets,  and  mockers  of  true  prophets,   (xxiii.  9 — 40.) 

DiscoLUSK  9.  i>rcdicts  their  subjugation,  together  with  that  of 
the  neighbouring  nations,  to  the  king  of  Ijabylon  for  seventy 
years  (xxv.  1 — 11.),  at  the  expiration  of  v.-hich  Babylon  was  to 
be  destroyed  (12 — 14.)  ;  and  the  destruction  of  Judah  and 
several  other  countries  (including  Babylon  herself,  here  called 
kflieshach),  is  prefigured  by  the  prophets  druiking  a  cup  of 
wine.  (1.5 — 38.) 

DiscounsE  K'.  Jeremiah  being  directed  to  foretell  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  temple  and  city  of  Jerusalem,  without  a  speedy 
repentance  and  reformation  (xxvi.  1 — 6.),  is  ai)prchendcd  and 
accused  before  the  council  of  a  capiUil  ofli'nce,  but  is  acquitted, 
his  advocate  urging  the  i>recedent  of  Micah  in  the  reign  of 
Hezekiah.  (7 — 19.)  The  sacred  writer  then  observes,  in  his 
own  person,  that  notwithstanding  the  precedent  of  Micah, 
there  had  been  a  later  precedent  in  the  present  reign,  which 
might  have  operated  very  unfavourahlj'  to  the  cause  of  Jere- 
miah, but  for  the  powerful  influence  and  authority  exercised 
in  his  behalf  by  Ahikam,  the  son  of  Shaphan.  (20 — 24.) 

DiscoLHSE  11.  The  Jews'  disobedience  to  God  is  condemned  by 
comparison  with  the  obedience  of  the  Rechabites  to  the  com- 
mands of  Jonadab  their  father,  who  had  prescribed  to  them  a 
certain  rule  of  life.  A  blessing  is  promised  to  the  Rechabites 
for  their  dutiful  behaviour,  (xxxv.) 

DiscocHSE  12.  By  divine  appointment  Jeremiah  causes  Baruch 
to  write  all  his  former  prophecies  in  a  roll,  and  to  read  them 
to  the  people  on  a  fast-day.  (xxxvi.  1 — 10.)  The  princes 
being  informed  of  it,  send  for  Bnruch,  who  reads  the  roll  be- 
fore them.  (11 — 15.)  Filled  with  consternation  at  its  con- 
ti;nts,  they  advise  Jeremiah  and  Baruch  to  hide  tliemselves 
(IG — 19.);  they  acquaint  the  king,  who  sends  for  the  roll, 
and  having  heard  part  of  its  contents,  he  cuts  it  to  pieces,  and 
burns  it.  (20 — 2(5.)  Jeremiah  is  commanded  to  write  it  anew, 
and  to  denounce  the  judgments  of  Ciod  against  Jelioiakim 
(27 — 31.)  Baruch  accordingly  writes  a  new  copy  with  addi 
tions  (32.);  but  being  greatly  alarmed  at  the  threatenings 
contained  in  those  predictions,  and  being  perhaps  afraid  of 
sharing  in  the  persecutions  of  the  jirophet,  God  comniisBions 
Jeremiah  to  assure  Bamch  that  his  life  should  be  preserved  by 
a  special  providence  amidst  oil  the  calamities  denounced  agairist 
Judah.  (xlv.) 

Discourse  13.  contains  a  scries  of  prophecies  against  sevcra. 
heathen  nations  (xlvi.  1.),  which  are  supposed  to  have  been 
placed  towards  the  close  of  tlie  book  of  Jeremiiih,  as  being  in 
some  measure  unconnected  with  the  others.  .\s,  however,  in 
point  of  time,  they  were  evidently  delivered  during  the  reign 
of  Jehoiakim,  they  may  with  great  propriety  be  referred  to  the 
present  section.     In  this  discourse  arc  comprised, 

(1.)  A  prnph'-ry  of  ilic  ilpfrnt  of  ilie  EpypliMis  Itint  gorrlsonert  Carche. 

iiiikli,  by  tlic  (;ii:ilila!an!)(xlvi.  2—12.),  anil  uf  tlio  entire  coiiqiical  of 

tlinl  country  by  Ni>l)Urlwilnf7.7.i\r.  (13— if?.) 
(2.)  Prf^illcfions  of  llin  Biililnualion  of  llic  land  of  the  riiilislinoB,  inrliid 

ing  Tyrn  (xlvii ),  and  also  of  llic  Moabilcs  (xlviil),  by  Itic  forcca  oi 

N«'liurliailni"7.r.nr. 
(3.)  Pre(l'rii,,iiM  of  ihe  ronnnrst  of  ttio  AmmonllcR  (xlix.  1— C)  by  lh« 

aaiiio  nion.'.rcli,  and  likewlso  of  tlir  land  of  E<loiu  (7— 'H),  of  Uoroas 

cut  (2i— 27),  and  of  Kedar.  (2S-33.) 


Sect.  II.  §  1.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  JEREMIAH. 


275 


Part  HI.  coniains  the  Prophecies  delivered  in  the  reign  of 
Zedekiah  Kir.g  of  Judoh. 

DiscorusE  1.  A  prediction  of  the  conquest  of  Elam  <Jr  Persia  hy 
the  Chaldeeans,  delivered  in  tlie  beginning  of  Zodekiah's  reign. 
(xlix.  3-1 — 39.)  On  The  final  subversion  of  the  Babylonish 
monarchy,  Elam  was  restored  (as  promised  in  ver.  39.)  to  its 
former  possessors,  who  had  fought  under  the  banners  of  the 
Medes  and  Persians.  ' 

Discourse  2.  Under  the  type  of  good  and  bad  figs,  God  repre- 
sents to  Jeremiah  the  diflcrent  manner  in  which  he  should 
deal  with  the  people  that  were  already  gone  into  captivity,  and 
with  Zedekiah  and  his  subjects  who  were  left  behind  ; — show- 
ing favour  and  kindness  to  the  former  in  their  restoration  and 
re-establishment,  but  pursuing  the  latter  with  unrelenting  judg- 
ments to  utter  destruction,   (xxiv.) 

Discourse  3.  The  Jews  at  Babylon  are  warned  not  to  believe 
such  as  pretended  to  foretell  their  speedy  return  into  their  own 
country  (xxix.  1 — 23.)  ;  and  judgment  is  denounced  against 
Shcmaiah  for  writing  against  Jeremiah  to  the  icws  at  Baby- 
lon (2<1 — 32.)  Dr.  Bkyney  has  remarked  that,  in  the  Sep- 
tuagint  version,  the  fifteenth  verse  of  this  chapter  is  read  im- 
mediately after  verse  20.,  which  seems  to  be  its  original  and 
proper  place. 

Discourse  4.  contains  prophecies  of  the  restoration  of  the  Jews 
from  Babylon,  but  chiefly  from  their  dispersion  by  the  Romans, 
on  their  general  conversion  to  Christianity  (xxx.)  ;  and  pre- 
dicts their  happy  state  after  that  glorious  event  shall  be  accom- 
plished (xxxi.  1 — 26.),  concluding  with  a  fuller  prophecy 
describing  the  Gospel  state,  as  also  the  state  of  the  Jews  after 
their  conversion.  (27 — 38.)  "  Both  events,"  Dr.  Blayney  re- 
marks, "  are  frequently  thus  connected  together  in  the  pro- 
phetic writings,  an<]  perhaps  with  this  design,  that  when  that 
which  was  nearest  at  hand  should  be  accomplished,  it  might 
afford  the  strongest  and  most  satisfactory  kind  of  evidence,  that 
the  latter,  how  remote  soever  its  period,  would  in  like  manner 
be  brought  about  by  the  interposition  of  Providence  in  its  due 
season." 

Discourse  5.  Zedekiah,  in  the  fourth  year  of  his  reign,  being 
solicited  by  ambassadors  from  the  kings  of  Edom,  Moab,  and 
other  neighbouring  nation?,  to  join  them  in  a  confederacy 
against  the  king  of  Babylon,  the  prophet  Jeremiah  is  ordered, 
under  the  type  of  bonds  and  yokes,  to  admonish  them,  espe- 
cially Zedekiah,  quietly  to  submit  to  the  king  of  Babylon,  and 
warns  them  not  to  listen  to  the  suggestions  of  false  prophets 
(xxvii.) ;  and  the  death  of  Hananiah,  who  was  one  of  them, 
is  foretold  within  the  year  (xxviii.  1  — 16.),  who  died  accord- 
ingly about  two  months  after.  (17.) 

Discourse  G.  contains  a  prophecy  concerning  the  fall  of  Baby- 
lon, intermixed  and  contrasted  with  predictions  concerning  the 
redemption  of  Israel  and  Judah.  who  were  not,  like  their  prede- 
cessors, to  be  finallj' extirpated,  but  to  survive,  and,  upon  their 
repentance  and  conversion,  they  were  to  be  pardoned  and  re- 
stored. (1.  H.  1 — 58.)  This  prophecy  against  Babylon  was 
delivered  in  the  fourth  year  of  Zedekiah' s  reign,  and  sent  to 
the  Jews  there,  in  order  to  be  read  to  them :  after  which  it  was 
to  be  sunk  in  the  Euphrates,  as  a  type  of  the  perpetual  destruc- 
tion of  Babylon.i 

Discourse  7.  was  probably  delivered  in  the  ninth  year  of  Zede- 
kiah, previously  to  the  siege  of  Jerusalem,  which  commesced 
in  the  tenth  month  of  that  year.  In  this  prophecy  Jeremiah 
(who  had  been  requested  to  "  inquire  of  the  Lord'*  for  his 
countr3'mcn)  foretells  a  severe  siege  and  miserable  captivity, 
and  advises  the  people  to  yield  to  the  Chaldaeans  (xxi.  1 — 10.)  ; 
and  the  members  of  the  royal  house  are  warned  to  prevent  the 
effects  of  God's  indignation  by  doing  justice,  and  not  to  trust 
to  their  stronghold,  which  would  be  of  no  avail  whatever  to 
them  when  God  was  bent  upon  their  destruction.  (11 — 14.) 

Discourse  8.  consists  of  two  distinct  prophecies.  The  first, 
probably  delivered  towards  the  close  of  the  ninth  year  of  Zede- 
kiah's  reign,  announces  to  the  Jewish  monarch  the  capture  and 
burning  of  Jerusalem,  his  own  captivity,  peaceful  death,  and 
honourable  interment,  (xxxiv.  1 — 7.)  The  secoraJ  prophecy, 
which  was  announced  some  time  after,  when  the  ChaldsEans 

»  The  fifty.first  chapter  of  .Jeremiah  closes  with  the  following  sentence  : 
— "  Tims  far  are  the  words  of  Jeremiah ;"  which,  Dr.  Blayney  thinks,  was 
added  by  the  person  (whoever  it  might  be)  that  collected  hie  prophecies, 
and  digested  them  in  the  order  in  whicli  we  now  find  thcin  in  tlie  Hebrew 
Bibles.  This  sentence  doe?  not  occur  in  the  Septuapint  version,  where 
indeed  it  couki  not  be  introduced  at  the  end  of  this  chapter,  because  the 
chapters  are  arranged  differently  in  tliat  version  ;  and  chapter  li.  forms 
only  the  twenty-eighth  of  the  collection.  Tlie  disposition  of  Jeremiah's 
prophecies  is,  epnarently,  so  arbitrary,  that  it  is  not  likely  that  it  was  made 
under  the  prophet's  direction. 


had  broken  off  the  siege  in  order  to  encounter  the  Egyptian 
army,  severely  reproves  and  threatens  the  Jews  for  their  per- 
fidious violation  of  the  covenant  they  had  newly  made  of  obe- 
dience to  God.  (S — 22.) 

DiscouusK  9.  Jeremiah  foretells  the  retreat  of  the  Egyptian.s 
and  the  return  of  the  Chaldeans  to  the  siege  of  Jerusalem, 
which  should  be  taken  and  burnt  by  the  forces  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, (xxxvii.  1 — 10.)  For  tliis  he  was  put  into  a  dungeon 
(11 — 15.),  from  which  he  was  released,  but  still  kept  a  pri- 
soner, though  the  rigom-  of  his  confuiement  was  abated. 
(16—21.) 

Discourse  10.  confirms  the  promised  return  of  the  Jews  from 
captivity,  by  Jeremiah  being  commanded  to  buy  a  field, 
(xxxii.) 

Discourse  11.  predicts  the  restoration  of  Israel  and  Judah 
(xxxiii.  1 — 9.),  and  that  the  land,  whose  desolation  the  Jews 
deplored,  should  again  flourish  with  multitudes  of  men  aud  cat- 
tle (10 — 13.)  ;  whence  the  prophet  takes  occasion  to  confirm 
his  former  promise  of  establishing  a  perpetual  kingdom  of 
righteouF.ness  under  the  Me.s.siah.  (14 — 2G.)  This  evangeli- 
cal prediction  is,  as  yet,  unfullilled.  "  The  days,  it  is  evident, 
are  not  yet  arrived,  thougti  they  will  certainly  come,  for  the 
pcrfoniiance  of  God's  good  promise  concerning  the  restoration 
of  the  house  of  Israel  and  the  house  of  Judah,  under  Christ 

THEIR  RIOIITEOUSXESS." 

Discourse  12.  contains  the  last  transaction  in  which  Jeremiah 
was  prophetically  concerned  before  the  taking  of  Jerusalem. 
It  relates  the  imprisonment  of  Jeremiah  in  a  deep  and  miry 
dungeon,  at  the  instance  of  the  princes  of  Judah  (xxxviii. 
1 — 6.);  his  deliverance  thence  (7 — 13.);  and  the  prophet's 
advice  to  Zedekiah,  who  had  consulted  him  privately,  to  sub- 
mit himself  to  the  Chaldeans.  (14 — 27.)  The  capture  of  the 
city,  the  flight  of  Zedekiah,  and  the  particulars  of  his  punisli- 
ment  after  he  had  been  taken  and  brought  before  the  king  of 
Babylon,  are  then  related  (xxxix.  1 — 10.)  together  with  the 
kind  treatment  of  the  prophet  in  consequence  of  a  special 
charge  from  Nebuchadnezzar.  (11 — 13.)  In  conclusion,  the 
piety  of  Ebedmelech  is  rewarded  with  a  promise  of  personal 
safety  amidst  the  ensuing  public  calamities.  (15 — 18.) 

Part  IV.  contains  a  particular  Account  of  ivhat  pasted  in  the 
Land  of  Judah,  from  the  taking  of  Jtrusakni  to  the  Jietreat 
of  the  Jewish  People  into  Egypt,  and  tlie  Prophecies  of  JerC' 
mlah  concerning  them  while  in  thai  Countri/. 

Discourse  1.  Jeremiah  has  his  choice  either  to  go  to  Babylon, 
or  to  remain  in  Judtea  (xl.  1 — 6.),  whither  the  dispersed  Jews 
repaired  to  Gedaliah  the  governor  (7 — 12.)  ;  who  being  trea- 
cherously slain  (13 — 16.  xli.  1 — 10.),  the  Jews  left  in  Judaea 
intend  to  go  down  to  Egypt  (11 — 18.),  from  which  course  the 
prophet  dissuades  them,  (xlii.) 

Discourse  2.  The  Jews  going  into  Egypt  contrarj'  to  the  divina 
command  (xliii.  1 — 7.),  Jeremiah  foretells  to  them  the  conquest 
of  that  kingdom  by  Nebuchadnezzar  (8 — 13.)  ;  he  predicts 
destruction  to  all  the  Jews  that  willingly  went  into  Egypt 
(xliv.  1 — 13.),  whose  obstinate  idolatry  is  related  (14 — 19.), 
destruction  is  denounced  against  them,  and  the  dethroneraenf 
of  Pharaoh  Hophrah  king  of  Egypt  (by  profane  authors  called 
Apries)  is  foretold.  (20—30.) 

Tl-.e  Conclusion  of  Jeremiah's  prophecy,  containing  tlio 
fifty-second  chapter,  was  added  after  his  time,2  subsequently 
to  the  return  from  captivity,  of  which  it  gives  a  short  account, 
and  forms  a  proper  argument  or  introduction  to  the  Lamenta- 
tions of  Jeremiah. 

IV.  Although  the  greater  part  of  Jeremiah's  predictions 
related  to  his  countrymen  the  Jews,  many  of  whom  lived  to 
behold  their  literal  fulfilment,  and  thus  attested  his  prophetic 
mission,  wiiile  several  of  his  predictions  concerned  other 
nations  (as  will  be  seen  from  the  Dreceding  analysis)  ;  yet 
two  or  three  of  his  prophecies  so  clearly  announce  the  Mes- 
siah, that  it  would  be  a  blamable  omission  were  we  to  pass 
them  unnoticed. 

In  ch.  xxiii.  5,  6.  is  foretold  the  mediatonal  kmgdom  of 
the  Messiah,  who  is  called  the  Lord  our  Righteousness. 
On  this  passage  Dr.  Hales  has  cited  the  following  remark 
from  the  ancient  rabbinical  book  of  IkMrim,  which  (he 
observes)  well  expresses  the  reason  of  the  appellation  :— 
"  The  Scripture  calls  the  name  of  the  Messiah,  JAOH,  our 
Righteousness,  to  intimate  that  he  will  be  a  mediatorial 
God,  by  whose  hand  w^e  shall  obtain  justification  from  the 
Name  :  wherefore  it  calls  him  by  the  name  of  the  Namb 

»  See  p.  273.  supra  of  this  volume. 


276 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  V.  Chip.  FV' 


(that  is,  the  ineffable  name  JAOIl,  here  put  for  God  him- 
self)."' 

Again,  in  .Tor.  xxxi.  22.  we  have  a  distinct  prediction  of 
the  miraculous  conception  of  Jesus  Christ;-  antl  in  xxxi.  31 
— 3fi.  and  xxxiii.  8.  the  efficacy  of  Christ's  atonrnient,  tho 
Sjiiritual  character  of  the  new  covenant,  and  tlie  inward 
efficacy  of  the  Gospel,  are  most  clearly  and  emphatically 
described.  Compare  Saint  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews, 
T'l.  viii.  8 — 13.  and  x.  1(5.  et  fcq. 

V.  The  Style  of  Jeremiah,  thoufrh  not  deficient  in  eWance 
or  sublimity,  is  considered  !)y  Bishop  Lowth  as  being  inflrior 
in  both  respects  to  Isaia'.i.  Jerome,''  after  some  Jewish 
writers,  has  objwted  to  tlie  propiiet  a  certain  rusticity  of 
expression,  which  however  it  is  very  diflacult  to  trace. 
Tiiough  the  sentiments  of  Jeremiali  arc  not  always  the  most 
elevated,  nor  his  pt-riods  . uniformly  neat  and  compact ;  yet 
his  style  is  in  a  hiph  degree  beautiful  and  tender,  especially 
when  liL'  has  occasi  jn  to  excite  the  softer  passions  of  grief 
and  pity,  which  is  frequently  the  case  in  the  earlier  parts  of 
his  prophecies.'  These  are  chiefly  poetical.  The  middle 
of  his  book  is  almost  entirely  historical,  and  is  written  in  a 
plain  prosaic  style,  suitable  to  historical  narrative.  On  many 
occasions  l»e  is  very  elegant  and  sublimp,  especially  in  xlvi. 
— li.  1 — 5'J,  which  are  wholly  poetical,  and  in  which  the 
prophet  approaches  very  near  the  sublimity  of  Isaiah.* 

§  2.    ON  THE  LAMENTATIONS  OF  JEREMIAH. 

I.  Author,  date,  and  argument  of  the  book. — II.   Synopsis  of 
its  contents. — III.  Observutiotis  on  its  style  and  structure. 

I.  That  Jeremiah  was  the  author  of  the  Klegies  or 
Lamentations  which  bear  his  name  is  evident,  not  only  from 
a  very  ancient  aud  almost  uninlerriinted  tradition,  but  also 
from  the  argimient  and  style  of  the  oook,  which  correspond 
exactly  with  those  of  his  prophecies. '= 

Josephiis,  Jerome,  Junius,  Archbishop  Usher,  Michaelis, 
Dathe,  and  other  eminent  writers,  are  of  opinion,  that  tlie 
Lamentations  of  Jeremiah  were  the  same  which  are  men- 
tioned in  2  Chron.  xxxv.  25.  as  being  composed  by  the 
prophet  on  the  death  of  the  pious  kingJosian,  and  which 
are  there  said  to  have  been  perpetuated  by  "an  ordinance  in 
Israel."  Hut,  whatever  may  have  become  of  those  Lament- 
ations, it  is  evident  that  those  cannot  possibly  be  the  same ; 
f.T  their  whole  tenor  plainly  shows,  that  tiiey  were  not  com- 
posed till  after  the  subversion  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah. 
The  calamities  which  Jeremiah  had  foretold  in  his  prophecies 
are  here  deplored  as  having  actually  taken  place,  viz.  the 
impositions  of  the  false  prophets  who  had  seduced  the  people 
by  their  lying  declarations,  the  destruction  cf  the  holy  city 
and  temple,  the  overthrow  of  the  state,  and  the  extermination 
of  the  people.  But  though  it  be  allowed  that  the  Lamenta- 
tions were  ])rimarily  intended  as  a  pathetic  description  of 
])re8ent  calamities^  yet  it  has  with  great  probability  been 
conjectured  that,  while  Jeremiah  mourns  the  desolation  of 
Judah  and  Ji-rusalem,  he  rnay  be  considered  as  prophetically 
painting  the  still  greater  miseries  they  were  to  sulVer  at  some 
Inture  lime;  and  this  seems  plainly  indicated  by  his  referring 
to  the  time  when  the  punishment  of  their  ini(iuity  shall  be 
accomplished,  and  they  shall  no  more  be  carried  into  cai)tivity. 
(iv.  22.)' 

II.  'I  his  book,  whicli  in  our  Bible  is  divided  into  five 
chapters,  consists  of  five  distinct  elegies  ;  viz. 

'   Vr.  IlalcrfV-  Analysis  of  Clironolofry,  vol.  ii.  book  i.  p.  181.  tvlio  cites 

Buxtorfa  Lexicon,  voce  r'>n».  Dr.  II.  lliliiks  Ihal  I'aul  ilcrivcd  iIjw  decla- 
ration he  hail  iiiinti-  cnnrrTiiini;  J'-hiih  C'hrii.t,  in  I  Cur.  i.'J).  anil  Pliil.  li.  'J— 
II.,  irom  the  above  citeil  |)a.s,t:ij!f  of  Jereiiiinh. 

»  I'fiffcsRor  DulilercoiLsiilcrHiliin  Hicii|ily  as  a  provrrliial  expression;  nnil 
tlin  inoiiern  Jewn,  atwl  a  few  C'liriNlian  nituipirlcrrt,  parliciilarly  llie  lale 
Dr.  niiiyncy  iti  liiM  tran.sjation  of  Jerrmiali.  have  ilenii-il  the  applicrtlion  of 
II. in  proplieoy  lotln;  Messiah  ;  Lut  the  followint;  reiiuirk-i  will  dhow  that  lliis 
ilcniiiJ  ii  not  authorized.  Acconhtiu  lo  the  fir.-U  evaiiaellcnl  promlt^e  eon- 
cerniiii?  the  acrd  of  the  ttoman,  followed  llii.4  prediction  of  ihr  prop'iel  :— 
T'ir.  Luril  halh  rrtitlfd  a  nrtc  Ihinif  m  the.  riirt/i,  a  trnninn  a/iaU  rumpling 
a  man.  (Jer.  xxxi.  22.)  That  new  rrc.ition  of  u  iivin  it>  theretori:  nnr,  and 
Itictefore  a  creation,  hccaime  wrought  In  a  \voninn  only,  wiihoiit  a  man, 
couipas.Hinn  a  man.  Thin  intcrprclalion  in  ancient,  lileral,  and  char.  The 
V  ii-irt  n   iiilraridoMs  conception  :  the  orinV?;/ 7r>r«  ackiiowledprd 

'  and  applied  it  deteriiiiiialely  Id  the  Mi-Ksisih.    Thl.s  iTophecy  i.s 

J  .  ,1  hy  iiiai  of  Inaiah  vil.  11.— lip.  I'earsou  on  the  Creed,  art.  ni.  p. 
171.  edit.  I7I'>,  folio.  ' 

»  Prcf.  ad  Com.  In  Jerem. 

«  Heo  the  whole  of  ch.  Ix.  ch.  xiv.  17.  Ac  and  xx.  11-19. 

»  Ijowlh'H  Lcctureii,  vol.  il.  pp.  8H,  89. 

•  Prof  Pareati  han  amply  prove. I  thia  point  from  a  iieneral  roll.iti..n  of 
jtie  Prophecies  of  Jcreminh  with  H.-lect  p.isKafo.^  of  ihU  hook,  in  the  pr.  . 
V^',!.."],'*'  •^i*''''ri  iiion  to  hLs  I.ntni  version  of  llie  LamLnlalion»  (Lua.  bat. 
1(90.  Svo.),  lUusir.Kcd  with  notes. 

'  Bishop  Touiliue'8  Elements  of  Chrislisn  The.  higr,  vu!.  I.  pp.  112,  113. 


Elect  1.  The  proplM>t  begins  with  lamenting  the  sod  reverse 
of  fortune  which  liis  country  had  cxperienciil,  conft-.ssing  at 
the  same  lime  that  all  her  miseries  were  the  just  consequences 
of  the  national  wickedness  and  rebcUion  against  God.  In  the 
midst  of  his  discourse  he  withdraws  himself  from  view,  and 
introduce."  Jerusalem,  to  continue  the  complaint,  and  humbly 
to  solicit  the  divine  comjiassion.  Jahii  is  of  Uiiinion,  that,  in 
this  elegy,  Jeremiah  di'j)lores  the  dejK.rtation  of  king  Jehoi.i- 
cbin,  and  ten  thousand  of  the  princijial  Jews,  to  Babylon. 
Compare  2  Kings  xxiv.  8 — 17.  and  2  Chron.  .\xxvi.  9,  10. 

Eleot  2.  Jeremiah  gi»cs  a  melancholy  detail  of  the  dire  effect;* 
of  the  divine  anger  in  the  subversion  of  the  ci\il  and  religiotts 
constitution  of  the  Jews,  and  in  that  extreme  misery  to  which 
every  class  of  individuals  was  reduced.  He  represents  the 
wretchedness  of  his  country  as  unparalleled  ;  and  charges  the 
false  prophets  with  having  betrayed  her  into  ruin  by  their 
false  and  flattering  suggestions.  In  this  forlorn  and  desolate 
condition, — the  astonishment  and  by-word  of  all  who  see 
her, — JerusaKm  is  directt  d  earnestly  to  implore  the  removal 
of  those  heavy  judgments  which  God,  in  the  height  of  his 
displeasure,  had  inflicted  upon  her. — Jahn  thinks  that  this 
elegy  was  composed  on  the  storming  of  Jerusalem  by  the 
Babylonian  army. 

Eli:(;y  3.  The  prophet,  by  describing  his  own  most  severe  and 
trying  aillictions,  aud  setting  forth  the  inexhaustible  mercies 
of  God,  as  the  never-failing  source  of  his  consolation,  exhorts 
his  countrymen  to  be  patient  and  resigned  under  the  divine 
chasli.scments.  He  asserts  the  divine  supremacy  in  the  dis- 
pensations of  good  and  evil,  antl  argues  that  no  man  has  a 
right  to  complain,  when  he  is  punLshed  according  to  his  de- 
serts. He  recommends  it  to  his  fellow-sufferers  to  examine 
themselves,  and  to  turn  to  God  with  contrite  hearts  ;  and  con- 
cludes by  cxprcs.siiig  his  liojic,  that  the  same  Providence  that 
had  formerly  delivered  him,  vk-ould  frustrate  the  malice  of  his 
present  enemies,  and  would  turn  the  scornful  reproach,  which 
they  had  cast  upon  him,  to  tlieir  own  confusion. 

Elkoy  4.  exhibits  a  striking  contrast,  in  various  affecting  in- 
stances, between  the  present  deplorable  and  v.Tctched  condi- 
tion of  the  Jewish  nation  and  their  former  flourishing  aflairs  ; 
and  ascribes  the  unhappy  change  chiefly  to  the  profligacy  of 
it.5  priests  and  prophets.  The  people  proceed  with  lamenting 
their  hopeless  condition,  especially  the  captivity  of  their  sove- 
reign Zcdekiah.  This  elegy  concludes  with  predicting  the 
judgments  that  were  impending  over  the  Edomitcs,  together 
with  a  final  cessation  of  Sion's  calamities. 

Elko  Y  5.  is  an  epilogue  or  conclusion  to  ihe  preceding  chapters 
or  elegies.  In  the  Syriac,  Arabic,  and  Vulgate  versions,  this 
chapter  is  cntit'cd  Thf.  Phayeu  of  Jkre.miau;  but  no  sucli 
title  appears  in  the  Hebrew  copies,  or  in  the  Srptuagint  ver- 
sion. It  is  rather,  as  Dr.  Blayney  has  remarked,  a  memorial 
representing,  in  the  name  of  the  whole  body  of  Jewish  exiles, 
the  numerous  calamities  under  wliich  they  groaned ;  and 
humbly  supidicating  God  to  commiserate  their  wretchedness, 
and  to  restore  them  once  more  to  his  favour,  and  to  their  an- 
cient pro.sjH'rily. 

HI.  The  Lamentations  are  evidently  written  in  metre,  and 
contain  a  number  of  plaintive  effusions  composed  after  t\w. 
manner  of  funeral  dirges.  Bishop  Lowth  is  of  opinion  that 
they  were  originally  written  by  the  prophet,  as  llu  y  arose  iti 
his  mind,  in  a  long  course  of  separate  stanzas,  and  that  they 
were  subsctpicntly  collected  into  one  poem.  Kach  elegy 
consists  of  twenty -two  periods,  according  to  the  number  of 
letters  in  the  Hebrew  alphabet;  althougb  it  is  in  the  four 
first  chapters  only  that  the  several  periods  begin  (after  the 
manner  of  an  acrostic)  with  the  ditferent  letters  lollowing 
eacli  f  iher  in  alphabetical  order.  By  this  contrivance,  the 
nu'tre  is  more  jirecisely  marked  and  ascertained,  particularly 
in  the  third  chapter,  where  each  period  contains  three  verses, 
all  having  llie  same  initial  letter.  The  two  first  chapters,  in 
lik(3  manner,  consist  of  triplets,  excepting  only  the  seventh 
period  f)f  the  first  and  the  nineteenth  of  the  second,  each  cf 
which  has  a  supernumerary  line.  The  fourth  chapter  resem- 
blcH  the  three  forim-r  in  metre,  but  the  periods  are  only 
coujilets;  and  in  the  fifth  chapter  the  periods  are  couplets, 
though  of  a  cons^iderably  shorter  measure. 

Although  there  is  no  artificial  or  methodical  arrangement 
of  the  subject  in  these  incomparable  elegies,  yet  they  are 
totally  free  from  wild  incolierency  or  abrupt  transition. 
Never,  perhap.s,  was  there  a  greater  variety  nf  beautiful, 
tender,  and  pathetic  images,  all  expressive  of  the  deepest 
distress  and  sorrow,  more  hap])ily  ctiosen  and  applied  tiian 
in  the  lamentations  of  tiiis  prophet;  nor  can  we  too  much 


S^c  r.  III.  §  4.] 

admire  the  full  and  oTaceful  flow  of  that  pathetic  eloquence, 
in  which  the  author  j'.ours  forth  the  effusions  of  a  patriot 
heart,  and  piously  weeps  over  the  ruin  of  his  venerable 
country.' 


§  3.    ON  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  HABAKKUK. 

I.  Author  and  date. — II.  .Analysis  of  his  prophecy. — III.    06" 
servations  on  his  style. 

BEFORE  CHRIST,  612 598. 

I.  We  have  no  certain  information  concerning  the  tribe  or 
birth-place  of  Habakkuk.  The  pseudo-Epiphanius  affirms 
that  he  was  of  the  tribe  of  Simeon,  and  was  born  at  Beth- 
cazar.  Some  commentators  ha%'e  supposed  that  he  prophesied 
in  Judaia  in  ihe  reign  of  Manasseh,  but  Archbishop  Usher 
places  him,  with  greater  probability,  in  the  reign  of  Jehoia- 
kim.  Compare  Hiab.  i,  5,  6.  Consequently  this  prophet  was 
contemporary  with  Jeremiah.  Several  apocryphal  predictions 
and  other  writing's  are  ascribed  to  Habakkuk.  but  without 
au}-  foundation.  His  genuine  writings  are  comprised  in  the 
three  chapters  which  have  been  transmitted  to  us ;  and  the 
subject  of  thenx  is  the  same  with  that  of  Jeremiah,  viz.  the 
destruction  of  Judah  and  Jerusalem  by  the  Chaldajans,  for 
the  heinous  sins  of  the  Jewish  people,  and  the  consolation 
of  the  faithful  amid  all  their  national  calamities. 

II.  The  prophecy  of  Habakkuk  consists  of  two  parts;  the 
first  is  in  the  form  of  a  dialogue  between  God  and  the  prophet, 
and  the  second  is  a  sublime  ode  or  hymn,  v/hich  was  probably 
intended  to  be  used  in  the  public  service. 

Part  I.  The  Prophet  cotnplaining  of  ihe  Growth  of  Iniquity 
anions;  the  Jews  (i.  1 — 4.),  God  is  introduced,  announcing 
the  Babylonish  Cuptivily  as  a  Punishment  fur  their  Wicked- 
ness. (5 — 11.) 

The  prophet  then  humbly  expostulates  with  God  for  punishing 
the  Jews  by  the  instrumentaUty  of  the  Chaldceans.  (12 — 17. 
ii.  1.)  In  answer  to  this  complaint,  God  repUes  that  he  will, 
in  due  time,  perform  his  promises  to  his  people,  of  deliverance 
by  the  Mi=ssiah  (implying  also  the  nearer  deliverance  by 
Cyrus),  (ii.  2 — 4.)  The  destruction  of  the  Babylonish  em- 
pire is  then  foretold,  together  with  the  judgment  that  would 
be  infiicted  upon  the  Chaldeans  for  their  covetousness,  cruelty, 
and  idolatrj'.  (5 — 20.) 
art  II.  CbTitains  the  Prayer  or  Pfalm  cf  Habakhuh. 

In  this  prayer  he  implores  God  to  hasten  the  deliverance  of  his 
people  (iii.  1,  2.),  and  takes  occasion  to  recount  the  wonderful 
works  of  the  Almighty  in  conducting  his  people  through  the 
wilderness,  and  giving  them  possession  of  the  promised  land 
(3 — 16.)  :  whence  he  encourages  himself  and  other  pious  per- 
sons to  rely  upon  God  for  making  good  his  promises  to  their 
posterity  in  after-ages. 

III.  Habakkuk  holds  a  distinguished  rank  am.ong  the 
sacred  poets ;  whoever  reads  his  prophecy  must  be  struck 
with  the  grandeur  of  his  imagery  and  the  sublimity  of  its 
style,  especially  of  the  hymn  in  the  third  chapter,  which 
Bishop  Lowth  considers  one  of  the  most  perfect  specimens 
of  the  Hebrew  ode.  Michaelis,  after  a  close  examination, 
pronounces  him  to  be  a  g-reat  imitator  of  former  poets,  but 
with  some  new  additions  of  his  own,  which  are  characterzied 
by  brevity,  and  by  no  common  degree  of  sublimity.     Com- 

fare  Hab.  ii.  12.  with  Mic.  iii.  10.,  and  Hab.  ii.  14.  with 
sa.  si.  9.2 


OX  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  DANIEL. 

rature  of  the  Chald 


277 


§  4.    ON  the  book  of  the  prophet  DANIEL. 

I.  .iuthor  and  date. — II.  Analysis  of  its  contents. — III.  Obser- 
vations on  its  canonical  authority  and  style. —  Objections 
to  its  authe7iticity  refuted. — IV.  Account  of  the  spurious 
additions  made  to  it. 

BEFORE  CHUIST,  606 — 534. 

1.  Daniel,  the  fourth  of  the  greater  prophets,  if  not  of 
royal  birth  (as  the  Jews  affirm),  was  cf  noble  descent,  and 
was  carried  captive  to  Babylon  at  an  early  age,  in  the  fourth 
year  of  Jehoiachin  king  of  Judah,  in  the  year  606  before  the 
Christian  ^ra,  and  seven  years  before  the  deportation  of 
Ezekiel.    -Having  been  instructed  in  the  language  and  lite- 

'  Dr.  Blayney's  Jeremiali,  p.  453.  et  seq.  Bishop  Lowih's  Lectures  on 
Hebrew  Poetry,  lect.  xxii.  ht  fine.  Jahn,  Introd.  a^l  Vet.  Foed.  pp.  415 — 417. 
C'arpzov,  Introd.  ad  Libros  Bi'blicos,  pars  iii.  cap.  iv.  pp.  177—197. 

»  Lowlh's  Lectures,  vol.  ii.  p.  99. 


oeans,  which  at  that  time  was  greatly 
superior  to  the  learning  of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  he  aftef- 
wards  held  a  very  distinguished  office  in  the  Babylonian 


become  proverbial.  (Ezek.  xxviii.  3.)  Daniel  lived  in  great 
credit  with  the  Babylonian  monarchs ;  and  his  uncorninon 
merit  procured  him  t!ie  same  regard  from  Darius  and  Cynis 
the  two  first  sovereigns  of  Persia.  He  lived  throughout  the 
captivity,  but  it  does  not  appear  that  he  returned  to  his  own 
countrj^  when  Cyrus  permitted  the  Jews  to  revisit  their  native 
land.  The  pseudo-Epiphanius,  who  wrote  the  lives  of  the 
prophets,  says  that  he  died  at  Babylon ;  and  this  asserticii 
has  been  adopted  by  most  succeeding  writers  :  but  as  the  last 
of  his  visions,  of  which  we  have  any  account,  took  place  in 
the  third  year  of  Cyrus,  about  534  years  before  the  Christian 
a?ra,  when  he  was  about  ninety-four  years  of  age  and  resided 
at  Susa  on  the  Tigris,  it  is  not  improbable  that  he  died  there. 

Although  the  name  of  Daniel  is  not  prefixed  to  his  book, 
the  many  passages  in  which  he  speaks  in  the  first  person 
sufficiently  prove  that  he  was  the  author.  He  is  not  reckoned 
among  the  prophets  by  the  Jews  since  the  time  cf  Jesus 
Christ,  who  say  that  he  lived  the  life  of  a  courtier  in  the 
court  of  the  king  of  Babylon,  rather  than  that  of  a  prophet; 
and  they  further  assert,  tliat,  though  he  received  divine  reve- 
lations, yet  these  Avere  only  by  dreams  and  visions  of  the 
night,  which  they  consider  as  the  most  imperfect  mode  of 
revelation. '  But  Josephus,  one  of  the  most  'ancient  profane 
writers  cf  that  nation,  accounts  Daniel  one  of  the  greatest 
of  the  prophets ;  and  says  that  he  conversed  familiarly  with 
God,  and  not  only  predicted  future  events  (as  other  prophets 
did),  but  also  determined  the  time  of  their  accomplishment.* 

II.  The  book  of  Daniel  m.ay  be  divided  into  two  parts. 
The  first  is  historical,  and  contains  a  relation  cf  various 
circumstances  that  happened  to  himself  and  to  the  Jews, 
under  several  kings  at  Babylon;  the  second  is  strictly  prc- 
phetical,  and  comprises  the  visions  and  prophecies  with 
which  he  wr.s  favoured,  and  which  enabled  him  to  foretell 
numerous  important  evei.ts  relative  to  the  monarchies  of  the 
world,  the  time  cf  the  advent  and  death  of  the  .Messiah,  the 
restoration  of  the  Jews,  and  the  conversion  of  the  Gentiles. 

Part  I.  contains  the  Historical  Part  of  the  Book  of  Daniel  (ch. 
i. — \i.),  forming  six  Sections ,-  viz. 

Sect.  1.  A  compendious  history  of  the  carrying  away  of 
Daniel  and  his  three  friends  to  Babylon,  with  other  young 
sons  of  the  principal  Hebrews,  and  of  their  education  and 
employment,  (ch.  i.) 

"  Between  the  first  and  second  chapters  there  is  a  great 
chasm  in  the  history.  In  ii.  1.  the  second  year  of  Nebu- 
chadnezzar's reign  is  indeed  mentioned,  but  this  cannot  be 
the  second  year  of  his  government ;  for,  at  that  time,  Daniel 
was  a  youth  in  the  second  year  of  his  course  of  instruction  ; 
whereas  in  this  chapter  he  appears  as  a  man.  We  learn, 
moreover,  from  ii.  2"J.,  that  Nebuchadnezzar  had  been  think- 
ing of  what  should  transpire  after  his  death,  which  supposes 
him  to  b>^  of  considerable  age.  Chap.  ii.  28.  also  informs  an 
that  his  conquests  were  ended;  and  as  Ezekiel  in  xsi.v.  17. 
announces  the  conquest  of  Egypt  in  the  twenty-seventh 
year  of  his  exile  and  the  thirty-fourth  of  Nebuchadnezzar's 
government,  the  campaign  opening  about  that  time,  the  ac- 
count in  Dan.  ii.  cnn  hardly  be  placed  before  his  fortieth 
year.  The  '  second  year,'  therefore,  in  ii.  1 .,  must  refer  to 
Nebuchadnezzar's  government  over  the  conquered  coun- 
tries ;  in  other  words,  it  was  the  second  year  of  his  universal 
monarchy,  which  perhaps  gave  rise  to  a  new  method  of 
reckoning  time."^ 

Sect.  2.  Nebuchadnezzar's  dream  concerning  an  image  com- 
posed of- different  metals  (ii.  1 — 13.);  the  interpretation 
thereof  communicated  to  Daniel  (14 — 23.),  who  reveals  it  to 
the  monarch  (24 — 35.),  and  interprets  it  of  the  four  great 
monarchies.  The  head  of  gold  represented  the  Babylonian 
empire  (32.)  ;  the  breast  and  arms,  which  were  of  silver, 
represented  the  Medo-Persian  empire  (32.  39.)  ;  the  brazen 
belly  and  thighs  represented  the  Macedo-Grecian  empire 
(32.  39.)  ;  the  legs  and  feet,  which  were  partly  of  iron  and 
partly  of  clay,  represented  the  Roman  empire  (33.  40 — 43.), 
which  would  bruise  and  break  to  pieces  every  other  king- 
dom, but  in  its  last  stage  should  be  divided  into  ten  smaller 
kingdoms,  denoted  by  the  ten    toes  of  the    image.     The 

'  .Tosephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  x.  c.  11.  I  7. 

*  Jalin's  latroduction  by  Trofessor  Turner,  p.  406. 


278 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Paiit  V,  Chap.  IV 


slonc,  "  cut  out  of  the  mountain  without  hamls,  which 
brake  in  pieces  the  iron,  the  brads,  the  clay,  the  silver,  and 
the  gold"  (34, 35.),  represented  the  kingdom  of  the  Messiah, 
which  was  "  to  fill  the  whole  earth,"  become  universal,  and 
stand  for  ever,  unchangeable  and  eternal.  (44,  45.)  This 
section  concludes  with  an  account  of  the  promotion  of 
Daniel  and  his  friends  to  distinguished  honour. 

Sf.cT.  3.  An  account  of  tlie  miraculous  preservation  of  Sha- 
drach,  Meshach,  and  Abednego,  who,  having  refused  to  wor- 
ship a  golden  image  that  had  been  set  up  by  Nebuchadnez- 
zar, were  cuil  into  u  fiery  furjiaoe.   (iii.) 

Skct.  4.  Nebuchadnezzar,  having  been  punished,  on  account 
of  his  pride,  with  the  loss  of  his  reason,  and  driven  from  the 
conversation  of  men,  is  restored  to  reason  and  to  his  throne  ; 
and  by  a  public  instrument  proclaims  to  the  world  Daniel's 
interpretation  of  his  dream,  and  extols  the  God  of  heaven, 
(iv.)  For  an  account  of  the  nature  of  hi.^  insanity,  see 
V^l.  II.  Pan  III.  Chap.  IX.  ^ect.  I.  §  III.  7. 

SscT.  5.  Kelates  the  history  of  Daniel  under  Belshazzar ; 
who,  while  rioting  in  his  [>alace,  and  profaning  the  sacred 
vessels  which  Nebuchadnezzar  had  carried  away  from  Jeru- 
salem, 13  suddenly  terrified  with  the  figure  of  a.  hand  in- 
scribing certain  words  on  the  wall,  whicli  Daniel  promptly, 
reads  and  interprets.  In  the  course  of  that  same  night,  13el- 
shazzar  is  slain,  and  the  Babylonian  empire  is  transferred  to 
the  -Medes  aiid  Persians,  (v.) 


Sect.  6.  Daniel  being  promoted  to  the.  highest  office  in  the 
empire  under  Darius  the  Mede,  a  conspiracy  is  formed 
against  him.  The  prophet,  being  ir  consequence  cast  into 
a  den  of  lions,  is  miraculously  j«-cserved ;  and  Darius  pulv 
lishes  a  decree  that  all  men  should  glorify  the  God  of 
Danie".  (vi.) 

Part  II.  comprises  various  Prophecies  and  Visions  rf  T/iinc^ 
faluri-  tinUl  the  Advent  and  Death  of  the  3Lssiah,  and  the 
ultimate  Conversion  ff  the  Jews  and  Ccnlllcs  to  the  Faith  of 
the  Gofpcl,  in  four  iSections.  (ch.  vii. — xii.) 

Sect.  1.  The  vision  of  the  four  beasts  concerning  the  four 
great  monarchies  of  the  world  :  it  w;is  dcli-vered  about  forty- 
eight  years  after  Nebuchadnezzar's  dream  related  in  ch.  ii. 
but  with  some  different  circumstances.  The  first  beast  (4.) 
represented  the  Babylonian  empire,  the  second  (5.)  the 
Medo-Persian  empire :  the  third  (6.)  the  Maccdo-Grecian 
empire ;  and  the  fourth  (7.),  the  Roman  empire.  The  ten 
horns  of  this  beast  denote  ten  kingd.'m.-;  or  principalities 
which  arose  out  of  it,  and  were  signilk-d  by  the  ten  toes  of 
the  imago,  (ii.  41,  42.)  These  ten  kingdoms  or  principali- 
ties are  variously  enumerated  by  diilerent  Vi'riters,  who  have 
supported  their  respective  hypotheses  with  great  learning 
and  ingenuity,  for  which  we  must  refer  the  reader  to  their 
works.  The  following  table,  itowever,  will  exhibit  the  re- 
sult of  their  elaborate  researches  : — 


I.  TliP  first 
lioru. 

Machiavel.' 

Mede.» 

Bishop  I.lovd'  and 
Dr.  Hales. « 

Sir  Is.iar,  Newton.* 

Vandal.-i  and  Alans 
in.S])ain  hi)>I  Africa. 

Bishop  Newton.* 

TlieO^lrojolhsin 

The  Britons. 

The  Huns,  A.  D.  356. 

The  Senate  of  Roinr.  w  ho 
revolted  froin  t';e  Grti-k 
elIlperor^^,  and  claimed 
the  privilege  of  rliuo:>ing 
a  new  empcior. 

2.  Thf  secoiiil 
lioin. 

Thf  Vi-i;;o:hs  in 
I'dMiiuiiia. 

The  Saxons  in  Britain. 

Ostrogoths,  377. 

The  Siiev  iiins  in 
Spain. 

The  Creeks  m  Ravenna. 

3.  Ttic  lliirJ 
burn. 

T!ie  Siicvcs  am! 
.\hns      Ml     Gis- 
ci)igneand.Sp.iin. 

Tlie  Franks. 

Vi.sigoths,  37S. 

The  Vi.sig,>ilis. 

The  I.oinl/iirds  in 
I.oiuhariiy 

4.  Tlic  fourth 
horn. 

T.'ieVamlalsin 
Africa. 

The  Bur^nndians  in  France. 

Franks,  407. 

T!ie  .Mails  in 
Gallia, 

Tlie  Huns  in  Hungary. 

5.  The  fifth 
liorn. 

CThes-tlh 
liorn. 

The  Franks  in 
Fiance. 

Thp  ^■i.sigotlls  h;  the  soiilii  of 
France  and  pan  of  S]min. 

Vandals,  407. 

The  Biir^iindians. 

The  Aleiii."!;!!!  in 
Gennany. 

The  Hurguflilia-.is 
in  llurgundy. 

The  Sueves  and  .M,-.ns  in  Gal- 
licia  and  Portugal. 

f-uevcs  and  Alans,  407. 

The  Frajiks 

The  Franks  in  France. 

7.  The  seveiilh 
horn. 

Thti  Hrriili  and 
Thuringi  in  Italy. 

The  Saxons  an<l 
.\nili,'s  in  IJri:ain. 

The  Vandals  in  .\frica. 

Uiirgnndians,  407. 

The  Britons. 

Buru'Mndi.?ns  in 
Eurgiiiiily.               1 

.-).  Ttie  eighth 
horn. 

The  Alemanni  in  Germany. 

The  Horules,  Rugians,  and              ^.,      ,, 

Tliurint:ians,  476.                       ^ '"-  '"•"='• 

The  Goths  in  Spain. 

9.  The  ninth 
iKjrn. 

The  Huns  in 
Hungary. 

TheO.itrogorh.s  who  wore  suc- 
ceeded bythe  Loinliards  in  P.an- 
nonia,  and  afterwards  in  Italy. 

Tlie  Sa.xon>-,  170. 

The  I.oriil'ards. 

The  Brilons. 

10.  Ttio  tf  nth 
horn. 

TlieLoiiib.li  lie, firsi 
•ipoii  ilic  Datiiib'-, 
and  afterwards  in 
IihIv. 

The  Greeks  in  the  residue 
of  the  empire. 

Tlic  I.ongobardi  in  Hungary, 
5.3C;    who  were    sealed   in 
III!'  northern  parts  of  Gcr- 

ni:MlV  alir.llt    1*?. 

The  kinsdom  ol 
Ravenna. 

TlicPaxonsin  Britain. 

The  number  of  these  kingdoms  was  not  constantly  ten, 
there  being  sometimes  more  and  sometimes  fewer  ;  but  Sir 
Isaac  Newton  observes,  whatever  was  their  number  after- 
wanls,  they  are  still  <-alled  tiic  ten  hiti^^s  from  their  first 
number.  Besides  ihc.fc  ten  horns  or  kitigiloms,  there  was 
to  spring  up  another  little  horn  (vii.  8.  24.),  which  (Jrotius 
and  others  have  erroneously  applied  to  Antiochus  Ejiipha- 
ncs-,  but  which  is  generally  conmivcd  to  denote  the  pope 
of  Rome,  whose  jiower  as  a  horn  or  temporal  prince  was 
e.stjiblished  in  the  eighth  century.  All  the  kingdons  aliove 
described  will  be  succeeded  by  the  kingdom  of  Mes.sia!i. 
(9—13.27.) 
Skct.  2.  In  Daniel's  vision  of  the  ram  and  the  he-gont  is 
(oretidd  the  deslriiciton  of  the  Medo-Pcrsian  empire  (typi- 
fied by  the  ram,  which  was  the  arnmrial  ensign  of  the  Per- 
sian empire),  by  the  (ireeks  or  Muccdonians  umler  Alexan- 
der, represented  by  the  he-goat :  liernuse  the  Maredonians, 
at  first,  about  two  hundred  years  before  Daniel,  wt-rc  deno- 
minated .-Eiri'nd.T,  or  the  goat's  jK-oplc,  as  their  first  seat 
was  callt<l  -EgeiB  or  Mgm,  or  goat's  town,  a  goat  being 
their  ensign  or  standard,  (viii.  i — 7.  20 — 22.)     The  four 

t  HiKi.  Flor.  lib.  1.  '  WorkH.  p  Ml. 

»  til  Lowlli'ii  Comment.iry  on  the  Prophets,  pjv  ;m,  ^Si 
«  AnBlvsis  of  Chronoldu-y,  vol.  ii.  liook  I.  pp-  WC— WS. 

•  On  linnicl,  ch.  vi,  p.  U. 

*  Diiscriationii  oo  the  Prophecies,  voL  L  p.  267. 


"  notable"  horns,  that  sprang  up  on  the  fracture  of  the  great 
horn  (8.  23.),  denote  the  four  kingdoms  of  Greece,  Thrace, 
Syria,  and  Egypt,  erected  by  Cassander,  Lysimachus,  Se- 
leucus,  and  Ptolemy,  'i'he  little  horn,  which  is  describetl 
as  arising  among  the  four  horns  of  the  (uecian  empire  ('J 
— 12.  23,  21.),  is  by  many  Jewish  and  Christian  commen- 
titors  understood  to  mean  .\iitiochus  Ejiijihanes,  to  which 
hypothesis  Mr.  Winlle  inclines  ;  but  Sir  Ivaac  Newton, 
Bishop  Newton,  and  Dr.  Hales,  h.ive  clearly  shown  that 
the  Koman  temi'oral  ]>owtr,  and  no  other,  is  intended :  fiir, 
althougli  some  of  the  particulars  may  agree  very  well  with 
that  kin-;,  yet  others  can  by  no  means  be  reconciled  to  hiiii; 
while  all  of  them  corresjiond  exactly  with  the  Konians,  niitl 
with  no  other  power  whatever :  it  was  the  Koman  power 
that  destroyed  the  polity  and  temple  of  the  Jews,  tknil  left 
tlie  nation  and  holy  city  in  that  desolate  state  in  which  they 
are  to  remain  to  the  end  of  two  thousand  three  hundrts! 
prophetic  days,  that  is,  years.  (13,  14.  24,  25,  2fi.)  Tli« 
distress  of  Daniel  (17.  27.),  on  learning  the  great  and  last- 
ing calamities  that  were  to  befall  his  nation,  reprrwnts  hiii> 
in  a  vpry  amiable  light,  both  as  a  patriot  and  as  a  ])rophi;t, 
ond  gives  an  additional  lustre  to  his  glory  and  exalted  cha- 
racter. 
SrcT.  3.  While  Daniel,  understanding  from  the  prophecies 
of  Jeremiah  (compare  Jcr.  xxv.  II,  12.  xxix.  10.),  that  the 
seventy  years'  captivity  was  now  drawing  to  a  close  (Dan. 


S£CT.  III.  §  4.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PE0F5IET  DANIEL. 


279 


ix.  1,  2.),  was  humliiing  himself  in  fasting  and  prayer  for 
the  sins  of  his  people,  and  earnestly  imploring  the  restora- 
tion of  Jerusalem  (3 — 19.),  the  angel  Gabriel  is  sent  to 
him.  (20 — 23.)  He  announces  to  the  prophet,  that  tlie 
holy  city  should  be  rebuilt  and  peoj;led,  even  in  troublous 
times  (compare  Neh.  iv.  7.,  &c.  vi.  15.),  and  should  subsist 
for  seventy  weeks,  that  is,  weeks  of  years,  or  four  hundred 
and  ninety  years ;  at  the  expiration  of  which  it  should  be 
utterly  destroyed  for  putting  the  Messiah  to  death.  (25 — 
27.)  It  was  in  consequence  of  this  prophecy  that  the  ad- 
vent of  Messiah,  towards  the  end  of  the  period,  was  gene- 
rally expected  among  the  nations  of  the  East.  The  latter  part 
of  the  prediction  (27.)  relates  to  the  subversion  of  the  Jew- 
ish temple  and  polity,  and  the  second  coming  uf  the  Messiah.' 
Sect.  4.  contains  Daniel's  fourth  and  last  prophetic  vision,  in 
the  third  year  of  the  reign  of  Cyrus,  in  which  he  is  in- 
formed of  various  particulars  concerning  the  Persian,  Gre- 
cian, and  Roman  empires,  and  the  kingdom  of  the  Messiah. 
(x.— xii.) 

An  introductory  narrative  states  the  occasion  of  the 
vision,  viz.  Daniel's  fasting  and  supplication  (probably  on 
account  of  the  obstruction  of  the  building  of  tiie  temple), - 
and  describes  the  glorious  person  who  appeared  to  the  pro- 
phet. '.Dan.  X.  1 — 21,  xi.  1.)  The  prediction  then  describes 
the  fate  of  the  Persian  empire  (xi.  2.),  which  was  invaded 
and  dcstro^-ed  by  Alexander  (3.)  ;  tiie  partition  of  his  vast 
dominions  into  four  kingdoms  (4.)  ;  and  the  wars  between 
the  kingdoms  of  Egypt  (which  lay  to  the  south-west  of 
Judsa)  and  of  Syria  (which  lay  to  the  north-east  of  the 
Holy  Land)  are  then  foretold,  together  with  the  conquest 
of  Macedon  by  the  Romans.  (5 — 36.)  The  prophecy  then 
declares  the  tyranny  of  the  papal  Antichrist,  which  was  to 
spring  up  under  the  Roman  empire  (36 — 39.),  and  tlie  in- 
vasion of  the  Saracens  and  of  the  Turks  in  the  time  of  the 
eii'l,  or  latter  days  of  the  Roman  monarchy.  (40—45.) 
This  prophetic  vision  concludes  with  foretelling  the  general 
resurrection  (xii.  1 — 4.),  and  with  announcing  the  time 
when  all  these  great  events  were  to  have  their  linal  con- 
summation, when  the  Jews  were  to  be  restored,  Antichrist 
destroyed,  the  fulness  of  the  Gentiles  brought  in,  and  the 
millennium,  or  reign  of  saints,  was  to  begin.  (5 — 13.)  But 
the  exact  period,  until  Pkovidevce  shall  open  more  of  the 
seals,'  cannot  be  fully  ascertained. 

Upon  the  whole,  we  may  observe  with  Bishop  Newton,'' 
froin  whom  the  preceding^  ana3)'sis  is  chielly  abridged,  •'  what 
an  amazing  prophecy  is  this,  comprehending  so  many  various 
events,ana  extending  through  so  many  successive  a^es,  from 
the  first  establishment  of  the  Persian  empire,  upwards  of  5.30 
yearly  before  Christ,  to  the  general  resurrection  !  What  a  proof 
of  a  Divine  Providence,  and  of  a  Divine  Revelation  !  for  who 
could  thus  declare  the  things  that  shall  be,  with  their  times 
and  seasons,  but  He  only  who  hath  them  in  his  power  : 
whose  dominion  is  over  all,  and  whose  kingdom  enduretli 
from  generation  to  generation  !" 

III.  Of  all  the  old  prophets  Daniel  is  the  most  distinct  in 
the  order  of  time,  and  the  easiest  to  be  understood  ;  and  on 
this  account,  Sir  Isaac  Newton  observes,*  in  those  events 
which  concern  the  last  times,  he  must  be  the  interpreter  of 
the  rest.  All  his  predictions  relate  to  each  other,  as  if  they 
were  several  parts  of  one  general  prophecy.  The  first  is  the 
easiest  to  be  understood,  and  every  succeeding  prophecy  adds 
something  to  the  former.  Though  his  style  is  not  so  lofty 
and  figurative  as  that  of  the  other  prophets,  it  is  more  suita- 
ble to  his  subject,  being  clear  and  concise:  his  narratives 
and  descriptions  are  simple  and  natural;  and,  in  short,  he 
v.rites  more  like  an  historian  than  a  prophet. 

Of  the  genuineness  and  authenticity  of  the  book  of  Daniel 
we  have  every  possible  evidence,  both  external  and  internal. 

1.  \\ith  regard  to  the  external  evidence,  we  have  not 
only  the  general  testimony  of  the  whole  Jewish  church  and 
nation,  which  have  constantly  received  this  book  as  canoni- 
cal; but  we  have  the  particular  testimony  of  Josephus,  who 
(we  have  seen)  commends  Daniel  as  the  greatest  of  prophets ; 

»  Of  this  illustrious  prophecy,  which  Sir  Isaac  Newton  has  juslly  pro- 
nounctf!  lu  'lo  ihc  roiindation  of  the  Christian  rehgion,  Dr.  Hales  lias  given 
some  chronolosrical  computations,  slightly  differing  from  the  above.  See 
his  Analysis,  vol.  ii.  p.  550.  ei  seq- 

»  See  Ezra  iv.  4,  5. 

3  The  reader  who  is  desirous  of  stiidyin?  what  has  been  written  on  this 
subject  is  referred  to  the  writingrs  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  Bishop  Newton, 
Mr.  Faber  and  Dr.  Hales,  who  have  collected  a  great  variety  of  important 
Irifonnalion  on  Jne  fulfilment  of  Daniel's  prophecies. 

•«  Disser'aCon-s  on  Prophecy,  vol.  i.  pp.  413,  414. 

'  On  Daniul,  i-.  15. 


of  the  Jewish  Targums  andTalmuds,  which  frequently  qurtc 
and  appeal  to  his  authority;  of  Jesus  Christ  himself,  who 
has  cited  his  words,  and  has  styled  him,  "Daniel  t'ie  Pr--- 
phet"  (compare  Dan.  ix.  26,  27.  with  Matt.  xxiv.  is.  and 
Mark  xni,  14.)  ;  and  likewise  of  the  apostle  Paul,  who  has 
frequently  quoted  or  alluded  to  him  (compare  Dan.  iii,  23— 
25.  and  vii.  22.  with  Heb.  xi.  33,  34.  and  Dan.  xi.  36.  with 
3  Thess.  ii.  4.),  as  also  of  St.  John,  whose  Revelation  dn 
rives  great  li^ht  from  being  compared  with  the  prcdiclions 
of  Daniel.  To  these  testimonies  we  may  add  that  of  Eze- 
kiel,  a  contemporary  writer,  who  greatly  extols  his  exemplary 
character  (Ezck.  xiv.  14.  20.  xxviii.  S.),  and  also  the  testi- 
mony of  ancient  profane  historians,  who  relate  many  of -the 
same  transactions.^ 

2.  The  INTERNAL  EVIDENCE  is  Hot  Icss  convincIng  ;  for 

(1.)  The  lanp-uage,  style,  and  manner  of  writiiig,  are  ail 
perfectly  agreeable  to  that  age,  and  prove  that  it  was  written 
about  the  time  of  the  Babylonish  captivity.  Part  cf  the 
book,  viz.  from  the  fourth  verse  of  the  second  chapter  to  the 
end  of  the  seventh  chapter,  is  written  in  the  Chaldce  lan- 
guage (which,  however,  abounds  with  Hebraisms  to  such  a 
degree  as  to  prove  that  none  but  a  Hebrew  could  have  writ- 
ten it),  because  that  portion  treats  of  the  Chaldaean  or  Baby- 
lonish afiairs  :  the  rest  of  the  book  is  pure  Hebrew,  with  thi-' 
exception  of  four  words  which  have  been  supposed  to  be 
Greek,  the  occurrence  of  which,  however,  is  satisfactorily 
accounted  for.' 

(2.)  The  extraordinary  accuracy,  which  this  book  exhibits 
in  its  historical  statements  and  allusions,  is  another  important 
internal  evidence  of  its  authenticity.  To  adduce  one  or  two 
examplea-' — 

[  1 .  J  The  first  chapters  represent  Daniel  as  having  attained, 
while  yet  a  young  man,  an  extensive  reputation  for  extraor- 
dinary wisdom  and  devotion  to  his  God,  How  satisfactorily 
does  tliis  explain  the  language  of  Ezekiel,  his  contemporary 
and  aii  older  man !  "  Son  of  man,  when  the  land  sinneth 
against  me,  &c.  though  these  three  men,  Noah,  Daniel  and 
Job,  were  in  it,  they  should  deliver  but  their  own  souls  by 
tbeir  rigJdeoiimess,  said  the  Lord  God."  (Ezek.  xiv.  13,  14.) 
"  Son  of  man,  say  unto  the  prince  of  Tyrus,  Tiius  saith  the 
Lord  God,  Because  thine  heart  is  lifted  up,  and  thou  hast 
said,  I  am  a  God,  &c.  thou  art  iviser  than  Daniel ;  there  is 
no  secret  that  they  can  hide  from  thee."  (xxviii.  2,  3.)  Can 
this  praise  be  accounted  for  in  any  other  way  than  by  sup- 
posino-  just,  such  facts  as  are  recorded  in  the  bock  of  Daniel  1 

[2.  J  Tlio  truth  with  which  the  characters  of  certain  kings 
are  drawn  deserves  attention.  The  last  king  of  Babylon  Is 
represented  by  Xcnophon  as  an  effeminate,  but  cruel  and  im- 
pious, voluptuary,  who  put  a  man  to  death,  because  he  missed 
hi.s  aim  in  hunting,  and  was  guilty  of  innumerable  other  cru- 
elties ;  who  despised  the  Deity,  and  spent  his  time  in  riotous 
debaucherjs  but  was  at  heart  a  coward.  Is  not  this  Belshaz- 
zar  1  The  same  historian  represents  Cyaxares  as  weak  and 
pliable,  but  of  a  cruel  temper,  easily  managed  for  the  most 
part,  but  ferocious  in  his  anger.  Is  not  this  Darius^ — the 
same  Darius  who  allowed  his  nobles  to  make  laws  for  him, 
and  then  repented — suffered  Daniel  to  be  cast  into  the  lion's 
den,  and  then  spent  a  night  in  lamentation,  and  at  last,  in 
strict  conformity  with  Xenophon's  description,  condemned  to 
death,  not  only  his  false  counsellors,  but  ail  their  wives  and 
children  1 

[3.]  It  is  also  observable,  that  in  this  book,  certain  events 
are  mentioned  as  a  contemporary  would  be  apt  to  mention 
them ;  that  is,  concisely,  and  without  minute  detail,  as  being 
perfectly  familiar  to  his  immediate  readers.  Thus  we  are 
told  that  Daniel  survived  the  first  year  of  Cyrus,  a  notable 

6  The  most  important  of  these  testimonies  are  collected  by  the  writers 
referred  to  in  the  preceding  column. 

'  The  occurrence  of  Greek  words  (some  German  critics  have. objected) 
indicates  a  period  not  earlier  at  the  furthest  than  the  middle  of  the  reiga 
of  Darius  Ilystaspes,  when  (they  assert)  Daniel  could  not  have  been  living. 
Of  these  words  Bcrtholdt  reckons  ten.  But  four  of  them  have  been 
traced  by  later  criiics  to  the  old  Persian,  and  Gesenius  himself  maintain.^ 
that  the  Chaldees  and  A.ssyrians  were  of  Medo-Pcrsian  origin.  Another 
of  these  ten  words  is  admitted  by  the  same  distinguished  scholar  to  be 
Syriac.  The  remaining  four  are'  the  names  of  musical  instruments  oc- 
ciirring  in  the  fifth  verse  of  the  third  chiipter.  The  similarity  of  these 
to  certain  Greek  words  may  be  accounted  for  in  either  of  these  ways: — 1. 
From  the  pnciont  intercourse  between  the  Greeks  and  Babylonians,  men- 
tioned by  Strabo,  Quintus  Curtius,  and  Berosus;— 2.  On  the  supposition, 
that  the  Shemitish  and  Greek  languages  bore  a  common  relation  to  an 
older  tongue ; — 3.  On  the  supposition,  that  the  names  of  musical  instru- 
ments were  in  the  first  instance  onoinapoelic,  and  therefore  might  be 
analagous  in  languages  totally  distinct.  Nothing  more  need  be  added  than 
a  statement  of  the  fact,  that  the  latest  writer  on  the  wrong  side  of  the 
question  (Kirms)  has  yielded  this  whole  ground  of  opposition  as  untenable. 
(Philadelphia  Biblical  Repertory,  vol.  iv.  p.  51.) 

8  The  difference  of  name  is  explained  at  length  by  Dr.  Hengstenberg. 


250 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  V.  Chap.  IV. 


year  in  Jewish  history,  the  year  cf  the  return  fom  oxilc. 
Now  a  later  writer,  one,  for  instance,  in  the  days  of  the  Mac- 
cabees, wouhl  have  been  very  likely  to  explain  why  this  was 
mentioned  as  a  sort  of  epoch. 

S.  A  distinct  but  analogous  body  of  internal  evidence  is 
furnished  by  the  accurate  acquaintance  which  the  writer  of 
this  book  evinces  with  the  manners,  usacjcs,  and  institutions 
of  the  age  and  country  in  which  it  is  alhged  to  have  been 
written.  The  particular  instances  are  many  and  minute  ;  we 
shall  indicate  a  few. 

(1.)  Daniel  never  speaks  of  adoration  being  rendered  to 
the  kings  of  Babylon,  according  to  the  ancient,  oriental  usage. 
Why]  Arrian  informs  us,  that  Cyrus  was  the  first  wlio 
received  such  homage,  which  arose  from  a  notion  that  the  Per- 
sian kings  were  incarnations  of  the  Deity.  For  the  same 
reason,  tlieir  decrees  were  esteemed  irrevocable,  while  no 
such  doctrine  seems  to  have  prevailed  under  the  Chaldee 
monarchs.  Daniel  accordingly  asserts  no  such  thing  of  any 
but  Darius. 

(2.)  The  kind  of  Shinar  was  the  name  used  by  the  natives, 
ts  we  learn  from  good  authority.  It  occurs  nowhere  in  the 
historical  parts  of  Scripture,  after  the  book  of  Genesis,  until 
we  meet  with  it  in  Daniel,  (i.  2.)  A  resident  in  Palestine 
would  not  have  thought  of  using  it. 

(3.)  Nebuchadntzzar  conmiands  (i.  5.)  that  the  young 
men  chosen  for  his  service  should  be  fed  from  his  table. 
Tliat  this  was  the  oriental  custom,  we  are  informed  by  Ctesias 
and  others. 

(•1.)  Daniel  and  his  companions,  when  selected  for  the 
royal  service,  received  new  names,  (i.  7.)  In  2  Kings  xxiv. 
17.  we  read,  that  '*  the  king  of  Babyh.n  m  ide  iMattaniah  king, 
and  changed  his  name  to  Zedt  kiah."  Two  of  these  names, 
moreover,  are  apparently  derived  from  tjiose  of  Babylonish 
idols. 

(5.)  In  Dan.  ii.  5.  iii.  6.  there  are  tokens  of  an  accurate 
ac  juaintance  with  the  forms  of  capital  punishment  in  use 
among  tlie  Uhaldees;  while  in  the  sixth  chapter  a  new  sort 
is  described  as  usual  with  the  Modes  and  Persians. 

(»j.)  Tiie  description  of  the  image,  in  the  third  chapter, 
corresponds  remarkably  with  wliat  is  known  frcra  other 
sources  of  the  Chaldee  taste  in  sculpture;  and  the  use  of 
music  at  the  worship  of  it,  completely  tallies  with  their  well- 
known  fondness  for  that  art. 

(7.)  We  find  in  ch.  v.  2.  that  women  were  present  at  the 
royal  banquet.  So  far  was  this  from  being  usual  in  later 
limes,  that  ilie  Septuagint  translators  have  expunged  it  from 
the  text.  And  yet  we  know  from  Xcnophon,  that  before  the 
Persian  concjuest  such  was  indeed  the  practice  of  the  Baby- 
lonian court.  ' 

4.  There  are  some  things  peculiar  to  the  prophecies  of  this 
book,  which  clearly  indicatti  that  he  wiio  was  the  organ  of 
them,  was  a  bunajidc  resident  in  Baljylon.     Thus, 

(I.)  In  the  earlier  predictions  of  this  book,  as  in  Zechariah 
and  Ezekiel,  we  find  less  poetry,  and  more  of  symbolical 
language,  than  in  the  pure  Hebrew  prophets.  Every  thing 
is  designated  by  material  emblems.  Beasts  are  the  repre- 
sentatives of  kings  and  kingdoms.  The  imagery  likewise 
appears  cast  in  a  gigantic  mould.  All  this  is  in  accordance 
with  the  Baltylonish  taste,  with  which  the  Prophet  was  fami- 
liar, and  to  which  the  Holy  Sjjirit  condescended  to  acconnno 


dato  his  teachings.  A  striking  confirmation  of  this  exegesis 
is,  that  this  mode  cf  exhibition  ceases  suddi  nly  and  wholly 
with  the  Chaldee  dynasty.     The  last  four  chapters,  which 


v/ere  written  under  the  Aledo-Persiaa  domination,  are  with 
out  a  tr.ice  of  it. 

(2.)  Again,  Daniel's  visions,  like  these  cf  Ezekicl,  have 
the  banks  of  rivers  for  their  scene.  (Dan.  viii.  2. — x.  4. 
Ezek.  i.  1.  3.)  Docs  not  this  imply,  that  the  author  had 
resided  in  a  land  of  lordly  streams  \  This  minute  local  i)ro- 
j)ri:ly  would  scarcely  have  been  looked  for  in  a  Canaanitish 
forger,  though  writing  in  full  view  of  the  very  "  swellings  of 
Jordan." 

(3.)  Lastly,  Daniel,  still  like  his  follow  in  captivity  and 
the  prophetic  office,  displays  a  chronological  precision  (piite 
unknown  to  earlier  seers,  hut  perfectly  in  keeping  with  the 
character  of  one  who  had  been  naturalized  among  the  great 
astronoiucrs  and  chronologers  of  the  old  wurhl.' 

5.  But  liie  most  satisfactory  internal  evidence  for  the  genu- 
ineness and  authenticity  of  this  book  is  to  be  found  in  the 

'  For  the  .iliove  proofs  of  ihe  ({nniiincnc»!i  and  RUihmtirity  of  the  book 
ff  Daniel  wo  arc  indcfitcMl  to  ProfL-a-or  IIi-n?Mlrn!'prg  of  It.Tlin,  wIkxo 
Vin'li>  .-liKi  of  this  I'miiliot  is  atiidyzcil  nt  iiinsiil<Tiil)li'  Ii-hkiIi  in  \h>- 
fourth  volume  of  the  UiLilJcal  Repertory,  jiriiii'il  at  I'liiluit'-lpliiB  in  iSJri. 
(pp.  65—68.) 


exact  accomplishment  of  Daniel's  prophecies,  as  well  those 
which  have  been  already  fulfilled  as  those  which  arc  now 
fulfilling  in  the  world.  So  clear  and  explicit,  indeed,  are 
his  predictions  concerning  the  advent  of  the  Messiah,  and 
other  important  events,  of  times  far  remote  from  those  in 
which  he  lived,  that  Porphyry ,2  a  learned  advers.irv  cf  the 
Christian  faith  in  the  third  century, — finding  that  l^aniel's 
predictions  concerning  the  several  empires  were  so  universally 
acknowledged  to  be  fulfilled,  that  he  could  not  disprove  the 
fact  of  their  accomplishment, — alleged  against  them  thai 
they  must  have  been  written  after  the  events  to  which  they 
refer  had  actually  occurred.  To  him  they  appeared  to  be  a 
narration  of  events  that  had  already  taken  place,  rather  than 
a  prediction  of  things  future;  such  was  the  striking  coinci- 
dence between  the  fiictswhen  accomplished,  and  the  prophe- 
cies which  foretold  them.  And  he  further  affirmed  that  they 
were  not  composed  by  Daniel,  whose  name  they  bore,  but  by 
some  person  who  lived  in  Judaea  about  the  time  cf  Antiochus 
Epiphanes;  because  all  the  prophecies  to  that  time  contained 
true  history,  but  all  beyond  that  ])eriod  were  manifestly  false. 
But  tills  method  of  opposing  the  prophecies,  as  Jerome  has 
rightly  observed,-'  afii-rds  the  strongest  testimony  to  their 
truth ;  for  they  were  fulfilled  with  such  exactness,  that,  to 
infidels,  the  prophet  seeined  not  to  have  foretold  things  fu- 
ture, but  to  have  related  things  past.  With  respect  to  the 
particular  prophecj'^  (Dan.  xi.)  relating  to  the  kingS  of  Syria 
and  Egypt,  which  Porphyry  affirmed  was  written  after  the 
time  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  we  may  remark  that  the  book 
of  Daniel  was  translated  into  the  Greek  language  one  hur>- 
drcd  years  before  he  lived ;  and  that  very  translation  was  in 
the  hands  cf  the  Egyptians,  who  did  not  cherish  any  great 
kiitdncss  towards  the  Jews  and  their  religion  :  ana  tliose 
pro])hecies  which  foretold  the  successes  of  Alexander  (Dan. 
viii.  5.  xi.  3.)  were  shown  to  him  by  the  Jews,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  he  conferred  upon  them  several  privileges.^ 
Conclusive  as  the  preceding  external  and  internal  evidences 
are,  for  the  genuineness  of  Daniel's  predictions,  the  destruction 
of  their  credit  has  in  all  ages  been  a  favourite  object  with 
the  enemies  of  divine  revelation,  whether  open  or  disguised, 
— pagans,  deists,  or  neologiaiss.  All  the  various  ohjtctiona 
of  ihese  writers  (many  of  which  are  sufi^ieiently  absurd,  as 
well  as  weak)  have  been  collected  and  refuted  in  detail  by 
Professor  Hen<rstenberg,  in  his  Treatise  on  "The  Authenticity 
cf  Daniel  ana  the  Integrity  of  Zechariah."''  From  this 
leared  writer's  masterly  treatise  the  following  observations, 
comprising  his  refutations  of  the  most  material  neologian 
objections,  have  been  selected  :° — 

OiijKCTiox  1. — Daniol  is  not  mentioned  by  the  son  of  Sirach 
when  eulogizing  the  worthies  of  his  nation  in  Ecclus.  xlvii.  50. 

AxswKH. — If  tliis  proves  any  thing,  it  proves  too  much.  It 
proves  that  no  such  man  as  Daniel  ever  lived, — iior  Ezra, — nor 
Mordccai, — nor  any  of  the  minor  prophets, — not  one  of  whom 
is  mentioned. 

Oiiji;cTioN  5J. — The  book  of  Daniel,  in  the  Hebrew  Bibles, 
stands  near  the  end  of  the  Hagiographa,  and  not  among  the 
prophets. 

Answeii. — This  circumstance  Bertholdt  explains  by  saying, 
that  this  third  division  of  the  Old  Testament  was  not  formed 
until  after  the  other  two  were  closed.  The  compilers,  or  authors 
of  the  eaiion,  he  supposes,  intended  to  make  two  great  classes, 
the  law  and  the  [(roi)hets.  'J'he  books  of  Joshua,  Judges,  Sa- 
muel, and  Kings,  were  included  in  the  second,  merely  liecnu*! 
there  was  no  third,  A  third  was  eventually  formed  to  recipe 
those  writings  which  afterwards  laid  claim  to  inspiration.  To 
this  explanation,  Dr.  Hengstcnberg  objects,  that  it  rests  on  mere 
aKsumptioiiH,  and  is  llatly  contradicted  by  all  Jewish  authorities. 
His  own  solution  may  l)e  brielly  stated  thus  : — The  distinction 
between  the  prophets  and  the  Hagiographa  is  not  of  a  chronolo- 
gical kind  at  all,  but  is  founded  on  the  peculiar  character  and 

»  I'orpliyry  scpnns  to  liive  hecn  the  fir.st  wlio  iinpusnod  Ihe  siMiiiiiirness 
and  autliiirii'y  of  Uuiiiel's  writinus,  in  t!i<>  twelllh  of  liis  filteen  liuoks 
n^nin!<t  till!  rhiibtuiiH.  Dr.  ).ardiier  lias  culli'ctcd  su<:h  of  his  ohjecimiia 
as  iiro  cx:nnt.  together  with  Jeroinc'.'<  answers  to  lliem.  .Icwisli  and 
Ileatlicn  Toslioioiiies,  chap,  xxxvii.  (Works,  vol.  viii.  pp.  I.<i — 'J(V|.  Svo. ; 
or  vol.  iv.  pj).  21 1— vy.'i. -llii.)  Melhodin.s,  Fiisehitis,  :ind  Apollinariui',  also 
wrote  an.HWer.s  tu  t'orphyry,  wliicli  linvc  limu  tiinoe  pi-nslied. 

'  I'rief.  ail  I'anleleni,  el  I'roti'iii.  ad  ('nniiiii'i;!    in  I).iniel. 

«  Mii'linelis  li.is  dtiiioiisl rated  lliut  the  Ili'hrew  and  Clialdee  Ipxl  of 
Daniel  w.ns  the  oriiiinid,  and  more  ancient  than  the  Koniiine  Senhia^^inl 
viThion  of  thin  ttuoli,  in  llic  finrlh  volume  of  his  (nernian)  Uililintheca 
Onenl.ilis.  ^^ei!  nn  Kiiiiliftli  vrr^iun  of  1  his  deiiionstralion  iu  Dr.  Ajithorp's 
DiHcniiries  on  Proplicev,  vol.  i.  pp.  'iV\—'iM. 

»  Die  AiilliPiilli.'  i!i-M  DiMiiel  iind  die  InlejrilKt  des  Sncharjali,  crwlcscr. 
vol)  Fjnsl  Wlllnliii  IliiiijHieiiher,'.      Merlin,  IS'l.  •fo. 

•  These  reftilaiionR  of  nenloginii  olijrcllonH  are  abridjred  from  the  BibI' 
cal  Repertory  printed  at  Philadelphia,  vol.  Iv.  N.  8.  pp.  61—03. 


Sect.  III.  §  4.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  DANIEL. 


281 


office  of  the  writers.  The  prophetic  gift  mast  be  discriminated 
from  the  prophetic  office.  The  one  was  common  to  al!  who  were 
inspired  ;  the  latter  to  the  regular,  official  prophets,  who  commu- 
nicated the  divine  wiil  to  the  Jewish  nation.  The  books  written 
by  these  prophets,  as  such,  formed  the  second  great  division. 
The  third,  Dr.  H.  thinks,  contains  the  inofficial  prophecies.  Why 
else  should  Jeremiah's  Lamentations  be  disjoined  from  his  pro- 
phecies ■?  As  to  the  relative  position  of  the  book  among  the  Hagio- 
grapha,  it  evidently  proves  neither  one  thing  nor  another ;  as  the 
book  of  Ezra  is  placed  after  it,  and  a  slight  inspection  shows 
that  no  regard  was  had  to  date  in  the  arrangement  of  the  parts. 

OisjECTuiN  3. — The  authors  of  the  Talmud  and  the  modern 
Jews  regard  the  book  of  Daniel  with  contempt. 
■  Axswin. — The  Talmudists  have  been  misapprehended,  and 
the  prejudice  of  the  modern  Jews  has  naturally  sprung  from  their 
hatred  to  the  Gospel,  and  whatever  tends  to  prove  its  authen- 
ticity. 

OujECTiox  4. — A  fourth  objection  is  founded  on  the  words  of 
the  book  itself.  "  In  the  first  year  of  his  reign,  I,  Daniel,  under- 
stood by  BOOKS  the  number  of  the  years  whereof  the  word  of  the 
Lord  came  to  Jeremiah  the  prophet,  that  he  would  accomplish 
seventy  years  in  the  desolations  of  Jerusalem."  (Dan.  ix.  2.) 
The  llebrew  word  translated  Aoc/Zr-shas  the  article  prefixed.  This 
Bleek  considers  as  synonymous  with  biblia  or  the  Scriptures, 
■md  a  decisive  proof  that  the  Old  Testament  canon  was  already 
closed,  and  in  the  hands  of  tlie  writer  of  this  book. 

Answer, — First,  We  have  no  proof  of  these  books  contain- 
mg  any  other  matter  than  the  prophecies  of  Jeremiah.  Secoiidlij, 
The  technical  term  in  use  among  the  later  Jews  to  designate  the 
cahon  was  not  '•  the  books,"  but  "  the  writings."  Thirdlu,  The 
supposititious  forger  of  the  book  of  Daniel  never  would  have 
hinted  at  the  canon's  being  closed,  when  his  very  object  was  to 
have  his  book  included  in  it.  Foitrtlily,  Before  the  adjustm.ent 
of  the  canon,  there  were  private  coMections  of  the  sacred  books, 
as  appears  not  only  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  bxit  from  the 
fact,  that  Jeremiah  quotes  and  imitates  Moses,  Isaiah,  Obadiah, 
and  Micah,  a  circumstance  admitted  both  by  Eichhorn  and  De 
Wette.  These  reasons  are,  we  think,  suiFicient,  without  appeal- 
ing, as  Pareau  does,  to  the  Jewish  tradition,  that  the  sacred  books 
were  secured  by  Jeremiah  before  the  burning  of  the  temple,  and 
entrusted  to  the  care  of  Daniel. 

Objection  5. — The  lavish  expenditure  of  signs  and  wonders, 
without  any  apparent  object,  is  unworthy  of  the  Deity. 

AxswKii. — It  Is  worthy  of  remark,  that  one  of  those  who  urge 
this  difficulty  has  supplied  an  answer.  This  is  Griesinger,  who 
innocently  observes,  tliat  no  better  reason  seems  assignable  for  all 
these  miracles  than  a  disposition  to  exalt  Jehovah  above  other 
Gods  !  Can  a  better  be  desired  ]  It  is  true,  the  adversaries  still 
object,  ciii  bono  ?  We  need  only  condense  Dr.  Hengstenberg's 
three  replies  into  as  many  sentences.  1.  That  the  faith  and 
hope  of  the  exiles  might  be  maintained.  2.  That  a  way  might  be 
opened  for  their  restoration.  3.  That  the  heathen  might  be  awed 
into  forbearance  and  respect  towards  God's  peculiar  people. 

OjiJECTiox  C. — The  book  of  Daniel  contains  historical  inac- 
curacies, 

(L)  The  grossest  of  these  is  said  to  be  the  statement  in  the 
first  two  verses  in  the  eighth  chapter.  Bertholdt's  objections  are 
— that  Elam  is  mentioned  as  a  province  of  the  Babylonish  em- 
pire, in  which  Daniel  acted  as  a  royal  officer  (v.  27'.),  whereas 
it  was  a  province  of  the  Median  empire,  as  appears  from  Isaiah 
xxi.  2.  and  Jeremiah"  xxv.  5.  2.  That  a  palace  is  spoken  of  at 
Shushan,  whereas  the  palace  there  was  built  by  Darius  Kys- 
taspes,  as  appears  from  Pliny. i  3.  That  the  name  Shnslian  itself 
(which  signifies  a  lily')  was  not  given  until  long  after  Darius, 
and  was  intended  to  express  the  beauty  of  the  edifices  which  that 
prince  erected. 

AxswEii. — First,  The  subjection  of  Elam  by  the  Chaldces  is 
predicted  by  Jeremiah  (xlix.  34.),  and  the  fuhUment  of  the  pro- 
phecy recorded  by  Ezekiel.  (xxxii.  24.)  The  prediction  q.uoted 
by  Berihoidt  (Jer.  xxv,  5,)  represents  Elam,  not  as  a  province 
of  Media,  but  as  an  independent  monarchy,  and  intimates  its 
overthrow.  This  prophecy  was  uttered  in  the  first  year  of  Nebu- 
chadnezzar's reign,  that  of  Daniel  in  the  third  of  Belshazzai's. 
But  even  admitting  the  assertion  of  the  adversary,  there  is  no 
departure  from  the  truth  of  history.  Daniel  was  at  Shushan 
only  "  in  a  vision,"  as  appears  from  a  strict  translation  of  the 
passage.  The  scene  of  his  vision,  so  to  speak,  was  there,  because 
Shushan  was  to  be  the  capital  of  the  empire  whose  fortunes  he 
foresaw.  Secondly,  Pliny's  statement  as  to  the  building  of  the 
palace,  and  indeed  the  whole  city,  by  Darius  Hystaspes,  is.  con- 
« Hist.  Nat.  vi.  26. 

Vol.  II.  2  N 


tradicted  by  all  Greek  and  Oriental  writers,  who  represent  it  aa 
extremely  ancient.  Thirdly,  Athenxus  and  others  slate  that  the 
city  was  called  Shushan,  from  the  multitude  of  lilies  growing  in 
that  region,  a  fact  reconcilable  with  any  date  whatever. 

(2.)  Another  passage  which  has  been  objected  to,  is  what  De 
Wette  calls  the  laughable  description  (in  ch.  vi.)  of  a  lion's  den 
like  a  cistern,  with  a  stone  to  close  the  orifice. 

Answer. — We  know  nothing  about  the  lions'  dens  in  that 
part  of  the  world ;  but  we  know,  that  in  Fez  and  Morocco  they 
arc  subterraneous,  and  that  criminals  are  often  thrown  into  them. 
Who  knows  how  large  the  stone  was  in  the  case  before  us  1 

(3.)  A  third  objection  of  the  same  kind  is,  that  Belshazzar  is 
represented  (Dan.  v.  11.  13.  18.  22.)  as  the  son  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, whereas,  according  to  profane  historians,  he  was  his 
fourth  successor. 

Answer. — No  fact  is  more  familiar,  than  XhoX. father  denotes 
an  ancestor,  son,  a  descendant. 

(4.)  The  other  historical  objections  which  Dr.  Hengstenberg 
notices,  are,  that  Cyaxares  II.  is  by  Daniel  called  Darius — and 
that  in  the  first  verse  of  the  first  chapter,  Jerusalem  is  said  t») 
have  been  taken  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  in  the  third  year  of  Jehoia- 
kim,  while  it  appears  from  Jer.  xlvi.  I.  that  the  battle  of  Carche- 
mish,  which  must  have  preceded  that  event,  occurred  in  the 
fourth  year  of  Jehoiakim,  and  from  Jer.  xxv.  1.  that  this  same 
fourth  year  was  the  first  of  Nebuchadnezzar.  Dr.  Hengsten* 
berg's  solution  of  these  difficulties  carries  him  so  far  into  n^inu- 
tiffi  that  we  can  neither  follovv  copy  nor  abridge  his  argument. 
Suffice  it  to  say,  that  it  is  wholly  satisfactory,  and  exhibits  in  a 
strong  light  his  critical  sagacity,  his  learning,  and  his  judgment. 

OiiJECTiox  7. — The  liook  of  Daniel  contains  various  incon- 
sistencies and  contradictions. 

Answer. — These  alleged  inronsisten:ics  and  contradictions 
are  merely  apparent,  not  real.  The  last  verse  of  the  first  chap- 
ter, for  instance,  has  been  represented  as  at  variance  with  the  first 
verse  of  the  tenth,  as  though  the  former  intimated  that  he  lived 
no  longer !  A  similar  objection  has  been  founded  on  Belshaz- 
zar's  not  knowing  Daniel  (v.  14.),  who  had  been  exalted  to  such 
honour  by  Nebuchadnezzar  (ii.  48,  49.)  ;  a  circumstance  ex- 
plained by  the  very  characters  of  the  prophet  and  the  king,  which 
were  too  opposite  to  admit  of  intimacj^  Daniel  would  naturally 
stand  aloof  from  so  debauched  a  court. 

Again,  the  indefatigable  adversary  asks,  how  could  Nebuchad- 
nezzar be  ignorant  (iii.  14.)  whether  the  Hebrews  served  his 
God,  when  he  had  himself  (ii.  47.)  acknowledged  theirs  to  be  a 
God  of  gods  and  Lord  of  lords  ?  This  incolisistency,  as  Dr. 
Hengstenberg  observes,  is  chargeable  not  upon  the  sacred  writer, 
but  upon  the  heathen  king.  His  former  acknowledgment  re- 
sulted not  from  a  change  of  heart,  but  from  astonishment  and 
terror — a  distinction  which  the  psychology  of  rationalists  knows 
nothing  of.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  objection  started  to  the 
diverse  exhibitions  of  this  same  king's  character  in  the  first  three 
chapters  and  the  fourth. 

Objectio"  8. — Opinions  and  usages  are  mentioned  in  this 
book,  which  are  clearly  modern,  that  is,  of  later  date  than  that 
claimed  for  the  book  itself. 

(1.)  Dan.  vi,  11.  "  Now  when  Daniel  knew  that  the  writing 
was  signed,  he  went  into  his  house ;  and,  his  windows  being 
open  in  Ids  chamber  towards  Jerusalem,  he  kneeled  upon  his 
knees  three  times  a  day,  and  prayed,  and  gave  thanks  to  his  God 
as  he  did  aforetime."  Here  it  is  objected  that  these  are  allusions 
to  three  modern  customs, — that  of  praying  thrice  towards  Jeru- 
salem— that  of  praying  thrice  a  day — and  that  of  having  a  cham- 
ber appropriated  to  prayer. 

Answer. — There  are  no  such  allusions  to  modern  customs. 

That  the  custom  of  praying  towards  Jerusalem  was  an  an- 
cient practice,  is  susceptible  of  proof  from  Scripture.  The  law 
of  Moses  required  all  sacrifices  to  be  offered  at  the  place  which 
the  Lord  should  choose  "  to  put  his  name  there."  (Deut.  xii.  5, 
G.)  Prayer  would  of  course  accompany  oblation.  "  Theirburnt- 
oilerings,"  says  the  Lord  by  the  mo-ath  of  Isaiah,  "  and  their 
sacrifices,  shall  be  accepted  upon  my  altar  ;  for  mine  house  shall 
be  called  a  house  of  prayer  for  all  people."  (Isa.  Ivi.  7.)  "  In 
thy  fear,"  says  David,  "  v;ill  I  worship  toward  thy  holy  temple." 
(Psal.  V.  7.  cxxxviii.  2.)  "  I  Hft  up  my  hands  toward  thy  holy  ora. 
cle."  (xxviii.  2.)  Now,  if  in  the  temple  prayer  was  ofiTercd  toward 
the  oracle  or  sanctuary,  and  in  the  city  toward  the  temple,  surely 
those  who  were  out  of  the  city,  whether  far  or  near,  would  be 
likely  to  offer  theirs  toward  Jerusalem  itself.  "  If  thy  people," 
says^Solomon  in  his  dedicatory  prayer,  "  go  out  to  battle  against 
their  enemy,  whithersoever  thou  shalt  send  them,  and  shall  pray 
unto  the  Lord  toward  the   city  which  thou  hast  chosen,  and 


282 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  V.  Cqap.  FV 


to-waril  the  house  th.it  I  have  built  for  thy  name,  then  hear  thou 
in  heaven,"  &c.  (1  Kiiirs  ^^ii.  44.)  Nor  would  tlic  practice 
cease,  because  the  temple  was  destroyed.  Its  very  site  was  re- 
garded by  the  Jews  a^  holy.  "  Kenicinl>er  this  mour.t  Sion, 
wherein  thou  hast  dwelt.  They  have  set  thy  sanctuary  on 
fire,"  &c.  (Psal.  Lcxiv.  2.  7.) 

With  regard  to  the  custom  of  prayinj^  thrice  a  day,  it  is  eo 
natural,  that  we  find  it  amoni;  those  with  whom  the  Jews  could 
have  had  no  intercourse,  the  Brahmins  for  example.  And  what 
says  David  ]  "  Eveninr;  and  morning  and  at  noon  will  I  pray  and 
cry- aloud."  (Psal.  Iv.  17.) 

The  third  particular — ^that  of  having  a  chamber  appropriated 
to  pray^r — rests  upon  mere  assumption.  There  is  nothing  said 
about  a  chamber  used  exclusively  for  devotional  purposes ;  and 
if  there  was,  there  can  be  no  prounil  for  the  assertion,  that  this 
was  an  invention  of  the  later  Jewish  formalists.  Our  Lord  com- 
mands his  disciples  to  qo  into  their  closets,  and  not  to  pray  in 
public,  hke  the  Pharisees.  (Matt,  vi.)  On  the  other  hand,  David 
"  went  up  to  the  chamber  over  the  gate,"  if  not  to  pray,  at  least 
to  vent  hi' grief  (2  Sam.  xviii.  33.),  and  Elijah  went  '•  into  a 
loft,"  and  •'  cried  unto  the  Lord."  (1  Kings  xvii.  20.)  Was  this 
a  modern  pharisaical  invention,  -.is  athrmed  by  Bertholdt  ? 

(2.)  The  advice  of  Daniel  to  Nebuchadnezzar,  (iv.  27.)  is  re- 
presented by  Bertholdt  as  ascribing  an  cfiicacy  to  alms-giving, 
which  was  never  dreamed  of  in  the  days  of  old.  He  trap.slates 
the  verse — "Buy  off  (compensate  or  atone  for)  thy  pins  by  gifts, 
and  thy  guilt  by  doing  good  to  the  poor."  Dr.  Hengstenberg 
shows  cleaily  that  the  true  sense  is  that  which  our  own  transla- 
tion gives — "  Break  off  thy  sins  by  righteousness,  and  thine 
iniquities  by  showing  mercy  to  the  p»or."  The  adversary  has 
the  credit,  therefore,  not  of  the  objection  only,  but  of  the  fault 
objected  to  ! 

(3.)  A  similar  objection  has  been  raised  by  Gramberg,.  in 
relation  to  the  doctrine  of  meritorious  faitiiig,  as  implied  in  ch. 
i\.  That  religious  fasting  was  a  most  ancient  usage  of  the 
Jews,  anv  compendium  of  biblical  antiquities  will  show.  That 
the  popish  notion  of  merit  should  be  found  in  a  passaa;c  where 
such  words  as  these  occur — "  VV'e  do  not  present  our  supplica- 
tions before  thee  for  our  righteousness,  but  for  thy  great  mercies" 
(Dan.  ix.  18.) — argues  something  rather  worse  than  inadvert- 
ence in  the  caviller  who  finds  it  there.' 

IV,  In  the  Viilgate  Latin  edition  of  the  BiijJe,  as  well  as 
in  Thecdoiion's  Grcfk  version,  which  was  adopted  by  all  the 
Orc.k  churches  in  the  Kasl  in  lieu  of  the  incorrect  yeptuagittt 
t.-ansiation  above  alluded  to,  there  is  added,  in  the  third 
chapter  of  Daniel,  between  tlie  twenty-third  and  twenty- 
fourth  verses,  the  snncr  of  the  three  children,  Hananiali, 
Mish.iel,  and  Azariah,  who  wc-re  cast  into  the  fiery  furnace. 
The  version  of  Theodotion  also  introduces,  at  the  beginning 
of  this  buok,  the  history  of  Susanna,  and,  at  the  end,  the 
stories  of  liel  and  the  Drajron ;  and  this  arrantrement  is  fol- 
lowed by  the  mod*-rn  version  in  use  in  the  ureek  church. 
But,  in  the  Latin  Vultrate,  both  those  apocryphal  pieces  were 
Bcparated  by  Jerome  from  the  canonical  book,  and  were  dis- 
missed to  iLs  close,  with  an  ex|)ress  notice  that  they  were 
ROT  found  by  hira  in  the  Hebrew,  l)ut  were  translated  from 
Theodotion.  In  a  later  acre,  however,  they  were  improperly 
made  a  continuation  of  Daniel,  being  numbered  chapters  xiii. 
and  xiv. ;  an  arranjrcment  which  has  been  followed  in  all  the 
modern  versions  from  the  Vul<rale  iu  use  amonjf  the  members 
of  the  Komish  church,  and  s  nnetimes  (particularly  in  the 
Dublin  edition  of  the  Anglo-Iiomish  vi^rsion  of  the  Bible 
printed  in  1825)  with  the  unjustifiable  omission  of  the  cau- 
tionary notice  of  Jerome.  The  narratives  of  .Susanna  and  of 
Bel  and  the  Drajron  do  not  exist  in  the  genuine  Sejituaifiiit 
version  of  Daniel,  recovered  in  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
century;  nor  were  these  apocryphal  additions  ever  received 
into  the  canon  of  Holy  Writ  by  the  Jewish  church.  They 
are  not  extant  in  the  Hebrew  or  Chaldeo  languages,  nor  is 
there  any  evidence  that  they  over  were  so  extant.  The 
occurrence  of  Hebraisms  in  them  proves  nothing  more  than 
that  they  were  written  by  a  Hebrciw  in  the  (Jreek  tongue, 
into  whi'-.h  he  transferred  the  idioms  of  his  own  language; 
and  that  they  were  thus  originally  written  in  (Jreek  by  some 

•  Tl)i;  iil)ove  arc  \,\\e  prinnijml  nh'^fciionn  of  iiiodnrii  noolouiaiis,  with  llie 
very  MUDrm-tury  refulaiions  of  Dr.  Ilenimtpnlierij ;  who  has  fiirthfr  invi;*- 
tlzslp'l  viirKiUH  nnir)iroiil<iiii.<4,  iiiiprobahilitica,  ami  IncdiiKriiitii-ii  nllfir<-<l  i.> 
exl.Mt  in  the  bor.k  of  l>inii|,  at  grcalrr  Irnith  id-^n  (Ik*  hiiiiU  of  tlil^  work 
will  a'liiilt  of  t'  I  cviMi  in  the  III  iriu.     'I'h'!  rcailur 

U  thcrrfor«  v  ri-fiTrcil  to  tli'  ilion  (forming  part 

of  t'lP  Kilinbiim  I  i.ii  .  ill  Ciliin'!!).  of  nil  *  j,.,'  u  i.i.|iiiry  ln»o  t!i.>  An- 
tliontirtly  uiiil  Iri'i'gniy  of  iti>:  liooks  of  DdJiicl  niiJ  /<  tli.irmh,"  wlilcli 
Kad  ajiiiuuiiccd  fur  !>ii'.<..rattuii  while  Uiis  sheet  was  jii&^ing  thrr^tugh  the 
proM. 


Hellenistic  Jew,  -without  having  any  higher  source  whence 
they  could  be  derived,  is  evident  from  this  .circumstance,  that, 
in  the  historj'cf  Susanna,  Daniel,  in  his  replies  to  the  elders, 
alludes  to  the  Greek  names  of  the  trees,  under  which,  they 
said,  the  adultery  chargcdi  upon  Susanna  was  coinmitteo, 
which  allusions  cannot  hold  good  in  any  other  language.^ 
The  church  of  Rome,  however,  allows  these  spurious  addi- 
tiotis  to  be  of  t!ie  same  authority  with  the  rest  of  the  book 
of  Daniel ;  and,  by  a  decree  of  the  fourth  session  of  the 
council  of  Trent,  has  eiven  them  an  equal  place  in  the 
canonical  Scriptures.  But  they  were  never  recognised  as 
part  of  the  sacred  volume  by  the  ancient  f.:lhers  cf  the 
Christian  church.  Julius  Africanus,  Kusehius,  and  Apolli- 
nariiis  rejected  these  pieces,  not  only  as  being  uncaiionical, 
but  also- as  fabulous ;  and  Jerome,  who  has  been  followed  by 
Krasmus  and  ether  modern  writers,  has  given  the  history  of 
Bel  and  the  Dragon  no  better  title  than  that  cf  "  The  Fable 
of  Bd  and  tlie  Dragon.''''  And  others,  who  have  admitted 
them  for  instruction  of  manner^:,  have  neverihelcss  rejected 
them  from  the  cam  nical  Scriptures;  in  which  conduct  they 
have  been  followed  by  the  Protestant  churches,  who  exclude 
them  from  the  canonical,  and  class;  them  among  the  apocry- 
phal writings.^ 


§  5.    ox  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  OBADIAH. 

I.  Author  and  date. — II.  Synopsis  of  its  contents. 

HEFonr.  CHUisT,  588 — 583. 

I.  The  time  when  this  prophet  flourished  is  wholly  uncer- 
tain. Jerome,  with  the  Jews,  is  of  opinion  that  he  was  the 
same  person  who  was  governor  of  Anab's  house,  and  who 
hid  and  fed  one  hundrcaprophCiS  whom  Jezebel  would  have 
destroyed.  Some  Mthor  critics  think  that  he  was  the  Obadiali 
whom  Josiah  con-  tuutc-d  overseer  of  the  works  of  the  temple, 
mentioned  in  2  t^liron.  wxiv.  12.  Dupin  refr-rs  him  to  the 
time  of  Ahaz,  in  whose  reign  the  Edomites,  in  conjunction 
with  the  Israelites,  made  war  agiinst  the  tribe  ol  Judah ; 
because  his  prophecy  is  almost  wholly  directed  against  the 
Edomites  or  Idumajans.  Grotius,  lluet.  Dr.  Lij^hifoot,  and 
other  commentators,  however,  make  him  to  be  contemporary 
with  llosea,  Joel,  and  Amos,  agreea.ljiy  to  the  rule  cf  the 
Jewish  writers,  viz.  that,  where  the  time  of  the  prophet  ig 
not  exjK'cssed,  his  predictions  are  to  be  placed  in  the  same 
chronological  order  as  thi'  proi)hecy  immediately  preceding. 
Archbishop  Newcoine,  with  great  j)rohabi!i;y,  supposes  th.it 
Obadiah  prophesied  between  the  taking  of  Jerusalem  (which 
ha]pened  in  the  year  5h>7  before  Christ)  and  the  destruction 
of  Idumasa  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  which  took  place  a  very  few 
years  after;  consequently  he  was  partly  contemporary  with 
Jeremiah.  As  the  latter  has  many  expressions  similar  to 
others  in  Obadiah,  it  is  a  question  which  of  the  two  has  bor- 
rowed from  the  other.  C)pinions  vary  on  this  subject,  and 
there  is  not  much  preponderance  of  evidence  on  either  side; 
except  that,  as  Jeremiah  has  used  the  works  of  other  prophets 
ill  his  predictions  against  foreign  nations,  this  fact  renders  it 
more  probable  that  he  had  read  Obadiah  than  the  reverse. 
The  following  table  of  the  parallel  passages  will  enable  the 
reader  to  form  his  own  judgment: — 

Obadiah,  verse  \.  compared  with  Jeremiah  xlix.  14. 

2.  -  -  -  -  15. 

3,  4.    -  -  -  -         16. 

5.  -  ...  9. 

6.  -  -  -  -         10. 
8.         -           .           .           .  7.< 

The  writings  of  Obadiah,  which  consist  of  only  one  chap- 
ter, are  composed  with  much  beauty,  and  unfold  a  very 
interesting  scene  of  prophecy. 

'  In  thfi  examination  of  th<'  cldor.i,  whf'n  one  of  tlicin  said  he  saw  the 
crlino  coiniiijlteil,  v»o  irx'iai,  iiujer  a  mrulirh  tree,  Dniili'l  is  rtprcucnlwt 
as  Hiiswrrine,  In  aihiHion  to  rxi"',  "The  anei'l  of  Goil  liuth  reci-ivod  scii- 
li-'iice  of  Uijil,  i.Xli.AI  0-1  MI9"",  la  cut  thee  in  tieu."  Ami  when  Iho  other 
clil'T  H.-ijcl  ih.it  it  w.is  uT«  s-jjivav.  under  a  holm  Irec,  Doiiiel  is  iiiiuIh  to  an- 
HWiT,  ill  alldsion  to  t)ie  w<iril  wp-i-cv,  "The  niicfl  of  Ihc  I.orJ  wallelh  with 
the  Hwonl.  lll'Ii.AI(rj  jun-ii-,  to  cut  the-  in  lira."     Jppjiiii;,  ut  supra. 

•  Dr.  PriiJi-aux'H  Connection  pirt  i.  lumk  iti.  vitA  auno  K)-!.  vol.  I.  pp.  101, 
103.  edit  I7J).  faliiift'H  Dirtionnrv,  Vi>ce  Daniel,  and  hln  PrL-faco  sur 
Daniel,  Coinm.  IJtI.  U>n»  vl.  pn  Ccri— fit'-'.  The  culh-st  vhKlicntioii  of  the 
Kciiuinoni'r'.H  and  <-anoniral  aiitfioriiv  of  the  proiiln'cifu  of  Daiii<-I  i«  to  be 
fo'iiilin  llinhop  ChaniUtT'4  "  Vinrli.-aliiin  ol  Ih.;  l>.-foiice  of  ClirisUanity, 
from  the   Projilicrics  of  llio  OM  Tesi.iineiit,"  in  Dr.  Siiiiiuel  «.'hMidlur'« 

"Vui  '■ 'the  Aniiiiiiiiy  and  Authority  of  Dauiol'i  Prophccicn.'  botli 

puhl  id.n  hi  l/^s,  i:i  Sv.).  ;  ajid  in  Dr.  Hongktenbcrg's  treatiiO 

alrn.i    ■  I  I'l  In  thi' coiir.^r  of  thii  section. 

*  i'rufuMur  Turner'*  TraiislBlion  of  Jaiin,  p.  X?.  nolo. 


Sect.  III.  §  6.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  EZEKIEL. 


283 


II.  The  prophecy  of  Obadiah  consists  cf  two  parts ;  viz. 
Past  I.  is  minatory,  and  denounces  the  destruction  of  Edom  f/r 
their  Fride  and  carnal  Security  (1 — D.),  and  for  their  cruel 
Insults  and  Enmity  to  the  Jews,  aftir  the  Capture  of  their 
City.  (10— IG.) 
This  prediction,  according  to  Archbishop  Usher,  was    fulfilled, 
about  five    years  after  the  destmction  of  Jerusalem,  by  the 
Babylonians  subduing  and  expelling  them  from  Arabia  Petreea, 
of  which  they  never  afterwards  recovered  possession. 
Paut  II.  is  conwlatory,  and  foretells  the  Restoration  of  the 
Jeios  (17.),  tlieir  Victm-y  over  their  Enemies,  and  their  flou- 
rishing Siutein  consequence.  (18 — 21.) 

Archbishop  Ncwcome  considers -this  prophecy  as  fulfilled  by  the 
conquest  of  the  Maccabees  over  the  Edomites.  (See  1  Mace.  v. 
3 — 5.  65,  &c.)  There  is  no  doubt  that  it  was  in  part  accom- 
plished by  the  return  from  the  Babylonian  captivity ;  and  ly 
the  victories  of  the  Maccabsean  princes ;  but  the  prediction  in 
the  last  verse  will  not  receive  its  complete  fulfilment  until  that 
time  when  "  the  kingdoms  of  the  world  are  become  thi;  hivj- 
doms  of  our  Lord  and  of  his  Christ.  (Kev.  xi.  15.) 


§  G.    OX  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  EZEKIEL. 

L  Author  and  date. — II.  Canonical  avthoritij  of  the  prophecies 
of  EzeLiel.  —  III.  Tlieir  scope.  —  IV.  Analysis  of  them. — 
V.   Observations  on  the  style  of  Ezekiel. 

BEFORE  CUHIST,  595 — 536. 

I.  Ezekiel,  Avhose  name  imports  the  strength  of  God,  was 
the  son  cf  Cuzi,  of  the  sacerdotal  race,  and  one  of  the  captives 
carried  by  Nebuchadnezzar  to  Babylon,  with  Jehoiachin  king 
of  Judah ;  it  does  not  appear  that  he  had  prophesied  before 
he  came  into  Mesopotamia.  The  principal  scene  of  his  pre- 
dictions was  some  place  on  the  river  Chebar,  which  flows  j 
into  the  Euphrates  about  two  hundn-d  miles  to  the  north  of 
Babylon,  where  the  prophet  resided ;  though  he  was,  occa- 
sionally, conveyed  in  vision  to  .Terusalcm.  He  commenced 
his  prophetic  ministry  in  the  thirtieth  year  of  his  age,  accord- 
ing to  general  accounts ;  or  rather,  as  Calmet  thinks,  in  the 
thirtieth  year  after  the  covenant  was  renewed  with  God  in 
the  reign  of  Josiah,  which  answers  to  the  fifth  year  of  Eze- 
kiel's  and  Jehoiachin's  captivity  (Ezek.  i.  1.  xl.  1.),  the  a;ra 
whence  he  dates  his  predictions;  and  it  appears  from  xxix. 
17.  that  he  contiimed  to  prophesy  about  twenty-one  years 
and  three  fjuartcrs.  The  events  of  his  life,  after  his  call  to 
the  prophetic  office,  are  interAA'oven  with  the  detail  which  he 
has  himself  given  of  his  predictions;  but  the  manner  of  its 
termination  is  nowhere  ascertained.  The  pseudo-Epiohanius, 
in  his  lives  of  the  prophets,  says  that  he  was  ]>ut  to  ieath  by 
the  prince  or  commander  of  the  Jews  in  the  place  of  his  exile, 
because  this  prince  was  addicted  to  idolatry,  and  could  not 
bear  the  reproaches  of  the  propliet.  No  reliance,  however, 
can  be  placed  on  this  account,  which  is  intermixed  with 
many  fables.  Jerome  is  of  opinion,  that,  as  Ezekiel  was  in 
part  contemporary  with  Jeremiah,  who  prophesied  in  Judaa 
while  Ezekiel  delivered  his  predictions  beyond  the  Euphrates, 
their  prophecies  were  interchanged  for  the  consolation  and 
encouragement  of  the  captive  Jews.  There  is,  indeed,  a 
striking  agreement  between  the  subject-matter  and  their  re- 
spective prophecies;  but  Ezekiel  is  more  vehement  than 
Jeremiah'  in  reproving  the  sins  of  his  countrymen,  and 
abounds  more  in  visions,  which  render  some  passages  of  his 
book  exceedingly  difficult  to  be  understood.  On  thfs  account 
no  Jew  was,  anciently,  permitted  to  read  the  writings  of  this 
prophet,  until  he  had  completed  his  thirtieth  year.' 

II.  Until  of  late  years  the  prophecies  of  Ezekiel  have 
always  been  acknowledged  to  be  canonical,  nor  was  it  ever 
disputed  that  he  was  their  author.  The  Jews,  indeed,  say 
that  the  sanhedrin  deliberated  for  a  long  time  whether  his 
book  should  form  a  part  of  the  sacred  canon.  They  objected 
to  the  great  obscunty  at  the  beginning  and  end  of  his  pro- 
phecy; and  to  what  he  says  in' ch.  xviii.  20.  that  the  son 
should  not  bear  the  iniquity  of  his  father,  v/hich  they  urged 
was  contrary  to  Moses,  who  says  (Exod.  xx.  5.),  that  (3od 
visits  the  "  sins  of  the  fathers  upon  the  children  unto  the 
third  and  fourth  generation.''''  But  it  is  worthy  of  remark, 
that  Moses  himself  (Deut.  xxiv.  16.)  says  the  very  same 
thinw  as  Ezekiel.^ 

The  genuineness  of  certain  chapters  of  this  prophet  has 

'  Hieronymi  Proceiti.  in  lib.  i.    Comra.  in  Ezech. 

>  Calinet,  Preface  sur  Ezekiel.    Couiment.  LilU  torn.  vl.  pp.  353,  351. 


been  impugned  by  some  writers  both  on  the  Continent  and 
in  our  own  country. 

i.  On  the  Continent  it  has  been  denied  that  the  last  nine 
chapters  are  to  be  attributed  to  Ezekiel ;  but  the  arguments 
adduced  in  behalf  of  this  hypothesis  are  by  no  means  suffi- 
cient to  sustain  it :  for 

1.  The  alleged  obscurity  cf  these  chapters  is  "certainly 
not  at  variance  with  the  opinion  that  they  were  written  by 
Ezekiel,  for  many  other  parts  of  his  work  are  less  persjucu- 
ous,  not  to  say,  that  descriptions  of  this  kind,  particularly 
of  buildings,  can  scarcely  be  made  very  intelligible  without 
the  aid  of  drawings. 

2.  "These  chapters  are  supposed  to  contain  commands 
which  were  disregarded  by  the  Hebrews  after  their  return, 
and,  therefore,  it  is  inferred  that  they  did  not  then  exist,  or 
at  least  were  not  ascribed  to  Ezekiel.  But  this  supposition 
is  unfounded  ;  for  those  chapters  do  not  contain  commands, 
but  an  emblematic  or  figurative  representation  intended  to 
confirm  the  certainty  of  tlie  return,  and  the  re-establishment 
of  divine  worship. 

3.  "It  is  further  objected,  that  the  prophet  cculd  not  pos- 
sibly retain  in  memory  the  numbers  of  so  many  measure- 
ments as  were  perceived  by  him  in  his  vision.  But  this  is 
of  little  weight;  fur  as  the  impressions  of  the  visions  were 
the  more  vehement  on  account  of  the  outward  senses  being 
at  rest,  there  would  be  the  less  difficulty  in  retaining  them 
in  the  memory.  Besides,  there  are  persons  who  commit 
numbers  to  memory  with  great  facility,  and  if  the  objectors 
to  these  prophecies  allow  that  visions  constitute  merely  the 
dress  and  form  in  which  the  prophets  announce  their  predic- 
tions, there  would  have  been  no  need  of  memory  in  the  case. 

4.  "  Josephus' attributes  to  Ezekiel  two  books  concern- 
ing the  Babylonish  captivity :  but  as  by  t!;e  second  bock  of 
Ezekiel  he  means  the  last  nine  chapters,  how  is  it  possible 
thence  to  infer  that  Ezekiel  is  not  their  author?  There  is  no 
necessity,  therefore,  to  apply  the  language  to  Jeremiah  (as 
Eichhorn  did),  which  cannot  be  done  without  violence  to  the 
series  of  the  discourse." 

Altogether  worthless  is  the  conjecture  "  that  some  He- 
brew, who  returned  later  than  the  great  body  of  his  brethren, 
made  up  these  chapters,  in  order  to  effect  a  nev/  distribution 
of  the  country,  by  which  he  might  acquire  a  portion  for  him- 
self: for  no  such  impostor  would  hnve  written  so  largely 
and  in  such  a  manner  of  the  temple  and  of  the  division  of  the 
country  among  the  tribe",  and  at  the  same  time  forget  en- 
tirely the  distribution  among  individuals. 

"  Nothing,  therefore,  can  be  established  in  opposition  to 
the  genuineness  of  these  prophecies ;  and  it  is  confirmed  by 
their  contents.  The  visions,  the  manner  if  conveying  reproof, 
the  .-.lultitude  of  circumstantial  partici'lars,  the  character  of  the 
language  and  style,  in  all  which  respects  Ezekiel  is  remarki 
ably  distinguished  from  other  writers,  prove  that  he  must 
have  been  the  author  of  these  chapters.  No  imitation  could 
possibly  have  been  so  successful."^ 

ii.  In  England,  an  anonymous  writer*  has  denied  that 
"the  prophecies  in  chapters  xxv. — xxxii.  xxxv.  xxxvi, 
xxxviii.  and  xxxix.  are  Ezekiel's.  His  reasons  are  so  ex- 
ceedingly trifling,  that  they  are  not  worthy  of  refutation. 
Nor  indeed  is  this  necessary,  for  these  very  parts  of  the 
book  contain  evidence  that  they  are  the  work  of  this  prophet ; 
very  many  particulars  v.'hich  Ezekiel  is  accustomed  to  in- 
troduce elsewhere  are  found  in  these  prophecies ;  as,  for 
instance,  the  designation  of  the  year,  the  month  and  the  day,  on 
which  a  revelation  was  communicated ;  the  remarkable 
phraseology  son  of  man  corresponding  with  the  usage  in  the 
Aramsean  dialect;  the  forms,  set  thy  face  towards  or  against—, 
prophesy  against — hear  the  ivord  (f  Jehovah — thus  saith  tht 
Lord  Jehovah— -the  ivord  of  Jehovah  came  to  me — they  shall 
Imow  that  I  am  Jehovah — take  zip  a  lamentation  for.  In  these 
chapters,  as  in  ch.  i. — xxiv.,  the  terms  n-jj  and  ws'j  are  fre- 
quently applied  to  kin^s,  the  same  devices  for  conducting 
sieges  pi'^,  a  circumvalTation,  and  n'7'7D,  a  mound,  are  men- 
tioned, compare  ch.  xx-vi.  8.  with  iv.  2.  xvii.  17.  xxi.  27. 
(22.),  and,  in  fine,  the  same  particularity  and  multitude  of 
circumstances  occur.  Indeed  xxviii.  14.  contains  a  refer- 
ence to  the  vision  mentioned  in  i.  13,  x.  2.  If  the  mention 
ing  the  regions  of  the  departed  more  frequently  than  is  usual 
(see  xxvi.  20.  xxxi.  14 — 17.  xxxii.  18 — 32.)  would  seem  to 
indicate  a  foreign  origin,  it  must  be  considered  that  the  sub- 
ject required  it,  and  it  can  never  be  alleged  with  any  wciglir" 


»  Antlq.  .Tud.  lib.  x.  c.  5.  §  1. 

«  Prof  Turaer's  Translation  of  Jahn,  p.  403. 

»  Monthly  Magazine,  Marchj  1793,  p.  189. 


284 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Paut  L  Cuap.  IV. 


as  a  proof  that  these  portions  of  Ezekiel's  prophecies  differ 
in  character  from  the  remainder."' 

Josephus  ascribes  to  this  prophet  two  books  concerning 
the  Baoylonian  captivity  ;2  and  says,  that,  having  foretold 
in  Babylon  the  calamities  which  were  coming  upon  the 
people,  he  sent  accounts  of  them  to  Jerusalem.'  But  these 
circumstances  are  not  recorded  in  the  predictions  now  extant; 
nor  have  we  any  means  of  ascertaining  what  foundation 
Josephus  had  for  his  assertion.  Most  commentators  are  of 
opinion  that  the  Jewish  historian  divided  the  prophecy  we 
now  have  into  two  books,  and  that  he  took  that  part  of  the 
prophecy,  which  contains  a  description  of  the  temple  (xli. — 
xlviii.)  for  a  distinct  book,  because  it  treats  on  a  subject 
wholly  ditTerent  from  the  topics  discussed  in  the  former  part 
of  his  writings. 

III.  The  chief  design  of  Ezekiel's  prophecies  is,  to  com- 
fort his  brethren  in  captivity,  who  deplored  their  having  too 
lightly  creili'.cd  the  promises  of  Jeremiah,  who  had  exhorted 
them  spccdil}'  to  submit  to  the  Chaldecs,  on  account  of  the 
approaching  ruin  of  Jerusalem.  As  these  captives  saw  no 
appearance  of  the  fulfilment  of  Jeremiah's  predictions,  God 
raised  up  Ezekiel  to  confirm  them  in  the  faith,  and  to  sup- 
port by  new  prophecies  these  which  Jeremiah  had  long 
oefore  published,  and  even  tiien  continued  to  announce  in 
Judaea.  In  pursuance  of  this  design,  Ezekiel  predicts  the 
dreadful  calamities  which  soon  alter  were  infiictcd  upon 
Judu?a  and  Jerusalem,  on  account  of  the  idolatry,  impiety, 
and  profligacy  of  their  inhabitants;  the  divine  judgments 
that  would  be  executed  on  the  false  prophets  and  prophet- 
esses, who  deluded  and  hardened  the  Jews  in  their  rebellion 
against  God  ;  the  punishments  that  awaited  the  Ammonites, 
Eclomites,  and  Philistines,  for  their  hatred  of  the  Jews,  and 
insulting  them  in  their  distress ;  the  destruction  of  Tyre ; 
the  conquest  of  Egypt;  the  future  restoration  of  Israel  and 
Judah  from  their  several  dispersions;  and  their  ultimately 
happy  state  after  the  advent  and  under  the  government  of 
the  Messiah. 

IV.  The  prophecies  of  Ezekiel  form,  in  our  Bibles,  forty- 
right  chapters;  and,  as  he  is  extremely  punctual  i:i  dating 
them,  we  have  little  or  no  difiicuUy  in  arranging  them  in 
chronological  order.'  They  may  be  divided  into  four  parts; 
viz. 

1'art  I.  Ezf-\icrs  Call  lo  the  I'mphdlc  Office  (i.  1.  to  the  first 
part  of  verse  2-1.),  hh  Coininission,  luslntdion-i,  and  En- 
couifurcmcnts  for  executing  it.  (i.  28.  latter  clause,  ii.  iii. 
1—21.) 
Part  II.  Dcnunciationa  against  the  Jewish  Feople.  (iii.  22 — 
27.  iv. — xxiv.) 

Sect.  1.  Under  the  emblem  of  a  siege  delineated  upon  a  tile 
is  represented  the  manner  in  which  the  Clialda;an  army 
would  £urr)und  Jerusalem  during  the  reign  of  Zedekiah. 
(iii.  22 — 27.  iv.  1 — 3.)*  The  inhabitants  there  encouraged 
the  captives  in  Chaldfea  to  hope  for  a  return;  and  such  a 
hope  they  actually  cherished,  so  long  as  Jerusalem  was  safe  : 
but  this  viAon  was  designed  to  overthrow  their  confidence. 
From  the  s[K;cimens  preserved  in  cabinets,  it  is  well  known 
that  the  tiles  or  bricks,  anciently  used  in  oriental  buildings, 
were  of  considerable  size,  with  one  of  the  surfaces  well  po- 
lished, 80  a?  to  be  capable  of  receiving  the  representation 
described  by  the  prophet.  By  E/.ckiel's  lying  upon  his 
right  and  left  side  a  certain  number  of  (pro])hctic)  <lays,  is 
exhibited  the  number  of  years,  during  which  God  had  borne 
with  the  iniquities  of  the  house  of  Israel.  ('I — 8.)  The 
scanty  supply  and  intermixture  of  coarse  food  represented 
the  Ktarcity  and  hard  fare  which  tiie  Jews  should  have  dur- 
ing the  continuance  of  the  siege  by  Nebuchadnezzar. 

«  Prof.  Tiirnf-r'g  Trandlaiion  of  Jahn,  p.  401. 

s  Ariur|.  .hid.  lilt.  x.  c.  5.  i  1. 

1  Ilii.l  lib.  X.  c.  7.  5  2. 

«Tlie  arrangprnont  proposcl  hy  Prof.  Do  Welto  coincides  vory  nearly 
with  Hint  givrn  In  lliin  work.  He  divldi.H  llie  prfiliclioiis  of  Ezckifl  into 
four  piirlH,  viz  I.  From  chap.  i.  to  clinp.  xxiv.  ri.ntninin!:  nrnplicriey  relat- 
ing to  llic  Jews  an<l  antoriiir  lo  ll.o  tlosiriiction  of  Jiriisiilciii,  in  rliroiiolo- 
gii-al  or.l'r;  II.  From  clinp.  xxv.  lo  rlmp.  xx.vii.  coiiuiinliig  propliccji.s 
relating  to  varioiiii  hoatln-ii  nalionfi,  (tls|x>«oil  nccordiiiij  to  llio  order  of 
But>icri.<;  III.  Fidiiithap.  xixiii.  to  xlviii.  coniniiiiiiiT  proptiecie*  posterior 
lo  tm>  (leMrciciion  of  Jcniitali'm,  in  chronoloairnl  onler. 

•  Tlir  proplii-iical  types  anil  fi)?iirefl  are  ortcn  ailapted  lo  the  (rcnius  and 
education  oi  the  prophirt.'!.  Amos,  for  in.srance,  d-ri\'  '  "  ruroK  from 
objects  wlilcli  v.c<-"  fiiiiiliar  to  a  8tioj>licrd  or  a  Ui  As  I'.r.r- 

klfl  ceeiiiM  to  have  liad  a  ppi.iiliar  lalenl  fur  archill  '  ■.;■  .  ■eral  of  IiIh 
rtpredeiiialions  are  sniluMe  to  lliat  profcSbion.  "And  they  lliat  uiipposo 
ttic  emblem  here  made  u.ie  of  to  be  below  the  iliRnlly  of  the  prophetic 
cfTice,  inav  aa  well  acniiie  Archimedes  of  folly  for  irrakmg  line.s  m  the 
dnst."  W.  Ixiwth  on  Hzi'k.  i. ;  from  whoso  giinimaricH  of  cJiaplern  and 
the  marginal  abstracts  of  Mr.  lleevcs  this  analy»ls  of  F.r.elciel  is  chiclly 
derived,  in  the  present  aa  well  as  in  former  editions  of  this  work. 


Sect.  2.  Under  the  t3'pe  of  shaving  his  head  and  beard,  and 
weighing  his  hair,  one-third  part  of  which  was  to  be  burnt, 
another  to  be  cut  small  with  a  knife,  and  the  remainder  to 
be  burnt  (v.  1 — 4.),  are,  in  vision,  denounced  the  divine 
judgments  against  Jerusalem,  by  famine,  sword,  and  disper- 
sion. (5 — 17.)  The  head  here  represents  Jerusalem ;  the 
hair,  the  great  number  of  its  inhabitants;  and  the  balances, 
the  exactness  of  God's  judgments. 

Sect.  3.  denounces  the  divine  judgments  against  the  Jews  for 
their  idolatry  (vi.  1 — 7.),  but  promises  that  a  rcnmant  shall 
be  saved,  and  shall  be  brought  to  a  sense  of  their  sins  by 
their  afflictions.  (8 — 14.) 

Sf.ct.  4.  announces  the  irreversible  judgment  of  captivity,  and 
final  desolation  of  the  Jev^'s  for  their  idolatry  and  other 
heinous  sins  (vii.  1 — 22.)  :  the  severity  of  their  captivity, 
which  is  prefigured  by  a  chain.   (23 — 27.) 

Sect.  5.  describes  the  carrying  of  the  prophet,  in  a  vision,  to 
Jerusalem  (viii.  1 — ^i.),  where  he  is  shown  the  idolatries 
committetl  by  the  Jews  within  the  precincts  of  ihe  temple  ; 
particularly  the  imag«  of  Baal,  by  a  bold  figure  culled  the 
imaffe  of  Jealousy,  from  the  provocation  it  gave  to  God,  by 
setting  up  a  rival  against  him  in  the  place  dedicated  to  his 
worship  (5.)  :  the  Egyptian  (G — 12.),  the  Phenician  (13, 
14.),  and  the  Persian  superstitions.  (15,  16.)"  The  pro- 
phet then  denounces  vengeance  against  the  wicked,  and 
foretells  the  preservation  of  the  pious  Jews  (17,  18.  ix.)  ; 
and  under  the  command  to  scatter  coals  of  fire  over  the 
city  (x.  1 — 7.-),  and  the  vision  of  the  Shechinah  departing 
from  the  temple  (8 — 22.),  are  prefigured  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem,  and  Jehovah's  forsaking  the  temple.  This  sec- 
tion concludes  with  a  severe  denunciation  against  those 
wicked  princes  and  people  who  remained  in  Jerusalem,  and 
derided  the  types  and  predictions  of  the  prophets  (xi.  1 — 
13.);  and  the  return  of  the  Jews  is  then  foretold  (14 — 
21.)  ;  Jehovah's  utterly  forsaking  the  temple  and  city  is 
represented  by  the  departure  of  the  Shechinah  (22,  23.)  ; 
and  the  prophet  returns  to  communicate  his  instructions  to 
his  brethren  of  the  captivity.   (24,  25.) 

Sect.  6.  Under  the  types  of  Ezekiel's  removing  himself  and 
his  household  goods  (xii.  1 — 7.),  and  eating  and  drinking 
"with  quaking,  and  with  carefulness"  (17 — 20.),  is  pre- 
figured the  captivity  of  Zedekiah  and  of  the  Jews  still  re- 
maining at  Jerusalem  (8 — 16.);''  and  speedy  judgment  is 
denounced  against  the  Jews  for  their  abuse  of  the  divine 
forbearance.   (21—28.) 

Sect.  7.  The  fidsc  prophets  (xiii.  1 — 16.),  and  false  prophet- 
esses (17 — 23.),  are  reproved  and  threatened  with  signal 
punishment. 

Sect.  8.  A  denunciation  of  the  divine  judgments  against  the 
idolatrous  elders  and  their  false  prophets  (xiv.  1 — 11.),  and 
against  the  Jews  for  their  obstinate  impenitency  (12 — 21.) ; 
a  remnant  of  whom,  it  is  promised,  shall  be  saved.  (22, 
23.) 

Sect.  9.  Under  the  parable  of  an  unfruitful  and  unprofitable 
vine  is  set  forth  the  utter  rejection  of  Jerusalem,  (xv.) 

Sect.  10.  Under  the  emblem  of  an  ex|>osed  and  wretched 
infant  is  represented  the  natural  state  of  the  Jewish  nation, 
and  the  great  love  of  (Jod  to  it  in  Egypt,  as  well  as  after- 
wards, (xvi.  1 — 14.)  The  heinous  and  unparalleled  sins 
of  the  Jews  arc  set  forth;  for  which  sore  judgmenLs  are 
denounced  against  them.  But,  riotwithst;Kiding  all  these 
provocations,  CJod  promises  in  the  end  to  show  thein  mercy 
under  his  new  and  everla>iting  covenant.  (60 — C3.)  The 
figurative  mode  of  describing  adulten,',  whiih  is  of  fretjuent 
occurrence  in  the  prophets,  is  pursued  with  great  forre,  and 
at  considerable  length,  both  in  this  and  the  23d  chapter. 

Sect.  11.  Under  the  nlKgory  of  two  eagles  and  a  vine  is 
repretiented  God's  judgment  upon  the  Jews,  for  revolting 
from  Babylon  to  E'gypt,  (xvii.  1—21.)  The  "  great  eaglo 
with  great  wings"  (3.)  means  Nebuchadnezzar,  as  the 
"  feathers  of  divers  colours"  mean  the  various  nations  that 


«  Bishop  Warbiirton  has  nn  excellent  Ulustralion  of  this  prediction  In  hl« 
Divine  I.eKBlion  of  Moses,  book  iv.  sect.  C.  (Works,  vol.  iv.  pp.  '-"Jj — 300.); 
the  moKt  material  parts  of  whirh  arc  inserted  in  Bisiiop  Maul"*  and  Dr. 


Oect.  in.  §  6.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  EZEKIEL. 


285 


■were  subject  to  his  sway.  The  other  "  great  eagle"  (7.) 
means  the  king  of  Egypt.  The  preaching  of  the  Gospel, 
and  tiie  universal  kiii|jom  of  the  Messiah,  are  foretold. 
(22—34.) 

StcT.  12.  The  Jews,  in  Ezckiel's  time,  having  complained 
(xviii.  1,  2.)  of  the  divine  justice,  as  if  the  calamities  which 
had  befallen  them  were  intlictcd  merely  for  the  sins  of  their 
forefathers,  this  section  contains  a  vindication  of  God's 
eternal  rules  of  justice  in  punishing  no  one  eternally  for 
the  sins  of  another,  and  in  pardoning  the  wicked  on  their 
true  repentance.  (3 — 32.) 

Skct.  13.  Under  the  parable  of  a  lion's  whelps  are  foretold 
the  cruelty  and  captivity  of  Jehoahaz,  who  was  deposed  by 
the  king  of  Egypt,'  and  of  Jehoiakim,  who  was  deposed 
by  the  king  of  Babylon.-  (xix.  1 — 9.)  And  under  the 
parable  of  a  vine  scorched  by  the  cast  wind,  torn  up  and 
transplanted  in  the  wilderness,  are  set  forth  the  desolation 
and  captivity  of  the  whole  Jevirish  people.  (10 — 14.) 

StcT.  14.  A  deputation  of  the  ciders  having  come  to  the  pro- 
phet, in  the  seventh  year  of  Jehoiakim's  and  his  own  cap- 
tivity, to  request  him  to  ask  counsel  of  God  in  the  midst 
of  their  calamity,  Ezckicl,  by  divine  command,  reminds 
them  of  God's  mercies  to  them,  and  of  their  idolatry,  and 
rebellions  against  him,  from  their  departure  out  of  Egypt  to 
that  very  day.  (xx.  1 — 39.)  Yet,  notwithstanding  all 
their  provocations,  their  return  from  captivity  is  foretold, 
and  also  that  the  twelve  tribes  shall  serve  God  at  Jeru- 
salem. 

Sect.  15.  Under  the  emblem  of  a  forest,  doomed  to  be  con- 
sumed by  fire,  is  foretold  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem, 
termed  the  "  forest  of  the  south,"  because  that  city  lay  to 
the  south  of  Chaldoja,  where  the  prophet  then  was.  (xx. 
45 — 49.)  And  under  the  emblem  of  a  sharp  sword  is  pre- 
dicted the  destruction  of  the  Jews  (xxi.  1 — 17.),  of  Jeru- 
salem (18 — 27.),  and  of  the  Ammonites  (28 — 32.),  by  Nebu- 
cliadnezzar.  The  prophecy  against  the  Ammonites  was 
accomplished  about  five  years  after  Jerusalem  was  destroyed. 

Sect.  16.  contains  a  recital  of  the  sins  committed  in  Jerusa- 
lem, and  by  a-U  orders  and  classes  of  people  in  that  city  ; 
for  which  the  severest  judgments  are  denounced,  (xxii.) 

Sect.  17.  represents  the  idolatries  of  Samaria  and  Jerusalem 
by  the  lewd  practices  of  two  common  harlots  (xxiii.  1 — 21.)  ; 
for  which  crimes  God  denounces  very  severe  judgments 
against  them  both.  (22 — 49.) 

Sect.  13.  Under  the  figure  of  a  boiling  pot  is  shown  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  and  its  inhabitants  (xxiv.  1 — 14.)  ; 
and,  by  the  prophet's  being  forbidden  to  mourn  for  his 
wife,  it  is  signified  that  the  calamities  of  the  Jews  shall  be 
so  astonishing  as  to  surpass  all  expressions  of  sorrow. 
(15—27.) 
I'art  III.  coinpy'i^es  EzeklePs  Prophecies  against  various  neigh- 
bouring Nutions,  Enemies  to  ike  Jews.  (xxv. — xxxii.) 

Sect.  1.  denotes  the  judgments  of  God  against  the  Ammon- 
ites (xxv.  1—7.),  Moabites  (8—11.  ,  Edomites  (12—14.), 
and  Philistines  (15 — 17.),  on  account  of  their  hatred  of 
his  people,  and  insulting  them  in  the  time  of  their  distress. 
According  to  Archbishop  Usher  and  Josephus,  these  pre- 
dictions were  fulfilled  by  Nebuchadnezzar  about  five  years 
after  the  destruction  of  JerusaloiM.^ 

Sect.  2.  announces,  in  language  singularly  elegant  and  ani- 
mated, the  destruction  of  Tyre  (xxvi.  xxvii.  xxviii.  1 — 
19.),  whose  vast  trade,  riches,  splendour,  and  power  are 
largely  described.  This  prediction'  was  accompUshed,  nine- 
teen years  after  its  delivery,  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  who  cap- 
tured Tyre  after  besieging  it  for  thirteen  years,  and  utterly 
destroyed  that  city.  The  destruction  of  Zidon,  the  mother 
city  of  Tyre  (in  whose  prosperity  and  adversity  she  gene- 
rally participated),  is  then  declared  (20 — 23.);  and  this 
section  of  prophecy  concludes  with  promises  of  the  happy 
state  of  the  Jews  on  their  deliverance  from  all  their  ene- 
mies, together  with  their  general  conversion  to  Christianity. 
(24—26.) 

Sect.  3.  The  deposition  and  death  of  Pharaoh-Hophrah  (or 

«  See  2  Kings  xxiii.  S^j.  and  2  Cliron.  xxxvi.  4. 

»  S  e  2  Kings  xxiv.  and  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  6. 

'  I'rserii  Annales,  ad  a.  m.  3119.    Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib.  x.  c.  11.  §  1. 

«  Tliough  these  predictions  chiefly  relate  to  Old  Tyre,  yet  Dr.  Prideaux 
is  of  opinion  lliat  they  also  compreliend  New  Tyre,  which  wsis  erected  on 
an  island  about  lialf  a  mile  distant  from  the  shore,  and  was  conquered  by 
Alexander  the  Great.  Connection,  part  i.  book  ii.  sub  anno  573.  (vol.  i.  pp. 
91,  92.)  See  Vol.  I.  pp.  \Zi,  )~i">.  for  the  proofs  of  the  literal  accomplish- 
ment of  Ezckiel's  prophecy,  that  Tyre  should  be  a  place  "  to  spread  nets 
upon,"  aud  be  "built  iii>  :uore."  (.'c.^■^i  U.) 


Apries)  king  of  Egypt  (xxix.  1 — 8.),  and  the  conquest  of 
that  country  by  Nebuchadnezzar  (9—21.  xxx. — xxxii.),  arc 
foretold.  The  imagery  of  the  latter  part  of  this  prophecy 
is  both  sublime  and  terrible.  These  predictions  were  in  the 
tenth,  twenty-seventh,  eleventh,  and  twelfth  years  of  Jehoi- 
achin's  captivity. 

Part  IV.  contains  a  Series  of  Exhmiutions  and  consolatory 
Promises  to  the  Jews,  of  future  Deliverance  under  Cyrus,  but 
principally  of  their  final  Restwaiion  and  Conversion  under 
the  Kingdom  of3Icssiah.  (xxxiii. — xlviii.)  These  Predic- 
tions icere  probably  delivered  in  the  twelfth  year  of  Jekoia- 
chinas  Capiiviiy. 

Sect.  1 .  sets  forth  the  duty  of  a  prophet  or  minister  of  God, 
exemplified  by  that  of  a  watchman,  in  warning  a  people  of 
their  shis.  (xxxiii.  1 — 9.)  Then  follows  an  earnest  exhor- 
tation to  repentance,  vindicating  the  equity  of  the  divine 
government,  and  declaring  the  terms  of  acceptance  (as  in 
ch.  xviii.)  to  be  without  respect  of  persons ;  .so  that  the  ruin 
of  obstinate  and  impenitent  sinners  must  be  attributed  to 
themselves,  (xxxiii.  10 — 20.)  While  Ezekiel  was  thus 
under  the  prophetic  impulse,  tidings  being  brought  to  him 
of  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Babylonians  (21, 
22.),  he  takes  occasion  to  predict  the  utter  desolation  of 
Judaja,  to  check  the  vain  confidence  of  those  who  still  re- 
main there,  and  he  also  reproves  the  hypocrisy  of  thost^ 
Jews  who  were  of  the  captivity.  (23 — 33.) 

Sect.  2.  In  this  section  God  reproves  the  conduct  of  the  civil 
and  eccksiastical  governors  of  the  Jewish  people  (xxxiv.  1 
— 10.),  and  promises  a  general  restoration  of  the  people. 
Their  happy  condition  under  the  reign  of  Messiah  their 
king  is  described  in  the  most  beautiful  terms.  (11 — 31.) 

Sect.  3.  contains  a  renewal  of  the  prophet's  former  denuncia- 
tions against  the  Edomites  (see  xxv.  12.)  as  a  just  puni-h- 
ment  for  their  msults  to  the  Jews  during  their  calamities, 
(xxxv.)^ 

Sect.  4.  announces  the  general  restoration  of  the  Jews,  of 
which  the  return  of  the  two  tribes  from  Babylon  may  be 
considered  an  earnest,  and  their  consequent  felicity,  (xxxvi.) 
The  same  subject  is  further  illustrated  under  the  vision  of 
a  resurrection  of  dry  bones,  (xxxvii.  1 — 14.)  The  address 
to  the  dry  bones  in  ver,  4.  is  by  some  commentators  con- 
sidered as  a  prophetical  representation  of  that  voice  of  the 
Son  of  God,  which  all  that  are  m  their  graves  shall  hear  at 
the  last  day,  and  come  forth.  Under  the  emblem  of  the 
union  of  two  sticks  is  foretold  the  incorporation  of  Israel 
and  Judah  into  one  state  and  church,  which  will  enjoy  the 
land  of  Canaan  and  the  blessings  of  the  Gospel  under  the 
Messiah.  (15 — 28.) 

Sect.  5.  contains  a  remarkable  prophecy  against  Gog  and  all 
his  allies,  and  the  victory  of  Israel  over  them  (xxxviii.  xxxix. 
1 — 22.),  together  with  a  promise  of  deliverance  from  cap- 
tivity, and  of  the  final  restoration  and  conversion  of  the 
Jews  to  the  Gospel,  under  the  Messiah.  (23 — 29.)  Thi.^ 
prophecy  relates  to  the  latter  ages  of  the  world,  and  will  be 
best  understood  by  its  accomplishment. 

Sect.  6.  contains  a  representation,  partly  literal  and  partly 
mystical,  of  Solomon's  temple;  also  a  mystical  representa- 
tion of  the  city  of  Jerusalem,  and  mystical  directions  con- 
cerning the  division  of  the  Holy  Land ; — all  which  were 
designed  to  give  the  Jews  a  greater  assurance  of  their  re- 
turning into  their  own  country  from  the  Babylonish  capti- 
vity ;  and,  more  remotely,  of  their  return  after  their  general 
conversion  to  Christianity,  and  of  the  lasting  and  firmly 
settled  and  prosperous  state  they  shall  then  enjoy  in  their 
own  country.  It  seems  that  no  model  of  Solomon's  temple 
had  remained.  To  direct  the  Jews,  therefore,  in  the  dimen- 
sions, parts,  order,  and  regulations  of  the  new  temple,  on 
their  return  from  the  Babylonish  captivity,  is  one  reason 
why  Ezekiel  is  so  particular  in  his  description  of  the  old 
temple ;  to  which  the  new  was  conformable  in  figure  and 
parts,  though  inferior  in  magnificence  on  account  of  the 
poverty  of  the  nation  at  that  time.  Whatever  was  august 
or  illustrious  in  the  prophetic  figures,  and  not  literally  ful- 
filled in  or  near  their  own  time,  the  ancient  Jews  justly 
considered  as  belonging  to  the  times  of  the  Messiah.^     Ac- 

»  This  prophecy  was  accomplished  in  the  conquest  of  the  Edomites,_first 
by  the  Nabatlieans,  and  secondly  by  John  Hyrcanus,  who  compelled  them 
to  embrace  the  Jewish  relision:  in  consequence  of  which  they  at  length 
became  incorporated  with  that  nation.  Dr.  Prideaux's  Connection,  part  il. 
book  v.  su6  anno  129.  (vol.  ii.  pp.  3!J7,  308.)  .    „    .  „.      ...  ,, 

0  See  particularly  I  Cor.  iii.  lb.  2  Cor.  vi.  16.  Eph.  ii.  20-22.  1  Tun.  ni.  15. 
The  same  metaphor  i.s  also  pursued  in  2  Thess.  ii.  4.,  and  occurs  repeat 


•280 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  V.  Cirxi:  IV 


cordia;;!y,  when  they  f3-.inJ  tant  the  sccoaJ  temple  fell  short. 
at  least  in  their  opinion,  ot"  the   r.udel  of  the  temple  de- 
scribed by  Eiekiel,  they  supiHwed  the  prophecy  to  refer,  at 
least  in  part,  to  the  period  now  in.^njionod:  and,  doubtless, 
the  temple  and  temple  worship  were  a  figure  of  Christ's 
church,  frequently  represented  in  the  New  Test.»ment  under 
the  metaphor  of  a  temple,  in  alliu-ion  to  the  beauty,  sym- 
metry,-and  firmness  of  that  erected  by  Solomon,  to  its  or- 
derly worship,  and  to  t!ie  manifestations  of  the  divine  pre- 
sence there  vouchsafed.'     This  section  cbmprises   the  last 
nine  chapters  of  Ezekicl's  prophecy  ;  which  are  thus  ana- 
lyzed by  Ur.  Siiii.h  :- 
C.i.  si.  contains  a  .losrri;uion  of  tlic  two  outer  courts,  and  of  tlic  cliam 
horn  liol.>:iaing  !o  itieiii  (1—47.),  toiclhcr  wiili  tlic  porcli  ol  the  tem- 
ple, (ti^  ) 
Cli.  xli.  Ujsciibea  the  measures,  parts,  and  ornaments  of  the  temple 

i:seir. 
Ch.  xlii.  describes  the  priests'  chambers  ami  tlicir  use,  and  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  holy  mount  on  which  the  Icmpio  stood. 
Ch.  .\liii.  re|i:ei>c!its  the  glory  of  the  l/)ril  as  returnhi;  to  tho  templa, 
wlierc  G.mI  proiniaci  to  fix  his  residence,  if  his  poople  rep'<i)t  .ind  ibr- 
sake  those  sii!:i  which  caii=o<t  tiiiii  to  dejiart  fro!ii  them.  (I— 11.)  Tlic 
nieabMres  of  iho  altar  and  the  onliniuicts  relating  to  it  arc  set  down. 
(U'— 27.) 
Ch.  xtiv.  describes  tJie  glory  of  God  a?  actu.illy  returned  to  the  temple, 
and  reproves  the  Jews  for  sufferins  idolatrous  priests  to  profane  the 
temple  with  their  inini.strallons.  (1—14.)  Ordhiances  arc  then  given 
for  the  deporlnicut  of  God's  true  priests,  and  the  maintenance  due  to 
them.  (13-31.) 
Ch.  .\lv.  appoints  the  several  portions  of  land  for  the  sanctuary  and  its 
uiiiiislers  (1—5.).  for  the  ci;y  (0),  and  for  the  prince  (7,  8.) ;  and  insti- 
tutes various  ordinances  concerning  the  provisions  for  llic  ordinary 
and  extraordinary  Eai-rificci:.  (9-25.  xlvi.  1—15.) 
Ch.  xlvi.  (15—21.)  giviM  directio-u  concerning  tiie  inheriting  of  any  part 
of  the  j)riiice's  pot  lion,  and  also  concerning  the  boiling  and  baking  any 
part  of  the  holy  oMations. 
Ch.  xtvii.  contains  the  vis. on  of  the  holy  waters  is.=!uing  out  of  the  tem- 
ple, and  their  virtue  (1—12.);  a  most  beautiful  emblem  of  the  gradual 
progress  of  the  Cijspel,  and  of  the  power  of  divine  grace  under  it, 
which  is  capable  of  healing  all  but  the  Incorrigibly  impenitent  and 
l.yporritcs ;  wh;i,  ia  verse  11.,  arc  compared  to  marshy  groumi,  whioli, 
aUer  aU  the  care  or  ituliu-'e  tliat  can  be  bestowed  upnn  it,  ccjniinues 
barren  and  unprofiiable.  The  extent  and  division  of  tlie  Holy  UmA 
are  then  described,  which  is  to  be  indiscriminately  shared  between 
the  I.sraclitesand  proselytes  sojourning  among  them  (i;j— 23);  inys'i- 
cally  denoting  the  incorporRli'JU  of  the  Gentiles  into  the  same  church 
with  the  Jewj.  ((.'onimre  Kph.  iii.  C.) 
Ch.  xlviii.  compri:fos  a  do.^crintion  of  the  several  portions  of  land  belong- 
ing to  eaoh  tribe  (1—7.  2:>^20) ;  together  with  the  portions  allotted 
li'the  Ban<Mu.iry  (S— 14  ),  the  city  (15— 19.),  and  the  prince  0-^)— 22.) ; 
and  alfo  the  measures  and  names  of  the  gates  of  the  new  city. 
(:«— 35.) 

The  points  in  these  prophecies,  which  are  principally 
worthy  of  attention,  are  the  following : — 

1.  That  the  pro))het,  more  than  one  hundred  miles  distant 
from  the  scene,  should  have  announced  the  henrinning  of  the 
eiegc  of  Joru.^alcm  on  the  very  day  it  took  place;  and,  like 
Jeremiah,  should  liavc  constantly  predicted  tne  conquest  and 
destruction  of  the  city,  and  the  carrying  av/ay  of  the  inhabi- 
tants. 

2.  That  he  should  have  foreseen  also  the  flight  of  Zedc- 
kiah  through  tiie  hroken  walls  at  night,  together  with  those 
circumstniiccs  ;  viz.  that  he  sliould  be  overtaken  by  the  Chal- 
danns,  and  that  ho  should  not  be  slain,  but  carried  into  ihfir 
country,  which,  however,  he  should  not  see.  This  was 
verified  by  Nebuchadnezzar's  causing  his  eyes  to  bo  put  out. 

3.  That  moreover,  like  Jfremiah.he  should  plaiidy  predict 
the  return  of  the  Jews  to  their  country,  and  their  perseve- 
rance in  the  worsliip  of  CJod, — events  so  remote  and  m  them- 
selves improbable, — and  also  the  conquest  of  Iduma;a  by  the 
Hebrews. 

1.  That  ho  should  have  announced  not  only  the  demolition 
no  more  (for  the  new  cily  was  founded 


of  Tyre,  to  be  rebuilt 


nly  \ 
upon' an  island),  but  also  that  its  ri'ino  ohould  be  tlirown  into 
the  sea ;  a  predic'.ion  which  Alcxa.ider  unconsciously  veri- 
fied. 

5.  Lastly,  that  like  Jeremiah,  ha  rhould  have  foretold  the 
advent  of  Messiah  the  great  eon  of  Daviil,  at  a  period  when 
David's  family  were  dej)rived  of  royal  dignity. 

v.  Most  biblical  critics  concur  in  opinion  as  to  the  excel- 
lency and  sublimity  of  Kzekiel's  stylo.  Grotius'"  obscrvrs, 
that  he  possessed  great  erudition  and  genius;  so  that,  setting 
aside  his  gift  of  prophecy,  which  id  incomparable,  he  may 

edJy  in  the  lUvclalion  of  St.  John,  who  not  only  doacribci  the  heavenly 
'  nncluary  by  rcpreacnliLtloiu  taken  from  the  Jewiidi  tenijile  (sec  Uev.  xi. 
19.  xiv.  17.  XV.  r>.  S  ).  butal«"  lianscrihes  several  of  nxelciel's  rxpre.Msionn 
(Kev.  Iv.  2,  3.6.  xi.  1,2.  xxi.  12.  6cr..,  xxu.  I.  2.);  and  horroWH  IiIn  allu.siuns 
from  the  state  of  iJie  firvt  temple,  not  of  Ibc  Hecond  temple  which  cxisteil 
in  our  Savioiu's  time  ,  as  If  the  furmor  had  n  more  immedi.ilc  reference 
to  the  timcii  rif  iiie  'JospeL  Com|>arc  Rev.  Iv.  1.  Arc.  with  Uzck  I.  C.  eC  tcq. 
— liOWIh  on  Exak.  xl. 

'  Ilccvi's  p.ti.i  lAiwth  on  E/.'  k.  xl. 

»  View  nf  the  Prophets,  pji.  l.VJ,  151. 

*  Prasf.  a>]  E-zcchiel.  in  t'rit  Oacr.  torn.  It.  p.  B. 


deserve  to  be  cc'nij>arod  with  Homer,  on  account  of  his  beau- 
tiful conceptions,  lii.^  illustriou.T  comparisons,  f;!Kl  his  exten- 
sive knowledge  cf  various  subjects,  particularly  of  archilcc- 
turc.  Bi-shop  Lowth,  in  his  twenty-first  lecture  on  the  sacreu 
poetry  of  the  Hebrews,  gi'/es  us  the  following  description  of 
the  peculiar  and  discriminating  characters  of  this  j>rophet. 
"  E/ekiel,"  says  he,  "  is  much  inferior  to  Jeremi.di  in  ele- 
<rance ;  in  sublimity  he  is  not  even  excelled  by  Isaiah  ;  but 
his  sublimity  is  of  a  totally  different  kind.  He  is  deep,  ve- 
hement, tragical ;  the  only  sensation  he  affects  to  excite  is 
the  tsrrible  ;  his  sentiments  arc  elevated,  fervid,  full  of  fire, 
indignant;  his  imagery  is  crowded,  magiiincent,  terrific, 
sometimes  almost  to  disgust;  his  language  is  pompous,  so- 
lemi!,  ai:slore,  rough,  and  at  times  unpolished :  he  employs 
frequent  repelitiotis,  not  for  the  sake  of  grace  or  eietrance,, 
but  from  the  vehemence  of  passion  and  indignation.  What- 
ever subject  he  treats  of,  that  he  sedulously  pursues,  from 
that  he  rarely  dcp.irts,  but  cleaves  as  it  were  to  it ;  whence 
the  connection  is  in  general  e\'idont  and  well  preserved.  In 
many  respects  he  is  perhaps  excelled  by  the  other  prophets ; 
but  in  that  species  ot  composition  to  which  he  seems  uy  na- 
ture adapted, — the  forcible,  tlie  impetuous,  the  great  and  so- 
lemn,— not  one  of  the  sacred  writers  is  superior  to  him. 
His  diction  is  sufficiently  perspicuous,  all  his  obscurity  con- 
sists in  the  nature  of  the  subject.  Visions  fas  for  instance, 
among  others,  those  of  Hosea,  Amos,  ana  Jeremiah)  are 
necessarily  dark  and  confused.  The  greater  part  of  Ezekiel, 
towards  the  middle  of  the  book  e.-pecially,  is  poetical, 
whether  we  regard  the  matter  or  the  diction.''  His  periods, 
however,  are  frequently  so  rude,  that  Eishop  Lowtli  exjnesses 
himself  as  being  often  at  a  loss  how  to  pronounce  concerning 
his  ])erformance  in  this  respect.  In  another  ph'.ce  the  same 
learned  prelate  remarks,  that  Ezekiel  should  be  oftener 
classed  among  the  orators  than  the  poets  ;  and  he  is  of  opinion 
that,  with  respect  to  style,  we  may  justly  assign  to  Ezekiel 
ttie  same  rank  among  the  Hebrews,  as  Homer,  Siraonides, 
and  iEschylus  hold  ainong  the  Greeks. 

From  this  high  praise  of  i5isho|)  Lowth's,  his  learned  an- 
notator,  Michaelis,  dissents;  and  is  so  far  from  esteeming 
Ezekiel  as  equal  to  Isaiah  in  siibliinity,  that  he  is  disposed 
to  think  the  prophet  displays  more  art  and  luxuriance  in  am- 
plifying and  decorating  his  subject,  than  is  consistent  with 
poetical  fervour,  or,  indeed,  with  true  sublimity.  Michaelis 
further  pronounces  Ezekiel  to  be  in  general  an  imitator,  who 
possesses  the  art  of  giving  rn  air  of  novelty  and  ingenuity, 
out  not  of  grandeur  and  sublimity,  to  all  his  compositions ; 
and  is  of  opinion  that,  as  the  prophet  lived  at  a  period  when 
the  Hebrew  language  was  visibly  on  the  d^clitic;  and  also 
that,  if  we  compare  him  with  the  Latin  poets  who  succeeded 
the  Augustan  age,  we  may  find  some  resemblance  in  the 
style,  something  that  indicates  the  old  ao;o  of  poetry.  In 
these  sentiments  the  English  translator  of  Uishop  Lowth's 
lectures  partially  acquiesces,  observing  that  Ezekiel's  fault 
is  a  want  of  neither  novelty  nor  sublimity,  but  of  grace  and 
uniformity;  while  Eielihorn  minutely  discusses  his  claims 
to  originality.^  Archbishop  Newcome,  h'nvevcr,  has  com- 
pletely vindicated  the  prophet's  style.  He  observes,  with 
equal  truth  and  judgment,  tliat  Ezekiel  is  not  to  be  considered 
as  the  framer  of  those  august  and  astonishing  visions,  and 
of  those  admirable  poetical  representations  which  he  com- 
mitted to  writing;  but  as  an  instrument  in  the  hands  of  God, 
who  vouchsafed  to  reveal  hiin.self,  through  a  long  succession 
of  ages,  not  only  in  divers  parts  constituting  a  magnificent 
and  uniform  whole,  butalso  in  different  manners,  as  by  voice, 
by  dreams,  by  inspiration,  and  by  plain  or  enigmatical  vision. 
It  he  is  circumstantial  in  describing  the  wonderful  scenes 
which  were  presented  to  him  in  the  visions  of  God,  he  should 
be  regarded  as  a  faithful  npresenterof  the  divine  revelations, 
for  the  purpose  of  information  and  instrnction,  and  not  as  ex- 
liHUSting  an  exuberant  fancy  in  minutely  filling  up  an  ideal 
picture.  The  learned  prelate  thinks  it  probable  that  Buzi, 
the  prophet's  father,  had  preserved  his  own  family  from  the 
taint  of  idolatry,  and  Irad  educated  his  son  fir  the  priestly 
office  in  all  the  learnin<f  of  the  Hebrews,  and  particularly  in 
he  study  of  their  sacretlbooks.  Ileiiig  a  youth  at  the  time  of 
liis  captivity, — a  season  of  life  wh<n  the  fervour  of  imagination 
is  natural  in  n\<^\\  of  superior  endowments, — his  genius  led 
him  to  amplification,  liku  that  of  some  of  the  Roman  poets; 
though  h(!  occasionally  shov/s  himself  capable  of  the  austere 
and  concise  style,  of  which  the  sevei!lh  chapter  ia  a  remark- 
able instance.  Uut  the  Divin.i  Spirit  did  not  overrule  the 
natural  bent  of  his  mind.     Variety  is  thus  produced  in  the 

«  BUbop  Lowth's  Leeturei,  vol.  ii.  pp.  89—95. 


Sect.  IV.  §  2.] 


ON  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  ZECIIARIAH. 


287 


sacrod  writings.  Nahnm  sor.nds  the  trumpet  of  war ;  Hosea 
's. sententious,  Isaiah  sublime,  Jeremiah  pathetic,  Eztkie! 
copiou'5.  This  diffuseness  of  manner  in  mild  and  affection- 
ate exhortation,  this  veliement  enlarging  on  the  guilt  and 
consequent  sufferings  of  hi.s  countrymen,  seems  wisely 
adapted  to  their  capacities  and  circumstances,  and  must  have 
had  a  forcible  tendency  to  awaken  them  from  their  lethargy.' 


SECTION  IV. 

ON  THE  PROPHETS  WHO  FLOUUISHED  AFTER  THE  RETURN  OF 
THE  JEWS  FROM  RABYLCN. 

§   1.    OZf  THE   BOOK  OF  THE  PKOPHET  HAGOAI. 

I.  Author  and  date. — II.  Argtiment  and  scope. — III.  Analyds 
of  its  contents. — IV.   Observations  on  its  style. 

BKFonr,  CHRIST,  .520 — .518. 

I.  Nothing  is  certainly  known  concerning  the  tribe  cr 
birth-place  of  Haggai,  the  tenth  in  order  of  the  minor  prophets, 
but  the  first  of  the  three  who  were  commissioned  to  make 
known  the  divine  will  to  the  Jews  after  their  return  from 
captivity.  The  general  opinion,  founded  on  the  assertion  of 
the  pseudo-Epiphanius,  is  that  he  was  born  at  Babylon,  and 
was  one  of  the  Jews  who  returned  with  Zerubbabel,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  edict  of  Cyrus.  The  same  author  affirms 
that  he  was  buried  at  Jerusalem  among  the  priests,  whence 
some  have  conjectured  that  he  was  of  the  family  of  Aaron. 
The  times  of  his  predictions,  however,  are  so  distin/?tly 
marked  by  himself,  that  we  have  as  much  certainty  on  this 
point  as  we  have  with  respect  to  any  of  the  prophets. 

II.  The  Jews,  who  were  released  from  captivity  in  the  first 
year  of  the  reign  of  Cyrus  (p]zra  i.  1.  ct  seq.),  having  re- 
luraed  to  Jerusalem  and  commenced  the  rebuilding  ot  the 
temple  (Ezra  ii.  iii.),  were  interrupted  in  their  undertakings 
by  tlie  neighbouring  satraps,  who  contrived  to  prejudice  the 
Persian  monarch  (the  pseudo-Smerdis)  against  them  (Ezra 
iv.  1.  with  21.)  until  the  second  j-ear  of  Darius.  Discou- 
raged by  these  impediments,  the  people  ceased,  for  fourteen 
years,  to  prosecute  the  erection  oi  the  second  temple,  as  if 
the  time  were  not  yet  come,  and  applied  themselves  to  the 
building  of  their  own  houses  :  IxitGod,  disposing  that  sove- 
reign to  renew  the  decree  of  C3'rus,  raised  up  the  prophet 
Haggai  about  the  year  520  before  Christ;  and,  in  conse- 
quence of  his  exhortations,  they  resumed  the  work,  which 
was  completed  in  a  few  years. 

Further,  in  order  to  encourage  them  to  proceed  in  this 
uaderlaking,  the  prophet  assured  them  from  God,  that  the 
glor}'  of  this  latter  house  should  far  exceed  the  glory  of  the 
tormer. 

III.  The  book  of  the  prophet  Haggai  comprises  three  dis- 
tinct prophecies  or  discourses,  viz. 

Discourse  I.  The  prophet  reproves  the  delay  of  the  people  i^ 
rebuilding  the  temple;  which  neglect  he  denounces  as  the 
reason  why  they  were  punished  with  great  drought  and  un- 
productive seasons,  (i.  1 — 12.)  He  then  encourages  them  to 
undertake  the  work,  and  promises  thera  Divine  assistance. 
(13—15.) 

Discourse  2.  The  prophet  further  encourages  the  builders  by  a 
promise,  that  the  glory  of  the  second  temple  should  surpass 
that  of  the  first ;  and  that  in  the  following  year  God  would 
bless  them  with  a  fruitful  harvest,  (ii.  1 — 19.)  This  pro- 
phecy was  fulfilled  by  Jesus  Christ  honouring  the  second 
temple  with  his  presence,  and  there  publishing  his  saving  doc- 
trine to  the  world.  See  Luke  xix.  47.  xx.  1.  xxi.  38.  John 
xviii.  20.2 

Discourse  3.  The  prophet  foretells  the  setting  up  of  the  Mes- 
siah's kingdom  under  the  name  of  Zerubbabel.  (ii.  20 — 23.) 

IV.  The  style  of  this  prophet  is  for  the  most  part  plain 
and  prosaic,  and  vehement  when  he  reproves ;  it  is,  however, 
interspersed  with  passages  of  much  sublimity  and  pathos 

'  Archbishop  Newcome's  Preface  to  his  Translation  of  Ezekiel,  pp. 
xxvii.  x.xviii.  To  justify  the  character  above  given,  the  leanieil  prelate 
descends  to  particulars  (which  we  have  not  rootn  to  specify),  and  gives  op- 
posite examples,  not  only  of  the  clear,  X\\.e  Jioiring,  anil  tlie  nervous,  but 
alco  of  the  sublime.  lie  concludes  his  observation.s  on  the  style  of  Ezekiel 
by  statinjj  it  to  be  his  deliberate  opinion,  that,  if  the  prophet's  "style  is 
the  old  age  of  the  Hebrew  language  and  composition,  it  is  a  firm  and  vigor- 
ous one,  and  should  induce  iis  to  trace  its  youth  and  manliood  with  the 
most  assiduous  attention."    Ibid.  pp.  xxviii. — Ixii. 

»  W.  Lowth's  Commentary  on  Haggai. 


when   he  treats  of  the  advent  of  the  ^lessiah,  whom  he 
emphatically  terms  "  the  desire  of  all  nations." 


§  2.    ON  THE  BOOK  OF  THE  PROPHET  ZECHARIAH. 

I.  Author  and  date. — II.  .inalysis  of  its  contents. — III.  Obser- 
vations on  its  style. — IV.  T/ie  last  six  chapters  proved  to  be 
genuine. 

BEFOTIE  CHRIST,  520 518. 

I.  Although  the  names  of  Zechariah's  father  and  grand- 
father are  specified  (Zech.  i.  1.),  it  is  not  known  from  what 
tribe  or  family  this  prophet  v.as  descended,  nor  vihere  he  was 
born ;  but  that  he  v^-as  one  cf  the  captives  who  returned  to 
Jerusalem  in  consequence  of  the  decree  of  Cyrus,  is  unques- 
tionable. As  he  opened  his  prophetic  commission  in  the 
eighth  month  of  the  second  year  of  Darius  the  son  of  Ilys- 
taspc-s,  that  is,  about  the  yea"r  520  before  the  Christian  ajra, 
it  is  evident  that  he  was  contemporary  with  Haggai,  and  his 
authority  was  equally  effectual  in  promoting  the  building  of 
the  temple.  From  an  expression  in  ch.  ii.  4.  wc  have  every 
reason  to  believe  that  Zechariah  was  called  to  the  prophetic 
ministry  when  he  was  ay-oung  man. 

II.  The  prophecy  of  Zechariah  consists  of  two  parts,  the 
first  of  which  concerns  the  events  which  were  then  taking 
place,  viz.  the  restoration  of  the  temple,  interspersing  predic- 
tions relative  to  the  advent  of  the  Messiah.  The  second  part 
comprises  prophecies  relative  to  more  remote  events,  particu- 
larly the  coming  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  war  of  the  Romans 
against  the  Jews. 

P.4.RT  I.  contains  the  Prophecies  ddlvered  in  the  second  Year  of 
Bui'ius  King  of  Persia,  (i. — vi.) 

Discourse  1.  An  exhortation  to  the  Jews  who  had  returned 
from  captivity,  to  guard  against  those  sins  which  had  drawn 
so  mach  distress  upon  their  ancestors,  and  to  go  on  with  the 
buildmg  of  the  temple  (i.  1 — 6.),  which  it  is  predicted  that 
Darius  should  permit  (7 — 17.) ;  and  that  the  Samaritans 
should  be  compelled  to  suspend  their  opposition  to  the  build- 
ing. (18 — 21.)  Further  to  encourage  the  Jews  in  their  work, 
the  prophet  foretells  the  prosperity  of  Jerusalem  (ii.  1 — 5.), 
and  admonishes  the  Jews  to  depart  from  Babylon  before  her 
destruction  (6 — 9.),  promising  them  the  divine  presence. 
(10 — 13.)  These  promises,  though  primarily  to  be  under- 
stood of  the  Jews  after  their  return  from  Babylon,  arc  secon- 
darily and  principally  to  be  understood  of  the  restoration  of  the 
Jews,  and  their  conversion  to  the  Gospel. 

DiscouRSE  2.  Under  the  type  of  Joshua  the  high-priest,  clothed 
with  new  sacerdotal  attire,  is  set  forth  the  glory  of  Christ  a.s 
the  chief  corner-stone  of  his  church.  (8 — 10.) 

Discourse  3.  Under  the  vision  of  the  golden  candlestick  and 
two  olive  trees  is  typically  represented  the  success  of  Zerub- 
babel and  Joshua  in  rebuilding  the  temple  and  restoring  its 
service,   (iv.) 

Discourse  4.  Under  the  vision  of  a  flying  roll,  the  divine  judg- 
ments are  denounced  against  robbery  and  perjury  (v.  1-^.) ; 
and  the  Jews  are  threatened  with  a  second  captivity,  if  they 
continue  in  sin.  (5 — 11.) 

Discourse  5.  Under  the  vision  of  the  four  chariots,  drawn  by 
several  sorts  of  horses,  are  represented  the  succession  of  the 
Babylonians,  Persians,  Macedo-Greek  and  Roman  empires 
(vi.  1 — 8.),  and  by  the  two  crowns  placed  upon  the  head  ol 
Joshua  are  set  forth  primarily,  the  rc-cstablishment  of  the 
civil  and  religious  polity  of  the  Jews  under  Zerubbabel  and 
Joshua ;  and,  secondarily  but  principally,  the  high-priesthood 
and  kingdom  of  Christ,  here  emphatically  termed  the  Branch 
(9 — 15.),  who  is  to  be  both  king  and  high-priest  of  the  church 
of  God. 

Part  2.  Prophecies  delivered  in  the  fourth  Year  of  i/ie  Meign 
of  Darius,  (vii. — xiv.) 

Discourse  1.  Some  Jews  having  been  sent  to  Jerusalem  from 
the  exiles  then  at  Babylon,  to  inquire  of  the  priests  and  pro- 
phets whether  they  were  still  bound  to  observe  the  fasts  that 
had  been  instituted  on  account  of  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem, and  which  had  been  observed  during  the  captivity 
(vii.  1 — 3.), — the  prophet  is  commanded  to  take  this  occasion 
of  enforcing  upon  them  the  weightier  matters  of  the  law,  \'a 
judgment  and  mercy,  lest  the  same  calamities  should  befall 
them  which  had  been  inflicted  upon  their  fathers  for  their  neg- 
lect of  those  duties.  (4 — 14.)  In  the  event  of  their  obedience, 
God  promises   the   continuance   of  his  favour  (viii.  1 — 8.)  ; 


288 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  V.  Chap.  IV 


they  are  cncouraijnd  to  go  on  with  the  buildinjr  (9 — 17.),  and 
arc  permitted  to  disconlinuo  the  observaucc  of  the  fasts  which 
ihcy  had  kept  during  the  captivity.  (18 — 23.) 

Disco-jns};  2.  contains  prodirtions  of  the  conquest  of  Syria, 
Phoenicia,  and  Palestine,  by  Alexander  the  Great  (ix.  1 — 7.), 
and  of  the  watchful  i>rovidonce  of  God  over  his  temple  in  those 
trouhlesomc  times.  (S.)  Whence  he  takes  occasion  to  ilc- 
eorihc,  as  in  a  parenthesis,  the  advent  of  Christ  (9,  10.  with 
Malt.  xxi.  5.  and  John  xii.  15.);  and  tlien  returning  to  his 
former  subject,  he  announces  the  contjucst  of  the  Jews,  particu- 
larly of  the  Maccabees,  over  the  ])rinces  of  the  Grecian  mo- 
narchy. ( 1 1 — 17.)  Prosperity  is  further  promised  to  the  Jews 
(x.  1 — 3.),  and  their  victories  over  their  enemies  arc  again 
foretold.  (1 — 12.)  It  is  proliabic  that  this  prophetic  discourse 
remains  to  he  fully  accomj>lished  in  the  general  and  linal  re- 
storation of  the  Jews. 

DiscoLiisF.  3.  predict-s  the  rejection  of  the  Jews  for  their  rejec- 
tion of  Messiah,  and  valuing  him  and  his  labours  at  the 
bas"  price  of  tliirty  j>icces  of  silver,  (xi.)  This  prediction  was 
literally  fultiUed  in  the  per.=on  of  Jesus  Christ.  (Compare  Matt. 
xxvi.  14,  15.  and  xxvii.  3—10.  willi  Zech.  xi.  11  —  13.)  The 
Jews  themselves  have  expounded  this  prophecy  of  the  Mes- 
siah. 

Di.scouRSK  4.  comprises  a  scries  of  prophecies,  relating  princi- 
pilly  to  the  httcr  times  of  the  Gospel.  The  former  part  of  it 
(xii.  1 — 9.)  announces  the  preservation  of  Jerusalem  against 
an  invr^sion  in  the  last  ages  of  the  world,  which  most  com- 
mentators think  is  that  of  Gog  and  Magog,  more  largely  de- 
scribed in  the  thirty-eighth  and  thirty-ninth  chapters  of  Ezekiel. 
The  grief  of  the  Jews,  for  their  Withers  having  crucified  the 
Messiah,  on  their  conversion,  is  then  foretold  (10 — 14.),  as 
also  the  crucifixion  itself,  and  the  general  conversion  of  the 
Jews,  (xiii.)  The  destruction  of  their  enemies,  i)redicted  at 
the  beginning  of  this  prophetic  sermon,  is  again  foretold 
'(xiv.  1 — 13.)  ;  and  the  prophecy  concludes  with  announcing 
the  final  conversion  of  all  nations  to  the  Gospel,  and  the  pros- 
perity of  the  church.  ( 1 G — 2 1 .) 

III.  Zecharlah  is  the  longest  of  the  twelve  minor  prophets. 
His  style,  like  that  of  Hn<rrr;ii,  is  for  the  most  part  jjrosaic, 
thouirh  more  obscure  towards  the  be<rinnin<r  on  account  of 
his  types  and  visions.  But  the  difficullies  arisinfr  from  his 
alleged  obscurity  may  be  accounted  for  by  the  fact,  "  that 
some  of  his  predictions  relate  to  matters  which  are  still  in- 
volved in  the  womb  of  futurity  :  no  wonder,  then,  that  these 
fall  not  within  the  reach  of  our  perfect  comprehension.  Others 
there  are,  which  we  have  good  reason  to  believe  have  al- 
ready been  fuUilled,  but  do  not  appear  with  such  a  degree  of 
evidence,  as  they  probably  woula  have  done,  if  we  had  been 
better  informed  concerning  the  time  and  facts  to  which  they 
relate.  With  respect  to  the  emblems  and  tynes  that  are  ex- 
hibited, they  are  most  of  them  of  easy  and  determinate  ap- 
plication. And  in  favour  of  the  importance  of  his  subject 
matter,  it  must  be  acknowledged  that,  next  to  Isaiah,  Zccha- 
riah  is  the  most  evangelical  of  all  tiie  ])rophets,  having  more 
frequent  and  more  clear  and  direct  allusions  to  the  character 
and  coming  of  the  Messiah,  and  his  kingdom,  than  any  of 
the  rest.  Nor  in  his  language  and  composition  do  we  find 
any  particular  bias  to  obscurity,  except  that  the  quickness 
and  suddenness  of  the  transitions  are  sometimes  apt  to  con- 
found the  boundaries  of  discourse,  so  as  to  leave  the  le.ss 
attentive  reailcr  at  a  loss  to  whom  the  several  parts  of  it  are 
to  be  ascribed.  But  upon  the  whole  we  shall  find  the  diction 
remarkably  pure,  the  construction  natural  and  perspicuous, 
and  the  style  judiciously  varied  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  subject;  simple  and  plain  in  the  narrative  and  historical 
parts;  but  in  those  that  are  wholly  prophetical,  the  latter 
chapters  in  particular,  rising  to  a  dei^'rec  of  elevation  and 
grandeur  scarcely  inferior  to  the  sublimcst  of  the  inspired 
writings."' 

I  v.  The  diversity  of  style  observable  iti  the  writings  of 
this  prophet  has  induced  many  modern  critics  to  conclude 
that  the  last  six  chapters  could  not  have  been  written  by 
Zechariah :  but  their  objections,  however  formidable  in  ap- 
pearance, admit  of  an  easy  and  satisfactory  solution. 

1.  It  is  alleged  that  the  evangelist  Matthew  (xxvii.  9.) 
cites  a  passage  now  found  in  Zech.  xi.  13.  as  spoken,  not  by 
Zechariah,  but  by  Jeremiah.  But  it  is  more  probable  Tas  we 
have  already  shown  in  the  first  volume  of  this  work),  that 
the  name  ofJeremiah  has  slipped  into  the  text  through  some 
mistake  of  the  transcribers. 

«  Dr  Bhyncy'a  Traaslallon  of  Zccharlali,  Trcl  Disc,  pp  X\-.  xvl. 


2.  It  is  urged,  that  many  things  are  mentioned  in  these 
chapters,  which  by  no  means  correspond  with  Zechariah's 
time;  as,  when  events  are  foretnld,  whii-K  had  rctunlly  taken 
place  before  that  time.  But  it  may  be  questioned,  whether 
those  subjects  of  prophecy  have  been  rigtitly  understood  ; 
and  whether  thit,  which  has  been  construed  as  having  re- 
ference to  past  transactions,  may  not  in  reality  terminate  in 
others  of  a  later  period,  and  some  perhaps  which  are  yet  to 
come. 

3.  Another  argument  is  drawn  from  ch.  xi.,  which  con- 


gether  with  his  coUeafrue  Haggai,  was  sent  to  encourage  the 
people,  lately  returned  from  captivity,  to  build  their  te'inple, 
and  to  restore  their  commonweallh."  This,  it  is  granted, 
was  the  general  scope  of  Zechariah's  commission  in  the  first 
eight  chapters;  nor  would  it  have  been  a  fit  time  to  foretell 
the  destruction  of  both  the  temple  and  commonwealth,  w-hile 
they  were  but  yet  building.  But,  between  the  date  of  these 
first  chapters  and  that  cf  the  succeeding  ones,  many  circum- 
stances might  have  occurred,  and  certainly  did  occur,  to  give 
rise  to  a  commission  of  a  very  dilTerent  complexion  from  the 
foregoing.  Tiie  former  are  expressly  dated  in  the  second 
and  fourth  years  of  the  reign  of  Darius ;  to  tlic  latter,  no 
date  at  all  is  annexed.  Darius  is  suppo.sed  to  have  reigned 
thirty-six  ye^rs;  and  the  Jews  have  a  tradition  that  the  three 
prophets,  Haggai,  Zechariah,  and  Malachi,  did  not  die  before 
the  last  year  of  that  kind's  reign.  Admitting,  then,  Zecha- 
riah to  have  prophesied  again  towards  the  close  of  his  life, 
he  may  well  he  supposed  to  have  publisliod  without  any  in- 
congruity, after  such  an  interval,  what  would  not  altogether 
have  accorded  with  the  period  and  purport  of  hii  first  com- 
mission. And  as  there  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  this 
was  the  case;  so  upon  this  ground  we  may  also  not  improba- 
bly conclude  him  to  have  been  that  very  Zechariah  of  whom 
our  Saviour  spake  (Matt,  xxiii.  35.)  as  slain  between  the 
temple  and  the  altar.  For  he  was,  according  to  our  Saviour's 
ilescription,  the  son  of  Barachias,  and  comes  in — where, 
from  what  is  said  of  him  he  might  naturally  be  expected — 
at  the  close  of  that  scries  of  prophets  (for  there  were  none 
after  him  until  the  coming  of  Christ)  who  were  put  to  death 
in  the  faithfnl  discharge  of  their  duty.  That  he  was  become 
obnoxious  to  his  countrymen,  may  be  collected  from  ch.  xi.  8. 
And,  if  the  records  of  the  Old  Testament  are  silent  concern- 
ing his  death,  let  it  be  remembered  that  it  was  a  very  small 
part  of  them,  if  any,  that  was  written  after  that  event. 

4.  Lastly,  upon  the  same  supposition,  the  allowed  dif- 
ference of  style  and  manner  may  be  accounted  for,  not  only 
as  arising  from  the  diversity  of  the  subject,  but  from  the  dit- 
ferent  age  of  the  author;  who  may  well  be  credited  to  h.ive 
written  with  more  dignity  in  his  advanced  years,  than  when 
he  was  but  a  youth,  as  he  is  said  to  be  in  ch.  ii.  4. 

Upon  the  whole  this  conclusion  may  be  drawn;  that^ 
setting  aside  the  doubtful  authority  of  St.  Matthew's  text, 
there  is  nothing  else  to  he  found  suflicient  to  invalidate  the 
title  of  Zechariah  to  the  chapters  in  question ;-  and,  conse 
qucntly,  that  it  was  not  w  rittcn  htj  Jeremiah,  as  Mode,  Dr 
Ilammond,  and  others  have  supposed,  nor  befm-e  the  time  cl 
that  prophet,  as  Archbi'^hop  IScwcome  conjectured,  whoso 
opinion  was  adopted  by  Archbishop  Stcker,  and  also  by 
Doederlcin. 


§  3.  ON   THE    BOOK    OF    THE    PROPHET    MAI.ACHI. 

I.  Author  mid  dale. — II.   Occcision  and  scope  of  his  prophecy. 

— III.  Ana!i/sis  of  its  contents. — tV.  Style. 

iiKionE  cuuisT,  43G — 420. 

I.  ('oNCERNiNG  Malachi,  the  last  of  the  minor  prophets 
(which  name  signifies  vii/  ani^el  or  w.y  messenger),  so  little 
is  known,  that  it  has  been  doubted  whether  his  name  bo  a 
proper  name,  or  only  a  generic  name,  signifying  the  angel 
of  the  Lo'd,  a  messenger,  a  prophet.  From  a  comparison 
of  Ilaggai  (i.  13.)  with  Malachi  (iii.  1.),  it  appears,  that  in 
those  times  the  ai)pellation  of  Muhirh-Jcharah.  or  the  messen- 
ger of  the  Lord,  was  given  to  the  prophets,  'i'he  Septuagint 
translators  have  renocrcd  Malachi  his  uiigcl  instead  of  mi/ 

»  Dr.  raayiioy'sTranslBllon  of  Zcrhiirinli,  pp.  35—37.    lliogcnulnonesa 

iif  llic  laller  pari  of  tl»c  j)r.)|)ticcy  of  Zccliariali  !.■!  s-"  "■•  ' ■  ;;•  ■'■'I,  liv 

mill  .SL-.ipL-,  In  Dr.  F.  B.  Kocblur,  in  ins  Mclelpiii,i     '  /  •       '.rin: 


mill  .SCUllL",     IJV    I'l.   I'.    1>.    IVUCblUI,    III    Ilia    lUll'I'-lll.l  '   •   ■  ■  I... 

PropliiiT'  I'uni-m  i'"iicnorcm,  caji.  Ix.— xiv.  pro  tucuUa  cjusauihemiX 


Chap.  V.] 


angel,  as  the  original  imports;  and  several  of  the  fathers 
have  quoted  Malachi  under  the  n\ime  of  the  angel  cf  the 
Lord.  Origen  entertained  the  extravagant  notion,  tliat  iMala- 
chi  was  an  angel  incarnate  sent  from  God.  Calmet,  after 
Jerome  and  some  other  ancient  writers,  thinks  that  Malachi 
was  the  same  person  as  Ezra,  who  v.rote  the  canonical  book 
that  passes  under  his  name,  and  was  governor  of  the  Jews 
after  their  return  from  the  captivit)'.  As  he  revised  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  and  collected  the  canon  of  the  Old  Testament, 
and  pcrfonned  various  other  important  services  to  the  Jewish 
church,  Ezra  has  been  considered  both  by  ancient  Jewish, 
and  also  by  the  early  Christian  writers,  as  a  very  extraordi- 
nary person  sent  from  God,  and  therefore  they  thought  him 
very  appropriately  denominated  Malachi :  out  for  these 
opinions  there  is  no  foundation  whatever. 

It  is  certain  that  Malachi  was  a  distinct  person  from  Ezra, 
and  (as  Rosenmiiller  observes)  the  whole  argument  of  his 
book  proves  that  he  flourished  after  the  return  from  the  cap- 
tivity. That  he  was  contemporary  with  Nehemiah  was  the 
unvarying  opinion  of  the  ancients,  and  is  placed  beyond  all 
doubt  by  the  subject  of  the  book,  which  presents  the  same 
aspect  of  things  as  in  Nehemiah's  time.  Thus,  it  speaks  of 
the  temple  as  naving  been  built  a  considerable  time; — it  in- 
-troduces  the  Jews  as  complaining  of  tb.e  unfavourable  state 
of  their  affairs  ; — it  finds  fault  witli  the  heathen  wives,  whom 
Nehemiah  after  some  time  separated  from  the  people  (Neh. 
xiii.  23 — 30.)  ; — it  censures  the  withholding  of  tithes,  which 
was  also  noticed  b)'  Nehemiah.  (xiii.  5.)'  From  all  these 
circumstances  it  appears  that  Malachi  prophesied  v/hile  Ne- 
hemiah was  governor  of  Judega,  more  particularly  after  his 
second  coming  from  the  Persian  court ;  and  he  appears  to 
have  contributed  the  weight  of  his  exhortations  to  the  resto- 
ration of  the  Jewish  polity,  and  the  final  reform  established 
by  that  pious  and  excellent  governor.  Archbishop  Newcome 
supposes  this  prophet  to  have  flourished  about  the  year  436 
before  the  Christian  »ra:  but  Dr.  Kennicott  places  him  about 
the  year  4"20  before  Christ,  which  date  is  adopted  by  Dr. 
Hales,  as  sufficiently  agreeing  with  the  description  of  Jcse- 
phus  and  the  varying  dates  of  chronologcrs.^ 

II.  The  Jews,  having  rebuilt  the  tenijMe  and  re-establisi.ed 
the  worship  of  Jehovan,  after  the  death  of  Zerubbabel  and 
Joshua  relapsed  into  their  former  irreligion  in  consequence 
of  the  negligence  of  the  priests.  Although  tliey  v/erc  sub- 
sequently reformed  during  the  governments  ol  Ex.ra  ajid 
Nehemiah,  yet  they  fell  into  gross  abuses  after  the  death  of 
Ezra,  and  during  Nehemiah's  absence  at  the  court  of  Persia. 
The  prophet  Malachi  was  therefore  commissioned  to  reprove 
he  priests  and  people,  more  particularly  after  Nehemiah's 


ON  THE  APOCRYPHA. 

second  return,  for  their 


irreligious 


289 
and  to  invite 


,  ^ practices, .„  »w,»i^ 

tnem  to  repentance  and  reformation  of  life  by  promises  of 
the  ffreat  blessings  that  should  be  bestowed  at  the  advent  of 
the  Messiah. 

III.  The  writings  of  Malachi,  which  consist  of  four  chap- 
ters, comprise  two  distmct  prophetic  discourses,  viz. 

Discourse  1.  The  Jews  having  complained  that  God  had  shown 
them  no  particular  kindness,  the  prophet  in  reply  reminds 
them  of  the  special  favour  which  God  had  bestowed  upon 
them ;  their  country  being  a  cultivated  land,  while  that  of  the 
Edomites  was  laid  waste,  and  was  to  be  still  farther  devas- 
tated, h^  the  Persian  armies  marching  through  those  territo- 
ries against  the  revolting  Egj-ptians.  (i.  1 — 5.)  Malachi  then 
reproves  them  for  not  showing  due  reverence  to  God  (6 — 10.). 
for  which  their  rejection  is  threatened,  and  the  calling  of  the 
Gentiles  is  announced.  (11.)  The  divine  judgments  are 
threatened  both  against  the  priests  for  their  unfaithfulness  in 
their  office  (12 — 14.  ii.  1 — 10.),  and  also  for  the  unlawful 
intermarriages  of  the  people  with  idolatresses,  and  divorcing 
even  their  legitimate  wives.   (11 — 17.) 

DiscornsE  2.  foretells  the  coming  of  Christ,  and  his  forerunner 
John  the  Baptist,  under  the  name  of  Elias,  to  purify  the  sons 
of  Levi,  the  priests,  and  to  smite  the  land  with  a  curse, 
unless  they  all  repented.  Reproofs  arc  interspersed  for  with- 
holding their  tithes  and  other  oblations,  and  also  for  their 
blasphemy ;  and  the  reward  of  the  good  and  the  punishment 
of  the  wicked  are  predicted,  (iii.  iv.  1 — 3.)  The  prophecy 
concludes  with  enjoining  the  strict  observance  of  the  law,  since 
they  were  to  expect  no  prophet  until  the  foreranner  already 
promised  should  appear  in  the  spirit  and  power  of  Elijah,  to 
introduce  the  Messiah,  and  commence  a  new  and  everlasting 
dispensation.  (4 — 6.)  "  The  great  and  terrible  day  of  the 
Lord,"  in  verse  5.  denotes  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  tlw 
Romans  a.  d.  70. ;  though  this  expression  may  also  be  appUed 
to  the  general  dissolution  of  all  things,  agreeably  to  the  usual 
mode  of  speaking  among  the  prophets.  Compare  Isa.  3iiii. 
9,  IG.3 

IV,  Aiihoiigh  the  writings  of  this  prophet  are  almost 
wholly  ia  prose,  yet  they  are  by  no  means  destitute  of  force 
and  elegance.  He  reproves  the  wickedness  of  his  counti)-- 
mna  v/ah  great  vehemence  ;  and  Bishop  Lowth  observes  that 
Ills  book  is  v/ritten  in  a  kind  of  middle  style,  which  seem.'* 
to  indicate  that  the  Hebrew  poetry,  from  the  time  of  the 
Babylonish  captivity,  was  in  a  declining  state,  and,  being 
pasi  its  prime  and  vigour,  was  tlien  fast  verging  towards  the 
debility  of  age. 


CHAPTER  V. 


ON  THE  APOCRYPHA." 


(.  Account  of  the  First  Booh  of  Esdras.—ll.  Of  the  Second  Book  of  Esdras.—lU.  Of  the  Book  of  Tobit.~lV.  Of  the  Book 
of  Judith. — V.  Of  the  rest  of  the  Chapters  of 'Esther. — VI.  Of  the'Book  of  Wisdom. — VII.  Of  the  Book  of  Ecclesiasticus, — 
VIII.  Of  Bavuch.—lX.  Of  the  Sonj  of  the  Three  Children.— X.  Of  the  History  of  Susanna.— Xl.  Of  Bel  and  the  Dragon. 
— XII.    Of  the  Prayer  of  Manasses.— XIII.   Of  the  Book  of  Maccabees. 

I.  It  is  not  known  at  what  time  the  first  book  of  Esdras 
was  written  :  it  is  only  extant  in  Greek,  and  in  the  Alexan- 
drian manuscript  it  is  placed  before  the  canonical  book  of 
Ezra,  and  is  there  called  the  first  book  of  Ezra,  because  the 
events  related  in  it  occurred  prior  to  the  return  froni  the 
Babylonish  captivity.  In  some  editions  of  the  Septuagint  it 
is  called  the^rsf  book  of  the  priest  (meaning  Ezra),  the  au- 
thentic book  of  Ezra  beino-  called  the  second  book.  In  the 
editions  of  the  Latin  Vulgate,  previous  to  the  council  of 
Trent,  this  and  the  following  book  are  styled  the  third  and 
fourth  books  of  Esdras,  those  of  Esdras  and  Nehemiah  being 
erititled  the  first  and  second  books.  The  author  of  this  book 
15  not  known ;  it  is  compiled  from  the  books  of  Ezra  and 

I  Jahn's  Introduction,  p.  435. 

»  Arclibishop  Newcome's  Minor  Prophets,  p.  xliii.  Kennicott,  Dieser- 
tatio  Generalis,  §  14.  p.  6.  Dr.  Hales's  Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  ii. 
p.  533. 

'  W.  Lowth  and  Reeves  on  Malaclii. 

*  For  a  critical  account  of  the  reasons  why  the  Apocryphal  Books,  which 
ar-J  usually  printed  between  the  Old  and'  New  Testaments,  arc  justly 
r^ajectcd  from  the  canon  of  Scripture,  as  uninspired  writings,  see  Vjl.  I. 
iopendix,  No.  I.  Section  I.  pp.  435,  436. 

"  Vor..  II.  2  O 


Nehemiah,  which,  however,  it  contradicts  in  many  instances. 
The  first  book  of  Esdras  is  chiefly  historical,  and  gives  an 
account  of  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  the  Babylonish  cap- 
tivity, the  building  of  the  temple,  and  the  re-establishment 
of  divine  worship.  The  style  of  this  book  is  much  purer 
than  that  of  the  greater  part  of  the  Septuagint  version,  and  is 
said  frequently  to  approach  that  of  Symmachus,  the  most  ele- 
gant of  all  the  Greek  translators  of  the  Bible.  Although  this. 
book  is  often  cited  by  the  fathers,  it  is  rejected  by  Jerome  as 
being  spurious,  and  the  church  of  Rome  never  recognised  its 
canonical  authority :  it  is  not  appointed  to  be  read  for  lessons 
in  the  Anglican  church.  There  is  a  Syriac  version  of  this 
book  extant. 

II.  In  what  language  the  second  book  of  Esdras  was  ori- 
ginally written,  it  seems  impossible  at  this  distant  period  to 
determine  with  certainty.  Morinus  conjectures  that  it  was 
Hebrew,  or  perhaps  Chaldee,  from  which  it  was  translated 
into  Greek,  and  thence  into  Latin  :*  and  this  conjecture  be 

•  Exercitatloncs  Biblicsc,  lib.  ii.  p.  225. 


290 


ON  THE  APOCRYPHA. 


[Part  V 


jjrounds  upon  what  he  considers  to  be  its  evidently  Jewish 
style  and  phraseology.  Archbishop  Laurence  thinks  it  lii;:hly 
probable  that  the  Latin  version  was  immediately  and  literally 
taken  from  the  Greek  :  it  is  indisputably  of  very  hi<jh  anti- 
ijuity.  It  is  also  extant  in  an  Arabic  translation,  the  date  of 
which  is  unknown,  and  in  an  Ethiopic  version  (where  it  is 
called  the  first  book  of  Esdras),'  which  cannot  be  traced 
higher  than  the  fourth  century :  both,  however,  seem  to  be 
taEen  from  the  Greek,  and  diflfer  considerably  from  the  Latin 
version  :  which  last,  in  the  jud^ent  of  Dr.  Laurence,  may 
be  advantageously  corrected  by  the  other  two.  In  the  Ethio- 
pic version,  it  is  termed  the  first  book  of  Esdras.  Both  this 
and  the  Arabic  versions  have  only  from  Chapter  111.  to  Chap- 
ter XIV.  inclusive.  The  rennininor  chapters,  as  found  in 
the  Latin  Vulgate,  have  clearly  no  connection  with  it,  hut 
form  two  separate  apocryphal  pieces,  and  are  tlius  dis- 
tinguished in  almost  all  the  mmnncripts  of  the  Vulgate, 
though  they  are  now  prinfed  as  part  cf  tlie  second  book  of 
f^sdras. 

The  author  of  this  book  is  imknovvn ;  although  he  person- 
ates Ezra,  il  is  inp.nifest  from  the  style  and  contents  of  his 
book  that  he  lived  long  after  that  celebrated  Jewish  reformer. 
He  pretends  to  'nsions  and  revelations,  bHt  they  are  so  fanciful, 
indigested,  ridiculous,  and  absurd,  that  it  is  clear  that  the 
Holy  .Spirit  could  have  no  concern  in  dictating  them.  He  be- 
lieved tiiat  the  day  of  judgment  was  at  hand,  and  that  the  souls 
of  good  and  wiciced  men  would  all  be  delivered  out  of  hell 
after  the  day  of  judgment.  Numerous  rabbinical  fables  occur 
in  this  book,  particularly  the  account  of  the  six  days'  crea- 
tion, and  the  story  of  liehemoth  and  Leviathan,  two  mon- 
strous creatures  that  are  designed  as  a  feast  for  the  elect  after 
the  day  of  resurrection,  &c.  He  says  that  the  ten  tribes  are 
gone  away  into  a  country  which  he  calls  Arsarelh  (xiii.  40 
— 45.),  and  that  Ezra  restored  the  whole  body  of  the  Scrip- 
tures,  which   had    been   entirely   lost.  (xiv.  21.)     And  he 


th^J  the  Gospel  itself  is  scarcely  more  explicit.  On  these 
accounts,  and  from  the  numerous  vesiiges  ol  tjn^  language  of 
the  New  Testament,  and  especially  of  ilie  KeveJaiion  of 
Saint  John,  which  are  discoverdble  in  this  book,  Moiden- 
hawer  and  some  other  ciitics  conclude  that  it  was  written  by 
some  converted  Jew,  ia  the  clo.sc  of  the  first  ot  early  in  the 
second  century,  who  asbuincd  the  name  of  Esdras  or  Ezra. 
But  Archbishop  Laurence  couaiders  those  passaojes  to  be  in- 
terpolations, and  observes  that  the  character  wnich  the  un- 
known writer  gives  of  Ine  Messiah  is  a  very  dilTerent  one 
from  what  a  Christian  would  have  given.  He  is  therefore 
ii(  opinion  that  this  book  was  written  by  a  Jew,  who  lived 
before  the  commencement  of  the  Christian  a?ra  ;  and  that,  as 
an  authentic  record  of  Jewish  opinions  on  several  interesting 
points  almost  immediately  before  tiie  rise  of  Christianity,  it 
seems  to  deserve  no  inconsiderable  attention.^  This  book 
was  rejected  as  apocryphal  by  Jerome. 

III.  Concerning  the  author  of  the  book  of  ToniT,  or  the 
time  when  he  flourished,  we  have  no  authentic  information. 
It  professes  to  relate  the  history  of  Tobit  and  his  family,  who 
were  carried  into  captivity  to  Nineveh  by  Shaimaneser;  but 
it  contains  so  many  rabbinical  fables,  and  allusions  to  the 
Babylonian  demonology,  that  many  learned  men  consider  il 
as  an  ingenious  and  amusing  fiction,  calculated  to  form  a 
pious  temper,  and  to  teach  the  most  important  duties.  From 
some  apparent  coincidences  between  this  book  and  some 
parts  of  the  New  Testament,  Moldenhaweris  disposed  to  refer 
It  to  the  end  of  the  firstcenlury  :  but  Jahn  and  most  other  com- 
mentators and  critics  think  it  was  written  about  one  hundred 
and  fifty  or  two  hundred  years  before  the  birth  of  our  Saviour. 
Accordmg  to  Jerome,  who  translaUd  the  book  of  Tobit  into 
liUtin,  it  was  originally  written  in  Chaldec  by  some  Babylo- 
nian Jew.  It  was  probably  begun  by  Tobit,  conlinuecf  by 
his  son  Tobias,  and  finished  by  same  other  individual  of  the 
family  ;  after  which  it  was  digested  into  thf;  order  in  which 
we  now  have  it.  There  is  a  (jreek  version  of  this  book  ex- 
tant, much  more  ancient  than  Jerome's  Latin  translation:  for 
it  is  referred  to  by  Polycarp,  ('lenient  of  Alexandria,  and 
other  fathers,  who  lived  long  before  the  time  of  Jerome. 
I'rorn  this  (Jreek  version  the  Syriac  translation  was  made, 
and  also  that  which  is  found  among  the  apocry|)hal  books  in 
our  English  Bibles.  Although  the  book  of  Tol) it  has  always 
been  rejected  from  the  sacred  canon,  it  was  cited  with  re- 
spect by  the  early  fathers  of  the  Christian  church  :  the  sim- 
plicity of  its  narrative,  and  the  pious  ;'.nd  moral  lessons  it 


inculcates,  have  imparted  to  it  an  interest,  which  has  rendered 
it  one  of  the  most  popular  of  the  apocryphal  writings. 

IV.  The  BcoK  OF  Judith  professes  to  relate  the  defeat  of 
the  Assyrians  by  the  Jews,  through  the  instrumentality  of 
their  countrywoman  Judith,  whose  genealogy  is  recorded  in 
the  eighth  chapter;  but  so  many  geographical,  historical, 
and  chronological  difliculties  attend  this  book,  that  Luther, 
Grotius,  and  other  euiinent  critics,  have  considered  it  rather 
as  a  drama  or  parable  than  a  real  history.  Dr.  Prideaux, 
however,  is  of  opinion  that  it  carries  with  it  the  air  of  a  true 
history  in  most  partieulars,  except  that  of  the  long-continued 
peace  said  to  have  been  procured  by  Judith  ;  which,  accord- 
ing to  tlie  account  given  in  this  book,  must  have  continued 
t'^h'y  years.  But,  as  the  Jews  never  enjoyed  a  peace  of  so 
long  continuance  since  they  were  a  nation,  ho  is  disj^sod  to 
allow  that  circumstance  to  be  a  fiction,  though  he  is  inclined 
to  think  that  the  book  in  other  respects  is  a  true  history.  In 
opposition  to  this  opinion,  it  has  been  contended  by  Heideg- 
ger, Moldenhawer,  and  others,  that  if  it  were  a  true  history, 
some  notice  of  the  victory  it  records  would  have  been  taken 
by  Joscphus,  who  is  on  no  occvsicn  deficient  when  an  oppor- 
tunity presents  itself  of  magnifying  the  achievements  of^his 
countrymen.  Philo  is  equally  silent  concerning  this  book 
and  its  author.  The  time  wnen  and  the  place  where  he 
lived  are  totally  unknown.  Dr.  Prideaux  refers  the  boot  to 
the  time  of  jNlanasseh ;  Jahn  assigns  it  to  the  age  of  the 
M;i.ccabees,  and  thinks  it  was  written  to  animate  the  Jews 
against  the  Syrians.  Grotius  refers  it  to  the  same  period, 
and  is  of  opinion  that  it  is  wholly  a  parabolic  fiction  written 
ill  the  time  of  Antioehus  Epiphanes,  when  he  came  into 
Judaea  to  perscctite  the  Jewisli  church,  and  that  its  design 
was  to  confirm  the  Jews,  under  that  persecution,  in  their 
hope  that  God  would  send  them  a  deliverer.  According  to 
him,  by  Judith  is  intended  Judsca  :  by  Bethulia  the  temple 
or  hcuse  of  God  ;  and  by  the  sword  which  went  out  thence, 


speaks  of  Jesus  Christ  and  his  apostles  in  so  clear  a  manner,  L-the   prayers   of  the   saints;    Nibuehadonosor  denotes   the 


•  Prirai  Ezrx  Librl  Verslo  Althlopica. 
K.  291. 
»  Ibid  pp.  306,  310,  330. 


General  Remarks,   pp.  280— 


devil ;  Assyria  his  kingdom,  that  is,  pride  :  Holofernes  means 
Antioehus  Epiphanes,  who  was  the  devil's  instrument  in 
that  persecution,  oc;c.  &:c.  But  such  conjectures,  as  an  able 
commentator^  remarks,  however  ingenious,  are  better  calcu- 
lated to  exhibit  the  powers  of  fancy  and  the  abuse  of  learn- 
ing, than  to  investigate  truth,  or  throw  light  on  what  is  un- 
certain and  obscure. 

The  book  of  Judith  was  originally  written  in  Chaldee, 
and  translated  into  Latin.  Besides  this  translation,  there 
are  two  others, — one  in  Greek,  and  the  other  in  Syriac ;  the 
fonner  is  attributed  to  Theodotion,  but  is  certainly  much 
older,  for  it  is  cited  by  Clement  of  Rome  in  his  Epistle  to 
the4,/orinthians,  who  flourished  sixty  years  before  Fheodo 
tion.  The  Syriac  version  was  made  from  the  Greek,  whence 
also  our  present  English  translation  was  made.^ 

V.     "    rUE     REST     OF     THE     CHAPTEKS     OF     THE     BoOK     OK 

Esther,  which  are  found  neither  in  the  Hebrew  nor  in  the 
Chaldee,"  were  originally  written  in  Greek,  whence  they 
were  translated  into  Latin,  and  formed  part  of  the  Italic  or 
old  Latin  version  in  use  bi'fore  the  time  of  Jerome.  Being 
there  annexed  to  the  canonical  book,  they  passed  without 
censure,  but  were  rejected  by  Jerome  in  his  version,  because 
he  confined  himself  to  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  and  these 
chapters  never  were  extant  in  the  Hebrew  language.  They 
arc  evidently  the  production  of  an  Hellenistic  Jew,  but  are 
considered  both  by  Jerome  and  Grotius  as  a  work  of  pure 
fiction,  which  was  annexed  to  the  canonical  book  of  Estlier 
by  way  of  embellishment.^ 

From  the  coincidence  between  some  of  these  apocrypha 
chapti  rs  and  .loscphus,  it  has  been  supposed  that  they  are  a 
compilation  from  tbe  Jewish  historian;  and  this  coniecuire 
IS  turtlipr  confirm.',.!  by  the  mention  of  Ptolemy  and  Cleo- 
patra, who  lived  no  lonnj  time  before  Joscphus.  These  ad- 
ditions to  the  book  of  Esther  are  often  cited  by  llus  fathers 
of  the  church  ;  and  the  council  of  Trent  has  assigned  them 
a  place  among  tlic  canonieal  books. 

VI.  "The  Wisdom  of  Soia)mon"  is  commonly  ascribed 
to  that  Hebrew  monarch,  either  btcausc  the  author  imitated 
his  sententious  manner  of  wriliiig,  or  bi-cuuse  he  somelinies 
speaks  in  his  name,  the  better  to  reconmnud  his  moral  pre- 
cepts. It  i.i,  however,  certain  that  Solomon  was  not  the 
author,  for  it  was  never  extant  in  Hebrew,  nor  received  into 

»  Mr.  ncwielt,  in  his  iPrpfacp  to  the  book  of  Judith. 

«  fJrolii  PiK;fMii.)a<l  Aiiiiolationi's  in  I.ibniin  Jmlilli,  opnd  frll.  Sacr.  lom. 
V.  p.  r>0.  MoliJifah.iwcr,  Inlroil.  ml  V.-i  'IVgl.  pp.  H>5— ijH.  Dr.  I'lideaux's 
Coiuiortioii,  VI  I.  t    pp.  .%— in.    Jahn,  Introd  ud  Vrl.  Fn-d   pp.  rv.")!— fifil. 

»  l''ri(in  llic  ^'iliscripiton  llic  hufij:  .)f  Kslhrr  In  1,X\  ,  it  scoins  lo  linve 
been  trnii3lat<-d  n.  c.  li>3. ;  ax  which  Uiuc  it  is  prubablc  the  apocryphal  parti 
were  flrvl  interpulaled. 


Chap.  V.] 


ON  THE  APOCRYPHA. 


291 


the  Hebrew  canon,  nor  is  the  stj'le  like  that  of  Solomon. 
Further,  it  is  evident  that  it  could  not  have  been  written  by 
him,  not  only  from  the  numerous  passages  which  pre  cited 
in  it  from  the  prophecies  of  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah,  who  did 
not  live  till  long  after  that  king's  reign,  but  also  from  its 
contradictions  of  historical  truth,  particularly  in  ch.  xv.  14. 
where  the  author  represents  his  countrymen  as  being  in  sub- 
jection  to  enemies,  whom  he  describes  as  bein^  "  most  foolish, 
and  more  miserable  than  the  very  babes."  NVhereas  we  are 
expressly  informed  by  tiie  sacred  historian,  that  Judah  and 
Israel  enjoyed  the  greatest  possible  prosperity  and  peace 
during  the  reign  of  Solomon.  (1  Kings  iv.  20,  21.  24,  25.) 
To  which  we  may  add,  that  this  book  contains  several  words 
borrowed  from  the  Grecian  games,  that  were  not  in  use  till 
long  after  his  time;  for  instance,  cT£?-jra<?ofi7  (iv.  2.),  to  wear 
a  crown,  such  as  was  given  to  victors, — -r'.uTrsjHv  (iv.  2.),  to 
make  a  triumphant  entry  as  the  victors  did,  after  they  had 
received  the  crown, — -jLymv  (iv.  2.  x.  12.),  the  stadium  or 
place  appointed  for  the  race, — ^^kcv  (iv.  2.),  the  reward  ap- 
propriated to  the  successful  candidate, — and  ^fj.^ivm  (x.  12.), 
to  confer  the  prize  of  victory.  On  these  accounts,  Jerome' 
informs  us  that  several  ancient  writers  of  the  first  three  cen- 
turies  ascribed  it  to  Philo  the  Jew,  a  native  of  Alexandria, 
who  flourished  in  the  first  century ;  and  this  opinion  is 
generally  adopted  by  the  moderns,  from  the  Platonic  notions 
discoverable  in  it,  as  well  as  from  its  style,  which  evidently 
shows  that  it  was  the  production  of  an  Hellenistic  Jew  oi" 
Alexandria.  Drusius  indeed  attributes  it  to  another  Philo, 
more  ancient  than  the  person  just  mentioned,  and  who  is 
cited  by  Josephus  ;2  but  this  hypothesis  is  untenable,  be- 
cause the  author  of  the  book  of  Wisdom  was  confessedly  a 
Jew,  and  the  Philo  of  Drusius  was  a  heathen.  Bishop 
Lowth  considers  this  book  evidently  to  be  the  production  of 
some  Hellenistic  Jew,  by  whom  it  was  originally  written  in 
(Jreek. 

The  book  of  Wisdom  consists  of  three  parts;  the  first, 
which  is  Aviitten  in  the  name  of  Solomon,  contains  a  descrip- 
tion or  encomium  of  wisdom,  by  which  comprehensive  term 
the  ancient  Jews  understood  prudence  and  foresight,  know- 
ledge and  understanding,  and  principally  the  duties  of  religion 
ap.il  morality.  This  division  includes  the  first  six  chapters. 
'J'he  isecond  part  points  out  the  source  of  true  wisdom  and  the 
means  of  obtaining  it,  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  chapters. 
\n  the  third  part,  comprising  the  remainder  of  the  book,  the 
author  personifies  Solomon,  in  whose  name  he  introduces  a 
long  and  tedious  prayer  or  address  to  the  Deity,  which  treats 
on  a  variety  of  topics,  differing  from  the  subject  of  the  two 
preceding  parts ;  viz.  reflections  on  the  history  and  conduct 
of  the  Israelites  during  their  journeyings  in  the  wilderness, 
and  their  subsequent  proneness  to  idolatry.  Hence  he  takes 
occasion  to  inveigh  against  idolatry,  the  origin  of  which  he 
investigates,  and  concludes  with  reflections  on  the  history  of 
the  people  of  God.  His  allegorical  interpretations  of  the 
Pentateuch,  and  the  precept  (xvi.  28.),  to  worship  God  before 
the  rising  of  the  sun,  have  induced  some  critics  to  think  that 
the  author  was  of  the  sect  of  the  Essenes. 

The  style  of  this  book.  Bishop  Lowth  pronounces  to  be 
very  unequal.  "  It  is  often  pompous  and  turgid,  as  well  as 
tedious  and  diffuse,  and  abounds  in  epithets,  directly  contrary 
to  the  practice  of  the  Hebrews;  it  is,  however,  sometimes 
temperate,  poetical,  and  sublime."-'  The  book  of  Wisdom 
has  always  been  admired  for  the  sublime  ideas  which  it  con- 
tains of  the  perfections  of  God,  and  for  the  excellent  moral 
tendency  of  its  precepts ;  on  which  account  some  of  the 
ancients  styled  it  Panareios,  or  the  treasury  of  virtue.  Al- 
though the  fathers  of  the  church,  and  particularly  Jerome, 
uniformly  considered  it  as  apocryphal,  yet  they  recommended 
Its  perusal,  in  consideration  or  its  excellence.  The  third 
council  of  Carthao-e,  held  in  397,  pronounced  it  to  be  a 
canonical  book,  under  the  name  of  the  fourth  book  of  Solo- 
mon, and  the  council  of  Trent  confirmed  this  decision.  Three 
ancient  translations  of  it  are  extant,  in  Syriac,  Arabic,  and 
Latin ;  the  last  was  executed  before  the  time  of  Jerome,  who 
says  that  he  did  not  correct  it.     It  is  full  of  barbarisms. 

VII.  "  The  WiSDOJi  of  Jescs  the  son  of  Sirach,  or  Ec- 
CLESIA.ST1CUS,"  like  the  preceding,  has  sometimes  been  con- 
sidered as  the  production  of  Solomon,  whence  the  council  of 
Carthage  deemed  it  canonical,  under  the  title  of  the  fifth 
book  of  Solomon,  and  their  decision  was  adopted  by  the 
council  of  Trent.  It  is  however  manifest,  that  it  was  not, 
and  could  not,  be  written  by  Solomon,  because  alliision  is 

1  Pra?f.  in  Prov.  Sal.  >  Drusius  da  Henocho,  c.  II. 

"  Bishop  Lcwth's  Lec:ure«,  vd  .  i.  p.  179. 


made  (x-lvit.  24,  25.)  to  the  captivity:  although  it  is  not 
improbable  that  the  author  collected  some  scattered  senti- 
ments ascribed  to  Solomon,  which  he  arranged  with  the  other 
materials  he  had  selected  for  his  work,  Sonntao-  is  of 
opinion  that  this  book  is  a  collection  of  fragments  or'miscel- 
laneous  hints  for  a  large  work,  planned  out  and  begun,  but 
not  completed.4  Respecting  the  author  of  the  book  of 
Lcclesiasticus,  we  have  no  information  but  what  we  collect 
from  the  book  itself;  and  from  this  it  appears  that  it  was 
written  by  a  person  of  the  name  of  Jesus  the  son  of  Sirach, 
who  had  travelled  in  pursuit  of  knowledge,  and  who,  accord- 
ing to  Bretschneider,5  lived  about  180  b.  c.  This  man  beino- 
deeply  conversant  with  the  Old  Testament,  and  having  cof^ 
lected  many  things  from  the  prophets,  blended  them,  as  well 
as  the  sentences  ascribed  to  Solomon,  with  the  result  of  his 
own  observation,  and  thus  endeavoured  to  produce  an  ethical 
treatise  that  mi^ht  be  useful  to  his  counti7meTi.  This  book 
was  written  in  Hebrew,  or  rather  the  Syro-Chaldaic  dialect 
then  in  use  in  Juda?a,  and  was  translated  by  his  grandson  into 
Greek,  about  the  year  130  b.  c.,^  for  the  use  of  the  Alexan- 
drian Jews,  who  were  ignorant  of  the  language  of  Judsea. 
The  translator  himself  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  son  of 
Sirach,  as  well  as  his  grandfather  the  author. 

The  book  of  Ecclesiasticus  "  is  a  collection,  without  any 
definite  order,  of  meditations  and  proverbs  relating  to  religion, 
to  morals,  and  to  the  conduct  ot  human  life;  generally' dis- 
tinguished by  much  acuteness  of  thought,  and  propriety  of 
diction  ;  and  not  unfrequently  marked  by  considerable  beauty 
and  elegance  of  expression ;  and  occasionally  rising  to  the 
sublimest  heights  of  human  eloquence. "»  From  the  great 
similarity  between  this  book  and  the  proverbs  of  Solomon,  in 
matter,  sentiments,  diction,  complexion  of  the  style,  and 
construction  of  the  periods,  Bishop  Lowth  is  of  opinion, 
that  the  author  adopted  the  same  mode  of  versification  which 
is  found  in  the  Proverbs ;  and  that  he  has  performed  his 
translation  with  such  a  religious  regard  to  the  Hebrew  idiom, 
that,  were  it  literally  and  accurately  to  be  retranslated,  he 
has  very  little  doubt  that,  for  the  most  part,  the  original  dic- 
tion might  be  recovered.' 

This  book  has  met  with  general  and  deserved  esteem  ii 
the  Western  church,  and  was  introduced  into  the  public 
service  by  the  venerable  reformers  and  compilers  of  oui 
national  liturgy.  It  may  be  divided  into  three  parts;  the 
^'■f^  of  which  (from  ch.  i.  to  xliii.)  contains  a  commendation 
of  wisdom,  and  precepts  for  the  regulation  of  life,  that  are 
adapted  to  persons  of  all  classes  anaconditions,  and  of  every 
age  and  sex.  In  the  second  part,  the  author  celebrates  the 
patriarchs,  prophets,  and  other  distinguished  men  among  the 
Jews.  (xliv. — 1.)  And  the  third  part,  containing  the  fiftieth 
chapter,  concludes  with  a  prayer  or  hymn  of  the  author,  and 
an  exhortation  to  the  pursuit  of  wisdom. 

The  book  of  Ecclesiasticus  was  frcquentlj'  cited  by  tho 
fathers  of  the  church  under  the  titles  of  a  i«i-cu  lo^^ta,  the  wis- 
dom of  Jesus,  n-jLvuiisrm  2c<f<5t,  wisdom,  the  treasure  of  alt  the 
virtues,  or  Ao^ic,  t/te  discourse.  The  Latins  cite  it  under  the 
appellation  of  Ecclesiasticus,  that  is,  a  book  which  was  read 
in  the  churches,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  book  of  Ecclesi- 
astes.  Anciently  it  was  put  into  the  hands  of  catechumens, 
on  account  of  the  edifying  nature  of  its  instruction ;  next  to 
the  inspired  writings,  a  collection  of  purer  moral  precepts 
does  not  exist.  Besides  the  Greek  copy  of  this  book,  and 
tiie  Latin  version,  there  are  two  versions  of  it,  one  in  Syriac, 
and  the  other  in  Arabic  ;  the  Latin  translation  is  supposed  to 
have  been  executed  in  the  first  century  of  the  Christian  sera  : 
it  is  full  of  Greek  terms,  but  differs  widely  from  the  present 
Greek  of  Ecclesiasticus.  "  The  authorized  English  version 
of  this  treatise  appears  to  have  been  made  from  the  Greek 
text,  as  exhibited  in  the  (.^omplutensian  Polyglott, — a  text 
which  has,  not  without  reason,  been  suspected  of  having 
been  made  conformable  in  many  places  to  the  Vulgate.  A 
new  translation,  made  immediately  from  the  Vatican  or 
Alexandrian  text,  would  exhibit  this  treatise  to  us  in  a  purer 
form.'"8 

V'lII.  The  book  of  Baruch  is  not  extant  in  Hebrew,  and 
only  in  Greek  and  Syriac;  but  in  what  language  it  was 

«  De  .Tcsii  Siracid<e  Ecclcsiastico  Cominentarius.  4fo.  Riga,  1792. 

5  JJretschneUler,  Liber  Jesu  SiiacidEB.  Proleg.  pp.  10— 3i. 

6  Christian  Renieinbranccr,  May,  1827,  p.  2U2.  Addison  lias  recorded  liia 
opinion,  that  "  the  h'.lle  apocryphal  treatise,  entitled  the  Wisdom  of  the 
."5on  of  Sirach,  would  be  regarded  by  our  modern  wits  as  one  of  the  most 
shining  tracts  of  morality  that  is  extant,  if  it  appeared  under  the  name  of 
a  Confucius,  or  of  any  celebrated  Grecian  philosopher."  Spectator, 
No.  63. 

I  Bishop  Lowth's  Lectures,  vol.  ii.  p.  177. 
*  Christian  Kemembraucer,  vol.  ix.  p.  3C<3. 


292  ON  THE  APOCRYPHA 

originally  written,  it  is  now  impossible  to  ascertain 


[Part  V 


equally  uncertain  by  whom  this  book  was  written,  an 
whether  it  contains  any  matters  historically  true,  or  whoth( 
the  whole  is  a  fiction.     Grotius  is  of  opinion  that  it  i-i  n 


It  is 

and 
ler 
an 
entire  fiction,  and  that  it  was  composed  fcy  some  Hellenistic 
Jew  under  the  name  of  Baruch.  In  tlie  Vul^te  version  it  is 
placed  after  the  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah  ;  but  it  was  never 
considered  as  a  canonical  book  by  the  Jews,  though,  in  tlie 
earliest  acres  of  Christianity,  it  was  cited  and  read  as  a  pro- 
duction entitled  to  credit.  The  principal  subject  ot  the  book 
is  an  epistle,  pretended  to  be  sent  by  Jehoiakmi  and  the  cap- 
tive Jews  in  Babylon,  to  their  brethren  in  Judah  and  .leru- 
salem.  The  last  chapter  contains  an  epistle  which  talsely 
bears  tb.e  name  of  Jcremiali ;  there  are  two  versions  of  this 
book  extant,  one  in  Syriac,  and  one  in  Arabic ;  the  Latin 
translation  in  the  Vulnr-cUe  is  prior  to  the  time  of  Jerome. 

IX.  "The  Sonu  ok  TUt:  Tiiuee  Children"  is  placed  in 
the  Greek  versions  of  Daniel  (liolh  the  .Septuajrint  and  Theo- 
dolion's),  and  also  in  the  Vul<iate  Latin  version,  between  tlie 
twenty-third  and  twenty-fourth  verses  of  the  third  chapter. 
It  does  not  appear  to  liave  ever  been  extant  in  l^ebrew,  and 
Blthouirh  it  has  always  been  admired  for  the  piety  ot  Its 
sentiments,  it  was  never  admitted  to  be  canonical,  until  it 
was  recognised  by  the  council  of  Trent.  The  fifteenth  verse 
contains  a  direct  falsehood  ;  for  it  asserts  that  there  was  no 
prophet  at  that  time,  when  it  is  well  knov.n  that  Daniel  and 
Iv/.ekiel  botli  exercised  the  prophetic  ministry  in  Babylon. 


This  apocryphal  fragment  is  therefore  most  probably  the 
production  of  some  Hellenistic  Jew.  The  hymn  f  verses  20. 
cl  seq.)  resembles  the  hundred  and  forty-eighth  Psalm,     It 


was  introduced  into  the  public  formularies  of  the  Christian 
church  very  early,  and  was  so  approved  of  bv  the  compilers 
of  our  liturgy,  that,  in  the  first  Common  Prayer  Book  of 
King  Edward  VI.  it  was  retained  and  was  used  instead  of 
llie  ^J'e  Jknm  during  Lent,  though  it  is  now  seldom  read, 
(•\cept  perhaps  when  the  third  chapter  of  the  book  of  Daniel 
is  tlie  first  lesson.'  It  is  on  record,  that  this  hymn  was  used 
so  early  as  the  third  century  in  the  Liturgies  of  the  Chris- 
tian chrirch. 

X.  The  HisTonv  ok  Slsanna  has  always  been  treated  with 
some  respect,  but  has  never  been  considered  as  canonical, 
though  the  council  of  Trent  admitted  it  into  the  number  of 
sacred  bodks.  It  is  evidently  the  work  of  some  Hellenistic 
Jiw,'''  and  in  the  Vulgate  version  it  forms  the  thirteenth 
chapter  of  the  book  of  Daniel,  being  avowedly  translated 
fromTheodoiion's  (Jreek  version,  in  vliich  it  is  place^l  at  the 
beginning  of  that  book.  The  Jieptnagint  version  of  Daniel 
(which  was  excluded  for  Theodotion's,  in  or  soon  after  the 
second  century)  does  nut  contain  it,  as  appears  by  the  Chigi 
MS.,  published  at  Rome  in  1772.  Lamy  and  some  other 
modern  critics,  after  Julius  Africanus,  consider  it  to  be  both 
spurious  and  fal>ulous. 

XI.  "The  History  of  the  Destrnclion  of  Bei,  and  the 
Dragon*'  was  always  reiectid  by  the  Jewish  church  :  it  is 
not  extant  either  in  the  Hebrew  or  the  Chaldee  language.- 
Jerome  gives  it  no  better  title  than  that  lA'  Jke  faUe  of  Mil 
and  llic  Ijruf-ou  ,-  nor  has  it  obtained  more  credit  with  pos- 
terity, except  with  the  divines  of  the  coimcil  of  Trent,  who 
d(  teriuiiied  it  to  be  a  part  of  tin;  canonical  Scriptures.  The 
dewitfn  (<i  this  fiction  is  to  render  idolatry  ridiculous,  and  to 
exah  the  true  (J«.d  ;  but  the  author  has  destroyed  the  illusion 
of  his  fiction  by  transporting  to  Babylon  tlie  worship^  of 
animals,  which  was  never  practised  in  that  country.  I'liis 
book  forms  the  fourteenth  chapter  of  Daniel  in  the  l,alin 
Vnhrate;  in  the  (J reek  it  was  called  the  nrojjhecy  of  Hab- 
bakiTk,  the  son  of  Jesus,  of  the  tribe  of  l.evi;  but  this  is 
evidently  false,  f«>r  that  |)r.iphet  lived  liefure  the  time  of 
Nebuchadnezzar,  and  the  events  pretended  to  have  taken 
place  in  this  fable  are  assigned  to  tin-  lime  of  ( 'yrns.  There 
are  two  Greek  texts  of  this  fragment,  that  of  the  Septnagint, 
and  that  found  in  Theodution's  (Jreek  version  of  Daniel. 
The  former  is  the  most  ancient,  and  lias  been  translated  into 
Syriac.  The  Latin  and  Arabic  versions,  logellier  with  another 
Syriac  translation,  liavc  b(!en  made  from  the  texts  of  Theo- 
dotion. 

XII.  "'I'he  PuAVEn  OK  INIanasses,  king  of  Judah,  when 
he  was  holden  captive  in  Baliyloii,"  tiiou^rh  not  unworthy 
of  the  occasion  on  which  it  is  pretended  to  have  been  com- 
posed, was  never  recognised  as  canonical.  It  is  rejected  as 
spurious  even  by  the  church  of  Konie.     In  2  Chron.  xxxiii. 

«  Wlif-allry  on  ll.i'  romiMon  Prnyrr.  rlmp.  iii.  sod.  12.  Sl.fphtTil  "n  ll.c 
fViniiiion  I'r.-'ViT,  p.  liU.    Lomlcii,  i;;»;,  '*\i<. 

»  Of  iIiIh  tli(.'  rciilT  iimv  ncv  a  \tuuI  In  lite  parnrioinasia,  or  jilajr  upon 
worJa,  wli'.cti  ha-H  alrea'Jy  been  nUiccJ  in  p.  'JUL  L>f  iui«  vuluuic 


18,  19.  there  is  mention  of  a  prayer  by  the  king,  which  is 
said  to  be  written  "  in  the  Book  ot  the  lungs  of  Israel,"  and 
also,  "  among  the  sayings  of  the  seers."  But  it  is  evident 
that  this  composition,  which  abounds  with  deeply  pious  and 
penitent  expressions,  cannot  be  the  prayer  there  alluded  to 
for  it  never  was  extant  in  Hebrew,  nor  can  it  be  traced  to  a 
higher  source  than  the  Vulgate  Latin  version.  As  it  is  men- 
tioned by  no  writer  more  ancient  than  the  pseudo-Clement, 
in  the  pretended  apostolical  constitutions,  which  were  com- 
piled in  the  fourth  century,  it  is  probable  that  this  prayer 
was  composed  by  some  unknown  person,  who  thought  he 
could  sunnly  the  loss  of  the  original  prayer. 

XIII.  The  two  books  of  MACCAnEES  are  thus  denominated, 
because  they  relate  the  patriotic  and  gallant  exploits  of  Judas 
Maccabffius  and  his  brethren :  they  are  both  admitted  into 
the  canon  of  Scripture  by  the  church  of  Bome. 

1.  The  FiusT  BOOK  contains  the  history  of  the  Jews,  from 
the  beginning  of  the  reign  of  Anliochns  Epiphanes  to  the 
death  of  Simon,  a  period  of  about  thir'y-four  years.  Its 
original  language  has  been  greatly  controverted.  Jerome 
expressly  says  that  he  had  seen  the  original  in  Hebrew.' 
But  this  is  supposed  to  have  been  lost.'  The  title  which  it 
then  bore,  was  Shnrblt  Sur  Bene  EI,  which  has  been  vari- 
ously translated.  The  Scourge  of  the  Hclc's^againsi  the  L»r(/, 
and  7'Ae  Sceptre  of  the  Frince  of  the  Sam  of  God.-  a  title 
which  is  not  unsuitable  to  the  character  of  Judas,  who  was 
a  valiant  commander  of  the  persecuted  Israelites.  The 
author  of  this  book  is  not  certainly  known;  some  conjecture 
that  it  was  written  liy  John  Hyrcanus,  tlie  son  of  Simon, 
who  was  prince  and  high-priest  of  the  Jews  for  nearly  thirty 
years,  and  who  commenced  his  government  at  the  time  when 
this  history  ends  ;  by  others  it  is  ascribed  to  one  of  the  Mac- 
cabees, and  many  are  of  opinion  that  it  was  compiled  by  the 
Great  Synagogue.  It  is,  however,  not  improbable,  that  it 
was  composed  in  the  time  of  John  Hyrcanus,  when  the  wars 
of  the  Maccabees  were  terminated,  eilhev  by  HjTcanus  him- 
self, or  by  some  persons  employed  liy  him.  From  tlio  Syro- 
Chaldaic  (or  Hebrew)  it  was  tr.in=^late'.i  into  Greek,  and 
thence  into  Latin.  Our  Englisli  versi.' n  is  made  from  tl:o 
Greek. =  The  first  book  of  Maccabees  J?  s  most  valuahl>. 
historical  monument,  written  wi'Ji  iircci  i:c<;uT<i>'y  uod  fidcJi;. . 
on  which  more  re!ianct,>  may  bo  p;acsn  than  Oii  the  wrilinijs 
of  Josephus,  who  has  borrov.-cd  his  matcri.iit;  i'rom  it,  -a-.A 
has  frecpientl y  mistaken  it^  nvi.'aning.'^ 

2.  The  SKcoNi)  BOOK  of  MAccARi:f;s  consists  cS  several 
pieces  compiled  by  an  unknown  •tii-.lor.  It  commences  witk 
two  epistles  sent  from  tlie  Jews  cf  Jfifusalem  to  those  of 
Alexandria  and  Egypt,  exhorting  them  to  observe  the  feast 
of  the  dedication  of  the  new  a\Ur.  erected  by  Judas  Macca- 
bajus  on  his  purifying  the  t> mple.  These,  epistles,  which 
are  confessedly  spurious,  are  followed  by  the  author's  preface 
to  his  history,  which  is  an  abridgment  of  a  larger  work, 
compiled  by  one  Jason,  an  Hellenistic  Jew  of  ('yreiie;  who 
wrote  in  Greek  the  history  of  Judas  Maccaba-us  and  his 
brethren,  and  an  account  of  the  wars  against  Antiochus 
Epiphanes,  and  his  son  Enpator,  in  five  books.  The  entire 
work  of  Jason  has  long  since  perished,  and  Dr.  Prideaux  is 
of  opinion"  that  the  auHior  of  this  second  book  of  Maccabees 
was  an  Hellenistic  Jew  of  Alexandria,  because  he  makes  a 
distinction  between  the  temple  in  Egypt  and  that  at  Jerusa- 
lem, calling  the  latter  "  t/ic  ip-tut  tcmpte.''''  This  book  is  by 
no  means  e<pirtl  in  accuracy  to  the  first,  which  it  contradicts 
in  some  instances;  it  is  not  arranged  in  chronological  order, 
and  sometimes  also  it  is  at  variance  with  the  inspired  writ- 
ings. Compare  2  Mace.  i.  18.  with  Ezra  iii.  2,  3.  and  ii. 
5 — H.  wit'i  Jer.  iii.  1(>.  The  second  book  of  Maccabees, 
therefore,  mu.st  be  read  with  great  catilioii.  It  contains  the 
history  of  about  fifteen  years,  from  the  execution  of  tho 
commission  of  Hidiodorus,  who  was  sent  by  Scleucus  to 
bring  away  the  treasures  of  the  temple,  to  the  victory  ob- 
tained by  Judas  Maccaba;us  over  Nicanor,  vhat  is,  from  the 
year  of  the  world  3828  to  3813.  Two  ancient  translations 
of  this  book  are  extant,  one  in  Syriac,  the  other  in  Latin; 
both  are  prior  to  the  time  of  Jerome,  and  both  miserably  ex- 
ecuted. The  version  in  our  Bibles  was  executed  from  ihe 
Greek. 

»  Ilicron.  Prolog.  Oaleat,  «ivc  Pief.  in  Lib.  Rcguin. 
«  Dr.  Kpnnirou,   liowcvcr,  in  lil«  "DiHHi-rtalio  (ienoralis,"   rito«  two 
nianii.scripts,  oMP  of  wtilch,  No.  471,  ii  preserved  at  Rome,  "I.ilir.  Mncral 


(Miiil<lalce,'' uiiUeii  ciirlv  in  Hip  Iliirleentli  r(- 
exi,iliiia  at  llaiiil>ur|2li,  '' l.ilir.  Mm  rat).  lleLir 
lltH      l>r.  CoUoirs  I'ivp  Ilnolis  of  MaccabePH,  p.  x\\. 


r  tiliiiv 
Lirnici' 


a  srroMil.  No.  CI3., 
written  in  itic  yo  , 


Pridtniix's  (.'niiricrliiin.  vul.  ii.  pp.  185,  left. 
'  MichacliH,  Inlroil.  lo  New  Test.  vol.  1.  p.  "l- 
'  Connection,  yol.  ii.  pp.  186,  IS?. 


GuAf.  I.] 


ON  THE  CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


293 


Besides  the  two  books  of  Maccabees  here  noticed,  there 
are  three  others  whicli  bear  their  names,  but  very  impro- 
perly: neither  of  thena  has  ever  been  reputed  canonical. 

3.  The  THIRD  BOOK  OF  Maccabees  contains  the  history  of 
the  persecution  of  the  Jews  in  Egypt  by  Ptolemy  Philo- 
pater,  and  their  sufferings  under  it.  From  its  style,  this 
book  appears  to  have  been  written  by  some  Alexandrian 
Jew:  it  abounds  with  the  most  absurd  fables.  With  regard 
to  its  subject,  it  ought  in  strictness  to  be  called  the  first 
book  of  Maccabees,  as  the  events  it  professes  to  relate  oc- 
curred before  the  achievements  of  that  heroic  family  ;  but  as 
it  is  of  less  authority  and  repute  than  the  other  two,  it  is 
reckoned  after  them.  It  is  extant  in  Syriac,  though  the 
translator  seems  to  have  been  but  imperfectly  acquainted 
with  the  Greek  language ;  and  it  is  also  found  in  some  an- 
cient manuscripts  of  the  Greek  Septuagint,  particularly  in 
the  Alexandrian  and  Vatican  manuscripts  ;  but  it  was  never 
inserted  in  the  Latin  Vulgate,  nor  in  our  English  Bibles.' 
Being  reputed  to  be  a  canonical  book  bjr  the  Greek  church, 
it  is  inserted  in  the  various  editions  of  the  Septuagint:  a 
translation  of  the  third  book  of  Maccabees  is  inserted  in 
Becke's  edition  of  tiie  English  Bible,  printed  in  1551 ;  a 
second  translation  by  Mr.  VVhiston  was  published  in  his 
"Authentic  Documents,"  in  two  volumes,  8vo.  1719-27; 
and  a  third  version,  made  by  the  Rev.  Clement  Crutwell, 
was  added  to  his  edition  of  the  authorized  l]ngiish  version, 
with  the  notes  of  Bishop  Wilson.  Dr.  Cotton  considers 
Mr.  Whiston's  version  to  be  the  more  faithful  of  the  three ; 
Init  he  has  not  held  himself  bound  to  retain  it  in  his  English 
edition  of  the  five  books  of  Maccabees,  wherever  an  exami- 
nation of  the  original  suggested  an  alteration  as  advisable.^ 

4.  The  FOURTH  BOOK  OF  Maccabees  is  supposed  to  be  the 


same  as  the  book  "  concerning  the  government,  or  empire 
of  reason,"  ascribed  to  Josephus  by  Philostratus,  Eusebms, 
and  Jerome.  Its  author  is  not  known :  it  is  extant  in  the 
Vatican  and  Alexandrian  manuscripts,  and  in  various  editions 
of  the  Sentuagmt,  in  which  it  is  placed  after  the  three  books 
of  Maccabees,  but  it  is  not  extant  in  any  Latin  Bibles.  It 
is  designed  to  adorn  and  enlarge  the  history  of  old  Eleazar, 
and  of  the  seven  brothers,  who  with  their  mother  suffered 
martyrdom  under  Antiochus,  as  is  related  more  succinctly  in 
the  sixth  and  seventh  chapters  of  the  second  book  of  Mac- 
cabees.-' Dr.  Cotton  has  the  honour  of  giving  the  first  cor- 
rect English  version  of  this  book. 

5.  The  FIFTH  BOOK  OF  Maccabees  is  the  work  of  an  un- 
known author,  who  lived  after  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by 
Titus ;  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  compiled  from  the  acts  of 
each  successive  high-priest.  Although  Calmet  is  of  opinion 
that  it  was  originally  written  in  Hebrew,  whence  it  was 
translated  into  Greek,  yet  it  is  not  now  extant  in  either  of 
those  languages.  It  is,  however,  extant  both  in  Syriac  and 
in  Arabic.  Dr.  Cotton  has  given  an  English  translation  of 
it  from  the  Latin  version  of  the  Arabic  text,  printed  in  Bishop 
VV^alton's  Poly^lott  edition  of  the  Bible.  This  book  "  is  a 
kind  of  chronicle  of  Jewish  affairs,  commencing  with  the 
attempt  on  the  treasury  of  Jerusalem  by  Heliodorus  (with 
an  interpolation  of  the  history  of  the  Septuagint  version,  com- 
posed by  desire  of  Ptolemy),  and  reaching  down  to  the  birth 
of  Christ ;  or,  speaking  accurately,  to  that  particular  point  of 
time,  at  which  Herod,  almost  glutted  with  the  noblest  blood 
of  the  Jews,  turned  his  murderous  hands  upon  the  members 
of  his  own  family  ;  and  completed  the  sad  tragedy  of  the 
Asmohaean  princes,  by  the  slaughter  of  his  ov/n  wife  Mari- 
amne,  her  mother,  and  his  own  two  sons."^ 


PART  VI. 

ANALYSIS    OF    THE    NEW    TESTA5IENT. 


CHAPTEU  L 


O'S    THE    CLASSIFICATION    OF    THE    BOOKS    OF    THE    NEW    TESTAMENT 


Various  modes  of  arranging  the  books  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment have  obtained  at  different  times ;  nor  does  the  order  in 
which  they  are  to  be  found  in  manuscripts  correspond  with 
that  in  which  they  occur  in  the  printed  copies  and  modern 
translations.  In  the  time  of  Ignatius  (who  flourished  a.  d. 
107),  the  New  Testament  consisted  of  two  codes  or  collec- 
tions, called  "  Gospels,"  and  "  Epistles,"  or"  Gospels," and 
"  Apostles  ;"'  the  same  division  prevailed  in  the  time  of 
TertuUian,  a.  d.  200.  (the  Acts  being  included  in  the  latter 
division),  who  called  the  Gospels  "  our  Digesta,"  in  allu- 
sion, as  it  seems,  to  some  collection  of  the  Roman  laws 
digested  into  order.s  This  division  also  obtained  in  the  time 
of  C3'prian,  who  flourished  soon  after  TertuUian.^  About  a 
century  afterwards,  Athanasius,  or  the  author  of  the  Synopsis 
of  the  Sacred  Scriptures  attributed  to  him,  makes  the  New 
Testament  to  consist  of  eight  volumes  or  parts,  viz.  the  four 
Gospels  ;  the  Jiflh  book  is  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  ;  the  sixth 
contains  the  seven  (Catholic  Epistles  ;  the  seventh,  the  four- 
teen Epistles  of  St.  Paul;  and  the  eighth,  the  Revelation  of 
Saint  John.  In  a  later  age,  Leontius  of  Byzantium^  (or  Con- 
stantinople) distributed  the  books  of  the  New  Testament 
into  six  books  or  parts,  the  Jirst  of  which  comprised  the  Gos- 

Jels  of  Matthew  and  Mark ;  the  second  those  of  Luke  and 
ohn ;  the  third,  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles ;  the  fourth,  the 
seven  Catholic  Epistles ;  the  fifth,  the  Epistles  of  Saint  Paul ; 

>  Pri<ioau.\'s  Connection,  vol.  ii.  p.  111.  8th  edit,  sub  anno 216. 

^  Cotton's  Five  Hooks  of  Maccabees,  p.  xx. 

a  Calniet's  Preface  sur  le  IV.  livre  cles  Maccabees.  Disserlationes,  torn, 
ir.  pp.  423—428. ;  where  he  has  collected  all  the  traditionary  hiformation 
extant  concerning  this  book. 

*  Cotton's  Five  Cooks  of  Maccabees,  p.  x.vxii.  xxxiv.  xxxi. 

•  See  the  passages  in  Dr.  Lardner's  Works,  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  81,  82. ;  4to. 
vol.  i.  pp.  3x2,  323. 

«  Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  278—282. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  431-433. 
-  Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  iii.  pp.  179,  180.  ;  4to.  vol.  ii.  pp.  28,  29. 
«  De  Sectis,  art.  2.  cited  by  Ileideeger,  Manuale  Biblicum,  p.  411    and 
Bumposu-!,  Corn.  Crit.  ad  Libros  N  T.  p.  97. 


and  the  sixth,  the  Apocalypse.  But  the  more  modern,  and 
certainly  more  convenient  arrangement,  is  that  of  the  Histori- 
cal, Doctrinal,  and  Prophetical  Books. 

The  Historical  Books  are  such  as  contain  principally 
matters  of  fact,  though  points  of  faith  and  doctrine  are  also 
interwoven.  They  consist  of  two  parts  ;  the  first,  comprising 
the  four  Gospels,  relates  the  transactions  of  Jesus  Christ! 
These,  when  formed  into  a  volume,  have  sometimes  been 
collectively  termed  EuajjsxMv,  the  Gospel,  and  'E.vjiyyiXiaiv  Tp-j.>*,i,, 
the  Scripture  of  the  Gospels.  The  second  part  of  these  histo- 
rical books  relates  the  transactions  of  the  Apostles,  especially 
those  of  Peter  and  Paul,  and  comprises  the  books  called  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles.  The  Doctrinal  Books  include  the 
fourteen  Epistles  of  Saint  Paul,  and  also  the  seven  Catholic 
Epistles,  so  called  because  they  were  chiefly  addressed  to 
the  converted  Jews,  who  were  dispersed  throughout  the  Ro- 
man empire.  The  appellation  of  Catholic  Epistles  is  of  con- 
siderable antiquity,  being  mentioned  by  Eusebius,  .Terome, 
and  the  pseudo-Athanasius.s  The  Revelation  of  Saint  John 
forms  the  Prophetical  class  of  the  books  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament. 

On  the  preceding  classification  we  may  remark,  that  the 
appellation  of  Historical  Books  is  given  to  the  Gospels  and 
Acts,  because  their  subject-matter  is  principally  historical ; 
and  that  the  Gospels  are  placed  first,  on  account  of  the  im- 
portance of  their  contents,  which  relate  the  history  of  the  life, 
discourses,  doctrines,  miracles,  death,  resurrection,  and  as- 
cension of  Jesus  Christ,  which  form  the  primary  articles  of 
the  Christian  faith.'"    The  Acts  of  the  Apostles  are  placed 

3  Eu-sebius,  Hi.st.  Eccl.  lib.  ii.  c.  2.3.  Hicronymi,  Cat.  Script.  Eccles. 
(Opp.  torn.  i.  pp.  169,  170.  Fiancof.  1681.)  Pseudo-Athanasii  Synops. Sacr. 
Script,  in  Athanasii  Opp.  p.  59. 

'"  Considerable  discussion  has  taken  place  among  the  German  critics, 
and  some  few  critics  in  this  country,  respecting  the  sources  of  the  four 
Gospels.  Hypothesis  ha.s  succeeded  to  hypothesis;  and  the  last  is  as  un- 
satisfactory as  the  first.  For  an  account  of  the  principal  theories  on  this 
subject,  the  reader  is  referred  to  Appendix  I.  to  tliis  volume. 


294 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  VI.  Chap.  II 


second  in  order,  because  they  continue  and  confirm  the  his- 
tory delivered  in  the  Gospels,  and  give  an  account  of  the 
churches  which  were  planted  by  the  apostles.  The  Epis- 
tles hold  the  tidrd  place,  because  they  contain  instructions  to 
the  newly-planted  churches,  and  more  fully  explain,  confirm, 
and  apply  the  doctrines  of  the  Gospel.  lu  the  fourth  place 
comes  the  Apocalypse,  which.  Dr.  Mill  remarks,'  is  fitly 
placed  last,  because  it  predicts  thintrs  that  are  hereafter  to  be 
fulfilled,  aiid  is  therefore  of  a  ditferent  kind  from  the  rest : 
and  also  because  it  has,  towards  tiie  end,  that  remarkable 
clause  (Rev.  xxii,  18,  19.)  against  adding  to  or  taking  from 
it,  which  may  be  applied  to  all  the  books  of  Scripture :  to 
which  observation  we  may  add,  that  there  are  strong  reasons 
for  believing  it  to  be  the  last  written  of  all  the  books  of  the 
New  Testament.  2 

With  respect  to  the  order  in  which  particular  books  (espe- 
cially Saint  Paul's  Epistles)  are  to  he  placed  under  these 
respective  classes,  there  is  a  considerable  difierence  of  opi- 
nion among  learned  men,  in  consequence  of  the  diversity  of 
the  dates  when  the  books  are  supposed  to  have  been  written. 


I  As  these  dates  are  particularly  considered  in  the  account  of 
each  book,  given  in  the  following  pages,  it  ma)'  suffice  ai 

j  present  to  remark  that  the  order  now  generally  received  is 
the  most  ancient,  being  that  adopted  by  Eusobius  in  the  early 
part  of  the  fourth  century,  as  it  had  probably  been  the  order 

J  adopted  by  Ignatius,  who  lived  at  the  close  of  the  first  and 
during  the  former  half  of  the  second  centur)\  Dr.  Lardner 
(in  whose  judgment  Bishop  Tomline^  has  acquiesced)  is  of 
opinion  that  the  received  order  is  the  best :  and  although  it 
is  both  entertaining  and  useful  to  know  the  order  in  which 
Saint  Paul's  epistles  were  written,  yet  he  is  of  opinion  that 
we  should  not  deviate  from  that  arrangement  which  has  been 
so  lon^  established  in  all  the  editions  of  the  original  Greek, 
as  well  as  in  all  modem  versions,  partly  on  account  of  the  diffi- 
culty which  would  attend  such  an  alteration,  and  also  because 
the  order  of  time  has  not  yet  been  settled  beyond  the  possi- 
bility of  dispute.^ 

The  following  table  will  perhaps  be  useful  to  the  student, 
as  exhibiting  at  one  view  the  various  classes  of  the  books  of 
tlie  i\ew  Testament  above  enumerated.^ 


The  nooks  of  the  New  Tijstamknt  are, 


I  1.  Jcsu9  Christ,  the  head  of  the  Church  ;  whose  genealogy,  birth,  hfe,  doctrhie,  mira- 

,  „  ,        .L-      ,1.    ,  •  .  /•  }         cles,  death,  resurrecliun,  and  ascension  are  recorded  by  the  four  evanjielists  - 

t.  IIisTORjCAr.,  descnbmg  the  history  of  <  '  '  '  '  =       ' 

2.  Tke  C/iristian  Church,  whose  pritniiive  plantation,  stale,  and  increase.  Ijoth  atuong 
Jews  and  Geuiiles,  are  declared  in  the       •  •  •  -  - 


r1.  OennTtil,  which  Paul  wrote  unto  whole  churches  about  matters  of  general  aiul 
public  concernment,  as  the  Epistles  to  tlie  ..... 


I.      To    bclie-vin? 
Oentiles,  as  Paul's  { 
Epiiidcs, 


II.  Doctrinal,  coin 
prisiny  all  the  Epl.i 
ties  written  by  the 
Vposlles,  cither, 


2. 


Particular,     to  C  1.  Public  or  Ecclesiastical  affairs,  as  his  Epistles  to 
icular     persons  < 
(.concerning,  (  g.  Private,  or  Economical  affairs,  as  his  Epistle  to 

,  /"l.  The  Epistle,  written  by  Paul  to  the       ..... 


2. To  the  bclicvins  [ 

Jew.s,  a''  it  is  pro-  I  2.   The  seven   Epis 
"     "  ilcs.cominonly  called^ 

Oc'trral,       or       the ' 
Catholic  Epistles,  of 


briblc     all     llicse 
'•Epistles  were;  viz. 


f  James 
Peter 

John 


III. 


General 
Particular 
\Judc  .--..-. 

Propukticu,,  foretelling  wh.it  shall  be  the  future  state  and  condition  of  the  Church  of  Christ  to  the  end  of  the  world, 
wriltin  by  John  the  Aposlle  ;  viz.        ....---••--- 


I  Mai  111  ew, 
Mark, 
I. nice, 
John. 

J  Acts  of  the  Apostles. 

I  Romans. 

I.  (Airinlhians. 

n.  Corinthians. 

Galatians. 

Epliesiana. 

Pliilipijians. 

CoUissians. 

I.  Thessalonians. 
.  II.  Thessalonians. 

I.  Timothy, 
•j  II.  Timothy, 
f  Titus. 

Philemon. 

Hebrews. 

J.inies. 
<i  I.  J'cter. 
?  II.  Peter. 

I  John. 

>  II.  John. 
t  III.  John. 

hide. 

>  The  Revelations. 


V 

.s 


CHAPTER  II. 

ON    THE    HISTORICAL    BOOKS    OF    THE    NEW    TESTAMENT. 


SECTION  I. 

0.\   THE   NAME  AND   NUMBER   OF   TIIE    CANONICAL   GOSPELS. 

* 

f.   Observations  on  the  general  Jlppellation  of  Gosi-el,  as  afjplied  to  the  Ifisloriet  of  Jesus  Christ. — 11.   General  Scope  of  the 

Gosfiels. — III.   Their  jXumber. — IV.  Importance  of  the  Gospels. 


I.  The  word  ETArrEAlON,  which  we  translate  Gospel, 
among  (Jreek  prnfane  writers,'  signifies  any  good  tidings 
(from  vj,  good,  and  s/j>«.<a,  a  measntre  or  tidi?>^.s),  and  corres- 
ponds exactly  v*ilh  our  English  word  Gospel,  wliicli  is  de- 
rivod  from  the  Saxon  words  job,  God  or  fjood,  and  rp-U  word 
or  lidinir,  and  denotes  (iod's  word  or  f^C'd  tldini^s.  In  the 
New  Testament  this  t«'rm  is  confined  to  the  glad  tidings  of 
the  actual  coming  of  the  Messiah,  and  is  even  opposed  to  the 
prophecies  concerning  Christ.  (lioin.  i.  1,  2.)  Tims,  in 
Matt.   xi.   5.   our   Lord   says,  "  the  poor  liave   the  Gospel 

Krpachf'd  to  them,'' — that  is,  the  advent  and  doctrines  of  tlie 
Iessi.ih  or  Christ  are  preached  to  the  poor.     Hence  ecclesi- 
astical writers  gave  the  appellation  of  Gospels  to  the  lives 


•  Mlllii  Prnlegnm.  ad  Nov.  Test.  *230. 
Kiiiiipn-i   Coiiiin.  Crit  ad  Nov.  Test. 


.09-120, 
ad.  Lib.  iJibl.  pji.  2(11— aW.     IIeii|fKt?er,  Mtnunle  Iliblicum,  pp.  Ill— !  17. 


Moldcnhnwer,  IntP«l. 


ipn-l   loimn.  crit  ad  Nov.  Tent.  PP  .'^ 

Bibl.  (Ml.  201—^)0.     IIei,|fKt?er,  Mtnii 

EIrmenIs  of  f-'riristian  Theolojjy,  Vol.  i.  p.  276. 

•  Dr.  Lardiier's  Works,  8vo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  Ml— MO. ;  4to.  vol.  lii.  pp.  4&1 

»  From  Roberts'H  Clavis  Iliblionim,  p.  C92. 

•  On  the  varinu*  nieaninitH  of  the  word  Ruayyi*-"*,  Schleu«ner'mind 
'"'rkhurfil's  Greek  Lexiron,  or  Leus<leii'ii  PhUulogus  Crtecus  (pp.  13^— 
133  },  may  be  advantageously  consulted. 


of  Christ, — that  is,  to  those  sacred  iiistorios  in  which  are 
recorded  the  "good  tidings  of  great  joy  to  all  people,"  of  the 
advent  of  the  IMes.^iah,  together  with  all  its  joyful  circum- 
stances; and  hence  the  authors  of  those  histories  have  ac- 
quired tlie  title  of  EVAN(JKMSTs.'  Besides  this  general  title, 
the  sacred  writers  use  the  term  Gospel,  with  a  variety  of 
epithets,  which  it  may  he  necessary  to  mention. 

Thus,  it  is  called  the  Gospel  of  Peace  f  Eph.  vi.  15.),  be- 
cause it  proclaims  peace  with  God  to  fallen  man,  througii 
.lesus  Christ; — The  Gospel  of  God  concerning;  his  Son  (Rom. 
i.  1 .  .3.),  because  it  relates  every  thing  concerning  the  concep- 
tion, liirlh,  preaching,  miracles,  death,  resurrection,  and  as- 
cension of  .lesns  Christ; — The  Gospil  of  his  Sun  (Rom,  i. 

!».); J'hc  Gospel  (f  Salralion  (\'][th.  i.  l.'l.),  because  it  offers 

salvation  to  the  lost  or  miserable; — 'J'hc  Gu.sj)tl  of  the  Kinir- 
doni  of  God  (Matt.  iv.  23.  ix.  35.  xxiv.  14.  Mark  i.  11.), 
because  it  proclaims  the  power  and  dominion  of  the  Messiah, 
the  nature  and  privileges  of  hi.s  kingdom,  its  laws,  and  the 
duties  of  its  sunjecta  ; — The  Word  ur  Doctrine  (xcj^f)  of  the 

'  nosenmllllcr,  Scholia  in  N.  T.  torn.  i.  pp.  2,  3.  Mlchaclis,  vol.  iii. 
pp.  1,  2. 


Sect.  1L] 


ON  THE  GOSPEL  BY  SAINT  MATTHEW. 


295 


Gospel  (Acts  XV.  7.); — 7'he  Word  of  Reconciliation  (2  Cor. 
7.  19.),  because  it  makes  known  the  manner  and  terms  by 
which  God  is  reconciled  to  sinners; — The  Gospel  of  Glory 
(or  the  glorious  Gospel)  of  the  blessed  God  (1  Tim.  i.  11.), 
as  being  that  dispensation  which  exhibits  the  glory  of  all  the 
divine  attributes  in  the  salvation  of  mankind ; — and  The 
Gospel  of  tfw  Grace  of  God  (Acts  xx.  21.)?  because  it  is  a 
declaration  of  God's  free  favour  towards  all  men. — The  bless- 
ings and  privileges  promised  in  the  New  Testament  (1  Cor. 
ix.  23.) — The  public  profession  of  Christian  doctrine  (Mark 
viii.  35.  x.  29.  2  Tim.  i.  8.  Philem.  ver.  13.)  ;— and  in  Gal. 
1.  6.  8,  9.  any  new  doctrines,  whether  true  or  false,  are  re- 
spectively called  the  Gospel.^ 

II.  The  general  design  of  the  evangelists  in  writing  the 
Gospels  was,  doubtless,  to  confirm  tKe  Christians  of  that 
(and  every  succeeding)  age  in  their  belief  of  the  truth 
that  Jesus  is  the  INIessiah,  the  Son  of  God,  through  whom 
alone  they  can  obtain  eternal  life  (John  xx.  31.),  and  also  to 
defend  this  momentous  truth  against  the  calumnies  of  the 
adversaries  of  the  Christian  faith.  For,  as  the  Jews,  and 
those  who  supported  the  Jewish  superstition,  would  calum.- 
niate,  and  endeavour  to  render  suspected,  the  oral  declara- 
tions of  the  apostles  concerning  the  life,  transactions,  and 
resurrection  oi  our  Saviour,  it  vrould  not  a  little  tend  to 
strengthen  the  faith  and  courage  of  the  first  Christians,  if  the 
most  important  events  in  the  history  of  Jesus  Christ  were 
committed  to  writing  in  a  narrative  which  should  set  forth 
his  dignity  and  divine  majesty.  This  task  was  executed  by 
two  apostles,  Matthew  and  John,  and  two  companions  of  the 
apostles,  Mark  and  Luke,  if  indeed  Luke  was  not  one  of 
those  who  attended  the  ministry  of  Jesus  Christ.  Of  these 
evangelists,  Matthew,  Mark,  and  Luke  have  chiefly  related 
the  actions  and  doctrines  of  Jesus  in  Galilee,  probably  on 
account  of  the  false  reports  circulated  by  the  Jews  of  Jeru- 
salem :  who,  being  unable  to  deny  the  memorable  and  noto- 
rious transactions  performed  there  by  Jssus  Christ,  seem  to 
have  directed  all  their  efforts  to  invalidate  the  credibility  of 
what  he  is  said  to  have  taught  and  done  in  Galilee.  This  is 
the  more  likely,  as  we  know  that  they  held  the  Galileans  in 
the  utmost  contempt,  as  well  as  every  thing  which  came  from 
that  country.  (John  vii.  52.)  Such  appears  to  have  been  the 
reason  wliy  these  three  evangelists  have  related  the  transac- 
tions of  Jesus  Christ  in  Galilee  more  at  length ;  while,  with  the 
exception  of  his  passion  and  resurrection,  they  have  only 
touched  briefly  on  the  other  circumstances  of  his  life.  On 
the  contrary,  John  expatiates  more  largely  on  the  actions  and 
doctrines  of  our  Saviour  both  at  Jerusalem  and  in  Judrea, 
and  adds  a  variety  of  particulars  omitted  by  the  others. 

III.  The  Gospels  which  have  been  transmitted  to  us  are 
four  in  number;  and  we  learn  from  undoubted  authority  that 
four,  and  four  only,  were  ever  received  by  the  Christian 
church  as  the  genuine  and  inspired  writings  of  the  evange- 
lists.2  Many  of  the  ancient  fathers  have  attempted  to  assign 
the  reason  why  we  have  precisely  this  number  of  Gcspeis, 
and  have  fancied  that  they  discovered  a  mysterious  ana- 
logy between  the  four  Gospels  and  the  four  winds,  the 
four  regions  or  corners  of  the  earth,  the  four  rivers  of  Para- 
dise, and  the  four  corners  and  four  rings  of  the  ark  of  the 
covenant !  But  the  most  celebrated  analogy  is  that  of  the  four 
animals  described  by  Ezekiel  (i.  5 — 10.),  which  was  first 
observed  by  IrenBeus,^  and  after  him  by  Jerome,^  and  which 

fave  rise  to  the  well-known  paintings  of  the  four  evangelists, 
'lie  following  table  exhibits  the  most  probable  dates,  as  well 
as  the  names  of  the  places,  where  the  historical  books  of  the 
New  Testament  were  written. 


GOSPELS. 

Matthew  (Hebrew) ) 
(Greek)     S 


PLACES. 

-  Judaea 


A.  D. 

37  or  38. 

61. 

between  CO  and  63. 


63  or  64. 
97  or  98. 


Mark Rome    - 

Luke  (Gospel)  )      „ 

(Acts  of  the  Apostles)^    "  ^'"«ece  - 

John Ephesus 

IV.  "  It  is  a  considerable  advantage  that  a  history  of  such 
importance  as  that  of  Jesus  Christ  has  been  recorded  by  the 

>  Dr.  Clarke's  Preface  to  the  Gospel  of  Matthew,  p.  ii.  4. 

3  IrenKiis  adv.  Hffircs.  lib.  iii.  c.  11.  expre.ssly  states  that  in  the  second 
century  the  fmir  Gospels  were  received  by  the  church.  See  additional 
testimonies  to  the  number  of  the  Gospels  in  the  Index  to  Dr.  Lardner's 
Works,  voce  Gospp!s. 

3  Irenajus  adv.  Uteres,  lib.  iii.  c.  11.  The  first  living  creature,  says  thi.5 
father,  which  is  like  a  lion,  .signifies  Christ's  elEcacy,  principality,  and 
regality  ;  viz.  John  ; — the  second,  like  a  calf,  denotes  his  sacerdotal  order, 
viz.  Luke ; — the  tliird,  having  as  it  were  a  man's  face,  describes  his  coming 
in  the  flesh  as  man,  viz.  Matthew; — and  the  fourth,  like  a  flying  eagle, 
manifests  the  grace  of  the  Spirit  flying  into  the  church,  viz.  Mark  ! ! 

*  Jerome,  Prooem.  in  Matth.  The  reader,  who  is  desirous  of  reading 
more  of  these  fanciful  analogies,  will  find  them  collected  by  Suicer,  in  his 
Thesaurus  Ecrleeiasticus,  torn.  i.  pp.  1232,  1223. 


pens  of  separate  and  independent  writers,  who,  from  the  con- 
tradictions, whether  real  or  apparent,  which  are  visible  in 
these  accounts,  have  incontestablv  proved  that  they  did  not 
unite  with  a  view  of  imposing  a  fabulous  narrative  on  man- 
kind. That  Saint  Matthew  had  never  seen  the  Gospel  of 
Saint  Luke,  nor  Saint  Luke  the  Gospel  of  Saint  Matthew,  is 
evident  from  a  comparison  of  their  writings.  The  Gospel 
of  Saint  Mark,  which  was  written  later,  must  likewise  have 
been  unknown  to  Saint  Luke;  and  that  Saint  Mark  had 
ever  read  the  Gospel  of  Saint  Luke,  is  at  least  improbable, 
because  their  Gospels  so  fi-equently  differ."^  It  is  a  gene- 
rally received  opinion,  that  Saint  Mark  made  use  of  Saint 
Matthew's  Gospel  in  the  composition  of  his  own  :  but  this, 
it  will  be  shown  in  a  subsenuent  page,^  is  an  unfounded 
hypothesis.  The  Gospel  of  Saint  John,  being  written  after 
the  other  three,  supplies  what  they  had  omitted.  Thus  have 
wo  four  distinct  and  independent  writers  of  one  and  the  same 
history  ;  and  though  trifling  variations  may  seem  to  exist  in 
their  nan-atives,  yet  these  admit  of  easy  solutions ;'  and  in 
all  matters  of  consequence,  whether  doctrinal  or  historical, 
there  is  such  a  manifest  agreement  between  them  as  is  to  be 
found  in  no  other  writings  whatever. 

"  Though  we  have  only  four  original  writers  of  the  life  of 
Jesus,  the  evidence  of  the  history  does  not  rest  on  the  testi- 
mony of  four  men.  Christianity  had  been  propagated  in  a 
great  part  of  the  world  before  any  of  them  had  written,  on 
the  testimony  of  thousands  and  tens  of  thousands,  who  had 
been  witnesses  of  the  great  facts  which  they  have  recorded 
so  that  the  writing  of  these  particular  books  is  not  to  be  con 
sidered  as  the  cause,  but  rather  the  effect,  of  the  belief  of 
Christianity ;  nor  could  those  books  have  been  written  and 
received  as  they  were,  viz.  as  authentic  histories,  of  the  sub- 
ject of  which  all  persons  of  that  age  were  judges,  if  the 
facts  they  have  recorded  had  not  been  well  known  to  be 
true."3 


SECTION  IL 


ON   THE    GOSPEL    BY    SAINT    MATTHEW. 


I.  Title. — n.  Author.  —  HL  Bate.  —  IV.  In  -what  language 
•ivHtten. — V.  Ge7uiineness  and  authenticity  of  Saint  Mat- 
thew's Gospel  in  general. —  VI.  The  anthenlicity  of  the 
tiuo  frst  chapters  examined  and  substantiated.  —  VII. 
Scope  of  this  Gospel. — VIII.  Synopsis  of  its  contents. — IX. 
Observations  on  its  style. 

I.  In  some  Greek  and  Latin  manuscripts,  and  the  earlier 
printed  editions,  as  well  as  in  the  Coptic  version  and  many 
Greek  and  Latin  fathers,  the  Title  of  this  book  is,  }£.uayyiKM 
Kttrx  MctrS-a/cv,  "  Gospel  according  to  Matthew."  In  many 
other  MSS.,  however,  but  of  later  date,  it  is  To  xst*  Msn-S-aticy 
a>(cv  ^uxyyixir.v,  which  may  be  rendered  either,  "  The  Holy 
Gospel  according  to  Matthew,"  or  (which  is  adopted  in  our 
authorized  version),  "  The  Gospel  according  to  Saint  Mat- 
thew." But  in  many  of  the  most  ancient  Greek  manu- 
scripts, and  in  several  editions  it  is  To  x*tx  MxTS-aKv  £1/^5,}=- 
x/ov,  which  in  the  ancient  Latin  versions  is  rendered  Evan- 
gelium  secundum  Matthxum, — the  Gospel  according  to 
j\Iatthe\v  :  hm-tcl  Ma^rS-sucv  being  equivalent  to  tcu  Mut^hi'm,  as 
the  preposition  xiT*  is  used  by  Greek  writers  in  the  same 
inanneras  the  S  of  the  Hebrews  in  many  of  the  titles  of  the 
psalms, — to  indicate  the  author.  The  "  Gospel  according  to 
Matthew,"  therefore,  means  the  history  of  or  by  Matthew, 
concerning  the  life,  acts,  and  doctrines  of  Jesus  Christ :»  and 
as  the  evangelist's  design  is,  to  show  that  every  thing  done 
or  taught  by  Him  was  characteristic  of  the  Messiah,  Hug 
remarks,  that  his  book  deserved  to  be  called  ^va.y^(\tr.v, — the 
consolatory  annunciation  of  the  Messiah ;  an  appellation, 
which  (he  thinks)  was  subsequently  attached  to  all  the  other 
biographies  of  Jesus,  though  though  their  peculiar  aim  was 
entirely  different  from  that  of  Matthew.'^    In  the  Arabic  ver- 

*  Michaelis,  vol.  iii.  p.  4. 
«  See  Section  III.  §  VIII.  infra. 

'•  See  Vol.  I.  Pari  II.  Book  II.  Cliap.  VII.  on  the  Contradictions  which  are 
alleged  to  exist  in  tlie  Seriplures. 

8  Dr.  Pricstlry's  Notes  ou  the  Bible,  vol.  iii.  p.  7. 

9  A  similar  mode  of  expression  occurs  in  the  second  apocryphal  Book 
of  Maccabees  (ii.  13.),  where  we  read"""  f  toT,-  u!ro/<ni/«aTi(r^iij  tcV;  KATA 
TON  NEEMIAN,  in  our  version  rendered  "the  commentaries  of  Neb. 

MIAS." 

>o  Pritii  Introd.  ad  Nov.  Test.  p.  169.  KeDnoel.Prolegomcna  ad  Matthoeuni, 
§  2.  Hug's  Introd.  to  the  New  Testament,  by  Dr  Wait,  vol.  ii.  p.  9.  Gries- 
bach's  edit,  of  the  New  Testament,  vol.  i.  on  Matt.  i.  1.  Moldenhawer, 
lutrod.  ad  Llbros  Biblicos,  p.  215. 


296 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  VL  Chap.  II, 


sion,  as  printed  in  Bishop  Walton's  Polyo^lott,  this  Gospel 
is  thus  entitled  :  "  The  Gospel  of  Saint  Mattliew  the  apostle, 
which  he  wrote  in  Hebrew  b^'  the  inspiration  cf  the  Holy 
Spirit."  In  the  Persian  version  it  is : — "  The  Gospel  of 
Matthew,  which  was  spoken  in  the  Hebrew  tono-ue,  in  a  city 
of  Palestine,  but  written  in  Syriac  at  Aniioch  ;"  and  in  the 
.Syriac  version,  "The  Gospel,  the  preaciiinj  of  Matthew." 

II.  Matthew,  surnamed  Levi,  was  tlie  son  of  Alphcus,  but 
not  of  that  Alpheus  or  Cleopas  who  was  the  father  of  James 
mentioned  in  Matt.  x.  3.  He  was  a  native  of  (Jalilee,  but  of 
what  city  in  that  country,  or  of  what  tribe  of  the  people  of 
Israel,  we  are  not  informed.  Before  his  conversion  to  Chris- 
tianity, he  was  a  publican  or  tax-gatherer,  under  the  Romans, 
and  collected  the  customs  of  all  goods  exported  or  imported 
at  Capernaum,  a  maritime  town  on  the  sea  of  Galilee,  and 
also  received  the  tribute  paid  by  all  passengers  who  went  l)y 
water.  While  employed  "at  the  receipt  of  custom,"  .lesus 
called  him  to  be  a  witness  of  his  words  and  works,  thus  con- 
ferrino  upon  him  the  honourable  office  of  an  apostle.  From 
that  time  he  continued  with  Jesus  Christ,  a  familiar  attend- 
ant on  his  person,  a  spectator  of  his  public  and  private  con- 
duct, a  hearer  of  his  discourses,  a  witness  of  his  miracles, 
and  an  evidence  of  his  resurrection.  After  our  Saviour's 
ascension,  Matthew  continued  at  Jerusalem  with  the  other 
apostles,  and  with  them  on  the  day  of  Pentecost  was  en- 
dowed with  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  How  lonj  he  re- 
mained in  Judaea  after  that  event,  we  have  no  authentic 
account.  Socrates,  an  ecclesiastical  historian  of  the  fifth 
century,  relates,  that  when  the  aposthis  went  abroad  to 
preach  to  the  Gentiles,  Thomas  took  Parthia  for  liis  lot; 
Bartholomew,  India;  and  Matthev/,  Ethiopia.  The  com- 
mon opinion  is  that  he  was  crowned  with  martyrdom  at 
Naddatjar  or  Naddavcr,  a  city  in  that  country  :  but  tiiis  is 
contradicted  by  the  account  of  Heracleon,  a  learned  Valen- 
tinian  of  the  second  century;  who,  as  cited  by  Clement  of 
Alexandria,'  reckons  Matthew  among  tho  apostles  that  did 
not  die  by  martyrdom  :  and  as  his  statement  is  not  contra- 
dicted by  Clement,  it  is  more  likely  to  be  true  than  the  rela- 
tion of  Socrates,  wh.o  did  not  flourish  until  three  hundred 
years  afti'r  Heracleon.^ 

III.  Matthew  is  generally  allowed  to  have  written  first  of 
all  the  evangelists.  His  Gospel  is  uniformly  placed  first  in 
all  the  codes  or  volumes  of  the  Gospels:  and  the  priority  is 
constantly  given  to  it  in  all  the  miotations  of  the  primitive 
fathers,  as  well  as  of  the  early  neretics.  Its  precedence, 
therefore,  is  unquestionable,  though  the  precise  time  when  it 
was  composed  is  a  question  that  has  been  greatly  agitated. 
Dr.  ^lill,  Michaelis,  and  Bishop  Percy,  after  frenaeus,^  assign 
to  it  the  year  Gl;  Moldenhawer,  to  l>l  or  G2 ;  Dr.  Hales,  to 
63;  Dr.  Lardner  anc^^Mr.  Hewlett,  to  64 ;  Baronius,  Grotiu^ 
Wetstein,  Mr.  Jer.  Jones,  and  others,  after  Euscbius,^  to  41 ; 
Dr.  Benson,  to  43 ;  Dr.  Cave,  to  48  ;  Dr.  Owen  and  Bishop 
Tomline,  to  38 ;  and  Dr.  Townson,  to  the  year  37.  In  this 
conflict  of  opinions,  it  is  dillieull  to  decide.  The  accounts 
left  us  by  the  ecclesiastical  writers  of  antiquitj',  concerning 
the  times  when  the  Gospels  were  written  or  published,  are 
so  vague,  confused,  and  discordant,  that  they  lead  us  to  no 
solid  or  certain  determination.  The  oldest  of  the  ancient 
fathers  collected  the  reports  of  their  own  times,  and  set  them 
down  for  certain  truths;  and  those  who  followed  adopted 
tlicir  accounts  with  implicit  reverence.  Thus  traditions,  true 
or  false,  passed  on  from  one  writer  to  another,  without 
examination,  until  it  became  almost  too  late   to   examine 

«  Siromata,  lili.  4.  p.  502.  B.  ace  Uio  passage  in  Dr.  Lardner's  Works, 
Bvo.  vol.  vi.  p.  '18. ;  4io.  vol.  iii.  p.  1.09. 

»  l.arrlnC'r'.s  Works,  vol.  vi.  po.  4.'>— 47.  8vo. ;  or  vol.  iii.  pp.  157—159.  4lo. 
Pritil  Iiilrofluclio  I.i.-cti'iricin  Sovi  Teslamen'.l,  pp.  15! — Ij7.  Micliaclis'ti 
Inlioiluclioti,  vol.  iii.  pp.  90 — 99. 

>  (J(  all  the  primitive  fathers,  Irrnxus  (who  flourished  In  Ihe  spcond 
crntiiry)  is  the  only  one  who  ha.s  said  any  lliiti;?  coiiccriiins  llic  e.xacl  time 
when  Hi.  Mallhpw'H  (iowpcl  was  written  ;  and  tiie  p;istin;!<»  (adv.  IIiitos.  lih. 
ill.  c.  1.)  in  which  he  has  mentioned  it,  \»  mo  oh.seiirc,  tliat  no  positive  con 
clu:ilon  c.in  l>c  drawn  from  it.  Dr.  l.ardncr  (rtvo.  vol.  vl.  p.  .19. ;  'lio.  vol. 
iii.  p.  IfiO.)  fiiiJ  Dr.  TowiiHun  (diHcourne  iv,  on  llie  <jo;-pi  In,  ncct  iv.  i  0.) 
under«tand  it  in  very  diiTcrcnt  seiiFoS.  The  I'ollowiiiK  i.4  a  liicial  lriiiisl,i- 
lion  of  the  nrivinal  passage,  wliich  the  reader  will  tind  in  Dr.  l.ardiiei'ii 
works.  Matlhrw  put  forth  (or  published)  n  fjrwjitt  iivimig  tlir  Helirrim 
tehilc  J'eliir  ami  Paul  trnre.  preaching  tlir.  (lonpi.l  <it  liuini-  ami  layini;  thi: 
foundatiima  iif  a  rhiirrh  there.  Now,  thoiiali  it  doe.i  not  nppiar  ll.at  l'<  ti  r 
was  at  Rome  iiiitil  alter  I'.iiiI'h  liberation  from  his  first  imprlHoiimrnt,  A.  D. 
03,  yet  we  know  that  Ihe  latter  arrived  there  in  the  uirinit  cif  a.  d.  01,  con- 
refpienlly  (he  d.ite  intended  by  Irenreus  must  be  iliFyear  01. 

«  Kusebiiis,  who  hved  in  the  early  part  of  the  fourth  century,  merely 
.lays  that  Matthew,  alter  preaching  to  the  Hcbrew.s,  wrote  his  (.ospel  for 
their  iiiforniation,  previrjiihly  to  his  a^inK  •"  evsnueiizc  other  nations  (Krcl. 
Hist.  lib.  ill.  c  21  );  but  he  does  not  specify  the  lime,  nor  is  it  mentiotii-il 
\iy  any  other  ancient  writer.  In  his  Chrnnicon,  however,  Kiiiirliins  [ilaces 
the  wrilingg  of  fit.  Matthew's  fiospcl  in  the  third  year  of  Ihe  reij-n  of  the 
imperur  Caligula,  that  is,  eight  years  after  Christ's  8ficcu»ion,  or  a.  p.  U. 


them  to  any  purpose.  Since,  then,  external  evidence  aflfords 
us  but  little  assistance,  it  becomes  necessary  to  have  recourse 
to  the  intermil  testimony  which  the  Gospel  of  Saint  Matthew 
affords,  and  we  apprehend  that  it  will  be  found  to  prepon- 
derate in  favour  ot  an  early  date. 

In  the  first  place,  it  is  by  no  means  probable  that  the 
Christians  should  be  left  any  considerable  number  of  years 
without  a  genuine  and  authentic  written  history  ot  our 
Saviour's  ministry.  "  It  is  certain,"  Bishop  Tomline  re- 
marks, "  that  the  apostles  immediately  after  the  descent 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,  which  took  place  only  ten  days  after  the 
ascension  of  our  Saviour  into  heaven,  preached  "the  Gospel 
to  the  Jews  with  great  success:  and  surely  it  is  reasonaol*} 
to  suppose  that  an  authentic  account  of  bur  Saviour's  doc- 
trines and  miracles  would  very  soon  be  committed  to  writing 
for  the  confirmation  of  those  who  believed  in  his  divine 
mission,  and  for  the  conversion  of  others,  and  more  particu- 
larly to  enable  the  Jews  to  compare  the  circumstances  of  the 
birth,  death,  and  resurrection  of  Jesus  with  their  ancient 
prophecies  relative  to  liie  Messiah  :  and  we  may  conceive 
that  the  apostles  would  be  desirous  of  losing  no  time  in 
writing  an  account  of  the  miracles  which  Jesus  performed, 
and  of  the  discourses  which  he  delivered,  because,  the  sooner 
such  an  account  was  published,  the  easier  it  would  be  to 
inquire  into  its  truth  and  accuracy  ;  and,  consequently,  when 
these  points  were  satisfactorily  ascertained,  the  greater  would 
be  its  weight  and  authority."^  On  these  accounts  the  learned 
prelate  assigns  the  date  of  St.  Matthew's  Gospel  to  the 
year  38. 

Secondly,  as  the  sacred  writers  had_a  regard  to  the  circum- 
stances of  the  pe'rsons  for  whose  use  they  wrote,  we  have  an 
additi  nal  evidence  for  the  early  date  of  this  Gospel,  in  the 
state  of  peroecution  in  which  the  church  was  at  the  time 
when  it  was  written  :  fur  it  contains  many  obvious  references 
to  such  a  state,  and  many  very  apposite  addresses  both  to 
the  injund  and  to  the  injurious  party. 

1.  Thus,  the  cvangcli.-;t  informs  the  injured  and  persecuted 
Christians,  that  their  alllictions  were  no  more  than  they  liad  been 
taught  to  expect,  and  had  promised  to  bear,  when  they  embraced 
the  Gospel  (x.  21,  22.  34 — 36.  xvi.  24.);  that,  however  unrea- 
sonable their  sufferings  might  be,  considered  as  the  efli^rts  of  the 
malice  of  their  enemies,  they  were  yet  useful  and  prolitahle  to 
themselves,  considered  as  trials  of  their  faith  and  fdclity  (v.  11. 
xxiv.  9 — 13.)  ;  that,  though  they  were  grievous  to  be  borne  at 
present,  yet  they  operated  powerfully  to  their  future  joy  f  v.  4. 
10 — 12.)  ;  that  a  pusillanimous  desertion  of  the  faith  would  be  so 
fur  fron»  bettering  their  state  and  condition,  that  it  would  infal- 
libly cxpo.sc  them  to  greater  calamities,  and  cut  them  olf  from  the 
hopes  of  heaven  (x.  28.  32,  33.  39.)  ;  that  they  were  not,  how- 
ever, forbidden  to  use  the  lawful  means  of  preservation ;  but  even 
enjoined  to  put  them  in  practice,  whenever  they  could  do  it  with 
innocence  (x.  16,  17.  23.)  ;  that  the  due  observance  of  the  Chri.*- 
tian  precepts  was  an  excellent  method  to  appca.se  the  wrath  and 
fury  of  their  enemies,  and  what  therefore  they  were  obliged  in 
point  of  prudence  as  well  as  duty  carefullv  to  mind  and  attend  to 
(v.  39.  vii.  12.  24—27.  v.  13—30.)  ;  that  if  it  should  be  their 
fate  to  suffer  martyrdom  at  last  for  their  religion,  it  was  infinitely 
belter  to  continue  faithful  to  their  important  trurt.  than  by  any 
base  compliance  to  incur  his  displeasure,  in  whose  liaiuls  are  the 
i.ssups  not  only  of  this  life,  but  also  of  that  which  is  to  come, 
(xvi.  2.5—27.  X.28.) 

2.  On  the  other  hand,  again,  to  calm  the  passions  of  the  en- 
raged Jews,  and  win  them  over  to  the  profession  of  the  Gospel, 
he  labours  to  soften  and  abate  their  prejudices,  and  to  engage 
them  in  the  practice  of  meekness  and  chaiity.  (ix.  13.)     'i'o  this 


»  Elem.  of  Christ.  Tlieol.  vol.  i.  p.  301.  The  followinc  ob«or\'ations  of 
the  profound  critic  I.e  Clerc  will  materially  coiifirin  the  preceding  re- 
murks.  "Those,"  says  he,  "wlio  think  thnl  the  CJospcIs  were  written  so 
l:ile  as  IrenaL'ii.i  states,  and  who  supposes  that,  for  Ihe  space  olabon"  thirty 
years  after  our  l/inl's  asceniiion,  there  were  many  spurious  ^ohpels  in  tho 
nmds  of  the  Clirislians,  and  not  one  ihat  »as  ueniiiiie  nnd  niilhriillc,  do 
unwarily  ca.<t  a  very  gnat  redection  upon  the  wisiloin  of  Ihe  apostles. 
I°i  I',  wbal  coidd  have  been  more  imprndi  nl  in  lliem,  than  Iniiiely  to  havi) 
tMlfereil  the  idle  slories  conreming  Chri.-it  to  lie  read  by  the  CInislinns, 
and  not  to  conirailirt  them  by  some  anlhentic  hislory,  wri'len  bv  soma 
credible  pertioiis,  which  miiilit  reach  Ihe  knowledjte  of  all  iiifii  7  f'or  my 
|)art,  I  laii  never  be  pernnadeil  to  entertain  so  mean  nn  opinion  of  men 
uixler  Ihe  direction  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  Ilesides,  Mstlhew  tins  dilivereii 
Ions,  not  only  the  actions,  but  aUo  the  discourses  of  ('hri:<l ;  and  this  ho 
iiiimt  necessarily  be  able  to  do  wiih  the  preater  certainly,  while  Ihey  wct<- 
fresh  in  Ins  memory,  than  when,  throii<.h  liiiclh  of  imie.  he  begBii  to  losi; 
the  Impressions  of  jheiii.  It  is  true  lliat  Ihe  Holy  Spirit  was  with  Ihe  apos 
lies,  to  brim;  all  Ihe  Ihines  to  Iheir  remembrance,  which  Ibev  h.-.d  recelvpil 
of  (.'hrist,  acconline  to  lii^  promise  (John  xiv.  "jO.):  but  IhelToly  (Spirit  no^ 
only  inspired  them,  but  also  dealt  with  them  according  to  Uieir  natural 
powers,  as  tlio  variety  of  expressions  in  tlie  Cospcl  shows."  CIcrici  llist. 
Ucd.  fcivrull  1.  A  D  Lxu.  }  9. 


Sect. IL] 


ON  THE  GOSPEL  BY  SAINT  MATTHEW. 


297 


end,  he  lays  before  them  the  Jignity  and  amiableness  of  a  com- 
passionate, benevolent  disposition  (v.  43.  48.  xviii.  23 — 35.)  ;' 
the  natural  good  consequences  that  are  annexed  to  it  here ;  and 
Uie  distinguished  regard  which  the  Almighty  himself  will  pay  to 
it  hereafter,  (v.  5.  7.  9.  x.  40—42.  xviii.  23—35.  v.  21—26. 
XXV.  31 — 16.)  Then  he  reminds  them  of  the  repeated  punish- 
ments which  God  had  inflicted  on  their  forefathers  for  their  cruel 
and  barbarous  treatment  of  his  prophets,  and  assures  them  that  a 
still  more  accumulated  vengeance  was  reserved  for  themselves,  if 
they  obstinately  persisted  in  the  ways  of  cruelty  (xxiii.  27 — 39. 
X.  14,  15.)  ;  for  God,  though  patient  and  long-suffering,  was  sure 
at  last  to  vindicate  his  elect,  and  to  punish,  their  oppressors,  un- 
less they  repented,  believed,  and  reformed,  witli  the  dreadful 
rigour  of  a  general  destruction,  (xxiv.  2.  &c.) 

These  and  similar  arguments  which  Saint  Matthew  has 
inserted  in  the  body  of  his  Gospel  (byway  of  comfort  to  the 
afflicted  Christiatis,  and  also  as  a  warning  to  their  injurious 
oppressors  and  persecutors^  evidently  refer  to  a  state  of  dis- 
tress and  persecution  uncfcr  which  the  church  of  Christ 
laboured  at  the  time  when  the  evangelist  advanced  and  urged 
them.  Now  the  greatest  persecution  ever  raised  against  the 
church,  while  it  was  composed  onl)'  of  Jewish  and  Samaritan 
converts,  was  that  which  v."as  commenced  by  the  Sanhedrin, 
and  was  afterwards  continued  and  conducted  by  Saul  with 
anplacable  rage  and  fury.  During  this  calamity,  which 
'.isled  ill  the  whole  about  six  years,  viz.  till  the  third  j-ear 
)f  Caligula  a.  p.  39  or  40  (when  the  Jews  were  too  much 
alarmed  concerningf  their  own  affairs  to  give  any  further  dis- 
turbance to  the  Christians),  the  members  of  the  Christian 
church  stood  in  need  of  all  the  support,  consolation,  and 
assistance  that  could  be  administered  to  them.  But  what 
comfort  could  they  possibly  receive,  in  their  distressed  situa- 
tion, comparable  to  that  which  resulted  from  the  example  of 
'.heir  suffering  Master,  at)d  the  promise  he  had  made  to  his 
faithful  fuUovvers'?  This  example,  and  those  promises.  Saint 
Matthew  seasonably  laid  before  tliem,  towards  the  close  of 
this  pericd  of  trial,  for  their  imitation  and  encouragement, 
and  delivered  it  to  them,  as  the  anchor  of  their  hope,  to  keep 
them  steadfast  in  this  violent  tempest.  From  this  considera- 
tion Dr.  Owen  was  led  to  fix  the  date  of  Saint  Matthew's 
Gospel  to  the  year  38.^ 

Tiiirdiy,  Saint  Matthew  ascribes  those  titles  of  sanctity  to 
Jerusalem,  by  which  it  had  been  distinguished  by  the  pro- 
))hets  and  ancient  historians,^  and  also  testifies  a  higher 
veneration  for  the  temple  than  the  other  evangelists :'  and 
tliis  fact  proves  that  his  Gospel  was  written  hcfurt  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem,  and  not  after  it,  as  a  recent  scoffing  aiita- 
g-onist  of  Christianity  has  asserted,  contrary  to  all  evidence. 
The  evangelist's  comparative  gentleness  in  mentioning  John 
the  Baptist's  reproof  of  Herod,  and  his  silence  concerning 
the  insults  offered  by  Herod  to  our  Lord  on  the  morning  of 
his  crucifixion,  are  additional  evidences  for  the  early  date  of 
his  Gospel :  for,  as  Herod  was  still  reigning  in  Galilee,  the 
evangelist  diplaj'ed  no  more  of  that  sovereign's  bad  character 
than  was  absolutely  necessary,  lest  he  should  excite  Herod's 
jealousy  of  his  believing  subjects  or  their  disaffection  to  him. 
If  he  was  influenced  by  these  motives,  he  must  have  written 
before  the  year  39,  for  in  that  year  Herod  was  deposed  and 
banished  to  Lyons  by  Caligula. 

Lastly,  to  omit  circumstances  of  minor  importance,  Mat- 
thew's frequent  mention  (not  fewer  than  nine  tim.es)  of  Pilate, 
as  being  then  actually  governor  of  Jud^a,  is  an  additional 
evidence  of  the  early  date  of  his  Gospel.  For  Jcscphus' 
mforms  us,  that  Pilate  having  been  ordered  by  Vitellius, 
governor  of  Syria,  to  go  to  Rome,  to  answer  a  complaint  of 
the  Samaritans  before  the  emperor,  hastened  thither,  but  be- 
fore he  arrived  the  emperor  was  dead.  Now,  as  Tiberius 
died  in  the  spring  of  37,  it  is  highly  probable  that  Saint 
Matthew's  Gospel  was  written  by  that  time.'^ 

Dr.  Lardner,"  however,  and  Bishop  Percy,^  think  that  they 
discover  marks  of  a  lower  date  in  Saint  Matthew's  writings. 
They  argue  from  the  knowledge  which  he  shows  of  the 
iruirituality  of  the  Gospel,  and  of  the  excellence  of  the  moral 
above  the  ceremonial  law :  and  from  the  great  clearness  with 

»  The  same  temper  is  also  particularly  illustrated  in  all  our  Saviour's 
uiiracles. 

2  Owen's  Ohser^-ations  on  the  Four  Gospels  (Svo.  Lonrl.  17G4.),  pp.  8 — 21. 

>  Compare  Ncli.  xi.  1. 18.  Isa.  xlviii.  2.  lii.  1.  Dan.  i.x.  24.  with  Matt.  iv.  5. 
V.  3.5.  xxvii.  53. 

*  Compare  Matt.  xxi.  12.  with  Mark  xi.  13.  Luke  xix.  45.  and  Matt.  xxvi.  61. 
with  Mark  xiv.  53. 

» .'Vnt.  .lutl.  lib.  xviii.  c.  iv.  §  2. 

e  Ur.  Townson'sUiscour.ses  on  the  Gospels,  Works,  vol.  i.  pp.  107 — 115. 

•  Works,  Svo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  57,  58. ;  4to.  vol.  ili.  pp.  103,  161. 
»  Key  to  the  New  Test.  p.  55.  3d  edit. 

Vol.  II.  2  P 


\yhich  the  comprehensive  design  cf  the  Christian  dispensa 
tion,  as  extending  to  the  whole  Gentile  world,  together  with 
the  rejection  of  the  Jews,  is  unfolded  in  this  Gospel.  Of 
these  topics,  they  suppose  the  evangelist  not  to  Jiave  treated, 
until  a  course  of  years  had  developed  their  meanino-,  removed 
his  Jewish  prejudices,  and  given  him  a  clearer  discernment 
of  their  nature. 

^  This  objection,  however,  carries  but  little  force  with  it. 
For,  in  the  first  place,  as  Dr.  Townson  has  justly  observed, 
with  regard  to  the  doctrinal  part  cf  his  Gospel,  if  Saint 
Matthew  exhibits  a  noble  idea  of  pure  religion  and  morality, 
he  teaches  no  more  than  he  had  heard  frequently  taught,  aiid 
often  opposed  to  tlie  maxims  of  the   '  '     -  ■'^  - 


Jews, 


.  .  ,  by  his  divine 

Instructor.  And  when  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  giaide  into  all 
truth,  had  descended  upon  him,  it  seems  straiige  to  imagine 
that  he  still  wanted  twenty  or  thirty  years  to  enlighten°his 
mind.  If  he  was  not  then  furnished  with  kno-v\Tedge  to 
relate  these  things  as  an  evangelist,  how  was  he  qualitrcd  to 
preach  them  to  the  Jews  as  an  apostle] 

In  the  next  place,  it  is  true  that  the  prophetic  parts  of  I'.is 
Gospel  declare  the  extent  of  Christ's  kingdom,  and  the  call- 
ing and  acceptance  of  the  Gentiles.  But  these  events  had 
been  plainly  foretold  by  the  ancient  prophets,  and  were  ex- 
pected by  devout  Israelites  to  happen  in  the  days  of  the  Mes- 
siah ;9  and  in  those  passages  which  relate  to  the  universality 
cf  the  Gospel  dispensation,  tlie  evangelist  merely  states  that 
the  Gospel  would  be  successfully  preached  among  the  Gen- 
tiles in  all  parts  of  the  earth.  He  only  recites  the  Avords  of 
our  Saviour  without  any  explanation  or  remark  ;  and  we  know 
it  was  promised  to  the  apostles,  that  after  Christ's  ascension, 
the  Holy  Spirit  should  bring  all  things  to  their  remembrance, 
and  guide  them  into  all  truth.  "  "Whether  Saint  ?,Iatthew 
was  aware  of  the  call  cf  the  Gentiles,  before  the  Gospel  was 
actually  embraced  by  them,  cannot  be  ascertained :  nor  is  it 
material,  since  it  is  generally  agreed,  that  the  inspired  pen- 
men often  did  not  compreheiid  the  full  meaning  of  their  own 
writings  when  they  referred  to  future  events  ;  and  it  is  obvi- 
ous that  it  might  answer  a  good  purpose  to  have  the  future 
call  of  tlie  Gentiles  intimated  in  an  authentic  history  of  our 
Saviour's  ministry,  to  which  the  believing  Jews  might 
refer,  when  that  extraordinary  and  imexpected  event  should 
take  place.  Their  minds  would  thus  be  mere  easily  satisfied  ; 
and  they  would  more  readily  admit  the  comprehensive  design 
of  the  Gospel,  when  they  lound  it  declared  in  a  book  which 
they  acknowledged  as  the  rule  of  their  faith  and  practice. "'« 

Once  more,  with  respect  to  the  argument  deduced  from 
this  evangelist's  mentioning  prophecies  and  prophetic  para- 
bles, that  speak  of  the  rejection  and  overthrow  of  th.e  .lews, 
it  may  be  observed,  that  if  this  argument  means,  that,  being 
at  first  prejudiced  in  favour  of  a  kingdom  to  be  restored  to 
Israel,  he  could  not  understand  these  prophecies,  and  there- 
fore would  not  think  of  relating  them  if  he  wrote  early; — 
though  the  premises  should  be  admitted,  we  may  justly  deny 
the  conclusion.  Saint  Matthew  might  not  clearly  discern  in 
what  manner  the  predictions  w'ere  to  be  accomplished,  yet  he 
must  see,  Avhat  they  ail  denounced,  that  God  would  reject 
those  who  rejected  the  Gospel :  hence,  he  always  had  an  in- 
ducement to  notify  them  to  his  countrymen;  and  the  sooner 
he  apprized  them  of  their  danger,  the  greater  charity  he 
showed  them." 

Since,  therefore,  the  objections  to  the  early  date  by  no 
means  balance  the  weight  of  evidence  in  its  favour,  we  are 
justified  in  assigning  the  date  cf  this  Gospel  to  the  year  of 
our  Lord  37,  or  at  the  latest  to  the  year  38.  And  as  the 
weight  of  evidence  is  also  in  favour  of  Saint  jMatthew's  hav- 
ing composed  his  Gospel  in  iltbreiu  and  Gretk,''^  we  may  re- 
fer the  early  date  of  a.  d.  37  or  38  to  the /ormer,  and  a.  d.  61 
to  the  latter.  This  will  reconcile  the  apparently  conflicting 
t^timonies  of  Irenaeus  and  Eusebius  above  mentioned,'^ 
which  have  led  biblical  critics  to  form  such  widel}^  different 
opinions  concerning  the  real  date  of  Saint  Matthew's  Gospel. 

IV.  The  ne>vt  suuject  of  inquiry  respects  the  Language  in 
which  Saint  Matthew  wrote  his  Gospel,  and  which  has  been 
contested  among  critics  with  no  small  degree  of  acrimony ; 
Erasmus,  Parajus,  Calvin,  Le  Clerc,  Fabricius,  Pfeiffer,  Dr. 
Lightfoot,  Beausobre,  Basnage,  Wetstein,  Rumpa;us,  Dr. 
Whitby,  Edelmann,  Hug,  Fritsche,  Hoffman,  Moldenhawer, 

»  Thu.s  Zacharias,  the  father  of  the  Baptist,  speaks  of  Christ  as  coming 
to  give  light  to  tlif.m  thatsil  iiidarhyiess  and  in  the  shadoio  of  death  (Luke 
i.  79.),  which  de.scriptiori  im-liidfs  tlie  Gentiles;  and  Simeon  expressly  calls 
him  a  light  to  lighten  the  Gentiles.  (Luke  ii.  32.) 

10  Bishop  Tomline's  Elements  of  Christ.  Theol.  vol.  i.  p.  302. 

»'  V)x.  Townson's  Discourses,  disc.  iv.  sect.  iv.  Works,  vol.  i.  pp.  IIC,  117. 

12  See  pp.  293,  209.  iiifra. 

"  See  p.  296.  notes  3.  and  4.  supra. 


298 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  VI.  Cuap.  II 


Viser,  Ilarles,  Jones,  Drs.  Jortin,  Larduer,  Hey,  and  Hales, 
Mr.  Hewlett,  and  otiiers,  have  strenuously  vindicated  the 
Greek  original  of  Saint  Matthew's  Gospel.  On  tlie  other 
hand,  Beilarmin,  G.otius,  Casaubon,  liishops  Walton  and 
Toniline,  Drs.  Cave,  Hammond,  Mill,  Harwood,  Ow;en, 
Campbell,  and  A.  Clarke,  Simon,  Tillemont,  Pritius,  Du 
Pin,  Calniet,  Michaelis,  Storr,  Albrr,  Grawitz,  and  others 
having  supported  the  opinion  of  Papias  as  cited  by  Irenxus, 
Origen,  Cyril,  Epiphanius,  Chrysostom,  Jerome,  and  otlier 
early  writers,  that  this  Gospel  was  written  in  Hebrew,  that 
is,  in  the  Western  Aramaan  or  Syro-Chaldaic  dialect  then 
spoken  by  the  Jews,  which  Professor  Adler'  terms  the  Sy- 
nac  ;  and"  wliich  consisted  chiefly  of  words  derived  from 
Hebrew  origin,  and  was  in  fact  the  Hebrew  corrupted  by  a 
large  mixture  of  foreign  wonls.  A  third  opinion  has  been 
otiercd  by  Dr.  Townson,  and  some  few  modern  divines,  that 
there  were  two  originals,  one  in  Hebrew,  and  the  other  in 
Greek.  He  thinks  that  there  seems  to  be  more  reason  for 
allowing  two  originals,  than  for  contesting  either;  tlie  con- 
sent of  antiquity  pleading  strongly  for  the  Hebrew,  and  evi- 
dent marks  of  originality  for  the  Greek. 

1.  The  presumption,  it  must  be  acknowledged,  is  in  favour 
of  the  opinion  Jirst  stated,  that  Saint  INIatthew  wrote  in 
Greek  :  lor  Greek,  as  we  have  already  seen,^  was  the  prevail- 
ing language  in  tlie  time  of  our  Saviour  and  his  apostles. 
Matthew,  too,  while  he  was  a  collector  of  customs,  and  be- 
fore he  was  called  to  be  an  apostle,  would  have  frequent  occa- 
sions both  to  write  and  to  speak  Greek,  and  could  not  dis- 
charge his  office  without  understanding  that  language.     We 
may  therefore  (say  the  advocates  for  tliis  hypothesis)  con- 
sider it  as  highly  probable,  or  even  certain,  that  he  understood 
Greek.      Besides,  as  all  the  other  evangelists  and  apostles 
wrote  their  Gospels  and  Epistles  in  that  language  tor  the 
use  of  Christians  (whether  Jews  or  Gentiles)  throughout  the 
known  world,  and  as  Saint  Matthew's  Gospel,  though  in  the 
first  instance  written  for  the  use  of  Jewisli  and  Samaritan 
converts,  was  uUimatcly  designed  lor  universal  dieacniination, 
it  is  not  likely  that  it  was  written  in  any  other  language  than 
that  which  was  employed  by  all  the  other  writers  of  the  New 
Tesument.     This  presunvp'tion  is  corroborated  by  the  nume- 
rous and  remarkable  instances  of  verbal  agreement  between 
Matihew  and  the  other  evangelists  ;  which,  on  the  supjsosi- 
tion  that  he  wrote  in  Hebrew,  or  the  vernacular  Syro-Ch;J- 
daic  dialect,  would  not  be  credible.     Even  those  who  main- 
tain that  opinion  are  obliged  to  confess  that  an  early  (ireek 
translation  of  this  Gospel  was  in  existence  befure  Alark  and 
Luke  composed  theiis,  whicli  thijy  saw  and  consulted.     Af- 
ter all,  the  main  point  in  dispute  is,  whether  the  present 
Greek  copy  is  entitled  to  the  uuth')riiij  of  an  original  or  not ; 
and  as  this  is  a  question  of  real  and  serious  importance,  we 
shall  proceed  to  slate  the  principal  arguments  on  both  sides. 
2.  The  modern  advocates  for  the  second  opinion  above  no- 
ticed, viz.  that  Saint  Matthew  wrote  in  Hebkew,  lay  most 
stress  upon  the  testimonies  of  Papias  (bishop  of  Hierapoiis, 
A.  n.  1 16),  of  Irenajus  (a.  d.  178),  and  of  Ori<jen  (a.  d.  230) ; 
which  testimonies  have  been  followed  by  Ciirysostom,  Je- 
rome, and  others  of  the  early  fvithers  of  the  Christian  church.' 
But  these  good  men,  as  Wetslein  has  well  observed,  do  not 
80  properly  bear  testimony,  as  deliver  their  own  conjectures, 
which  we  are  not  bound  to  admit,  unless  the^  are  supported 
by  gooil  reasons.     Supposing  and  taking  it  for  granted  that 
Matthew  wrote  for  the  Jews  in  Judaja,  they  concluded  tliat 
he  wrote  in  Hebrew  :<  and  because  the  fatliers  formed  this 
conclusion,  modern  writers,  relying  on  their  authority,  have 
also  inferred  that  Matthew  composed  his  Gospel  in  that  lan- 
guage.    Let  us  now  review  their  testimonies. 

(1.)  Papias,  as  cited  by  Euscbius,  says,'  "  Matthew  com- 
posed the  divine  oracles  in  the  //t/*/eu)  dialect,  a/i(/  each  inter- 
preted them  as  he  wns  al/lr.^^ 

(2.)  Irenffius,  as  quoted  by  the  same  historian,^  says, 
"  Matthew  published  also  a  Scripture  of  the  Gospel  among 
the  Hebrews,  in  their  own  dialect." 


«  NonnuIIa  Maith.-ci  et  Marci  enunciala  ex  Indole  Linguae  Byriactc  cxpli- 

cantur I'roluHio  J.  (i.  V.  Adlcr.     Haiinia,  1761,  4to. 

»  Hoc  Vol.  1  p.  \>.r.i—]<j5. 

*  The  varJDiis  irsiirnonica  of  tli'"  ancient  fnllierg  concerning  the  Hebrew 
orillnaj  of  Si.  MnUhrw's  Gospel  arc  proiliired  and  conKklrreil  nt  li-nelh  by 
.1.  T.  BiiHliiv,  in  liis  DisHcrlntio  HlstoricoCrilico  KxcKcUra  do  Lingua  Origi- 
nal! Evancelii  gecundimi  MallliicuiB.     VralinlaviB;,  lt)JC.  8vo. 

*  VVctrilnnii  Nov.  TchI.  imn.  I.  p.  221.  note. 

»  M»r>»iOf  iA„  ovw  EsrAiai  LlAAEKTU  TA  AOflA  XTNEFrA^'  TO- 
itp/iivivri  i'  HUTU  »«  niuvAxo  mxTrif.  Euaebii  IliaL  Eccl.  lib.  ill.  c.  39.  torn. 
I.  p.  133.  edit.  Readinfr. 

*  O  ^,v  i,  M.T^^.ot  IV  TCK  EBPAOIJ:,  en  TH    IAIA  TTr.N  AlAAEKTi;, 

KAi  rrA«HN  ZiZHZimtH  £i  ai  i  eaiot.    Ibid.  lib.  v.  c.  8.  tou.  i.  p.  219. 


(3.)  Origen  as  cited  by  Eusebius^"  says,  "  As  I  have 
learned  bt/  tradition  concerning  the  four  (iospels,  which  alone 
are  received  without  dispute  by  the  whole  church  of  God 
under  heaven. — ^The  first  was  written  by  Matthew,  once  a 
publican,  afterwards  an  apostle  of  Jesus  Christ,  who  pub- 
lished it  for  the  believers  of  Judaism,  composed  in  Hebrew 
lel/irs." 

In  opposition  to  these  testimonies,  it  is  contended  by  the 
advocates  for  the  Greek  oridnal  of  the  Gospel, 

i.  That  the  testimony  of  Papias,  who  was  a  weak  and 
credulous  man,3  is  vague  and  indecisive ;  that  he  had  not 
seen  the  Hebrew  Gospel  itself;  that  it  could  not  have  been 
intended  for  universal  circulation  by  his  own  account,  because 
every  one  was  not  able  to  interpret  it;  and  that  the  Greek 
Go.-ipel  was  published  before  his  time,  as  appears  from  tlip 
express  or  tacit  references  made  by  the  apostolical  fathers 
who  were  all  prior  to  Papias,  and  all  of  whom  wrote  in 
Greek. 

ii.  The  passage  of  Irenaeus  above  given,  more  critically 
translated,  may  be  understood  to  signify  that,  in  addition  to 
his  Greek  Gospel,  Matthew  published  also  a  Hebrew  Gos- 
pel, for  the  benefit  of  the  Hebrews,  or  converts  from  Juda- 
ism, who  used  no  other  language  but  the  vernacular  dialect 
of  Palestine.  This,  Dr.  Hales  thinks,  was  most  probably 
the  fact.9  This  might  be  the  original  basis  of  the  Gospel  of 
the  Nazarenes,  the  Gospel  of  the  Ebionites,  the  Gospel  ac- 
cording to  the  Hebrews,  cited  by  Origen,  Epiphanius,  and 
Jerome,  which  in  process  of  time  became  so  adulterated  by 
these  Judaizing  converts,  as  to  lose  all  authority  in  the 
church,  and  be  deemed  spurious. 

iii.  The  testimony  of  Origen  perfectly  corresponds  with 
this :  for  surely,  when  he  cited  tradition  for  the  existence  of 
a  Hebrew  Gospel,  written  by  Matthew  for  the  converts  from 
Judaism,  he  by  no  means  denied  but  rather  presupposed  his 
Greek  Gospel,  written  for  all  classes  of  Christians,  compos- 
ing the  whale  church  of  God  under  heaven,  for  whose  use  the 
Hebrew  Gospel  v.ould  be  utterly  inadequate.  Tn  fact,  in 
his  treatise  on  prayer,  he  intimates  that  the  evangelist  pub- 
lished it  in  Greek  also;  for,  discoursing  on  the  word  fricvruy, 
he  considers  it  as  formed  by  Matthew  himself.'"  That  Ori- 
gen considered  the  Greek  as  tlio  only  authpnlio.  original  in 
his  linit!,  is  evident  for  the  following  reasons : — 1.  Origen, 
in  his  Hexapla,  was  accustomed  to  correct  the  Greek  version 
of  the  Old  Testament  by  the  Hebrew  original :  but  he  vir- 
tually confesses  thut  he  had  none  by  which  he  could  correct 
the  text  of  Matthew's  Gospel ;"  and,  2.  He  e.xj)ressly  cites'- 
"  a  certain  Gospel  according  to  the  Hebrews,  if  any  one 
chooses  to  receive  it,  not  as  of  aulhoriti/,  hut  for  illustration" 
of  the  question  he  was  then  discussing.  Now,  if  this  He- 
brew Gospel  had  been  tlie  production  of  Saint  Matthew,  he 
certainly  would  have  cited  it  in  a  different  manner. 

iv.  In  the  Gospel  of  Saint  Matthew,  as  we  now  have  it, 
there  is  no  appearance  of  its  being  a  translation;  but  many 
considerations  prove  the  contrary.  For  how  can  we  account 
for  the  interpretation  of  Hebrew  names,  which,  by  an  author 
writing  in  Hebrew,  was  by  no  means  necessary  1  ((-omparo 
Matt.  r.  23.  xxvii.  33.  40. )  Again,  whv  should  the  testimo- 
nies and  parallel  passages  of  the  Old  Yeslament  be  cited, 
not  from  the  original  Ilebrew,  but  generally  from  the  Sep- 
tuagint  version,  even  when  that  dilfers  from  the  Hebrew  '\ 
-Lastly,  how  does  it  happen,  that  all  the  versions  which  arc 
extant,  sudi  r.s  liie  Latin,  the  Syriac,  the  Coptic,  the  Annc- 
nian,  and  the  Elhioi)ic,are  adapted,  not  to  the  Hel)rew  origi- 
nal, but  to  the  Greelc  translation]  The.se  questions  are  all 
readily  answered,  if  we  admit  that  Matthew  wrote  his  Gos- 
pel in  Greek.'^ 

■"  Euscbii  Hist.  E  cl.  lib.  vi.  c.  25.  torn.  i.  p.  290.  Cl;  tv  !rap«Jo<rii  n%&Mf 
TTipi  t-jjv  TtcTufA-v  ivxyy  tK*wv  ,.,.  on  ^pajTOi*  /<if  yipx:TTxt  TO  x»r»  .... 
MATwAION  iX'TiJwxSTx  toi{  an-o  l9vJxis-/(0v  jriff-Tiuo-«ri,  TPAMMAJ^IN 
EBrAIKOIS;    l;TNETA^.MENO^f. 

•  Sre  Jorlin's  Reiiiarlo  on  Eccl.  Hist.  vol.  i.  pp.  309,  310.  2il  edit. 

»  This  conjecture,  Ur.  Hales  rcinarlis,  derives  addilional  weight  from 
the  incorrect  reports  of  Eutycbius  and  TlieojdiylBrt.  tliat  Malthcw  wrote 
lii.s  Hebrew  fJospcl  nl  Jeriisalciii,  which  Jolm  the  Evanuelisl  translated 
into  <!reel{.     Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  ii.  b"ok  ii.  p.  C(i5. 

<o  Origen  de  oralione,  c.  101.  p.  l.'iO.  oilil.  Ue.iding. 

<i  Hec  his  words,  Op.  torn.  lii.  p.  fi71.  eilii.  l)e  la  Rue,  or  In  Bishop 
Marsh's  Michaelis,  vol.  iii.  pari  ii.  pp.  114,  115.,  where  they  arc  cited  and 
explained. 

'«  Dr.  Lardner  has  given  the  passage  at  length,  Works,  8vq.  vol.  II.  p. 
500. ;  4to.  v<.|.  i.  p.  5t>J. 

n  Mr.  Hewlett's  note  on  Malt.  i.  1.  Dr.  Hnles's  Analysis,  vol.  ii.  pp.  C6t 
— ri07.  Larclner's  Supp.  to  Credibility,  chap.  5.  (Works,  Rvo.  vol.  vi.  pp. 
45_(ir,  .  4t„  vol.  ii.  pp.  157—107.)  I'riiii,  Inlrod.  ad  Nov.  Test.  pp.  298— 
31 1.  Moldenhawer,  Inlrod  ad  Libros  C.inonico.s,  pp.  2-17—251.  Michaelis, 
vol.  iii.  pp.  112—2111.  Riinipici,  Com.  Crit.  in  Nov.  Test.  pn.  SI— 84.  Vlser, 
Herin.  harr.  Nov.  Test,  pars  ii.  pp.  344—352.  Dr.  Cainpheirs  Preface  to 
Matthew,  vol.  Ii.  pp.  1-20.  Hug's  Introduction,  vol.  ii.  pp.  17—69.  AJbcr, 
UeriDcncul  Nov!  Test.  voL  i.  pp.  23tf— 211. 


Sect.  II.] 


ON  THE  GOSPEL  BY  SAINT  MATTHEW. 


299 


It  only  remains  that  we  briefly  notice  the  third  opinion 
above  mentioned  ;  viz.  that  there  were  two  originals, — one 
in  Hebrew,  the  other  in  Greek,  but  both  written  by  Saint 
Matthew.  This  opinion,  we  believe,  was  first  intimated  by 
Sixtus  Senensis,'  from  whom  it  was  adopted  by  Drs.  Whit- 
by,2  Benson,^  Hey.  and  Townson,  Bishops  Cleaver  and  Gleig, 
and  some  other  modern  divines.  The  consent  of  antiquity 
pleads  strongly  for  the  Hebrew,  and  evident  marks  of  origi- 
nality for  the  Greek.  Bishop  Gleig  thinks,  that  Saint  Mat- 
thew, on  his  departure  to  preach  the  Gospel  to  the  Gentiles, 
left  with  the  church  of  Jerusalem,  or  at  least  with  some  of  its 
members,  the  Hebrew  or  Syriac  memorandums  of  our  Lord's 
doctrines  and  miracles,  which  he  had  made  for  his  own  use 
at  the  time  when  the  doctrines  were  taught,  and  the  miracles 
performed;  and  that  the  Greek  Gospel  was  written  long 
after  the  apostles  had  quitted  Jerusalem,  and  dispersed  them- 
selves in  the  discharge  of  the  duties  of  their  office.  This 
conjecture  receives  some  countenance  from  the  terms  in 
which  Eusebius,  when  giving  his  own  opinion,  mentions 
Saint  Matthew's  Gospel.  "  Mattliew,"  says  that  historian, 
"  having  first  preached  to  the  Hebrews,  delivered  to  them, 
when  he  was  preparing  to  depart  to  other  countries,  his  Gos- 
pel composed  in  their  native  language :  that  to  those,  from 
whom  he  was  sent  away,  he  might  by  l-.is  writings  supply 
the  loss  of  his  presence."*  This  opinion  is  further  corrobo- 
rated by  tlie  fact,  that  there  are  instances  on  record  of  au- 
thors who  have  themselves  published  the  same  work  in  two 
languages.  Thus  Josephus  wrote  the  History  of  the  Jewish 
War  in  Hebrew  and  Greek.'  In  like  manner  we  have  two 
originals,  one  in  Latin,  the  other  in  English,  of  the  thirty- 
nine  articles  of  the  Anglican  church.  As  Saint  Matthew 
wanted  neither  ability  nor  disposition,  we  cannot  think  he 
wanted  inducement  to  "  do  the  work  of  an  evangelist"  for 
his  brethren  of  the  common  faith,  Hellenists  as  well  as  He- 
brews ;  to  both  of  whom  charity  made  him  a  debtor.  The 
popular  language  of  the  first  believers  was  Hebrew,  or  what 
13  called  so  by  the  sacred  and  ancient  ecclesiastical  writers  : 
but  those  who  spoke  Greek  quickly  became  a  considerable 
part  of  the  church  of  Christ. 

From  a  review  of  all  the  arguments  adduced  on  this  much 
litigated  question,  we  cannot  but  prefer  the  last  stated  opi- 
nion as  that  which  best  harmonizes  with  the  consent  of  anti- 
fluity,  namely,  that  Saint  Matthew  wrote  first  a  Hebrew 
Gospel  for  the  use  of  the  first  Hebrew  converts.  Its  subse- 
quent disappearance  is  easily  accounted  for,  by  its  being  so 
corrupted  by  the  Ebionites  that  it  lost  all  its  authority  in  the 
churcli,  and  was  deemed  spurious,  and  also  by  the  prevalence 
of  the  Greek  language,  especially  after  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem,  when  the  Jewish  language  and  every  thing  be- 
longing to  the  Jews  fell  into  the  utmost  contempt.  It  also 
is  clear,  that  our  present  Greek  Gospel  is  an  authentic  origi- 
nal, and  consequently  an  inspired  production  of  the  evange- 
list Matthew,  written  (not  as  Bishop  Gleig  and  other  writers 
suppose,  long  after  our  Lord's  resurrection  and  ascension, 
but)  within  a  few  years  after  those  memorable  and  important 
events.^ 

V.  Of  the  Genuineness  and  Authenticitv  of  Saint  Mat- 
thew's Gospel,  we  have  the  most  satisfactory  evidence. 
There  are  seven  distinct  allusions  to  it  in  the  Epistle  of 
Barnabas ;  two  in  Clement's  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  ;  ten 
in  the  Shepherd  of  Hermas  ;  nine  in  the  genuine  Epistles  of 
Ignatius  ;  and  five  in  the  Epistle  of  Polycarp.  In  the  time 
of  Papias  it  was  well  known,  and  is  expressly  ascribed  to 
the  evangelist  by  him,  and  by  several  ancient  writers  of  the 
first  century  that  were  consulted  by  Eusebius.^  In  the  fol- 
lowing century  it  was  recognised  by  Tatian,  who  composed 
his  harmony  of  the  four  evangelists,  and  by  Hegesippus,  a 
Hebrew  Christian ;  and  it  is  repeatedly  quoted  by  Justin 
Martyr,  Ireneeus,  Athenagoras,  Theophilus  of  Antioch,  and 
Clement  of  Alexandria,  and  also  by  Celsus,  the  most  saga- 
t-ious  and  inquisitive  adversary  of  Christianity.    In  the  third 


«  Sixtus  Senens.lBibliotli.Sanct.  lib.  vii.  p.  5S2. 

*  Preface  to  Saint  Mattliew's  Gospel,  vol.  i.  p.  1. 

»  Benson's  Hist,  of  the  First  Planting  of  the  Christian  Religion,  vol.  1. 
p.  ^7. 

*  Eusebius,  Eccl.  Hist.  lib.  iii.  c.  24. 

'  Dr.  lley's  Norrisian  Lectures,  vol.  i.  pp.  iS,  29.  Bishop  Gleig's  edit,  of 
Stackhouse,  vol.  iii.  p.  112.     Dr.  Townson's  Works,  vol.  i.  pp.  30—32. 

«  There  are  extant  in  print  two  editions  of  a  Hebrev?  Gospel,  one  pub- 
lished by  Jean  de  Tilet,  Bishop  of  Brieux,  at  Paris,  in  1555,  the  other  pub- 
lished by  Munster  at  Basil,  in  1557;  but  it  is  certain  that  neither  of  these 
is  St.  Matthevy's  original,  and  that  neither  of  them  weis  used  by  the  Naza- 
renes  or  by  the  Ebionites.  See  an  account  of  them  in  Michaelis,  vol.  iii. 
pp.  195—201. 

1  Hist.  Eccl.  lib.  iu.  c.  36. 


century,  Tertullian,  Ammonius,  the  author  of  the  harmony, 
Julius  Africanus,  and  Origen,  unanimously  quote  this  Gos- 
pel as  the  undoubted  production  of  Matthew,  who  are  follow- 
ed by  a  long  train  of  ecclesiastical  writers. 3  The  fact 
therefore,  is  fully  established,  that  Matthew,  the  apostle  of 
our  Saviour,  was  the  author  of  that  Gospel  which  is  placed 
first  in  our  editions  of  the  New  Testament. 

Faustus,  a  Manichean  bishop  (who  wrote  towards  the 
close  of  the  fourth  century),  attempted,  indeed,  to  prove  that 
this  Gospel  was  not  written  by  Saint  Matthew,  on  account 
of  the  oblique  manner  of  expression  which  occurs  in  IMatt.  ix. 
9. — indas  Jesus  passed  forth  from  thence,  he  saw  a  man  namea 
Matthew,  sitting  at  the  receipt  of  custom,  and  he  saith  unto 
him,  Follow  me.  And  he  arose  and  followed  him.  Hence 
says  Faustus,  "  Matthew  did  not  write  that  Gospel,  but 
some  other  person  under  his  name,  as  is  clear  from  those 
words  of  the  pretended  Matthew  :  for  who,  writing  concern- 
ing himself,  would  say,  he  saw  a  man,  and  called  him,  and 
HE  followed  hiin  ;  and  would  not  rather  say.  He  saw  me, 
and  called  me,  and  1  followed  him  ?"  Nothing,  however, 
can  be  more  weak  than  this  mode  of  arguing :  tor  it  is  an 
undeniable  fact  that  this  oblique  way  of  writing  is  common 
among  profane  historians,  both  ancient  and  modern  :  w^ho  fre- 
quently speak  of  themselves  not  in  the  first  but  in  the  thira 
person.  Moses  uniformly  speaks  thus  of  himself,^,  as  Jesus 
Christ,  and  his  disciples  also,  very  frequently  did.")  So  that 
the  objection  of  Faustus  falls  to  the  ground  for  want  of 
proof. ' ' 

VI.  But,  though  we  have  such  a  chain  of  unbroken  evi- 
dence, the  most  clear  and  decisive  that  can  possibly  be  ad- 
duced or  desired,  to  the  genuineness  of  Saint  Matthew's 
Gospel,  several  attempts  have  of  late  years  been  made  by 
those  who  deny  the  miraculous  conception  of  our  Saviour,'- 
to  expunge  the  two  first  chapters  from  the  sacred  code,  as 
being  a  spurious  interpolation  :  and,  hence,  a  recent  antago- 
nist of  divine  revelation  has  taken  occasion  (without  exa- 
mining the  mass  of  evidence  to  the  contrary^  to  affirm  that  the 
whole  Gospel  is  a  falsehood. >3  We  have,  nowever,  indispu- 
table evidence,  both  internal  and  external,  that  these  chapters 
form  an  integral  part  of  that  Gospel. 

[i.]  With  regard  to  tire  external  evidence  for  the  genuine- 
ness of  these  chapters  : — 

1.  In  theirs*  place,  the  beginning  of  the  third  chapter  (sv  aF. 
TMs  Hfxiput;  iKUvn-K,  J\'*ow  in  those  days)  manifestly  shows  that 
something  had  preceded,  to  which  these  words  must  refer.'-"  If 
we  examine  the  end  of  the  second  chapter,  where  Jesus  is  said 
to  have  come  and  dwelt  with  his  parents  at  Nazareth,  it  will  be 
manifest  to  what  time  tho.se  words  are  to  be  refcired.  Some, 
indeed,  have  objected  that  the  words  "JVow  in  those  days"  are 
not  the  words  of  Matthew,  but  of  his  Greek  translator,  who  thus 
connected  the  first  and  second  chapters  with  the  third. — Butthi* 
conjecture  (for  the  objection  amounts  to  nothing  more)  is  op- 
posed by  the  fact  that  Saint  Matthew's  Gospel  was,  as  we  hava 
already  seen,  not  translated  into  Greek  by  any  person,  but  wai 
originally  written  in  that  language  by  the  evangelist  himself. 
And,  to  mention  no  other  arguments  by  which  it  is  opposed,  it 
is  contradicted  by  the  following  undisputed  passage  in  Matt.  iv. 
13.,  where  we  read  '^  And  . Testis  leaving'  JVazareth."  Now, 
how  could  Saint  Matthew  have  thus  recorded  his  departure  from 
Nazareth,  unless  chap.  ii.  13.  had  preceded,  where  we  are  told 
that  he  came  and  dwelt  in  that  townl'^     Further,  in  the  first 

8  For  an  account  of  those  later  writers,  see  Lardner's  Works,  8vo.  vol.  vi. 
pp.  49— 52  ;  4to.  vol.  iii.  pp.  1.39— 1*J1.  As  the  references  to  Dr.  L.'s  work* 
for  the  earlier  fathers  have  already  been  given  in  the  notes  to  Vol.  I.  p.  41 
— 45.,  it  is  not  necessary  to  repeat  them.  The  reader  who  may  not  possesi 
or  have  the  opportunity  of  consulting  Dr.  Lardner's  works,  will  find  tha 
quotations  above  noticed,  in  the  learned  Jeremiah  .Jones's  New  and  Full 
Method  of  settling  the  Canonical  Authority  of  the  New  Testament,  vol.  iii. 
pj).  17—42.  Svo.  Oxford,  1798. 

3  See  Vol.  I.  p.  61,  62.  supra:  and  also  compare  other  instances  from  the 
Old  Testament,  iu  Gen.  iv.  24.  xliv.  19.  Nimi.  x.xiv.  3,  4.  1  Sam.  xii.  11.  Jer. 
xxviii.  5. 10.  15.  Jonah  i.  1.  and  throughout  that  book. 

«"  Compare  Matt.  viii.  20.  xi.  19.  xviii.  11.  Luke  xvWi.  8.  John  v.  23. 25 — 27- 
xxi.  QA. 

«'  Augustin  contra  Faustnm,  lib.  xvii.  c-  4.  Glassii  Philologia  Sacra,  torn.  i. 
p.  649.  edit.  Dathii ;  or  column  1238  of  the  Leipsic  edition,  4to.  1725. 

'■i  Particularly  by  Dr.  Williams  in  his  "  Free  Inquiry,"  first  published  in 
1771,  and  again  in  1789,  4to. ;  and  the  editors  of  the  modern  Socinian  version 
of  the  New  Testament. 

'3  Professor  Bauer,  of  Altorf,  in  Germany,  boldly  affirms  that  the  narra 
live  of  the  miraculous  conception,  recorded  by  Matthev/  and  Luke,  is  a 
philosophical  mylhos  or  fable  of  later  date  !  !  !  Brevarium  Thcologia:  Bib 
lic.-e.  p.  248-    LipsiK,  1803,  Svo. 

"  This  was  agreeable  to  the  usage  of  the  Hebrew  writers  ;  who,  when 
commencing  their  narratives,  were  accustomed  to  add  the  name  of  the 
king,  prince,  or  other  person,  in  whose  time  any  event  is  said  to  have  com« 
to  pass,  and  to  preface  it  with  the  formula.  In  the  days  of  ....  To  men- 
tion no  other  instances,  see  Isaiah  i.  1. 

"  Kuinoel,  Comm.  in  Hi«toricos  N.  T.  Libre*,  vol.  i.  p.  15. 


soo 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Pakt  VI.  Chap.  II. 


and  second  chapters  of  Matthew  wc  find  quotations  made  from 
the  Old  Testament  precisely  in  the  same  manner  as  in  other  parts 
of  his  Gospel.  Moreover,  the  want  of  a  gonealoiry  in  this  Gos- 
pel, which  was  written  for  Jewish  Christians  of  Palestine,  would 
be  a  deficiency  in  the  work.' 

2.  In  the  second  place,  it  is  worthy  of  remark  that  l/ie  two 
^first  chapters  of  Saiut  Jifattheiv's  Gospel  are  to  be  found  in 
ALL  the  ancient  manuscripts  now  extant,  which  are  entire,  as 
well  as  in  many  that  have  come  down  to  us,  mutilated  hy  the 
hand  of  time,^  and  also  in  all  the  ancient  versions  without  ex- 
ception. Some  of  the  manuscripts  now  extant,  jiarlicutarly  the 
Vatican  and  the  Camhiidge  manuscripts,  and  the  Codex  Kescrij> 
tus  in  the  Librar,'  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,'  are  undoubtedly 
of  veiy  high  antiquity,  bearing  date  from  the  fifth  or  sixth  cen- 
turies at  latest,  if  they  are  not  earlier.  The  versions  carry  us 
still  higher.  The  Peschito,  or  Old  Syriac,  and  what  is  called 
the  Old  Italic,  arc  nearly  coeval  with  the  formation  of  the  canon 
of  the  New  Testament.  The  Coptic,  Arabic,  and  other  versions, 
also  bear  marks  of  high  antiquity :  and  though  some  of  them 
conUiin  discrepancies  of  more  or  less  moment  from  the  copies 
generally  received,  yet  all  of  them  have  this  part  of  the  Gospel 
of  Matthew,  as  integral  portions  of  the  whole. 

Much  stress,  indeed,  has  been  laid  upon  the  genealogy  being 
separated  from  the  other  parts  of  the  Gospel  in  some  Latin 
manuscripts ;  but  the  spuriousness  of  the  genealogy  is  not  a 
necessary  consequence  of  such  separation.  For,  in  the  fast 
place,  as  Kuiin  el,'  and  the  learned  annotafor  on  Michaelis,-' 
have  both  remarked,  the  transcribers  of  the  Latin  manuscripts, 
who  wrote  the  genealogy  detached  from  the  rest  of  the  Gospel, 
were  actuated  not  by  critical  but  by  theological  motives  ;  they 
found  diilicultv  in  reconciling  the  genealogy  in  Matt.  i.  with  that 
of  Luke  iii.,  and,  therefore,  they  wished  to  jet  rid  of  it.  And, 
secondly,  although  the  genealogy  is  thus  separated  in  some  Latin 
manuscripts,  it  docs  not  necessarily  follow  that  the  copyists  either 
deemed  it  to  be  without  authority,  or  were  desirous  of  getting 
rid  of  it;  for,  in  tlie  illumitiated  copies  of  this  Gospel,  so  far 
from  any  stigma  being  thrown  upon  the  genealogy  (thougli  se- 
parated in  the  way  described),  it  is  in  general  particuhtrty  em- 
bellished, and  «w  much  ornamented  by  the  artist  as  the  succeed- 
ing passages. 

3.  Besides  the  uncontradicted  testimony  of  manuscripts  and 
versions,  we  have  the  clear  and  undisputed  evidence  of  the 
ancient  fathers  in  favour  of  the  genuineness  of  these  chapters, 
whence  they  have  cited  both  words  and  verses  in  their  writings ; 
to  which  we  may  add,  that  the  earliest  opposers  of  Christianity 
never  appear  to  have  doubted  their  genuineness.  As  the  miracu- 
lous conception  of  our  Saviour-  is  a  vital  and  fundamental  doc- 
trine of  the  Christian  revelation,  we  think  it  right  to  stale  these 
evidences  more  jiarticularly. 

(1.)  Clkmevt  of  .'Mexandria,  who  lived  towards  the  close 
of  the  second  century  (a.  n.  194),  speaking  of  the  order  of  the 
Gospel  which  he  had  received  from  the  presbyters  of  more 
ancient  times,  says  expressly  that  the  Gospels  containing  the 
genealogies  were  frst  written/'  Here,  then,  wc  have  two  things 
proved,  viz.  the  curiosity  and  inquisitiveness  of  the  ancient 
Christians,  concerning  the  books  of  the  New  Testament  which 
they  had  received,  and  likewise  an  assurance  of  the  genuineness 
of  the  genealogies  in  Malt.  i.  and  Luke  iii.  This  testimony  to 
the  first  chapter  of  Saint  Matthew's  Gospel  is  so  strong,  as  to 
put  its  antiquity  and  genuineness  beyond  all  question. 

(2.)  In  a  fragment  of  the  ecclesiastical  history  composed  by 
HK'iF.sippis,  a  converted  Jew,  who  flourished  a.  o.  173,  which  is 
preserved  by  Euscbius,''  there  is  an  account  of  the  emi)eror  Do- 
mitian's  inquiry  after  the  posterity  of  David,  two  of  whom  were 

I  Hilimiickcr'K  HiblirnI  Tlicolojiy,  vol.  ii.  p.  1 19. 

«  The  Cd.li-x  EljiuTiiiiiiih,  a  iiiiiiiiisrri|il  urillt-n  nl  the  closo  of  llio  four- 
tcenlli  century,  liPgiriH  witli  MaU.  i.  \>*.  Tcu  >i  lirtv  Xfirrou  q  j-h-.^tk 
tvT«5  Kv,  Note  till'  btrlli  of  Jp.iua  f'hn'st  Iran  on  this  icioe.  Since  no  book 
ran  wull  Ix-Kin  willi  (lie  jiarticlo  *',  nntr,  we  inny  coiicIikIc  Dial  in  Ilic  nior<; 
ancirnl  (Jrf^pk  mnnuscrlplf*,  wlirncc  llic  L'odcx  Klmrrianns  was  cojiitil, 
Moinolliinu  prorcdnil,  viz.  tlio  R'-nt-alo^y,  an  in  oilier  <ircck  iiiniiusrriprH. 
Ilistiop  MarHli'8  Rlirtiaflis,  vol.  iii.  pari  ii.  p.  KW.  S.c  nUo  (.'ricsli.icli'.s 
E:ri>»iTpiv  to  liis  CoiniHfiilui'ius  Crillciis  in  Gr.TCUin  Matlba-l  Ti.'xtiiin,  "llii. 
Jena,  1S01. 

»  An  arroimt  of  tlioso  manuscripis  id  Riven  in  Ihp  firHt  volume  of  this 
work.  In  \\\c  (;i>ilex  Rcsrriptus  aliovc  noliml,  we  fiinl  llu:  fir.tt  tiro  rlinp- 
ten  nf  fliiini  Miilllirir'nOoapr.l,  willi  (Iir  cxcoplion  of  Bonic  vrrors,  wliicli 
Brc  wnnlinK  fr  >mi  tnnlilalion,  viz.  tlie  first  sixIciMi  verses  of  tlic  firsil  chap- 
ter ;  anil  from  rhe  Kevenlh  to  the  twclflh  ami  from  twelve  to  the  twenty. 
Ihlril  verses  of  the  neroiiil  cliaptor. 

♦  Kuin'ii'l,  Comiri.  in  Ilisloriros  I.ihros,  Nov.  Test.  vol.  I.  p.  13. 
»  Up.  Mat.sh'H  Mirhaelis,  vol.  iii.  part  ii.  p.  K)'J. 

•  Sec  Itie  pai-sai,"'  nt  h-nislh,  botli  in  (Jreck  and  Rnalish,  in  Dr.  Lardncr's 
Works,  8vo.  vol.  ii.  nn.  211,  212.  and  notes  ;  -Ito.  vol.  1.  p.  395. 

••  Eccl.  Hist.  lib.  lil.  c.  19,211.  Hee  the  oriijinal  jmKsagc  In  Dr.  Lardncr's 
Works,  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  112, 113. ;  4to.  vol.  I.  pp.3C0,  ^7. 


brought  before  him:  "for,"  adds  the  historian,  "he  too  was 
afraid  of  the  coining  of  Christ,  as  well  os. Herod"  In  this  pas* 
sage  there  is  an  explicit  reference  to  the  second  chapter  of  Mattliew, 
which  plainly  shows  that  this  portion  of  his  Gospel  was  received 
by  this  Hebrew  Christian,  who  used  our  Greek  Gospel.  Or,  if 
he  used  only  the  Hebrew  edition  of  Saint  Matthew's  Gospel,  it 
is  equally  certain  that  the  historical  fact  alluded  to  must  have 
been  extant  in  it  in  the  time  of  Hegesippus. 

(3.)  JisTiN  Martyr,  who,  we  have  already  seen,  flourished 
about  the  year  140,  has,  in  his  writings,  so  many  and  such  de- 
cisive references  to  these  two  chapters,  as  nearly  to  supply  a 
recapitulation  of  all  the  facts  related  in  them,  and  in  such  lan- 
guage as  clearly  proves  that  his  information  was  principally 
derived  from  those  chapters.  The  very  words,  also,  of  Saint 
Matthew  arc  sometimes  quoted  with  a  precision  so  unequivocal 
as  to  determine  the  source  of  the  quotations.  Passages  and 
phrases  which  occur  in  Saint  Matthew  only,  and  applications 
of  the  prophecies  of  Isaiah,  Micah  and  Jeremiah,  v>hich  are 
made  by  no  other  evangelist,  are  adopted  by  him  with  a  literal 
adherence  to  Saint  Matthe\^s  text;  and,  what  renders  the  de- 
monstration perfect,  with  a  literal  adherence  to 'those  very  cita- 
tions from  the  Old  Testament,  in  which  Saint  .Matthew  has 
departed  from  the  words  both  of  the  Hebrew  and  of  the  Sep- 
tuagint.8 

(4.)  loxATius,  who  flourished  a.  n.  107,  in  his  epistle  to  the 
Ephcsians,9  has  an  express  reference  to  the  history  of  the  Virgin 
Mary's  miraculous  conception  of  our  Lord,  and  to  the  appear- 
ance of  the  star  that  so  wonderfully  announced  his  birth.  Now, 
as  this  father  was  contemporary  with  the  apostles,  and  survived 
the  evangelist  John  only  six  or  seven  years,  we  have  in  his  tes- 
timony what  amounts  to  that  of  the  apostles  for  the  truth  and 
authenticity  of  Saint  Matthew's  Gospel. 

As  the  testimonies  of  Irena^us  and  all  the  later  fathers  are 
undi.'iputed,  it  is  not  necessary  to  adduce  their  evidence.  Let 
us  apjieal  in  the  next  place  to 

4.  'J'he  Testimonies  of  the  Enemies  of  Christianity. — Three 
of  the.sK  are  peculiarly  distinguished  for  their  enmity  to  the 
Christian  name  and  faith;  viz.  the  emperor  Julian,  who  wrote 
in  the  middle  of  the  fourth  rrntury ;  Porphyry,  who  wrote  in  the 
third  century  ;  and  Cclsus,  who  wrote  in  the  middle  of  the  second 
century.  'I'hough  their  works  arc  lost,  their  arguments  arc  pre- 
served in  the  answers  of  their  ojiponcnts ;  and  from  these  it  ap- 
pears that  they  were  by  no  means  deficient  in  industry  to  dis- 
cover means  of  invalidating  any  portion  of  the  Gospel  history. 
They  stilted  many  objections  to  particular  circumstances  in  the 
narrative  of  the  miraculous  conce])tio!i,  but  never  entertained  the 
most  remote  idea  of  treating  the  whole  as  spurious.  They  did 
not  contend,  as  our  modern  objectors  do,  that  Saint  Matthew 
and  Saint  Luke  never  wrote  these  accounts  ;  but  that,  in  writing 
them,  they  committed  errors  or  related  falsehoods.'"  That  Celsus, 
in  particular,  was  specifically  acquainted  with  the  genealogy 
contained  in  the  first  chapter  is  evident :  for  he  speaks  of  histo- 
rians who  trace  the  genealogy  of  Jesus  from  the  first  father  of 
the  human  family  and  from  Jewish  kings."  By  the  former,  Luke 
must  be  intended;  and  by  the  latter,  Matthew.  That  Cclsus 
.should  pass  over  unnoticed  the  seeming  contradiction  of  the 
genealogy  of  Matthew  and  Luke,  is  no  more  remarkable  than 
that  he  should  omit  to  mention  many  other  things.'^  Besides 
the  testimonies  of  these  enemies  of  the  Gospel,  we  can  produce 
another  of  still  higher  anti<iuity — that  of  CJerintluis,  an  lu  resi- 
arch  who  was  contemporary  with  the  cv;ingelist  Saint  John. 
Ccrinthus  received  the  Gospil  of  Saint  Matthew  (though  not 
entire),  and  Epiphanius  expressly  states  that  his  fiillowers  "pre- 
fcrred  it  on  account  of  its  ffcnciiloq-y."  The  same  father  also 
records,  in  terms  equally  explicit,  that,  "it  is  allowkh  by  alt 

TItAT  Ci;illNTlll8  .MADK  VSE  OF  TIIK   HKOIXMMi  of  Haint  JMut- 

»  .\rrlibp.  Majcn  on  the  Atonement,  vol.  11.  p.  410.  Iji  pp.  418— 1.»4.  he 
lia.s  adduced  the  passages  nt  length  Irom  .Insiin.  See  nho  Dr.  I.ardner's 
ncconnl  of  Ju.stin,  Works,  8vo.  vid  ii.  iip.  119—122. ;  4lo.  vol.  i.  pp.  ;U.i-— 345. 
The  te.'-Mimony  of  Justin  is  nl.«n  examined  at  Icnjrlh  in  IIui;'u  Iniroduction 
10  the  New  Test.  vol.  ii.  pp.  2S2— '.81.,  wlierc  the  words  of  Multhew  and 
Jtistlu  are  exiiibiird  in  parallel  columns. 

»  Tlie  following  is  Ihe  p.i.>isa);e  of  Immlius  above  nllitTled  to: — "  Now  Iho 
virginity  of  Mary  and  her  delivery  were  ki'pl  in  serrrl  from  the  prince  of 
this  worlil ;  as  was  also  the  death  of  our  Lord  :--Threeof  the  niost  notable 
iny.slerie.s  [<;/'  thf.  donprl],  yet  ilone  in  secret  liy  (Jod.  How  then  wrh  \iiur 
Srtviuur]  mimifested  to  Ihe  worlil  1  A  star  shone  in  heaven  beyond  all  tho 
other  stars,  and  its  li(tlit  was  inexpressihle;  and  its  novelty  slrnrk  terror 
[iiild  nil  n's  viituls]."  iKnatii  ICpist.  ad  Kphes.  sect.  19.  C'olelerii  Patres 
Apo.^^loliei,  loin.  ii.  p.  Td. 

">  See  tlie  passage  of  Julian  at  length,  in  Ijirdner,  8vo.  V(.l.  viii.  p.  397. ; 
4lo.  vol.  Iv.  p.  3:}|. ;  of  Porphyry,  in  Dr.  Mill'.-*  Prolegomena  to  his  edition 
of  the  New  Testament,  S  71)2,  7U>.  ;  and  of  Telsus,  in  Ijinlner,  fivo,  vol.  vlii. 
pp.  10,  II.  19-22.  W,  59.  to  ;  Ito.  vol.  iv.  pp.  116.  121,  122,  143.  146. 

'1  Stor.  Opiiscula  Arndemic:i,  toni.  ill.  p.  IlKl. 

>i  iJchuiuckcr's  Biblical  Theoloiiy,  vol.  ii.  p.  113. 


Sect.  II.] 


ON  THE  GOSPEL  BY  SAINT  MATTHEW, 


301 


tile-la's  Gospd,  and  from  thence  endeavoured  to  prove  that 
Jdsns  luas  the  son  of  Joarph  and  ATarti"^  To  these  decisive 
toatinionies  of  the  adversaries  of  Christianity  we  add  a  fact  b}' 
no  mcan-3  unimportant,  as  an  accessory  proof;  which  is,  that  no 
objections  wsre  ever  brought  against  these  chapters  in  the  early 
centuries,  during  tiic  heat  of  religious  contention,  when  all  par- 
ties sought  to  defend  themselves,  and  to  assail  their  opponents, 
by  arguments  of  all  kinds,  iiiJastriously  drawn  from  every 
quarter.2 

[ii.]  AGC^in^t  the  \veip;iit  of  i\\\s  positive  evidence,  which 
so  clearly,  fully,  and  decisively  establishes  the  ^genuineness 
of  the  narratives  of  the  miraculoas  conception  by  Matthew 
and  Luke,  and  places  them  on  the  same  footing  with  the 
other  parts  of  the  Gospels,  tlso  antagonists  of  their  authen- 
ticity have  attempted  to  })roduce  arguments  partly  external 
and  partly  collateral  or  internal. 

I.  With  regard  to  the  external  evidence,  they  affirm,  on  the 
authority  of  lOpiphanius  and  .lerome,  that  these  narratives 
were  wanting  in  tlie  copies  used  b3U!ie  Nazarenes  and  Ebion- 
ites,  that  is,  by  the  ancient  Hebrew  Christians,  for  whose 
instruction  this  CJospel  was  originally  written,  and  conse- 
quently formed  no  part  of  the  genuine  narrative.  In  this 
statement,  the  terms  Hebrew  Christians,  Nazarenes,  and 
lObionitps,  are  classed  together  as  si/noni/nwu.^ ;  whereas  they 
were  dci^idedly  distinct,  as  the  late  Bishop  Horsley  has  long 
since  shown. 

The  Hebrew  Christians,  to  whom  Saint  Matthew  wrote,  W'crc 
the  body  of  Jewish  converts  in  his  time,  who  laid  aside  the  use 
ol'  the  Mosaic  law. 

Of  the  Nazarenes  there  were  two  descriptions  :  1.  The  Naza- 
renes of  the  better  sort,  who  were  ortliodox  in  their  creed,  though 
tlipy  continued  to  observe  the  Mosaic  law :  but  being  great  ad- 
mirers of  Saint  Paul,  they  could  not  esteem  the  law  generally 
necessary  to  salvation.  2.  The  Nazarenes  of  a  worse  sort  were 
bigoted  to  the  Jewish  law,  but  still  orthodox  in  their  creed,  for 
any  thing  that  appears  to  the  contrary.  These  were  the  proper 
Niizarencs  mentioned  by  E{)iphanius  and  Jerome.  Both  of 
tl'.csc  classes  of  Nazarenes  believed  Jesus  Christ  to  be  born  of  a 
virgin  by  the  special  interposition  of  God,  and  consequenth'  re- 
coived  the  two  lirst  chapters  of  Saint  M;itthew's  Gospel. 

The  E;)!r>aites  also  were  divided  into  two  classes:  1.  Those 
who  denied  our  Lord's  divinity,  but  admitted  the  fact  of  the  mi- 
raculous conception :  consequently  tiic  tv^o  first  chapters  of  Mat- 
tlrcw  were  admitted  by  them;  and,  2.  Ebionites  of  a  worse  sort, 
who,  though  they  deaicd  the  miraculous  conception,  still  main- 
tained a  union  of  Jesus  witli  a  divine  being,  which  commenced 
upon  his  h.iptism.  These  Ebionites,  Epiphanius  relates,  made 
use  of  a  Hebrew  Gospel  of  Matthew,  which  was  not  only  de- 
fective, but  also  contained  many  fabulous  stories.  The  Ebion- 
ites, he  adds,  branched  off  from  the  Nazarenes,  and  did  not 
appear  imtll  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.^ 

Now,  since  the  Ebionites  ''  of  a  worse  sort,"  as  Bishop  Hor.s- 
ley  terms  them,  di»l  not  make  their  appearance  until  the  com- 
mencement of  the  second  century,  and  as  they  used  a  rmitilated 
and  corrupted  copy  of  Matthew's  Gospel,  the  absence  of  the 
two  first  chapters  of  Matthew  from  their  Gospel  is  so  far  from 
making  any  thing  against  the  authenticity  of  those  chapters, 
U\at,  on  the  contrary,  v  afi'ords  a  strong  evidence  for  it ;  since 
we  are  enabled  satisfactorily  to  account  for  the  omission  of  those 
chapters  in  tlieir  copies,  and  to  prove  from  the  united  antecedent, 
concurrent,  and  subsequent  testimonies  of  various  writers,  both 
Christians  and  adversaries  of  Christianity,  that  they  did  exist  in 
all  the  other  copies  of  Matthew's  Gospel,  and  were  explicitly 
referred  to  or  cited  by  them. ' 

>  See  the  passage  of  Epiphanius,  in  Lardncr,  8vo.  vol.  ix.  pp.  32:2.  329. ; 
4to.  vol.  iv.  pp.  OO.!.  070. 

^  (iuarterly  R?vie\v,  vol.  i.  p.  .'^21. 

3  See  ihr;  variou.s  passages  of  Ireurcus,  Tortullian,  Epiplianiiis.  .Teromp 
and  otlipr  falluT-:,  in  Lar.iiicr,  3vo.  vol.  viii.  pp.  19— 2t.  ;  4to.  vol.  iii.  pp.  4SJ 
—185.  Bislinp  Ilor.sley's  Tracts  in  reply  to  Di .  Tnestley,  pp.  378— 33o. 
(edition  01' 178.1.)  Moslieini's  (.'ommcntarios  on  tlie  AftV.irs  of  Christians, 
vol.  ii.  pp.  I'Jl— 2tM.  Dr.  J.  V.  Smith's  Scripture  Testiaiony  to  the  Mussiah, 
vol.  ii.  part  ii.  pp.  731 — 741. 

■•  Tlie  reader  who  may  bo  desirous  of  investijating  at  length  the  evi- 
dence of  tlie  authenticity  of  Matt.  i.  and  ii.  will  tind  it  very  copiously  dis- 
sassed  in  l>r.  Nares'.s  nia.sterly  Keniarlts  on  tlie  Unitarian  Version  of  the 
New  Testament,  pp.  4—27.  (2d  edit.);  Archbp.  Lanrence.'s  Critical  Reflec- 
tions on  the  Unitarian  Vor.sion  of  the  !S'cw  Testament,  pp.  14—50.  8vo. 
Oxford,  1811  ;  Archbp.  Majee's  Oiscourses  on  the  Atonement,  vol.  ii.  part 
i.  pp.  419— 4i>l. ;  the  tliiarterly  Review,  vol.  i.  pp.  320— .'!26.  ;  the  Sixth  Ser- 
mon in  Mr.  Falconer'.s  Hampton  Lectures  for  1810,  pp.  17G— 207. ;  Dr.  Bell's 
Argnments  in  proof  of  the  authenticity  of  the  two  first  chapters  of  the 
Gospels  of  Matthew  and  Luke  prefi.ved  to  his  Enrpiiry  into  the  Divine  Mis- 
sions of  John  the  Baptist  and  Jesus  Christ,  8vo.  London,  1810;  and 
especially  to  Mr.  Bcvan's  very  complete,  and  indeed  unansv:crahU\  "  Vin- 
dication of  the  authenticity  of  the  Narratives  contained  in  the  two  first 
caaptei-s  of  the  Gospels  of  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Luke,  1822,"  8vo. 


2.  The  collateral  or  jnfen/:.'/ arguments  against  the  authen- 
ticity of  these  chapters,  deduced  from  their  coulents,  are  as 

follow. 

(1.)  It  has  been  admitted  by  many  writers  that  Mark  in  most 
places  agrees  with  the  method  and  order  both  of  Matthew  and 
Luke,  as  also  does  John,  after  a  short  introduction  concerning 
the  Logos.  Mark  begins  his  Gospel  at  what  we  call  the  third 
chapter  of  Matthew,  that  is,  at  the  time  v.'hen  John  came  baptiz- 
ing in  the  wilderness.  It  is  farther  urged  that,  as  it  is  most  pro- 
bable that  Luke  was  the  first  who  published  a  Gospel ;  and  ad 
he  had  given  the  genealogy  and  a  fall  account  of  the  birth,  &c, 
of  Christ,  there  was  no  necessity  for  those  who  came  after  him 
to  repeat  the  same  things,  as  they  were  not  particularly  import- 
ant to  the  salvation  and  happiness  of  man, — the  great  ends 
which  our  Saviour  and  his  disciples  had  in  view.  Besides,  it  is 
alleged  that  Luke's  account  of  the  birth  of  Jesus,  and  of  all  the 
subsequent  events,  till  Joseph  and  Mary  carried  him  home  to 
Nazareth,  which  he  has  fully  detailed,  is  totally  diirercnt  from 
that  which  is  found  in  the  first  and  second  chapters  of  Matthew's 
Gospel.  No  coincidence  occurs,  excepting  Christ's  being  born 
at  Bethlehem  of  a  virgin.  Hence  it  is  inferred  by  those  who 
oppose  the  authenticity  of  these  chapters,  that  the  absolute 
silence  of  Luke  iTspecting  many  remarkable  events  yields  a 
strong  negative  argumeirt  against  it.  This  inference,  however, 
is  more  specious  than  solid  ;  but  before  v/e  admit  its  force,  let  us 
examine  the  premises  on  which  it  is  founded.  The  agreement 
of  the  four  evangelists  is  readily  accounted  for,  by  their  narrating 
the  life  and  transactions  of  one  and  the  same  person.  Having 
either  been  chosen  witnesses  of  our  Saviour's  discourses  and 
actions  (as  Matthew  and  John  were),  or  having  derived  their 
information  from  others  who  had  been  e3'e-witnesses  of  them 
(as  Mark  and  Luke  had),  they  were  enabled  by  inspiration  to 
repeat  the  former  with  little  or  no  variation  of  words,  and  to  relate 
the  latter  without  any  material  variation.  They  did  so  in  their 
preaching ;  and,  forming  the  same  judgment  of  the  importance  of 
what  they  had  seen  and  heard,  they  repeated  nearly  the  same 
things  and  the  same  words.  The  reason  why  Mark  begins  at 
what  we  call  the  third  chapter  of  Matthew  is  to  be  found  in  the 
object  he  had  in  view  in  writing  his  Gospel ;  which,  being  in  all 
probability  written  at  Rome,  was  adapted  to  the  state  of  the  church 
there.''  Further,  it  is  7iot  probable  that  Luke's  Gospel  was  fir.»-t 
written ;  we  have  already  proved  (as  far  at  least  as  such  a  thing  can 
now  be  proved)  that  Matthew's  Gospel  was  the  first  composed,''  and 
Luke  did  not  write  his  Gospel  until  about  the  year  63  or  64." 
His  account  of  the  birth,  &c.  of  Jesus  Christ  is  totally  different 
from  that  of  Matthew ;  whose  Gospel,  being  designed  for  the 
Hebrew  Christians,  traces  the  pedigree  of  our  Saviour  in  the 
line  of  Joseph,  his  repntcd  or  legal  father,  to  show  the  accom- 
plishment of  the  prophecies  contained  in  t'ne  Old  Testament 
respecting  the  Messiah  ;  and  then  proceeds  to  notice  the  fact  that 
Christ  was  born  in  Bethlehem  agreeably  to  the  prediction  of 
Micah,  without  detailing  the  intermediate  circumstances,  which, 
in  fact,  were  not  necessary,  as  he  wrote  at  a  time  when  thoso 
events  were  fresh  in  the  recollections  of  his  countrymen  and 
contemporaries.  Lulie,  on  the  contrary,  writing  for  Gentiles 
who  were  ignorant  of  Jewish  affairs,  and  after  Matthew  com- 
posed his  Gospels,  begins  his  history  much  farther  back  than  the 
other  evangelists ;  is  particularly  careful  in  specifying  times  and 
places  ;  and  gives  the  genealogy  of  Christ  according  to  his  natu- 
ral descent  from  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  carries  it  up  to  Adam,  to 
show  that  he  was  that  very  seed  of  the  woman,  who  was  pro- 
mised for  the  redcmptioii  of  the  ivhole  world.  The  silence  of 
Luke,  therefore,  respecting  many  remarkable  events  related  by 
Matthew,  admits  of  an  easy  and  satisfactory  solution;  and  con- 
cludes nothing  against  the  authenticity  of  his  two  first  chapters. 

(2.)  The  appearance  of  a  star  in  the  east,tlirecting  the  Magi  to 
the  new-born  Messiah  in  Judaea  (Matt.  ii.  1 — 12),  it  has  been  said, 
has  mo're  the  air  of  an  Eastern  invention  than  of  a  real  history.  It 
is  true  this  has  been  said ;  but  so  far  is  it  from  being  an  oriental 
fiction,  that  it  is  referred  to  as  a  fact  by  Ignatius,8  who  had 
conversed  familiarl}^  with  several  of  the  apostles,  and  who  cer- 
tainly had  better  means  of  ascertaining  its  reality  than  any  writer 
of  the  eighteenth  or  nineteenth  century.  The  reality  of  this 
fact  was  also  admitted  by  that  acute  adversary  of  the  Christian 
faith,  Celsus,  who  flourished  towards  the  close  of  the  second 
ccntury.9 

t  See  thi.^  proved.  Sect.  III.  I IV.  p.  30.'j.  infra. 

e  See  pp.  2«j— 290.  ^iipra.  ■■  See  Sect.  IV.  5 IV.  p.  310.  ivfra.  _ 

a  Ignalii  Epist.  ad  Ephesius,  §  19.  apud  Cotclcrii  Patres  Apost.  torn.  ii. 
p.  51. 

9  See  the  passages  at  length,  in  Lardner,  8vo.  vol.  viii.  pp.  11.  59.  6"?. 
lio.  vol.  iv  pp.  115.  143.  !4(".    The  circumstance  of  the  coming  of  the  wwo 


302 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  VI.  Chap.  II 


(3.)  It  is  said  to  be  a  circuimtancp  scarcely  rrcJiMc,  that 
**  when  Herod  hud  heard  these  things"  (ilie  arrival  of  the  .\Taij;i, 
&c.),  "  he  was  troubled,  a:«l  all  Jentguiem  with  him."'  Now 
this  circumstance  is  so  far  from  being  incredible,  tliat  it  is  pre- 
cisely what  we  should  expect  from  the  well  known  sanpruinary 
and  jealous  character  of  Herod,  who  had  caused  the  death  of  his 
wife,  his  children,  and  the  greater  part  (if  his  family,  not  to  men- 
tion numliers  of  his  sul'jects  who  fell  victims  to  his  savajrc 
jealousy  :  so  that  the  Jews,  especially  the  Pharisees,  dreaded 
and  haled  him. 

(4.)  Much  stress  has  been  laid  on  the  supposed  difliculty  of 
reconcihng  the  penealoijies  of  Christ,  as  recorded  by  Matthew 
and  Luke ;  but  the  dillerent  designs  with  which  those  evange- 
lists composed  their  re8i)ectivo  Gospels  conn)leteIy  solve  this 
apparent  ditUcuIty  :  which  has  been  considered  and  explained  in 
the  first  volume  of  this  work. 

(5.)  The  slaughter  of  the  infants  at  Bethlehem  is  further  ob- 
jected against  the  authenticity  of  the  second  chapter  of  Matthew, 
because  that  event  is  not  mentioned  by  any  writer  but  by  the 
"  supposed  Matthew,  and  by  those  who  (]uole  from  him."  The 
credibility  of  this  event,  and  consequently  the  authenticity  of 
the  evangelist,  has  likewise  been  established  in  the  same  vo- 
lume. 

(6.)  It  is  alleged  that  there  are  in  these  two  chapters  several 
prophecies  cited  as  being  f'Ulillcd,  but  which  cannot  easily  be 
made  to  correspond  with  the  events  by  which  they  arc  declared 
to  be  accomplished.  A  little  attention,  however,  to  the  Hebrew 
modes  of  quoting  the  prophecies  will  show  the  fallacy  of  this 
objection.  For  Isa.  vii.  14.  cited  in  Malt.  i.  2:).,  and  Micah  v.  2. 
cited  in  Matt.  ii.  6.,  are  prophecies  cjuoted  as  being  literally  ac- 
comphshtd;  and  Jer.  xxxi.  15.  cited  in  Matt.  ii.  17.,  and  Hos. 
xi.  1.  cited  in  Matt.  ii.  15.,  are  passages  from  those  prophets 
applied  to  similar  facts,  introduced  with  the  usual  formulas  of 
Jewish  writers,  That  it  mi^lu  be  fulfilled,  and  Then  was  ful- 
filled. 

Lastly,  It  is  said  that  the  flight  of  Joscj>h  with  Mary  and 
(csus  into  Eg^pt  is  inexplicable ;  that  it  could  not  be  from  Beth- 
lehem, for  Luke  ex[>re8.«ly  says  that  they  continued  there  forty 
days  (ii.  22.),  at  the  expiration  of  which  he  was  carried  to  Jeru- 
.salem  to  be  presented  to  the  Lord,  and  afterwards  was  taken  to 
Nazareth  (.3'J.) :  and  that  the  llight  from  this  latter  jilace  was 
altogether  unnecessary,  because  the  slaughter  did  not  extend  so 
far.  A  little  attention,  however,  to  the  dilFerent  orders  pursued 
by  the  evangcli.'^ts  in  their  Gospels,  will  remove  this  seeming 
•objection ;  and  the  difTercnt  narratives  concerning  our  Lord's 
infancy,  given  us  by  Matthew  and  Luke,  will  appear  very  con- 
siotent,  if  we  only  suppose  that,  immediately  after  the  transac- 
tions in  the  temi)le,  Joseph  and  Mary  went  to  Nazareth,  as  Luke 
says,  but  only  to  settle  their  affairs  there,  and  soon  after  returned 
to  Bethlehem,  where  the  report  of  the  shepherds,  and  the  favour- 
able impressions  it  had  made  on  the  inhabitants  (sec  Luke  ii. 
I7,JS.),  would" suggest  many  cogent  motives  to  fix  their  abode. 
There  they  might  have  dwelt  many  months  liefore  the  arrival  of 
(he  wise  men  related  by  Matthew :  for  the  order  issued  by  Herod 
for  the  slaughter  of  the  children,  in  consequence  of  the  diligent 
inquiry  he  had  made  of  the  Magi  concerning  the  time  when  the 
star  appeared,  affords  us  ground  to  conclude,  that  a  considerable 
'ime  had  intervened  between  the  birth  of  the  child,  or  the  aj)- 
pcarancc  of  the  star  (supposing  them  to  coincide),  and  the  com- 
ing of  the  wise  men.  It  i<  also  worthy  of  o!)scrvation,  that  on 
Joseph's  return  from  Egypt,  his  first  intention  seems  to  have 
been  to  go  into  Judaia  (see  Matt.  ii.  22.);  but,  through  fear  of 
.\rchelaus,  and  by  divine  direction,  he  fixed  at  Nazareth,  the 
place  of  his  firnt  abode.  There  he  and  his  fimily  were  at  the 
time  of  the  only  eveiit  of  our  Lord's  childhood  which  Luke  has 
recorded,  and  therefore,  it  was  not  to  his  purjiosc  to  lake  notice 
of  any  removal  or  other  place  of  abode' 

To  sum  up  thr-  evidence  upon  this  question,  the  imporlancfi 
of  which  rinist  apr.lojrizc  for  tlin  lenirtli  f>f  the  prrcfoinfr  dis- 
cussion : — 'I'lic  cominenccmfnt  of  the  third  chaptt-r  of  .Saint 
Matthew's  Gospel  bhow.s  that  Roniethiiifr  had  preceded, 
aiialorrous  to  wnat  we  road  in  chap.  ii.  All  llie  ancient 
manuscripts  now  extant,  as  well  as  all  the  ancient  version.s 
{VKO  of  which  are,  of  apostolical  anti(|iiity),  contiiin  the  two 
lirst  chapters.     They  are  found  in  a  genuine  epistle  of  I;:;nu- 


nrr  iliMTiififiorl  in  Mr.  I'riiiiks'B 
!il1  ;  uikI  III'' <)l<ji'rli<>ii!(  of 
ici'uled  in  ilii!  Ilriiliih  <'rilic 


ni<"!  ^- '  > '  ippinRofthPin''    •  '     • 

}Ili1  r;.iii..n  nn  tin:  M 

I'rol  I  :i.:irlic,r  nrr  yali 

ami  Tliciiloeiral  ilnviow,  vol.  II  pp.  3Nr>,  It^U, 

'  I)r  Pric::tlcy'.H  Notes  on  the  !llbli«,  vol.  Ill  p.  31.  See  iiliio  I.ightfoot's, 
DtxldfjlKuM,  iiiiil  M.-irkniglii's  Harmonios  on  ftM,  ti.  nnil  Cellbrlcr't  Intro- 
duction au  Nuuv.  Tc«t.  pp.  33i-  CO/. 


tius,  the  only  aprstolical  father  who  had  occasion  tn  refer  to 
ih»m.  Justin  Martyr,  Hecresippi'-s,  and  Clement  of  Alexan- 
dria, who  all  tl.  uriblicd  in  ihe  second  ceiitury.  have  referred 
to  them:  as  also  have  Irenaus  and  all  the  fathers  who  ira- 
mediutely  succeeded  him,  and  w  hose  testimony  is  undisputed, 
('clsus,  Porjihyry,  and  Julian,  the  most  acute  and  inveterate 
enemies  of  the  (loi^pel,  in  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  cen- 
tiirles,  likewise  adiniiied  them.  "  Thus,  we  have  one  con- 
tinued and  unbrokeii  series  of  testimony,"  of  Christians  as 
well  as  of  persons  inimical  to  the  Christian  faith,  "  from  the 
days  of  the  apostles  to  the  present  time ;  and  in  opposition 
to  this  we  find  only  a  vague  report  of  the  state  of  a  Hebrew 
copy  of  Matthew's  Gospel,  said  to  be  received  amonirst  an 
obscure  and  unrecoijnised  description  of  Hebrew  Christians, 
who  are  admitted  even  by  the  very  writers  who  clr.iin  the 
support  of  their  authenticity,  to  nave  mutilated  tlie  copy 
which  they  possessed,  by  removing  the  genealogy. "2 

VII.  Tfie  voice  of  antiquity  accords  with  Irenanis,  Origen, 
and  Eusebius'  in  testifying  that  Matthew  wrote  his  Gospel 
in  Judaja  for  the  Jewish  nation,  while  the  church  consisted 
wholly  of  the  circumcision,  that  is,  of  Jewish  and  Samari- 
tan believers,  but  principally  Jewish  ;  and  that  he  wrote  it 
primarily  for  their  use,  with  a  view  to  confirm  those  who 
believed,  and  to  convert  those  who  believed  not,  we  have, 
besides  historical  facts,  very  strong  presumptions  from  tlic 
book  itself.  Every  circumstance  is  carefully  pointed  oiit, 
which  might  conciliate  the  faith  of  that  nation ;  and  every 
unnecessary  expression  is  avoided,  that  might  in  any  way 
tend  to  obstruct  it.  To  illustrate  this  remam  by  a  few  par- 
ticulars : — There  was  no  sentiment  relating  to  tiie  Messiah, 
with  which  the  Jews  were  more  strongly  possessed,  than 
that  he  must  be  of  the  race  of  Abraham,  and  of  the  fitmily  of 
David.  Matthew,  therefore,  with  great  propriety,  begins  his 
narrative  with  the  genealogy  of  Jesus ;  which,  agreeably  to 
the  Jewish  custom,  he  gives  according  to  his  legal  descent 
hy  Joseph  his  supposed  father,  deducing  it  from  Ahrahatu 
through  David  to  show  his  title  to  the  kingdom  of  Israel. 

That  he  should  be  born  at  IJethlehem  in  Judaea  was 
another  circumstance  in  which  the  learned  among  the  Jews 
were  universally  agreed  ;  accordingly,  this  historian  has  ales 
taken  the  first  opportunity  to  mention  his  birth  in  that  town, 
together  with  some  very  memorable  circumstances  that 
attended  it.  Those  passages  in  the  prophets,  or  other  sacre.d 
books,  which  cither  foretell  any  thing  that  should  happen  to 
the  Messiah,  or  admit  of  an  allusive  application  to  nim.  Or 
were  in  that  age  generally  understood  to  be  applicable  to 
events  which  respect  the  ^Messiah,  are  never  passed  over  in 
silence  by  this  evangelist.  To  the  Jews  who  were  convinced 
of  the  inspiration  of  their  sacred  writings,  the  fulfillment  of 
prophecy  was  always  strong  evidence:  accordingly,  neither 
of  the  evangelists  has  been  more  careful  than  Matihew  Ihal 
no  evidence  of  this  kind  should  be  overlooked. ■• 

Further,  this  evangelist  verj'  frequently  refers  to  Jew  ish 
customs,  and  relates  most  of  our  Saviour's  d^courses  against 
the  errors  and  superstitions  of  the  Jews,  whose  most  con- 
siderable objections  he  answers.  How  admirably  his  G'os- 
pel  was  adapted  to  that  people,  will  appear  from  the  follow- 
ing considerations:  "The  Jews  were  much  disposed  to  con- 
sider the  letter  of  the  law  as  the  complete  rule  and  measure 
of  moral  duty  ;  to  place  religion  in  the  observance  of  rites 
and  ceremonies,  or  in  a  strict  adherence  to  some  favourite 
precepts,  w  ritlen  or  traditionary  ;  to  ascribe  to  themselves 
sufficient  power  of  doing  the  divine  will  without  the  divine 
assistance ;  and,  vain  of  a  civil  or  legal  righteousness,  to 
contemn  all  others,  and  esteem  themselves  so  just  that  they 
needed  no  repentance,  nor  any  expiation  but  what  the  law 
provided.  They  rested  in  the  covenant  of  circumcision  and 
their  descent  from  Abraham  as  a  sure  litle  to  salvation,  what- 
ever lives  they  led  ;  and  though  they  looked  for  a  Messiah, 
yet  with  so  little  idea  of  an  atdntinenl  for  sin  to  be  made  by 
his  death,  that  the  cross  pnived  the  great  Htumbling-block  to 
tlirun.  'J'hey  expected  him  to  appear  w ith  outward  splen- 
dour, as  the  dispenser  of  temporal  felicity  :  the  chief  bless- 
ings of  which  were  to  redound  to  their  own  nation  in  an 
earthly  ('anaan,  and  in  concjueat  and  dominion  over  the  rest 
of  mankind.  A  tincture  of  these  drlnsivc  notions,  which 
they  had  imbibed  by  (>diication  and  the  doctrine  of  their 
elders,  would  be  apt  to  remain  with  loo  many,  even  afVer 
their  admission  into  the  church  of  C'lirist.     How  necessary 

»  Arctibp.  Magne  on  the  Atonement,  vol.  II.  p.  417. 

»  Iri-nnuHncIv,  IfriT.  lib.  iii.  c.  1.  EuscbiUB,  EccI  Hist  lib.  v.  c.  8.  On 
gchifi  K..f  iiuxit.  in  Mnti   apiicl  Buseb.  lib.  vl.  c.  20. 

«  Dr.  ranipb.irK  Ti»ntiIntion  of  the  Uo«|>eU,  vol.  ii  p  19  Dr.  Town- 
ton'H  Work*,  toL  i  pp.  121-137. 


s>!CT.  n.] 


ON  THE  GOSPEL  BY  SAINT  MATTHEW. 


ihen  was  it,  xm,.  ;ust  principles  concerning  the  way  of  life 
and  happiness,  and  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  Gospel, 
should  be  infused  into  the  breasts  of  these  sons  of  Sion,  that 
they  might  be  able  to  work  out  their  own  salvation,  and  pro- 
mote that  of  others ;  since  they  were  to  be  the  sail  of  the 
earth,  and  the  light  of  the  world;  the  first  preachers  of  right- 
eousness to  the  nations,  and  the  instruments  of  calling  man- 
l:inJ  to  the  knowledge  of  the  truth. 

"  Matthew,  therefore,  has  chosen,  out  of  the  materials  be- 
fore him,  such  parts  of  our  blessed  Saviour's  history  and 
discourses  as  were  best  suited  to  the  purpose  of  awakening 
them  to  a  sense  of  their  sins,  of  abating  their  self-conceit 
and  overweening  hopes,  of  rectifying  their  errors,  correcting 
their  prejudices,  and  exalting  and  purifying  their  minds. 
After  a  sliort  account,  more  particularly  requisite  in  the  first 
writer  of  a  Gospel,  of  the  genealogy  and  miraculous  birth 
of  Christ,  and  a  few  circumstances  relating  to  his  infancy, 
he  proceeds  to  describe  his  forerunner  John  the  Baptist,  who 
preached  the  necessity  of  repentance  to  the  race  of  Abraham 
and  children  of  the  circumcision ;  and  by  his  testimony  pre- 
pares us  to  expect  one  mightier  than  he :  miglitier  as  a 
prophet  in  deed  and  in  word,  and  above  the  sphere  of  a 
prophet,  mighty  to  sanctify  by  his  spirit,  to  pardon,  reward, 
and  punish  by  his  sovereignty.  Then  the  spiritual  nature 
of  his  kingdom,  the  pure  and  perfect  laws  by  which  it  is 
administered,  and  the  necessity  of  vital  and  universal  obedi- 
ence to  them,  are  set  before  us  in  various  discourses,  be- 
ginning with  the  sermon  on  the  mount,  to  which  Saint  Mat- 
thew hastens,  as  with  a  rapid  pace,  to  lead  his  readers.  And 
that  the  holy  light  shining  on  the  mind  by  the  word  and  life 
of  Christ,  and  quickening  the  heart  by  his  spirit,  might  be 
seconded  in  his  operations  by  the  powers  of  hope  and  fear : 
the  tweiit\'-fifth  chapter  of  this  Gospel,  which  finishes  the 
legislation  of  Christ,  exhibits  him  enforcing  his  precepts, 
and  adding  a  sanction  to  his  laws,  by  that  noble  and  awful 
rlescription  of  his  future  appearance  in  glory,  and  the  gather- 
ing of  all  nations  before  him  to  judgment.  Saint  Matthew, 
then,  passing  to  the  history  of  the  Passion,  shows  them  that 
the  new  covenant,  foretold  by  the  prophets,  was  a  covenant  of 
spiritual  not  temporal  blessings,  established  in  the  sufferings 
and  death  of  Christ,  wlwse  blood  was  shed  fur  many,  for  the 
REMISSION  OF  SINS  (Matt.  xxvi.  28.)  ;  which  it  was  not  pos- 
sible that  the  blood  of  bulls  and  goats  should  take  away.  To 
purge  the  conscience  from  the  pollution  of  dead  and  sinful 
works  required  the  blood  of  Him,  who  through  the  eternal 
Spirit  offered  himself  without  spot  to  God.  W  ith  the  instruc- 
tions of  Christ  are  intermixed  many  hints,  that  the  kingdom  of 
God  would  not  be  confined  to  the  Jews,  but,  while  numbers 
of  them  were  excluded  through -iinbelief,  would  be  increased 
by  subjects  of  other  nations.  And  thus  the  devout  Israelite 
was  taught,  in  submission  to  the  will  and  ordinance  of  Hea- 
ven, to  embrace  the  believing  Samaritan  as  a  brother,  and  to 
welcome  the  admission  of  the  Gentiles  into  the  church, 
which  was  soon  after  to  commence  with  the  calling  of  Cor- 
nelius. And  as  they  suffered  persecution  from  their  own 
nation,  and  were  to  expect  it  elsewhere  in  following  Christ, 
all  that  can  fortify  the  mind  with  neglect  of  earthly  good, 
and  contempt  of  worldly  danger,  when  tiiey  come  in  compe- 
tition with  our  duty,  is  strongly  inculcated."' 

Vni.  The  Gospel  of  Matthew,  which  comprises  twenty- 
eight  chapters  and  1071  verses,  consists  of  four  parts,  viz. 
Part  I.  treats  on  the  Infancy  of  Jesus  Christ. 

Sect.  1.  The  genealogy  of  Christ,  (i.  1 — 17.) 
Sect.  2.  The  birth  of  Christ,  (i.  18—25.) 
Sect.  3.  The  adoration  of  the   Magi,  and  slaughter  of  the 
infants  at  Bethlehem  and  in  its  vicinity,  (ii.) 
Part  II.  records  the  Discourses  and  .Mions  of  John  the  Bap- 
tist, preparatory  to  our  Saviour^s  commencing  his  Public 
Ministry,  (iii.  iv.  1 — 11.) 

Sect.  1.  The  preaching  of  John  the  Baptist,  and  the  baptism 

of  Jesus  Christ  by  him.  (iii.) 
Sect.  2.  The   temptation  of  Christ  in   the  wilderness,   (iv. 

1-11.) 

Part  III.  relates  the  Discourses  and  Actions  of  Christ  in  Ga- 
lilee, by  which  he  demonstrated  that  he  was  the 
12.— XX.  16.) 

Sect.  1.  Christ  goes  into  Galilee,  calls  Peter,  Andrew,  James, 
and  John,   and   performs   various   miraculous   cures,    (iv. 
12—25.) 
Sect.  2.  The  sermon  on  the  mount,  (v.  vi.  vii.)  showing, 

»  Dr.  Townson'8  Works,  vol.  i.  pp.  5—7. 


he  Messiah,  (iv. 


303 

-12),  and  a.e  duty  of  Christians  to  be 


§  i.  Who  only  are  truly  happy  (v.  1- 
e.xenipUry.  (13 — 10.) 

S  ii.  The  design  of  Christ's  coininp,  viz.  to  raiiiy  the  divine,  law  (17— 20.), 
wtiicli  had  hceii  much  impaired  hy  tlic  traditions  of  llic  Pharisees.— t. 
I.N  RESPECT  OF  ITS  E.KTENT :— thi.s  13  cxemjilififid  in  wliat  concerns,  1. 
ManterCZX—'^.);  2.  Adulltry  C^—^.);  3.  X)/t-orce  (31,  32.)  ;  4.  Oaths 
(*3— 37);  5.  Rtlulialion  (33^2.);  0.  T/ie  lure  of  our  7itiglihour  (43— 
48.)— It.  IN  KESPECT  OF  .motive;  where  tiio  end  is  aj  planso,  the  virtue 
is  di'slroyed.  Thi.s  is  exemplified,  1.  In  idnmi^iving  (vi.  1—4);  2.  In 
prayer  (o — 15.);  3.  Infastiug.  (l(i — 13.) 

§  iii.  IleavL-nlyiuindcduess  enlurced  by  variou.s  considerations,  (vi.  19 
—34.) 

§  iv.  Cautions  against  censoriousncssin  judging  of  others  (vii.  ] — 5.) ;  ad- 
monition to  di.scretion  in  dispensing  religious  benofiis  (6.) ;  to  assiduity 
in  pursuing  spiri'ual  f;ood  (7—1!.):  to  humanity  and  iquily  in  our  be- 
haviour to  all  (12.);  and  to  \vi<hsland  ail  sinful  atTcclions  (13,  14); 
warnings  against  false  teachers,  who  are  commonly  known  by  their 
actions  (15 — 20.) ;  the  wisdom  of  adding  practice  to  knowledge,  and  the 
insignificancy  of  the  latter  without  the  former.  (21 — 29.) 

Si;cT.  3.  A  narrative  of  several  miracles,  performed  by  Christ, 
and  of  the  call  of  Matthew,   (viii.  i.x.) 

Sect.  4.  Christ's  charge  to  his  twelve  apostles,  whom  he  sent 
forth  to  preach  to  tlie  Jews.   (x.  xi.  1.) 

Sect.  5.  relates  the  manner  in  which  the  discourses  and  ac- 
tions of  Jesus  Christ  were  received  by  various  descriptions 
of  men,  and  the  effect  produced  by  his  discourses  and  mira- 
cles,  (xi.  2. — xvi.  1 — 12.) 

Sect.  6.  contains  the  discourses  and  actions  of  Christ,  imme- 
diately concerning  his  disciples,  (xvi.  13. — xx.  1 — 16.) 

Part  IV.  contains  the  Transactions  relative  to  the  Passion  and 
Resurrection  of  Christ,  (xx.  17. — xxviii.) 

Sect.  1.  The  discourses  and  miracle  of  Christ  in  his  way  to 

Jerusalem,   (xx.  17 — 34.) 
Sect.  2.  The  transactions  at  Jerusalem  until  his  passion. 

§  i.   On  Palm  Sunday  (as  we  now  call  it),  or  the  fist  day  of  Passion 

week,  Christ  makes  his  triumphal  entry  into  Jerusalem,  where   he 

expels  the  money-changers,  and  other  traders  out  of  the  temple,  (xxi 

1—17.) 

§  ii.  On  Monday,  or  the  second  Jay  of  Passion  week. — The  barren  fig 

tree  withered,  (x.xi.  19— 22.) 
§  iii.   On  Tiiesday,  or  the  third  day  of  Passion-week, 
(o)  In  the  Teinple. — Tiie  chief  priests  and  elders  confuted,  1.  By  a 
question  concerning  John'.s  baptism,  (.v.xi.  23— 27.)— 2.  IJy  the  para- 
bles of  the  two  sons  (28 — -32.),  and  of  the  labourers  of  ttie  vineyard 
(33-44.);  for  which  they  seek  to  lay  hands  on  liim.  (45,  46.)  "The 
parable  of  the  marrfagc-feast.  (jtiii.  1—14.)    Christ  confutes  the 
Pharisees  and  Sadducees  bv  showing,  I.  The  lawfulness  of  paying 
tribute,  (.vxii.  15— 22.)— 2.    "Proving  the   resurrection.  (23— 33.)— 3. 
The  great  commandment  (31 — 40.),  and  silences  the  Fliarisees  (41 — 
46.),  against  whom  he  denounces  eight  \voes  for  their  hypocriey 
(.vxiii.  1 — 36.);  his  larcentalion  over  Jeinisalem.  (37 — 39.) 
(?>)  O'lt  of  thi  Temple.— Ghtisl's  prophetic  discourse  concerning  the 
dcatruution  of  Jerusalem  and  liie  end  of  the  world  (.vxiv.);  the  pa- 
rables of  the  ten  virgins  and  of  the  talcnl.?,  and  the  last  judgment, 

(XXV.) 

§  iv.  On  Wedviiday,  or  {\\e  fourth  day  of  Passion-week,  Christ  fore- 
warns his  disciples  of  his  approaching  crucifixion :  the  chief  priests 
consult  to  apprehend  Uitn.  (3—5.)   A  womau  anoints  Christ  at  Bethany, 
(xxvi.  6 — 13.) 
§  v.  On  Thursday,  or  the  fifth  day  of  Passion-week.— .Tudas  covenants 

to  betray  him  (14 — Iti.);  the  passovcr  prepared.  (17 — 19.)' 
§  vi.   On  the  Passover  day,  that  is,  from  Thursday  evening  to  Friday 
evening  of  Passior.-iceck. 

(o)  In  the  evening  Christ  eats  the  passovcr  (xxvi.  20 — 25.),  and  insti- 
tutes the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  (26 — 29.)  • 
(6)  Tatcards  night  .fesus,  1.  Foretells  the  cowardice  of  the  apostles, 
(xxvi.  33— 35.)— 2.  Is  in  an  agony.  (30 — 46.) — 3.  Is  apprehended,  re- 
proves Peter  and  the  multitude,  and  is  forsaken  by  all.  (47—56.) 
(c)  During  thenight,  1.  Christ  is  led  to  Caiaphas,  falsely  accused,  con- 
demned, and  derided.  (57 — 68.) — 2.  Peter's  denial  of  Christ  and  re-  , 
pentance.  (69^75.) 
('i)  On  Friday  morning,  1.  Jesus  being  delivered  to  Pilate,  Judas 
commits  suicide,  (.xxvii.  1 — 10.)— 2.  Transactions  before  Pilate.  (11 
—26.)— 3.  Christ  is  mocked  and  led  forth.  (27—32.) 
(e)  Transactions  of  the  third  hour. — The  vinecar  and  gall;  the  cruci- 
fixion ;  Christ's  garments  divided;  the  inscription  on  the  cross  ;  the 
two  robbers;  blasphemies  of  the  Jews,  (x.xvii.  33 — 44.) 
(/)  From  the  sixth  to  the  ninth  hour.— The  darkness  over  the  land ; 
Chri.st's  last  agony  and  death  ;  its  concomitant  events,  (xxvii.  45 — 56.) 
ig)  Between  the  ninth  hovr  and  sunset,  Christ  is  interred  by  Joseph 
of  Arimathea.  (x.xvii.  57—61.) 

Sect.  3.  The  transactions  on  the  Sabbath  of  the  Passover- 
week  (that  is,  from  sunset  on  Friday  to  siniset  on  Satvr- 
day  in  Passion-week.') — The  sepulchre  of  Christ  secured 
(xxvii.  62 — 66.) 

Sect.  4.  Transactions  after  Christ's  resurrection,  chiefly  on 
Easter-day. 

§  i.  Chiist's  resurrection  testified,  first,  to  the  women  by  an  angel  (xxviii. 

1— S),  and  afterwards  by  Christ  himself  (9,  10  ) 
§  ii.  The   resurrection  denied  by  his  adversaries  (xxvii.  11—15.),  bat 

proved  to  the  apostles.  (10 — 20.) 

IX.  Except  John,  the  evangelist  Matthew  enjoyed  the  best 
opportunity  for  writing  a  regular  and  connected  narrative  of 
the  life  of  Christ,  according  to  the  order  of  time  and  the  exact 
series  of  his  transactions.  His  style  is  every  where  plain 
and  perspicuffts,  and  he  is  eminently  disUnguishcd  for  the 
clearness  and  particularity  witli  which  he  lias  related  many 
of  our  Saviour^s  discourses  and  moral  instructions.     "  f^f 


Of 


304 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  VI.  CHif.  H 


these,  his  scrmcn  en  the  mount,  his  chartre  to  the  apostles, 
his  ilhistnitions  of  the  list. ire  of  his  kiagiloin,  and  his  pro- 
phecy on  Mouiit  Olivet,  are  examples.  He  has  also  won- 
(ierfiiily  uniied  simplicity  and  energy  in  rohuinj  tlie  replies 
of  his  master  to  the  cavils  of  his  adversaries."'  He  is  the 
only  evangi'list  Avho  has  given  us  an  account  of  our  Lord's 
(:escri|)iion  of  the  process  of  the  general  judgment;  and  his 
rjlalion  of  that  momentous  event  is  av.'fully  impressive. 


SECTION  III. 


ON  THE  GOSPEL  BY  SAINT  MARK. 

I.  Title. — 11.  Author. — III.  Genuineness  and  authenticity  of 
this  Gospel. — W.  Probable  date. — V.  Occasion  anil  scope. 
VI.  In  ivhiU  language -ivyitten. — VII.  Synopsis  of  its  con- 
tents.— Vlir.  Examination  of  the  question,  ivhether  ^lark- 
transcribed  or  abridged  the  Gospel  of  Matthew. — IX.  Ob- 
servations on  his  style. 

I.  TiiK  TiTLF  of  tlie  Gospel  by  Saint  INIark  is,  in  the  Vati- 
(r.in  manuscript,  kj-t-j.  KUpx.:v,  according  to  Alar/,-.  In  the  Alex- 
laulrian  M.S.,  the  Codex  liczx,  the  Codex  Regius,  (52  (for- 
merly 2So2,  Stephani  «),  and  some  otiu^r  editions,  it  i.s  To 
»xT;t  Mapj(»y  \iuxy)i^.i'.Y,  the  Gospel  accordlnir  fo  Mark;  and  in 
some  manuscripts  and  editions,  To  K-nx  M-jficcv  ayicv  Ev3.-^-)i- 
>.i;r,  the  JIoli/  Gospel  accord'.ns:  to  Mark,  or  (as  in  the  aulhor- 
i/.ed  Enorlish  version),  the  Gospel  nccvrdini^  to  Saint  Murk.- 
i\  the  Syriac  version,  in  Bishop  Walton's  Polyglott,  it  is 
f  nlitled  "The  Gospel  of  the  Evangelist  Mark  ;'*  in  the  Ara- 
bic version,  "The  Gospel  of  St.  Mark  the  Apostle,  which  he 
wrote  in  the  Roman  [tongue]  by  the  inspiration  of  the  Spirit 
of  Holiness;"  and  in  the  Persian  version,  "The  beginning 
c.f  the  Gospt-l  of  Murk,  which  w  as  writlen  at  Rome,  in  the 
Latin  tnng»ic." 

II.  This  cvong  .lii^l  was  not  an  apostle,  or  companion  of 
.Ivsus  Chrir'.  du?i..J  h'.s  ministry,  though  Epiphanius  and 
Leveral  oth<..f  U3'.iit;;;i  affirm  that  lie  was  one  of  the  seventy  dis- 
'•iflc6.  A:!  \\:A  we  learn  from  the  New  Testament  concern- 
i  ig  iijm  is,  thai  lie  was  "  sister's  son  to  Barnabas"  ((^ol.  iv. 
':'"),  and  Use  son  of  Mary,  a  pious  woman  of  Jerusalem,  at 
■vhoso  hous;  the  apostles  and  first  Christians  often  as- 
k'j;;jbltd.  (Acts  xii.  12.)  His  Hebrew  name  was  .John,  and 
-'ilic.haeiis  thinks,  llialhe  adopted  the  surname  of  Mark  when 
he  ]cl't  Judaja  to  ])rcach  the  Gospel  in  foreign  countries, — a 
practice  not  unusual  among  the  Jews  of  that  age,  who  fre- 
(iucutly  assumed  a  name  more  familiar  to  the  nations  which 
ihey  visited  than  by  tliat  which  they  hud  been  distinguished 
in  their  own  country.  From  Peters  styling  him  Ids  son 
(I  Pet.  V.  13.),  this  evangelist  is  supposed  to  have  been  con- 
verted by  Saint  Peter;  and  on  his  deliverance  (a.  d.  14,  re- 
c  »r(*ed  In  Acts  xii.  12.),  Mark  went  from  Jerusalem  with 
P.iul  and  Barnabas,  and  soon  after  accompanied  them  to 
other  countries  as  their  minister  (Acts  xiii.  5.)  ;  but  declining 
U>  attend  them  through  their  whole  progress,  he  returned  to 
Jerusalem,  and  kepi  up  an  intercourse  with  Peter  and  the 
ether  apostles.  Afterwards,  however,  when  Paul  and  Bar- 
nabas settled  at  Antioch  on  the  termination  of  their  journey, 
we  find  Mark  witli  them,  and  disposed  to  accompany  them 
in  their  future  journeys.  At  this  time  he  went  with  Barna- 
bas to  Cyprus  (Acts  xv.  37 — 39.)  ;  and  subsequently  accom- 
panied Timothy  to  Rome,  at  the  express  desire  of  Saint  Paul 
(2  Tim.  iv.  11.),  during  his  confinement  in  tiiat  city,  whence 
mark  sent  his  salutations  to  Philemon  (21.),  and  to  tlie 
church  at  Coiosse.  (Col.  iv.  10.)  From  Rome  he  probably 
went  into  Asia,  wiiere  he  found  Saint  Peter,  with  whom  he 
returned  to  that  city,  in  which  he  is  bupposed  to  iiave  written 
»nd  published  his  Gospel.  Such  are  the  outlines  of  this 
evangelist's  history,  as  furnished  to  us  by  the  New  Tesla- 
racnt.  From  Eusebius,  Epiphanius,  and  .lerome,=  we  learn 
t'lat  Mark,  after  he  had  written  his  (Jospel,  went  to  Egypt ; 
ft.nd,  havintr  jilanted  a  church  at  Alexandria,  Jeronii!  states 
that  he  diell  and  was  buried  there  in  tlic  eiglitli  year  of  the 
reign  of  Nero.  Baronius,  (Javc,  Wetslein,  and  otner  writers, 
affinn  tliat  Saint  Mark  suffered  martyrdom;  but  this  fact 

« 

<  Dr.  Campbell  on  the  Oosnels,  vol.  li.  p.  2i».  Dr.  Harwood's  Introd.  to 
tfcc  NfwTpst.  vol  ).  n.  Utj.  liiiihop  CMcavcr  Iibh  an  pxccll«-nt  Didro\ir8e 
on  Ilic  Siylp  of  Saint  Slatthc w'a  Go»pcl  in  hU  Sermons  on  Sclccl  Subjocta, 
pp.  ISD-aK.  ^ 

»  Oriosbach,  Nov.  Tent.  torn.  i.  on  Mark  i.  I. 

*  HpR  tlie  pasaa^Rs  of  these  writers  in  Dr.  Lardncr'a  Works,  8vo.  vol.  vi. 
pp.  82—84.  ;  llo.  vol,  iii.  pp.  176,  177. 


is  not  mentioned  by  Eusebius  or  any  other  ancient  writer 

and   is  contradicted  by  Jerome,  whose  expressions  seem  V- 
imply  that  he  died  a  natural  death. 

111.  That  Mark  was  the  author  of  the  Gospel  which  bears 
his  name,  is  proved  by  tl.e  unanimous  testimony  of  ancit  nl 
Christians,  particularly  Papias,''  l)y  seveial  ancient  writers 
of  the  first  century  consulted  by  Eusebius,'  by  Justin  Mar- 
tyr,o  Tatian,"  Irenaeus,«  Clement  of  Alexandria.'-*  Tertullian,i« 
Ammonius,"  Origen,i2  and  by  all  the  fathers  of  the  third  and 
following  centuries.'*  Tliough  not  cited  by  name,  this  Gospel 
appears  To  have  been  alluded  to  by  Clenient  of  Rome  in  the 
first  century  ;"  but  the  tcstiuuny  of  antiquity  is  not  equally 
uniform  concerning  the  order  in  which  it  should  be  placed. 
Clement  of  Alexandria  affirms  that  the  Gospels  containing  - 
the  genealogies  were  first  written  :  according  to  this  account,  1 
Mark  wrote  after  Luke ;  but  Papias,  on  the  information  of 
John  the  Presbyter,  a  disciple  ot  Jesus,  and  a  companion  of 
the  apostles,  expressly  states  that  it  was  the  second  in  order, 
and  with  him  agree  Ircmeus  and  other  writers. 

Satisfactory  as  is  the  testimony,  to  the  genuineness  and 
authenticity  of  the  Gospel  of  Mark,  generally,  some  critics 
have  thought  that  the  las!  twelve  verses  of  the  sixteenth  chap- 
ter were  not  written  by  the  evangelist.'''  The  fcdlowing  is  a 
concise  statemtut  of  the  qi;(;stion,  Gn  gory,  bi.shop  of  Nyssa. 
in  Cappadocia,  lias  said  la  his  second  disccurse  on  the  resur- 
rection, tliat  this  Gospel  terminates  in  ihe  more  correct  copies 
with  the  words f^o.fiit/vT;  ■^■jt.f/r  they  were  afraid:  and  Jerorat 
has  observed,''^  that  few  cf  the  Greek  MSS.  which  he  had 
seen,  contained  these  verses.  But  the  very  concise  affirma- 
tion of  Jerome  is  greatly  reslnctcd  by  what  he  had  himself 
said  of  a  various  reading  in  ihcfuurktnlh  verse,  viz.  that  il 
is  found  in  quibuuiam  cxcmplarilus,  ct  niaxinie  Grcccis  ccdi- 
cibu.s.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that,  in  the  former  passage, 
he  has  exaggerated, — which  is  no  unusual  occurrence  with 
this  writer.  With  regard  to  the  assertion  of  Gregory,  at  this 
distance  of  time  it  is  difiicull,  if  not  impossible,  to  deiermine 
what  ho  meant  by  the  mont  exact  fnainiscripts.  Perhaps  lie 
intended  MSS.  more  corre(;tly  writlen,  but  this  merit  alone 
would  add  nothing  to  their  authority  ;  nor  can  we  now  ascer- 
tain the  recension  to  which  they  belonged.  We  must,  then- 
fore,  examine  the  evidences  which  actually  exist.  The  verses 
in  question  are  certainly  wantinq;  in  the  Vatican.manus-cripts  ; 
and  in  Nos.  137.  and  138.  of  Griesbach's  notation  they  arc 
marked  with  an  asteii.sk  ;  they  are  also  wanting  in  ihecanon;< 
of  Eusebius  :  but,  on  the  other  hand,  their  authenticity  in 
attested  by  authorities  of  tlie  greatest  importance.  These 
verses  are  extant  in  the  Codex  Alexandrinus  ;■  the  most  con- 
siderable portion  of  the  disputed  passage  (that  is,  the  seven 
first  verses)  is  in  the  CodcX  Be/aj,  a  prima  nianu,  but  the 
remainder  has  been  add(>d  by  a  later  hand,  and  they  are  ex- 
tant in  the  Greek  commentaries  of  Theophylact.  The  whole 
twelve  verses  are  likewise  found  in  the  Peschito  (or  Old 
Syriac)  and  Arabic  versions,  and  in  those  MSS.  of  the  Vul- 
gate Latin  Version,  which  are  not  mutilated  at  the  end 
of  the  second  (iospel  ;  and  they  are  cited  by  Augustine, 
Ambrose,  and  Leo  bishop  of  Rcme  (surnamed  the  Great), 
who  followed  this  version.  But  what  is  of  most  iinnortanc* 
is,  that  the  manner  in  which  so  ancient  a  writer  as  Irenarus, 
in  the  second  century,  refers  to  liiis  (iospel,  renders  it  highly 
probable  that  the  whole  passage  Avas  read  in  all  the  copies 
Known  to  him.  His  woras  are  these  : — In  five  uulem  Evan- 
gclii,  ait  Marcus:  IJl  (juidtm  Dnininus  Jesus,  postijiKna  locutus 
e^t  eis,  rcccptw  est  in  co.lo,  it  sedct  ad  di.iierain  iJri.  ' 

The  Yer.se  here  (pioted  is  the  ninetecntli,  and  llic  cliapter 
contains  only  twenty  verses.  Hippolytun,  wlio  wrote  in  the 
early  part  ot  tlie  third  century,  also  bears  testimony  in  favour 
of  the  disputed  fracrinent,  in  the  beginning  of  this  book  Tifft 
Xupta-iJL^tTav.  It  is  further  worthy  of  notice,  that  there  is  not  a 
single  manuscrijit  containing  liiis  verse,  w  hieh  has  not  also 

«  \.  D.  110.  Lardncr,  8vn.  vol.  ii.  pp.  109.  112.  j  4!o.  vol.  i.  pp.  338,  339. 

*  Keel.  Hi.st.  lib.  iii.  c.  3J. 

«  A.  n.  1 10.  Lanlncr,  8v«.  vol.  ii.  p.  120. ;  4to.  vol.  I.  p.  Mi. 

I  A.  I).  172.  Ibid.  Kvo.  vol.  ii.  p.  HK. ;   Ito.  vol.  i.  p.  354. 

•  A.  n.  17f^.  lliiil.  Svo.  vol.  il.  p|>.  \'<^,  l.'.O. ;  llo.  vol.  i.  pp-  30.';,  3C6. 
»  A.  D.  VM.  Il)id.  >*vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  '-Ml,  212.  ;  4lo.  vol.  i.  p.  39.">. 

>"  A.  D.  'JH).    Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  pii.  2ri7,  2M.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  j).  i'A). 

"  A.  P.  220.     Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  Ill,  cUfq.  ;  Ho.  vol.  i.  pii.  KKJ,  et  «<?. 

i»  A.  I).  230.     Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  pp  'Wi,  107.  ;  4lo.  vol.  i   p.  'S\-2. 

<•  S(-r  Ibc  later  lesliinonics  in  I..irdnr,i-,  Svo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  W— 90. ;  4to.  vol. 
Iii.  pp  17'.i.  ISO. 

«•  Lardiier,  Hvo.  vol.  ii.  p.  31. ;  4lo.  vol.  i.  p.  294. 

»»  Michaelis  (Inlrod.  rluip.  iii.  scrt.  3  vol.  I.  i>p.  W-97.1  hns  broucht  for 
ward  Boiiif  Rtronj  objpctioiiH  lo  Ibe  raiumical  atilliority  of  the  (>'oHpL'l  ol 
Marl<.  An  bin  obiorlionti  apply  rciually  lo  Iho  tiipspel  of  Lukn,  llic  rrader 
is  rofrrrol  lo  pp.  ;«)^.  ami.  infra  ;  wh>re  lliosc  objecliooa  arc  considered 
an'l  (il  18  bcippd)  nalitifarlorily  refuted. 

i«  UtiKst.  ad  Hcdib  tiuacsi.  3.  "  AJv.  Iljor.  lib.  iii.  c  10.  (al.  11.) 


Sect.  III.] 


ON  THE  GOSPEL  BY  SAINT  MARK. 


305 


.he  whole  passage  from  the  eighth  to  the  end :  nor  is  there 
a  single  manuscript,  in  which  this  verse  is  wanting,  that 
does  not  also  want  the  whole.  No  authority  of  equal  anti- 
quity has  yet  been  produced  on  the  other  side.  It  has  been 
conjectured  that  the  difficulty  of  reconciling  Mark's  account 
of  our  Lord's  appearances,  after  his  resurrection,  with  those 
of  the  other  evangelists,  has  emboldened  some  transcribers 
to  omit  them.  The  plausibility  of  this  conjecture  renders  it 
highly  probable  :  to  which  we  may  subjoin,  that  the  abrupt- 
ness of  the  conclusion  of  this  history,  without  the  words  in 
fluestion,  and  the  want  of  any  thing  like  a  reason  for  adding 
them  if  they  had  not  been  there  originally,  afford  a  strong 
collateral  proof  of  their  authenticity.  Transcribers,  Dr. 
Campbell  well  remarks,  presume  to  add  and  alter  in  order  to 
remove  contradictions,  but  not  in  order  to  make  them.  The 
conclusion,  therefore,  is,  that  the  disputed  fragment  is  an 
integral  part  of  the  Gospel  of  Mark,  and  consequently  is 
genuine.' 

IV.  Although  the  genuineness  and  authenticity  of  Mark's 
Gospel  are  thus  satisfactorily  ascertained,  considerable  un- 

;  certainty  prevails  as  to  the  time  when  it  was  composed.  It 
'  is  allowed  by  all  the  ancient  authors  that  Mark  wrote  it  at 
Rome ;  and  many  of  them  assert  that  he  was  no  more  than 
an  amanuensis  or  interpreter  to  Peter,  who  dictated  this  Gos- 
pel to  him,  though  others  affirm  that  he  wrote  it  after  Peter's 
death.  Hence  a  variety  of  dates  has  been  assigned  between 
the  years  56  and  65  ;  so  that  it  becomes  difficult  to  determine 
the  precise  year  when  it  was  w^ritten.  But  as  it  is  evident 
from  the  evangelist's  own  narrative  (Mark  xvi.  20.),  that  he 
did  not  write  until  after  the  apostles  had  dispersed  themselves 
among  the  Gentiles,  and  had  preached  trie  Gospel  every 
where,  the  Lord  working  with  them  and  confirming  the  words 
with  signs  following ,-  and  as  it  does  not  appear  that  all  the 
apostles  quitted  Judaea  earlier  than  the  year  50^  (though 
several  of  them  laboured  among  the  Gentiles  with  great 
success),  perhaps  we  shall  approximate  nearest  to  the  real 
date,  if  we  place  it  between  the  years  60  and  03. 

V.  Saint  Peter  having  publicly  preached  the  Christian 
religion  at  Rome,  many  wlio  were  present  entreated  Mark, 
as  he  had  for  a  long  time  been  that  aiiostle's  companion,  and 
had  a  clear  understanding  of  what  Peter  had  delivered,  that 
he  would  commit  the  particulars  to  w^riting.  Accordingly, 
when  Mark  had  finished  his  Gospel,  he  delivered  it  to  the 
persons  who  made  this  request.  Such  is  the  unanimous 
testimony  of  ancient  writers,^  which  is  further  confirmed  by 
internal  evidence,  derived  from  the  Gospel  itself.  Thus,  the 
great  humility  of  Peter  is  conspicuous  in  every  part  of  it, 
where  any  thing  is  related  or  might  be  related  of  him ;  his 
w^eaknesses  and  fall  being  fully  exposed  to  view,  while  the 
things  which  redound  to  his  honour  are  either  slightly 
touched  or  wholly  concealed.  And  with  regard  to  Cfirist, 
scarcely  an  action  that  was  done,  or  word  spoken  by  him,  is 
mentioned,  at  which  this  apostle  was  not  present,  and  with 
such  minuteness  of  circumstance  as  shows  that  the  person 
who  dictated  the  Gospel  had  been  an  eye-witness  of  the 
transactions  recorded  in  it.'' 

From  the  Hebraisms  discoverable  in  the  style  of  this  Gos- 
pel, we  should  readily  conclude  that  its  author  was  by  birth 
and  education  a  Jew :  but  the  numerous  Latinisms^  it  con- 
tains, not  only  show  that  it  was  composed  by  a  person  who 
had  lived  among  the  Latins,  but  also  that  it  was  written  be- 
yond the  confines  of  Judaea.  That  this  Gospel  was  designed 
principally  for  Gentile  believers  (though  we  know  that  there 
were  some  Jewish  converts  in  the  church  of  Rome)  is  further 
evident  from  the  explanations  introduced  by  the  evangelist, 
which  would  have  been  unnecessary,  if  he  had  written  for 
Hebrew  Christians  exclusively.  Thus,  the  first  time  the 
Jordan  is  mentioned,  the  appellation  "  river''''  is  added  to  the 
name.  (Mark  i.  5.)  Again,  as  the  Romans  could  not  under- 
stand the  Jewish  phrase  of  "  defiled  or  common  hands,''''  the 
evangelist  adds  the  parenthetical  explanation  of  '■'■that  is, 
unwashen"  (vii.  2.)  When  he  uses  the  word  corban,  he 
subjoins  the  interpretation,  ^^  that  is,  a  giff''  (vii.  11.);  and 
instead  of  the  word  mammon,  he  uses  the  common  term 

»  Griesbach,  Comm.  Crit.  in  Text.  Nov.  Test.  Particula  ii.  p.  199.  Dr. 
Campbell,  on  the  Gospels,  note  on  Mark  xvi.  (vol.  ii.  p.  405.  3d  edit.)  Cel- 
liirier,  Introd.  au  N.  T.  pp.  314—352.  Hug's  Introduction,  vol.  ii.  pp.  285 
—295. 

»  See  Dr.  Lardner's  Supplement  to  his  Credibility,  chap.  7.,  whei*e  this 
subject  is  amply  discussed.  Works,  8vo.  vol.  viii.  pp.  65—77.  ;  4to.  vol.  iii. 
pp.  167—173. 

3  Clemens  Alexandr.  apud  Euscbii  Hist.  Eocl.  lib.  vi.  c.  It.  .Terome  de 
Viiis  lllustribus,  cap.  viii.    Tertulliani  Opera,  p.  505.  edit.  Risaltii. 

<  See  several  instances  of  this  adduced  in  Dr.  Townsou's  Works,  vol.  i. 
pp.  151—163. 

s  Several  of  thfse  Latinisnas  are  specified  in  Vol.  I.  p.  29. 

Vol.  II.  2  Q 


Xp-if^-j-i^,  "  riches."  Again,  the  word  Gehenna,  which  in  our 
version  is  translated  hell  (ix.  43.),  originally  signified  the 
valley  of  Hinnom,  where  infants  had  been  sacrificed  to  Mo- 
loch, and  where  a  continual  fire  was  afterwards  maintained 
to  consume  the  filth  of  Jerusalem.  As  this  wwd  could  ni.t 
have  been  understood  by  a  foreigner,  the  evangelist  adds  the 
words,  "  unquenchable  fire"  by  way  of  explan'ation.  These 
particularities  corroborate  the  historical  evidence  abovo  cited, 
that  Mark  designed  his  Gospel  for  the  use  of  Gentile  Chris- 
tians.'' 

Lastly,  the  manner  in  which  Saint  Mark  relates  the  life 
of  our  Saviour,  is  an  additional  evidence  that  he  wrote  for 
Gentile  Christians.  His  narrative  is  clear,  exact,  and  con- 
cise, and  his  exordium  is  singular;  for  while  the  other 
evangelists  style  our  .Saviour  the  '■'■Son  of  man,''''  Saint  Mark 
announces  him  at  once  as  the  Son  of  God  (i.  1.),  an  auo-ust 
title,  the  more  likely  to  engage  the  attention  of  tne  Romans ; 
omitting  the  genealogy  of  Christ,  his  miraculous  conception, 
the  massacre  of  the  infants  at  Bethlehem,  and  other  particu- 
lars, which  could  not  be  essentially  important  in  the  eyes  of 
foreigners. 

Vf.  That  this  evangelist  wrote  his  Gospel  in  Greek  is 
attested  by  the  uninterrupted  voice  of  antiquity ;  nor  was 
this  point  ever  disputed  until  the  cardinals  Baronius  and 
Bellarmine,  and,  after  them,  the  Jesuit  Inchofer,  anxious  to 
exalt  the  language  in  which  the  Latin  Vulgate  version  was 
executed,  affirmed  that  Mark  wrote  in  Latin.''  This  asser- 
tion, however,  not  only  contradicts  historical  evidence,  but 
(as  Michaelis  has  well  observed)  is  in  itself  almost  incredible : 
tor,  as  the  Latin  church,  from  the  very  earliest  ages  of  Chris* 
tianity,  was  in  a  very  flourishing  state,  and  as  the  Latin 
language  was  diffused  over  the  whole  Roman  empire,  the. 
Latin  original  of  Mark's  Gospel,  if  it  had  ever  existed,  could 
not  have  been  neglected  in  such  a  manner  as  that  no  copy 
of  it  should  descend  to  posterity.  The  only  semblance  of 
testimony,  that  has  been  produced  in  support  of  this  opinion, 
is  the  subscription  annexed  to  the  old  Syriac  version,  that 
Mark  wrote  in  the  Romish,  that  is,  in  the  Latin  language, 
and  that  in  the  Philoxenian  version,  which  explains  Romish 
by  Frankish.  But  subscriptions  of  this  kind  are  of  no  au- 
thority whatever :  for  the  authors  of  them  are  unknown,  and 
some  of  them  contain  the  most  glaring  errors.  Besides,  as 
the  Syriac  version  was  made  in  the  East,  and  taken  imme- 
diately from  the  Greek,  no  appeal  can  be  made  to  a  Syriac 
subscription  in  regard  to  the  language  in  which  Mark  wrote 
at  Rome.8  The  advocates  for  the  Latin  original  of  this 
Gospel  have  appealed  to  a  Latin  manuscript  pretended  to  be 
the  autograph  of  the  evangelist  himself,  and  said  to  be  pre- 
served in  the  library  of  Saint  Mark  at  Venice.  But  this  is 
now  proved  to  be  a  mere  fable:  for  the  Venetian  manuscript 
formerly  made  part  of  the  Latin  manuscript  preserved  at 
Friuli,  most  of  which  was  printed  by  Blanchini  in  his  Evan- 
geliarum  Quadruplex.  The  Venice  manuscript  contained  the 
first  forty  pages,  or  five  quaternions  of  Mark's  Gospel ;  'the 
two  last  quaternions  or  sixteen  pages  are  preserved  at  Prague, 
where  they  were  printed  by  M.  Dobrowsky,  under  the  title 
of  Fragmentum  Pragense  Evangelii  S.  Marci  vulgo  autographi. 
1778.  4to.9 

VII.  The  Gospel  of  Mark  consists  of  sixteen  chapters, 
which  may  be  divided  into  three  parts ;  viz. 
Part  I.   The  transactions  from  the  Baptism  of  Christ  to  his 

entering  on  the  more  public  part  of  his  Ministry,  (ch.  i.  1 — 

13.) 
Part  II.   The  Discourses  and  Actions  of  Jesus  Christ  to  his 

going  up  to  Jerusalem  to  the  fourth  and  last  Passover,  (i.  14. 

Sect.  1.  The  transactions  between  the  first  and  second  pass- 
overs,  (i.  14 — 45.  ii.  1 — 22.) 

e  Dr.  Campbell's  Pref.  to  Mark,  vol.  ii.  pp.  82,  83. 
'  Pritii,  Introd.  ad  Led.  Nov.  Test.  p.  311. 

8  Michaelis,  vol.  iii.  p.  225.    See  also  Jones  on  the  Canon  of  the  New 
Test.  vol.  iii.  p.  67—69. 

9  The  history  of  the  pretended  autograph  manuscript  of  St.  Mark  is 
briefly  as  follows.  There  was,  at  Aquilcia,  a  very  ancient  Latin  MS.  of  the 
four  Gospels;  two  quatornions  or  sixteen  pages  of  which  the  emperor 
Charles  IV.  obtained  in  1534,  from  Nicholas,  patriarch  of  Aquileia,  and  sent 
them  to  Prague.  The  remaining  five  quaternions  the  canons  of  the  church, 
at  Aquileia,  during  the  troubles  which  befell  that  city,  carried  to  Friuli, 
together  with  other  valuable  articles  belonging  to  their  church,  a.  d.  1420.  ■ 
and  from  the  inhabitants  of  Friuli  the  VenetFan  Doge,  Tomaso  Macenico 
obtained  these  five  quaternions,  which  were  subsequently  passed  for  tho 
original  autograph  of  St.  Mark.  (Alber,  Hermeneut.  Nov.  Test.  tom.  i.  p 
238^)  There  is  a  particular  account  of  the  Prague  Fragment  of  St.  Mark's 
Gospel,  by  Schffipflin,  in  the  third  volume  of  the  Historia  et  Commenta 
tiones  Academite  Elcctoralis  Theodoro-Palalinse,  Svo.  Manheiin,  1773. ;  in 
which  a  facsimile  is  given.  The  account  is  abridged,  and  the  fac-aimile 
copied  in  the  Gentleman's  Magazine  lor  1778,  vol.  xlvL  pp.  321,  322. 


306 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  VI.  Cnxr.  11 


Sect.  2.  The  transactions  between  the  second  and  tliird  pass- 

over.-?.  (ii.  23—28.  iii.— vi.) 
Sect.  3.  The  transactions   of  the  third  passover  to  Christ's 

going  up  to  Jerusalem  to  the  fourth  passovcr.  (vii. — x.) 

Part  III.  The  Passion,  Death,  and  Jiesurreciion  uf  Clirlsi. 

(xi. — xvi.) 

Sect.  1.  The  /ir^t  il(n/  of  Passion-week  or  Palm  Sunday — 

(Mmst's  triumphal  entry  into  Jerusalem,  (xi.  1 — 11.) 

Sect.  2.  The   transactions   of  the  second   dtnj,  or  Monday. 

(xi.  12—19.) 

Sect.  3.  The  transactions  of  the  third  day,  or  Tuesday — 

h  i.  In  the  morning,  (xi-  'Al— ^33.  xii.) 
i  ii.  In  the  cvcniua.  (x:ii.) 

Sect.  4.  Tlie  transactions  of  tlia  fourth  day,  or  Wednesday. 

(xiv.  1—9.) 
Sect.  .5.  The   transactions   of  the  ffch   day,  or   Thursday. 

(xiv.  10—10.) 
Sect.  6.  The  tfiinsactions  of  the  Pttssover-day,  that  is,  from 

Thursday  evening  to  Fiiday  evcninq;  of  the  Pa3sion-wcok  ; 

including  the    institution    of  the  Lord's  Supper,  Christ's 

agony  in  the  garden,  his  being  betrayed  by  Judas,  his  trial, 

crucifixion,  and  burial,   (xiv.  17 — 72.  xv.) 
Sy.cT.  7.  The  transactions  after  the  rcsur.ection  of  Christ. 

(xvi.) 

Vin.  From  the  striklnor  coincidence  between  the  Gospel 
of  Mark  and  th;it  of  Matthew,  several  learned  rnen  have 
imagined  that  Mark  compiled  hisGo-sncl  from  him.  Auar"s- 
tine  was  the  first  who  asserted  that  Mark  was  a  servile  copy- 
ist (pedissiemtiis)  and  epitomizer  of  Matthew,  and  his  opini'jn 
has  been  adopted  by  Simon,  Calmet,  Adler,'  Owen,  Harwccd, 
and  others. 

In  the  year  1782,  Koppe  published  a  dissertation,^  in  which 
he  has  proved  that  this  hypothesis  is  no  lontjcr  tenable,  and 
Michaolis  has  acquiesced  in  the  result  of  his  inquiries.  Tlie 
following  observations  are  chiefly  abridged  from  both  these 
writers. 

The  assertion,  that  Mirk  ahridfred  the  Gospel  of  Matthew, 
contradicts  the  unanimous  voice  of  anliquit)',  which  states 
that  Mark  wrote  liis  Gospel  under  the  inspection  and  dicta- 
tion of  Peter;  and,  althouirh  there  is  a  coincidence  between 
these  two  evang^elists,  yet  it  docs  not  thence  necessarily  fol- 
.  ow  that  he  abridored  the  Gospel  of  Matthew.  For,  in  the 
tirst  place,  he  frequently  deviates  from  Matthew  in  the  order 
of  time,  or  in  the  arrangement  of  his  facts, '  and  likewise 
adds  many  things  of  which  Matthew  has  taken  no  notice 
whatever.^  Now,  as  Matthew  was  an  apostle,  and  eye- 
witness of  the  facts  which  he  related,  Mark  could  not  have 
desired  better  authority ;  if,  therefore,  he  had  Matthew's 
Gospel  before  him  wlien  he  wrote  his  own,  he  would 
scarcely  have  adojjted  a  difieront  arrangement,  or  have  in- 
.serted  facts  which  he  coulJ  not  have  found  i:i  his  original 
autflor. 

Again,  although  there  are  several  parts  of  Matthew's  Gos- 
pel, which  an  evangelist,  wlm  wrote  chielly  for  the  use  of  the 
liomans,  might  not  improperly-  omit — such  as  the  genealogy 
— the  healing  of  the  centurion's  servant  at  Capernaum — 
— Christ's  argument  to  John's  disciples,  to  prove  that  hew;as 
the  .M'ssiali — the  sennon  on  the  mount — some  prophecies 
Irom  tlm  Old  Testament — and  the  narrative  of  the  death  of 
Judas  I.scariot; — yet,  on  the  other  hand,  there  are  several 
relations  in  Matthew's  Gospid,  for  the  omission  of  which  it 
IS  very  difficult  to  assign  a  reason,  and  which  therefore  lead 
to  the  conclusion  that  his  Gospel  was  not  used  by  Mark. — 
See  particularly  the  discoufles  and  parables  nlatcd  in  Matt 
viiL  18— 22.;  x.  15— 22.;  xi.  20-   "■  '   "•'     " 

1— 3!i.;    xviii.  10— 35. ;   xix.  10- 
1— ll.i 

Lastly,  Mark's  imperfect  description  of  Christ's  transac- 
tions with  the  apostles,  after  his  resurrection,  affords  the 

•  I'rof.  ,\rllcr'8  liypotlieni.ils,  that  Murk  first  epilornir"'!  llio  Oogpi'l  of 
Mattticw  Into  Greok,  oiiiiliiiii;  tli'iso  lci|iic»  wliicli  i  us  (fur  wlioin 
he  wro(c)  would  not  undcrstau'l ;  aiich  o.t  tliu  (^  lie  DiHcourse 

'  '■         '  un  tho  Mount,  the23drlmnlLT,  wliir.liwn.i  iM  n  .        ■!  to  tin- Pli.iri- 

'•  jrf.,r<;iirea  to  tlic  ()M  T"  Mlaiiii'Ml,  anil  .i  few  |i.iri'.l)liH.     Afti-r 

.  Illumines  (for  the  liypotlienis  Ih  unci  ly  ili'xlilule  of  proof)  llmt  llic 

whole  waa  ininalatcd  into  Greok,  for  tlic  use  of  the  Greek  or  Hellenistic 

Jewa. 

»  The  title  of  thia  tract  ia  Marciu  non  Ejiilomatbr  Matthai     It  waa 
rcprinlcil  hy  ToU  ihkI  Rupcrli  in  the  firitt  voIuiih!  of  their  Sylloge  Coin- 
Dienlationiiin  Thcologiraruin.    Ilolmaladl,  ISJO,  Hvo. 
,    »  Koppe  has  given  thirteen  instances.    8oo  Tolt'i*  Syllogo,  vol.  I.  pp.  OG 
— &7. 

<  Koppe  haa  given  tteenlu-lhree  Inalonccs  of  tlieac  ad'litiona.  IbKl.  pp. 
69-04. 

•  Knppc  hna  apccificil  aeveral  other  oralaaiona  in  the  Gospel  of  St.  Mark, 
which  we  have  not  room  to  onuuicraic.    Ibid.  pp.  49—53. 


•30. ;   xii.  33 — 15. ;    xiu. 
•12. ;   XX.  IC. ;    and  xxii. 


strongest  proof  that  he  was  totally  unacquainted  with  the 
contents  of  Matthew's  Gospel.  The  latter  evangelist  has 
given  us  a  very  circumstantial  description  of  Christ's  con- 
versatif.n  witli  "his  apostles  on  a  mountain  in  Galilee,  yet  the 
former,  thouo-h  he  had  befcre  related  {Christ's  promise  that 
he  would  go  Dcfore  them  into  Galilee,  has,  in  the  last  chap- 
ter of  his  Gospel,  no  account  whatever  of  Christ's  appearance 
in  Galilee.  Now,  if  he  had  read  Matthew's  Gospel,  this 
important  event  could  not  have  been  unknown  to  him,  and 
consequently  he  would  not  have  neglected  to  record  it. 

Micliaelis"  further  observes,  that  if  Mark  had  had  Matthew's 
Gospel  before  him,  he  would  have  avoided  every  appearance 
cf  contradiction  to  the  accou!:ts  given  by  an  apostle  and  an 
eye-witness.  His  accotint  of  the  call  of  Levi,  under  the 
very  same  circumstance  as  Matthew  mentions  liis  own  call, 
is  at  least  a  variation  from  Mattiicw's  description;  and  this 
very  variatirui  would  have  been  avoided,  if  Mark  had  had 
access  to  Matthew's  Gospel.  Tiie  same  may  be  observed 
of  Mark  x.  46.,  where  only  one  blind  man  is  mentioned, 
whereas  Matthew,  in  the  parallel  passage,  mentions  two.  In 
M'.irk's  account  of  Peter's  denial  of  (,'hrist,  the  very  same 
woman,  who  addressed  Peter  the  first  time,  addressed  hira 
likewise  the  second  time,  whereas,  according  to  Matthew, 
he  was  addressed  by  a  different  person  ;  for  Mark  (xiv.  09.) 
uses  the  expression  «  tr-aJ.a-*);,  the  maid,  which,  without  a 
violation  cf  grammar,  can  be  construed  only  of  the  same 
maid  who  had  been  mentioned  immediately  before,  whereas 
IMatthew  (xxvi.  71.)  has  axxi-,  another  mali!:'-  Now,  in 
whatever  munncr  harmonists  may  reconcile  these  examples, 
there  will  always  remain  a  difference  between  the  two  ac- 
counts, which  would  have  been  avoided  if  Mark  had  copied 
from  Matthew.  Hut  what  shall  we  say  of  instances,  in 
which  there  is  no  mode  of  reconciliatioi;  \  If  we  compare 
Mark  iv.  35.  and  i.  33.  with  Matt.  viii.  28 — 31.,  we  snail 
find  not  only  a  ditlerence  in  the  arrangement  of  the  facts,  but 
such  a  determination  of  time  as  rendt^rs  a  reconciliation  im- 
practicable. For,  according  to  Matthew,  on  the  day  after 
the  sermon  on  the  mount,  Christ  entered  into  a  ship,  and 
crossed  the  lake  of  Gennesareth,  where  he  encountered  a 
violent  tempest:  but,  according  to  Mark,  this  event  took 
place  on  the  day  after  the  sermon  in  parables;  and,  on  the 
day  which  followed  that  on  which  the  sermon  on  the  mount 
was  delivered,  Christ  went,  not  to  the  sea-side,  but  to  a  de- 
sert place,  whence  he  passed  through  the  towns  and  villages 
of  Galilee.  Another  instance,  in  which  we  shall  find  it 
equally  impracticable  to  reconcile  the  two  evangelists,  is 
IVlark  xi.  28.  compared  with  Matt.  xxi.  23.  In  both  places 
the  Jewish  priests  propose  this  question  to  Christ,  a  amn 
i^'jv(ru  Txurx  7ruu!\  alluding  to  his  expulsion  of  the  buyers 
and  sellers  from  the  temple.  But,  according  to  what  JSaint 
Mark  had  previously  related  in  the  same  chapter,  this  ques- 
tion was  proposed  on  the  third  day  of  Christ's  entry  into 
lerusalem ;  according  to  Matthew,  It  was  proposed  on  the 
second.  If  Mark  had  coj)ied  from  Matthew,  this  difference 
in  their  accounts  would  hardly  have  taken  place.'  ^ 

Since,  then,  it  is  evident  that  Saint  Mark  ditTnot  copy 
from  the  Gospel  of  Saint  Matthew,  the  question  recurs,  how 
are  we  to  reconcile  the  striking:  coincidences  between  them, 
which  confessedlv  exist  both  in  style,  words,  and  things  T 
Koppe,  and  afVr  Iiim  Micha(>lis,  endeavoured  to  account  for 
the  examples  of  verbal  harmony  in  the  three  first  Gos]iels, 
by  the  su])position  that  in  those  examjiles  tlic  evaiigelis's 

«  Tlie  whole  ililTicullv,  in  reconciling  tliis  apparrnt  discrepancy  between 
the  two  evnuitelist.s,  "  das  arisen  from  the  vain  cxptrlHlion  that  liny  muet 
nlway.s  a.;r.'i<  with  each  other  in  the  luo.sl  iiiinule  aiul  trivial  jmrticnlur.s:  as 
if  lli^  ci  edibility  of  our  religion  restcil  on  such  agreement,  or  any  reason- 
able Rchenio  of  inspiration  required  thia  exart  correspondency.  The 
Kohilion,  which  Micliaelis  attorwanls  offered  in  his  Ajiviirkuncni,  nfTordg 
e.ll  till!  salisfiietion  which  a  candid  man  can  liesire.  After  slatiin!  liiai  Mat- 
tlicw  hiid  saiil  'aiicither  maid,'  Mark  'the  maiil,'  and  I.uke  'anolhor  man,' 
(iri^oOi  ho  observes,  the  whole  contradiction  vnnislus  al  on<o,  if  we  only 
atreiut  to  John,  the  quiet  spcctHlor  of  all  which  passed.  For  he  WTited 
(.xviii.  25.),  '  Th'y  said  unto  him,  Wast  ihon  not  also  one  of  hiaiiisciplesV 
Whence  It  appears  that  Uiere  were  several  who  *  pake  on  this  occasion, 
and  that  all  which  Is  saiil  by  Matthew,  Mark,  and  I.uke  may  very  eafily  he 
iriii!.    There  might  probably  bo  more  than  the  three  who  are  named  :  but 

the  maid,  who  had  in  a  former  instance  recognised  Teter,  nyy "     '■  <vo 

mail<!   the  ileepust  impression  on  his  minil;  and  hence,  in  <  'lis 

Gospel  to  Mark,  he  might  have  Haid /Ac  maid."    Bishop  MicJi.  ' 'oc- 

trine  of  the  Greek  Article,  p.  '.*<>.  first  edition. 

'  Miehaeha,  vol.  Iii.  p.  'iM.  Koppe  (ul  fuj'ra,  pp.  57—69.)  has  pvcn  seve- 
ral additional  cjsamnles  of  seeming  coniradictionH  between  ihctwoevanse- 
lists,  proving  that  Mark  could  not  have  cooled  from  Matthew.  On  tliO 
Hiibji'cl  above  discussed,  the  reader  will  find  much  linportanl  information 
In  Jones's  Vuii'ilcalion  of  llie  former  pari  of  Saint  Matthew's  (Jospel  fioni 
Mr.  Wliihton'sCliarge  of  Dislocations,  pp.  47— i^>.,  niiiited  nl  llie  .  nd  of  his 
lliird  volumo  on  Ihc  Canon  :  and  al.'io  in  the  I.alln  thesis  of  IlarUiB  van 
Willeg,  entitled  Specimen  Ilermenenlicuin  cle  lis  (piie  ab  iino  Marco  aunt 
narrnla,  ant  copiosjtm  et  explicalliis,  ab  eo,  (juaui  a  culeris  LvaiigeltaiJ4 
expotdta.  6vo.    Traiecli  od  Rhenuiu,  16J1. 


Sect.  IV.] 


ON  THE  GOSPEL  BY  SAINT  LUKE. 


307 


retained  the  words  which  had  been  used  in  more  ancient  Gos- 
pels, such  as  these  mentioned  by  Luke  in  this  preface.'  But 
thei-c  does  not  appear  to  be  any  necessity  for  resortinor  to 
sucn  an  hypothesis  ;  for,  in  the  first  place,  it  contradicts  the 
accounts  given  from  the  early  Christian  writers  above  cited ; 
and,  secondly,  it  niay  be  accounted  for  from  other  causes. 
JHeter  was,  equally  with  Matthew,  an  eye-witness  of  our 
Lord's  miracles,  and  had  also  heard  his  discourses,  and  on 
some  occasions  was  admitted  to  be  a  spectator  of  transactions 
to  which  all  the  other  disciples  were  not  admitted.  Both 
were  Hebrews,  though  they  wrote  in  Hellenistic  Greek. 
Peter  would  therefore  naturally  recite  in  his  preaching  the 
same  events  and  discourses  which  Matthew  recorded  in  his 
Gospel ;  and  the  same  circumstance  might  be  mentioned  in 
the  same  manner  b}'  men,  who  sought  not  after  "  excellency 
of  speech,"  but  whose  minds  retained  the  remembrance  of 
facts  or  conversations  which  strongly  impressed  them,  even 
without  taking  into  consideration  the  idea  of  supernatural 
gnidance.2 

IX.  Simplicity  and  conciseness  are  the  characteristics  of 
Mark's  Gospel,  which,  considering  the  copiousness  and  ma- 
jesty of  its  subject — the  variety  of  great  actions  it  relates, 
and  the  surprising  circumstances  that  attended  them,  together 
with  tiie  numerous  and  important  doctrines  and  precepts 
Vvhich  it  contains — is  the  shortest  and  clearest,  the  most 
marvellous,  and  at  the  same  time  the  most  satisfactory  his- 
tory in  the  whole  world.^ 


SECTION  IV. 

ON  THE  GOSPEL  BY  SAINT  LUKE. 

I.  Tide. — n.  ^$iit/ior. — III.  Genera' proofs  of  the  ^ennmeness 
and  authenticity  of  thin  Gospel. — L  Vindication  of  its  genu- 
ineness from  the  objections  of  JMichaelis  in  particular. — 
2.  Genuineness  of  the  first  t-wo  chapters,  and  of  chapters 
viii.  27 — 39.,  and  xxii.  43,  44. — IV.  Date,  and  lahere  luritteji. 
— V.  For  xvhom  -written. — VI.  Occasion  and  scope  of  this 
Gospel. — VII.  Sytiopsis  of  its  contents. — VIII.  Observations 
on  tliis  Gospel. 

I.  The  Title  of  this  Gospel  in  manuscripts  and  early 
editions  is  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  the  Gospel  by  St.  Mark. 
In  the  Syriac  version  it  is  called  "The  Holy  Gospel,  the 

fireaching  of  Luke  the  evangelist,  wiiich  he  spoke  and  pub- 
ished  (or  announced)  in  Greek,  in  Great  Alexandria :  '  in 
the  Arabic  version,  it  is  "  The  Gospel  of  St.  Luke  the  phy- 
sician, one  of  the  seventy,  which  lie  wrote  in  Greek,  the 
Holy  Spirit  inspiring  [him]  :"  and,  in  the  Persian  version, 
"  The  Gospel  of  Luke,  which  he  wrote  in  the  Egyptian  Greek 
tongue,  at  Alexandria." 

II.  Concerning  this  evangelist,  we  have  but  little  certain 
information  :  from  what  is  recorded  in  the  Scriptures,  as  well 
as  from  the  circumstances  related  by  the  early  Christian 
writers,  the  following  particulars  have  been  obtained. 

According  to  Eusebius,  Luke  was  a  native  of  Anlioch,  by 
profession  a  physician,  and  for  the  most  part  a  companion  of 
the  apostle  Paul.  The  report,  first  announced  by  Nicephoras 
Callisti,  a  writer  of  the  fourteenth  centur)"-,  that  he  was  a 
painter,  is  now  justly  exploded,  as  being  destitute  of  founda- 
tion, and  countenanced  by  no  ancient  writers.  From  his 
attending  Paul  in  his  travels,  and  also  from  the  testimony  of 
some  of  the  early  fathers,  Basnage,  Fabricius,  Dr.  Lardner, 
and  Bishop  Gleig  have  been  led  to  conclude  that  this  evan- 
gelist was  a  Jew,  and  Origen,  Epiphanius,  and  others  have 
supposed  that  hewas  one  of  the  seventy  disciples ;  but  this 
appears  to  be  contradicted  by  Luke's  own  declaration  that  he 
was  not  an  e3'e-witness  of  our  Saviour's  actions.'*     Michaelis 

•  Poll's  Sylloge  Comment,  vol.  i.  pp.  65 — 69.  Michaelis,  vol.  iii.  pp.  214, 
213. 

»  Pritil,  Introd.  ad  Leclionern  Nov.  Test.  p.  179.    Eishop  Tomline's  Ele- 
ments of  Clirist.  Theol.  vol.  i.  p.  319. 
3  Blackwatl's  Sacred  Classics,  vol.  i.  p.  293. 

*  Bishop  Gleig,  however,  has  arg\ied  at  great  length,  that  the  construc- 
tion of  Luke  i.  2.  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  he  was  himself  an  eye-witness 
and  personal  attendant  upon  Jesus  Christ ;  and  that,  as  he  is  the  only 
evangelist  who  gives  an  account  of  the  appointment  of  the  seventy,  it  is 
most  prohablc  that  he  was  one  of  that  number.  He  adda,  that  the  account 
of  Chri.st's  commencement  of  his  ministry  at  Nazareth  (iv.  16— 3'3.),  which 
is  only  slightly  referred  to  by  Matthew,  and  is  related  by  none  other  of  the 
evangelists,  is  given  with  such  particularity  of  circumstances,  and  in  such 
a  manner,  as  evinces  that  they  actually  passed  in  the  presence  of  the 
writer  :  and,  further,  that,  as  he  mentions  Cleopas  by  name  in  his  very 
particular  and  interestins  account  of  all  that  passed  between  Christ  and  tho 
two  disciploa  on  the  road  to  Emmaus,  we  can  hardly  suppose  hioj  to  be 


is  of  opinion  that  he  was  a  Gentile,  on  the  authority  of  Paul's 
expressions  in  Col.  iv.  10, 11.  14.  The  most  proatle  conjec- 
ture is  that  of  Bolton,  adopted  by  Kuiiioel,  viz.  that  Luke 
was  descended  from  Gentile  parents,  and  that  in  his  youth 
he  had  embraced  .ludaism,  from  which  he  was  converted  to 
Christianity.  The  Hebraic-Greek  style  of  writino-  observable 
in  his  writings,  and  especially  the  accurate  knowledge  of  the 
Jewish  religion,  rites,  ceremonies,  and  usages,  eve?y  where 
discernible  hoth  in  his  Gospel  and  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles, 
sufficiently  evince  that  their  author  was  a  Jew ;  while  his 
intimate  knowledge  of  tire  Greek  languafre,  displayed  in  the 
preface  to  his  Gospel,  which  is  composed  in  elegant  Greek, 
and  his  Greek  name  a-mk-j.;,  evidently  show  that  he  was  de- 
scended from  Gentile  parents.  This  conjecture  is  further 
supported  by  a  passage  in  the  Acts,  and  by  another  in  the 
Epistle  to  the  Colossians.  In  the  former  (Acts  xxi.  27.)  it 
is  related  that  the  Asiatic  Jews  stirred  up  the  people,  because 
Paul  had  introduced  Gentiles  into  the  temple,  and  in  the 
following  verse  it  is  added  that  they  had  before  seen  with 
him  in  the  city,  Trophimus  an  Ephesian,  whom  they  sup- 
posed that  Paul  had  brought  into  the  temple.  No  mention 
is  here  made  of  Luke,  though  he  was  with  the  apostle. 
Compare  Acts  xxi.  15.  17.,  where  Luke  speaks  of  himself 
among  the  companions  of  Paul.  Hence  we  infer  that  he 
was  reckoned  amon^  the  Jews,  one  of  whom  he  might  be 
accounted,  if  he  had  uecome  a  proselyte  from  Gentilism  to 
the  Jewish  religion.  In  the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians  (iv. 
11.  14.)  after  Paul  had  written  the  salutations  of  Aristarchus, 
Marcus,  and  of  Jesus,  surnamed  Justus,  he  adds,  "  who  are 
of  ike  circumcision.  These  only,^''  he  continues,  "  are  my  fel- 
low-workers (meaning  those  of  the  circumcision)  unto  the 
kingdom  of  God.'''  Then  in  the  fourteenth  verse,  he  adds, 
"  lAike,  the  beloved  physician,  and  Demas,  salute  you.''''  As  the 
apostle  in  this  passage  opposes  them  to  the  Christians  who 
had  been  converted  from  Judaism,  it  is  evident  that  Luke 
was  descended  from  Gentile  parents. 

The  first  time  that  this  evangelist  is  mentioned  in  the  New 
Testament,  is  in  his  own  history  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles. 
We  there  find  him  (Acts  xvi.  10,  11.)  with  Paul  at  Troas; 
thence  he  attended  him  to  Jerusalem :  continued  with  him  in 
his  troubles  in  Judaja;  and  sailed  in  the  same  ship  with  him, 
when  he  was  sent  a  prisoner  from  Ceesarea  to  Rome,  where 
he  stayed  with  him  during  his  two  years'  confinement.  As 
none  of  the  ancient  fathers  have  mentioned  his  suflfering  mar- 
tyrdom, it  is  probable  that  he  died  a  natural  death.' 

III.  The  genuineness  and  authenticity  of  Luke's  Gospel, 
and  of  his  history  cf  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  are  confirmed 
by  the  unanimous  testimonies  of  the  ancient  writers.  —  The 
Gospel  is  alluded  to  by  the  apostolical  fathers,  Barnabas," 
Clement  of  Rome,"  Hermas,^  and  Polycarp.s  In  the  follow- 
ing century  it  is  repeatedly  cited  by  .lustin  Martyr,'"  by  the 
martyrs  of  Lyons,"  and  by  Ircnajus.'^  Tertullian,'^  at  tho 
commencement  of  the  third  century,  asserted  against  Marcion 
the  genuineness  and  integrity  of  the  copies  of  Luke's  Gospel, 
which  were  admitted  to  be  canonical  by  himself  and  Chris- 
tians in  general,  and  for  this  he  appealed  to  various  apostolical 
churches.  Origen,"  a  few  years  after,  mentions  the  Gospels 
in  the  order  in  which  they  are  now  generally  received ;  tha 
third  of  which  he  says,  "  is  that  according  to  Luke,  the  Gos- 
pel commended  by  Paul,  published  for  the  sake  of  the  Gentile 
converts."  These  testimonies  are  confirmed  by  Eusebius, 
the  pseudo-Athanasius,  Gregory  Nazianzen,  Gregory  Nyssen, 

ignorant  of  the  name  of  the  other  disciple,  wliich  Dr.  Gleig  understands  ta 
be  Luke  himself,  and  thinks  ihat  he  concealed  his  name  for  the  same  rea. 
son  that  John  conceals  his  own  name  in  the  Gospel.  (Di.-^sertation  on  tha 
Origin  of  the  first  three  Gospels,  in  Bp.  G.'s  edition  of  Stackhouse's  Ilis- 
tory  of  the  Bible,  vol.  iii.  pp.  89—93.,  and  also  in  his  Directions  for  tha 
Study  of  Theology,  pp.  360—377.)  But  this  hypothesis,  wliicli  is  proposed 
and  suoporled  with  great  ability,  is  opposed  by  the  facts  that  the  name  of 
the  evangelist  is  not  Jewish  ;  and  that  since  Jesus  Christ  employed  only 
native  Jews  as  his  apostles  and  missionaries  (for  in  this  light  we  may  con- 
sider the  seventy  disciples),  it  is  not  likely  that  he  would  have  selected  one 
who  was  not  a  Hclu-ew  of  the  Hebrews,  in  other  words,  a  Jew  by  descent 
from  both  bis  pavent.s,  and  duly  iuitia'ed  into  the  Jewish  church.  Besides, 
llie  words  iv  i."" — amouif  tus  (i.  1.)  authorize  llie  conjecture  that  he  had 
resided  for  a  considerable  time  in  Jurla>a :  and,  as  he  professes  that  he 
derived  his  information  Irom  eye-witnesses  and  ministers  of  Jesus  Christ, 
this  circumstance  will  account  for  the  graphic  minuteness  with  which  he 
has  recorded  particular  events. 

6  Lardner's  Supplement  to  his  Credibility,  chap.  viii.  Works,  8vo.  vol 
viii.  pp.  105—107. ;  'Ito.  vol.  iii.  pp.  187,  188. 

8  Lardner,  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  15. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  285. 

I  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  31. ;  Ito.  vol.  i.  p.  294. 

8  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  5.5.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  307,  308. 

9  Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  il.  p.  93.  ;  4t6.  vol.  i.  p.  328. 
'0  Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  p.  120. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  314. 
"  Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  p.  15iX  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  361. 

'^  Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  np.  ir>9,  160.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  366. 
•»  Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  p.  238. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  420. 
««  Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  p.  466.     4to.  vol.  i.  p.  532. 


308 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  Vr.  Chap.  XL 


Jerome,  An^stine,  Chr}sr>stom,  and  a  host  of  later  writers ; 
V  hose  evidence,  being  collected  by  t!ie  accurate  and  laborious 
Dr.  linrdner,'  ii  is  not  necessary  to  repeat  in  this  place. 

Notwilhstandinjj  this  unbroken  chain  of  testimony  to  the 
genuineness  and  authenticity  cf  Luke's  Gospel,  its  canonical 
authority  (together  with  that  of  the  tJospel  by  Mark)  has 
been  caflcd  in  miestion  by  Michaeiis ;  while  various  attempts 
have  been  maae  to  impucrn  the  authenticity  of  particular 
psssncres  of  St.  Luke.  The  celebrity  of  Michaeiis,  and  the 
phusibilitv  and  boldness  of  the  objections  of  other  assailants, 
will,  it  is  tioped,  justify  the  author  for  giving  to  their  objec- 
tions a  full  and  distinct  consideration. 

1.  The  objections  of  Michaeiis  to  the  canonical  authority 
of  the  Gospels  of  Mark  and  Luke  arc  as  follow  : — 

Objection  \.  The  two  books  in  question  w'cre  written  l)y 
assistants  of  the  apostles.  Tins  circumstance,  he  affirms, 
affords  no  proof  of  their  inspiration,  even  if  it  could  be 
shown  that  St.  Mark  and  St.  Luke  were  endowed  with  the 
extraordinary  gifts  of  the  Holy  Spirit  (as  appears  to  have 
been  the  case  with  Timothy  and  the  deacons  mentioned  in 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles),^  of  which,  however,  there  is  no 
historical  proof:  because  a  disciple  might  possess  these  gifts, 
and  yet  his  writings  not  be  inspired.  And  if  we  ground  the 
argument  for  their  inspiration  on  the  character  of  an  apostle's 
."•ssistant,  then  we  must  receive  as  canonical  the  genuine^ 
I^pistle  of  Clement  of  Rome,  and  the  writings  of  other 
apostolical  fathers.' 

Axsweh.  "It  will  be  admitted,  that  Mark  and  Luke  were 
humble,  pious  men  ;  ulso,  that  they  were  intelligent,  well-inform- 
ed men,  and  must  have  known  that  the  comnntUng  to  writing 
the  facts  and  doctrines  comprehended  in  the  Gospel  v^-as  not  left 
to  the  discretion  or  caprice  of  every  disciple,  but  became  the 
duty  of  lliosc  only,  who  were  inspired  by  the  Holy  Ghost  to  un- 
dertake the  work.  Now,  if  these  two  disciples  had  been  uuin- 
t-pired,  or  not  under  the  immediate  direction  of  apostles  who 
possessed  plenary  inspiration,  it  would  have  argued  great  pre- 
sumption in  ihcm,  without  any  direction,  to  write  Gospels  for  the 
instruction  of  the  church.  'I'hc  very  fact  of  their  writing  is, 
therefore,  a  strong  evidence,  that  they  Iwlieved  themselves  to  be 
inspired.  There  is  then  little  force  in  the  remark  of  the  learned 
profciwor,  that  neither  .St.  Mark  nor  St.  Luke  have  declared,  in 
any  part  of  their  writings,  that  they  were  inspired :  for  such  a 
declaration  was  unnecessary  ;  their  conduct  in  undertaking  to 
write  such  books,  is  the  best  evidence  that  they  believed  them- 
selves called  to  this  work."' 

Objection  2.  It  has  been  said  that  the  apostles  themselves 
have  in  their  epistles  recommended  these  Gospels  as  canoni- 
cal. That  the  passages  depended  upon  fir  proof  do  refer  to 
these  or  any  other  written  Gospels,  Michaeiis  denies  :  but 
even  if  they  did  so  recommend  these  G'lspels,  the  evidence 
(he  affirms)  is  unsatisfactory  ;  because  they  j)i;<x/if  have  com- 
mended a  book  as  containing  genuine  historical  accounts, 
without  vouching  for  its  ins|)iration.  And  the  testimony  of 
the  fathers,  who  state  that  these  Gospels  were  respectively 
approved  by  Peter  and  Paul,  Mich.ielis  dismisses  with  very 
little  ceremony  :  and,  finally,  he  demurs  in  regard  to  the  evi- 
dence of  the  canonical  authority  of  Ihcse  books,  derived  from 
the  testimony  of  the  whole  primitive  church,  by  which  they 
were  undoul)tedlv  received  into  the  canon;  and  suggests  that 
the  apostles  mi<r/it  have  recommended  them,  and  the  primitive 
church  m/if/i/  have  accepted  them,  as  works  indispensable  to 
a  Christian,  on  account  of  the  importance  of  their  contents, 
and  that  by  insensible  degrees  they  acquired  the  character 
of  being  inspired.' 

Answer  I.  The  objection  drawn  from  the  writings  of  other 
apostolical  men  is  not  valid:  "for  none  of  them  ever  under- 
took to  write  Gospels,  for  the  use  of  the  church.  All  attempts 
at  writing  other  CJospels,  than  tmk  Korii,  were  considered  liy  the 
primitive  church  as  impious  ;  because,  the  writers  were  unin- 
sjjirod    men.     Hut 

"  2.  'I'he  universal  reception  of  these  books  l>y  the  whole  pri- 
nilivc  church,  as  canonical,  is,  we  think,  conclu«ive  evidence 
that  they  were  not  mere  human  jiroduclions,  but  composed  by 
divine  inspiration,  'i'hat  they  were  thus  universally  reecived, 
li  manifest,  from  the  testimonies  which  have  already  been  ad- 

•  Works,  Rvo,  vol.  viil.  pp.  107— IIZ  ;  4to.  vol.  lil.  pp.  181—191. 
»  2  Tim.  I.  6.     Acts  VI.  Ii-8. 

»  .Mirtiacli.s'ii  Itilrodiictlon,  vol.  I.  pp.  87,  68. 

*  "  The  C'linon  of  iIm?  Old  und  New  TeMBtiiontii  nucortiilnod  liy  Arrliilmlil 
Aloxanclff,  I'rfpfiM,(ir  of  ThcoloKv  at  I'rJiicc;on,  New  Jersey,"  j'p.  *V.',  L(TJ. 
(I'l'iiicrloii  an  I  New  \  i>rU.  Itji).  I2i'in.) 

»  .Mii;liaelis  In'ru'liini'  n,  xdI    i    i  p.  i^— 9-1.     AI>"tii)(t.T  nn  lli<>  Canon, 

r  -m: 


duced.  There  is  not  in  all  the  writings  of  antiquity,  a  hint,  that 
any  Christian  belonging  to  the  church  ever  suspected  that  these 
Gospels  were  inferior  in  authority  to  the  othtrs.  No  books  in 
the  canon  appear  to  have  been  received  with  more  universal 
consent,  and  to  have  been  less  disputed.  They  are  contained  in 
every  catalogue  which  has  come  down  to  us.  They  are  cited  as 
Scripture  by  all  that  mention  them ;  and  are  expressly  declared 
by  the  fathers  to  be  canonical  and  inspired  books.  Now,  let  it 
be  remembered,  that  this  is  the  best  evidence  which  we  can  have 
that  any  of  the  books  of  the  New  'J'estamcnt  were  written  by 
inspiration.  Michaeiis,  indeed,  places  the  whole  proof  of  inspi- 
ration on  the  promise  made  by  Christ  to  his  apostles  ;  but  while 
it  is  admitted  that  this  is  a  weighty  consideration,  it  does  not 
appear  to  us  to  he  equal  in  force  to  the  testimony  of  the  uni- 
versal church,  including  the  apostles  themselves,  that  these  writ- 
ings were  penned  under  the  guidance  of  the  Holy  Spirit ;  for  it 
is  not  perfectly  clear,  that  the  promise  referred  to  was  confined 
to  the  twelve.  Certainly,  Paul,  who  was  not  of  that  number, 
was  inspired  in  a  plenary  manner,  and  much  the  larger  part 
of  the  twelve  never  wrote  any  thing  for  the  canon.  There  is 
nothing  in  the  New  Testament  which  forliids  our  supposing, 
that  other  disciples  might  have  been  selected  to  write  for  the  use 
of  the  church,  W'c  do  not  wish  that  this  should  he  believed,  in 
regard  to  any  persons,  without  evidence,  but  we  think  that  the 
proof  exists,  and  arises  from  the  undeniable  fact,  that  the  wri- 
tings of  these  two  men  were,  from  the  begi)ining  received  as  in- 
spired. And  this  belief  must  have  prevailed  before  the  death  of 
the  apostles ;  for  all  the  testimonies  concur  in  stating,  that  the 
Gospel  of  Mark  was  seen  by  Peter,  and  that  of  Luke  by  Paul, 
and  approved  by  them  respectively.  Now,  is  it  credible  that 
these  apostles,  and  John  who  survived  them  many  years,  would 
have  recommended  to  the  Christian  church  the  productions  of 
uninspired  men  7  No  doubt,  all  the  churches,  at  that  time, 
looked  up  to  the  apostles  for  guidance,  in  all  matters  that  related 
to  the  rule  of  their  faith,  and  a  general  opinion  that  these  Gos- 
pels were  canonical  could  not  have  obtained  without  their  con- 
currence. The  hypothesis  of  Michaeiis,  that  they  were  recom- 
mended as  useful  human  productions,  and  by  degrees  came  to 
be  considered  as  inspired  writings,  is  in  itself  improbable,  and 
repugnant  to  all  the  testimony  which  has  come  down  to  us  on 
the  subject.  If  this  had  been  the  fact,  they  would  never  have 
been  placed  among  the  books,  universally  acknowledged,  but 
would  have  been  doubted  of  or  disputed  by  some.  The  dilfer- 
ence  made  between  inspired  books,  and  others,  in  those  primitive 
times,  was  as  great  as  at  any  subsequent  period ;  and  the  line  of 
distinction  was  not  only  broad,  but  great  pains  were  taken  to 
have  it  drawn  accurately ;  and  when  the  common  opinion  of  the 
church,  respecting  the  Gospels,  was  formed,  there  was  no  diffi- 
culty in  coming  to  the  certain  knowledge  of  the  truth.  For 
thirty  years  and  more,  before  the  death  of  the  apostle  John,  these 
two  Gospels  were  in  circulation.  If  any  doubt  had  existed  re- 
specting their  canonical  authority,  would  not  the  churches  and 
their  elders  have  had  recourse  to  this  infallible  authority  1  The 
general  agreement  of  all  Cliristians,  over  the  whole  world,  re- 
specting most  of  the  books  of  the  New  'J'estament,  doubtless, 
sliould  be  attributed  to  the  authority  of  the  apostles.  If,  then, 
these  Ciospels  bad  been  mere  human  productions,  they  might 
have  been  read  privately,  but  never  could  have  found  a  place  in 
the  sacred  canon,  'i'he  objection  to  these  books  comes  entirely 
too  late  to  be  entitled  to  any  weight.  The  opinion  of  a  modern 
critic,  however  learned,  is  of  small  consideration,  when  opposed 
to  the  testimony  of  the  wholt!  primitive  church  ;  and  to  the  suf- 
frage of  the  universal  church,  in  every  age,  since  the  days  of  the 
apostles.  The  rule  of  the  learned  Huet  is  sound,  vi?..  '  that  all 
tho.sc  books  should  be  deemed  canonical  find  insjiired,  which 
were  received  as  such  by  those  who  lived  nearest  to  the  time 
when  they  were  published.' 

"  3.  But  if  we  should,  for  the  sake  of  argument,  concede,  that 
no  books  should  be  considered  as  inspired,  but  such  as  were  tlio 
|)roductions  of  apostles,  still  these  Gospels  would  not  be  excluded 
from  the  canon.  It  is  a  fact,  in  which  there  is  a  wonderful 
agreement  among  the  fathers,  that  Mark  wrote  his  Gospel  from 
the  mouth  of  Peter ;  that  is,  he  wrote  down  what  he  had  heard 
this  apostle  every  day  declaring  in  his  j)u!ilic  ministry.  And 
Luke  did  the  same  in  regard  to  Paul's  preaching.  These  Gos- 
pels, therefore,  may,  according  to  this  lesliniony,  be  considered 
08  more  jjrobably  belonging  to  these  two  apostles,  than  to 
the  cvangeli»;ts  who  penned  them.  Tliey  were  little  more,  it 
would  seem,  if  we  give  full  credit  to  the  testimony  which  has  been 
cxhil'ited,  than  amanuenses  to  the  apostles,  on  whom  ihcy  at- 
tended.    Paul,  we  know,  dictated  several  of  his  epistles  to  some 


Sect.  IV.] 


ON  THE  GOSPEL  BY  SAINT  LLKR 


309 


of  his  companions  ;  and  if  Mark  and  Luke  heard  the  Gospel  from 
Peter  and  Paul,  so  often  repeated,  that  they  were  perfect  masters 
of  their  respective  narratives,  and  then  committed  the  same  to 
writing,  arc  they  not,  virtually,  the  productions  of  these  apostles 
which  have  been  handed  down  to  us  1  And  this  was  so  much 
the  opinion  of  some  of  the  fathers,  that  they  speak  of  Mark's 
Gospel  as  Peter's,  and  of  Luke's  as  Pau'ls.  But  this  is  not  all. 
These  Gospels  were  shown  to  these  apostles,  and  received  their 
approbation.  Thus  speak  the  ancients,  as  with  one  voice,  and 
if  they  had  been  silent,  we  might  be  certain,  from  the  circum- 
stances of  the  case,  that  these  evangelists  would  never  have  ven- 
tured to  take  such  an  important  step,  as  to  write  and  publish  the 
preaching  of  these  inspired  men,  without  their  express  approba- 
tion. Now,  let  it  be  considered,  that  a  narrative  prepared  by  a 
man  well  acquainted  with  the  facts  related,  may  be  entirely  correct 
without  inspiration  ;  but  of  this  wo  cannot  be  sure,  and,  there- 
fore, it  is  of  great  importance  to  have  a  history  of  facts  from  men, 
who  were  rendered  infallible  by  the  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Spi- 
rit. It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  only  advantage 
of  inspiration  in  giving  such  a  narrative,  consists  in  the  proper 
selection  of  facts  and  circumstances,  and  in  the  infallible  cer- 
tainty of  the  writing.  Suppose,  then,  that  an  uninspired  man 
should  prepare  an  account  of  siich  transactions  as  he  had  seen, 
or  heard  from  eye-witnesses,  of  undoubted  veracity,  and  that  his 
narrative  should  be  submitted  to  the  inspection  of  an  apostle,  and 
receive  his  full  approbation  ;  might  not  such  a  book  be  consider- 
ed as  inspired  ?  If  in  the  original  composition,  there  should 
have  crept  in  some  errors,  (for  to  err  is  human,)  the  inspired  re- 
viewer would,  of  course,  point  them  out  and  have  them  corrected  ; 
now  such  a  book  would  be,  for  all  important  purposes,  an  in- 
spired volume  ;  and  would  deserve  a  place  in  the  canon  of  Holy 
Scripture.  If  any  credit,  then,  is  due  to  the  testimony  of  the 
Christian  fathers,  the  Gospels  of  Mark  and  Luk£  are  canonical 
books;  for,  as  was  before  stated,  there  is  a  general  concurrence 
among  them,  that  these  evangelists  submitted  their  works  to  the 
inspection,  and  received  the  approbation  of  the  apostles  Peter  and 
Paul. 

"  4.  Finally,  the  internal  evidence  is  as  strong  in  favour 
of  the  Gospels  under  consideration,  as  of  any  other  books  of  the 
New  Testament.  There  is  no  reason  to  think  that  Mark  or 
Luke  were  capable  of  writing  with  such  perfect  simplicity  and 
propriety,  without  the  aid  of  inspiration,  or  the  assistance  of 
inspired  men.  If  we  reject  these  books  from  the  canon,  we  must 
give  up  the  argument  derived  from  internal  evidence  for  the  in- 
spiration of  the  sacred  Scriptures  altogether.  It  is  true,  the  learn- 
ed professor,  whose  opinions  we  are  opposing,  has  said,  '  the 
oftener  I  compare  their  writings  (Mark's  and  Luke's)  with  those 
of  St.  Matthew  and  St.  John,  the  greater  are  my  doubts.'  And 
speaking  in  another  place  of  Mark,  he  says,  '  in  some  immaterial 
instances  he  seems  to  have  erred,'  and  he  gives  it  as  his  opinion, 
*  that  they  who  undertake  to  reconcile  St.  Mark  with  St.  Mat- 
thew, or  to  show  that  he  is  nowhere  corrected  by  St.  John,  ex- 
perience great  difficulty,  and  have  not  seldom  to  resort  to  unna- 
tural explanations.'  But  the  learned  professor  has  not  mentioned 
any  particular  cases  of  irreconcilable  discrepancies  between  this 
evangelist  and  St.  Matthew  ;  nor  does  he  indicate  in  what  state- 
ments he  is  corrected  by  St.  John.  Until  something  of  this 
kind  is  exhibited,  general  remarks  of  this  f<ort  are  deserving  of 
no  consideration.  I'o  harmonize  the  evangelists  has  always  been 
found  a  difficult  task,  but  this  does  not  prove  that  they  contradict 
each  other,  or  that  their  accounts  are  irreconcilable.  Many 
things,  which,  at  first  sight,  appear  contradictory,  are  found,  upon 
closer  examination,  to  be  perfectly  harmonious  ;  and  if  there  be 
some  things  which  commentators  have  been  unable  satisfactorily 
to  reconcile,  it  is  no  more  than  what  might  be  expected,  in  nar- 
ratives so  concise,  and  in  which  a  strict  regard  to  chronological 
order  did  not  enter  into  the  plan  of  the  v/riters.  And  if  this 
objection  be  permitted  to  influence  our  judgment  in  this  case,  it 
will  operate  against  the  inspiration  of  the  other  evangelists  as 
Well  as  Mark  ;  but  in  our  apprehension,  when  the  discrepancies 
are  impartially  considered,  and  all  the  circumstances  of  the  facts 
candidly  and  accurately  weighed,  there  will  be  found  no  solid 
ground  of  objection  to  the  inspiration  of  any  of  the  Gospels ; — 
certainly  nothing,  which  can  counterbalance  the  strong  evidence 
arising  from  the  style  and  spirit  of  the  writers.  In  what  respects 
these  two  evangelists  fall  short  of  the  others,  has  never  been 
shown ;  upon  the  most  thorough  examination  and  fair  compari- 
son of  these  inimitable  productions,  they  appear  to  be  all  indited 
by  the  same  spirit,  and  to  possess  the  same  superiority  to  all 
human  compositions. 

"  Compare  these   Gospels  with   those  which   are   acknow- 


ledged to  have  been  written  by  uninspired  men,  and  you  will 
need   no   nice  power    of  discrimination  to  see    the    difference 
the  first  appear  in  every  respect  worthy  of  God ;  the  last  betray, 
in  every  page,  the  weakness  of  man."' 

2.  Besides  the  preceditin;  objections  of  Michaelis  to  the 
canonical  authority  of  this  Gospel  in  general,  the  genuineness 
of  some  particular  passages  has  been  questioned,  the  evidence 
for  which  is  now  to  be  stated. 

(1.)  The  authenticity  of  the  first  two  chapters  has  of  late 
years  been  impugned  by  those  who  deny  the  miraculous 
conception  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ;  but  with  how  little 
real  foundation,  will  readily  appear  from  the  followino- 
facts : —  "^ 

[i.]  These  two  chapters  are  found  in  all  the  ancient  manu- 
scripts and  versions  at  present  known. 

[ii.]  The  first  chapter  of  Luke's  Gospel  is  connected  with  the 
second,  precisely  in  the  same  manner  as  we  have  seen  (p.  299. 
supra)  that  the  two  first  chapters  of  St.  Matthew's  Gospel  are 
connected;  EymTo  -aE  tuk  i-.fAipMc — Now  it  came  to  pass  in  those 
days,  &c.  (Luke  ii.  L)  And  the  second  chapter  of  St.  Luke's 
Gospel  is  in  a  similar  manner  connected  with  the  third ; — Ei» 
iTU  aE  7nvTiK-JLtSa(.-j.Ta) — Now,  in  the  fifteenth  year,  &c.  (Luke  iii. 
J.)  This  Gospel,  therefore,  coidd  not  possibly  have  begun  with 
the  third  chapter,  but  must  have  been  preceded  by  some  intro- 
duction. 

[iii.]  But  becauRf' the  first  chapters  of -it  were  not  found  ia 
the  copies  used  by  Marcion,  the  founder  of  the  sect  of  Marcion- 
ites  in  the  second  century,  it  is  affirmed  that  they  are  spurious 
interpolations. 

A  little  consideration  will  show  the  falsehood  of  this  assertion. 
The  notions  entertained  by  Marcion  were  among  the  v/ildest  that 
can  be  conceived  ; — that  our  Saviour  was  man  only  in  outward 
form,  and  that  he  was  not  born  like  other  men,  but  appeared  on 
earth  full  grown.  He  rejected  the  Old  Testament  altogether,  a.s 
proceeding  from  the  Creator,  who,  in  his  opinion,  was  void  of 
goodness  ;  and  of  the  New  Testament  he  received  only  one  Gos- 
pel (which  is  supposed,  but  without  foundation,  to  be  the  GospeJ 
of  Saint  Lukc^)  and  ten  of  Paul's  Epistles,  all  of  which  he  mu- 

'  Alexander  on  the  Canon,  pp.  003— 2!0.  The  importance  of  the  subject 
and  the  conchisive  vindication  uf  the  Gospels  of  Luke  and  Marie,  contained 
in  the  precediii:;  oljserva;ion.-f,  v.lil,  we  trust,  compensate  fortlie  length  of 
the  quotation  above  given  ;  especially  as  the  learned  translator  of  Mfchae- 
lis,  whose  annotations  havn  so  frequently  corrected  the  statements  and 
assertions  of  the  German  I'rofessor,  lias  offered  no  refutation  of  his  ill- 
founded  objeriions  to  the  canonical  authority  of  these  Gospels.  "There 
is,"  indeed,'— Professor  Alexander  remarks  with  equal  truth  and  piety, — 
"something  reprehensible,  not  to  say  impious,  in  that  bold  spirit  of  modern 
critici.sm,  which  has  led  many  eminent  Uiblicul  scholars,  especially  in  Ger- 
many, first  to  attack  the  authority  of  particular  books  of  .Scripture,  and 
next  to  call  in  question  the  inspiration  of  the  whole  volume.  To  what 
extent  this  licentiousness  of  criticism  has  been  carried,  we  need  not  say; 
for  it  is  a  matter  of  notoriety,  that  of  late,  the  most  dangerous  enemies  of 
the  Bible,  have  been  found  occupying  the  places  of  its  advocates;  and  the 
critical  art,  which  was  intended  for  tlje  correction  of  the  text,  and  the  in- 
terpretation of  the  sacred  books,  has,  in  a  most  unnatural  way,  been  turned 
against  the  Bible  ;  and  finally,  the  inspiration  of  all  the  sacred  books,  has 
not  only  been  questioned,  but  scornfully  rejected,  by  Professors  of  Theo- 
logy!  And  these  men,  while  living  on  endowments  which  pious  benevo- 
lence had  consecrated  for  the  su]iport  of  relij;ion,  and  openly  connected 
with  churches  wliose  creeds  contain  orthodox  opinion.s,  have  so  far  (br- 
gotten  their  high  responsibilities,  and  neglected  the  claims  which  the 
church  had  on  them,  as  to  e.Kert  all  their  ingenuity  and  learning,  to  sap  the 
foundation  of  that  system  which  they  were  sworn  to  defend.  They  have 
had  the  shameless  hardihood  to  send  forth  into  the  world,  books  under 
their  own  names,  which  contain  fully  as  much  of  the  poi.son  of  infidelity, 
as  [was]  ever  distilled  from  the  pens  of  the  most  malignant  deisr.s,  whose 
writings  have  fallen  as  a  curse  upen  the  world.  The  only  eft'cclual  security 
which  we  have  against  this  new  and  most  dangerous  form  of  infidelity,  is 
found  in  the  spirit  of  the  age,  which  is  so  superficial  and  cursory  in  its 
reading,  that  hov,-ever  many  elaborate  critical  works  may  be  published-in 
foreign  languages,  very  few  of  them  will  be  read,  even  by  theological  stu- 
dents, in  this  country.  May  God  overrule  the  efforts  of  tliese  enemies  of 
Chri.st  and  the  Bible,  so  that  good  may  come  out  of  evil !"  (Alexander  on 
the  Canon,  pp.  21'.2,  213.)  In  this  prayer,  we  are  persuaded,  every  candid 
and  devout  critical  student  of  the  Scriptures  will  most  cordially  concur. 

2  The  Gospel  used  by  Marcion  certainly  did  not  contain  the  two  first 
chapters  of  Luke  ;  but  neither  did  it  contain  the  third  chapter,  nor  more 
than  one  half  of  the  fourth;  and  in  the  subsequent  parts(as  we  are  inform- 
ed by  Dr.  Lardner,  who  had  examined  this  subject  with  his  iisual  minute- 
ness and  accuracy),  itwas  "mutilated  and  altered  in  a  great  variety  of  places. 
He  would  not  allow  it  to  be  called  the  Gospel  of  Saint  Luke,  erasing  the 
name  of  that  evangelist  from  the  beginning  of  his  copy."  (Lardner'3 
Works,  8vo.  vol.  ix.  pp.  39.3— tOl. ;  4lo.  vol.  iv.  pp.  Gil— 615.) '  Ilis  alterations 
were  not  made  on  any  critical  principles,  but  in  the  most  arbitrary  manner, 
in  order  to  suit  his  extravagant  theology.  Indeed,  the  opinion  that  housed 
Luke's  Gospel  at  all,  rests  upon  no  sufhcient  foundation.  So  different  were 
the  two  works,  that  the  most  distinguished  biblical  scholars  of  modern 
times,  particularly  Semler,  Eichhorn,  Grieshach,  LoetHer,  and  Marsh,  have 
rejected  that  opinion  altogether.  Griesbach  maintained  (hat  Marcion  com- 
piled a  work  of  his  own,  for  the  sendee  of  his  system  and  the  use  of  his 
followers,  from  the  writings  of  the  evangelists,  and  particularly  of  Luke. 
(Hist.  Text.  Gr.  Epist.  Paul.  p.  92.)  "  That  Marcion  used  St.  Luke's  Gospel 
at  all,"  says  Bp.  Marsh,  "is  a  position  which  has  been  taken  for  granted 
without  the  least  proof  Marcion  himself  never  pretended  that  it  was  the 
Gospel  of  Luke  ;  as  Tertullian  acknowledges,  8.ayina,  Marcion  erangelio 
suo  nullum  adscribit  autorem.  (Adv.  Marcion.  lib.  iv.  c.  2.)    It  is  probable 


310 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  VI.  Chap.  II 


tilatcd  and  disguised  by  his  alterations,  interpolations,  and  omis- 
sions.' This  conduct  of  Marcion's  completely  invalidates  any 
argument  that  may  be  drawn  from  the  omission  of  the  first  two 
chajjters  of  Luke's  Gosim.'!  in  Ins  copy  ;  and  when  it  is  added 
that  his  arbitrary  interpolations,  &c.  of  it  were  exposed  by  seve- 
ral contemporary  writers,  and  particularly  by  Tertullian,^  we 
conceive  that  the  genuineness  and  authenticity  of  the  two  chap- 
ters in  question  are  established  beyond  the  possibility  of  doubt.^ 

(•2.)  From  the  occurrence  of  tho  Avord  Afjsiv  {Leui'o,  that 
is,  a  Lfgion),  in  Greek  characters,  in  Luke  viii.  30.,  a  suspi- 
cion has  been  rais^-d  that  the  whole  paraprraph,  containing 
the  narrative  of  Christ's  healing  the  Gadarene  demoniac 
(viii.  '27 — 39.)  is  an  interpolation.  This  doubt  is  grounded 
en  the  assertion  that  this  mode  of  expression  was  not  cus- 
tomary, either  with  Lvike,  or  with  any  classic  writer  in  the 
apostolic  age.  But  this  charge  of  interpolation  is  utterly 
pronndless;  for  the  passage  in  question  is  found  in  all  the 
manuscripts  and  versions  that  are  extant,  and  the  mode  of 
expression  alluded  to  is  familiar  both  with  the  evangelist, 
and  also  with  classic  writers  who  were  contemporary  with 
him.     Thus, 

[i.]  In  Luke  x.  35.  we  meet  with  Sxvjpu,  which  is  manifestly 
the  Latin  word  Denaria  in  Greek  characters.  In  xix.  20.  we 
also  have  X-.uiipr.v ;  which  word,  though  acl:nowIcdged  in  the 
Greek  language,  is  nothing  more  th:in  the  Latin  word  Siidtiriitin, 
a  napkin  or  handkerchief;  and  in  Acts  xvi.  12.  we  also  have 
KO.^r.NlA  {C'jlouin)  a  Coloxt. 

[ii.]  That  the  mode  of  expression,  above  objected  to,  was  cus- 
tomary with  classic  authors  in  the  apostolic  age,  is  evident  from 
the  following;  passage  of  Plutarch,  who  was  born  not  more  than 
ten  years  after  Jesus  Christ.  He  tells  us  that,  when  the  city  of 
Rome  was  built,  IJomuIus  divided  the  younger  part  of  the  inhabit- 
ants into  battaliijiis.  Each  corps  consisted  of  three  thousand 
foot,  and  three  hundred  horse ;  and  (the  historian  adds)  ExahS-s 
jfi  AErHflN,  Tai  h'.yii'a.t  m%i  t'.u:  fxtx'l-^'^'  TrtiTO!/,  that  is,  It  loas 
called  a  LKGios,  hfcaiise  the  most  -wnrlike  persons  -were:  "  select- 
ril."  A  few  sentences  aftL>rwards,  we  meet  with  the  following 
Latin  words  in  Greek  characters,  viz.  riATPIKlOr^  {Patricios), 
PxTRiciA-'ts  ;  2ENAT02  (Seiialin),  the  Sexatk  ;  HATPfiNAi" 
(Palronos),  Patuuss;  KAIENTAS  (C/ieiites),  Cliknts  ;'  and 
in  a  subscfjuent  page  of  the  same  historian,  we  meet  with  the 
word  KEAHI^H:^  (Celeres),  Cki,i:i:ks.5  Again,  in  Dion  Cassius,'^ 
we  meet  with  the  following  sentence :  Toiv  yp  KEAEI'iriN 
"'X*'*."'' — :/<"'/'""cAjVy,  or  commander  o/</ie  Celeres.  Whether 
these  are  Latin  words  in  Greek  characters  or  not,  the  common 
sense  of  the  reader  must  determine.  The  word  AETEaN  is  not 
so  barbarous,  but  that  it  has  been  acknowledged  by  the  two 
Lexicographers,  Hesychius  and  Suidus.' 

We  have,  therefore,  every  reasonable  evidence  that  can  be 
desired  for  the  genuineness  of  this  passage  of  Luke's  Gospel. 

mcreforc  tliat  ho  used  some  apochrypbal  Gospel,  wliich  had  much  matter 
In  coininon  wiih  fti.it  of  .St.  Lnko,  Imt  yel  was  iioi  tho  saiiif."  (Mirah's 
Micliaoiis,  vol.  lii.  p.  130.)  Dr.  LooiUor  Ims  very  fully  exainiiif<l  tho  qiios- 
liun  in  hU  Dis.soruiioii,  cntitlod  Mnrcinntm  Puuili  E/n'-iloUii  ct  Luca: 
ExnnifHum  iiilnlti-raiiHe  duhiltitur,  rmnkfiirt  on  tlie  Odi-r,  17SS.  Tho 
concUi.sions  "f  his  iiunntc  invcsiiaaiiim  are,  (1.)  Th.Tt  tho  Ctispol  ii.=;ed  by 
Marcion  wan  aiionyiiioim  :  (2.)  .Maicion  n-jfctod  all  o\ir  lour  Gospel.-^,  and 
biaiiiiaiiiod  iho  auiiicntioily  of  lii:j  own  in  oppu^^ilion  to  iln.'in  :  (')■)  DU  fol- 
lowers aftorwarda  niainlained,  that  Christ  Imnsclf  and  I'aul  were  tho  au- 
thors of  it :  (4.)  Ironieiis,  TortuUian,  ami  Kpiphaniiis.  had  no  riM.'ion  for 
rcsariline  Marcion's  Oo.^pel  as  an  altered  oiliiiou  of  I.nko's,  and  ihoir  as- 
BorlJon  is  a  Kioto  conjoiMiiro  rcsiiii:;  iipnii  riotio  hiil  frivolous  and  ahsurd 
allocations:  (5  )  Tho  difTeronri-  of  Marcion'.i  fJih-iprl  from  I.nko's  is  iiioon- 
siatciii  Willi  the  :»t:|>po.si(ion  :  (0.)  Thoro  arc  no  just  L'roiind.s  lor  holiovins 
liiat  M.ircion  had  any  pressing  motivos  to  iiuliire  him  to  adopt  a  sarhlod 
ropy  of  Liiivo :  and  tho  motives  :i»iiKiicil  by  tho  fuihors  are  iiicoiiiiisiont 
and  sclfilestrMotivc.— Dr.  J.  P.  Hii;ith'8  .Scripture  TeMiimony  to  tho  Mes- 
kiah.  vol.  ii.  pp.  13,  11. 

'  F.pipli;iniiis  has  fiven  «  Km;;  niroiinl  of  Marcion's  allcrnlions.  icr.  of 
the  Now  Tosiainoiil.  Scu  Ur.  Lardner's  Works,  Svo.  vol.  \x.  pp.  JG'J— 3'.»3. ; 
4lo.  vol.  iv.  pji.  ClO-Ci'l. 

'  Soo  ilio  paHHa-.'o  at  length  in  Lardncr'a  Works,  8vo.  vol.  Ii.  pp.  2BC— 2SS.; 
4lo.  vol.  i.  pp.  119,4^. 

>  Much  Mtro.ia  has  horn  laid  upon  tho  njiptiront  di.srropinoy  betwoon  tho 
gonoalo^io.sof  Jo.xiis'-'hrisl  in  l.nko  iii.  and  M.ilt.  i.,  and  a!.«)  on  Iho  anpiihairl 
chroiiolotdcal  diiri'ully  in  our  -Savio'ir's  aiio  ;  hm  in  iho«o  soomlni;  lontra- 
diclioiiH  have  nlroady  boon  satisfai-lorily  oxpl.iiiioil  in  (In-  fir.st  voIiiuk- 
of  t)ii.-<  Work,  it  i.H  not  nooi-ssary  to  ropoat  tho.<o  Hohition;!  in  Ihi^  pl.iro.  Scr 
also  Dr.  Nuros's  Itomarks  on  tho  IFnilarian  Vorxion  of  the  Now  ToHlninont, 
p.'/l.r.tti'.'/.;  Arrhh|>.  Ijiurcntc'sCrilioal  Ki'Mccllons  on  Iho  iiiiHro|)ruHoi|. 
ta'ionS  coiHainod  in  tho  modorn  Hocinlan  Vorslon,  pp.  61 — 73. ;  iind  Dr. 
Ilalofl  on  Faith  in  tho  Trinity,  vol.  1.  pp.  .Si— 1 10. 

«  riijinrrhi  Viiio,  in  Koiinilo,  toiii.l.  pp.  51,  W.  edit,  nrynnl- 

»  I'lMi.ir.-hi  Vii;o,  vol.  1.  p.  71.  In  the  Rame  page  also  occurs  tho  word 
KAIIIT.'AIOK  (CiipituHum),  the  capitoi.. 

•  Dion  C'as.-'iuii,  lib.  iv.  oiiod  liy  Mr.  Roiinoll  (lo  wlioni  wo  are  principally 
Indoblod  for  the  obiiorvalioiiK  above  staled),  in  his  .\iiliiiadvorMiuns  on  the 
I'niiarian  Version  of  Iho  iNewToslamfiil.  p  tV2. 

'  Soc  ilioir  Lexicons,  In  voce;  ilicir  olncldaiions  of  this  word  are  cited 
by  Schlcuinor,  in  his  Lcxlcoa  in  Nov  Tost,  voce  Ai/i«». 


(3.)  The  forty-third  and  forty-fourth  verses  of  Luke  xxii. 
are  wanting  in  the  Alexandrian  and  Vatican  manuscripts,  in 
the  Codex  Leicestrensis,  in  the  Codex  Vindoboncnsis  Lam- 
becii  31.,  antl  in  the  Sahidic  version:  and  in  the  Codices 
B.isiliensis  Ii.  VI.  and  Vaticanus  3.51.  (of  the  ninth  or  tenth 
century),  and  some  other  more  recent  manuscripts,  these 
verses  are  marked  with  an  asterisk,  and  in  some  of  the  MSS. 
collated  by  lMaltlia.i  with  an  obelisk.  Their  genuineness, 
therefore,  has  been  disputed. 

Epiphanius,  Hilary,  and  Jerome  bear  testimony  that,  in  their 
time,  these  verses  were  vi'anting  in  some  Greek  and  Latin  MSS. 
But,  on  the  other  hand,  they  are  found  in  by  far  the  greater 
number  of  MSS.  (as  llosenmiUler  remarks),  tvithont  an  obelisk, 
and  in  all  tho  ancient  versions  except  the  Sahidic.  They  are 
also  recognised  by  Justin  Martyr,  llippolytus,  IrcuEUs,  Epipha- 
nius,  Chrysostom,  Jerome,  Theodore  of  Mopsucstia,  Titus  of 
IJostra,  Cffisarius.  The  reasons  for  the  omission  of  these  verses 
in  some  MSS.  and  for  their  being  marked  as  suspected  in  others, 
are  obvious :  they  were  rejected  by  some  of  the  more  timid,  lest 
they  should  appear  to  favour  tln'  Arians. 

The  verses  in  question  are  certainly  genuine,  and  they 
are  accordingly  retained  by  Griesbach  in  the  text,  without 
any  mark  to  indicate  that  they  are  either  spurious  or  sus- 
pected.^ 

IV.  With  regard  to  tlie  time  when  this  Gospel  was  writ- 
ten, there  is  some  diffirence  of  opinion  ;  Dr.  Gwen  and 
others  referring  it  to  the  year  53,  while  Jones,  Michaelis, 
Lardner,  and  the  majority  of  biblical  critics,  assign  it  to  the 
year  03  or  61,  which  date  appears  to  be  the  true  one,  and 
corresponds  with  the  internal  characters  of  time  exhibited 
in  the  Gospel  itself.  But  it  is  not  so  easy  to  ascertain  the 
place  where  it  was  written.  Jerome  says,  that  Luke,  the 
third  evangelist,  published  his  Gospel  in  the  countries  of 
Achaia  and  Bceotia  ;  Gngory  Nazianzen  also  says,  that 
Luke  wrote  for  the  Greeks,  or  in  Achaia.  (Jrolius  state.*, 
that  about  the  time  when  Paul  left  Rome,  Luke  dej)arted  to 
Achaia,  whore  he  wrote  the  books  we  now  have.  Dr.  Cave 
was  of  opinion  that  they  were  written  at  Rome  betore  the 
terminatioji  of  Paul's  ciptivily,  but  Drs.  Mill  and  Grahe, 
and  Wetstein,  affirm  that  this  (iospcd  was  published  at  Alex- 
andria in  Egypt,  in  opposition  to  the  pseudo-Gospel  circu- 
lated among  the  Egyptians.  Dr.  Lardner  has  examined 
these  various  opinions  at  considerable  length,  and  concludes 
that,  np«n  the  whole,  there  is  no  good  reason  for  supposing 
that  Luke  wrote  his  Gospel  at  Alexandria,  or  that  he  ])rcachea 
at  all  in  Egypt :  on  the  contrary,  it  is  more  probable  that 
when  he  left  Paul,  he  went  into  (ireece,  and  there  composed 
or  finished  and  published  his  Gospel,  and  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles.9 

V.  That  Luke  wrote  his  Gospel  for  the  benefit  of  Gentile 
converts,  is  affirmed  by  the  unanimous  voice  of  Christian 
antiquity,  and  it  may  also  be  inferred  from  his  dedicating  it 
to  one  of  his  Gentile  converts.  This,  indeed,  appears  to 
have  been  its  pei-uliar  design;  for  writing  to  those  wiio  were 
fiir  remote  from  the  scene  of  action,  and  ignorant  of  Jewish 
affairs,  it  was  rcciuisite  that  he  should  descend  to  many  par- 
ticulars, and  toucii  on  various  points,  which  would  have  been 
unnecessary,  had  he  written  exclusively  for  Jews.  On  this 
account  he  begins  his  history  with  the  birth  of  John  the 
Baptist  (i.  5 — SO.),  as  inlroductery  to  that  of  Christ;  and 
in  the  course  of  it  he  notices  several  particulars,  mentioned 
by  Matthew,  (ii.  1 — 9,  &c.)  Hence,  also,  he  is  particularly 
careful  in  specifying  various  circumstances  ot  facts  that 
were  highly  conducive  to  the  information  of  strangers,  but 
which  it  could  not  have  been  necessary  to  recite  to  the  Jfrws, 
who  could  easily  sup)dy  ihiin  from  their  own  knowledge. 
On  this  account,  likewise,  he  gives  the  genealogy  of  Christ 
not  as  Matthew  had  done,  by  showing  that  Jesus  was  the 
son  of  David,  from  whom  ine  .Scriptures  taught  the  Jf'Ws 
that  the  Messiah  was  to  spring;  but  he  traces  Christ's 
lineage  uj)  to  Adam,  agreeably  to  the  mode  of  tracing  gene- 
alogies in  use  among  the  (ieiiiiles,  by  ascending  from  the 
person  whose  lineage  was  given  to  the  founder  of  his  race 
(iii.  23 — ,38.) ;  and  ihus  shows  that  Jesus  is  the  seed  of  the 
woman,  who  v.as  promised  for  the  redemption  of  the  whole 
world.  Knrther,  as  the  (Jentiles  had  but  little  knowledge 
of  Jewish  transactions,  I<uke  has  marked  the  a-nis  when 
Christ  was  born,  and  when  John  began  to  announce   the 

»  OrlcsbRchii  el  Schub.ii  Nov.  Test  torn- 1,  p.  470.  Rosonmultor,  Kiilnoel, 
nni]  llloomnold  on  Luku  xxil.  43,  41.  Prilii,  Iiitrod.  ad  Nov.  Test.  pp.  19,  iO, 
Liptin',  I71H. 

»  Lardncr's  Works,  8vo.  vol.  vl.  pp.  130— 13C-  j  4lo.  vol.  lii.  pp  199—202. 


Sect.  IV.] 


ON  THE  GOSPEL  BY  SAINT  LUKE. 


311 


Gospel,  by  the  reigns  of  the  Roman  emperors  (iii.  1,  2.) — 
to  which  point  Matthew  and  the  other  evangelists  have  not 
attended.  Luke  has  likewise  introduced  many  tilings  not 
noticed  by  the  other  evangelists,  which  encouraged  the  Gen- 
tiles to  hearken  to  the  Gospel,  and,  when  their  consciences 
were  a\4'akened  by  it,  to  turn  to  God  in  newness  of  life  with 
a  pleasing  prospect  of  pardon  and  acceptance.  Of  tliis  de- 
scription are  the  parables  of  the  publican  praying  in  the 
temple  (xviii.  10.),  and  of  the  lost  piece  of  silver  (xv. 
6 — 10.),  and  particularly  the  prophetic  parable  of  the  pro- 
digal son  ;  which,  besides  its  spiritual  and  universal  applica- 
tion, beautifully  intimates  that  the  Gentile,  represented  by 
the  younger  or  prodigal  son,  returning  at  length  to  his  hea- 
venly Fatlier,  would  meet  with  the  :no3t  merciful,  gracious, 
and  ailectionate  reception,  (xv.  11.  et  seq.)  Christ's  visit  to 
Zaccheus  the  publican  (xix.  5.)  and  the  pardon  of  the  peni- 
tent thief  on  the  cross  (xxiii.  40 — 43.),  are  also  lively  illus- 
trations of  the  mercy  and  goodness  of  God  to  penitent  sin- 
ners. 

Lest,  however,  doubts  should  arise  whether  any  but  the 
lost  sheep  of  the  house  of  Israel  were  interested  in  these 
good  tidings,  other  parables  and  facts  are  introduced  which 
cannot  be  taken  in  tliis  limited  sense.  Thus  LuJce  recites  a 
parable  in  praise  of  a  merciful  Samaritan  (x.  33.)  ;  he  relates 
that  another  Samaritan  was  healed  and  commei.ded  for  his 
faith  and  gratitude  (xvii.  19.;)  and,  when  a  village  of  this 
people  proved  rude  and  inhospitable,  that  the  zeal  of  the 
two  apostles  who  wished  to  consume  them  by  fire  from 
heaven  was  reproved  (ix.  52 — 56.)  ;  and  they  were  told  that 
"  the  Sun  of  maii  came,  not  to  destroy  meii's  lives,  but  to  save 
them:' 

Lastly,  this  evangelist  inserts  examples  of  kindness  and 
mercy  shown  to  the  Gentiles.  Tlius,  our  Saviour,  in  the 
very  first  public  discourse  recorded  in  Luke's  Gospel,  takes 
notice  that  such  favours  were  vouchsafed  to  the  widow  of 
Sarepta  and  Naaman  the  Syrian,  both  Gentiles,  as  were  not 
conferred,  in  like  circumstances,  on  any  of  the  Israelites. 
(iv.  25 — 27.)  And  the  prayer  upon  the  cross  (ixiii.  31.), 
^^  Father,  forgive  them,  for  theij  ifnuiu  not  ivhut  they  do,'''  is 
placed  between  the  act  of  crucifying  our  Lord  and  that  of 
parting  his  raiment,  both  of  which  were  performed  by  the 
Roman  soldiers  ;  to  whom,  therefore,  this  prayer  must  have 
respect,  as  much  as  to  any  of  his  persecutors.' 

VI.  Great  and  remarkable  characters  always  have  many 
biographers.  Such  appears  to  have  been  the  case  with  our 
Saviour,  whose  lifev.-as  so  beautiful,  his  character  so  sublime 
and  divine,  his  doctrine  so  excellent,  and  the  miracles  by 
which  he  confirmed  it  were  so  illustrious  and  so  numerous, 
that  it  was  impossible  but  many  should  undertake  to  write 
evangelical  narrations,  or  short  historical  memoirs  coiicerning 
his  life,  doctrines,  and  transactions,  which  are  now  lost. 
This  we  infer  from  St.  Luke's  introduction  to  his  Gospel : — 
Forasmuch,  says  he,  as  many  have  taken  in  hand  to  set  forth 
in  order  a  declaration  of  those  things  lohich  are  most  surely  be- 
lieved among  us,  even  as  they,  who  from  the  beginning  were 
eye-witnesses  and  ministers  of  the  Wohp,  delivered  them  unto 
ti-s  ;  it  seemed  good  to  me  also,  having  had  perfect  understanding 
of  all  things  from  the  very  first,  to  write  unto  thee  in  order, 
most  excelltnl  Theophi.l:is,that  thou  mighlcst  learn  the  certainty 
of  those  things,  wherein  thou  hast  been  instructed,  (i.  1 — 4.) 
From  these  introductory  sentences  we  learn,  in  the  first  place, 
that  the  writers  alluded  to  were  not  our  evangelists  Matthew 
and  Mark,  who  were  the  only  evangelists  that  can  be  sup- 
posed to  have  written  before  Luke  ;  for  Matthew  was  an  eye- 
witness, and  wrote  from  personal  knowledge,  not  from  the 
testimony  of  others  ;  and  two  cannot  with  propriety  be  called 
many.  In  the  next  place,  it  is  to  be  observed  that  these  nar- 
rations consisted  of  those  things  which  are  most  surely  believed 
among  us — that  is,  of  the  things  performed  by  Jesus  Christ, 
and  confirmed  by  the  fullest  eviaence,  among  the  first  pro- 
fessors of  the  Christian  faith,  of  w'hich  number  Luke  reckons 
himself.  Lastly,  it  appears  that  these  narrations  were  re- 
ceived cither  from  the  apostles  themselves,  or  from  their 
assistants  in  the  work  of  the  Gospel,  who  were  eye-witnesses 
of  the  life  and  miracles  of  Jesus  Christ,  to  whom  Luke  (as 
well  as  the  apostle  John)  gives  the  emphatic  appellation  of 
THE  Word  :^  and  that  they  were  composed  with  an  upright 

«  Dr. Townson's  Works,  vol.  i.  pp.  181—106. 

»  That  this  is  the  true  meaninj;  of  Luke  i.  2.  is  evident  from  the  following 
considerations,  which  arc  transcribed  from  Mr.  Archdeacon  Nares's  Vera- 
city of  ihe  Evangeli.sts  demonstrated  by  a  comparative  view  of  their  Histo- 
ries. "  It  has  long  appeared  to  me,"  he  cbserves,  "that  St.  John  is  not,  as 
is  commonly  thought,  the  only  evangelist  ivic  thus  speaks  of  the  Word,  or 


intention,  though  they  were  inaccurate  and  defective.  What 
these  imperfect  and  incorrect  histories  of  our  Saviour  were  it 
is  impossible  now  to  determine,  as  they  are  not  mentioned  by 
any  contemporary  writer,  and  probably  did  not  survive  the 
age  in  which  they  were  comj)osed.5 

The  scope  of,  Luke's  Gospel  therefore  v.-as,  to  supersede 
the  defective  and  unauthentic  narratives  v.-hich  were  th«n  in 
circulation,  and  to  deliver  to  Theophilus'  a  true  and  genuine 
account  of  the  life,  doctrines,  miracles,  death  and  resurrec- 
tion of  our  Saviour.  Irena^us  and  some  of  the  fathers  ima- 
gined that  Luke  derived  his  inforaiation  chiefly  from  the 
apostle  Paul,  and  that  he  wrote  his  Gospel  at  his  command  ;= 
but  this  conjecture  is  contradicted  by  the  evangelist's  own 
words  ;  whence  we  are  authorized  to  conclude  thai  he  obtained 
his  intelligence  principally  from  those  wi\o  had  both  heard 
and  witnessed  the  discourses  and  miracles  of  Jesus  Christ. 
Now  it  is  manifest  that  St.  Paul  was  not  of  this  number,  for 
lie  w'as  not  converted  to  the  Christian  faith  until  the  end  of 
the  year  36,  or  perhaps  the  beginning  of  the  year  37.  It  w?.3 
from  conversing  with  some  of  the  apostles  or  immediate  dis- 
ciples of  our  Lord,  that  Luke  was  enabled  to  trace  every 
thing  from  the  beginning,  in  order  that  Theophilus  might 
know  the  certainty  of  those  truths  of  wj;iich  he  had  hitherto 
received  only  the  first  elements. 

VII.  From  some  striking  coincidences  between  certain 
passages  in  Luke's  Gospel  and  the  parallel  passages  in  that 
of  Matthew,"  Rosenmiiller  and  some  other  critics  have  ima- 
gined that  the  former  had  seen  the  Gospel  of  the  latter,  and 
that  he  transcribed  considerably  from  it.  But  this  conjecture 
does  not  appear  to  have  any  solid  foundation ;  for,  in  the  first 
])lace,  it  is  contradicted  by  the  evangelist  Luke  himself,  who 
expressly  states  that  he  derived  his  information  from  persons 
who  had  been  eye-witnesses ;  which  sufficiently  account  for 

Logos,  aj3  a  person.'  St.  Lnke  surely  personifies  him  quite  as  much,  when 
he  .--ays,  tliar  iJie  facts  whicli  he  collected  were  related  to  him  by  those  tctio 
froiii  the  bcginriing  icere  tyeirityiesses  arid  ministers  or  allendanis  oftl.ii 
WORD  (Luke  i.  2.) ;  that  is  the  Logos  (Tcu  Ao>-cu.)  For  how  could  they  be- 
hold or  attend  upon  that,  which  was  not  visible,  or  had  no  personal  exist- 
ence ]  Observe  particularly,  that  ilie  word  in  the  original  (^^iftTi:;)  de- 
notes a  personal  attendant,  even  more  properly  than  ihn  worti  ministeTs, 
employed  by  ihe  translators.  The  expression  ministers  of  ihe  word  con- 
veys,  to  the  Eniilish  reader  at  least,  the  idea  of  the  ininisters  of  Ihe  Gospel ; 
but  eyewilnesxfs  of,  attendants  upon,  or  scri-antsof  Ike  Word,  cannot  fail 
to  imply  that  ilie  word  was  a  person  capable  of  behig  seen,  and  of  receiv. 
ing  attendance.  In  any  langnrse,  eyewitnesses  of  a  thin?  not  visible  must 
bo  a  very  harsh  and  unintelligible  expre.ssion.  When  Si.  John  also  says, 
Ihe  Word  leas  inadejitsk  and  dwelt  among  us,  ar.d  we  beheld  his  glory ;  lie 
comes  very  near  indeed  to  St.  Luke's  eyeicitness  of  the  Word.  I  am  well 
av.nre  that  this  idea  is  not  ncw.t  How  indeed  should  it  be  new^J  being  so 
veiy  obvious,  upon  the  inspection  of  the  Greek  text,lh;ititismoree.xtraor- 
dinary  for  it  to  be  overlooked  than  remarked.  But  in  this  country  it  h&n 
been  little  noticed.  It  has  been  thought  by  some,  that  the  same  writer,  St. 
Lulte,  h:i3  again  given  the  personal  sense  to  the  terra  Logos,  or  Word  ia 
the  xxth  chapter  of  the  Acts,  ver.  32. ;  and  if  so,  it  is  also  the  expression 
of  St.  Paul,  whose  speech  is  there  recited.  And  now,  brethren,  I  com- 
imnd  you  to  God  and  to  the  Word  of  Ids  grace,  tchick  is  able  to  build  yori 
up,  arid  to  give  you  an  inheritance  among  all  them  which  are  sanctified. 
By  the  Word  of  his  grace  is  thus  supposed  to  be  meant  our  Lord  Jesua 
Christ;  in  which  case,  it  would  be  better  to  render  it  'who  is  able,  &c.' 
This,  however,  is  by  no  means  so  clear  as  the  former  pas.sage.  But  the 
Word  whom  the  apostles  saic,  and  <i[.on  whom  they  attended,  according 
to  St.  Luke,  cannot,  I  think,  be  any  other  than  our  Lord  Jesus  Chiust." 
Nares  on  the  Veracity  of  the  Evangelists,  pp.  40-43.  2d  edit.  London,  1819. 
3  Mill's  Proleg.  §25 — 37.  Doddridge'sFam.  Expos,  vol.  i.  p.  1.  Lardner-3 
Works,  Svo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  142— l-t.''i. ;  4to.  vol.  iii.  pp.  20.''>,  206. 

*  As  the  literal  import  of  this  name  isfriend  of  God,  some  have  ima- 
gined tli<*f,  unjer  this  appellation,  St.  Luke  comprised  all  the  followers  of 
Christ,  to  whom  a.s  friends  of  God,  he  dedicated  this  faithful  history  of  our 
Saviour.  But  this  interpretation  appears  to  have  little  solidify  in  it;  for, 
if  all  the  followers  of  Christ  are  addressed,  why  is  the  sing-ular  number 
used  ?  And  what  good  end  could  there  be  accomplished  by  using  a  feigned 
name?  Augustine,  Chrysoslom,  and  many  others,  have  understood  Theo- 
pliilus  to  be  a  real  person ;  and  Theophylact  has  well  remarked  that  he 
was  a  man  of  senatorial  rank,  and  possibly  a  prefect  or  governor,  because 
he  gives  him  the  same  title  of  zp^Tisj,  most  excellent,  which  St.  Paul  used 
in  his  address,  to  Felix  and  Festus.  Dr.  Cave  supposed  him  to  have  been 
a  nobleman  of  Antioch,  on  the  authority  of  the  pretended  Clementine  Re- 
cognitions, but  these  are  of  no  weight,  being  composed  at  the  end  of  the 
second  century,  and  not  from  the  writer's  personal  knowledge.  The  most 
probable  opinion  is  that  of  Dr.  Lardner,  now  generally  adopted,  viz.  that 
as  St.  Luke  composed  his  fiospel  in  Greece,  Theophilus  was  a  man  of 
rank  of  the  same  country.  Lardner's  Works,  Svo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  138,  139 ;  4to. 
vol.  iii.  pp.  2(J.3,  204.  Doddridge,  Campbell,  Whitby,  &c.  on  Luke  i.  1—1. 
Du  Veil's  Literal  E.xplication  of  the  Acts,  pp.  4—7.  English  edition,  Lon- 
don, 1G5.'. 

«  See  Jones  on  the  Canon,  vol.  iii.  p.  91. 

6  Compare  Luke  iii.  7—9.  16,  17.  with  Matt.  iii.  7—12. ;  Luke  v.  20—39. 
witli  Malt.  ix.  2—17. ;  Luke  vi.  1—5.  with  Matt.  xii.  1—5. ;  Luke  vii.  22— 2S. 
with  Matt.  xi.  4—11. ;  and  Luke  xii.  22—31.  with  Matt.  vi.  25—3.3.  Rosen- 
mUllcr  says  that  Bengel's  mode  of  comparing  and  harmonizing  the  Gospels 
of  Matthew  and  Luke  is  the  best. 

*  In  the  opening  of  the  Revelations,  it  is  particularly  said  of  Saint  John, 
that  he  bore  witness  to  the  Logos.  "Oj  tfixylt, fi^n  tcv  Ao>-ok  tou  eioj,  xx< 
■coy  f/.-xflvpixv  ijjcrou  X^iTTOu.  ch.  i.  V.  2.  Again,  in  the  nineteenth  chapter  of 
the  same  book,  the  person  who  sits  on  the  horse  is  called  tha  Word  of  God, 

xx\siT:ti  TO  ovo,«x  auTOu  'O  AOrOi;  t:u  ©itUj  V.  13. 

t  Sec  Wolfii  Curee  Philol.  in  Luc.  i.  2. 


ni2 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  VI.  Chap.  II 


those  coincidences.  Further,  Luke  has  related  manj^  inte- 
resting particulars,' which  are  not  at  all  noticed  by  Matthew. 
And  lastly,  the  order  of  time,  obsen'ed  by  these  two  evange- 
lists, is  different.  Matthew  relates  the  tacts  recorded  in  his 
Gospel,  rhronolui^lcally ,-  Luke,  on  the  contrar)%  appears  to 
have  paid  but  little  attention  to  this  order,  because  he  pro- 
posed to  make  a  class'Jication  of  events,  referring  each  to  its 
proper  class,  without  regard  to  chronological  arrangement. 

The  Gospel  of  Luke,  which  consists  of  twenty-four  chap- 
ters, is  divided  by  Roseninuller  and  others  into  live  distinct 
classes,  viz. 

(Jlass  1.  contains  the  Narrative  of  the  Birth  of  Christ,  together 
with  all  t/ie  Circumstances  tliat  preceded,  attended,  and  fol- 
lowed it.  (i.  ii.  1 — 10.) 

Class  II.  comprises  the  Particulars  relative  to  our  Saviourh 
Infancy  and  Youth,  (ii.  41 — 50. ) 

Class  111.  includes  the  Preaching  of  John,  and  the  Baptism 
of  Jesus  Christ,  whose  Genealogy  is  annexed,   (iii.) 

('lass  IV.  comprehends  the  Discuurses,  Miracles,  and  Actions 
of  Jesus  Christ,  during  the  whole  of  his  Ministry,  (iv. — ix. 
50.) 

This  appears  evident:  for,  after  St.  Luke  had  related  his  tempta- 
tion in  the  wilJernoss  (iv.  1 — 13.),  he  immediately  adds,  tliat 
Christ  returned  to  Gahlee  (14.),  and  mentions  Nazareth  (16.), 
Capernaum  (31.),  and  the  lake  of  Gcnesarelh  (v.  1.)  ;  and  then 
he  proceeds  as  far  as  ix.  50.  to  relate  our  Saviour's  transactions 
in  UaUlee.  » 

Ss«T.  1.  The  temptation  of  Christ  in  the  wildcmess  (iv.  1 — 13.) 

Sect.  2.  Transactions  between  the  first  and  second  passovers, 
A.  D.  30,  31. 

J  i.  Clivist  leachcth  at  Nazareth,  where  his  lownstiien  attempt  to  kill  liiin. 
(iv.  11—30) 

4  ii.  Christ  performs  many  miracles  at  Capernaum,  wliere  he  teaches, as 
al.^o  in  otiier  part:s  ol'  Gahlee.  (iv.  31 — M.) 

Jiii.  The  c.ill  ol  Peter,  Andrew,  James,  anJ  John;  ami  the  i&iraculous 
<lrau2hi  of  fislies.  (v.  1—11.) 

5  iv.  Cnrist  heal.^  a  leper  and  a  paralytic,  (v.  12—26.) 

4  V.  The  caU  of  .M.itthew.  (v.  27—32.) 

5  vi.  Chris:  shows  why  his  discijilos  do  not  fast.  (v.  33 — 30.) 

Sect.  3.  Transactions  from  the  second  passover,  to  a  little  before 
the  third  passover,  a.  n.  31,  3'i. 

4i.  Clirist  ju.'itifies  his  disciples  for  plucking  com  on  the  Sabbath  day; 

anil  heals  a  man  who  had  a  withered  hanil.  (vi.  1—11.) 
iii.  Christ  ordains  t.'ie  twelve  apostles,  (vi.  12—16.) 
4 iii.  Christ  descends  fro:n  a  mountain  into  the  plain  (vi.  17—19),  where 

he  re[>eats  a  con..;iilerable  part  of  his  sermon  on  the  mount  (20 — '19.) ; 

which  is  related  at  length  in  the  fifth,  siAlh,  and  seventh  chapters  of 

St.  Matthew's  Go-spcl. 
4  iv.  Ctiri.si  h-^als  the  centurion's  servant,  and  restores  to  life  the  widow's 

sun  at  Niin.  (vii.  1 — 17.) 
4  V.  Clirist's  reply  to  the  in(iuiry  of  John  the  Raptist's  disciples,  and  his 

<lisi:our.ie  lo  the  people  concerning  Joiin.  (vii.  18 — 35) 
4  vi.  A  womnn  who  \iad  been  a  sinner,  anoints  the  feel  of  Jesus,  at  the 

house  of  riimon  the  Pharisee,  (vii.  36— CO  ) 
4  vii.  Christ  jircaches  a!<ain  ilirou(;h  Galilee  (viii.  1 — 3.),  where  he  tWivers 

the  narajjle  of  the  sower.  (4—15.) 
4  viii.  Christ  declares  the  duty  of  the  apostles,  and  also  of  all  Chri.stians, 

as  the  lights  of  the  world  (viii.  I'J— IS.),  and  shows  who,  in  his  esteem, 

are  his  (uuiher  and  brethren.  (19 — 21.) 
4  ix.  Chri>it  siills  a  temnes:  by  his  command  (viii.  22—25.),  and  expels  a 

legion  of  demons  alGadara.  (26—39.) 
4  X.  Christ  cures  the  issue  of  blood,  and  raises  the  daughter  of  Jairus  to 

life.  (viii.  10—56.) 
4  xi.  The  apostles  s^nt  forth  to  preach.— llerod  the  Tetrarch  desiret*  '.o 

see  Christ,  (ix.  1—9.) 


«  Thus  Luke  has  recorded  the  circujnsiancf-s  relating  tothe  birth  of  John 
the  U.ipti.>t;  tiie  annunciation;  and  oiher  important  circumstances  con- 
cerning !he  nativity  of  the  Mosr^iah  ;  the  occasion  of  Joseph's  being  then 
ill  Bethlehem;  the  vision  grnnf  d  l.o  the  shf-pherds;  the  early  testnnony 
of  Simeon  and  Anna;  the  Wimdorful  m.inifestalion  of  our  Ixird's  profi- 
ciency in  knowlL-d.^e,  when  only  twelve  years  old;  and  his  age  at  the  coin- 
raencemeiit  of  his  ministry,  connected  with  the  year  of  the  reigninz 
emperor.  lie  has  given  ns  also  an  account  of  severnl  memorable  inci- 
dents and  cures  which  had  been  overlooked  by  the  rest ;  the  convr-r.-ion 
of  Zaccheus  the  publican  ;  the  cure  of  the  woman  who  had  been  bowed 
down  for  ci;;hletii  years  ;  and  of  the  dropsical  man  ;  the  rlean.'^ing  of  the 
ten  lepers  ;  the  repulse  he  met  with  when  about  to  inleraSamnriLin  city  ; 
and  the  instructive  rebuke  he  gave,  on  lint  occasion,  to  two  of  his  disci- 
ples for  their  intemperate  zeal :  also  the  afTcling  interview  be  had,  nft.T 
nls  resurrection,  with  two  of  his  disciples,  in  the  w.ny  to  Kmiimiis,  and  at 
that  village.  Luke  ti.a.s  likewise  ailde  I  many  edifyius  jiiiabli-.s  lo  tho»p 
which  had  been  recorded  by  the  othnr  evan;:elisis.  <)l  this  number  are 
llie  p.iribl.'M  of  the  creditor  who  had  two  dibiors  ;  of  the  rich  fo(pl  who 
hoarded  up  his  increase,  and,  when  he  had  not  one  day  lo  live,  vainly  e.\ul(ed 
in  the  proKp'!ct  of  many  hippy  years;  of  the  rich  man  and  Lazarus;  of 
the  reclaimed  proiliuate;  of  the  ^llnrisee  ami  the  Publican  praying  in  the 
temple  ;  of  the  juilge  who  was  prevailed  on  by  n  wuIow'h  iiiiportunily, 
though  he  f'arcd  not  God,  nor  rfgardfd  men  ;  of  the  barren  Ii;;  tree;  of 
the  compassinimle  Sam.arii.iu  ;  and  ^(■■■••■-m!  .•■'•■■rs.  It  Ik  worthy  of  rem.irk, 
that  nio.>t  of  llie.se  p ninMilaiti  were  y  Irenmis,  in  the  iecond 

century,  a«  pecul.nrly  bi-lnnsing  lo  i  '  .  .  of  Luke;  who  has  lbii.<, 
umh-signedly,  shown  to  all  Hucccnding  ages,  that  it  is,  in  every  thinu  mate- 
rial, the  very  aam^,  book, which  had  ever  been  dislinguished  by  the  nanx- 
of  thin  rvaoitiliitl  till  his  day,  and  remains  so  distiiiKuishi^d  lo  our  linii'S. 
Dr  Cam(ili.-ll  on  the  fiospol.-.,  vol.  li.  p.  ISk  S/^i;  ih->  passage  of  Ircnwiia 
in  Dr  Lardner's  Works,  bvo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  UJO,  161. ;  Uo.  vol.  i   pp.  366,  367. 


§  xii.  Christ  miraculously  feeds  five    ll-.cuFand    men. — Their  dilTercnt 

opinions  concerning  him,  and  the  duly  of  taking- up  the  cross  enforced 

(..\.  10—27.) 
§xiii.  The  transfiguration  of  Christ  on  a  mountain,  (ix.  2g — 30.) 
S  xiv.  On  his  descent  into  the  plain,  Christ  casts  out  a  demon,  which  hia 

disciples  could  not  expel,  (ix.  37 — 42.) 
§  XV.  Clirist  forewarns  his  disciples  of  liis  sufTerings  and  death  ;  exhorts 

them  to  humility;  and  shows  that  such  as  propagate  the  Gospel  are 

not  10  be  hindered,  (ix.  43 — 50.) 

Class  V.  contains  an  .flccount  of  our  Saviottr^s  last  Journey  to 
Jerusalem,  including  every  Circumstance  relative  lo  hix  Pas 
sion.  Death,  Resurrection,  and  Ascension,  (ix.  51 — 62.  x.- 
xxiv.) 

Sect.  1.  Transactions  from  Christ's  departure  out  of  Galilee  to 
Jerusalem,  to  keep  the  feast  of  Tabernacles,  lo  his  departure 
from  Jerusalem  after  the  feast. 

§  i.  In  his  way  to  Jeru^^alem,  the  Samaritans  refuse  to  receive  Christ. — 

Ills  answer  to  several  jiersons  about  following  him.  (ix.  51—62.) 
§  ii.  The  seventy  disciples  sent  forth  to  preach,  (x.  1—16.) 

Sect.  2.  Transactions  between  Christ's  departure  from  Jerusa- 
lem, after  the  feast  of  Tabernacles,  a.  d.  32.,  and  his  return 
thither  to  the  feast  of  Dedication,  in  the  same  year. 

§  i.  Ttie  return  of  the  seventy  disciples  to  Christ,  (.x.  17—24.) 
§  ii.  Jesus  sliows  who  is  to  be  esteemed  our  neighbour,  (x.  25—37  ) 
§  iii.  Christ  is  entertained  by  Martlia  and  iMary.  (x.  38-42.) 
§  iv.  Christ  teaches  his  disciples  to  pray,  and  inculcates  the  necessity  of 
importunity  in  prayer,  as  also  implicit  reliance  on  the  paternal  good- 
ness of  God.  (xi.  1—13.) 
§  V.  Christ's  reply  to  the  Jews,  who  ascribed  his  expulsion  of  demons  in 

Beelzebub,  (xi.  11 — 28.) 
§  vi.  His  answer  to  the  Jews,  who  demanded  a  sign  from  heaven,  (xi.  29 
—.36.) 

4  vii.  The  Pharisees  reproved  for  their  hypocrisy,  (xi.  37—54.) 

5  viii.  Christ  warns  his  di.=ciples,  _/irs/,  to  avoid  hypocrisy  (xii.  1—3.); 
and,  secundly,  not  to  neglect  their  duty  to  God,  for  fear  of  man.  (4—12.) 

§  ix.  Cautions  against  covetousness  or  worldJy-niindedness,  and  exhorta- 
tions to  be  chielly  solicitous  for  spiritual  welfare,  (xii.  1:3—34.) 

5  X.  Admonition  to  be  always  prepared  for  death. — The  reward  of  such 
as  are  careful  lo  do  their  duty,  according  to  their  stations  and  the 
oiiportunitics  ofF/red  to  them.  (xii.  35 — 48.) 

§  xi.  Christ  reproaches  the  people  for  not  knowing  the  time  of  Messiah's 
coming  (xii.  4'J — 56.);  and  shows  that  euuimoii  reason  is  sufficient  to 
teach  men  repentance.  (57 — 59.) 

§  xii.  God's  judgments  on  some  are  desisned  to  bring  others  to  repent- 
ance.— The  parable  of  the  fig-tree.  (xiii.  1—9.) 

§xiii.  Clirist  oires  an  intirm  woman  on  the  Sabbath  day  (xiii.  10—17); 
and  delivers  the  parable  of  the  mustard  seed.  (19—21) 

§  .viv.  Christ's  journey  towards  Jerusalem  to  keep  the  feast  of  Dedication; 
in  the  course  of  wliich  be  shows  that  repentance  is  not  to  be  deferred 
(xiii.  22 — 30.)  ;  reproves  Herod,  and  laments  the  judicial  blindness  ut 
Jerusalem.  (31 — 15) 

Sect.  3.  Transactions  subsequently  to  the  feast  of  Dedication 
after  Christ's  departure  from  Jerusalem,  and  before  his  return 
thither  to  keep  his  last  passover,  a.  d.  32,  33. 

§  i.  Christ  heals  a  dropsical  man  on  the  Sabbath  day,  and  inculcates  ilia 
duties  of  humilily  and  charily,  (xiv.  1 — 14.) 

§ii.  The  ))arable  of  the  great  supper,  (xiv.  15—24.) 

§  iii.  Couragi;  and  perseverance  shown  to  be  requisite  in  a  true  Christian 
The  unprofitableness  of  an  unsound  Christian,  (xiv.  25 — 35.) 

§  iv.  (.'hrist  illustrates  the  joy  of  the  angels  in  heaven  over  repenting  sin 
nors,  by  the  parables,  1.  Of  the  lost  sheep  (xv.  1—7.) ;  2.  Of  the  lost 
pirce  of  money  (i^ — 10.);  and.  3.  Of  the  i)rodigBl  son.  (11—32.) 

5  v.  The  parable  of  the  unjust  stewaril.  (xvi.  1—13.) 

§vi.  The  Pharisees  reproved  for  their  covetousness  and  hypocrisy,  (jcvl 
14-H.) 

5  vii.  The  parable  of  the  rich  man  and  Lazarus,  (.xvi.  19—31.) 

4  viii.  The  duly  of  not  giving  olTence.  (xvii.  1  —  10.) 

§  ix.  In  his  last  journey  to  Jerusalem,  Christ  cures  ten  lepers  (.xvii.  Il- 
ly.); and  iliscourses  c<inccrning  his  second  cominu.  (2ti — 39.) 

4  X.  liiicouragement  lo  perseverance  in  prayer,  illustrated  by  the  parable 
of  the  iiriportunate  widow,  (xviii.  1—8.) 

4  xi.  SeirrigiileoUf:ne*s  reproved,  and  humilily  encouraged,  by  the  para 
ble  of  llie  Pharisee  and  publican  or  Inx  gatherer,  (xviii.  '.) — 14.) 

4  xii.  Christ  encourages  young  chiMren  to  be  bronglil  lo  him  (xviii.  15— 

17.);  and  discourses  with  a  rich  young  man.  (It^ — .'iO.) 

5  \iii.  Chri.st  again  forelells  his  death  to  his  disciples  (xviii.  31 — 34.);  aui> 
cures  a  blind  man  near  Jericho.  (.35 — 42.) 

4  xiv.  The  conversion  of  Zaccheus.  (xix.  1  —  10.) 

§  xv.^TIk'  parable  of  a  nobleman  going  into  a  distant  country  lo  receive 
kingdom,  (xix.  11—28.) 

Sect.  4.  The  transactions  at  Jerusalem,  until  the  passion   of 

Christ,  A.  D.  33. 

4  i.  On  Piitm-Stimlatj  (.0.^  we  now  call  10  or  tho^rs^  day  of  Past  ion 

week,    (Jlirist  makes  liis  lowly  yet  triuiiipb.d   t-nlrv  into  Jenisiili-m, 

weeps  over  the  city,  and  expels  the  irader.s  out  of*  the  temple,  (xix. 

29-40.) 

4ii.  On   Monday,  or  the  seamr!  ilay  of  Pas.slon-weck,  Christ  tcachi* 

iliiriiig  the  day  in  the  temple,  (xix.  47,  1.'^  ) 
4  iii.  On  Tuestlay,  or  the  thrd  day  of  Passion-wrek. 
(«)  In  llie  day  lime  and  in  tin-  Tcinplr,  Chris!   confutes  the  chio* 
priests,  scribes,  and  rl(br«,   1.  Ily  aqueHiMnconci-riilng  the  biipli.shi 
of  .Fohii.  (XX.  I — P  )  — 2.  Hy  the  parable  of  the  labourers  In  the  vinn 
yard.  (9— 19.)— 3.    My  sho'wina  lli<!  lawfulness  of  paying  tribute  to 
Ca'.Har.  (20— 26.)— 'I'he   Sadducees  confutid,  and  the   resurrectiou 
roved.    (27 — 10.)— The  scribes  confounded,  and  ihi'  ilii-ciples  of 
'lirist  warned  not  to  follow  their  example.  (41 — 47.)— The  cbariljr 
of  a  poor  willow  toininended.  (xxi.  I — 4.) 
(A)  I>\  the  etr.ning,  and  i>rincipally  on  the  Mount  of  0//rM,  Chribi 
discourses  concerning  the  destruction  of  the  tcmiile,  and  of  the  laFl 
jiidtmenl  fxxi   5-'.?S.> ;  delivers  anothir  paiabic  of  Ihe  fig  trr.j  ^..J 
—33.);  and  enforces  the  duty  of  watchfulness.  (34 — K.) 


r-' 


«ECT.  v.] 


ON  THE  GOSPEL  BY  SAINT  JOHN. 


313 


§  iv.  0:1  Wednesday,  or  l\\i_f<jurlh  diy  of  Passion-wcck,  the  chief  priests 

consull  to  kill  Chriit.  (xxii.  1—3.) 
§  V.  On  T/iurxdai/,  or  ihe  fi/ih  clay  of  Passion-^veek,  Judas  covenants  to 
betray  Ulirist  (xxii.  4 — ^.);  and  Clirist  sends  two  disciples  lo  prepare 
the  Pa.ssover.  (7 — 13.) 
§  vi.  On  ihe  Passuver-daij, — that  is,  from  Thursday  evening  lo  Friday 
everting  of  Passion-iceeK; 

(a)  In  the  evening,  Clirisl  cats  the  Passover ;  institutes  the  Sacrament 
of  tlie  Lord's  Supper;  discourses  on  humility;  cuicl  foretells  his 
being  betray e J  by  Judas,  his  abandonment  by  his  disciples,  and 
Peter's  denial  of  him.  (xxii.  11— 3S.) 
(6)  7'owards  night,  after  eating  the  Passover  with  his  apostles,  Jesus 
ttoes  to  the  Mount  of  Oiives;  whore,  alter  being  sotae  time  u»  an 
a.2ony,  he  is  apprehended,  (xxii.  30—53.) 

(c)  During  tlie  night,  Christ  having  been  conducted  lothehisthpriest's 
house  (whither  Peter  followed  and  denied  him),  is  derided,  (xjcii.  54 
— es.) 

(d)  .1/  day-break  on  Friday  viornijig,  Christ  is  tried  before  thcSanhe- 
driri  (xxii.  06 — 71.);  from  whose  tribunal, 

(e)  On  Friday  morning,  1.  he  is  delivered  first  to  Pilate  (xxiii.  1 — 7.), 
wlio  sends  !iim  to  llcrod  (3 — 12.);  by  wlioin  lie  is  again  sent  to 
Pilate,  and  is  by  liim  condemned  to  be  crucified.  (13 — 25  ) — 2.  Christ's 
discourse  to  lUe  women  of  Jerusalem  as  he  was  led  forth  lo  be  cru- 
cilicd.  (26—31.) 

{f)T\\(i  transactions  of  the  third  /lOMr.— The  crucifixion;  Christ's 
garments  divided;  the  inscription  on  the  cross ;  his  address  to  the 
penitent  robber,  (xxiii.  32 — J3.) 

is)  From  the  sixth  to  the  niriih  hour. — The  preternatural  darkness, 
rending  of  tiie  veil ;  death  of  Christ,  and  its  concomitant  circum- 
stances, (xxiii.  44 — 19.) 

(A)  Bclireen  the  ninth  hour  and  sujiset,  Jesus  Christ  is  interred  by 
Joseph  of  Ariinathea.   (.xxiii.  00 — 50.) 

Skct.   5.    Transactions  after  Christ's   resurrection   on   Easter 
Day. 

§i.  CiuTsi's  resurrection  testified  to  the  woman  by  the  angel,  (xxiv.  1 

-11.) 
§  ii.  Christ  appears  to  two  disciples  in  their  way  to  Emmaus,  and  also  to 

Peter,  (x.xiv.  12—35.) 
§  iii.  His  appearance  to  the  apastles.  and  his  i;;>itructions  to  them.   (x.jiv. 

30—19.) 

Sect.  6.  The  ascension  of  Christ,  and  the  apostles'  return  to 
Jerusalem,   (xxiv.  50 — 52.)  ^ 

The  plan  of  classifying  events,  adopted  by  Luke,  has  been 
followed  by  Livy,  Plutarch,  and  other  prs^fane  historical  wri- 
ters. Thus  Suetonius,  after  exhibitinjr  a  brief  summary  of 
the  life  of  Aujrustus,  previous  to  his  acquiring  the  sovereign 
power,  announces  his  intention  of  recording  the  subsequent 
events  of  his  life,  not. in  order  of  time,  but  arranging  them 
into  distinct  classes  ;  and  then  proceeds  to  give  an  account  of 
his  wars,  honours,  legislation,  discipline,  and  private  life.' 
In  like  manner,  Florus  intimates  that  he  would  not  observe 
the  strict  order  of  time;  but  in  order  that  the  things,  which 
he  should  relate,  might  the  better  appear,  he  would  relate 
them  distinctly  and  separately.^ 

VIIL  If  Paul  had  not  informed  us  (Col.iv.  14.)  that  Luke 
was  by  profession  a  pliysician,  and  consequently  a  man  of 
letters,  his  writings  would  have  sufficiently  evinced  that  he  had 
had  a  Aberal  education ;  for  although  his  Gospel  presents  as 
many  Hebraisms,  perhaps,  as  any  of  the  sacred  viri tings,  yet 
his  language  contains  more  numerous  Grcecisms,  than  that 
of  any  other  writer  of  the  New  Testament.  The  style  of 
this  evangelist  is  pure,  copious,  and  flowing,  and  bears  a  con- 
siderable resemblance  to  that  of  his  great  master  Paul. 
IMany  of  his  words  and  expressions  are  exactly  parallel  to 
those  which  are  to  be  found  in  the  best  classic  authors ;  and 
several  eminent  critics  have  long  since  jiointed  out  the  sin- 

fular  skill  and  propriety  with  which  Luke  has  named  and 
escribed  the  various  diseases  which  he  had  occasion  to  no- 
tice. As  an  instance  of  his  copiousness,  Dr.  Campbell  has 
remarked,  that  each  of  the  evangelists  has  a  number  of 
words  which  are  used  by  none  ct  the  rest :  but  in  Luke's 
Gospel,  the  number  of  such  words  as  are  used  in  none  of  the 
otiier  Gospels,  is  greater  than  that  of  the  peculiar  words 
found  in  all  the  other  three  Gospels,  put  together;  and  that 
the  terms  peculiar  to  Luke  are  for  the  most  part  long  and 
compound  words.  There  is  also  more  of  composition  in  his 
sentences  than  is  found  in  the  other  three  Gospels,  and  con- 
sequently less  simplicity.  Ofthiswehave  an  example  in 
the  first  sentence,  which  occupies  not  less  than  four  verses. 
Further,  Luke  seems  to  approach  nearer  to  the  manner  of 
other  historians,  in  giving  what  may  be  called  his  own  ver- 
dict in  the  narrative  part  of  his  work.  Thus  he  calls  the 
Pharisees  piKcif-yupy.,  lovers  of  money  (xvi.  14.^ ;  and  in  distin- 
guishing Judas  Iscariot  from  the  other  Juaas,  he  uses  the 
phrase  cc  x-^t  i-yinro  TrfJoTin;,  who  aho  proved  a  traitor,  (vi.  IG.) 
Matthew  (x.  4.")  and  Mark  (iii.  19.)  express  the  same  senti- 
ment in  milder  language, — icbo  delivereahim  up.  Again,  the 
attempt  made  by  the  Pliarisees,  to  extort  from  our  Lord  what 
might  prove  matter  of  accusation  against  him,  is  expressed 

'  Suetonius  in  Augnsto,  c.  ix.  (aJ.  xii.)  p.  53.  edit.  Bipont.    This  historian 
hasjpiirsuod  the  same  method  in  his  life  of  Cscsar. 
'  Flori,  Hist.  Rom.  lib.  ii.  c.  19. 
Vol.  TL  2  R 


by  Saint  Luke  in  more  animated  languatre  than  is  used  by 
either  of  the  rest  (xi.  53.)  :  "  7»ey  be<jan  vehemently  to  press 
him  ivitk  questions  on  many  points'.''^  And,  on  another  occa- 
sion, speaking  of  the  same  people,  he  says,  that  they  were 
filled  with  madness,  (vi.  11.)  Lastly,  in  the  moral  instruc- 
tions given  by  our  Lord,  and  recorded  by  this  evangelist, 
especially  in  the  parables,  no  one  has  surpassed  him  iiT  unit- 
ing affecting  sweetness  of  manner  with  genuine  simplicity, 
particularly  in  the  parables  of  the  benevcdent  Samaritan  and 
the  penitent  prodigal.^ 


SECTION  V. 

ON  THE  GOSPEL  BY  SAIXT  JOHN. 

I.  Title. — n.  Jluthor. — III.  Date. — IV.  Genuineness  and  aU' 
thcnticity  of  this  Gospel,  particularly  of  ch.  xxi.,  and  ch.  vii. 
53.,  and  viii.  11 — 1. — V.  Its  occasion  and  design. — .icconnt 
of  the  tenets  of    Cerinthiis. — Analysis  of  its  contents. — VI. 

The  Gospel  of  John,  a  supplement  to  the  other  three, VII. 

Observations  on  its  style.  ^ 

I.  The  Title  of  this  Gospel  varies  greatly  in  the  manu- 
scripts, editions,  and  versions.  In  the  Codex  Vaticanus  it 
is  simply  x-Ar^t  ^a,».vmv,  according  to  John ,-  in  many  other  MSS. 
and  editions,  'Eudryyihi'^.v  to  ksta  l&i.nn,  the  Gospel  according  lo 
John,  or  to  kutu.  laixvvav  (a)^/;v^  EuTtyyixiiv,  the  Gospel  according 
lo  {.Saitit)  John,-  in  the  Coclex  Bczae,  A^^trm  iuxyyiKnv  hxtx 
ifflxvi'iiv,  the  Gospel  according  to  John  beginncth.  I'o  omit  minor 
variations  in  manuscripts  of  less  ancient  date, — in  theSyriac 
version,  in  Bishop  AValton's  Polyglott,  this  Gospel  is  en- 
titled, "  The  Holy  Gospel,  the  preaching  of  St.  John,  which 
he  delivered  in  Greek,  and  published  at  Ephesus :"  in  the 
Arabic  version  it  is  "The  Gospel  of  St.  John  the  son  of 
Zebedee,  one  of  the  twelve  apostles,  which  he  wrote  in  Greek 
by  the  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Spirit;"  and  in  the  Persian 
version,  "  The  Gospel  of  John,  one  of  the  twelve  apostles, 
which  was  spoken  in  the  Greek-Roman  toncrue  at  Ephesus." 

II.  John,  the  evangelist  and  apostle,  was  the  son  of  Zebe- 
dee, a  fisherman  of  the  town  of  Bethsaida,  on  the  sea  of 
Galilee,  and  the  younger  brother  of  James  the  elder.  His 
mother's  name  was  Salome.  Zebede;^  though  a  fisherman, 
appears  to  have  been  in  good  circumstances;  for  the  evan- 
gelical history  informs  us  that  he  was  the  owner  of  a  vessel, 
and  had  hired  servants.  (Mark  i.  20.)  And  therefore  we 
have  no  reason  to  imagine  that  his  children  were  altogether 
illiterate,  as  some  critics  have  imagined  them,  to  have'^been, 
from  a  misinteqn-etation  of  Ads  iv.  13.,  where  the  terms 
dL-yfiuuxTci  and  ihinTxt,  in  our  version  rendered  unlearned  and 
ig)iorant  men,  simply  denote  persons  in  private  stations  of 
life,  who  w^ere  neither  rabbis  nor  magistrates,  and  such  as 
had  not  studied  in  the  schools  of  the  Pharisees,  and  conse- 
quently were  ignorant  of  the  rabbinical  learning  and  traditions 
of  the  Jev,'s.  John  and  his  brother  James  were,  doubtless, 
well  acquainted  with  the  Scriptures  of  the  Old  Testament, 
having  not  only  read  them,  but  heard  them  publicly  explained 
in  the  synagogues ;  and,  in  common  with  the  other"  Jews, 
they  entertained  the  expectation  of  the  iNlessiah,  and  that  his 
kingdom  would  be  a  temporal  one.  It  is  not  impossible, 
though  it  cannot  be  affirmed  v%'ith  certainty,  that  John  had 
been  a  disciple  of  John  the  Baptist,  before  he  became  a  dis- 
ciple of  Christ.  At  least,  the  circumstantial  account,  which 
he  has  given  in  ch.  i.  37 — 41.  of  the  two  disciples  who  fal- 
lowed Christ,  might  induce  us  to  suppose  that  he  was  one 
of  the  two.  It  is,  however,  certain  that  he  had  both  seen  and 
heard  our  Saviour,  and  had  witnessed  some  of  his  miracles, 
particularly  that  performed  at  Cana  in  Galilee,  (ii.  1 — 11.) 
John  has  not  recorded  his  ow-n  call  to  the  apostleship;  but 
we  learn  from  the  other  three  evangelists  that  it  took  place 
when  he  and  James  were  fishing  upon  the  sea  of  Gahlee."" 

'  Dr.  Campbell  on  the  Gospels,  vol.  ii.  pp.  12G — 129.  Roscnmiiller,  Scho- 
lia in  Nov.  Test.  vol.  ii.  pp.3— G.  KulniJol,  Comment.  in1>il)ros  Hist.  Nov. 
Test.  vol.  ii.  pp.  213—220.  Bp.  Marsh's  Michaclis,  vol.  iii.  part  i.  pp.  22S— 
271.  Pritii,  Introd.  ad  Nov.  Test.  pp.  ISl— 195.  Viscr,  Herm.  Sacr.  Nov. 
Test,  pars  i.  pp.  a33— 339.  pars  ii.  pp.  205—209.  221.  tt  seq  2t4.  RnmpaJi, 
Comm.  Crit.  in  Lihros  Nov.  Test.  pp.  81  SS.  Bishop  Cleaver's  Discourse 
on  the  Style  of  St.  Luke's  Gospel,  in  his  Sermons,  pp.  209^224.  8vo.  Ox- 
ford, lSO-3. 

*  Matt.  iv.  21,  22.  Mark  i.  19.  20.  Luke  v.  1—10.  Lampe  has  marked  what 
he  thinks  are  three  degrees  in  the  call  of  .S.aint  .lohn  to  be  a  follower  of 
Christ,  viz.  1.  His  call  to  the  disciplesliip  (John  i.  37 — 42.),  alter  which  he 
continued  to  Ibllow  his  business  for  a  short  time ;  2.  Ilis  call  lo  be  one  of 
the  immediate  companions  of  Christ  (Matt.  iv.  21,22);  and,  3.  His  call  to 
Ihe  apostleship,  wh-n  the  surname  of  Boanerges  was  given  to  him  and  hig 
brother.  Lampe,  Comment,  in  Evangeliuin  Johannis  Prolegom.  cap.  ii.  pp. 
17-21. 


314 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Paht  VI.  CaAP.  a. 


And  Mark,  in  enumeratiiiCT  the  twelve  apostles  (iii.  17. )i 
when  he  meniioiis  James  a:i'l  John,  says  that  our  Lord  "sur- 
nained  them  Boanerges,  which  is,  sons  of  thunder,"  from 
which  appollalion  we  are  not  to  suppose  that  they  were  of 
particularly  fierce  and  ungovernable  tempers  (as  Dr.  Cave 
nas  conjectured) ;'  but,  as  Dr.  Lardner  and  others  have  ob- 
served, it  is  rather  to  be  considered  as  prophetically  represent- 
ing the  resolution  and  courage  with  which  they  woulii  openly 
and  boldly  declare  the  great  truths  of  the  Gospel  when  fully 
acquainted  with  ihcnt.  How  appropriate  this  title  was,  tiie 
Acts  of  tlie  Apostles  and  tlie  writings  of  John  abundantly 
6how.2  I'Vom  the  time  when  John  and  his  brotiier  received 
their  irnrnediate  call  from  Ciirist,  they  became  his  constant 
attendants  ;  they  heard  his  discourses,  and  beheld  his  mira- 
cles ;  and,  after  prenous  instruction, both  public  and  private, 
they  were  honoured  with  a  selection  and  appointment  to  be 
of  the  number  of  the  apostles. 

What  the  age  of  John  was  at  this  time,  his  history  does 
not  precisely  ascertain.  Some  have  conjectured  that  he  was 
then  twenty-two  years  old;  others  that  he  was  about  twenty- 
iive  or  twenty-six  years  of  age ;  and  others  again  tiiiid;  that 
lie^-as  about  the  age  of  our  Saviour.  Dr.  Lardner  is  of 
opmion  tliat  none  of  the  apostles  were  much  under  the  age 
of  thirty,  when  they  were  appointed  to  that  important  office. 
Whatever  his  age  might  have  been,  John  seems  to  have  been 
the  youngest  of  the  twelve,  and  (if  we  may  judire  frona 
his  writings)  to  have  possessed  a  temper  singularly  mild. 
amiable,  and  affectionate.  He  was  eminently  the  object  of 
cur  Lord's  regard  and  confidence ;  and  was,  on  various  occa- 
sions, admitted  to  free  and  intimate  intercourse  with  him,  so 
that  he  was  characterized  as  "the  disciple  whom  Jesus 
loved."  (John  xiii.  23.)  Hence  we  find  him  present  at 
several  scenes,  to  which  most  of  the  otlier  disciples  were 
not  admitted.  He  was  an  eye-witness,  in  company  with 
only  Peter  and  James,  to  the  resurrection  of  Jairus's  daughter 
to  life,  to  our  Saviour's  transfiguration  on  the  mount,  and  to 
his  agony  in  the  garden.  Jolin  repaid  tliis  attention  by  the 
most  sincere  attachment  to  his  master;  for,  though,  in  com- 
mon with  the  oilier  apostles,  he  had  betrayed  a  culpable 
timidity  in  forsaking  him  during  his  last  conflict,  yet  he 
afterwards  recovered  his  finrmess,  and  was  the  only  apostle 
who  followed  Ciirist  to  the  place  of  his  crucifixion.  He 
was  ako  present  at  the  several  appearances  of  our  Saviour 
after  his  resurrection,  and  has  given  his  testimony  to  the 
truth  of  that  miraculous  fact;  and  these  circumstances, 
tocrether  with  his  intercourse  willi  the  mother  of  Christ 
(whom  our  Saviour  had  commended  to  his  care)  (xix.  2G, 
27.),  qualified  him,  better  than  any  other  writer,  to  give  a 
circumstantial  and  authentic  history  of  Jesus  Christ. 

In  one  of  our  Saviour's  interviev/s  with  his  a])ostle3,  after 
his  resurret-tion,  he  prophetically  to^d  this  evangelist  that  he 
would  survive  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  and  intimated, 
not  obscurely,  that  Peter  would  sulfer  crucifixion,  but  that 
he  would  die  a  natural  death,  (xxi.  18 — 21.)  After  the 
ascension  of  Ciirist,  and  the  effusion  of  the  Holy  Spirit  on 
the  day  of  Pentecost,  John  became  one  of  the  chief  apostles 
of  the  circumcision,  and  exercised  his  ministry  at  Jerusalem 
and  its  vicinity,  in  the  manner  and  with  the  success  related 
in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.^  He  was  present  at  the  council 
held  in  that  city  (Acts  xv.)  about  the  year  49  or  50.  Until 
this  time  he  probably  remained  in  Juua;a,  and  had  not  tra- 
velled into  any  foreign  countries.  From  ecclesiastical  his- 
tory we  learn,  that  after  the  death  of  Mary,  the  mother  of 
Ciirist,  John  proceeded  to  Asia  Minor,  where  he  founded  and 
presided  over  seven  churches  in  as  many  cities,  but  resided 
chiefly  at  Kphesus.  Thence  he  was  banished  to  tin-  Isle  of 
Patmos  towards  the  close  of  Domitian's  reign,  where  he 
wrote  hia  Revelation.  (Rev.  i.  9.)  Ori  his  liiieration  from 
exile,  by  the  accession  of  Nerva  to  the  imperial  llirone,  John 
returned  to  Kphesus,  where  he  wrot<^  his  (iospel  and  Epis- 
tles, and  died  in  the  hundredth  jear  of  his  age,  about  tiie 
year  of  Christ  100,  and  in  the  third  year  of  the  reign  of  the 
emperor  'I'rajan.'  , 

111.  The  precise  time  when  this  Cospcl  was  written  has 
not  been  ascertained,  thouwh  it  is  generally  agreed  l!iat  John 
composed  it  at  Kphesus.  IJasnage  and  Lampe  suppose  it  to 
have  been  written  before  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  ;  and, 
in  conformity  with  their  opinion,  Dr.  Lardner  fixes  its  date 

•  C.ivc'b  I.iffi  of  St.  Jamos  ihfl  Orcnl,  i  0.  p.  142. 

•  Uiinpp,  (-'miiinrnl.  in  iCvanicliiiiii  Jolinnnis  Prolrgorn.  cop.  I.  pp.  21—30, 


•  Si'C  parliciihirly  AriK  iii.  iv.  1 — 'ii.  ami  viil.  5— !<!G. 

*  Ijir.liwr'g  WiirkH,  Hvo.  vol  vi.  jip.  1.75—170  ;  Ito.  vol.  lit.  pp  212—! 
icliailJD,  vol.  iii.  part  i.  pp.  272 — 274.    I.ainpp,  Prolog,  in  Joan.  Evangel 


M 

31—102.    Jones  on  lUe  Oinon,  vol.  Hi.  pp.  lOl— 110, 


220. 
pp. 


in  the  year  G8 ;  Dr.  Owen  in  G9 ;  Michaelis  in  70.  But 
Chrysostom  and  Epiphanius,  among  th,»  ancient  fathers,  and 
Dr.  Mill,  Fabricius,  Le  Clerc,  and  Bi.shop  Tomline,  among 
the  moderns,  refer  its  date,  with  greater  probability,  to  the 
year  97,  Mr.  Jones  to  the  year  98,  and  Berthok't  toihe  last 
decad  of  the  first  century.  The  principal  argument  for  its 
earlj  date  is  derived  from  Jehn  v.  2.,  where  the  apostle  say^, 
"  Aojy  there  is  at  Jerusalem,  by  the  sheej^-trKjrket,  a  pool,  zuhic/t 
i.<i  called  i7i  the  Hebrew  tongue  Bethe^da,  having  Jirc  porches." 
From  these  words  it  is  urged,  that  Jerusalt  in  was  standing 
wlien  they  were  written ;  and  that  if  they  had  been  written 
after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  the  evangelist  would  have 
used  the  past  tense  instead  of  the  present,  -.'.nd  would  have 
sai<i,  T/iere  was  at  Jcrunukm  a  pool,  &c.  B'U  this  argument 
is  more  specious  tlian  forcible;  for,  thou:r'<  Jerusalem  was 
demolished,  it  does  not  necessarily  follow  that  the  pool  cf 
Bethesda  was  dried  up.  On  the  eoiitrary,  there  are  much 
stronger  reasons  for  sii])posip.g  that  it  escaped  the  general  de- 
vastation; for,  when  Vespasian  ordered  the  city  to  be  demolish- 
ed, he  ])er.iiitted  some  things  to  remain  for  the  use  of  the  gcr- 
rison  wliich  was  to  be  stationed  there;'  and  he  would  naturally 
leave  this  baliiing-placc,  fitted  up  with  recesses  or  porticoes 
for  shade  and  shelter,  that  he  might  not  dc  prive  the  .soldiers 
of  a  grateful  refreshment."  Now,  since  the  evangelist's 
proposition  may  simply  regard  Bethesda,  we  cannot  be  cer- 
tain that  it  Inoks  further,  or  has  any  view  to  llie  state  of  Je- 
rusalem. The  argument,  therefore,  which  is  deduced  from 
the  above  passage  in  favour  of  an  early  date,  is  inconclusive. 

But,  besides  tliis  argument,  we  have  strong  evidence  frc^m 
the  contents  and  design  of  the  Gospel  itself,  that  it  was  not 
written  until  the  year  97.  It  is  evident,  as  Bishop  Tomline 
has  forcibly  remarked,  that  the  evangelist  considers  those  to 
whom  he  addresses  his  Gospel  as  but  little  acquainted  with 
Jewish  customs  and  names ;  for  he  gives  vario'.'.s  explana- 
tions which  would  be  unnecessary,  if  the  perso:iS  for  whom 
he  wrote  were  conversant  with  the  ufcages  of  the  Jews.^ 
Similar  explan  itions  occur  in  the  Gospels  of  Mark  and  Luke ; 
but  in  this  of  John  they  are  more  marked,  and  occur  more 
frequently.  Tiie  reason  of  which  may  be,  that  when  John 
wrote,  many  more  Geniiks,  and  of  more  dis^int  countries, 
had  been  converted  to  (/hri.stianity ;  and  it  was  now  become 
necessary  to  explain  to  the  (Christian  church,  thus  extended, 
many  circumstances  which  needed  no  explanation  while  its 
members  belonged  only  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Judaea,  and 
wliile  the  Jewish  polity  was  still  in  existence.  It  is  reason- 
able to  suppose  that  the  feasts  and  other  peculiarities  of  the 
Jews  would  be  but  little  understood  by  the  Gentilf  s  of  Asia 
Minor,  thirty  years  after"  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.'^ 

IV.  The  "Gospel  by  John  has  been  universally  received  as 
genuine.  The  circumstantiality  of  its  details  proves  that  the 
book  was  written  by  a  hearer  and  eye -witness  of  the  discourses 
and  tran.sactions  it  records;  and,  consequently,  could  not  be 
written  long  afterwurdf  by  a  Platonic  Christian,  as  it  hiS 
been  recently  asserted,  contrary  to  all  evidence.  But,  besides 
this  incontestable  internal  evidence,  we  have  the  external  and 
uninterrupted  testimony  of  the  ancient  fathers  of  the  Chris- 
tian church.  His  CJospel  is  alluded  to,  once  by  Clement  cf 
Rome,  and  once  by  Barnabas  ;3  and  four  times  by  Ignatius 
bishop  of  Autioch,  who  had  been  a  disciple  of  the  evange- 
list, and  had  converse<l  familiarly  with  several  of  the  apostles."' 
It  was  also  received  by  Justin  iMartyr,"  Tatian,  the  churches 
of  Vienne  and  Lyons, '^  Irenjrus,'^  Athenageras,"'  Thecphilui 
of  Antioch,'^  Clement  cf  Alexandria.''  Tertullian,'"  Ammo- 
nius,''  Origen,'*  Eusebius,^-'  Epiphanius,  Augustine,  Chry- 
snstom,  and,  in  sliort,  by  all  subseciuent  writers  of  the  ancient 
(Christian  church.'^'  The  Alogi  or  Alogians,  a  sect  which  is 
said  to  have  existed  in  the  second  century,  are  reported  to 

»  .See  Josrplnis  do  Doll.  Jiul.  lib.  iii.  c.  i.  §  i. 

«  Dr.TowiiKiiii's  Works,  vol.  i.  p.  22J.  Tlila  conjecture  la  confirmed  by 
tho  facl,  that  VoNpasinn  kooii  after  erected  inuj^nificcnl  public  batliaat  Rome. 
.Siii'loniiis  in  Vospawiano,  c.  vii. 

'  Kiv  parliciilai'ly  Jolin  i.W.  41.,  li.  6.  13.,  iv.  0  ,  and  .xl.  65. 

•  Kleni<^nt8  of  Christ.  Thool.  vol.  i.  pp.  335.    Jones  on  the  Canon,  vol.  iii 

pp  113— no. 

»  Sfc  Jonos  on  Iho  Cnnon,  vol.  iii.  pp.  117.  llS. 
«»  Dr.  U'\rdn<T'.'<  Works,  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  120,  121.  •  4(o.  vol.  i.  p.  344. 
'■  Ibid.  flvo.  vol.  li.  p.  139.  ;  4to.  vol.  i   p.  XV,. 
'1  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  II.  p.  irX). ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  3f.|. 
'»  Ibid.  .Svo.  vol.  II.  p.  ICl. ;  4lo.  vol.  i.  p.  3C.7. 
'«  llil.l.  8vo.  vol.  il.  p.  1S:J. ;  4lo.  vol.  I.  p  T,\\. 
i»  Iliid.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  p.  l'.t;t. ;  4l<i.  vol.  i.  p.  3^1. 
1"  Ibid.  Hvo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  212.  21.0.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  395,  399. 
I'  Ibid.  fivo.  vol.  II.  p.  2a;. ;  4lo.  vol.  i.  p.  419 
i«  Ibid.  Rv.i.  vol.  ii.  pii.  414— 417.  ;  4(o.  vol.  I.  p; 
!•  Ibid.  Hvo.  vol.  li.  p(i.  4li'.l.  470.;  4lo.  vtil.  i.  pj 
»o  Ibi  I.  Svo.  Vol.  iv.  pp.  22.">— 'ii7. ;  4io.  vol.  Ii.  pp  .■■■-,  i'.;). 
«'  rJco  tlicir  Bfvcral  icsiinHmlcii  In  Laiduur'*  Works,  8vo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  187 
—190. ;  4to.  vol.  111.  pp.  U7,  'AM. 


Sect.  V.] 


ON  THE  GOSPEL  BY  SAINT  JOHN. 


315 


have  rejected  this  Gospel,  as  well  as  the  rest  of  John's  wri- 
ting- ;  but  we  have  no  information  concerning-  these  Alogi, 
on  wliicli  any  dependance  can  be  placed :  for,  in  strictness, 
we  have  no  account  of  them  except  the  later  and  uncertain 
accounts  of  Pliilaster  and  Epiphanius;  Irenaeus,  Eusebius, 
and  other  ancient  writers  hefore  thein,  being  totally  silent 
concerning  the  Alogi.  The  probability,  therefore,  is,  that 
there  never  was  any  such  heresy.' 

With  such  decisive  testimonies  to  the  genuineness  of  .John's 
Gospel,  it  is  not  a  little  surprising,  that  an  eminent  critic  on 
the  con tinent^  should  have  asserted  that  his  Gospel  and  Epis- 
tles exhibit  clear  evidence,  that  it  was  not  written  by  an  eye- 
witness, but  was  compiled  by  some  Gentile  Christian  in  the 
beginning  of  the  second  century,  after  the  death  of  the  evan- 
gelist John,  for  whom  he  passed  himself.  It  is  also  astonish- 
ing that,  with  such  testimonies  to  the  genuineness  of  this 
Gospel,  so  distinguished  a  critic  as  Grolius  should  have 
imagined  that  the  evangelist  terminated  his  history  of  our 
Saviour  with  the  twentieth  chapter,  and  that  the  twenty-first 
chapter  was  added  after  his  death  by  the  church  at  Ephesus. 
But  this  opinion  is  contradicted  by  the  universal  consent  of 
manuscripts  and  versions  ;  for,  as  thi^;  Gospel  was  published 
before  the  evangelist's  death,  if  there  had  been  an  edition  of 
it  witliout  the  twenty-first  chapter,  it  would  in  all  probability 
have  been  wanting  in  some  copies.  To  which  we  may  add 
that  the  genuineness  of  the  cliapter  in  question  was  never 
doubted  by  any  one  of  the  ancient  Christian  writers.  Finally, 
the  style  is  precisely  the  same  as  that  of  the  rest  of  his 
Gospel.^ 

Some  doubts  have  been  entertained  concerning  the  genuine- 
ness of  the  portion  of  this  Gospel  comprised  between  ch. 
vii.  oS.andviii.  1 — 11.  Its  authenticity  has  been  questioned 
by  Erasmus,  Calvin,  Beza,  Grotius,  Le  Clerc,  Wetstein, 
Semler,  Schulze,  INIorus,  Haenlein,  Paulus,  Schmidt,  and 
various  other  writers  who  are  mentioned  by  Wolfius,''  and 
by  Koecher  :=  Grieshach  and  Schulz  have  remarked  it  as  a 
passage  which  ought  probably  to  be  omitted ;  and  iis  genu- 
ineness has  been  advocated  by  Drs.  Mill  and  Whitby,  Bp. 
Middleton,  Heumann,  Michaelis,  Storr,  Langius,  Dettmers, 
Staeudlin,'' Kuin  jcI,  and  Dr.  Bloomfield.  The  limits  neces- 
sarily prescribed  to  this  section  forbid  us  to  enter  into  a 
review  of  all  that  has  been  said  on  this  subject;  but  it  may 
be  permitted  to  remark  that  the  evidei;ce  is  in  favour  of  the 
genuineness  of  the  passage  in  question.  For,  though  it  is 
not  found  in  several  ancient  versions,  and  is  not  quoted  or 
illustrated  by  Chrysostom,  Theophylact,  Nonnus  (who  wrote 
commentaries  or  explanations  of  this  Gospel),  nor  by  Ter- 
tuliiaa,  or  Cyprian,  both  of  whom  treat  copiously  on  chastity 
and  adultery,  and  therefore  had  abundant  opportunity  of  ci- 
ting it,  if  it  had  been  extant  in  their  copies ;  yet  it  is  found 
in  the  greater  puH  of  the  manuscripls  (Grieshach  has  enume- 
rated mare  than  eighty)  that  are  extant,  though  with  great 
diversity  of  readings,  if  it  had  not  been  genuine,  how  could 
it  have  found  its  way  into  these  manuscripts  T  Moreover, 
there  is  nothing  in  the  paragraph  in  question  that  militates 
either  against  the  character,  sentiments,  or  conduct  of  Jesus 
Christ;  on  the  contrary,  the  whole  is  perfectly  consistent 
with  his  meekness,  gentleness,  and  benevolence.  To  which 
we  may  add,  that  tliis  passage  is  cited  as  genuine  by  Augus- 
tine, who  assigns  the  reason  why  it  was  omitted  by  some 
copyists,  viz.  lest  any  olTeuce  should  be  taken  by  supposing 
tiiat  our  Lord  suffered  a  guilty  woman  to  go  unpunished. 
But,  in  reply  to  this  supposition  or  objection,  we  may  remark, 
1.  That,  according  to  his  own  declaration,  he  came  not  into 
the  w-jrld  to  condemn  the  world  (John  iii.  17.  viii.  15.  xii.  47. 
Luke  xii.  14.)  and  to  execute  the  office  of  a  judge  (and  it  is 
but  reasonable  to  try  him  by  his  own  principles,  in  which  no 
inconsistency  can  be  found)  ;  and,  2.  Any  exercise  of  judicial 
authority  would  have  given  a  direct  contradiction  to  that  de- 
ference and  subordination  whicii  he  constantly  showed  and 
inculcated  to  the  power  of  the  civil  magistrate.  An  addi- 
tional evidence  in  favour  of  the  disputed  clause  is  found  in 

«  Dr.  Lardner's  Works,  8vo.  vol.  ix.  pp.  515  516. ;  4to.  vol.  iv.  pp.  690,  691. 

»  Dr.  Uretsclineider,  in  his  Piohabilia  de  Evangelii  et  Epistnlaruin  Jo- 
hannis  Apostuli  Indole,  et  Originf..  8vo.  Lipsiaj,  1320.  In  jii.stice  to  Ur. 
Uretsclineider  it  must  now  be  stated  that,  in  tlie  preface  to  the  second  edi- 
tion of  his  Handbiicli  der  Dogmatik  (Manual  of  Dogmatic  Theology),  he 
declared  himself  satisfied  concerning  the  genuineness  of  this  passage. 
(Jena  Literary  Gazette  for  January,  1827,  Supplt.  No.  1.) 

»  The  genuineness  of  the  twenty-first  chapter  of  St.  John's  Gospel  is 
satisfactorily  vindicated  against  the  objections  of  Grotius,  and  some  modern 
critics,  by  Professor  Weber  in  his  ""  Aulhenlia  capitis  ultimi  Evangelii 
Johannis,  <kc."    Halis,  1823,  3vo. 

•  Wolfii  Cura;  Philologicee,  in  loc.  * 

•  Koecheri  Analecla,  in  loc. 

•  Staeudlin,  Prolusio  qua  Pericopne  de  Adulferl,  Joh.  vii.  53.  viii.  1 — 11., 
Veritas  et  Authentia  defetiditur.    Gottingoe,  1806, 4to. 


the  seventh  verse  of  John  viii.,  where  a/9-:v  has  the  article  t'.c 
prefixed. — He  {hut  is  without  sin  among  you,  let  him  first  cast 
THE  [not  a  stone,  as  in  our  authorized  version]  stone  at  her  ,- 
TON  A10ON  5-t'  aurce  0i>.!rra>.  The  allusion,  Bishop  Middlc- 
ton  remarks,  is  to  the  particular  manner  of  stoning,  which 
required  that  one  of  the  witnesses  (for  two  at  the  least  were 
necessary,  see  Deut.  xvii.  G.)  should  throw  the  stone,  which 
was  to  serve  as  a  signal  to  the  by-standers  to  complete  the 
punishment.  There  is  therefore  strict  propriety  in  calling 
this  stone  TON  xi^-ov,  in  order  to  distinguish  it  from  oiha- 
stones.  It  is  not  probable  that  an  interpolator  would  have 
been  thus  exact  in  his  phraseology,  or  v^ould  have  adverted 
to  this  apparently  trifling  circumstance  ;  especially  since  the 
expression  of  &uhKm  tcv  aiS-ov  is  not  elsewhere  found  in  the 
New  Testament.  A  few  manuscripts  (Grieshach  and  Schulx 
specify  eleven)  omit  the  article :  but  this.  Dr.  M.  is  of  opi- 
nion, only  proves  that  the  copyists  knew  not  what  to  malce 
of  it;  and  that,  had  they  undertaken  to  interpolate  the  pas- 
sage, they  would  have  done  it  less  skilfully  than  did  the 
present  interpolater,  supposing  we  must  consider  the  passage 
to  be  spurious.'' 

Upon  a  review  therefore  of  the  whole  evidence  respecting 
this  disputed  clause,  we  may  safely  conclude  that  it  prepon- 
derates ill  favour  of  its  genuineness. 

V.  The  design  of  St.  John  in  wrilina  his  Gospel  was  "to 
convey  to  the  Christian  v.'orld  just  and  adequate  notions  of 
the  real  nature,  character,  and  ofilce  of  that  great  Teacher, 
who  came  to  instruct  and  redeem  mankind.  For  this  purpose, 
he  studiously  selected,  for  his  narrative,  those  passages  of 
our  Saviour's  life,  which  most  clearly  displayed  his  divine 
power  and  authority  :  and  those  of  his  discourses,  in  which 
he  spoke  most  plainly  of  his  own  nature,  and  of  the  efficacy 
of  his  death,  as  an  atonement  for  the  sins  of  the  world.  The 
object,  which  this  evangelist  had  in  view,  is  very  clearly 
stated  in  chap.  xx.  verse  31.  It  was  not  to  accumulate  as 
many  instances  as  possible  of  the  miraculous  power  exerted 
by  Jesus;  but  only  those,  which  most  distinctly  illustrated 
his  peculiar  office  and  nature :  Many  other  signs  truly  did 
Jesus,  in  the  presence  of  his  disciples,  which  are  not  written  in 
this  book.  But  these  are  written,  that  ye  might  believe  that 
Jesus  is  the  Christ,  the  Son  of  God,-  and  that  believing,  ye 
might  have  life  through  his  name.  This  expression  seems  to 
prove,  that  those  persons  are  wrong,  who  suppose  that  St. 
John  wrote  his  Gospel,  merely  to  supply  the  defects  and  omis- 
sions of  the  other  Evangelists.  The  real  difference  between 
them  is,  that  they  wrote  a  history  of  our  Saviour's  life ;  but 
St.  John,  of  his  person  and  office. "^ 

But,  besides  tfiis  more  general  design  of  the  evangelist, 
we  are  informed  by  Irenajus,  asid  other  ancient  writers,  that 
there  were  two  especial  motives  that  induced  John  to  com* 
pose  his  Gospel.  One  was,  that  he  might  refute  the  heresiea 
of  Cerinthus  and  the  Nicolaitans,  who  had  attempted  to  cor« 
rupt  the  Christian  doctrine :  the  other  motive  was,  thai  ha 
might  supply  those  important  events  in  our  Saviour's  life, 
which  the  other  evangelists  had  omitted.  Respecting  thu 
former  of  these  motives,  Iren^us  gives  us  the  following 
account.9 

"  John  being  desirous  to  extirpate  the  errors  sown  in  tha 
minds  of  men  by  Cerinthus,  and  sometime  before  by  those 
called  Nicolaitans,  published  his  Gospel :  in  which  he  ac- 
quaints us  that  there  is  one  God,  who  made  all  things  by  his 
v.'ord,  and  not,  as  they  say,  one  who  is  the  Creator  of  the 
world,  and  another  who  is  the  Father  of  the  Lord  :  one  the 
Son  of  tlie  Creator,  and  another  the  Christ  from  the  super- 
celestial  abodes,  who  descended  upon  Jesus  the  Son  of  the 
Creator,  but  remained  impassible,  and  afterwards  fled  back 
to  his  own  pleroma  or  fulness." 

This  testimony  of  Irenteus  has  been  oppgsed  by  Lampe, 
Lardner,  Tittmann,  Kuinoel,  and  adopted  by  Buddeus,  Mi- 
chaelis, Moldenhawer,  Mosheim,  Bishop  Tomline,  Dr.  Owen, 
and  other  later  divines.  The  principal  objections  against 
the  declaration  of  Irenseus  may  be  reduced  to  the  two  follow- 
ing: viz. 

1.  That  Irenaeus  is  at  variance,  with  himself:  for  in  an- 
other passage  he  says,  "  as  John  the  disciple  of  our  Lord 
assures  us,  saying,  But  these  are  written,  that  ye  might  believe 
that  Jesus  is  the  Christ,  the  Son  of  God,  and  that  believing  ye 

'  Kuinoel,  Comment,  in  Libros  Nov.  Test,  Historicos,  pp.  379— .305.'  Titt- 
manni  Cominentarius  in  Evang.  Johannis,  pp.  S18— 322.  Bishop  Jfcddleton's 
Doctrine  of  the  Greek  Article,  on  John  viii.  7.  Griesbachii  et  i3chulzii  Nov. 
Test.  torn.  i.  pp.  5.5.5,  556.  Bloomfield's  Annotations,  vol.  iii.  pp.  275— 2S4.,  in 
which  Dr.  B.  has  given  a  copiou.s  statement  of  the  evidence  for  and  agiiinst 
this  section  of  St.  Jolm's  Gospel. 

a  Bp.  Bloomfield's  Lectures  on  the  Gospel  of  St.  John,  pp.  4,  5. 

9  Irenaeus  adv.  Hseros.  lib.  iii.  c.  11. 


316 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE    NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  VI.  Chap.  H 


might  have  life  thrmigh  his  name,-  fureseting  these  blasphe- 
mous notions  that  divide  the  Lord,  so  far  as  il  is  in  their 
power."'  Now,  if  Irenaus  liere  meant  to  say,  that  John 
only/orf.snit;  the  errors,  which  were  propaofdted  \>y  Cerinllius 
and  the  Gnostics,  it  must  appear  very  extraordinary  that  he 
should  say,  in  the  passage  above  quoted,  that  Jolin  wrote 
atrainst  the  errors  which  had  been  propagated  by  Cerinthus. 
But  the  contradiction  is  only  apparent;  i'ox  pnwidcns,  ilic 
expression  of  Irena?u3,  does  not  signify  "foreseeing^,"  but 
t^uardiiig  against.     The  latter  passage,  therefore,  when  pro- 

Serly  explained,  does  not  confute  but  confirm  the  former, 
lesides,  as  Paul,  in  his  first  Epistle  to  Timothy,  speaks  of 
Gnostic  errors,  it  is  evident  that  they  must  liave  been  propa- 
gated long  before  John  wrote  his  Gospel. 

2.  The  second  argument,  relied  upon  by  those  learned 
men  who  dis-;ent  from  the  common  opinion,  is,  that  the  early 
fathers,  in  their  catalogues  of  heretics,  for  the  most  nart  place 
Cerinthus  after  Carpocrates,  who  uncjucstionably  lived  and 
taught  in  the  second  century.  This  circumstance  would  cer- 
tainly possess  considerable  weight,  if  it  appeared  that  the 
early  fathers  had  paid  due  attention  to  the  regular  order  of 
time  in  tlieir  enumeration  of  heretics :  but,  instead  of  this, 
we  know  the  fact  to  be,  that  the  names  of  heretics  are  set 
down  by  Irenseus,  TertuUian,  Clement,  and  others,  at  ran- 
dom, and  without  paying  any  regard  to  the  times  in  which 
they  lived.  "  But  even  if  Irenaus  had  not  asserted  that  St. 
John  wrote  his  Gosp.-l  against  the  Gnostics,  and  particularly 
against  Cerinthus,  the  contents  of  the  Gospel  itself  would 
lead  to  this  conclusion.  The  speeches  of  Christ,  which  John 
has  recorded,  are  selected  with  a  totally  ditlerent  view  from 
that  of  the  three  first  evangelists,  who  have  given  such  as  are 
of  a  moral  nature ;  whereas  those  which  are  given  by  John 
are  chiefly  dogiuatical,  and  relate  to  Christ's  divinity,  the 
doctrine  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  supernatural  assistance  to 
bo  conimunicatod  to  the  apostles,  and  other  subjects  of  a  like 
import.  In  the  very  choice  of  his  expressions,  such  as 
'  %/*/,'  '  Ife,''  &c.  he  had  in  view  the  philosophy  of  the 
Gnostics,  who  used  or  rather  abused  these  terms.  That  the 
first  fourteen  verses  of  John's  Gospel  are  merely  historical, 
and  contain  only  a  short  account  of  ('hrist's  history  before 
his  appearance  oa  earili,  is  a  supposition  devoid  of  all  proba- 
bility. On  the  contrary,  it  is  evident  that  they  are  purely 
doctrinal,  and  that  they  were  introduced  with  a  i)olt'niiciil 
view,  in  order  to  confute  errors,  which  prevailed  at  that  time 
respecting  the  person  of  Jesus  Christ.  Unless  John  had  an 
adversary" to  combat  who  made  particular  use  of  the  words 
'  //i,'///,'  and  '  /;/<",'  he  would  not  have  thought  it  necessarj' 
after  having  described  the  Creator  of  all  things,  to  add,  tha't 
in  him  was  life,  and  the  life  was  the  light  of  men,  or  to  assert 
that  John  the  Baptist  was  not  that  light.  The  very  meaning 
of  the  word  '  light,''  would  be  extremely  dubious,  uidess  it 
were  determined  by  its  particular  application  in  the  oriental 
Gnosis.  For  without  the  supposition,  that  John  had  to  com- 
bat with  an  adversary  who  used  this  word  in  a  particular 
sense,  it  might  be  apjdied  to  any  divine  instructor,  wiio  by 
his  doctrines  enliirhtened  mankind.  Further,  the  positions 
contained  in  the  first  fourteen  verses  are  antitheses  to  posi- 
tions maintained  by  the  Gnostics,  who  used  the  words  As>;f, 
fax,  ja>.-,  jU-./i^v/ic,  5r>j.fc«/u./,  &c.  as  technical  terms  of  their 
hilosopliy.  Lastly,  the  speeches  of  Christ,  which  St.  Jolin 
..as  selected,  are  such  as  confirm  the  positions  laid  down  in 
the  first  chajitcr  of  his  Gospel ;  and  tlnrefore  we  must  con- 
clflTde  that  his  principal  object  throughout  the  whole  of  his 
Gospel  was  to  confute  the  errrfrs  of  the  Gnostics."'^ 

In  addition  to  the  preceding  arguments  and  proofs,  there  is 
one  circumstance  higlily  wortliy  of  remark,  which  greatly 
strengtinns  the  testimony  of  I  renaus  as  to  the  object  of  John 
in  writing  his  Gospel ;  viz.  that  he  delivered  it  within  a  cen- 
tury itfu-P that  Gospel  was  written.  Now,  as  Imurus  was  a 
disciple  of  Polycarp,  who  was  personally  acquainted  with 
the  evangelist,  no  con8e(piently  had^  the  best  means  of  pro- 
curing information  on  this  subjexjt.  The  eviiltmce  of  a  credible 
wriif  r  of  the  second  century,  uncontradicted  by  contemporary 
writers,  or  by  those  who  lived  in  the  following  century,  is 
Burely  i)referable  to  the  conjectures  oiTered  by  critics  of  the 
eighteenth  or  nineteenth  century.'     In  order  to  understand 

I  Qiiim.vttiio.1iim  JoanncB  Domini  illscipulns  crmfirmnt,  dlrrng,  "Ilaec 
■lutein  sciipta  suiil,  ill  crcilunn  c|U(>iiiaiii  Jesus  C8t  AImm  Dol,  ft  ul  creilon- 
108,  viiaui  ivtrniiim  tmlicatin  in  rioiiiine  ejuii;"  prwri'/rn*  ImH  lila.spluiimK 
regiila»,T|u.i.-  Jivi.luiil  Uoiiiinuui  quiuituuj  ex  ipbia  altiiiel.  Advers.  Uicrcs 
lili.  iii.  c.  10. 

»  Micliacli^  vol.  iii.  part  i.  p.  280. 

•  Laiiip*",  P! 'I' '>   in  Joliannifi  Evanireliiim,  vol  i.  p.  1/0.  el  icj.     Bud- 

ileua  ill-  Kcc'r  lien,  p.  112.  et  tcj     M.i.'hclin'is  Coiiiniciilnrici  f>n 

iiie  Affaira  oi  i     i       .    •,  vol.  I  pp.  337  333.  twle.    MIchatliH,  vol.  iii.  part  i. 


i 


the  design 


ign  and  arrangement  of  John's  Gospel,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  take  a  brief  review  of  the  tenets  of  Cerinthus, 
in  opposition  to  which  the  evangelist  purposely  wrote  it. 
This  will  not  only  rertect  considerable  light  on  particular 
l)assages,  but  make  the  whole  appear  a  complete  work, — 
regular,  clear,  and  conclusive. 

Cerinthus  was  by  birth  a  Jew,  who  lived  at  the  close  of 
the  first  century:  having  studied  literature  and  philosophy 
at  Alexandria,  he  attemj)ted  at  length  to  form  a  new  and 
singular  system  of  doctrine  and  discipline,  by  a  monstrous 
combination  of  the  doctrines  of  Jlsus  Christ  with  the  oiiinions 
and  errors  of  the  Jews  and  Gnostics.  From  the  latter  he 
borrowed  thc[r*Plcro»ia  or  fulness,  their  .Ko/is  or  spirits,  their 
Dci/iiurgHS  or  creator  of  the  visible  world,  &c.  and  so  modi- 
fied and  tempered  these  fictions  as  to  cive  them  an  air  of 
Judaism,  which  must  have  considerably  favoured  the  progress 
of  his  heresy.  He  taught  that  the  most  high  God  was  utterly 
unknown  before  the  appearance  of  Christ,  and  dwelt  in  a 
remote  heaven  called  n.vHPnMA  {Fkroma^  with  the  chief 
spirits  or  /Eons — That  this  supreme  God  first  generated  an 
unlfj  bcgulttn  son,  MONOrKNE.i,  who  again  begat  the  word, 
AOrOi,  which  was  inferior  to  the  first-ljorn.  That  Christ 
was  a  still  lower  ajon,  though  far  superior  to  some  others — 
That  there  were  two  higher  Kons,  distinct  from  Christ;  one 
called  znH,  or  life,  ana  the  other  *a2,  or  the  light — That 
from  the  aions  again  proceeded  inferior  orders  of  spirits,  and 
particularly  one  Baniurgus,  who  cxe?iU'i\  this  visible  world  out 
of  eternal  matter — That  this  Deiniurgus  was  ignorant  of  the 
supreme  God,  and  much  lower  than  the  ^''ons,  which  were 
wtioUy  invisible — ^That  he  was,  however,  the  peculiar  God 
and  protector  of  the  Israelites,  and  sent  Moses  to  them ; 
whose  laws  were  to  be  of  perpetual  obligation — That  Jesus 
was  a  mere  man  of  the  most  illustrious  sanctity  and  justice, 
the  real  son  of  Joseph  and  Mary — ^That  the  jl-^on  Ciirist  de- 
scended upon  him  in  the  form  of  a  dove  when  he  was  bap- 
tized, revealed  to  him  the  unknown  father,  and  empowered 
him  to  work  miracles — That  the  /Eon,  light,  entered  John 
the  Baptist  in  the  same  manner,  and  therefore  that  John  was 
in  some  respects  preferable  to  Christ — That  Jesus,  after  his 
union  with  Christ,  opposed  himself  with  vigour  to  the  God 
of  the  Jews,  at  whose  instigation  he  was  seized  and  crucified 
by  the  Hebrew  chiefs,  andthat  when  Jesus  was  taken  cap- 
tive, and  came  to  sutler,  Christ  ascended  up  on  high,  so  that 
the  man  Jesus  alone  was  subject  to  the  pains  of  an  ignomini- 
ous death — That  f'hrist  will  one  day  return  upon  earth,  and, 
renewing  his  former  imion  with  the  man  Jesus,  will  reign  in 
Palestine  a  thousand  years,  during  whioli  his  disciples  will 
enjoy  the  most  exquisite  sensual  deliglits.' 

Bi-aring  these  dogmas  in  mind,  we  shall  find  that  Saint 
John's  Gospel  is  divided  into  three  parts ;  viz. 

Part  T.  contains  Doctrines  laii  down  in  Oj'position  to  those  of 
Cerinthus.  (John  i.  1 — IS.) 

The  doctrines  laid  down  in  the  first  part,  as  contra-positiona 
to  the  tenets  of  Cerinthus,  may  be  reduced  to  the  following 
heads,  in  which  the  evangelist  a-sscrts, 

1.  That  Christ  is  the  Locos  oi' Word  of  God. 

2.  That  tlie  I..O)!(is  and  Monogciies  aic  nut  distinct  beings,  but  one  and 
ttie  s;uiic  person,  (t.  11.) 

3.  That  Clirist  or  tlio  Logon  is  not  an  inferior  .^on,  but  God.  (i.  1.) 

4.  That  he  perfectly  Icncw  the  sujircuie  God,  being  always  with  him 
ill  the  Pleronia.  (i.  18.) 

C.  That  lie  \i  not  to  be  distinguislied  from  the  Deiniurgus ;  for  he  is  the 
creator  of  llie  whole  world,  (i.  .'1,  10.) 

6.  That  life  and  light  are  not  particular  and  sepamto  spirits,  but  the 
same  with  tlie  I.ogos  and  Christ,  (i.  4.  7—9.  17.)  And,  therefore,  that 
Christ,  the  Logos,  Life,  I.ijjht,  llie  Only- Begotten,  are  not  disimcl 
iKoiis,  hul  one  and  the  same  divine  jirrson." 

7.  Thai  iKi  particiili'.r  /V.nn  entered  into  .lolin  I  he  R^iplisl  by  the  name 
of  Liglit,  to  roiiiiiiuiiiente  to  him  a  superior  iviiowltdiie  of  the  diviue 
will  (I.  H);  Ilia  that  he  was  a  ni>Te  iiiiui,  and,  lh<ni);h  iiis^iired,  much 
inferior  to  Jesus,  being  only  the  forerunner  of  him.  (i.  ti.  8.  15.) 

8.  That  the  supremo  God  was  not  entirely  unknown  before  the  time 
of  Christ ;  for  men  had  leceiveil  kucIi  li;;hls  on  ihis  head,  under  the 
T.irious  dispensations  tliroiiKh  which  they  pa.<iscd,  that  il  was  thell 
own  fault  il  they  reiiiaineil  i^norinl.  (i.'.i,  10.) 

9.  That  the  Jews  were  not  the  pucuhar  people  of  an  inferior  Cod,  such 

pp.  27«,  279.    Tittinanni  Meletemala  S.irni  in  Evangelliim  Jolmnnis,  pp 
11-21.      Kuinoel,  Comment,  in   Hist.  Lihros  Nov.  Test.  vol.  iii.  pp.  13 

•  Mosheim's  Commentaries,  vol.  i.  pp.  3n7— .117.  Dr.  Lardner's  Work* 
«vo.  vol.  ix.  jip.  "Hb—'-iZi. ;  Ito.  vol.  iv.  pp.  507—509.  Dr.  Owen's  Obsena 
tion.'?  on  the  Four  (iospe's,  pp  88— y.i.  To  this  learned  writer  we  are  rhierty 
indebted  for  the  preceding  observaimns.  The  seiilimenis  of  llasllides,  of 
.\l>'xaiidriB(whowa8nearly  ci)tileiii|>or,iry  wllhCerinlliii"),  cone .niiiig  the 
LogciK,  wire  not  very  unlilte  the  lenr'ls  of  that  hu^resiaich.  Mr  Towiisend 
his  given  an  abstract  of  them  in  his  New  Testamcnl,  nrrajiged  in  chrouo- 

mngenes,  ct  Zoe  ct  Thas,  et  Soter 

incornatus  pro  nobis.    Iren.  lib.  i.  c 


'•■•-^■•' .^......^. - — ._-. 

loglcal^rder,  »Vc.  vol  1.  pp.  19 — \i\. 

»  I'nus  et  idem  ostendilur  Lopos  et  Mo 
et  fMiristuB  filius  Del,  ct  liic  idem  inc& 
1.  %  'JU. 


SscT.  v.] 


ON  THE  GOSPEL  BY  SAINT  JOHN. 


317 


as  the  Demiiirgus :  but  of  Christ  himself,  the  only  begotten  Son  of 
G-Hi.  (i.  II.) 

10.  That  in  ttie  fiilncs.?  of  time  the  Son  of  God  took  upon  him  human 
miiire,  and  became  man.  (i.  14.) 

11.  Tnar  he  abolished  the  law  of  Moses,  which  was  only  the  shadow 
of  20od  things  to  come,  ami  in  its  stead  introduced  the  substance,  or 
t;.i'  very  thinijs  si^jnified  by  it.  (i.  17.) 

m.  Tliit'tlie  Jew  has  no  more  right  in  this  divine  person,  and  the  pri- 
viie:;es  conferred  through  him,  liian  the  Centile  ;'  for  whoever  be- 
liev.'s  in  him,  becomes  llicreby  a  cliild  of  God,  and  is  entitled  by  that 
adoption  to  a  glorious  inheritance,  (i.  12,  IJ.) 

These  propositions  being  settled,  the  Evangelist  proceeds  in 
Part  II.  7'o  deliver  the  Proofs  of  these  Doctrines  in  an  Histori- 
cal Manner  (i.  19. — XX.  2i).),  as  being  all  expressed  or  plainly 
implied  in  the  Discourses  and  Transactions  of  Jesus  Christ, 
wliich  may  conveniently  be  divided  into  eighteen  Sections : 
viz. 

Sf.ct.  1.  John  the  Baptist  himself  confesses  to  the  Jewish  priests, 
that  he  is  much  inferior  to  Jesus,  refers  his  own  disciples  to  him, 
who  acknowledge  him  to  be  the  Messiah,  and  are  confirmed 
in  this  faith  by  the  miracle  of  water  converted  into  wine,  at 
Cana  in  Gahlec.  (i.  19.— ii.  11.) 

Sect.  2.  Jesus  conducts  himself  at  Jerusalem  as  the  lord  of  the 
temple  (ii.  12 — 2.5.),  reveals  himself  to  Nicodemus  as  the  only 
begotten  Son  of  God;  shows  the  design  of  his  coming  in»o  the 
Ti'orld,  and  the  necessity  of  believing  in  him,  (iii.  1 — 21.) 

StcT.  3.  An  additional  testimony  of  John  the  Baptist  to  the 
superioritv  of  Christ,  and  the  excellency  of  his  ordinances. 
(iii.  22—36.) 

Sect.  4.  Jesus  visits  the  Samaritans,  declares  himself  to  be  the 
Christ,  and  foretells  the  abolition  of  the  Levitical  worship, 
(iv.  1—42.) 

Sect.  5.  By  a  second  miracle,  (the  curing  of  a  nobleman's  dying 
child,)  Christ  demonstrates  his  divine  mission  in  his  own 
countrj',  where  it  was  most  disputed,  (iv.  43 — 54.) 

Sect.  6.  As  a  further  proof  of  the  future  abrogation  of  the  cere- 
monial law,  Jesus  works  a  miracle  on  the  Sabbath,  by  healing 
an  impotent  man  at  the  pool  of  Bethesda,  and  vindicates  his 
conduct:  declares  himself  to  be  the  Son  of  God,  and  exhibits 
various  evidences  of  his  mission,  (v.  1 — 47.) 

Sect.  7.  To  show  that  he  was  the  end  of  the  law,  Jesus  substi- 
tutes himself  in  the  room  of  the  legal  sacrifices  ;  and  commands 
the  people,  who  were  used  to  feasl  on  some  of  those  sacrifices, 
to  cat  his  flesh  and  drink  his  blood.  And  to  convince  them 
that  he  was  truly  the  bread  of  life,  he  miraculously  feeds  above 
five  thousand  of  them  with  five  barley  loaves.  The  people 
being  disposed  by  this  miracle  to  make  him  a  king,  Jesus  dis- 
claims all  temporal  views,  (vi.  1 — 71.) 

Skct.  8.  Jesus  reproves  the  ambition  of  his  kinsmen  :  and  going 
up  to  Jerusalem  at  the  feast  of  tabernacles,  promises  the 
assistance  of  the  Holy  Spirit  to  all  true  believers,  (vii.  1 — 53.) 

Sect.  9.  He  declares  him.self  to  be  the  light  of  the  world  ;  re- 
proves the  Jews  for  rejecting  him ;  promises  immortality  to 
his  followers ;  and  speaks  of  his  own  existence  as  prior  to  that 
of  Abraham,   (viii.  12-59.) 

Skct.  10.  A  womjn  taken  in  adultery  is  brought  to  Jesus,  who 
avoids  giving  judgment  in  her  c.isy,  and  turns  the  consciences 
-of  his  enemies  on  themselves,  (viii.  1 — 11.) 

Sect.  1 1.  In  proof  of  his  being  the  light  of  the  world,  he  restores 
a  blind  man  to  sight,^  and  warns  the  Jews  of  that  judicial 
darkness  under  which  they  were  soon  to  be  sealed  up,  for  per- 
verting so  basely  those  means  of  knowledge,  which  were  gra- 
ciously offered  to  them.  (ix.  1 — 41.) 

Sect.  12.  After  this  he  represents  himself  as  the  door  of  the 
shcepfold,  and  tells  the  Pharisees,  who  called  themselves  the 
shepherds  of  the  people,  that  they  "  who  entered  not  by  the 
door  into  the  sheepfold,  but  climbed  up  some  other  way," 
whatever  character  they  might  assume,  were  in  reality  no  bet- 
ter than  thieves  and  robbers.  A  reflection  which  the  Chris- 
tians of  those  days  could  hardly  avoid  applying  to  Cerinthus 
and  other  hseresiarchs.  Then  follows  a  description  of  a  good 
shepherd  and  a  hireling,  which  may  be  regarded  as  a  kind  of 
test,  by  which  to  judge  of  the  different  conduct  of  the  apostles 
and  heretics,  &c.  (x.  1 — 42.) 

Sect.  13.  Jesus  performs  a  signal  miracle,  by  restoring  Lazarus 
to  hfc,  after  he  had  been  dead  four  days,^  in  the  presence  of 
a  large  number  of  people  ;  which  was  attended  with  this  pecu- 
liar circumstance,  that  it  was  wrought  after  an  express  invo- 
cation of  God,  that  he  would  apply  it  to  the  confirmation  of 


'  Oiiien.  Philocal.  c.  i.  p.  17.  o<\.  Spencer. 

»  See  a  critical  examination  of  this  miracle,  supra,  Vol.  I.  pp.  101,  105. 

»  Ibid.  pp.  105,  106. 


what  our  Saviour  had  taught,  (xi.  1 — 44.)  Obscn-e  particu- 
larly ver.  41,  42. 

Sect.  14.  A  brief  account  of  the  different  effects  which  this 
miracle  produced  on  the  minds  of  the  Jews;  so  dilTerent,  that 
though  it  won  upon  many  of  the  people,  it  exasperated  most 
of  the  priests,  (xi.  45 — 57.  xii.  1 — 11.) 

Sect.  15.  Christ  rides  in  triumph  to  Jerusalem,  and  is  pro- 
claimed king  of  Israel.  The  Greeks,  who  may  be  considered 
as  the  first  fruits  of  the  Gentiles,  apply  to  him  and  arc  admitted. 
He  addresses  them  in  terms  suitable  to  the  occasion,  and  his 
doctrine  is  confirmed  by  a  voice  from  heaven,  (xii.  12 36.) 

Sect.  16.  Some  intimation  being  now  given,  that  the  Gentiles 
were  to  be  admitted  into  the  Christian  church,  Jesus  institutes 
the  law  of  hospitality,^  and  delivers  to  his  disciples  a  new 
commandment,  that  they  should  love  one  another  as  brethren, 
without  distinction,  and  as  members  of  the  same  church,  (xiii. 
1—35.) 

Sect.  17.  Christ  informs  his  disciples,  in  a  long  discourse,  that 
a  perpetual  and  intimate  union  with  him,  their  head,  is  indis- 
pensably necessary  to  salvation  ;  and  that,  after  his  departure, 
he  would  send  down  the  Holy  Spirit,  who  should  guide  them 
into  all  truth,  and  enable  them  to  fulfil  his  commandments, 
(xiv. — xvi.) 

Sect.  18.  After  this,  Jesus  recommends  his  disciples,  and  all 
who  should  in  future  ages  believe  in  him,  to  the  Father,  in  a 
pathetic  and  memorable  prayer;  and  at  the  same  time  testifies, 
that  not  one  of  his  apostles  was  lost,  but  Judas  Iscariot.  (xvii. 
1 — 26.)  As  this  prayer  was  favourably  heard,  and  the  apos- 
tles were  afterwards  endowed  with  extraordinary  powers,  it 
aflbrded  an  argument  against  Cerinthus  of  the  divine  authority 
of  the  doctrines  they  taught. 

Sect.  19.  Contains  a  particular  account  of  our  Saviour's  passion, 
adapted  to  prove  that  he  did  not  die  as  a  mere  man  (xviii.  1. 
xix.  42.) ;  and  also  of  his  resurrection,  in  opposition  to  those 
who  denied  that  he  was  risen,  (xx.  1 — 29.) 

§  i.   The  apprehension  of  Christ  in  the  Garden  of  Gethsemane.  (xviii. 

1-11.) 
§  ii.  His  mock  trial  before  the  high-priest,  in  the  house  of  Caiaphas, 

and  Peter's  denial  of  him  there,  (.xviii.  12 — 27.) 
§  iii.  The  accusation  of  Christ  before  Pilite  the  Roman  governor,  who 

having  in  vain  attempted  to  rescue  him  from  the  envy  of  the  Jews, 

scourged  hira,  and  delivered  him  to  be  crucified,  (xviii.  23 — 40.  xl.>£. 

1 — 16.  former  part  of  the  verse.) 
§  iv.  Narrative  of  the  crucifixion  of  .lesus  Christ,  (xix.  16.  latter  part 

of  tlie  verse,  to  v.  37.) 
§  V.  The  burial  of  Christ  by  Joseph  of  Arimathea.  (xix.  38^2.) 
§  vi.  The  resurrection  (xx.  1— 10  ),  and  Christ'.s  appearances,  first  to 

JMary  (11—18.),  and,  secondly,  to  the  disciples  on  the  same  day. 

(19—23.) 
§  vii.  Christ's  appearance  eight  days  after  to  his  disciples,  Thomas 

being  present.  (24—29.) 

Part  III.  contains  an  Account  of  the  Person  of  the  Writer  of 
this  Gospel,  and  of  his  design  in  writing  it.  (xx.  30,  31. 
xxi.) 

Sect.  1.  Comprises  a  declaration  of  the  end  which  Saint  John 
had  in  view  in  composing  his  Gospel ;  viz.  that  his  readers 
might  be  convinced  that  Jesns  is  the  CnnisT  the  Son  of  God 
(xx.  31.);  and  consequently  that  the  tenets  and  notions  of 
Cerinthud  vvere  altogether  falvr-  and  heretical.  In  this  section 
is  related  Christ's  appearance  to  his  disciples  at  the  sea  of 
Tiberias,  and  his  discourse  to  the  apostle  Peter,  (xxi.  81 — 19.) 

Sect.  2.  Kelates  to  the  evangelist  John  himself;  Christ  checks 

Peter's  curiosity  concerning  his  death,  (xxi.  20 — 23.)     The 

conclusion.  (24,  25.) 

This  section  seems  to  have  been  added,  as  a  confutation  of  the  opinion 
entertained  by  some,  that  Saint  John  was  not  to  die: — an  opinion 
which  might  have  weakened  his  authority,  if  he  had  suffered  it  to 
pass  unrefuled. 

Besides  refuting  the  errors  of  Cerinthus  and  his  followers, 
Michaelis  is  of  opinion  that  John  also  had  in  view  to  confute 
the  erroneous  tenets  of  the  Sabeans,  a  sect  which  claimed 
John  the  Baptist  for  its  founder.  He  has  adduced  a  variety 
of  terms  and  phrases,  which  he  has  applied  to  the  explana- 
tion of  the  first  fourteen  verses  of  John's  Gospel  in  such  a 
manner  as  renders  his  conjecture  not  improbable.^  Perhaps 
we  shall  not  greatly  err  if  we  conclude  with  Rosenmiiller, 

*  Washing  the  feet  (as  we  have  seen  in  the  early  part  of  this  volunoe)  was 
commonly,  in  the  eastern  countries,  the  first  kindness  shown  to  a  travel- 
ler, who  was  to  be  hospitably  received  (Gen.  xviii.  4.  xix.  2.  xliii.  24.); 
whence  it  came  to  be  used  for  hospitality  in  general.  (1  Tim.  v.  10.)  When 
our  Saviour  therefore  waslied  the  feet  of  his  disciples,  and  taught  them  to 
condescend  in  like  manner  to  their  inferiors,  it  amounted  to  the  same  thing 
as  if  he  had  instituted  and  established  the  law  of  hospitality  among  all  hia 
future  followers.  Now,  as  strangers  are  the  objects  of  this  law,  and  not 
persons  who  live  in  the  same  community,  it  was  indeed,  in  the  strictest 
sense,  a  new  conmiandn-.ent  to  the7n,  who  thought  it  their  duty  "  to  avoid 
those  of  another  nation."  (Acts  x.  28.) 

» .Wchaelis,  voL  iii.  pf.  2&:--302. 


318 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Paht  VI.  Ciup.  II 


that  John  had  both  these  classes  of  heretics  in  view,  and 
that  he  wrote  to  confute  their  respective  tenets.  Yet,  thou'rh 
he  composed  his  Gospel  princijvally  wiUi  this  desion,  lie  did 
not  wholly  confine  himself  to  it;  but  took  occasion  to  im- 
part correct  views  of  the  nature  and  offices  of  Jesus  Christ 
both  to  the  Jews  and  Gentiles.  .Should  this  opinion  he  ac- 
ceded to,  it  will  reconcile  the  various  opinions  of  learned 
men  concerning  the  real  scope  of  John's  Gospel. 

VI.  It  is  obvious  to  evi;ry  attentive  reader  of  this  Gospel, 
that  John  studiously  omits  to  notice  those  passag.'S  in  our 
Lord's  history  and    teachintr,  which    had  been    related  at 
length  bv  the  other  evangelists,  or  if  he  mentions  them  at 
alUlt  is  in  a  very  cursory  manner.    By  pursuing  this  metliod 
lie  gives  his  testimony  that  their  narratives  are  faithful  and 
true,  and  at  the  same  time  leaves  himself  room  to  enlarge 
tlie  Gospel  history.     Tiiis  confirms  the  unanimous  declara- 
tions ot  ancient  writers,  that  the  first  three  Gospels  were 
written  and  published  before  John  composed  his  evangelical 
lii>tory.     In  the  account  of  our  Saviour's  passion,  deatli,  and 
r'.snrrection,  all  the  four  Gospels  coineide  in  many  particu- 
lars ;  thousfh  here  John  has  several  tilings  peculiar  to  liim- 
solf.     In   his  Gospel,  many  things  recorded  by  the   other 
evangelists  are  omitt-.id.     He  has  given  no  account  of  our 
.Saviour's  nativity,  nor  of  his  baptism  by  John.     Re  takes 
no  notice  of  our  Saviour's  temptation  in  the  v.ilderness ;  nor 
of  the  call  or  names  of  the  twelve  apostles ;  nor  of  tlieir 
mission   during   the  ministry  of  Christ;    nor  of  his  para- 
bles, or  otiier  discourses  recorded  by  the  first  three  evan- 
gelists; nor  of  his  journeys;  nor  ot  any  of  his  predictions 
concerning  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  which  are  related 
by  them;  nor  has  John  repeated  any  of  Christ's  miracles 
recorded  Ijy  thein,  except  that  of  feecling  five  thousand  peo- 
ple, which  was  ])robably  repeated  for  the  sake  of  the  dis- 
course to  which  it  gave  birth.     But,  on  the  other  hand,  John 
mentions  several  incidents,  which  the  other  evangelists  have 
not  noticed.    Thus,  he  gives  an  account  of  our  Lord's  cleans- 
incr  the  temple  at  the  first  passover,  when  he  went  to  Jeru- 
saTem;  but  all  the  other  evangelists  give  a  similar  account 
of  his  cleansing  the  temple  at  his  last  passover.     These  two 
acts,  however,  are  widely  different,     lie  relates  the  acts  of 
Christ  before  the  imprisonment  of  John  the  Baptist;   the 
wedding  at  Cana;  the  cure  of  the  man  who  liad  been  blind 
from  his  birth;  the  resurrection  of  Lazarus;  the  indignation 
of  Judas  against  the  woman  who  anointed  our  Lord  with 
ointment;  The  visit  of  the  Greeks  to  Jesus;  his  washing  the 
feet  of  his  disciples;  and  his  consolatory  discourse  to  them 
previously  to  his  passion.     John's  Gospel  also  contains  more 
plain  and  frequent  assurances  than  those  occurring  in  the 
other  Gospels,  that  Jesus  is  not  only  a  prophet  and  messen- 
ger of  God,  but  also  that  he  is  the  INIessiah,  the  .Son  of  God  : 
and  asserts  his  pre-existonce  and  Deity  in  the  clearest  and 
most  distinct  tcnns.' 

VII.  Salmasius,  Grotius,  Bolten,  and  other  critics  have 
imagined  that  John  did  not  write  his  Gospel  originally  in 
Greek,  but  in  the  .Syriac  language.  This  hypothesis,  how- 
ever, is  contradicted  by  tiie  unailimous  consent  of  Christian 
antiquity,  wliich  afhrins  that  he  wrote  it  in  Greek.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  observations  already  offered,  respecting  the  original 
language  of  the  New  Testament,^  we  may  remark,  that  the 
Hebraisms  occurring  in  this  Gospel  clearly  prove  tliat  it  was 
originally  written  by  a  Jew.  His  style  is  pronounced  by 
Michaelis^  to  be  better  and  more  fluent  than  that  of  the  other 
evangelists;  and  he  ascribes  this  excellence  to  the  fatiliiy 
and  taste  in  the  (ireek  laniruage,  which  the  apostle  seems  to 
have  acquired  from  his  h)ng  residence  at  Kphesus.  His 
narrative  is  characterized  by  singular  perspicuity,  and  by  the 
most  unaffected  simplicity  and  benevolence.  There  arc  few 
passages  in  Holy  Writ  more  deeply  affecting  than  this  evan- 
gelists narrative  of  the  resurrection  of  Lazarus.* 


•SKCTION  VL 

ON  THE  ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES. 

I,   Title. — II.  „inthor  and  date. — III.  Genuinenen  and  authen- 
ticity.— IV.   Scope. — V.    Chronology. — VI.  Jlnalytia  of  the 

•  MicliaoliH,  vol.  iii.  pp.  303—313.  On  \)\c  ilf-clslvc  trstlinnny  of  .^nliil 
John'dGuHpolto  t)i<>  Divinity  of  our  Saviour,  sre  Hinlinp  Hloornfii;lil'n  "  Kivr 
I.pc(urc0,  dtlivtrt.l  on  the  Fri<lay«  during  Lent,  HJ3."— London,  ISA 
12ino. 

»  Acn  Vol.  I.  pp.  19.1,  lai.  aiipra. 

»  liitro'l.  vol.  ni.  pnrt  I.  p.  31(j. 

«  Ciniphrll  on  thr  (Jos'pi'lH,  vol.  ii.  pp.  192—195.  Kulnoel,  Cotnm.  In  If  i»t. 
Lib.  Nov.  T.Bf.  vol.  iii.  p.  33.  flteq.  Prilil,  Introd.  ml  Nov.  Ti.-st.  pp.  203— 
fO.     Vncr,  Ilcrm.  Sacr.  Nov.  Te«l.  para  i.  p.  JIO.  pari  ii.  pp.  205—268. 


contents  of  this  book  — VII.  Observations  on  ifs  style. — • 
VIII.  On  the  importaticc  of  this  book,  as  an  evidence  for 
the  truth  of  Christianity. 

I.  The  book  of  the  Acts  of  the  Aposti.es  forms  the  fifth 
and  last  of  the  historical  books  of  the  New  Testament,  and 
connects  the  Gospel  with  the  Epistles;  being  a  useful  post- 
script to  the  former,  and  a  proper  introduction  to  tlie  latter. 
On  this  account  it  has  been  generally  placed  after  the  four 
Gospels,  though  (as  iMichaelis  has  remarked)  in  several  an- 
cient manuscripts  and  versions  it  is  very  frequently  placed 
after  the  Epistles  of  Saint  Paul,  because  it  is  necessary  to 
the  right  understanding  of  them. 

Various  Titles  have  been  given  to  this  book  which  are 
noticed  in  the  critical  editions  of  the  New  Testament.  Thus, 
in  the  Codex  B(!Zie,  or  Cambridge  manuscrijit,  it  is  called 
nPAHEli:  TaN  AriOirOAQN,  the  Acts  or  Tranmclions  (f  the 
Apostles.  In  the  Codex  Alexandrinus,  and  many  other  manu- 
scripts, it  is  entitled  nPAHEl2  TCN  Anns  AnOSTOXON, /Ac 
Acts  of  tl,e  Hobj  .flpobtlci,  which  title  is  also  adopted  by  most 
of  the  Greek  and  Latin  fathers.  The  first  of  these  various 
titles  is  that  which  is  adopted  in  the  printed  editions,  and  in 
all  modern  versions;  but  by  whom  it  \\Tis  prefixed,  it  is  now 
impossible  to  ascertain.  In  the  .Syriac  version,  according  to 
the  edition  in  Bishop  Walton's  Polyglott,  the  title  is :  "The 
Book  of  the  Acts,  that  is,  of  the  History  of  the  Blessed 
Apostles,  composed  by  my  holy  lord  Luke  the  Evangelist:" 
— in  the  Arabic  version  it  is,  "The  beginning  of  the  Book 
of  the  Acts  of  the  [holy]  Apostles;" — and  in  the  Ethiopic 
version,  "The  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  the  transactions  of  the 
ministers,  that  is,  the  History  of  the  holy  Apostles."  This 
book  contains  great  part  of  the  lives  and  transactions  of  Saint 
Peter  and  Saint  Paul,  and  of  the  history  of  the  Christian 
church ;  commencing  at  the  ascension  of  our  Saviour,  and 
being  continued  down  to  Saint  Paul's  arrival  at  Rome,  at'ter 
his  appeal  to  Ciesar,  comprising  a  period  of  about  thirty 
years. 

II.  Tliat  Saint  Luke  was  the  author  of  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,  as  well  as  of  tiic  (iospel  which  bears  his  name,  is 
evident  both  from  the  introduction,  and  from  the  unanimous 
testimonies  of  the  early  Christians.  Both  are  inscribed  to 
Theophilus ;  and  in  the  very  fir.st  verse  of  the  Acts  there  is 
a  reference  made  to  his  Gospel,  which  he  calls  the  f.nner 
Treatise.  On  this  account,  Dr.  Benson  and  some  other 
critics  have  conjectured  tliat  Saint  Luke  wrote  the  Gospels 
and  Acts  in  one  book,  and  divided  it  into  two  parts.  From 
the  frequent  use  of  the  first  person  plural,  it  is  clear  that  he 
was  present  at  most  of  the  transactions  he  relates.  He  ap- 
pears to  have  accompanied  Saint  Paul  froniTrcas  toPhilippi; 
ne  also  attended  him  to  Jerusalem,  and  afterwards  to  Rome, 
where  he  remained  two  years,  during  that  apostle's  first 
confinement.  Accordingly  we  find  .Saint  Luke  particularly 
mentioned  in  two  of  the  epistles  written  by  .Saint  Paul,  from 
Rome,  during  that  confinement.*  As  the  book  of  Acts  is 
continued  to  the  end  of  the  second  year  of  Saint  Paul's  im- 
prisonment, it  could  not  have  been  written  be  fire  the  year  63  ; 
and,  as  the  death  of  that  apostle  is  not  mentioned,  it  is  pro- 
bable that  the  book  was  composed  before  that  event,  which 
is  supposed  to  have  hai)peiied  a.  d.  G5.  For  these  reasons, 
.Michaelis,  Dr.  Lardiur,  Dr.  Benson,  Rosenm  dler,  Bishop 
Tomline,  and  the  generality  of  critics,  assign  the  date  of  this 
book  to  the  year  03. 

III.  To  the  genuineness  and  authenticity  of  this  book,  the 
early  Christian  fathers  bear  unaninions  testimony.  Not  to 
mention  the  attestations  of  the  apostcdic  fathers,  in  the  first 
century,  which  have  been  collected  by  Mr.  Jones,  Drs.  Ben- 
son and  Lardner,''  we  may  remark  that  Irenseus'  and  Tertul- 
iian,^  in  the  second  century,  bolh  ascribed  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles  to  Saint  Luke.  And  their  evidence  is  corroborated 
by  that  of  Origen,  Jerome,  Augustine,  Eusebius,  and  all 
subsequent  ecclesiastical  writers."  Further,  Chrysostom  and 
other  fathers  inform  us,  that  this  book  was  annually  read  in 
the  churches,  every  ilav  between  the  festivals  of  Easter  and 
Pentecost  or  WhiLsuntide.'o  The  Valentinians,  indecnl,  as 
well  as  the  Marcioniles,  Severians,  and  some  Manicheans, 

»  C.I.  Iv.  14.    riill'Mii.  21. 

"  Jonrs  on  ll:c  (-luioii,  vol.  ill.  pp.  120—1.38.  I)r.  Hcnson's  HIbI.  of  llie 
First  I'lnntiiij!  of  CliriBtiunily,  vol.  ii.  pp.  3-,ffi-3aO.  2U  edit.  Dr.  L«rdncr'« 
WorkB,  liidt-'X,  voce  Aclv  of  ll,e  ApMilia. 

1  LarUncr,  8vo.  vol.  Ii.  pp.  102,  103.  j  Mo.  vol.  I.  p.  3C8.    Benson,  voUi. 

^'*  Uirdner,  8vo.  vol.  ii.  np.  Ml,  2C2  ;  4lo.  vol.  1.  p.  4ri2.  ncnsoii,  vol.  ii.  p.  331. 

•  U.-imon,  vol.  ii.  pp.  3il— JUL  Lardncr,  8vo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  115— U7.  j  Ho 
vol.  Iii.  pp.  206, 207.  .  ,„.,.„.. 

»»  nenson,  vol.  Ii.  p.  332.  Lantner,  8vo.  vol.  v.  pp.  133,  IM. ;  4to.  vol  il 
p.  C05. 


Sect.  TL] 


ON  THE  ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES. 


319 


rejected  the  Acts  cf  the  Apostles,  not  from  historical  rrasons, 
but  because  they  militated  atniinst  th'jir  opinions;  for  the 
G.iostics  (of  which  sect  the  Valeminians  and  Marcionites 
were  a  branch)  afhrmed  that  the  God  of  the  Old  Testament 
•was  different  from  the  God  of  the  New  Testament:  and  that 
another  Christ,  different  from  our  Saviour,  was  promised. 
The  Severians  and  Encratites  strenuously  insisted  upon  ab- 
stinence from  certain  articles  of  food ;  whereas,  in  the  book 
of  Acts,  the  promiscuous  use  of  food  is  allowed.  Lastly, 
Manes  wished  himself  to  he  taken  for  "the  Comforter,"  who 
had  been  promised  by  (]!hrist  to  his  apostles  ;  but  in  the  Acts 
it  is  related  that  the  Comforter  that  had  been  so  promised 
was  t!ie  Holy  Spirit,  who  had  been  sent.  The  reasons, 
tiierefore,  why  the  book  was^ejected  by  the  above-mentioned 
sects,  were  not  historical,  but  doctrinal ;  because  the  narrative 
of  tlie  sacred  historian  contradicted  their  dogmas;  and  as 
their  errors  were  detected  and  refuted  by  contemporary  wri- 
ters,' the  unqualified  and  unsupported  assertions  of  these 
heretics  are  so  far  from  impugning  the  veracity  and  genu- 
ineness of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  that  on  the  contrarj% 
they  afford  a  decisive  and  collateral  testimony  in  favour  of 
the  hook. 

IV.  Saint  Luke  does  not  appear  to  have  intended  to  write 
a  complete  ecclesiastical  history  of  the  Christian  church, 
during  the  first  thirty  years  after  our  Saviour's  ascension,  nor 
even  of  Saint  Paul's  life  during  that  period;  for  he  has 
almost  wholly  omitted  v,-hat  passed  among  the  Jews  after  the 
conversion  of  that  apostle,  and  is  totally  silent  concerning  the 
spread  of  Christianity  in  the  East  and  in  Egypt,  as  well  as 
the  foundation  of  the  church  of  Christ  at  Rome,  Saint  Paul's 
journey  into  Arabia,  and  many  other  topics,  though  the  la- 
bours and  suflerings  of  the  other  apostles  could  not  but  have 
afforded  the  most  interestinCT  materials,  had  it  fallen  v^ithin 
his  design  to  have  composed  an  entire  history  of  the  church. 

If  we  carefully  examine  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  we  shall 
perceive  that  Saint  Luke  had  two  objects  in  view  : — 1.  To 
relate  ia  what  manner  the  gifts  of  the  Holy  Spirit  were  com- 
municated on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  and  the  subsequent  mira- 
cles performed  by  the  apostles,  by  which  the  truth  cf  Chris- 
tianity was  confirmed.  An  authentic  account  of  this  matter 
was  absolutely  necessary,  because  Christ  had  often  assured  his 
disciples  that  they  should  receive  the  Holy  Spirit.  Unbe- 
lievers, therefore,  whether  Jews  or  Heathens,  might  have 
made  objectiims  to  our  religion  if  it  had  not  been  shovvm  that 
('hrist's  declarations  were  really  fulfilled. — 2.  To  deliver 
such  accounts  as  proved  the  claim  of  the  Gentiles  to  admis- 
sion into  the  Church  of  Christ, — a  claim  disputed  by  the 
Jews,  especially  at  the  time  when  Saint  Luke  wrote  the  Acts 
of  the  Apostles.  And  it  was  this  very  circumstance  which 
excited  the  hatred  of  the  Jews  against  Saint  Paul,  and  occa- 
sioned his  imprisonment  in  Rome,  with  which  Saint  Luke 
closes  his  history.  Hence  we  see  the  reason  wh}''  he  relates 
(ch.  viii.)  the  conversion  of  the  Samaritans,  and  (ch.  x.  xi.) 
the  story  of  Cornelius,  whom  Saint  Peter  (to  whose  authority 
the  adversaries  of  Saint  Paul  had  appealed  in  favour  of  cir- 
cumcision^) baptized,  though  he  was  not  of  the  circumcision. 
Hence  also  Saint  Luke  relates  the  determination  of  the  first 
council  in  Jerusalem  relative  to  the  Levitical  law :  and  for  the 
same  reason  he  is  more  diffuse  in  his  account  of  Saint  Paul's 
conversion,  and  Saint  Paul's  preaching  the  Gospel  to  the 
Gentiles,  than  on  any  other  subject.  It  is  true  that  the  whole 
relation,  which  Saint  Luke  has  given  (ch.  xii.),  has  no  con- 
nection with  the  conversion  of  the  Gentiles  :  but  during  the 
period  to  which  that  chapter  relates.  Saint  Paul  himself  was 

1)resent  at  Jerusalem  (see  Acts  xi.  30.  xii.  25.),  and  it  is  pro- 
)able,  for  that  reason,  that  Saint  Luke  has  introduced  it. 
But  there  is,  3.  A  third  opinion  which  Michaelis  thinks  not 
devoid  of  probability,  v-iz.  that  Saint  Luke  might  design  to 
record  only  those  facts,  which  he  had  either  seen  himself  or 
had  heard  from  eye-witnesses. ^ 

»  Irenaeus  adversus  Hasrescs,  lib.  iii.  c.  12.  Theodoret,  Hist.  Eccl.  lib. 
i.  c.  21.    Augustine  epist.  251.  ct  contra  Faustum,  lib.  xix.  c.  31. 

3  SeeGalat.  ii.  6— 21. 

3  Michaelis,  vol.  iii.  part  i.  pp.  32?'— 3-31.  Dr.  Benson,  however,  is  of  opi- 
nion tliat  Sainl  Luke  designefl  his  booli  to  be  only  a  concise  specimen  of 
the  doctrines  preached  by  the  apostles,  and  that  he  was  chiefly  desirous 
of  describinsr  the  inanner  in  which  the  Jews,  proselytes  of  the  gate,  or 
devout  Gentiles,  and  the  idolatrous  Gentiles,  were  respectively  converted. 
Her»:-.e  this  learned  author  divides  the  book  into  three  parts  or  books,  viz. 
1.  Theirs*  part  contains  an  account  of  the  propagation  of  the  Gospel 
among  the  Jews  only,  from  a.  d.  33.  to  a.  d.  41.  including  chapter  ii.  to  x.  2. 
The  second  comprises  an  account  of  the  spreadinj;  of  Christiarity  among 
the  devout  Gentiles,  together  with  its  further  progress  among  the  Jew.s,  a. 
o.  41.  to  A.  D.  44.  (Acts  X. — xiii.)  3.  And  the /AirS  part  comprehends  the 
diffusion  of  Christianity  among  the  idolatrous  Gentiles,  together  with  its 
further  progress  among  the  two  preceding  classes  of  persons,  a.  d.  44.  to 
t..  D.  63.  (Acts  xiii.— xn-iii.)  Benson's  Hist,  of  the  First  Planting  of  Chris- 
tianity, vol.  i.  pp.  Z2— 24. 


V.  The  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  Michaelis  observes,  were 
evidently  written  with  a  tolerably  strict  attention  to  chrono- 
logical order ;  though  Saiut  Luke  hr.s  not  affixed  a  date  to  any 
one  of  the  facts  recorded  by  him.  There  are,  however,  seve- 
ral parts  of  this  book,  in  which  ecclesiastical  history  is  com- 
bined with  political  facts,  the  dates  of  which  are"  known  : 
and  these  Michaelis  has  endeavoured  to  determine,  because 
the  chronology  will  not  only  contribute  to  illustrate  the  Acts 
of  the  Apostles,  hut  also  will  assist  us  in  fi.ting  the  year  when 
many  of  Saint  PaiiVs  Epistles  were  written.  Taking  for 
granted,  therefore,  that  this  book  commences  with  the°year 
33,  of  the  Christian  a;ra  (in  which  calculation  he  follows 
Archbishop  Usher),  he  l;as  given  us  the  following  series 
of  datts  : — 

1.  "  The  First  epoch,  after  the  commencement  of  the  book,  is 
at  ch.  xi.  29,  30. ;  for  what  happened  between  the  first  Pentecost 
after  Christ's  ascension  and  this  period  is  without  any  marks  of 
chronology.  But  at  ch.  xi.  29,  30.  we  have  a  date ;  for  the 
famine  which  took  place  in  the  time  of  Claudius  Caesar,  and 
which  induced  the  disciples  at  Antioch  to  send  relief  to  their 
brethren  in  Judtea,  happened  in  the  fourth  year  of  Claudius's 
reign,  that  is,  in  the  year  44  of  the  Christian  sera. 

2.  "  Second  epoch.  Herod  Agrippa  dies  soon  after  he  had  put 
to  death  the  apostle  St.  James  ;  and  about  that  time  Saint  Paul 
and  Saint  Barnabas  return  from  Jerusalem  to  Antioch.  (ch.  xii. 
21—25.)     This  is  still  in  the  year  4-t. 

3.  "  Third  epoch,  (ch.  xviii,  2.)  Shortly  after  the  banishment 
of  the  Jews  from  Italy  by  Claudius  Caesar,  Saint  Paul  arrives  at 
Corinth.  Commentators  affix  the  date  of  54  to  this  event ;  but 
it  is  uncertain,  for  Suetonius,  the  only  historian  who  has  noticed 
this  banishment  of  the  Jews,  mentions  it  without  date. 

4.  ^•Fourth  epoch.  Sahit  Paul  comes  to  Jerusalem,  where  he  is 
imprisoned  by  the  Jews,  not  long  after  the  disturbances  which 
were  excited  by  the  Egyptian,  (ch.  xxi.  37 — 39.)  This  im- 
prisonment of  Saint  Paul  happened  in  the  year  60,  for  it  was 
two  years  before  Felix  quitted  his  government  of  Judsea.  (ch. 
xxiii.  26.  xxiv.  27.) 

5.  "  Fifth  epoch.  Two  j^ears  after  the  commencement  of  Swint 
Paul's  imprisonment,  Festus  is  appointed  governer  of  Juda;a, 
A.  n.  62.  (ch.  xxiv.  27.  xxv.  1.) 

"  From  this  period  the  chronology  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  is 
clear.  Saint  Paul  is  sent  prisoner  to  Rome  in  the  autumn  of  tho 
same  year  in  which  Festus  arrived  in  Judoea :  he  suffers  ship- 
wreck, pas.ses  the  winter  in  Malta,  and  arrives  in  Rome  in  the 
following  year,  that  is,  in  63.  (ch.  xxvi.  xxvii.  xxviii.) 

"  The  Acts  of  the  Apostles  close  with  the  end  of  the  second 
year  of  Saint  Paul's  imprisonment  in  Rome :  consequently  in  the 
year  65.  (ch.  xxviii.  30.)" 

It  is  difficult  to  determine  the  date  of  the  events  that  hap- 
pened between  the  epochs  33  and  34,  and  between  44  and  60, 
especially  the  time  of  Saint  Paul's  conversion  and  of  the 
council  at  Jerusalem :  Archbishop  Usher  places  the  first  of 
these  transactions  a.  d.  35,  others  in  38.  But,  though  we 
cannot  attain  to  absolute  certainty,  a  probable  conjecture  may 
be  formed.  Thus,  Michaelis  remarks.  Saint  >Stephen  hardly 
suffered  martyrdom  before  Pilate  was  recalled  from  the  go- 
vernment of  Judaea ;  because,  under  that  procurator,  the  Jews 
had  not  the  power  of  inflicting  capital  punishments.  Now, 
according  to  Usher,  the  year  in  which  Pilate  was  recalled, 
was  the  tliirty-sixth  of  the  Christian  aera :  Saint  Stephen's  mar- 
tyrdom, therefore,  probably  happened  after  36. — If  tliis  be 
true.  Saint  Paul's  conversion  must  have  happened  likewise 
after  36,  and  therefore  35  is  too  early  a  date.  But  how  long 
after  36,  whether  in  38,  cannot  be  determined. 

In  what  manner  the  chapters  iii.  iv.  v.  vi.  are  to  be  ar- 
ranged between  33  and  36,  ftlichaelis  cannot  determine :  for 
what  chronologers  have  said  is  mere  conjecture,  and  not  cal- 
culation. The  same  uncertainty  prevails  in  respect  to  ch. 
viii.  and  x. :  for  we  can  affirm  nothing  more,  than  that  the 
one  must  be  placed  before  the  other  after  36.  VYe  are  like- 
wise in  the  dark  with  respect  to  eh.  xiii.  xiv.  and  several 
other  chapters.  Of  ch.  xvi.  we  may  assert,  that  it  belong 
to  a  perioQ  at  least  six  years  prior  to  the  fourth  epoch,  or  the 
year  GO  :  for  a  year  and  a  half  at  Corinth,  three  )'-ears  at 
Ephesus,  and  the  time  spent  on  several  journeys,  can  hardly  be 
pressed  into  a  smaller  compass  than  that  of  six  years.  To  ch. 
xvi.,  therefore,  the  latest  date  which  can  be  assigned  is  54 :  and 
it  is  not  improbable  that  it  should  be  dated  still  earlier.-' 

<  Michaelis,  vol.  iii.  part.  i.  pp.  336—313.  The  chronology  of  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles  is  discussed  at  con.<iderable  length  in  Ilug's  Introduction  to 
New  Test.  vol.  ii.pp.  312-331.,  and  (so  far  as  concerns  the  travels  and 
writings  of  Saint  Paul)  by  the  reviewer  of  that  work  in  the  British  Critic 
for  April  182S,  pp.  201-317.  ' 


L 


- 1*-    f^    f%^m 


320 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE 


VI.  The  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  as  they  appear  in  our  co- 
pies, may  be  divided  into  three  principal  parts ;  viz. 

Part  I.  cuntain'i  the  IVse  and  Frogress  nf  Ike  Molher  Church 
at  Jtrusalaii  from  the  Time  vf  our  Suviour^s  Jiscension  to  the 
first  Jewl'ih  Ftrsecution.  (ch.  i. — viii.) 
StcT.  1.  The  transactions   before  and  after  Jesus    Chrir:!'s 

ascension  into  heaven,  (i.) 
Sect.  2.  The  descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit  on  the  apostles  at  tli-.' 

feast  of  Pentecost,  and  Peter's  discouwc  to  the  people  in 

consequence  of  it.  (ii.) 
StcT.  3.   A  lame  man  healed  by  Peter  and  John — Peter's 

discourse  to  the  people — Events  that  bcfel   the  apostles  in 

conseijuenec  of  that  miracle,  (iii.  iv.) 
SfCT.  4.  The  death  of  .\iianias  and  Sapphira — Miracles  of 

the  apostles, — who  arc  scourged  and  dismissed,  (v.) 
Slct.  5.  The  institution  of  deacons — the  discourse  and  mar- 
tyrdom of  Stephen, — and  the  first  Jewish  persecution,   (vi. 

vii.  viii.  1 — i.) 

Paht  II.  comprises  the  Dispersion  of  the  Disciples — the  Pro- 
jmy;atiun  nf  Christianity  among  the  Samaritans — the  Con- 
version of  .)>uint  Paul,  and  the  Foundation  of  a  Christian 
Church  at  Antioch.  (viii.  5. — xii.) 

Sect.  1.  The  planting  of  the  church  at  Samaria,  (viii.  5 — 25.) 
Sj:ct.  2.  The   conversion    of  the   Ethiopian    eunuch,    (viii. 

26—10.) 
Sect,  3.  The   conversion,    baptism,   and   first  preaching   of 

Saint  Paul,  (ix.) 
Skct.  4.  Account  of  two  miracles  performed   by  Peter,,  and 

the  conversion  of  Cornelius  and  his  family,  (.x.  xi.  1 — 18.) 
Sect.  5.  The    first  Gentile  church   founded  at  Antioch.  (xi. 

19—30.) 
Sect.  6.  'i'he  apostle  James  put  to  death  by  Herod  Agrippa, — 

relation  of  his  miserable  death,  (xii.) 

Part  III.  describes  the  Conversion  of  the  more  remote  Gentiles, 

by  Barnabas  and  Faul,  and,  after  their  Separation,  by  Faul 

and  his  .issociuies,  among  luhom  was  Luke  himself  during 

the  latter  Fart  (f  FauCs  Labours,  (xii. — xxviii.) 

Sect.  1.  The  planting  of  .several  churclies  in  the  i.sle  of 
Cyprus,  at  Perga  in  I'amj)hylia,  Antioch  in  Pisidia,  Ico- 
nium,  Lystra,  and  Derbe — The  return  of  Saint  Paul  to 
Antioch.  (xiii.  xiv.) 

Sect.  2.  Discu.ssion  of  the  question  by  the  apostles  at  Jeru- 
salem concerning  the  necessity  of  circumcision,  and  of 
ob.sening  the  law — Their  letter  to  the  churches  on  this 
subject  XV.  1 — 35.) 

Sect.  3.  Paul's  second  departure  from  Antioch — He  preaches 
the  Gospel  in  various  countries,  particularly  at  Philippi  in 
Macedonia — the  conversion  of  the  Philippian  gaoler,  (xv. 
36— 41.xvi.) 

Sbct.  4.  The  journeys  and  apostolical  labours  of  Paul  and 
his  a-ssociates  at  Thessalonica,  Berea,  and  Athens — His 
masterly  apology  before  the  court  of  the  Areopagites.  (xvii.) 

Sect.  5.  Paul's  journey  to  Corinth,  and  thence  to  Antioch. 
(xviii.  1—22.) 

Sect.  6.  Paul's  third  departure  from  Antioch — Consequences 
of  his  preaching  at  Ephcsus.  (xviii.  23 — 28.  xix.) 

Sect.  7.  The  labours  of  Paul  in  Greece  and  Asia  Minor,  and 
his  journey  towards  Jerusalem,  (xx.) 

Sect.  8.  The  persecution  of  Paul  at  Jerusalem — He  is  sent 
a  prisoner  to  Cajsarea.  (xxi. — xxiii.  1 — 30.) 

Sect.  9.  Paul's  arrival  at  Caisarea — the  charges  of  the  Jews 
against  him — HIh  defence  before  Felix — Appeal  to  Casar — 
His  defence  l>eforc  Agrippa,  at  whose  request  his  cause  was 
reheard,  (xxiii.  31 — 35.  xxiv. — xxvi.) 

Sect.  10.  Narrative  of  Paul's  voyage  from  Cmsarea — His 
shipwreck  on  the  isle  of  Malta — His  voyage  thence  to  Rome, 
where  he  preaches  the  Gospel  to  the  Jews,  and  resides  for 
two  years,  (xxvii,  xxviii.) 

In  porusinfT  the  Acts  of  tlio  Apo-titlrs,  it  will  be  desirable 
constantly  to  refer  to  the  accomp;>iiyin^  map  nf  their  resj)tcl- 
ivc  journeys,  particularly  those  of  Suint  Paul.  In  con- 
strurliiiir  ihis  map,  the  accurate  geotrraphrr  D'Anvilif  has 
j)rincipiilly  bc(  u  fullowrd;  the  courses  of  the  several  winds 
that  usually  blow  in  the  Levant  or  Mediterranean  sea,  to- 
gether with  their  ancient  names,  are  inserted  from  Dr.  Shaw.' 

VII.  The  narrative  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  is  per- 
spicuous and  noble.  Thotirrh  it  is  not  entirely  fn^o  from 
Hebraisms,  it  is  in  general  much  purer  than  that  of  moat 

'  Travcb  iu  Darbary,  vol.  li.  p  131.  3J  edit 


NEW  TESTAMENT.  [Paiit  VI.  Chap.  II 

other  book?  of  the  New  Testament,  particularly  in  the 
speeches  delivered  by  ISaint  Paul  at  Athens,  and  bi  fo^ip  the 
Roman  governors.  It  is  further  worthy  of  refnark,  thatJSamt 
Luke  has  well  supported  the  character  of  each  person  whom 
he  has  introduced  as  speaking.  Thus  the  .<;peeL-lies  and  dis- 
courses of  St.  Peter  are  recorded  with  simplicity,  and  are 
destitute  of  all  those  ornaments  which  usually  occur  Hi  the 
orations  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  Nearly  similar  aire  the 
speeches  of  Saint  Paul,  wliich  w^ere  addressed  to  the  jfews, 
while  those  delivered  by  the  same  apostle  before  a  hoatheu 
audience  are  widely  diifercnt.  Thus,  in  his  discourse  deli- 
vered at  Aniiccli  iu  Pisidia,^  he  commences  with  a  knir  peri- 
l)hras!s,  which  would  not  have  been  either  instructive  or  en- 
tertaining in  any  other  plare  than  a  Jewish  synagogue.  On 
the  contrary,  the  spi  ech  of  the  martyr  Stephen  (Acts  vii.)  is 
altogether  of  a  different  description.  It  is  a  learned  out 
unpremeditated  discourse,  pronounced  by  a  person  totally  un- 
acquainted with  the  art  of  oratory  ;  ami  though  he  certainly 
had  a  particular  object  in  view,  to  which  the  several  parts  of 
his  discourse  were  directed,  yet  it  is  difficult  to  discover  this 
object,  because  his  materials  are  not  regularly  disposed. 
Lastly,  Saint  Paul's  discourses  b(  fore  assemblies  that  were 
accustomed  to  Grecian  oratory,  are  totally  diilerent  from  any 
of  the  preceding.  Though  not  adorned  with  the  flowers  of 
rhetoric,  the  language  is  pointed  and  ciieigitic,  jiiul  the  ma- 
terials are  judiciously  selected  and  arranged,  as  is  manifest 
in  lu.5  speech  delivered  at  Athens  (Acts  xvii.  22 — 31.),  and 
in  his  two  defences  of  himself  before  the  Roman  governors 
of  Judaja.  (xxiv.  xxvi.)  Dr.  Benson  and  Michaelis,  how- 
dver,  are  both  of  opinion,  that  Saint  Luke  has  given  abstracts 
only,  and  not  the  whole,  of  Saint  Paul's  speeches ;  for  in  his 
speech  before  Felix,  he  must  certainly  have  said  more  than  is 
recorded  by  Saint  Luke  (xxiv.  12,  13.);  unless  we  suppose 
that  Saint  Paul  merely  denied  the  charoe  which  had  been 
laid  against  him,  without  confuting  it.  Michaelis  adds,  that 
in  his  opinion  Saint  Luke  has  shown  great  judgment  iii  these 
abstracts  :  and  that,  if  he  has  not  retained  the  very  words  of 
Saint  Paul,  he  has  adopted  such  as  were  well  silitud  to  the 
polished  audiences  before  which  the  apostle  spoke.' 

VIII.  The  Acts  of  the  Apostles  afi'ord  abundant  evidence 
of  the  truth  and  divine  original  of  the  Christian  religion; 
for  we  learn  from  this  book,  that  the  Gospel  was  not  indibteil 
for  its  success  to  deceit  or  fraud,  but  that  it  was  wholly  the 
re.';ult  of  the  mighty  power  of  God,  and  of  the  excelitnce 
and  efficacy  of  the  saving  truths  which  it  contains.  The 
general  and  particular  doctrines,  comprised  in  tlie  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,  are  perfectly  in  unison  with  the  glorious  truths  re- 
vealed in  the  Gospels,  and  illustrated  in  the  Apostolic  Epis- 
tles; and  are  admirably  suited  to  the  state  ot  tlie  persons, 
whether  Jews  or  Gentiles,  to  whom  they  were  addressed. 
And  tlie  evidence  which  tlie  apostles  gave  of  their  doctrines, 
in  their  appeals  to  prophecies  and  miracles,  and  the  various 
gifts  of  the  Sj)irit,  were  so  numerous  and  so  strong,  and  at 
the  same  time  so  admirably  adapted  to  every  class  tt  persons, 
that  the  truth  of  the  religion  whith  they  attest  cannot  be 
reasonably  disputed. 

Further,  the  history  itself  is  credible.  It  was  written  by  a 
person  who  was  acquainted  with  the  various  circumstances 
which  he  relates,  and  who  was  both  able  and  disposed  to 
^ive  a  faithful  narrative  of  every  thing  tliat  occurrecf. '  Saint 
Luke  was  a  companion  of  the  apostles;  he  was  himself  an 
eye  and  ear  witness  of  the  facts,  and  was  personally  con- 
cerned in  many  of  the  incidents  he  has  recorded.  In  the 
history  itself  there  are  no  inconsistences  or  contradictions ; 
the  miraculous  facts  relaleil  in  it  are  neither  impossible, 
when  we  consider  the  alinii{hty  power  of  God  to  which  they 
.are  ascribed;  nor  improbable,  when  we  consider  the  grand 
design  and  occasion  on  accoaiit  of  whicli  they  were  perlorm- 
ed.  The  plainness  and  simplicity  of  the  narrative  are  also 
strong  circumstances  in  its  favour.  The  writer  appears  to 
have  ueen  very  honest  and  imjiarlial,  and  to  have  set  down 
fairly  the  objections  which  were  made  to  Christianity  both 
by  .U'ws  and  Heathens,  and  the  reflections  which  were  cast 
upon  it,  as  well  as  uj)on  its  first  preachers.  He  has,  like- 
wise, with  a  just  and  ingenuous  freedom,  mentioned  the 
weaknesses,  faults,  and  prejudices,  both  of  the  n|)ostl(  s  and 
of  their  converts.  The  occasional  hints,  which  ar(!  di8persr(^ 
throu;Tli  the  ei.istli;s  of  Saint  Paul,  harmonixe  with  the  fiicts 
relalt'd  in  the  history  of  Uie  Acts  nf  tho  Apostles  ;  ko  that 
this  hi  lorj'  is  the  best  guide  wo  can  have  in  studying  the 
epistles.     The   other   parts  of  tjio  New  Testammt  are  in 


«  \r\A  xlli.  16—41. 
>  Mlcli:\c|is,  Vol.   iii.  pari  i.   i- 
Planring  of  Ctirislinnily,  vol.  tl. 


IlpnsbnV  I!'  '"W  of  I'lo  ("hm 


**mmmm 


rt»Hi 


MMMi 


MM 


i 


321 

5  or  ex- 
•foie,  in 
id  pub- 
!  ot  the-- 
■.actions 
lad  not 
in  easy 

them- 
agree- 
i  to  us ; 
i  other 
limous 
justly 
:  times 
;ceived 
postles 
3  good 
f  man, 
jstimo- 


.T 


■s  upon 
id  sub- 
•V.  To 
iracter 


.  arsus, 
lerable 
litions, 
ie  ap- 
es, of 
lution ; 
her  of 
blame- 
of  his 
essed : 
m  the 
mpari- 
(Acts 
i.  3) 
taught 
ice  of 
ith  of 
ich,  in 
ithout 
ppears 
tyle.is 
in  the 
of  all 
ephen 

id  Saint 
le  style 
p.  250.) 
liarities 
lose  of 

XV.  33. 
m  Epi- 
31. 

instru- 
that  he 
ways  a 

rmour, 
;  these 
e  been 
im  one 
Pow 


■Vri.'X'i<'ir.v.:.--«PfW»*"'t,«««<»r«»»»*>>l*>>' 


C     --  l.\tl.i  iiixii  Tiff.y  '     ^ 

rrmnvf  ivnuiti'ljUui's  Simi  tiioliiilnl'iniii,^  i 

^        V.  _—     ,.l„.  I,  .1,,    „„ ,  il„.     -)'       -^ -^ 

>'G>v  tk.st.\>i:k:>t.   ' 


r.fi>.litli,lf    EilM      2  7     ftwt     friWiiriVA 


Sect.  I.] 


ACCOUNT  OF  THE  APOSTLE  PAUL. 


321 


perfect  unison  with  the  history,  and  tend  to  confirm  it ;  for  the 
tloctrines  and  principles  are  every  where  the  same.  The 
Gospels  close  with  references  to  the  facts  recorded  in  the 
Acts,  particularly  the  promise  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  which  we 
know  from  the  Acts  was  poured  out  by  Christ  upon  his  dis- 
ciples after  his  ascension ;  and  the  Epistles,  generally, 
plainly  suppose  that  those  facts  had  actually  occurred,  which 
the  history  relates.  So  that  the  history  of  the  Acts  is  one 
of  the  most  important  parts  of  sacred  history ;  for,  without 
it,  neither  the  Gospels  nor  the  Epistles  could  have  been  so 
clearly  understood ;  but  by  the  aid  of  this  book  the  whole 
scheme  of  the  Christian  revelation  is  set  before  us  in  a  clear 
and  easy  view.'  Lastly,  the  incidental  circumstances,  men- 
tioned by  Saint  Luke,  correspond  so  exactly,  and  without 
any  previous  view  to  such  a  correspondence  (in  cases,  too, 
where  it  could  not  possibly  have  been  premeditated  and  pre- 
contrived)  with  the  accounts  that  occur  in  the  Epistles,  and 
with  those  of  the  best  ancient  historians,  both  Jews  and 
Heathens,  that  no  person  who  had  forged  such  a  history,  in 
later  ages,  could  have  had  the  same  external  confirmation ; 
but  he  must  have  betrayed  himself,  by  alluding  to  some  cus- 
toms or  opinions  which  have  since  sprung  up,  or  by  misre- 


presenting some  circumstances,  or  using  some  phrase  or  ex- 
pression not  then  in  use.  The  plea  of  forgery,  therefore,  in 
later  ages,  cannot  be  allowed;  and  if  Saint  Luke  had  pub- 
lished such  a  history  at  so  early  a  period,  when  some  ot  the. 
apostles,  or  many  other  persons  concerned  in  the  transactions 
which  he  has  recorded,  were  alive,  and  his  account  had  not 
been  true,  he  would  only  have  exposed  himself  to  an  easy 
confutation,  and  to  certain  infamy. 

Since,  therefore,  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  are  in  them- 
selves consistent  and  uniform ;  the  incidental  relations  agree- 
able to  the  best  ancient  historians  that  have  come  down  to  us  ; 
and  the  main  facts  supported  and  confirmed  by  the  other 
books  of  the  New  Testament,  as  well  as  by  the  unanimous 
testimony  of  so  many  of  the  ancient  fathers,  we  are  justly 
authorized  to  conclude,  that,  if  any  history  of  former  times 
deserves  credit,  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  ought  to  be  received 
and  credited ;  and  if  the  history  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles 
is  true,  Christianity  cannot  be  false ;  for  a  doctrine  so  good 
in  itself,  so  admirably  adapted  to  the  fallen  state  of  man, 
and  attended  with  so  many  miraculous  and  divine  testimo- 
nies, has  all  the  possible  marks  of  a  true  revelation.^ 


CHAPTER  III. 

ON    THE    EPISTOLARY    OR     DOCTRINAL    WRITINGS    OF    THE     NEW    TESTAMENT,    PARTICULARLY 

THOSE    OF    SAINT    PAUL. 

SECTION  L 


ACCOUNT  OF  THE  APOSTLE  PAUL. 


[.  The  Birth  and  Education  of  Paul. — His  Persecution  of  the  Disciples  of  Christ,  and  his  Conversion. —  Observations  upon 
it. — IL  His  subsequent  Travels  and  Labours,  to  his  second  Visit  to  Jerusalem. — IIL  His  third  Visit  to  Jerusalem,  and  sub- 
sequent Labours,  to  his  fourth  Visit  to  Jerusalem. — IV.  His  Journeys  and  Labours,  to  his  fifth  Visit  to  Jerusalem. — V.  To 
his  first  Imprisonment  at  Rome. — VI.  His  subsequent  Journeys,  second  Imprisonment,  and  Martyrdom. — VII.  Character 
of  Paid. — VIII.   Observations  on  the  Style  of  his  Writings. 


L  Saul,  also  called  Paul  (by  which  name  this  illustri- 
ous apostle  was  generally  known  after  his  preaching  among 
the  Gentiles,  especially  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans),  was 
a  Hebrew  of  the  Hebrews,  a  descendant  of  the  patriarch 
Abraham,  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,''  and  a  native  of  Tarsus, 
then  the  chief  city  of  Cilicia.  By  birth  he  was  a  citizen 
of  Rome,-'  a  distinguished  honour  and  privilege,  which  had 
been  conferred  on  some  of  his  ancestors  for  services  rendered 
to  the  commonwealth  during  the  wars.*  His  father  was  a 
Pharisee,  and  he  himself  was  educated  in  the  most  rigid 
principles  of  that  sect.^  His  sister's  son  and  some  others 
of  his  relations  were  Christians,  and  had  embraced  the  Gos- 
pel before  his  conversion.'  That  he  was  early  educated  in 
Greek  literature  at  Tarsus,  may  be  inferred  from  that  place 
being  celebrated  for  polite  learning^  and  eloquence,^  and  also 

»  The  subject  of  these  coincidences  has  already  been  noticed  in  Vol.  I. 
pp.  49 — 51.  supra.  Dr.  Paley'a  Horae  Paulina;  aaiplifics  the  argument 
above  suggested,  and  is  indispensably  necessary  to  a  critical  study  of  the 
Epistles. 

a  Dr.  Benson's  Hist,  of  Christianity,  vol.  ii.  pp.  333—311. 

3  Phil.  iii.  .5.  2  Cor.  xi.  22,  Acts  xvi.  37,  38. 

«  Acts  xxii.  25.  29.  xxiii.  27. 

5  Dr.  Lardner  has  shown  that  this  is  the  most  probable  opinion.  Works, 
8vo.  vol.  i.  pp.  227—229.;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  124,  125.  Such  also  is  the  opinion 
of  John  Arntzenius,  who  has  written  an  elegant  dissertation  on  Saint  Paul's 
citizenship.  (See  his  Dissertationes  Binse,  p.  195.  Utrecht,  1725.)  It  is  not 
an  improbable  conjecture  that  the  cloak  and  parchments,  which  St.  Paul 
charged  Timothy  to  bring  to  him  (2  Tim.  iv.  13.),  were  the  Roman  toga  and 
the  certificates  of  his  citizenship,  which  might  be  of  service  to  him  in  his 
approaching  trial  before  the  emperor.  Shuttleworth's  Paraphrastic  Trans- 
lation of  the  Apostolical  Epistles,  p.3G9. 

8  Acta  xxiii.  fa.  xxvi.  5.  Phil.  iii.  5. 

1  Acts  xxiii.  16—22.  Rom.  xvi.  7.  11.  21. 

8  Strabo  the  geographe',  who  lived  in  the  same  age  as  St.  Paul,  charac- 
terizes the  inhabitants  of  Tarsus,  as  cherishing  such  a  passion  for  philoso- 
phy and  all  the  branches  of  polite  literature,  that  they  greatly  excelled 
even  Athens  and  Alexandria,  and  every  other  place  where  there  were 
schools  and  academies  for  philosophy  and  literature.  He  adds,  that  the 
natives  of  Tarsus  were  in  the  practice  of  going  abroad  to  other  cities  to 
perfect  themselves.  (Lib^  xiv.  vol.  ii.  pp.  960,  961.  edit.  Oxon.)  This  cir- 
cumstance accounts  for  Saint  Paul's  going  to  Jerusalem,  to  finish  his  stu- 
dies under  Gamaliel. 

»  In  every  ancient  seat  of  learning  eloquence  held  a  principal  rank ;  and 
each  species  of  it  was  denominated  from  the  place  where  it  was  most 
practised,  or  in  the  greatest  perfection.  Thuswe  read  of  the  chaste  Attic 
eloquence,  and  of  the  florid  Asiatic ;  and  Tarsus  also  gave  name  to  its  pe- 
culiar mode,  which,  however,  is  lea.st  known,  because,  from  the  very 
nature  of  it,  its  productions  were  not  likely  to  remain.  The  Tarsic  eio- 
Vol.I1.  2S 

i. 

\ 


from  his  quotations  of  several  Greek  poets.'"  From  Tarsus, 
Saul  removed  to  Jerusalem,  where  he  made  considerable 
proficiency  in  the  study  of  the  law,  and  the  .Jewish  traditions, 
under  Gamaliel,  a  celebrated  teacher  of  that  day."  He  ap- 
pears to  have  been  a  person  of  great  natural  abilities,  of 
quick  apprehension,  strong  passions,  and  firm  resolution; 
and  was  thus  qualified  for  signal  service,  as  a  teacher  of 
whatever  principles  he  might  embrace.  He  was  also  blame- 
less in  his  life,  and  strictly  faithful  to  the  dictates  of  his 
conscience,  according  to  the  knowledge  which  he  possessed  : 
this  is  evident  from  his  appeals  to  tne  Jews,  and  from  the 
undissembled  satisfaction  he  expresses  on  a  serious  compari- 
son and  recollection  of  his  former  and  later  conduct.  (Acts 
xxiii.  1.  xxvi.  4,5.  Phil.  iii.  6.  1  Tim.  i.  13.  2Tim.  i.  3.) 
His  parents  completed  his  education  by  having  him  taught 
the  art  of  tent-making,'^  in  conformity  with  the  practice  of 
the  Jews,  with  whom  it  was  customary  to  teach  youth  of 
the  highest  birth  some  mechanical  employment,  by  which,  in 
cases  of  necessity,  they  might  maintain  themselves  without 
being  burthensome  to  others:  and  his  occupation  appears 
subsequently  to  have  had  some  influence  upon  his  style." 
For  some  time  after  the  appearance  of  Christianity  in  the 
world,  he  was  a  bitter  enemy  and  a  furious  opposer  of  all 
who  professed  that  faith ;  and  when  the  protomartyr  Stephen 

quence  was  employed  in  sudden  and  unpremeditated  harangues ;  and  Saint 
Paul,  long  accustomed  to  compositions  of  this  sort,  transferred  the  style 
and  manner  from  speaking  to  writing.  (Dr.  Powell's  Discourses,  p.  250.) 
This  circumstance  will  account  for  the  abruptness  and  other  pecuharities 
in  the  apostle's  letters  which  are  more  fully  considered  in  the  close  of 
this  section. 

10  Thus,  in  Acts  xvii.  28.  he  cites  a  verse  from  Aratus ;  m  1  Cor.  xv.  33. 
he  quotes  another  from  IVIenander;  and  in  Tit.  i.  12.  a  verse  from  Epi- 
menides.    See  an  illustration  of  this  last  passage,  supra,  Vol.  I.  p.  81. 

«»  Acts  xxii.  3.  XA-vi.  5.  Gal.  i.  14. 

»a  Michaelis  makes  St.  Paul  to  have  been  a  maker  of  mechanical  instru- 
ments (vol.  iv.  pp.  183—186.) ;  but  all  commentators  are  of  opinion  that  he 
was  a  manufacturer  of  tents,  for  which,  in  the  East,  there  was  always  a 
considerable  demand. 

"  To  a  man  employed  in  making  tents,  the  ideas  of  camps,  arms,  armour, 
warfare,  military  pav,  would  be  familiar ;  and  St.  Paul  introduces  these 
and  their  concomitants  so  frequently,  that  his  language  seems  to  have  been 
such  as  might  rather  have  been  e.xpected  from  a  soldier,  than  from  one 
who  lived  in  quiet  times,  and  was  a  preacher  of  the  gcspel  of  peace.  Pow 
ell's  Discourses,  p.  254. 


322 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  VI.  Chap.  III.. 


was  stoned,  Saul  was  not  only  consenting  to  his  death,  but 
actually  took  care  of  the  clothes  of  the  witnesses  who  had 
stoned  liiin. 

A.  D.  34.  After  this  event,  Saul  took  an  active  part  in  the 
persecution  of  the  Christians,  not  only  at  Jerusalem,  but  also 
throughout  J ud«a  (Acts  viii.  3.  xxii.  4.  xxvi.  10,  11.);  and 
procured  letters  of  commission  from  the  hij^h-priest  and 
elders,»or  sanhedrin,  to  the  synagogue  of  the  Jews  at  Da- 
mascus, empowering  him  to  bring  to  Jerusalem  any  Chris- 
tians, whether  men  or  women,  whom  he  mitrht  find  there. 
He  also  obtained  letters  to  the  governor  of  l)amascus,  we 
may  presume,  to  permit  them  to  be  removed  from  liis  juris- 
diction. (Acts  ix.  2.  xxii.  5.  xxvi.  1*2.^  While  Saul  was 
on  his  journey  thither  for  this  purpose,  his  miraculous  con- 
version took  place,  a.  d.  33,  in  the  manner  recorded  in  the 
ninth  chapter  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  and  to  whioli 
Saint  Paul  himself  has  numerous  references  in  his  Kpistles.' 
Tlie  conversion  of  such  a  man,  at  such  a  time  and  by  such 
means,  furnishes  one  of  the  most  complete  proofs  that  have 
ever  been  given  of  the  divine  oritjin  of  Christianity.  That  Saul, 
who  possessed  such  distinguished  talents  and  acquirements, 
from  beincr  a  zealous  persecutor  of  the  disciples  of  Christ, 
became  alfat  once  a  disciple  himself,  is  a  fact,  which  cannot 
be  controverted  without  overturning  llie  credit  of  all  history. 
He  must,  therefore,  have  been  converted  in  the  miraculous 
manner  in  wliich  he  himself  declares  that  he  was  converted, 
and  of  course  the  Christian  revelation  must  be  from  God;  or 
he  must  have  been  either  an  impostor,  an  enthusiast,  or  a 
dupe  to  the  fraud  of  others.  There  is  no  other  alternative 
possible. 

1.  If  he  was  an  impostor,  he  must  have  declared  what  he 
knew  to  be  false,  and  he  must  have  been  influenced  to  such  a 
conduct  by  some  motive  or  other.  But  the  only  conceivable 
motives  for  religious  imposture  are  the  hopes  of  advancing 
one's  temporal  mterest,  credit,  or  power;  or  the  prospect  ot 
gratifyino'sonip  p;ission  or  appetite  under  the  authority  of  the 
new  religion.  IS  ow,  that  none  of  these  motives  could  influence 
Saint  Paul  to  prcfess  the  faith  of  Christ  crucified,  is  manifest 
from  the  state  of  Judaism  and  Christianity,  at  the  period 
when  he  renounced  the  former,  and  embraced  the  latter  faith. 
Those  whom  he  left  were  the  disposers  of  wealth,  of  dignity, 
and  of  power,  in  Judaea ;  those  to  whom  he  went  were  indi- 
gent men,  oppressed,  and  kept  from  all  means  of  improving 
thoir  fortunes.  The  certain  consequence,  therefore,  of  his 
takinCT  the  part  of  Christianity  was  the  loss  not  only  of  all 
that  Tie  possessed,  but  of  all  hopes  of  acquiring  more  : 
whereas,  oy  continuing  to  persecute  the  Christians,  he  had 
hopes,  rising  almost  to  a  certainty,  of  making  his  fortune  by 
the  favour  of  those  who  were  at  the  head  of  the  Jewish  state, 
to  whom  nothing  could  so  much  recommend  him  as  the  zeal 
which  he  had  shown  in  that  persecution.  As  to  credit,  or 
reputation,  could  the  scholar  of  Gamaliel  hope  to  gain 
cither  by  becoming  a  teacher  in  a  college  of  fishermen ! 
Could  he  flatter  himself  that  the  doctrines  which  he  taught 
would,  either  in  or  out  of  Judaea,  do  him  honour,  when  he 
knew  that  "  they  were  to  the  Jews  a  stumbling-block,  and  to 
the  Greeks  foolishness!"  Was  it  then  the  love  of  power 
that  induced  him  to  make  this  great  change  1  Power!  over 
whom  1  Over  a  flock  of  sheep  whom  he  himself  had  assisted 
to  destroy,  and  whose  very  Shepherd  had  lately  been  mur- 
dered !  Perhaps  it  was  with  trie  view  of  gratifying  some 
licentious  passion,  under  the  authority  of  the  new  religion, 
that  he  commenced  a  teacher  of  that  religion  !  This  cannot 
be  alleged  ;  for  his  writings  l)rcathe  nothing  but  the  strictest 
morality,  obedience  to  magistrates,  order,  and  government, 
with  the  utmost  abhorrence  of  all  licentiousness,  idleness,  or 
loose  behaviour,  under  the  cloak  of  religion.  We  nowhere 
find  in  his  works,  that  saints  are  above  moral  ordinances  ; 
that  dominion  is  founded  in  grace ;  that  monarchy  is  despot- 
ism which  ought  to  be  abolished  ;  that  the  fortunes  of  the  rich 
ought  to  be  divided  among  the  poor ;  that  thtre  is  no  diflur- 
ence  in  moral  actions  ;  that  any  impulses  of  tlie  mind  are  to 
direct  us  against  the  light  of  our  reason,  ami  the  laws  of  na- 
ture; or  any  of  those  wicked  tenets  by  which  the  peace  of 
society  has  been  often  disturbeil,  and  the  rules  of  morality 
often  broken,  by  men  pretending  to  act  under  the  sanction  of 
divine  revelation.  He  makes  no  distinctions,  like  the  impos- 
tor of  Arabia,  in  favour  of  himself :  nor  does  any  j)art  ol  his 
life,  either  before  or  after  his  conversion  to  Christianity,  bear 

•  See  particularly  1  Cor.  xv.  9.  Oal.  i.  13.  1  Tiii\.  I.  12,  13.  Various  opi- 
nions Imvc  bcpn  viilKrtniiicil  lijr  Ic.-irncd  incn  rcspocUna  Uic  «l,ilo  of  t<t. 
Paul's  conversion.  Ttm  flalo  assiifiiurl  in  tlio  icit  Iti  liiat  ailoptcd  by  Up. 
Poaraon.  Ur.  L^rdner  Axca  lliat  ovcnt  to  the  cn<l  o(  %,  or  Mrly  th  37. 
Work*,  8vo.  vol.  vl.  pp.  230— 2». ;  4to.  vol.  lU.  pp.  Ifiti,  253. 


any  mark  of  a  libertine  disposition.  As  among  the  Jews,  so 
among  the  Christians,  his  conversation  and  manners  were 
blameloss. — It  has  been  sometimes  objected  to  the  other  apos- 
tles, by  those  who  were  resolved  not  to  credit  their  testimony, 
that  having  been  deenly  engaged  with  Jesus  during  his  lire, 
they  were  obliged,  for  the  support  of  their  own  credit,  and 
from  having  gone  too  far  to  return,  to  continue  the  same  pro- 
fessions after  his  death  ;  but  this  can  by  no  means  be  said  of 
Saint  Paul.  On  the  contrary,  whatever  force  there  may  be 
in  such  a  mode  of  reasoning,  it  all  tends  to  convince  us,  that 
Saint  Paul  must  natura/li/  have  continued  a  Jew,  and  an 
enemy  to  Christ  Jesus.  If  thei/  were  engaged  on  one  side, 
he  was  as  strongly  engaged  on  the  other.  If  shame  withheld 
them  trom  changing  sides,  much  more  ought  it  to  have 
stopped /»'»» ;  who,  from  his  superior  education,  must  have 
been  vastly  more  sensible  to  that  kind  of  shame,  than  the 
mean  and  illiterate  fishermen  of  Galilee.  The  only  other 
difference  was,  that  ihey,  by  (luitting  their  master  after  his 
death,  might  have  preserved  themselves ;  whereas  he,  by 
quitting  the  Jews,  and  taking  up  the  cross  of  Christ,  cer- 
tainly brought  on  his  own  destruction. 

2.  As  St.  Paul  was  not  an  impostor,  so  it  is  manifest  that 
he  was  not  an  enthusiast.  Heat  of  temper,  melancholy, 
ignorance,  and  vanity,  are  the  ingredients  of  which  enthu- 
siasm is  composed ;  but  from  all  these,  except  the  first,  the 
apostle  appears  to  have  been  wholly  free.  That  he  had 
great  fervt-ur  of  zeal,  both  when  a  Jew  and  when  a  Christian, 
in  maintaining  what  he  thought  to  be  right,  cannot  be  denied  ; 
but  he  was  at  all  times  so  much  master  of  his  temper, 
as,  in  matters  of  indifference,  to  "become  all  things  to  all 
men,"  whh  the  most  pliant  condescension,  bending  his  no- 
tions and  manners  to  theirs,  as  far  as  his  duty  to  (iod  would 
pennit;  a  conduct  compatible  neither  with  the  stiffness  of  a 
oigot,  nor  with  the  violent  impulses  of  fanatical  delusion. 
That  he  was  not  melancholy,  is  evident  from  his  conduct  in 
embracing  every  method  which  prudence  could  sugTOst  to 
escape  danger  and  shun  persecution ;  when  he  could  do  it 
without  betraying  the  duty  of  his  office  or  the  honour  of  his 
God.  A  melancholy  enthusiast  courts  persecution ;  and 
when  he  cannot  obtain  it,  afflicts  himself  with  absurd  pen- 
ances ;  but  the  holiness  of  Saint  Paul  consisted  only  in  the 
simplicity  of  a  godly  life,  and  in  the  unwearied  performance 
of  his  apostolical  duties.  That  he  was  ignorant,  no  man 
will  allege  who  is  not  grossly  ignorant  himself;  for  he  ap- 
pears to  have  been  master  not  only  of  the  Jewish  learning,  but 
also  of  the  Greek  philosophy,  and  to  have  been  very  conversant 
even  with  the  Greek  poets.  That  he  was  not  credulous,  is 
clear  from  his  having  resisted  the  evidence  of  all  the  mira- 
cles performed  on  earth  by  Christ,  as  well  as  those  that  were 
afterwards  wrought  by  the  apostles ;  to  the  fame  of  which, 
as  he  lived  at  Jerusalem,  he  could  not  possibly  have  been  a 
stranger.  And  that  he  was  as  free  from  vanity  as  any  man 
that  ever  lived,  may  be  gathered  from  all  that  we  see  in  his 
writings,  or  know  of  his  life.  He  represents  himself  as  the 
least  of  the  apostles,  and  not  meet  to  be  called  an  apostle. 
He  says  that  he  is  the  chief  of  sinners ;  and  he  prefers,  in  the 
strongest  terms,  universal  benevolence  to  faith,  prophecy, 
miracles,  and  all  the  gifts  and  graces  with  which  he  could 
be  endowed.  Is  this  the  language  of  vanity  or  enthusiasm  1 
Did  ever  fanatic  prefer  virtue  to  his  own  religious  opinions, 
to  illuminations  of  the  spirit,  and  even  to  the  merit  of  mar- 
tyrdom 1  It  is  therefore  in  vain  for  the  enemies  of  Christi- 
anity to  attempt  to  resolve  this  miraculous  conversion  of 
Saint  Paul  into  the  effects  of  enthusiasm.  The  nower  of 
imagination  in  enthusiastical  minds  is,  unquestionably,  very 
strong;  but  it  always  acts  in  conformity  to  the  ophiions  im- 
printed upon  it  at  the  time  of  its  working,  and  can  no  more 
act  against  them  than  a  rapid  river  can  carry  a  vessel  against 
the  current  of  its  own  stream.  Now,  nothing  can  be  more  cer- 
tain than  that,  when  Saul  departed  from  Jerusalem  tor  Damas- 
cus, armed  with  authority  from  the  chief  priests  to  bring  the 
t'hristians,  who  were  there,  bound  to  Jcrusulein,  whether  they 
were  men  ur  wunien  (Acts  ix.  2.),  an  authority  solicited  by 
himself  and  granted  to  him  at  his  own  express  desire,— -his 
mind  was  most  strongly  possessed  with  an  opinion  against 
Christ  and  his  followers.  To  give  those  opinions  a  more 
active  force,  his  passions  at  that  time  concurred,  being  in- 
flamed in  the  higliest  degree  by  the  irritating  consciousness 
of  his  past  conduct  towards  them,  the  pride  of  sujiporting  a 
part  in  which  he  had  voluntary  engaged,  and  the  credit 
which  he  found  it  procured  Imn  amontf  the  chief  priests  and 
rulers,  whose  commission  hebore.  If,  in  such  a  state  and 
temper  of  mind,  an  enUiusiastical  man  had  imagined  that  ha 


t9M 


Sect.  I.] 


ACCOUNT  OF  THE  APOSTLE  PAUL. 


323 


saw  a  vision  from  heaven,  denouncing  the  anger  of  God 
against  the  Christians,  and  commanding  hini  to  persecute 
them  without  any  mercy,  it  might  be  accounted  for  by  the  natu- 
ral power  of  enthusiasm.  But  that,  in  the  very  instant  of  his 
being  engaged  in  the  fiercest  and  hottest  persecution  against 
thern, — no  circumstance  having  occurred  to  change  his  opi- 
nions or  alter  the  bent  of  his  disposition, — he  should  at  once 
imapne  himself  called  by  a  heavenly  vision  to  be  the  apostle 
of  Christ,  whom,  but  a  moment  before,  he  deemed  an  impos- 
tor and  a  blasphemer,  that  had  been  justly  put  to  death  upon 
the  cross  ; — this  is  in  itself  wholly  increaible,  and  so  far 
from  being  a  probable  effect  of  enthusiasm,  that  just  a  con- 
trary effect  must  have  been  naturally  produced  by  that  cause. 
But,  still  further  to  show  that  this  vision  could  not  be  a  phan- 
tom of  Saint  Paul's  own  creating,  let  it  be  observed,  that  he 
was  not  alone  when  he  saw  it ;  there  were  many  others  in 
company,  whose  minds  were  no  better  disposed  than  his  to 
the  Christian  faith.  Could  it  be  possible,  tliat  the  minds  of 
all  these  men  should  be  so  strangely  affected,  as  to  make  them 
believe  that  they  saw  a  great  light  shining  about  them,  above 
the  brightness  of  the  sun  at  noon-day,  and  heard  the  sound  of 
a  voice  from  heaven,  though  not  the  words  which  it  spake 
(Acts  xxi.  6.  9.\  when  in  reality  they  neither  saw  nor  heard 
any  such  thing  s  Could  they  be  so  infatuated  with  the  con- 
ceit of  their  own  fancies,  as  to  fall  down  from  their  horses, 
together  with  Saul  (Acts  xxvi.  14.),  and  be  speechless 
through  fear,  when  nothing  extraordinary  had  happened 
either  to  him  or  to  them ;  especially  considering  that  this  appa- 
rition did  not  appear  in  the  night,  when  the  senses  are  more 
easily  imposed  upon,  but  at  mid-day  ?  If  a  sudden  frenzy 
had  seized  upon  Paul,  from  any  distemper  of  body  or  mind, 
can  we  suppose  his  whole  company, — men  of  different  con- 
stitutions and  understandings, — to  have  been  at  once  affected 
in  the  same  manner  v;ith  him,  so  that  not  the  disteniper  alone, 
but  also  the  effects  of  it,  would  exactly  agree  1  if  all  had 
gone  mad  together,  would  not  the  frenzy  of  some  have  taken 
a  different  turn,  and  presented  to  them  different  objects  ? 
This  supposition  is  so  contrary  to  nature  and  all  possibility, 
that  unbelief  must  find  some  other  solution,  or  give  up  the 
point. 

3.  Having  shown  that  Saint  Paul  was  neither  an  impostor 
nor  an  enthusiast,  it  remains  only  that  we  inquire  whether  he 
was  deceived  by  the  fraud  of  others  ?  This  inquiry,  indeed, 
may  be  despatched  in  a  very  few  words.  For  who  was  or 
were  to  deceive  him  !  A  few  illiterate  fishermen  of  Galilee. 
It  was  morally  impossible  for  such  men  to  conceive  the 
thought  of  turning  the  most  enlightened  of  their  opponents, 
and  the  most  cruel  of  their  persecutors,  into  an  apostle,  and 
to  do  this  by  fraud  in  the  very  instant  of  his  j^reatest  fury 
against  them  and  their  Lord.  But  could  they  have  been  so 
extravagant  as  to  conceive  such  a  thought,  it  was  physically 
impossible  for  them  to  execute  it  in  the  manner  in  which  we 
find  his  conversion  to  have  been  effected.  Could  they  pro- 
duce a  light  in  the  air,  which  at  mid-day  was  brighter  than 
the  sun  1  Could  they  make  Saul  hear  words  from  out  of 
that  light,  which  were  not  heard  by  the  rest  of  the  company  1 
Could  they  make  him  blind  for  three  days  after  that  vision, 
and  then  make  scales  fall  off  from  his  eyes,  and  restore  him 
to  sight  by  a  word  1  Or  could  they  make  him  and  those  who 
travelled  with  him  believe,  that  all  these  things  had  happen- 
ed, if  they  had  not  happened  1  Most  unquestionably  no  fraud 
was  equal  to  all  this. 

vSince,  then.  Saint  Paul  was  neither  an  impostor  nor  an 
enthusiast,  nor  deceived  by  the  fraud  of  others,  it  follows 
that  his  conversion  was  miraculous,  and  that  the  Christian 
religion  is  a  divine  revelation.' 

II.  Shortly  after  his  baptism,  and  the  descent  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  upon  him,  Saul  went  into  Arabia  (Gal.  i.  17.)  ;  and 
during  his  residence  in  that  country  he  was  fully  instructed, 
as  we  may  reasonably  think,  by  special  revelation,  and  by 
diligent  study  of  the  Old  Testament,  in  the  doctrines  and 
duties  of  the  Gospel.    Three  years  after  his  conversion  he 

«  See  Lord  LytUeton's  Observations  on  the  Conversion  of  Saint  Paul 
(from  which  the  above  remarks  are  abridged) ; — a  treatise  to  which  it  has 
been  truly  said,  "infidelity  has  never  been  able  to  fabricate  a  specious 
answer."  "  Lord  L.  had,"  says  his  biographer,  "  in  the  pride  of  juvenile 
confidence,  with  the  help  of  corrupt  conversation,  entertained  doubts  of 
the  truth  of  Christianity  :  but  he  now"  (in  his  maturer  years)  "  thought 
the  time  come,  when  it  was  no  longer  fit  to  doubt  or  believe  by  chance, 
and  applied  himself  seriously  to  the  great  question.  His  studies,  being 
H0NE.ST,  ended  in  conviction.  He  found  that  religion  was  true."  (Dr. 
Johnson's  Lives  of  the  Poets,  vol.  iii.  p.  S?3.)  Dr.  Graves  has  some  excel- 
lent observations  on  the  conduct  and  writings  of  Saint  Paul,  in  his  Essay 
on  the  Character  of  the  Apostles  and  Evangelists,  pp.  115— liJl.  ISi— 218., 
which  show  that  he  was  in  no  respect  influenced  or  directed  by  a  spirit  of 
enthusiasm. 


returned  to  Damascus,  a.  d.  38.  (Gal.  i.  18.),  and  boldly 
preached  the  Gospel  to  the  .lews,  who,  rejecting  his  testi- 
mony, as  an  apostate,  conspired  to  kill  him ;  but,  the  plot 
being  communicated  to  Saul,  he  escaped  from  Damascus 
privately  by  night,  and  went  up  to  Jerusalem  for  the  first 
time  since  his  conversion. 2  After  some  hesitation  on  the 
part  of  the  Christians  in  that  city,  he  was  acknowledo-ed  to 
be  a  disciple:  he  remained  at  Jerusalem  only  fifteen'^days, 
during  which  his  boldness  in  preaching  the  Gospel  so  irritated 
the  Hellenistic  Jews,  that  they  conspired  against  him;  which 
when  the  brethren  kneiv,  they  brought  him  doivn  to  CsesareU' 
Fhilippi,  and  sent  him  forth  to  Tarsus.  (Acts  ix.  28 30.) 

A.  D.  39.  While  Saul  was  in  Cilicia,  he  had  those  divine 
visions  and  revelations  of  which  he  speaks  in  2  Cor.  xii, ; 
on  which  occasion  there  was  given  him  a  thorn  in  the  Jiesh 
(supposed  to  have  been  some  paralytic  affection  of  the  coun- 
tenance and  voice),  lest  he  should  have  been  exalted  above 
measure,  through  the  abundance  of  the  revelations. 

In  the  year  42,  Saul,  accompanied  by  Barnabas,  proceeded 
to  Antiocih,  where  they  taught  with  great  success  for  one 
year.  (Acts  xi.  26.)  During  their  abode  in  this  city  th&-e 
ccime  prophets  from  Jerusalem,  one  of  whom,  named  Agabus, 
signified  by  the  Spirit  that  there  should  be  a  dearth  thnnighuut 
the  land  of  Judaga,  which  came  to  puss  in  the  days  of  Claudius 
Cxsar,  commencing  in  the  fourth,  but  raging' chiefly  in  the 
fifth  and  sixth  years  of  that  emperor.  In  order  to  relieve 
their  suffering  brethren  in  Judaa,  a  collection  was  made  by 
the  Christians  at  Antioch,  each  according  to  his  ability ;  and 
was  sent  to  the  church  at  Jerusalem  by  the  hands  of  Barna- 
bas and  Saul  (Acts  xi.  27 — 30.),  a.  d.  44.  The  trance  or 
vision  mentioned  in  Acts  xxii.  17.  is  supposed  to  have  taken 
place  during  this  second  visit  to  Jerusalem. 

III.  A.  D.  44.  Having  discharged  this  trust,  Barnabas  and 
Saul  returned  from  Jerusalem  to  Antioch,  taking  with  them 
Mark  the  nephew  of  Barnabas  (afterwards  the  evangelist)  as 
an  assistant  in  their  approaching  mission  to  the  Gentiles,  to 
which  Barnabas  and  Saul  were  soon  after  separated  by  the 
solemn  and  express  appointment  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 

A.  D.  45.  Being  thus  sent  forth,  they  departed,  with  Mark 
as  their  minister,  to  Seleucia,  a  sea-port  town  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Orontcs,  twelve  miles  below  Antioch,  and  about  five 
from  the  sea;  whence  they  sailed  to  Cyprus,  tli>;  native 
country  of  Barnabas,  and  preached  the  word^of  God  at  Sala- 
mis,  the  nearest  port  to  Sj'ria,  at  first  in  the  Jewish  syna- 
gogues according  to  their  custom.  Thence  they  crossed  to 
Paphos,  the  capital  of  the  island,  where  Sergius  Paulus,  the 
Roman  proconsul,  resided.  This  magistrate,  being  desirous 
to  hear  the  word  of  God,  sent  for  the  apostles ;  but  Barjesus, 
a  Jewish  false  prophet  and  sorcerer,  opposed  them,  and 
sought  to  pervert  the  proconsul  from  the  faith.  But  Saul, 
full  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  struck  the  sorcerer  with  blindness, 
for  a  season,  as  a  punishment  for  his  wicked  interference. 
This  astonishing  judgment,  confirming  the  doctrine  of  the 
Lord,  converted  the  proconsul  to  the  faith.  (Actsxiii.  1 — 13.) 
As  Saint  Luke,  who  has  recorded  the  labours  of  the  great 
apostle  to  the  Gentiles,  calls  him  no  longer  Saul,  but  Paul, 
learned  men  have  conjectured  that  the  change  was  made  by 
Saul  himself  in  honour  of  the  proconsul,  who  was  probably 
his  first  convert  from  among  the  idolatrous  Gentiles,  or,  per« 
haps,  the  first  Gentile  of  high  rank  who  was  converted.'^ 

A.  D.  46.  "  Paul  and  his  company"  sailed  from  Cyprus  ta 
the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  and  preached  at  Perga,  a  city  of 
Pamphylia,  situate  about  twelve  miles  from  the  sea.  Hera 
Mark  separated  from  thern,  and  returned  to  Jerusalem.  Thenc« 
they  proceeded  to  Antioch,  the  capital  of  Pisidia,  where, 
notwithstanding  the  opposition  of  the  Jews,  Paul  and  Bar- 
nabas converted  great  numbers,  both  of  the  proselyted  and 
of  the  idolatrous  Gentiles ;  but,  being  driven  thence  by  the 
machinations  of  the  unbelieving  Jews,  they  proceeded  to 
Iconium  in  Lycaonia.  (xiii.  13 — 52.)  Here  they  converted 
many  to  the  faith ;  but,  being  in  danger  of  being  stoned,  they 
proceeded  to  Lystra,  where  Paul,  werking  a  miracle  on  a 
cripple,  was  at  first  considered  as  a  god,  but  was  afterwards 
dragged  out  of  the  city,  stoned,  and  left  for  dead.  (xiv.  1 — 
20.)  He  rose  up,  however,  perfectly  whole ;  and,  quitting 
Lystra,  on  the  following  day,  he  proceeded  to  Derbe,  and 
preached  the  Gospel  in  Galatia  and  Phrygia,  regions  adjoin- 

"  Acts  ix.  23—25.  Gal.  i.  17,  IS.  2  Cor.  xi.  32,  33. 

»  It  was  customai7  among  the  Romans  to  assume  the  name  of  a  bene- 
factor whom  they  highly  esteemed.  Thus  the  Jewish  historian  Josephus 
took  the  name  of  Flavius,  in  compliment  to  Ve.spasian,  with  whom  he  was 
in  high  favour.  This  circumstance  sufficiently  refutes  the  unfounded  as- 
sertions of  a  late  reviler  of  the  Scriptures,  who,  wilfully  disregarding  ail 
positive  evidence  to  the  contrary,  has  asserted  that  Luke  has  compiled  hiS 
narrative  from  two  tales !  !  ! 


324 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[PiRT   VI.  CUAP.  III. 


mg  to  Lycaonia,  whence  Paul  and  his  assistants  returned 
through  Lj'Stra  and  Iconium  to  Antioch  in  Pisidia,  confirm- 
ing the  new  converts  in  the  faith,  and  firdaining  elders  in  every 
church.  Having  thus  traversed  all  Pisidia,  they  retraced 
their  way  to  Perga  in  Pamphj'lia,  and,  embarking  at  Attalia, 
returned  to  Antioch  in  Syria,  after  a  circuit  of  about  two 
vears.  (xiv.  21 — 27.)' 

A.  D.  n,  48.  During  their  residence  at  Antioch,  which  is 
supposed  to  have  been  full  two  years,  certain  persons  came 
from  Judsea,  and  tauf^ht  that  there  was  no  salvation  without 
circumcision  and  otlior  legal  ceremonies.  These  false 
teachers  Paul  and  Barnabas  witlistood;  and  it  was  at  length 
agreed  to  send  a  deputatian  to  Jerusalem,  to  obtain  the  dcci- 
6ion  of  the  apostles  and  ciders  on  this  question.  For  this 
purpose  Paul  and  Barnabas  were  deputed  :  and,  travelling 
through  PhiBnice  and  Samaria,  they  arrived  at  Jerusalem 
A.  D.  49,  where  it  was  decreed  that  the  proselyted  Gentiles 
were  not  obliged  to  observe  the  law  of  Moses  as  a  term  or 
condition  of  salvation.  (Acts  xv.  1—29.)  After  the  council 
of  Jerusalem,  Paul  and  Barnabas  returned  to  Antioch,  and 
made  some  stay  there,  probably  during  the  remainder  of  the 
year  49,  teaching  and  preaching  the  word  of  the  Lord,  with 
many  assistants.  (30 — .35.) 

About  the  beginning  of  the  year  50,  Paul  proposed  to  Bar- 
nabas to  take  another  circuit  throughout  the  churches  they 
had  planted  in  Asia  Minor.  But  Barnabas  being  desirous  of 
having  his  nephew  Mark  for  their  minister,  Paul  objected  to 
iiim  who  had  deserted  them  in  their  former  journey  to  Pam- 
phylia.  (xiii.  13.)  A  sharp  contention  arose,  which  termi- 
nated in  their  separation  ;  and  Barnabas  sailed  with  Mark  to 
Cyprus,  to  visit  the  churches  wliich  had  been  j)lanted  there 
by  Paul  himself;  while  Paul,  choosing  Silas  for  his  compa- 
nion, departed  from  Antioch  with  the  approbation  of  t!ie 
church.  Passjng  through  Syria  and  Cilicia,  they  confirmed 
the  churches  in  those  countries ;  and  thence  proceeded  to 
Derbe  and  Lvstra  in  Lycaonia,  to  preach  the  Gospel  a  se- 
cond time  to  the  Gentiles,  and  to  pulilish  the  decrees  of  the 
apostolic  council  of  Jerusalem.  At  Lystra  Paul  took  Timo- 
thy as  his  assistant;  and,  departing  thence  with  Silas,  they 
went  through  Phrygia  and  Galatia,  publishing  every  where 
the  decrees.  (Acts  xv.  35 — ^11.  xvi.  1 — 6.)  Being  forbidden 
by  the  Holy  Spirit  to  preach  the  Gospel  in  Asia,  strictly  so 
•jailed,  they  arrived  at  Mysia;  and  being  in  like  manner  for- 
bidden to  proceed  to  Bithynia,  they  passed  by  the  Lesser 
Mysia  (which  separated  Bithynia  from  the  remon  of  Troas), 
and  carne  to  the  city  and  port  of  Troas.  Here  they  were 
joined  by  tlie  evangelist  Luke.   fxvi.  7,  8.) 

A.  D.  50.  While  they  were  at  Troas,  Paul  and  his  assist- 
ants were  called  to  preach  the  Gospel  in  Macedonia  by  a 
vision  that  appeared  to  Paul  during  tlie  night.  In  obedience 
to  the  heavenly  monition,  tliey  sailed  directly  from  Troas  to 
Samothracia,  and  next  day  to  Neapolis,  and  thence  to  Piii- 
lijipi,  a  cittf  of  Macedonia  Fruna,  and  <t.  Roman  cu'ony^i 
Here  Paul  converted  Lydia,  and  dispossessed  a  damsel  who 
had  a  spirit  of  divination,  for  which  last  transaction  Paul 
and  Silas  were  beaten  with  rods  and  imprisoned ;  but,  being 
liberated  (Acts  xvi.  9 — 40.),  they  passed  througli  Amphipo- 
lis  and  Apollonia  to  Tliessalonica.  Here  he  preached  in  the 
synagogue,  and  some  believed,  while  others  persecuted  him. 
iJeing  obliged  to  niiit  that  city,  Paul  and  his  assistants  went 
to  Beraja,  where  tiiey  preached  with  great  success ;  but  the 
unbelieving  Jews,  coming  from  Thessalonica,  stirred  up  the 
people  against  them.  Paul,  therefore,  leavingr  Silas  and 
Timothy  at  Beraa,  departed  to  Athens;  where  lie  disputed 
daily  in  the  synagogue  with  the  Jews,  and  in  the  market- 
place with  the  Lpicurean  and  Stoic  philosophers.  These 
men  conducted  him  before  the  supreme  court  of  Areopagus 
for  trial,  on  the  capital  charge  of  being  "a  setter  forth  of 
strange  demons."  Before  this  tribunal,  composed  of  senators, 
philosophers,  rhetoricians,  and  statesmen.  Saint  Paul  deliver- 
»'d  his  most  elwiuentand  masterly  apology  ;  in  which,  while 
he  retorted  the  charge  of  his  accnsers,  he  instructed  the  peo- 
ple, to  whom  he  preached  the  living  God,  to  them  unknown.' 
Although  many  of  his  hearers  ridiculed  the  sublime  doctrines 
which  he  taught,  particularly  that  of  the  resurrection,  yet 
some  of  his  audience  were  better  disposed,  and  desirous  of 
further  information  ;  and  one  among  his  judges  was  convert- 

•  BJMtinp  Pciirson  allota  Ihroo  years  for  llirso  journrvB  of  the  npostlo, 
vi/..  4.'i,  41;,  anil  47,  an<l  lomcthlni;  iiioro.  Hiit  Ciliiirl,  Tillfinoiil,  Dr.  Lard- 
rer,  Bi!iliu|)  Tomliup,  ami  Dr.  Ilalon,  allow  two  yrarit  fur  tliM  piirnoso, 
viz.  4r),  anil  40,  as  above  Ktatcil ;  which  period  ccrrosponds  with  our  Uihlc 
chronoluKy. 

»  That  IhiH  JH  the  proper  rrndcrlntt  of  Acts  xvi.  11.,  hoc  Vol.  I.  p.  00. 

"  Soo  some  observations  on  iliis  Discourse  of  ttaint  Paul,  In  i  VIU.  pp. 
»«,  327.  infru. 


ed,  together  with  Damaris,  a  woman  of  some  rank,  besides 
others  of  inferior  note.  (Acts  xvii.) 

A.  D.  51 — 53.  From  Athens,  Saint  Paul  proceeded  to  Co- 
rinth, the  capital  of  Achaia,  and  distinguisiied  fnr  the  num- 
ber, quality,  opulence,  and  learning  of  its  inhabitants,  and 
for  the  celebrated  games  solemnized  on  its  isthmus,  which 
(as  well  as  the  gymnastic  exercises  for  which  Tarsus  was 
eminent)  have  furnished  the  apostle  with  very  numerous  and  • 
elegant  allusions  and  phrases.  At  Corinth  he  tarried  a  year 
and  six  months,  i.  e.  the  latter  part  of  the  year  51,  the-whole 
of  53,  and  the  early  p;irt  of  53.  His  principal  associates  in 
the  ministry,  besides  Timothy  and  Silas,  who  came  to  him 
from  Thessalonica,  were  Aquila,  a  Jew  of  Pontus,  and  his 
wife  Priscilla,  who  had  lately  come  thither  from  Rome, 
whence  the  emperor  Claudius  had  banished  all  the  Jews  on 
account  of  their  turbulence,  and  with  whom  he  worked  at 
their  common  trade  of  tent-makers  for  his  livelihood.  From 
this  city  he  wrote  his  two  Epistles  to  the  Thessalonians, 
and  perhaps  also  that  to  the  Gaiatians.  The  success  of  Saint 
Paul  in  preaching  the  Gospel  at  Corinth  and  in  Peloponnesus, 
so  irritated  the  unbelieving  Jews,  that  they  dragged  him  be- 
fore Gallio,  the  proconsiu  of  Achaia ;  who,  prudently  re- 
fusing to  interfere  in  religious  opinions  that  were  not  detri- 
mental to  the  state,  drove  them  irom  his  tribunal,  ([xviii.  1 — 
17.)  After  continuing  some  further  time  at  Corinth,  Saint 
Paul  embarked  at  Cenchrea,  the  eastern  port  of  Corinth,  for 
Ephesus,  where  he  left  Aquila  and  Priscilla,  and  proceeded 
thence  to  Cassarea  and  Jerusalem :  from  which  latter  city  he 
returned  to  Antioch.  (18 — 22') 

IV.  A.  D.  54 — 50.  After  some  stay  at  Antioch,  Saint  Paul 
visited  the  churches  of  Gidatia  and  Phrygia,  and  came  to 
Ephesus,  where  he  found  Aquila  and  Priscilla  (Acts  xviii. 
24 — 28.),  and  conferred  the  Holy  Spirit  on  twelve  of  John 
the  Baptist's  disciples.  Saint  Paul,  as  usual,  preached  first 
in  the  synagogues,  but,  being  opposed  by  the  Jews,  he  after- 
wards taught  in  the  school  of  one  Tyrannus  with  great  suc- 
cess, and  wrought  numerous  miracles,  (xix.  1 — 20.)  During 
this  residence,  probably  about  the  beginning  of  the  year  50, 
Saint  Paul  received  a  letter  from  the  Corinthians,  to  whom 
he  wrote  his  first  E])istle.  But  being  assaulted  by  Deme- 
trius, a  silversmith,  and  others  of  his  profession,  who  were 
employed  in  making  silver  shrines  in  which  the  images  of 
Diana  were  to  be  enclosed,  and  were  apprehensive  that  their 
trade  would  suffer  from  his  preaching,  Saint  Paul  quitted 
that  city,  where  he  had  gathered  a  numerous  church.  (Acts 
xix.  21— 41.  XX.  1. J 

A.  D.  56.  On  his  departure  from  Ephesus,  Saint  Paul  went 
first  to  Troas,  expecting  to  meet  Titus  on  his  return  from 
Corinth.  (2  Cor.  li.  12,  13.)  Here  he  preached  a  short  time 
with  great  success,  and  then  proceeded  to  Macedonia,  where 
he  received  the  collections  of  the  Macedonian  Christians, 
for  their  poor  brethren  in  Judaa. 

A.  D.  57.  In  his  progress  from  Macedonia  into  Greece,  he 
is  supposed  to  have  preached  the  Gospel  on  the  confines  of 
Illyricum,  as  mentioned  in  Rom.  xv.  19.  Saint  Paul  con- 
tinued three  months  in  Greece,  principally,  it  is  supposed, 
at  ('orinth  (whence  he  wrote  his  Ejjistle  to  the  Romans); 
and  having  received  the  money  which  the  churches  had  col- 
lected for  the  poor  Christians  in  Judica,  he  sailed  from  Phi- 
lippi'  to  Troas,  and  thence  to  Miletus,  whither  the  elders  of 
the  Ei)liet;inn  church  had  come  to  meet  him  by  his  ajjpoint- 
ment,  to  whom  Saint  Paul  gave  a  most  afi'ccting  farewell 
charge.  (Acts  xx.) 

A.  D.  58.  From  Miletus,  Paul  anil  his  company  sailed 
directly  to  Cos,  next  to  Rhodes,  and  thence  to  Patara:  here, 
finding  a  vessel  bound  to  Phoenicia,  they  embarked,  and, 
leaving  Cyprus  on  their  left,  they  landed  at  Tyre.  After 
wailing  seven  days,  they  sailed  to  Ptolemais,  from  which 
port  they  went  on  foot  to  Ca;sarea,  where  they  lodged  with 
Philip  the  evangelist.  During  their  stay  here  for  several 
days,  the  prophet  Agabus  foretold  the  imprisonment  of  Paul, 
who,  persisting  in  his  determination  to  go  to  Jerusalem,  was 
at  length  perniiited  to  depart :  he  accortlingly  arrived  there, 
for  the  fifth  time,  just  betorc  the  feast  of  Pentecost,  A.  D.  58, 
and  was  gladly  received  by  the  brethren,  (xxi.  1 — 18.) 

V.  A.  I).  58.  The  day  alter  their  arrival  at  Jerusalem,  Paul 
and  his  assistants  related  to  James  and  the  elders  of  the 
church  "  what  things  (Jnd  had  wrought  among  the  Gentiles 
by  his  ministry;  and  when  they  heard  it  they  glorifieil  the 
Lord."  Shortly  after  this,  some  Asiatic  Jews,  i)robably  from 
Ephesus,  seeing  Paul  in  the  temple,  whither  he  had  gone  to 

<  While  Siiint  Paul  was  la  Macedonia,  ho  wrote  his  second  Epistle  to  the 
Corlnlhlaiii. 


Sect.  I.] 


ACCOUNT  OF  THE  APOSTLE  PAUL. 


325 


assist  some  of  the  brethivn  to  discharge  a  vow  of  Nazarite- 
ship,  excited  the  miiltitutle  to  kill  the  apostle,  who  was  with 
diihculty  rescued  from  their  fury  by  Lysias,  the  chief  captain 
or  tribune  of  the  temple  guard.  On  the  following  morning, 
Paul  was  conducted  Defore  the  council,  when  he  declared 
himself  to  be  a  Pharisee.  A  contest  having  arisen  between 
the  Pharisees  and  Sadducees,  members  of  the  sanhedrin, 
Lysias,  being  a])prehensive  for  Paul's  safety,  commanded  the 
soldiers  to  rescue  him,  and  directed  the  council  to  accuse  him 
before  Felix,  the  procurator  of  Cajsarea.  (Acts  xxii.  xxiii.) 
Five  days  after,  Anania?,  the  high-priest,  accompanied  by 
the  elders  and  by  a  certain  orator  named  Tertullus,  proceeded 
to  that  city,  and  accused  him  to  Felix  of  sedition,  heresy,  and 
profanation  of  the  temple.  These  charges  were  denied  by 
Saint  Paul,  who  gave  an  account  of  his  faith ;  but  the  gover- 
nor, though  convinced  of  his  innocence,  being  unwilling  to 
displease^the  Jews,  and  also  hopinw  that  Paul  would  have 
given  money  to  be  liberated,  ordered  the  apostle  to  be  kept 
in  easy  confinement,  and  allowed  his  friends  to  visit  him. 
A  few  days  after  this  transaction,  Felix,  at  the  request  of  his 
wife  Brasilia,  sent  for  Paul,  who  gave  them  an  account  of 
his  faith  in  Christ,  and  reasoned  so  forcibly  concerning  right- 
eousness, chastity,  and  a  judgment  to  come,  that  the  profli- 
gate governor's  conscience  was  alarmed.'  "  Felix  trembled, 
and  answered,  Go  thy  way  for  this  time ;  when  I  have  a 
convenient  season,  1  will  call  for  thee."  That  season,  how- 
ever, never  came;  and  Felix,  two  years  afterwards,  when 
recalled  from  his  government,  left  Paul  in  prison  in  order  to 
gratify  the  Jews.  (Acts  xxiv.) 

A.  D.  60.  Felix  was  succeeded  in  the  government  of  Judaea 
by  Festus,  who  sat  in  judgment  on  Saint  Paul,  and  having 
heard  the  accusations  of  the  Jews  against  him,  and  his  de- 
fence, proposed  a  new  trial  at  Jerusalem  in  order  to  ingratiate 
himself  with  the  Jews.  But  this  was  declined  by  Paul,  who 
appealed  to  the  emperor.  Shortly  after  this,  Agrippa  king 
of  Chalcis,  and  his  sister  Bernice,  having  come  to  Caesarea 
to  congratulate  Festus,  the  latter  communicated  Paul's  case 
to  him,  and  brought  the  apostle  forth  to  plead  his  cause  be- 
fore Agrippa.  Accordingly  the  apostle  vindicated  himself 
in  so  masterly  a  manner,  as  to  extort  an  acknowledgment  of 
his  innocence  from  Agrippa  himself  (Acts  xxv.  xxvi.)  ;  but, 
having  appealed  to  the  emperor,  it  became  necessary  to  send 
him  to  Rome,  where  he  at  length  arrived  in  the  spring  of  the 
year  61,  after  a  very  tempestuous  passage,  the  particulars  of 
which  are  related  in  Acts  xxvii.  and  xxviii.  1 — 16.  Here 
he  was  permitted  to  reside  in  his  own  hired  house,  with  a 
soldier  to  whose  custody  he  was  committed.  On  the  third 
day  after  his  arrival,  he  sent  for  the  chief  of  the  unbelieving 
Jfews,  to  whom  he  explained  the  cause  of  his  imprisonment, 
though  with  little  success  ;  and  afterwards,  during  the  two 
years  of  his  confinement  (from  the  spring  of  a.  d.  61,  to  the 
early  part  of  63),  he  received  all  that  came  to  his  house, 
preaching  the  Gospel  without  any  impediment  whatever. 
(Acts  xxviii.  17 — 31.)  During  this  first  visit  to  Rome,  Saint 
Paul  wrote  his  Epistles  to  the  Ephesians,  Philippians,  Co- 
iossians,  and  to  Philemon. 

VL  As  Luke  has  not  continued  Saint  Paul's  history  be- 
yond his  first  imprisonment  at  Rome,  we  have  no  authentic 
record  of  his  subsequent  travels  and  labours  from  the  spring 
of  A.  D.  63,  when  he  was  released,^  to  the  time  of  his  martyr- 
dom. But,  from  the  intimations  contained  in  the  Epistles 
which  he  wrote  from  Rome  during  his  first  confinement,  some 
learned  men  have  conjectured  that  he  sailed  from  Italy  to 
Judaea,  accompanied  by  Timothy  and  Titus ;  and,  leaving 
Titus  in  Crete  (Tit.  i.  5.),  he  proceeded  thence  withTimothv 
to  Judaea,  and  visited  the  churches  in  that  country,  to  which 
he  had  lately  sent  from  Italy  (perhaps  from  Rome)  the 
Epistle  which  is  now  inscribed  to  the  Hebrews.  Having 
visited  the  churches  in  Syria,  Cilicia,  and  Asia  Minor,  Paiu 
and  Timothy  continued  some  time  at  Colosse;  and,  leaving 
Timothy  at  Ephesus,  Paul  proceeded  to  Macedonia,  visiting 
the  churches.  From  this  country  he  wrote  his  Epistle  to 
Titus,  and  also  his  first  Epistle  to  Timothy.  Having  also 
visited  the  churches  of  Greece,  and  probably  that  of  Corinth 
for  the  second  time.  Saint  Paul  passed  the  winter  of  64  at 
Nicopolis,  a  city  of  Epirus;  thence  he  proceeded  to  Crete, 
and  perhaps  to  Corinth  for  the  tkird  time;^  and  early  in  65 

«  With  what  admirable  propriety  Saint  Paul  suited  his  address  to  the 
characters  of  Felix  and  Drusilla,  see  Vol.  U.  Part  II.  Chap.  11.  Sect.  II.  §  4. 
and  p.  327.  ui/ra. 

»  It  is  not  linown  by  what  means  St.  Paul  was  delivered  from  prison. 
Calinet  conjectures,  with  great  probability,  tliat  the  Jews  durst  not  prose- 
cute hira  before  the  emperor. 

»  Such  is  the  supposition  of  Michaeiis,  vol.  iv.  p.  37. 


arrived  at  Rome,  where  his  active  exertions  in  preaching  the 
Gospel  caused  him  to  be  imprisoned  a  second  time.  How 
long  Paul  continued  in  prison  at  this  time,  we  know  not , 
but  from  the  circumstance  of  his  being  brought  twice  before 
the  emperor  Nero  or  his  prefect.  Dr.  Macknight  thinks  it 
probable  that  he  was  confined  a  year  or  more  before  .he  was 
put  to  death.  As  the  Neronian  persecution  of  the  Christians 
raged  greatly  during  this  second  visit  to  Rome,  Paul,  know- 
ing the  time  of  his  departure  to  be  at  hand,  wrote  his  second 
epistle  to  Timothy ;  trom  which  we  learn,  that,  thoujTh  the 
apostle's  assistants,  terrified  with  the  danger,  forsooli.  him 
and  fled,  yet  he  was  not  altogether  destitute  of  consolation ; 
for  the  brethren  of  Rome  came  to  him  privately,  and  minis- 
tered to  him.  (2  Tim.  iv.  12.  21.)  Concerning  the  precise 
manner  of  Saint  Paul's  death,  we  nave  no  certain  information, 
but,  according  to  primitive  tradition,  he  was  beheaded  on  the 
29th  of  June,  a.  d.  66,  at  Aquas.  Salvix,  three  miles  from  Rome, 
and  interred  in  the  Via  Ostensis,  at  a  spot  two  miles  from  the 
city,  where  Constantine  the  Great  afterwards  erected  a  church 
to  his  m.emory.  "  But  his  noblest  monument  subsists  in  his 
immortal  writings;  which,  the  more  they  are  studied,  and 
the  better  they  are  understood,  the  more  they  will  be  admired 
to  the  latest  posterity  for  the  most  sublime  and  beautiful,  the 
most  pathetic  and  impressive,  the  most  learned  and  profound 
specimens  of  Christian  piety,  oratory,  and  philosophy."' 

VII.  Such  were  the  life  and  labours  of"  Paul  the  Apostle 
of  Jesus  Christ,"  which  have  justly  been  considered  as  an 
irrefragable  proof  of  the  truth  of  the  Christian  revelation. 
How  indefatigably  he  exerted  himself  to  make  known  the 
^lad  tidings  of  salvation,  the  preceding  brief  sketch  will  suf- 
ncietitly  evince.  "  One  of  the  most  striking  traits  in  the 
(•haracter  of  this  extraordinary  man  was,  his  readiness  to  un- 
derstand, and  his  promptness  to  enter  into,  the  great  design 
of  Jesus  Christ  to  give  the  world  a  universal  reti^ion.  His 
mind,  with  wonderful  facility,  threw  off  the  prejudices  of  his 
Jewish  education,  and  expanded  to  the  vastness  of  this  en- 
terprise. It  is  remarkable,  too,  that,  after  he  had  cast  off  the 
yoke  of  Jewish  ceremonies,  and  abandoned  his  first  religious 
connections,  he  manifested  no  bitterness  of  spirit  towards  his 
former  friends.  On  the  contrary,  his  kindness  was  unwearied, 
and  his  disposition  to  accommodate  his  practice  to  their  pre- 
judices, as  far  as  he  could  do  so  without  sacrifice  of  princi- 
ple, was  remarkable.  Perhaps  a  higher  example  of  firmness 
united  with  liberality,  was  never  exhibited  by  any  mere  man. 
His  history  shows  also  a  noble  instance  of  intellectual  and 
moral  courage.  His  design  was,  to  spread  the  gospel 
throughout  the  whole  world.  (Rom.  i.  5.)  He  went  to  his 
work"  in  full  expectation  of  success,  without  any  human 
means  but  the  use  of  reason  and  persuasion.  His  confidence 
in  the  power  of  truth  seems  to  have  been  unlimited  and  un- 
wavering."^ Hence  "  we  see  him  in  the  prosecution  of  his 
purpose,  travelling  from  country  to  country,  enduring  every 
species  cf  hardship,  encountering  every  extremity  of  danger, 
assaulted  by  the  populace,  punishecl  by  the  magistrates, 
scourged,  beaten,  stoned,  left  for  dead  :  expecting,  wherever 
he  came,  a  renewal  of  the  same  treatment  and  the  same  dan- 
gers; yet,  when  driven  from  one  city,  preaching  in  the  next, 
spending  his  whole  time  in  the  employment,  sacrificing  to  it 
his  pleasures,  his  ease,  his  safety ;  persisting  in  this  course 
to  old  age  (through  more  than  thirty  years)  ;  unaltered  by 
the  experience  of  perverseness,  ingratitude,  prejudice,  deser- 
tion ;  unsubdued  by  anxiety,  want,  labour,  persecutions ;  un- 
wearied by  long  confinement,  undismayed  by  the  prospect  of 
death."" 

But  this  great  luminary  of  the  Christian  church  did  not 
confine  his  labours  to  the  preaching  of  the  Gospel.  He 
w-rote  fourteen  Epistles,  in  which  the  various  doctrines  and 
duties  of  Christianity  are  explained,  and  inculcated  with  pe- 
culiar sublimity  and  force  of  language ;  at  the  same  time 
that  they  exhibit  the  character  of  their  great  author  in  a  most 
amiable  and  endearing  point  of  view.  His  faith  was  a  prac- 
tical principle,  influencing  all  the  powers  and  faculties  of  the 
soul ;  his  morality  was  of  the  purest  and  most  exalted  kind. 
He  "  derives  all  duties  from  the  love  of  God  in  Christ  as 

*  Dr.  Ilalcs's  Analysis  of  Chronolo?v,  vol.  ii.  book  ii.  pp.  ll.'JS— 1254.  Dr. 
Lardner,  Works,  8vo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  2.^—301. ;  4to.  vol.  iii.  pp.  251—234.,  whose 
datc^have  chietly  been  followed.  Dr.  Benson's  History  of  the  First  Plant- 
ing of  Cliristianity,  vol.  i.  pp.  11-1—290.  vol.  ii.  passim.  Pritii,  Introd.  rn 
Nov.  Test.  pp.  240—2*38.  Dr.  Macknight's  Life  of  the  Apostle  Paul,  annexed 
to  the  fourth  volume  (4lo.).  or  the  sixth  volume  (8vo.),  of  his  translation 
of  the  Epistles, 
s  Murray  Street  Discourses,  p.  335.  (New  York,  1830.) 
«  Paley's  Horw  Paulina;,  p.  379.  See  also  some  valuable  remarks  on  tha 
character  of  Saint  Paul  in  Dr.  Ranken's  Institutes  of  Theology,  pp.  391 
—395. 


326 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Paht  VI.  Chap.  HI. 


their  foundation.  All  the  motives  to  right  action,  all  the  ar- 
ffuraents  for  holiness  of  life,  are  drawn  from  this  source ;  all 
the  lines  of  duty  converge  to  this  centre.  If  Paul  censures, 
he  points  to  this  only  spring  of  hope ;  if  he  laments,  he 
turns  to  this  only  true  source  of  consolation ;  if  he  insists 
that  the  grace  of  God  kntk  appeared,  he  points  to  its  practical 
ohject,  teaching  us  to  live  soberly,  righteously,  and  godly. 
V\  hen  he  determines  to  know  nothing  but  his  Saviour,  and 
even  him  under  the  degrading  circumstances  of  crucifixion, 
he  includes  in  that  knowledge  all  the  religious  and  moral 
benefits  of  which  it  is  susceptible.'"'  Integrity,  tenderness 
of  heart,  disinterestedness,  heavenly-mindedness,  profound 
knowledge  of  human  nature,  and  delicacy  in  giving  advice 
or  reproof,  are  the  leadinjr  characteristics  of  iSaint  Paul's 
writings;  in  which,  while  ne  every  where  maintains  the  ut- 
most respect  for  constituted  authorities,  he  urges  and  unfolds 
the  various  social  and  relative  duties  in  the  most  engaging 
and  impressive  manner. 

\Ul.  "All  the  writings  of  Saint  Paul  bespeak  him  to 
have  been  a  man  of  a  most  exalted  genius,  and  the  strongest 
abilities.  His  composition  is  peculiarly  nervous  and  ani- 
mated. He  possessed  a  fervid  conception,  a  glowing  but 
chastised  fancy,  a  (juick  appehensiou,  and  an  immensely 
ample  and  liberal  heart.  Inheriting  from  nature  distinguished 
powers,  he  carried  the  culture  and  improvement  of  them  to 
the  most  exalted  height  to  which  human  learning  could  push 
them.  He  was  an  excellent  scholar,  an  acute  reasoner,  a 
great  orator,  a  most  instructive  and  sjjirited  writer.  Longi- 
nus,  a  person  of  the  finest  taste,  and  justest  discernment  in 
criticism  and  polite  literature,  classes  the  Apostle  Paul  among 
the  most  celebrated^  orators  of  Greece.  His  speeches  ii\  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles  are  worthy  the  Roman  senate.  They 
breathe  a  most  generouS  fire  and  fervour,  are  animated  with 
a  divine  spirit  oT  liberty  and  truth,  abound  with  instances  of 
as  fine  audress  as  any  of  the  most  celebrated  orations  of 
Demosthenes  or  Cicero  can  boast;  and  his  answers,  when  at 
the  bar,  to  the  questions  proposed  to  him  by  the  court,  have 
a  pnliicness  and  a  greatness,  which  nothing  in  antiquity 
hardly  ever  eqiialled.'''  At  the  same  time,  this  great  preacher 
adapted  his  discourses  to  the  capacities  of  his  respective 
audiences,  with  an  astonishing  degree  of  propriety  and  abi- 
lity, as  is  evident  from  the  ditference  of  his  reasoniiig  with 
the  Jews  at  Antioch  in  Pisidia,  with  the  Gentiles  at  Lystra, 
with  the  polished  Athenians,  and  with  Felix  the  Roman  go- 
vernor, as  also  from  the  handsome  apology  which  he  makes 
for  himself  before  king  Agrii)j)a. 

1.  As  the  Jews  had  the  Old  Testament  in  their  hands,  and 
(it  is  well  known)  at  this  time  expected  a  deliverer,  from 
their  study  of  the  prophetic  writings,  Paul  takes  occasion, 
in  his  discourse  to  them  (Acts  xiii.  13 — 12.),  to  illustrate 
the  dinne  economy  in  opening  the  Gospel  gradually,  and 
preparing  the  Jews,  by  temporal  mercies,  for  others  of  a  yet 
more  important  nature.  This  afforded  him  a  very  handsome 
and  unaiTected  opportunity  of  showing  his  acquaintance  witli 
their  Scriptures,  which  they  esteemed  the  highest  part  of 
literature,  and  object  of  science.  His  (luotatio'ns  are  singu- 
larly apposite,  and  the  whole  of  his  discourse  (one  would 
think)  must  have  carried  conviction  to  their  minds.  The 
result  is  w(!ll  known ;  though  a  few  embraced  the  despised 
Gospel  of  Christ,  the  majority  rejected  the  benevolent  coun- 
sel of  (jiod  towards  them. 

•2.  With  the  idolatrous  Lycaonians  at  Lystra  (who  were 
little  hctU'T  than  barbarians,  like  most  of  the  iidand  nations 
of  Asia  Minor),  the  great  apostle  of  the  Gentiles  mirsued  a 
different  course.  (Couinare  Acts  xiv.  G — 2-2.)  Such  persons 
are  apt  to  be  struck  aiicl  affectcil  more  with  signs  and  won- 
ders than  with  arguments ;  he,  therefore,  at  his  first  preach- 
ing among  them,  very  seasonably  and  fitly  confirmed  his 
doctrine,  by  a  signal  miracle  in  healing  a  man  wh-)  had  been 
a  cripple  Irom  his  birlh.  Ami  when  Paul  and  his  fellow- 
labourcr  Barnabas  had  with  difficulty  restrained  the  people 
of  Lystra  from  olferinfr  sacrifice  to  them  as  deities,  who 
(agreeably  to  the  fables  oelievod  among  the  ancient  heatheri), 
they  supposed,  had  appeared  in  the  lilunrnitof  mm,  tlnir  dis- 
oourse  is  admirably  adapted  to  the  capacity  of  their  auditors. 
They  derive  their  arguments  from  no  higher  source  than 
natural  religion,  and  insist  only  upon  the  plain  and  obvious 

•  Mrs.  Morn's  Essay  on  St.  Paul,  vol.  i.  p.  IW-,  to  which  tbe  render  i« 
reTcrrc'l  for  an  aiuplt!  nnd  beaiilirul  account  uttlio  c)i>iract>'r  aiiil  wriiinsH 
of  tlint  illustrious  n|iiii<t|i!.  On  tin;  auhji-ct  of  liia  ''  prcacliinK  CliriDt  cm- 
nfi'Ml,"  till'  ri'mlrr  will  ilnil  wnne  untructive  rpmarkx  in  pp.  ii  ~'>\.  ofMr. 
Wilks'a  alilc  vuiilK'iiiion  ol  .Mi.s.sioniiry  cxt  rlioiix,  fiililleil  "  Cliri.->liiiii  Mis- 
Biona  an  Enliglilenrd  .«ti)t;oieK  ol~  Chrialion  Ciiariiy.''  bvo.  Loiidjii,  liil\). 

•  Lonzinua,  p.  !*■■<.     Pfarce,  8vo. 

>  Ilarwuoii'it  InlruUuctiori,  vol.  1.  p.  199. 


topics  of  creation  and  providence.  The  works  of  creation 
are  a  demonstration  of  the  being  of  a  God,  the  living  God 
who  made  heaven  and  earth  and  the  sea,  and  all  things  that  are 
therein.  In  timet  past  he  sajfered  all  nations,  all  the  heathens, 
to  walk  in  their  own  ways,  without  any  particular  revelation 
of  himself  like  that  which  he  made  to  tiie  people  of  Israel, 
liut  yet  his  general  providence  aflbrded  ample  proofs  of  his 
power  and  goodness:  nevertheless  he  left  not  himaelf  without 
witness,  in  that  he  did  good,  and  gave  us  rain  from  heaven  ana 
fruitful  .'casons,  filling  our  hearts  with  food  and  gladness. 
These  arguments  are  as  forcible  as  they  are  plain  and  obvi- 
ous to  the  meanest  capacity  ;  He  is  the  creator  and  preserver 
of  us  and  of  all  things,  he  is  the  author  and  giver  of  all  the 
good  that  we  enjoy,  and  he  therefore  is  the  only  proper  and 
adequate  object  of  our  worship.  The  people  were  so  trans- 
ported, that  with  these  sayings  scarce  restrained  they  them  that 
they  had  not  dune  sacrifice  unto  them.  But  such  is  the  fickle- 
ness and  uncertainty  of  the  multitude,  that  him  whom  they 
were  now  for  worshipping  as  a  god,  soon  after,  at  the  insti- 
gation of  certain  Jews,  they  suffered  to  be  stoned,  and'drawn 
out  of  the  city,  supposing  he  had  been  dead.  The  apostles, 
however,  had  sown  some  good  seed  among  them ;  for  we 
read,  that  within  a  little  time  they  returned  again  to  Lystra^ 
confirming  the  souls  of  the  disciples,  and  exhorting  them  to  coU' 
tinue  in  the  faith. 

3.  Our  apostle's  conduct  and  behaviour  among  the  learned 
and  polite  Athenians  (Acts  xvii.  IG — 34.)  we  shall  find  to 
be  somewhat  different  from  what  it  was  to  the  rude  and  illite- 
rate Lycaonians,  but  both  of  equal  fitness  and  propriety.  He 
did  not  open  his  commission  at  Athens  in  the  same  manner 
as  at  Lystra,  by  working  a  miracle.  There  were,  doubtless, 
several  cripples  at  Athens  (for  it  is  well  known  that  such 
cases  abound  in  that  climate) ;  but  it  does  not  appear  that 
any  of  them  had  the  good  disposition  of  the  cripple  at  Lys- 
tra, or  faith  to  be  healed.  Besides,  the  Greeks  did  not  so 
much  require  a  sign  (I  Cor.  i.  22.)  as  seek  after  wisdom. 
Accordingly,  we  find  the  apostle  disputing  not  only  in  the 
synagogue  with  the  Jews  and  the  devout  persons  (Jewish  prose- 
lytes), but  also  in  the  forum  or  market-place,  daily  with  them 
that  met  with  him.  Here  ho  encountered  certain  philosophers 
of  the  Epicurean  and  Stoic  sects;  some  of  whom  treated  him 
as  a  babbler,  while  others  regarded  him  as  a  setter  forth  of 
strange  gods,  and,  consequently,  a  violator  of  the  laws  of 
Athens,  because  he  preached  unto  them  Jesus  and  the  llesurreC' 
tion.  At  length  they  conducted  him  to  the  Areopagus  (or 
Mars'-hill),  the  seat  of  the  highest  court  of  judicature  in 
that  city  for  matters  concerning  religion,  and  also  the  place 
of  greatest  resort :  and  with  that  curiosity  and  thirst  of  news, 
for  which  (it  is  well  known)  the  Athenians  were  at  that  time 
notorious,'  they  requested  him  to  give  them  an  account  of 
his  new  doctrine.  What  a  glorious  scene  was  here  fur  the 
manifestation  of  the  truth  before  such  a  promiscuous  and 
numerous  assembly  of  citizens  and  strangers,  of  philosophers 
of  ail  sects,  and  people  of  all  conditions;  and  with  what 
exquisite  skill  and  contrivance  is  every  part  and  number  of 
his  discourse  so  framed  and  accommodated,  as  to  obviate 
some  principal  error  and  prejudice  in  some  party  or  other  of 
his  hearers !  Most  of  tlic  false  notions,  both  of  their  vulgar 
and  philosophical  religion,  are  here  exposed  and  refuted.  If 
there  was  nothing  else  remaining,  yet  this  sufliciently  testi- 
fies how  great  a  master  he  was  in  the  learning  of  the  Greeks. 
.Most  of  the  fundamental  truths,  both  of  natural  and  revealed 
religion,  are  here  opened  and  explained;  and  all  within  the 
compass  of  a  very  few  verses.  From  an  altar  with  an  in- 
scription to  the  unknown  God  (and  that  there  were  altars  at 
Athens  with  such  an  inscription,  we  have  the  attestation  of 
several  ancient  heathen  authors),  he  takes  occasion  to  re- 
prove tlnin  for  their  great  plurality  of  god.',  and  ////«  whom 
tiny  ignoruntly  worshipped  to  dccl.tre  unto  than.  It  might  bn 
contrary  to  the  laws  of  Athens  for  any  one  to  rt>cominend 
and  introduce  a  new  or  strange  god;  but  he  could  not  well 
be  subject  to  the  jienalty  of  the  law  only  for  ileclaring  him 
wlioin  they  already  worshinprd  without  knowing  him.  The 
o])portuiiilv  was  (air,  and  lie  improvt  s  it  to  the  greatest  ad- 
vantage Me  branches  out  his  discourse  into  several  particu- 
lars.—That  God  made  the  worU  and  all  things  therein  :  which 
proposiiioii,  though  agrei^ihle  eiu.ugh  to  the  general  belief 
and  opinion,  was  yet  directly  contrary  both  to  the  Epicureans, 
and  to  the  Peripatetics;  the  formiT  of  whom  attriliuted  the 
formation  of  the  world  to  the  fortuitous  concourse  of  atoms 
without  any  intervention  of  the  Deity,  ami  the  latter  main- 
tained that  the  world  was  not  created  at  all,  and  that  all 

*  Sec  this  cbaiacler  of  lb«  Athcaituii  illustrated,  tii  Vol.  I.  p.  90 


Sect.  I.] 


ACCOUNT  OF  THE  APOSTLE  PAUL. 


327 


ihings  had  contirmed  as  they  now  are  from  all  eternity 

That  seeing  he  is  Lord  of  heaven  and  earth,  he  dwelkih  not  in 
temples  made  with  hands,  neither  is  worshipped  with  melt's 
hands,  as  though  he  needed  any  thing,  seeing  he  giveih  to  all  Vfe 
and  breath  and  all  things ,-  which  was  levelled  not  so  much 
against  the  philosophers  as  against  the  popular  religion  of 
Athens;  for  the  philosophers  seldom  or  never  sacrificed, 
imless  in  compliance  with  the  custom  of  their  country,  and 
even  the  Epicureans  themselves  admitted  the  self-sufficiency 
of  the  Deity ;  but  the  people  believed  very  absurdly  that 
there  were  local  gods,  that  the  Deity,  notwithstanding  his 
immensit)',  might  be  confined  within  temples,  and  notwith- 
standing his  all-sufficiency  was  fed  with  the  fat  and  fumes 
of  sacrifices,  as  if  he  could  really  stand  in  need  of  any  sus- 
tenance, who  giveth  to  all  life  and  breath  and  all  things. — 
That  he  hath  made  of  one  blood  all  nations  of  men  for  to  dwell 
on  all  tfie  face  of  the  earth,  and  hath  determined  the  times  be- 
fore appoiiited,  and  the  bounds  vf  their  habitation:  which  was 
not  only  opposed  to  the  Epicureans,  who  derived  the  begin- 
ning ot  the  human  race  from  the  mere  effects  of  matter  and 
motion,  and  to  the  Peripatetics  or  Aristotelians,  who  denied 
mankind  to  have  any  beginning  at  all,  having  subsisted  in 
eternal  successions ;  but  was,  moreover,  opposed  to  the  gene- 
ral pride  and  conceit  of  the  people  of  Athens,  who  boasted 
themselves  to  be  Aborigines,  to  be  descended  from  none  other 
stock  or  race  of  men,  but  to  be  themselves  originals  and  na- 
tives of  their  own  country. — That  they  should  seek  the  Lord, 
if  haply  they  might  feel  after  him,  and  find  him,  though  he  be 
not  far  from  every  one  of  us ;  for  in  him  we  live,  and  move, 
and  have  our  being.-  which  fundamental  truth,  with  the 
greatest  propriety  and  elegance,  he  confirms  by  a  quotation 
from  one  of  their  own  poets,  Aratus,  the  Cilician,'  his  own 
countryman,  who  lived  aoove  three  hundred  years  before,  and 
in  whose  astronomical  poem  this  hemistich  is  still  extant. 
.<?s  ca-lain  also  of  your  own  poets  have  said.  For  we  are  also 
his  offt-pring.  An  evident  proof  that  he  knew  how  to  illus- 
trate divinity  with  the  graces  of  classical  learning,  and  was 
no  stranger  to  a  taste  and  politeness  worthy  of  an  Attic 
audience. — That  forasmuch  then  as  we  are  the  offspring  of 
God,  we  ought  not  to  think  that  the  Godhead  is  like  unto  gold 
or  silver  or  stone,  graven  by  art  and  man^s  device :  which  was 
plainly  pointed  at  the  gross  idolatry  of  the  lower  people, 
who  thought  the  very  idols  themselves  to  be  gods,  and  ter- 
minated their  worship  in  them. — That  the  times  of  this  igno- 
rance God  winked  at  or  overlooked ;  as  he  said  before  to  the 
people  of  Lystra,  In  former  times  God  suffered  all  nations  to 
walk  in  their  own  ways ;  but  now  commandeth  all  men  every 
where  to  repent :  which  doctrine  of  the  necessity  of  repent- 
ance must  have  been  very  mortifying  to  the  pride  and  vanity 
of  the  philosophers,  and  especially  of  the  Stoics,  whose  wise 
man  was  equal  if  not  superior  to  God  himself. — Because  he 
hath  appointed  a  day  in  the  tuhich  he  will  judge  the  world  in 
righteousness  by  that  man  whom  he  hath  ordained,  whereof  he 
hath  given  assurance  unto  all  men,  in  that  he  hath  raised  him 
from  the  dead :  till  now  they  had  heard  him  with  silence  and 
attention,  because  though  every  period  of  his  discourse 
glanced  at  some  of  his  hearers,  yet  it  coincided  with  the 
notions  of  others,  and  he  had  not  before  touched  and  offend- 
ed them  altogether ;  but  when  they  heard  of  the  resurrectimi 
of  the  dead,  some  mocked  f  the  Epicureans,  and  the  men  of 
wit  and  pleasure),  and  others  said  (the  Platonists,  and  the 
graver  sort  of  his  audience).  We  will  hear  thee  again  of  this 
matter,  putting  it  off  to  a  more  convenient  season.  So  Faul 
departed  from  among  them,  leaving  them  as  they  deserved  to 
themselves.  Howbeit  certain  men  clave  unto  him,  and  believed 
(a  diminutive  expression  to  signify  that  he  made  but  very  few 
converts)  ;  among  ivhom  the  principal  were  Dionysius  thcjlreo- 
pagite  (who  is  said  to  have  oeen  afterwards  constituted  the 
first  bishop  of  Athens),  and  a  woman  of  rank  named  Da- 
rnaris. 

4.  In  St.  Paul's  discourse  to  Felix  (Acts  xxiv.),  he  had 
for  his  hearer  a  Roman  governor,  who  was  remarkable  for 
his  lust,  and  injustice  ; — a  man  who  was  very  unlikely  to  bear, 
mucli  less  to  reform  by,  a  pointed  reproof  from  his  own  pri- 
soner. This,  then,  was  a  case,  whicn  required  great  art  as 
well  as  great  courage ;  and  accordingly  we  find  our  apostle 
mingled  the  wisdom  of  the  serpent  with  the  innocence  of  the 
dove.  He  had  honesty  enough,  to  rebuke  the  sins;  and 
yet  prudence  enough,  not  to  offend  the  sinner.  He  had 
the  courage  to  put  even  his  judge  in  mind  of  his  crimes  ;  yet 

•  Bp.  Barrington  conjectures  that  this  quotation  was  taken  from  the  cele- 
brated Hymn  of  Cleanthes,  in  which  the  words  spoken  by  Saint  Paul  are 
also  to  be  found.  See  Mr.  Townsend's  New  Test,  arranged  in  Chronologi- 
cal Order,  &c.  vol.  ii.  p.  249. 


with  so  much  address,  as  not  to  offend  his  person, — an  ex- 
ample, the  most  worthy  of  our  imitation  ;  as  it  would  greatly 
contribute  to  make  the  bitter  portion  of  reproof,  if  not  pala- 
table, at  least  salutary  and  successful. 

How  artfully,  then,  does  St.  Paul  insinuate  himself  into 
the  soul  of  this  great  sinner,  and  shake  his  conscience  at  the 
remembrance  of  his  vices  ! — not  by  denouncino-  veno-eance 
against  him,  for  his  lust  and  injustice,  but  by  pTacing°in  the 
strongest  point  of  light  the  opposite  virtues, — showino-  their 
reasonableness  in  themselves,  and  their  rewards  at  tlTe  day 

of  judgment.     For  he  reasoned, — not  of  unrighteousness, 

not  of  incontinence, — but  of  righteousness  and  chastity ,- and 

by  holding  forth  a  beautiful  picture  of  these  necessary  vir- 
tues, he  left  it  to  Felix  to  form  the  contrast,  and  to  infer  the 
blackness  of  his  own  vices.  A  masterly  stroke  !  and  it  effec- 
tually succeeded :  for,  as  the  prisoner  spake, — the  judge 
tremhled. 

5.  The  last  instance,  which  we  shall  notice  of  this  apos- 
tle's fine  address  and  politeness,  is  to  be  found  in  his  cele- 
brated reply  to  king  Agrippa,  who  publicly  declared  to  him 
that  he  had  almost  persuaaed  him  to  be  a  Christian.  Would 
to  God  that  not  only  thou  but  also  all  that  hear  me  this  day, 
were  both  almost,  and  altogether,  such  as  I  am — except 
THESE  bonds.  (Acts  xxvi.  29.)  What  a  prodigious  effect 
must  this  striking  conclusion,  and  the  sight  of  the  irons  held 
up  to  enforce  it,  make  upon  the  minds  of  the  audience!  To 
his  singular  attainments  in  learning  the  Roman  governor  pub- 
licly bore  an  honourable  testimony,  imagining  that  the  intense- 
ness  of  his  application  to  his  studies,  and  his  profound  erudi- 
tion, had  disordered  his  understanding,  and  occasioned  his 
supposed  insanity. 

The  writings  of  Paul  show  him  to  have  been  eminently 
acquainted  with  Greek  learning  and  Hebrew  literature.  "  He 
greatly  excelled  in  the  profound  and  accurate  knowledge  of 
the  Old  Testament,  which  he  perpetually  cites  and  explains 
with  great  skill  and  judgment,  and  pertinently  accommodates 
to  the  subject  which  he  is  discussing.  Born  at  Tarsus,  one 
of  the  most  illustrious  seats  of  the  muses  in  those  days,  ini- 
tiated in  that  city  into  the  learning  and  philosophy  of  the 
Greeks,  conversing,  in  early  life,  with  their  most  elegant  and 
celebrated  writers,  whom  we  find  him  quoting,2  and  after- 
wards finishing  his  course  of  education  at  the  feet  of  Gama- 
liel, the  learned  Jewish  rabbi,  he  came  forth  into  public  and 

«  It  is  nniversally  acknowledged  that  Paul  had  read  the  Greek  poets,  and 
has  quoted  Aratus,  Epinienides,  and  Monander;  though  it  is  scarcely  sus- 
pected by  any  one,  that  he  quotes  or  refers  to  .lEschylus,  Sophocles,  and 
Euripides.  There  is,  however  (Dr.  A.  Clarke  observes),  such  a  similarity 
between  the  following  quotations  and  the  apostle's  words,  that  we  are  almost 
persuaded  that  they  were  present  to  his  comprehensive  mind  ;  and  if  tl.ey 
were,  he  extends  the  thought  infinitely  higher,  by  language  incomparably 
more  exalted. 

ITim.  vi.  25.  'O  /ixxxpioi  xxi  /iovo;  Auv»ir7>{?,  zBxiri>.iv;  rav  ;S=e(riA.!u?vToi», 

xxt  Kvpio;  Twv  xupifuoi/Tiuv.  The  blessed  and  only  Potentate,  the  King  of 
kings,  and  Lord  of  lords. 

The  Supreme  Being  is  also  styled  the  King  of  kings,  and  the  Blessed,  by 
iEschylus  in  his  tragedy  of  the  Supplicants  : 

Avxy    XVX'ATtUVj   fAX'/.XftlV 
W.6/.apTMT!,   XXi    TiKtMV 

TiXjioTXTcv  xps(TO{.  Ver.  520.  Ed.  Person. 

"O  King  of  kings,  most  Blessed  of  the  blessed,  most  Perfect  of  the 
perfect." 

ITim.  vi. 16.  'o  ^oi>o;  £%<ui/ «5;ivK(r<av,  ^u);  oixajK  an-poo-iToi'. — Who  Only 
hath  immortality,  dwelling  in  the  light  which  no  man  can  come  unto. 

In  the  .\ntigone  of  Sophocles,  there  is  a  sublime  address  to  Jove,  of  which 
the  following  is  an  extract : 

KxTiX-'i    0K\lfi.77CV 

Mxffixfoia-trxv  uiyKxv.  Ver.  608.   Edit.  Brunck. 

"  But  thou,  an  ever-during  potentate,  dost  inhabit  the  refulgent  splendour 
of  Olympus!" 

"This  passage,"  says  Dr.  Clarke,  "  is  grand  and  noble  ;  but  how  insigni- 
ficant does  it  appear,  when  contrasted  with  the  superior  sublimity  of  the 
inspired  writer !  The  deity  of  Sophocles  dwells  in  the  dazzling  splendour 
of  heaven  ;  but  the  God  of  Paul  inhabits  light,  so  dazzling  and  so  resplen- 
dent, that  it  is  pcrfectUy  unapproachable !" 

Once  more,  in  2  Tim.  iv.  7.  we  read,  Tou  xy<ovx  rov  xkMjv  r,yovi<rnai,  to» 
Jpo.uov  T£Ts>.fxst.    I  have  fought  a  good  fight,  I  have  finished  mt/  course. 

There  is  a  passage  in  the  Alcestis  of  Euripides,  in  which  the  very  ex- 
pressions used  here  by  the  apostle  are  found,  and  spoken  on  the  occasion 
of  a  wife  laying  down  her  life  for  her  husband,  when  both  his  parents  had 
refused  to  do  it. 

Oux  y\it\^raq  o«5*  etoX/uhitks  ^xvtiv 
Tou  rcu  :7-po  Tixt^t)^'  xKkx  t^v  S'  itxrart 

vvxix*  oSviixVj  nv  eyw  *^*  ftitrtftA 
HxTifx  Ts  y'evJtxui;  xv  syoi^nv  ^onxv 
K.XI  rot  xxKtv  y'  x\i  rovJ'  xyxv  ijyoji'iiru), 
Tou  o-ou  ;rpo  TTXtSoq  xxrixvaiv.  Alcest.  V.  644. 

"ThouwouWest  not,  neither  darest  thou  to  die  for  thy  son ;  hut  hast 
suffl-red  this  strange  woman  to  do  it,  whom  I  justly  esteem  to  be  alone  mv 
father  and  mother:  thou  wouldost  have  fought  a  good  fight  bad'st  thou 
died  for  thy  son." 

The  xxKav  ay»v,  good  fight,  was  used  among  the  Greeks  to  express  a 
contest  of  the  most  honourable  kind:  and  in  this  sense  the  apostle  uses  it. 
(Dr.  A.  Clarke,  on  1  Tim.  vi.  16.,  and  on  2  Tim.  iv.8.) 


328 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAxMENT. 


[Paut  VI.  Chap.  HI 


active  life,  with  a  mind  stored  with  the  most  ample  and  vari- 
ous treasures  of  science  and  knowleJiie.  He  himself  tells 
us,  that  the  distinguished  progress  which  he  had  made  was 
known  to  all  the  Jews,  and  that  in  this  literary  career  he  left 
all  his  co-equals  and  contemporaries  far  behind  him.  I pro- 
Jited  in  the  Jewish  religion  above  v\y  ftlhncs.  A  person  pos- 
sessed of  natural  abilities  so  signal,  of  literary  acquisitions 
so  extensive,  of  an  activity  and  spirit  so  enterprising,  and  of 
an  integrity  and  probity  so  inviolate,  the  wisdom  of  God 
judged  a  fit  instrument  to  employ  in  displaying  the  banners 
and  spreading  the  triumphs  of  Christianity  among  mankind. 
A  negligent  greatness,  if  we  may  so  express  it,  appears  in 
his  writings.  Full  of  the  dignity  of  his  subject,  a  torrent  of 
sacred  eloquence  bursts  forth,  and  bears  down  every  thing 
before  it  with  irresistible  ^apidit)^  He  stays  not  to  arrange 
and  harmonize  his  words  and  periods,  but  rushes  on,  as  his 
vast  ideas  transport  him,  borne  away  by  the  sublimity  of  his 
tlieme.  Hence  his  frequent  and  prolix  digressions,  though 
at  the  same  time  his  all-comprehensive  mind  never  loses 
sight  of  his  subject ;  but  he  returns  from  these  excursions, 
resumes  and  pursues  it  with  an  ardour  and  strength  of  reason- 
ing that  astonishes  and  convinces."'  What  a  treasure  of 
divinity  and  morality  is  contained  in  his  epistles  !  which, 
"as  examples  of  a  nervous,  invigorating,  commanding  style, 
have  seldom  been  equalled,  never  excelled.  The  instruc- 
tions they  contain  are  delivered  with  a  simple  gravity  and 
concinnity  that  commands  the  attention,  and  is  as  much  supe- 
rior to  high-wrought  ornaments  of  professed  rhetoricians  as 
the  native  uncut  diamond,  to  the  furbished,  glittering  paste. 
Vet  are  they  not  deficient  in  those  beauties  which  captivate 
the  refined  taste.  Although  professedly  didactic,  there  are 
few  pieces  of  composition  that  aftord  a  richer  variety  of  ap- 

f)ropriate  figure.  There  is  scarcely  a  species  of  trope  that 
las  been  noticed  by  rhetoricians  that  may  not  be  found  in  one 
part  or  other  of  these  books,  and  always  in  an  apposite  situa- 
tion. 

"  Nor  are  there  wanting  instances  of  a  strength  of  figure 
only  to  be  equalled  by  the  importance  of  the  sentiment  ex- 
pressed. As  such,  tne  description  of  the  powerful  efficacy 
of  the  promises  and  threats  of  God  may  be  produced.  '  Tlie 
word  of  God  is  living  and  energetic,  and  more  cutting  than 
any  two-edged  sword,  dividing  even  to  the  sej)aration  of  soul 
and  spirit,  of  joints  and  marrow,  and  a  discerner  of  the 
thoughts  and  intents  of  the  heart.'  Again,  when  the  apostle 
expresses  his  desire  to  be  useful  even  to  the  death,  to  his 
converts  ;  how  noble  and  apj)ropriate  to  men  accustomed  to 
the  sacrificial  rit^s  is  his  expression  !  '  Yea,  and  if  I  be 
poured  out  as  a  libation  {a-rtrJ-./uui)  upon  the  sacrifice  and  ser- 
vice of  your  faith,  I  joy  and  rejoice  with  you  all.'  And  how 
full  of  affection  an^  exultation  is  his  figurative  appellation  of 
the  Philippians  ;  '  My  Itrcthren,  beloved  and  longed  for,  my 
joy  and  my  crown  !'  Is  there  any  thing  in  any  of  the  hea- 
then moralists  comparaljle  to  that  fine  description  of  charity 
in  the  thirteenth  chapter  of  the  first  epistle  to  the  Corinthians  ? 
Speaking  with  the  tongues  of  men  and  of  angels  is  nothing  in 
comparison  of  charity  ;  and  the  tongues  of  men  and  of  angels 
can  never  exceed  this  description.  All  the  powers  of  logic 
and  rhetoric  are  to  be  scimi  and  felt  in  the  fifteenth  chajjter 
of  the  same  epistle  ;  and  what  affecting  solemnity  does  it  add 
to  that  most  solemn  service  of  our  liturgy,  the  burial  of  the 
dead  !  But  it  is  not  in  the  use  of  figures  only  that  the  excel- 
lence of  the  apostle's  style  consists.  For  apj)ropriate  diction 
lie  is  unrivalled,  and  occasionally  he  rises  into  a  siii)liinity 
of  expression  that  carries  his  readers  above  themselves,  ami, 
while  it  astonishes,  convinces  or  porsuadcs  with  a  delight- 
ful violence.  When  he  undertakes  to  describe  the  goodness 
of  our  Maker  in  providinir  for  us  the  means  of  salvation,  the 
reader  is  transported  with  gratitude,  and  ovcrwlulined  with 
self-abasement.  VV  hen  he  exultingly  depicts  the  excellences 
of  the  Gospel  dispensation,  he  conimands  the  enraptured 
mind,  and  we  are  '  lost  in  wonder,  love,  and  praise  !'  When 
he  concisely  describes  his  sullerings,  the  constancy,  the  joy- 
ous triumphing  in  the  midst  of  tortures,  of  the  priniitivf  pro- 
pagators of  Christianity,  wc  reipiire  a  new  idea  i>f  the  human 
mind  ;  we  are  tempted  to  imagine  the  persons  he,  sneaks  of 
to  be  superior  beings,  and  to  n-nder  them  our  humble  adora- 
tion, till  recalled  by  the  assurance  that  it  is  by  the  might  (if 
the  Father  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  by  the  aid  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  that  these  holy  men  so  nobly  won  their  heav»nly 
crown.     When  we  read  his  exulting  and  fervent  expressions 

«  HarwooJ's  IntroJuclion,  vol.  i.  pp.  201 302. 


of  delight  in  the  Gospel,  and  thankfulness  for  the  glorious 
office  of  an  apostle,  how  do  we  feel  our  hearts  burn  within 
us  at  being  nermitted  by  the  good  providence  of  God  to  par- 
ticipate in  tne  privileges  so  admirably  extolled  by  the  great 
apostle  of  the  Gentiles. 

"  Occasionally,  too,  the  student  of  the  epistles  is  at  once 
astonished  and  delighted  by  a  fervency  of  language  unexam- 
pled in  any  other  writer.  Words  of  the  most  intense  signi- 
fication are  accumulated,  and,  by  their  very  strength, "^are 
made  to  express  their  weakness  when  compared  with  the  in- 
expressible greatness  of  their  object.  Our  language  cannot 
express  the  force  of  y.jh'  uttce^ocxct  tic  tVseC;A»v  aisii'/jv^^/^sf  cf.^;i? 
(2  Cor.  iv.  17.),  which  is  but  fjjiritly  shadowed  forth  in  tlie 
translation  of  an  eminent  critic, 'an  excessively  exceeding 
and  eternal  weight  of  glory.'  Numerous,  and  some,  if  pos- 
sible, still  more  striking  examples  occur,  but  cannot  be  ade- 
ciuately  displayed  in  any,  even  the  best  translation.  Kven 
tne  ordinary  grammatical  compounds  are  not  sufficient  for  the 
glowing  ideas  of  the  apostle.  Thus,  wishing  to  express  his 
own  utler  worthlessness  considered  in  himself,  he  makes  use 
of  a  comparative,  found  only  in  the  most  exalted  sentences 
of  the  classic  aulhors :  s^i/  ta  iKct^ig-oTf^ce,  not  unaptly  ren- 
dered by  our  translators  'less  than  the  le;-st.'"^ 

Another  excellence  in  Saint  Paul's  writings  is  presented  to 
our  notice  in  the  admirable  art  with  which  he  interests  the 
passions,  and  engages  the  affections  of  his  hearers.  Under 
the  present  depravity  of  human  nature,  our  reason  being  en- 
feebled, and  our  passions  consequently  grown  powertul,  it 
must  be  of  great  service  to  engage  these  in  the  cause  w9 
would  serve;  and  therefore,  his  constant  endeavour  w:,— 
not  only  to  convince  the  reason  of  his  hearers,  but  *'  diarm 
and  interest  their  passions.  And,  as  hope  and  fear  are  ''with 
the  bulk  of  mankind)  the  main-springs  of  human  action,  to 
these  he  addressed  himself  most  effectually, — not  by  cold 
speculation  upon  abstract  fitnesses,  but  by  the  awful  assu- 
rances of  a  resurrection  of  the  dead  to  an  eternity  of  happi- 
ness or  misery.  With  respect  to  the  latter,  who  can  hear 
without  trembling,  that, — the  Lord  Jesus  shall  be  revcnhd  from 
heaven,  with  his  mighty  angels,  in  flaming  fire,  taking  ven- 
geance on  the  ungodly ,-  ivho  shall  be  punished  with  everlasting 
destruction  from  the  presence  of  the  Lord,  and  from  the  glory  of 
his  potjoer !  And  the  happiness  of  heaven  he  describes  by 
words  so  strong,  as  to  balHe  the  expression  of  all  language 
but  his  own, — by  a  weight  of  glory  infinite  and  eternal  beyond 
all  hyperbole  or  conception. 

Thus  the  apostle  secured  the  passions  of  those  to  whom 
he  directed  his  epistles  :  and  he  equally  engaged  their  aflec- 
tions  by  his  endearing  manner  of  address.  Has  he  occasion 
to  introduce  any  subject,  which  he  is  afraid  will  prejudice 
and  disgust  his  bigoted  countrymen  the  Jews  1  He  announces 
it  with  a  humility  and  modesty  that  secures  the  attention, 
and  with  an  insinuating  form  of  address  to  which  nothing 
can  be  denied.  "This  appears  particularly  in  his  Epistle  to 
the  Romans,  where  we  see  with  what  reluctance  and  heart- 
felt grief  he  mentions  the  ungrateful  truth  of  the  Jews'  re- 
jection of  the  Messiah,  and  their  dereliction  by  God  for 
their  insuperable  obstinacy.  How  studious  is  he  to  provoke 
tliein  to  ji-alousy  and  emulation  by  the  example  of  tlie  Gen 
tiles,  and  how  many  persuasive  and  cogent  arts  and  argu 
ments  does  he  employ  to  win  them  over  to  the  relio-ion  of 
Jesus !  In  these  delicate  touches,  in  these  fine  arts  of  moral 
suasion.  Saint  Paul  greatly  excels.'  Upon  occasion,  also 
we  find  him  employing  the  most  keen  and  cutting  raillery  in 
satirizing  the  faults  and  foiiiles  of  those  to  whom  he  wrote. 
Witli  what  sarcastic  pleasantry  does  he  aiiiniadverl  u])on  the 
Corinthians  for  their  injudicious  folly,  in  sudering  themselves 
to  be  duped  by  a  false  judaizing  teacher!  A  more  delicate 
and  poignant  instance  of  irony,  than  the  following  passage, 
is  perhaj)S  nowhere  to  be  met  with  :  IVhat  is  it,  says  he  to 
the  Corinthians,  wherein  ymi  were  inferior  to  other  churches, 
exce])t  that  I  myself  was  not  hurt hensoinc  to  you  (by  taking 
any  acknowledgment  for  my  labours)  ?  do  fwgive  me  this 
wrong.  (2  Cor.  xii.  L3.) — To  his  eloquence,  as  a  public 
speaker,  we  have  the  testimony  of  the  Lyoaonians,  who  (as 
we  have  already  remarked)'  foolishl}'  imagining  the  gods  to 
have  dcscende(r  from  heaven  among  thciri  in  the  jieisons  of 
liarnabas  and  Paul,  called  the  former  Jupiter,  and  the  latter 
Mercury,  because  he  was  the  chief  speaker.     And  though  it 

»  Oo.spcl  AilvocalP,  vol.  iv  p.  301.  (Iln.'iioii,  Mas.sarliii.solts,  l>'2i.) 

•  f<rc  nn  iii.ilanrp  in  hi!)  t-pisili-  to  I'liilciuon,  which  is  particularly  illus- 
tral.'d  iH  S.<rl   .\V.  ii  III.  V.  infra. 

•  dee  p.  JJi.  tupra. 


Sect.  II.] 


OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  APOSTOLICAL  EPISTLES. 


829 


is  said  his  bodily  preaence  was  mean,  and  his  speech  contemp- 
tible, yet  it  ought  to  be  remembered,  that  this  was  the  asper- 
sion of  his  enemies,  the  elfiision  of  malignity,  to  defame  and 
sink  him,  and  ruin  his  usefulness."' , 


SECTION  II. 

OBSERVATIONS    ON   THE    APOSTOLICAL    EPISTLES    IN    GENERAL, 
AND    THOSE    OF    SAINT    PAUL    IN    PARTICULAR. 

I.  Importance  of  the  Epistles. — J^ature  of  these  ivritinffs. — 
II.  jYumlier  and  order  of  the  Epistles,  particularly  those  of 
Paul. — III.  Of  the  Catholic  Epistles  and  their  order. — IV. 
General  plan  of  the  apostolic  Epistles. — V.  Causes  of  their 
obscurity  considered  and  explained. — Observations  on  the 
phraseology  of  Paul  in  particular. 

I.  The  Epistles,  or  letters  addressed  to  various  Christian 
communities,  and  also  to  individuals,  by  the  apostles  Paul, 
James,  Peter,  John,  and  Jude,  form  the  second  principal  di- 
vision of  the  New  Testament.  These  writings  abundantly 
confirm  all  the  material  facts  related  in  the  Gospel  and  Acts 
of  tlie  Apostles.  The  particulars  of  our  Saviour's  life  and 
death  are  often  referred  to  in  them,  as  grounded  upon  the  un- 
doubted testimony  of  eye-witnesses,  and  as  being  the  foun- 
dation of  the  Christian  religion.  The  speedy  propagation 
of  the  Christian  faith,  recorded  in  the  Acts,  is  confirmed  be- 
yond all  contradiction  by  innumerable  passages  in  the  Epis- 
tles, written  to  the  churches  already  planted ;  and  the  mira- 
culous gifts,  with  which  the  apostles  were  endued,  are  often 
appealed  to  in  the  same  writings,  as  an  undeniable  evidence 
of  the  divine  mission  of  the  apostles.^ 

Though  all  the  essential  doctrines  and  precepts  of  the 
Christian  religion  were  unquestionably  taught  by  our  Saviour 
himself,  and  are  contained  in  the  Gospels,  yet  it  is  evident 
to  any  person  who  attentively  studies  the  Epistles,  that  they 
are  to  be  considered  as  commentaries  on  the  doctrines  of  the 
Gospel  addressed  to  particular  Christian  societies  or  persons, 
in  order  to  explain  and  apply  those  doctrines  more  fully,  to 
coiifute  some  growing  errors,  to  compose  differences  and 
schisms,  to  reform  abuses  and  corruptions,  to  excite  Chris- 
tians to  holiness,  and  to  encourage  them  against  persecutions. 
And  since  these  Epistles  were  written  (as  we  have  already 
shown)  under  divine  inspiration,  and  have  uniformly  been 
received  by  the  Christian  church  as  the  productions  of  in- 
spired writers,  it  consequently  follows  (notwithstanding  some 
writers  have  insinuated  that  they  are  not  of  equal  authority 
with  the  Gospels,  while  others  would  reject  them  altogether) 
that  what  the  apostles  have  delivered  in  these  Epistles,  as 
necessary  to  be  believed  or  done  by  Christians,  must  be  as 
necessary  to  be  believed  and  practised  in  order  to  salvation, 
as  the  doctrines  and  precepts  delivered  by  Jesus  Christ  him- 
self, and  recorded  in  the  Gospels :  because  in  writing  these 
Epistles,  the  sacred  penmen  were  the  servants,  apostles,  am- 
bassadors and  ministers  of  Christ,  and  stewards  of  the  mys- 
teries of  God,  and  their  doctrines  and  precepts  are  the  will, 
the  mind,  the  truth,  and  the  commandments  of  God  himself.- 
On  account  of  the  fuller  displays  of  evangelical  truth  con- 
tained in  this  portion  of  the  sacred  volume,  the  Epistleshave 
by  some  divines  been  termed  the  doctrinal  books  of  the 
New  Testament. 

That  the  preceding  view  of  the  Epistles  is  correct,  will 
appear  from  the  following  considerations. 

In  the  FIRST  place  they  announce  and  explain  doctrines,  of 
which  our  Saviour  had  not  fully  treated  in  his  discourses,  and 
which  cmuequently  are  not  clearly  delivered  in  the  Gospels. 

Thus  there  were  some  things  which  our  Saviour  did  not  fully 
and  clearlj  explain  to  his  disciples  (John  xvi.  12.),  but  accom- 
modated his  expressions  to  those  prejudices  in  which  they  had 
been  educated.  Of  this  description  were  his  discourses  concern- 
ing the  nature  of  his  kingdom  ;  which,  agreeably  to  the  erroneous 
notions  then  entertained  by  their  countrymen,  the  apostles  ex- 
pected would  be  a  temporal  kingdom,  and  accompanied  with  the 
same  pomp  and  splendour  which  are  the  attendants  of  an  earthly 

'  Dr.  Harwootl's  Introd.  to  the  New  Test.  vol.  i.  p.  20.?.  See  also  Michael- 
is'slnli-oduction,  vol.  i.  pp.  149— 159.  Bp.  Newton's  Dissertation  on  St.  Paul's 
Elorjiience.  (Works,  vol.  v.  pp.  248— 2"1.)  Dr.  Kennicott's  Remarks  on  the 
Olrl  Testament  and  Sermons,  pp.  369 — 379.  Dr.  A.  Clarke  on  1  Tim.  vi.  15. 
and  2  Tim.  iv.  8. 

*  See  particularly  1  Cor.  .vii.  and  xiv. 

»  Dr.  Whitby's  General  Preface  to  the  Epistles,  §  1.  On  the  subject  of 
'lie  precedins  parai;raph,  see  also  Archb.  Magee's  Discourses,  vol.  i.  pp. 
471—474.  and  vol.  u.  p.  317.  et  seq. 

Vol.  II.  2  T 


monarchy.  Tliis  opinion  was  so  deeply  rooted  in  the  minds  of 
the  apostles,  that  Jesus  Christ  did  not  think  proper  to  eradicate 
it  all  at  once,  but  rather  chose  to  remove  it  by  gentle  and  easy 
degrees.  Accordingly,  in  compHance  with  their  prejudices,  we 
find  him  describing  his  kingdom,  and  the  pre-eminence  they 
were  to  enjoy  in  it,  by  eating  and  drinking  at  his  table,  and  sii' 
ting  on  thrones,  and  judging  the  tivelve  tribes  of  Israel.  (Luke 
xxii.  30.    Matt.  xix.  28.) 

But  after  the  Holy  Spirit  had  given  the  apostles  clear  and 
distinct  apprehensions  of  the  spiritual  nature  of  Christ's  kingdom, 
and  the  real  nature  of  its  happiness,  we  find  what  noble  repre- 
sentations they  give  of  the  glories  which  are  laid  up  in  Heaven 
for  true  Christians,  and  what  powerful  arguments  they  derive 
thence,  in  order  to  persuade  them  not  to  set  their  minds  upon 
the  things  of  this  world.  They  describe  the  happiness  of  the 
world  to  come  by  an  inheritance  incorruptible,  undefiled,  and 
that  fadeth  not  aicay  (1  Pet.  i.  4.)  ;  by  a  nevi  heaven,  and  a 
new  earth,  ivlterein  dxuelleth  righteousness  (2  Pet.  iii.  13.), 
xvhere  God  shall  be  all  in  all  (1  Cor.  xv.  28.)  :  he  shall  reign 
with  an  absolute  dominion,  and  it  shall  be  our  honour  and  hap- 
piness that  God  is  exalted ;  and  they  exhort  us  not  to  set  our 
minds  upon  the  things  that  are  seen,  and  are  temporal,  but  on 
those  things  -which  are  not  seen,  and  are  eternal.  (3  Cor.  iv.  18.) 

Again,  it  was  the  same  prejudice  concerning  the  temporal 
glories  of  Christ's  kingdom  which  caused  his  disciples  to  mis- 
understand  the  meaning  of  his  various  clear  and  explicit  dis- 
courses concerning  his  suflferings,  death,  and  resurrection.  (See 
Mark  ix.  10.  Luke  ix.  45.  xviii.  34.)  They  vainly  expected 
that  their  master  would  gain  earthly  conquests  and  triumphs, 
and  they  could  not  apprehend  how  he  should  become  glo- 
rious through  sufferings.  In  consequence  of  these  mistaken 
ideas,  the  doctrine  of  the  cross  and  its  saving  eflects  were  not 
understood  by  the  apostles  (Matt.  xvi.  22.),  until  our  Saviour 
had  opened  their  understandings  by  his  discourses  on  this  subject 
after  his  resurrection  ;  and  therefore  we  cannot  expect  so  perfect 
an  exposition  of  that  great  and  fundamental  article  of  Chris- 
tianity in  the  Gospels  as  in  the  Epistles,  in  which  Christ's  dying 
for  our  sins,  and  rising  again  for  our  justification,  is  every 
where  insisted  upon  as  the  foundation  of  all  our  hopes ;  and  the 
doctrine  of  the  cross  is  there  spoken  of  as  a  truth  of  such  im- 
portance, that  Saint  Paul  (1  Cor.  ii.  2.),  in  comparison  of  it, 
despises  every  other  kind  of  knowledge,  whether  divine  or  human. 
Hence  it  is  that  the  apostles  deduce  those  powerful  motives  to 
obedience,  which  are  taken  from  the  love,  humility,  and  conde- 
scension of  our  Lord,  and  the  right  which  he  has  to  our  service, 
having  purchased  us  with  the  price  of  his  blood.  (See  1  Cor.  vi. 
20.  2  Cor.  v.  15.  Gal.  ii.  20.  Tit.ii.  14.  1  Pet.  i.  18, 19.)  Hence 
they  derive  those  great  obligations,  which  lie  upon  Christians  to 
exercise  the  duties  of  mortification  and  self-denial ;  of  crucifying 
the  flesh  -with  the  affections  and  lusts  (Gal.  v.  24.  vi.  14.  Rom. 
vi.  6.  1  Pet.  iv.  1,  2.)  ;  of  patience  under  afflictions,  and  rejoicing 
in  tribulations  (Phil,  iii,  10.  2  Tim.  ii.  11,  12.  1  Pet.  ii.  19.  &c., 
iv.  13.);  of  being  dead  to  this  world,  and  seeking  those  things 
ivhich  are  above,  luhere  Christ sitteth  at  the  right  hand  of  God. 
(Col.  iii.  1.  &c.)  Thus,  as  our  Saviour  spoiled  principalities 
and  powers,  and  triuwplied  over  his  enemies  by  the  cross 
(Col.  ii.  15.),  so  the  believer  overcomes  the  world  by  being  cru- 
cified to  it ;  and  becomes  more  than  conqueror  through  Christ 
that  loved  him. 

Once  more,  it  is  iir  the  Epistles  principally,  that  we  are  clearly 
taught  the  calling  of  the  Gentiles  to  make  one  church  with  the 
Jews.  OurLord,  indeed,  had  intimated  this  glorious  event  in  some 
general  exjwessions,  and  also  in  some  of  his  parables  (see  Matt, 
viii.  1.  XX.  1.  Luke  xv,  11.  &c.)  ;  and  the  numerous  prophecies  of 
the  Old  Testament,  which  foretell  the  calling  of  the  Gentiles,  were 
sufficient  to  convince  the  Jews,  that  in  the  times  of  the  Messiah, 
God  would  reveal  the  knowledge  of  himself  and  his  will  to  the 
world  more  fully  than  ever  he  had  done  before.  But  the  extraor- 
dinary value  which  they  had  for  themselves,  and  the  privileges 
which  they  fancied  were  peculiar  to  their  own  nation,  made 
them  unwilling  to  believe  that  the  Gentiles  should  ever  he.fclloiv-' 
heirs  with  the  Jews,  of  the  satne  body  or  church  with  them,  and 
partakers  of  the  smne  protnises  in  Christ  by  the  Gospel.  (Eph. 
iii.  6.)  This  Saint  Peter  himself  could  hardly  be  persuaded  to 
believe,  till  he  was  convinced  by  a  particular  vision  vouchsafed  to 
him  for  that  purpose.  (Acts  x.  28.)  And  Saint  Paul  tells  us 
that  this  was  a  mystery  which  was  but  newly  revealed  to  the 
apostles  by  the  Spirit  (Eph.  iii.  5.)  :  and  therefore  not  fully  dis- 
covered by  Christ  before. 

Lastly,  it  is  in  the  Epistles  chiefly  that  the  inefficacy  of  the 
law  to  procure  our  justification  in  the  sight  of  God,  the  cessation 


330 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Paiit  VI.  Chap.  Ill 


of  the  law,  and  the  eternal  and  uncnangeable  nature  of  Christ's 
priesthood  are  set  forth.  Compare  Rom.  iii.  20.  25.  Gal.  il.  21. 
iii.  16.  V.  2.  5.  Heb.  ix.  10.  vil  18.  v.  5,  6.   vii.  24,  25 

Secojtdlv,  in  I  he  Epistks  only  we  have  instructions  concern- 
ing many  gretd  and  necessary  duties. 

Such  arc  the  followinfir,  viz.  that  all  our  thanksgivings  ore  to 
be  offered  up  to  God  in  the  name  of  Christ.'  The  duties  which 
Tve  owe  to  our  civil  governors  are  only  hinted  in  these  words  of 
Christ — "  Jiender  unto  C^stir  the  thiriq;s  that  are  Cxsar's," 
but  are  enlarged  upon  in  Saint  Paul's  Epistles  to  the  Romans 
(xiii.),  and  to  Titus  (iii.  1.),  and  also  in  the  first  Epistle  of 
Saint  Peter,  (ii.  10,  17.)  In  like  manner  the  duties,  wliich  we 
owe  to  the  ministers  of  the  Gospel  (our  spiritual  governors'), 
arc  more  expressly  tauglit  in  Saint  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Gala- 
tians  (vi.  C),  the  Thessalonians  (IThess.  v.  12,  13.),  and  to 
the  Hebrews,  (xiii.  17,  18.)  Lastly,  all  the  duties  belonging  to 
the  relations  of  husbands  and  wives,  parents  and  children,  masters 
and  servant?,  are  particitlarlv  treated  in  the  Epistles  to  the 
Ephesians  (v.  28 — 33.  vi.  1 — 9.),  and  the  Colossians  (iii.  11 — 
25.)  ;  but  are  scarcely  ever  mentioned  in  the  Gospels.  This  is 
a  convincing  argument  that  the  Holy  Spirit,  who  influenced  the 
pens  of  the  apostles,  not  only  regarded  the  particular  exigencies 
of  the  Christians  who  lived  in  those  times,  but  also  directed  the 
sacred  writers  to  enlarge  on  such  points  of  doctrine  and  practice 
as  were  of  universal  concern,  and  would  bo  for  the  benefit  of  the 
faithful  in  all  succeeding  generations.^  It  is  true  that  the  imme- 
diate occasion  of  several  of  the  epistles  was  the  correction  of 
errors  and  irregularities  in  particular  churches :'  but  the  expe- 
rience of  all  succeeding  ages,  to  our  own  time,  has  shown  the 
necessity  of  such  cautions,  and  the  no  less  necessity  of  attending 
to  the  duties  which  are  directly  oj)posite  to  those  sins  and  irregu- 
larities, and  which  the  apostles  take  occasion  from  thence  to  lay 
down  and  enforce.  And  even  their  decisions  of  cases  concerning 
meats  and  drinks,  and  the  observation  of  the  ceremonial  law,  and 
similar  doubts  which  were  peculiar  to  the  Jewish  converts,  in  the 
Jirst  occnsioji  of  them  : — even  these  rules  also  are,  ami  will 
always  be,  our  surest  guides  in  all  points  relating  to  church 
liberty,  and  the  use  of  things  indifferent ;  when  the  grounds  of 
those  decisions,  and  the  directions  consequent  upon  them,  are 
duly  attended  to,  and  applied  to  cases  of  the  like  nature  by  the 
rules  of  piety  and  prudence,  especially  in  one  point,  which  is  of 
universal  concern  in  life,  viz.  the  duty  of  abstaining  from  many 
things  which  are  in  themselves  iiuiocent,  if  we  foresee  that  they 
will  give  offence  to  weak  Christians,  or  be  the  occasion  of 
leading  others  into  sin. 

II.  The  Epistles  contained  in  the  New  Testament  are 
twenty-one  in  number,  and  are  generally  divided  into  two 
classes,  the  Epistles  of  Saint  Paul,  and  the  Catholic  Epis- 
tles. Of  these  apostolical  letters,  fourteen  were  written  by 
the  ereat  apostle  of  the  Gentiles  ;  they  are  not  placed  in  our 
Bibles  accordinfT  to  the  order' of  time  when  they  were  com- 
posed, but  according  to  the  supposed  precedence  of  the  socie- 
ties or  persons  to  whom  they  were  addressed.  Thus,  the 
epistles  to  churches  arc  disposed  according  to  the  rank  of 
the  cities  or  placi's  whither  they  were  sent.  The  Epistle  to 
the  Romans  stanils  first,  because  Rome  was  thechief  city  of 
the  Itoman  empire:  this  is  followed  by  the  two  Epistles  to 
the  Corinthians,  because  Corinth  was  a  large,  polite,  and  re- 
nowned city.  To  them  succeeds  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians, 
who  were  the  inhabitants  of  Galatia,  a  region  of  Asia  Minor, 
in  which  were  several  churches.  Next  follows  the  l'))i3lle 
to  the  Ephesians,  because  Ephesns  was  the  chief  city  of 
Asia  Minor,  strictly  so  called.  Afterwards  come  the  Epis- 
tles to  the  Pliilippians,  Colossians,  and  Thessalonians;  for 
which  order  Dr.  Lardner  can  assign  no  other  probable  reason 
than  this,  viz.  that  Philipni  was  a  Roman  colony,  and,  there- 
fore, the  Epistle  to  the  Philipnians  was  placed  t)efi)re  those 
to  the  Colossians  and  Thessalonians,  whoso  cities  were  not 
distinguished  by  any  particular  circumstance.  He  also 
thinks  it  not  unlikely  that  the  shortness  of  the  two  Epistles 
to  the  'I'hessalonians,  especially  of  the  second,  caused  them 
to  be  placed  last  among  the  letters  addressed  to  churches, 
though  in  point  of  time  they  arc  the  earliest  of  Saint  Paul's 
Kpistles. 

Among  the  Epistles  addressed  to  particular  persons,  those 
to  Timothy  have  the  precedence,  as  he  wiis  a  favourite  diaci- 

«  Coinimro  Eiili.  v.  S  20.     1  Th.  «h.  v.  la    Heh.  xiri.  11,  1.1. 

.u*  ^   ,y<  ""'•  ''•  r  •     •'"wili'i  Uirectioni  U>t  iJio  i>rufiuiMe  RcmlinK  of 
the  SVrl|(liir''ii,  pp.  VJfj—'iW.  " 


and  I 
lioni. 


I'P 

Ihc  rorriHillnft  of  Chrintiniiily  with  mixtiirci  of  Jiiilaiiim 


apoitacy  from  ihc  fallh  which  tliejr  tinil  rerrivefl,  conton- 

>-i'nsaiiion;?  thrniBiilvc*,  nei(locl  oftlic  nixdiiljlipii  for  piil.lic 

worinip,  anj  misLehuviour  Ui  Uicin,  uie  liulionouring  of  uiarnojc,  Ac.  Ac. 


pie  of  Saint  Paul,  and  also  because  those  Epistles  are  the 
longest  and  fullest.  To  them  succeeds  the  Epistle  to  Titus, 
who  was  an  evangelist;  and  that  to  Philemon  is  placed  last, 
as  he  was  supposed  to  have  been  only  a  private  Christian. 
Last  of  all  comes  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  because  its 
authenticity  was  doubted  for  a  short  time  (though  without 
any  foundation,  as  will  be  shown  in  a  subsequent  page) ; 
JDr.  Lardner  also  thinks  that  it  was  the  last  written  of  aul 
St.  Paul's  Epistles. 

Some  learned  men,  who  have  examined  the  chronology  of 
Saint  Paul's  Epistles,  have  proposed  to  arrange  them  m  our 
Bibles,  according  to  the  order  ot  time  :  but  to  this  classifica- 
tion there  are  two  serious  objections,  viz.  I.  The  order  of 
their  dates  has  not  yet  been  satisfactorily  or  unanimously  set- 
tled; and,  2.  Very  considerable  difficulty  will  attend  the  altera- 
tion of  that  order  which  has  been  adopted  in  all  the  editions 
and  versions  of  the  New  Testament.  This  was  the  received 
arrangement  in  the  time  of  Eusebius,  who  flourished  in  the 
beginninjTof  the  third  century,  and  probably  also  of  Irena^us, 
who  lived  in  the  second  century.  Consequently  it  is  the  most 
ancient  order  :  in  Dr.  Lardner's  judgment  it  is  the  best  thai 
can  be  adopted  ;■*  and  therefore  we  have  retained  the  received 
order  in  the  subsequent  part  of  this  work.  As,  however,  a 
knowledge  of  the  order  in  which  Saint  Paul's  Epistles  were 
written,  cannot  fail  to  be  both  instructive  and  useful  to  the 
biblical  student,  we  have  deemed  it  proper  to  subjoin  a 
Table  of  their  Chronological  Order  (as  established  in  the 
subsequent  pages),  which  exhibits  the  places  where,  and  the 
times  when,  they  were  in  all  probability  respectively  written. 
The  dates,  &c.  assigned  by  Dr.  Lardner  and  other  learned 
men,  are  duly  noticed  in  the  following  pages. 


EPISTLES. 

1  Thessalonians 

2  Thessaloaians 

Galatians 

1  Corintliians 
Ro:nans 

2  Corinthians 
Ephesians 
Philippians 
Colossians 
Philemon  - 


PLACES. 

Corinth 
.  •  Connth  • 

Corinth  • 

-  Ephesus 

Corinth 

$  Macedonia, 

(  (perhaps  from  Philippi) 
Rome 


Hebrews 

1  Timothy 
Titus  - 

2  Timothy 


I 


A.  D. 

52 

-  fi2 

S  At  the  close  of  52 

?  or  early  in  53 

.    57 

About  the  end  of  57 

or  the  beginning  of  58 

-  58 

CI 
5  Before  the  end  of  02 
/  or  the  beginning  of  iJ3 

62 
^  About  the  end  of  C2 
(  or  carlv  in  63 

S  About  the  end  of  (-2 
'(  or  early  in  63 

-  C4 
(4 

■     65 


-  Rome 
Rome 

•  Rome 

5  Italy 

i  (perhaps  from  Rome)  ] 
■  Maceiloiiia 
Maciilonia 

-  Home 

III.  The  Catholic  Epistles  are  seven  in  number,  and  contain 
the  letters  of  the  apostles  Jap.  es,  Peter,  John,  and  Jude. 
They  are  termed  Catholic,'  that  is,  general  or  universal,  be- 
cause they  are  not  addressed  to  the  believers  of  some  parti- 
cular city  or  country,  or  to  individuals,  as  Saint  Paul's  Epis- 
tl'js  were,  but  to  Christians  in  general,  or  to  (Christians  of 
several  countries.  The  subjoined  table  exhibits  the  dates  of 
the  Catholic  Epistles,  and  also  the  places  where  they  were 
written,  agreeably  to  the  order  established  in  the  following 
pages. 


EPISTLES. 
J.inifiS      . 

1  I'ctor 

2  Peter  • 

I  John 


PLACES.  A,  D. 

.Iiiila.'a      -  .  .  -     61 

Rome  -  ...  64 

Rome      About  (he  beginning  of  rj5 
I'nknnwn  ^  ^  68 

or  early  in  69 
69 
^  or  early  in  69 
Unknown-  •  .       6]  or  65 


d  (perhaps  Ejihcsus)  \ 
■    Ephesus 


2  and  3  John     - 

Jude 

IV.  The  p^eneral  plan  on  which  the  Epistles  are  written 
i3,/r*/,  to  discuss  and  decide  the  controversy,  or  to  refute  the 
erroneous  notions,  which  had  arisen  in  the  church,  or  among 
the  persons  to  whom  they  are  addressed,  and  which  was  the 
occasion  of  their  being  written ;  and,  secondly,  to  recommend 
the  observance  of  those  duties,  whicji  would  be  necessary, 
and  of  absolute  importance  to  the  Christian  church  in  every 
age,  consideration  being  chiefly  given  to  those  particulai 
graces  or  virtues  of  the  Christian  char.icUr,  which  the  dis- 
nuU-s  that  occasioned  the  Epistles  might  tempt  them  to  neg- 
lect. In  ptirsuing  this  method,  regiird  is  had,  first,  to  the 
nature  and  faculties  of  the  soul  of  man,  in  which  the  under- 
standing is  to  lead  the  way,  and  the  will,  aflections,  and 
active  powers  arc  to  follow  ;  and,  secondly,  to  the  nature  of 
religion  in  general,  which  is  a  rea.sonabIe  service,  leaching 
us  that  we  are  not  to  be  determined  by  superstitious  fancies, 

•  Pr.  I.ardncr'B  Worki,  8vo.  vol.  vi.   pp.  &16— 619.,  Ho.  vol.  iii. 
407,  408. 


PP 


il 


On  iho  origin  and  reasons  of  this  appellation,  tec  Cliaptcr  IV.  Sect 
infra. 


Sect.  III.] 


ON  THE  EPISTLE  TO  THE  ROMANS. 


331 


nor  by  blind  passions,  but  by  a  sound  judgment  and  a  good 
understanding  of  the  mind  and  will  of  God ;  and  also  show- 
mg  us  the  necessary  union  of  faith  and  practice,  of  truth  and 
holiness.  The  pious,  aflFectionate,  and  faithful  manner  in 
which  the  apostles  admonish,  reprove,  exhort,  or  offer  conso- 
lation, can  only  be  adequately  appreciated  by  him,  who,  by 
patient  and  diligent  study,  is  enabled  to  enter  fully  into  the 
spirit  of  the  inspired  authors. 

V.  Explicit  as  the  Epistles  unouestionably  are  in  all  fun- 
damental points,  it  is  not  to  be  denied  that  some  parts  of 
them  are  more  difficult  to  be  understood  than  the  Gospels.' 
The  reason  of  these  seeminsT  difficulties  is  evident.  In  an 
Epistle  many  things  are  omitted,  or  only  slightly  mentioned, 
because  they  are  supposed  to  be  known  by  the  person  to 
whom  it  is  addressee! ;  but,  to  a  person  unaccjuainted  with 
such  particulars,  they  cannot  but  present  considerable  diffi- 
culty. The  affairs  discussed  by  Saint  Paul  were  certainly 
well  known  to  the  persons  to  whom  he  wrote ;  who  conse- 
quently would  easily  apprehend  his  meaning,  and  see  the 
force  and  tendency  of  his  discourse.  As,  however,  we  who 
live  at  this  distance  of  time,  can  obtain  no  information  con- 
cerning the  occasion  of  his  writing,  or  the  character  and  cir- 
cumstances of  the  persons  for  whom  his  Epistles  were  in- 
tended, except  what  can  be  collected  from  the  Epistles 
themselves,  it  is  not  strange  that  several  things  in  them 
should  appear  obscure  to  us.  Further,  it  is  evident  from 
many  passages,  that  he  answers  letters  sent,  and  questions 

(jroposed  to  him,  by  his  correspondents ;  which,  if  they  had 
)een  preserved,  would  have  illustrated  different  passages 
much  Dctter  than  all  the  notes  of  commentators  and  critics. 

To  these  causes  of  obscurity,  which  are  common  to  all  the 
writers  of  the  Epistles,  we  may  add  some  that  are  peculiar 
to  Saint  Paul,  owing  to  his  style  and  temper.  Possessing 
an  ardent,  acute,  and  fertile  mind  (as  we  have  seen  in  the 
preceding  section),  he  seems  to  have  written  with  great  ra- 
pidity, and  without  closely  attending  to  method.  Hence 
arise  those  frequent  parentheses  which  occur  in  his  Epistles. 
In  the  course  of  his  argument  he  sometimes  breaks  off  ab- 
ruptly, in  order  to  pursue  a  new  thought  that  is  necessary 
for  the  support  of  some  point  arising  from  the  subject,  thougn 
not  immediately  leading  to  it ;  and  w^hen  he  has  exhausted 
such  new  idea,  he  returns  from  his  digression  without  any 
intimation  of  the  change  of  topic,  so  that  considerable  atten- 
tion is  requisite  in  order  to  retain  the  connection.  His  fre- 
quent changes  of  persons  and  propositions  of  objections, 
which  he  answers  without  giving  any  formal  intimation,  are 
also  causes  of  ambiguity.  To  these  we  may  add,  1.  The 
modern  divisions  of  chapters  and  verses,  which  dissolve  the 
connection  of  parts,  and  break  them  into  fragments  ;  and, 
2.  Our  uncertainty  concerning  the  persons  addressed,  as  well 
as  the  opinions  and  practices  to  which  the  great  apostle  of 
the  Gentiles  alludes,  sometimes  only  in  exhortations  and 
reproofs.2  Other  causes  of  obscurity  might  be  assigned,  but 
the  preceding  are  the  most  material ;  and  the  knowledge  of 
them,  if  we  study  with  a  right  spirit,  will  enable  us  to  ascer- 
tain the  rest  without  difficulty.  The  most  useful  mode  of 
studying  the  epistolary  writings  of  the  New  Testament  is, 
unquestionably,  that  proposed  and  recommended  by  Mr. 
Locke;  which,  having  been  already  noticed  when  treating  on 
the  doctrinal  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures,  it  is  not  neces- 
sary again  to  repeat.' 


SECTION  III. 


ON  THE  EPISTLE  TO  THE  ROMANS. 

I.  Date,  and  -where  written. — II.  Genuineness  and  authenticity 
of  this  Epistle  ;  particularly  of  chapters  XV.  and  XVI. — 
III.   The  church  at  Rome,  -when  and  by  lohom  founded. — 

«  The  following  remark  of  a  late  excellent  writer,  on  the  Scriptures  in 
general,  is  particularly  applicable  to  Saint  Paul's  Epistles.— "DifficuUies 
indeed  there  are,  but  the  life-directing  precepts  they  contain  are  suffi- 
ciently easy  ;  and  he  who  reads  the  Scriptures  with  an  unprejudiced  mind, 
must  be  convinced,  that  the  whole  end  they  have  in  view  is  to  lead  man- 
kind to  their  truest  and  best  happiness,  both  here  and  hereafter.  They 
inform  our  reason,  they  guide  our  consciences ;  In  short,  they  have  the 
words  both  of  temporal  and  eternal  life."  Gilpin's  Sermons,  vol.  iv.  p.  335. 
See  also  Mrs.  More's  Essay  on  Saint  Paul,  vol.  i.  pp.  59—72. 

a  Locke's  Essay  for  the  understanding  of  Saint  Paul's  Epistles  (Works, 
vol.  iii.),  p.  275.  et  seq.  See  also  Dr.  Graves's  Essay  on  the  Character  of  the 
Apostles  and  Kvan^elists,  pp.  146— ItS.,  for  some  useful  remarks  on  the 
obscurity  of  saint  Paul's  Epistles. 

»  Sea  Vol.  I.  Part  II.  Chap.  V. 


IV.  Occasion. — V.  Internal  state  of  the  church  at  Rome. — 
VI.  Scope. — VII.  Synopsis  of  its  contents. — VIII.  Observa- 
tions on  this  Epistle. 

I.  The  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  though  fifth  in  tjrder  of 
time,  is  placed  first  of  all  the  apostolical  letters,  either  from 
the  pre-eminence  of  Rome,  as  being  the  mistress  of  the  world, 
or  because  it  is  the  longest  and  most  comprehensive  of  all 
Saint  Paul's  Epistles.  Various  years  have  been  assigned 
for  its  date.  Van  Til  refers  it  to  the  year  55 ;  Lnngius, 
Bishop  Pearson,  Drs.  Mill  and  Whitby,  Fabricius,  Remec- 
cius.  Professor  Stuart,  and  others,  to  the  year  57  :  Baronius, 
Michaelis,  Lord  Barrington,  Drs.  Benson  and  Lardner,  and 
Bishop  Tomline  to  the  year  58 ;  Archbishop  Usher  and  our 
Bible  chronology,  to  the  year  60 ;  Dr.  Hales  to  the  end  of 
58,  or  the  beginning  of  59;  and  Rosenmiiller  to  the  end  of 
the  year  58.  The  most  probable  date  is  that  which  assigns 
this  Epistle  to  the  end  of  57,  or  the  beginning  of  68;  at 
which  time  Saint  Paul  was  at  Corinth,  whence  he  was  pre- 
paring to  go  to  .Terusalem  with  the  collections  which  had  been 
made  by  the  Christians  of  IMacedonia  and  Achaia  for  their 
poor  brethren  in  Judaea.  (Rom.  xv.  25 — 27.)''  The  Epistle 
was  dictated  by  the  apostle  in  the  Greek  language^  to  Tertius 
his  amanuensis  (xvi.  22.),  and  was  sent  to  tlie  church  at 
Rome,  by  Phoebe,  a  deaconess  of  the  church  at  Cenchrea 
(xvi.  1.),  whose  journey  to  Rome  afforded  Saint  Paul  an 
opportunity  of  wanting  to  the  Christians  in  that  city.  That 
he  wrote  from  Corinth  is  further  evident  from  Romans  xvi. 
23.  where  he  sends  salutations  from  Erastus  the  chamberlain 
of  Corinth  (which  city,  we  learn  from  2  Tim.  iv.  20.  was  the 
place  of  his  residence),  and  fromGaius,  who  lived  at  Corinth 
(1  Cor.  i.  14.),  whom  Saint  Paul  terms  his  host,  and  the  host 
of  all  the  Christian  church  there. 

II.  That  this  Epistle  has  always  been  acknowledged  to 
be  a  genuine  and  authentic  production  of  Saint  Paul,  is  at- 
tested not  only  by  the  ancient  Syriac  and  Latin  versions, 
but  by  the  express  declarations  and  quotations  of  Irenaeus,^ 
Theophilus  of  Antioch,"  Clement  of  Alexandria,*^  Tertullian,^ 
Origen,io  and  by  all  subsequent  ecclesiastical  writers.  It  was 
also  cited  or  alluded  to  by  the  apostolic  fathers,"  Barnabas,'^ 
Clement  of  Rome,''  Ignatius, '^  Polycajp,'^  and  by  the 
churches  of  Vienna  and  Lyons. '^ 

The  genuineness  of  chapters  xv.  and  xvi.  has  been  of  late 
years  impugned  by  Heumann,  Semler,  Schott,  and  Eichhorn. 
Their  arguments  have  been  examined  in  detail,  and  most 
satisfactorily  refuted  by  Professor  Stuart,  in  his  Introduction 
to  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,''  the  result  of  whose  researches 
proves,  first,  that  there  is  no  internal  evidence  to  prove  that 
these  chapters  are  spurious ;  and  secondly,  that  no  external 
evidence  of  any  considerable  weight  can  be  adduced  in  fa- 
vour of  this  supposition.  All  the  manuscripts  which  are  of 
any  authority  (with  some  variety  as  to  the  position  of  xvi. 
25 — 27.,  and  with  the  omission  of  these  verses  in  a  few 
cases)  are  on  the  side  of  the  genuineness  of  these  chapters. 
Jerome  mentions, '»  that  he  knew  of  some  manuscripts  wliich 
omitted  xvi.  25 — 27. ;  and  "Wetstein  cites  a  Codex  Latinua 
which  also  omits  those  verses.  But  in  regard  to  all  tha 
rest  of  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  chapters,  no  authority 
from  manuscripts,  fathers,  or  versions,  warrants  us  in  sus« 
pecting  them. 

III.  The  Scriptures  do  not  inform  us  at  what  time  or  by 
whom  the  Gospel  was  first  preached  at  Rome.  Those  Avba 
assert  that  the  church  in  that  city  was  founded  by  Saint  Pe- 
ter, can  produce  no  solid  foundation  for  their  opinion :  for,  if 
he  had  preached  the  Gospel  there,  it  is  not  likely  that  such 

*  This  opinion  is  satisfactorily  vindicated  at  considerable  length,  by  Dr. 
J.  F.  Flatt,  in  a  dissertation,  De  tempore,  quo  Pauli  epislola  ad  Romanoi 
scripta  sit  (Tubingee,  1789) ;  reprinted  in  Pott's  and  Ruperti's  Sylloge  Com- 
mentationum  Theologicarutn,  vol.  ii.  pp.  54 — 74. 

5  Bellarmine  and  Salmeron  imagined  that  this  epistle  was  written  in 
Latin,  but  this  notion  is  contradicted  by  the  whole  current  of  Christian 
antiquity ;  and  John  Adrian  Bolton,  a  German  critic,  fancied  that  it  was 
written  in  Aramaic,  but  he  was  amply  refuted  by  Griesbach.  Viser,  Herm. 
Sacr.  Nov.  Test,  pars  ii.  p.  354.  RosenmuUer,  Scholia,  vol.  iii.  p.  359.  Thai 
Greek  was  the  original  language  we  have  already  proved,  supra,  Vol.  I 
pp.  193,  194. 

6  Lardner's  Works,  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  163—165. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  368,  369. 
'  Ibid.  Rvo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  195—199. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  3S5— 388. 

8  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  222—224. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  400—402. 

9  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  2C6— 272. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  424—438. 
10  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  375—377. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  482—484. 
»»  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  471,  472. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  535. 

n  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  17,  13. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  ^p.  2S6,  287. 

"  Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  p.  35. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  29b. 

i«  Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  p.  74. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  318. 

»5  Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  p.  94. ;  4lo.  vol.  i.  p.  329. 

»•  Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  p.  lol. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  361. 

"  Stuart's  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  pp.  43—50. 

'^  Hieronymi  Comm.  inEph.  iii.  5. 


332 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Pabt  VI.  Chap,  IIL 


an  event  would  have  been  left  unnoticed  in  the  Acts  of  the 
Aposlles,  where  the  labours  of  Peter  are  particularly  related 
with  those  of  Paul,  which  form  the  chief  subject  of  that 
book.  Nor  is  it  probable  that  the  author  of  this  Epistle 
should  have  made  no  reference  whatever  to  this  circum- 
stJHice,  if  it  had  been  true.  There  is  still  less  plausibility 
in  the  opinion,  that  the  church  was  planted  at  Rome  by  the 
joint  labours  of  Peter  and  Paul,  for  it  is  evident  from  Ro- 
mans i.  8.  that  Paul  had  never  been  in  that  city  previously 
to  his  writing  this  Epistle.  As,  however,  the  fame  of  this 
church  had  reached  him  long  beibre  he  wrote  the  present 
letter  (xv.  23.),  the  most  probable  opinion  is  that  of  Dr. 
Benson,  Mic haelis,  Rambach,  Rosenmiiller,  and  other  critics, 
viz.  that  the  Gospel  was  first  preached  there  by  some  of 
those  persons  who  heard  Peter  preach,  and  were  converted  at 
Jerusah^m  on  the  day  of  Pentecost :  for  we  h  am  from  Acts 
ii.  10.  that  there  were  then  at  Jerusalem,  strangas  of  Home, 
Jews,  and  proselytes.  These  Roman  Jews,  on  their  return 
home,  doubtless  preached  Christ  to  their  countrymen  there,' 
and  probably  converted  some  of  them ;  so  that  the  churcli 
at  Rome,  like  most  of  the  churches  in  Gentile  countries, 
was  at  first  composed  of  Jews.  But  it  was  soon  enlarged  by 
converts  from  among  the  religious  proselytes  to  Judaism, 
and  in  process  of  time  was  increased  by  the  flowing  in  of 
the  idolatrous  Gentiles,  who  gave  themselves  to  Christ  in 
such  numbers,  that,  at  tlie  time  Saint  Paul  wrote  his  Epistle 
to  the  Romans,  their  conversion  was  much  spoken  of  through- 
out the  world,  (i.  8.)  Among  the  earliest  messengers  of  the 
faith  or  promoters  of  its  doctrines,  Andronicus  and  Junia 
may  be  enumerated  (Rom.  xvi.  7.),  and  also  Rufus,  the 
same,  perhaps,  whose  father  assisted  Jesus  Christ  in  bear- 
ing the  cross,   (xvi.  13.  Mark  xv.  21.) 

IV.  The  occasion  of  writing  this  Epistle  may  easily  be 
collected  from  the  Epistle  itself.  It  appears  that  Saint  Paul, 
who  had  been  made  acquainted  with  all  the  circumstances 
of  the  Christians  at  Rome  by  Aquila  and  Priscilla  (Rom. 
xvi.  3.),  and  by  other  Jews  who  had  been  expelled  from 
Rome  ijy  the  decree  of  Claudius  (Acts  xviii.  2.),  was  very 
desirous  of  seeing  them,  that  he  might  impart  to  them  some 
spiritual  gift  (Rom.  i.  8 — 13.  xv.  14.  xvi.  1.)  ;  but,  being 
prevented  from  visiting  them,  as  he  had  proposed,  in  his 
journey  into  .Spain,  he  availed  himself  of  the  opportunity 
that  presented  itself  to  him  by  the  departure  of  Pbvjebe  to 
Rome,  to  send  them  an  Epistle.  (Rom.  xvi.  1,2.)  Finding, 
however,  that  the  church  was  composed  partly  of  Heathens 
who  had  embraced  the  Gospel,  and  partly  of  Jews,  who, 
with  many  remaining  nrejuaices,  believed  in  Jesus  as  the 
Messiah ;  and  finding  also  that  many  contentions  arose  from 
the  Gentile  converts  claiming  equal  privileges  with  the  He- 
brew Christians  (which  claims  the  latter  absolutely  refused 
to  admit  unless  the  Gentile  converts  were  circumcised),  he 
wrote  this  Epistle  to  compose  these  differences,  and  to 
strengthen  the  faith  of  the  Roman  Christians  against  the 
insinuations  of  false  teachers ;  being  apprehensive  lest  his 
involuntary  absence  from  Rome  should  be  turned  by  the 
latter  i»  llie  prejudice  of  llie  Gospel. 

V.  In  order  fully  to  understand  this  Epistle,  it  is  neces- 
sary that  we  should  be  acquain'ied  with  the  tenets  believed 
by  those  whcsc  errors  the  apostle  here  exposes  and  confutes. 
ll  is  char  l*iat  he  wrote  to  persons,  who  had  been  either 
Gentiles  or  Jews,  and  that  his  grand  design  was  to  remove 
the  jjrejudices  entertained  by  both  these  descriptions  of 
persons. 

The  greater  part  of  the  Gentii.es,  who  lived  in  gross  ig- 
norance, did  not  troulde  themselves  much  concerning  tin' 
pardon  of  their  sins,  or  the  salvation  of  their  souls;  and  the 
rest  believed  that  their  virtues  deserved  the  favour  of  their 
gods,  either  in  this  world  or  in  the  next,  if  there  were  any 
tiling  to  expect  after  death.  They  also  thought  that  their 
vices  or  sins  were  ex|)iated  by  their  virtues,  especially  if 
thev  were  truly  sorry  for  the  crimes  tiiev  had  committed ; 
for  they  declared  a  man  to  bo  innocent  who  repented  of  his 
fault.  In  order  to  expiate  the  most  atrocious  crimes,  they  had 
recourse  to  purifications  and  sacrifices,  and  sonielinies  offered 
human  victims;  but  the  wisest  among  them  maintained  that 
nothing  was  more  fit  to  appease  the  Divinity  than  a  change 
of  life. 

The  Jews,  on  the  other  hand,  divided  all  mankind  into 
three  classes.  The  Jirnl  was  composed  of  righteous  men 
whose  righteousness  exceeded  their  sins;  the  second  coin- 

'  At  this  lime  Ihcrc  were  great  nuinlicrs  of  Jews  nt  Rome.  .lo9e|i)iiis 
relates  tliat  llicir  iiuinlter  aiiiouiitnl  to  eiglit  tliuusaiiil  (Aiili(|  Ju<l.  lili.  xvii. 
c.  12);  nriil  Dion  CtHAiuH  (lib.  xxxvii.  c.  17.)  inforiiis  us  tlmi.  Uiey  Imd 
obtained  ilie  privilege  uf  living  according  to  their  own  laws. 


prised  those  whose  righteousness  was  equal  to  their  sins; 
and  the  tfiird  contained  wicked  men,  whose  sins  were  more 
in  number  than  their  good  deeds.  They  thought,  however, 
that  there  was  no  person  so  righteous  as  not  to  stand  In  need 
of  pardon :  but  they  believed  that  they  should  obtain  it  by 
repentance,  by  contession  of  their  sins,  by  almsgiving,  by 
prayer,  by  the  afflictions  whit;h  God  sent  them,  by  their 
purifications,  sacrifices,  and  change  of  life,  and  above  all  by 
the  solemn  sacrifice  which  was  annually  olTered  on  the  great 
day  of  atonement ; — and  if  there  yet  remained  any  thing  to 
be  pardoned,  every  thing  (they  said)  would  be  expiated  by 
death.  Further,  the  most  zealous  among  the  Jews  entertain- 
ed various  erroneous  opinions  relative  to  their  justification, 
to  the  election  of  their  nation,  and  to  the  Roman  government, 
which  it  is  important  to  consider,  as  Saint  Paul  has  refuted 
them  at  considerable  lengtli  in  this  Epistle. 

1.  The  Jews  assigned  three  grounds  of  justification,  by 
which  they  were  delivered  from  the  guilt  and  punishment  of 
sin ;  viz. 

(1.)  I'he  extraordinary  piety  and  merit  of  their  ancestors, 
Abniham,  Lsaac,  Jacob,  and  the  twelve  patriarchs,  and  the  cove- 
nant God  made  with  them  ;  for  the  sake  of  which  piety,  as  He 
had  promised  to  bless  their  posterity,  they  thought  that  this 
covenant  obliged  Him  to  forgive  their  sins.  This  error  is  con- 
futed-by  Saint  Paul  in  the  ninth  chapter,  where  he  shows  that 
God's  promises  were  made  only  to  the  faithful  dcscend.ints  of 
Abraham;  and  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fifth  chapter,  wliich  con- 
firms his  assertion  in  chapter  iii.  29,  .30.  that  God  was  alike  the 
God  of  the  Jews  and  Gentiles ;  and  that  the  covenant,  broken  by 
their  common  father  Adam,  should  be  restored  to  both  by  the 
common  Head  of  the  new  covenant,  Jesus  Christ. 

(2.)  Their  kno-.vledge  of  God  through  the  larj  of  God,  ana 
their  diligence  in  the  study  of  that  laxv  :  which  they  estimated 
so  highly  as  to  make  it  a  plea  for  the  remission  of  their  sins.  In 
opposition  to  this  notion,  Saint  Paul  proves,  in  the  second 
chapter,  that  man  is  justified,  not  by  the  knowledge,  but  by  the 
observance  of  the  law. 

(3.)  The  ivories  of  the  Levitical  linv,  which  were  to  expiate 
sin,  especially  circumcision  and  sacrifices ;  whence  the  Jews 
inferred  that  the  Gentiles  must  receive  the  whole  law  of  Mo.scs, 
in  order  to  be  justified  and  saved, — in  other  words,  tliat  there 
was  no  salvation  out  of  the  Jewish  church.  In  opposition  to 
this  erroneous  tenet,  Saint  Paul  teaches  that  the  Levitical  law 
does  not  expiate,  but  only  reveals  sin  ;  and  that  it  cxiiuplifica 
on  the  sacrificed  beasts  the  punishment  due  to  the  sinner,  (iiii 
20.V  20.) 

2.  The  doctrine  of  the  Jews  concerning  election  was,  thai 
as  God  had  promised  Abraham  that  he  would  bless  his  seed, 
that  He  would  give  it  not  only  the  true  spiritual  blessing, 
but  also  the  land  of  Canaan,  and  that  he  would  suffer  it  to 
dwell  there  in  prosperity,  and  consider  it  as  his  church  upon 
earth  ;  therefore  this  blessing  extended  it  to  their  whole  na 
tion.  They  asserted  that  God  was  botmd  to  fulfil  the.?c  pro- 
mises to  ev«!ry  Jew,  because  he  was  a  descendant  of  Abra- 
ham, whether  he  were  righteous  or  wicked,  faithful  or  unbe- 
lieving. They  even  believed  that  a  prophet  ought  not  to 
pronounce  a^fainst  their  nation  the  prophecies  with  which  ha 
was  inspired,  but  was  bound  to  resist  the  will  of  God,  by 
praying,  like  Moses,  that  his  name  might  be  expunged  from 
the  book  of  life.  These  Jewish  errors  illustrate  that  very 
difficult  chapter  (the  ninth),  and  show  that  the  question  dis- 
cussed by  Saint  Paul,  relative  to  pnMlestination  and  election, 


is  totally  dillerent  from  that  debated  by  Christians  since 
the  fourth  century,  and  which  now  unhappily  divides  the 
Christian  world. 

3.  It  is  well  known  that  the  Pharisees,  at  least  those  who 
were  of  the  party  of  Judas  the  Gaulonite  or  Galila^an,  che- 
rished the  most  rooted  aversion  to  foreign  magistrates;  and 
from  a  false  interpretation  of  Dent.  xvii.  15.,  thought  it 
unlawful  to  pay  tribute  to,  or  to  acknowledge,  the  Roman 
emperor.*  Exjjecting  a  Messiah  who  would  establish  a  tem- 
poral kingdom,  and  liberate  them  from  the  dominion  of  the 
itomvms,'  they  were  ripe  for  rebellion,  and  at  all  times  ready 
to  throw  off  the  yoke.  Even  the  Jews  at  Rome  had  alreaxly 
begun  to  create  tlisturbances  which  occasioned  the  edit-t  of 
Claudius,  that  all  Jews  should  depart  from  Rome;^  and  as, 

«  Coinpnro  Mnlt.  x.xii  I.')— 22.  with  Jnupplius,  Ant.  Jiiil.  llli.  xvii.  c.  2.  It 
WUH  n  iiiiixiiii  with  the  Jews  that  Ihr.  world  trtui  ^irrn  (o  thr  Isrni^tilrii ;  that 
they  nhoiilci  hiive  the  siiprciiic  rule -every  whore,  and  that  the  ticntiles 
should  he  their  vnx.salH. 

*  Jusr|>liiiH  de  Ui.ll,  Jiid.  lib.  vii.  c.  31.  Suetonius  In  VcRpasiano,  c.  4. 
TaritUH,  ili:<t.  lib.  ii.  c.  5. 

*  Acts  xviii.  2.    Saetoniui  in  ClauUiano,  c  26. 


Sect.  III.] 


ON  THE  EPISTLE  TO  THE  ROMANS. 


333 


in  those  early  times,  tlie  Christians  were  generally  con- 
founded with  the  Jews,  it  is  not  unlikely  that  both  were 
included  in  this  decree.  At  this  time  also,  the  city  of  Rome 
contained  within  herself  the  seeds  of  insurrection  and  civil 
war.  The  senate  was  secretly  jealous  of  the  emperor,  who 
in  his  turn  suspected  the  senate.  The  life  even  of  the  em- 
peror was  seldom  free  from  danger :  and  the  succession  to 
the  throne,  after  the  death  of  Claudius,  was  purchased  by 
largesses  to  the  imperial  guard.  With  the  political  notions 
cherished  by  the  Jews,  it  is  no  wonder  that  they,  in  several 
instances,  orave  cause  of  suspicion  tof  the  Roman  government, 
who  would  be  glad  of  an  opportunity  to  expel  from  the  city, 
persons  who  were  considered  dangerous  to  its  peace  and  se- 
curity: nor  is  it  improbable,  on  this  account,  that  the  Chris- 
tians, under  an  idea  of  being  the  peculiar  people  of  God,  and 
the  subjects  of  his  kingdom  alone,  might  be  in  danger  of 
being  infected  with  those  unruly  and  rebellious  sentiments. 
Under  these  circumstances,  therefore,  Saint  Paul  judged  it 
necessary  to  exhort  the  Roman  Christians  to  submit  peacea- 
bly to  the  government  under  which  they  lived.  He  tells 
them,  that  the  powers  that  be  (Rom.  xiii.  1.),  or  the  consti- 
tuted authorities,  are  ordained  of  God,  and  forbids  them  to 
meddle  with  those  who  endeavoured  to  effect  a  change  in 
the  government.!  The  reigning  emperor  at  this  time  was 
that  monster  of  iniquity,  Nero. 

Tlie  preceding  view  of  the  tenets  held  by  the  Heathens 
and  Jews  of  Rome  will  enable  us  to  ascertain  the  Scope  or 
design  of  Saint  Paul  in  writing  this  epistle,  which  was  to 
confute  the  unbelieving;  to  instruct  the  believing  Jew;  to 
confirm  the  Christian,  and  to  convert  the  idolatrous  Gentile : 
and  to  place  the  Gentile  convert  upon  an  equality  vi^ith  the 
Jewish  in  respect  of  his  religious  condition,  and  his  rank  in 
tiie  divine  favour.  These  several  designs  he  reduces  to  one 
scheme,  by  opposing  or  arguing  with  the  infidel  or  unbe- 
lieving Jew,  in  favour  of  the  Christian  or  believing  Gentile. 
"  Upon  this  plan,  if  the  unbelieving  Jew  escaped  and  re- 
mained unconvinced,  yet  the  Christian  Jew  would  be  more 
inoilensively  and  more  effectually  instructed  in  the  nature  of 
the  Gospel,  and  the  kind  brotherly  regards  he  ought  to  have 
for  the  believing  Gentiles,  than  if  he  had  directed  his  dis- 
course immediately  and  plainly  to  him.  But,  if  his  argument 
should  fail  in  reference  to  the  believing  Jew,  yet  the  oeliev- 
ing  Gentile  would  see  his  interest  in  me  covenant  and  king- 
dom of  God  as  solidly  established  by  a  full  confutation  of 
Jewish  objections  (which  were  the  only  objections  that 
could  with  any  show  of  reason  be  advanced  against  it),  as 
if  the  Epistle  had  been  written  for  no  other  purpose,  ^d 
thus  it  is  of  the  greatest  use  to  us  at  this  day.  It  is  also  at 
present  exceedingly  useful,  as  it  entirely  demolishes  the  en- 
grossing pretensions  and  imposing  principles  of  the  church 
of  Rome ;  for  a  professed  fiith  in  Christ,  and  a  subjection 
to  Him,  are  in  this  Epistle  fully  shown  to  be  the  only  Gospel 
condition  of  a  place  in  his  church,  an  interest  in  the  covenant 
of  God,  and  or  Christian  fellowship.  By  this  extensive  prin- 
ciple God  broke  down  the  pales  of  his  own  ancient  enclosure, 
the  Jewish  church ;  and  therefore,  by  the  same  principle, 
more  strongly  forbids  the  building  of  any  other  partition  wall 
of  schemes  and  terms  of  Christian  fellowship.  ^^ 
VII.  This  Epistle  consists  of  four  parts;  viz. 
Part  I.  The  Introduction,  (ch.  i.  1 — 15.) 
Part  II.  contains  the  Doctrinal  Part  of  the  Epistle  concerning 
Justification,  (i.  16 — 32.  ii. — xi.)  ;  in  which  we  have, 

Sect.  1.  The  proposition  concerning  the  extent  of  the  Gos- 
pel (i.  \G.y  and  the  demonstration  of  that  proposition  (i. 
17.),  in  which  it  is  shown  that  justification  is  to  be  attained, 

«  Michaelis,  vol.  iv.  pp.  89 — 102.    Dr.  J.  Taylor  on  Rom.  xiii.  I. 

«  Dr.  J.  Taylor's  Preface  to  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  p.  clxii. 

'  Michaelis  has  given  the  following  more  logical  view  of  the  argumenta- 
tive |)art  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  which  may  be  not  unacceptable  to 
the  reader.  The  principal  point,  he  observes,  which  Saint  Paul  intended 
to  prove,  was,  that  the  Gospel  reveals  a  righteou.=;ness  unknown  before, 
and  to  which  both  Jews  and  Gentiles  have  an  equal  claim.  (Rom.  i.  15,  16.) 
In  order  to  prove  this  point  he  shows  (i.  13. — iii.  20.)  that  both  Jews  and 
Gentiles  are  "  under  sin,"  that  is,  that  God  will  impute  their  sins  to  Jews 
as  well  as  to  Gentiles. 

Ilis  proof  of  this  position  may  be  reduced  to  the  following  syllogisms, 
(i.  17 — 24.)  "The  wrath  of  God  is  revealed  against  those  who  hold  the  truth 
in  unrighteousness ;  that  is,  who  acknowledge  the  truth,  and  yet  sin 
against  it."    (i.  18.) 

"The  Gentiles  acknowledged  truths;  but  partly  by  their  idolatry,  and 
partly  by  their  other  detestable  vices,  they  sinned  against  the  truths  which 
they  acknowledged. 

"  Therefore  the  wrath  of  God  is  revealed  against  the  Gentiles,  and  pun- 
ishes them.  (i.  19—32.) 

"The  Jews  have  acknowledged  more  truths  than  the  Gentiles,  and  yet 
they  sin.  (ii.  1.  17—24.) 

"  Consequently  the  Jewish  sinners  are  yet  more  exposed  to  the  wrath  of 
God."  (ii.  1—12.) 


§  i.  Not  by  Works,  (i.  18.) 
For  the  Gentiles  (i.  19—32.), 

Tlie  Jews  (ii.  iii.  1—18.), 

and  both  together  (iii.  19,  20.),  are  under  sin. 
§  ii.  But  by  faith,  in  which  it  is  shown 

That  we  are  justified  by  faith  alune  (iii.  21—31.), 

As  appears  by  the  example  of  Abraham  and  the  testimony  of  David 
(iv.) ; 

And  the  privileges  and  blessings  of  Abraham's  seed  by  faith  are 
shown  to  be  far  greater  (ban  those  which  belonged  to  his  seed  by 
natural  descent  (as  described  in  Rom.  ii.  17—20.)  These  privileges 
of  true  believers  in  Christ  are,  1.  Peace  witli  God  (v.  1.) ;  2.  Joy 
171  hope  of  the  glory  of  God  (2.),  which  tribulation  cannot  prevent, 
but  rather  promotes  (3—10.) ;  3.  Rejoicing  in  God  h;-.nself  as 
reconciled  to  us  through  Christ,  which  however  atl'ords  no  coun- 
tenance to  sin,  but  requires  evangelical  obedience  to  God  (U— 21.), 
whence  flows,  4.  Mortification  of  sin  arid  7ieicvess  of  life,  as 
another  evidence  and  etlect  of  justification  (vi.) ;  5.  7Vie  freedom 
of  justified  persons  from  the  malediction  of  the  law,  and  (s  irrita- 
tion to  sin  (vii.);  6.  Freedom  from  condemnation,  and  ultimate 
glorification,  (viii.) 

Sect.  2.  Concerning  the  equal  privileges  of  Jewish  and  Chris- 
tian believers  (ix. — xi.),  in  wiiich  the  apostle, after  express- 
ing his  aftectionate  esteem  for  the  Jewish  nation  (ix.  1 — 
5.), "I  proceeds  to  show :    • 

§  i.  That  God's  rejection  of  great  part  of  the  seed  of  Abraham,  and  also 

of  Isaac,  was  an  undeniable  fact.  (ix.  0 — 13.) 
§  ii.  Tliat  God  had  not  chosen  them  (the  Jews)  to  such  peculiar  privileges, 

for  any  kind  of  goodness  either  in  themselves  or  their  fathers.  (14—24.) 

Having  thus  proved  his  point,  he  answers  the  following-objections  which 
might  be  made  to  it. 

Objection  1.  "The  Jews  were  well  grounded  in  their  knowledge,  and 
studied  the  law."  Saint  Paul  answers,  if  a  knowledge  of  the  law,  wilhout 
the  performance  of  it,  could  justify  them,  God  would  not  have  condemned 
the  Gentiles,  who  knew  the  law  by  nature,  (ii.  13 — 16.) 

Objection  2.  "The  Jews  were  circumcised."  Answer.  That  is,  they 
wei-e  admitted  by  an  outward  sign  to  a  covenant  with  God ;  but  this  sign 
will  not  avail  those  who  violate  the  covenant,   (ii.  25—29.) 

Objection  3.  "  According  to  this  doctrine  of  Saint  Paul,  the  Jews  have  no 
advantage  above  the  Gentiles,  which  is  manifestly  false."  Answer.  Tliey 
still  have  advantages  ;  for  to  them  are  committed  the  oracles  of  God.  ISut 
their  privileges  do  not  extend  so  far,  that  God  should  overlook  their  sins, 
whicli  Scripture  earnestly  condemns  even  in  Jews.  (iii.  1 — 19.) 

Objection  4.  "  They  had  the  Levitical  law  and  sacrifices."  Answer. 
Hence  is  no  remission,  but  only  the  knowledge  of  sin.  (iii.  20.) 

From  the  preceding  arguments  Saint  Paul  infers,  that  Jews  and  Gentiles 
must  be  justified  by  the  same  means,  namely,  without  the  Levitical  law, 
through  faith  in  Christ ;  and  in  opposition  to  the  imaginary  advantages  of 
the  Jews,  he  states  the  declaration  of  Zechariah,  that  God  is  not  the  God 
of  the  Jews  only,  but  also  of  the  Gentiles,  (iii.  21—31.) 

As  tlie  whole  blessing  was  promised  to  those  who  were  the  faithful 
descendants  of  Abraham,  whom  both  scripture  and  the  Jews  call  his  cliild- 
rcn,  he  proves  his  former  assertion  from  the  example  of  Abraham :  who 
was  an  idolater  before  his  call,  but  was  declared  just  by  God,  on  account 
of  his  faith,  long  before  his  circumcision.  Hence  Saint  Paul  takes  occa- 
sion to  explain  the  nature  and  fruits  of  faith,  (iv.  1. — v.  1 — 11.  He  then 
proceeds  to  prove  from  the  equity  of  God  that  the  Jews  had  no  advantages 
above  the  Gentiles,  with  respect  to  justification.  Both  Jews  and  GentUes 
had  forfeited*  life  and  immortahty,  through  the  common  father  of  their 
race,  whom  they  themselves  had  not  chosen  as  their  representative.  If 
therefore  it  was  the  will  of  God  to  restore  immortality  by  a  new  spiritual 
head  of  a  covenant,  which  was  Christ,  it  was  just  that  both  Jews  and  Gen- 
tiles should  have  an  equal  share  in  this  new  representative  of  the  human 
race.  (v.  12—21.) 

He  shows  that  the  doctrine  of  justification,  as  he  had  stated  it,  lays  us 
under  the  strongest  obligations  to  holiness  (vi.  1 — 23.);  and  that  since  the 
death  of  Christ  we  are  no  longer  concerned  with  the  law  of  Moses  :  for  our 
justification  arises  from  our  appearing  in  the  sight  of  God,  as  if  actually 
dead  with  Christ,  on  account  of  our  sins  ;  but  the  law  of  Mo.ses  was  not 
given  to  the  dead.  On  this  occasion  he  evinces  at  large,  that  the  preceding 
consideration  does  not  affect  the  eternal  power  of  God  over  us,  and  that 
while  we  are  under  the  law  of  Moses,  we  perpetually  become  subject  to 
death,  even  by  sins  of  inadvertency,  (vii.  1 — end.)  Hence  he  concludes, 
that  all  those,  and  those  only,  who  are  united  with  Christ,  and  for  the  .sake 
of  this  union  live  not  according  to  the  flesh,  are  free  from  all  condemnation 
of  the  law,  and  have  an  undoubted  share  in  eternaUife.  (viii.  1-17.) 

Having  described  the  happiness  of  all  such  persons,  he  is  aware  that 
the  Jews,  who  expected  temporal  blessings,  would  object  to  him,  that 
Christians,  notwithstanding  what  he  had  said,  endured  many  sufferings  in 
this  world.  This  objection  he  obviates  (viii.  18—39.),  and  shows  that  God 
is  not  the  less  true  and  faithful  because  he  does  not  justify,  but  rather 
rejects  and  punishes  the  Jews  who  would  not  believe  in  the  IWessiah.  (ix. 
X.  xi.)  In  discussing  this  delicate  topic  he  displays  the  utmo.st  caution  on 
account  of  the  prejudices  of  his  countrymen  the  Jews.  He  shows  that 
the  promises  of  God  were  never  made  to  all  the  posterity  of  Abraham ; 
and  that  God  always  reserved  to  himself  the  power  of  choosing  those  sons 
of  Abraham,  whom  for  Abraham's  sake  he  intended  to  bless,  and  of  pun- 
ishing the  wicked  sons  of  Abraham :  and  that,  with  respect  to  temporal 
happiness  or  misery,  even  their  good  or  ill  conduct  did  not  determine  his 
choice.  Thus  Ishmael,  Esau,  the  Israelites  in  the  Desert  in  the  time  of 
Moses,  and  the  greater  part  of  that  nation  in  the  time  of  Isaiah,  were 
rejected  and  made  a  sacrifice  of  his  justice,  (ix.  1—29.)  He  then  shows 
that  God  had  reason  to  reject  most  of  the  Jews  then  living,  because  they 
would  not  beUeve  in  the  Messiah,  though  the  Gospel  had  been  preached  to 
them  plainly  enough  (ix.  30.— x.) :  yet,  that  God  had  not  rejected  all  hit 
people,  but  was  still  fulfilling  his  promises  on  many  thousand  natural 
descendants  of  Abraham,  who  believed  in  the  Messiah ;  and  would  in  a 
future  period  fulfil  them  upon  more  ;  for  that  all  Israel  would  be  converted, 
(xi.  1—32.)  And  he  concludes  with  expressing  his  admiration  of  the  wise 
counsels  of  God.  (33—36.)    Michaelis,  vol.  ir.  pp.  102—106. 

*  The  genuineness  and  proper  interpretation  of  Rom.  ix.  5.  (which  con- 
tains one  of  the  most  decisive  testimonies  to  the  divinity  of  Jesus  Christ, 
in  the  New  Testament),  are  satisfactorily  estabhshed  by  Mr.  Holden  in  his 
Scripture  Testimony  to  tlie  Divinity  of  Jesus  Christ,  pp.  51—56. 

#  Michaelis's  expression,  as  translated  by  Bishop  Marsh,  is  "foretold." 
but  the  sense  evidently  requires  "forfeited." 


334 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[PahtA'I.  Chap.  in. 


§  iii.  That  his  acceptance  of  the  Gentiles,  and  rojpction  of  many  of  the 

Jews,  hail  been  prc^licteJ  both  by  Ilosea  and  Isaiali.  (•25—:^)  ) 
§  iv.  That  GoJ  liaiJ  otftn.J  salvation  to  b')tli   Jews  a'ld  CJeniiles  on   the 

same  terms,  thon^'li  the  Jews  rejected  it.  (x.  1—21.) 
5  V.  That,  though  the  Israeliies  were  rejected  fur  their  obstinacy,  yet  that 

rejection  was  not  total ;  there  still  being  a  remnant  among  them  who 

did  embrace  and  believe  the  Gospel,  (xi.  1—10.) 
5  vi.  Tliat  the  rejection  of  the  rest  was  not  final,  but  in  the  end  "all  Israel 

should  be  saved."  (11—31.) 
§vii.  And  that,  in  the  mean  time,  even  their  obstinacy  and  rejection 

served  to  di.splay  the  imsearchable  wisdom  and  love  of  God.  (32—3(3.) 

Part  III.  comprises  ihi  Hortatory  or  Practical  Part  of  the 
Epistle  (xii. — xv.  I— 14.),  in  which  the  apostle  urges 
Christian  believers  to  act  m  a  manner  suitable  to  their  high 
and  holy  callin^r  -.  with  this  view  he  exhorts  them, 

Sect.  1.  To  dcJicate  themselves  to  God,  and  to  demean 
themselves  as  fcllow-menibers  of  Christ's  body.  (.\ii.  1 — 8.) 

Sttr.  2.  To  Christian  love  and  charily,  (xii.  9 — 21.) 

StcT.  3.  To  obedience  to  the  constituted  authorities  (xiii. 
I — 7.),  and  the  exercise  of  mutual  love.  (8 — 14.) 

Sect.  4.  How  those  who  are  strong  in  faith  should  conduct 
themselves  towards  their  weak  brethren,  (xiv.  xv.  1 — 13.) 

^KT  IV.   The  Conclusion,  in  which  Saint  Paul  excuses  him- 

self. 

Partly  for  his  boldness  in  thus  writing  to  the  Romans  (xv.  14 — 
21.),  and  partly  for  not  having  hitherto  come  to  them  (22.), 
but  promises  to  visit  them,  recommending  himself  to  their 
prayers  (23 — 33.)  ;  and  sends  various  salutations  to  the  bre- 
thren at  Rome,  (xvi.)' 

VIII.  In  perusinor  this  epistle  it  will  be  desirable  to  read, 
at  least,  the  first  eleven  chapters,  at  once,  uninterruptedly : 
as  every  sentence,  especially  in  the  arjrumentative  part,  bears 
an  intimate  relation  to,  and  is  dependent  upon  the  whole  dis- 
course, and  cannot  be  understooa  unless  we  comprehend  the 
scope  of  the  whole.  Further,  in  order  to  enter  fully  into  its 
spirit,  we  must  enter  into  the  spirit  of  a  Jew  in  those  times, 
and  endeavour  to  re  ilize  in  our  own  minds  his  utter  aversion 
from  the  Gentiles,  his  valuing  and  exalting  hiitiself  upon  his 
relation  to  God  and  to  Abraham,  and  also  upon  his  law,  pom- 
pous worship,  circumcision,  &c.  as  if  the  Jews  were  the  only 
people  in  the  world  who  iiad  any  right  to  the  favour  of  God. 
Attention  to  this  circumstance  will  show  the  beauties  of  the 
apostle's  style  and  argument,  and  that  this  Epistle  is  indeed, 
"a  writing  which,  for  sublimity  and  truth  of  sentiment,  for 
brevity  and  strenglli  of  expression,  for  regularity  in  its  struc- 
ture, but,  above  all,  for  the  unspeakable  importance  of  the 
discoveries  which  it  contains,  stands  unrivalled  by  any  mere 
human  composition ;  and  as  far  exceeds  the  most  celebrated 
writiags  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  as  the  shining  of  the 
sun  exceeds  the  twinkling  of  the  stars."^ 

On  the  undesigned  coincidences  between  this  Epistle  and 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  see  Dr.  Paley's  Horae  Paulinae, 
Chap.  II. 


SECTION  IV. 


ON  THE  FIRST  EPISTLE  TO  THE  CORINTHIANS. 

I.  State  of  the  Corinthian  church, — II.  Occasion  of  this  Epis- 
tle.— III.  Its  scope  and  unalysis. — IV.  Date  and  genuineness. 
— V.  Examinatioh  of  the  question,  hoiv  many  epistles  Paul 
•wrote  to  the  Corinthians  ? 

I.  ChristianitV  was  first  planted  at  Corinth'  by  Saint 
Paul  himself,  who  resided  here  a  year  and  six  months  be- 
tween the  years  51  and  53.  The  church  consisted  partly  of 
Jews  and  partly  of  Gentiles, but  chiefly  of  the  latter;  whence 
the  apostle  had  to  combat,  sometimes  with  Jewish  8U|)er.sti- 
tion.and  sometimes  with  Heathen  licentiousness.  On  Saint 
Paul's  departure  from  Corinth,  he  was  succeeded  by  Apollos, 
"an  eloijuenl  man,  and  mifrhty  in  the  Scriptures,'  who 
preached  the  Gospel  with  great  success.  (Acts  xviii.  21 — 28.) 
Atpiila  and  Sosthenea  were  also  eminent  teachers  in  this 
church,  (xviii.  2.  l(^or.  i.  1.)  But,.shorlly  after  Saint  Paul 
quitted  this  church,  its  peace  was  disturbed  by  the  intrusion 
of  false  teachers,  who  made  great  pretensions  to  eloquence, 

t  I.ari)nrr's  Works.  8vo.  vol.  vl.  pp.  325— 327.  j  4to.  vol.  iii.  p.  297. ;  Mi 
chaeliij,  vol.  iv.  pp.  89— 92. ;  Ro.seniiiUller,  Scholia,  torn.  iii.  pp.  352—30).  ; 
Whitby'n  and  Mnrkniitht'g  Prefaces  to  the  Fiilstlo  to  the  RoinanH  ;  Bloch, 
Chronolaxis  Hrriplnrurn  Divl  I'nuli,  pp.  201-210.  ;  Knnibach,  liilrod.  in 
Epistolam  Paull  ad  KomanoB,  p,-.  I — li8;  Hug's  Intmd.  loth'?  Nfw  Test, 
vol.  ii.  pp.  406 — 425.   C'almet,  Prei  ice  Biir  i'Epitre  de  St.  I'aul  aux  Komains. 

»  Marknlght  on  the  Epistles,  v  1.  t.  p.  407.  4to.  edit. 

•  For  an  account  of  llio  city  ol  f-'orinlh,  before  the  planlinic  of  Christian- 
ky,  lee  Uic  Uiitorical  &nd  Geographical  Index  iu  Volume  U. 


wisdom,  and  knowledge  of  their  Christian  liberty,  and  thus 
undermined  his  inlliience,  and  the  credit  of  his  ministry. 
Hence  two  parties  were  formed ;  one  of  which  conteiided 
strenuously  for  the  observance  of  Jewish  ceremonies,  while 
the  other,  misinterpreting  the  true  nature  of  Christian  liberty, 
indulgod  in  excesses  which  were  contrary  to  the  design  and 
spirit  of  the  Gospel.  One  party  boasted  that  they  were  the 
followers  of  Paul ;  and  another,  that  they  were  the  followers 
of  Apollos.  Tiie  Gentile  converts  partook  of  things  oflered 
to  idols,  which  the  Jewish  Christians  aflirmed  to  be  unlawful. 
The  native  Corinthian  converts  had  not  so  entirely  eradicated 
that  lasciviousness  to  which  they  had  been  addicted  in  their 
heathen  state,  but  that  they  sometimes  committed  the  vilest 
crimes :  and  one  of  them  had  even  proceeded  so  far  as  to 
marry  his  stepmother.  Some  of  them,  also,  supporting 
themselves  by  philosojihical  arguments  and  speculations, 
denied  the  resurrection  of  the  dead.  The  richer  members  of 
the  church  misconducted  themselves  at  the  celebration  of  the 
Lord's  Supper ;  while  others,  who  possessed  spiritual  gifts, 
behaved  themselves  insolently,  on  account  of  tneir  acquire- 
ments. Women  also,  with  unveiled  heads,  spoke  in  their 
assemblies  for  divine  worship.  It  further  appears  that  many 
of  the  Corinthian  Christians  prosecuted  their  brethren  before 
the  Heathen  tribunals,  instead  of  bringing  their  complaints 
before  Christian  tribunals;  and  that  violent  controversies 
\yere  agitated  among  them  concerning  celibacy  and  mar- 
riage. 

Although  these  evils  originated  (as  above  noticed)  chiefly 
with  the  false  teachers,  yet  they  are  in  part  at  least  to  be 
ascribed  to  the  very  corrupt  state  of  morals  at  Corinth.  It  is 
well  known  that  at  the  temple  of  Venus,  erected  in  the  cen- 
tre of  that  city,  one  thousand  prostitutes  were  maintained  in 
honour  of  her.  Hence  it  happened  that  some,  who  professed 
themselves  Christians,  regarcled  the  illicit  intercourse  of  the 
sexes  as  a  trifling  affair:  and  as  the  eating  of  thintrs  offered 
to  idols  was,  in  itself,  an  indifferent  thing,  they  frequently 
went  to  the  temples  of  the  heathen  deities  to  .jiartake  of  the 
moat  that  had  been  there  sacrificed,  by  which  means  they 
rendered  themselves  accessary  to  idolatry.^ 

II.  The  Occasion  on  which  this  Epistle  was  written, 
appears  from  its  whole  tenor  to  have  been  twofold,  viz. 

Fird,  the  information  which  the  apostle  had  received  from 
some  members  of  the  family  of  (Miloe,  while  he  was  at 
Ephesus,  concerning  the  disorders  that  prevailed  in  the  church 
at  Corinth;  such  as,  1.  Schisms  and  divisions  (1  Cor.  i.  II. 
et  se(j.^ ;  2.  Many  notorious  scandals,  as  the  prevalence  of 
impurity,  incests,  covctousncss,  lawsuits  of  Christians  before 
Pagan  magistrates  (v.  vi.)  ;  3.  Idolatrous  communion  with  the 
Heathens  at  their  idol-feasts  (viii.  x.)  ;  4.  Want  of  decorum 
and  order  in  their  public  worship  (xi.  2 — IG.  xiv.);  Gross 
profanation  of  the  Lord's  Supper  (xi.  17 — 34.);  and,  6. 
The  denial  of  the  resurrection  and  eternal  life.  (xv.  12.  et  seq.) 

The  second  cause  of  Saint  Paul's  writing  this  Epistle  was 
his  receiving  a  letter  from  the  church  at  Corinth,  by  the  hands 
of  Stephanas,  Fortunatus,  and  Achaicus  (xvi.  17.  vii.  1.),  in 
which  the  Corinthian  Christians  requested  his  advice  con- 
cerning some  particular  cases;  as,  1.  Conccnnwr  niarriugc 
(vii.  1.  el  sefj.);  2.  Things  sacrificed  to  idols  (viii.^  ;  3.  Spi- 
ritual gif/s  (xii.) ;  4.  Pro])hcsying,  or  teaching  and  instructing 
others  (xiv.) ;  and,  5.  Concerning  the  making  of  cIiaritabTe 
collections  for  the  poor  brethren  in  Juda?a.  (xvi.  1.  et  aeq.y 

Hence  we  learn  that  Saint  Paul  maintaimd  a  constant  in- 
tercourse with  the  churches  which  he  had  j)lanted,  and  was 
ac(|uainted  with  all  their  circumstances.  Tlicy  seem  to  have 
appTnd  to  him  for  advice  in  those  diflicult  cases,  which  their 
own  understanding  could  not  solve ;  and  he  was  ready,  on 
all  occasions,  to  correct  their  mistakes. 

III.  The  Scope  of  this  Epistle,  therefore,  is  conformable- 
to  the  circumstances  that  caused  the  apostle  to  write  it,  and 
in  like  manner  is  twoiold ;  viz.  1.  To  apply  suitable  reme- 
dies to  the  disorders  and  abuses  which  liad  crept  into  the 
church  at  Corinth;  and,  2.  To  give  the  Corinthians  satisfac- 
tory answers  on  all  those  points  concerning  which  they  had 
requested  his  advice  and  information.^  The  Epistle  accord- 
ingly divides  itself  into  three  parts. 

Part  1.  The  Inlrodttction  (i.  1 — 0.),  in  which  Paul  expresses 
his  Satisfaction  at  all  the  Good  he  knciv  tf  lhrvi,particultirly 
at  their  having  reccivid  the  Gifts  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  for  the 
Confirmation  of  the  Gospel. 

«  Th(i  reader  will  finri  on  instructive  account  of  the  stale  of  the  church 
Bl  Corinth  in  Prof.  Slorr's  Notnt  Hiatorir/t,  rpistolarum  Paiilfi  ad  Corin. 
Ihios  intfrpretaliiini  innerrir.nlci,  in  the  second  volume  cl  his  OpuBCUlu 
Acadeniira,  jip.  212— 2f<). 

•  Uoburis';!  Ciavls  Oibliurum,  p.  718. 


Sect.  IV.] 


ON  THE  FIRST  EPISTLE  TO  THE  CORINTHIANS. 


335 


Part  II.  discusses  various  Particulars  adapted  to  the  Slate  of 
the  Corinthian  Church ,-  which  may  be  commodiously  ar- 
ranged into  two  Sections. 

Sect   1.  contains  a  reproof  of  the  corruptions  and  abuses 
which  disgraced  the  church,  (i.  10.  vi.  1 — 20.) 

S  i.  The  apostle  rebukes  the  sectaries  among  them,  and  defends  himself 
against  one  or  more  Corinthian  teachers,  wiio  had  alienated  most  of 
the  Corinthians  from  him  ;  and  adds  many  weighty  aryumonts  to 
reunite  them  in  atTeclioa  to  himself,  as  having  first  planted  the  Gospel 
among  them.  (i.  10—31.  ii. — iv.) 

§il.  A  reproof  for  not  excommunicating  an  incestuous  person,  who  had 
married  his  own  step-mother,  (v.) 

§  iii.  A  reproof  of  their  covetous  and  litigious  temper,  which  caused 
them  to  prosecute  their  Christian  brethren  before  heathen  courts  of 
judicature,  (vi.  1—9.) 

§  iv.  A  dissuas^ive  from  fornication, — a  sin  to  which  they  had  been 
extremely  addicted  before  they  were  converted,  and  which  some  of 
the  Covintlilans  appeared  to  have  considered  an  indifferent  matter. 
The  enormity  of  this  sin  is  very  strongly  represented,  (vi.  10 — 20.) 

Sect.  2.  contains  an  answer  to  the  questions  which  the  Co- 
rinthian church  had  proposed  to  the  apostle,  (vii. — xv.) 

§i.  Directions  concerning  matrimony  (vii.  1 — 16.),  the  celibacy  of  virgins 
(25^38.)  and  widows  (39 — 40.);  in  which  Saint  Paul  takes  occasion  to 
show  that  Christianity  makes  no  alteration  in  the  civil  conditions  of 
men,  but  leaves  them  under  the  same  obligations  that  they  were  before 
their  conversion.  (17 — 24.) 

§  ii.  Concerning  the  lawfulnes.?  of  eating  things  sacrificed  to  idols,  show- 
ing when  they  may,  and  when  they  may  not,  be  lawfully  eaten,  (vrii. 
-xi.  1.) 

§  iii.  Saint  Paul  answers  a  third  query  concerning  the  manner  in  which 
women  s'nould  deliver  any  thing  in  public,  when  called  to  it  by  a  divine 
impulse,  lie  particularly  censures  the  unusual  dress  of  both  sexes  in 
prophesying,  which  exposed  them  to  the  contempt  of  the  Greeks, 
among  whom  the  men  usually  went  uncovered,  while  the  women 
were  veiled,  (xi.  2 — 17.) 

§  iv.  A  reproof  of  their  irregularities,  when  celebrating  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per, with  directions  for  receiving  it  worthily,  (xi.  17—34.) 

§  V.  Instructions  concerning  the  desiring  and  exercising  of  spiritual  gifts, 
(xii. — xiv.)i 

§  vi.  The  certainty  of  the  resurrection  of  the  dead  defended  against  the 
false  teacher  or  teachers,  (xv.) 

It  appears  from  the  twelfth  verse  of  this  chapter  that  the  doctrine  of  the 
resurrection  from  the  dead  was  denied  by  certain  false  teacher.s ;  in  con- 
sequence of  which  Saint  Paul  discusses  the  three  following  questions : 

I.  Whether  there  will  be  a  resurrection  from  the  dead  .' 

II.  What  will  be  the  nature  of  the  resurrection-bodies  1 

HI.  What  will  become  of  those  who  will  be  found  alive  at  the  day  of 
judgment  ■? 
I.  He  proves  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection, 

1.  From  Scripture.  (1 — 4.) 

2.  F'ro7n  eye-witnesses  of  Christ^s  resurrection.  (5—12.) 

3.  By  sJwicing  the  absurdity  of  the  contrary  doctrine : — Thus, 
i.  If  the  dead  rise  not,  Christ  is  not  risen.  (13.) 

ii.  It  would  be  absurd  to  have  faitli  in  him,  according  to  the  preaching 

of  the  Gospel,  if  He  be  not  risen.  (14.) 
iii.  The  apostles,  who  attest  his  resurrection,  must  be  false  witnesses. 

(15.) 
iv.  The  faith  of  the  Corinthians,  who  believe  it,  must  be  vain.  (16,  17.) 
V.  All  the  believers,  who  have  died  in  the  faith  of  Christ,  have  perished, 

if  Christ  be  not  risen.  (18.) 
vi.  Uelievers  in  Christ  arc  in  a  more  miserable  state  than  any  others, 

if  there  be  no  resurrection.  (19.) 
vii.  Those,  who  were  baptized  in  the  faith  that  Christ  died  for  them, 

and  rose  again,  are  deceived.  (29.) 
viii.  The  apostles  and  Christians  in  general,  who  suffer  persecution, 

on  the  ground  that,  after  they  had  suffered  awhile  here,  they  shall 

have  a  glorious  resurrection,  are  acting  a  foolish  and  unprofitable 

part.  (313-35.) 

II.  He  shows  what  will  be  the  nature  of  the  resurrection-bodies,  and  in 
what  manner  this  great  work  will  be  performed.  (35 — 49.) 

III.  He  shows  what  will  become  of  those  who  will  be  found  alive  at  the 
day  of  judgment.  (50—57.)  This  important  and  animating  discussion  is  fol- 
lowed by 

The  use  which  we  should  make  of  this  doctrine.  (SS.)' 

Part  III.  contains  the  Conclusion,  comprising  Directioiis  rela- 
tive to  the  Contributions  for  the  Saints  at  Jerusalem,^  pro- 
mises that  the  Jlpostle  would  shortly  visit  them,  and  Salutations 
to  various  Members  of  the  Church  at  Corinth,  (xvi.) 

IV.  Although  the  subscription  to  this  Epistle  purports  that 
it  was  written  at  Philippi,  yet,  as  this  directly  contradicts 
Saint  Paul's  own  declaration  in  xvi.  8.,  we  must  look  to  the 
Epistle  itself  for  notes  of  time,  that  may  enable  us  to  ascer- 
tain its  date.     We  have  seen''  that  Saint  Paul,  on  his  depart- 

'  On  the  subject  of  the  spiritual  gifts  discussed  in  chap.  xii.  the  reader 
is  referred  to  Ur.  Bloomfield's  Hecensio  Synopiica,  vol.  vi.  pp.  552 — 570. 

a  Dr.  A.  Clarke  on- 1  Cor.  xv. 

'  The  Jews,  who  lived  out  of  Palestine,  were  chiefly  engaged  in  trade, 
and  were  generally  in  more  affluent  circumstances  than  those  who  resided 
in  JudEea,  to  whom  they  usually  sent  an  annual  relief  (Viiringa  de  Syn. 
Vet.  lib.  iii.  p.  i.  c.  13.)  Now,  as  the  Gentile  Christians  became  brethren 
to  the  .Tews,  and  partook  of  their  spiritual  riches,  Saint  Paul  thought  it 
equital)le  that  the  Greek  Christians  should  contribute  to  the  support  of 
their  poorer  brethren  In  Judsa.  (Rom.  xv.  26,  27.)  When  he  was  at  Jeru- 
salem, he  had  promised  Peter  and  James  that  he  would  collect  alms  for 
this  purpose  (CJal.  ii.  10.) ;  and  accordingly  we  find  (1  Cor.  xvi.  1 — 4.)  that 
he  made  a  collection  among  the  Christians  at  Corinth.  Michaelis,  vol.  iv. 
p.  61. 

«  See  p.  324.  supra.  Michaelis  is  of  opinion  that  the  mistake  in  the  sub- 
scription arose  from  misunderstanding  Sn^xofixi  (xvi.  5.)  to  mean  1  am  noic 
iravelling  through,  instead  of  "  my  route  is  through  IWacedonia,"  wliich  it 
evidently  means.    Vol.  iv.  p.  43. 


ure  from  Corinth,  went  into  Asia,  and  visited  Ephesus,  .Je- 
rusalem, and  Antioch,  after  which,  passing  through  Galatia 
and  Phrygia,  he  returned  to  Ephesus,  where  he  remained 
three  years.  (Acts  xviii.  18—23.  xix.  1,  xx.  31.)  At  the 
close  of  his  residence  at  Ephesus,  Saint  Paul  wrote  this 
Epistle,  as  appears  from  1  Cor.  xvi.  8.  where  he  says,  I  will 
tarry  at  Ephesus  until  Pentecost ,-  and  that  it  was  written  at 
the  preceding  passover,  is  further  evident  from  1  Cor.  v.  7. 
where  the  apostle  uses  this  expression,  ye  are  unleavened,— 
that  is,  ye  are  now  celebrating  the  feast  of  unleavened  bread. 
Now,  as  Saint  Paul's  departure  from  Ephesus,  after  residing 
there  three  years,  took  place  about  the  year  of  Christ  56,  it 
follows  that  the  first  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  was  written 
about  that  time.* 

Tire  genuineness  of  Saint  Paul's  first  Epistle  to  the  Corin- 
thians was  never  doubted.  It  was  cited  or  alluded  to  repeat- 
edly by  Clement  of  Rome,'^  Ignatius,^'  and  Polycarp,^  in  the 
first  century.  lu  the  following  century  it  was  cited  by  Ta- 
tian,9  Irena3US,'o  Athenagoras,"  and  Clement  of  Alexandria.'^ 
In  the  third  century,  this  Epistle  was  acknowledged  to  be 
Saint  Paul's  by  Tertullian,'-'  Caius,''"  and  Origen.'=  The  tes- 
timonies of  later  writers  are  too  numerous  and  explicit  to 
render  any  detail  of  them  necessary. 

V.  An  important  question  has  been  much  agitated, 
Whether  Saint  Paul  wrote  any  other  Epistle  to  the  Corin- 
thians besides  those  we  now  have.  In  1  Cor.  v.  9.  the  fol- 
lowing words  occur — E>/)«4'*  '^i""'  ^  "J""  '^^^'-^'h  which  in  our 
version  is  rendered — /  have  written  to  you  in  an  epistle. 
From  this  text  it  has  been  inferred,  that  Saint  Paul  had 
already  written  to  the  Corinthians  an  Epistle  which  is  no 
lonoer  extant,  and  to  which  he  alludes ;  while  others  con- 
tend, that  by  t«  ittitoK)!,  he  means  only  the  Epistle  which  he 
is  writing.  The  former  opinion  is  advocated  by  Calvin, 
Beza,  Grotius,  Cappel,  Witsius,  Le  Clerc,  Heinsius,  Mill, 
Wetstein,  Beausobre,  Bishop  Pearce,  Dr.  Doddridge,  Mr. 
Scott,  Michaelis,  Storr,  Rosenmiller,  Hug,  and  Schleusner: 
and  the  latter  opinion,  after  Chrysostom,  Theodoret,  and 
other  fathers,  is  defended  by  Fabricius,  Glassius.  Calmet, 
Dr.  Whitby,  Stosch,  Jer.  Jones,  Drs.  Edwards,  Lardner,  and 
Macknight,  Purver,  Archbishop  Newcome,  Bishop  Tomline 
(whose  words  are  adopted  by  Bishop  Mant  and  Dr.  D'Oyly), 
and  Bishop  Middleton.  A  third  opinion  is  that  of  Dr.  Ben- 
son, which  is  acceded  to  by  Dr.  Clarke,  viz.  that  Saint  Paul 
refers  to  an  Epistle  which  he  had  written,  or  begun  to  write, 
but  had  not  sent ;  for,  on  receiving  further  information  from 
Stephanas,  Fortunatus,  and  Achaicus,  he  suppressed  that, 
and  wrote  this,  in  which  he  considers  the  subject  more  at 
large.  The  weight  of  evidence,  however,  is  most  decidedly 
in  favour  of  the  opinion,  that  the  apostle  wrote  only  the  two 
epistles  now  extant,  which  bear  his  name.'° 

On  the  undesigned  coincidences  between  this  Epistle  and 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  see  Dr.  Paley's  Horaj  Paulinas, 
Chap.  111.17 


SECTION  V. 


ON   THE   SECOND   EPISTLE   TO  THE   CORINTHIANS. 

I.  Date  and  luhere  -written, — II.  Occasion  of  this  Epistle. — 
III.  Scope. — IV.  Synopsis. — V.  Observations  on  this  Epis- 
tle.— VI.  A  supposed  chronological  difficulty  elucidated. 

I.  The  preceding  Epistle,  we  have  seen,  was  written 
from  Ephesus  about  the  year  57,  before  Saint  Paul's  de- 
parture from  that  city.  On  quitting  Ephesus  he  went  to 
froas,  which  place  was  situated  on  the  shore  of  the  .ZEgean 

'  Michaelis,  vol.  iv.  p.  42.  Paley's  Ilorrc  Paulince,  p.  96.  Mill,  Whitby, 
Michaelis,  Benson,  and  almost  all  modern  commentators  and  critics,  agree 
in  the  above  date. 

«  Lardner's  Works,  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  36. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  297. 

t  Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  74,  75. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  318,  319. 

8  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  91.  94. ;  4to.  vol.  I.  pp.  327.  329. 

9  Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  p.  140.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  .355. 
10  Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  p.  163. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  868. 
'«  Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  p.  185.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  380. 
>5  Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  p.  222. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  401. 
"  Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  p.  263. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  423. 

'«  Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  374,  37.5. :  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  482,  483. 

15  Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  p.  471. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  535. 

"  See  this  subject  discussed,  supra,  vol.  I.  pp.  57,  58. 

'■>  Lardner's  Works,  Svo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  314,  315.  ;   4to.  vol.   iii.  ^,.  , 

Michaelis,  vol.  iv.  pp.  42—62.  68,  69. ;  Hug's  Introduction,  vol.  ii.  pp.  368— 
385. ;  RosenmUller,  Scholia,  torn.  iv.  pp.  1 — 7.  Whitby's  and  Macknight'a 
Prefaces;  Bloch,  Chronotaxis,  Scriptorum  Pauli,  pp.  160—172.  Calmet, 
Preface  sur  la  premiere  Epitre  de  Saint  Paul  aux  Corinthiens. 


336 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  YI.  Chap.  III. 


sea,  in  expectation  of  mnetinCT  Titus,  and  receiving  an  ac- 
count of  the  success  with  wiiich  (he  hoped)  his  former 
Epistle  had  been  attended,  and  of  the  present  state  of  the 
Corinthian  church.  (2  Cor.  ii.  12.)  But  not  meeting  him 
there  (13.),  Paul  proceeded  to  Macedonia,  where  he  obtairied 
the  desired  interview,  and  received  satisfactory  information 
concerning  the  promisintj  state  of  affairs  at  Ojrinth.  (vii.  5,  G.) 
From  this  country,  and  probably  from  Philipoi  (as  the  sub- 
scription imports),  the  apostle  wrote  the  second  letter  (2  Cor. 
viii.  1 — 14.  ix.  1 — 5.);  which  he  sent  by  Titus  and  his  as- 
sociates, who  were  commissioned  to  hasten  and  finish  the 
contribution  among  the  ('iirislians  at  Corinth,  for  the  use  of 
their  poor  brethren  in  Judisea.  (ix.  2 — 4.)  From  these  histo- 
rical circumstances,  it  is  generally  agreed  that  this  Epistle 
was  written  within  a  year  after  the  former,  that  is,  early  in 
X.  D.  53.,  and  according  to  Dr.  Bloch,  at  Beroea.  The  ge- 
nuineness of  this  Epistle  was  never  doubted ;  and  as  it  is 
cited  or  referred  to  by  nearly  the  same  ancient  writers,  whose 
testimonies  to  the  first  Epistle  we  have  given  in  the  pre- 
ceding section,  it  is  not  necessary  to  repeat  them  in  this 
place. 

II.  The  first  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  produced  very  dif- 
ferent effects  among  them.  Many  amencled  their  conduct, 
most  of  them  showed  strong  marks  of  repentance,  and 
evinced  such  respect  for  the  apostle,  that  they  excommuni- 
cated the  incestuous  person  (2  Cor.  ii.  5 — 11.  vii.  11.);  re- 
quested the  apostle's  return  with  tears  (vii.  7.") ;  and  became 
zealous  for  him, — that  is,  they  vindicated  tlie  apostle  and 
his  olUce  against  the  false  teacher  and  his  adherents,  f  vii. 
7 — 11.)  Others,  however,  of  the  Corinthians,  adhered  to 
the  false  teacher,  expressly  denied  his  apostolical  niinistry, 
and  even  furnished  themselves  with  arguments  which  they 
pretended  to  draw  from  his  first  Epistle.  He  had  formerly 
intimated  his  intention  of  taking  a  journey  from  Ephesus  to 
Corinth,  thence  to  visit  the  Macedonian  churches,  and  from 
them  to  return  to  Corinth  (2  Cor.  i.  15,  16.)  ;  but  the  unhappy 
state  of  the  Corinthian  church  led  him  to  alter  his  intention, 
since  lie  found  he  must  have  treated  them  with  severity,  had 
he  visited  them.  (23.)  Hence  his  adversaries  charged  him, 
1.  With  levily  and  irresolution  of  conduct  (2  Cor.  i.  18.),  and, 
therefore,  he  could  not  be  a  prophet;  2.  With  pride  and  ty- 
rannical severity  on  account  of  his  treatment  of  the  incestuous 
person ;  3.  W'ith  arrogance  and  vain-glory  in  his  ministry, 
therein  lessening  the  authority  of  the  law ;  and,  4.  With 
being  personally  contemptible,  intimating,  that  however 
weigiity  he  might  be  in  his  letters,  yet  in  person  he  was 
base  and  despicable.  (2  Cor.  x,  10.)  Such  were  the  jjirin- 
cipal  circumstances  that  gave  occasion  to  this  second  Epis- 
tle to  the  Corinthians,  to  which  we  may  add  their  forward- 
ness in  the  contribution  for  the  poor  saints  in  Judasa,  and 
their  kind  and  benevolent  reception  of  Titus. 

III.  Agreeably  to  these  circumstances  the  Scope  of  this 
Epistle  is  chiefly,  1.  To  account  for  his  not  having  come  to 
them  so  soon  as  he  had  promised,  viz.  not  out  of  levity,  but 
partly  in  consequence  of  his  sufferings  in  Asia,  which  pre- 
vented him  (2  Cor.  i.  8. 11.),  and  partly  that  he  might  give 
tiiern  more  time  to  set  their  churcn  in  better  order,  so  that 
he  might  come  to  them  with  greater  comfort,  (ii.  3,  4.)  2. 
To  declare  that  his  sentence  against  the  incestuous  person 
was  neitiier  ritjid  nor  tyrannical  (ii.  5 — 11.),  but  necessary 
and  pious  ;  and  now,  as  excommunication  had  produced  so 
pood  an  effect  upon  that  offender,  the  apostle,  commending 
the  obedience  of  the  Corinthians,  exhorts  them  to  absolve 
him  from  that  sentence  and  to  restore  him  to  communion 
with  the  church.  3.  To  intimate  his  great  success  in  preach- 
ing the  Goupcl,  which  he  does,  not  for  his  own  glory,  but  for 
the  glory  of  the  Gospel,  which  had  peculiar  efficacy  upon 
the  Corinthiiins  above  others  (2  Cor.  iii.),  and  far  surpassed 
the  ministry  of  Moses  (iv.),  and  was  under  a  veil  only  to 
those  who  were  perishing.  In  preaching  which  Gospel  he 
used  all  diligence  and  faithfulness,  notwithstanding  all  his 
afflictions  for  the  Gospel;  which  afflictions,  far  from  re- 
flecting disgrace  upon  the  Gospel,  or  its  ministers,  pre))arcd 
for  him  a  far  greater  glory  in  heaven  (v.),  to  which  he 
aspired,  inviting  others  to  do  the  same,  by  accepting  tlie 
grace  of  reconciliation  tendered  in  the  Gospel.  4.  'lu  stir 
them  up  to  had  a  holy  life,  and  particularly  to  avoid  com- 
munion with  idolaters,  5.  To  excite  them  to  finish  their  con- 
tributions for  their  poor  brethren  in  Judxa.  (viii.  ix.)  G. 
Lastly,  to  apologize  for  himself  against  the  personal  con- 
templibleness  imputed  to  him  by  the  false  teacher  and  his 
adherents,  (x. — xiii.)  In  the  course  of  this  apology,  he 
icjiroves  their  vain-glory,  and  enters  upon  a  high  commenda- 


tion of  his  apostolic  ofllice  and  power,  and  his  extraordinary 
revelations,  which  far  outshone  the  counterfeit  glory  of  the 
fidse  teacher;  but  at  the  same  time  declares  that  he  had  rathei 
use  meekness  than  exert  his  power,  unless  he  should  be 
forced  to  do  it  by  their  contumacy  and  impenitence.' 

IV.  This  Epistle  consists  of  three  pans;  viz. 

Part  I.   The  IntroduKtion.  (i.  1,2.) 

Part  II.  Tite  .apologetic  Discourse  of  St.  Paul,  in  which, 
Sect.  1.  He  justifies  himself  from  the  imputations  of  the  false 
teacher  and  his  adherents,  by  showing  his  sincerity  and  in- 
tegrity in  the  discharge  of  his  ministry  ;  and  that  he  acteu 
not  from  worldly  intcrc^rt,  but  from  true  love  for  them,  and 
a  tender  concern  for  their  spiritual  welfare,  (i.  3—24. 
ii. — vii.) 
Sect.  2.  He  cxhort.s  them  to  a  liberal  contribution  for  their 

poor  brethren  in  Jud.Ta.  (viii.  ix.) 
Sect.  3.  He  resumes  his  apology  ;  justifying  himself  from  the 
charges  and  insinuations  of  the   fiilsc  teacher  and  his  fol- 
lowers ;  in  order  to  detach  the  Corinthians  from  them,  and 
to  re-establish  himself  and  his  authority,  (x. — xiii.  10.) 

Part  III.   The  Conclusion.' [ym.  11—14.) 

V.  "The  most  remarkable  circumstance  in  this  Epistle 
is,  the  confidence  of  the  apostle  in  the  goodness  of  his  cause, 
and  in  the  power  of  God  to  bear  him  out  in  it.  Op})osed  as 
he  then  was  by  a  powerful  and  sagacious  party,  whose  au- 
thority, reputation,  and  interest  were  deeply  concerned,  and 
who  were  ready  to  seize  on  every  thing  tliat  could  discredit 
him,  it  is  wonderful  to  hear  him  so  firmly  insi-st  upon  his 
apostolical  authority,  and  so  unreservedly  appeal  to  the 
miraculous  powers  which  he  had  exerciseci  and  conferred  at 
Corinth.  So  far  from  shrinking  from  the  contest,  as  afraid 
of  some  discovery  being  made,  unfavourable  to  himself  or  to 
the  common  cause,  he,  with  great  modesty  and  meekness 
indeed,  but  with  equal  boldness  and  decision,  expressly 
declares  that  his  opposers  and  despiscrs  were  the  ministera 
of  Satan,  and  menaces  them  with  miraculous  judgments, 
when  as  many  of  their  deluded  hearers  had  been  brought  to 
repentance,  and  re-established  in  the  faith,  as  proper  means 
could  in  a  reasonable  time  effect.  It  is  inconceivaule  that  a 
stronger  internal  testimony,  not  oid}'^  of  integrity,  but  of 
divine  inspiration,  can  exist.  Had  there  been  any  thing  of 
imposture  among  the  Christians,  it  was  next  to  impossible, 
but  such  a  conduct  must  have  occasioned  a  disclosure  of  it."2 

Of  the  effects  produced  by  this  second  Epistle,  we  have 
no  circumstantial  account ;  ior  Saint  Luke  has  only  briefly 
noticed  (in  Acts  xx.  2,  3.)  Saint  Paul's  second  journey  to 
Corinth,  after  he  had  written  tliis  Epistle.  We  know,  how- 
ever, that  he  was  there,  and  that  the  contributioiis  were 
brought  to  him  in  that  city  for  the  poor  brethren  at  Jeru- 
salem (Rom.  XV.  2G.) ;  and  that,  staying  tliere  several  months, 
he  sent  salutations  from  some  of  the  principal  members  of 
that  church  to  the  Romans,  (xvi.  22,  23.)  "  From  this  time 
we  hear  no  more  of  the  false  teacher  and  his  l)arty;  and 
w-hen  Clement  of  Rome  wrote  his  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians, 
Saint  Paul  was  considered  by  them  as  a  divine  apostle,  to 
whose  authority  he  might  appeal  without  fear  of  contradic- 
tion. The  false  teacher,  therefore,  must  cither  have  been 
silenced  by  Saint  Paul,  in  virtue  of  his  apostolical  powers, 
and  by  an  act  of  severity  which  he  had  threatened  (2  Cor. 
xiii.  2,  3.) ;  or  this  adversary  of  the  apostle  must  have 
(juitted  the  place.  Whichever  was  the  cause,  the  effect  pro- 
auced  must  operate  as  a  confirmation  of  our  faith,  and  as  a 
proof  of  Saint  Paul's  divine  mission."' 

VI.  A  considerable  chronological  difficulty  occurs  in  2  Cor* 
xii.  14.  and  xiii.  1,  2.,  in  which  passages  the  anostlo  mentions 
his  design  of  visiting  Corinth  a  third  time;  wliereas  only  one 
visit  before  the  date  of  this  Epistle  is  noticed  in  the  Acts 
(xviii.  1.),  about  a.  n.  51,  and  the  next  time  that  he  visited 
Greece  (xx.  2.),  about  a.  d.  57,  no  mention  is  made  of  his 
going  to  Corinth.  And,  indeed,  for  the  reasons  already 
stated,  he  purposely  avoided  that  city.  It  has  been  con- 
jectured by  Grotius,  and  l)rs.  Hammond  and  Paley,  that  his 
first  Epistle  virtually  supplied  the  place  of  his  presence,  and 
that  it  is  so  represented  by  the  apostle  in  a  corresponding 
passage.  (I  Cor.  v.  3.)  Admitting  this  solution  to  be  proba- 
ule,  it  is,  liowever,  far-fetched,  and  is  not  satisfactory  as  8 

>  Roberts's  Clavis  nililioniin,  p.  7M.  Tlic  various  cinolions,  wliicll  evi- 
(Icntly  nKitatcd  Ihc  minil  of  Si.  I'aul  when  wriliiie  tliis  epistio,  iinil  also  hi« 
clepanco  o(  diction,  powers  of  prrHunsion,  and  force  of  ni-KHiiienl,  arc  aU 
aJiiiiral.ly  disciused  and  illuslralod  by  M.  Koyaards,  In  his  l)iRputatio  Inaii 
giiralis  do  allfin\  Pnuli  ail  C'orliithios  Epislola,  cl  obKcr\aiid:\  m  illiii  apo* 
toll  indole  cl  orntione.  8vo.    Trajectl  ad  Rhcnui/i.  lh^l-<. 

»  Scoi'.'i  Prof.  10  1  Cor.  •  Micluiclis,  vol.  iv.  p.  74. 


Sect.  VI.] 


ON  THE  EPISTLE  TO  THE  GALATIANS. 


337 


matter  of  fact.  Michaelis  has  produced  another,  more  sim- 
ple and  natural,  viz.  that  Paul,  on  his  return  from  Crete, 
visited  Corinth  a  second  time  before  he  went  to  \yinter  at 
Nicopolis.  This  second  visit  is  unnoticed  in  the  Acts, 
because  the  voyage  itself  is  unnoticed. •  The  Ihird  visit 
promised  in  2  Cor.  xii.  14.  and  xiii.  1,  2.  was  actually  paid 
on  the  apostle's  second  return  to  Rome,  when  he  took 
Corinth  in  his  way.  (2  Tim.  iv.  20.)  "  Thus  critically  does 
the  book  of  the  Acts  harmonize,  even  in  its  omissions,  with 
the  Epistles:  and  these  with  each  other,  in  the  minute  in- 
cidental circumstance  of  the  third  visit."^ 

On  the  undesigned  coincidences  between  this  Epistle  and 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  see  Dr.  Paley's  Horaj  Paulinse, 
Chap.  IV.3 


SECTION  VI. 

ON  THE  EPISTLE  TO  THE  GALATIANS. 

I.  J\''utice.  of  the  Christian  church  in  Galatia. — II.  Date. — III. 
Genuineness  and  authenticity  of  this  Epistle. — IV,  Its  occa- 
iio7i,  and  scope. — V.  Synopsis  of  its  contents. — VI.  Obser- 
vations on  this  Epistle, 

I.  Christianity  was  very  early  planted  in  Galatia  by 
Paul  himself,''  and  it  appears  from  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles 
that  he  visited  the  churches  in  this  country  more  than  once. 
Two  distinct  visits  are  clearly  marked,  viz.  the  first  about  the 
year  50  (Acts  xvi.  6.),  and  the  second  about  the  year  51  or 
65.  (xviii.  23.) 

II.  There  is  great  diversity  of  opinion  amonor  learned  men 
concernitig-  the  date  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Galalians.  Wein- 
gart  supposes  it  to  have  been  written  so  early  as  the  year  48  ; 
Michaelis,  in  49 ;  Cappel,  in  51;  Bishop  Pearson,  in  57; 
Mill,  Fabricius,  Moldenhawer,  and  others,  in  58  ;  Van  Til 
and  Dr.  Doddridge,  in  53  ;  Hottinger,  in  54 ;  Lord  Barrington, 
Drs.  Benson  and  Lardner,  in  53  ;  Beausobre,  Rosenmuller, 
and  Dr.  A.  Clarke,  in  52  or  53 ;  Bishop  Tomline,  in  52. 
Theodoret,  who  is  followed  by  Dr.  Lightfoot  and  some 
others,  imagine  that  it  was  one  of  those  Epistles  which  Saint 
Paul  wrote  from  Rome  during  his  first  confinement ;  but  this 
opinion  is  contradicted  by  the  apostle's  silence  concerning  his 
bonds,  which  he  has  often  mentioned  in  the  letters  that  are 
known  to  have  been  written  at  that  time. 

It  is  evident  that  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians  was  written 
early,  because  he  complains  in  it  of  their  speedy  apostasy 
from  his  doctrine,  (Gal.  i.  G.),  and  warns  them  in  the  strong- 
est and  most  forcible  terms  against  the  judaizing  teachers, 
who  disturbed  the  peace  of  the  churches  in  Syria  and  Asia 
Minor,  (i.  7 — 9.  iii.  1.)  The  warmth  of  the  apostle's  ex- 
pressions led  Tertullian  to  conclude  that  Saint  Paul  was  him- 
self a  neophyte  or  novice  in  the  Christian  faith  at  the  time  of 
writing  this  Epistle.^  And  as  no  intimation  i?  given  through 
the  whole  of  it  that  he  had  been  with  them  more  than  once, 
we  are  authorized  to  conclude,  that  he  wrote  this  letter  from 
Corinth  about  the  end  of  52,  or  early  in  the  year  63.  The 
subscription,  indeed,  states  it  to  have  been  written  from 
Rome  :  but  this  is  evidently  spurious,  for  Saint  Paul's  first 
journey  to  Rome  did  not  take  place  until  at  least  ten  years 
after  the  conversion  of  the  Galatians. 

III.  The  genuineness  of  this  Epistle  was  never  doubted. 
It  is  cited  by  the  apostolic  fathers,  Clement  of  Rome,^  Her- 
mas,"  Ignatius,8  and  Polycarp  ;9  and  is  declared  to  be  authen- 
tic by  Irenaeus,'"  Clement  of  Alexandria,"  Tertullian,'2Caius,'2 
Origen,"  and  by  all  subsequent  writers.     It  is  worthy  of 

>  Michaelis,  vol.  iv.  p.  37. 

a  Dr.  Hales's  Chronology,  vol.  ii.  book  ii.  p.  1123. 

3  Calinet,  Preface  snr  la  seconde  Epitre  aux  Corinthiens.  Lardner's 
Works,  8vo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  324,  325. ;  4lo.  vol.  iii.  p.  296.  RosenmilUer,  Scho- 
lia in  N.  T.  torn.  iv.  pp.  251, 252. ;  Bloch,  Chronotaxis  Scriptorum  Pauli,  pp. 
192—203. ;  Hu^'s  Introduction,  vol.  ii.  pp.  335—392.  Michaelis,  vol.  iv.  pp. 
W— 75.    Whitby's  and  Macknight's  Prefaces  to  2 Corinthians. 

*  Compare  Gal.  i.  8.  11.  iii.  i.  et  seq. 
»  Cont.  Maicion,  lib.  i.  c.  20. 

•  Lardner's  Works,  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  37.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  298. 
1  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  57. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  309. 

8  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  76. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  319. 

»  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  95. ;  4to.  vol.  I.  p.  330. 
10  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  163,  161. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  363. 
««  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  223. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  401. 
«»  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  204. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  423. 
»  Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  p.  374. ;  4to.  vol.  i  p.  482. 
i«  Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  p.  471. ;  4to.  vul.  i.  p.  535.  ■ 

Vol.  II.  2  U 


remark,  that  this  Epistle  was  acknowledged  to  be  genuine  by 
the  heretic  Marcion,  who  reckoned  it  the  earliest'vvritten  of 
all  Saint  Paul's  Letters,  and  accordingly  placed  it  first  in  his 
Apostolicon,  or  Collection  of  Apostolical  Writino-s.'^ 

IV.  The  Churches  in  Galatia,  as  in  most  other  countries, 
were  composed  partly  of  converted  Jews  and  partly  of  Gen- 
tile converts,  but  the  latter  seem  to  have  been  most  nume- 
rous. It  appears  from  the  contents  of  this  Epistle,  that,  not 
long  after  the  Galatians  had  embraced  Christianity,  a  certain 
judaizing  teacher  or  false  apostle  had  either  crept  in  or  risen 
up  among  them,  who,  to  advance  his  own  doctrine,  que.s- 
tioned  Saint  Paul's  apostolical  authority,  insinuating  that 
Peter  and  the  apostles  of  the  circumcision  were  supel-ior  to 
him,  and  consequently  much  more  to  be  regarded.  It  was 
further  insinuated  that  they  never  preached  against  the  cir- 
cumcision of  Gentile  converts  :  but  that  it  was  a  doctrine  pecu- 
liar to  Paul,  who  was  only  an  apostle  of  men,  and  had  not 
such  extraordinary  powers  and  illumination  as  had  been  con- 
ferred on  the  other  apostles.  The  false  teacher  seems  even 
to  have  intimated,  that  Saint  Paul  did  himself  secretly,  and 
at  some  times,  preach  the  necessity  of  circumcision  to  the 
Gentile  converts ;  though  generally,  and  at  other  times,  he 
insisted  on  the  contrary.  In  short,  the  false  apostle  was  de- 
sirous that  all  Gentile  Christians  should  submit  themselves 
to  circumcision,  and  consequently  oblige  themselves  to  ob- 
serve the  whole  law  of  Moses,  as  if  the  Gospel  of  Jesus 
Christ  alone  were  insufficient  to  justify  and  save  them.  And 
so  successful  was  this  teacher  in  propagating  this  error,  that 
some  of  the  Galatians  actually  suomitted  to  oe  circumcised. 
(Gal.  v.  2 — 12.)  From  the  expression  of  Saint  Paul  in  Gal. 
V.  9 — 10.,  it  is  probable  that  this  disturbance  in  theGalatian 
churches  was  made  by  one  judaizing  teacher  only,  and  not 
by  several  zealots,  as  some  commentators  have  supposed ; 
and,  from  what  is  said  in  vi.  12,  13.,  it  appears  that  he  was 
a  man  of  immoral  character,  who  acted  not  from  any  reli- 
gious views  or  motives,  but  from  vain-glory  and  fear ;  that 
he  might  conciliate  the  favour  of  the  Jews  by  increasing  the 
number  of  proselytes,  and  so  eseape  the  persecutions  raised 
by  the  unbelieving  Jews  against  Saint  Paul,  and  those  who 
adhered  to  his  doctrines. 

Such  were  the  circumstances  that  occasioned  Saint  Paul 
to  write  this  Epistle  with  his  own  hand  (Gal.  vi.  11.),  con- 
trary to  his  usual  practice  of  dictating  his  letters.  Accord- 
ingly, its  Scope  is,  to  assert  his  apostolical  character  and 
authority,  and  the  doctrine  which  he  taught,  and  to  confirm 
the  Galatian  churches  in  the  faith  of  Christ,  especially  with 
respect  to  the  important  point  of  justification  by  faith  alone; 
to  expose  the  errors  which  had  been  disseminated  among 
them,  by  demonstrating  to  them  the  true  nature  and  use  ot 
the  moral  and  ceremonial  law ;  and  to  revive  those  prin- 
ciples of  Christianity  which  he  had  taught  when  he  first 
preached  the  Gospel  to  them. 

V.  The  Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  therefore,  consists  of 
three  parts,  viz. 

Part  I.   The  Introduction,  (i.  1 — 5.) 

Part  II.   The  Discussion  of  the  Subjects  which  had  occasioned 
this  Epistle :  in  which 

Sect.  1.  is  a  vindication  of  Saint  Paul's  apostolical  doctrine 
and  authority,  and  shows  that  he  was  neither  a  missionary 
from  the  church  at  Jerusalem,  nor  a  disciple  of  the  apostles, 
but  an  immediate  apostle  of  Christ  himself,  by  divine  reve- 
lation ;  consequently  that  he  was  in  no  respect  inferior  to 
Saint  Peter  himself,  (i.  6 — 24.  ii.) 

Sect.  2.  The  apostle  disputes  against  the  advocates  for  cir- 
cumcision and  the  observance  of  the  law  of  Moses,  and 
shows, 

§  i.  That  justifiration  is  by  faith  in  Christ,  and  not  by  the  works  of  the 
Mosaic  law.  (iii.  1— IS.) 

§  ii.  That  the  design  of  God  in  giving  the  law  was,  not  to  justifjr  but  to 
convince  of  sin,  as  well  as  to  restrain  from  the  commission  of  it;  and 
that  being  intended  only  for  a  temporary  institution,  instead  of  vacat- 
ing the  promise,  it  was  designed  to  be  subservient  to  it,  by  showing 
the  necessity  of  a  better  righteousness  than  that  of  the  law,  and  so  to 
lead  convinced  souls  to  Christ;  that,  being  jastified  by  faith  in  hiui, 
they  might  obtain  the  benefit  of  the  promise,  (m.  19—24.)  Such  bemg 
the  end  and  design  of  the  law,  the  apostle  infers  from  it,  that  now. 
under  the  Gospel,' we  are  freed  from  the  law  (25—29.) ;  and  illustrates 
his  inference  by  God's  treatment  of  the  .lewish  church,  which  he 
put  under  the  law,  as  a  father  puts  a  minor  under  a  guardian,  (iv. 
1-7.) 

Sect.  3.  shows  the  great  weakness  and  folly  of  the  Galatians 
in  going  about  to  subject  themselves  to  the  law,  and  that 

«s  Epiphanius,  Heeres.  42. 


n38 


ANALYSIS  OF'tHE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Paut  VI.  Cm  p.  Ill 


by  submitting  to  circumcision  they  became  subject  to  the 
whole  law,  and  «\->uld  forfeit  the  benefits  of  the  covenant  of 
grace,  (iv.  8—21.  v.  1—9.) 

Sect.  4.  contains  various  instructions  and  exhortations  for 
Christian  behaviour,  and  particularly  concerning  a  right 
use  uf  their  Christain  freedom,  (v.  10 — lO.  vi.  1 — 10.) 

Part  III.  The  Ccnclusion,  tchich  is  a  ^um;/tary  of  the  Topics 
disctisaed  in  this  Epistle,  terminates  with  an  Apostolical  Bene- 
diction,    (vi.  11 — 18.) 

VI.  Although  the  subject  discussed  in  tlie  Epistle  to  the 
(Jalalians  is  the  same  that  is  treated  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Ro- 
mans, viz.  the  doctrine  of  ju^t'Jicafion  by  faith  alone,  yet  the 
two  Enistles  diiVer  materially  in  tliis  respect.  The  Epistle  to 
the  Galalians  (which  was  first  w.'-itlcn)  was  dositrned  to  prove 
against  the  Jews,  tliat  men  are  justified  by  faith  without  the 
works  of  the  law  (f  Moses,^  which  recjui red  perfect  obedience 
to  all  its  precepts,  moral  and  ceremonial,  under  the  penalty  of 
the  curse,  from  which  the  atonements  and  purifications  pre- 
scribed by  Moses  had  no  power  to  deliver  the  sinner.  On  the 
contrary,  in  his  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  Saint  Paul  treats  cf 
justification  on  a  more  enlarged  plan ;  his  design  being  to 
ji.'ove  against  both  Jews  and  CJentiles,  that  neither  the  one  nor 
I  he  other  can  be  justified  meritoriously  by  performing  works 
uf  law, — that  is,  the  works  enjoined  by  the  law  of  God, 
which  is  written  on  men's  hearts  ;  but  that  all  must  be  just:  ■ 
lied  gratuitously  by  faith  through  the  obedience  of  Christ. 
The  two  Epistles,  therefore,  taken  together,  form  a  complete 
))roof,  that  justification  is  not  to  be  obtained  meritoriousl)', 
eitlitr  by  works  of  morality,  or  by  rites  and  ceremonies,  though 
of  divine  appointment;  but  that  it  is  a  free  gift,  proceeding 
entirely  from  the  mercy  of  God,  to  those  who  arc  i[ualified  by 
laith  to  receive  it.^ 

This  Epistle  is  written  with  great  energy  and  force  of  l?ir.- 
guagp,  and  at  the  same  time  aflords  a  fine  instance  of  !Sai;it 
Panl's  skill  in  managing  an  argument.  The  chief  objection, 
winch  the  advocate  or  advocates  for  the  Mosaic  law  had 
urged  against  him,  was,  that  he  preached  circumcision.  In 
the  beginning  of  the  Epistle  he  overturns  this  slander  by  a 
statement  of  facts,  without  taking  any  express  notice  of  it ; 
but  at  the  end  he  fully  refutes  it,  that  he  might  leave  a  strong 
and  lasting  impression  upon  their  min<ls. 

Though  the  erroneous  doctrines  of  the  judaizing  teacher 
and  his  loUowers,  as  well  as  the  calumnies  which  they  spread 
for  the  purpose  of  discrediting  him  as  an  apostle,  doubtless 
occasioned  great  uneasiness  of  mind  to  him  and  to  the  faith- 
ful in  that  age,  and  did  considerable  injury  among  the  Gala- 
tians,  at  least  for  some  time :  yet,  ultimately,  these  evils 
lave  proved  of  no  small  service  to  the  church  in  general. 
Tor,  by  obliging  the  apostle  to  produce  the  evidences  of  his 
npostleship,  ana  to  relate  the  history  of  his  life,  especially 
•after  his  conversion,  we  have  obtained  the  fullest  assurance 
that  he  really  was  an  apostle,  called  to  be  an  apostle  by  Jesus 
''hrist  himself,  and  acknowledged  to  be  such  by  those  who 
were  apostles  before  him  ;  consequently,  we  arc  assured  that 
our  faith  in  the  doctrines  of  the  Gospel  as  taught  by  him 
(and  it  is  he  who  has  taught  the  peculiar  doctrines  of  tin- 
Gospel  most  fully)  is  not  built  on  the  credit  of  men,  but  on 
the  authority  of  the  iSpirit  of  God,  by  whom  Saint  Paul  was 
inspired  in  the  whole  of  the  doctrine  which  he  has  delivered 
to  the  world. 

As  this  letter  was  directed  to  the  churches  of  Galatia,  Dr. 
Mackniuht  is  of  opinion,  that  it  was  to  be  read  publicly  in 
them  all.  He  thinks,  that  it  was  in  the  first  instance  sent 
by  Titus  to  the  brethren  in  Ancyra,  the  chief  city  of  Galatia, 
w  ith  an  order  to  them  to  communicate  it  to  the  other  churches, 
ii)  llie  same  manner  as  tin;  first  Kpistle  to  the  Thessalonians 
was  appointed  to  be  read  to  all  the  brethren  in  that  city,  and 
m  the  province  of  Macedonia.-' 

Ua  the  undesigned  coincidences  between  this  Epistle  and 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  see  Dr.  Paley'a  Ilorin  Paulinn-, 
Chap.  V.'     In  critically  studying  this  Epistle, 


l^nisth 
ance' will  be  obtained  from  Dr".  Blooirtiield's  R 
lica,  vol.  vii,  pp.  311 — 5U9. 


much  assiht- 
ecensio  Synop- 


>  Compare,  nmoni?  other  paasajtCB,  Onl.  ill.  2,  3.  5.  iv.  21.  v.  1—1. 

«  Dr.  Mackiiiglii'ti  rrcfacc  lo  the  Epiille  to  the  Galalians,  acct.  3. 

'  Ihi.l. 

*  Calinct,  Prrftro  siir  rRi)Ure  mix  Oalnto^.  Roscmiitillfr,  Scholia  in  N. 
T.  toiii.  iv.  |.p.  :)01— :KiC.  ;  llloch,  Ctirofioia.xis  Si-rijiloruio  I'liMli,  jip  131  — 
l.">3. 1  l.anliicr'8  Worics,  Svo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  3U5 — 314. ;  4lo.  vol.  iji.  pu.  2S7— 
201. ;  Wliid.y'g  Preface ;  Ilug'g  Introduction,  vol.  ii.  pp.  301—^67. ;  MicUac- 
lis.  voL  iv.  p;x  H—'-U 


SECTION  VII. 

ON    THE    EPISTLE    TO    THE    EPHESIANS. 

I.  Arcovvt  of  the  clun-ch  at  Ephestti. — II.  Genninenefs  and 
authenticity  of  this  E/iistle,  -u'ldck  wft*  addressed  to  the 
Ephesians,  and  not  to  the  church  at  Luodicca. — III.  J)ate, — 
IV.  Occasion  and  scope. — V.  Synopsis  of  its  contents. — 
VI.  Observations  on  its  style. 

I.  Chulstiamty  was  first  planted  in  this  city  by  Saint  Paul, 
about  A.  D.  51,  when  he  reasoned  with  the  Jews  in  their  sy- 
nagogues for  tlie  space  of  three  months ;  he  did  not,  however, 
continue  long  there  at  that  time,  but  hastened  to  keep  the  feast 
at  Jerusalem,  promising  to  return  again  to  his  hearers.  (Acts 
xviii.  19 — ai.)  Accordingly  he  came  to  Ephesus  early  the 
following  year  (Acts  xix.  1.  et  serj.),and  preached  the  word 
witli  such  success,  and  performed  such  extraordinary  miracles 
among  them,  that  a  numerous  church  was  formed  there,  cliir  fly 
compos.d  of  Gentile  converts;  whose  piety  and  zeal  Wfie 
so  remarkable,  that  many  of  them,  in  abhorrence  of  the  curious 
arts  which  they  had  used,  burnt  their  magical  books,  to  a  great 
value,  (xix.  I'J.)  And  such  was  the  apostle's  concern  for  their 
spiritual  welfare,  that  he  did  not  leave  them  until  a.  n.  56, 
when  ho  had  been  about  three  years  among  them.  (xx.  31.) 
After  this  he  spent  some  time  in  Macedonia  and  Achaia; 
and  on  his  return  to  Jerusalem  (a.  d.  57)  he  sent  for  the  elders 
of  the  Ephesian  church  to  meet  him  at  Miletus.  There  he 
took  an  allectionate  leave  of  them,  as  one  that  should  see 
them  no  nmre  ,■  ai)pealing  to  them  with  what  fidelity  he  had 
discharged  his  ministry  among  tliem,  and  exhorting  them  to 
"take  heed  unto  themselves,  and  unto  the  flock"  committed 
to  their  care,  lest  they  should  be  corrupted  by  seducing 
teachers  who  would  rise  among  them,  and  artfully  endeavour 
to  jiervert  them.  (xx.  17 — 38.) 

II.  The  apostle  Paul  is  universally  admitted  to  be  the  author 
of  the  Epistle  to  the  Eidiesians.  It  is  expressly  cited  as  his 
production  by  Ignatius,^'  who  has  not  fewer  than  seven  dis- 
tinct allusions  to  it;'^  and  as  he  was  contemporary  with  Saint 
Paul,  his  testimony  alone  is  sufticient  to  determine  its  genu- 
ineness. This  Epistle  is  likewise  alluded  to  by  Polycarp,' 
and  is  cited  by  name  by  Irena.nis,8  Clement  of  Alexandria,- 
Tertullian,'o  Origen,"  and  by  all  subsequent  writers  without 
exception.  Most  of  the  ancient  manuscripts,  and  all  the  an- 
cient versions,  have  the  words  iv  E^js-*,  "  at  Ephesus,"  in  the 
first  verse  of  this  Epistle,  which  is  an  evident  proof  that  the 
Epistle  was  written  to  the  Ephesians.  But  Grotius,  Mill, 
Wetstein,  Vitringa,  Venema,  lienson,  Paley,  and  other  learn- 
ed men,  have  doiiljted  or  denied  that  this  lOpistle  was  written 
lo  the  Ephesians,  and  have  argued  that  it  must  have  been 
written  to  the  Laodiceans.  They  rest  this  opinion,  first,  en 
the  assertion  of  Marcion,  a  heretic  of  the  second  centur)', 
who  affirmed  the  same  thing,  but  his  testimony  is  of  no 
weight;  for  Marcion  altered  and  interpolated  the  writings  of 
the  New  Testament,  to  make  them  favourable  to  his  senti- 
ments, and  upon  this  very  account  he  is  censured  by  Tertul- 
lian  (a.  d.  200),  as  setting  up  an  interpolation  ol'  his  own 
with  regard  to  the  Epistle  in  ([uestion,  in  opposition  to  the 
li-ue  iestimonij  of  the  church.'''  They  further  apjieal  to  a 
passage  in  Uasil's  second  book  against  Eunoinius,  in  which 
he  thus  cites  Eph.  i.  1.  "  And  writing  to  the  Ephesians,  as 
truly  united  to  him  '  who  is'  through  luiowledge,  he  called 
them  in  a  peculiar  sense  'such  who  are,' saying;  'to  the 
saints  who  are'  (or  even)  '  to  the  faithful  in  ChHst  Jesus.' 
For  so  those  before  us  have  transmitted  it,  and  we  have 
found  it  in  ancient  copies."'^  From  the  concluding  sentence 
of  thi.s  quotation  it  is  inferred  that  certain  manuscripts,  which 
liasil  had  seen,  omitted  the  words  tv  Kpsjoi,  "  at  Ephesus." 
Michaelis,  however,  has  shown  at  considerable  length,  that 
the  omission  of  the  word  w(tu  "  who  are,"  was  the  subject 
of  Basil's  implied  censure,  as  being  hostile  to  the  inference 
he  wished  to  deduce,  and  not  the  omission  of  the  words  » 
hftj-*.  And,  as  this  father,  in  another  passage  of  his  writings, 

'  Lanlner,  8vo.  vol.  li.  p.  70. ;  410.  vol.  i.  n.  31C. 

•  Iblil.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  78. ;  Uo.  vol.  i.  p.  3.U 
'  Ibiil.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  95. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  .'fW. 

•  Ilil.l.  Hvo.  vol.  ii.  p.  lf.n. ;   Ito.  vol.  i.  p.  Z(A. 
'  Il.id.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  p.  va:). ;  4lo.  vol.  I.  p.  -101. 

■0  Il.ld.  fivo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  •X<.l,  ■X\.  ;  Ito.  vol.  i.  p.  423. 
"  lliid.  Kvo.  vol.  il.  p.  472  ;  4lo.  vol.  i.  p.  KJ6. 
"  Iltid.  8vo.  vol.  li.  pp.  ■JiV.i,  201. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  423. 

•>  Seo  the  original  pnH.sa«u  in  I.nnlnor.Svo.  vol.  iv.  p. 401.;  4tO.  vol.  ii.  p. 
4C0. ;  01  in  Micliaolis,  vol.  Iv.  jip.  14'.J~146. 


Sect.  VIL] 


ON  THE  EPISTLE  TO  THE  EPHESIANS. 


339 


expressli/  dies  the  Epistle  to  the  l5|)hesians'  without  any 
hesitation,  it  is  evident  that  in  his  lime  (the  latter  part  of 
the  fourth  century)  this  Epistle  was  not  considered  as  being- 
addressed  to  the  Laodiceans. 

Thirdly,  it  is  contended  that  there  are  no  allusions  in  this 
Epistle  to  St.  Paul's  havintr  resided  among  the  persons  to 
wnom  it  is  addressed;  and  that  the  expressions  in  Eph.  i.  15. 
iii.  2.  and  iv.  21.  appear  to  be  more  suitable  to  persons  whom 
he  had  never  seen  (which  was  the  case  of  the  Christians  at 
Laodicea),  than  to  the  Ephesians,  among  whom  he  had  re- 
sided about  three  years.  (Acts  xx.  31.)    But  these  passages 
admit  of  easy  and  satisfactory  interpretations,  which  directly 
refute  this  hypothesis.  It  will  be  recollected  that  four  or  five 
years  had  elapsed  since  Saint  Paul  had  quitted  Ephesus :  he 
might,  therefore,  with  great  propriety,  express  (in  i.  15.)  his 
complacency  on  hearing  that  they  continued  steadfast  in  the 
faith,  notwithstanding  the  various  temptations  to  which  they 
were  exposed.     Again,  the  expression  in  iii.  2.  {uyi  >ikoutu.<ti 
mv  cMcvo/xixv)  which  many  translate  and  understand  to  mean, 
if  ye  have  heard  of  the  dispensation, — more  correctly  means, 
smce  ye  have  heard  the  dispensation  of  the  grace  of  God,  which 
had  been  made  known  to  them  by  Saint  Paul  himself.  Con- 
sequently this  verse  affords  no  countenance  to  the  hypothesis 
above  mentioned.  The  same  remark  applies  to  iv.  21.,  where 
a  similar  construction  occurs,  which  ought  in  like  manner  to 
be  rendered,  si7ice  iyideed  ye  have  lt,eard  him,  &c.     But  most 
stress  has  been  laid  upon  the  direction  given  by  Saint  Paul 
in  Col.  iv.  16. — that  the  Colossians  shoiild  "cause  the  Epis- 
tle which  he  wrote  to  them  to  be  read  also  in  the  church  of 
the   Laodiceans,  and   that  they  should   likewise   read  the 
Epistle  from  Laodicea;" — which  (it  is  contended)  affords  a 
plain  proof  that  the  Epistle,  in  our  copies  inscribed  to  the 
Ephesians,  must  be  that  which  is  intended  in  Col.  iv.  10., 
and  consequently  was  originally  written  to  the  Laodiceans. 
But  this  conclusion  does  not  necessarily  follow :  for  it  is 
most  probable,  that  by  "  tlie  Epistle  from  Laodicea,''''  Saint 
Paul  meant  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians,  a  copy  of  which 
was  sent  by  the  apostle's  directions  to  the  Laodiceans,  whose 
city  lay  between   Ephesus  and   Colosse ;  and,  as  it  was 
within  the  circuit  oi  the  Ephesian  church  (which  was  the 
metropolitan  of  all  Asia,  as  Ephesus  was  the  chief  city  of 
proconsular  Asia),  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians,  as  already 
remarked  ,2  may  refer  to  the  whole  province. 

Michaelis,  Haenlein,  Hug,  and  Cellerier,  after  Archbishop 
Usher  and  Bengel,  get  rid  of  all  the  difficulties  attending  this 
question,  bj"-  supposing  the  Epistle  to  have  been  encyclical  or 
circular,  and  addressed  to  the  Ephesians,  Laodiceans,  and 
some  other  churches  in  Asia  Minor.  But  it  could  hardly  be 
circular  in  the  sense  in  which  Michaelis  understands  that 
term :  for  he  supposes  that  the  different  copies  transmitted 
by  Saint  Paul  had  a  E^is-ai,  at  Ephesus,  sv  AdLci:K.-M,  at  Laodicea, 
&c.  as  occasion  required,  and  tliat  the  reason  why  all  our 
manuscripts  read  »  E<j)Kra)  is,  that  when  the  books  of  the  New 
Testament  were  first  collected,  the  copy  used  was  obtained 
from  Ephesus ;  but  this.  Bishop  Middleton  observes,  seems 
to  imply— what  cannot  be  proved — that  the  canon  was  esta- 
blished by  authority,  and  that  all  copies  of  this  Epistle,  not 
agreeing  with  the  approved  edition,  were  suppressed. 

Dr.  Macknight  is  of  opinion,  that  Saint  Paul  sent  the 
Ephesians  word  by  Tychicus,  who  carried  their  letter,  to 
send  a  copjf  of  it  to  the  Laodiceans,  with  an  order  to  them  to 
communicate  it  to  the  Colossians.  This  hypothesis  will 
account,  as  well  as  that  of  Michaelis,  for  the  want  of  those 
marks  of  personal  acquaintance  which  the  apostle's  former 
residence  might  lead  us  to  expect,  and  on  which  so  much 
stress  has  been  laid :  for  every  thing  local  would  be  pur- 
posely omitted  in  an  Epistle  which  had  a  further  destination. 
The  reader  will  adopt  which  of  these  hypotheses  he  may 
deem  the  best  supported  :  we  think  the  solution  last  stated, 
the  most  natural  and  probable;  and  that,  when  the  united 
testimonies  of  manuscripts,  and  all  the  fathers,  with  the  ex- 
cpjjtion  of  Basil,  are  taken  into  consideration,  we  are  fully  jus- 
tified in  regarding  this  Epistle  as  written  to  the  Ephesians.^ 

«  I.ardner.  8vo.  vol.  iv.  p.  404.  ;  4to.  vol.  ii.  p.  407. 

»  See  Vol.  I.  p.  58. 

3  Stosch,  de  Epislolis  Anostoloruin  non  deperditis,  p.  101.  et  scq.  Calmet, 
Preface  sur  I'Epitre  au.v  Ephesiens;  RosenniuUer  and  Koppe  in  their  re- 
spective Prolegomena  to  this  epistle.  Michaelis,  vol.  iv.  pp.  128—146. 
Lardner's  Works,  8vo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  416—456. ;  4ro.  vol.  iii.  pp.  342—362. 
Macknight  on  Col.  iv.  16.  Cellerier,  Introd.  au  Nouv.  Test.  p.  42.3.  Hug's 
Introd.  vol.  ii.  pp.  4'25 — 433.  Bishop  Middleton  on  the  Greek  Article,  pp. 
508 — 518.  (fir."5t  edit.),  who  observes,  that  if  ever  lliere  were  an  epistle  from 
Saint  Paul  to  the  Laodiceans,  it  is  lost ;  for  that  which  is  extant  in  Fabri- 
cius  and  in  Mr.  Jones'.s  work  on  the  canon  (and  of  which  we  have  given  a 
translation  in  Appendix  I  to  Vol.  I.  Sect.  11.)  is  universally  admitted  to  be 
a  forgery ;  yet  the  loss  of  a  canonical  writing  is  of  all  suppositions  the 
most  improbable. 


in.  The  subscription  to  this  Epistle  states,  that  it  was 
written  from  Rome,  and  sent  to  the  Ephesians  by  Tychicus, 
who  was  also  the  bearer  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians, 
the  similarity  of  which  in  style  and  subject  shows  that  it  was 
written  at  the  same  time.  That  this  Epistle  was  written 
during  Saint  Paul's  first  imprisonment  at  Rome,  is  evident 
from  Its  allusions  to  his  confinement  (iii.  1.  iv.  1.  vi,  20.); 
and  as  he  does  not  express  in  it  any  hopes  of  a  speedy  re- 
lease (which  he  does  in  his  other  Epistles  sent  from  that 
city),  we  conclude  with  Dr.  Lardner,  Bishop  Tomline,  and 
others,  that  it  was  written  during  the  early  part  of  Saint 
Paul's  imprisonment,  and  probably  in  the  year  61,  soon  aftf'f 
he  arrived  at  Rome. 

IV".  As  Saint  Paul  was,  in  a  peculiar  manner,  the  apostle 
of  the  Gentiles,  and  was  now  a  prisoner  at  Rome  in  con- 
sequence of  his  having  provoked  the  Jews,  by  asserting  that 
the  observance  of  the  Mosaic  law  was  not  necessary  to  obtain 
the  favour  of  God,  he  was  apprehensive  lest  advantage  should 
be  taken  of  his  confinement  to  unsettle  the  minds  of  his 
Ephesian  converts,  who  were  almost  wholly  Gentiles.  Hear- 
ing, however,  that  they  stood  firm  in  the  faith  of  Christ,  he 
wrote  this  Epistle  in  order  to  establish  them  in  that  faith,  and 
to  give  them  more  exalted  views  of  the  love  of  God,  and 
of  the  excellency  and  dignity  of  Christ;  and  at  the  same 
time  to  fortify  their  minds  against  the  scandal  of  the  cross. 
With  this  view,  he  shows  them  that  they  were  saved  by 
grace ;  and  that,  however  wretched  they  once  were,  now  they 
had  equal  privileges  with  the  Jews.  He  then  proceeds  to 
encourage  them  to  persevere  in  their  Christian  calling,  by 
declaring  with  what  steadfastness  he  suffered  for  the  truth, 
and  with  what  earnestness  he  prayed  for  their  establishment 
and  continuance  in  it ;  and  urges  them  to  walk  in  a  manner 
becoming  their  profession,  in  the  faithful  discharge  both  of 
the  general  and  common  duties  of  religion,  and  of  flie  special 
duties  of  particular  relations. 

V.  In  this  Epistle  we  may  observe  the  following  par- 
ticulars, besides  the  inscription  (i.  1,  2.) ;  viz. 

Part   I.     The  Doctrine  pathetically  explained,  which    con- 
tains. 

Sect.  1.  Praise  to  God  for  the  whole  Gospel-blessing  (i.  3 — 
14.),  with  thanksgiving  and  prayer  for  the  sahits.  (i.  15 — 
23.  ii.  1—10.) 

Sect.  2.  A  more  particular  admonition  concerning  their  once 
wretched  but  now  happy  condition,  (ii.  1 1 — 22.) 

Sect.  3.  A  prayer  for  their  establishment,  (iii.) 

Part  II.   The  Exhortation. 

Sect.  1.  General,  to  walk  worthy  of  their  calling,  agreeable  to 

(1.)  The  unity  of  the  Spirit,  and  the  diversify  of  his  gifts,  (iv.  1— I'J.) 
(2.)   The  difference  -between  their   former   and   present   state,    (iv, 
17—24.) 

Sect.  2.  Particular. 

(1.)  To  avoid  lyini,  anger,  theft,  and  other  sins  (iv.  23—31.  v.  1—21.),  with 
a  coniiiiendutioii  of  the  opposite  virtues. 

(2.)  To  a  faithful  discharge  of  the  relative  duties  of  wives  and  husband! 
(v.  22 — 23.),  of  riiildron  and  parents  (vi.  1—4.),  and  of  masters  and  ser- 
vants, (vi.  5 — 9.) 

Sect.  3.  Final. — To  war  the  spiritual  warfare,  (vi.  10 — 20.) 

Part  III.   The  Conclusion,  (vi.  21—24.) 

VI.  The  style  of  this  Epistle  is  exceedingly  animated, 
and  corresponds  with  the  state  of  the  apostle's  mind  at  the 
time  of  writing.  Overjoyed  with  the  account  -which  their 
messenger  had  brought  him  of  their  faith  and  holiness  (i,  15.\ 
and  transported  witli  the  consideration  of  the  unsearchable 
wisdom  of  God,  displayed  in  the  work  of  man's  redemption, 
and  of  his  astonishing  love  towards  the  Gentiles  in  making 
them  partakers,  through  faith,  of  all  the  benefits  of  Christ's 
death,  he  soars  high  in  his  sentiments  on  these  grand  sub- 
jects, and  gives  his  thoughts  utterance  in  sublime  and  copious 
expressions.  Many  of  them  contain  happy  allusions  to  the 
temple  and  statue  of  Diana  at  Ephesus.  "  iVo  real  Chris- 
tian," says  Dr.  Macknight,  "  can  read  the  doctrinal  part  of 
the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians,  without  being  impressed  and 
roused  by  it,  as  by  the  sound  of  a  trumpet."-' 

On  the  undesigned  coincidences  between  this  Epistle  and 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  see  Dr.  Paley's  floras  Paulina;, 
Chap.  VI. 

P'or  a  table  of  the  corresponding  passages  in  this  Epistle, 
and  in  that  of  the  Colossians,  see  page  34.  infra. 

*  Preface  to  EpheBJans,  sect.  6. 


340 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  VI.  CnAP.  HI 


SECTION  VIII. 

O.N  TIIE  EPISTLE  TO  THE  PHILIPPIANS. 

I.  Account  of  the  church  at  Philippi. — II.  Date. — III. 
«on.— IV.  Scope  mid  synopsis  of  its  contents. 


Occa- 


I.  Christianity  was  first  planted  at  Philippi,  in  Mace- 
Jonia,  by  Saint  Paul,  a.  d.  50,  the  particulars  of  which  are 
roli'.tpd  in  Acts  xvi.  9 — 10. ;  and  it  appears  from  Acts  xx.  6. 
that  he  visited  thcni  airain  a.  d.  57,  thonjrh  no  particulars  are 
recorded  concerninir  tliat  visit.  Of  all  tiu;  ciiuiches  planted 
by  Saint  Paul,  that  at  Philippi  seems  to  have  cherished  the 
most  tender  concern  for  him ;  and  thoujrh  it  appears  to  have 
been  but  a  small  community,  yet  its  members  were  particu- 
larly generous  towards  him.  For  when  the  Gospel  was 
first  preached  in  Macedonia,  no  other  church  contributed  any 
thincr  to  his  support,  except  the  Philippians  ;  who,  while  he 
was  preacliinif  at  Thessalonica,  the  motropolis  of  that  coun- 
try, sent  him  money  twice,  that  the  success  of  the  Gospel 
might  not  be  hindered  by  its  preachers  becoming  burden- 
some to  the  Thessalonians.  (Piiil.  iv.  15,  IG.)  The  same 
attention  they  showed  to  the  apostle,  and  for  the  same  rea- 
son, while  he  preached  the  Gospel  at  Corinth.  (-2  Cor.  xi.  9.) 
And  when  they  heard  that  .Saint  Paul  was  under  confine- 
ment at  Rome,  they  manifested  a  similar  afiectionate  con- 
cern for  him  ;  and  sent  Epaphroditus  to  him  with  a  present, 
lest  he  sl/ould  want  necessaries  during  his  imprisonment. 
(ii.  25.  iv.  10.  1 1—18.) 

II.  It  appears  from  Saint  Paul's  own  words,  tliat  this 
Epistle  was  written  while  he  was  a  prisoner  at  Rome  (i.  7. 
13.  iv.  22.) ;  and  from  the  expectation  which  he  discovers, 
of  being  soon  released  and  restored  to  them,'  as  well  as  from 
the  intimations  contained  in  this  letter  (i.  12.  ii.  2G.),  that  he 
bad  then  been  a  considerable  time  at  Rome,  it  is  prol)able 
that  he  wrote  the  Epistle  to  the  Philippians  towards  the  close 
of  his  first  imprisonment,  at  the  cncl  of  a.  d.  C2,  or  perhaps 
at  the  commencement  of  63.  The  genuineness  of  this  letter 
was  never  questioned. 

III.  The  more  immediate  occasion  of  the  Epistle  to  the 
Philippians  was  the  return  of  Epajjhroditns,  one  of  tlieir  pas- 
tors, by  whom  Paul  scut  it,  as  a  grateful  acknowledgment 
of  their  kindness  in  sending  him  supplies  of  money.  From 
the  manner  in  whicli  Paul  expressed  himself  on  this  occa- 
sion, it  appears  that  he  was  in  great  want  of  necessaries  be- 
fore their  contributions  arrived ;  for  as  he  had  not  converted 
the  Romans,  he  did  not  consider  himself  as  entitled  to  receive 
supplies  from  them.  Being  a  prisoner,  he  could  not  work 
as  lormerly;  and  it  was  his  rule  never  to  receive  any  thing 
from  the  churches  where  factions  had  i)een  raised  against 
him.  It  also  appears  that  the  Philippians  were  the  only 
cliurch  from  whom  lie  received  any  assistance,  and  that  he 
conferred  this  honour  upon  them,  because  they  loved  him  ex- 
ceedingly, had  preserved  the  Christian  doctrine  in  purity,  and 
had  always  conducted  themselves  as  sincere  Christians. 

IV.  The  scope  of  this  Epistle,  tiierefore,  is  to  confirm  the 
Philippians  in  tlie  faiih,  to  encourage  them  to  walk  in  a  man- 
ner becoming  the  Gospel  of  Christ,  to  caution  them  against 
the  intrusion  of  judaizing  teachers,  and  to  testify  his  gratitude 
for  their  Christian  bounty. 

Accordingly,  after  a  short  introduction  (i.  1,  2.),  he  pro- 
ceeds, 

Skct.  1.  To  cxprcsfi  his  gratitude  to  God  for  their  conlinuinij 
steadfast  in  the  faith,  ami  prnys  that  it  may  continuo  (i.  3 — 
II.);  and,  lest  they  should  be  discourafjcd  by  the  tidin<^!) 
of  his  imprisonment,  he  informs  tliem  that  his  sulTerinjj.s 
and  conrmenicut,  so  far  from  impeding  the  progress  of  the 
Gospel,  had  "  rather  fulh'n  out  to  its  furtherance ;"  and 
assures  them  of  his  readinejis  to  live  or  die,  rus  should  bo 
most  for  their  welfare  and  the  glory  of  God.  (12 — 20.)' 

Bkct.  2.  He  then  exhorts  them,  in  a  strain  of  the  mo.st  sub- 
lime and  pathetic  eloquence,  to  maintain  a  conduct  worthy 
of  the  Gospel,  and  to  the  practice  of  mutual  lovo  and  can- 
dour, enforced  by  the  highest  of  all  examples, — that  uf  Jesus 

M.  Ocilcr,  In  a  projfrainmn  puhlished  In  1731,  rnntended  th»t  this  Epl»- 
tlr>\«aii  wriltrn  al  a  much  cnrlier  prrlwl  nt  CoriMlli,  ami  shortly  Bllcr  ihc 
plaiiring  of  the  church  at  Ptiilippi:  thin  h/p<>th'-Ki<i  ws<i  i-xaiiiliieil  and  re- 
I'.il'-'l  by  WiilfiiiH  in  hln  Cm  a*  PhiluloKicm,  vnl.  ill  pp.  IW,  et  leq.  ami  '/!\. 
tt  irq     In  ITW  thr  celi-brnteil  I'ri)ff  Hmir  PaiihM  piihhHhrd  n  prDcromiriii, 

d^iTviiipiire  HcripiT  priDfis  ml  Tiiiiolhi'iiiii  ntipK'  n  '  1'  ■  ' •  •     ''■     ■    i  • 

ratillnn-;  in  wliirh  he  «>ni.l<'nvoiir«  to  sliow  that  it  v 
bi  1 1113  hy|><ilhi-si<i  lias  l)Tn  rrfufcil  liy  Hi'inrlcliH  ill  '  1, 

■—  ■»  VrrHcii  l.V-H  are  a  p:\rpnthesis,  thou^Ii  not  so  iuaiKtiii  lu  wiy  cdiltuns 
or  traujb'.iuns  which  wc  have  accu. 


Christ ;  and  to  work  out  their  own  salvation  with  fear  and 
trembling,  lliat  he  may  rejoice  in  the  day  of  Christ  on  their 
account  (i.  21 — 30.  ii.  1 — 17.)  ;  and  promises  to  send 
Timothy  and  Epaphroditus,  of  whom  he  makes  a  very 
affectionate  mention.  (19 — 30.) 

Sect.  3.  He  solemnly  cautions  them  against  judaizing  teach- 
ers, -ivho  preached  Christ  through  envy  and  strife,  (iii. 
iv.  1.) 

Sect.  4.  After  some  admonitions  to  particular  persons  (iv.  2, 
3.),  and  some  general  exhortations  to  Christian  cheerful- 
ness, moderation,  and  prayer  (4 — 7.),  he  proceeds  to  recom- 
mend virtue  in  the  most  extensive  sense,  mentioning  all  the 
dilfcrcnt  bases  on  which  it  had  been  placed  by  the  Grecian 
philosophers.  (8,  9.)  Towards  the  close  of  his  Epistle,  he 
makes  his  acknowledgments  to  the  Philippians  for  their  sea- 
sonable and  liberal  supply,  as  it  was  a  convincing  proof  of 
their  affection  for  him,  and  of  their  concern  for  the  support 
of  the  Gospel,  which  he  preferred  far  before  any  secular 
interest  of  his  own,  expressly  disclaiming  all  selfish  merce- 
nary views,  and  assuring  them,  with  a  noble  simplicity,  that 
he  was  able  upon  all  occasions  to  accommodate  his  temper 
to  his  circumstances ;  and  had  learned,  under  the  teach- 
ings of  divine  grace,  in  whatever  station  Providence  might 
see  fit  to  place  him,  therewith  to  be  content.  (10 — 18.) 
After  which  the  aposile,  having  encouraged  them  to  expect 
a  rich  suppl)^  of  all  their  wants  from  their  God  and  Father, 
to  whom  he  devoutly  ascribes  the  honour  of  all  (19.), 
concludes  with  salutations  from  himself  and  his  friends  at 
Rome  to  the  whole  church,  and  a  solemn  benediction. 
(21—23.) 

It  is  remarkable  that  the  Epistle  to  the  church  at  Philippi 
is  the  only  one,  of  all  Saint  Paul's  letters  to  the  churches,  m 
which  not  one  censure  is  expressed  or  implied  against  any  of 
its  members;  but,  on  the  contrary,  sentiments  of  umiuali- 
fied  commendation  and  confidence  pervade  ever^  part  ol  this 
Epistle.  Its  style  is  singularly  animated,  afiectionate,  and 
pleasing. 

On  the  undesigned  coincidences  between  this  Epistle  and 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  see  Dr.  Puley's  Horse  Paulina?, 
Chap.  VII.3 


SECTION  IX. 


ON  THE  EPISTLE  TO  THE  COLOSSIANS. 

I.  Account  of  the  church  at    Colossx. — II.  Date. — III.   Occa 
sion  of  this  Epistle. — IV.   Scope  and  analysis. 

I.  I3v  whom  or  at  what  time  Christianity  was  planted  at 
Colossre,'  we  have  no  certain  information.  Dr.  Lardner, 
Bishop  Tomline,  Boehmer,  and  others,  are  of  opinion  that  the 
church  at  Colosscc  was  founded  by  Paul;  and  tliey  ground 
tliis  opinion  principally  on  the  following  considerations;  viz. 

That  Paul  was  twice  in  Phrygia,  in  which  country  were 
the  cities  of  Cob  ssa;,  Laodicea,  and  Ilierapolis, — that  he 
does  in  effect  say  that  he  has  dispensed  the  Gospel  to  the 
Colossians  (i.  21 — 25.), — and  that  it  appears  from  the  terms 
of  affection  and  authority  discoverable  in  this  Epistle,  that  he 
did  not  address  them  as  strangers,  but  as  acquaintances, 
friends,  and  converts.  It  is  true  that  Paul  was  twice  in 
I'hrygia,  but  he  docs  not  seem  to  have  visited  tiie  three  cities 
above  mentioned  ;  for  his  route  lay  considerably  to  the  north- 
ward of  them,  from  Cilicia  and  Derbe  to  Lvstra,  and  thence 
through  Phrygia  and  Galatia  to  Mysia  and  Troas.  (Acts  xvi. 
G.)  And  in  his  second  tour  he  also  passed  through  Galatia 
and  Phrygia  to  Ephesus  and  Troas  (Acts  xviii.  23.),  and  so 
through  the  upper  parts,  or  northern  districts,  of  Asia  Minor, 
(xix.  1.)     That  Paul  did  nol  plant  the  church  at  Colossae,  is 

»  iroscninllllcr,  Scliolia  in  Nov.Tnst.  lorn.  Iv.  pp.  472—475. ;  Calinct,  Pre- 
Tnco  Niir  I'Kpitro  aiix  Pliilippicnsj  Michn<-lis'.-i  Iiitioilnction,  vol.  iv  pp.  Lllj 
—  V'Al  Iliyj'd  In'.rodiirlion,  Vdl.  il.  pp  485 — H7. ;  Lanltior'tt  Work.').  8vo. 
vmI.  vi.jip.  102— 1*)1.;  MncknijjhlV  Pn-fnco  Id  thia  ppistlo.     Iliil  the  riillrst 

vii'woflho  cpislle  to  the  I'hIlipplaiiH  will  he  foiinii  in   f( •■  '^■■ 

Araili'uiiciiin  Innucnriilo  do  CoiIuh  (.'hrisllaiioniiM  Phili]' 
priinii'va,  ex  cpi»t<>li  its  ob  npustulo  Puulo  BcriptA,  pra;ri 
hu;d.  Hut.  1S25.  8vo. 

«  In  Cnl.  I.  2.  Iiislcarl  of  ir  Xtkorrmf,  at  Colotaa,  the  Alexandrian,  Vntl- 

ran,  Codox  Ephrein,  and  s(«vcral  otlu-r  ancient  ninnunrripls,  rend  iv  Ko>.«(r. 

r-xi,  at  CMaa»(r\  or  ainonx  Ihc  Cub.i.sian.i.    Wjih  ihnn  ajsrce  the  Syriac, 

'■  ■  ■■  -,  niid  Sclavonic  vfrsions.  an  well  n.s  Origcn,  (Jri'dory  of  NysKa,  and 

oih'.T  lonriK'd  fmhiM.'i ;  Imt  a.'*  iho  coins  of  thm  cily  nre'stampnU 

'  'ilHNOi,  nnH  AHMOs;  KOAOLi;HNilN(Eckel,  Dorlrina  Numnioruin 
Vcir-rtiin,  par)  J  vol.  ill.  p.  96.),  CulosiMe  appears  to  be  Uio  mure  curreet 
ii.'mc. 


•■n 

1.0 

1.1. 


Sect.  X.] 


ON  THE  FIRST  EPISTLE  TO  THE  THESSALONIANS. 


341 


evident  from  his  own  declaration  in  ii.  1.  where  he  says  that 
neither  the  Colossians  nor  the  Laodiccans  had  then  "seen 
his  fdce  in  the  flesh."  But  thouo^h  Paul  had  never  been  in 
Colossae  when  he  wrote  this  Epistle,  yet  Christianity  had 
evidently  been  taught,  and  a  church  planted  there.  Rosen- 
m  iller  is  of  opinion,  that  the  Gospel  was  introduced  into  that 
city  by  Epaphras.  It  is  not  improbable  that  Epaphras,  who 
is  mentioned  in  i.  7.  iv.  12,  13.,  was  one  of  the  earliest 
•eachers  ;  but  it  does  not  necessarily  follow  that  he  was  the 
oerson  who  first  planted  Christianity  there.  Indeed,  it  is 
not  likely  that  the  Colossians  would  send  away  the  founder 
of  their  church  while  it  was  yet  in  an  infant  state.  As  it  ap- 
pears from  Acts  xix.  10.  that,  during  Paul's  residence  at 
Ephesus,  many  persons,  both  Jews  and  Greeks,  came  from 
various  parts  of  Asia  to  hear  the  Gospel,  Michaelis  supposes 
that  several  Colossians,  particularly  Philemon,  were  of  this 
number.  He  also  thinks  that  Timothy  might  have  taught 
thern  the  Christian  faith  ;  as  Paul  subjoins  his  name  to  his 
own  (i.  1.),  and  throughout  the  first  chapter  speaks  in  their 
joint  names,  except  where  the  subject  relates  to  his  own 
imprisonment,  and  where  Timothy  of  course  could  not  be 
included. 

II.  But  though  it  is  impossible  now  to  ascertain  the 
founder  of  the  church  at  Colossae,  the  Epistle  itself  furnishes 
us  with  a  guide  to  its  date.  In  Col.  iv.  3.  the  apostle  alludes 
to  his  imprisonment,  from  which  circumstance,  as  well  as 
from  its  close  affinity  to  the  Epistle  addressed  to  the  Ephe- 
sians,  it  is  evident  that  it  was  written  nearly  at  the  same 
time.  Accordingly  most  commentators  and  critics  refer  it  to 
the  year  G2.     Its  genuineness  was  never  disputed. 

III.  At  the  time  o/'  writing  this  Epistle,  Paul  was  "an 
ambassador  in  bonds,"  for  maintaining  the  freedom  of  the 
Gentile  converts  from  all  subjection  to  the  law  of  Moses. 

its  immediate  Occasion  was,  some  difficulties  that  had 
arisen  among  the  Colossians,  in  consequence  of  which  tliey 
sent  Epaphras  to  Rome,  to  acquaint  the  apostle  with  the 
state  of  their  affairs  ;  to  which  we  may  add  the  letter  (Col. 
iv.  IG.)  sent  to  him  by  the  Laodiceans,  who  seem  to  have 
written  to  him  concerning  the  errors  of  the  false  teachers,  and 
to  have  asked  his  advice.  Paul,  therefore,  replies  in  the 
present  Epistle,  which  he  sent  to  the  Colossians  as  being 
the  larger  church,  and  also  because  the  false  teachers  had 
probably  caused  greater  disturbances  among  the  Colossians; 
nut  desired  that  they  would  send  the  same  Epistle  to  the  Lao- 
diceans, and  ask  them  for  a  copy  of  their  letter  to  Paul,  in 
order  that  they  might  the  better  understand  his  answer. 

Who  the  false  teachers  were,  is  a  point  not  satisfactorily 
determined.  Michaelis  is  of  opinion  that  this  Epistle  was 
directed  against  the  tenets  and  practices  of  the  Essenes,  of 
which  sect  an  account  has  been  given  in  theearly  part  of  this 
volume.  But  it  is  more  probable  that  they  were  partly  super- 
stitious judaizing  teachers,  who  diligently  inculcated  not 
only  the  Mosaic  law,  but  also  the  absurd  notions  of  the  rab- 
bins, and  partial  converts  from  Gentilism  who  blended  Pla- 
tonic notions  with  the  doctrines  of  the  Gospel.  It  is  well 
known  that  the  Platonists  entertained  singular  ideas  concern- 
ing demons,  whom  they  represented  as  carrying  men's 
prayers  to  God,  from  whom  they  brought  back  the  blessings 
supplicated  ;  and  the  doctrines  of  the  Jews  concerning  angels 
were  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  the  Platonics  concerning  de- 
mons. It  appears  from  Col.  ii.  16 — 23.  that  the  false  teach- 
ers inculcated  the  worship  of  angels,  abstinence  from  animal 
food,  the  observance  of  the  Jewish  festivals,  new  moons  and 
Sabbaths,  the  mortification  of  the  body  by  long-continued 
fastings,  and,  in  short,  the  observance  of  the  Mosaic  ritual 
law,  as  absolutely  necessary  to  salvation. 

IV.  The  Scope  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians  is,  to  show 
that  all  hope  of  man's  redemption  is  founded  on  Christ  our 
Redeemer,  in  whom  alone  all  complete  fulness,  perfections, 
and  sufficiency,  are  centered :  to  caution  the  Colossians 
against  the  insinuations  of  judaizing  teachers,  and  also 
against  philosophical  speculations  ana  deceits,  and  human 
traditions,  as  inconsistent  with  Christ  and  his  fulness  for  our 
salvation  ;  and  to  excite  the  Colossians,  by  the  most  persua- 
sive argunients,  to  a  temper  and  conduct  worthy  of  their 
sacred  character.  The  Epistle,  therefore,  consists  of  two 
principal  parts  besides  the  introduction  and  conclusion. 

I,  After  a  short  inscription  or  introduction  (i.  1,  2.)  Paul 
iiegins  with  expressing  great  joy  for  the  f^ourable  character 
which  he  had  heard  of  them,  and  assures  them  that  he  daily 
prayed  for  their  further  improvement  (3 — 14.)  He  then  makes 
a  short  digression  in  order  to  describe  the  dignity  of  Jesus  Christ, 
^■ho,  he  declares,  created  all  things,  whether  thrones  or  dominions, 


principalities  or  powers, — that  he  alone  was  the  head  of  the 
church,  and  had  reconciled  men  to  the  Father.  (15 — 20.)  The 
inference  from  this  description  is  evident,  that  Jesus  was  superior 
to  angels ;  that  they  were  created  beings,  and  ought  not  to  be 
worshipped.  In  verse  21.  Paul  returns  from  this  digression  to 
the  sentiments  with  which  he  had  introduced  it  in  the  thirteenth 
and  fourteenth  verses ;  and  again  expresses  his  joy,  that  the 
Colossians  remained  faithful  to  the  Gospel,  which  was  to  be 
preached  to  the  Gentiles,  without  the  restraints  of  .the  ceremonial 
law.  From  this  view  of  the  excellency  of  Christ's  person,  and 
the  riches  of  his  grace,  the  apostle  takes  occasion  to  express  the 
cheerfulness  with  which  he  suffered  in  the  cause  of  the  Gospel, 
and  his  earnest  solicitude  to  fulfil  his  ministry  among  them  in 
the  most  successful  manner;  assuring  them  of  his  concern  for 
them  and  for  the  other  Christians  in  the  neighbourhood,  that 
they  might  be  established  in  tlleir  adherence  to  the  Christian 
faith,  (i.  21— 29.ii.  1—7.) 

II,  Having  given  these  general  exhortations,  he  proceeds 
directly  to  caution  them  against  the  vain  and  deceitful  philosophy 
of  the  new  teachers,  and  their  superstitious  adherence  to  the  law  ; 
shows  the  superiority  of  Christ  to  angels,  and  warns  Christians 
against  worshipping  them.  He  censures  the  observations  of 
Jewish  sabbaths  and  festivals,  and  cautions  the  Colossians  against 
those  corrupt  additions  wliich  some  were  attempting  to  introduce, 
especially  by  rigours  and  superstitions  of  their  own  devising, 
(ii.  8 — 23.)  To  these  doctrinal  instructions  succeed  precepts 
concerning  the  practical  duties  of  life,  especially  the  relative 
duties  of  husbands  and  wives,  parents  and  children,  servants  and 
masters,  (iii.  iv.  1 — 6.)  The  Epistle  concludes  with  matters 
chiefly  of  a  private  nature,  except  the  directions  for  reading  it  in 
the  church  of  Laodicca,  as  well  as  in  that  of  Colossje.  (iv.  7 — 18.) 
For  an  illustration  of  iv.  16.  see  Vol.  I.  p.  58. 

Whoever,  says  Michaelis,  would  understand  the  Epistles 
to  the  Ephesiaus  and  Colossians,  must  read  them  together. 
The  one  is  in  most  places  a  commentary  on  the  other ;  the 
meaning  of  single  passages  in  one  Epistle,  which,  if  con- 
sidered alone,  mignt  be  variously  interpreted,  being  deter- 
mined by  the  parallel  passages  in  the  other  f^pistle.  Yet, 
though  there  is  a  great  similarity,  the  Epistle  to  the  Colos- 
sians contains  many  things  which  are  not  to  be  found  in  that 
to  the  Ephesians;  especially  in  regard  to  the  worship  of 
ana-els,  and  many  single  points,  which  appear  to  be  Essene, 
and  might  prevail  at  Colossse.i 

The  following  Table  exhibits  the  corresponding  passages 
of  the  Epistles  to  the  Ephesians  and  Colossians. 

Ephesians.       Colossians.  Ep;iesians.  Cqlossian.s. 

Chap.].  1,2.    Chap.  i.  1,2.  Chap.  iv.  22— 25.   Chap.  iii.  9, 10. 

i.  6,  7.               i.  13.  iv.  17—21.              i.  21.  ii.6.  iii.8— It. 

i.  10.                 i.  19,  20.  iv.  29.                    iv.  6. 

i.  15,  16.            i.  3, 4.  iv.  32.                    iii.  12,  13. 

i.  17—21.           i.  9—15.  iv.  31.                     iii.  8. 

i.  22.  iii.  10, 11.  i.   16—18.  v.  5.                       iii.  5. 

i.   19.  ii.  1—5.    ii.  12,  13.  v.  6.                       iii.  6. 

ii.  1.                    i.  21.  v.  7,8.                   iii.  7,  8. 

ii.  1-3—16.           i.  20.  ii.  14.  v.  15,  16.                iv.  5. 

iii.  1.                   i.  24,  25.  v.  18-20.              iii.  16,  17. 

iii.  3,  &c.            i.  26—29.  v.  21— 23.vi.  1—9.  iii.  18—25.  iv.  1. 

iv.  2—4.              ii.  12—15.  vi.  18—20.              iv.  2—4. 

iv.  16.                  ii.  19.  -         vi.  21,  22.               iv.  7—9. 

On  the  undesigned  coincidences  between  this  Epistle  and 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  see  Dr.  Paley's  Horee  Paulinae, 
Chap.  VIII. 


SECTION  X. 

ON    THE    FIRST    EPISTLE    TO    THE    THESSALONIANS. 

I.  Accoxtnt  of  the  Christian  church  there. — II.  Genuineness 
of  this  Epistle.- — III,  Its  occasion  arid  scope — Synopsis  of 
its  contents. 

I.  Christianity  was  first  planted  at  Thessalonica  by 
Saint  Paul,  a.  d.  50,  who  formed  a  church,  composed  both 
of  Jews  and  Gentiles,  but  the  latter  were  most  numerous. 
(Acts  xvii.  2 — 4.)  The  unbelieving  Jews,  however,  having 
stirred  up  a  persecution  against  him  and  his  company,  they 
were  forced  to  flee  to  Bereea,  and  thence  to  Athens  (xvii.  5 
— 15.),  from  which  city  he  proceeded  to  Corinth.  Being 
thus  prevented  from  visiting  the  Thessalonians  again  as  he 

«  Boehmer,  I.=aKO£e  in  Epistolam  ad  Colosscn.ses  ;  Calm'^t,  Preface  sui 
I'Epitreales  Colossiens;  Michaelis's  Introdv^vol.  iv.  pp.  llfi— I'^l. ;  Hug's 
Introfl.  vol.  ii.  pp  433—435.;  Macknighl's  Preface;  Rosenniiiller,  Scholia, 
torn.  iv.  pp.  134— 136.  In  instituting  a  collation  of  these  two  epistles  the 
student  will  find  a  very  valuable  help  in  M.  Van  neinnielcns  Dissertatio, 
Exegetico-Critica,  de  epistolas  Pauli  ad  Ephesios  et  Colcssenses  inter  89 
collatis.  Svo.  Lugd.  Bat.  1S03. 


342 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  VI.  Chai-.  Ill 


had  intended  (1  Thess.  ii.  !7,  18.),  he  sent  Silas  and  Timo- 
thy to  visit  them  in  his  stead  (iii.  G.),  and,  on  their  return  to 
him  from  Macedonia  (Acts  xvii.  14,  15.  xviii.  5.),  he  wrote 
the  first  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians,  a.  «.  52,  from  Corintli, 
and  not  from  Atiiens,  as  tlie  spurious  subscription  to  this 
Epistle  imports.' 

II.  Tlie  first  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians  is  generally 
admitted  to  have  been  one  of  the  earliest  written,  if  indeed 
it  be  not  the  venj  first,''  of  all  Saint  Paul's  letters,  and  we 
find  that  he  was  anxious  that  it  should  be  read  to  all  the 
Christian  churches  in  Macedonia.  In  chap.  v.  27.  he  gis'cs 
the  following  command  : — I  nifjure  you  by  the  Lord  that  tlita 
Epistle  be  read  unto  nil  l/te  holy  hnlhren.     This  direction  is 


firoduction  (  .         .     . 

"lenient  of  Alexandria,^  Tcrtullian,«  Cams,'   Origen,^  and 
all  subsequent  ecclesiastical  writers. 

III.  The  immediate  occasion  uf  Paul's  writing  this  Epistle 
was,  the  favouralde  report  whicii  Timothy  had  brought  him 
of  the  steadfastness  of  the  Thessalonians  in  the  faith  of  the 
Gospel.  He  therefore  wrote  to  confirm  them  in  that  faith, 
lest  they  should  be  turned  aside  from  it  by  the  persecutions 
of  the  unbelieving  .lews,  and  also  to  excite  them  to  a  holy 
conversation,  becoming  the  dignity  of  their  high  and  holy 
calling.  This  epistle  consists  of  five  parts,  viz. 
Part  I.  The  Inscripliun.  (i.  1.) 
Fart  II.  celebrates  the  ^race  of  God  towards  the  Thessalonians, 

and  reminds  them  of  the  manner  In  which  the  Gospel  ivus 

preached  to  them.  (i.  2 — 10.  ii.  1 — IG. 
Part  III.   The  Jpostle  declares  his  desire  to  see  thtm,  together 

with  his  affectionate  solicitude  for  them,  and  his  prayer  fur 

them.  (ii.  17—20.  iii.)     In 
Part  IV'.  he  exhorts  them  to  s^row  in  holiness  (iv.  1 — 8.)  and 

in  brotherly  love,  with  Industry.  (9 — 12.) 
Part  V.  contains  exhortations  against  Immoderate  sorrow  for 

their  brethren,  who  had  departed  In  the  filth  ,-  togelh  r  with 

admonitions  enncernlng  the  coming  of  Christ  to  judgment. 

(iv.  13— 18.  V.  1—11.) 

The  Epistle  concludes  with  various  practical  advices  and 
instruction'',  (v.  12 — 28.) 

On  the  undesigned colncldenceshetween  this  Epistle  and  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles,  see  Dr.  Paley's  Horaj  Paulinje,  Chap. 

IX.9 


SECTION  XI. 


ON    THE    SECOND    EPISTLE    TO    THK    THESSALOMANS. 

I.  Date,  occasion,  and  scope  of  this  Epistle. — ^11.  .innli/slf  of 
its  contents. — III.  Obsei-.utioni  on  this  Epistk. 

I.  The  second  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians  was  evidently 
written  soon  after  the  first  (a.  d.  52),  and  from  the  same 
place;  for  Silvanus  or  Silas,  and  Timothy,  are  joined  to- 
gether with  the  apostle  in  the  inscri|)iion  of  this  Ej)isile  as 
well  as  that  of  the  former.  Tiie  Epistle  was  occasioned  by 
the  information  communicated  to  Paul  liy  tlie  person  who  had 
conveyed  his  first  letter  to  the  Thessalonians,  n'sptcting  tin- 
Stat!-  of  their  church.  Among  other  things  he  was  inform('d, 
from  some  expressions  in  it,i''  that  many  ol  them  expected  that 
the  day  of  judgment  would  happen  in  lliatage ;  and  that  such 

«  Grotiiis  has  conlr-ndcil  tlmt  the  fiml  Episillf:  to  tlin-Thpssalonlaiis  i.<i  in 
roalily  tin,-  snconil,  but  lie  liaa  not  MiipiKirli-U  Uiat  CDiijcMure  by  any  liisto- 
rical  <;\icJt;ilCC. 

»  Calni>!l,  nioch,  Dr.  Maclwiglil,  and  many  ollipr  nioilem  cridrs,  anrr 
'liryiKjHii.m  and  Tlifoilorct,  are  il'icidedly  of  opinion  tliat  this  is  the  ear- 
li'^nl  wrHlrii  of  all  *.  I'aiil'H  Eliisllen. 

»  Lardiior,  %vo.  vol  ii.  l>.  96. ;  4to.  vol.  I.  p.  330. 

•  IbJ.I.  i3vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  n;j. ;  4to.  vol.  I.  p.  .fcS.  " 

•  Iliiil.  Sva  vol.  ii  p.  2Si. ;  llo.  vol.  i.  p.  401 

•  Iliid.  Svn  vol.  ii.  p.  2f>l. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  ji.  4'-?l. 
">  Ilild   J»o.  vol.  ii.  p.  371.  ;  4lo.  vol.  i.  p.  i^i- 

•  Ibid.  Mvo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  &«.  Ki).  ;  \tn.  \«\.  i.  pp.  •'Cfi,  507. 

»  Culuiot,  Preface  Hur  la  premiere  Kpiirc  aux  Tbi^Hsjilonipng;  Itospn- 
mllller,  Hrholin.  torn,  iv.  pp.  (a5l,ft-fv».  ;  Ulocli,  t'hroniitaxiHHrhploriini  Puuli, 
np  99—109. ;  Mii-liacliK,  vol.  iv.  pp.  2t— 29.  ;  Hii^'h  Introduction,  vol.  Ii.  pp. 
319—3.72.  Hut  tlie  fullest  vic^y  of  ail  the  cirrunislanci-s  of  thin  rpigllc  Im 
eivpn  in  Hurgi-rlioiidi'H  Spi^cinicn  Arademicuni  Inaugurnle  de  Coi-iuH 
i'liristianorum  ThfHs;ilonici'nsi»  Orlu  KniiHuin",  t-t  prioriH  Pauli  iis  scripto.- 
Cpi.stolie  Consilio  et  ArKumento.  Lugd,  Xlat.  lt£^.  Svo. 
■*    ••  aec  I  TheBS.  iv.  15.  17.  v.  4. 6. 


of  them  as  thought  the  advent  of  Christ  and  the  end  of  the 
world  to  be  at  hand,  were  neglecting  their  secular  affairs,  as 
being  inconsistent  with  a  due  preparation  for  that  important 
and  awful  event.  As  soon,  therefore,  as  the  stale  of  the 
Thessalonians  was  made  known  to  Paul,  he  wrote  this  second 
Epistle,  to  correct  their  misapprehension,  to  rescue  them  from 
an  error  which  (appearing  to  rest  on  apostolical  authority) 
must  ultimately  be  injurious  to  the  spread  of  the  Gospel,  and 
to  recoinmend  several  Christian  duties. 

II.  After  a  short  introduction,  the  apostle  begins  with 
commending  the  faith  and  charity  of  the  Thessalonians,  of 
M'hich  he  had  heard  a  favourable  report.  He  expresses  his 
joy  on  account  of  the  patience  with  wliich  they  endured  per- 
secution ;  wiiich,  he  observes,  was  a  proof  of  a  righteous  judg 
ment  to  come,  where  their  persecutors  would  meet  with  theit 
proper  recompense,  and  the  ri^^hteous  be  delivered  out  of  all 
their  afflictions.  And  all  th  •.  (he  assures  them)  will  take 
place,  when  Jesus  Christ  returns  with  pomp  and  majesty  as 
universal  judge.  He  further  assures  them  of  his  constant 
prayers  for  their  further  irnp,ovcment,  in  order  that  they  may 
attain  the  felicity  nromi-sed.     (ch.  i.) 

He  then  proceeos  to  rectify  the  mistake  of  the  Thessalo- 
nians, who,  from  misunderstanding  a  passage  in  his  former 
letter,  believed  that  the  day  of  judgment  was  at  hand.  "The 
day  of  the  Lord,"  he  informs  them,  will  not  come  until  a 
great  apostasy  has  overspread  the  Chri.stian  world,  the  nature 
of  which  he  describes.  Symptoms  of  lliis  mystery  of  iniqui- 
ty had  thpn  appeared  :  but  the  apostle  expresses  his  thank- 
fulness to  God,  that  the  Thessalonians  had  escaped  this  cor- 
ruption ;  and  he  exhorts  them  to  steadfastness,  praying  that 
God  would  comfort  and  strengthen  them,  (ii.) 

He  next  requests  their  prayers  for  himself,  and  for  Silvanus 
and  Timothy,  his  two  assistants ;  at  the  same  time  express- 
ing his  confidence  that  they  would  pay  a  due  reg-ard  to  the 
instructions  he  liad  given  them.  And  he  proceeds  to  correct 
some  irregularities  that  had  crept  into  their  church.  Many 
of  the  Thessalonians  seem  to  have  led  an  idle  and  disorderly 
life  :  these  he  severely  reproves,  and  commands  the  faithful  to 
shun  their  company,  if  they  still  remained  incorrigible.  The 
apostle  conclucles  with  his  apostolical  benediction;  and  in- 
forms them  that  his  writing  the  salutation  with  his  own  hand 
was  a  token  of  the  genuineness  of  all  the  Epistles  which  he 
wrote. 

From  the  preceding  view  of  this  Epistle,  it  will  be  seen 
that  it  consists  of  five  parts,  viz. 

l.'The  Inscription,  (i.  1,2.) 

2.  Saint   Paul's  Thanksgiving    aiid    Prayer  for  them.  (i.  3— 

.3.  The  Rcctilication  of  their  Mistake  concerning  the  day  of  judg- 
ment and  the  doctrine  concerning  the  man  of  sin.  (ii.) 

4.  Various  advices  relative  to  Christian  virtues,  particularly 

i.  To  prayer,  with  a  prayer  for  the  Thessalonians.  (iii.  1 — 0.) 
ii.  To  correct  the  disorderly,  (iii.  't^\<i.) 

5.  The  Conclusion,  (iii.  17,  18.) 

III.  Although  the  second  Enistle  to  the  Thessalonians  is 
th(^  shortest  ol  all  Saint  Paul  s  letters  to  the  churches,  it 
is  not  inferior  to  any  of  them  in  the  sublimity  of  the  senti- 
ments, and  in  that  excellent  si)irit  by  which  all  the  writings 
of  this  apostle  are  so  emint'ntly  distinguished.  Besi<les  those 
marks  of  genuineness  and  authority  which  it  has  in  common 
with  the  rest  of  the  apostolical  lOpistles,  it  has  one  jiecuiiar 
to  itself,  in  the  exact  representation  it  contains  of  the  ])apal 
power,  under  the  characters  of  the  "  Man  of  Sin,"  and  the 
"  Mystery  of  Iniquity."  For,  considering  how  directly  oppo- 
site the  principles  here  described  were  to  the  genius  of  'Chris- 
tianity, It  must  have  appeared,  at  the  lime  when  this  Epistle 
was  written,  highly  improbable  to  all  human  apprehension 
that  they  should  ever  have  prevailed  in  the  Chrislian  church; 
and  consequently  a  prediction  like  tlii.>i,  whicli  answers  so 
exactly  in  every  partit^dar  to  the  event,  must  be  allowed  to 
carry  Us  own  evitlence  along  with  it,  and  to  prove  that  its 
author  wrote  under  divine  inlUience." 

On  the  unihslgncd  coincdenrcM  between  this  Epistle  and 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  sec  Dr.  Paley's  Horac  Paulina*, 
Chap.  X. 

«i  Dr.  Doddridjjo's  Inlrod.  fo  2TheRa.  Bloch,  Chronoiaxit  Scriptoruiii 
Pauli,  pp.  109— 11 J.  U»huct'8  Preface  Kiir  la  Kecoiidc  Kpilic  nux  TliessH- 
loniens;  IIufS'R  Introd.  vol.  ii.  |iii.  X>1,  .'C>l.  I-'or  a  full  illiiHlration  of  tho 
propln-cy  above  mculionr'd,  see  Hislirip  Newlon'H  Di.ssrrl.ilioriK,  vol.  ii  Disa. 
'J2.  Dr.  Kenson'g  DiKserlnlion  nn  the  Man  of  Siii  (Pariiphraiii'  on  1  anJ 
2Theii!i.  pp.  17J — 197.  <2d  edit.);  or  Dr«.  Mucknight  and  A.  Clarke  oa 
2TheM.  ii. 


Sect.  XII.l 


ON  THE  FIRST  EPISTLE  TO  TIMOTHY 
SECTION  XII. 


343 


ON  THE  FIRST  EPISTLE  TO  TIMOTHV. 

1,  Account  of  Timothy. — II.  Date  of  this  Epistle. — III.  Genu- 
ineness and  authenticity  of  the  tvjo  Epistles  to  Timothy. — IV. 
Scope  and  synopsis  of  the  first  Epistle. — V.  Observations  on 
the  use  -which  the  church  is  to  make  in  every  age  of  PaxiVs 
Epistles  to  Timothy  and  Titus. 

I.  Timothy,  to  whom  this  Epistle  was  addressed,  was  a 
native  of  Lystra,  a  city  of  L)'caonia,  in  Asia  Minor.  His 
father  was  a  Greek,  but  his  mother  was  a  Jewess  (Acts  xvi. 
1.),  and,  as  well  as  his  grandmother  Lo.s,  a  person  of  excel- 
lent character,  (fi  Tim.  i.  5.)  The  pious  care  they  took  of 
his  education  soon  appeared  to  have  the  desired  success;  for 
we  are  assured  by  Saint  Paul,  that  from  his  childhood,  Timo- 
thy was  well  acquainted  with  the  Holy  Scriptures.  (2  Tim. 
iii.  15.)  It  is  rsnerally  supposed  that  he  was  converted  to 
the  Christian  faith  during  the  first  visit  made  by  Paul  and 
Barnabas  to  Lystra.  (Acts  xiv.)  From  the  time  of  his  con- 
version, Timothy  made  such  proficiency  in  the  knowledge  of 
the  Gospel,  and  was  so  remarkable  for  the  sanctity  of  his 
manners,  as  Avell  as  for  his  zeal  in  the  cause  of  Christ,  that 
he  attracted  the  esteem  of  all  the  brethren  in  those  parts. 
Accordingly,  when  the  apostle  came  from  Antioch  in  Syria 
to  Lystra  the  second  time,  they  commended  Timothy  so 
highly  to  him,  that  Paul  selected  him  to  be  the  companion 
of  his  travels,  having  previously  circumcised  him  (Acts  xvi. 

2,  3.)  and  ordained  him  in  a  solemn  manner  by  imposition 
of  hands  (1  Tim.  iv.  14. ;  2  Tim.  i.  G.),  though  at  that  time 
he  probabh'  was  not  more  than  twenty  years  of  age.  (I  Tim. 
iv.  12.)  From  this  period,  frequent  mention  is  made  of  Ti- 
mothy, as  the  attendant  of  Paul  in  his  various  journeyinors, 
assisting  him  in  preaching  the  Gospel,  and  in  conveying  his 
instructions  to  the  churches.  "When  the  apostle  was  driven 
from  Thessalonica  and  Bereea  by  persecution,  he  left  Silas 
and  Timothy  there  to  strengthen  the  churches  in  the  faith. 
(Acts  xvii.  13,  14.)  Thence  they  went  to  Paul  at  Corinth 
(xviii.  5.),  and  from  Ephesus  he  again  sent  Timothy  to  Thes- 
salonica (Acts  xix.  22. ;  1  Thess.  iii.  2,  3.)  to  comfort  the 
believers  under  their  tribulations  and  persecutions.  Timothy 
returning  to  the  apostle,  next  accompanied  him  into  Asia 
(^Acts  XX.  4.),  and  was  left  at  Ephesus  (1  Tim.  i.  3,  4.)  to 
instruct  the  church  in  that  city,  the  care  of  which  was  con- 
fided to  Timothy.  How  long  he  governed  the  Ephesian 
church  is  not  known  ;  and  we  are  equally  uncertain  as  to  the 
time  of  his  death.  An  ecclesiastical  tradition  relates  that  he 
suffered  martyrdom,  being  slain  with  stones  and  clubs,  a.  d. 
97,  while  he  was  preaching  ag-ainst  idolatry  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus.  His  supposed  relics 
were  translated  to  Constantinople,  with  great  pomp,  a.  d. 
356,  in  the  reign  of  Constantius. 

W.  The  date  of  this  Epistle  has  been  much  disputed. 
Dr.  Lardner  refers  it  to  the  year  56  ;  Dr.  Benson,  Michaelis, 
and  Hug  (after  Cappel,  Grotius,  Lightfoot,  and  several  other 
critics),  date  it  in  a.  d.  58;  Bishop  Pearson,  Le  Clerc,  Dr. 
Mill,  and  Rosenmnller,  in  a.  d.  C5  ;  Drs.  Wliitby,  Macknight, 
and  Paiey,  and  Bishop  Tomline,  in  64. 

In  favour  of  the  early  date  it  is  argued, 

1.  That  it  appears  from  the  third  chapter  of  this  Epistle,  that 
no  bishops  had  been  then  appointed  at  Ephesus.  Saint  Paul 
instructs  Timothy  in  the  choice,  as  of  an  appointment  to  a  new 
office,  and  "  hopes  to  return  to  him  shortly."  And  it  is  not  pro- 
bable the  apostle  would  suffer  a  community  to  be  long  without 
governors.  Now  he  departed  from  Ephesus  when  he  travelled 
into  Macedonia  (Acts  xx.  1.),  and  we  see  from  v.  17.  28.  that 
on  his  return  bishops  had  been  appointed.  Consequently  this 
Epistle  must  have  been  written  at  the  beginning  of  his  journey; 
for  Timothy  soon  left  Ephesus,  and  was  at  Corinth  with  Paul. 
(Acts  xviii.  5.)  He  even  joined  him  in  Macedonia,  for  the 
second  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  written  in  Macedonia,  was  in 
the  joint  names  of  Paul  and  Timothy.  This  Epistle,  therefore, 
was  written  a  short  time  before  the  second  to  the  Corinthians. 

2.  It  is  further  contended,  that  Timothy,  at  the  time  this 
Epistle  was  written,  was  in  danger  of  being  "  despised  for  his 
youth."  (1  Tim.  iv.  12.)  Ashe  became  an  associate  of  Paul  at 
Lystra  (Acts  xvi.  1.)  so  early  as  a.  d.  50,  he  must  then  have 
been,  as  an  assistant  in  the  Gospel,  at  least  twenty  years  of  age. 
If  this  Epistle  was  written  a.  d.  65,  he  must  have  been  of  the 
age  of  thirty-five  years,  and  could  not  have  been  less  than  fifteen 
years  a  preacher  of  the  Gospel.  He  could  not  in  that  case  have 
been  depised  for  his  youth ;  though  he  might,  before  he  had 
reached  his  twenty-seventh  year. 


On  the  contrary,  in  behalf  nf  the  later  date,  which  sup- 
poses this  Epistle  to  have  been  written  after  Saint  PauFs 
first  imprisonment  at  Rome,  a.  d.  64  or  65,  it  is  insisted, 

1.  That  it  appears  from  Saint  Paul's  Epistles  to  Philemon 
(22.)  and  to  the  Philippians  (ii.  24.),  that  he  evidently  designed, 
when  he  had  a  prospect  of  being  released,  to  go  both  to  Colossae 
and  into  Macedonia.  Now  it  is  admitted,  that  these  two  Epistles 
were  written  towards  the  close  of  Saint  Paul's  first  imprisonment 
at  Rome  ;  and,  if  he  executed  his  intention  of  going  to  Colossce 
immediately  after  his  release,  it  is  very  probable  that  he  would 
visit  Ephesus,  which  was  in  the  vicinity  of  Colossae,  and  proceed 
thence  to  Philippi. 

2.  We  further  learn  from  the  first  Epistle  to  Timothy,  that 
he  was  left  at  Ephesus  to  oppose  the  following  errors  :  1.  Fables 
invented  by  the  Jewish  doctors  to  recommend  the  observance  of 
the  law  of  Moses  as  necessary  to  salvation  ; — 2.  Uncertain 
genealogies,  by  which  individuals  endeavoured  to  trace  their  de- 
scent from  Abraham,  in  the  persuasion  that  they  would  be  saved, 
merely  because  they  had  Abraham  to  their  father ; — 3.  Intricate 
questions  and  strifes  about  some  words  in  the  law  ; — 4.  Perverse 
disputings  of  men  of  corrupt  minds,  who  reckoned  that  whicli 
produced  most  gain  to  be  the  best  of  godliness;  and  oppositions 
of  knowledge  falsely  so  named.  But  these  errors  had  not  taken 
place  in  the  Ephesian  church  before  the  apostle's  departure  ;  for, 
in  his  charge  to  the  Ephesian  elders  at  Miletus,  he  foretold  that 
false  teachers  would  enter  among  them  after  his  departing.  Acts 
XX.  29.,  I  know  that  after  my  departing,  shall  grievous  -wolves 
enter  in  among  you,  not  sparing  the  flock.  30.  Also  of  yow 
oiun  selves  shall  men  arise,  speaking  perverse  things,  to  dra-io 
a-ivay  disciples  after  them.  _  The  same  thing  appears  from  the 
two  Epistles  which  the  apostle  wrote  to  the  Corinthians ;  the 
one  from  Ephesus  before  the  riot  of  Demetrius,  the  other  from 
Macedonia  after  that  event ;  and  from  the  Episile  which  he  wrote 
to  the  Ephesians  themselves  from  Rome,  during  his  confinement 
there.  For  in  none  of  these  letters  is  there  any  notice  taken  of 
the  above  mentioned  errors  as  subsisting  among  the  Ephesians 
at  the  time  they  were  written,  which  cannot  be  accounted  for 
on  the  supposition  that  they  were  prevalent  in  Ephesus,  when 
the  apostle  went  into  Macedonia  after  the  riot.  We  conclude, 
therefore,  with  Dr.  Macknight,  that  the  first  Epistle  to  Timothy, 
in  which  the  apostle  desired  him  to  abide  at  Ephesus  for  the 
purpose  of  opposing  the  judaizers  and  their  errors,  could  not  be 
written,  either  from  Troas,  or  from  Macedonia,  after  the  riot,  as 
those  who  contend  for  the  early  date  of  that  Epistle  suppose  :  but 
it  must  have  been  written  some  time  after  the  apostle's  release 
from  his  confinement  in  Rome,  when,  no  doubt,  he  visited  the 
church  at  Ephesus,  and  found  the  judaizing  teachers  there  busilv 
employed  in  spreading  their  pernicious  errors. 

3.  In  the  first  Epistle  to  Timothy,  the  same  persons,  doctrines, 
and  practices  are  reprobated,  which  are  condemned  in  the  second. 
Compare  1  Tim.  iv.  1 — 6.  with  2  Tim.  iii.  1 — 5.,  and  1  Tins, 
vi.  20.  with  2  Tim.  i.  14.,  and  1  Tim.  iv.  7.  and  vi.  20.  with  2 
Tim.  ii.  16.  The  same  commands,  instructions,  and  encourage- 
ments are  given  to  Timothy  in  the  first  Epistle  as  in  the  second 
Compare  1  Tim.  vi.  13,  14.  with  2  Tim.  iv.  1 — 5.  The  same 
remedies  for  the  corruptions,  which  had  taken  place  among  the 
Ephesians,  are  prescribed  in  the  first  Epistle  as  in  the  second. 
Compare  1  Tim.  iv.  14.  with  2  Tim.  i.  6,  7.  And  as  in  the 
second  Epistle,  so  in  the  first,  every  thing  is  addressed  to  Timothy, 
as  superintendent  both  of  the  teachers  and  of  the  laity  in  the 
church  at  Ephesus :  all  which,  Dr.  Macknight  justly  thinks,  im- 
plies that  the  state  of  things  among  the  Ephesians  was  the  same 
when  the  two  Epistles  were  written.  Consequently,  the  first 
Epistle  was  written  only  a  few  months  before  the  second,  and  not 
long  before  the  apostle's  death. 

'To  the  late  date  of  this  first  Epistle,  however,  there  are 
three  plausible  objections  which  admit  of  easy  solutions. 

1.  It  is  thought,  that  if  the  first  Epistle  to  Timothy  was  writ- 
ten after  the  apostle's  release,  he  could  not,  with  any  propriety, 
have  said  to  Timothy,  iv.  12.  Let  no  man  despise  thy  youth. — 
B  ut  it  is  replied,  that  Servius  Tullius,  in  classing  the  Roman  people, 
as  Aulus  Gellius  relates,'  divided  their  age  into  three  periods. 
Childhood,  he  limited  to  the  age  of  seventeen :  youth,  from  that 
to  forty -six  ;  and  old  age,  from  forty-six  to  the  end  of  life.  Now, 
supposing  Timothy  to  have  been  twenty  years*  old,  a.  b.  50, 
when  he  became  Paul's  assistant,  he  would  be  no  more  than  34, 
A.  D.  64,  two  years  after  the  apostle's  release,  when  it  is  sup- 
posed this  Epistle  was  written.  Since,  therefore,  Timothy  was 
then  in  that  period  of  life,  which,  by  the  Greeks  as  well  as 

I  Noctes  Atticae,  lib.  x.  c.  2a. 


344 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Pakt  VI.  Chap.  Ill 


the  Romans,  was  considered  as  youth,  the  apostle,  with  propriety, 
might  say  to  him,  Let  no  man  despise  thy  yotUh. 

2.  When  the  apostle  touched  at  Miletus,  in  his  voyage  to 
Jerusalem,  with  the  collections,  the  church  at  Ephesus  had  a 
number  of  elders,  that  is,  of  bishops  and  deacons,  who  came  to 
him  at  Miletus,  Acts  xx.  17.  It  is  therefore  asked.  What  occasion 
was  there,  in  an  Epistle  written  after  the  apostle's  release,  to 
give  Timothy  directions  concerning  the  ordination  of  bishops  and 
deacons,  in  a  church  where  there  were  so  many  elders  already  ? 
The  answer  is,  the  elders  who  came  to  the  apostle  at  Miletus,  in 
the  year  58,  might  have  been  too  few  for  the  church  at  Ephesus, 
in  her  inc-rcased  state,  in  the  year  65.  Besides  false  teachers  had 
then  entered,  to  oppose  whom,  more  bishops  and  deacons  might 
be  needed  than  were  necessary  in  the  year  5S.  Not  to  mention, 
that  some  of  the  first  elders  having  died,  others  were  wanted  to 
supply  their  places. 

3.  Because  the  apostle  wrote  to  Timothy,  that  he  hoped  to 
come  to  him  soon,  1  Tim.  iii.  14.,  it  is  argued,  that  the  letter,  in 
which  this  is  said,  must  have  been  written  before  the  apostle 
fiaid  to  the  Ephesian  elders,  Acts  xx.  25.,  /  hno-M  that  all  ye, 
among'  -whom  I  have  gone  preaching-  the  kingdom  of  God,  shall 
see  my  face  no  more.  But  if,  by  this,  the  first  Epistle  to  Timo- 
thy is  proved  to  have  been  written  before  the  apostle's  interview 
with  the  elders  at  Miletus,  his  Epistles  to  the  Philippians,  to  the 
Hebrews,  and  to  Philemon,  in  which  he  promised  to  visit  them, 
must  likewise  have  been  written  before  the  interview  :  for  his 
declaration  respected  the  Philippians,  the  Hebrews,  and  Phile- 
mon, as  well  as  the  Ephesians  :  for  they  certainly  were  persons 
among  wiiom  the  apostle  had  gone  preaching  the  kingdom  of 
God  :  yet  no  commentator  ever  thought  the  Epistles  above  men- 
tioned were  written  to  them  before  the  apostle's  interview  with 
the  Ephesian  elders.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  universally  acknow- 
ledged, that  these  Epistles  were  written  four  years  after  the  inter- 
view ;  namely,  during  the  apostle's  first  imprisonment  at  Rome. 
When,  therefore,  he  told  the  Ephesian  elders,  that  they  and  his 
other  converts,  among  whom  he  had  gone  preaching  the  king- 
dom of  God,  should  see  his  face  no  more,  as  it  was  no  point 
cither  of  faith  or  practice  which  he  sp.iko,  he  may  well  be  sup- 
posed to  have  declared  nothing  but  his  own  opinion  resulting 
from  his  fears.  He  had  lately  escaped  the  rage  of  the  Jews  who 
laid  wait  for  him  in  Cenchrea  to  kill  him.  (Acts  xx.  3.)  This, 
with  their  fury  on  former  occasions,  filled  him  with  such  anxiety, 
that,  in  writing  to  the  Romans  from  Corinth,  he  requested  them 
to  strive  together  ■with  him  in  their  prayers,  that  he  might  be 
delivered  from  the  unbelieving  in  Jud.-ea.  (Rom.  xv.  30,  31.) — 
Further,  that  in  his  speech  to  the  Ephesian  elders,  the  apostle 
only  declared  his  own  persuasion,  dictated  by  his  fears,  and  not 
any  suggestion  of  the  Spirit,  Dr.  Macknight  thinks,  is  plain  from 
what  he  had  said  immediately  before,  verse  22.  Behold  I  go  bound 
in  the  spint  to  Jemsalem,  not  knoxving  the  things  ivhich  shall 
befall  me  there :  23.  Save  that  the  Holy  Ghost  ivitjiesseth  in 
every  city,  saying  that  bonds  and  afflictions  abide  me.  Where- 
fore, although  his  fears  were  hapjiily  disappointed,  and  he  actu- 
ally visited  the  Ephesians  after  his  release,  his  character  as  an 
inspired  apostle  is  not  hurt  in  the  least ;  if  in  saying,  he  knew 
they  shonld  kcc  his  face  no  more,  he  declared  his  own  persua- 
sion only,  and  no  dictate  of  the  Holy  Spirit.' 

We,  confJudp,  therefore,  tlr,vt  Saint  Paul  wrote  his  first 
Epistle  to  Thnothy  about  the  end  of  the  year  Gl. 

III.  Hut  whatever  uncert.iicity  rnay  have  j)revailed  cou- 
reminij  the  date  of  this  Kpistle,  it  has  always  been  acknow- 
ledged to  he  the  undisputed  production  of  the  apostle  Paul. 
Biilti  ihf  fird  and  scoiifd  Epistles  to  Timothy  are  cited  or 
alluded  to  by  the  apostolical  fathers,  Cleuu^nt  of  Home,-  and 
Polycarp;'  and  the  first  Epistle  bv  Ifrnatius;'  and  in  the 
folluwin}/  centuries  by  Irenaius;'  Clement  of  Alexandria,'' 
Tertullian,'  CaiuSiB  Origen,o  and  by  all  subsequent  eccle- 
siastical writers  without  exception. 

Decisive  as  these  testimonies  confessedly  are,  the  au- 
thenticity of  this  Epistle  has  been  denied  by  Dr.  Schleier- 

_«  Dr.  Benson's  Preface  lo  1  Tim.  (pp.  2^0—222.)  Michaclis,  vol,  iv.  pp. 
75— 7(J.  Kuimniiiuller,  Scholia  in  N.  '1.  Uxii.  v.  nj).  1 — 4. ;  Hiis's  liilrml.  vol. 
il.  pp.  303-1W.  Lardncr'a  WorkH,  8vo.  vnl.  vi.  pp.  310— 3jl). ;  llo.  vol.  ill. 
pp.  '2i2—S\.  no.|(lriil«c  ntid  Wliitlty's  Pn-faccx  (o  ITitii.  Mnckiiii;lit'» 
Prcfaco  to  1  Tim.  seel.  ii.  Dr.  Pnlcy  has  ailvorated  llic  Intfi  dale  o(  ihig 
Bpimln  liy  arguiiiciits  similar  to  lliosc  above  elated,     liora;  Paulina;,  pp. 

a?6-ii;»i. 

»  Lardner's  Works,  fivo.  vol.  Ii.  pp.  3«,  .39. ;  4to.  vol.  I.  pp.  209,  290. 

•  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  96,  07. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  330,  331. 
«  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  7rt,  70. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  321. 

•  Ibid.  8vn.  vol.  ii.  p.  IM.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  309. 

•  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  2,'!. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  401. 

'  Ibiil.  8vo.  vol.  Ii.  pp.  '2tVl,  aj.'j. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  424. 

•  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  .371.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  4fi3. 
»  IbiU.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  471. ;  4lo.  vol.  1.  p.  &36. 


macher,  Professor  Eickhorn,  and  others,  and  .vindicated  by 
Professor  Hutr ;  the  following  is  an  abstract  of  the  objections 
and  their  refutation : — 

1.  The  language  of  the  ?jpistle  cannot  be  that  of  Saint 
Paul,  because  (it  is  alleged)  expressions  occur  which  are 
either  not  to  be  found  in  his  other  Epistles,  or  at  least  not 
with  the  same  signification.  But  this  is  more  or  less  the 
case  in  other  Epistles;  and  some  of  the  words  alluded  to  are 
found  in  the  New  Testament,  "  while  the  composition  of 
others  betrays  the  apostle,  who,  tinshackled  by  tne  laws  of 
grammatical  authority,  either  compounds  his  own  words  and 
forcible  expressions,  or  derives  them  in  a  manner  in  which 
tragic  authors  would  scarcely  have  indulged  themselves." 
If,  nowever,  "independently  of  this  peculiarity,  we  examine 
the  whole  of  the  diction,  we  shall  find  it  assuredly  Paul's. 
The  accumulation  of  words  of  allied  significations,  or  false 
.synonymes,  the  enumerations,  the  short  inytantmeous  bursts, 
the  parentheses,  particularly  the  long  parenthesis  in  i.  5 — 18., 
then  the  animation  wiiich  pervades  the  whole ; — all  is  not 
an  iuiitation  in  the  use  of  certain  words,  in  which  any  one 
might  easily  succeed,  but  the  fac-simile  of  his  peculiar  mode 
of  communication. "''J  Besides  the  diftercnce  of  style  in  this 
Epistle,  as  compared  with  that  of  the  preceding  Epistles,  is 
accounted  fur  by  new  adversaries  arising,  by  the  diflerenceof 
the  limes  when  the  several  Epistles  were  written,  and  also  by 
the  diversity  of  tire  subjects  discussed,  all  which  circumstances 
would  necessarily  prodr.ce  a  diversity  of  expression." 

2.  The  great  doubts  which  have  been  raised  against  this 
Epistle,  because  the  apostle  (i.  26.)  has  so  very  briefly  men- 
tioned Hymenieus  and  Alexander,  are  of  no  moment.  He 
mentions  them  incidentally,  as  well-know'n  examples  of 
erring  self-conceit,  and  lor  no  other  purpose  besides,  as  he 
has  also  done  in  other  passages,  at  this  period  cf  his  life, 
viz.  2  Tim.  i.  15.,  and  ii.  17.,  where  he  also  points  out  well- 
known  exair  des  of  error,  as  a  warning  to  others,  and  this  he 
also  does  i'  cidentally.12 

.3.  It  has  been  asserted,  that  there  is  a  contradiction  be- 
tween I  Tim.  i.  20.  where  Alexander  is  mentioned  as  a  here- 
tic, and  2  Tim.  iv.  11.  where  he  is  an  enemy  of  St.  Paul 
But  the  apostle  carefully  distinguishes  the  individual  in  the 
second  Epistle  from  him  who  is  noticed  in  the  first,  by  the 
epithet  of  I  ^xxnai^,  the  laorker  in  mefals,  or  the  sniilh.  Beza 
and  Bolton  have  conjectured  that  he  was  the  person  who 
appeared  at  the  Roman  tribunal  among  the  accusers  of  Paul. 
'ihis,  however,  is  of  little  moment,  as  from  this  name  being 
very  common,  there  must  have  been  hundreds  of  persons  who 
bore  the  name  of  Alexander.'^ 

In  short,  whoever  carefully  and  impartially  examines  the 
style  of  this  Epistle,  will  find  that  the  language  and  genius 
oi  the  apostle  of  the  Gentiles  pervades  it  throughout ;  and 
that  the  animating,  urgent,  and  affecting  motives  which  it 
presents,  are  such  as  proceeded  from  the  heart,  and  such  as 
no  impostor  could  imitate. '^ 

IV.  Timothy,  having  been  left  at  Ephesus,  to  regulate  the 
affairs  of  the  church  in  that  city,  Saint  Paul  wrote  this  Epis- 
tle chiefly  to  instruct  him  in  the  choice  of  proper  officers  in 
the  church,  as  well  as  in  the  exercise  of  a  regular  ministry. 
Another  and  very  important  part  of  the  aposthvs  design  was 
to  caution  this  young  evangelist  against  the  influence  of  those 
false  teachors  (^Michaelis  thinks  they  were  Essones),  who,  by 
their  suljtle  distinctions  and  endless  controversies,  had  cor- 
rupted the  purity  and  simplicity  cf  the  Gospel ;  to  press  upon 
him,  in  all  his  preaching,  a  constant  regard  to  the  interests 
of  ])ractical  religion  ;  and  to  animate  him  to  the  greatest 
diligence,  fidelity,  and  zeal,  in  the  discharge  of  his  office. 
The  Epistle,  therefore,  consists  of  three  parts;  viz. 
Part  I.  The  fntrodnctiitn.  ('i.1,2.) 
Part  II.   Iitstructions  to   '1  iiualhif  how  to  behave  in  the  Ad- 

iiiijiiitrutinn  of  the  Church  at  Epiicsus ;  in  tvhich. 

Sect.  1.  After  reminding  Timothy  of  the  charge  which  had 
been  committed  to  him,  viz.  'i'o  preserve  the  purity  of  the 
Gospel  affainst  the  i)crnici()us  doctrines  of  the  false  teachers 
(enumerated  above'')  whose  opinions  led  to  frivolous  con- 
troversies, and  not  to  a  holy  life,  iSnint  Paul  shows  the  use 
of  the  law  of  Moses,  of  which  these  teachers  were  ignorant. 
This  account  of  the  law,  he  assures  'i'imothy,  was  agreeable 
to  the  representation  of  it  in  the  CfOsp<'l,  with  the  jireaching 
of  which  be  was  intrustcil.  (i.  3 — 11.)  Having  mentioned 
the  (iospel,  the  apo.stle,  in  the  fulness  of  his  heart,  makes  a 
digression  to  express  his  gratitude  to  God  in  calling  him 


•0  Hug's  Introduction,  vol  H.  pp.  103,  4W. 
"  t'c'lliTirr,  Introd.  an  Noii\.  Test.  p.  432. 
"  Ccll6rier,  Introd.  au  Nouv.  Test.  p.  432. 


'■>  Hug,  vol.  ii.  p.  405. 
»«  See  p.  343.  supra. 


«f,CT.   XIII.] 


ON  THE  SECOND  EPISTLE  TO  TIMOTHY. 


345 


who  had  been  a  persecutor,  to  the  Christian  faith  and  minis 
terial  office;  and  observes,  that  his  favour  was  extended  to 
him,  though  so  unworthy,  as  an  encouragement  to  all  that 
should  believe  iu  every  future  age.  (12 — 20.) 
Sect.  2.  Paul  then  proceeds  to  give  Timothy  particular  in- 
structions, 

§  i.  Concerning  the  manner  in  which  divine  worship  was  to  be  performed 

in  tlie  Ephesian  church,  (ii.) 
§  ii.  Concerning  the  quahfications  of  the  persons  whom  he  was  to  ordain 

bishops  and  deacons  of  that  church,  (iii.)' 
§  iii.  After  foretollinft  (he  great  corru[)tions  wliicVi  were  to  prevail  in  the 

church  in  future  times  (iv.  1— -5.),  the  apostle  instructs  Timothy, 

1.  IIow  to  support  the  sacred  character.  (6—16.) 

2.  How  to  admonish  aged  men  and  women  (v.  1,  2.),  and  in  what  man- 
ner he  should  treat  widows  (3—16.),  elders  (l^ — 19  )>  and' offenders. 

.  (20,  :^1.)  Annexed  are  some  instructions  to  Timothy  himself  (22—24.) 

3.  Concerning  tlje  duties  of  slaves,  (vi.  1,  2.) 

Sect.  3.  condemns  trifling  controversies  and  pernicious  dis- 
putes, censures  the  excessive  love  of  money,  and  charges 
the  rich  to  be  rich  in  good  works,  (vi.  3 — 19.) 

Paut  hi.   The  Conclusion.  (20,21.) 

V.  Although  the  errors  of  the  judaizing  teachers  at  Ephe- 
sus.  which  gave  rise  to  Saint  Paul's  Epistles  to  Timothy, 
have  long  disappeared,  yet  "the  Epistles  themselves  are 
still  of  great  use,  as  they  serve  to  show  the  iinpiety  of  the 
principles  from  which  tliese  errors  proceeded.  For  the  same 
principles  are  apt  in  every  age  to  produce  errors  and  vices, 
which,  though  different  in  name  from  those  "which  prevailed 
in  Ephesus  in  the  apostle's  days,  are  precisely  of  the  same 
kind,  and  equally  pernicious, — These  Epistles  are  likewise 
of  great  use  in  the  cliurch,  as  they  exhibit  to  Christian 
bishops  and  deacons,  in  every  age,  the  most  perfect  idea  of 
the  duties  of  their  function  ;  teach  the  manner  in  which  these 
duties  should  be  performed ;  describe  the  qualifications  ne- 
cessary in  those  who  aspire  to  such  holy  and  honourable 
offices,  and  explain  the  ends  for  which  these  offices  were 
originally  instituted,  and  are  still  continued  in  the  church. 

"Tlie  very  same  things,  indeed,  the  apostle,  about  the 
same  time,  wrote  to  Titus  in  Crete;  but  more  briefly,  be- 
cause he  was  an  older  and  more  experienced  minister  than 
Timothy. _  Nevertheless  the  repetition  of  these  precepts  and 
charges,  is  not  without  its  use  to  the  church  still,  as  it 
maketh  us  more  deeply  sensible  of  their  great  importance  : 
not  to  mention,  that  in  the  Epistle  to  Titus,  there  are  things 
peculiar  to  itself,  which  enhance  its  value.  In  siiort,  the 
Epistles  to  Timothy  and  Titus,  taken  together,  containing  a 
full  account  of  the  qualifications  and  duties  of  the  ministers 
of  the  Gospel,  may  be  considered  as  a  complete  body  of 
divinely-inspired  ecclesimtical  canons,  to  be  observed  by  tlie 
Chri.stian  clerg^y  of  all  communions,  to  the  end  of  the  world. 

"These  Epistles,  therefore,  ought  to  be  read  frequently, 
and  with  the  greatest  attention,  by  those  in  every  age  and 
country,  who  hold  sacred  offices,  or  who  have  it  in  view  to 
obtain  them:  not  only  that  they  may  regulate  their  conduct 
according  to  the  directions  contained  in  them,  but  that,  by 
meditating  seriously  on  the  solemn  charges  delivered  to  all 
the  ministers  of  the  Gospel,  in  the  persons  of  Tiinothy  and 
Titus,  their  minds  may  be  strongly  impressed  with  a  sense 
of  the  importance  of  their  function,  and  of  the  obligation 
which  lieth  on  them  to  be  faithful  in  discharging  every  duty 
belonging  to  it. 

"  It  is  of  importance  also  to  observe,  that,  in  these  Epis- 
tles, there  are  some  explications  of  the  Christian  doctrines, 
and  some  displays  of  Saint  Paul's  views  and  expectations  as 
an  apostle  of  Christ,  which  merit  our  attention.  For  if  he 
had  been,  like  many  of  the  Greek  philosophers,  a  hypocrite 
who  held  a  double  doctrine,  one  for  the  vulgar,  and  another 

'  In  using  this  expression — Great  is  the  mystery  of  godliness  (iii.  16.), 
tlie  apostle  is  generally  supposed  to  allude  to  the  heathen  mysteries.  As 
tho;-e  mysteries  have  always  a  reference  to  some  deity,  this  circumstance 
greatly  favours— not  to  say,  confirms — the  common  reading  of  this  text, 
whicli  has  been  so  much  controverted  :  for,  if  no  mention  had  been  made 
in  this  case  of  a  Gi)d,  such  an  omission  would  have  maimed  tlie  apostle's 
description  in  a  most  essential  point,  and  obscured  the  beauty  of  his  fine 
Eilusinn.  (lirelvell's  Discourses,  p.  424.  note.)  On  the  much  litigated 
question  respecting  the  reading  of  ©ss?  in  1  Tim.  iii.  10.  the  reader  will 
find  a  perspicuous  statement  of  the  evidence  in  Mr.  Ilolden's  Scripture 
Testimonies  to  the  divinity  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  pp.  181—188.  There 
is  an  elaborate  essay  on  this  passage  in  the  Christian  Observer  for  1809, 
vol.  i.  pp.  271—277.  See  also  Dr.  Beiriman's  Critical  Dissertation  on  1  Tim. 
iii.  16.  8vo.  London,  1741.  Velthu.'en's  Observations  on  various  Subjects, 
pp.  49 — 104.  8vo.  London,  1773.  Dr.  Halcs's  Treatise  on  Faith  in  the  Hoi v 
Trinity,  vol.  ii.  pp.  C7 — 104.  and  Mr.  Nolan's  Inquiry  into  the  Integrity  o'f 
tiie  Greek  Vulgate,  pp.  271^-270.  But  the  fullest  view  of  the  evidence, 
both  external  and  interna!,  will  be  found  in  the  Rev.  Dr.  Henderson's 
Great   Mystery  of  Godliness  incontrovertible   (London,  1830),   who  has 

DE.MONSTRATED  THE  C15NI.'INENESS  OP  THE  READING  0soc,  from  the  United  and 

indisputable  testimonies  of  manuscripts,  ancient  versions,  quotations  in  the 
writings  of  the  fathers,  and  the  best  printed  editions  of  the  Greek  Testa- 
nien'.  both  early  and  recent,  as  well  as  from  internal  evidence. 
.    Vol.  II.  2X 


for  the  learned  ;  and  if  his  secret  views  and  expectations  had 
been  diflerent  from  those  which  he  publicly  professed  to  the 
world,  ho  would  have  given,  without  all  doubt,  some  in 
sinuation  thereof  in  letters  written  to  such  intimate  friends. 
Yet,  throughout  the  whole  of  these  Epistles,  no  discovery  of 
that  kind  is  made.  The  doctrine  contained  in  them  is  the 
same  with  that  taught  in  the  Epistles  desio-ned  for  the  in- 
spection and  direction  of  the  church  in  generaF:  and  the  views 
and  hopes  which  he  expresses  are  the  same  with  those  which 
he  uniformly  taught  mankind  to  entertain.  What  strono-er 
proofs  can  we  desire  of  the  apostle's  sincerity  and  faithtul- 
ness  than  these 'J''^ 

On  the  undetigncd  coincidences  between  this  Epistle  and 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  see  Dr.  Paley's  Horae  Paulinse, 
Chap.  XI. 


SECTION  XIII. 

ON   THE    SECOND    EPISTLE    TO   TIMOTHY. 

I.  Date. — II.  Of  the  place  -where  Timothy  toas,  -when  Paul 
Tvi-ote  this  Epistle  to  him. — III,  lis  scope. — IV.  Si/nopsis  of 
its  contents. — V.    Observations  on  tiiis  Epistle, 

I.  That  Paul  was  a  prisoner  when  he  wrote  the  second 
Epistle  to  Timothy,  is  evident  from  i.  8.  12.  16.  and  ii.  9.; 
and  that  his  imprisonment  was  in  Rome  appears  from  i.  17., 
and  is  universally  admitted.  But,  whether  he  wrote  it  durintr 
his  first  imprisonment,  recorded  in  Acts  xxviii.,  or  durino- a 
second  imprisonment  there  (v.hich  was  the  uniform  traditfon 
of  the  primitive  church),  is  a  point  that  has  been  much  dis- 
puted. The  former  opinion  is  advocated  by  Drs.  Hammond, 
Lightfoot,  Lardner,  and  Hug;  and  the  latter,  by  Drs.  Benson, 
Macknight,  and  Paley,  Bishop  Tomline,  Michaelis,  Rosen- 
miiller,  and  others.  That  the  last-mentioned  opinion  is 
rnost  correct,  we  think  will  appear  from  the  following  con- 
siderations":— 

1.  A  collation  of  the  Epistles  to  the  Ephesians,  Colossiana, 
Philippians,  and  Philemon  (which  are  known  to  have  been  writ- 
ten during  Saint  Paul's  first  imprisonment),  with  the  second 
Epistle  to  Timothy,  will  show  that  this  Epistle  was  not  written 
during  the  time  when  those  Epistles  were  written.  In  the  former 
Epistles,  the  author  confidently  looked  forward  to  his  liberation 
from  confinement,  and  his  speedy  departure  from  Rome.  He 
tells  the  Philippians  (ii.  24.),  "I  trust  in  the  Lord  that  I  al.~'.» 
myself  shall  come  shortly."  Philemon  he  bids  to  prepare  for 
him  a  lodging  ;  "  for  I  trust,"  says  he,  "  that  through  your  pray- 
ers I  shall  be  given  unto  you."  (ver.  22,)  In  the  Epistle  before 
us  he  holds  a  language  extremely  different :  "  I  am  now  ready  to 
be  ofiered,  and  the  time  of  my  departure  is  at  hand.  I  have 
fought  a  good  fight ;  I  have  finished'  my  course  ;  I  have  kept  the 
faith  ;  henceforth  there  is  laid  up  for  me  a  crown  of  righteousness, 
which  the  Lord,  the  righteous  Judge,  shall  give  me  at  that  day  " 
(iv,  6—8.) 

Again,  when  the  former  Epistles  were  written  from  Rome, 
Timothy  was  with  Paul ;  and  he  is  joined  with  him  iu  writing 
to  the  Colossians,  the  Philippians,  and  to  Philemon.  The  present 
Epistle  implies  that  he  was  absent.  Further,  in  the  former  Epis- 
tles, Demas  was  with  Paul  at  Rome :  "  Luke,  the  beloved  physician, 
and  Demas,  greet  you."  In  the  Epistle  now  before  us :  "  Demas 
hath  forsaken  me,  having  loved  this  present  world,  and  is  gone 
to  Thessalonica,'  Once  more  :  in  the  former  Epistle,  Mark  was 
with  Paul,  and  joins  in  saluting  the  Colossians.  In  the  present 
Epistle,  Timothy  is  ordered  to  bring  him  with  him,  "  for  he  is 
profitable  to  me  for  the  ministry."   (iv.  11.) 

2.  The  circumstances  of  Paul's  imprisonment,  as  referred  to  in 
this  Epistle,  are  widely  different  from  the  imprisonment  related  in 
Acts  xxviii.  30,  31.  Then  he  was  permitted  to  dwell  alone  in  hia 
own  hired  house,  and  receive  all  who  came  to  him,  and  publicly 
to  preach  the  Gospel,  being  guarded  only  by  a  single  soldier. 
But  it  appears  from  2  Tim.  i.  16 — 18.,  that  the  apostle  was  in 
close  confinement,  so  that  Onesiphorus,  on  his  coming^  to  Rome, 
had  considerable  difficulty  in  finding  him  out.  And  that  crimes 
were  now  laid  to  his  charge  very  dififcrent  from  those  formerly 
alleged  against  him,  appears  from  ii.  9. ;  where  he  says  that  he 
suffers  evil,  even  unto  bonds,  as  a  malefactor ;  plainly  imply- 
ing that  he  was  not  only  abridged  of  all  liberty,  but  also  that  he 
was  bound,  hands  and  feet,  in  a  close  dungeon.  Dr.  Macknight 
thinks  this  was  probably  under  the  pretence  that  he  was  one  of 
those  Christians  whom  Nero  accused  of  having  set  Rome  on  fire. 
Hence  the  word  muhfactor  (^Kxncufiyoi),  which  in  this  passage 

»  Dr,  Macknighl's  Trtf  to  1  Tim.  sect.  iv. 


346 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[PaHT  VI.    CUAP.  Ill 


may  mean  that  the  apostle  was  treated  as  one  of  the  worst  of 
criminals. 

3.  The  situation  of  Paul,  when  he  wrote  this  Epistle,  was  ex- 
tremely dangerous.  This  appears  from  2  Tim.  iv.  6,  7,  8.  and  from 
verse  16.  where,  at  his  first  answer,  all  men  forsook  him.  Further, 
f  verse  17.)  The  Lord  delivered  him  from  the  month  of  the  lion, 
or  the  cruelty  of  Nero.  And  in  verse  18.  he  hopes  the  Lord 
■will  deliver  him  from  ereri/  evil  nuorh,  by  preserving  him  unto 
his  heavenly  kingdom.  This  was  totally  different  from  the  gen- 
tle treatment  recorded  in  Acts  xxviii.,  and  shows  that  this  epistle 
was  written  at  a  later  period  than  the  two  years'  imprisonment 
mentioned  by  Luke. 

4.  It  appears  from  2  Tim.  iv.  13.  20.  that  wlicn  the  apostle 
wrote,  he  had  lately  been  at  Troas,  Miletus,  and  Corinth.  This 
was  a  different  route  from  that  described  in  the  Acts.  Also  in 
2  Tim.  iv.  13.  he  desires  Timothy  to  bring  with  him  a  trunk  and 
some  books  which  he  had  left  at  Troas.  But  in  his  journey  to 
Italv  in  Acts  xxvii.  he  did  not  come  near  Troas.  It  is  true  he 
visited  that  place  on  hij  way  to  Jerusalem.  (Acts  xx.  b — 7.) 
But  as  this  visit  to  Troas  happened  in  the  year  57,  and  the  pre- 
sent Bpistle  wiis  not  written  before  the  year  65,  these  articles 
were  not  then  left  there  ;  for  he  would  hardly  have  delayed 
Bonding  for  them  for  seven  or  eight  years.  He  would  rather  have 
sent  for  them  to  Cffisarea,  where  he  was  in  prison  two  years  ;  or 
more  early  on  his  first  coming  to  Rome. 

.5.  When  he  wrote  this  Epistle,  he  had  left  Trophimus  sick  at 
Miletus,  (iv.  20.)  But  this  could  not  have  happened  on  the 
journey  to  Jerusalem,  because  Trophimus  was  with  Saint  Paul 
at  Jerusalem  (Acts  xxi.  29.),  and  in  his  voyage  from  Csesarca  to 
Italy  he  did  not  touch  at  Miletus.  It  is  obvious,  contrary  to  Dr. 
Lardner's  hypothesis,  that  the  north  wind  would  not  suffer  them 
to  proceed  further  north  from  Cnidus  along  the  coast  of  Asia. 
(Acts  xxvii.  7.) 

6.  Paul  says  (2  Tim.  iv.  20.)  that  Erastus  stayed  behind  at 
C;oriiith.  The  apostle  must  therefore  have  passed  througli  Co- 
ri-.th  on  that  journey  to  Rome,  after  which  he  wrote  this  Ej.istle. 
But  from  C.-csarea  to  Italy,  in  Acts  xxviii.  he  did  not  pass  through 
Corinth.  Dr.  Lardner's  two  objections  to  this  argument  are  not 
satisfactory.  For  he  says  that  Erastus  stayed  behind  at  Corinth 
when  Saint  Paul  left  that  city  to  go  to  Jerusalem,  though  Timo- 
thy, vho  was  tiien  with  Saint  Paul,  must  have  known  that  cir- 
cumsUatice,  but  Saint  Paul  only  wished  to  remind  him  of  it, — or 
he  ni(-nlions  his  stay,  because  he  was  sent  by  Paul  from  Ephesus 
into  .Macedonia  (Acts  xix.  22.) ;  and  when  Paul,  going  there  also, 
r*'turned  to  Asia  Minor,  he  did  not  return  with  him,  not  being 
mentioned  in  Acts  xx.  4. 

'I'he  resulr  of  the  preceding  observations  is,  th-atthis  Epis- 
tle was  written  by  Paul  at  Rome,  and  durinrr  an  imprison- 
ment different  from  that  recorded  in  Acts  xxviii.  Paul,  we 
have  seen,'  was  released  from  his  confinement  a.  d.  G3,  and, 
after  visiting  several  churches,  returned  to  Rome  early  in  6.5 ; 
where,  after  beincr  confined  rather  more  than  a  year,  it  is 
generally  agreed  that  he  suffered  martyrdom  a.d.  <JG.  Now, 
as  the  apostle  requests  Timothy  to  come  to  him  before  winter 
(2  Tim.  iv.  21.),  it  is  probable  that  this  Epistle  was  written 
in  the  month  of  July  or  August  a.  d.  G5.'^ 

II.  It  is  generally  supposed  that  Timothy  was  at  Ephesus 
when  Paul  wrote  his  second  Epistle  to  him.  This  oj)inion 
is  advocated  by  Drs.  Lardner,  Benson,  and  Macknight,  but 
is  opposed  by  Michaelis ;  who  has  shown  that  Timothy  was 
most  probably  somewhere  in  Asia  Minor  when  Paul  sent  this 
leti.  r  to  him,  because  the  apostle,  towards  the  close  of  the 
first  chapter,  mentions  several  persons  who  dwelt  iii^  that 
region,  and  also  because  (2 'I'im.  iv.  13.)  he  requests  Tinao- 
thy  to  bring  with  him  the  clouk,  bookstand parchmcni.t,  which 
he  had  left"beliind  him  at  Troas;  and  because  Troas  does  not 
lie  in  the  route  from  Epiirsus  to  Uome,  to  which  city  Timo- 
tliy  was  desired  to  "  make  haste  to  come  to  him  l)efi>re  win- 
ter." (iv.  21.)  Michaelis  concludes,  therefore,  that  Paul, 
not  knowing  exactly  where  Timothy  was,  wrote  to  him  tliis 
Epistle,  whTch  he  intru-ted  to  a  safe  person  (Whom  Dr.  Ben- 
son supn(5se8  to  have  b»!enTychicu8)  that  Was  travelling  into 
Asia  Minor,  with  an  order  to  deliver  it  to  him  wliereve»  he 
miirht  find  him.' 

III.  The  immediate  design  of  Paul  in  writing  this  Epistle 
to  Timothy,  was  to  api)rize  liim  cf  the  circumstances  that 

«  Si'O  p.  30!>.  supra. 

■»  Pali-y'»  II'pr.L-  P:iiilinir,  pp.  3ft1— .lOi"). ;  Cnlmft,  Trifncp  mir  la  nrrondo 
Epltr.;  ii  Tiuioltn-e;  Markiii(;lil'«  Profacn  to  '2Tiiii.  (i.cl.  i.  ;  Dr.  Ii.-ii.s<>irn 
Prefacfi  to  2  Tim.  pp.  OOl— 517. ;  Mictiaolix's  Inlro.l.  vol.  iv.  pp.  lOrw-177. ; 
I.ar.ln.r'8  Works,  8vo.  vol.  vt.  pp.  338—375.;  Ito.  vol.  iii-  pp.  303—321.; 
Hiig'e  Iii(ro(I.  vol.  ii.  pp.  4-10 — 448. 

»  .Michaeli»,  vol.  Iv.  pp.  iOl— 164. 


hao  befallen  him  during  his  second  imprisonment  at  Rome, 
and  to  request  him  to  come  to  liim  before  the  ensuing  winter. 
But,  being  uncertain  whether  he  should  live  so  long,  he  gave 
him  in  this  letter  a  variety  of  advices,  charges,  and  encou- 
ragements, for  the  faithful  discharge  of  his  ministerial  func- 
tions, with  the  solemnity  and  affection  of  a  dying  parent ; 
in  order  that,  if  he  should  be  put  to  death  before  Timothy's 
arrival,  the  loss  might  in  some  measure  be  compensated  to 
him  by  the  instructTons  contained  in  this  admirable  Epistle. 
With  this  view,  after  expressing  his  affectionate  concern  for 
him,  he  exhorts  him  to  stir  up  the  gift  uhich  had  been  con- 
ferred upon  him  (2  Tim.  i.  2 — 5.)  ;  not  to  be  ashamed  of  tlie 
testimopy  of  the  Lord,  nor  cf  Paul's  sufferings  (6 — 16.)  ;  to 
hold  fasi  the  form  of  nound  words,  and  to  guard  inviolai)!e 
that  good  deposit  t>f  Uospel  doctrine  (i.  13,  14. \  which  he 
was  to  commit  to  faithful  men  who  should  be  able  to  teach 
others  (ii.  1,  2.)  ;  to  animate  him  to  endure,  with  fortitude 
persecutions  for  tiio  sake  of  the  Gospel  (ii.  3 — 13.)  ;  to  sun- 
press  and  avoid  logomachies  (14.  23.)  ;  to  approve  himself 
a  failhtul  minister  of  the  word  (15 — 22.);  and  to  forewarn 
him  of  the  perils  of  the  last  days,  in  consequence  of  wicked 
hypocritical  seducers  and  enemies  of  the  truth,  who  even 
then  were  beginning  to  rise  in  the  church.  These  Saint  Paul 
admonishes  Timothy  to  Hee,  giving  him  various  cautions 
against  them,  (iii.) 

IV.  The  Epistle  therefore  consists  of  three  parts;  viz. 

Part  1.   7'Ae  Inscription,  (i.  1 — 5.) 
Part  11.  Jin,  Exhortation  to  Timothy. 

Skct.  1.   To  diligence,  patience,  and  firmness  in  keeping  ae 

form  of  sound  doctrine,  in  which  is  introduced  an  affecting 

prayer  in  behalf  of  Onesiphorus.   (i.  2 — 18.) 
Skct.  2.  To  fortitude  under   afflictions  and  persecution.^   to 

deliver  the  uncorrupted  doctrine  of  the  Gospel  to  others,  and 

to  purity  of  life,  (ii.) 
Sect.  3.  To  beware  of  false  teachers  in  the  last  times  (whr se 

practices  arc  described),  to  be  constant  in  his  profession  of 

the   Gospel,  and  to  be  diligent  in  liis  ministerial  labours 

(iii.  iv.  1—8.) 
Part  III.   The  Conclusion,  containing  the  Apostle's  Jictjucft  ti> 
Timothy  to  come  to  him  as  scon  as  possible,  together  with 
various  Salutations  for  the  Brethren  in  Asia  Minor,  (iv.  9— 
22.) 

V.  As  this  Enistle  was  written  to  Saint  PauFs  most  inti- 
mate friend,  under  the  miseries  of  a  jail,  and  the  near  pros- 
pect of  death,  and  was  not  designed  for  the  use  of  others,  it 
may  serve  to  exhibit  the  temper  and  character  of  the  apostle, 
an(f  to  convince  us  that  he  was  no  deceiver,  but  sincerely 
believed  the  doctrines  which  he  preached.  "This  excellent 
writing,  therefore,  will  be  read  by  the  disciples  of  Chrisi.  t<j 
the  end  of  the  world,  with  the  highest  satisfaction.  And  ihe 
impression  which  it  must  have  on  their  minds,  will  often  be 
recollected  by  them  with  the  greatest  effect,  for  the  confir- 
mation of  their  faith  in  the  Gospel,  and  their  consolation 
under  all  the  evils  which  their  adherence  to  the  Gospel  may 
bring  upon  them." 

"Imagine,"  says  Dr.  Benson,  "a  pious  father,  under  sen- 
tence of  death  for  his  piety  and  benevolence  to  mankind, 
writing  to  a  dutiful  and  affectionate  son,  that  he  might  see 
and  embrace  him  again  before  he  left  the  world  ;  particularly 
that  he  might  leave  with  him  his  dying  commands,  and 
charge  him  to  live  and  suffer  as  he  had  done  : — and  you  will 
have  the  frame  of  the  apostle's  mind,  during  the  writing  of 
the  whole  Epistle."^ 

On  the  undesigned  coincidences  between  this  Epistle  and 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  see  Dr.  Paley's  Horae  Pauliiice, 
C;hap.  XII. 


SECTION  XIV. 


ON    THE    EPISTLE    TO    TITUS. 


I.  Accmmt  <f  Titus. — II.  Chnytimiily,  when  planfrd  in  Crete. 
— III.  Date. — IV.  Scope  and  analysis  of  this  Epiitle. — V. 
Observations  on  it. 

I.  TiTi's  was  a  Greek  (Dr.  Benson  thinks  he  was  a  native 
of  Antidch  in  Syria),  and  one  of  Paul's  early  converts,  who 
attended  him  and  B;irii.d)as  to  the  first  council  at  Jerusalem, 
A.  D.  4'J,  and  afterwards  ou  his  ensuing  circuit.    (Til.  i.  4. 


Prcfaor  to  2  Tim.  p  517.     The  topics  above  noticed  arc  ably  treated 
iigtii  by  Dr.  Mackiiiglit  In  liis  prujacc  to  'i  Tim.  st'Ct,  3, 


•  Prtfarr  to  2  Tl 
ailu 


Sect.  XV.] 


ON  THE  EPISTLE  TO  PHILEMON. 


347 


Gal.  ii.  1 — 3.  Acts  xv.  2.)  Some  years  after  this  we  find 
that  Paul  sent  him  to  Connth  (2  Cor.  xii.  13.),  to  investigate 
and  report  to  liim  the  slate  of  the  church  in  that  city,  and 
particularly  to  report  what  effect  had  been  produced  by  his 
first  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians.  The  intelligence  brought 
to  the  apostle  by  Titus  afforded  him  the  highest  satisfaction, 
as  it  far  exceeded  all  his  expectations,  (vii.  6 — 13.  And  as 
Titus  had  expressed  a  particular  regard  for  the  Corinthians, 
the  apostle  thought  proper  to  send  him  back  again,  with  some 
others,  to  hasten  the  collection  for  the  poor  brethren  in  Judsea. 
(viii.  G.)  After  this  we  meet  with  no  further  notice  of  Titus  ; 
except  that  he  is  mentioned  in  this  Epistle  as  having  been 
with  Paul  in  Crete  (Tit.  i.  5,"),  and  in  2  Tim.  iv.  10.  (shortly 
before  that  apostle's  martyrdom)  as  being  in  Dalmatia.  How 
highly  he  was  esteemed  by  the  great  apostle  of  the  Gentiles,  is 
evident  from  the  affectionate  uianner  in  which  he  has  spoken 
of  him  to  the  Corinthians.'  Whether  Titus  ever  quitted 
Crete  we  know  not :  neither  have  we  any  certain  information 
concerning  the  time,  place,  or  manner  of  his  death ;  but, 
according  to  ancient  ecclesiastical  tradition,  he  lived  to  the  age 
of  ninety-four  years,  and  died  and  was  buried  in  that  island. 

II.  We  havt;  no  certain  information  when  or  by  whom 
Christianity  was  first  planted  in  Crete.  As  some  Cretans 
v^ere  present  at  tlie  first  effusion  of  the  Holy  Spirit  at  Jeru- 
fcalera  (Acts  ii.  11.),  Bishop  Tomline  things  it  not  improba- 
ble, that,  on  their  return  home,  they  might  be  the  means  of 
introducing  the  Gospel  among  their  countrymen.^  But  Mi- 
chaelis.  Dr.  Hales,  and  manj'  other  critics  are  of  opinion  that 
Cliristianity  was  first  planted  there  bv  Paul,  during  the  year 
and  a  half  that  he  spent  at  Corinth,  between  the  latter  part 
of  A.  D.  51,  and  the  former  part  of  a.  d.  53.  It  appears  from 
2  Cor.  xii.  14.  and  xiii.  1.  that  the  apostle  did  make  an 
excursion  during  this  interval,  and  returned  to  Corinth.  In 
this  excursion  it  is  supposed  that  he  made  a  voyage  to  Crete, 
in  order  to  preach  the  Gospel  there,  and  took  litus  with  him 
as  an  assistant,  whom  he  left  behind  to  regulate  the  concerns 
of  that  church.  (Tit.  i.  5.)  josephus  informs  us  that  there 
were  many  Jews^  in  this  island  at  the  time  Paul  wrote  this 
Epistle  to  Titus;  and  the  apostle  seems  to  have  considered 
them  a  more  dangerous  people  than  the  Cretans  themselves, 
wlio  were  formerly  notorious  for  piracy,  luxury,  debauchery, 
and  especially  for  lying.  So  infamous  were  they  for  their 
habitual  practice  of  falsehood,  that  ngii^i^av,  to  act  like  a  Cre- 
tan, was  a  prove'rbial  term  for  ielliiig  a  lie.  With  these  vices 
they  were  charged  by  Epimenides,  ono  of  their  own  poets; 
and  Paul  has  quoted  him  as  expressing  their  true  character. 
(Tit.  i.  12.) 

III.  No  date  is  so  controverted  as  that  of  the  Epistle  to 
Titus.  Michaelis,  wl)o  thinks  it  was  written  soon  after  his 
supposed  visit  to  Crete,  is  of  opinion,  that,  in  the  chronologi- 
cal arrangement  of  Paul's  epistles,  it  should  be  placed  between 
the  second  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians  (a.  d.  52)  and  the 
first  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  (a.  d.  57).  Hug  places  it 
between  the  two  Epistles  to  the  Corinthians;  Dr.  Hales 
dates  tWis  Epistle  in  a.  d.  52 ;  Dr.  Lardner  in  5G ;  Lord  Bar- 
rington  in  57 ;  Dr.  Benson  and  Bishop  Tomline  in  64  ;  and 
Bishop  Pearson,  Drs.  Whitby  and  Paley,  and  the  Bible 
chronology  in  a.  d.  65.  The  subscription  states  this  Epistle 
to  have  been  written  from  Nicopolis  of  Macedonia,  prooably 
because  Saint  Paul  desired  to  meet  him  at  a  city  called  Ni- 
copolis, but  which  could  not  be  the  place  intended  by  the 
author  of  the  subscription ;  for  the  Nicopolis  referred  to  by 
him  was  situated  on  the  river  Nessus  in  Thrace,  and  was  not 
built  till  afier  this  period  by  the  emperor  Trajan.  As  Luke 
is  totally  silent  concerning  Saint  Paul's  preaching  at  Crete, 
though  he  has  noticed  that  he  touched  at  the  Fair  Havens  and 
Lasea  in  his  first  voyage  to  Rome,  it  is  most  probable  that 
this  Epistle  was  written  after  his  liberation  from  his  first 
imprisonment,  a.  d.  64.  And  this  opinion  is  strengthened 
by  the  verbal  harmony  subsisting  between  the  first  Episfle 
to  Timothy  and  the  letter  to  Titus;  which  cannot  be  natu- 
rally accounted  for,  but  by  supposing  that  they  were  both 
written  about  the  same  time,  ana  while  the  same  ideas  and 
phrases  were  present  to  the  writer's  mind.  Among  other 
instances  that  might  be  adduced,  compare  1  Tim.  i.  I — 3. 
with  Tit.  i.  4,  5. ;  1  Tim.  i.  5.  with  Tit.  i.  14. ;  1  Tim.  iv. 
12.  with  Tit.  ii.  7.  15.,  and  1  Tim.  iii.  2— 4.  with  Tit.  i.  C— S.-* 

i  See  particularly  2  Cor.  ii.  13.  vii.  6.  7.  13—15.  viii.  16—23.  and  xii.  13. 
Elements  of  CIn-istian  Theoloey,  vol.  i.  p.  446. 
Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xvil.  c.  12.  §  1.    De  Bell.  Jud.  lib.  ii.  c.  7.  §  1.,  <fec. 
*  Caluiet,  Preface  sur  I'Epitre  de  S.  Paul  a  Tite ;  Dr.  Benson's  Preface 
to  his  Paraphrase  aiid  Commentary  q^  this  EpLstle  ;  Lardncr's  Works, 
8vo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  320—324. ;  4to.  vol.  iii.  pp.  Si94— 296.  ;  Michaelis's  Introd. 
vol.  iv.  pp.  21)— 41.;  Hug's  Iiitrod.  vol.  ii.  pp.  354-360.     Dr.  Mackiiighl's 
Preface  to  Tit  as. 


The  genuineness  and  authenticity  of  the  Epistle  to  Titus 
were  never  questioned. ^ 

IV.  Titus  having  been  left  in  Crete  to  settle  the  churchf  s 
in  the  several  cities  of  that  island  according  to  the  apostoli- 
cal plan,  Paul  wrote  this  Kpistle  to  him,  that  he  might  di.9- 
charge  his  ministry  among  the  Cretans  with  the  greater  suc- 
cess, and  to  give  him  particular  instructions  con'cerning  his 
behaviour  towards  the  judaizing  teachers,  who  endeavoured 
to  pervert  the  faith  and  disturb  the  peace  of  the  Christian 
church.  The  Epistle,  therefore,  consists  of  three  parts. 
Part  I.   T/ie  Inscription,  (i.  1 — 4.) 

Part  II,  Instructions  to  Titus, 

Sect.  1.  Concerning  the  ordination  of  ciders,  that  is,  of  bishops 
and  deacons,  whose  qualifications  are  enumerated.  (5 — 9.) 
Further,  to  show  Titus  how  cautious  he  ought  to  be  in 
selecting  men  for  the  sacred  office,  Paul  reminds  him  of 
the  acts  of  the  judaizing  teachers.   (10 — 16.) 

Sr.cT.  2.  That  he  should  accommodate  his  exhortations  to  the 
respective  ages,  sexes,  and  circumstances  of  those  whom  he 
was  commis.sioned  to  instruct;  and,  to  give  the  greater 
weight  to  his  instructions,  he  admonishes  him  to  be  an 
example  of  what  he  taught,  (ii.) 

Sect.  3.  That  he  should  inculcate  obedience  to  the  civil 
magistrate,  in  opposition  to  the  Jews  and  judaizing  teachers, ' 
who,  being  averse  from  all  civil  governors,  except  such  as 
were  of  their  own  nation,  were  apt  to  imbue  Gentile  Chris- 
tians with  a  like  seditious  spirit,  as  if  it  were  an  indignity 
for  the  people  of  God  to  obey  an  idolatrous  magistrate  ;  and 
also  that  he  should  enforce  gentleness  to  all  men.  (iii.  1 — 7.) 

Sect.  4.  That  he  should  enforce  good  works,  avoid  foolish 
questions,  and  shun  heretics,  (iii.  8 — 11.) 

Part  III.  Jin  Invitation  to  Titus,  to  come  to  the  Jlpostle  at  Ni' 
copolis,  together  unth  various  Directions,  (iii.  12 — 15.) 

V.  From  a  comparison  of  the  Epistle  of  Titus  with  the 
two  Epistles  to  Timothy,  Dr.  Macknight  remarks,  we  learn 
that  the  judaizing  teachers  were  everywhere  indefatigable  in 
propagating  their  erroneous  doctrine  concerning  the  necessity 
of  obedience  to  the  law  of  Moses,  as  the  only  means  of  ob- 
taining salvation ;  that  in  the  most  distant  countries  they 
uniformly  taught  the  same  doctrine,  for  the  purpose  of  render- 
ino-  the  practice  of  sin  consistent  with  the  hope  of  salvation; 
and  that  in  order  to  draAv  disciples  after  them,  they  en- 
couraged them  in  sin  by  the  vicious  practices  which  they 
themselves  followed,  in  the  persuasion  that  they  would  be 
pardoned  by  the  efficacy  of  the  Levitical  sacrifices.  T!j:U 
eminent  critic  thinks  it  probable,  from  the  apostle's  com- 
manding Titus  in  Crete,  and  Timothy  in  Ephesus,  to  oppose 
those  evrors,  that  the  judaizing  teachers  were  more  numerous 
and  successful  in  Ephesus  and  Crete  than  in  other  places. 
As,  however,  Titus  was  a  Gentile  convert,  whose  interest  i( 
was  to  maintain  the  freedom  of  the  Gentiles  from  the  law  ot 
Moses,  and  also  a  teacher  of  long  standing  in  the  faith,  Paul 
was  not  so  full  in  his  directions  and  exhortations  to  him,  as 
to  Timothy:  neither  did  he  recoijimend  to  him  meekness, 
lenity,  and  patience  in  teaching,  as  he  did  to  Timothy,  but 
rather  sharpness.  (Tit.  i.  13.  ii.  15.)  Dr.  Macknight  ac- 
counts for  this  difference  in  the  apostle's  letters  to  those  twa 
evangelists,  by  supposing  that  Titus  was  a  person  of  a  soft 
and  mild  temper;  whereas  Timothy,  being  a  young  man, 
might  have  been  of  a  more  ardent  spirit  that  stood  in  need 
of  some  restraint. ° 

On  the  undesigned  coincidences  between  this  Epistle  and 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  see  Dr.  Palev's  Hor»  Paulinaej 
i  Chan.  XIII. 


SECTION  XV. 

ON    THE    EPISTLE    TO    PHILEMON. 

L  Account  of  Philemon. — II.  Bate. — TIL  Genuineness  and 
antlienticity. — IV.  Occasion  and  scope  of  this  Epistle.— ^ 
V.   Observations  on  it. 

I.  Philemon  was  an  inhabitant  of  Colossas,  as  appears 
from  Paul's  mentioning  Onesimus  in  his  Epistle  to  the  Co- 
lossians  (iv.  9.)  as  one  of  them,  and  also  from  his  saluting 
Archippus  in  this  Epistle  (ver.  2.),  who  appears  from  Col. 

» It  is  cited  or  alluded  to  by  all  the  fathers  who  have  quoted  the  Iv/o 
Ei)i.stles  to  Tlmothv.     See  the  references  to  them  in  p.  344.  avpra. 
«  Dr.  Macknight 's  Preface  to  Tilus,  sect.  4.  Jine. 


34S 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Paut  VI.  Chap.  Ill 


iv.  17.  to  have  i)een  a  paster  of  thnt  church.  Philemon 
seems  to  have  been  a  person  of  groat  worth  as  a  man,  and  of 
some  note  as  a  citizen  in  his  own  country :  for  his  family 
was  so  numerous  that  it  mado  a  chr.rch  by  itself,  or  at  least 
a  considerable  part  of  the  church  at  Colossae.  (ver.  2.)  He 
was  likewise  so  opulent,  that  he  was  able  by  ihe  cunnnunica- 
tlon  of  his  faith,  that  is,  by  his  boneficencc,  to  refresh  the 
bowels  of  the  saints.  ((J,  7.)  According  to  Grotius,  Phile- 
mon was  an  elder  of  Ephesus  ;  Bcausobreand  Dr.  Doddridire 
suppose  him  to  have  been  one  of  the  ministers  of  the  Colos- 
sian  church  :  and  from  Paul's  recjuesling  liim  (22.)  to  pro- 
vide a  lodging  for  him  at  Colossse,  Michaelis  thinks  that  he 
was  a  deacon"of  that  church.  Tiicsc  opinions  appear  to  have 
been  founded  on  the  inscription  cf  this  Epistle,  where  Paul 
calls  him  a  fellow-labourer.  But  this  appellation,  Drs. 
Whitby'  Lardncr,  and  Macknight  have  remarked,  is  of  am- 
biguous signification;  being  given  not  only  to  those  who 
were  employed  in  preaching  the  Gospel,  but  also  to  such 
pious  inclividuals,  of  either  sex,  as  assisted  the  apostles  in 
any  manner.' 

Philemon  was,  most  probabljr,  a  converted  Gentile,  and 
from  tlie  nineteenth  verse  of  this  Epistle,  some  have  sup- 
posed that  he  was  converted  under  the  ministry  of  Paul ;  but, 
from  the  apostle's  saving  in  the  fifth  verse  that  he  had  heard 
of  Philemon's  faith  m  Christ  (which  was  his  usual  phrase 
when  writing  to  Christians  whom  he  had  never  seen),^  Dr. 
Benson  is  of  opinion  that,  during  Paul's  long  stay  at  Ephe- 
sus, some  of  the  Colossians  had  gone  thither,  and  heard  him 
preach  the  Christian  doctrine  (Acts  xix.  10.  xx.  31.)  ;  or  that 
the  apostle  had  sent  some  of  his  assistants  who  had  planted 
the  Gospel  at  Colossae.  If  Saint  Paul  hud  not  come  into 
those  parts  of  Asia  Minor,  it  is  highly  probable  that  Phile- 
mon would  never  have  become  a  Christian  ;  the  apostle  might 
therefore  well  say,  that  Philemon  owed  unto  him  himself,  or 
his  own  soul. 

II.  It  appears  from  verses  1.  10.  13.  and  23.  of  this  Epis- 
tle, that  Paul  was  under  confinement  when  he  wrote  it;  and 
as  he  expresses  (22.)  his  expectation  of  being  shortly  re- 
leased, it  is  probable  that  it  was  written  during  his  first  im- 
prisonment at  Rome  towards  the  end  of  a.  d.  ()2,  or  ea||y  in 
C3  :  and  was  sent,  together  with  the  Epistles  to  the  Ephe- 
sians  and  Colossians,'by  Tychicus  and  Onesinms. 

III.  So  early  as  the  time  of  Jerome,  some  fastidious  critics 
showed  an  inclination  to  expunge  this  Epistle  from  the  sacred 
canon  as  being  a  private  letter,  and  consemiently  of  very  little 
importance  to  the  Christian  church.  Unquestionably  tlie 
apostles  might  (and,  for  aught  we  know  to  the  contrary,  did) 
write  private  letters  as  well  as  other  persons.  But  we  have 
no  reason  to  consider  the  Epistle  to  Pliilemon  in  this  light; 
it  was  wholly  written  with  the  apostle's  own  hand,  which 
was  much  more  than  what  he  called  the  token  in  all  hix  Epis- 
tles. (2Thess.  iii.  17.)  Although  from  its  brevity,  and  the 
private  nature  of  its  subject,  it  was  but  rarely  mentioned  by 
the  primitive  ecclesiastical  writers,  yet  we  know  that  it  was 
alluded  to,  though  note' ted  by  name,  by  Tertullian,^  and  was 
reckoned  among  Saint  Paul's  Epistles  by  Caius.'  It  was 
likewise  most  expressly  mioted  by  Origen,^  and  was  nro- 
nounced  to  be  authentic  ny  all  the  ancient  writers  citeu  by 
Eusebius,'^  and  also  by  all  subsequent  ecclesiastical  writers; 
and  it  has  ahvays  been  inserted  in  every  catalogue  of  tlie 
books  of  the  New  Testament.  Stronger  external  testimony 
to  the  authenticity  of  any  part  of  the  Bible  exists  not,  than 
that  which  we  have  for  the  Epistle  to  Philemon,  the  argu- 
ment of  which  is  not  mean,  nor  is  any  part  of  it  unworthy  of 
the  great  apostle  of  the  Gentiles. 

"Whoever,"  says  Dr.  Benson,  "  will  carefully  study  it, 
will  discern  a  great  number  of  the  doctrines  and  precepts  of 
Christianity  expressed  or  insinuated  :  for  instance,  1.  In  a 
religious  view,  or  upon  a  spiritual  account,  all  (Jhristiaus  are 
upon  a  level.  Onesimus,  the  slave,  upon  becoming  a  Clliris- 
1,  is  the  apostle's  dear  son  and  Pliilemon's  brother, 
('hristianity  makes  no  alteration  in  men's  civil  afl'airs. 
By  (l^hristian  baptism  a  slave  did  not  become  a  freedman ; 
his  temporal  state  or  condition  was  still  tlie  same;  and, 
though  Onesimus  was  the  apostle's  son  and  Philemon's  bro- 
ther upon  a  religious  accoimt,  yet  he  was  obliged  to  be  Phi- 
lemon's slave  fo7  ever,  unless  his  master  voluntarily  gave  him 
his  freedom.     3.  Servants  should  not  be  taken  or  detained 

1  3pc  instanroR  of  this  in  Kom.  xvi.  8.  and  3  John  8. 

3  Soc  Kph.  i   ir..     Col.  I.  1.  mid  li.  1 

»  l.tirrliur's  Worksj,  8vo.  vol.  it.  p,  165.  ;  4to.  vol.  1.  p.  124. 

*  Inlfl  8co.  vol.  ii   p.  274. ;  -tto.  vol.  I.  p.  ^i. 
»  Ibirt.  8vo.  V(  1.  ii.  p.  472.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  &35. 

•  iiiat.  Eccl.  lib.  iii.  c.  25. 


tian 
2 


from  their  own  masters  without  their  master's  corsent.  (See 
ver.  13,  14.)  4.  We  should  love  and  dj  good  unto  all  men. 
We  should  not  contemn  persons  of  low  estate,  nor  disdain 
to  help  the  meanest  slave  when  it  is  in  our  power.  The  apos- 
*'<  has  here  set  us  au  example  of  benevolence,  condescension, 
i.iid  Christiar.  charity,  which  it  well  becomes  us  to  follow. 
Ho  look  pains  with  and  converted  a  slave,  and  in  a  most 
affection;  te  and  earnest  manner  interceded  with  his  mastei 
fo:  his  pardon.  5.  We  should  not  utterly  despair  of  those 
who  are  wicked,  but  should  use  pur  best  endeavours  to  re- 
claim them.  Though  Onesimus  had  robbed  his  master  and 
run  away  from  him,  the  apostle  attempted  his  conversion 
among  others,  and  succeeded  therein.  6.  Restitution  is  due 
where  an  injury  has  been  done,  unless  the  injured  party 
freely  forgive  :  accordingly,  the  apostle  Paul  gives  a  promise, 
under  his  own  hand,  for  Onesimus's  making  restitution  as  a 
matter  of  justice,  if  Philemon  insisted  upon  it.  7.  We  should 
be  grateful  to  our  benefactors.  This  Saint  Paul  touches  upon 
very  gently  (ver.  19.),  where  he  intimites  to  Philemon  that 
he  owed  unto  him  hini'self  also :  and  therefore,  in  point  of 
gratitude,  he  was  obliged  to  grant  his  request.  8.  We  should 
foro-ivc  the  penitent,  and  be  heartily  reconciled  to  them. 
9.  The  apostle's  example  teaches  us  to  do  all  we  can  to  make 
up  quarrels  and  difterences,  and  reconcile  those  who  are  at 
variance.  10.  A  wise  man  chooses  sometimes  to  address  in 
a  soft  and  obliging  manner,  even  in  cases  where  there  is  au- 
thority to  command.  11.  The  bishops  and  pastors  of  the 
Ciiristian  church,  and  all  teachers  "of  religion,  have  here  the 
most  glorious  example  set  before  them,  to  induce  them  to 
have  a  most  tender  regard  to  the  souls  of  men  of  all  ranks 
and  conditions  ;  and  to  endeavour  to  convert  a  slave,  as  well 
as  the  rich  and  great  and  honourable  of  the  earth.  He  who 
disdained  not  to  teach  a  slave,  a  fugitive  and  a  thief,  but 
preached  the  doctrine  of  salvation  to  him,  and  took  pains 
with  him,  till  he  had  restored  him  to  his  master,  an  honest 
worthy  man  ; — how  disinterested  must  he  have  been  !  To 
whom  would  he  not  condescend  ?  or  whose  salvation  and 
happiness  would  he  not  endeavour  to  promote]  Would  to 
God  there  was  the  same  spirit  in  all  the  teachers  of  Christi- 
anity, at  all  times  and  in  all  places!  12.  Here  is  a  most 
glorious  proof  of  the  good  effects  of  Christianity,  where  it  is 
rightly  understood  and  sincerely  criibraced.  It  transtorms  a 
worthless  slave  and  thief  into  a  pious,  virtuous,  amial)le,  and 
useful  man  ;  makes  him  not  only  happier  and  better  in  him- 
self, but  a  better  servant,  and  better  in  all  relations  and  cir- 
cumstances whatever. 

"  Shall  an  epistle  so  full  of  useful  and  excellent  instruc- 
tions be  rejected  for  its  brevity  ]  or  because  the  occasion 
required  that  it  should  be  written  concerning  one  particular 
jierson  1  or  addressed  to  a  private  man  1  Men  would  do  well 
to  examine  it  carefully  before  they  reject  it,  or  speak  of  it 
so  slightly."' 

IV.  We  learn  from  this  Epistle  that  Onesimus  was  the 
slave  of  Philemon,  whom  he  had  probably  robbed,*"  and  ran 
away  from  him  as  far  as  Rome.  Whether  he  reii^ited  of 
what  he  had  done,  and  voluntarily  went  to  Paul,  or  in  what 
other  manner  they  came  to  meet  there,  we  have  no  infor- 
mation. But  the  apostle,  during  his  confinement  in  his  otm 
hired  house,  opened  a  way  to  the  heart  of  the  rude  slave,  con- 
verted him  to  the  Christian  faith,  and  baptized  him.  It  also 
appears  that  Paul  kept  Onesimus  with  him  for  some  lime,  to 
wait  ujion  himself,  until  Onesimus,  by  his  conduct,  confirmed 
the  truth  and  sincerity  of  tiis  conversion.  During  his  aliode 
with  the  apostle,  he  served  him  witli  tlie  greatest  assiiiuity 
and  affection:  but,  being  sensible  of  his  fault  in  ninuiii:f 
away  from  his  master,  he  wislied  to  repair  that  injury  by 
returning  to  him.  At  the  same  time  being  afraid  lest,  on  his 
return,  l7is  master  should  inflict  upon  him  the  puni.shinent 
which  by  the  law  or  custom  of  Phrygia  was  due  to  a  fugitive 
slave,"  he  entreated  Paul  to  write  to  Philenum  in  his  behalf, 
and  reipieated  him  to  forgive  and  receiver  him  again  into  his 
family.  The  apostle  therefore  wrote  this  Ej)istle  to  Phi- 
lemon, "  in  which,  with  the  irreatest  softness  of  expression, 
warmth  of  affection,  and  delicacy  of  address,  he  not  only 
interceded  for  Onesimus's  pardon,  but  urged  Philemon  to 
esteem  him  and  put  confidence  in  him  as  a  sincere  Christian. 

1  Dr  lii-nson's  Ilislory  of  the  First  Plnniim  of  Christianity,  vol.  il.  p. 
311.  2.1  p.llt.  „     ..  ,       , 

•  .Mwikniirhl  and  Ijirdnr-r  are  of  opinion  tlint  Sam!  Puul'j  expression  In 
tlie  cishlepiitli  verso  does  not  Insiuualo  that  Onesimus  had  robbed  hia 
ciiaKtiT  of  any  lliiiiit  bill  liis  sorvlrr. 

•  (Jmiius  inroriiLt  lu  that  iiias(«|s  had  a  power  to  torturo  thoir  slaves 
who  bpliaved  III,  and  cvtn  to  nnrihciii  to  death,  wlthoui  npplyinfi  to  the 
inaidstrutr! ;  and  Umt  this  wns  ui^reoablo  not  only  lo  the  Kuinuii  but  also  to 
Uic  Crucian  law. 


StcT.  XVI.] 


ON  THE  EPISTLE  TO  THE  HEBREWS. 


340 


And  because  restitution,  by  repairing  the  injury  that  has  been 
done,  restores  th^^  person  who  did  tiie  injiiry  to  the  character 
■which  he  had  lost,  the  apostle,  to  enable  Onesimus  to  appear 
in  Philemon's  family  with  some  degree  of  reputation,  bound 
himself  in  this  Epistle  by  his  handwriting,  not  only  to  repay 
all  that  Onesimus  owed  to  Philemon,  but  to  make  full  repa- 
ration also  to  Philemon  for  whatever  injury  he  had  done  to 
him  by  running  away."'  To  account  for  the  solicitude 
expressed  by  Paul  in  this  Epistle  in  order  to  obtain  Onesi- 
mus's  pardon,  and  procure  a  thorough  reconciliation,  it  is  not 
necessary  to  suppose,  with  some  critics,  that  Philemon  was 
keen  and  obstinate  in  his  resentments,  or  of  that  rough  and 
mtractable  disposition  for  which  the  Phrygians  were  pro- 
verbial. The  contrary  is  insinuated  by  the  apostle,  who  has 
in  other  places  commended  his  benevolence  and  charity.  It 
is  most  probable,  as  Dr.  Macknight  has  conjectured,  that 
Philemon  had  a  number  of  slaves,  on  whom  the  pardoning 
of  Onesimus  too  easily  might  have  had  a  bad  effect ;  ana 
therefore  he  might  judge  some  punishment  necessary  as  an 
example  to  the  rest.  At  least  Paul  could  not  have  consi- 
dered the  pardoning  of  Onesimus  as  an  affair  that  merited  so 
much  earnest  entreaty,  with  a  person  of  Philemon's  piety, 
benevolence,  and  gratitude,  unless  he  had  suspected  him  to 
have  entertained  some  such  intention. 

V.  Whether  Philemon  pardoned  or  punished  Onesimus,  is 
a  circumstance  concerning  which  we  have  no  information. 
From  the  earnestness  with  which  the  apostle  solicited  his 

Sardon,  and  from  the  generosity  and  goodness  of  Philemon's 
isposition,  the  eminent  critic  above  'cited  conjectures  that  he 
actually  pardoned  Onesimus,  and  even  gave  hmi  his  freedom, 
in  compliance  with  the  apostle's  insinuation,  as  it  is  inter- 
preted by  some,  that  he  would  do  more  than  he  had  asked. 
For  it  was  no  uncommon  thing,  in  ancient  times,  to  bestow 
freedom  on  those  slaves  whose  faithful  services  had  procured 
for  them  the  esteem  ind  good  vi'ill  of  their  masters.  The 
primitive  Christians  preserving  this  Epistle,  and  placing  it 
in  the  sacred  canon  (Dr.  Benson  remarks),  are  strong  argu- 
ments to  induce  us  to  believe  that  Philemon  granted  the 
apostle's  request,  and  received  Onesimus  into  his  house  and 
favour  again.  As  Onesimus  was  particularly  recommended 
by  Saint  Paul  to  the  notice  of  the  Colossians  (iv.  9.),  it 
cannot  be  doubted  that  they  cheerfully  received  him  into 
their  church.  In  the  Apostolical  Constitutions,^  Onesimus 
IS  said  to  have  been  bishop  of  Bercea;  but  they  are  a  compi- 
lation of  the  fourth  century,  and  consequently,  of  no  authority. 
When  Ignatius  wrote  his  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians  (a.  d.  107), 
their  bishop's  name  was  Onesimus  :  and  Grotius  thought  that 
he  was  the  person  for  whom  Saint  Paul  intercedea.  But 
this,  as  Dr.  Lardner^  remarks,  is  not  certain.  Dr.  MilP  has 
mentioned  a  copy,  at  the  conclusion  of  which  it  is  said  that 
Onesinms  suffered  martyrdom  at  Rome  by  having  his  legs 
broken. 

The  whole  of  this  Epistle  is  indeed  a  most  beautiful  com- 
position. Such  deference  and  respect  for  Philemon,  such 
affection  and  concern  for  Onesimus,  such  distant  bwt  just 
insinuation,  such  a  genteel  and  fine  address  ^lervade  the 
whole,  that  this  alone  might  be  sufficient  to  convince  us  that 
Paul  was  not  unacquainted  with  the  world,  and  was  not  that 
weak  and  visionary  enthusiast,  which  the  enemies  of  reve- 
lation have  sometimes  represented  him  to  be.  It  is,  indeed, 
impossible  to  peruse  this  admirable  Epistle  without  being 
touched  with  the  delicacy  of  sentiment,  and  the  masterly 
address  that  appear  in  every  part  of  it.  We  see  here,  in  a 
most  striking  light,  how  perfectly  consistent  true  politeness 
is,  not  only  with  all  the  warmth  and  sincerity  of  the  friend, 
but  even  with  the  dignity  of  the  Christian  and  the  apostle. 
Every  word  has  its  force  and  propriety.  With  what  clirrnity 
and  authority  dftes  Paul  entreat,  though  a  prisoner  !  ,  With 
what  condescension  and  humility  does  he  command,  though 
an  apostle !  And  if  this  letter  were  to  be  considered  in  no 
other  point  of  view  than  as  a  mere  human  composition,  it  must 
be  allowed  to  be  a  master-piece  in  its  kind.  As  an  illus- 
tration of  this  remark,  it  may  not  be  improper  to  compare  it 
with  an  Epistle  of  the  younger  Pliny, *  that  seems  to  have 
been  written  on  a  similar  occasion ;  wiiich,  though  composed 
by  one  who  has  always  been  reckoned  to  excel  in  the  episto- 
latory  style,  and  though  it  undoubtedly  has  many  beauties, 
yet  it  must  be  acknowledged  by  every  impartial  reader  to  be 
vastly  inferior  to  this  animated  composition  of  the  apostle. 
Pliuy  seems  desirous  of  saying  something ;  the  apostle  has 


urged  every  thmc;  that  can  be  said  upon  the  occasion.  Pliny 
is  too  affected  to  be  aftecting;  the  apostle  takes  possession 
of  our  heart,  and  excites  our  compassion  whether  we  will  oi 
not.c 

On  the  undesigned  coincidences  between  this  Epistle  and 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  see  Dr.  Paley's  Horee  Paulinie 
Chap.  XIV. 


SECTION  XVI. 

ON   THE    EPISTLE    TO    THE    HEBREWS. 

I.  To  -whom  xvntten. — II.  Jn  ivhat  language, — III.  Its  ge- 
nnineness  and  authenticity. — Proofs  that  it  -was  ivritten  by 
Paul. — IV.  Its  date. — V.  Occasion  and  scope  of  this  Epis- 
tle.— VI.  Sy?iopsis  of  its  contents. 

I.  After  the  thirteen  Epistles  avowedly  written  by  Paul, 
with  his  name  prefixed  to  them,  succeeds  what  we  call  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  ;  the  nature  and  authenticity  of  which 
has  been  more  controverted,  perhaps,  than  any  other  book  of 
the  New  Testament.  As  the  initiatory  formula,  usual  in  the 
other  apostolical  letters,  is  wanting  in  this  Epistle  (notwith- 
standing the  superscription  terms  it  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews'), 
it  has  been  questionea  whether  it  was  really  an  Epistle  sent 
to  a  particular  community,  or  only  a  discourse  or  dissertation 
intended  for  general  readers.  Michaelis  determines  that  it 
is  an  Epistle,  and  remarks  that  not  only  the  second  person 
plural  ye  incessantly  occurs  in  it,  v/hich  alone  indeed  would 
oe  no  proof,  but  also  that  the  author  alludes  to  special  cir- 
cumstances in  this  writing,  in  chapters  v.  11,  12.  vi.  9.  x. 
32 — 34.,  and  above  all  in  chapter  xiii.  23, 24.,  which  contains 
the  promise  of  a  visit,  and  various  salutations ;  all  which 
circumstances  taken  together  show  that  it  really  is  an  apos- 
tolical Epistle. 

Who  the  Hebrews  were,  to  whom  this  letter  was  ad- 
dressed, learned  men  are  by  no  means  agreed.  Sir  Isaac 
Newton  was  of  opfnion  tliat  by  "  the  Hebrews"  in  this 
Epistle  we  are  to  understand  those  Jewish  believers  who 
had  left  Jerusalem  a  short  time  before  its  destruction,  and 
were  now  dispersed  throughout  Asia  Minor ;''  but  of  this  we 
have  no  authentic  record.  Others  again  have  imagined  that 
it  was  addressed  to  the  Hebrew  Christians  in  Spain,  Galatia, 
Macedonia,  or  at  Corinth  or  Rome,  or  to  those  who  resided 
in  Palestine.  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Jerome,  Euthalius, 
Chrysostom,  Theodoret,  Theophylact,  and  other  fathers,  were 
of  opinion  that  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  was  sent  to  the 
converted  Jevi's  living  in  Juda3a;  who  in  the  apostle's  days 
were  called  Hebrews,  to  distinguish  them  from  the  Jews  in 
the  Gentile  countries,  who  were  called  Hellenists  or  Grecians. 
(Acts  vi.  1.  ix.  29.  xi.  20.)  The  opinion  of  these  learned 
fathers  is  adopted  by  Beza,  Louis  Cappel,  Carpzov,  Drs. 
Lightfoot,  Whitby,  Mill,  Lardner,  and  Macknight,  Bishops 
Pearson  and  Tomline,  Hallet,  Rosenmiiller,  Hug,  Scott,  and 
others.  Michaelis  considers  it  as  written  for  the  use  of  tlie 
Jewish  Christians  at  Jerusalem  and  in  Palestine  ;  and  Pro- 
fessor Stuarts,  (who  is  followed  by  M.  La  Harpe)  that  it 
was  directed  to  Hebrews  in  Palestine,  and  probably  to  the 
church  of  Ca;sarea.9  The  very  ancient  opinion  last  stated  is 
corroborated  by  the  contents  of  the  Epistle  itself,  in  which 
we  meet  with  many  things  peculiarly  suitable  to  the  believers 
in  Judaea. 

1 .  It  is  evident  from  the  whole  tenor  of  this  Epistle,  that  the 
persons  to  whom  it  was  addressed,  were  in  imminent  dainger  of 
falling  back  from  Christianity  to  Judaism,  induced  partly  by  a 
severe  persecution,  and  partly  by  the  false  arguments  of  the  rab- 
bins. This  could  hardly  have  happened  to  several  communities 
at  the  same  time  in  any  other  country  than  Palestine,  anA  there- 
fore we  cannot  suppose  it  of  several  communities  of  Asia  Minor, 
to  which,  in  the  opinion  of  some  commentators,  the  Epistle  was 


>  Macknighl's  Preface  to  Philemon,  sect  2. 
*  I.ib   viii.  c.  46. 

8  Works,  Svo.  vol.  iv.  p  331. ;  4to.  vol.  ii'.  p.  324. 
«  Nov.  Tost.  Millii  et  ICusteri,  p.  513. 


'  Lib.  ix.  ep.  21. 


6  Doddridge,  Introd.  to  Philemon. 

''  Obsei-vations  on  the  Apocalypse  of  Saint  .lohn,  p.  244. 

8  Stuart's  Comm.  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  vol.  i.  pp.  67—73.  (An- 
dover,  N.  Am.  1827.)  In  pp.  8 — 07.  he  has  discussed  the  various  hypo, 
theses  ol  Dr.  Storr,  who  supposes  it  to  have  been  written  to  the  Hebrew 
church  at  Galatia ;  of  Noessrlt,  who  considered  it  as  addressed  to  th.- 
church  at  Thessalonica  ;  of  Bolten,  who  imagined  that  it  was  directed  d; 
Hebrews  who  were  sojourners  in  Asia  Minor;  of  Michael  Weber,  who 
advanced  and  endeavoured  to  support  the  opinion  that  it  was  addressed  to 
ihe  church  at  Corinth;  and  of  the  ancients  (whose  opinion  he  adopts), 
that  this  epistle  was  written  to  the  Hebrew  church  in  Palestine. 

9  I.a  Harpe,  Essai  Critique  suv  rAuthenticitc  Ue  I'Epitre  aux  Hebreu,', 
p.  13G.  (Tuulousc,  1332.^ 


350 


j^Kalysis  of  the  xew  testament. 


[Part  VI.  Ciiap.  Ill 


a('dresi?cd.  Christiaiii'.y  at  t'lis  time  enjoyed,  from  the  tolerating 
spirit  of  the  Koman  b-As  and  the  Roman  mai^istratos,  through- 
out the  empire  in  ;jeneral,  so  mm-h  religious  liherty,  that  out  of 
I'alcstine  it  would  ha»c  been  di'i'icult  to  liave  elfectod  a  gi-iieral 
persecution.'  But,  through  tlie  intlucncc  of  Hhe  Jewi.^h  sanlie- 
drin  in  Jerusalem,  the  Christians  in  that  country  underwent 
several  severe  jiersecutions,  especially  during  the  high-priesthood 
of  the  younger  Ananus,  when  Saint  James  and  olher  Christians 
sulVcred  martyrdom. 

2.  Further,  if  we  examine  the  Epistles  of  Saint  Paul,  espe- 
cially those  to  the  Ephesians,  Phili[)pians,  and  Colossians,  and 
cornipare  thein  with  the  two  Epistles  of  Saint  Peter,  which  were 
addressed  to  the  Christians  in  Ponlus,  Galatia,  Cappadocia,  Asia, 
and  Bithynia,  we  shall  fmd,  though  mention  is  made  of  seducers, 
not  the  smallest  traces  of  ininiinent  danger  of  an  apostasy  to 
Judaism,  and  still  less  of  blasphemy  against  Christ,  as  we  find 
in  the  sixth  and  tenth  chapters  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews.  The 
two  passages  of  this  Episth;  (vi.  6.  x.  29.)  which  relate  to  blas- 
phemy against  Christ,  as  a  person  justly  condemned  and  crucified, 
arc  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  situation  of  communities  in  Pales- 
tine ;  and  it  is  ditficult  to  read  these  passages  without  inferring 
that  several  Christians  had  really  apostatized  and  openly  blas- 
phemed Christ ;  for  it  appears  from  Acts  xxvi.  11.  that  violent 
measures  were  taken  in  Palestine  for  this  very  purpose,  of  which 
we  meet  with  no  traces  in  any  other  country  at  that  early  age. 
Neither  the  Epistles  of  Saint  Paul,  nor  those  of  Saint  Peter, 
furnish  any  instance  of  a  public  renunciation  of  Christianity  and 
return  to  Judaism:  and  yet,  if  any  such  instances  had  happened 
in  the  communities  to  which  they  wrote,  these  apostles  would 
haRlly  have  passed  them  over  in  silence,  or  without  cautioning 
other  persons  against  following  such  examples.  The  circum- 
stance, likewise,  to  which  the  auilior  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
alludes  (x.  25.),  that  several  who  still  continued  Christians  for- 
sook the  places  of  public  worship,  does  not  occur  in  any  other 
Epistle,  and  implies  a  general  and  continued  persecution,  which 
deterred  the  ChrVtians  from  an  open  confession  of  their  faith. 
In  this  melancholy  situation,  the  Hebrews,  almost  reduced  to 
despair,  are  referred  f  x.  2.5.  35 — 33.)  to  the  promised  coming  of 
Christ,  which  they  are  requested  to  await  with  patience,  as  being 
not  far  distant.  This  can  be  no  other  than  the  promised  de- 
struction of  Jerusalem  (Matt,  xxiv.),  of  which  Christ  himself  said 
(Luke  xxi.  2S.),  "  When  these  things  begin  to  come  to  pass, 
then  look  up,  and  lift  up  your  heads,  for  your  redemption  draweth 
nigh."  Now  this  coming  of  Christ  was  to  the  Christians  in 
Palestine  a  deliverance  from  the  yoke  with  which  they  were 
oppressed ;  but  it  had  no  such  influence  on  the  Christians  of 
other  countries.  On  the  contrary,  the  first  persecution  under 
Nero  happened  in  the  year  Go,  al)Out  two  years  before  the  com- 
mencement of  the  Jewish  war,  and  the  second  under  Dornitian, 
about  fivc-and-twenty  years  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem. 

3.  From  ch.  xii.  7.  though  no  mention  is  made  in  express 
terms  of  martyrs  who  had  sulTcred  in  the  cause  of  Christianity, 
we  may  with  great  probability  infer,  that  several  persons  had 
really  suffered,  and  afforded  a  noble  example  to  their  brethren.  If 
this  inference  be  just,  the  Hebrews,  to  whom  this  Epistle  was 
written,  must  have  b'ln  inhabitants  of  Palestine,  for  in  no  other 
part  of  the  Roman  empire,  before  the  year  65,  had  the  enemies 
of  Christianity  tiie  power  of  persecuting  its  professors  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  dejirive  them  of  their  lives,  because  no  Roman 
ojurt  of  justice  would  have  condemned  a  man  to  death,  merely 
for  religious  opinions ;  and  the  pretence  of  the  Jews,  that  who- 
ever acknowledged  Jesus  for  the  Me=siah  was  guilty  of  tre.ison 
against  the  cmi)eror,  was  too  sophistical  to  be  admitted  by  a  Ro- 
man magistrate.  But,  in  Palestine,  Stojihen  aiid  the  elder  James 
had  already  suffered  martyrdom  (Acts  vii.  xiii.)  ;  both  Saint  Peter 
and  Saint  Paul  had  been  in  imminent  danger  of  undergoing  the 
same  fate  (AcU  xii.  3—6,  xxii.  11— 21.  2G.  30.);  and  according 
to  Josephus,2  several  other  persons  were  put  to  death,  during  the 
hijih-priesthood  of  the  younger  Ananus,  about  the  year  04  or  CJ.^ 
•I.  The  declarations  in  lleb.  i.  2.  and  iv,  12.,  and  particularly 


'  Tliig  is  evi(|pn(  frnm  tbr  Acts  of  the  ApoBlloq.  Her  also  Uinlricr's  Creili- 
iliry,  chaii.  vii.  (WorlCK,  Hvo.  vol.  i.  pp.  Kil— '.^1.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  •«>— 110  ) 
"•  Ant.  Jiid.  lit).  XX.  c.  9.  i  I.   Thn  wonls  of  .InsfphiiHnri*  ns  fullnw  :— "Th 


Mliry,  chap.  vii.  (WorkK,  Hvo.  vol.  i.  pp.  Kil— '.^1.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  •«>— 110  ) 
"•  Ant.  Jiid.  lit).  XX.  c.  9.  i  I.   Tlin  wonls  of  .losfphiiHnri*  ns  follow  :— "Tin 
younger  Aiianiiii,  who  lind  otuaiii'-d  (lie  office  of  liiRhprli-Hl.  w;w  a  man  of 


ilrspcralp  cimnicirr,  of  llm  si-rl  of  tli'.-  SadurcPH,  who,  nn  I  have  oh.snrvr'il 
In  other  plicf  s,  wore  in  eener.il  Br-veri?  In  Ilicir  piiriiHhim.ntH.  Thi.x  AnriniiH 

ernlirarc'l  i' •    ■••iniiy  of  nclini;  arcorilni'.;  lo  hi<  im-liimiloii,  afier  lh>- 

d"Mh  of  I  !  hiforp  the  arrival  of  hiH  niiccrKKoi-  AlhimiM.     In  Ihi.s 

inlorval  li-  ■■■d  n  rourl  of  iilHtico,  and  broiidil  ticforp  It  JniiieH.  a 

brother  of  .1. mi-i  wlio  wnii  called  Christ,  and  severil  oth<T!<,  where  they 
were  accuse. 1  of  havliiK  violated  the  law,  and  were  rondeiimed  lo  he  atoned 
lo  deulli.     Ilul  the  more  moderate  jiail  of  the  city,  and  they  who  strictly 
adhered  to  the  law,  diruipproved  highly  of  this  incESure." 
»  .Michaelis,  vol.  Iv.  pp.  193—197. 


the  exhortation  in  ii.  1 — i.,  are  ))eculiarly  suitable  to  the  believers 
of  Jud.Ta,  where  Jesus  Christ  himself  lirst  taught,  and  his  disci- 
ples at\er  him.  confirming  their  testimony  with  very  numerous 
and  conspicuous  miracles. 

5.  The  people  to  whom  this  Epistle  was  sent  were  well  ac- 
quainted with  our'Saviour's  sufferings,  as  those  of  Juda;a  must 
have  been.  This  appears  in  Heb.  i.  3. ;  ii.  9.  18. ;  v.  7.  8. ;  ix. 
14.  28.;  X.  12.;  xii.  2,  3.;  and  xiii.  12. 

6.  The  censure  in  v.  12.  is  most  properly  understood  of  Chris- 
tians in  Jerusalem  and  Judaea,  to  whom  the  Gospel  was  first 
preached. 

7.  Lastly,  the  exhortation  in  Heb.  xiii.  12 — 14.  is  very  difficult 
to  be  explained,  on  the  supposition  that  the  Epistle  was  written 
to  Hebrews  who  lived  out  of  Palestine;  for  neither  in  the  Acts 
of  the  Apostles,  nor  in  the  other  Epistles,  do  wc  meet  with  an 
instance  of  expulsion  from  the  synagogue  merely  for  a  belief  in 
Christ;  on  the  contrary,  the  apostles  themselves  were  permitted 
to  teach  openly  in  the  Jewish  assemblies.  But  if  we  suppose 
that  the  Epistle  was  written  to  Jewish  converts  in  Jerusalem, 
this  passage  becomes  perfectly  clear,  and  Dr.  Lardner  observes, 
must  have  been  very  suitable  to  their  ca.se,  especially  if  it  was 
written  only  a  short  time  before  the  commencement  of  the  Jewish 
war,  about  the  year  65  or  66.  The  Christians,  on  this  sujipsition, 
are  exhorted  to  endure  their  fate  with  patience,  if  they  should  be 
obligctl  to  retire,  or  should  even  be  ignominiously  expelled  from 
Jerusalem,  since  Christ  himself  had  been  forced  out  of  this^ery 
city,  and  had  suffered  without  its  walls.  It  was  a  city  devoted  to 
destruction,  and  they  who  fled  from  it  had  to  expect  a  better  in 
heaven.  The  disciples  of  Christ  had  been  already  warned  by 
their  Ma.stcr  to  flee  from  Jerusalem  (Matt.  xxiv.  1.5 — 22.),  and  the 
time  assigned  for  their  flight  could,  when  this  Epistle  was  written, 
be  not  far  distant.  That  they  actually  followed  his  atlvice,  ap- 
pears from  the  relation  of  Euscliius  ;••  and,  according  to  Josephus,* 
the  most  sensible  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem  took  similar  measures 
after  the  retreat  of  Cestius  Gallus,  which  happened  in  Novem- 
ber 6G,  and  likewise  left  the  city.  If  we  supi^)ose,  therefore,  that 
the  Epistle  was  written  to  thi  Hebrews  of  Jeru.salem,  the  passage 
in  question  is  clear ;  but  on  the  hypothesis,  that  it  w!ls  written  tc 
Hebrews,  who  lived  in  any  other  place,  the  words,  "  Let  us  t^o 
forth  ivith  him  out  of  the  camj),  bcaring^  his  reproach,"  lose 

their  meaning.  Further  (x.  25.)  the  exhortition,  J\'ot  fors(!killlr 
the  assembling  of  ourselves  together,  as  the  mnnner  of  some  is, 
but  exliorting  one  another,  and  so  much  the  more  as  ye  see  the 
day  approaching,  is  an  additional  confirmation  of  this  opinion. 
The  approaching  day  can  mean  only  the  day  appointed  for  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem,  and  the  downfall  of  the  Jewish  naliv^n : 
but  this  event  immediately  concerned  only  the  Hebrews  of  Pa- 
lestine, and  could  have  no  influence  in  determining  the  inhabitants 
of  other  countries,  such  as  Asia  Minor,  Greece,  and  Spain,  either 
to  forsake  or  to  frequent  the  places  of  public  worship.' 

To  these  clear  and  decisive  evidences,  that  the  Kpistle  to 
the  Hebrews  was  addressed  to  Jewish  Christians  resident  in 
Palestine,  it  has  been  objected, 

1.  That  the  words  in  Heb.  xii.  4.  (j/e  t.ave  not  resisted  unto 
blood,  combating  against  sin)  cannot  apply  to  the  church  of 
Jeru.salem,  where  there  had  already  been  two  niartyrs,  viz.  Stephen 
and  James.  But  this  objection  is  of  no  weight;  for  the  apostle 
was  addressing  the  laity  of  that  church,  to  whom  alone  this 
Epistle  was  directed,  and  not  to  the  rulers;  and  few,  if  any,  of 
the  common  people,  had  hitherto  been  put  to  death,  though  they 
had  been  impri.^oned,  pillaged,  nnd  defamed.  Compare  Acts  viii. 
1_3.  xxvi.  10,  II.  and  1  Thess.  ii.  14. 

2.  That  the  remark  in  Heb.  vi.  10.  {God  is  not  unrigliteous  to 
forget  your  ivork  and  labour  of  love,  in  that  yc  have  ministered 
to  the  sai7its,  and  do  minister)  is  not  suitable  to  the  state  of  the 
church  at  Jeru?alcm,  at  that  time,  because,  though  the  memlwrs 
of  that  church  at  frst  were  in  a  .state  of  allluence,  when  they  had 
all  things  in  common,  yet  afterwards  they  became  so  poor  that 
they  were  relieved  by  the  contributions  of  the  Gentile  Christians 
in  Macedonia,  Galatia,  Corinth,  and  Antioch.  There  is,  however, 
no  force  in  this  objection.  Ministering  to  the  saints  in  Uioso 
days  did  not  consist  solely  in  helping  them  with  money.  Attend- 
ing on  them  in  their  impri.soiuiicnl — rendering  them  any  little 
oflices  of  which  they  stood  in  need — sjieaking  to  them  in  a  kind 
and  con.solatory  manner — the.-e  and  such  olher  services  its  7nay 
be  performed  without  money  were,  tnid  still  are,  as  much  minister- 
ing to  the  saints  as  affording  them  pecuniary  aid.      And,  doubt- 

«  IIJNt.  Ecc).  lib.  HI.  r.  25.       * 

»  n-ll  Jiid.  lih.  ii.  c.  20   }  I.  ..^    »~ 

«  .Michaelin,  vol  iv  p.  193.  Lardncr's  Wojkt,  Svo.  vol.  vl.  pp.  383—367.; 
4to.  vol.  1.  pp.  3J0,  327. 


Sect.  XVI.] 

less,  the  members  of  the  church  at  Jerusalem  ministered  in  that 
manner  to  one  another  in  their  afllictions.  But,  though  the  gene- 
rality of  the  members  of  that  church  were  reduced  to  poverty  by 
the  suflerings  thoy  had  sustained,  yet  in  all  probability  there 
were  some  among  them  in  better  circumstances  who  might  have 
deserved  the  commendation,  that  they  had  administered  mid  did 
■minister  to  the  saints,  by  giving  them  a  share  of  their  worldly 
goods.' 

Unon  a  review,  therefore,  of  all  the  circumstances,  we 
shall  be  justified  in  adonting  the  opinion  of  the  ancient  church, 
that  this  Epistle  was  acldressed  to  Hebrew  Christians  in  Pa- 
lestine ;  but  it  is  (as  Michaelis  has  observed)  a  question  of 
little  or  no  importance,  whether  it  was  sent  to  .Terasalem 
alone,  or  to  any  other  city  in  Palestine ;  because  an  Epistle, 
intended  for  the  use  of  Jewish  converts  at  Jerusalem,  must 
equally  have  concerned  the  other  Jewish  converts  in  that 
country.2 

II.  The  next  question  concerning  this  Epistle  relates  to 
the  Language  in  which  it  was  written.  On  this  subject  there 
liave  been  two  principal  opinions  ;  one,  that  it  was  originally 
written  in  Hebrew,  and  translated  into  Greelc  by  Luke  or 
Barnabas;  and  the  other,  that  it  was  written  in  Greek.  The 
former  opinion  is  entertained  by  the  fatliers,  Clement  of  Alex- 
andria, Euthalius,  Theodoret,  Theophylact,  Jerome,  and  (as 
Rome  have  supposed)  Origen,  and  also  by  Bahrdt,  Michaelis, 
and  others  aniong  the  moderns.  The  latter  opinion — that  it 
was  originally  composed  in  Greek — is  held  by  Fabricius, 
IJeausobre,  Cappel,  Owen,  Basnage,  Mill,  Leusden,  Pictet, 
Wetstein,  Braunius,  Heidegger,  Van  Til,  Calmet,  Carpzov, 
Pritius,  Moldenhawer,  Lardner,  Doddridge,  Macknight,  Ro- 
senmi.ller,  Rumpaus,  Viser,  Alber,  Bishop  Tomline,  Dr. 
Hales,  Professor  Stuart,  and  we  believe,  by  almost  every 
modern  commentator  and  critic  who  has  treated  on  this  book. 

The  arguments  for  the  Hebrew  or  Syro-Chaldaic  original 
of  this  Epistle  may  be  reduced  to  the  two  following: — 

1.  As  this  Epistle  was  written  for  the  use  of  Hebrew  Chris- 
tians, it  was  proper  that  it  should  be  written  in  their  own  lan- 
guage. To  this  argument,  it  has  been  replied,  first,  That  if  it 
was  proper  that  the  apostle  should-  write  to  them  in  the  Hebrew 
tongue,  it  must  have  been  equally  proper  for  him  to  write  his 
letter  to  the  Romans  in  their  own  language ;  yet  we  know  that 
Saint  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Romans  was  not  written  in  Latin, 
the  language  of  Rome,  but  in  Greek:  nay,  that  all  his  Epistles, 
and  those  of  the  other  apostles,  were  written  in  Greek,  and  not 
in  the  languages  of  the  churches  and  persons  to  whom  they 
were  addressed.  Secondly,  The  Apostolical  Epistles  being  in- 
tended for  the  use  of  the  whole  Christian  world  in  every  age,  as 
well  as  for  the  persons  to  whom  they  were  sent,  it  was  more 
proper  that  they  should  be  written  in  Greek  than  in  any  provincial 
dialect ;  because  the  Greek  language  was  then  universally  un- 
derstood. The  arguments  already  adduced,  to  show  that  Greek 
was  the  original  language  of  the  New  Testament  generally,  are 
equally  applicable  to  prove  that  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  was 
never  written  in  Hebrew^.' 

2.  It  is  objected,  that  this  Epistle  has  been  originally  written 
m  Hel)rew,  because  its  Greek  style  is  superior  to  that  of  Saint 
Paul's  other  Epistles.  To  which  Rosenmuller,  after  Carpzov, 
has  replied  by  observing,  that  the  difference  in  style  may  be 
readily  accounted  for,  by  considering,  that  this  was  one  of  the 
apostle's  last  Epistles,  and  that  from  his  extensive  intercourse 
with  men  of  various  ranks  and  conditions,  during  his  numerous 
journeys,  "Paul  the  aged"  would  naturally  write  in  a  different 
style  from  Paul  when  a  young  man.  To  this  remark  wo  may 
add,  that  there  are  such  coincidences  of  expression  between  this 
Epistle  and  Saint  Paul's  other  letters,  which  were  in  Greek,  as 
plainly  show  that  he  was  its  author,  and  consequently  did  not 
write  it  in  Hebrew ;  but  as  this  topic  is  discussed  more  at  length 
in  a  subsequent  page,^  we  proceed  to  remark,  that,  as  the  Syriac 
version  of  this  Epistle  was  made  from  the  Greek  at  the  end  of 
the  first  or  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  century,  it  is  evident 
that  no  Hebrew  original  was  then  extant;  and  consequently  that 
Michaelis's  hypothesis,  respecting  t'ne  blunders  committed  by  the 
supposed  translator,  has  no  foundation  whatever.  Again,  the 
Epistle  is  said  to  have  been  translated  by  Clement  of  Rome,  but 
whe"re  or  when,  we  arc  not  informed.  Was  this  translation 
executed  in  Italy  before  it  was  sent  to  the  Hebrews  '!    If  so,  what 

»  Mackiiight's  Preface  to  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  sect.  2.  §  1. 

»  Michaelis.  Introd.  vol.  iv.  p.  103 

3  ^^ee  Vol.  I.  Part  I.  Cliap.  I.  Sect  111  §  H.  pp.  193, 194.  To  the  above  argu- 
ment we  may  adJ,  tliat  the  apostolic  lather  Uarnabas  wrote  his  Epistle  to 
lie  siihreics  in  the  Greek  language. 

•>  See  pp.  352—356.  infra,  where  the  question  respecting  the  author  of 
this  epistle  is  considered. 


ON  THE  EPISTLE  TO  THE  HEBREWS. 


351 


purpose  could  be  an.swcred  by  writing  it  in  Hebrew  when  it  was 
only  to  be  used  in  Greek !  Was  it  sent  in  Hebrew  before  the 
supposed  translation  1  In  what  language  was  it  coimnunicated 
to  others  by  the  Christians  who  first  received  iti  Clement  was 
never  iiT  the  East  to  translate  it.  And  if  all  the  first  copies  of  it 
were  dispersed  in  Hebrew,  how  came  they  to  be  so  utterly  lost, 
that  no  authentic  report  or  tradition  concerning  them,  or  any  one 
of  them,  ever  remained  :  besides,  if  it  were  translated  by  Clement 
in  the  West,  and  that  translation  alone  were  preserved,  how 
came  it  to  pass,  that  it  was  so  well  known  and  generally  received 
in  the  East  before  the  Western  churches  received  it  into  their 
canon  of  Scripture  1  This  tradition,  therefore,  respecting  its 
translation  by  Clement,  is  every  way  groundless  and  improbable. 

Independently  of  the  preceding  considerations,  which  show 
that  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  was  never  extant  in  the 
Hebrew  or  Syro-Chaldaic  dialect,  the  Epistle  itself  furnishes 
us  with  decisive  and  positive  evidence  that  it  was  originally 
written  in  the  language  in  which  it  is  now  extant. 

L  In  the  first  place,  the  style  of  this  Epistle,  throughout, 
manifests  that  it  is  no  translation.  It  has  altogether  the  air  of 
an  original.  There  is  nothing  of  the  constraint  of  a  translator, 
nor  do  we  meet  with  those  Hebraisms  which  occur  so  constantly 
in  the  Septuagint  version.' 

2.  Hebrew  names  arc  interpreted  :  as  Mekhizedek  by  King 
of  Righteousness  (vii.  2.),  and  Salem  by  Peace,  which 
interpretation  would  have  l>een  superfluous  if  the  Epistle  had 
been  written  in  Hebrew.  If  this  Epistle  be  a  translation,  and  not 
an  original,  because  the  interpretation  of  a  few  words  is  added, 
we  may  with  equal  propriety  aflirm  that  Saint  Paul  wrote  his 
Epistles  to  the  Galatians  and  Romans  in  Hebrew,  because  he  has 
added  the  interpretation  of  the  Syriac  word  Abba, — father  (Rom. 
viii.  1.5.  Gal.  iv.  6.),  or  that  John  wrote  his  Gospel  in  Hebrew, 
because  (i.  47.  xx.  16.)  he  has  explained  the  meaning  of  the 
Hebrew  word  Rabboni.  The  same  remark  may  be  extended  to 
the  other  three  evangelists,  all  of  whom,  we  have  seen,  wrote 
in  Greek,  as  the  whole  current  of  Christian  antiquity  also  attests. 
A  further  proof  that  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  was  originally 
written  in  Greek,  and  consequently  was  not  a  translation,  is,  that 
the  argument  of  th.e  author  is  founded  on  the  interpretation  which 
he  has  given  us  of  the  words  above  cited. 

3.  The  passages,  cited  from  the  Old  Testament  in  this  Epistle, 
are  not  quoted  from  the  Hebrew,  but  from  the  Septuagint,  wnere 
that  faithfully  represented  the  Hebrew  text.  Frequently  the 
stress  of  the  argument  taken  from  such  quotations  relies  on 
something  peculiar  in  that  version,  which  could  not  possibly 
have  taken  place  if  the  Epistle  had  been  written  in  Hebrew. 
And  in  a  few  instances,  where  the  Septuagint  did  not  fully 
render  the  Hebrew  text  of  the  Old  Testament,  the  author  of  the 
Epistle  has  substituted  translations  of  his  own,  from  which  he 
argues  in  the  same  manner,  whence  it  is  manifest  that  this  Epis- 
tle never  was  extant  ^n  Hebrew.  ^ 

Independently  of  these  (we  think  indisputable  and  posi- 
tive) arguments  for  the  Greek  original  of  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebre-vvs,  which  Michaelis  has  attempted  to  answer,  but 
without  success,  the  hypothesis  that  it  was  written  in  He- 
brew is  attended  with  several  difficulties,  and  particularly  the 
two  following : —  , 

\.  That  at  the  time  the  author  (Paul,  as  is  shown  in  a  subse- 

'  The  numerous  paronomasias,  or  occurrences  of  words  of  like  sound, 
but  which  cannot  be  rendered  in  English  with  due  elTect,  that  are  to  be 
found  in  this  Epi.stle,  have  been  urged  as  a  clear  proof  that  it  is  not  a  trans- 
lation. See  instances  of  such  paronomasias  in  Hebrews  v.  8.  14.  vii.  3.  19. 
22.  ix.  10.  X.  34.  xi.  37.  and  .xiii.  14.  (Gr.)  But  of  these  paronomasias,  Prof. 
Stuan  observes  that  the  instance  from  Heb.  x.  34.  is  the  oniy  one  whicli 
appears  to  betray  anv  marks  of  design  ;  and  even  here  tjie  marks  are  by 
no  means  of  a  decisive  nature.  "If  they  arc  altogether  accidental,  they 
may  have  occurred  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  even  if  its  present  lan- 
guage is  merely  that  of  a  translation.  In  fact,  even  designed  paronoma- 
sias may,  not  unfrequentlv,  occur  in  a  translation.  The  argument  in 
favour  of  the  Greek  being  the  original  language  of  (he  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brews built  on  such  instances  of  isaronomasia  as  those  above  cited  (where, 
in  most"  examples  "  it  is  a  merehomophony  of  like  tenses  or  cases),  is 
too  uncertain  and  too  slender  to  be  rested  on,  as  a  proper  support  of  the 
opinion  in  question."    Stuart's  Comm.  on  the  Hebrews,  vol.  i.  p.  2S2. 

«  Dr  Owen  has  ablv  treated  this  topic  in  his  fifth  exercitalion  on  the 
Hebrew;,  vol.  i.  pp.  40— .'iS.  folio  edition.  Calinct,  Comment.  Literal,  torn, 
viii.  pp.  631,  63-2.  Stuart's  Commentary,  vol.  i.  pp.  262-^-285.  Calvin  and 
several  other  divines  have  laid  much  stress  upon  the  rendering  of  the  He- 
brew word  lierith  by  •>  ix5v;/.-.),  whicli  denotes  either  testament  or  covenant : 
and  Michaelis  has  acknowledsod  that  this  is  the  most  specious  of  all  the 
ar-'uments  adduced  to  prove  that  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  was  originally 
written  in  Greek.  But  Braunius  afiivms  that  it  proves  nothing  either  way. 
Prolfg.  in  Kp.  ad  Hebr.  p.  25.  Th.^  objections  to  this  Epistle  of  Drs.  Schulz 
and  Seyfiarlh,  grounded  on  the  mode  in  which  its  author  ipiotes  and  appeals 
to  the  Old  Testament  (and  also  on  particular  pl,ra-ses  and  expressions),  are 
examined  in  detail,  and  most  satisi'acloiily  refuted  by  Professor  Stuart 
(Commentary,  vol.  i.  pp.  205-25i,  or  pp.  236-290.  hi  the  London  cdiiion.1 


352 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT, 


[Paut  YI.  Cuap.  ni 


quent  page),'  coulJ  not  determine  in  what  dialect  he  should 
write  to  the  Hebrews,  which  they  might  all  understand ;  for  the 
pure  Hel)rcw  then  existed  in  the  Old  Testament,  though  it  was 
not  in  popular  use.  Among  the  Jews  there  were  several  dialects 
Bpoken,  as  the  East  Arainian  or  Chaldee,  and  the  ^^^st  Ara- 
mffiiin  or  Syriac ;  which  sulVered  various  alterations  from  the 
places  where  the  Jews  were  dispersed  ;  so  that  the  original  Hehrew 
was  known  comparatively  to  few,  and  those  who  were  conver- 
sant in  Syriac  might  not'  be  acquainted  with  the  Ghaldec.  If 
thert'tbre  this  Epistle  had  been  wn-itten  in  bil.lical  Hebrew,  the 
UurneJ  fe.to  only  could  have  read  it ;  and  had  it  been  written  m 
either  of  the  other  dialects,  a  part  oidy  of  the  Jews  could  have 

perused  it.  t-.   ■    i  1 1 

2.  By  writing  in  Hebrew,  the  author  of  this  Epistle  could 
have  instructed  "only  his  own  nation;  and  his  arguments  would 
have  availed  only  with  the  pious  few,  while  the  unbelieving 
multitude  would  'in  all  probability  have  ridiculed  his  doctrines, 
and  misrepresented  them  to  the  uninformed  and  to  strangers. 
But  by  writing  the  Epistle  in  Greek,  which  language,  we  have 
seen,  was  at  that  time  universally  known  and  understood,  he 
instructed  his  own  countrymen,  and  also  explained  the  Christian 
covenant  to  the  Gentiies.-' 

The  preceding  is  a  summary  of  the  arguments  adduced  on 
tills  much  liticraTed  point :  and  upsm  the  whole,  we  are  com- 
pelled to  dravv  the  conclusion,  that  the  original  language  of 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  must  have  been  Greek,  ihe 
reader,  however,  will  adopt  which  opinion  he  deems  best 
supported  concerning  the  Hebrew  or  Greek  original  of  this 
Epistle.  If  he  prefer  the  firmer,  it  may  be  satisfactory  to 
him  to  be  reminded,  that  the  circumstance  of  this  LjMstle 
being/rs/  written  in  Hebrew,  and  then  translated  into  Greek, 
by  no  means  affects  its  genuineness  and  auth^'.nlicity.^ 

III.  The  next  object  of  inciuiry  respects  the  Author  of  this 
Epistle,  some  ascribing  it  to  Barnabas,  the  companion  of 
Paul ;  others  to  Clement  of  Rome,  to  the  evangelist  Luke,  to 
Silas  or  Silvanus,  or  toApoUos;  and  the  Christian  church 
generally  to  the  apostle  Paul. 

Tertullian'  was  the  first  who  ascribed  this  Epistle  to  Har- 
nahas,  and  his  opinion  was  adopted  by  Cameron,  and  subse- 
quently by  Dr.  Storr;  but  it  rests  on  mere  conjecture,  lor 
Tertullian  cites  no  authority,  and  does  not  even  say  that  this 
opinion  was  received  by  the  church.  He  is  also  contradicted 
by  Clement  of  Alexandria,-^  who  mentions  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews  as  Saint  Paul's ;  to  which  we  may  add,  that  the 
style  of  the  Epistle  ascribed  to  Barnabas  differs  so  widely 
from  that  of  the  letter  to  the  Hebrews,  as  to  prove  that  it 
could  not  have  been  written  by  him.  EuTther,  it  appears 
from  Heb.  xiii.  24.  that  this  Epistle  was  written  from  Italy, 
where  there  is  no  evidence  that  Barnabas  ever  went.  I  hi- 
Iastries«  relates,  that  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  century,  many 
persons  attributed  this  Epistle  to  Clement  of  Rome ;  but  this 
notion  is  contradicted  by  the  fact  that  Clement  has  himselt 
repeatedly  quoted  this  Epistle.  . 

The  same  author  also  informs  us  that  some  ascribed  it  to 
Luke  ;  and  this  hypothesis  has  been  adopted  by  Grotins  and 
by  Janssens,  on  account  of  a  supposed  resemblance  of  style 
between  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  and  the  writings  ol 
Luke,  and  especially  on  account  of  the  greater  elegance  of 
style  and  choice  of  words  discoverable  in  this  Epistle,  than  is 
to  be  found  in  Paul's  other  letters.  But  to  this  hypothesis 
there  are  several  objections.  For,  1.  Luke  was  a  Gentile  by 
birth,  and  could  not  have  acquired  that  intimate  knowledge 
of  the  Hebrew  literature  and  religion  which  Paul  possessed, 
who  was  inslructfid  by  Gamaliel  and  other  celebrated  Jewish 
teachers.  2.  If  Luke  wrote  this  Epistle,  why  did  he  not 
rather  ascribe  it  to  the  Greeks,  who  were  his  countrymen  ^ 

3.  Ecclesiastical  antiquity  is  totally  silent  concerniiiir  tins 
Epistle  as  being  written  by  that  evangelist,  to  whom  all  the 
primitive  Christian  writers  unanimously  ascribe  the  (Jospcl 
which  bears  his  name,  and  also  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles. 

4.  The  author  of  this  Epistle  addresses  the  Hebrews  (xiii. 
18,  irt.)  as  persons  among  whom  he  had  preached  the  Gos- 
pel :  and  as  it  nowhere  appears  that  Luke  had  preached  to 
the  converted  Jews,  it  follows  that  he  could  not  be  the  author 

of  this  Epistle.  ^    .,   t,    .         •    i  •     t    •■ 

Amon«r  the  modern  writers,  C.  \.  Bochme,  in  his  Latin 

o 

«  Spc  pp.  3.")2 — 356.  infra-  »    .     „        ,  ..  ,      .        ■ 

«  FranrLci  Jt.nii  Panillela  Sacra,  lib.  3.  c.  0.  in  Ep.  ad  Ilcbr  torn.  I.  p. 

ir>9!>  ciiil.  Ocncvai.  1013.  ,     „  ,  ,        .n 

»  n.-.o  llic  ohsorvatioiis  on  tliit  topic  in  Vol.  I.  p.  !.*• 

•  nuael).  Hint.  Eccl  hi).  Ill  c.  »1.    8cD  ll.c  p.is»a«c  aUo  in  Lardncr,  8vo. 
vol  ii  p.  211  ;  4U).  vol.  i  p  391  ,  ,       roo 

•  Hxr.  c.  89.    Lar.Vner,  >jvo.  v.>l.  iv.  p.  000. ;  4lo.  vol.  I.  p.  622 


translation  of  this  Epistle,  ascribes  it  to  Silas  or  Silvanus 
(by  whom  he  imagines  it  was  directed  to  the  church  at  An 
tioch),"  and  the  illustrious  reformer  Luther  thouoht  that  this 
E))istle  was  written  by  ApoUos,  who  is  mentioned  in  Acts 
xviii.  21.  28.  as  being  an  elotiuent  man,  mii;hty  in  the  Scrip- 
ture, fervent  in  spirit,  and  one  that  conviiicpd  the  Jews  cut 
of  the  Scripture  itself;  all  which  characters  nnque.s'ionably 
are  found  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrew-s.     But  both  these 


writing  as  being  composed  either  by  Silas  or  by  Apollos. 
Some  weitrhtwo^uld  certainly  have  attached  to  Luther  s  con- 
jecture, if^the  excellent  qualities  ascribed  to  Apollos  l.ad 
been  peculiar  to  him,  or  if  they  had  not  all  been  found  in 
Paul  in  a  more  eminent  degree  than  in  Apollos.  Bnt  Paul 
beiiio-  endowed  with  more  amjile  ^ifls  and  exceilencies  than 
Apoilos,  and  being  also  a  divinely  constituted  anostle,  '.he 
conjecture  of  Luther  necessarily  falls  to  th.e  ground.^ 

We  are  now  to  consider  the  evidence,  both  external  and 
internal,  for  the  opinion  which  has  generally  prevailed  in  the 
Christian  church,  viz.  that  the  Epistle  to  t!ie  Hebrews  is  the 
genuine  production  of  the  great  apcstle  to  the  Gentiles. 
I.  External  EviDENCK  OR  Historical  Testimony. 
[i.]  In  the  first  pljice,  U  is  ackmivkd^ed  to  be  the  product'on 
of  Fat! I  by  the  apostle  Ptter  in  his  second  Epistle  (iii.  15,  16.)  ; 
from  ivhich  passage  it  is  evident, 

(1.)  That  Peter  had  read  all  Paul's  letters. 
(2.)  That  Paul  had  written  to  those  Christians  to  whom  Peter 
was  then  writing,  that  is,  to  the  believing  Jews  in  general 
(2  Pet.  i.  1.),  and  to  those  of  the  dispersion  mentioned  iq  1  Pet. 
i.  1.  Now,  since  there  is  no  evidence  to  prove  that  this  Epistle 
was  lost,  it  follows  thai  it  must  be  that  which  is  now  inscribed  to 
the  Hebrews. 

(3.)  That  Paul  wrote  to  them  concerning  the  same  topics 
which  were  the  subjects  of  Peter's  Epistle.  Thus  Peter  writes 
that  by  Clirist  are  given  to  us  all  things  pertaining  to  life  and 
godliness  (2  Pet.  i.  3,  4.),  and  that  Jesus  Christ  is  the  Hon  of 
God,  in  -whom  the  Father  is  -well  pleased  with  vs,  of  whom  the 
prophets  spoke.  These  very  topics  arc  copiously  discussed  in 
Heb.  i.  to  x.  19.  Again,  Peter  exhorts  them  to  faith  and  holi- 
7icss\2  Pet.  i.  .'5— 16.  ii.  15.)  ;  so  also  does  Paul.  (Heb.  ii.  1—5. 

iii.  1.  G 19.)     Peter  shows  the  danger  of  apostasy  (2  Pet.  ii. 

20,  21.),  and  so  docs  the  author  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 
(HeK.  vi.  4—9.) 

(4.)  In  the  Epistle  mentioned  by  Peter,  he  seems  to  n<!cribc  to 
Paul  an  eminency  of  wisdom.  It  was,  he  says,  wri..<m  accord- 
ing to  the  wisdorn  given  to  him.  As  Paul  made  use  of  that  wis- 
doin  which  had  been  conferred  on  him  in  writing  all  his  other 
Epistles,  so  there  is  no  doubt  that  he  exerted  the  same  wisdom, 
zeal,  and  love  in  writing  the  Ej'istle  to  the  Hebrews :  but,  in  the 
passage  now  under  consideration,  Peter  eminently  di.Ktinguishcs 
that  apostle's  wisdom.  He  does  not  refer  to  Paul's  sj.intual 
wisdom  in  general,  in  the  knowledge  of  the  will  of  God  and  of 
the  mysteries  of  the  Gospel ;  hut  he  particularly  alludes  to  the 
especial  holy  prudence  which  Paul  has  displayed  in  the  compo- 
sition of  the.Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  whom  the  structure  of  his 
arguments  was  singularly  adapted  to  convince,  if  unbelievers  : 
while  his  warnings  and  encouragements  were  admirably  calcu- 
lated to  animate  the  lieUeving  Hebrews  to  constancy  and  fortitude 
in  the  faith  of  the  Gospel.  At  the  same,  time  nothing  more 
clearly  shows  the  singular  wisdom,  which  Peter  asserts  to  be 
manifest  in  this  letter,  than  Paul's  condcsccn.sion  to  the  capa- 
cities, prejudices,  and  aflections  of  those  to  whom  he  wrote  and 
whoin  he  constantly  urged  with  their  own  principles  and  con- 

cession.-*.  . 

(5.)  That  Peter  aflirms  there  were  some  things  discus.sed  in 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  which  were  hard  or  dij/icult  to  he 
understood  (t/v*  ivay^>,T-JL).  Now  Paul  explicitly  stales  (Heb.  v. 
11.)  that  some  of  the  topics  which  ho  was  to  discuss  in  thai 
Epistle  were  Su<TtfiA>,ywr<t,  hard  to  bv  uttered,  or  difficult  to  be 
interpreted,  and  consequently  hard  to  be  understood  ;  particularly 
the  topic  he  immediately  had  in  view,  viz.  the  typical  nature  ol 
the  person  of  Melchisedek.  Or  if  it  refer  to  the  priesthood  ot 
Christ  that  would  be  Htill  more  ♦'  hard  to  be  uttered,"  bcranse  it 
implies  not  only  his  being  consUtuted  a  priest  after  this  typical 
order,  but  also  his  paying  down  the  ransom  for  the  mns  of  the 
whole  world,  and  hi.s  sati.-faction  of  divine  justice  by  thissncTifice, 
nnd  thus  op-ning  the  kinj.lom  of  heaven  to  all  believers.  1  opics 
like  these  it  would  be  dillicult  for  the  npo-stlc  to  explain  in  u 

•  U  is  a.loi.le.].  liowevpr  by  Diii.lorf,  in  bis  Rxf  ihpiis  nd  J.  A.  Erneirti 
i  Lccilune.  Acaaem!ca,inEpi.tolama.l  Hcbrxos.  p.  USO.  8to.  L.p.ue.  l.l- 


Skct.  XVI.] 


ON  THE  EPISTLE  TO  THE  HEBREWS, 


353 


proper  manner  to  the  Hebrews :  not  because  the)'  were  in  them- 
selves abstruse,  but  because  the  Hebrews  were  dull  of  apprehen- 
sion, through  their  prejudiced  attachment  to  the  Levitical  law 
and  priesthood.' 

The  preceding  considerations  will  show  that  the  Epistle 
to  the  Hebrews  was  the  identical  letter  which  Peter  had  in 
view.  We  have  insisted  the  more  strenuously  upon  his  tes- 
timony, because,  as  he  was  an  inspired  apostle,  we  tlUnk  his 
evidence  sufficient  to  determine  the  controversy  respecting 
this  Epistle,  and  to  demonstrate  (notwithstanding  the  skep- 
tical declaration  of  Michaelis  to  the  contrary)  that  it  is  a 
genuine  and  inspired  production  of  the  illustrious  apostle 
Paul.  There  are,  however,  many  other  testimonies  to  prove 
the  same  point,  which  we  shall  now  proceed  to  state  ;  each 
of  them  singly  outbalancing  the  weight  of  the  conjectures 
advanced  against  it,  but  all  of  which,  taken  collectively,  fur- 
nish such  a  body  of  evidence  in  favour  cf  Paul  being  the 
author  of  this  Epistle,  as  can  be  adduced  for  no  other  ancient 
anonymous  writing  whatever.  We  therefore  proceed  to  re- 
mark, 

[ii.]  Secondly,  that  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  is  found  in 
the.  must  ancient  Oriental  and  Western  Versions  which  are  ex- 
tant. 

It  is  found  in  the  Peschito  or  Old  Syriac  Version  of  the  New 
Testament,  which  was  executed  at  the  close  of  the  first,  or  in  the 
early  part  of  the  second  century,  and  in  the  Old  Latin  Versions 
made  during  the  former  part  of  the  second  century.  As  these 
versions  v?cre  in  common  use  and  authority  among  the  churches 
of  the  East  and  the  West,  this  is  a  fact  of  very  great  importance  ; 
because  it  affords  palpable  evidence  that  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews  was  widely  circulated  among  Christians  a  short  time 
afler  the  apostolic  age. 

[iii.]  Thirdly,  the  testimony  of  ecclesiastical  antiquity  de- 
cidedly ascribes  this  Epistle  to  Paul. 

(1.)  Among  the  fathers  of  the  Greek  or  Easters  Church, 
who  wrote  in  the  Greek  language,  we  find  allusions  to  it  in  the 
Epistles  of  Ignatius,  about  the  year  1 07.  The  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews  seems  to  be  referred  to  by  Polycarp  bishop  of  Smyrna, 
111  his  Epistle  to  the  Philippians  in  the  year  108,  and  in  the  re- 
lation of  his  martyrdom,  written  about  the  middle  of  the  second 
century.  This  Epistle  is  quoted  twice  by  Justin  Martyr  in  his 
dialogue  with  Tvypho  the  Jew,  a.  d.  140.  It  is  often  cited  as 
Paul's,  without  any  hesitation,  by  Clement  of  Alexandria,  about 
the  year  194.  It  is  received  and  quoted  as  Paul's  by  Origen 
about  230.2  It  was  also  received  as  the  apostle's  by  Dionysius, 
bishop  of  Alexandria,  in  247.  It  is  plainly  referred  to  by  Theo- 
gnostus  of  Alexandria  about  282.  It  appears  to  have  been  received 
by  Methodius  about  292,  by  Pamphilus  about  294,  and  by 
Archelaus  bishop  of  ?^esopotamia  at  the  beginning  of  the  fourth 
century,  by  the  Manicheans  in  the  fourth,  and  by  the  Paulicians 
in  the  seventh  century.  It  was  received  and  ascribed  to  Paul  by 
Alexander  bishop  of  Alexandria  in  the  year  313,  and  by  the 
Arians  in  the  fourth  century.  Eusebius,  bishop  of  Cfesarea, 
about  315,  say^,  "  There  are  fourteen  Epistles  of  Paul  before  the 
public  and  well  known :  but  yet  there  are  some  who  have  re- 
jected (t«£c  xd^iTHKno-i)  that  to  the  Hebrews,  alleging  in  behalf 
of  their  opinion,  that  it  was  not  received  by  the  church  of  the 

'  To  thf^  prrceding  argument  it  has  been  objected,  that  the  Epistle  par- 
ticularly iiiieiided  by  Peter  may  be  that  written  to  the  Romans,  in  which 
Saint  Paul  speaks  to"  the;  Jews  by  name  (ii.  17.),  and  in  which  there  is  an 
exhorl.ition  to  account  the  long-suffering  of  God  to  be  salvation,  or  that 
which  leads  to  repentance.  But  to  this  objection  Whitby  has  well  replied, 
CI.)  That  what  is  written  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  is  addressed  to  the 
unbelieving  Jews  only,  whereas  Peter  writes  to  the  brethren  (2  Pet.  iii, 
12.),  the  Ae/orerf  (verses  I.  14.  17.),  to  tho.se  who  had  received  like  precious 
faith,  (i.  1.)  lie  therefore  could  not  moan  tlie  Jews,  of  whom  Paul  speaks 
in  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans.  Nor  (2.)  can  that  Epistle  with  propriety  be 
said  to  be  written  to  the  dispersed  Jews,  because  it  is  addressed  to  those 
at  Rome  only  (Rom.  i.  7.),  and  chiefly  to  the  Gentiles  there,  (i.  13.  xi.  13. 
XV.  15,  16.) — (3).  The  words  of  Paul  in  Rom.  ii.  are  not  an  exhortation  to 
count  the  long-suffering  of  God  salvation,  but  a  reproof  for  despising  this 
long-suffering:  whereas  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (xii.)  he  commends 
their  patience  under  sufferings,  and  assures  them  that  it  would  obtain  sal- 
vation ;  and  that,  if  they  lived  by  faith,  their  Lord  would  come,  and  would 
not  tarry.  To  which  we  may  add,  that  in  the  Epistle  lo  the  Hebrews  (iv. 
9.  xii.  H.  13.  24.)  mention  is  made  of  the  introduction  of  the  righteous  into 
the  heavenly  country,  which  is  one  of  the  topics  mentioned  in  the  second 
Epistle  of  Peter. 

"^  The  words  of  Origen  (who  was  of  opinion  that  the  ideas  were  those  of 
Paul,  though  not  the  style)  are  very  remarkable.  He  says  that  "  not  with- 
out cause  did  the  ancients  transmit  this  [epistle)  as  Paul's."  (Euseb.  Eccl. 
Ili.st.  lib.  vi.  c.  25.)  Now,  it  is  very  certain  that  ihe  churches  and  writers, 
who  were  ancients  with  respect  to  Origen,  must  have  conversed  with  the 
apo.?tles  themselves,  or  at  least  with  their  successors.  And  since  this  tra- 
dition was  ancient  in  the  timesof  Clement  of  Alexandria  and  Origen,  about 
>ne  humlreU  and  thirty  years  after  the  El^istle  was  written,  it  must  have 
had  its  ri.se  in  the  days  of  Paul  himself,  and  so  cannot  reasonably  be  con- 

tPSi^'I. 

Vol.  n.  2  Y 


Romans  as  a  writing  of  Paul."^  It  is  often  quoted  by  Eusebius 
himself  as  Paul's  and  as  sacred  Scripture.  This  Epistle  was 
received  by  Athanasius  without  any  hesitation.  In  his  enumera- 
tion of  Paul's  fourteen  Epistles,  this  is  jjlaced  next  after  the  two 
to  the  Thessalonians  and  before  the  Epistles  to  Timothy,  Titus, 
and  Philemon.  The  same  order  is  observed  in  the  Synopsis  of 
Scripture  ascribed  to  him.  This  Epistle  is  received  as  Paul's  by 
Adamantius,  author  of  a  dialogue  against  the  Marcionites,  in  330, 
and  by  Cyril  of  Jerusalem  in  348  ;  by  the  council  of  Laodicea  in 
363,  where  Paul's  Epistles  are  enumerated  in  the  same  order  a^^ 
in  Athanasius,  just  noticed.  This  Epistle  is  also  received  as 
Paul's  by  Epipbanius  about  368;  by  the  apostolical  constitutions 
about  the  end  of  the  fourth  century ;  by  Basil  about  370 ;  by 
Gregory  Nazianzen  in  370  ;  by  Amphilochius  also.  But  he  says 
it  was  not  universally  received  as  Paul's.  It  was  received  by 
Gregory  Nyssen  about  371  ;  by  Didymus  of  Alexandria  about 
the  same  time ;  by  Ephraim  the  Syrian  in  370,  and  by  the. 
churches  of  Syria:  by  Diodore  of  Tarsus  in  378;  by  Hicrax,  a 
learned  Egyptian,  about  the  year  302  ;  by  Serapion,  bishop  of 
Thmuis  in  Egypt,  about  347 ;  by  Titus,  bishop  of  Bostra  in 
Arabia,  about  362 ;  by  Theodore,  bishop  of  Mopsuestia  in 
Cilicia,  about  the  year  394  ;  by  Chrysostom  in  the  year  39S  ;  bv 
Severian,  bishop  of  Gabala  in  Syria,  in  401  ;  by  Victor  of  Antiocli 
about  401  ;  by  Palladius,  author  of  a  life  of  Chrysostom,  about 
408  ;  by  Isidore  of  Pelusium  about  412 :  by  Cyril,  bishop  of  Alex- 
andria, in  412  ;  by  Theodoret  in  423  ;  by  Eutherius,  bishop  of 
Tyana  in  Cappadocia,  in  431  ;  by  Socrates,  the  ecclesiastical 
historian,  about  440;  by  Euthalius  in  Egypt  about  458;  and, 
probably,  by  Dionysius,  falsely  called  the  Areopagite;  by  the 
author  of  the  Quxstiones  et  JRespnnsiones,  commonly  ascribed 
to  Justin  Martyr,  but  rather  written  in  the  fifth  century.  It  is  in 
the  Alexandrian  manuscript  written  in  the  sixth  century,  and  in 
the  Stichometry  of  Nicephorus  about  BOG  ;  and  is  received  as 
Paul's  by  Cosmas  of  Alexandria  about  535  ;  by  Leontius  of  Con- 
stantinople about  610;  by  John  Damascen  in  730;  by  Photius 
about  858  ;  by  CEcumenius  about  the  year  950  ;  and  by  Thco- 
phylact  in  1070. 

(2.)  Among  the  fathers  of  the  Latin  or  Westerit  Ciu:nc:i, 
we  may  first  cite  Clement,  who  was  bi.shop  of  Rome,  though  hr; 
wrote  his  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  in  Greek  a.  d.  9G,  or,  according 
to  some  critics,  about  the  year  70.  In  this  Epistle  there  are  several 
allusions  or  references  to  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews.'  Irenajus,  bi- 
shop of  Lyons  about  178,  we  are  assured  by  Eusebius,  cited  some 
passages  out  of  this  Epistle  in  a  work  now  lost;  nevertheless  it 
does  not  appear  that  he  received  it  as  Saint  Paul's.  By  Tertul- 
Han,  presbyter  of  Carthage,  about  the  year  200,  this  Epistle  i.-s 
ascribed  to  Barnabas.  Caius,  about  212,  supposed  to  have  been 
presbyter  in  the  church  of  Rome,  reckoning  up  the  Epistles  of 
Saint  Paul,  mentioned  thirteen  only,  omitting  that  to  the  He- 
brews. Hippolitus,  who  flourished  about  220,  did  not  receive 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  as  Saint  Paul's.  This  Epistle  is  not 
quoted  by  Cyprian,  bishop  of  Carthage,  about  248  and  after- 
wards, nor  does  it  appear  to  have  been  received  by  Novatus,  or 
Novatian,  presbyter  of  Rome,  about  251  ;  nevertheless,  it  was  in 
after  times  received  by  his  followers.  It  may  be  thought  by  some 
that  tliis  Epistle  is  referred  to  by  Arnobius  about  306,  and  Lac- 
tantius  about  the  same  time.  It  is  plainly  quoted  by  another  Ar- 
nobius in  the  fifth  century.  It  was  received  as  Paul's  by  Hilary 
of  Poictiers  about  354 ;  and  by  Lucifer,  bishop  of  Cagliary  in 
Sardinia,  about  the  same  time,  and  by  his  followers ;  it  was  also 
received  as  Paul's  by  C.  M.  Victorinus.   Whether  it  was  received 

3  Euscliius,  Eccl.  Hist.  lib.  iii.  c.  3.  It  does  not  follow  that  the  tivi;  of 
Eusebius  were  writers ;  but  even  if  they  were,  they  did  not  appeal  lo  older 
Greek  writers,  but  only  to  the  Roman  church.  This  word  tii/£{ — some — 
indicates  merely  an  exception  to  the  general  opinion  of  the  Greeks,  there 
being  some  who  were  influenced  by  respect  or  prepossession  for  the  Ro- 
mans :  and  this  exception  is  itself  a  proof  that  the  Greek  church  at  larga 
acknowledged  this  epistle  as  a  production  of  the  apostle  Paul,  according  to 
the  well  known  principle,  exceptiofirmat  regulam.  The  fact,thatthe  Arians 
were  the  first  in  the  Greek  churches,  whom  history  charges  \jith  denying 
Paul  to  be  the  author  of  this  epi-stle,  adds  no  ordinary  degree  of  weight 
to  the  declarations  of  Eusebius  j  and  recommends  his  cliaratter  as  a  histo- 
rian, whom  no  predilection  for  a  party  could  betray  into  a  departure  from 
historical  truth.  Hua's  Introduction,  vol.  ii.  p.  509.  Schmucker's  Biblical 
Theology,  vol.  i.  p.  109. 

*  It  is  a  singular  circumstance  that  no  book  of  the  New  Testament  liasi 
been  so  frequently  quoted  by  Clement  as  tlic  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 
Prof  Stuart  has  arranged  his  quotations  under  four  different  classes  ;  viz. 
1.  Passages  in  which  the  exact  words,  or  nearly  so,  of  the  epistle,  are 
cited  ; — 2.  Passages  containing  the  same  sentiment,  with  more  or  less  con- 
traction  of  the  expression,  or  an  exchange  of  the  original  word  for  a  syno- 
nymous one  ; — 3.  Passages  which  are  a  paraphrastic  imitation  of  the  Epistle 
to  the  Hebrews ;  or  in  which  the  style  or  phraselogy  of  this  epi.stlo  is  more 
or  le.ss  exliibited;— and  4.  Passages  similar  to  texts  in  the  Old  Testament, 
but  which  Clement  probably  quoted  from  the  Epistle  lo  the  Hebrews. 
These  different  classes  of  quotations  Prof  Stuart  has  elucidated  with  many 
valuable  observations,  for  which  the  reader  is  necessarily  referred  to  his 
Comrncntar)-.  vol.  i.  pp.  77— S4.,  or  pp.  91—105.  of  the  London  edition. 


354 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT 


[Paki   VI.   CH.P.  Ill 


by  Optatus  of  Milevi  in  Africa,  about  370,  is  doubtful.  It  was 
received  as  Paul's  lij-  Ambrose,  bishop  of  Milan,  about  374;  by 
the  Prisciilianists  about  378.  About  the  year  380  was  published 
a  commentary  upon  thirteen  Epistles  of  Paul  only,  ascribed  to 
Hilary,  deacon  of  Rome.  It  was  received  as  Paul's  by  Philastcr, 
bishop  of  Brescia  in  Italy,  about  3S0  ;  but  he  takes  notice  that  it 
was  not  then  received  by  all.  His  successor  Gaudcntius,  about  387, 
quotes  this  Epistle  as  Paul's ;  it  is  also  readily  received  as  Paul's 
by  Jerome  about  393 ;  and  he  says  it  was  generally  received  by 
the  Greeks,  and  the  Christians  in  the  East,  but  not  by  all  the  La- 
tins.' It  was  received  as  Paul's  by  Riilihius  in  397  ;  it  is  also  in  tlT« 
catalogue  of  the  third  council  of  Carthage  in  397.  It  is  frequent- 
ly quoted  by  Augustine  as  I'aul's.  In  one  place  he  says,  "  It  is 
of  doubtful  authority  with  some,  but  he  was  inclined  to  follow  the 
opinion  of  the  churches  in  the  East,  who  received  it  among  the 
canonical  Scriptures."  It  was  received  as  Paul's  by  Chromatius, 
bishop  of  Aquileia  in  Italy,  about  401  ;  by  Innocent,  bishop  of 
Rome,  about  402  ;  by  Paulinus,  bishop  of  Nola  in  Italy,  about 
403.  Pelagius  about  405  wrote  a  commentary  upon  thirteen 
Epistles  of  Paul,  omitting  that  to  the  Hebrews ;  nevertheless  it  was 
received  by  his  followers.  It  was  received  by  Cassian  about  424  ; 
by  Prosper  of  Aquitaine  about  434,  and  by  the  authors  of  the 
works  ascribed  to  him  ;  by  Eucherius,  bishop  of  Lyons,  in  434 ; 
by  Sedulius  about  818;  by  Leo,  bishop  of  Home,  in  440;  by 
Salvian,  presbyter  of  Marseilles,  about  440  ;  by  Gelasius,  bisiiop 
of  Rome,  about  49G  ;  by  Facundus,  an  African  bishop,  about  .540  ; 
by  Junilius,  an  African  bishop,  about  5GG  ;  by  Cassiodorus  in 
.•550  ;  by  the  author  of  the  imperfect  work  upon  Matthew,  about 
560  ;  by  Gregory,  bishop  of  Rome,  about  590  ;  by  Isidore  of  Se- 
ville about  590  ;  and  by  Bede  about  701,  or  the  beginning  of  the 
eighth  century.^ 

From  the  preceding  testimonies  it  is  evident,  that  williin 
about  thirty  years  at  most  aftf^r  this  Epistle  was  written  (for 
its  date,  see  p.  356.  i'lf'o)  "  it  had  acquired  such  currency 
and  credit,  that  the  church  at  Rome,  the  nutropulilan  of  the 
world,  in  a  letter  addressed  by  Clement  their  bishop  to  the 
church  at  Corinth,  made  repeated  appeals  to  it  as  a  nook  of 
divine  authority,  and  in  sucn  a  way  as  to  imply  a  knowledge 
and  acknowleatrment  of  it  by  the  Corinthian  church,  similar 
to  their  own.  Further,  Justin  Martyr  has  evidently  appealed 
to  its  contents  as  sacred,  a.  d.  1 10 ;  about  which  time,  or  not 
long  after,  it  was  inserted  among  the  canonical  books  of  the 
New  Testament  by  the  churches  of  the  East  and  West:  and 
consequently  it  must  have  had,  a  period  very  little  after  the 
apostolic  aije,  a  currency  and  a  credit  not  at  all  or  at  most 
very  little  inferior  to  that  of  other  acknowledged  books  of  the 
New  Testament."^ 

2.  Internal  Evidence  that  the  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brews IS  the  genuine  Production  of  JSaint  Paul. 

[i.l  In  the  first  place,  Faul  cherished  an  ardent  zeal  and 
a  [feet  ion  towards  his  kinsmen  according  to  the  Jlesk.  (Rom.  ix. 
1— I.,  &c.) 

And  can  we  think  it  likely  that  he  should  never  write  to  those 

<  Ttio  non-rynpnising  of  this  cpisllo  as  St.  Paul's  prmliiclion  "  by  all 
tlic  I.;iijiis,"  Hcciirdiinfio  Jeroiiio.^iriil  tin;  oircuiiiFtunco  of  its  l)oing  "of 
diiubtriil  authority  Willi  snme"  in  llie  Latin  clmrcli,  nccoriling  to  Aii!,'iis- 
tine,  are  lima  nccouiileil  for  l)y  H'lg.  Tlic  WestiTn  clmrcli  was  ivupt 
actively  uiiiploycd  liy  lliu  Moiilanistu.  In  viiulicalion  of  their  tciiut,  that 
those  jiiiiliy  of  grievous  iraiifcgrfsaions  bIioiiM  1»;  iirevoralily  cul  off 
from  the  clmrch,  they  rolieil  esfporiHlly  on  Hnhrews  vi.  4,  5.  as  we  Icarn 
from  Teriullian  (de  Pudiuitia,  t.  2(1.)  and  Jerome  (adv.  Joviniaii,  1.  ii.  c. 
3.);  on  which  account  the  iniiii.slurt;  of  the  ].:iliii  ( Imrrh  iiinde  C'iuti(jus 
and  pparinc  use  of  thii,  episile.  Not  lung  proli.ihly  after  the  death  of 
IrensMis,  the  preshyter  (Jaiiia  as.sirined  the  tone  of  clanmroiig  oppusilion 
against  this  epistle,  in  a  work  which  he  puliliMlied  ngainst  the  iMniita- 
nists  :  and  from  that  time  thi.s  opinion  was  adopted  liy  tliu  greater  part 
of  the  Latin  church.  Kven  the  Mi>inaiih>t8  thein<i''lves  receded  from 
their  original  (losition  on  ihin  suhject,  and  in  their  polijinical  works  re- 
ceived this  epJHtle  only  as  far  as  lt<<  aulhonty  was  itcknowiedi^ed  by  their 
opponents,  namely,  as  a  production  «<i  an  niioi^tolnal  teacher,  llarnalias, 
or  Clemeiit.&r.  Ahoiit  forty  years  after  (laiiis'n  attai  k,  iircm;  tli:,'  Nova- 
lians  ;  whi^as  wo  learn  from  Jerome,  Augustine,  i;piphaniiis,'rheo(loret, 
and  others,  also  used  the  passage  lleb.  vi.  •!,  5.  as  tlie  principal  defence  of 
Hicir  tenets.  .While  the  (J  recks  we  ret  culm  spectators  <>f  the  cotitei-t,  ami 
evad'.'d  the  nrgunient  from  lleli.  vi.  liy  their  Interpretations,  th  '  Latin 
churches  were  led  l>y  thepres-iiireof  circuiiiRlniicesto  deny  the  authority 
of  till'  honk,  whose  coiileiitu  tiley  w.rr  iinahtc  torcfiilc.  IJiit  the  Li'.tin 
churcli.'H  had  no  ecclesiastical  tradition,  no  authority  of  earlier  clmrchiK 
lo  which  llioy  coiild  appeal:  the  whole  controversy  proceeded  on  the 
ground  of  Intcrniil  evidence.  It  was  for  this  renion  that  Jerome  and  Aii- 
sustlne  could  not  adopt  the  opinion  of  t  lie  chunli  to  wliiili  they  lielonge.l; 
because  tUey  were  convinced  of  the  contrary  l>y  llic  tesliiiiony  of  the  nn- 
clcnts  :  and  their  Intluence  tended  lo  give,  nl  a  suliaerpienl  day,  a  ditfor- 
cnl  turn  to  the  opinion  of  the  Latin  chun  li.  Kclimucker's  llililicnl  The- 
ology, vol.  I  pp.  115,  no.     Ilug'K  Introduction,  vol.  li.  pp.  ilii— .'li'i. 

»  Lnrdncr's  Works,  Hvo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  ."I'Jl— au.).;  Ito.  v<d.  ill.  pp.  3ai»-.rtl. 
In  his  noips  there  arc  references  to  the  v.irioiis  pirts  of  the  preceding 
volumes,  in  which  the  extracts  from  the  above  named  f.^thci.,  are  to  I.e 
found. 

*  Stuart's  Commentary,  voL  1.  p.  109. 


who  were  so  exceedingly  dear  to  him  ?  Knowing  their  prejudices 
concerning  the  Leviiical  law,  what  subject  could  be  select  more 
appropriate  for  their  instruction  and  edification,  than  the  abro- 
gation of  the  Le\itical  priesthood,  and  the  surpassing  excellence 
of  Christ's  person  and  ollice,  especially  of  his  true,  spiritual,  and 
eternal  priesthood,  of  which  the  Levitical  priesthood  was  but  a 
shadow,  and  of  which  the  author  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
has  treated  so  largely  ? 

[ii.]  Secondl)%  If  anauthor^s  method  of  treating  his  subjcctSf 
together  icitii  his  manner  of  reasoning,  is  a  sure  mark  by  lohich 
he  may  1)6  ascertained  (^as  all  good  judges  of  composition  allow), 
we  shall  without  hesitation  pronounce  Faul  to  he  the  author  of 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 

(1.)  The  general  arrujiq-ement  or  method  pursued  in  thi^ 
Epistle  corresponds  iv'lh  that  of  Faul  in  his  other  Epistles. 

His  melliotl  of  procedure  is  the  same  with  that  of  his  other  Fpisl'es, 
wliicli  was  also  peculiar  lo  liiui.  He  first  lays  down  the  doctrinal  myste- 
ries of  the  Gospel,  vindicating  tlicrii  from  oppositions  and  exceptions;  Rnd 
then  ho  descends  to  cxhortalicms  to  obedience,  deduced  from  them,  with 
an  enunieralion  of  t)iose  moral  duties  of  which  it  was  necessary  to  remind 
those  Christians  to  wlioin  he  wrote.  Iri  this  respect  the  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brews bears  the  greatest  resemblance  to  the  Fpistle  to  the  Galatians,  and 
e.^pecially  that  addressed  to  tlie  Komaiis.  Like  them,  the  former  half  of 
lliis  Episile  (cli.  i. — x.  19.)  is  princiiially  doctrinal,  but  willi  occasional 
exhoriaiions  inlennixed,  whicli  the  strength  of  the  writer's  feelings  plainly 
appears  lo  have  forced  from  hiin.  From  ch.  x.  "0.  to  the  end,  the  Epi^itle 
is  horlatory  and  practical.  "In  the  Epi.<tle  lo  the  llomans,  just  before  the 
salutatory  part  begins,  the  writer  earnestly  asks  for  a  special  interest  in 
llie  prayers  of  those  wlioin  lie  addressed,  in  order  that  he  may  be  delivered 
from  tlie  powi^r  of  persecution  ,  and  he  follows  this  request  with  a  petition, 
that  Ihe  God  of  Peace — i  fc»«o;  rlj,-  sifiiim — might  be  with  thein,  and  con- 
cludes Willi  an  Amen.  (Roin.  xv.  30—33.)  The  very  same  order,  petition, 
ftylo,  and  conclusion,  appear,  al  the  close  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews, 
(xiii.  18—21.)  The  writer  begs  an  interest  in  their  prayers,  that  he  may 
be  restored  lo  Ihem  the  sooner  ;  conmieiids  tlicm  to  the  God  of  Peace  (an 
expression  u.sed  no  where  else  but  in  Saint  Paul's  writings  and  in  th« 
r.pi-lle  to  the  Hebrews);  and  conclmies  witii  an  Amen.''*  !?imilar  coinci- 
dences as  to  method  occur  in  the  epistles  to  the  Ephesians  and  Colossinns 
(Professor  Stuart  adds,  to  the  I'liilippians  and  Thcssaloniaiis  also) ;  which 
conclude  with  an  Amen  before  the  salutation. 

(2.)   In  this   letter,  lae  find  that  overflowing  of  sentiment 

hriejhj  expressed,  which  disting-uishes  Faul  from  every  other 

sacred  writer. 

"Therein  also  arc  abrupt  transitions  from  the  subject  in  hand  to  some- 
thing subordinate,  but  at  llie  same  time  connected  with  it ;  which,  liiving 
jnir.sucd  for  a  little  while,  Ihe  writer  returns  to  his  suliject,'  and  illustrates 
it  by  arguments  of  great  force,  couched  sometimes  in  a  short  expression, 
and  sometimes  in  a  single  word,— all  wliich  are  peculiar  to  Paul.  In  this 
Epistle,  likewise,  contrary  to  Ihe  practice  of  other  writers,  but  in  Paul's 
manner,  we  meet  with  maiiy  elliplical  expressions,  which  are  to  be  supplied 
either  from  the  foregoing  or  from  Ihe  following  clauses.  In  it  also,  as  in 
Paul's  acknowledged  Epistles,  we  find  reasonings  addressed  to  Ihe  li.ouglits 
of  the  reader,  and  answers  to  objections  not  proposed;  because,  being 
olivious,  the  writer  know  they  would  naturally  occur,  and  therefore  needed 
lo  bo  removed.  Lastly,  after  Paul's  manner,  the  author  of  the  epistle  to 
the  Hebrews  has  subjoined  to  his  reasonings  m.iny  exhortations  to  piety 
and  virtue  ;  all  which,  lo  persons  who  are  judges  of  writing,  plainly  point 
out  the  apostle  Paul  as  the  author  of  tliis  Epistle."' 

(3.)  ^Tany  things  in  this  Epistle  {too  numerous  and  indeea 

too  olivioiis  to  require  any  enumeration')    evidently   manifest 

that  its  author  was  not  only  mighty  in  the  Scriptures,  but  also 

exceedingly  well  skilled  in  the  customs,  practices,  opinions, 

traditions,    expositions,    and   applications  of  Scrijiture,  then 

received  in  the  Jewish  church. 

"  In  the  Epistle  to  tlie  Ilebre  w.s,  we  find  sucli  enlarged  views  of  the  divine 
dispensations  respecting  religion;  such  an  extensive  knowlediie  of  Iho 
Jewish  ScriplurcB,  according  io  theirancientand  true  interpretation,  which 
Paul,  no  iloubl,  learned  from  the  celebrated  doctors  under  whose  tuition 
he  siudied  in  liis  younger  years  at  Jerusalem  ;  such  a  deep  insight  also  into 
the  iiioKt  recondite  meanings  of  these  Scriptures,  and  such  adinimllo  rea- 
soiiiii:;s  founded  thereon  for  Ihe  eonfirinntion  of  the  Oospel  revelaiion,  a*, 
wilhout  disparagenicnl  to  the  other  aposiles,  seem  to  have  exceeded,  not 
their  natural  abilities  and  education  only,  hut  evi'u  that  degree  of  insjiira- 
lioii  with  which  they  were  endowed.  None  of  tlioin  but  Patil,  who  was 
brnughl  lip  at  the  feet  of  Gamaliel,  and  wlio  profited  in  the  Jewish  religion 
and  learning  above  many  of  his  fellow-students,  and  who  in  his  riper 
years,  was  lotimately  ncnuainted  with  the  Irariieil  men  of  his  own  nation 
CAeLs  ix.  I.  2.  11.  xxvi.'lit).),  and  who  wascalleil  lo  theaposlleshipby  Chri.st 
hMiisell',  when  for  that  puriiose  he  appeared  to  him  from  heaven, — nay,  who 
was  caught  up  by  Christ  into  the  third  heaven, — was  equal  to  the  subjects 
treated  of  in  thit)  most  admiriible  Eiiistlc."' 

[iii.]  In  the  third  place,  Not  only  does  the  general  scope  of 
this  Dpistle  tend  to  the  same  point,  on  trhich  Saint  Faul  lays 
so  much  strcjis  in  his  other  Epistlr.i,  namely,  that  we  are  justi- 
fit d  and  obtain  snlration  only  through  Jatus  Christ,  and  that 
the  Mosaic   institutions  cannot  effect  this  object ,-  but  there  are 

*  Btuart's  Comnioiitary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  vol.  \.  pp.  152, 
10.1.;  or  pp.  I^5  — 1H7.  of  the  London  «<lition.  Schiiiidii  Hist,  el  Vindi- 
catlo  C.inoiiis,  pji.  (K'l.'i,  (>0(5.  Owen  on  the  Hebrew  s,  vol.  1.  E.\erritntloii  U. 

»  Of  these  parenllu!sis  see  an  example  In  Hih.  1.2 — L,  In  which  tho 
triilli  of  ilu!  Gospel  is  argued  from  the  dignity  of  Clirisl's  person;  In 
verse  .'>.  the  discourse  is  continiKrd  from  tho  first  verse.  See  other  ln< 
Hlanres  in  Meb.  ill.  7—11.  H.  a«d  iv.^2,  Kc. 

•  Mackiilgbi'i  Preface  to  the  Epintlc  to  the  Hebrews,  Sect.  I.  i  iii. 
1 1biJ. 


Sect.  XVI.] 


ON  THE  EPISTLE  TO  THE  HEBREWS. 


355 


vctrious   DOCTRINAL   PROPOSITIONS  in  this  Epistle,  which  are 
found  in  ike  other  acknowledged  Epidles  of  Faul. 

Professor  Stuart  and  M.  De  Groot  have  discussed  this  subject 
at  length,  especially  the  former :  our  limits  will  only  permit  a 
very  few  examples  to  be  given,  showing  the  superiority  of  the 
Gospel  over  the  Mosaic  dispensation  : — 

1.  As  to  the  superior  degree  of  Religious  Knowledge 
imparted  by  the  Gospel. 

"  In  his  acknowled;;cd  Epistles,  Paul  calls  Judaism  rx  irTnixi^*  tou  xoir. 
ftsu  (Gal.  iv.  3.),  the  elements  or  rudiments  of  the  world,  that  is,  the  ele- 
ments or  principles  of  a  religion  acconiiiiodaled  to  the  ignorant  and  imbecile 
men  of  the  present  aje  or  world  ;  and  again,  tx  xirB-ivyi  y.xi  tttu^zx  <ntiy^-iy. 
<Gal.  iv.  9.),  weak  and  beggarly  elements,  to  denote  its  imperfection.  Here- 
presents  it  as  adapted  to  children,  v„yriOi  (Gal.  iv.  3.),  who  are  in  a  state  of 
nonage  and  pupilage,  or  in  the  condition  of  servants  rather  than  that  of 
heirs.  (Gal.  iv.  1.)  On  the  other  hand.  Christians  attain  to  a  higher  know- 
ledge of  God  (Gal.  iv.  9.) :  they  are  no  more  as  servants,  but  become  sons, 
and  obtain  the  privileges  of  adoption.  (Gal.  iv.  5,  6.)  They  are  represented 
as  TiX-ioi  (I  Cor.  xiv.  20.);  as  being  lurnished  with  instruction  adequate 
to  make  thein  ai-fpis  TiXficu,-.  (Epli.  iv.  11 — 13.)  Christianity  leads  them 
to  see  the  glorious  displays  of  himself  which  Giod  has  made,  with  an 
unveiled  face,  that  is,  clearly  (2  Cor.  iii.  18.);  while  Judaism  threw  a  veil 
over  these  things.  (2  Cor.  ii.  13.)  Christianity  is  engraven  on  the  iicarts  of 
its  votaries,  jT^xovi*  tcu  n-Ksu/taTo;  (2  Cor.  iii.  8.),  while  Judaism  was 
engraven  on  tablets  of  stone,  ivTSTu^o^sn)  iv  toi,"  x.li^o^5.  (2  Cor.  iii.  7.)" 

Let  us  now  compare  the  ])receding  sketch  of  tlie  apostle's  views  on  this 
point,  as  contained  in  his  acknowledged  Epistles,  with  those  which  are 
developed  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 

''  This  Epistle  Goramences  with  the  declaration,  that  God,  who  in  times 
pait  spake  to  the  fathers  by  the  prophets,  hath  in  these  last  days  spoken  lo 
us  by  his  Son.  (Heb.  i.  1.  ii.  1.)  Judaism  was  revealed  only  by  the  media- 
tion of  angels  (ii.  2.),  while  Christianity  was  revealed  by  the  .Son  of  God, 
and  abundantly  confirmed  by  miraculous  gifts  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  (ii.  3,  4.) 
The  ancient  covenant  was  imperfect  with  respect  to  the  means  which  it 
furnished  for  the  dilTusion  of  knowledge";  but  the  new  covenant  provides 
that  all  shall  know  the  Lord  from  the  least  to  the  greatest,  (viii.  9—11.) 
The  law  was  only  a  sketch  or  imperfect  representation  of  religious  bless- 
ings;  while  the  Gospel  proffers  the  blessings  themselves,  (x.  1.)  The 
worthies  of  ancient  times  had  only  imperfect  views  of  spiritual  blessings, 
while  Christians  enjoy  them  in  full  measure,  (xi.  39,  40.)"' 

2.  As  to  the  views  luhich  the  Gospel  displays  concerning 
Gon  the  Father,  in  the  bestoiument  of  the  gifts  of  the  Holy 
Spirit. 

No  one  has  spoken  so  frequently  as  Saint  Paul  concerning  the  Holy 
Spirit,  nor  has  any  one  of  the  inspired  writers  adduced  the  gifts  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  as  an  argument  for  the  truth  of  the  Gospel,  besjdes  Saint  Paul 
and  the  author  of  the  Epi.stle  to  the  Hebrews.  (See  1  CoV.  xiv.  22,  &c.) 
Tiie  apostle  expressly  uses  the  word  ix-fiC',:,  to  distribute,  with  regard  to 
these  gifts  in  Uom.  xii.  3.  and  2  Cor.  vii.  17. ;  and  in  Heb.  ii.  4.  he  says,  that 
the  mission  of  the  apostles  was  confirmed  by  God  with  divers  miracles, 
and  lIi'£uj"^To;  Aj'ioi)  ,u;pi(7;uoi;,  distributions  or  gifts  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 
These  gifts.  Saint  Paul  exclusively  affirms,  are  variously  imparted  accord- 
ing to  the  will  of  God  (Uom.  xii.  3—0.  Eph.  iv.  7.  and  especially  1  Cor.  xii. 
4.  7 — 11.  28.) ;  and  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  these  gifts  are  conferred 
%u.-x  r,\v  »uTcu  bi^-ziTiv,  according  to  his  will. 

3.  Concerning  the  person  and  mediatorial  office  of  the  Loud 
Jesus  CHnisT. 

He  is  the  Creator  of  all  things  (Col.  i.  16.  Eph.  iii.  9.  1  Cor.  viii.  6.),  and 
by  Him  all  things  subsist.  (Col  i.  17.)  He  is  tlie  image  or  likeness  of  God, 
i.xjiv  Tou  fcjtiu  (2  Cor.  iv.  4.);  the  image  of  t/ie  invisible  Ood,  iUx,v  Tci; 
0£5u  Toii  xopxTo-j.  (Col.  i.  1.5.)  He  hein^  in  the  form  of  God,  li  t^ifft  ©tou, 
— that  is,  in  the  condition  of  God — humbled  himself,  assumed  an  inferior  or 
humble  station, — taking  the  condition  of  a  servant,  being  inade  after  the 
similitude  of  men,  and  being  found  in  fashion  as  a  man,  he  exhibited  his 
humility  by  obedience,  even  to  the  death  of  the  cross,  wherefore  God 
highly  exalted  liim  to  supreme  dignity;  and  he  must  reign  till  he  hath  put 
all  things  under  his  feCt.  (Phil.  ii.  G — 9.  1  Cor.  xv.  2.5—27.) 

Correspondent  to  these  representations  are  the  declarations  in  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews.  The  Son  of  God  is  affirmed  to  be  the  reflected 
splendour  of  the  glory  of  God,  that  is,  one  in  whom  the  divine  majesty  is 
conspicuous,  the  •/,xfxx.T>;f  ■jTroo-rx.a-iJii  to-j  llKypo;,  thc  exuct  image,  rep- 
resentation, or  counterpart  of  the  Father  (i.  3.),  by  whom  God  made  all 
things  (i.  2.),  and  upliolds  the  universe  by  his  word.  Vet  he  was  in  a  state 
of  humiliation,  being  made  a  little  loieer  than  tlie  angels  (ii.  9.) ;  he 
assumed  flesh  and  blood,  "  in  order  that  he  might  by  his  own  death  render 
null  and  void  the  destructive  power  of  the  devil,  (ii.  14.)  On  account  of 
the  s\iffering  of  death  he  is  exalted  to  a  state  of  glory  and  honour,  (ii. 
9.)  He  endured  the  suffering  of  the  cross,  making  no  accoimt  of  its  dis- 
grace, but  having  a  regard  to  the  reward  set  before  liim,  which  was  a  seat 
^at  the  right  hand  of  God.  (xii.  2.)  All  things  are  i)ut  under  his  feet  (ii.  8. 
X.  13.),  where  the  very  same  passage  from  the  Old  Testament  is  quoted, 
which  Paul  quotes  in  1  Cor.  xv.  25 — 28.,  and  it  is  applied  in  the  same 
manner."* 

But  chiefly  does  Saint  Patil  expatiate  in  his  acknowledged  Epistles  on 
(he  death  of  Christ  as  a  propitiatory  sacrifice  for  sin,  and  the  reconciliation 
of  sinners  to  Gud  by  means  of  tliis  sacrifice.  He  is  there  said  to  have 
i-ome  into  the  world  to  save  sinners  (1  Tim.  i.  1.5.) ;  to  have  died  for  us  and 
for  our  sins  (Tit.  ii.  14.  I  Cor.  xv.  3  ),  and  to  be  a  propitiation  for  our  sins. 
(Rom.  iii.  2.5.)  In  him  we  have  redemption  through  his  blood.  (Eph.  i.  7.) 
This  salvation  it  was  impossible  to  obtain  by  thc  law ;  it  could  only  be 
cflfected  by  Jesus  Christ,  who  accomplished  what  the  law  could  not  do. 
(Rom.  Iii.  20—28.  viii,  3.  Gal.  ii.  16.  21.)  Finally,  Jesus  is  our  constant 
Mediator  and  Intercessor  with  God.  (1  Tim.  ii.  5.  Rom.  viii.  34.)  In  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  we  find  the  same  sentiments  urged  with  the  same 
ardour,  particularly  in  chapters  vli. — x.    To  adduce  a  few  instances : — 

«  Stuart's  Commentary,  vol.  i.  pp.  143, 144.  (174,  173.  of  the  London  edition.) 
in  pp.  114 — 118.  (173 — 173.  of  Ih.e  London  edition)  he  admirably  illustrates 
the  superiority  of  the  motives  to  piety  contained  in  the  Gospel,  as  well  as 
its  superior  efficacy  in  insuring  the  happiness  of  mankind,  and  the  perpe- 
tuity of  the  Christian  dispensation. 

«  De  Groot,  de  Episf.  ad  Hebrmos,  pp.  240,  341.  Stuart's  Commentary, 
vol.  i.  p.  149   (or  p.  182.  of  the  London  edition,) 


Christ  was  ofTered  to  bear  the  sins  of  many.  (Heb.  ix.  2S.)  He  tasted  ~ 
death  for  every  man.  (Heb.  ii.  9.)  He  put  away  sin  bv  the  sacrifice  of  him- 
self (Heb.  ix.  2(j.)  The  Jewish  olTerings  being  altogether  insufficient  to 
make  expiation,  Christ  has  by  his  own  blood  once  lor  all  made  expiation 
for  sin.  (ix.  9—1.5.  x.  10—12.  14.  19.)  He  is  the  Mediator  of  a  new  covenr.nt 
(i.x.  15.  xii.  2'!.),  which  is  better  than  the  ancient  one.  (vii.  22.  viii.)  E.valterl 
to  the  throne  of  the  universe  (ii.  6—10.),  he  appears  in  the  presence  of  God 
for  us  (ix.  24.) ;  lie  ever  lives  to  make  intercession  for  all  that  come  unto 
God  by  him  (vii.  25.) ;  and  he  is  ever  able  and  ready  to  assist  us.  (iv.  14 — 
16.)  Rjany  of  the  doctrines  explained  in  tliis  Epistle,  particularly  those 
concerning  the  mediation  and  intercession  of  Jesus  Christ,  are  not  men 
tioncd  by  any  of  the  inspired  writers,  except  Paul. 

[iv.]  Fourthly,  There  is  such  a  similarity  between  the  modes 
of  quotation,  and  style  of  phraseology  of  this  Epistle,  and 
those  which  occur  in  the  apostle's  acknowledged  Epistles,  as 
clearly  shows  that  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  is  hi^  undoubted 
production. 

Braunius,  Carpzov,  Langius,  Schmidt,  Lardner,  Macknight, 
De  Groot,  and  above  all  Professor  Stuart,  have  adduced  numerous 
instances  at  considerable  length,  from  which  the  following  have 
been  abridged : — 

(I.)   J\Iodes  of  quotation  and  interpretations  of  some  pas' 

sages  of  the  Hebreiv  Scriptures  -which  are  peculiarly  jfauliiie, 

because  they  are  to  be  foimd  only  in  the  -writings  of  Saint 

Paul. 

That  the  apostle  should  more  abound  with  testimonies  and  quotations 
out  of  the  Old  Testament  in  this  than  bis  other  epistles,  is  nothing  more 
than  the  subject  of  which  he  treats,  and  the  persons  to  whom  he  wrote, 
necessarily  required.  Thus,  Psal.  ii.  7.  "  Thou  art  my  h'on:  today  I  have 
begotten  thee;"  is  quoted  and  applied  to  Jesus  (Heb.  i.  5.)  just  as  Paul,  in 
his  discourse  to  thc  Jews  in  the  synagogue  of  Antioch  in  Pisidia,  cited  and 
apphed  tlie  same  passage  of  Scripture  to  him.  (Acts  xiii.  33.)  In  like 
manner,  the  quotation  and  explanation  of  Psal.  viii.  4.  and  of  Psal.  ex.  1., 
given  by  Paul,  1  Cor.  xv.  25.  27.  arc  found  in  Heb.  ii.  7,  8.  So  also  the  ex- 
planation of  the  covenant  with  Abraham  (Htb.  vi.  14.  18.)  is  nowhere  found 
but  in  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Galatians.  (iii.  8.  9.  14.  13.)' 

(2.)  Instances  of  agreement  in  the  style  and  phraseology 
of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  and  in  the  ackno-wledged  Epis- 
tles of  Paul. 

i.  Particular  Wo-'ids,  peculiar  to  Paul,  on  which  are  most  FREacENt 
IN  HIS  Writings. 

Wetstein  enumerates  eleven  instances,  to  which  Schmidt  has  added 
forty-eight  others;  De  Groot  has  considerably  enlarged  tlie  list,  which  he 
refers  lo  certain  classes;  as  also  does  Professor  Stuart,  who  has  given 
upwards  of  sixty  examples.*  Our  limits  will  allow  a  few  only  to  be  sub- 
joined. 

The  word  of  God,  in  Paul,  is  a  sword,  M^-/.^'p^-  (Eph.  vi.  17.  Heb.  iv.  12.) 

Cliildren  in  religion,  that  is,  those  who  are  comparatively  ignorant  and 
uninformed,  are  termed  i>iTr<o.  in  1  Cor.  iii.  1.  Eph.  iv.  14.  Rom.  ii.  20.  Gal. 
iv.  3.  and  Heb.  v.  13. ;  and  instruction  for  such  persons  is  termed  milk,  and 
for  strong  persons  (xtx.-ioi),  or  those  who  are  well  taught,  it  is  /ip^T**, 
meat,  and  trrifi-.i  Tpo^i),  or  strong  meat,  in  I  Cor.  iii.  2.  and  Ileb.  v.  14.^ 
and   their   advanced  or  mature  state  of  Christian  knowledge  is  called 

Mio-iTj],-  or  Mediator,  to  denote  Jesus  Christ,  is  exclusively  Paulino, 
(Gal.  iii.  19,  20.  1  Tim.  ii.  5.  Heb.  viii.  6.) 

'Ayt-x^itv,  to  cleanse  from  sin,  that  is,  to  expiate,  to  liberate  from  the 
imputation  of  sin,  to  render  God  propitious,  occurs  in  Eph.  v.  26.  Heb.  ii^ 
11.  x.  10.  and  xiii.  12. 

>:xtx,  a.  shadow,  that  is,  a  shadowing  forth,  or  adumbration,  a.s  opposej 
to  thc  perfect  image,  or  delineation.  (Col.  ii.  17.  Heb.  viii.  .5.  x.  1.) 

■C^.o^oyiji,  religion,  religious  or  Christian  profession.  (2  Cor.  ix.  13. 
Heb.  iii.  1.  iv.  14.  x.  23.) 

'Oixoj  fcifou,  the  house  of  God.  that  is,  the  church.  (ITim.  iii.  15.  Heb.  iii.  6.J 

KK>;poi'o,«s;,  Lord  or  possessor.  (Heb.  i.  2.  Uom.  viii.  17.) 

K:£Taf>.;iv,  to  annul,  abolish,  or  abrogate.  (Rom.  iii.  3.  31.  vi.  6.  1  Cor. 
i.  28.  Gal.  V.  U.  Heb.  ii.  14.) 

iiTTSfftx  TCU  Aiifxx.u^  the  seed  of  Abraham,  or  Christians,  occurs  in  GaL 
iii.  29.  and  Heb.  ii.  6. 

ii.  Agonistic  Expressions  or  Allusions  to  the  Gaiwes  and  Exercise* 
which  were  then  in  great  repute,  and  were  freauentlv  solemnized  l:t 
Greece  and  other  parts  of  the  Ro.man  Ejipire,  and  particularly  ai 
Jerusalem  and  C.esarea  iiv  Herod.  (I  Cor.  ix.  24.  Phil.  iii.  12—14.  2 Tim. 
ii.  5.  iv.  6—8.  compared  with  Heb.  vi.  18.  and  xii.  1—3,  4.  12.) 

(3.)  Coincidences  betxveen  the  exhortations  in  this  Epistle 
and  those  in  Paxil's  other  letters. 

See  He,b.  xii.  3.  compared  with  Gal.  vi.  9.  2Thess.  iii.  13.  and  Eph.  iii.  13.,- 
Heb.  xii.  14.  with  Rom.  xii.  13. ;  Heb.  xiii.  1.  3,  4.  with  Eph.  v.  2-4. ;  Heb. 
xiii.  16.  with  Phil.  iv.  18.     See  also  Rom.  xv.  26.  2  Cor.  viii.  24,  and  ix.  13. 

(4.)  Coincidences  bettveen  the  conclusion  of  this  Epistle 
and  the  conclusions  of  .Raul's  Epistles,  in  several  respects. 

Compare  Heb.  xii.  IS.  with  Rom.  xv.  .30.  Eph.  vi,  18,  19.  Col.  iv.  .3. 
1  Thcs^.  v.  25.  and  2Thess.  iii.  1.  ;  Heb.  xiii.  20,  21.  with  Rom.  xv,  30— .33. 
Eph  vi  19—23  1  Thess.  v.  2i.  and  2Thcss.  iii.  16.;  Heb.  xiii.  24.  with 
Rom.  xvi.  21-2.3.  1  Cor.  xvi.  19—21.  2Cor.  xiii.  13.  Phil.  iv.  21,  22. ;  Heb. 
xiii.  25.  with  2Thess.  iii.  13.  Col.  iv.  IS.  Eph.  vi.  24.  ITim.  vi.  21.  2  Tim. 
iv.  22.  and  Tit.  iii.  15. 

[v.]  Lastly,  There  are  several  circumstances  toivards  the 

s  Mackniaht's  Pref.  lo  Ep.  to  the  Hebrews.  Sect.  I.  §  iii.  De  Groot  gives 
instances  not  only  of  thc  formula}  of  quotation,  but  also  of  the  design  with 
which  the  apostle  introduces  his  quotations,  (pp.  2-15,  240.)  Prof,  fetuart 
principally  elucidates  the  mode  of  appealing  to  the  Jewish  tecriptures,  and 
the  apostle's  manner  of  reasoning.  Commentary,  vol.  i.  pp.  153— IbO,  or 
nn.  187— 195.  of  the  London  edition.  .,..„•-  .^         •  ec<i    rr* 

'  4  Wetstein,  Nov.  Test.  torn.  ii.  p.  386.  Schm.du  I^st  CanoniM^^9--«64, 
De  Groot,  pp.  247-250.  Stuart,  vol.  i.  pp.  160-168.,  or  pp.  196-2M.  oftH* 
London  edition. 


356 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  VI.  Chap.  TIT. 


close  of  this  Epistle,  -which  endentlii  prove  that  it  -was  -written 
by  Paul.     Thus, 

(1.)  Ilcb.  xiii.  C3.  The  departure  of  Tiinotliy  is  mentioned  ;  and  we  know 
from  the  coiiiiiiciicuineiil  of  the  ft^pisilesto  the  Philijipians,  Culossians,  and 
to  Phileinoii,  llml  he  was  with  Paul  diirin;  \\\s  hiiprisoniijenl  al  Home. 

(i)  Heh.  xiii  21.  They  of  Italy  salute  ymi :  the  writer,  ihorofore.  wag 
t!.en  in  Italy,  whither  IVul  was  sorit  a  prisoner,  and  where  he  resided  twn 
years  (Acts  x.xviii.  30 );  where  also  Jie  wrote  several  Epistles  which  are 
ttill  extant. 

('3.)  Heb.  x.  34.  The  apostle  makes  mention  of  his. bonds,  and  of  the 
compassion  which  the  Hebrew  Clirititian:}  showed  him  in  his  sulTerings, 
and  during  his  iinprisoniiienL 

Now  it  is  scarcely  credible,  that  any  other  person  in  Italy,  where  Paul 
t!ieii  was,  slioiild  write  to  the  ll>l>rew  Chrisiians,  and  therein  make  men- 
tion of  his  own  bonds,  and  of  Tnnoihy  !)eiug  witii  him,  who  was  a  man 
unknown  to  thcni  except  through  Piinl,  ami  not  once  intimate  any  iliins; 
concerninff  his  ronili'ion.  Hesides,  the  constant  sisjn  and  loken  of  Paul'.i 
F.piiiie.s  which  himself  had  publicly  signitied  lo  be  so  (iThcss.  iii.  17,  IS), 
is  subjr-inod  to  this  -.—Grace  lie  inVA  you  all.  (Heh.  xiii.  2J.)  That  this  was 
crisinally  written  with  hi.s  own  hand,  there  is  no  ;;roiind  In  (piestion  ;  hut 
rather  appoars  lo  be  so  because  it  wn.s  written  :  for  he  allirms,  thai  it  wa.s 
liij  custom  to  subjoin  that  salutation  willi  his  own  hand.  Now  thi.s  w.is  an 
evidence  to  the  persons  to  whom  lheorij>inal  of  the  lOpisllc  first  came,  but 
not  lo  those  who  had  only  transcribed  copies  of  it.  The  salutation  itself 
was  their  loken,  being  peculiar  lo  Paul ;  and  ail  these  circumstances  will 
yet  receive  some  addiiiun.-il  force  from  Ihr  consideraiion  of  the  time  when 
tiiis  Episile  was  wrilten.  '(See  par.  iv.  in  the  next  column.) 

Is  it  possible  that  all  these  coincidences  (which  are  compa- 
ratively a  small  selection)  can  be  the  efTcct  of  mere  accident'? 
Tiie  arr.tn:rMn»^nt  and  method  of  treatment,  the  topics  dis- 
cussed, ana  the  peculiarity  of  sentiment.?,  words,  and  phrases, 
are  all  so  exclusively  Pauline,  that  no  other  person  could  have 
been  its  author,  except  the  great  apostle  of  the  Gentiles. 
Yet,  notwithstandinrj  this  strong  chain  of  proof  for  the  authen- 
ticity of  this  Epistle,  doubts  have  still  been  entertained, 
whether  it  is  a  genuine  production  of  Saint  Paul.  Tliese 
doubts  re-it  principally  on  the  omission  of  the  writer's  name, 
and  the  superior  elegance  of  the  style  in  which  it  is  written. 

1.  It  i.s  indeed  certain  that  all  the  acknowledged  Epistles  of 
Paul  iK-^in  with  a  saUitiition  in  his  own  name,  and  that  most  of 
Ihcin  were  directed  from  .some  j)articular  place,  and  sent  by  some 
epccial  messengers;  whereas  tlic  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  is  ano- 
nymous, and  is  not  directed  from  any  place,  nor  is  the  name  of 
the  messcnp;er  introduced  by  whom  it  was  sent  to  Judrca.  These 
omissions,  however,  can  scarcely  be  considered  as  conclusive 
ajainst  the  positive  testimony  already  adduced.  And  they  are 
satisfactorily  accounted  for  by  Clement  of  Alexandria,  and  by  Je- 
fjme,  who  intimate,  that  as  Jesus  (Jhri.it  himself  was  ihc  pecu- 
liar apostle  to  the  Ht-bveu-s  (as  acknowledged  in  this  epistle,  iii.  1.), 
Paul  declined,  through  humility,  to  assume  the  title  of  an  apostle. 
To  which  Tbeodoret  adds,  that  Paid  being  peculiarly  the  apos- 
kJe  of  the  iincircumcision,  as  the  rest  wcri^  of  the  circinncision 
(Gal.  ii.  9.  Kom.  .\i.  13.),  he  scrupled  to  assume  any  public  cha- 
racter when  writing  to  the  people  of  their  charge.  He  did  not 
mention  his  name,  messenger,  o,r  the  particular  persons  to  whom 
it  woij  sent,  because  (as  Dr.  Lardner  judiciously  remarks)  such 
a  long  letter  might  give  umbrage  to  the  ruling  jiowers  at  thii 
crisis,  when  the  Jews  were  most  turbulent,  and  miiTht  endanger 
Limself,  the  messenger,  and  those  to  whom  it  was  directed.  But 
they  might  easily  know  the  author  by  the  style,  and  also  from 
t!ic  mes.nenger,  without  any  formal  notice  or  superscrip'ion.  But 
the  abnencc  of  the  apostle's  name  i.-i  no  proof  that  the  l-pistle  lo 
the  llebn'v,  s  was  not  written  by  Paul,  or,  that  it  is  a  treati.'se  or 
homily,-  o.-»  some  critics  have  imagined  ;  for,  in  our  canon  of  the 
New  Tcfttamenf,  there  arc  Epistles  universally  acknowledged  to 
be  the  production  of  an  inspired  apostle,  notwiib^tanding  his 
name  is  nowhere  inserted  in  them.  'J'he  three  Epistl(>s  of  John 
are  here  intended,  in  all  of  which,  thai  apostle  has  omitted  his 
name,  for  some  reasons  not  now  known.  The  first  Ei)islle 
begins  in  the  same  manner  as  the  Episile  to  the  Hel>revv.>»;  and  in 
tlic  other  two,  ho  calls  himself  Hiin])ly  the  elder  or  presbyter. 
That  Paul,  however,  did  not  mean  to  conceal  himself,  we  lenrn 
from  the  Epistle  itstlf: — "Know  ye,"  says  he,  "that  our  Z»io/Atr 
Timothy  hiis  been  sent  uln-otul,  with  whom,  if  he  come  shortly, 
/  luill  ire  yoH.'"^  (Heb.  xiii.  2.3.)  The  objeciion, therefore,  from 
Ihc  omi-iwion  of  the  apo.slh)'/*  name,  neccHsarily  falls  to  the  ground. 

2.  With  regard  lo  the  objection,  that  this  Epistle  is  superior  in 
point  of  style  to  Paul's  other  writingt,  and  therefore  is  not  the 
production  of  that  apostle,  it  is  lo  be  observed,  lint  "  there  does 
not  appear  to  be  such  a  superiority  in  the  style  of  this  Epistle  as 

'  Schniidii  Hint.  Canonin,  p.  605.  Lardner'a  Wf.rks,  f<vo  vol.  vi.  pp.  -102, 
403.  ;  4to.  vol.  111.  p.  Xl-'i.    (Jwen  on  the  Jlcljrewn,  |>art  1.  exercllnlion  'i. 

*  The  hypotheKis  of  Ilergcr,  thut  tho  n|)ixlle  lo  the  Hebrews  was  ori- 
glnrtlly  an  homily,  i.t  examlnc<I  and  refuted  by  Prof  Htuarl.  Coininentary, 
»ol.  I.  pn.  4—7.,  or  pp   4— y.  of  the  London  i-dnion 

•  Micli.ti'liM  lliMiks  it  hiiil.ly  Improi.ihlf  tli.it  Pi'il  would  visit  Jerunnli'm 
B^iln.  and  expnite  Ids  life  \i,  r.enlom  there.  Iltit  m:rely.  Dr  Holes  roniarkH, 
h"  iiil,{hi  revl:.ii  Judwu  wtihoul  incutring  tiiat  Uang'.-r.  Analysis  of  Chrono- 
losy   vol  ii   book  il  J)   U*). 


should  lead  to  the  conclusion  tliat  it  wa.s  not  written  by  Paul." 
Those  who  have  thought  differently  have  mentioned  Barnabas, 
Luke,  and  Clement,  as  authors  or  translators  of  this  Episile. 
The  opinion  of  Jerome  was,  thai  "  the  scntimenls  are  tlic  apostle's, 
but  the  language  and  composition  of  some  one  else,  who  com- 
mitted to  writing  the  apostle's  sense,  and,  as  it  were,  reduced 
into  commentaries  the  things  spoken  by  his  master."  Dr.  Enrd- 
ner  conjectures  that  Paul  dictated  the  Episile  in  Hebrew,  and 
that  nnotlier,  who  was  a  great  mivster  of  the  («reek  language,  im- 
mediately wrote  down  the  apostle's  sentiments  in  his  own  elegant 
Greek ;  but  who  this  assistant  of  the  apostle  wa.s,  is  altogether 
unknown.  But  surely  the  writings  of  Paul,  like  those  of  other 
authors,  may  not  all  have  the  same  precise  degree  of  merit ;  and 
if,  upon  a  carelul  perusal  and  comparison,  it  should  be  thought 
that  the  Epislje  to  the  Hebrews  is  wrilten  with  greater  elegance 
than  the  acknowledged  compositions  of  this  apostle,  it  should  also 
be  remembered  that  the  apparent  design  and  contents  of  this  Ej-is- 
tle  suggest  the  idea  of  more  studied  composition,  and  yet  that 
there  is  nothing  in  it  which  amounts  to  a  marked  dilforence  of 
style."'  Besides  the  subUme  subject  of  this  Epistle,  the  grand 
ideas  which  the  apostle  develojics  with  equal  method  and  warmth, 
did  not  permit  him  to  employ  the  negligent  style  of  a  familiar 
letter.  On  the  other  hand,  as  wc  have  already  scen,^  there  are 
the  same  construction  of  sentences,  and  the  same  style  of  ex- 
pression, in  this  Epistle,  which  occur  in  no  part  of  the  Scriptures 
except  in  Saint  Paul's  Epistles.*' 

Upon  the  whole,  we  conclude  with  IJraunius,  Langius, 
Carpzov,  Pritius,  Whitby,  Lardner,  Macknight,  Hales, 
Uosenmuller,  Bengcl,  Bishop  Tomline,  Janssens,  De  Groot, 
Professor  .Stuart,  and  almost  every  other  modern  commen- 
tator and  bil)lical  critic,  that  the  weight  of  evidence,  both 
external  and  internal,  preponderates  so  greatly  in  favour  of 
Paul,  that  we  cannot  but  consider  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
ds  written  by  that  apostle ;  and  that,  instead  of  containing 
"  far-fetched  analogies  and  inaccurate  reasonings  "  (as  the 
opponents  of  our  Saviour's  divinity  and  atonement  affirm),  its 
eompo.silion  is  more  highly  wrought,  and  its  language  more 
hnisned,thap  any  of  Paul's  other  Epistles,  and  that  itaflbrds 
a  finished  model  of  d'ductic  writing. 

IV.  With  regard  to  the  time  wlien  this  Epistle  was  written, 
critics  and  commentators  are  not  agreed,  some  referring  it  to 
A.  D.  58,  but  the  greater  part  placing  it  between  a.  d.  G1  and 
61.  If  (as  we  believe)  Paul  was  its  author,  the  time  when 
it  was  written  may  easily  be  determined  ;  for  the  salutations 
from  the  saints  in  Italy  (Heb.  xiii.  21.),  together  with  the 
apostle's  promise  to  sec  tlie  Hebrews  shortly  (23.),  plainly 
intimates  that  his  imprisonment  was  then  either  terminated, 
or  on  the  point  of  being  so.  It  was  therefore  written  from 
Italy,  perhaps  from  Home,  soon  after  the  Epistles  to  the 
Oolossians,  Ephesians,  and  Philemon,  and  not  long  before 
Paul  left  Italy,  viz.  at  the  end  of  a.  n.  02,  or  early  in  63.  It 
is  evident  from  several  passages,  as  Lardner  and  Macknight 
have  observed,  that  it  was  written  before  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem,  and  probably.  Professor  Stuart  thinks,  but  a  short 
lime  before  that  event;  for  in  Heb.  viii.  1.  ix.  25.  x.  11.  and 
xiii.  10.  the  temple  is  mentioned  as  then  standing,  and  the 
Lcvitical  sacrifices  are  noticed  as  being  then  offered.  To 
which  we  may  add,  that  in  x.  32 — 37.  the  apostle  comforts 
the  believing  Hebrews  under  the  persecution  which  their 
unbelieving  brethren  were  carrying  on  against  tliem,  by  the 
prospect  of  Clirist's  speedy  advent  lo  destroy  Jerusalem  and 
the  whole  Mosaic  economy. 

V.  The  occasion  of  writing  this  Epistle  will  be  sufficiently 
apparent  from  an  alientive  review  of  its  contents.  The  Jews 
did  every  thing  in  their  power  lo  willidraw  tiieir  brethren, 
who  had  been  converted,  from  the  Christian  faith.  To  perse- 
cutions and  threats,  they  added  arguments  derived  from  tho 
excellency  of  the  Jewish  religion.  They  observed,  we  may 
infer,  that  the  law  of  Moses  was  given  1)V  the  ministration 
of  angels  ;  that  Moses  was  far  sunerior  to  .fesus  of  Nazareth, 
who  suffered  an  ignominons  dealli ;  that  the  public  worship 
of  (Jod,  instittiteir  by  tin  ir  great  legislator  and  jirophet,  was 
truly  splendid  and  worthy  of  Jehovah  :  while  the  Christians, 
on  tlie  contrary,  had  no  establislied  jirieslbood,  no  teinplo,  no 
altars,  no  victims,  &c.  In  opposition  to  such  argumiMitis,  tho 
apostle  shows,  what  the  loarned  doctors,  scribes,  and  elders 
at  Jerusalem  strongly  denie<l ;  viz.  that  Jesus  of  Nazareth, 
whom  they  had  lately  put  lo  death,  was  the  Messiah,  th« 

«  lllshop  Tomline'H  Elements  of  Christian  Theology,  vol.  i.  pp.  4u6,  4S6. 

'  S.e  pp.  3o4.  :t55.  suprn. 

•The  obirciioji.s  of  Ueriholdt  and  others,  taken  from  the  style  of  tho 
Epistle  to  iho  Hebrews,  are  oxamliied  iu  detail,  aod  rolulcd  by  Profcsaor 
Sliiarl,  vol  i  p.  I'jO.  ct  i:j. 


1:01, 


XVI.] 


ON  THE  EPISTLE  TO  THE  HEBREWS. 


357 


Con  of  God,  and  far  superior  to  the  aucrels,  to  Moses,  to  the 
high-priest  of  the  Okl  Testament,  and  to  all  other  priests  : 
that  from  his  sufferings  and  death,  wTiich  he  endured  for  us, 
much  greater  and  more  lasting  benefits  have  resulted  to  the 
whole  human  race,  than  the  Jews  ever  derived  from  their 
temple  service,  and  from  the  numerous  rites  and  ordinances 
of  the  Levitical  laws,  which  were  absolutely  inefficacious  to 
jirocure  the  pardon  of  sin.  The  reality  of  the  sacrifice  of 
iijniself,  which  Christ  offered  for  sin,  is  clearly  demonstrated. 
From  these  and  other  arguments,  the  apostle  proves  that  the 
religion  of  Jesus  is  much  more  excellent  and  perfect  than 
that  of  Moses,  and  exhorts  the  Christiaa  converts  to  con- 
stancy in  the  faith,  and  to  the  unwearied  pursuit  of  all  god- 
liness and  virtue. 

The  great  object  of  the  apostle,  therefore,  in  this  Epistle, 
is  to  show  the  deity  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  excellency  of 
his  Gospel,  when  compared  with  the  institutions  of  Moses ; 
to  prevent  the  Hebrews  or  Jewish  converts  from  relapsing 
into  those  rites  and  ceremonies  which  w-ere  now  abolished  ; 
and  to  point  out  their  total  insufiiciency,  as  means  of  recon- 
ciliation and  atonement.  The  reasonings  are  interspersed 
with  numerous  solemn  and  affectionate  warnings  and  exhor- 
tations, addressed  to  different  descriptions  of  persons.  At 
lejioth  Saint  Paul  shows  the  nature,  efficacy,  and  triumph  of 
faith,  by  which  all  the  saints  in  former  ages  had  been  ac- 
cepted by  God,  and  enabled  to  obey,  suffer,  and  perform  ex- 
ploits, in  defence  of  their  holy  religion  ;  from  which  he  takes 
occasion  to  exhort  them  to  steadfastness  and  perseverance  in 
the  true  faith. 

The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  consists  of  three  parts  ;  viz. 
Part  I.  demonstrates  the  Deity  of  Christ  by  the  explicit  Decla- 
ralions  of  Scripture,  (ch.  i. — x.  18.) 

The  proposition  is,  that  Christ  is  the  true  God.  (i.  I — 3.) 
The  proofs  of  this  are, 

Sect.  1 .  His  superiority  to  angels,  by  whom  he  is  worshipped 
35  their  Creator  and  Lord.   (i.  4 — 14.) 

Inference. — Therefore  we  ought  to  give  heed  to  him.  (ii. 
1 — 4.) 
Tlie  superiority  of  Christ  over  angels  asserted,  notwithstand- 
ing his  temporary  humiliation  in  our  nature  (ii.  5 — 9.)  ;  with- 
out which  he  could  not  have  accomplished  the  work  of  man's 
redemption  (ii.  10 — 15);  and  for  tliis  purpose  he  took  not  upon 
him  the  nature  of  angels,  but  that  of  Abraham,  (ii.  16 — 18.) 

Sect.  3.  His  superiority  to  Moses,  who  was  only  a  servant, 
whereas  Christ  is  Lord.  (iii.  1 — 6.) 
Application  of  this  argument  to  the  believing  Hebrews,  who 
are  solemnly  warned  not  to  copy  the  exampie  of  their  un- 
believing ancestors  who  perished  in  the  wilderness,  (iii.  7 — 
19.  iv.  1—13.) 

Sect.  3.  His  superiority  to  Aaron  and  all  the  other  high-priests 
demonstrated.  Christ  is  the  true  high-priest,  adumbrated 
by  Melchizedek  and  Aaron,  (iv.  14 — 16.  v. — viii.)  In  ch. 
v.  1 — 14.  and  ch.  vi.  the  apostle  inserts  a  parenthetical  di- 
gression, in  which  he  reproves  the  Hebrew  Christians  for 
their  ignorance  of  the  Scriptures. 

Sr.cT.  4.  The  typical  nature  of  the  tabernacle  and  its  furniture, 
and  of  the  ordinances  there  observed,  (ix.  1 — 10.) 

Sect.  5.  The  sacrifice  of  Christ  is  that  true  and  only  sacrifice 
by  which  all  the  Levitical  sacrifices  are  abolished,  (ix.  1 1 — 
28.x.  1—18.) 

Part  II.   The  .Application  of  the  preceding  .Arguments  and 


Proofs,  (x.  19— 39.— xiii.  1—19.)  in  which  the  Hehreivs  are 
exhorted. 

Sect.  1.  To  faith,  prayer,  and  constancy  in  the  Gospel,  (x. 
19 — 25.)  This  exhortation  is  enforced  by  representations 
of  the  danger  of  wilfully  renouncing  Christ,  after  having 
received  the  knowledge  of  the  truth,  and  is  interspersed  with 
warnings,  expostulations,  and  encouragements,  showing  the 
nature,  excellency,  and  efScacy  of  faith,  illustrated  by  ex- 
amples of  the  most  eminent  saints,  from  Abel  to  the  end  of 
the  Old  Testament  dispensation,  (x.  26 — 39.  xi.) 

Sect.  2.  To  patience  and  diligence  in  their  Cl.ristiaYi  course, 
from  the  testimony  of  former  believers,  and  by  giving  par- 
ticular attention  to  the  example  of  Christ,  and  from  the 
paternal  design  and  salutary  effect  of  the  Lord's  corrections, 
(xii.  1—13.) 

Sect.  3.  To  peace  and  holiness,  and  to  a  jealous  watchfulness 
over  themselves  and  each  other,  enforced  by  the  case  of  Esau 
(xii.  14—17.) 

Sect.  4.  To  an  obedient  reception  of  the  Gospel,  and  a  reve- 
rential worship  of  God,  from  the  superior  excellency  of  the 
Christian  dispensation,  and  the  proportionably  greater  guilt 
and  danger  of  neglecting  it.  (xii.  18 — 29.) 

Sf.ct.  5.  To  brotherly  love,  hospitality,  and  compassion ;  to 
ch.irity,  contentment,  and  the  love  of  God.  (xiii.  I — 3.) 

Sk.ct.  6.  To  recollect  the  faith  and  examples  of  their  deceased 
pastors,   (xiii.  4 — 8.) 

Sect.  7.  To  watchfulness  against  false  doctrines  in  regard  to 
the  sacrifice  of  Christ,   (xiii.  9 — 12.) 

Sect.  8.  To  willingness  to  bear  reproach  f*»r  him,  and  thanks- 
giving tn  God.   (xiii.  13 — 15.) 

Sect.  9.  To  subjection  to  their  pastors,  and  prayer  for  the 
apostle,   (xiii.  16 — 19.) 
Part  III.    The   Conclusion,  containing  a  Prayer  for  the  He- 
brews, and.  Apostolical  Salutations,  (xiii.  20 — 25.) 

The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  Dr.  Hales  observes,  is  a  mas- 
terly supplement  to  the  Epistles  to  the  Romans  and  Gala- 
tians,  and  also  a  luminous  commentary  on  them  ;  showing 
that  all  the  legal  dispensation  was  originally  designed  to  be 
superseded  by  the  new  and  better  covenant  of  the  Christian 
dispensation,  in  a  connected  chain  of  argument,  evincing  the 
profoundest  knowledge  of  both.  The  internal  excellence 
of  this  Epistle,  as  connecting  the  Old  Testament  and  the 
New  in  the  most  convincing  and  instructive  manner,  and  elu- 
cidating both  more  fully  than  any  other  Epistle,  or  perhaps 
than  all  of  them,  places  its  divine  inspiration  beyond  all 
doubt.  We  here  find  the  great  doctrines,  which  are  set  forth 
in  ot':er  parts  of  the  New  Testament,  stated,  proved,  and 
applied  to  practical  purposes,  in  the  most  impressive  manner.' 

1  Heidegger,  Enchiridion.  Biblicum,  pp.  600—611.  Dr.  Owen's  E.xprcita- 
tions  on  tlie  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  pp.  1 — 44.  fol.  edit.  Lardner's  Works, 
8vo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  381 — 415. ;  4to.  vol.  iii.  pp.  324 — 341.  Mackniglii's  Preface 
to  the  Hebrews,  vol.  iii.  pp.  321 — .^1.  4to.  edit,  or  vol.  v.  pp.  1— '<;7. 8vo.  edit. 
Braunii  Comment,  in  Epist.  ad  Hebr<eos,  pp.  1 — .36.  Carpzovii  E.xercita- 
tioiies  in  Epist.  ad  HebraBos,  pp.  Ixii.— cvi.  Schmidii  Hist,  et  Vmcijcatio 
Canonis,  pp.  655 — 673.  Langii  Comuientatio  de  Vjta  el  Epistolis  ApostoU 
Paiili,  pp.  153 — 160.  J.  A.  Ernesti  Lertiones  Academica;  in  Epist.  ad  He- 
brfpos,  pp.  1— S.  1173—1185.  8vo.  LipsijB,  1815.  Michaelis,  vol.  iv.  pp.  192 
—269.  Dr  Hales's  Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  ii.  pp.  112S — 11-37.  Prilii 
Introd.  ad  Lcctionera  Nov.  Test.  pi>.  33 — 61.  312—318.  RosciiiniiUer,  Scholia 
in  Nov.  Test.  vol.  v.  pp.  142 — 143.  .Moldenliawer,  Introd.  ad  Libros  Canoni- 
cos  Vet.  et  Nov  Test.  pp.  332—340.  Alber,  Institutiones  Hermeneutic« 
Nov.  Test.  toin.  i.  pp.  244—250.  Hug's  Introduction,  vol.  ii.  pp.  488—5.33. 
Janssens,  Henncneutique  Sacree,  torn.  ii.  pp.  61 — 68.  VVhiiby's  and  Scott's 
Commentaries  oh  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 


£59 


i»?VM  LYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Paut  VI.  CnAP.  IV. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

ox    THE    CATHOLIC    EPISTLES. 

SECTION  I. 


ON  THE  GEXL'INESESS  AND  AUTHENTICITY  OF  THE  CATHOLIC  EPISTLES. 

Origin  of  the  ^if)}>eUation  Catholic  Epistles. — II.  Its  Antiquity. — Observations  on  their  Authenticity.- 

ill  -which  they  are  usually  placed. 


-III.   On  the  Order 


)r  r^oneral  Epistles,  because  ihoy  were  not  writ- 
3rson,  city,  or  clmrch,  like  the  Epistles  of  Paul, 


I.  The  Epistles  of  Paul  are  fjllowed  in  tlie  canon  of  the 
New  Testament  by  seven  Ejjistles,  bearing  the  names  of  the 
apostles  James.  Peter,  Jude,  and  John.  For  many  centu- 
ries, these  Epistles  have  been  generally  termed  Catholic 
EpistU:i, — an- appellation  for  which  several  conjectures  have 
been  assigned. 

1.  Salnieron  and  others  have  imagined  that  they  were  de- 
nominated Cuthulic  or  general  Lplstks,  because  they  were  de- 
signed to  be  transcribed  and  circulated  among  tiie  Christian 
churches,  that  they  might  lie  perused  by  all ;  for  they  contain 
that  one  catholic  or  general  doctrine,  which  was  delivered  to 
the  churches  by  the  apostles  of  our  Saviour,  and  which  might 
be  read  with  advantage  by  the  universal  church  of  Christ.  In 
like  manner  they  might  be  called  canonical,  as  containing 
canons  or  general^ules  and  precepts  which  concern  all  Chris- 
tians. Unnuestiouably,  the  doctrines  they  contain  are  truly 
catholic  anu  excellent ;  and  they  also  contain  general  rules 
and  directions  that  concern  all  Christians,  as  well  as  precepts 
that  are  bind'ng  upon  all,  so  far  as  their  situations  and  cir- 
cumstances are  similar.  But  these  remarks  are  equally  an- 
nlicable  to  the  other  books  of  the  NewTestame.it,  and  Paul  s 
Epistles  may,  for  the  same  reasons,  with  equal  propriety,  be 
termed  catholic  or  canonical  Epistles  ;  for  the  doctrines  there 
delivered  are  as  catholic  and  excellent  as  those  compris'-d  in 
the  seven  Epistles  now  under  consideration.  They  likewise 
contain  many  general  precepts  that  are  obligatory  upon  all 
Christians;  and  the  particular  precepts  are  binding  so  far  as 
the  circumstances  of  Christians  in  later  ages  are  similar  to 
those  referred  to  by  the  great  apostle  of  the  Gentiles. 

2.  Others  are  ot  o|)inion  that  they  received  the  appellation 
of  catholic  or 
U-n  to  one  pc 

but  to  the  catholic  church,  Christians  in  general,  or  to  Chris- 
tians of  several  countries,  or  at  least  to  all  the  Jewish  Chris- 
tians wherever  they  were  dispersed  over  the  face  of  the  earth, 
fficumenius,  Leontius,  Wliiiby,  and  others,  have  adopted 
this  opinion,  which,  however,  does  not  appear  to  be  well 
founded.  The  Epistle  of  James  was,  indeed,  written  to  the 
Christians  of  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel  in  their  several  dis- 
persions; but  it  was  not  inscribed  to  the  Christians  in  Judaja, 
nor.  to  Gentile  Christians  in  any  country  whatever.  The  two 
Epistles  of  Peter  were  written  to  Christians  in  general,  but 
piirlicularly  those  who  had  been  converted  from  Judaism. 
The  first  Epistle  of  John  and  the  Epistle  of  Jude  were  pro- 
ba])ly  writft.n  to  Jewish  (Jhristians  ;  and  the  second  and  tiiird 
Episth'S  of  John  were  unquestionably  written  to  particular 
persons. 

.3.  A  third  opinion  is  that  of  Dr.  Hammond,  adopted  by 
Dr.  Macknight  and  others,  which  we  think  is  the  most  pro- 
nable.  It  is  this: — The  first  Ej-istle  of  I'eter  and  the  first 
Epistle  of  John,  having  from  the  beginning  been  received  as 
authentic,  obtained  the  name  of  catholic  or  universally  ac- 
knowledtjed  (and  therefore  canonical)  Epistles,  in  order  to 
distinguish  them  from  the  Epistle  of  James,  the  second  of 
Peter,  the  second  and  third  of  John,  and  the  Ejjistle  of 
Jude,  concerning  which  doubts  were  at  first  entertained,  and 
they  were  considered  by  many  as  not  being  a  rule  of  faith. 
But  thfir  authenticity  being  at  length  acknowledged  by  the 
generality  of  the  churches,  they  also  obtained  the  name  of 
catholic  or  universally  received  Epistles, and  were  esteemed 
of  equal  authority  with  the  rest,  'niese  E|)istle3  were  also 
termed  canmiical  by  t'assiodorus  in  the  middle  of  the  sixth 
century,  and  by  the  writer  of  the  prologue  to  these  Epistles, 
which  iso^rront'ously  ascribed  to  .Terome.  The  jiropriety  of 
this  latter  appellation  is  not  satisfactorily  asi-erUiined.  l)ii 
Pin  Bays  that  some  Eatin  writers  have  called  these  Epistles 
canonical,  either  confounding  the  name  with  catholie,  or  to 
denote  that  they  arc  a  part  of  the  canon  of  the  books  of  the 
New  Testament. 


II.  The  denomination  of  Catholic  Epistles  is  of  very  con- 
siderable anti.juity,  for  Eusebius  uses  it  as  a  common  appel- 
lation in  the  fourth  century,  and  it  is  probably  earlier ;  foi 
John's  fir^.l  Epistle  is  repeatedly  called  a  catholic  Epistle  by 
Origen,  and  by  Dionysius  bishop  of  Alexandria.  Of  these 
Epistles,  two  only,  viz.  the  first  Epistle  of  Peter  and  the  first 
Epistle  of  John,  were  universally  received  in  the  time  of 
Eusebius  ;  though  the  rest  were  then  well  known.  Alhana- 
sius,  Epiphanius,  and  later  Greek  writers,  receiveil  seven 
Epistles  which  they  called  catholic.  The  same  appellation 
was  also  given  to  them  by  Jerome. 

Although  the  autlienticity  of  the  Epistle  of  James,  the 
secnnd  of  Peter,  the  Epistle  of  Jude,  and  the  second  and  third 
Epistle  of  John,  was  questioned  by  some  ancient  fathers,  as 
well  as  by  some  modern  writers,  yet  we  have  every  reason  to 
believe  that  they  are  the  genuine  and  authentic  productions 
of  the  inspired  writers  whose  names  they  bear.  The  claims 
to  authenticity  of  these  disputed  Epistles  are  discussed  in  the 
following  sections.  We  may,  however,  here  remark,  that 
the  primitive  Christians  were  extremely  cautious  in  admitting 
any  books  into  th»ir  canon,  the  genuineness  and  autlienticity 
of  which  they  had  any  reason  to  suspect.  They  rejected  all 
the  writings  forged  by  heretics  in  the  names  of  the  apostles ; 
and,  therefore,  most  assuredly,  would  not  have  received  an}', 
without  ])reviously  suiijectinqf  them  to  a  severe  scrutiny- 
Now,  though  these  five  Epistles  were  not  immediately 
acknowledged  as  the  writings  of  the  apostles,  this  only  shows 
that  the  persons,  who  doubted,  had  not  received  complete  «nd 
incontestable  evidence  of  their  authenticity.  But,  as  they 
were  afterwards  universally  received,  we  have  every  reason 
to  conclude,  that,  upon  a  strict  examination,  tliey  were  found 
to  be  the  genuine  productions  of  the  apostles.  Indeed,  the 
ancient  Chrifrtians  had  such  good  opportunities  forexaminiu'i 
this  subject,  they  were  so  careful  to  guard  against  impositirTi, 
and  so  well  founded  was  their  judgment  concerning  the  books 
of  the  New  Testament,  that,  as  Dr.  Lardner  has  remarked, 
no  writing  which   they  pronounced  genuine  has  yet  been 

E roved  spurious;  nor  have  we  at  this  day  the  least  reason  to 
elieve  any  book  to  be  genuine  which  they  rejected. 

III.  The  order  in  which  these  Epistles  are  placed,  varies 
in  ancient  authors;  but  it  is  not  very  material  in  what  man- 
ner they  are  arranged.  Could  we  fix  with  certainty  the  date 
of  each  Epistle,  the  most  natural  order  would  be  according 
to  the  time  when  they  were  written.  Some  have  placed  the 
three  Epistles  of  John  first,  probably  because  he  was  the 
beloved  disejple  of  our  Lord.  Others  have  given  the  priority 
to  the  two  Epistles  of  Peter,  becduse  they  considered  him  as 
the  prince  of  the  apostles.  Some  have  placed  the  Epistle 
of  James  last,  nossinly  because  it  was  latrr  received  into  the 
canon  by  the  (/hrislian  church  in  t>'Mirral.  By  others,  this 
Epistle  lias  been  placed  first,  either  because  it  was  con- 
jectured to  have  been  the  first  written  of  the  seven  lOpislles, 
or  because  Saint  James  was  supposed  to  have  been  tne  first 
bishop  of  Jerusalem,  the  most  ancient  and  venerable,  and  the 
first  of  all  the  Christian  churches;  or  because  the  Epistle 
was  written  to  the  Christians  of  the  twelve  tril)es  of  Israel, 
who  were  ihv,  first  believers.  In  the  following  sections  the 
usual  order  has  been  retained.' 


SECTION  II. 

ON  THE  GENERAL  EPISTLE  OK  JAMES. 

I.  Account  of  the  author  of  this  Epistle. — II.  Its  genuineness 
anil  authenticity. — III.  To  tvhom  addressed, — IV.  Its  scope.  — 

'  ncnsnn'R  Profucft  to  (ho  Callinlic  Eplsllca.     Michaclis,  vol.  iv.  pji.  269— 
'JTl.  I'rilii  Inlrod.  a<l  Nov.  TesI   I>P.  CJ— to.    I.anliiiT'j*  Works,  Svo.  vol.  vl. 
Ill  '105 — ^168.  i  4(0.  vol.  iii.  pi>.  300,  3C7.    itugcniiiUUcr,  :jchulia,  vol.  v.  pp. 


!,'l7," 


313. 


Sect.  II.] 


ON  THE  GENERAL  EPISTLE  OF  JAMES. 


359 


V.  Synopsis    of    its    ccnte7its. — VI.   Observations    on   this 
Epistle. 

I.  Considerable  doubts  have  existed  respecting  the  author 
ot'  this  Epistle.  Two  apostles  of  the  name  of  James  are 
mentioned  in  the  New  Testament. 

The  first  was  the  son  of  Zebedee,  a  fisherman  upon  the 
lake  of  Galilee,  and  the  brother  of  the  evangelist  John ;  and 
as  he  is  uniformly  mentioned  by  the  evangelists  before  John 
(except  in  Luke  ix.  28.),  he  is  supposed  to  have  been  the 
elder  of  tlie  two_.  As  he  was  put  to  death  by  Herod  Agrippa, 
A.  D.  44  (Acts  xii.),  it  is  evident  that  he  was  not  the  author  of 
the  Epistle  which  bears  the  name  of  James,  because  it  con- 
tains passages  which  refer  to  a  later  period,  viz.  v.  1 — 8., 
wliicli  intimates  the  then  immediately  approaching  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem,  and  the  subversion  of  the  Jewish  polity. 

The  other  James  was  the  son  of  Alpheus  or  Cleopas;  he 
is  called  the  brother  or  near  relation  of  our  Lord  (Gal.  i.  18, 
19.),  and  is  also  generally  termed  "  the  Less,"  partly  to  dis- 
tinguish him  from  the  other  James,  and  probably,  also,  because 
he'xvas  lower  in  stature.  That  he  was  an  apostle,  is  evident 
from,  various  passages  in  the  New  Testament,  though  it  does 
not  appear  when  liis  designation  .to  this  office  took  place. 
He  was  honoured  by  Jesus  Christ  with  a  separate  interview 
soon  after  his  resurrection.  (1  Cor.  xv.  7.)  He  was  distin- 
guished as  one  of  the  apostles  of  the  circumcision  (Acts  i. 
13.) ;  and  soon  after  the  death  of  Stephen,  a.  d.  31,  he  seems 
to  have  been  appointed  president  or  bishop  of  the  Christian 
church  at  Jerusalem,  to  have  dwelt  in  that  city,  and  to  have 
presided  at  the  council  of  the  apostles,  which  was  convened 
there  a.  d.  49.  On  account  of  his  distinguished  piety  and 
sanctity,  he  was  surnamed  "  the  Just."  But,  notwithstand- 
inor  the  high  opinion  that  was  generally  entertained  of  his 
character,  his  life  was  prematurely  terminated  by  martyrdom, 
according  to  the  account  of  Hegesippus,  an  ecclesiastical 
historian,  who  flourished  towards  the  close  of  the  second 
century.  Having  made  a  public  declaration  of  his  fiiith  in 
Christ,  the  Scribes  and  Pharisees  excited  a  tumult  among 
the  Jews,  which  began  at  the  temple  :  or  at  least  they  availed 
themselves  of  a  general  disturbance,  however  it  might  have 
originated,  and  demanded  of  James  an  explicit  and  public 
declaration  of  his  sentiments  concerning  the  character  of 
Christ.  The  apostle,  standing  on  an  eminence  or  battlement 
of  the  temple,  whence  he  could  be  heard  by  the  assembled 
multitude,  avowed  his  faith,  and  maintained  his  opinion,  that 
Jesus  was  the  Messiah.  The  Jews  were  exasperated,  and 
precipitated  him  from  the  battlement  where  he  v,-as standing; 
and  as  he  was  not  killed  by  the  fall,  they  began  to  cast  stones 
at  him.  The  holy  apostle,  kneeling  down,  prayed  to  God  to 
forgive  his  murderers,  one  of  whom  at  length  struck  him 
with  a  long  pole,  which  terminated  his  life.  According  to 
Hegesippus,  tiiis  event  took  place  about  the  time  of  the 
passover  a.  d.  6'2.  At  this  time  the  procurator  Festus  is 
supposed  to  have  been  dead,  and  his  successor  Albinus  had 
not  arrived ;  so  that  the  province  was  left  without  a  governor. 
Such  a  season  left  the  Jews  at  liberty  to  gratify  their  licen- 
tious and  turbulent  passions;  and  from  their  known  character 
and  sentiments  about  this  time,  they  were  very  likely  to  em- 
brace the  opportunity.  We  may  therefore  date  the  apostle's 
death  about  the  time  assigned  by  Hegesippus,  viz.  a.  d.  62, 
in  which  year  it  is  placed  by  most  learned  men,'  who  are 
agreed  in  dating  the  Epistle  of  James  in  the  year  61.^ 

II.  A  considerable  diversity  of  opinion  has  prevailed 
respecting  the  canonical  authority  of  this  Epistle  ;  but 
though  Michaelis  and  some  other  modern  critics'  are  un- 
decided on  this  subject,  we  apprehend  that  there  is  sufficient 
evidence  to  prove  that  it  was  written  in  the  apostolic  age. 
Clement  of  Rome  has  alluded  to  it  twice.''     Hermas  has  not 

«  Hegesippus,  cited  Ijy  Kusebius,  Hist.  Eccl.  lib.  ii.  c.  23.  Eusebiusalso 
quotes  a  passage  IVoin  .losephus,  that  is  no  longer  e.xtant  in  his  works, 
in  wliicli  the  Jewish  historian  considers  tlic  miseries  wliich  shortly  after 
overwhelmed  his  countrymen  as  a  jtidgmenl  for  their  murder  of  James, 
whom  he  calls  a  most  righteous  person.  The  genuineness  of  Josephus's 
testimony  has  been  questioned,  so  that  no  reliance  can  be  placed  upon  it. 
Origen  and  Jerome  cite  it  as  authentic,  and  they  are  followed  by  Bishop 
Pearson,  wlio  has  defended  its  genuineness.  Dr.  Doddridge  considers  the 
testimony  of  Josephus  as  unworthy  of  credit ;  and  Dr.  Benson  thinks  that 
both  the  accounts  of  Josephus  and  Hegesippus  are  extremely  dubious. 

«  Dr.  Lardner's  Works,  8vo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  468—502.  ;  4to.  vol.  iii.  pp.  368 — 
334.  Dr.  Benson's  History  of  Saint  James,  prefixed  to  his  Paraphrase,  pp. 
1—13.  2d  edit.    Michaelis,  vol.  iv.  pp.  273—292. 

»  It  is  well  known  that  the  venerable  iNIariin  Luther,  in  the  earlier  part 
of  the  Reformation,  spoke  rather  in  a  slighting  manner  of  this  Epistle, 
which  he  called  straminea  epistola,  a  strawy  epistle,  and  excluded  il  at 
first  from  the  sacred  canon  on  account  of  its  supposed  contradiction  of 
Saint  Paul  concerning  the  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith;  but  more 
mature  experience  and  deeper  research  induced  him  subsequently  to 
retract  his  rpinion. 

«  Lardner's  Works,  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  44.  j  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  301. 


fewer  than  seven  allusions  to  it,*  which  Dr.  Lardner  thinks  , 
sufficient  to  prove  the  antiquity  of  this  Epistle.  It  is  classed 
by  Etisebius  among  the  AiTiKry^/jiivM,  or  writings  concerning 
whose  authenticity  the  ancients  were jtot  unanimous,  though 
the  majority  was  in  favour  of  them.  This  Epistle  was  quoted 
as  genuine  by  Origen,  Jerome,  Athanasius,  and  most  of  the 
subsequent  ecclesiastical  writers :  and  it  is  t^jund  in  all  the 
catalogues  of  the  canonical  books  of  Scripture,  Avhich  were 
published  by  the  general  and  provincial  councils.  But  the 
most  decisive  proof  of  its  canonical  authority  is,  that  the 
Epistle  of  James  is  inserted  in  the  Syriac  version  of  the  New 
Testament,  executed  at  the  close  of  the  first  or  early  in  the 
second  century,  in  which  the  second  Epistle  of  Peter,  the 
second  and  third  of  John,  the  Epistle  of  Jude,  and  the  book 
of  Revelation  are  omitted.  This,  Dr.  Macftnight  truly 
remarks,  is  an  argument  of  great  weight ;  for  certainly  tho 
Jewish  believers,  to  whom  that  Epistle  was  addressed  and 
delivered,  were  much  better  judges  of  its  authenticity  than 
the  converteti  Gentiles  to  whom  it  was  not  sent,  and  who  had 
perhaps  no  opportututy  of  being  acquainted  with  it  until  long 
after  it  was  written. 

III.  Commentators  and  critics  are  by  no  means  agreed 
concerning  the  persons  to  whom  this  Epistle  was  addressed.  " 
Bcza,  Cave,  Scott,  Fabricius,  Bishop  Tomline,  and  others, 
are  of  opinion  that  it  was  addressed  to  the  believing  Jews 
who  were  dispersed  all  over  the  world.  Grotius  and  Dr. 
Wall  think  that  it  was  written  to  all  the  people  of  Israel 
living  out  of  Jud8ea.  Michaelis  considers  it  certain  that 
James  v/rote  to  persons  already  converted  from  Judaism  to 
Christianity  ;  but  at  the  same  time  he  believes,  as  the  apostle 
was  highly  respected  by  the  Jews  in  general, that  he  vvished 
and  designed  that  it  should  also  be  read  by  the  unbelieving 
Jews,  aiKl  that  this  design  and  intention  had  some  influeiice 
on  the  choice  of  his  materials.  Dr.  Benson  is  cf  opinion 
that  this  Epistle  was  addressed  to  the  converted  Jews 
out  of  Palestine;  but  "Whitby,  Lardner,  and  after  them 
Macknight,  think  it  was  written  to  the  whole  Jewish  nation, 
both  vv'ilhin  and  without  Judaea,  whether  believers  or  not. 
This  opinion  is  grounded  on  some  expressions  in  the  first  ten 
verses  of  the  fourth  chapter,  and  in  the  first  five  verses  of  the 
fifth  chapter,  which  they  suppose  to  be  applicable  to  unbe- 
lievers only.  It  is  true  that  in  the  fifth  chapter  the  apostle 
alludes  to  the  then  impending  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  and 
the  miseries  which  soon  after  befell  the  unbelieving  Jews ; 
but  we  think,  with  Bishop  Tomline,  that  in  these  passages 
the  apostle  alludes  merely  to  the  great  corruptions  into  which 
the  Hebrew  Christians  bad  fallen  at  that  time. 

It  does  not  appear  probable  that  James  would  write  part 
of  his  Epistle  to  beuevers,  and  pnrt  to  unbelievers,  without 
any  mention  or  notice  of  that  distinction.  It  should  also  be 
remembered,  that  this  Epistle  contains  no  general  arguments 
for  the  truth  of  Christianity,  nor  any  reproof  of  those  who 
refused  to  embrace  the  Gospel ;  and,  therefore,  though  Bishop 
Tomline  admits  that  the  inscription  "  to  the  twelve  tribes  that 
are  scattered  abroad"  might  comprehend  both  unbelieving 
and  believing  Jews,  yet  he  is  of  opinion  that  it  wasintei^dei 
for  the  believing  Jews  only,  and  that  Saint  James  did  noT. 
expressly  make  the  discrimination,  because  neither  he  nor 
any  other  apostle  ever  thought  of  writing  to  anj^  but  Christian 
converts.  '"The  object  of  the  apostolical  Epistles,"  he 
further  observes,  "was  to  confirm,  and  not  to  convert;  to 
correct  what  was  amiss  in  those  who  did  believe,  and  not  in 
those  who  did  not  believe.  The  sense  of  the  above  inscriution 
seems  to  be  limited  to  the  believing  Jews  by  what  follows 
almost  immediately, '  The  trial  of  your  faith  worketh  patience.' 
(i.  3.)  And  again,  '  My  brethren,  have  not  the  faith  of  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ,  the  Lord  of  glory,  with  respect  of  per- 
sons.' (ii.  1.)  These  passages  could  not  be  addressed  to 
unbelievers. ""^ 

IV.  The  design  of  the  apostle  James,  in  writing  this 
Epistle,  we  may  collect,  from  a  consideration  of  its  contents, 
to  be  as  follows  : — 

First,  to  prevent  the  Jewish  Christians  from  falling  into 
the  vices  which  abounded  among  the  Jews ;  such  as  pride 
in  prosperity,  impatience  under  poverty,  or  any  other  afiiio- 
tion ;  unworthy  thoughts  of  God,  and  more  particularly  the 
looking  upon  him  as  the  author  of  moral  evil ;  a  valuing 
themselves  on  their  faith,  knowledge,  or  right  opinion, 
without  a  virtuous  practice ;  a  very  criminal  partiality  lor 
the  rich,  and  a  contempt  for  the  poor;  an  affectation  of  being 
doctors  or  teachers ;  indulging  passion  and  rash  anger,  envy 
and  uncharitableness,  strife  and  contention;    abusing  the 

I  Lardner's  Works,  Svo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  5S-60. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  309,  310. 
6  Bishop  Tomline's  Eleinenls  of  Christian  Theology,  p.  4/2. 


330 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  VI.  Chap.  IV. 


noble  faculty  of  speech,  and  being  guilty  of  the  vices  of  the 
tonorue.  such  as  cursing  and  sweiriuij,  slanderaiid  backbitino-, 
and  all  rash  and  nntruarded  specclies  whatever.  So,  likewise, 
lie  wrote  to  caution  tliein  against  ooveluousness  and  sensual- 
ity, distrusting  the  divine  goodness,  neglectinjr  prayer,  or 
praying  with  wrong  views,  and  the  want  of  a  cKie  sense  of 
their  constant  and  immediate  dependence  upon  God. 

Secondly,  to  set  the  Jewish  Christians  right  as  to  the  doc- 
trine of  j ui,t !ficat ion  hi/  fuH/i.  For  as  they  were  not  to  be 
justified  by  the  Imv,  but  by  the  method  proposed  in  the  Gos- 
pel, and  that  method  was  said  to  be  by  faith  without  the  works 
vf  the  law  ;  they,  some  of  them,  weakly, and  others,  perhaps, 
wilfully,  perverted  that  discovery;  and  were  lor  understanding, 
by  faith,  a  bare  assent  to  the  truth  of  the  (iospel,  without  that 
livin"-,  fruitful,  and  evangelical  faith,  which  "  worketh  by 
love,^'  and  is  required  of  all  that  would  be  saved. 

Thirdly,  to  intimate  unto  such  of  them  as  laboured  under 
sickness  or  any  bodily  disorders  occasioned  by  their  crimes, 
that  if  they  were  penitent,  they  might  hope  for  a  miraculous 
cure. 

Fo'irlhli/,  another  and  a  principal  reason  of  Saint  .lames's 
writing  this  Kpistle  to  the  Jewish  Christians  at  this  time 
was,  to  prevent  their  being  impatient  under  their  present 
j»ersecuiions  or  dark  prospects;  and  to  support  and  comfort 
them,  by  assuring  them  that  the  comimr  of  the  Lord  was  at 
hanil.  it  is  evident  from  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  and  many 
of  the  Epistles,  that  most  of  the  persecutions  which  befell 
the  Christians  arose  from  the  unbelieving  Jews.  Now,  as 
their  destruction  was  approaching  swifily,  the  evils,  which 
the  Christians  suffered  trom  them,  Avere  as  swiftly  drawing 
to  an  end.  And  it  was  highly  proper  for  Saint  James  to  put 
tliem  in  mind  of  these  things ;  for  the  prospect  of  a  speedy 
deliverance  is  one  of  the  greatest  motives  to  patience  under 
any  calamity. 

V'.  Coiifurmably  with  this  design,  the  Epistle  divides  itself 
into  three  parts,  exclusive  of  the  introduction  (i.  1.);  viz. 

Part  I.  contains  Exhortations, 

1.  To  joyful  patience  under  trials,  (i.  2 — 4.) 

2.  To  ask  wisdom  of  God,  in  faith,  and  with  an  unwavering 
mind.  ("> — 8.) 

li.  To  humility.  (0—11.) 

4.  To  constancy  under  teniptitions,  in  which  part  of  the  Epis- 
tle the  apostle  shows  that  God  is  not  the  author  of  sin,  but 
tlic  source  and  giver  of  every  ijood.  (12 — 18.) 

5.  To  receive  the  word  of  God  with  meekness,  and  to  reduce 
it  to  ptactice.  (19 — 27.) 

Part  II.  censures  and  condemns, 

1.  Undue  respect  of  persons  in  their  religious  assemblies, 
which  is  contrary  to  the  law  of  lov<»,  (ii.  1 — 9.)  It  is  then 
shown  that  the  wilful  transgression  of  one  commandment 
violates  the  whole  law  of  God.   (10 — 12.)  * 

2.  Their  mistaken  notions  of  justificition  by  faith  without 
works;  these  mistakes  arc  corrected  and  ilUistrated  hy  the 

♦  examples  of  Abraham  and  Uahab.   (ii.  1.3 — 26.) 

3.  The  atfectatioti  of  being  doctors  or  teachers  of  their  religion  ; 
for  as  all  are  olfenders,  more  or  less,  so  vices  in  such  a  sta- 
tion would  be  the  more  aggravated,  (iii.  1,  2.)  Hence  the 
apostle  takes  occasion  to  show  the  fatal  effects  of  an 
unbridled  tongue,  together  with  the  difficulty  and  duty  of 
governing  it  (3 — 12.)  ;  and  contrasts  in  a  most  Imautiful 
manner  the  nature  and  effects  of  earthly  and  hi  avcnly  wis- 
dom. (13—18.) 

4.  Those  who  indulge  their  lusts  and  pas>iuns.  (iv.  1 — .').) 

6.  The  proud,  who  arc  exhorted  to  rcpcnUnce  and  submission 
|..  God.  (0—10.) 

6.  Censoriousncss  and  detraction ;  annexed  are  exhortations 
to  immediate  and  constant  dependence  tipon  God,  onforced 
by  considerations  of  the  bhortniss  and  unrc^rtiinty  of  the 
jiresent  life.   (11—17.) 

7.  Those  who  placed  undue  reliance  upon  their  riches,  (v.  1 — fi.) 

Part  HI.  contains  Exhortations  and  Cautions ,-  viz. 

1.  An  exhortation  to  patience  and  meekness  under  trials,  in 
the  hope  of  a  speedy  deliverance,   (v.  7 — 1 1 .) 

2.  A  raution  against  swearing,  and  an  admonition  to  prayer 
and  [>raise.  (12,  13.) 

8.  Concerning  visiting  the  sick,  and  the  efficacy  of  prayer. 
(14— IH.) 

4.  An  enroiiragenipnt  to  attempt  the  ronversion  of  sinners,  and 
the  recovery  of  their  offending  brethren.  (19,  20.) 


VI.  This  Epistle  of  James  is  one  of  the  most  pathetic  and 
instructive  in  the  New  Testament.  Its  style  possesses  all 
that  beautiful  and  elegant  simplicity  which  so  eminently 
characterizes  the  sacred  writers.  Having  been  written  with 
the  design  of  refuting  particular  errors  which  bad  been 
introduced  among  the  .Jewish  Christians,  it  is  not  so  replete 
with  the  peculiar  doctrines  of  Christianity  as  the  Epistles 
of  Paul,  or  indeed  as  the  other  apostolical  Epistles;  but  it 
contain.s  an  admirable  summary  of  those  practical  duties 
which  are  incumbent  on  all  believers,  and  wnich  it  enforces 
in  a  manner  equally  elegant  and  affectionate.' 


SECTION  HI. 

ON  THE  FIRST  GENERAL  EPISTLE  OF  PETER. 

I.  Account  of  the  apostle  Peter. — TI.  Gcnnincness  and  ca- 
nonical aulhorilif  of  this  Epistle. — III.  7'u  -whom  written.^ 
IV.  Of  the  place  whence  it  was  sent. — Date, — V.  lis  design 
and  contents. — VI.  Obsei'vationa  on  the  style  of  Saint  Peter  a 
tiuo  Epistles. 

I.  Simon,  surnamed  Cephas  or  Peter,  which  appellation 
signifies  a  stone  or  rock,  was  the  son  of  Jonis  or  Jonah,  and 
was  born  at  Hethsaida,  on  the  coast  of  liie  sea  of  Galilee. 
He  had  a  brother,  called  Andrew,  and  they  jointly  pursued 
the  occupation  of  fishermen  on  that  lake.  These  two  brothers 
were  hearers  of  John  the  Baptist ;  from  whose  express 
testimony,  and  their  own  personal  conversation  with  Jesus 
Christ,  they  were  fully  convinced  that  he  was  the  Messiah 
(John  1.  35 — 12.)  ;  and  from  this  time  it  is  probable  that  they 
had  frequent  intercourse  with  our  Saviour,  and  were  witnesses 
of  some  of  the  miracles  wrought  by  him,  particularly  that 
performed  at  Cana  in  Galilee.  (John  ii.  1,  2.)  Both  Peter 
and  Andrew  seem  to  have  followed  their  trade,  until  Jesus 
Christ  called  them  to  "  follow  him,"  and  promised  to  make 
them  both  "fishers  of  men."  (Matt.  iv.  18,  19.  Mark  i.  17. 
Luke  v.  10.)  From  this  time  thev  became  his  companions, 
and  when  ne  completed  the  nunilier  of  his  apostles,  they 
were  included  among  them.  Peter,  in  particular,  was 
honoured  with  his  master's  intimacy,  together  with  James 
and  John.  With  them  Peter  was  pr'^sent,  when  our  Lord 
restored  the  daughter  of  Jairus  to  life  (Mark  v.  37.  Luke  viii. 
51.)  ;  when  he  was  transfigured  on  the  mount  (Mall.  xvii.  1. 
Mark  ix.  2.  Luke  ix.  28.),  and  during  his  agony  in  the  garden 
(Matt.  xxvi.  3(3 — 56.  Mark  xiv.  32 — 12.);  and  on  various 
other  occasions  Peter  received  peculiar  marks  of  his  Master's 
confidence.  At  the  time  when  Peter  was  called  to  the  apos- 
tleship,  he  was  married  and  seems  to  have  removed,  in  con- 
sequence, from  Bethsaida  to  Capernaum,  where  his  wife's 
funily  resided.  It  appears  also  that  when  our  Lord  left 
Na7,arflb,niid  came  and  dwelt  at  Caponiaum  (Matt.  iv.  13.), 
he  took  lip  his  occasional  residence  at  Peter's  house,  whithei 
the  peojde  resorted  to  him. 2 

In  the  evangelical  history  of  this  apostle,  the  distinguish- 
ing features  in  his  character  are  very  signally  portrayed;  and 
it  in  no  small  degree  enhances  the  credibility  of  the  sacred 
historians,  that  they  have  blended  wiliiout  disguise  several 
traits  of  his  precipitance  and  presumption,  with  the  honour- 
able testimony  which  the  narration  of  facts  atfords  to  the 
sincerity  of  his  attachment  to  Christ,  and  the  fervour  of  his 
zeal  in  the  cause  of  his  blessed  Master.  His  ardour  and 
forwardness  are  apparent  on  many  occasions.  He  is  the  first 
to  reply  to  all  (jucstions  jiroposed  by  our  Lord  to  the  whole 
collective  body  of  disciples,  of  which  we  have  a  memorable 
instance  in  Malt.  xvi.  13 — It!.  He  hesitates  not  to  rebuke 
our  Lonl  himself,  when  he  first  announced  his  future  sulTer- 
ings.  The  ardour  of  his  sjiirit  is  strikingly  evinced  in  his 
venturing  to  walk  on  the  sea  to  meet  his  Master  (Matt.  xiv. 
•2H — 31.);  and  still  more  decisividy  in  his  conduct  towards 
the  high-priest's  servant,  whom  he  smote  with  his  sword, 
and  whose  right  ear  be  cut  off,  when  the  Jewish  officers  were 
about  to  app7(hend  our  Lord.^  His  presumption  and  self- 
confiJence  sufficiently  appear  in  his  solemn  asseverations 
that  he  would  never  abandon  his  Master  (Matt.  xxvi.  33.) ; 

•  IlenponN  Prffnrc  to  Saint  James,  pp.  M— W.  Mncknichl's  Prefm-e, 
Rocl.  2—1.  Mirtm.'Iis,  vd  Iv.  up.  202— .TH.  I'ritii,  tnlro.t.  a<l  Nov  Test  pp. 
m-TJ  HarwiHiil's  Inlroil.  Ici  tlinNiw  Test,  vol  (  pp.  ai^-^jn.  IlcidcKger 
riirliiriil  Hibl.  pp.  Cl'i— 017.  Jnnssrn»,  Ilornicnciiliqiio  AurCc,  torn.  ii. 
|,n  r>'— 72.     Hfo  bI'-o  IIim'M  Introilurtion,  vol.  ii.  pp.  M'.t-  U'-X 

«  l.iikp  iv.  40.     Mnlt.  vili.  RV  xvii.  .M— '-7     Mark  i.  X'.  :«. 

•  .Matt.  Jtxvi.  01— W.  -Mark  xiv.  \6,  ■il.  Luke  xxil.Oe,  51.  John  x\mi.  10,  11 


Sect.  III.] 


ON  THE  FIRST  GENERAL  EPISTLE  OF  PETER. 


36J 


and  his  weakness,  in  his  subseqiisnt  denial  of  Christ :  for, 
though  Peter  followed  him  afar  off  to  the  high-priest's 
palace,  when  all  the  other  disciples  forsook  him  and  tied,  yet 
tie  thrice  disowned  him,  each  time  under  circumstances  of 
peculiar  ag-irravation."  It  does  not  appear  that  Peter  followed 
Christ  anj'  further ;  probably  remorse  and  shame  prevented 
him  from  attending  tne  crucifixion,  as  we  find  Saint  John  did. 
On  t!ie  day  of  Christ's  resurrection,  after  appearing  to  Mary 
Magdalen  and  some  other  women,  the  next  person  to  whom 
he  showed  himself  was  Peter.  On  another  occasion  (.John 
xxi.)  our  Lord  alTorded  him  an  opportunity  of  thrice  profess- 
ing his  love  for  him,  and  charged  him  to  feed  the  nock  of 
Christ  with  fidelity  and  tendferness. 

After  our  Saviour's  ascension,  Peter  took  an  active  part  in 
the  affairs  of  tlie  infant  church.  It  was  he  who  proposed 
the  election  of  a  successor  to  the  traitor  Judas  (Acts  i.  15 — 
26.),  and  on  the  ensuing  day  of  Pentecost  he  preached  Christ 
so  effectually,  that  three  thousand  souls  were  added  to  the 
church.  (Acts  ii.  14 — 41.)  We  next  find  him,  in  company 
with  John,  healing  a  lame  man  at  the  gate  of  the  temple, 
which  was  followed  by  an  address  to  the  people,  many  of 
whom  were  conAnnced  and  embraced  the  Gospel.  (Acts  iii.) 
He  was  next  imprisoned,  brought  before  the  sanhedrin, 
threatened  and  dismissed,  (iv.)  After  the  death  of  Ananias 
and  Sapphira,  whose  fraud  Peter  detected  and  reprehended 
(v.),  Peter  and  John  preached  successively  at  Samaria  (viii.), 
and  performed  various  miracles,  (ix.  x.)  During  his  apos- 
tolical travels  in  Judosa,  Samaria,  and  Galilee,  he  converted 
Cornelius  the  Roman  centurion,  the  first  Geniile  convert  who 
was  admitted  into  tlip  church  without  circumcision,  or  any 
injunction  to  comply  with  the  Mosaic  observances  (x.)  ;  and, 
ow  his  return  to  Jerusalem,  he  satisfied  the  Jev.-ish  Christians 
that  God  had  granted  repentance  unto  life  to  the  Gentiles  as 
well  as  to  the  Jews.  (xi.  18.)  Soon  after  this,  being  appre- 
hended by  Herod  Agnppa,  a.  d.  44,  who  designed  to  nut  him 
to  death,  Peter  was  miraculousl)'' delivered  by  an  angel,  (xii.) 
In  the  apostolic  council  held  at  Jerusalem,  a.  d.  49,  Peter 
took  an  active  part,  declaring  his  opinion  most  explicitly, 
that  the  yoke  of  the  ceremonial  law  ought  not  to  be  imposed 
on  the  Gentiles  (Acts  xv,  7 — 11.)  From  this  time  Peter 
is  not  mentioned  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  nor  have  we 
-any  certain  information  respecting  his  subsequent  labours. 
It  appears,  however,  that  he  afterwards  preached  at  Antioch 
(Gal.  ii.  11.);  and  from  his  inscribing  his  first  Epistle  to  the 
ilebrew  Christians  dispersed  in  Pontus,  Galatia,  Cappadocia, 
Asia  Minor,  and  Bithynia  (1  Pet.  i.  1,  2.),  he  is  supposed  to 
have  preached  in  those  countries.  At  length  he  arrived  at 
Rome,  in  the  course  of  the  year  63,2  subsequently  to  Paul's 
departure  from  that  city,  during  the  reign  of  the  emperor 
Nero  ;  and,  after  preaching  the  Gospel  for  some  time,  he  was 
crucified  there  with  his  head  downwards.  Clement  of 
Alexandria  adds,  from  an  ancient  tradition  current  in  his 
time,  that  Peter's  wife  suffered  martyrdom  a  short  time  before 
him.  5 

II.  The  genuineness  and  canonical  authority  of  the  first 
Epistle  of  Peter  have  never  been  disputed.  It  appears  to  be 
twice  referred  to  by  Clement  of  Rome;^  it  is  twelve  times 
distinctly  quoted  by  Polycarp,^  and  is  once  cited  in  the  Epistle 
of  the  churches  of  Vienna  and  Lyons.'^  It  was  received  by 
Theophilus  bishop  of  Antioch,  and  quoted  by  Papias,  Ire- 
naeus,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  and  Tertullian  ;  and  Eusebius 
informs  us  that  it  was  universally  acknowledged  to  be  the 
production  of  Saint  Peter  in  the  fourth  century,'  since  which 
time  its  authenticity  has  never  been  questioned. 

III.  Concerning  the  persons  to  whom  this  Epistle  was 
sent,  different  opinions  have  prevailed  ;  Beza,  Grotius,  Cave, 
Mill,  Tille.mont,  Dr.  Hales,  Rosenmuller,  Hug,  and  others, 
suppose  that  it  was  addressed  to  the  Jewish  Christians  who 

« ]Matt.  xxvi.  69—75.  Mark  xiv.  66—72.  Luke  xxii.  54—62.  John  xviii. 
15—15.  25,  27. 

»  We  have  seen  (p.  325.  siipra)  that  Saint  Paul  quitted  Rome  in  the  early 
part  of  A.  D.  63,  at  which  lime  it  is  evident  that  Saint  Peter  had  not  arrived 
there ;  for  if  these  two  eminent  servants  of  Christ  had  met  in  that  city, 
Peter  would  have  been  mentioned  by  Saint  Paul  in  some  of  the  Epistles, 
which  he  wrote  thence,  towards  the  close  of  his  imprisonment. 

3  Lardners  Works,  8vo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  509 — 501. ;  4to.  vol.  iii.  pp.  388 — 414. 
Scaliger,  Salmasius,  Frederick  Spanheim,  and  others,  have  denied  that 
Saint  Peter  was  ever  at  Rome;  but  the  contrary  opinion  has  been  advo- 
cated by  Cave,  Bishop  Pearson,  Lc  Clerc,  Basnage,  and  particularly  by 
Dr.  Lardner,  who  has  clearly  shown  that  Peter  never  was  bishop  of  Rome. 
Tlic  pretended  primacy  of  Peter,  on  which  tlie  Romanists  insist  so  much, 
has  been  unanswerably  refuted  by  Dr.  Barrow  in  his  Treatise  on  the 
Pope's  Supremacy,  forming  vol.  i.  of  the  folio  edition  of  his  works. 

*  Gardner's  Works,  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  44. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  302. 

»  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  98,  99. ;  4to.  vol.  ft  pp.  331,  332. 

«  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  152. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  362. 

■>  Ibid.  8vo  vol.  vi.  p^  562,  563. ;  4to.  vol.  iii.  p.  415. 

Vol.  11.  2  Z 


were  scattered  through  the  countries  mentioned  in  the 
inscription ;  while  Lord  Barrington  and  Dr.  Benson  think 
that  it  was  written  to  proselytes"  of  the  gate ;  and  Michaelia 
is  of  opinion,  thatlt  w'as  directed  to  the  Jews,  that  is,  to 
those  native  heathens  in  Pontus,  &c.  who  were  first  proselytes 
to  Judaism,  and  then  were  converted  to  Christianity.  'But 
Estius,  Whitby,  Pott,  Lardner,  Macknight,  and  Bishop 
Tomline,  think  that  it  was  written  to  Christians  in  general, 
whether  Jews  or  Gentiles,  residing  in  the  countries  above 
noticed. 

In  this  diversity  of  opinion,  the  only  rule  of  determination 
must  be  the  inscription,  together  with  such  other  circum- 
stances as  may  be  collected  from  the  apostolical  history  or 
the  Epistle  itself.  The  inscription  runs  thus:  Feter,  an 
apostle  of  Jesus  Christ,  to  the  strangers  scattered  throughout 
Pontus,  Galatia,  Cappadocia,  Asia,  and  Bithynia.  (1  Pet.  i.  1.) 
That  the  persons  here  addressed  were  believing  Jews,  and 
not  believing  Gentiles,  we  apprehend  will  appear  from  the 
following  considerations : — 

1.  We  learn  from  Acts  ii.  5.  9.  that  there  were  at  the  feast  of 
Pentecost,  waiting  at  Jerusalem,  Jeivs,  devout  men,  out  of  every 
nation  under  heaven,  dwellers  in  Judxa,  Cappadocia,  in  Pon- 
tus  and  Asia,  Whence  it  is  evident  that  there  were.  Jews  dis- 
persed in  those  countries. 

2.  Peter,  by  agreement  among  the  apostles,  had  the  ministry 
of  the  circumcision  pecuUarly  committed  to  him.  (Gal.  ii.  8.)  It 
is,  therefore,  more  probable  that  he  wrote  to  Jews  than  to  Gen- 
tiles. 

3.  The  persons  to  whom  the  apostle  writes  are  termed  Stran- 
gers, scattered,  Tlxf,imSyi/uci ;  which  word  properly  denotes  strangers 
from  another  country.  Such  were  the  Jews,  who,  through  per- 
secution in  Judaea,  tied  into  foreign  countries  ;  v.'hereas  believing 
Gentiles  were  rather  called  Proselytes.   (Acts  ii.  10.) 

4.  They  are  said  to  be  redeemed  from  their  vain  conversation 
received  by  tradition  from  their  fathers  (1  Pet.  i.  18.)  :  in  which 
description  the  apostle  plainly  refers  to  the  traditions  of  the  Jew- 
ish rabbins  and  elders. 

5.  The  persons  to  whom  Peter  writes  are  styled  A  chosen 
generation,  a  royal  priesthood,  a  holy  nation,  a  peculiar  people 
(1  Pet.  ii.  9.),  which  are  the  praises  of  the  Jewish  people  (Exod. 
xix.  6.),  and  are  in  no  respect  applicable  to  the  Gentiles. 

On  these  grounds  we  conclude  that  this  Epistle  was 
addressed  to  those  dispersed  Hebrew  Christians,  afliicted  in 
their  dispersion,  to  whom  the  apostles  James  and  Paul  had 
respectively  addressed  their  Epistles. 

IV.  It  appears  from  1  Pet.  v.  1-3,  13.  that  this  Epistle  was 
written  from  Babylon,  and  sent  to  the  Jews  hy  "  Silvanus,  a 
faithful  brother;"  but  whether  Babylon  is  to  be  understood 
here,  literally  or  mystically,  as  the  city  of  the  same  name  in 
Mesopotamia  or  Egypt,  or  ralh*iy  Rome,  or  Jerusalem,  has 
been  lonw  and  warmly  contested  by  the  learned.  Bishop 
Pearson,  Mill,  and  Le  Clerc,  are  of  opinion,  that  the  apostle 
speaks  of  Babylon  in  Egypt.  Erasmus,  Drusius,  Beza,  Dr 
Lightfoot,  Basnage,  Beausobre,  Dr.  Cave,  Wetstein,  Drs. 
Benson  and  A.  Clarke,  think  that  Peter  intended  Babylon  in 
Ass5'^ria  ;  Michaelis,  that  it  was  Babylon  in  Mesopotamia,  or 
rather  Seleucia  on  the  Tigris.  And  Grotius,  Drs.  Whitby, 
Lardner,  Macknight,  and  Hales,  Bishop  Tomline  and  all  the 
learned  of  the  Romish  communion,  are  of  opinion  that  by 
Babylon  Peter  meant,  figuratively.  Pome,  whicn  city  is  called 
Babylon  by  the  apostle  John.  (Kev.  xvii.  xviii.) 

From  a  careful  examination  of  the  evidence  adduced  for 
the  literal  meaning  of  the  word  Babylon,  and  of  the  evidence 
for  its  figurative  or  mystical  application  to  Rome,  we  think 
that  the  latter  was  intended,  and  for  the  following  reasons  :— 

1.  This  opinion  is  confirmed  by  the  general  testimony  of  anti- 
quity, which,  Dr.  Lardner  remarks,  is  of  no  small  weight. 
Euseiiiuss  relates,  on  the  authority  of  Clement  of  Alexandria  and 
Papias  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  that  Mark's  Gospel  was  written  at 
the  request  of  Peter's  hearers  in  Rome  ;  and  that  "  Peter  makes 
mention  of  Mark  in  his  first  Epistle,  which  was  written  at  Rome 
itself.  And  that  he  (Peter)  signifies  this,  calling  that  city  figura- 
tively Babylon,  in  these  words,  The  church  which  is  at  Babylon, 
elected  jointly  with  you,  saluteth  you.  And  so  doth  Mark  my 
son."  Thi3  passage  of  Eusebius  is  transcribed  by  Jerome,^  who 
adds  positively,  that  "Peter  mentions  this  Mark  in  his  first 
Epistle,  figuratively  denoting  Rome  by  the  name  of  Babylon ; 
the  church  which  is  at  Pabylon,"  &c.  CEcumenius,  Bade,  aiui 
other  fathers,  also  understand  Rome  by  Babylon.  It  is  generally 
thought  that  Peter  and  John  gave  to  Rome  the  name  of  Babylon, 


8  Hist.  Eccl.  lib.  ii.  c.  15. 


9  De  Viris  lUust.  c.  8. 


362 


A^'ALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Paiit  VI.  Chap.  IV. 


figuratively  to  signify  that  it  would  resemble  Babylon  in  it^  idol- 
atry, and  in  its  oppo.^ition  to  and  persecution  of  the  church  of 
God;  and  that,  like  Babylon,  it  will  be  utterly  destroyed.  But 
these  things  the  inspired  writers  did  not  think  fit  to  say  plainly 
concerning  Rome,  for  a  reason  which  every  reader  may  under- 
stand. 

2.  From  the  total  silence  of  ecclesiastical  history,  it  is  not  pro- 
bable that  Peter  ever  visited  Babylon  in  Chalda^a ;  and  Babylon 
in  Egypt  was  too  small  and  insignificant  to  be  the  subject  of  con- 
sideration. 

3.  Silvanus  or  Silas,  the  bearer,  was  the  faithful  brother,  or 
associate  of  Paul  in  most  of  the  churches  which  he  haJ  planted. 
And  though  he  was  not  at  Rome  with  the  apostle  when  he  wrote 
nis  last  Epistle  to  Timothy,  he  might  naturally  have  come  thither 
soon  after;  and  have  been  sent  by  Paul  and  Peter  jointly,  to  con- 
firm the  churches  in  Asia  Minor,  «&c.  which  he  had  assisted  in 
planting.  But  Silvanus,  Paul,  and  Peter  had  no  connection 
with  Babylon,  which  lay  beyond  their  district ;  and,  therefore,  they 
were  not  likely  at  any  time  to  build  upon  another's  foundation. 
The  Gospel  was  preached  in  Persia  or  Parthia,  by  the  apostle 
Thaddeus,  or  Jude,  according  to  Cosmas ;  and  Abulfaragi  reck- 
ons, that  the  ancient  Syriac  version  of  the  New  Testament  was 
made  in  his  time,  and  probably  by  his  authority,  for  the  use  of 
the  Oriental  churches.' 

4.  The  Jews,  to  whom  this  Epistle  was  written,  were  fond  of 
mystical  appellations,  especially  in  their  captivities:  Edom  was  a 
frequent  title  for  their  Heathen  oppressors  ;  and,  as  Babylon  was 
the  principal  scene  of  their  first  cajjlivity,  it  was  highly  probable 
that  Rome,  the  principal  scene  of  their  second,  and  which  so 
strongly  resembled  the  former  in  her  "  abominations,  her  idola- 
tries, and  i^ersccutions  of  the  saints,"  should  be  denominated  by 
the  same  title.  And  this  argument  is  corroborated  by  the  similar 
usa?;e  of  the  Apocalypse,  where  the  mystical  application  is  un- 
qiTCstionable.  (Rev.  xiv.  8.  xvi.  19.  xviii.  2.,  <fec.)  It  is  highly 
probable,  indeed,  that  John  borrowed  it  from  Peter ;  or  rather  that 
both  derived  it,  by  inspiration,  from  the  prophecy  of  Isaiah, 
(xxi.  9.) 

.5.  The  second  Epistle  is  generally  agreed  to  have  been  writ- 
en  shortly  before  Peter's  death  ;  but  a  journey  from  Babylon  to 
Rome  (where  he  unquestionably  suffered)  must  have  emjiloyed 
a  long  time,  even  by  the  shortest  route  that  could  be  taken.  And 
Peter  must  have  passed  through  Pontus,  &c.  in  his  way  to  Rome, 
and  therefore  it  would  have  been  unnecessary  for  him  to  write. 
AVriting  from  Rome,  indeed,  the  case  was  different,  as  he  never 
expected  to  sec  them  more. 

As  Peter  suffered  martyrdom  at  Rome,  a.  d.  G4  or  65,  and 
we  have  no  evidence  that  be  arrived  there  before  the  year  C3, 
we  are  warranted  in  datiu'^  thi.s  Epistle  in  a.  d.  GL 

V.  it  appears  from  ihe  Epistle  itself  that  it  was  written 
durintr  a  period  of  general  calamity,  whi.n  the  Hebrew  Chris- 
tians were  exposed  to  severe  persecutions.  The  design  of 
this  Epistle,  therefore,  is  partly  to  su])port  them  under  their 
afllii-tions  and  trials,  and  also  to  instruct  them  how  to  behave 
umlcr  per3eruti(jn.  It  likewise  a|)pears  from  the  history  of 
that  time,  that  the  ^^ws  were  uneasy  under  the  Roman  yoke, 
and  that  the  destruction  of  their  polity  was  approaching.  On 
this  account  the  Christians  are  exhorted  to  honour  tnc  em- 
peror (Nero),  and  the  presidents  whom  he  sent  into  the  pro- 
vinces, and  toavoidall  (jrounds  of  beintr  suspected  of  sedition 
or  other  crimes  that  would  violate  the  peace  and  welfare  of 
society. — And,  finally,  as  their  character  and  conduct  were 
liable  to  he  aspersea  and  misrepresented  by  their  enemies, 
they  are  exhorted  to  lead  a  holy  life,  that  they  miglit  stop  the 
nionlhs  of  their  enemies,  put  tluir  calumniators  to  shame, 
and  win  others  over  to  their  religion,  by  their  holy  and  Chris- 
tian conversation. 

The  Epistle  may  be  conveniently  divided  into  four  sec- 
tions, exclusive  of  the  introduction  and  conclusion. 
The  Introduction,  (i.  1,  2.) 

Sect.  1.  contains  an  exhortation  of  the  Jewish  Christians  to 
persevere  steadfastly  in  the  fiilh  with  all  patience  and  cheer- 
fulness, and  to  maintain  a  holy  conversation,  notwith.stand- 
iiig  all  their  sufferings  and  perserutioiiH.  'i'bis  is  enforced 
by  the  consideration  of  the  peculiar  blessings  and  privileges 
which  were  freely  bestowed  upon  them.  (i.  3 — 25.  ii.  I  — 10.) 

Sect.  2.  comprises  an  exhortation, 

I.  To  B  h'lly  c'lnvcrs.iiiiin  in  ci-ncrnl.  (il.  U,  12.) 

II.  To  a  partir.uliir  <li.Hi:li:\r){p  of  llinir  Bcvcrnl  iliillcs,  U 
Uiitlfiil  8Ubj)'ctH  lo  tlioir  vovnrciKn.  (VS—Xo.) 
Bervanta  lo  their  iiiaxlRrs.  (Iti — i").) 

HiLsbanilg  to  llu-ir  wivrg.  (iij.  | — 1.1.) 

•  LarJner,  8vo.  vol.  v.  p.  272. ;  4to.  vol.  iil.  p.  &&.    Michaclis,  vol.  Ii.  p.  30. 


Sect.  3.  contains  an  exhortation  to  patience,  submission,  and, 
to  holiness  of  life,  enforced, 

i.  ny  coiisiilonna  the  example  of  Christ,  (iii.  14 — IS.) 

ii.  \iy  reiiiincliiig  them  liow  God  punished  the  disobedient  in  the  days  of 
Noah.  (Vi—ii) 

iii.  By  rciiiiiiding  them  oP  the  example  of  Chri-st,  and  that  by  their 
conversion  they  became  dead  to  the  Ilesh.  (iv.  1 — 6.)     • 

iv.  Hy  showing  them  tlic  approaching  destruction  of  the  Jewiali  polity. 
(7-11.) 

v.  Uy  showing  them  that,  under  the  Gospel,  they  should  consider  aHlic. 
tion  as  their  portion,  and  as  matter  of  joy.  (12 — 1'.*.) 

Sect.  4.  Directions  to  the  ministers  of  the  churches,  and  the 
people,  liow  to  behave  towards  each  other,  (v.  1 — X\.) 
'Flit  Conclusion,  (v.  13 — 14.) 

VI.  As  tlie  dcsijiu  of  this  Epistle  is  excellent,  so  its  ex- 
cellence, in  the  judgment  of  the  best  critics,  does  not  fall 
short  of  its  design.  Erasmus  pronounces  il  to  be  worthy  of 
the  prince  of  thelipostles,  and  adds  that  it  is  sparing  in  words, 
but  full  of  sense.  That  great  critic,  .loseph  Scali^er,  calls  it 
majestic;  and  OsterwaUP  says  that  the  first  Epistle  of  Peter 
is  one  of  the  finest  hooks  in  the  New  Testament,  that  tb.e 
second  is  written  with  great  strength  and  majesty,  and  that 
both  of  them  evidently  show  their  divine  origin.  Every  part, 
indeed,  of  Peter's  writings  indicates  a  mind  that  felt  the 
power  of  the  doctrines  he  delivered,  and  a  soul  that  glowed 
with  the  most  ardent  zeal  for  the  spread  of  the  Gospel.  His 
style  expresses  the  noble  vehemence  and  fervour  of  his  spiiit, 
his  perfect  knowledge  of  the  Gospel,  and  his  strong  assurance 
of  the  truth  and  certainty  of  its  doctrines.  Little  solicitous 
about  the  choice  or  harmonious  disposition  of  words,  his 
thoughts  and  his  heart  were  absorbed  with  the  graiid  truths 
whicn  he  was  divinely  commissioned  to  proclaim,  and  the 
indispensable  obligation  of  Christians  to  adorn  their  profes- 
sion by  a  holy  life.  Hence,  in  his  first  Epistle,  he  writes 
with  such  energy  and  rapidity  of  style,  that  we  can  scarcely 
perceive  the  pauses  of  his  discourse,  or  the  distinction  of  his 
periods.  And  in  his  .second  Epistle  he  exposes  with  h(dy  in- 
dignation and  vehemence  the  ahandoned  principles  and  prac- 
tices of  those  false  teachers  and  false  prophets,  who  in  those 
early  times  sprang  up  in  tlie  Christian  church,  and  dissemi- 
nated their  pernicious  tenets  with  so  much  art  and  cunning. 
His  pro])hetic  descri))tion  of  the  general  confiagration,  and  of 
the  end  of  all  tericslrial  things  (2  Pet.  iii.  S — 12.),  is  very 
awful.  We  see  the  planetary  heavens,  and  this  our  earth, 
enveloped  in  tlie  devf>uring  H-.imes  :  we  hear  the  groans  of  an  ex- 
piring world,  and  the  crasli  of  nature  tumbling  into  universal 
ruin.  How  sDlemn  and  allVcting  is  this  practical  inference! 
(2  Pet.  iii.  11.)  '■'•Seeing  then  tKnt  all  these  things  shall  l)t 
dissolved,  what  manner  of  persons  ought  ye  (o  be  in  all  holt/ 
conversation  and  godliness.''''  The  meanest  soul  and  lowest 
imagination  cannot  think  of  that  time,  and  the  awful  de- 
scription of  it  which  we  meet  with  in  this  place,  and  in 
several  other  passages  of  Holy  Writ,  without  the  greatest 
emotion  and  the  deepest  impressions.^ 


SECTION  IV. 

ox   THE    SECOND    GENERAL    EPISTLE    OF    PETErt. 

I.  Its  genuineness     and   canonical    authority.  —  \l.  Date. — 
III.   Scope  and  synopsis  of  its  contents. 

I.  Some  doubts  were  entertained  by  the  primitive  churches 
respecting  the  aiithrnlicity  of  this  Epistle,  which  has  been 
received  as  the  genuinr'  ])rodnctinn  of  Peter  evi-r  since  ihe 
fourth  century,  except  by  tins  Syrian  eliurcii,  in  which  it  is 
read  as  an  excellent  nook,  though  not  of  canonical  authority. 
We  have,  however,  the  most  satisfactory  evidence  of  its  ge- 
nuineness and  authenticity.  Clement  of  Home'  has  three 
allusions  to  the  second  chapter,  and  one  to  the  third  chapter 
of  this  Epistle;  and  it  i.s  twice  referred  to  by  Hennas,*  once 
by  Justin  ftlartyr,''  and  also  by  Athenagoras."  Although  this 
Epistle  does  not  appear  to  be  cited  by  any  writer  of  the  third 

»  Nouv.  T.'Bt.  pp  27G,  2P1.  edit.  Ncufclwlel,  1772.  folio. 

»  illackwulis  Sacrrd  ClassirH,  vol.  i.  pp.  :»>— a>l.  Prjiii,  Introd.  ad  Nov 
Tesl.  pp.  79— «9.  M.irkiiiuht'H  rrcfnrii  to  1  Pctor.  Ilinson's  History  of 
Snint  Peter  and  hiK  Kirtil  Kpislb-,  pp.  1.T7— 1.".9.  Ijirdncr's  Works,  flvo.  vol 
vi.  pp.  GCi— TiKJ  ;  lio.  vol.  iii.  pp.  Jl)-'J2r>.  Dr.  Hales's  Airilysin,  vol.  II. 
book  il.  pp.  1111  —  1117.  Mirhaohs,  vol.  iv.  pp.  315— JIG.  «ec  also  Hug'a 
Inlrodiictioii,  vol.  ii.  pp.  CM— 599. 

«  Lnrduor's  Works,  8vo.  vol.  il.  p.  4.''i. ;  4to.  vol.  I.  p.  302. 

•  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  il.  p.  61. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  311. 

•  II. id.  fivo.  vol.  ii.  p.  \X>. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  347. 

■>  Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  11.  p.  196. ;  410.  vol.  i.  p.  381.         ^ 


Sect.  IV.] 


ON  THE  SECOND  GENERAL  EPISTLE  OF  PETER. 


363 


century,'  yet  in  the  fourth  and  following  centuries  it  was 
acknowledged  by  Athanasius,  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  the  coun- 
cil of  Laodicea,  Ej)iphanius,  Jerome,  Rufinus,  Augustine, 
and  all  subsequent  writers.  Eusebius'  places  it  among  the 
AvTtK?ycfA»Ai  r^a^i/,  or  books  whose  canonical  authority  was 
doubted  by  ivme,  though  mentioned  and  approved  by  most  of 
the  ancients,  but  he  plainly  distinguishes  it  from  such  as  were 
confessedly  spurious.  He  also  relates,^  from  the  tradition  of 
his  predecessors,  that,  though  it  was  not  acknowledged  as  part 
of  the  New  Testament,  yet,  because  to  many  it  seemed  use- 
ful, it  was  diligently  read  together  with  the  other  Scriptures. 
On  this  statement  of  Eusebius,  Le  Clerc  forcibly  remarks, 
that  if  it  had  not  been  Peter's  it  would  not  have  seemed  use- 
ful to  any  m;m  of  tolerable  prudence,  seeing  the  writer  in 
many  places  pretends  to  be  Peter  himself;  for  it  would  be 
ncxinns  on  account  of  its  being  a  forgery,  as  well  as  unpardon^ 
able  in  any  man  to  forge  another  man's  name,  or  pretend  to 
be  the  person  he  is  not.''  After  a  diligent  comparison  of  the 
first  Epistle  with  that  which  is  ascribed  to  Peter  as  the 
second,  Michaelis  pronounces  the  agreement  between  them  to 
be  such,  that,  if  the  second  was  not  written  by  Peter,  as  well 
as  the  first,  the  person  who  forged  it  not  only  possessed  the 

f(0wer  of  imitation  in  a  very  unusual  degree,  but  understood 
ikewise  the  design  of  the  first  Epistle,  with  which  the  an- 
cients do  not  appear  to  have  been  acquainted.  Now,  if  this 
be  true,  the  supposition  that  the  second  Epistle  was  not 
written  by  Peter  himself  involves  a  contradiction.  Nor  is  it 
credible,  that  a  pious  impostor  of  the  first  or  second  century 
should  have  imitated  Peter  so  successfully  as  to  betray  no 
marks  of  a  forgery ;  for  the  spurious  productions  of  those 
ages,  which  were  sent  into  the  world  under  the  name  of  the 
apostles,  are  for  the  most  part  very  unhappy  imitations,  and 
discover  evident  marks  that  they  were  not  v/ritten  by  the 
persons  to  whom  they  were  ascribed.  Other  productions  of 
this  kind  betray  their  origin  by  the  poverty  of  their  materials, 
or  by  the  circumstance,  that,  instead  of  containing  original 
thoughts,  they  are  nothing  more  than  a  rhapsody  of  senti- 
ments collected  from  various  parts  of  the  Biole,  and  put  to- 
gether without  plan  or  order.  This  charge  cannot  possibly  be 
laid  to  the  second  Epistle  of  Peter,  which  is  so  far  from  con- 
taining materials  derived  from  other  parts  of  the  Bible,  that 
the  third  chapter  exhibits  the  discussion  of  a  totally  new  sub- 
ject. Its  resemblance  to  the  Epistle  of  Jude  will  be  hardly 
urged  as  an  argument  against  it ;  for  there  can  be  no  doubt, 
that  the  second  Epistle  of  Peter  was,  in  respect  to  the  Epis- 
tle of  Jude,  the  original  iiud  not  the  copy.  Lastly,  it  is  ex- 
tremely diflicult,  even  for  a  man  of  the  greatest  talents,  to  forge 
a  writing  in  the  name  of  another,  without  sometimes  insert- 
ing what  the  pretended  author  either  would  not  or  could  not 
have  said  ;  and  to  support  the  imposture  in  so  complete  a 
manner,  as  not  to  militate,  in  a  single  instance,  either  against 
his  character,  or  against  the  age  in  which  he  lived.  Now  in 
the  second  Epistle  of  Peter,  though  it  has  been  a  subject  of 
examination  full  seventeen  hundred  years,  nothing  has  hither- 
to been  discovered  which  is  unsuitable  either  to  the  apostle 
or  to  the  apostolic  age.  We  have  no  reason,  therefore  to 
believe  that  the  second  Epistle  of  Peter  is  spurious,  especially 
as  it  is  difficult  to  comprehend  what  motive  could  have  in- 
duced a  Christian,  whether  orthodox  or  heretic,  to  attempt  the 
fabrication  of  such  an  Epistle,  and  then  falsely  ascribe  it  to 
Peter.5 

Various  reasons,  indeed,  have  been  assigned,  why  this 
Epistle  was  not  earlier  acknowledged  as  the  writing  of  Peter. 
Jerome  informs  us  that  the  difference  of  style  between  this 
and  the  former  Epistle  was  in  his  day  the  principal  cause  of 
its  authenticity  being  disputed ;  and  the  same  objection  has 
been  adopted  by  Salrnasius  and  other  modern  writers.  But 
this  remarkable  difference  in  style  is  confined  to  the  second 
chapter  of  the  second  Epistle.     No  objection,  however,  can 

«  The  second  Epistle  of  Peter  was  first  placed  among  the  disputed 
writings  of  the  New  Testament  by  Origen.  (Euseb.  Eccl.  Hist.  lib.  vi.  c.  25.) 
It  is  natural  to  suppose.,  that  if,  from  incidental  causes,  the  second  Epistle 
of  Peter  did  not  become  known  so  early  as  the  first,  some  churches, 
which  had  for  a  length  of  time  been  accustomed  to  read  only  one  Episde 
of  Peter,  might  hesitate  to  receive  another.  Suspicion  might  also  have 
arisen  against  the  a«nuineness  of  this  Epistle,  from  the  fact  that  it  was 
brouglil  from  Asia  Minor,  the  abode  of  the  Montanisis,  who  were  accused 
of  a  disposition  to  fabricate  new  writings.  (Eusebius,  Eccl.  Hist.  lib.  vi.  c. 
20.)  More  especially  may  this  have  been  the  case,  as  the  passage,  2  Pet.  ii. 
20.,  could  be  urged  in  vindication  of  the  rigour  of  the  Montanistic  disci- 
pline: or,  the  departure  of  the  Christians  in  Asia  Minor  from  the  cus- 
tomary mode  of  celebrating  the  Easter  solemnities,  may  have  produced  in 
the  Eastern  and  Western  Christians  an  indisposition  to  receive  this  book. 
Schmucker's  Biblical  Theology,  vol.  i.  p.  122.,  where  various  writers  ar€ 
enumerated  who  have  vindicated  the  genuineness  of  this  Epistle. 

»  Hist.  Eccl.  lib.  iii.  c.  25.  »  Ibid,  lib,  iii.  c.  3. 

«  Clerici,  Hist.  Eccl.,p.  442.  note. 

•  Michaelis,  vol.  iv.  p.  350. 


be  drawn  from  this  circumstance;  for  the  subject  of  that 
chapter  is  different  from  the  rest  of  Peter's  writings,  and 
nothing  is  so  well  known  as  that  different  subjects  suggest 
diflferent  styles.  Further,  when  a  person  expresses  his^own 
sentiments,  he  writes  in  his  own  proper  style,  whatever  that 
may  be ;  but  when  he  translates  from  another,  he  naturally 
follows  the  genius  of  the  original,  and  adopts  the  figures  and 
metaphors  of  the  author  before  him.  Peter,  when  describ 
ing  the  character  of  some  flagitious  impostors,  feels  an  in- 
dignation which  he  cannot  suppress  :  it  breaks  out,  therefore, 
in  the  bold  and  animated  figures  of  some  ancient  Hebrew 
writer,  who  had  left  behind  him  a  description  of  the  false 
prrvphets  of  his  own,  or,  perhaps,  of  earlier  times.s 

To  these  considerations  we  may  add,  that,  being  written  a 
short  time  before  the  apostle's  martyrdom,  and  not  havino-  been 
so  publicly  avovi'ed  by  him,  and  clearly  known  to  be  his,  the 
scrupulous  caution  of  the  church  hesitated  about  admitting  i* 
into  the  sacred  canon,  until  internal  evidence  convinced  the 
most  competent  judges  that  it  vs^as  fully  entitled  to  that  high 
distinction.  And  since  this  Epistle,  having  passed  through 
so  severe  and  accurate  a  scrutiny,  was  received  as  genuine  By 
those  who  were  in  those  early  times  most  capable  of  deciding. 
and  who  have  given  sufficient  evidence  of  their  care  and  cap;»- 
city  forjudging  of  its  authenticity, — and  since  it  has  been  trans- 
mitted to  us  in  every  manuscript  and  ancient  version  (the 
Syriac  excepted), — we  have  every  satisfactory  external  Y>roo{ 
that  the  second  Epistle  of  Peter  is  the  undoubted  production 
of  that  holy  and  zealous  apostle.  Let  us  now  briefly  consider 
the  internal  evidence  for  its  authenticity. 

1.  The  writer  styles  himself  Symeon  Peter  (i.  I.  Gr.)  ;  from 
which  circumstance  we  conclude  that  this  Epistle  was  written 
by  the  apostle  Peter.  Should  it  be  objected  that  the  apostle's 
naine  was  Simon,  not  Simeon,  Dr.  Macknight  replies,  that  though 
his  name  was  commonly  written  Simon  in  Greek,  yet  its  Hebrew 
form  was  Simeon ;  and  so  it  is  written  in  the  Old  Testament 
history  of  Jacob's  sons,  and  so  Peter  is  expressly  termed  in  Acts 
XV.  14.  (Gr.)  It  has  further  been  objected,  that  in  the  first 
Epistle,  which  is  unquestionably  genuine,  he  has  styled  him.self 
simply  Peter,  and  not  Simon  Peter.  But  it  is  worthy  of  obser- 
vation, that  Saint  Luke  has  called  this  apostle  Simon  Peter,  and 
that  Saint  John  has  given  him  that  name  not  less  than  seventeen 
times  in  his  Gospel, — perhaps  (Dr.  Macknight  thinks)  to  show 
that  he  was  the  author  of  the  Epistle  which  begins  with  Symeov 
Peter,  a  servant  and  an  apostle,  &c.  The  same  eminent  critic 
is  further  of  opinion,  that  though  Peter's  surname  only  is  men- 
tioned in  the  inscription  of  the  first  letter,  because  he  was  suffi- 
ciently known  by  it,  yet  he  might,  for  the  greater  dignity,  insert 
his  name  complete  in  the  second  Epistle,  becau.se  he  intended 
authoritatively  to  rebuke  the  false  teachers  who  had  already  arisen, 
or  might  thereafter  arise.  Since,  therefore,  Symeon  Peter  is  the 
same  as  Simon  Peter,  no  objection  can  be  raised  against  tha 
authenticity  of  this  Epistle  on  account  of  the  name  ;  neither  does 
it  afford  any  countenance  to  the  opinion  of  Grotius,  that  this 
Epistle  was  written  by  Simeon  bishop  of  Jerusalem,'  who  suc- 
ceeded James  the  Lord's  brother, — an  opinion  that  is  not  only 
destitute  of  all  authority  from  antiquity,  but  is  also  inconsistent 
with  the  whole  tenor  of  the  Epistle  itself. 

2.  There  are  several  incidental  allusions  to  particular  circum* 
stances  in  this  Epistle  which  answer  to  no  other  person  but 
Peter.  Thus,  the  writer  of  it  testifies  that  he  must  shortly  put 
off  his  tabernacle,  even  as  our  Lord  Jeans  had  shown  him, 
(2  Pet.  i.  14.)  Now  Christ  foretold  or  showed  this  to  none  of 
his  apostles  besides  Peter.  (John  xxi.  19.)  Again,  the  writci 
of  this  Epistle  was  with  Christ  upon  the  mount  at  his  transfigu* 
ration,  beheld  his  majesty,  and  heard  the  voice  of  the  Father, 
from  heaven,  when  he  was  with  Christ,  on  the  holy  mount.  (3 
Pet.  i.  16 — 18.)  Now  there  were  only  three  of  Christ's  apostles 
permitted  to  witness  this  transfiguration  (Matt.  xvii.  1,  2.),  viz. 
Peter,  James,  and  John.  The  Epistle  in  question,  therefore,  must 
be  written  by  one  of  them,  and,  con-sequently,  must  be  of  apos- 
tolical authority ;  but  as  it  never  was  a.scribcd  to  James  or  John, 
nor  is  there  any  reason  for  attributing  it  to  them,  it  follows  that 
this  Epistle  is  the  production  of  Peter. — Once  more  the  author 
of  it  calls  this  his  second  Epistle  (iii.  1.)  and  intimates  that  he 
wrote  both  his  letters  to  the  same  persons,  viz.  the   believuig 

«  Such  is  the  opinion  of  Bi.shop  Sherlock,  which  has  been  generally 
adopted.  Bishop  Tornline,  however,  deems  this  conjecture  very  improba- 
ble, and  accounts  for  the  ditference  of  style  in  the  second  chapter  of  this 
Epistle,  by  supposing  that  the  aposde's  pen  was  guided  by  ahiglier  degree 
of  inspiration  than  when  writing  in  a  didactic  manner,  and  that  he  wrote 
with  the  animation  and  energy  of  the  prophetic  style ;  but  he  does  not 
think  that  there  is  any  thing,  either  in  phrase  or  sentiment,  which  is 
inconsistent  with  the  acknowledged  writings  of  Saint  Peter.  Elements  ci 
Christian  Theology,  vol.  i.  p.  490. 


36i 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  VI.  Caip.  IV 


Hebrc\vs.  Compare  1  Pet  i.  1.  and  2  Pel.  i.  1.  with  2  Pet.  iii. 
1,  2,  Consequently,  as  the  authenticity  of  the  first  Epistle  was 
never  disputed,  the  second  was  unquestionably  written  by  the 
same  person,  viz.  Peter. 

3.  Whoever  wrote  this  Epistle  calls  Paul  his  beloved  brother 
(iii.  15,  16.),  commends  him,  and  approves  the  authority  of  his 
Epistles,  which  none  but  an  apostle  could  venture  to  affirm. 

4.  A  holy  and  apostolical  spirit  breathes  throughout  the  whole 
of  this  Epistle  ;  in  which  we  find  predictions  of  things  to  come, 
and  admonitions  against  false  teachers  and  apostasy,  together 
with  exhortations  to  a  godly  life,  and  condemnations  of  sin,  de- 
livered with  an  earnestness  and  feeling  which  show  the  author 
to  have  been  incapable  of  imposing  a  forged  writing  upon  the 
world :  and  that  his  sole  design  in  this  Epistle  was  to  promote 
the  interests  of  truth  and  virtue  in  the  world. 

5.  Lastly,  the  style  is  the  same  in  both  Epistles.  The  sen- 
tences in  the  second  Epistle  arc  seldom  fluent  and  well  rounded, 
but  they  have  the  same  extension  as  those  in  the  first.'  There 
are  also  repetitions  of  the  same  words,  and  allusions  to  the  same 
events.  'I'hus  the  word  av<?-/i'-<;>)i,  conversdtion  or  behaviour, 
which  is  so  peculiar  to  the  first  Ei)istle,2  likewise  occurs  in  the 
second, 5  though  less  frequently  than  in  the  former.  So  the  deluge, 
which  is  not  a  common  subject  in  the  apostolical  Epistles,  is 
mentioned  in  1  Pet.  iii.  20.,  and  also  in  2  Pet.  ii.  .5. ;  and  in  both 
places  the  circumstance  is  noted,  that  eight  persons  only  were 
saved,  though  in  neither  place  docs  the  subject  require  that  the 
number  should  be  particularly  specified.  Michaelis  observes  that 
Peter  was  not  the  only  apostle  who  knew  how  many  persons 
were  saved  in  the  ark ;  but  he  only,  who  by  h;ibit  had  acquired  a 
familiarity  with  the  subject,  would  ascertain  the  precise  number, 
where  his  argument  did  not  depend  upon  it. 

The  result  of  all  these  evidences,  both  external  and  internal, 
is,  that  the  second  Epistle  of  Peter  is  unfiuestionably  the 
production  of  that  apostle,  and  claims  to  be  received  and  stu- 
died with  the  same  devout  care  and  attention  as  the  rest  of 
the  inspired  writings  of  the  New  Testament. 

II.  That  Peti  r  was  old  and  near  his  death,  when  he  wrote 
this  Epistle,  is  evident  from  ch.  i.  11. ;  and  that  it  was  written 
soon  after  the  first  Epistle,  appears  from  the  apolojry  he 
makes  Ci.  13.  15.)  for  writing  this  second  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brew Chri.-;tians.  Dr.  Lardner  thinks  it  not  unlikely  that, 
soon  af>-r  the  apostle  had  sent  away  Silvanus  with  his  first 
letter  to  the  Christians  in  Pontus,  Galatia,  Cappad^cia,  Asia 
Minor,  and  Bilhynia,  some  persons  came  from  those  countries 
to  Home  (whither  there  was  a  frequent  and  general  resort 
from  all  parts),  who  brought  him  information  concorninw  the 
state  of  religion  among  them.  These  accounts  inducenhim 
to  write  a  second  time,  most  probably  at  the  be<nnning  of 
A.  D.  C5,  in  order  to  establish  in  the  faith  the  Christrans  among 
whom  he  had  laboured. 

III.  'ITie  scope  of  this  Epistle  is  to  confirm  the  doctrines 
•and  instructions  delivered  in  the  former;  to  establish  the 
Hebrew  Christians  in  the  truth  and  profession  of  the  Gospel ; 
to  caution  them  against  false  teachers,  whose  tenets  and  prac- 
tices ho  largely  describes;  and  to  warn  tliem  to  disrej^ard 
those  jirofaiie  scoffers,  who  made  or  should  make  a  mock  of 
Christ's  coming  to  judgment;  which  having  asserted  and 
described,  he  exhorts  them  to  prepare  for  that  event  by  a  holy 
and  unblameable  conversation.  The  Epistle  consists  of  three 
parts ;  viz. 

Part  I.   The  Introduction,  (i.  1,  2.) 

Part  II.   /In-ing  staled  tlie  JJiaairigs  to  which  God  had  called 
them,  the  Jpoatle, 

Sect.  1.  Exhorts  the  Christians,  who  had  received  these  pre- 
ciouH  gifts,  to  endeavour  to  improve  in  the  most  substantial 
graces  and  virtues,   (i.  .3 — 11.) 

Sect.  2.  To  this  he  incitCH  them, 

i    Frnin  tho  firinnc.~B  i>f  lrnf>  ifacliors.  (i.  f2 — 21.) 

il.  Fmrn  the  wickt,-f1ii»;ss  of  fiilj-e  li-afln^rs,  whose  iRnctn  and  practices 
he  exposes,  ami  pD-Jictit  llic  <liviiie  jinlgiiiprilii  ocaiiisl  (Ik'Iii.  (li.) 

Sect.  3.  He  guards  them  ngainnt  HcolferB  ojid  imposlorH,  who, 
he  foretells,  would  ridicule  their  expectation  of  Christ's 
coming  : — 

i.  Itv  confuting  tlieir  falwe  assertion*!,  (iii.  1—7.) 

li.  liy  (iliowing  ttie  reason  wliy  ttiat  great  <!ny  w.i.s  delnyeil ;  and  do- 
8crililn|>  its  rircimiKlniices  and  ron9e(jiicnri')i,  nddiiig  siiiiiililn  exhorta- 
tions and  rncuiira^cments  to  diligence  and  IjnlincsH.  (hi. 8 — II.) 

Part  III.  The  Vonclusiim,  in  which  the  .Ipontle, 

Sfct.  1.  Declares  tlie  agreement  of  his  doctrine  with  that  of 
Saint  Paul.   (iii.   15,  IG.) 

>  See  the  observations  nn  Saint  Peter's  style,  p.  STiQ.  $upra. 
See  1  Pet.  i.  15.  18.  ii.  1^  iii.  1,  i  10.  >  2  Pel.  li.  7.  iii.  11. 


Sect.  2.  And  repeats  the  6um  of  the  Epistle,  (iii.  17,  18.) 
On  account  of  the  similarity  of  style  and  sidiject  between 
the  second  chanter  of  this  epistle  and  that  (d' Jude,  Dr.  Ben- 
son and  Michaelis  place  the  latter  immediately  after  the  second 
Epistle  of  Peter.'' 


SECTION  V. 

ON   THE    FIRST   GENERAL   EPISTLE    OF   JOHN. 

I.  Genuineness  and  canonical  anthoritif, — II.  Dale, — HI.  Of 
the  persons  to  whom  this  Kuistle  was  written. — IV.  Its 
occasion  and  scope. — ..Iccount  of  the  false  teachers  whose 
principles  are  refuted  hy  the  opostle.-^Y.  Si/nopsis  of  its 
contents. — VI.  The  <iHestion  concerning  the  authenticity  of 
the  disputed  clause  jm  1  John  v.  7.  8.  considered. 

I.  Although  no  name  is  prefixed  to  this  book,  its  anthenti- 
city  as  a  genuine  production  of  the  apostle  John  is  unqnes- 
tionable.  It  was  almost  universally  received  as  his  compo- 
sition in  the  Eastern  and  Western  churches,  and  appears  to  be 
alluded  to  by  Hermas.*  It  is  distinctly  cited  by  Polycarp,6 
and  in  the  Epistle  of  the  churches  of  Vicnne  and  Lj'ons,' 
and  is  declared  to  be  genuine  by  Papias,^  Irenaeus,^  Clement 
of  Alexandria,'"  Tertullian,"  Orige.n,'2  Cyprian,  Eusebius, 
Athanasius,and  all  subsequent  ecclesiastical  writers."  A  still 
more  decisive  te.stiinony  is  the  fact  that  it  is  found  in  the 
Syriac  version  of  the  New  Testament,  executed  at  the  close 
of  the  first  or  very  early  in  the  second  century,  and  which 
contains  only  those  books  of  the  New  Testament,  respecting 
whose  authenticity  no  doubts  were  ever  entertained.  But, 
besides  this  external  proof,  we  have  the  strongest  internal 
evidence  that  this  Epistle  was  written  by  the  apostle  John, 
in  the  very  close  analogy  of  its  sentiments  and  expressions 
to  those  of  his  Gospel.'^  There  is  also  a  remnrkaule  pecu- 
liarity in  the  style  of  this  apostle,  and  particularly  in  this 
Epistle,  His  sentences,  considered  separately,  arc  exceed- 
ingly clear  and  intelli<rible;  but,  when  we  search  for  their 
connexion,  we  freiiuently  meet  with  greater  dillieulties  than 
we  experience  even  in  the  Epistles  of  Paul,  Artless  simpli- 
city and  benevolence,  blended  with  singvilar  modesty  and 
candour,  together  with  a  wonderful  sublimity  of  sentiment, 
are  the  characteristics  of  this  Epistle;  in  which  John  appears 
to  have  delivered  his  conceptions  as  they  arose  in  his  mind, 
and  in  the  form  of  aphorisms,  in  order  that  they  might  pro- 
duce the  greater  eflect.  In  his  Gospel  John  does  not  content 
himself  with  simply  aflirming  or  denying  a  thing,  but  denies 
its  contrary  to  strengthen  his  aflirmation  ;  and  in  like  manner, 
to  strengthen  his  denial  of  a  thing,  he  affirms  its  contrary. 
See  John  i.  20.  iii.  3G.  v.  21,  vi.  22.  The  same  manner  of 
expressing  things  strongly  occurs  in  this  K|>istlc.  See  ii.  4. 
27.  and  iv.  2,  .3,  In  his  Gospel  also.  Saint  John  frequently 
uses  the  pronoun  or  cJtsc,  at^TJi,  tci/to,  /A/.',  in  order  to  express 
things  emphatically.  See  i,  li),  iii.  19.  vi.  29,  40.  50.  and 
xvii.  3.  In  the  Epistle  the  same  emphatical  mode  of  ex- 
pression obtains.  Compare  i,  5,  ii,  25.  iii,  23.  v,  3,  4.  6. 
and  14,  If 

II,  With  regard  to  the  date  of  this  Epistle,  there  is  a  con- 
siderable diversity  of  opinion,  Drs.  Benson,  Hales,  and 
others,  place  it  in  the  year  (58;  Bishop  Tondine  in  (39; 
Lampe,  after  the  first  Jewish  war,  and  before  the  apostle's 
exile  in  Patmos;  Dr.  Lardner,  a.  d,  80,  or  even  later:  Mill 
and  Lc  Clerc,  in  a.  n,  91  or  92;  Beausobre,  L'Enfant,  and 
Du  Pin,  at  the  end  of  the  first  century;  and  Grotius,  Ham- 
mond, Whitby,  Michaelis,  and  Mackmglit,  place  it  before  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem,  but  without  s(iecifying  the  precise 
year.  The  most  probable  of  these  various  opinions  is  that 
which  assigns  an  early  date  to  this  Epistle,  viz,  before  the 

«  Pritii  Introd.  ad  Lect  Nov.  Test.  pp.  00—90.  Moldonhawcr,  Tntrod.  ad 
Libros  lijblicos,  pp.  ;i")2— .Y>.1.  Ilfidcggrr,  tncliirid.  Ilild.  |ip.  624 — 629.  Ben- 
son on  the  ('ntliolic  Kpislles,  jip.  321 — 329.  I^ardncr'ti  Works,  8vo.  vol.  v.l. 
W).  062— i>.'-"3. ;  llo.  vol.  iii.  pp.  411—123.  Macknight's  Preface  to  2  Peter. 
icliaclis,  vol.  iv.  pp.  S'lG— ;t(>3. 
»  !,ardn«!r'8  Works,  Hvo.  vol.  ii.  p.  61. ;  Ito.  vol.  1.  p.  311. 

•  Il>id.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  Vi.  ;  •Ito.  vol.  i.  p.  332. 

'  Ibid.  Rvo.  vol.  ii.  p.  102.  ;  4lo.  vol.  i.  p.  362. 

•  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  lOe.  109.  113. ;  4to.  vol.  1.  pp.  337. 340. 
»  Il>i<l.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  108. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  370. 

'•  Ibid.  Bvo.  vol.  ii.  p.  2'.'7.  ;  4i().  vol.  i.  p.  lO.'!. 

1'  Ibid.  SvQ.  vol.  ii.  p.  S?."!. ;  4lo.  vol.  1.  p.  429. 

i«  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  4H1. ;   llo.  vol.  i.  p.  WO. 

'»  ll)id.  .8vo.  vol.  vi.  )>.  M\.  ^<<^. ;  4lo.  vol.  iii.  pp.  ^25,  H'iB. 

>•  Hee  sevcr.il  inxtancei)  of  this  analogy,  supra.  Vol.  I.  pp.  51,  52.  nolts. 

'•  l^inpe,  (N)UHn>'nlnhi)s  in  F.vangrlium  Johannis,  toin.  1.  I*rolc)ioniena, 
p.  ICH.  Macknielit's  Preface  to  1  John,  scot.  2.  IjinRli,  Ilirmoncutics 
Sacra,  pars  ii.    Uc  Intcrprelationo  Epislolaruni  Johannis,  pp.  167—175. 


ON  THE  FIRST  GENERAL  EPISTLE 
the  subversion  of  the  Jewish 


Sect,  y,] 

destraction  of  Jerusalem  and 
polity.     For, 

1.  In  the  Jtrst  place,  The  expression  in  ii.  18.,  It  is  the  last 
hour,  is  mor5  applicable  to  the  last  hour  or  time  of  the  duration 
of  the  Jewish  state  than  fo  any  later  period,  especially  as  the 
apost'.c  adds — .Ind  as  ye  have  heard  that  Antichrist  is  coming, 
even  so  noia  there  have  been  many  Antichrists  ;  wlieiice  we 
know  that  it  is  the  last  ii'iur :  in  which  passage  the  apostle 
evidently  alludes  to  our  Lord's  prediction  concerning  the  spring- 
ing up  of  false  Christs,  false  teachers,  and  false  prophets,  before 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.  (Matt.  xxiv.  5 — 25.)  Some  critics, 
however,  contend  that  the  "  last  time"  may  allude,  not  to  the 
aestruction  of  that  city,  but  to  the  close  of  the  apostolic  age. 
But  Michaclis  confirms  the  propriety  of  this  argument  for  the 
early  date  of  this  Epistle,  by  observing  that  John's  Gospel  was 
opposed  to  heretics,  who  maintained  the  same  opinions  as  are 
opposed  in  this  Epistle ;  which  tenets  he  has  confuted  by  argu- 
ment in  his  Gospel,  whereas  in  the  Epistle  he  expresses  only 
his  disapprobation.     Michaelis,   therefore,    concludes,   that    the 

-Epistle  was  written  before  the  Gospel ;  because  if  Saint  John 
had  already  given  a  complete  confutation  when  he  wrote  this 
Epistle,  he  would  have  thought  it  unnecessary  to  have  again 
declared  the  falsehood  of  such  opinions. 

2.  Secondly,  the  expression  (ii.  13,  14.),  Ye  have  knoxvn  hiin 
from  the  beginning,  applies  better  to  the  disciples,  immediately 
before  Jerusalem  was  destroyed,  than  to  the  few  who  might  have 
been  alive  at  the  late  date  which  some  critics  assign  to  this 
Epistle.  In  the  verses  just  cited,  ihe  fathers  or  elders  are  twice 
distinguished  from  Xhc  "  yonng  7nen"  and  the  "  childr-en,"  by 
this  circumstance,  that  they  had  seen  him  during  his  ministry,  or 
after  his  resurrection.  Thirty-five  years  after  our  Lord's  resurrec- 
tion and  ascension,  when  Jerusalem  was  destroyed,  many  such 
persons  might  have  been  alive ;  whereas  in  98,  or  even  in  92,  there 
could  not  have  been  many  persons  alive  of  that  description. 

To  these  two  arguments  for  the  early  date  of  John's  first 
Epistle,  Dr.  Hales  has  added  the  three  following,  which  have 
not  been  noticed  by  any  other  biblical  critic  : 

1.  As  the  other  apostles,  James,  Jude,  Paul,  and  Peter,  had 
written  Catholic  Epistles  to  the  Hebrew  Christians  especially,  it 
is  likely,  that  one  of  the  principal  "pillars  of  the  church,"  the 
greatest  surety  of  the  mother-church,  the  most  highly  gifted  and 
illuminated  of  all  the  apostles  of  the  circumcision,  and  the 
beloved  disciple,  would  not  be  deficient  likewise  in  this  labour 
of  love. 

2.  Nothing  could  tend  so  strongly  to  establish  the  faith  of  the 
early  Jewish  converts  as  the  remarkable  circumstances  of  our 
Lord's  crucifixion,  exhibiting  the  accomplishment  of  the  ancient 
types  and  prophecies  of  the  Old  Testament  respecting  Christ's 
passion,  or  suiferings  in  the  flesh.  These  John  alone  could  record, 
as  he  was  the  only  eye-witness  of  that  last  solemn  scene  among 
the  apostles.  To  these,  therefore,  he  alludes  in  the  exordium  as 
well  as  to  the  circumstances  of  our  Lord's  appearances  after  the 
resurrection ;  and  to  these  he  again  recalls  their  attention  in  that 
remarkable  reference  to  "  the  laater'  at  his  baptism,  to  "  the  ivater 
and  blood"  at  his  passion,  and  to  the  dismissal  of  "his  spirit" 
when  he  commended  it  to  his  Father,  and  expired,  (v.  5 — 9.) 

3.  The  parallel  testimony  in  the  Gospel  (John  xix.  3.5 — 37.) 
bears  witness  also  to  the  priority  of  the  Epistle,  in  the  expression, 
"  He  that  saw  Aa</j  testified"  {//.ifxn^vfmi),  intimating  that  he 
had  delivered  this  testimony  to  the  world  already  ;  for  if  noiv, 
for  the  first  time,  it  should  rather  be  expressed  by  the  present 
tense,  /u-j.f>Tupv,  "  testifieth"  And  this  is  strongly  confirmed  by 
the  apostle's  same  expression,  after  giving  his  evidence  in  the 
Epistle,  •'  this  is  the  testimony  of  God,  -which  he  hath  testified 
{/uifJcctpTup-Mi)  concerning  his  Son"  (ver.  9.),  referring  to  the  past 
transaction,  as  fulfilling  prophecy.' 

We  conclude,  therefore,  that  Saint  John  wrote  his  first 
Epistle  in  68,  or  at  the  latest  in  69 ;  though  it  is  impossible 
to  ascertain  from  what  place  he  sent  it,  whether  from  Patmos, 
as  Grotius  suppo.ges,  or  from  some  city  in  Judaea,  as  Dr. 
Macknight  supposes,  or  from  Ephesus,  as  Irenoeus  and  Euse- 
bius  relate  from  ancient  tradition,  which  has  been  generally 
received. 

III.  It  is  still  more  difficult  to  decide  concerning  the  persons 
to  whom  this  Epistle  was  written.  Augustine,  Cassiodorus, 
and  the  venerable  Bede,  called  it  the  Epistle  of  John  to  the 

Lardner's  Works,  8vo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  587—589. ;  4to.  vol.  iii.  pp.  425—428. 


Lampe,  torn.  i.  p.  106.  Piilius,  p.  106' 

Fpistles,  pp.  .50:5—510.  Mackniiht's  Preface  to  1  .lohn,  sect.  4.  Pritij 
in  Nov.  Test.  pp.  99—103.  Halea'a  .Sacred  Chronology,  vol.  iii. 
second  edition. 


Benson's  Paraphrase  onjhe  Catholic 

In  trod, 
p.  452. 


OF  JOHN.  365 

Parthians,  because  the  apostle  is  reported  to  have  prea.-hed 
the  Gospel  to  that  people;  but  this  opinion  is  entirely  unsup- 
ported by  the  evidence  of  antiquity.  Dr.  Benson  thinks  that 
the  L^istle  was  addressed  to  the  Jewish  Christians  in  Judsea 
and  Galilee.  But  the  most  probable  opinion  is  that  of 
(Ecumenms,  Lampe,  Dupin,  Lardner,  Michaelis,  Macknight, 
Bishop  romline,and  others,  who  thiidc  it  was  written  for  the 
use  ot  Christians  of  every  denomination  and  of  every  country. 
For,  1.  It  has  always  been  called  a  catholic  or  general  Epistle ; 
— 2.  It  does  not  contain  any  words  of  limitation  that  can 
restrict  it  to  a  particular  people ; — 3.  The  admonition  in  1 
John  ii.  15.  would  be  unnecessary  to  believers  in  Judsea,  a.  d. 
68,  after  the  war  had  commenced  with  the  Bomans;  it  is* 
rather  suited  to  people  in  easy  circumstances,  and  who  were 
in  danger  of  being  ensnared  by  the  allurements  of  prosperity  ; 
— 4.  Lastly,  the  concluding  exhortation  to  believers  to  "  keep 
themselves  from  idols"  is  in  no  respect  suitable  to  believers 
in  Judasa,  but  is  much  more  likely  to  be  addressed  to  Chris- 
tians living  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  where  idolatry  pre- 
vailed. 


IV.  This  book  is  usually  entitled  The  General  Epistle  of 
St.  John.  "  But  in  the  composition  of  it,  narrowly  inspected, 
nothing  is  to  be  found  in  the  epistolary  form.  It  is  not 
inscribed  either  to  any  individual,  like  Paul's  to  Timothy  and 
Titus,  or  the  second  of  the  two  which  follow  it,  '  To  the 
well-beloved  Gains' — nor  to  any  particular  church,  like 
Paul's  to  the  churches  of  Rome,  Corinth,  Ephesus,  and 
others — nor  to  the  faithful  of  any  particular  reo-ion,  like 
Peter's  first  Epistle 'To  the  strangers  scattered  tRroughob 
Pontus,  Galatia,  Cappadocia,  Asia,  and  Bithynia' — nor  to 
any  principal  branch  of  the  Christian  church,  like  Paul's  to 
the  Hebrews — nor  to  the  Christian  church  in  general,  like 
the  second  of  Peter,  'To  them  that  had  obtained  like  pre- 
cious faith  with  him,'  and  like  Jude's,  'To  them  that  are 
sanctified  by  God  the  Father,  and  preserved  in  Jesus  Christ, 
and  called.'  It  bears  no  such  inscription  :  it  begins  without 
salutation,  and  ends  without  benediction.  It  is  true,  the 
writer  sometimes  speaks,  but  without  naming  himself,  in  the 
first  person — and  addresses  his  reader  without  naming  him, 
in  the  second.  But  this  colloquial  style  is  very  common  in 
all  writings  of  a  plain  familiar  cast :  instances  of  it  occur 
in  John's  Gospel;  and  it  is  by  no  means  a  distinguishing 
character  of  epistolary  composition.  It  should  seem  that 
this  book  hath  for  no  other  reason  acquired  the  title  of  an 
epistle,  but  that  in  the  first  formation  of  the  canon  of  the 
New  Testament  it  was  put  into  the  same  volume  with  the 
didactic  writings  of  the  apostles,  which,  with  this  single 
exception,  are  all  in  the  epistolary  form.  It  is,  indeed,  a 
didactic  discourse  upon  the  principles  of  Christianit}'^,  both  in 
doctrine  and  practice :  and  whether  we  consider  the  subli- 
mity of  its  opening  with  the  fundamental  topics  of  God's 
perfections,  man's  depravity,  and  Christ's  propitiation — the 
perspicuity  with  which  it  propounds  the  deepest  mysteries 
of  our  holy  faith,  and  the  evidence  of  the  proof  which  it 
brings  to  confirm  them ;  whether  we  consider  the  sanctity 
of  its  precepts,  and  the  energy  of  argument  witii  which  they 
are  persuaded  and  enforced — the  dignified  simplicity  of  lan- 
guage in  which  both  doctrine  ana  precept  aie  delivered ; 
whether  we  regard  the  importance  of  the  matter,  the  propri- 
ety of  the  style,  or  the  general  spirit  of  ardent  piety  and 
warm  benevolence,  united  with  a  fervid  zeaU  which  breathes 
throughout  the  whole  composition — we  shall  find  it  in  every 
respect  worthy  of  the  holy  author  to  whom  the  constant  tra 
dition  of  the  church  ascribes  it,  '  the  disciple  whom  Jesus 
loved.'  "2 

The  design  of  this  treatise  is. 

First,  to  refute,  and  to  giiard  the  Christians  to  whom  he 
wrote  against  erroneous  and  licentious  tenets,  principles,  and 
practices ;  such  as  the  denial  of  the  real  Deity  and  proper 
humanity  of  Christ,'  of  the  reality  and  efficacy  of  his  suf- 
ferings and  death  as  an  atoning  sacrifice,  and  the  assertion, 
that  believers  being  saved  by  grace,  were  not  required  to  obey 
the  commandments  of  God.  These  principles  began  to 
appear  in  the  church  of  Christ  even  in  the  apostolic  a^e,  and 
were  afterwards  maintained  by  the  Cerintnians,  ana  othei 
heretics  who  sprang  up  at  the  close  of  the  first  and  in  the 
second  century  of  tne  Christian  aera.^ 

Secondly,  To  stir  up  all  w'ho  profess  to  know  God,  to  ha\  a 

'^  Bishop  Horsley'3  Sermons,  pp.  144.  J4.5.  2d  edit. 

'  The  late  Dr.  llandolph  has  admirably  illustrated  those  parts  of  the 
present  Epistle  wliich  assert  the  Deity  of  Clirist,  in  his  Prajlectio  xiii.  vol, 
ii.  pp.  512 — 52.3.  of  his  View  of  our  Saviour's  Ministry. 

<  For  an  ample  account  of  tlie  tenets  of  the  Cerinthiaiis,  see  p.  316.  o3 
the  present  volume. 


366 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Paht  VI.  CuAj..  IV 


comiTiiinion  with  him,  and  to  believe  in  him,  that  thpy  walk 
in  the  light  and  nnl  in  darkntxx  (i.  5 — 7.),  that  is.  in  liolincss 
and  not  in  sin;  that  th"y  luilk  as  C/trisf  wilkd  (ii.  G.)  ;  and 
that  tliey  f^"sp  the  commnndmenls,  and  especially  abound  in 
sincere  brotherly  love  towards  each  othor.  (ii.  1.  9 — 11.  iii. 
10—21.  iv.  20,  21.  V.  1 — 3.)  '  This  rational  and  Clirislian 
spirit,  the  apostle  er.forces  upon  the  best  principles,  and  with 
the  stronijest  ar<ruments,  derived  from  tho  love  of  (Jod  4ind 
of  Christ;  showingr  the  utter  insuificiency  of  faith,  and  the 
mere  external  profession  of  roUirion,  without  the  accompa- 
nvi'io  evidence  of  a  holy  life  and  conduct. 

'  Thirdlt/,  to  help  forward  and  to  provoke  real  Christians  to 
communion  with  (iol  and  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  (i.  3,  4.)  ;  to 
constancy  in  the  true  fiith,  against  all  that  seduced  thorn  (ii. 
24 — 28,);  to  purity  and  holiness  of  life  (ii.  1.  iii.  3 — 13.),' 
and  that  those  wlio  bd'ere  on  the  nam':  of  the  Son  of  God,  may 
know  tluit  tlicy  have  eternal  life.  (v.  13.) 

V.  Heideg'jer,  Van  Til,  Pritius,  Moldcnhawer,  Lantrius, 
and  other  analysts  of  Scripture,  have  each  sugirested  different 
tabular  synopses  of  this  Epistle,  with  a  view  to  illustrate  its 
divisions  and  to  show  the  bearings  of  the  apostle's  ar- 
guments. Extreme  prolixity  and  extreme  brevity  charac- 
terize their  respective  schemes.  The  foUowincr  synopsis, 
however,  it  is  hoped,  will  be  found  to  show  the  leailinir  di- 
visions of  the  Epistle  or  treatise  with  sufficient  perspicuity 
and  conciseness.  It  consists  of  six  sections,  besides  the 
conclusion,  which  is  a  recapitulation  of  the  whole. 

Sect.  1.  asserts  the  true  divinity  and  humanity  of  Christ,  in 
opposition  to  the  false  teachers,  and  urges  the  union  of  faith 
and  holiness  of  life  as  absolutely  necessary  to  enable  Chris- 
tians to  enjoy  communion  with  God.  (i.  I — 7.) 

Sf.ct.  2.  shows  that  all  have  sinned,  and  explains  the  doc- 
trine of  Christ's  propitiation,  (i.  8 — 10.  ii.  1,  2.)  Whence 
the  apostle  takes  occasion  to  illustrate  the  marks  of  true 
faith;  viz.  obeying  li is  commandments  and  sincere  love  of 
the  brethren  ;  and  shows  that  the  love  of  the  world  is  incon- 
sistent with  the  love  of  God.  (ii.  3 — 17.) 

Sect.  3.  asserts  Jesus  to  Vie  the  same  person  with  Christ,  in 
opposition  to  the  false  teachers  who  denied  it.  (ii.  18 — 29.) 

Sect.  4.  On  the  privileges  of  true  believers,  and  their  conse- 
quent happiness  and  duties,  and  the  marks  by  which  they 
are  known  to  be  "  the  sons  of  God."  (iii.) 

Skct.  .5.  Contains  criteria  by  which  to  distinguish  Antichrist 
and  false  Christians,  with  an  exhortation  to  brotherly  love. 
(iv.) 

5  1.  A  mark  to  know  one  sort  of  Antichrist,— the  not  confessing  tliat 

Christ  mine  in  the  flesh,  (iv.  1 — 3.) 
S  ii.  Criteria  for  dislingiii-sliins  false  Christians  ;  viz. 

(I.)  Love  of  tlie  worlil.  (1— 0.) 

(2.)  Want  of  brotlierly  love.  (7—12.) 

OJ.)  Denying  Christ  to  be  the  tnie  Son  of  nod.  (13—15.) 
%  iii.  A  rcebmincnd;ilion  of  l)rotherly  love,  from  tlie  consideration  of  the 

love  of  God  in  givinj;  his  Son  for  sinners.  (16—21.) 

Sect.  6.  shows  the  connection  between  faith  in  Christ,  regr 
neration,  love  to  God  and  his  children,  obedience   to    .is 
commandments,  and  victory  over  the  world ;  and  that  Jesu.t 
C/hrist  i.^  truly  the  Son  of  God,  able  to  save  u.s,  and  to  hear 
the  prayers  we  make  for  ourselves  and  others,  (v.  1 — 10.) 

The  conclusion,  which  is  a  summary  of  the  preceding  trcati.sc, 
shows  that  a  mnful  life  is  inconsistent  with  true  Christianity  ; 
assert"  the  divinity  of  Christ ,  and  cautions  believers  against 
idolatry,  (v.  17—21.) 

The  preceding  is  an  outline  of  this  admirable  Epistle; 
which  beinp  desinrned  to  promote  ufrht  principles  of  doctrine 
and  practical  piety  in  condiiei,  abounds,  more  than  any  book 
of  the  New  Tesfamnnt,  with  criteria  by  which  (Christians 
may  soberly  examine  themselves  whether  they  l)c  in  the  faith. 
(2  Cor.  xiii.  5.) 

The  style  of  this  Epistle  is  pure,  clear,  and  flowing;  and 

>  Roberta's  ClavU  Uibliorum,  p.  827. 


an  affectionate  spirit  pers'ades  the  whole,  except  in  those 
pnssaixes  where  the  apostle  exposes  and  reprehends  hypocrites 
and  false  teachers,  whose  danejerous  practices  and  tenets  he 
exposes  in  such  a  faithful,  plain,  and  even  authoritative  man- 
ner, as  may  serve  to  illustrate  the  reason  why  our  Saviour 
ffavc  him,  tocrether  with  his  brother  James,  the  appellation 
ol'  Boana-ges,  or  sons  of  thunder.  (Mark  iii.  17.) 

VI.  Before  we  conclude  this  section,  it  may  oc  proper  to 
notice  the  controversy  respecting  the  clauses  m  1  John  v.  7, 
8.  coneeniinjr  the  Heavenly  IVilnesstF,  wliich  has  for  nearly 
four  centuries  diviled  the  opinions  of  learned  men,  and  whicn 
the  majority  of  biblical  critics  now  abandon  as  spurious.  As 
the  limits  assio^ned  to  tiiis  discussion  are  necessarily  confined, 
we  shall  briefly  state  tiie  evidence  for  and  against  its  genu- 
ineness. 

In  the  Texlus  liccepttts,  or  received  Greek  Text  of  the  New 
Testament,  the  seventh  and  eighth  yerses  of  the  fifth  chapter 
of  this  EpJ3tle  are  as  follows : — 

'Ori  Tfu;  urn  c«  /uif/rui-.uvTi:  [&  tu  yjfuyu)  0  TXirrf,  0  Acj^c,  "•«  t3 

Til  5«^    TO  TnUUX,  K-JU  TO  C'^Oip,  Ki.1  TO  ulfAX'  Kil  Cj"  TC£;C  «C   TO  iv  UTt. 

In  the  Vulgate  Latin,  and  our  authorized  English  version, 
they  run  thus : 

Cluoniani  tres  sunt  qni  testimo-  For  there  arc  three  that  bear  rc- 

niuin  dant  (mcos/o,  jPct^cr,  Vcrbum,  cord  [in  keaven,   the  Father,  the 

tl  Siiiritits Sancltis:  tt  hilres  liiium  Word,  and  the  Hoty  (ihvst;  and 

sunt.   Et  trcs  sunt  qui  testimonntm  these  three  arc  one.    And  there  are 

dant  in  terra:]  spirilus,  et  aqua,  et  three  that  hear  U)ilness  in  earth,] 

sanguis:  et  hi  tres  in  unum  sunt.  the  spirit,  and  the  water,  and  the 

blood  ;  and  these  three  agree  in  one. 

The  disputed  passage  is  included  between  the  brackets. 

The  decision  of  the  cbntroversj'  depends  partly  upon  the 
Greek  manuscripts,  partly'upon  the  ancient  versions,  and 
partly  upon  the  quotations  which  occur  in  the  writings  of  the 
ancient  fathers. 

AGAINST  THE  GENUINENESS  OF  THE  CONTROVERTED  PASSAGE, 

IT  IS  URGED, 

1.  That  this  clause  is  not  to  be  found  in  a  single  Greek 
manuscript  -written  before  the  sixteenth  century. 

Of  all  the  manuscripts  hitherto  discovered  and  collated  which 
contain  this  Epistle,  amoiniting  to  one  hundred  and  forty-nine,^ 
if  we  deduct  several  that  are  cither  mutilated  or  imperfect  in  this 
place,  it  will  be  found  that  four  only  have  the  text,  and  two  of 
these  are  absolutely  of  no  authority;  viz. 

1.  The  Codex  Guelf)hcri)ytanus,  which  is  evidently  a  manu- 
script of  the  seventeenth  century,  for  it  contains  the  Latin  trans- 
lation of  Bcza,  written  by  the  same  hand,  and  consequently  is  of 
no  use  whatever  in  sacred  criticism. 

2.  The  Codex  Jiavianus  or  BeroUnensis,  which  is  obviously 
a  forgery;  it  is  for  the  most  part  only  a  transcript  of  the  Greek 
text  in  tlie  Complutcnsian  Polyglott,  printed  in  1514,  with  some 
various  readings  from  Stephens's  third  edition  ;  and  the  reinain- 
Jcr  (from  Mark  v,  20.  to  the  end  of  Saint  John's  Gospel  and 
Rom.  i. — vi.  and  xiii. — xvi.)  is  a  copy  of  the  same  edition,  witli 
some  various  readings  taken  partly  from  Stephens's  margin,  and 
partly  from  the  Complutcnsian  Polyglott.^ 

3.  The  Codex  Jiritanuicns,  as  it  was  called  by  Erasmus,  now 
better  known  by  the  appellation  of  the  Codex  ^Muntfurtii,  .Mont- 
fnrtianus.  or  ])abliuensis,  which  is  preserved  in  Trinity  College 
Library,  Dublin.     A  fac-simile  of  it  is  annexed. 

'  In  this  number  nre  now,  for  the  first  time,  compri.sed  one  of  the  iiinnu- 
scripts  collalnl  by  Dr.  Sclmlz,  ninl  three  niaiju.srri[>ls  in  the  archienisropal 
library  at  Lambeih,  numboreil  1182,  11S3,  a\\t\  ll.'Ci,  which  were  liri)U)!ht 
from  ilie  Greek  islands  by  llie  liile  Professor  Carlyle.  (See  a  nnliee  of 
them  in  our  first  voliune.)  Tho  infornialinn,  Ihal  the  disputed  d.-itixe  does 
not  exist  in  ttiese  M."*!?.  was  coniiiiunicated  to  llie  author,  with  equal 
proiiipliiude  :uid  kindness,  by  (lie  Ilev.  Dr.  D'Uyly,  ManuscriiU-Librarian 
to  tiis  Grace  the  Arililii^bop  of  <'anterl)ury. 

»  See  lliix  priivrd  in  Gricslmch's  Synibobi'  Crilicre,  pnrs  i.  p.  clxxxi.  and 
especially  in  Pappelliuum'st'udiccs  Afiinuscripli  llnviani  Exaiiien,  8vo.  Ber- 
lin, 17%.  Uishop  Mnr.sh  has  Riven  a  very  valuable  cxtrnci  from  Puppel. 
baniM's  treatise,  will)  remarks.  In  tho  Appendix  to  his  Letters  to  Mr. 
Archdeacon  Tiavis,  jip.  241—25'" 


Sect.  V  ] 


ON  THE  FIRST  GENERAL  EPISTLE  OF  JOHN. 

pouM'  tv  T^  ovuuto,  nvipj  AoJos-j  \\cu,tiv<^  ajcov* 
\<<L  o^roc  Jim,  e^  ^ozl  Vcd  ^^.S  ^<nlov/^apTV 


367 


The. passage,  divested  of  its  contractions,  runs  thus  : — 

OTI    TpSiJ   £iCiV    3i  /i«pTU 

p-'-'iTSi*  ff  Tu)  oupiVgaj  ^xrjj;^  Xo^o;^  K«i  ?ri'£u,«:i  reytoi', 
K^l    O'JrOl    01   Tfil,-,    £11  SlTl'    Kjsl    Tp-i;    SIO-IV  01    .WXpTJ 

jUADTUpt^V   %vip'Ji7T(av    >wX^o:6V0.U£l'j    t]    jKxpTUpiX    T30 

jiCV  ^i*(^-A>V  Err*!,  or*   scutjj  eoTiv  >]  ^wprupt^  TOU  ^-OU,  OTI 

fi:,U»prV^-'^Xi     TT-pt     TOO    OiSU    K-JTCL', 

The  Codex  Britannicus  is  described  by  Erasmus  a^  a  latinizing 
manuscript :  and  that  this  charge  is  well  founded  we  have  shown 
in  the  first'  volume  of  this  work.'  If  any  additional  evidence 
were  wanting,  it  is  furnished  in  the  passage  just  given  ;  which 
is  written  in  such  Greek  as  manifestly  betrays  a  translation  from 
the  Latin.  It  will  be  observed,  that  "  the  article  is  omitted  be- 
fore the  words  expressive  of  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost,  be- 
cause there  is  no  article  in  jhe  Latin,  and  it  occurred  not  to  the 
translator  that  the  usual  Greek  was  o  ttultx^,  o  xcyo;,  ti  irviufA^. 
He  has  also  sv  n  y:i,  for  i-ri  t«c  yx;,  because  he  found  in  ten-a. 
He  has  likewise  omitted  ku  ci  r^n;  iktoiv  ftiiv,  which  is  wanting 
in  many  Latin  manuscripts ;  because  the  Lateran  council,  held 
in  121.5,  had  rejected  it  through  polemical  motives.  The  omis- 
sion of  this  clause  at  the  end  of  the  eighth  verse  is  a  proof,  not 
only  that  the  writer  of  the  Codex  Montfortianus  copied  from  the 
Vulgate,  because  no  ancient  Greek  manuscript  omits  the  clause 
in  that  place;  but  also  that  he  copied  even  from  modern  tran- 
scripts of  the  Vulgate,  because  this  final  clause  is  found  in  all 


the  manuscripts  of  the  Vulgate  written  before  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury."^ Such  are  the  internal  evidences  against  the  authority  of 
the  Codex  Montfortianus ;  nor  are  the  external  evidences,  found- 
ed on  its  date,  more  weighty.  Dr.  Adam  Clarke  indeed  assigns 
it  to  the  fourteenth,  or  even  to  the  thirteenth  century  (which  lat- 
ter date  is  adopted  by  Bishop  Burgess)  ;  but  as  there  is  reason 
to  believe,  that  in  the  thirteenth  century  the  seventh  verse  was 
extant  in  a  great  majority  of  the  copies  of  the  Latin  Vulgate,  a 
Greek  manuscript  of  that  age  may  easily  have  been  interpolated 
from  those  copies.  Michaelis  refers  the  Codex  Montfortianus  to 
the  sixteenth  century  ;  and  Bishop  Marsh,  after  Griesbach,  to  the 
fifteenth  or  sixteenth  century  ;  that  i*,  subsequently  to  the  inven- 
tion of  the  art  of  printing.  Other  learned  men  have  observed, 
that  the  form  of  the  letters  is  the  same  with  that  of  our  printed 
Greek  Testaments,  with  accents  and  spirits :  so  that  it  may  pos- 
sibly have  been  written  subsequently  to  the  invention  of  print- 
ing.^ The  close  of  the  fifteenth  century,  therefore,  is  the  most 
probable  date.  Conceding,  however,  every  advantage  that  can 
be  claimed  for  this  manuscript  by  its  most  strenuous  advocates, 
it  is  still  rnodern :  and  the  testimony  of  a  witness,  of  so  except 
tionable  an  internal  character,  can  be  of  no  value  in  opposition 
to  all  other  evidence. 

4.  The  Codex  Ottobonianus,  298.  in  the  Vatican  Library,  is 
the  only'  other  manuscript,  in  which  the  disputed  clause  is  to  be 
found,  as  appears  in  the  following  fac-simile  : — 


a. 


which,  divested  of  its  contractions,  runs  thus  : — 


Quia  tres  sunt 
qui  testimonium  dant  in 
celo,  pater,  verbum,  et  spiritus  sanctus, 
et  hi  tres  unum  sunt.    Et 
tres  sunt  qui  testimonium 
dant  in  terra,  sjiiritus,  aqua  et 
sanguis :  si  testimonium 


OTI  Tp;i;  uTiv 
a  jUapTypowTfif  arro  TOy 
ovpAvzv'  srxTs^p  T^oyog  y.xt  TTvsvf^tx  xyi^v 

XKi   Oi  Tpei?   6*5  TO    £V   £10"*'  XXI 

rpsig  SiCtV  o«  /<xpTupcuvT£; 

'u:ro  Ty,g  ^"ti?  to  TTvev/ix  to  uS'ojp  xxt 

TO    XlfiX'  £1   Tt\V  fiXpTVfiXV 


It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  this  manuscript  has  et-ro  tcv  cup-J.vcu 
Fiioi  heaven,  instead  of  »  tu  cv;txvai  in  heaven,  and  ctTra  twc  y>K 
FROT^  earth,  instead  of  iv  th  y:i  om  earth,  which  words  occur  in 

I  See  Vol.  1.  P.irt  I.  Ct  ap.  III.  Sect.  II.  §  4.  ii.  No.  Gl. 

»  Michaelis,  vol.  ii.  part  i.  p.  235.  part  ii.  p.  702.  The  late  learned  Pro- 
fessor Person  objected  to  the  Codc.x  Montfortianus  the  badness  of  its 
Greeic,  particularly  the  omission  of  the  articles.  In  reply  to  his  conclusions. 
Bishop  Buraess  adduced  several  passages  from  the  New  Testament,  and 
from  some  Greek  fathers,  in  which  the  article  is  similarly  omitted  ;  whence 
he  deduces  an  arjtumenl  for  the  genuineness  of  the  reading  of  the  Codex 
Montfortianus.  His  examples  are  given  at  length  in  his  own  words,  and 
his  reasonings  arc  examined  in  detail,  and  (it  must  candiilly  be  admitted) 
refuted  by  a  learned  member  of  the  University  of  Cambridge,  under  the 
signature  of  "Crito  Cantabrigiensis,"  in  his  vindication  of  the  Literary 
Character  of  the  late  Professor  Porson,  pp.  12—29.  (Cambridge,  1827.) 
•   5  Benson  on  the  Epistles,  vol.  ii.  p.  GIO. 

'  At  least,  we  may  presume,  that  it  is  the  onhj  other  manuscript  which 
contains  the  disputed  clause :  since  Prof.  Scholz  states,  tliat  he  has  ex- 
amined the  MSS.  in  the  Royal  Library  at  Paris,  and  the  Libraries  at  Flo- 
rence, Milan,  and  Rome,  also  in  Greece  and  Palestine.  If  he  had  discovered 
any  other  manuscript  in  which  the  disputed  clause  appears,  he  would  most 
a.'isuredly  have  communicated  some  notice  of  it  to  the  public. 


the  Codex  Montfortianus ;  and  the  absence  of  the  article  (as  in 
that  manuscript)  before  the  words  expressive  of  Father,  Son, 
and  Holy  Ghost,  manifestly  indicates  the  Latin  origin  of  the 
Codex  Ottobonianus ;  which  has  further  been  altered  in  many 
places  to  make  it  agree  with  the  Latin  Vulgate.  And  as  this 
manuscript  is  stated  to  have  been  written  in  the  fifteenth  century, 
this  late  date,  in  addition  to  the  very  doubtful  internal  evidence 
which  it  affords,  renders  its  testimony  of  no  force  whatever.* 

It  is  a  remarkable  circumstance,  which  confirms  the  argu- 
ment against  the  genuineness  of  the  clause  in  question,  that 
in  those  manuscripts  which  have  it  not,  there  is  no  erasure 
in  this  part,  or  the  slightest  indication  of  any  kind  of  de- 
ficienc)\ 

^  2.  This  clause  is  tvantiuff  in  the  earliest  and  best  critical 
editions  of  the  Greek  Testament, 

6  Scholz,  BiblischeKritische  Reise,  p.  105.  See  a  further  account  of  the 
Codex  Ottobonianus  in  Vol.  I.  Part  I.  Chap.  III.  Sect.  II.  §  5.  I 


368 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  VI.  Chap.  IV 


It  is  not  printcil  in  Eias'nus's  fiist  edition,  published  in  1516, 
nor  in  his  second  edition,  in  1.519  ;  nor  in  the  editions  of  .Mdus, 
1518;  Gcrbclius,  1521;  Ccjihalacus,  1524  ;  and  of  Cohnxiis,  1534. 
Era-smus,  it  is  true,  inserted  it  in  his  third  edition  pul.lished  in 
1522,  on  the  faith  of  the  Codex  Britannicus  or  Montfortianus 
above  mentioned, — not  from  any  conviction  of  its  genuineness. 


but  (as  he  says)  "  to  avoid  caUininy."'  It  is  fonnd  indeed  in  the 
Greek  text,  and  in  the  Vulgate  Latin  version  of  th»>  Cimpluten- 
sian  Polyglott,  of  which  a  fac-similc  is  given  m  the  annexed 
engraving,  which  is  accurately  copied  from  the  cxen!j)lar  pre 
served  in  the  hbrary  of  Sion  College,  London. 


(Jip/0)^juapTupovpTe^^c^''Tw*ovpq(;w,/o*' «ja: 


-e 

t 


.^CA)p  ^  Kai/'To^a{jLia'^tt/TH|/'^JuiapTvpCoty /Tcop^'ap 
^pcoojco  |J'' AajuLfia^oii£^,'H''jaapr  vp{oc^'7ou^^£0\> 

ll£iJaDp*'£(5'TlV-''*6TroCVTH'e(^TlV'H"^C(pTVpic(-Tov 

=*m5'-vnum?  funt.^/ftnre^'^'foit^cTtti  coco 
''tertteonuQ''{)iint%^(erxa:^llpu3;  (^ii(|tm 


On  this  fac-si.Tiilc  it  is  to  be  observed,  1.  That  the  first  five 
Imes,  both  of  the  Greek  and  Latin,  are  at  the  top  of  the  opposite 
page  to  that  on  whicli  the  other  four  Hncs  are  found;  and  2.  That 
tlie  alphabetical  letters,  intermingled  with  the  Greek  text,  refer 
to  the  corresponding  words  in  the  Latin  text,  which  is  printed 
in  3  parallel  column  in  the  Complutcnsian  edition,  and  marked 
with  the  same  letters,  in  order  to  ascertain  more  easily  the  corres- 
ponding Greek  and  Latin  words.  As  the  size  of  our  page  does 
not  admit  of  the  Greek  and  T^atin  texts  being  disposed  in  parallel 
columns,  they  arc  necessarily  placed  one  below  the  other. 

But  the  Com{)lutcnsian  Polyglott,  however  rare  and  valuable 
in  other  respects,  is  in  this  ca.se  of  no  authority  beyond  that  of 
any  common  Greek  Testament,  any  further  than  it  is  supported 
by  ancient  M^S.  The  editors  of  the  Complutcnsian  Greek 
Testament,  indeed,  proftss  to  have  followed  the  best  and  most 
ancient  manuscripts  of  the  Vatican  :  but  in  that  age  copies,  two 
or  three  hundred  years  old,  were  considered  as  ancient.  It  is, 
however,  most  certain  that  they  did  not  consult  the  celei)ratcd 
Codex  Vaticanus,  which  is  reputed  to  be  one  of  the  most  ancient 
MSS.  if  it  be  not  the  most  ancient  manuscript  extant  (for  that 
manuscript  has  not  the  disputed  clause)  ;  and  that  they  have  not 
only  departed  from  its  readings  in  many  places,  but  have  also 
varied  from  the  order  of  things  in  point  of  time  and  place.  Wet- 
stein,  Semler,  and  Griesbach  are  unanimously  of  opinion  that 
the  M8S.  used  by  the  Complutcnsian  ciiitors  were  neither  ancient 
nor  valuable:  for  they  scarcely  ever  consent  with  the  most  an- 
cient copies  or  fathers,  cxcejit  in  conjunction  with  modern  copies, 
and  they  almost  alwayi  agree  with  the  modem  copies  where 
these  differ  from  the  more  ancient.  Because  the  Complulensinn 
editors  admitted  the  disputed  passage  into  their  text  of  the  New 
Testament,  it  has  been  supposed  that  they  found  it  in  thiir  M«S. ; 
but  it  is  more  probable,  that  they  inserted  it  upon  the  authority 
of  the  Latin  Vulgate  Version.     For, 

(1.)  In  the  first  place,  It  is  not  usual — indeed  it  forms  no 
part  of  the  plan  of  the  Comjjlutcnsian  edition — to  insert  noto« 
in  the  margin  of  the  Greek  text  Not  more  than  three  instances 
of  such  notes  occur  throughout  this  edition  :  "  and  therefore," 
as  Sir  Isaac  Newton  has  forcibly  argued,  "  there  must  1)C  t<om(v- 
thing  extraordinary,  and  that  in  respect  of  the  Greek,  because 


it  is  in  tnc  margin  of  this  text.  Tn  1  Cor.  xv.  there  is  noticed  in 
this  margin  a  notable  variation  in  the  Greek  reading.  In  Matt, 
vi.  13.,  where  they,  in  their  edition,  recede  from  the  Greek  copies 
and  correct  it  by  the  Latin,  they  make  a  marginal  note  to  jus- 
tify their  doing  so.  And  so  here,  where  the  testimony  of  '  the 
Three  in  heaven'  is  generally  wanting  in  the  Greek  copies,  they 
make  a  third  marginal  note,  to  secure  themselves  from  being 
blamed  for  printing  it.  Now,  in  such  a  case  as  this,  there  is  no 
question  but  they  would  make  the  best  defence  they  could  ;  and 
yet  they  do  not  tell  of  any  various  lections  in  the  Greek  manu- 
scripts, nor  produce  any  one  Greek  manuscript  on  their  side,  but 
have  recourse  to  the  authority  of  Thomas  .\quinas."'' — "  Thomas, 
say  they,  in  treating  of  the  three  which  bear  witness  in  heaven, 
teaches,  that  the  words  '  these  'i'hree  are  ^nc,'  arc  subjoined  for 
insinuating  the  unity  of  the  Essence  of  the  Three  Persons. 
And  whereas  one  Joachim  interpreted  this  unity  to  be  only  'are 
and  consent,  it  being  thus  said  of  the  Spirit,  Water,  and  Blood, 
in  some  co[)ies,  that  '  these  Three  are  one  :'  Thomas  r<]>lied,  that 
this  clause  is  not  extant  in  the  true  copies,  but  was  added  by  '.he 
Arians  for  perverting  the  sense."  'i'hus  far,  this  annotation. 
"  Now  this  plainly  respects  the  Latin  copies  {for  ^flquinas  wx- 
derstood  not  Greek),  and  therefore  part  of  the  design  of  this 

annotation  is  to  set  right  the  Latin  reading.     But  this  is  not  the 

• 

'  Amonff  iiKMlrrn  edilions  of  nolo,  tlic  disputed  clause  is  omitted  ir> 
M:irc'H  Grooli  .iiid  Eiiclisli  cdilion,  \7'X>,  in  iliRt  i>f  Ilarwood,  177t>,  in  wIioro 
oiliii'in  llic  text  of  llu-  ciiislles  rrpiosctits  llic  C'leruiDnt  inanuiscrlpt ;  Mat- 
tli.TJ,  17fy-83;  and  (Jrii-slpncli,  1774-">,  nnd  ifir  various  sulisrfnirni  oditiniis 
(if  liis  text.  In  the  editions  of  Howjor,  in  I"»J3,  177!i,  and  \7PU\  of  Knnppo. 
In  1797;  ofTittniaii,  In  I'W;  ofVnicr,  in  InV-M  ;  ofOooschon,  1832;  and  of 
liloonifii;ld,  IfCW;  tills  clniuc  18  inclndecl  between  hrnckels. 

t  Tlic  followini!  is  n  literal  tnniscripl  (from  the  copy  in  >'ion  CoUecc  Li- 
brary) of  the  original  of  tlip  iimrciiiBl  note  nlu'Vo  nlltidr-dlo: — "Snnrtiis 
Thomas, In  cxpositionc  sccnndcdprrrlaiisde  Kumntrinilute  ct  fidcralbolica, 
Iracliina  Isliini  passuin  contra  nhliatcni  Joachim,  nt  tros  sunt  qui  loslimo- 
iiiiirn  dant  In  ca'In,  patrr,  verbvim,  ct  pplriuiH  Banclnii :  (licit  ad  literain, 
verba  3fi(|iicntla.  Kt  ad  infinnandam  tiniialoni  trium  por-sonarmn  snhditur, 
pt  liii  trcs  nnum  sunt.  Uuod  qnidcni  <licltur  propter  pssri'iiic  iinitatcuti 
Spd  hoc  Joacliim  porverHc  trahere  volcns,  ad  miitatcm  rlmrilatin  ct  con- 
acn?na  indncel.at  ronsequentem  aiirlorltilem :  Nam  sulxliinr  ibidem,  ct 
trc9  flint  qui  le.slinioninm  dant  in  trrra  s.  (i.  o.  scilicet]  spiiiliis:  aqua:  ct 
san;;iiis.  El  in  q;iit>iis<Iam  libriH  additiir ;  ct  liii  trc.i  nnum  sunt.  8erl  hoc 
In  vnris  exi-mpl.iribus  non  habrtur  :  sed  dicitiir  ckho  appo.^itnm  ab  hern- 
tici^  arrianis  ad  ppr\'orlcndiim  intellrrtum  Kannin  anclorilatis  premisic  dl) 
unilolo  csauntitf  trium  pcrsonarum.    Hoc  bcatus  Thomas  ubi  supra." 


Sbct.  v.] 


ON  THE  FIRST  GENERAL  EPISTLE  OF  JOHN. 


369 


main  design.  For  so  the  annotation  should  have  been  set  in  the 
margin  of  the  Latin  version.  Its  being  set  in  the  margin  of  the 
Greek"  text  shows,  that  its  main  design  is  to  justify  the  Greek  by 
the  Latin  thus  rectified  and  confirmed.  Now  to  make  Thomas 
thus,  in  a  few  words,  do  all  the  work,  was  very  artificial :  and  in 
Spain,  where  Thomas  is  of  apostolical  authority,  it  might  pass  for 
a  very  judicious  and  substantial  defence  of  the  printed  Greek. 
But  to  us,  Thomas  Aquinas  is  no  apostle.  We  are  seeking  for 
the  authority  of  Greek  manuscripts." 

(2.)  Secondly,  We  have  a  further  proof  that  this  text  was  not 
extant  in  Greek,  but  was  inserted  from  the  Latin  Vulgate  (and 
consequently  translated  into  Greek),  in  the  fact  that  when  Stu- 
nica,  one  of  the  four  editors  of  the  Complutensian  Polyglott,  on 
censuring  Erasmus  for  omitting  it,  was  challenged  by  him  to 
produce  his  authority  for  inserting  it,  he  never  appealed  to 
Greek  manuscripts.  On  the  contrary,  he  affirmed  that  the  Greek 
copies  were  corrupt,  but  that  the  Latin  contained  the  very  truth.2 
Now  this  declaration  is  of  great  importance ;  as  it  amounts  to  a 
confession  that  none  of  the  manuscripts  procured  for  theit  edition 
by  the  great  influence  of  Cardinal  Ximenes  contained  the  dis- 
puted passage.       • 

3.  It  is  contained  in  the  manuscripts  of  no  other  ancient  ver- 
sion besides  the  Latin  J 

It  is  wanting  in  the  manuscripts  of  the  Old  Syriac  version, 
executed  at  the  beginning  of  the  second,  if  not  in  the  first  cen- 
tury ;<  and  also  in  those  of  the  Philoxenian  Syriac,  a  version 
made  in  the  fifth  century.  It  is  wanting  in  the  manuscripts  of 
the  Coptic,  a  version  in  the  dialect  anciently  spoken  in  Lower 
Egj'pt,  which  is  referred  to  the  fifth  century ;  and  in  those  of  the 
Sahidic,  a  version  in  the  dialect  anciently  spoken  in  Upper 
Egypt,  which  is  considered  as  having  been  made  in  the  second 
century.  It  is  wanting  in  the  manuscripts  of  the  Ethiopic  ver- 
sion, executed  in  the  fourth  century  ;  and  in  those  of  the  Arme- 
nian version,  which  is  referred  to  the  end  of  the  fourth  or  the 
beginning  of  the  fifth  century.  It  is  wanting  in  all  the  manu- 
scripts of  all  the  known  Arabic  versions ;  and  it  is  absent  from 
all  the  manuscripts  of  the  Sclavotiic  or  old  Russian  version, 
executed  in  the  ninth  century. 

4.  JVot  all  the  manuscripts,  even  of  the  Latin  version,  contain 
this  clause,  which  is  wanting  in  the  most  ancient  manuscripts 
of  that  version. 

The  Vulgate  Latin  version  is  justly  valued  as  an  important  relic 
of  Christian  antiquity,  and,  generally  speaking,  as  a  good  and  faith- 
ful translation  :  but,  in  its  passage  from  the  fifth  to  the  fifteenth 
century,  it  has  undergone  many  corruptions  and  interpolations. 
The  disputed  clause  does  not  appear  in  any  manuscripts  written 
before  the  tenth  century.  It  is  -wanting  in  considerably  more 
than  forty  of  the  oldf.st  Latin  manuscripts  ;*  in  others  it  occurs 
only  in  the  margin ;  and  in  others  it  is  interlined  by  a  later  hand. 
*'  At  the  eiid  of  the  fourth  century,  the  celebrated  Latin  Father 
Augustine,  who  wrote  ten  treatises  on  the  first  Epistle  of  Saint 
John,  in  all  of  which  we  seek  in  vain  for  the  seventh  verse  of  the 
fifth  chapter,  was  induced  in  his  controversy  with  Maximin  to 
compose  a  gloss  upon  the  eighth  verse.  Augustine  gives  it  pro- 
fessedly as  a  gloss  upon  the  words  of  the  eighth  verse,  and  shows 
by  his  own  reasoning  that  the  seventh  verse  did  not  then  exist.'' 
The  high  character  of  Augustine  in  the  Latin  church  soon  gave 

t  Sir  Isaac  Newton's  History  of  Two  Texts.  (1  John  v.  7,  8.  and  1  Tim. 
ill.  16.)    Works,  vol.  v.  pp.  520—522. 

«  Sir  Isaac  Newton's  Works,  vol.  v.  pp.  522,  523. 

»  The  expression,  "manuscripts  of  all  other  versions,"  Is  here  design- 
edly used :  for  the  disputed  clause  has  been  inserted  in  some  printed 
editions  of  the  Syriac  and  Armenian  versions,  in  opposition  to  the  Syriac 
and  Armenian  manuscripts.  See  Bp.  Marsh's  Letters  to  Archdeacon  Tra- 
vis. Preface,  notes  S,  9.  10,  U. ;  and  also  Mr.  Oxlee's  Three  Letters  to  the 
Rev.  F.  Nolan,  pp.  130,  131. 

*  We  are  informed  by  Dr.  Buchanan,  that  it  Is  not  to  be  found  in  a 
Peschito  or  Syriac  manuscript  which  belonged  to  the  Syrian  church  in 
India  above  a  thousand  years,  nor  in  any  copy  of  the  Syriac  Scriptures 
which  he  had  seen.  (Christ.  Researches  in  Asia,  p.  118.)  This  manuscript 
is  now  in  the  Public  Library  at  Cambridge.  Nor  is  it  in  any  of  the  ancient 
Syriac  MSS.  brought  from  the  East  by  the  late  Mr.  Rich,  which  are  pre- 
eer\'ed  in  the  British  Museum. 

»  Marsh's  Letters  to  Travis,  Preface,  p.  xi.  note. 

8  Augustine,  in  his  Treatise  contra  Maxirainum  Arianum,  lib.  ii.  cap.  22. 
(torn.  viii.  col.  725.  ed.  Benedict),  thus  quotes  the  words  of  the  eighth 
verse :  "  Tres  sunt  testes,  spiritus,  et  aqua,  et  sanguis  ;  et  tres  unum 
Bunt."  He  then  makes  various  remarks  on  the  words,  spiritus,  aqua,  san- 
guis, and  proceeds  thus  :  "Si  vero  ea,  quae  his  st^n(^ea<a  sunt  velimus 
inquirere,  non  absurde  occurit  ipsa  Trinitas,  quae  unus,  solus,  verus, 
Bummes  est  Deus,  Pater  et  Filius,  et  Spiritus  Sanctus,  de  quibus  verissime 
did  potuit,  '  Tres  sunt  testes  et  tres  unum  sunt :'  ut  nomine  spiritus  sig- 
nificatum  accipiamus  Deum  Patrem— nomine  autem  sanguinis  Filium — et 
nomine  aquae  Spiritum  Sanctum."  The  gloss  which  Augustine  here  puts 
on  the  eighth  verse,  very  clearly  shows,  that  he  knew  nothing  of  the 
seventh  verse,  which  appears  also  from  the  fact  that  he  has  never  quoted 
tiia!  verse. 

Vol.  H.  3  A 


celebrity  to  his  gloss ;  and  in  a  short  time  it  was  generally 
adopted.  It  appeared,  indeed,  under  different  forms  ;  but  it  was 
still  the  gloss  of  Augustine,  though  variously  modified.  The 
gloss  having  once  obtained  credit  in  the  Latin  church,  the  pos- 
sessors of  Latin  manuscripts  began  to  note  it  in  the  margin,  by 
the  side  of  the  eighth  verse.  Hence  the  oldest  of  those  Latin 
manuscripts,  which  have  the  passage  in  the  margin,  have  it  in  a 
different  hand  from  that  of  the  text.  In  later  manuscripts  we 
find  margin  and  text  in  the  same  hand  ;  for  transcribers  did  not 
venture  immediately  to  move  it  into  the  bodij  of  the  text,  though 
in  some  manuscripts  it  is  interlined,  but  interlined  by  a  later 
hand.  After  the  eighth  century  the  insertion  became  general. 
For  Latin  manuscripts  writlen  after  that  period  have  generally, 
though  not  always,  the  passage  in  the  body  of  the  text.  Further, 
when  the  seventh  verse  made  its  first  appearance  in  the  Latin 
manuscripts,  it  appeared  in  as  many  different  forms,  as  there 
were  forms  to  the  gloss  upon  the  eighth  verse.'  And  though  it 
now  precedes  the  eighth  verse,  it  folio-wed  the  eighth  verse,  at 
its  first  insertion,  as  a  gloss  would  naturally  follow  the  text  upon 
which  it  was  made."^ 

Many  manuscripts  of  the  Vulgate  version,  and  also  the  printed 
text,  even  that  of  Pope  Clement  VIII.,  have  the  final  clause  of 
the  eighth  verse,  tres  mmin  sunt,  which  is  manifestly  a  corruption 
from  the  homoioteleuton,^  TPEI2EI2:  while  others  omit  that 
final  clause.  Some  add,  in  Christo  Jesu ;  some  read  Filius 
instead  of  Verbum ;  some  omit  Sanctus ;  others  transpose 
quoniain  and  et ;  and  the  more  ancient  of  those,  which  have  the 
passage,  put  the  eighth  verse  before  the  seventh.  This  un- 
certainty and  fluctuation  is,  itself,  a  most  suspicious  mark  of  in- 
terpolation. "  It  is  not,  therefore,  a  matter  of  mere  conjecture, 
that  the  seventh  verse  originated  in  a  Latin  gloss  upon  the  eighth 
verse  :  it  is  an  historical  fact,  supported  by  evidence  which  cannot 
be  resisted."'" 

5.  The  clause  in  question  is  not  once  quoted  in  the  genuine 
works  of  any  one  of  the  Greek  Fathers,  or  early  Ecclesiasti- 
cal Writers,  even  tn  those  places  where  we  should  most  ex- 
pect it. 

For  instance,  it  does  not  occur  in  the  Exposition  of  Faith 
printed  with  the  works  of  Justin  Martyr,  nor  in  the  works  of 
Irenaeus,  Clemens  Alexandrinus,  Hippolytus  against  Noctus, 
Dionysius  Alexandrinus  in  the  epistle  addressed  to  Paul  of 
Samosata,  Athanasius,  Didymus,  Basil,  Gregory  Nazianzen,  Gre- 
gory of  Nys.sa,  Epiphanius,  Csesarius,  Chrysostom,  Proclus,  Alex- 
ander or  Alexandria,  the  author  of  the  Synopsis  of  Scripture, 
Andreas  Ccesariensis,  Joannes  Damascenus,  Elias  Cretensis,  Ger- 
manus  of  Constantinople,  Oecumenius,  Theophylact,  Euthymius 
Zigabenus,  Nicetas,  in  six  ditferent  catenae  cited  by  Simon,  and 
one  cited  by  Matthsei,  nor  in  the  Greek  Scholia  of  various  manu- 
scripts." But  the  bare  silence  of  these  writers  is  not  all.  Many 
of  them  wrote  professedly  on  the  Trinity,  the  Deity  of  Christ, 
and  of  the  Holy  Spirit;  their  unity,  equality,  consubstantiality, 
(fee. :  and  in  order  to  prove  these  points,  they  diligently  examined 
the  entire  Bible;  and,  in  particular,  they  have  frequently  cited 
the  preceding  verse,  as  well  as  that  which  immediately  follows. 
"  The  manuscripts  which  were  used  by  Irenseus  and  Clement, 
of  Alexandria  could  not  have  been  written  later  than  the  second 
century.  The  manuscripts  used  by  Origen  could  not  have  been, 
written  later  than  the  third  century.  The  manuscripts  used  by 
the  Greek  fathers,  who  attended  the  Nicene  council,  could  not 
have  been  written  later  than  the  fourth  century.  In  this  manner 
we  may  prove  that  the  Greek  manuscripts,  in  every  century, 
were  destitute   of  the  passage,   until  we   come   to  the  period 

'  The  various  forms,  in  which  the  seventh  verse  made  its  first  appear- 
ance in  the  Latin  MSS.  may  be  seen  on  consulting  the  notes  of  Erasmus, 
Mill,  and  Sabatier,  to  1  John  v.  7.  Simon,  Hist,  des  Versions,  chap.  ix.  and 
Person's  6th  Letter. 

8  Bengelii  Appar.  Crit.  pp.  467.  ed.  2da.  It  is  so  placed  also  by  Vigilius 
Tapsensis,  who  quotes  thus  :  Tres  sunt  qui  testimonium  perhibent  in  terra, 
aqua,  sanguis,  et  caro  ;  et  tres  in  nobis  sunt :  ettres  sunt  qui  testimonium 
perhibent  in  coelo.  Pater,  Verbum,  et  Spiritus  sanctus,  et  hi  tres  unum 
sunt.     Bishop  Marsh's  Lectures,  part  vi.  pp.  19—22. 

»  That  is,  the  recurrence  of  the  same  word  at  the  end  of  two  contiguous 
clauses. 

10  Bishop  Marsh's  Lectures,  part  vi.  p.  22.  Bishop  Burgess  has  endea- 
voured to  obviate  the  above  very  forcible'^rguments  by  stating  that, 
although  the  seventh  verse  is  wanting  in  some  of  the  "more  ancient"  manu- 
scripts, yet  it  is  found  in  some  of  the  "most  ancient,"  for  instance,  in  the 
Vauxcelles  Bible  of  the  eighth  century,  and  in  three  MSS.  containing  the 
Catholic  Epistles,  which  are  in  the  library  at  Verona,  of  the  same  century, 
in  one  of  which  the  eighth  verse  is  wanting.  (Vindication  of  1  John  v.  7. 
p.  5i.)  But  his  observations  are  shown  to  be  inapplicable  by  "Crito  Can. 
tabrigiensis."    Vindication  of  Porsoji's  Literary  Character,  pp.  138.  et  sen, 

"  In  the  sixth  volume  of  the  Christian  Observer,  for  1807,  pp.  285—289. 
there  is  a  neat  abstract,  with  English  translations,  of  the  principal  passages 
of  the  most  eminent  Greek  fathers,  who  must  have  quoted  the  disputed 
clause,  had  it  been  extant  in  their  copies  of  the  New  Testament. 


370 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  VI.  CuAP.  IV. 


wlicn  the  oklest  of  our  existing'  manuscripts  were  written.'  Now, 
that  the  Greek  fathers  should  not  avail  themselves  of  so  strong 
and  apposite  a  text  in  their  controversies  with  the  Arians  and 
other  sectaries,  as  an  additional  confirmation  of  the  doctrine 
of  the  Holy  Trinity,  is  utterly  inexplicable,  on  any  other  sui>- 
position  than  that  of  its  not  being  in  existence.  Bishop  Bur- 
gess, indeed,  contends  that  it  is  quoted  in  the  second  Symbolum 
Antioohenum,  or  creed  drawn  up  at  the  council  which  was  con- 
vened at  Antioch  a.  d.  341,  and  which  consisted  of  ninety-seven 
bishops,  of  whom  nearly  one  half  were  Arians,  and  who  pro- 
fessed in  that  creed  to  follow  "  the  evangelical  and  apostolical 
tradition."  After  declaring  their  belief  in  one  God  the  P'atlicr, 
in  one  Lord  Jesus  Christ  and  in  the  Holy  Ghost,  they  add  the 
following  sentences: — "The  F:ilher  being  truly  a  Father,  and 
the  Son  truly  a  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost  truly  a  Holy  Ghost, — 
the  names  being  given  not  vainly  and  unmeaningly,  but  accu- 
rately expressing  the  subsistence,  order,  and  glory  of  each  of  the 
peraons  named;  so  that  theu  are  tiiuee  in  substance,  and  osy. 
in  content,  u;  wp  r.t  fjt&  uT.vrxcru  I'PIA,  rmii  av/x^tin-J.  EN  :  or, 
without  the  explanatory  terms,  a;  u/xi,-x^ittv,  so  that  the  three 
tire  one."  These  expressions  the  learned  prelate  considers  as  a 
quotation  from  St.  John  :  they  are  not,  he  admits,  precisely  the 
Fame  as  the  words  of  1  John  v.  7.,  but  he  is  of  opinion  that 
they  may  nevertheless  be  a  quotation  from  it.- 

There  is,  doubtless,  some  similarity  between  this  passage  and 
1  John  V,  7. :  but  similarity  and  identity  are  very  dilllrcnt  things.^ 
And  it  is  (we  apprehend)  as  plain  as  possible  that  the  words  in 
the  Anlii>cheian  Creed  are  not  a  quotation  from  the  disputed 
text, — not  only  from  the  total  silence  of  the  Greek  fathers  of  that 
particular  period  concerning  the  disputed  text,  which  they  must 
have  cited  during  their  keen  controversies  with  the  Arians,  if  it 
had  really  been  in  their  copies ;  but  also  from  the  fact,  that  the 
aentinisnt  of  the  passage  above  given  from  the  Actiocheian  Creed 
is  in  unison  with  the  last  clause  of  1  John  v.  8.  a  TftK  uc  to  Iv 
ta-n,  and  these  three  akrek  in  one  and  the  same  thin^;  viz.  that 
the  Son  of  God  is  come.  (See  Sir  Isaac  Newton's  Paraphrastic 
Exposition,  in  p.  373.  infra.)  Further,  it  will  be  observed,  that  the 
Antiocheian  Creed  varies  from  the  commonly  received  text,  the 
masculine  r^iti  being  turned  into  the  neuter  r^ix :  if  a  quotation 
had  been  intended,  the  framer  of  that  confession  of  faith  would 
have  used  the  words  c«  Tguc  \v  vti — these  three  are  one.  But  what 
most  materially  neutralizes  the  pxssagc  adduced  by  Bis-hop  Bur- 
pess  from  this  creed,  is  the  fact,  that  the  clause  was  not  cited  by 
any  Greek  writer'  earlier  than  Manuel  Calecas,  who  lived  in  the 
fourteenth  century,  and  whose  attachment  to  the  Romish  church 
was  so  great  that  he  became  a  Dominican  monk,  and  adopted 
the  tenets  of  that  church  concerning  the  procession  of  the  Holy 
JSpirit,  in  opposition  to  those  maintained  by  the  Greek  church. 
Calecas  is  succeeded  by  Bryennius,'  a  writer  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  who  also  was  so  attached  to  the  Romish  church,  that  he 
quotes  1  John  v.  6.  not  v/ith  to  lytu/ui.  errn  »  ttxuSux  {the  Spirit 
is  truth),  but  with  I  XpifT-.c  trriv  ;i  cixn'jux  (Chiiist  is  truth), 
which  i-!  the  reading  of  the  Latin,  and  omits  the  final  clause  of 
the  eighth  verse,  in  opposition  likewise  to  the  Greek  manuscripts, 
and  in  conformity  with  only  modem  transcripts  of  the  Vulgate. 
The  next  Greek  writer  who  has  cited  this  clause  is  Peter  Mongi- 
las,  who  livetl  in  the  seventeenth  century,  and  who  is  followed 
J'y  the  Greeks  in  general  of  the  present  age.  Nor  should  it  be 
forgotten,  that,  when  the  passage  first  appeared  in  Greek,  it  pre- 
sented itself  under  a»  many  dilVerent  shapes  as  when  it  first  made 

«  Bishop  Marsti's  Lccturci*,  part  vi.  p.  17. 
■    «  Letter  to  the  Clcruy  of  ihe  Dioccao  of  fit.  David'.^.  pp.  37.  lOJ.  10,  11. 

»  Memoir  of  llie  Controversy  respecting  llie  llirec  Heavenly  Witnesses. 
p.  214. 

«  The  only  cxpreision  wtiich  approximates  very  nearly  to  tlint  in  llie 
Antiocheian  Creed  is  tlie  following,  which  occurs  in  llic  worlts  of  Greeory 
Nazianzon,  who  hvfil  .nnd  wruii-  during  the  middle  and  latter  part  of  Ihe 
fourth  century  :— "  For  llie  GoUhcad  is  one  in  three,  nnd  iht  three  are  one." 
'£>'  yxp  i»  Tpirir  ii  >>otii(,  mi  tk  rp>s  ■>.  (Opp.  p.  6J0.  Colonia,  lli90.)  Ulit 
it  has  been  shown  by  Crito  Cantabrigien-iii".  that  th'-re  1«  nothing  in  Gro- 
Kory's  manner  of  intn)diirin;;  this  expression  which  indicates  an  intention 
of  quotinK  the  sacred  writers.  (VindiiMtion  of  Prof  Porwiii,  tip.  M.  &1.)  It 
is  proper  to  remark,  that  Crito  addii':ea  another  nanHiiao  irotii  Gregory, 
whii-li,  tot,'rther  with  that  jiisl  prodiiri-d,  wn.-i  trni-ed  hy  Mr.  I'nr.ion  anheiiig 
cilcd  from  liUn  by  Eiithymius  Zmahenus:  this  we  have  omitted,  hecnii.se 
it  has  no  immediate  reference  to  our  presonfaniuinent.  As  it  Is  impossi- 
ble to  conilense  within  the  limits  of  a  note  the  facts  and  argiimenls  of 
"Crito,"  to  show  that  the  Greek  fathers,  cited  hy  Porson,  did  not  cite  the 
rlispiited  clause,  the  reader  Is  necessarily  referred  to  his  "Vindication," 
pp.  :J7— ".">. 

•  "  In  the  Greeic  Ads  of  the  Latcran  Council,  rerlium  et  tpiritiu  sane- 
tus  (the  Woril  anri  the  llrdy  Spirit)  lia>l  hf:en  badly  traiulalrd  hy  >.:>  o{  »«• 
viriv^a  myiit,  without  an  arUcIc,  because  there  Is  none  In  the  Ijitln  ;  but 
Calecas  and  Bryennius,  who  were  rfatlvo  Greeks,  and  therefore  fell  this 
•Icficiency,  wrote  o  Kr,yi(  %»i  to  rrnu^a  TO  ij-i-.»  with  an  arlich'  more  than 
Ihe  Coiiijdutcndian  editors  nnd  Erasinui  inserted"  Bishop  Mardh'tt  Let- 
ters -.u  Travis,  p.  xvii.  note  21. 


its  appearance  in  the  Latin,  which  would  scarcely  have  happened, 
if  it  had  been  derived  from  the  autograph  of  St.  John.* 

G.  The  dit'putcd  clause  is  not  once  quoted  by  any  of  the 
Laliii  FaJhcrs,  even  where  the  subject  (f  which  they  were  treat' 
ing  rt'/uired  it,  and  where  we  slumld  expect  to  see  it  cited. 

For  instance,  it  is  not  cited  by  the  author  of  the  treati.se  on  the 
hajitism  of  heretics  among  Cyprian's  works,  nor  by  Novatian, 
Hilary  bishoj)  of  Poictou,  Lucifer  bishop  of  Cagliari,  Ambrose, 
Faustinus  the  Presbyter,  Leo  the  Great  (who  transcribes  ihp 
whole  context,  but  passes  over  this  verse  in  his  celebrated  epistle 
to  Flavianus,  which  was  translated  into  Greek,  and  read  in  the 
council  of  Chalcedon),  the  author  of  the  treati.se  De  Promissis, 
Jerome,  Augustine,  Eiicherius,  the  pscudo-Athanasius,  the  author 
of  the  Disputation  against  Arius,  Facundus,  Junilius,  Cerealis, 
Rusticus,  I3ede,  Gregory,  Boethius,  Philastrius  bi.shop  of  Brescia, 
Paschasius,  Arnobius  junior,  and  Pope  Eusebius  I.  The  advo- 
cates for  the  genuineness  of  the  disputed  clause,  indeed,  affirm 
that  it  is  quoted  by  Tertullian,  Cyprian,  and  other  ancient  fathers 
of  the  Latin  church  ;  but  this  again  has  been  denied  by  those  who 
maintain  that  the  clause  in  question  is  spurious.  The  supposeil 
testimonies  of  these  fathers  are  considered  in  pp.  371 — 373.  infra. 

7.  The  rrntestuut  Ri farmers  either  rejected  1  John  v.  7.  or  at 
least  marhd  it  as  dmiblfil  .■  and  tho'igh  ihe  Editors  of  the  Eng- 
lish New  Testament,  during  the  reigns  (f  Henry  J'l/J.  and 
Edwtrd  VJ.,  unfornily  admitted  this  verse  into  the  text,  yet 
they  generally  expressed  a  doubt  of  its  authenticity. 

Thus  it  is  wanting  in  the  German  translation  of  the  illustrious 
reformer.  Dr.  Martin  Luther,  and  in  all  the  editions  of  it  pub- 
lished during  his  lifetime.  The  last  edition  printed  under  Lu- 
ther's superintendence  (and  which  was  not  quite  finished  till 
after  his  death)  was  that  of  1546,  in  the  preface  to  which  he  re- 
quests that  no  pcMon  will  make  any  alterations  in  it.  But  this 
great  and  good  man  had  not  been  dead  thirty  years,  when  the 
pas.sage  wSs  intorpolated  in  his  Germ.in  translation.  The  first 
edition,  in  which  this  act  of  injustice  took  place,  and  in  which 
Luther's  text  at  least  was  corrupted,  is  that  which  was  printed  at 
Frankfort  in  1574.  But  in  the  edition  of  1533,  printed  in  the 
same  place,  and  also  in  several  still  later  Frankfort  editions,  the 
passage  was  again  omitted.  The  oldest  Wittenberg  edition,  which 
received  it,  was  that  of  l.'J9G  ;  and  in  the  NA'ittenberg  edition  of 
1599  it  is  likewise  contained,  but  is  printed  in  Roman  charac- 
ters. In  1596  it  was  inserted  also  in  the  Low  German  Bible, 
printed  in  that  year  at  Hamburg.  In  the  seventeenth  century, 
if  we  except  the  Wittenberg  edition  of  1607,  which  remained 
true  to  Luther's  text,  the  insertion  was  general ;  and  since  that 
time  it  is  found  in  every  edition  of  liis  German  translation  of  the 
Scriptures. 

Calvin,  who  retained  it,  speaks  very  doubtfully  of  it.  In  the 
Latin  version  printed  by  Stephens  in  1544,  and  ascribed  (o  Leo 
Juda  (who  embraced  the  theological  views  of  Zwingle  the  re- 
former of  Switzerland),  it  is  dismissed  from  the  text,  but  retained 
in  the  margin ;  and  in  Castalio's  Latin  version,  printed  at  Basil 
in  1551  and  again  in  1563,  it  is  included  between  brackets. 

Of  the  English  versions,  the  earliest  is  that  of  William  Tindal, 
printed  in  1544,  and  again  in  1516.  Coverdali-'s  Bible  was 
printed  in  folio  in  1535.  Matthew's  in  1537,  partly  from  Tin 
dal  and  ])artly  from  Coverdale,  and  reprinted  in  154D  and  1551 
Craiimor's  Bible  was  printed  in  1539  and  1541.  In  1510  and 
1541  two  folio  editions  were  published  by  Tavemer.  In  1541 
a  folio  Bible  was  printed  under  the  inspection  of  Bishops  Tonstal 
and  Heath.  In  1.549  Taverner's  was  reprinted.  In  1550  a  New 
Testament  in  octavo,  in  Latin  and  English,  was  printed  by  Gual- 
tier  for  Sir  John  Cheeke.  In  1552  a  Testament,  in  quarto,  by 
Hill.  In  1553,  a  Bible  in  small  quarto,  by  Grafton.  In  1556, 
an  English  Bible,  in  folio,  was  printed  at  ISouen  ;  and  in  1562  a 
folio  Bible  was  ])rinted  in  London,  by  Harrison. 

All  these  editions  contain  1  John  v.  7.  but  not  without  marks 

of  doubt,  either  including  the  verse  betwet^n  parentheses,  or  ])rint- 

ing  it  in  diminutive  lett^'rs.     Thus,  in  Cranmer's  Bible,  usually 

called  the  Great  Bible,  on  account  of  its  size,  in  the  edition  of 

1539,  it  apiKJiirs  in  the  following  manner: — 

"This  JosiM  fJhriul  is  be  that  came  hy  water  anil  hlniid,  not  by  water 
onely,  but  by  water  and  hloud.     And  it  is  the  sprotc  that  Learclh  wytncs, 
lipcaiise  the  Sprele  is  tructh. 
(For  Ihtr  «rt  lbr«  wbicli  [>nn  rrtordc  in  bciTtn,  llir  faltirr,  Ibi  worde,  tsii  Ibt  wholy  ittMMl. 

Aod  thcH  ibra  arc  odc),  and  ihcr  arc  tlirc  which  bearo  rccorde  (in  tnb)  the 
Hpretc,"  ice.'' 

*  lip.  Mamh's  Letters  to  Travis,  pn.  xvi.— xix. 

•>  In  his  piologiie,  Craniiicr  explains  what  is  meant  by  the  small  letters: 
— "  Where  as  oflen  ye  shall  finde  a  miiall  l.-ttre  in  the  lexle,  it  t-igulfyeth, 
that  so  moche  as  is  in  the  siiiall  leltre  doth  olMlunde,  and  is  more  in  ihQ 
common  translacyon  in  Latyiic,  than  iii  fuunde,  tithcr  in  tlic  Ilebruc  oi 


Sect.  V.] 


ON  THE   FIRST  GENERAL  EPISTLE  OF  JOHN. 


371' 


On  the  other  hand,  there  arc  throe  old  editions  which  insert 
the  disputed  passage  without  any  mark  of  suspicion  ;  viz.  one  in 
1536,  believed  to  be  printed  by  Gough,  from  Tindal's  version  : 
the  New  Testament,  in  1552,  transfated  by  command  of  Edward 
VL  ;  and  the  Geneva  Bible,  in  1557.  The  English  Testaments, 
printed  in  1538  and  1558,  arc  not  included  in  the  preceding  no- 
tices of  translations  in  our  language :  both  of  them  were  trans- 
lated from  the  Vulgate,  and  consequently  have  the  disputed 
passage.' 

FOR    THE    GENUINENESS    OF    THE    CONTROVERTED    CLAUSE,  IT  IS 
CONTENDED  THAT, 

(I.)  External  Evidence. 

1.  It  is  found  in  the  ancient  Latin  Version,  which  was  cur- 
rent in  Africa  before  the  Vulgate  Version  was  made,  and  also 
in  most  manuscripts  of  Jerome's,  or  the  Vulgate  Latin  Version. 

The  ancient  version  current  in  Africa,  and  which  is  preserved 
in  the  writings  of  the  African  fathers,  is  not  only  older  by  many 
centuries  than  the  most  ancient  copy  of  the  Vulgate  Latin  Ver- 
sion of  the  catholic  Epistles  now  extant  (so  that  we  have  in 
these  versions  tivo  distinct  authorities  for  the  verse),  but  it  is 
also  much  more  ancient  than  the  oldest  Greek  manuscripts. 
But  it  must  be  admitted,  that  although  most  of  the  manuscripts 
of  the  Vulgate  Latin  Version  contain  the  disputed  clause,  yet 
they  are  the  least  ancient  and  most  incorrect.  It  must  also  be 
recollected,  that  no  version  has  been  so  corrupted  as  the  Latin. 
The  Latin  transcribers  took  the  most  unwarrantable  liberties, 
inserting  in  one  book  of  the  New  Testament  passages  which 
they  took  from  another,  and  frequently  transferring  into  the  text 
what  they  found  written  in  the  margin  of  the  manuscript  whence 
they  copied.  Under  these  circumstances,  Michaelis  concludes 
every  one  must  immediately  suspect  that  a  passage,  which  is 
wanting  in  all  the  ancient  Greek  manuscripts,  and  is  likewise 
wanting  in  many  ancient  copies  even  of  the  Latin  version,  is  an 
interpolation  in  those  Latin  manuscripts  which  contain  it.  And, 
in  the  present  instance,  the  same  cause  that  has  procured  so 
many  zealous  advocates  in  favour  of  1  John  v.  7.  was  the  princi- 
pal cause  of  its  introduction  and  general  reception ;  viz.  the  im- 
portance of  the  doctrine  which  it  contains. 

2.  It  is  found  in  the  Confession  of  Faith,  and  also  in  the 
Liturgy  oj  the  Greek  Church, 

The  Confession  of  Faith  of  the  Greek  Church  thus  intro- 
duces the  clause : — God,  in  his  nature,  is  true  and  eternal,  and 
the  Creator  of  all  things,  visible  and  invisible  ;  such  also  is  the 
Son,  and  the  Holt  Spirit.  They  are  also  of  the  same  essence 
among  themselves,  according  to  the  doctrine  of  John  the  Evan- 
gelist, who  sa3's,  "  There  are  three  that  bear  testimony  in  Heaven, 

THE  FaTHEII,  the  WoUD,  AJfD  THE  HoLT  SpiRIT,  AND  THESE 
THREE  ARE  ONE." 

In  the  Liturgies  of  the  Greek  Church,  among  other  portions 
of  Scripture,  this  verse  is  directed,  by  the  Greek  rituals,  to  be 
read  in  its  course,  in  the  thirty-fifth  week  of  the  year.^ 

3.  It  is  found  in  the  ORDO  IIOMJNUS,  or  Primitive  Li- 
lurgy  of  the  Latin  Church,  which  recites  this  verse  in  the 
offices  for  Trinit}'  Sundajs  and  for  the  octave  of  Easter,  and 
also  in  the  office  for  the  administration  of  baptism.' 

These  two  testimonies,  Dr.  Hales  imagines,  are  decisive  in 
favour  of  the  authenticity  of  the  clause.  For  (he  argues)  when 
we  consider  the  lasting  schism  that  prevailed  between  the  Greek 
and  Latin  churches,  from  the  time  of  the  Arian  and  Athanasian 
controversy,  about  the  Homo-ousian  and  Homoi-ousian  doctrine 
of  the  Father  and  of  the  Son ;  and  about  the  procession  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  from  the  Father  and  from  the  Son  ;  which  was  main- 
tained from  both  by  the  Latin  church ;  but  contested  respecting 
the  latter  by  the  Greek,  inasmuch  as  the  procession  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  from  the  Son  is  not  expressly  asserted  in  Scripture,  though 
-it  may  fairly  be  implied ;'  we  may  rest  assured  that  the  clergy 

tlie  Greke,  which  wordes  and  sentences  we  have  added,  not  only  to  mani- 
ieste  the  same  unto  you,  but  also  to  satisfie  and  content  those  tliat  herebe- 
foretyme  hath  inyssed  such  sentences  in  the  Bybles  and  New  Testanaents 
before  set  fortli." 

•  Christian  Observer  for  1809,  vol.  viii.  p.  210.  In  this  volume  the  lover 
of  biblical  criticism  will  find  an  elaborate  and  interesting  dissertation  on 
the  various  readings  in  the  principal  passages  of  the  New  Testament, 
respectinjithe  doctrine  of  the  Trinity. 

a  Dr.  Sinith's  Miscellanea,  p.  155.    London,  168S. 
»  Travis's  Letters  to  Gibbon,  pp.  CL  62. 

*  That  the  Holy  Ghost  proceeds  from  the  Father,  we  learn  from  the 
express  authority  of  Christ,  who  says,  "The  Spirit  of  Truth  which  pro- 
ceedeth  from  the  Father."  (.'ohn  xv.  20.)  In  the  same  verse  he  says,  "  I 
will  send  the  Spirit."  And  St.  Paul  tells  the  Galatians,  "God  hath  sent 
forth  the  Spirit  of  his  Son  into  your  hearts."  (Gal.  iv.  6.)  Hence  we  infer, 
that  the  Spirit  proceeds  from  the  Son  also. 


of  the  Greek  church  would  never  have  adopted  the  clause  merely 
upon  the  authority  of  the  Latin,  if  they  had  not  sulficicnt  vouch- 
ers for  it  in  their  own  Greek  verity  ;  and  even,  perhaps,  in  the 
autograph  and  primary  copies  of  St.  John's  Epistles,  which  were 
probably  subsisting  in  the  church  of  Ephesus,  till  the  end  of  the 
fourth  century,  at  least.^  These  two  testimonies,  on  which  this 
learned  writer  thus  forcibly  argues,  would  unquestionably  be 
entitled  to  great  weight,  if  we  were  certain  that  the  Confession 
and  Liturgies  of  the  Greek  church  had  come  down  to  us  unccr- 
rupted.  But  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  clause  in 
question  was  interpolated  therein,  in  the  fourteenth  or  fifteenth 
century,  by  some  of  the  Greek  clergy,  who  were  devoted  parti- 
zans  of  the  Romish  See,  when  the  majority  of  the  common  peo- 
ple from  their  ignorance  could  7iot  detect  the  imposition ;  conse- 
quently this  argument  falls  to  the  ground. 

4.  //  is  cited  by  numerous  Latin  fathers. 

In  reply  to  this  argument  it  is  urged  that  the  authority  of  the  * 
Latin  fathers  is  inferior  to  that  of  the  Greek  fathers  in  determin- 
ing the  readings  of  the  Greek  manuscripts ;  for,  in  writing  to 
the  Latin  churches,  they  usually  refer  to  their  own  version  of  the 
Scriptures,  and,  like  our  divines,  must  be  understood  to  quote  the 
established  translation,  unless  they  give  notice  of  the  contrary ; 
now,  if  the  Latin  fathers  were  unexceptionable  witnesses,  and 
if  they  had  quoted  in  express  terms  the  whole  of  the  controverted 
passage,  their  quotations  would  prove  nothing  more  than  that 
the  passage  stood  in  their  manuscripts  of  the  Latin  version,  and 
consequently  that  the  Latin  version  contained  it  in  a  very  early 
age ;  but  their  evidence,  it  is  asserted,  is  very  unsatisfactory. 

Among  the  Latin  fathers,  whom  the  advocates  for  the  genu- 
ineness of  1  John  V.  7.  affirm  to  have  quoted  this  verse,  Tertul- 
lian  in  the  second,  Cj'prian  in  the  third,  Jerome  in  the  fourth,^ 
and  the  African  bishops  at  the  close  of  the  fifth  century,  have 
principally  been  relied  on. 

(1.)  The  evidence  of  TertuUian,  the  oldest  Latin  writer,  who 
has  been  quoted  in  favour  of  I  John  v.  7.,  is  contained  in  the 
following  passage  of  his  treatise  against  Praxeas,  respecting  the 
Paraclete  or  Comforter: — 

"This  comforter,"  says  he  (Christ),  "shall  take  of  mine,  as  the  Son 
himself  had  taken  of  the  Father's.  Tlius,  the  connection  uf  the  Father  in 
the  Son,  and  of  the  Son  in  the  Paraclete,  makes  three  coherent  Persons, 
one  in  the  otlier  ;  which  three  are  one"  [in  sul>stance,  U7unn]  "not  one" 
[in  number,  taius] ;  "  in  the  same  manner  in  which  it  w;is  said,  /  and  my 
Father  are  one,  to  denote  the  unity  of  substance,  not  singularity  of  nmu- 
ber.'-' 

It  is  contended  that  if  these  words — ivhich  three  are  one,  qui 
tres  umim  sunt — had  not  been  in  TertuUian's  copy  of  the  New 
Testament,  most  assuredly  we  should  never  have  seen  them  in 
this  place.  But  it  has  been  replied,  What  can  be  made  of  these 
words  of  Tortullian,  in  order  to  prove  the  genuineness  of  tJiia 
text  ]  It  is  plain  that  he  has  not  cited  the  controverted  passage, 
because  his  quotation  begins  with  quomodo  dictiim  est,  in  the 
same  manner  as  it  is  written,  I  and  my  Father  are  one.  (John 
X.  30.)  That  the  controverted  text  was  neither  known  to  him, 
nor  cited  by  him,  is  highly  probable ;  for  he  has  never  quoted  it 
in  all  his  works.  Indeed  he  would  have  had  no  occasion  to 
have  cited  John  x.  30.  if  he  had  known  any  thing  of  a  text 
which  had  affirmed  of  the  Father,  the  Word,  and  the  Spirit,  thai 
these  three  are  one.  For  that  would  have  sounded  better,  and 
appeared  more  like  a  proof  of  the  unity  of  the  substance  of  tho 
Holy  Spirit  viith  the  Father  and  the  Son,  than  any  text  which 
he  has  alleged  in  proof  of  that  point.s 

(2.)  From  the  writings  of  Cyprian,  bishop  of  Carthage,  two 
passages  have  been  cited  to  prove  that  1  John  v.  7.  was  contained 
in  his  manuscript  of  the  Latin  version.  The  first  is  from  his 
seventy-third  Epistle,  addressed  to  Jubaianus,  in  a.  d.  256,  the 

e  The  author  of  the  Clironicon  Alex.-ftdrinnm,  in  the  fourth  century, 
affirms,  that  tho  originals  of  .St.  .loliu's  writings  were  then  preserved  at 
Ephesus.    Dr.  Haios  on  the  Trini'v,  vol.  ii.  pp.  106,  197. 

6  The  testimony  of  Vigilius,  bishop  of  Thapsus,  who  wrote  in  the  fifth 
century,  is  designedly  omitted,  as  he  is  a  writer  of  very  liUle  credit,  who 
imposed  his  sentiments  upon  the  world  under  the  names  of  Athanasius, 


T  uajterum  ac  meo  snmei,  mqim,  sicui  i|i^c  uu  [jaino.  i^a  ,.^,,,.^j..^a, 
Patris  in  Filio,  et  Filii  in  Paracleto  tres  efilcit  cohrereiites,  alterum  ex 
altero,  qui  tres  untim  suvA,—non  unns ;  quomodo  dictum  est,  "  Ego  et 
Paternnum siunus"  ad  substantia;  unitatcm  non,  ad  numeri  singulanta- 
tem.    TertuUian  adv.  Praxeam,  c.  25.  .„,  v  . 

8  Benson  on  the  Epistles,  vol.  ii.  p.  6.32.  Michaehs  (vol.  iv.  p.  421.)  hw 
considered  the  above-cited  passage  of  Tertnllian,  which,  he  determines,  is 
not  a  quotation.  But  the  fullest  consideration  of  it  will  be  found  m  Bishop 
Kaye's  Ecclesiastical  History  of  the  Second  and  Third  Centuries,  ilhis- 
trated  from  TertuUian  (pp.  r44^5tr,.) ;  who  concludes  his  observations  by 
expressing  his  opinion,  that  "  the  passage  in  TertuUian,  far  from  contanimg 
aji  allusion  to  1  .lohn  v.  7.,  furnishes  most  decisive  proof  tlw  he  knew 
nothing  of  Uie  verse."  p.  516. 


372 


ANALYSIS  OF  TH^  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Paht  VI.  Chap.  IV. 


object  of  which  is  to  invalidate  the  baptism  administered  by  he- 
retics.    In  this  Epistle,  the  following  passage  occurs: — 

"  If  tmy  one  cjuld  be  baptized  by  a  herelic,  and  could  obtain  remission 
of  nins, — i/  he  liai  uhtained  remission  of  sin-t,  and  is  sanctified,  and 
become  the  temple  of  Oodl  I  ask,  of  tehat  Ood I  If  of  the  Creator,  lie 
tannot  be  his  temple,  who  has  njt  belter ed  in  Ilim ;  y  o/"  Christ,  neither 
can  he  te/to  denies  Him  to  be  God,  be  His  temple  ;  if  if  the  lluly  Spirit, 
since  the  three  aru  one,  hutr  can  iJie  Holy  Spirit  be  rtcuncikd  to  him,  who 
ij  an  enemy  either  uf  the  Father  or  of  the  Sjn  ?''' 

In  tills  passage  Dr.  Mill  and  other  advocates  for  the  genuine- 
ness of  the  disputed  clause,  contend  that  there  is  plainly  an  ar- 
gument founded  upon  the  unity  of  the  Father,  of  the  Son,  and 
of  the  Holy  Spirit.  But  how  docs  Cyprian  make  out  or  prove 
that  unity  ?  He  attempts  no  proof  of  such  unity,  but  presup- 
poses it  as  a  point  that  must  be  admitted. — "  Since  the  three," 
he  says,  "are  one,  tlie  Holy  Sl>irit  cannot  be  reconciled  to  him, 
luho  is  an  enemy  either  of  the  Father  or  of  the  Son."  That 
they  are  one,  he  supposes  every  one  will  know  who  has  read 
the  New  Testament,  and  therefore  he  only  just  alludes  to  the 
text  as  his  authority.  In  opposition  to  this  rciisoning,  Michaelis 
observes,  that  the  words — cnm  tree  uniim  sii7it, — though  inserted 
in  the  later  editions  of  Cyprian's  works,  are  not  contained  in 
that  edition  which  was  published  by  Erasmus  ;  and  that  even  if 
they  were  genuine,  they  will  prove  nothing  more  than  the  same 
words  which  are  quoted  by  Tertuliian.^ 

The  other  passage  of  Cyprian,  above  alluded  to,  is  to  be  found 

in  his  treatise  on  the  Unity  of  the  Church,  written  a.  d.  251, 

where  he  thus  expressly  cites  the  disputed  clause  : — 

"Tlie  I.orii  saiih,  /  and  my  Father  are  one  ;  and  again  it  is  wriUcn  of 
Che  Father,  and  of  tlie  Son,  andof  the  Holy  Spirit,  And  these  three  are  one.''' 

This,  it  is  urged  by  the  advocates  of  the  contested  clause,  is  a 

plain  citation  of  two  diflerent  texts  of  Scripture,  viz.  The  first, 

of  what  Jesus   Christ  says  of  himself,  in  John  x.  30. — "  The 

Lord  says,  /  and  my  Father  are  one  ;"  and  the  second  (which 

IS  expressly  accompanied  with  the  ancient  formula  of  quotation, 

it  it  -written)  is  a  citation  of  what  is  spoken  of  them,  and  of  the 

Holy  Spirit  in  some  other  place.     "  And  again,"  it  is  written,  of 

the  Father,  and  of  the   Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  ./f/i(/  these 

three  are  one.     But  where  is  it  so  written,  except  in  1  John  v.  7.  ? 

On  the  other  hand,  admitting  that  the  words  Et  tres  iinum  sunt — 

Jlnd  these  three  are  one — were  so  quoted  from   the  verse  in 

question,  Michaelis  asks  whether  a  passage  found  in  no  ancient 

Greek  manuscript,  quoted  by  no  Greek  father,  and  contained  in 

no  other  ancient  version  but  the  Latin,  is  therefore  to  be  pronounced 

genuine,  merely  because  one  single  Latin  father  of  the  first  three 

centuries,  who  was  bishop  of  Carthage,  where  the  Latin  version 

only  was  used,  and  where  Greek  was  unknown,  has  quoted  it? 

I'nder  these  circumstances,  should  we  conclude,  that  the  passage 

stood  originally  in  the  Greek  autograph  of  Saint  John  1  Certainly 

not ;   for   the   only    inference,  which   could    be    deduced  from 

Cyprian's  quotation,  would  be  this,  that  the  passage  had  been 

introduced  into  the  Latin  version  so  early  as  the  third  century. 

This  answer  Michaelis  thinks  sufficient  to  invalidate  Cyprian's 

Hithority,  in  establishing  the  authenticity  of  1  John  v.  7.  on  the 

supposition  that  Cyprian  really  quoted  it.     But  tliat  he  did  so,  it 

Is  asserted  to  be  more  than  any  man  can  prove.    The  words  Tres 

vnum  aunt  are  -ontained  not  only  in  the  seventh  but  likewise  in 

the  eighth  versi-,  which  is  a  part  of  the  ancient  and  genuine  text 

of  John  ;  and  therefore  it  is  at  least  possible,  that  Cyprian  took 

them,  not  from  the  seventh,  but  from  the  eighth  verse.     It  is  true 

that  he  cavK.  These  words  are  written  of  the  Father,  Son,  and 

Holy  (ihoHt,  whereas  Tres  unum  sunt  in  the  eighth  verse  relate 

only  to  the  sjiirit,  the   water,  and  the  blood.     But  it  must  be 

observed  that  the  Latin  fathers  interpreted  Spiritns,  ^Itpia,  ct 

Sanguis,  not   literally  but  mystically,  and  some  of  them   really 

understood  by  these  words  Pater,  Filius,  et  Spiritus  sanctiis,  taking 

aqua  in  the  sense  of  Pater,  sanguis  in  the  sense  of  Filius,  and 

spiritua  in  the  sense  of  Spiritus  sanctus.' 

*  Si  bnptizarl  f|niB  apiirl  ha?rnticinn  potuii,  uiiqiio  et  reniisvain  peccato- 
r:ini  condcqiii  |>(itiiit, — si  neccalornni  reniisjain  cun8r<Mi(uR  est,  et  saniin- 
citus  est,  et  teinplum  Uei  faclua  est ;  (niairo  cujim  Ix-i  7  rtl  (;rcnlori8,  mm 
potuit,  qui  in  cum  non  creduiil ;  si  Chriirti,  non  liiijns  potpHt  fn'ri  trMnpliiin, 
Jjiii  negat  DiMiin  Chrislinn  ;  Hi  Spiritu*  Hancli  cum  tres  unum  sunt  quoiiiodo 
BpiriluH  rtanr.iiia  placalua  ciisc  ei  potest,  qui  out  I'atriH  aut  I'llii  uiimicus 
eal  1    Cypriani  Opera  a  Fell.  p.  203.  folio.    Oxon.  lOSi 

*  See  p.  371. 

»  Uicit  DoniinuR,  E^o  el  Paler  unum  atimtis :  et  ilerimi  de  Pa'rc,  et 
Filio,  ct  Snirilii  Hnncto  scriptura  est,  Et  Ires  unum  gunt.  Ve  I'nitalc 
Ecclesirp,  Op  p  KW. 

*  MicliaeliH'H  InlroOnction,  vol.  Iv.  p.  423.  He  adihiccslnxtancoR  of  such 
i~nysllcal  intcrprcutiion  from  Aufiiistine,  who  wrote  a  conlury  anerCypriaii ; 
from  Eiirlienii8,  who  wrote  a.  d.  ■I.'M  ;  ami  fri>m  FnrimdiiH,  who  wrote  in 


tlie  uiid.lle  of  the  six'h  ciiitury.  (lliid.  l).  421  )  Kisluip  Marsh,  arter 
MichaeliB,  haa  enllocted  siiiiilur  MiHlnncen  of  iriyxlieiil  interurelHlion.  (Let 
i'T*  to  Travid,  Pref  pp.  xii. — xiv.  iiiile  !."> )    Dr.  Hulec  (on  the  Trinity,  vol 


i  rp   197,  I9A.)  has  eoileavoure^J  to  vindicalc  the  rituiionx  of  Aii){u«tine 
a  Luohtt  Uj  ui  real  quuUtiuaa,  ar.J  not  mystical  intorprctal.'iis  of  the 


au 


(3.)  The  third  Latin  father,  produced  in  favour  of  this  disputed 
passage,  is  Jerome  ;  who  flourished  in  the  latter  end  of  the  fourth 
or  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century,  and  resided  chiefly  at  Beth- 
lehem. His  profound  knowledge  of  the  original  Scriptures  hss 
caused  his  biblical  labours  to  be  held  in  the  highest  esteem.  In 
several  editions  of  the  Latin  version,  there  is  a  preface  or  prologue 
to  the  Catholic  Epistles,  ascribed  to  him  ;  which  pretends  that  all 
the  Greek  copies  had  tlie  seventh  verse,  and  complains  of  the 
Latin  translators  as  unfaithful,  for  leaving  it  out. 

On  this  supposed  prologue  of  Jerome  many  advocates  of  the 
disputed  clause  have  founded,  as  they  imagine,  a  powerful  ar- 
gument for  its  genuineness  :  while  others  have  candidly  admitted 
that  the  prologue  is  spurious.  In  fact,  this  preface  is  of  no  au- 
thority whatever  ;  for,  1.  Its  style  is  so  barbarous  as  to  prove  that 
it  could  not  have  been  written  by  Jerome  ;  2.  It  is  wanting  in 
his  catalogue  of  prefaces,  as  well  as  in  the  best  and  most  ancient 
manuscripts  of  Jerome's  version;  3.  It  is  often  found  in  Latin 
copies  without  his  name ;  it  makes  use  of  the  term  Epistolx 
Canonicse,  "  Canonical  Epistles,"  whereas  Jerome's  title  for  them 
Vfas  Epistolx  Catholicx,  "('atholic  Epistles;"  4.  Further,  this 
preface  is  prefixed  to  some  Latin  copies  of  the  Catholic  Epistles, 
in  which  the  disputed  text  is  7iot  inserted  :  whence  it  is  evident 
that  the  ancient  MSS.  from  which  such  copies  were  made  had 
not  the  disputed  text,  though  the  transcribers  had  the  folly  to 
insert  that  preface;  5.  And,  finally,  what  proves  that  it  is  utterly 
destitute  of  authority,  is  the  fact,  that  "  it  insinuates  one  falsehood, 
and  asserts  t^vo  other  direct  and  notorious  falsehoods.  It  in- 
sinuates that  all  the  Greek  copies  of  the  New  Testament  had 
this  verse ;  whereas  none  of  them  had  it,  nor"  (as  we  have 
already  seen)  "  has  any  of  the  genuine  works  of  the  Greek 
fathers  once  mentioned  it.  And  Jerome  above  all  men,  who  was 
so  conversant  in  the  Greek  copies  of  the  New  Testament  and  in 
the  Greek  fathers,  must  needs  have  known  this  to  have  been  a 
direct  falsehood.  Again,  the  preface  asserts  that  the  Latin  trans- 
lators were  unfaithful  in  leaving  out  the  testimony  of  the  Father, 
the  Won!,  and  the  Spirit,  and  that  he  [Jerome]  had  restored  it,"* 

(4.)  But  a  chief  argument  arising  from  the  quotations  of  the 
Latin  fathers  is  derived  from  the  confession  of  faith,  drawn  up  by 
Eugenius,  bishop  of  Carthage,  at  the  end  of  the  fifth  century,  and 
presented  by  nearly  four  hundred  bishops  to  Hunneric,  king  of 
the  Vandals,  an  Arian  and  a  bitter  enemy  to  those  who  professed 
the  orthodox  faith.  In  this  confes.sion,  which  is  recorded  by 
Victor  Vilensis,''  the  following  passage  occurs  ; — 

Utadhuc  luce  clarius  unins  divinitatis  es;:e  cinn  Patre  et  Filio  Spiritum 
Sanctum  doccamus,  Joanni.s  Evangelistro  tcsiiinonio  comprobaiur.  Ait 
iiaaique,  tres  srNT,  aut  testimonium  peuhident  in  ccelo,  pater,  vbreum, 

ET  SPIRITUS  SA.VCTUS,  KT  UI  TRES  UNI'M  SUNT. 

In  English  lliiis: — "That  wo  may  furiher  show  it  lo  he  clearer  than  the 
Mi;hi,  tliat  the  divinity  of  the  Father,  the  Sun,  and  the  Holy  Spirit  is  one, 
we  have  the  testimony  of  the  evangelist  John  ;  for  he  says, — thkrs  are 

THREE  WHICH  BEAR  RECORD  IN  HEAVEN,  THE  FATHER,  THE  WORD,  AND  THB 
HOLY  SPiniT,  AND  THESE  THREE  ARE  ONE." 

In  this  passage  of  the  confession  of  the  African  bishops,  1  John 
v.  7.  is  clearly  and  distinctly  quoted ;  and  the  circumstances  under 
which  it  was  delivered  to  sworn  enemies  of  the  Catholic  faith 
(for  which  these  bishops  sulTcred  very  severe  persecutions)  have 
been  urged  as  proofs  for  the  genuineness  of  the  disputed  clause, 
the  authenticity  of  which  the  hostile  Arians  would  not  fail  to 
have  challenged  or  denied,  had  it  even  been  considered  of  doubt- 
ful origin.'     But  the  appearance  of  this  verse  in  the  confession 

eighth  verse  ;  and  Fhshop  nurfCCBs  has  argued,  that  neither  Cyprian  nor 
any  other  fatlier  hel'nre  Kucundiis  (who  Ilouri.-.hed  nhoiit  the  midille  of  the 
.sixth  century)  did  interjiret  ttic  eichlh  ver.<c  my.slirally.  (Vindication  of 
1  John  V.  7.  pp.  xvii.  et  seq.  136— 13S)  His  arRiuiifnts,  however,  are  ably, 
and,  we  think,  patislactuiily  controverted  by  Crilo  Cantahni;ieii8ifi,  wImj 
has  particularly  considered  the  passages  siiii|>oKed  to  be  cited  by  An^s- 
tine,  f^ucherius,  Fulgenlius,  Cnssiiidorup,  and  I.eo  the  Great,  Itishop  of 
Rome.  (Viniliration  of  Porson,  pp.  230— 28><.)  See  also  on  this  topic  Dr. 
Benson  on  the  Epigileti,  vol.  ii.  pp.  033,  G34. 

»  Biinson  on  the  r.i)islles,  vol.  li.  p.  63j.  Hieronymi  Opem  a  Martianay, 
torn.  i.  rol.  Ki'l  — lt;73.  Pari!",  10!13.  Kettner,  wlio  rehicfaiilly  admits  llrnt 
the  preface  in  (piestion  ia  not  the  production  of  Jerome,  yet  maintains  that 
it  is  good  evidence  for  the  genuineness  of  the  di.sputed  text  in  the  eighth, 
ninth,  and  following  centurien!  (Hisloria  Dicti  Jo.innei,  1  John  v.  7.  p.  172.) 
See  also  the  Vindication  of  Professor  Porson  by  Crito  Cantabrigicnsis, 
pp.  132—209. 

•  Ilistoria  Perscculionii  Vandnlictc,  p.  29.  edit.  Riiinart.  Mr.  TraviK  has 
related  the  history  of  this  Inmsarlion  In  hi.s  "  I.etterN  to  Edward  Oitibon, 
Esq."  pp.  67 — tJO. ;  and  he  han  printed  Uic  confession  at  length  in  his  Appen- 
dix, No.  xxxi.  pp.  31.  rt  aeq. 

1  See  Mr.  Butler's  Hora;  Biblicic,  vol.  II.  pp.  292—295.  2d  edit  Thearvn- 
rncnts  hrielly  noticed  above  are  urged  at  length  under  twelve  heads,  with 
great  ingenuity,  by  Mr.  Hulli'r;  and  If  the  historian,  from  whose  expres- 
Hions  he  has  deiUiced  them,  had  been  a  writer  of  unimpearhalde  veracity, 
thiy  would  go  far  towards  deciding  the  controversy.  But,  unliappily  for 
thi-  testimony  of  Victor  Vjieimis,  tlial  historian  ha.s  not  onlv  rendered  Ilia 
rredit  extremely  suspicious  by  his  account  of  the  ViindHlic  )ier.Hecullon, 
hut  be  has  a.\^  excited  the  sneers  of  infidelity  (see  Gibbon's  Decline  and 
Fall,  vol,  vi.  pp.  283—29.1.  «vo.  edit  ),  by  recording  some  rliliculous  miracles 
the  truth  of  which,  notwithstanding,  ho  solcuinly  pledged  himself  to  prove 


Sect.  V.] 


ON  THE  FIRST  GENERAL  EPISTLE  OF  JOHN. 


373   / 


of  the  African  bishops,  Michaelis  remarks,  proves  nothing  in 
respect  of  its  authenticity  ;  for  the  only  inference  which  we  can 
deduce  is,  that  the  passage  was  contained  in  the  Latin  manu- 
scripts then  used  in  Africa.  "  We  may  infer  that  Eugenius,  who 
drew  up  the  confession,  found  the  passage  in  his  Latin  manu- 
script ;  but  that  all  the  bishops  who  signed  this  confession  found 
the  quoted  passage  likewise  in  their  manuscripts  is  a  very  un- 
warrantable inference.  For  when  a  formulary  of  religious  articles 
■  is  composed,  however  numerous  the  persons  may  be  who  set 
their  names  to  it,  it  is  in  fact  the  work  only  of  him  who  drew  it 
up  ;  and  a  subscription  to  such  a  formulary,  though  it  conveys  a 
general  assent  to  the  doctrines  contained  in  it,  by  no  means  im- 
plies that  every  subscriber  has,  previous  to  liis  subscription, 
examined  every  argument  adduced,  or  every  quotation  that  is 
alleged  in  it,  and  obtained  a  thorough  conviction  that  not  one 
of  them  is  exceptionable.  But  it  is  said,  the  Arians  themselves 
who  were  present  when  this  confession  was  delivered  made  no 
objection  to  the  quotation,  *  Tres  sunt  qui  testimonmin  perhibent 
in  c(e!o,'  &c.  ;  that  they  acknowledged,  therefore,  by  their  very 
silence,  that  the  passage  was  not  spurious.  Now  this  is  a  very 
weak  and  even  absurd  argument.  For,  in  the  first  place,  we 
have  no  further  knowledge  of  this  transaction  than  what  the  or- 
thodox themselves  have  given  of  it ;  and,  therefore,  it  is  not  fair 
o  conclude,  that  the  Arians  made  no  objections,  merely  from  the 
circumstance  that  no  objections  are  on  record.  Secondly,  if  the 
conclusion  were  admissible,  nay,  were  it  absolutely  certain,  that 
the  Arians,  who  were  present  at  this  conference,  admitted, '  Tres 
sunt  qiii  testimomum  perhibent  in  ccelo,'  &c.  it  would  follow 
only  that  the  passage  was  in  their  Latin  manuscripts,  as  the 
quotation  of  it  shows  that  it  was  in  the  Latin  manuscript  of 
Eugenius,  who  drew  up  the  confession.  For  these  Arians  were 
Vandals  who  had  been  driven  out  of  Spain  into  Africa,  who 
read  the  Bible  only  in  the  Latin  translation,  and  were  totally 
unacquainted  with  Greek,  Consequently  their  silence  on  the 
quotation  of  a  passage  from  the  Latin  translation,  at  the  end  of 
the  fifth  century,  aflfords  no  presumption  whatsoever  that  the 
passage  existed  in  the  Greek  original.  Lastly,  the  whole  transac- 
tion between  Hunncric  with  his  Arian  Vandals  on  the  one  side, 
and  the  orthodox  bishops  of  Africa  on  the  other,  was  of  such 
a  nature  as  was  very  ill  adapted  to  the  decision  of  a  critical 
question.  For  these  Vandals  did  not  combat  by  argument,  but 
by  force ;  and  they  brought  their  adversaries  to  silence,  not  by 
reasoning  with  them,  but  by  cutting  out  their  tongues.  To  argue, 
therefore,  from  the  silence  of  such  men  to  the  authenticity  of 
1  John  v.  7.  is  nearly  the  same  as  an  appeal  in  its  favour  to  the 
testimony  of  a  Russian  corporal."' 

Such  is  the  external  evidence  for  the  genuineness  of  this 
much  litigated  clause.  It  only  remains  that  we  briefly 
notice, 

(2.)   The  Internal  Evidence  adduced  in  its  Behalf. 

1.  It  is  contended  that  the  connection  of  the  disputed  clause 
requires  it  to  be  inserted,  in  order  to  complete  the  senf^e ,-  while 
those  who  reject  it  affirm  that  its  insertion  injures  the  whole 
passage. 

Various  commentators  both  of  the  Romish  and  Protestant 
churches  have  given  explications,  the  design  of  which  is  to 
show  that  the  verse,  if  properly  interpreted,  instead  of  dis- 
turbing the  sense  of  the  verses  with  which  it  is  joined,  rather 
renders  it  more  connected  and  complete.  But  the  argument, 
which  they  would  derive  from  this  supposed  necessary  con- 
nection, is  denied  by  the  opponents  of  the  genuineness  of  the 
disputed  clause,  who  contend  that  the  sense  would  also  be 
more  complete,  and  the  connection  more  clear,  without  it. 
That  the  reader  may  be  enabled  duly  to  estimate  the  force  or 
W'eakness  of  this  argument,  the  exposition  of  Bishop  Horsley, 
which  is  drawn  up  on  the  assumption  that  it  contains  the 
*'  genuine  words"  of  the  apostle,  shall  be  subjoined,  together 
with  the  explanation  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  the  object  of 
w^hich  is  to  snow  that  the  sense  is  entire  without  the  disputed 
clause. 

i.  Bishop  Ilorsley^s  Paraphrastic  Exposition. 

"  There  are  three  in  Heaven  that  hear  record, — record  to  this  fact,  that 
Jesus  is  the  Clirist,— '  the  Father,  the  Word,  and  the  Huly  Ghost.' 

"The  Father  bare  witness  by  his  own  voice  from  heaven,  twice  declar- 
ing .Jesus  his  beloved  Son ;  lirst  after  his  baptism,  when  he  came  up  out  of 
the  river,  and  again  at  the  transfiguration.  A  third  time  the  Father  bare 
witness  when  he  sent  his  angel  to  Jesus  in  agony  in  the  garden. 

"The  eternal  Word  bare  witness  by  the  fulness  of  the  Godhead  dwell- 
ing in  Jesus  bodily, — by  that  plenitude  of  strength  and  power  with  wliich 
he  was  supplied  for  the  performance  of  his  miracles,  and  the  endurance 
in  his  frail  and  mortal  body  of  the  fire  of  the  Father's  wrath.  The  Word 
bare  witness,— perhaps  more  indirectly, — still  the  word  bare  witness,  by 

«  Michaells's  Introduction,  vol.  iv.  pp.  427  428. 


hi!a 
.  the 

„.,-..       u-   ,    •  J  ••      .   =,-  ---o 1  •- ...  ...v,,bodies 

of  the  samts  which  appeared  m  the  holy  city,  after  our  Lord's  lesurrec- 
tion  ;  for  these  extreordmary  convulsions  of  the  material  world  must  be 
ascribed  to  that  power  by  which  God  in  the  beginning  created  it,  and  still 
directs  the  course  of  it,— that  is,  to  the  immediate  act  of  the  Word  •  fcr 
'  by  hira  all  things  were  made,  and  he  upholdeth  aU  things  bv  the  word  of 
his  own  power.' 

"The  Holy  Ghost  bare  witness,  by  the  acknowledgment  of  the  infan* 
Jesus,  made,  by  the  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  by  the  mouths  of  hi"! 
servants  and  instrument,  Simeon  and  Anna;  and  more  directly  by  bis 
visible  descent  upon  the  adult  Jesus  at  his  baptism,  and  upon  the  apostles 
of  Jesus  after  tlie  ascension  of  their  Lord. 

"Thus  the  three  in  heaven  bare  wit7icss ;  and  these  three,  the  apostle 
adds,  are  one,— one,  in  the  unity  of  a  consentient  testimony  ;  for  that  unify 
is  all  thfit  is  requisite  to  the  purpose  of  the  apostle's  present  argument 

lie  goes  on  :   Aiid  there  are  three  in  earlh  that  bear  uilness, — the 

Spirit,  and  the  Water,  and  the. Blond;  and  these  three  agree  in  one. 

"The  Spirit  is  here  evidently  to  be  understood  of  the  gifts  preternati> 
rally  conferred  upon  believers. 

"  The  water  and  the  blood  mentioned  here  as  witnesses,  are  the  water 
and  the  blood  which  issued  from  the  Redeemer's  side,  when  his  body, 
already  dead,  was  pierced  by  a  soldier  with  a  spear. 

"  But  how  do  this  water  and  this  blood  bear  wtness  that  the  crucified 
Jesus  was  the  Christ?  Water  and  blood  were  the  indispensable  instru- 
ments of  cleansing  and  e.xpiation  in  all  the  ckansings  and  expiations  of  the 
law.  'Almost  all  things,'  saith  Saint  Paul,  'are  by  the  law  purged  with 
blood  ;  and  without  shedding  of  blood  there  is  no  remission.'  But  the  pur- 
gation was  not  by  blood  only,  but  by  blood  and  water;  for  the  same  apostle 
says,  "  When  Moses  had  spoken  every  precept  to  all  the  people,  accorijiiig 
to  the  law,  he  took  the  blood  of  calves  and  of  goats,  with  water,  and  sprink- 
led both  the  book  and  all  the  people.'  AU  the  cleansingsand  expiations  of 
the  law,  by  water  and  animal  blood,  were  tvpica!  of  ihe  real  cleansing  <'l 
the  conscience  by  the  water  of  baptism,  and  of  the  expiation  of  real  gitilt 
by  the  blood  of  Christ  shed  upon  the  cross,  and  virtually  taken  and 
received  by  the  faithful  in  the  Lord's  supper.  The  llowing,  therefore,  i)f 
this  water  and  this  blood  immediately  upon  our  Lord's  death,  from  the 
wound  opened  in  his  side,  was  a  notification  to  tlie  surrounding  multitudes, 
though  at  the  time  understood  by  fev/,  that  the  real  expialioQ  was  now 
complete,  and  the  cleansing  fount  set  open. 

"Thus  I  have  endeavoured  to  explain  how  the  water  and  the  blood, 
toaether  with  the  spirit,  are  witnesses  upon  earth,  to  establish  the  lai:h 
which  overcometh  the  world. "^ 

It  will,  however,  be  observed,  that  this  argument  assumes  that 
ev  T«  -yn,  upon  earth,  in  the  eighth  verse,  implies  that  something 
had  preceded  %vith  v/  T-a  warn,  in  heaven.  "  But  they  who  argue 
in  this  manner"  (Bishop  Marsh  observes)  "forget  that  »  th  yi,  is 
ivantin^  in  the  Greek  MS8.  as  well  as  «■  toj  cvcuvu.  Also,  in 
the  oldest  Latin  MSS.  the  8th  verse  is  equally  destitute  of  in 
terra,  which  was  inserted  for  the  veiy  purpose  of  having  some- 
thing to  correspond  with  i?i  ccelo,  and  shows  how  well  the  .seve- 
ral parts  of  the  interpolation  have  been  fitted  to  each  other."^ 

ii.  Sir  Isaac  JsTeivton^s  Paraphrastic  Erposition. 

"  Wlto  is  he  that  overcometh  the  world,  but  he  that  believeth  that  JE.=rs 
is  the  Son  of  Ood,  tliat  Son  spoken  of  in  the  Ps  dins,  where  he  saith,  'Thou 
art  my  Son',  this  day  have  I  begotten  thee.'  This  is  he  that,  a.ter  (he  Jewg 
had  long  expected  him,  came,  first  in  a  mortal  body,  by  baptism  of  ualir, 
and  then  in  an  immortal  one  by  shedding  his  blood  upon  the  cross,  atid 
rising  again  from  the  dead  ;  not  by  water  only,  but  by  water  and  blood; 
being  the  Son  of  God,  as  well  by  his  resurrection  from  the  dead  (Acts  xiii 
a3.),  as  by  his  supernatural  binh  of  the  Virgin.  (Luke  i.  35.)  And  it  is  the 
Spirit  also,  that,  together  with  the  water  and  blood,  beareth  witness  of  the 
truth  of  his  coming ;  because  the  Spirit  is  truth,  and  so  a  fit  and  unexcep- 
tionable witness.  For  there  are  three  that  bear  record  of  his  coming ;  Ihe 
Spirit,  which  he  promised  to  send,  and  which  was  since  sent  forth  upon  us 
in  the  form  of  cloven  tongues  and  of  various  gifts;  Ike  baptism  of  water, 
wherein  God  testified  'this  is  my  beloved  Soil ;'  and  the  shedding  of  his 
blood,  accompanied  with  his  resurrection,  whereby  he  became  th^e  most 
faithful  martyr  or  witness  of  this  truth.  And  these  three,  the  Spirit,  Ihe 
baptism,  and  passion  of  ClnMst,  agree  in  witnessing  one  and  the  same 
thing  (namely,  that  the  Son  of  God  is  come)  ;  and  therefore  their  evidence 
is  strong;  for  the  law  requires  but  two  consenting  witnesses,  and  here  we 
have  three;  aiul  if  we  receire  the  witness  of  men,  the  threefold  witness 
of  God,  which  he  bare  of  his  Son,  by  declaring  at  his  baptism  'This  is  my 
beloved  Son,'  by  raising  him  from  the  dead,  and  by  pouring  out  his  Spirit 
on  us,  is  greater ;  and  therefore  ought  to  be  more  readily  received." 

"  This,"  Sir  Isaac  Newton  observes,  "  is  the  sense  plain  and 
natural,  and  the  argument  full  and  strong ;  but  if  you  insert  the 
testimony  of  the  three  in  heaven,  you  interrupt  and  spoil  it :  for 
the  whole  design  of  the  apostle  being  here  to  prove  to  men  bv 
witness  the  truth  of  Christ's  coming,  I  would  ask  how  the  testi- 
mony of '  the  three  in  heaven'  makes  to  this  purpose  ?  If  their 
testimony  be  not  given  to  men,  how  does  it  prove  to  them  the 
truth  of  Christ's  coming  ?  If  it  be  [given],  how  is  the  testimony 
in  heaven  distinguished  from  that  on  earth  ?  It  is  the  same 
spirit  which  witnesses  in  heaven  and  in  earth.  If  in  both  cases 
it  witnesses  to  us  men,  wherein  lies  the  difference  between  its 
witnessing  in  heaven  and  its  witnessing  in  earth  ?  If  in  the 
first  case  it  does  not  witness  to  men,  to  whom  does  it  witness? 
And  to  what  purpose  1  And  how  docs  its  witnessing  make  to 
the  design  of  St.  John's  discourse  1  Let  them  make  good  sense 
of  it  who  are  able.  For  my  part,  I  can  make  none.  If  it  be 
said,  that  we  are  not  to  determine  what  is  Scripture,  and  what 
not,  by  our  private  judgments,  I  confess  it  in  places  not  contr*>- 

a  Dp.  Horsley's  Sermons,  vol.  i.  pp.  193—201. 
»  Bp.  Marsh's  Lectures,  part  vi.  p.  27.  nolo 


374 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  VI.  Chap.  IV 


verted  ;  but,  in  disputable  places,  I  love  to  take  what  I  can  best 
understand."' 

2.  M  Ihe  seventh  verse,  the  three  that  bear  rearrd  are  mani- 
fe-ytly  persons,  and  ihe  lourds  that  express  two  of  them  are  mas- 
culine nouns,  0  ri-tTh/i  (the  Fatheii),  and  i  A:):?  (the  Word)  ; 
iviience  ive  may  vaturallij  expert  that  ihe  adjuncts,  or  adjectives 
tvhich  allude  to  them,  ivmild  all  he  of  the  nKwcitline  i^enaer  like- 


se.-  corueoueniii/  tvejina  tne  nearenii/  untnesses  lo  oe  anmiea 
ihe  woras  t^u;  i.<ra  d  /jLU^-jf.-.vny:  (^lliere  are  three  that  bear 


wise :  consefjuendij  we  find  the  hearenli/  witnesses  to  be  denoted 

by  the  I 

recijrd). 

Thus  far,  all  is  conformable  to  the  rules  of  plain  grammar. 
Besides,  it  cannot  be  didicult  to  conceive  that  the  sacred  writer, 
when  alK)Ut  to  express  the  earthly  witnesses  in  the  next  verse, 
might  carry  on  the  same  expression  or  adjuncts  to  that  verse  ;  and 
the  correspondence  in  the  number  of  witnesses,  and  the  similarity 
pf  their  desis^n  in  bearing  witness  to  tlie  truth  of  the  religion  of 
Christ,  may  tend  to  confirm  this  sentiment.-  But  if  thi^  former  verse 
•lid  not  precede,  and  should  be  rejected  as  spurious,  it  will  be 
ditiicult  to  aci'oiuil  for  tlie  use  of  the  masculine  gender  ;  and  we 
should  rather  1)C  inclined  to  suspect  that  the  \*ords  would  have 
been  tfit  uti  ti.  fjt^tyr-ji-M'r^,  as  all  the  terms  that  follow  to  denote 
the  earthly  energies,  or  attestations,  are  every  one  of  the  neuter 
gender.  It  appears,  then,  that  the  turn  of  the  language,  as  well 
as  the  nature  of  the  witnesses,  would  require  the  use  of  this  gen- 
der ;  and  therefore  the  accuracy  of  the  construction,  or  the  strict 
rules  of  grammar,  must  yuvt<;/r  the  present  text? 

3.  Uishop  Middleton  has  a  long  and  elaboratft  dissertation, 
the  desis;:i  of  which  is  to  show  that  the  article  TO  before 
»/  uvn  in  tlie  eighth  verse  must  necessarily  refer  to  tlie  word 
'ES  in  the  precediiinr  verse,  and  consequently  that  both 
verses  must  be  nHained,  or  both  rejected. ' 

This  argument  is  not  of  a  nature  to  admit  of  abridgment ;  but, 
m  order  to  be  strictly  correct,  there  should  be  an  iilcntity  in  the 
Bubjcft,  and  not  a  sinnlurity  only.  A  doubt  may  be  reasonably 
entert;uned,  whether,  in  the  language  of  St.  John,  TO  EN  is  not 
used  as  eijuivalent  to  TO  ATTO,  as  it  is  in  Phil.  ii.  2. ;  in  which 
case  no  reference  to  any  [ireceding  expression  would  be  ai)j)Iic(l, 
To  this  we  may  add,  that  if  the  A'ulgate  preserves  the  true  read- 
ing, the  translators  must  have  supposed  the  EI 2  TO  'EN  of  the 
8th  verse  to  be  equivalent  to  the  EN  of  the  7th  ;  for  all  the  ma- 
nuscrii>Ls,  which  retain  the  concluding  clauiie  of  the  8th  verse  (a 
very  large  portion  of  thcni  omitting  it),  read  tres  unttin  sttnt,  as 
in  the  7th  versc.^ 

4,  The  mttde  of  thinlnns;  and  diction  ts  peculiar  to  St.  John. 
No  other  nHW^elist  or  apostle  sjiealis  of  ihe  ivitness  of  the  Father 
vr  the  ILily  Spirit,  as  he  does  in  his  (rospcl ,-  ami  no  other  evan- 
gelist or  ajioslle  culls  the  Son  if  God  the  Wi):'.o. 

This  argument  has  been  strenuously  urgtd  by  Kettner,  Ben- 
gel,  and  otlier  zealous  advocates  for  the  disput<vl  clause.^  But,  on 
the  other  hand,  it  is  contended  that  there  is  no  such  identical  ex- 
pression in  the  whole  HiMe  besides ;  and  it  is  not  strictly  correct 
that  no  other  evangelist  calls  the  Son  of  God  the  Wouu,  because, 
as  We  have  already  seen,'"'  that  appellation  is  expressly  applied  to 
Jesus  Christ  by  Saint  Luke.   (i.  2.) 

.'j.  Further,  those  critics  who  advocate  the  genuineness  of 
this  text,  observe  that  omissions  in  ancient  manuscripts,  ver- 
sions, and  authors,  are  neither  absdute  contradictions,  nor 
direct  iin|)eaclirneiit3  of  facts.  They  only  supply  food  for 
coivjeclnre,  and  coiijectaral  criticism  ought  to  be  sparingly 
and  cautiously  applied  bi-fure  it  can  be  admitled  as  suflicit-nt 
authority  for  alli*nng  the  received  text.  Besides,  the  omis- 
sion In  the  present  case  may  be  satisfactorily  iiccounted  for, 
from  various  circtimstances.     Thus, 

(1.)  There  may  hiive  been  two  ediUunt  of  llijs  Kfiislle,  in 
the  Jirtt  of  ivhic/i  the  dihptited  cliivse  wan  omitted,  but  is  re- 
tained in  the  lecond  or  later  edition. 

Ttiis  hypothetia  was  first  announced  by  tlie  late  Mr.  Charles  T.iylur.i  tlic 

»  Sir  IrtiAc  Nfwton'a  HIsl.  of  Two  Tcttii.    Works,  vol.  v.  pp.  .'■,2<,  .''iZ). 
'  ''la'-.'icril  Jounial,  vol.  ii.  pp.  yii'J— b7l.    8c<;  also  Mr.  Nolaii'a  Iniiiijry, 

pp.  av).  ji>i. 

»  S.-..  Bi,|i„p  Midillclon  on  the  Crrck  Article,  pp.  633—653. 

•  Cimrt'Tly  Ilcvii-w,  vol.  xxvl.  p.  330 
_  »  III  »i)ji(i  iri  of  thir  .iliovi-  !ir;;iiiiiRnl,  Biifhop  IIiirsciiH  n.'frrs  to  Jolin  v.  31 
— .37.  viii  13  ami  xv.  i!t). ;  ninl  licfiTc  liiin,  f»rn'.itinr|i  (wlio  givrtt  up  ilio  <li8- 
putC'l  psHsujf  ail  Hpiirioiix)  hiicl  mndiilly  wii'l,  thm  Juliti  ln-ro  rofcrs  lo 
r;iri!i"M  ili«i'iiiiri4>-  in  John  v.  31— .00.,  coiiipnrr;il  with  Julin  viii  13.  Ifl.  ;  ami 
ulrlH,  ilml  whi-ii  .IfsuH  Clirlsl  had  ihi-re  luiiitht,  iKp  uposllu  wi.ihcd  lo  prove 
I')  lli.^  rf-adtTH  hy  (Ik-  Kaiii<'  nremnenli ;  which  licinij  the  cnm:  Iho  spvriilh 
vi?rsc  (il  Ih  Inferred)  could  not  he  wanting.  Dp.  Uurgcis's  Vindication,  p. 
ll.j.  ad  I'dit. 

«  Hop  p.  31 1.  notif  2.  of  the  present  voltiilft. 

'  t'alfuci's  Dictionaiy,  vol.  W.  (4th  cdiit.)  pp  281—238.  Fragment,  no. 
iicxxi. 


English  editor  of  Calmet's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible.    Accordingto  lusliypc- 
ihusis  verses  5 — 9.  of  1  John  v.  stood  llius  in  the  two  edition.s ; — 

FmST  EDITION.  SECOND  EDITION. 

Who  Is  he  lliat  overcornofh  Who  is  be  that  ovorrrmii'lh  llio  world, 
the  world,  unless  it  be  one  who  nrdfss  it  be  one  who  believes  that  Jcsiis  is 
t-.elieves  that  Jesus  is  the  rion  of  the  Son  of  God  1  This  is  he  who  came  by 
God  (  This  is  he  who  came  by  water  and  blood ;  Jesus  the  Chrisi ;  not 
water  and  blood;  Jesus  the  by  water  only,  but  by  w-ater  and  blood- 
Christ :  not  by  water  only,  but  hut  the  spirit  is  that  which  bearelh  wit- 
by  water  and  blood:  but  Ihe  ne«».  Tliey  which  bear  wiiiiess  then  on 
spirit  is  thai  which  bearelh  wit-  eurllt,  are  these  three  ;  Ihe  spirit,  and  the 
ncss.  Tliey  which  bear  wit-  water,  and  Ihe  blood  ;  aiid  these  iliree  aro  " 
ness,  then,  are  these  throe  ;  the  roiiibined  in  one.  Curri-spondeTilly,  those 
spirit,  and  the  water,  and  the  vh'.i  hear  tciliitss  in  Itenxcn,  are  three ; 
blood,  and  these  are  combined  the  Fa'.her,  ami  the  Word,  and  Ihe  Iloty 
in  one.  If  we  receive  Ihe  wit-  Spirit;  and  these  three  are  ihf  ose.  If 
ness  of  men,  the  wilnessof  God  we  receive  the  witness  of  men,  ihe  Wil- 
is greater;  and  assuredly  (lii.s  ness  of  God  is  greater,  nvd  assurei'lj- 
IS  llic  wiines.s  of  (Jod,  whicii  is  Ibis  is  the  witness  of  God  which  is  wit 
witnessed  of  his  Son,  Ac.  nessed  of  his  Son. 

From  Ibis  bvpothesis  il  is  impossible  to  wiihholil  the  praise  of  ingenuity  ; 
but  it  cannot  be  admitled  as  positive  eviclcnce  in  determinini;  the  CPnuiiie- 
ness  of  the  ili.<!j)iifed  clause,  from  Ihe  total  ab.sence  of  historical  or  even 
traditionary  testimony  lo  support  il. 

(2.)    The  ffreat  havoc  and  destntction  if  the  aficient  copies 

of  the  Greek  Testumcnt,  in  the  Dioc'esiiin  persecution  esf/e- 

ciuUy,  lehich  ra^ed  thi-ouffhont  the   Komati  empire,  as  Jar  as 

Hvitain,   but   was  lighter   in   .Africa,  prohahly    occasioned   a 

scarcity  of  ancient  Greek  copies  ;  and  left  the   remnant  more 

open  to  adulteration,  either  from  the  negligence  of  ti-aiiscri- 

bers,  or  the  fraud  of  heretics  ;  especially  during  the  presentence 

of  the  .^rian  heresy ' in   the    Greek   church,  for  forty  years, 

after  the  death  of  Constantine  the  Great  {jnirticularly  during 

the  reign  of  Co7istantius),  until  the  accession  of  Tltcodosivs 

the  Great, 

That  such  an  adulteration  of  t!ie  sacred  te.xt  might  take  place,  is  within 
the  verge  of  pos.sibilitv.  It  is,  however,  all  but  iiiorally  impos.^ible  that 
il  coidd  lake  place  without  deteciion  ;•  for  how  is  il  possible  that  the 
Arians  could  consi)ire  all  the  world  over,  n/o?i(P,  in  the  laller  lud  of  Con. 
stantius's  reinn,  to  pet  into  iheir  possession  all  the  copies  of  the  New  T<-s- 
lament  then  in  bi'iiia,  and  correct  tlnin  tlo  oushnvl,  without  being  per- 
ceived 1  And  ih.il  they  ahould  accomplish  IIiIh  in  siicii  a  way  as  lo  leave 
no  blot  or  chasm  in  such  copie.i,  by  whic;h  the  fraud  mii;hl  be  su.<pecled  or 
discovered;  further,  that  tbey  shiiild  .succeed  in  so  utterly  elTacin!;  the 
very  memory  of  il,  that  neither  .\tliana.siu3  nor  any  other  of  their  contem- 
poraries couid  afterward.s  remember  th.il  tbey  bad  ever  before  seen  il  in 
their  sacred  books;  .•md.  finally,  that  they  slionld  erase  it  out  of  their  ov.u 
copies,  so  Ihal  when  they  tnnied  to  ihe  consubslantial  faith  (as  tliey  gene- 
rally  did  in  the  western  empire  soon  after  the  death  of  ConsLantius),  tluy 
Could  remeuiber  no  more  of  it  than  any  other  person.' 

(3.)    The  Jlrians  might  have  designedly  expunged  it,  as 

being  iiumical  to  their  doctrine. 

The  cbarjje  of  havinj;  cxpun<;ed  this  pa.-i'^age  lias  been  iirouglit  agaiiHt 
the  Arians  only  in  inoilern  limes  ;  but  il  in  indignan'ly  ri  pilii  d  by  l)r.  Mdl 
(an  advocate  for  the  dispuled  clause),  v.'bo  asks,  How  sliould  ihe  Ariuns 
expunije  these  words,  which  were  out  already,  one  hundred  ami  fil'ly  years 
before  Ariiis  was  born  1  To  wliich  we  may  add  that  il  is  utterly  increilibin 
that  the  orthodo.v  should  have  been  so  careless,  as  to  have  a!l"W«'d  l\\>: 
Arians  lo  get  possession  of  all  their  copies,  I'oi  the  purpose  of  expiingitig 
the  words  in  question. 

(4.)    JVie  orthodox  themselves  might  have  designedly  -with' 

dvaivn  it   out  of  regard  to  the  mystery  of  the    Trinity,  under 

the  persnnsion  that  such  a  passage  as   1  John  v.   7.  ought  tiot 

to  be  exposed  to  every  reader. 

Without  examining  the  strength  or  weakness  of  this  and  the  preceding 
rei.son,  Micbaelis  observes,  that  such  causes,  though  lUpy  trn'ght  have  pn)- 
duced  the  oiiiissioii  of  the  pns.sai;e  in  »u»)f  .copies,  could  vol  [lossibly  have 
occasioned  il  in  ail  the  .incieiit  Greek  iiianuscripis,  and  in  all  the  ancient 
Versions,  except  the  L.alin.  Hesides,  tbey  are  wholly  foreimi  lo  Ihc  present 
purpose  :  they  do  not  tend  to  show  the  audieiilicily  of  I  .lohn  v.  7.  but 
account  merely  for  its  omission,  on  the  previous  siipiiosiiion  that  It  is 
authentic.  Hiil  thin  is  the  thing  lo  be  jiroved.  And  it  is  surely  absurd  to 
aicounl  for  the  omi.ssion  of  a  p:issa::e  in  Saint  John's  fir.sl  Kpislle  before  it 
has  been  shown  that  the  Epislle  ever  coninined  It.  'S'.ippose,"  he  con. 
Ilniies,  "  I  were  to  cite  a  man  before  a  court  <•(  Jii.stice,  and  demand  froiri 
biina  sum  of  money,  that  on  luing  a^^ked  by  the  magistrate,  wliether  1  Ind 
any  hond  lo  produce  in  support  of  the  demand.  I  answered,  that  I  had 
indeed  no  bond  lo  proiluce,  but  that  a  bonil  might  have  lii'eii  very  easily 
lost  during  the  troubles  of  the  late  war.  In  this  case,  if  the  inagislrntc 
should  ailmit  the  validity  of  the  deinaml,  and  oblige  the  accused  party  to 
pay  the  sum  reipiired,  every  man  woulil  conclude  nol-so  much  that  ho  was 
unjust,  as  that  iiis  menial  facnllief;  were  derangi  il-  Hut  is  not  this  case 
similar  to  Ihe  case  of  those  who  contend  that  I  John  v.  7.  is  eennine, 
because  it  niicht  have  been  losl  1  In  fad,  their  siluation  Is  still  worse, 
since  the  loss  of  a  single  manuscript  is  much  more  credible  than  the  loss 
of  one  and  the  same  passage  in  more  than  eighty  maniiBcripts."* 

(."J.)  The  negligence  of  transcribers  may  have  caused  the 
omission  of  the  disputed  clause.  The  an-rnth  verse  begin*  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  eighth  ;  and  thertfore  the  transcribert 
might  easily  have  overlooked  tlie  seventh  verse,  and  cause- 
(juently  have  omitted  it  by  accident. 

The  following  illustnition  will  ctinble  the  reader  who  under- 

stands  no  other  language  but  English,  readily  to  apprehend  how 

the  words  came  to  be  omitteil : — 

The  word  which  In  the  seventh  verse  Is  rendered  hear  record,  and  in  tho 
eighth  ttfar  iritnest,  is  the  same  in  Greek  (}•'  /•.t^iuf ivi>ti,-)  ;  and  if  It  had 


•  Hewlett's  Commentary,  toI.  v 

•  Michaelis's  lutjroductiun,  vol.  I 


p.  .'■flfl  8vo.  edit. 
v.  p.  134. 


SjicT.  v.] 


ON  THE   FIRST  GENERAL  EPISTLE  OF  JOHN. 


375 


been  translated  in  both  verses  alike,  as  it  ought  to  have  been,  the  two 
verses  would  have  run  thus : — 

FOR  THERE  ASE  TIISEE  THAT  EEA.I  WfTNESS 
IN  HEAVEN,  THE  FATHER,  THE  WORD,  AND  TUB 
HOLV  GHOST,  AND  THESE  THREE  ARE  ONE. 
AND  THERE  ARE  THREE  THAT  BEAR  WITNESS 
IN  EARTH,  THE  SPIRIT,  THE  WATER,  AND  THE 
BLOOD,  AND  THESE  THREE  AGREE  IN  ONE. 

Now,  how  easy  it  is,  for  one  who  is  transcribing,  and  perhaps  in  haste,  to 
Blip  liis  eye  from  the  words  there  are  three  that  bear  witness  in  the  "111 
verse,  to  the  same  words  there  are  three  that  bear  witness  in  the  8lh 
verso  any  person  may  easily  conceive  who  has  been  accustomed  to  tran- 
scribing himself,  or  who  has  ever  read  and  observed  the  transcripts  of 
others,  or  has  been  much  employed  in  correcting  the  press.  Siiiiiiar 
omissions  frequently  occur  in  iVIiU's  and  Griesbacli's  critical  editions  of  t!ie 
Now  Testament.  F'or  where  the  beginning  and  ending  of  two  sentences, 
within  a  line  or  two,  happen  to  be  alike,  the  copyists  so  frequently  omit  the 
former,  tliat  if  the  text  under  dispute  had  been  found  in  all  the  manuscripts 
and  copies,  we  should  have  had  a  great  deal  more  reason  to  wonder  than 
we  has'e  now,  that  it  appears  in  so  few.  Let  it  be  granted,  therefore,  that 
an  omission  of  the  intermediate  words  might  naturally  happen  ;  yet  still, 
the  appearing  of  the  omission,  both  early  and  wide,  proves  no  more  than 
that  the  words  happened  to  be  early  dropped,  and  overlooked  in  some 
still  more  early  copy.  It  might  be  dropped,  for  any  tiling  we  know,  out  of 
a  copy  taken  immediately  from  the  original  of  Saint  John  hiniself.  And 
then,  most  assuredly,  all  future  transcripts,  mediately  or  immediately  de- 
rived from  that  cripy,  must  continue,  at  least,  as  imperfect  and  faulty  as 
that  lirst  copy  itself.  And  if  there  should  have  been  but  few  copies  taken 
from  the  original  in  all  (and  who  will  pretend  to  say  how  many  were  really 
taken  !)•  it  is  no  wonder  that  while  some  churches,  as  tho.se,  for  instance. 
In  Africa  and  Europe  (wliilherthe  perfect  copies  had  been  carried),  had 
the  true  I'cading,  other  churches  in  Asia  and  the  East,  from  an  imperfect 
copy,  should  transmit  an  imperfect  reading. 

(6.)  Several  of  the  early  fathers  may  have  designedly  omit- 
ted to  quote  the  clause  in  question,  from  considering  it  as  a 
proof  of  the  unity  of  the  testimony  of  the  heavenly  luitnesses 
to  the  J\Iessiahship  of  Christ,  and  7iot  of  the  unity  of  their  na- 
ture, and  consequently  not  releva7it  to  the  controversies  in  -which 
those  -writers  -were  engaged. 

(7.)  The  silence  of  several  of  the  earlier  Greek  fathers  is 
no  proof  at  all  that  their  copies  of  the  Greek  Testament  wanted 
the  clause  in  question  ;  since  in  their  controversies  they  have 
omitted  to  quote  other  texts  referring  to  the  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity,  -with  which  other  parts  of  their  writings  show  that 
they  must  have  been  well  acquainted.  Besides,  the  silence  of 
several  of  the  fathers  is  more  than  compensated  by  the  total 
silence  of  all  the  heretics  or  false  teachers,  at  least  from  the 
days  of  Praxeas  (^in  the  second  century'),  who  never  charged 
the  orthodox  fathers  of  being  guilty  of  interpolation. 

Let  us  now  briefly  recapitulate  the  evidence  on  this  much 
litigated  question. 

I.  Against  the  genuineness  of  the  disputed  clause,  it  is 
urged,  that 

I.  It  is  not  to  be  found  in  a  single  Greek  manuscript,  written 
before  the  sixteenth  century. 

2j  It  is  wanting  in  the  earUcst  and  best  critical  editions  of  the 
Greek  Testament. 

3.  It  is  contained  in  the  manuscripts  of  no  other  ancient  ver- 
sion besides  the  Latin  ;  and 

4.  Not  all  the  manuscripts  even  of  the  Latin  version  contain 
this  clause. 

If  is  win'ing  in  upward.?  of  forty  of  the  oldest  Laiin  manuscripts,  and  in 
other  MSS.  it  is  found  only  in  the  margin,  evidently  inserted  by  a  later 
lw)ul;  and  even  in  those  manuscripts  which  do  contain  it.  this  passage  is 
variously  placed,  sometimes  before  and  sometimes  after  the  earthly  wit- 
nesses. 

5.  It  i.?  not  once  quoted  in  the  genuine  works  of  any  one  of 
the  Greek  fathers,  or  early  ecclesiastical  writers,  even  in  those 
places  where  we  should  most  expect  it. 

6.  It  is  not  once  quoted  by  any  of  the  Latiir  fathers,  even 
where  the  subject  of  which  they  were  treating  required  ;  and 
where,  consequently,  we  should  expect  to  see  it  cited. 

■/.  The  Protestant  Reformers  either  rejected  it,  or  at  least  mark- 
ed it  as  doubtful. — On  the  other  hand, 

II.  In  BEHALF  of  the  genuineness  of  the  disputed  clause,  it 
is  co7itended,  that 

(1.)  External  Evidence. 

1.  It  is  found  in  the  Latin  version  which  was  current  in  Africa 
before  the  Latin  Vulgate  version  was  made,  and  also  in  most 
manuscripts  of  the  Vulgate  version. 

But 
account 
has  undergone 

2.  It  is  found  in  the  Confession  of  Faith,  and  Liturgy  of  the 
Greek  church. 

3.  It  is  found  in  the  Primitive  Liturgy  of  the  Latin  church. 

But  it  Is  very  prol)able  that  the  clause  in  question  was  interpolated  from 
the  liturgy  of  the  Latin  church  into  that  of  the  Greek  church  by  some  of 
the  Creek  clergy,  who  were  devoted  partisans  of  the  Romish  church,  in 


the  authority  of  these  manuscripts  is  ju.'tly  to  be  suspected,  on 
It  of  the  many  alterations  and  corruptions  which  the  Vulgate  version 


the  fourteenth  or  fifteenth  century,  at  which  time  the  majority  of  the  com- 
mon people,  from  the  ignorance  which  at  that  time  generally  prevailed 
throughout  Europe,  were  incapable  of  detecting  the  imposition. 

4.  It  is  cited  by  numerous  Latin  fathers. 

The  contrary  is  maintained  by  the  antagonists  of  the  disputed  clause  ' 
and  in  pp.  371—373.  wo  have  shown  that  the  authorities  of  TertuUian, 
Cyprian,  Jerome,  and  the  African  bishops,  which  have  principally  been 
relied  on,  are  inapplicable  to  prove  the  point  for  which  they  have  beea 
adduced. 

(2.)   Internal  Evidence. 

1.  The  connection  of  the  disputed  clause  requires  its  insertion, 
inasmuch  as  the  sense  is  not  perfect  without  it. 

This  argument  is  rcbiitted  by  the  fact  that  the  context  admits  of  an  expo- 
sition, which  makes  the  sense  complete  tnthuut  the  disputed  clause. 

2.  The  grammatical  structure  of  the  original  Greek  requires 
the  insertion  of  the  seventh  verse,  and  consequently  that  it  should 
be  received  as  genuine. 

Otherwise  the  latter  part  of  the  eighth  verse,  the  authenticity  of  which 
was  never  questioned  (as  indeed  it  cannot  be,  being  found  in  every  known 
manuscript  that  is  extant),  must  likewise  be  rejected. 

3.  The  doctrine  of  the  Greek  article,  which  is  found  in  both 
verses,  is  such,  that  both  must  be  retained,  or  both  must  be 
rejected. 

4.  The  mode  of  thinking  and  diction  is  peculiar  to  St.  John. 

To  this  it  is  replied,  that  there  is  no  such  identical  expression  in  the 
whole  Bible,  besides  1  John  v.  7. 

5.  The  omission  of  this  clause  mav  be  satisfactorily  accounted 
for.     Thus 

(1.)  There  may  have  been  two  editions  of  this  epistle,  in  the  first  of 
which  the  disputed  clause  was  omitted,  though  it  is  retained  in  the 
second. 

(2.)  Ttie  great  scarcity  of  ancient  Greek  copies,  caused  by  the  perse- 
cutions of  the  Christians  by  the  Roman  emperors,  would  leave  the 
rest  open  to  the  negligence  of  copyists  or  to  the  frauds  of  false 
teachurs. 

(3.)  The  Arians  might  have  designedly  expunged  it,  as  being  inimical  to 
their  doctrine. 

(4  )  The  orthodox  themselves  might  have  designedly  withdrawn  it  out  of 
regard  to  the  mystei'y  of  the  Trinity. 

(5.)  The  negligence  of  transcribers  is  a  cause  of  other  omissions. 

(0.)  5>everal  of  the  fathers  may  have  designedly  omitted  the  clause  in 
question. 

(7.)  The  silence  of  several  of  the  Greek  fathers  is  no  proof  that  their 
copies  of  the  Greek  Testcment  wanted  the  clause  in  question  ;  since, 
in  their  controversies  respecting  the  Trinity,  they  have  omitted  to 
quote  other  te.xtswith  which  tli^y  must  have  been  well  acquainted. 

Upon  a  review  of  all  the  preceding  arguments,  the  disputed 
clause  (we  thinlcj  must  be  abandoned  as  spurious ;  nor  can 
any  thing  less  trian  the  positive  autliority  of  unstmpected 
manuscripts  justify  the  admission  of  so  important  a  passage 
into  the  sacred  canon.  Much  stress,  it  is  true,  has  been  la'id 
upon  some  points  in  the  internal  evidence,  and  particularly 
the  supposed  grammatical  arguments  (Nos.  2.  and  3.),  and 
the  reasons  assigned  for  the  omission  of  this  clause.  Bu 
some  of  these  reasons  have  been  shown  to  be  destitute  of 
the  support  alleged  in  their  behalf;  and  the  remainder  are 
wholly  hypothetical,  and  unsustained  by  any  satisfactory 
evidence.  "Internal  evidence,"  indeed  (as  Bishop  Marsh 
forcibly  argues),  "  may  show  that  a  passage  is  spurious, 
though  external  evidence  is  in  its  favour ;  for  instance,  if  it 
contain  allusions  to  things  which  did  not  exist  in  the  time  cf 
the  reputed  author.     But  no  internal  evidence  can  prove 

A    PASSAGE    TO    BE    GENUINE,    WHEN    EXTERNAL    EVIDENCE    IS 

DECIDEDLY  AGAINST  IT.  A  spurious  passage  may  be  fitted  to 
the  context  as  well  as  a  genuine  passage.  No  arguments, 
therefore,  from  internal  evidence,  however  ingenious  they 
may  appear,  can  outweigh  the  mass  of  external  evidence 
which  applies  to  the  case  in  question."^ 

But,  although  the  disputed  clause  is  confessedly  spurious, 
its  absence  neither  does  nor  can  diminish  the  weight  of  irre- 
sistible EVIDENCE  w  hich  othcr  undisputed  passages  of  Holy 
Vv'rit  afford  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity .2  The  proofs  of 
our  Lord's  true  and  proper  Godhead  remain  unshaken — 
deduced  from  the  prophetic  descriptions  of  the  Messiah's 

«  Bp.  Marsh's  Lectures,  part  vi.  p.  27.  Bi.shop  Burgess  has  argued,  at 
considerable  length,  in  favour  of  the  superiority  of  internal  evidence,  eveu 
when  the  external  evidence  is  decidedly  against  a  passage.  (Vindication, 
pp.  xxix. — xxxiv.)  His  arguments  are  minutely  considered,  and  (it  must, 
we  think,  be  admitted)  set  aside,  by  Crito  Caiitabrigiensis.  (Vindication  of 
iNIr.  Person's  Literary  Character,  pp.  75 — 84.) 

»  On  this  subject  the  reader  is  referred  to  a  small  volume  by  the  author 
of  this  work,  entitled.  The  Scripture  Doctrine  of  the  Trinity  briejly  stated 
and  defended,  &c.  (Second  edition,  12mo.,  London,  1826.)  in  the  appendix 
to  that  volume  he  has  exhibited  the  very  strong  collateral  testimony,  fur- 
nished to  the  scrijitural  evidence  of  this  doctrine,  by  the  actual  profession 
of  faith  in,  and  worship  of,  Jesus  Christ  and  the  Holy  Spirit,  as  well  as  of 
God  the  Father,  by  the  Christian  church  in  every  age  ;  together  with  other 
documents  illustrative  of  this  important  truth  of  divine  revelation,  derived 
from  ecclesiastical  history  and  the  writings  of  the  fathers  of  the  first  thr«j 
centuries  of  the  Christian  xra 


376 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  VI.  Chap.  IV, 


person  in  the  Old  Testament — from  the  ascription  to  him  of 
the  attributes,  the  works,  and  the  homage,  winch  are  peculiar 
to  the  Dfciiy — and  from  those  numerous  and  important  re- 
lations, which  he  is  affirmed  in  Scripture  to  sustam  towards 
his  holy  and  universal  church,  and  towards  each  of  its  true 
members.  "  There  are,"  to  adopt  the  deliberate  judgment 
of  Griesbach,  "so  many  arguments  for  the  true  Deity  of 
Christ,  that  I  see  not  how  it  can  be  called  in  question ;  the 
divine  authority  of  Scripture  being  granted,  and  just  rules  of 
interpretation  acknowledged.  The  exwdium  of  Saint  Juhii's 
Goijid,  in  particular,  is  fo  perspicuous  and  above  all  exception, 
that  it  NEVER  can  be  overtximed  by  the  during  attacks  of  inter- 
vretcrs  and  critics,  and  taken  away  from  the  d' fenders  of  the 
truth:'i 


SECTION  VI. 

O.V    THE    SECOND    AND   THIRD    EPISTLE?    OF    JOHN. 

I.  Genuineness,  nitthenticitij,  and  date  of  these  EpistL's. — Q. 
The  second  Epistle,  to  -whom  addressed. — III.  Its  scope. — 
IV.  The  third  Epistle,  to  whom  addressed. — V.  Its  scope. 
— VI.   Observations  on  this  Epistle, 

1.  Although,  in  the  fourth  century,  when  Eusebius  wrote 
his  ecclesiastical  history,  these  two  Epistles  were  classed 
among  the  Avto.sj cur/a  or  hooks  which  were  received  b}'  the 
majority  of  Christians  (tliough  some  doubts  were  entertained 
by  ot'.iers  respecting  their  authenticity^  j'et  testimonies  are 
irot  wanting  to  prove  that  they  were  both  known  and  received 
as  jgennine  productions  of  the  apostle  John.  The  second 
Epistle  is  cited  by  Irenasus,  anci  received  by  Clement  of 
Alexanaria.  Origt  n  mentions  all  three  Epistles,  though  he 
^ays  that  the  second  and  third  were  not  allowed  to  be  Genuine 
by  all  persons.  Dionvsius  of  Alexandria  mentions  them  as 
being  ascribed  to  St.  John.  The  second  Epistle  was  quoted 
by  Alexander  bisfiop  of  Alexandria;  and  all  three  Epistles 
were  received  by  Athanasius,  by  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  by  Epi- 
phanius,  Jerome  (a  few  of  whose  contemporaries  doubted  the 
authenticity  of  these  Epistles"),  Rufinus,  and  almost  every 
subsequent  vrriter  of  note.^  They  are  not,  indeed,  received 
in  the  Syrian  churches  ;  but  the  thoughts  and  style  are  so 
similar  to  those  of  the  first  Epistle,^  that  almost  all  critics 
attribute  them  to  the  author  of  the  first  Epistle,  namely,  John ; 
and  they  were,  in  all  probability,  written  about  the  same  time 
as  that  Epistle,  viz.  a.  d.  G8  or  09.  Consequently  these 
Epistles  could  not  have  been  written  by  John  the  elder,  a 
member  of  the  Ephesian  church,  as  some  of  the  fathers,  and 
also  some  modern  critics,  have  imagined.  Various  reasons 
have  been  assigned  why  these  two  Epistles  were  not 
received  earlier  into  the  canon.  Michaehs  is  disposed  to 
think  that  doubt  was  excited  concerning  their  genuineness 
by  the  address,  in  which  the  author  neither  calls  himself 
John,  nnr  assumes  the  title  of  an  apostle,  but  simply  names 
himself  the  "elder"  (o  TftrySi/Tf^,-) ;  as  Saint  Peter  (1.  ch.  v. 
1.)  styles  himself  a  "fellow  elder"  (s-u/zTfi-^iyTv-cf),  which 
title,  after  Peter's  death,  the  apostle  John  might  with  great 
propriety  assume,  as  being  the  only  remaining  apostle.  It 
IS,  however,  most  probable  that,  oeing  letters  to  private 
persons,  they  had  for  a  considerable  time  been  kept  in  the 
possession  of  the  families  to  whom  they  were  originally  sent, 
and  were  not  discovered  till  long  after  the  apostle's  decease, 
and  after  the  death  of  the  persons  to  whom  they  had  been 
Addressed.  When  first  discovered,  all  the  immediate 
vouchers  for  their  genuineness  were  necessarily  gone;  and 
the  church  of  Christ,  ever  on  its  guard  against  imposture, 
particularly  in  relation  to  writings  professing  to  be  the  work 
of  apostles,  hesitated  to  receive  tin  m  into  the  number  of 
canonical  Scriptures,  until  it  was  fully  ascertained  that  they 
were  divinely  inspired. 

II.  (,'onsi(icrable  imccrtainty  prevails  respecting  the  person 
to  whom  the  second  Epistle  was  addressed,  some  conjecturing 

'  Atfino  siinl  profecto  (am  mnlta  ct  Iiirul'-nta  arpiimrnla  pt  fcriprurtp 
loca,  r|iiiliii3  vira  DrltHB  f'hristo  viruliraliir,  ut  cifo  r|iiiili.-iii  inli'lliit'Tc  vix 
possini  qiiomoili),  ronci-.^sri  Scriptiira'  Sacrsr  iliviiift  aiutinit.-ili;  ct  ailnii.ssis 
jURtis  iri(i'r|irctaiiili  rrgiiliH,  iloKuia  tmc  in  (liit)imni't<|iKi(|iiain  voi-iirl  )>iissr. 
In  pririiiM  locus  ill«,  Jnh.  i.  I,  2,3.,  tain  pnrHpicuiis  cut,  ahim-  oninilins  ex- 
cptionilulM  rnnjur,  ut  nr'fiiK  inlerprelum,  ncr/ue  crilicnrum  niulacihun 
conatihns  v^iX^iAM  evrrii  iitqur  verttnlit  d'JeniuTihua  eri/n  jtostil.  Nov. 
IVsi  t'lin.  ii.  Priff  pp.  viii.  ix.  Hula;,  177I>. 

»  S<>i-  the  rcfcr<;ncoH  Id  the  above. naincil  Cithers  in  Dr.  I..ar(hier'«  Works, 
8vo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  &H1— Tk^O.  ;  4ln,  vol.  ill.  pp.  .'ivS,  5J0. 

»  Dr.  Mill,  anil  after  liiin  Dr.  Lanliicr,  ohstrvc,  that,  of  the  thirteen  vcrnes 
rnmposinK  'he  Rocon<l  E])isile,  eight  are  to  be  fouivi  In  (lie  firaL  aiiiier  In 
sense  ur  in  expressibn. 


a  particular  person  to  be  intended,  while  others  understand  it 
figuratively,  as  of  the  church.  The  ancient  commentators 
supposed  it  to  be  figurative,  but  most  of  the  modern  commen- 
tators and  critics  understand  it  literally,  though  they  do  not 
agree  in  their  literal  interpretation.  Archbishop  Newcome, 
Wakefield,  Macknight,  and  the  venerable  translators  of  our 
authorized  version,  make  ExxotTx  to  be  an  adjective,  and  render 
the  inscription  "  To  the  elect  (or  excellent,  or  chosen)  Lady ;" 
the  Vulgate  version,  Calmet,  and  others,  consider  Ek>.«xt;i  to 
be  a  proper  name,  and  translate  it  "To  the  Lady  Electa;" 
J.  B.  Carpzov,  Schleusner,  and  Rosenmuller  take  Kuptu  to  be 
a  proper  name,  and  the  Epistle  to  be  addressed  to  Cyria,  oi 
Kyria,^  the  Elect,  and  Michaelis  conjectures  Kupn.  to  be  an 
ellipsis  of  Kvptu.  Ekhkhitiu,  which,  among  the  ancient  Greeks, 
signified  an  assembly  of  the  people  held  at  a  stated  time, 
and  was  held  at  Athens  three  times  in  every  month ;  and 
that,  since  the  sacred  writers  adopted  the  term  Ekio^uo-ix  from 
its  civil  use  among  the  Greeks,  Kupi*  Exx\*j-ii  might  heie 
mean  the  stated  assembly  of  the  Christians,  held  every  Sun- 
day ;  and  thus  t»  aKoirii  nvpM,  with  ocxxhj-.x  understood,  would 
signify,  "To  the  elect  church  or  community  which  comes 
together  on  Sundays."  He  admits,  however,  that  he  knows 
not  of  any  instance  of  such  ellipsis;  and  Bishop  Middleton 
does  not  think  that  this  explanation  can  be  very  easily  esta- 
blished. Of  these  various  hypotheses,  the  most  probable 
opinion  is  that  which  considers  the  Epistle  as  addressed  to 
the  Lady  Electa,  who  is  supposed  to  have  been  an  eminent 
Christian  matron :  what  confirms  this  opinion  is,  that  the 
Greek  article  is  absent,  which  would  have  been  absolutely 
necessary  if  the  inscription  had  been  "  To  the  elect  Lady,"  or 
to  "  Kyria  the  Elect.'' 

III.  The  SECOND  Epistle  of  John  is  an  epitome  of  the  first, 
and  touches,  in  few  words,  on  the  same  points.  The  "  Lady 
Electa"  is  commended  for  her  virtuous  and  religious  educa- 
tion of  her  children;  and  is  exhorted  to  abide  in  the  doctrine 
of  Christ,  to  persevere  in  the  tnith,  and  carefully  to  avoid  the 
delusions  of  false  teachers.  But  chiefly  the  apostle  beseeches 
this  Christian  matron  to  practise  the  great  and  indispensable 
commandment  of  Christian  love  and  charity. 

IV.  The  THIRD  Epistle  of  John  is  addressed  to  a  converted 
Gentile,  a  respectable  member  of  some  Christian  church, 
called  Caius;  but  who  he  was  is  extremely  uncertain,  as 
there  are  three  persons  of  this  name  mentioned  in  the  New 
Testament,  viz.  1.  Gaius  of  Corinth  (1  Cor.  i.  14.);  whom 
Paul  calls  his  "  host,  and  the  host  of  the  whole  church" 
(Rom.  xvi.  23.) ;  2.  Gaius,  a  native  of  Macedonia,  who  ac- 
companied Paul,  and  spent  some  time  with  him  at  Ephesus 
(Acts  xix.  29.)  ;  3.  Caius  of  Derbe  (Acts  xx.  4.),  who  also 
was  a  fellow-traveller  of  Paul.  Michaelis  and  most  modern 
critics  suppose  the  person  to  whom  this  Epistle  was  addrcs.s- 
ed  to  be  the  Caius  of  Corinth,  as  hosniiality  was  a  leading 
feature  in  his  character.  His  hospitable  temiier,  particularly 
towards  the  ministers  of  the  Gospel,  is  strongly  marked  in  the 
fifth,  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  verses  of  this  Epistle. 

V.  The  Scope  of  this  Epistle  is  to  commend  his  steadfist- 
ness  in  the  faith  and  his  general  hospitality,  especially  to  the 
ministers  of  Christ;  to  caution  him  against  the  ambitious 
and  turbulent  practices  of  Diotrephes,  and  to  recommend 
Demetrius  to  his  friendship;  referring  what  he  further  had 
to  say  to  a  personal  interview. 

VI.  Commentators  are  by  no  means  agreed  who  this  Dio- 
trf  phcs  was.  Bede,  Erasmus,  Michaelis,  and  others,  suppose 
him  to  have  been  the  author  of  a  new  sect,  and  that,  as  he 
delivered  false  doctrines,  he  objected  to  those  who  jjaipagated 
the  true  faith.  Grolius,  Le  Clerc,  and  Beausobre  imagined 
that  he  was  a  Gentile  convert  who  would  not  receive  Jewish 
Christians.  But  it  is  most  probable  that  he  was  an  ambitious 
elder  or  bishop  in  the  church  of  which  (iaius  was  a  member, 
and  that,  having  been  converted  from  Judaism,  he  opposed 
the  admission  of  the  Gentiles,  and  set  himself  up  as  the 
head  of  a  party  in  opposition  to  the  apostles.  If  (as  we  sup- 
pose) the  Gaius  to  whom  this  Epistle  was  addressed  was 
the  generous  "  host  of  the  church  at  ('orinth,"  it  is  possible 
that  Ibis  Diotrephes  might  have  been  the  leading  opponent  of 
Saint  Paul  in  that  city,  whom  he  forbore  to  name  out  of  de- 
licacy, though  he  censured  hisconducU  See  I  Cor.  iii.  ^ — 
5.  iv.  n.,  &c. 

Demetrius,  who  is  so  highly  commended  by  the  apostle  in 

«  ABtheSyriac  name  Mirllia  1»  of  the  sain(>  import  as  Kv^u,  f-'arpzov 
conjectured  that  this  epiKlle  was  a>l<tre«»e(l  to  the  sislor  of  Ijizarus,  and 
that  she  rliaii|t<<l  her  name  from  Martha  to  Kyrin  or  Cyria,  aftfr  the  jicrso- 
culioii  of  the  riiunh  whirh  followed  the  martyrdom  of  Stephen,  lor  the 
security  of  her  person.  The  conji-rlur.-  is  Ingenious,  but  is  nol  sucoortod 
b    any  authority.    EpisL  Caih.  SeutcDarius,  p  18& 


Sect.  VII.] 


ON  THE  GENERAL  EPISTLE  OF  JUDE. 


377 


this  Epistle,  is  thougrht  to  have  held  some  sacred  office  in  the 
church  of  which  Gdus  was  a  member;  but  this  opinion  is 
rejected  by  Dr.  Benson,  because  on  that  supposition  Gains 
must  have  known  him  so  well,  as  to  need  no  information 
concerning  his  character  from  the  apostle.  He  therefore  be- 
lieved him  to  have  been  the  bearer  of  this  letter,  and  one  of 
the  brethren  who  went  forth  to  preach  to  the  Gentiles.  With 
this  conjecture  RosenmuUer  coincides.  Calmet  supposes 
that  he  was  a  member  of  the  same  church  as  Gaius,  whose 
piety  and  hospitality  he  imitated.  But  whoever  Demetrius 
was,  his  character  and  deportment  were  the  reverse  of  the 
character  and  conduct  of  Diotrephes ;  for  the  apostle  speaks 
of  the  former  as  bavins  a  good  testimony  from  all  men,  and 
whose  temper  and  behaviour  were  in  every  respect  conform- 
able to  the  precepts  of  the  Gospel,  and  therefore  Saint  John 
recommends  him  as  an  example  to  Gaius,  and  the  other 
members  of  the  church  to  which  he  belonged.* 


SECTION  vn. 


ON  THE   GENERAL   EPISTLE    OF   JUDE. 

r.  Accov.t  of  the  author. — IL  Genuineness  and  mithenticity. — 
III.  Date. — IV.  Of  the  persons  to  -whom  this  Epistle  -ivas 
addressed, — V.  Its  occasion  and  scope. — VI.  Observations 
on  its  style. 

T.  JuDE  or  Judas,  who  was  surnamed  Thaddeus  and  Leb- 
brus,  and  was  also  called  the  brother  of  our  Lord  (Matt.  xiii. 
55.),  was  the  son  of  Alpheus,  brother  of  James  the  Less, 
iind  one  of  the  twelve  apostles.  We  are  not  informed  when 
or  how  he  was  called  to  the  apostleship;  and  there  is  scarce- 
ly any  mention  of  him  in  the  New  Testament,  except  in  the 
different  catalogues  of  the  twelve  apostles.  The  only  parti- 
cular incident  related  concerning  Jude  is  to  be  found  m  John 
xiv.  21 — 23. ;  where  we  read  that  he  addressed  the  following 
question  to  his  DiMne  Master — Lord .'  how  is  it  thai  thou  wilt 
manifest  thyself  unto  us,  and  not  unto  the  world?  Full  of 
ideas  of  temporal  grandeur  and  universal  monarchy,  he  could 
not  imagine  how  our  Saviour  could  establish  a  kingdom  with- 
out manifesting  it  to  the  world : — a  proof  how  much  this 
apostle  was  actuated  by  Jewish  prejudices,  and  what  delusive 
hopes  he  cherished,  in  common  with  all  the  other  apostles, 
of  soon  beholding  his  Master  erect  a  powerful  and  magnificent 
empire. 

As  Jude  continued  with  the  rest  of  the  apostles  after  our 
Lord's  resurrection  and  ascension  (Acts  i.  13.),  and  was  with 
them  on  the  day  of  Pentecost  (ii.  1.),  it  is  not  unreasonable 
to  suppose,  that  after  having  received  the  extraordinary  gifts 
of  the  Holy  Spirit,  he  preached  the  Gospel  for  some  time  in 
Judffia,  and  performed  miracles  in  the  name  of  Christ.  And 
as  his  life  seems  to  have  been  prolonged,  it  is  probable  that 
he  afterwards  quitted  Judaea,  and  preached  the  Gospel  to  Jews 
and  Gentiles,  m  other  countries.  It  has  been  said  that  he 
preached  in  Arabia,  Syria,  Mesopotamia,  and  Persia,  and  that 
he  suffered  martyrdom  in  the  last  mentioned  country.  The 
Syrians  still  claim  him  as  their  apostle ;  but  we  have  no  ac- 
count of  his  travels  upon  which  we  can  rely,  and  it  may  even 
be  questioned  whether  he  was  a  martyr.^ 

II.  In  the  early  ages  of  Christianity  the  Epistle  of  Jude 
was  rejected  by  several  persons,  because  the  apocryphal 
books  of  Enoch,  and  of  the  Ascension  of  Moses,  were  sup- 
posed to  be  quoted  in  it ;  and  Michaelis  has  rejected  it  as 
spurious.  We  have,  however,  the  most  satisfactory  evi- 
dences of  the  authenticity  of  this  Epistle.     It  is  found  in  all 

«  Michaelis,  vol.  iv.  pp.  442^156.  Lardner,  Svo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  584 — 607. ;  4to. 
vol.  iii.  pp.  425—437.  Benson  on  the  Catholic  Epistles,  pp.  663—680.  Buddei 
Ecclesia  Apostolica,  pp.  314—316.  Dr  Hales's  Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol. 
ii.  book  ii.  pp.  1150—1152.  Bishop  Middleton  on  the  Greek  Article,  pp.  653 
—656.  (first  edition.)  Larape,  in  Evang.  Joannis,  torn.  i.  pp.  111—115.  Pritii, 
Introd.  in  Nov.  Test.  pp.  109,  110. 

«  It  is  more  certain  that  Jude  was  a  married  man,  and  had  children  ;  for 
Eusebius  relates,  on  the  authority  of  the  ecclesiastical  historian  Hegesip- 
pus  (a  converted  Jew,  who  flourished  in  the  second  century),  that  the 
emperor  Domitian,  in  a  fit  of  jealousy,  ordered  inquiry  to  be  made  con- 
cerning the  posterity  of  David,  on  which  occasion  some  of  the  grandchil- 
dren of  Jude  were  brought  before  him.  The  emperor,  first  asking  tliem 
several  questions  respecting  their  profession  and  manner  of  life,  which 
was  husbandry,  next  inquired  concerning  the  kingdom  of  Christ,  and  when 
it  sliould  appear  7  To  this  they  replied,  that  it  was  a  heavenly  and  spiritual, 
not  a  teiMporal  kingdom  ;  and  that  it  would  not  be  manifested  till  the  end  of 
tlic  world.  Domitian,  thus  finding  that  they  were  mean  persons  and  per- 
f'  ctly  harmless,  dismissed  them  unbound,  and  by  edict  appeased  the  per- 
s'>,cution  which  had  been  raised  against  the  church.  Ilegesippus  adds, 
tfiaf,  on  their  release,  the  grandchildren  of  Jude  afterwards  presided  over 
ilnirrhes,  both  as  being  martyrs  (more  correctly  confessors),  and  also  as 
Liine  allied  to  our  Lord.    Euseb.  HisL  Eccl.  lib.  iii.  cc.  19  20 

Vol.  II.  3  B 


the  ancient  catalogues  of  the  sacred  writijKS  of  the  New 
Testament :  it  is  asserted  to  be  genuine  by  Clement  of  Alex- 
andria, and  is  quoted  as  Jude's  production  by  Tertullian,  by 
Origen,  and  by  the  greater  part  of  the  ancients  noticed  by 
Eusebius.^  Independently  of  this  external  evidence,  the 
genuineness  of  the  Epistle  of  Jude  is  confirmed  by  the  sub- 
jects discussed  in  it,  which  are  in  every  respect  suitable  to 
the  character  of  an  apostle  of  Jesus  Christ;  for  the  writer's 
design  was,  to  characterize  and  condemn  the  false  teachers, 
who  endeavoured  in  that  age  to  make  proselytes  to  their 
erroneous  and  dangerous  tenets,  to  reprobate  the  impious 
doctrines  which  they  taught  for  the  sake  of  advantage,  and 
to  enforce  the  practice  of  holiness  on  all  who  professed  the 
Gospel.  In  short,  as  Dr.  Macknight  most  truly  observes, 
there  is  no  error  taught,  no  evil  practice  enjoined,  for  the 
sake  of  which  any  impostor  could  be  induced  to  impose  a 
forgery  of  this  kind  upon  the  world. 

With  regard  to  the  objection  against  the  genuineness  of 
this  Epistle,  which  is  derived  from  the  supposed  quotation 
by  Jude  of  an  apocryphal  book  of  Enoth,  it  is  to  be  ooserved, 
that  the  apostle,  by  quoting  such  book,  gives  it  no  authority. 
It  was  no  canonical  oook  of  the  Jews ;  and  though  such  a 
book  existed  among  them,  and  was  apocryphal,  yet  it  might 
contain  some  things  that  were  true.  Jude  s  quoting  from  it 
the  prophecy  under  consideration  would  not  lessen  the  au- 
thority of  his  Epistle,  any  more  tlran  Paul's  quotations  from 
the  heathen  poets  Aratus  (Acts  xvii.  28.),  Menander  (1  Cor. 
XV.  33.),  and  Epimenides  (Tit.  i.  12.),  have  lessened  the 
authority  of  the  nistory  of  the  Acts,  and  of  that  apostle's 
letters,  where  these  quotations  are  found.  The  reason  is  (as 
Macknight  most  forcibly  observes),  if  the  things  contained  in 
these  quotations  were  true  in  themselves,  they  might  be 
mentioned  by  an  inspired  writer  without  giving  authority  to 
the  poems  from  which  they  were  cited.  In  like  manner,  if 
the  prophecy  ascribed  to  Enoch,  concerning  the  future  judg- 
ment and  punishment  of  the  wicked,  was  agreeable  to  the 
other  declarations  of  God  respecting  that  event,  Jude  might 
cite  it,  because  Enoch  (who,  like  Noah,  was  a  preacher  of 
righteousness)  might  actually  have  delivered  such  a  pro- 
phecy, though  it  is  not  recorded  in  the  Old  Testament ;  and 
oecause  his  quoting  it  did  not  establish  the  authority  of  the 
book  whence  he  took  it,  if  he  took  it  from  any  book  extant 
in  his  time.  The  preceding  observations  have  been  made  on 
the  supposition  that  the  apostle  did  quote  an  apocryphal  l)ook 
of  Enoch  :  but  it  has  been  remarked  with  equal  force  and 
truth,  that  "  it  is  incredible  that  Jude  cited  a  book  then 
extant,  claiming  to  be  the  prophecies  of  Enoch:  for,  had  it 
been  genuine,  the  Divine  Spirit  would  not  surely  have  suf- 
fered his  own  word  to  be  aiterwards  lost;  and,  had  it  been 
apocryphal,  the  inspired  apostle  would  not  have  stamped  it 
with  his  authority,  and  have  declared  it  to  have  been  the 
production  of  '  Enoch,  the  seventh  from  Adam.'  Indeed, 
the  language  of  Jude  by  no  means  implies  that  he  quoted 
from  any  book  whatever  (a  circumstance  which  most  writers 
on  this  controverted  subject  have  mistaken)  ;  and  hence 
some  persons  have  come  to  the  highly  improbable  conclu- 
sion that  the  prophetic  words  attributed  to  Enoch  were  com- 
municated to  the  apostle  by  immediate  revelation.  But  this 
conclusion  is  not  more  improbable  than  it  is  unnecessary. 
There  is  yet  another  source,  from  which  this  insulated 
passage  might  have  been  derived.  There  is  nothing  to  for- 
bid, but  much  to  establish,  the  supposition,  that  some  his- 
torical facts,  omitted  in  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  were  handed 
down  by  the  uninspired  authors  of  the  Jewish  nation.  Al- 
though it  is  true  that,  in  the  most  ancient  remains  of  Hebrew 
literature,  history  is  so  obscured  by  fable  as  to  be  altogether 
an  uncertain  guide,  yet  some  truth  doubtless  exists  in  this 
mass  of  fiction.  This  observation  may  be  applied  with 
greater  force  to  the  Jewish  records  which  existed  in  the 
apostolic  age.  We  know,  indeed,  from  the  highest  authority, 
that  the  Jewish  doctors  of  that  period  '  had  made  the  word  of 
God  of  none  effect  by  their  traditions ;'  but  still  their  unin- 
spired records  must  have  contained  some  authentic  narratives. 
From  such  a  source  we  may  rationally  suppose  that  Jude 
gathered  the  traditional  antediluvian  prophecy  of  Enoch, 
under  the  direction  of  that  infallible  Spirit,  who  preserved 
the  inspired  writers  from  error,  and  guided  Jhem  into  all 
truth.  We  conclude,  therefore,  that  the  apostle  did  not 
quote  from  any  book  extant  in  his  day  purporting  to  have 
been  written  by  Enoch. "^ 

8  See  the  passages  of  the  above-named  writers  in  Dr.  Lardner's  Works 
8vo.  vol.  vi.  pp.613— 618.  ;  4to.  vol.  iii.  pp.  440-443.  • 

*  Christian  Observer,  July,  1829,  vol.  xx\x.  p.  417. 


9 


d/8 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  VI. 


The  foregoinoyremarks  apply  with  equal  force  to  verse  9., 
in  which  the  a^stle  is  supposed  to  cite  an  apocryplial  rela- 
tion or  tradition  concerning  the  archanjrcl  Micliatl's  disputing 
with  Satan  fur  the  body  of  Moses.  Tiiis  is  by  some  writers 
referrt\l  to  a  book  called  the  "  Assumption  x)r  Ascension  of 
Christ,"  which  in  all  probability  was  a  Ibrgery  much  later 
than  the  time  of  Jude;  but  Ur.  Lardner  thinks  it  much  more 
credible  that  the  apostle  alludes  to  the  vision  in  Zcch.  iii. 
1 — 3. ;  and  this  opinion  is  adopted  and  elucidated  by  Dr. 
Macknicrht  in  his  iiote  on  the  verse  in  question.  In  further 
niustration  of  this  verse,  we  may  remark,  that  it  was  a 
Jewish  maxim,  that  "  it  is  not  lawful  for  man  to  pn;fer  i^rno- 
minious  reproaches,  even  aj^ainst  wicked  spirits."  Mig^ht 
not  the  apostle,  then,  have  used  it  merely  as  a  popular  illus- 
tration (without  voucliing  for  the  fact)  of  tliat  sober  and 
wholesome  doctrine,  not  to  speak  evil  of  diic'iitks  ?  from  the 


even 


example  of  the  archangel,  who  did  not  venture  to  rail  ev 
at  Satan,  but  meekly  said,  "7V/e  Loud  rebuke  thee.'"  The 
hypotiiesis,  that  Ju(le  copied  the  prophecy  of  Enoch  from 
the  writings  of  Zoroaster  (which  some  continental  critics 
have  imagined)  is  too  absurd  to  deserve  a  serious  refuta- 
tion.' 

III.  Tlie  time  and  place,  when  and  whore  this  Epistle  was 
written,  are  extremely  uncertain.  Dr.  Mill  fixes  its  date  to 
the  year  90,  principally  because  the  false  teachers,  whom 
Peter  describes  as  yet  Income,  are  mentioned  by  .Tude  as 
already  covi^.  But  on  a  comparison  of  this  Epistle  with  the 
second  of  Peter,  there  does  not  appear  to  be  such  a  remark- 
able dilTerence  in  their  phraseology  as  will  be  suflicieut  to 
prove  that  Jude  wrote  his  Epistle  so  lonw  after  Peter's  second 
Epistle  as  Dr.  Mill  supposed  :  though  it  proves,  as  most 
critics  agree,  that  it  was  written  after  the  latter.  The  very 
great  coincidence  in  sentiment  and  style  between  these  two 
Ej)istles  renders  it  likely  that  they  were  written  about  the 
same  time;  and,  since  we  Iiave  seen  that  the  second  Epistle 
of  Peter  was  in  all  probability  written  early  in  a.  d.  Go,  we 
are  induced  with  Lardner  to  ])lace  it  towards  the  close  of  the 
same  year,  or  perhaps  in  a.  d.  G6.  Bishon  Tomline,  however, 
dates  it  in  a.  d.  70  ;  Beausobre  and  L'bnfant,  between  a.  d. 
70  and  75;  and  Dodwell  and  Dr.  Cave,  in  71  or  72. 

IV.  There  is  much  diversity  of  opinion  concerning  the 
persons  to  whom  this  Epistie  was  addressed.  Estiua  and 
\Vitsiu3  were  of  opinion  that  Jude  wrote  to  Christians  every 
where,  but  especially  to  the  converted  Jews.  Dr.  Hammond 
thought  that  the  Epistle  was  directed  to  Jewisli  Christians 
aioiie,  and  with  the  design  of  guarding  them  against  the 
errors  of  the  Gnostics.  Dr.  Benson  also  thought  that  it  was 
written  to  Jewish  believers,  especially  to  those  of  the  Western 


dispersion.  Moldenhawcr  was  of  opinion,  that  it  was 
inscribed  to  the  Eastern  churches,  among,  whom  the  apostle 
liad  probably  laboured.  But,  from  the  insiriplion,^  Drs. 
Lardner  and  Macknight,  Bishop  Tomline  and  Dr.  A.  Clarke, 
concur  in  thinking  that  it  was  written  to  all,  without  dis- 
tinction, who  had  embraced  the  Gospel.  The  only  reason, 
Dr.  Macknight  remarks,  which  has  induced  commentivtors 
to  suppose  that  Jude  wrote  to  the  Jewish  believers  alone,  is, 
tiiat  he  makes  use  of  arguments  and  examples  taken  from  the 
sacred  books  of  the  Jews.  But  Paul,  we  have  seen,  followed 
the  same  course  when  writing  to  the  Gentiles;  and  both 
apostles  did  so  witii  propriety,  not  only  because  all  \\  ho 
embraced  the  Gospel  acknowledged  the  autliority  of  tlie 
Jewish  Scriptures,  but  also  because  it  was  of  tlie  gre.Mcst 
importance  to  make  the  Gentiles  seiisibla  that  the  Gosi.el 
was  injierfect  unison  with  the  ancient  revelation. 

V.  The  design  of  this  Epistle  is,  to  guard  believers  against 
the  false  teachers  who  had  begun  to  insinuate  themselves 
into  the  Christian  church ;  and  to  contend  with  the  utmost 
earnestness  and  zeal  fi;r  the  tnie  faith,  ag-.iinst  the  dangerous 
tenets  which  they  disseminated,  resolving  t!if.  whole  of  Chris- 
tianity into  a  speculative  belief  and  outward  profession  of  the 
Gospel.  And  having  thus  cancelled  the  obligations  of  mo- 
rality and  personal  holiness,  they  taught  their  disciples  to  live 
in  all  manner  of  licentiousness,  and  at  the  same  time  flattered 
them  with  the  hope  of  divine  favour,  and  of  obtaining  eternal 
life.  The  vile  characters  of  these  seducers  are  further  shown, 
and  their  sentence  is  denounced;  and  the  Epistle  concludes 
with  warnings,  admonitions,  and  counsels  to  believers,  how 
to  persevere  in  faith  and  godliness  themselves,  and  to  rescue 
others  from  the  snares  oflhe  false  teachers. 

VI.  There  is  very  great  similarity  between  the  Epistle  of 
Jude  and  the  second  chapter  of  Peter's  second  Epistle,  in  sub- 
ject, style,  vehemenc'',  and  holy  indignation  against  impudence 
and  lewdness,  and  against  those  who  insidiously  undermine 
chastity,  purity,  and  sound  principles.  Tlie  expresoirns  are 
remarkably  strong,  tlie  lar.^rnage  is  animated,  and  the  figures 
and  comparisons  are  nold,  apt,  and  striking.  In  the  Epistle 
of  Jude,  ])articularly,  there  is  an  energj',  a  force,  a  grruideur 
of  expression  and  style — an  apparent  labour  for  words  and 
images,  expressive  enough  to  give  the  reader  a  just  and 
adequate  idea  of  the  proflitjate  characters  he  exposes ;  and 
the  whole  is  admirably  calculated  to  show  how  deeply  the 
holy  apostle  was  grieved  at  the  scandalous  immoralities  cf 
those  who  called  themselves  Christians,  and  with  what 
fervour  and  courage  he  tore  off  the  mask  from  these  hypo- 
crites, that  the  church  and  the  world  might  see  all  the  turpi- 
tude and  deformity  that  lurked  beneath  it.^ 


CHAPTER  V, 


ON    THE    REVELATION    OF    SAINT    JOHN    THE    DIVINE. 

I.   Title. — II.   The  Genuineness  of  this   Book  shotvn,    1.  From  external  Evidence;  2.  From  internal  Characters, — III.  lit 
Date IV.   Occasion  and  Scope V.   Synopsis  of  its  Contents. — VI.    Observations  on  this  Book. 


I.  The  first  three  verses  of  the  Apocalypse  form  its  Trn.E  ; 
but  as  this  is  inconvenient  on  account  of  its  length,  various 
shorter  inscrii)tions  are  given  in  the  Manuscripts  and  Ancinit 
Versions.  Thus,  in  C.  or  the  Codex  Enhrem  it  is  termed 
ATTZKtKulit  lixitnu,  the  Revelation  (f  Jnfin  ;  in  the  Codex 
Coislinianus  I'J'J.  (17.  of  Griesbach's  notation)  ....  t-.u 
&-K>.i>',t/,  of  John  the  Divine,-  in  B.  a  manuscript  belonging  to 

the  monks  of  St.  Basil  at  Rom*(of  the  seventh  century) 

K,u  Ey«»iAiT7iw,  of  John  the  Divine  and  fJrnngcli.sf  ,■  in 
42.  (Codex  Pio-Vaticanus  150.,  of  the  twelfth  century), 
A.T,KtJu-].K  ^fin'Ai  T'M  !t.n"j(TT',\'M  Ktt  Kt/ij>OJ<rT(.t/,  the  Ilrvrlritiim 
of  John  (he  Apostle  and  Evani^elinl ;  in  30.  ((^odex  Gnoljilier- 
bytanus  XVi.  7.  a  manuscript  of  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth 
Centurj'),  An-cxtM/^ic  rti/  ctyM  ku  ni'.^'/rtr'.u  aTna-TOKiu  ku  lua^- 
\»jT-r.u,  TTJi^-n'Aj  nyu7niui>'M,  triTTir^tnj  ItmxruM  ^ick'.yiu,  the  Jleic- 
latiun  if  the  Iwli/  and  nmxt  f^loriatu  apontle  and  evau^rlixt,  the 
beloved  viririn\ho  lay  in  the  liosoin  [ot  Jesus  Christ],  John  the 
Divine.    In  IG.  (the  Codex  Uffenbachianus),  it  is  the  Apo- 

<  The  rondcr  will  find  an  interc«tin(f  account  ofllip  tliffTrnlliypoilicsoB 
whicli  crilici  linve  cntiTtainrd  concerning  tlio  nroiihory  of  Knorli,  men- 
tlonfil  by  Jiplc,  in  I.iunnanii'i  CDlleclanra,  nitc  Nolo!  Crltlcrp  et  Coinnipn- 
torius  in  Kpintolain  Jud.-o,  jip.  137—173.  iUU-233.  8vo.  OroiiiiigJ;,  1318. 
8ee  aUo  Cafioet'*  Cuoimonloire  Lltternl,  torn.  viii.  pp.  1001— 1010. 


calypso  ...  it?  w  n<Tf*«  Tw  yttnt  t^na-nt-o,  which  he  Micld  in 
the  tiland  Pntmos  ,-  and  in  •2G.  (the  C'odex  Wakiantis  1.  a 
manuscrijit  of  the  eleventh  century,  in  the  library  of  Christ's 
College,  Oxford),  it  is  Im-ct/  XpiTTco  AT(,)t^tM/^|./f  i.bua-t  ret  5pa'.}« 
loKiyyii,  l/tf  llevelnlion  of  Jc-tts  Christ  i^iven  to  John  the  Divine. 
In  the  Syriac  Version,  in  Bishop  Walton's  Polyglott,  it  is 
entitled  the  Jtevclalion  which  w:is  made  by  God  to  John  the 
Erani^ellsf  in  the  island  fof]  Putmon,  into  ivhich  he  was  thrown 
[or  banished]  by  Nero  Cusar ,-  and  in  tlie  Arabic  Version  it 
IS  the  Vision  if  John  the  Jlpoclle  and  Evani^tlisf,  namely,  the 
Apocalypse,  None  of  these  titles  are  of  any  authority;  nor 
can  any  certain  reason  be  assigned  for  giving  the  appellation 
of  o*jA.i7ic,  or  the  Divine,  to  the  apostle  and  evangelist  John.* 
II.  It  is  a  remarkable  circumstance,  that  the  authenticity  of 
this  book  was  very  generally,  if  not  universally,  arknowlenged 
during  the  first  two  centuries,  and  yet  in  the  third  century  it 

«  Tci  thorn  th.ot  arc  ganctlficd  l)y  Ood  llio  Father,  and  prr»crvpd  In  Jc»iu 

fMirisi,  and  calk-d IJel'ivrd,  when  I  gave  all  diligence  to  write  unto 

yoM  of  the  COMMON"  naWatlon.  Ar.  .Iiido  1.  3. 

•  IJonson  on  the  <:alholic  Uj'idtleB,  pp.  4.T7— -W«.  I-^rdner's  Works,  Svo. 
vol.  vi.  pp.  019— C'/7. ;  4to.  vol.  In.  pp.  i-iA—\A7.  MiirkniKhCn  Preface  to  Jude. 
niarkw.ilrB  Sacred  Cla8«lcs,  vol.  I.  jip. MM,  .'i<)6.  rritil  Introd.  In  Nov.  Test. 
pp.  nil-117. 

«  (irientiach,  and  Dean  Woodhonse.  on  Ucv.  I.  I.  I'rilii  Iniruductio  ad 
Lcclionem  Nuvi  Toitonienti,  pp.  1Z7,  X'JS. 


Chap.  V.] 


ON  THE   REVELATION  OF  SAINT  JOHN  THE  DIVINE. 


379 


began  to  be  questioned.  This  seems  to  have  been  occasioned  by 
so/tit  absurd  notions  concerning  the  Millennium,  which  a  few 
well  meaning  but  fanciful  expositors  grounded  on  this  book; 
which  notions  their  opponents  injudiciously  and  presumptu- 
ously endeavoured  to  aiscredit,  by  denying  theauthority  of  the 
book  itself.  So  little,  however,  has  this  portion  of  Holy 
Writ  suffered  from  the  ordeal  of  criticism  to  which  it  has  in 
consequence  been  subjected,  that  (as  Sir  Isaac  Newton  has 
long  since  remarked)  there  is  no  other  book  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment so  strongly  attested,  or  commented  upon  so  early,  as  the 
Apocalypse.     And  Dr.  Priestley  (no  mean  judge  of  biblical 

auestions  where  his  peculiar  creed  was  not  concerned)  has 
eclared,  that  he  thinks  it  impossible  for  any  intelligent  and 
candid  person  to  peruse  it  without  being  struck,  in  the  most 
forcible  manner,  with  the  peculiar  dignity  and  sublimity  of 
its  composition,  superior  to  that  of  any  other  writings  what- 
ever; so  as  to  be  convinced,  that,  considering  the  age  in 
which  it  appeared,  it  could  only  have  been  written  by  a  per- 
son divinely  inspired.  The  numerous  marks  of  genuine  piety, 
that  occur  through  the  whole  book,  will  preclude  the  idea  of 
imposition,  in  any  person  acquainted  with  human  nature.  It 
is  likewise  so  suitable  a  continuation  of  the  prophecies  of 
Daniel,  that  the  New  Testament  dispensation  would  have 
been  incomplete  without  this  prophetic  book;  for  it  has  been 
the  uniform  plan  of  the  divine  proceedings  to  give  a  more 
distinct  view  of  interesting  future  events,  as  the  time  of  their 
accomplishment  approached.'  Since,  however,  two  eminent 
critics^  of  later  times  have  suspected  this  book  to  be  spurious, 
and  as  their  valuable  writings  are  in  the  hands  of  almost 
every  biblical  student,  it  becomes  necessary  to  examine  the 
external  and  internal  evidence  for  its  genuineness. 

1.  The  External  Evidence  for  the  authenticity  and  inspira- 
tion of  the  Apocalypse  is  to  be  collected  from  the  same  sources 
as  the  evidence  for  the  other  books  of  the  New  Testament, 
viz.  from  the  testimonies  of  those  ancient  writers,  who,  living 
at  a  period  near  to  its  publication,  appear  by  their  quotations 
or  allusions  to  have  received  it  as  a  purt  of  sacred  Scripture. 
And  this  evidence  is  so  abundant  and  explicit,  that  the  only 
difficulty  is  how  to  comprise  it  wilhin  that  short  compass 
which  the  nature  of  the  present  work  requires. 

(1.)    Testimomes  of  Writers  in  the  apostolic  age. 

In  the  "Shepherd"  or  "Pastor"  of  ITcrmas  (a.  d.  ITO),  there  are  seve- 
ral expressions  so  closely  resembling  the  style  and  sentiments  of  the  Apo- 
calypse, as  to  render  it  more  than  probable  that  he  had  read  and  imitated 
tliis  book  '  The  reason  why  the  Apocalypse  and  other  books  of  the  New 
Testament  were  rot  expressly  cited  by  this  lather,  is,  that  it  was  not  suita- 
ble to  his  design  ;  but  the  allusions  to  them  sufficiently  show  the  respect  in 
which  they  were  held.* 

Ignatius  (a.  d.  107)  is  supposed  by  Michaelis  to  have  passed  over  the 
Apocalypse  in  silence ;  but  Dr.  Woodhouse  has  produced  three  passages 
from  the  writings  of  that  father,  which  have  escaped  the  researches  of  the 
learned  and  accurate  Dr.  Lardner,  and  in  which  the  verbal  resemblance  is 
so  decisive,  that  it  is  impossible  to  conceive  othei^wise  than  that  the  Reve- 
lation was  known  to  and  read  by  Ignatius. 

Polycarp  also  (a.  d.  103)  has  cited  the  Apocalypse  once  in  the  only  epis- 
tle of  his  that  has  come  down  to  our  times;  and  the  pious  and  sublime 
prayer  which  this  holy  man  uttered  at  the  awful  moment  when  the  flames 
were  about  to  be  kindled  around  him,  begins  with  the  identical  words  of 
the  elders  in  Rev.  xi.  17.s  There  is  likewise  strong  reason  to  believe 
that  it  was  received  by  Papias,  a.  d.  UG.'  His  writings,  except  a  few  frag- 
ments, arc  lost ;  but  critics  and  commentators  include  him  among  the  de- 
cided witnesses  in  favour  of  the  Apocalypse. 

(2.)   Testimonies  of  Writers  in  the  second  century. 

Ju'slin  Martyr  (a.  d.  140)  was  acquainted  with  the  Apocalypse,  and  re- 
ceived it  as  written  by  the  aposlle  John ;  and  it  appears  from  the  testimony 
of  Jerome,  that  he  also  interpreted  or  wrote  commentaries  on  son)e  parts 
of  t'.iis  mystical  book,  though  no  work  of  this  kind  has  come  down  to  us.s 

Among  the  works  of  Melito,  bishop  of  Sardis  (a.  d.  177),  was  a  commen- 
tary on  the  Apocalypse.'  It  is  also  most  di.stinctly  quoted  in  the  Epistle  of  the 
churches  of  Vienne  and  Lyons  (a.  d.  177).  concerning  the  sufferings  of  their 
martyrs.'"  IrenKus,  bishop  of  Lyons  in  Gaul  (a.  d.  173),  who  in  his  younger 
days  was  acquainted  with  Polycarp,  repeatedly  quotes  this  book  as  "  the 
Revelation  of  John  the  disciple  of  the  Lord."  Dr.  Lardner  remarks  that 
his  testimony  is  so  strong  and  full,  that  he  seems  to  put  it  beyond  all  ques- 
tion that  it  is  the  work  of  John  the  apostle  and  evangelist."  .To  these  we 

«  Dr.  Priestley's  Notes  on  Scripture,  vol.  iv.  p.  574.  The  argument,  briefly 
noticed  by  him,  is  prosecuted  at  length  by  Mr.  Lowman  in  his  Paraphrase 
and  Commentary  on  the  Revelations,  pp.  x.  et  seg.  Svo.  edit. 

2  Michaelis  and  Dr.  Less. 

'  Lardner'i Works,  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  52—65. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  311— 313. 

«  Dr.  V\'oo(#iousc  thinks  the  evidence  from  Hennas  not  satisfactory. 
Dissertation  on  the  Apocalypse,  pp.  35.  etsnq. 

»  Woodhouse,  pp.  31-^34.  The  testimony  of  Ignatius  is,  we  think,  most 
satisfactorily  vindicated  against  the  exceptions  of  Michaelis. 

s  Ibid.  pp.  36—38. 

'  Ibid.  pp.  38—43.  where  the  evidence  of  Papias  is  vindicated  against 
Michaelis.    See  also  Lardner,  8vo.  vol.  ii.  jip.  113,  114.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  340. 

8  Lardner,  8va.  vol.  ii.  p.  12C.  vol.  vi.  p.  6^. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  34S.  vol.  iii. 
p.  417. 

»  Lardner,  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  147,  148.;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  3.59,  360. 
10  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  152,  1.53. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  362.     Woodhouse,  pn.  46-48. 
««  Ibid.  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  170. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  372.    The  testimony  of  Irenajus 
IS  vindicated  by  Dr.  Woodhouse,  pp.  26—28. 


may  add  the  undisputed  testimonies  of  Athenagoras,t'>TheophiIus  bishop  of 
Aiitiocli  (a.d.  181),"  ApoUonius  (a.d.  1S6  or  137),"  Clement  of  Alexandria," 
and  especially  ol  Tertullian,  who  defends  the  authenticity  of  this  book 
against  tlie  heretic  Marcion  and  his  followers,  by  asserting  its  external  evi- 
dence. He  appeals  to  the  Asiatic  churches,  and  assures  us  that  "though 
Marcion  rejects  his  (John's)  Revelation,  yet  the  succession  of  bishops, 
traced  to  its  origin,  will  establish  John  to  be  its  author."  It  also  appears 
from  another  part  of  his  writings  that  this  book  was  much  read  and  gene- 
rally received  in  the  African  churches  of  the  second  century. is 

(3.)  Among  the  testimonies  of  Writers  in  the  third  century, 
those  of  Hippolytus  Portuensis  (a.d. 220)  and  Origen  (a.  d.  230) 
are  conspicuous. 

Hippolytus,'!  who  was  a  disciple  of  Irenacus,  received  the  Apocalypse 
as  llie  work  of  Saint  John,  and  wrote  two  books  in  its  defence  ;  one  in  op- 
position to  Caiu.s,  a  writer  of  the  second  century,  who  is  said  to  have  as- 
cribi'il  the  Revelation  to  Cerinthus,  and  the  othei  in  opiwsition  to  the  Aiogi, 
who  rejected  the  Gospel  of  Saint  John  as  spurious.  Origen, 's  to  whose 
ciili'-al "labours  biblical  literature  is  so  deeply  indebted,  most  explicitly 
acknowledged  the  Revelation  to  be  the  production  of  St.  John,  and  has 
cited  it  repeatedly  in  his  works.  More  minute  evidence  than  this  it  is  not 
necessary  to  adduce,  as  those  who  oppose  the  genuineness  of  lliis  book  do 
not  descend  lower  tlian  the  time  of  Origen.  It  may,  however,  be  satisfac- 
tory to  know  that  it  was  subsequently  received  by' Gregory  of  Neo-Coesa- 
rea ;"  by  Cyprian  and  the  African  churches ;  by  the  presbyters  and  others 
of  the  Western  church  ;  by  various  I.^itin  authors  whose  history  is  ab- 
stracted by  Dr.  Lardner;  by  the  anonymous  author  of  a  work  against  the 
Novations;  by  the  Novatiaiis  themselves  ;  by  Counnodian;  by  Victorinus, 
who  wrote  a  commentary  upon  if ;  by  the  author  of  the  poem  against  the 
-Marcionites;  by  Metho^.iius,  who  also  commented  upon  it;  by  the  Mani. 
cheans;  by  the  later  Aniobius;  by  the  Donatists;  by  Lactanlius;  and  by 
the  Arians.'io 

(4.)  In  the  time  of  Eusebius  (the  former  part  of  the  fourth 
century)  the  Apocalypse  was  generally,  though  not  universally, 
received  ;  and  therefore  he  classes  it  among  the  Amxtryc/jL^u.,  or 
contradicted  books.^' 

Yet  it  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  these  doubts  originated  solely  in  the 
supposed  difference  of  style  and  manner  from  that  of  Saint  John  ;  and  that 
no  one,  however  desirous  he  may  have  been  to  invalidate  the  authority  of 
the  book,  appears  to  have  been  able  to  produce  any  ex^ernai  evidence 
which  might  suit  the  purpose. 

It  was  received  after  the  time  of  Eusebius,  by  the  Latin  churches,  almost 
without  exception.  Jerome,  the  most  learned  and  diligent  inquirer  of  that 
century,  pronounced  most  positively  in  its  favour  ;  and  was  followed  uni- 
versally by  the  fathers  of  the  Western  churches  ;  and  from  him  we  learn 
the  grounds  upon  wliish  he  received  the  Apocalypse,  which  he  assigns  to 
bo  "Ihe  authority  of  the  ancients,"  that  is,  external  evidence;  and  he 
tells  us,  at  the  same  time,  that  he  does  not  follow  "  the  fashion  of  his  times" 
— that  fashion  by  which  some  of  the  Greek  churches  were  induced  to 
reject  the  -Apocalypse. 

"  This  fashion  of  the  times,"  Dr.  Woodhouse  justly  remarks,  ''  seems  to 
have  consisted  in  a  daring  contempt  of  the  testimonies  of  the  ancient 
church,  and  a  ready  acquiescence  in  those  arguments  which  were  confi. 
dently  drawn  from  internal  evidence.  Yet,  notwithstanding  this  fashion, 
which  appears  to  have  had  considerable  prevalence  in  Ihe  Greek  church, 
and  perhaps  to  have  influenced  those  eminent  men,  Cyril  of  Jerusalem 
and  .John  Chrysoslom  (neither  of  whom  appears  to  have  quoted  the  Apoca- 
lypse), many  of  great  name  in  the  Greek  church  appear  still  to  have  re- 
ceived it ;  and,  in  the  fourth  century,  it  is  snpiiorted  by  testimonies  in  this 
church  from  Athanasius,  Basil,  Epiphanius,  Gregory  of  Nyssa,  and  Gregory 
of  Na7.ianzum."2si 

Upon  the  whole,  though  doubts  were  entertained  concern- 
ing this  book  by  many  individuals  of  the  Greek  church  after 
the  time  of  Eusebius,  and  though  we  have  no  satisfactory 
information  how  early,  or  to  what  extent,  it  was  received  by 
the  Syrian  churches,  yet,  from  the  decisive  evidence  above 
adduced,  we  are  authorized  to  affirm  that  the  Apocalypse  has 
beeii  generally  received  in  all  ages.  To  borroAV  the  eloquent 
sentiments  of  Dr.  Woodhouse, — "  We  have  seen  its  ri.se,  as 
of  a  pure  fountain,  from  the  sacred  rock  of  the  apostolical 
church.  We  have  traced  it  through  the  first  century  of  its 
passage,  flowing  from  one  fair  field  to  another,  identified 
through  them  all,  and  every  where  the  same.  As  it  proceeded 
lower,  we  have  seen  attempts  to  obscure  its  sacred  origin,  to 

'■»  Lardner,  Svo.  vol.  ii.  p.  1S6.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.p.  S51. 

"  Ibid.  Svo.  vol   ii.  pp.  2tX1,  201.  ;  4!o.  vol.  i.  p.  389. 

'■>  ApoUonius  suffered  martyrdom  at  Rome.  His  writings  have  perished' 
but  Eusebius  relates  that  he  supported  thf?  Apocalypse  by  authorities  taken 
from  it.     Hist.  Eccl.  lib.  v.  c.  ls._^»=c,  and  c.  21. 

's  Lardner,  Svo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  '^29,  230.:  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  404,  405. 

's  Tertullian  adv.  Marcion,  lib.  iv.  c.  5.  De  Monogam.  c.  12.  See  Lardner, 
Svo.  vol.  ii.  p.  277.  ;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  430.     Woodhouse,  p.  51. 

'I  Lardner,  Svo.  vol.  ii.  p.  412.;  4to.  vol.  i.  p.  502. 

'8  Ibid.  Svo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  466,  467.  43:3. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  532,  5.33.  541 

"  The  testimony  of  Dionysius  of  Alexandria  (a.  d.  247)  is  here  design- 
edly omitted.  He  allowed  the  Apocalypse  to  be  written  by  John  ;  a  holy 
and  inspired  apostolical  man,  hut  not  the  evangelist  John  ;  and  he  grounded 
his  inference  on  some  supposed  differences  in  style.  This  subject  is  con- 
sid.ered  in  pp.  3S0,  381.  infra. 

»"  Lardner,  Svo.  vol.  vi.  p.  629. ;  4to.  vol.  iii.  p.  448.,  where  there  are  re- 
ferences to  the  former  volumes  of  Ids  works,  containing  the  testimonies  of 
the  above  cited  fathers  and  others  at  length.  Woodhouse,  pp.  6() — 77. 
Lampe,  Comment,  in  Evangelium  Joaanis,  torn.  i.  pp.  115 — 124.  Pritii  Introd. 
ad  Nov.  Test.  p.  117.  et  seq- 

»'  The  Apocalypse  is  omitted  in  the  catalogues  of  canonical  books  formed 
by  Cyril,  bishop  of  Jerusalem  Ca.  d.  310.),  and  by  the  council  of  Laodicea 
(A.  D.  364),  and  in  one  or  two  other  early  catalogues  of  the  Scriptures ; 
but  this  omission  was  probably  owing  not  to  any  suspicion  concerning  its 
authenticity  or  genuineness,  but  because  its  obscurity  and  mysteriousness 
were  thought  to  render  it  less  fit  to  be  read  publicly  and  generally.  Bishop 
Tomline's  Elements  of  Christian  Theology,  vol.  i.  p.  506. 

M  Woodhouse,  pp.  78— Si.  Lardner,  5so.  vol.  vi.  pp.  630,  631. ;  4to.  vo! 
iii.  pp.  443,  449. 


380 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Part  VI. 


arrest  or  divert  its  course,  to  lose  it  in  the  sands  of  antiquity, 
or  bury  it  in  the  rubbish  of  the  dark  ages.  We  have  seen 
these  attempts  repeated  in  our  own  limes,  and  by  a  dexterous 
adversary.  But  it  has  at  length  arrived  to  us,  such  as  it 
flowed  forth  at  the  beginning."' 

In  short,  so  far  as  external  evidence  can  enable  us  to  de- 
termine concerning  this  book,  we  may  indubitably  pronounce 
that  it  IS  TO  BE  RECEIVED  38  *'  divine  .Scripture  communicated 
to  the  church  by  John  the  apostle  and  evangelist." 

2.  We  now  proceed  briefly  to  consider  the  Internal  Evi- 
dence for  the  genuineness  and  divine  authority  of  the  Apo- 
calypse. This  we  may  reduce  to  three  points;  viz.  1.  Its 
correspondence,  in  point  of  doctrine  and  of  imagery,  with 
other  books  of  divine  authority; — 2.  The  sublimity  of  this 
book; — and,  3.  The  coincidence  of  its  style  with  the  un- 
contested writings  of  John. 

(1.)  The  Jlpocali/pse  corresponds  in  doctrine  and  imagery 
■with  '  ther  books  of  divine  authority. 

Though  the  doctrines  of  Christianity  are  by  no  means  a  principal  sub- 
ject of  this  book,  yet,  if  we  advert  to  the  doctrines  actually  delivered  in 
it,  we  ihall  find  a  perfect  congruily  with  those  delivered  in  the  other  apos- 
tolical writings.  Michaelis  has  said,  that  "the  true  and  eternal  Godhead 
of  Christ  is  certainly  not  taught  so  clearly  in  the  Apocalypse  as  in  Saint 
John's  Gospel."  To  this  Dr.  VVoodhouse  replies, — Could  he  expect  so 
clear  an  exposition  from  a  prophecy  which  respects  future  events,  as  from 
a  Gospel  which  the  ancients  have  described  as  written  principally  with  the 
view  of  setting  forth  the  divine  nature  of  Christ  1  But  tliis  divine  nature  ia 
also  set  forth  m  the  Apocalypse,  and  as  clearly  f.-^  th';  nature  of  the  book, 
and  as  symbols  can  express  it.  Compare  Rev.  i.  II.  iii.  21.  v.  6—14.  xix.  13. 
and  xxii!  8'  The  description  of  the  Millennium  in  the  twentieth  chapter, 
where  the  servants  of  Christ  are  seen  raised  from  the  dead  to  reign  with 
him  a  thousand  years,  has  been  objected  to,  as  iiilrodiicin^  doctrines  in- 
consistent with  the  purity  enjoined  in  the  Gospel.  But  the  representation 
in  rpiestion  is  no  doctrine ;  it  is  a  prediction  delivered  in  a  figurative  style, 
and  yet  unfulfilled.  The  extravagant  notions  of  the  Chiliasts  c^niinot  with 
iust'ice  be  charged  upon  the  Apocalypse.    The  prophecy  can  only  be  ex- 

{ilained  in  general  terms  ;  in  due  time  we  believe  that  it  will  be  fulfilled,  and 
n  the  mean  time  it  must  be  received  as  the  word  of  God,  though  we  under- 
stand it  not.  It  has  also  been  objected  by  I>r.  Less,  that  the  triumph  of  the 
eainls,  upon  the  horrid  punishment  of  their  enemies  (Rev.  xix.  I — 10.  xxii. 
8,  9.),  is  irreconcilable  with  the  charitable  spirit  of  the  Gospel.  But  no 
•uch  literal  triumph  was  designed  ;  the  passage  in  qtiestion  is  the  triumph 
of  pure  religion  over  idolatrous  superstition  and  tyranny,  repies-enied 
aUeg'iricallif,  at  which  every  true  believer  must  r»-joice.  Michaelis  like- 
wise has  objected  to  other  passages  of  the  Apocalypse,  as  containing  doc- 
trines repugnant  to  those  delivered  in  the  other  parts  of  Scripture  ;  but 
these  passages,  when  fully  e.Tamined,  will  be  found  to  contain  no  doctrines, 
but  fi:.'uralive  representations  of  future  events.  "  We  luay,  therefore, 
truly  a^^^e^t  of  the  Apocalypse,  that,  fairly  understood,  il  contains  nothing 
which,  either  in  point  of  ifoctrinc,  or  in  relation  of  events,  pas't  or  to  conip, 
will  be  found  to  contradict  any  previous  divine  revelation.  It  accords  with 
(he  divine  counsels  already  revealed.  It  expands  and  reveals  them  more 
completely.  We  see  the  grailual  flow  of  nacred  prophecy  (according  to 
he  true  tenor  of  it,  acknowledged  by  divines),  first  a  fountain,  then  a  rill, 
then,  by  the  union  of  other  divine  streams,  increasing  in  it.s  course,  till  at 
length,  by  the  accession  of  the  prophetical  waters  of  the  New  Testament, 
and,  above  all,  by  the  acquisition  of  the  apocalyptical  succours,  it  becumcs 
a  noble  river,  enriching  and  adorning  the  Christian  land."* 

(2.)  The  sublimity  of  the  ideas  and  imagery  is  another 
striking  internal  evidence  of  the  genuineness  and  divine  ori- 
tcin  of  the  Apocalypse. 

These  ideas  and  this  imagery  are  such  as  are  only  to  be  found  in  the 
•acred  Scriptures.  "In  the  word  of  God  there  is  a  grandeur  and  majesty. 
Independent  of  the  accidents  of  languaee,  consisting  in  the  greatness  and 
Buhlimily  of  the  things  revealed.  Men  of  genius  may  catch  some  sparks 
of  this  heavenly  fire  ;  they  may  imitate  it,  and  witli  considerable  success: 
bat  no  one  is  found  so  cnnfiilriit  in  this  kind  of  strength,  as  to  neglect  the 
arts  of  composition.  Mahomet  was  a  man  of  superior  genius  ;  in  writing 
bit  pretended  revelation,  he  borrowed  much  from  the  sacred  Scriptures  ; 
he  attempteil  often,  in  imitation  of  them,  to  be  simply  sublime  ;  hut  he  did 
not  tru.st  to  this  only,  he  endeavoured  to  adorn  his  work  with  all  the  impos- 
ing charms  of  human  clo<pience  and  cultivated  laiiguaKe  ;  and  he  appi'aled 
to  the  perfection  of  his  compositions  «a  a  proof  of  their  divine  original. 
Buch  ail  appeal  woiilrl  have  little  served  his  cause  in  a  critical  and  enlight- 
ened age,  which  would  expect  far  other  internal  proofs  of  divinity  than 
Ihoie  which  result  from  eleeant  diction.  The  learned  of  such  an  age  would 
reject  a  prophet  appealing  to  a  proof  which  ha.i  never  been  admitted  with 
resiioct  to  former  revrlniions ;  a  prophi-t,  who,  both  in  doctrine,  and  in  the 
rclaiion  of  events,  past  an<l  future,  ig  seen  to  contradict,  or  add  strange 
extravagant  conceits  to,  the  credible  and  well-attested  revelations  of  former 
tim'-H. 

"There  is  nothing  of  this  kind  in  the  Apocalypse.  Compare  It  with 
forged  prophecies :  many  such  have  been  written  ;  some  calculated  to  de- 
ceive, others  only  to  amuse.  These  works,  if  they  amaze  us,  as  appearing 
to  have  been  fulfilleil,  are  commonly  found  to  have  been  wriltrn  nfirr  ih<> 
events  foretold,  and  to  have  a  retrospective  dale  which  does  not  helnnit  to 
them.  Itiil  no  one  can  show  that  the  Apocalypse  contains  prophecies  which 
Were  fulfille<l  before  they  were  written."* 

Coiiip:irc  alio  the  Ajiocalypsc  with  the  apocryphal  revelollona  asrrilieil 
to  the  apoftUei  Peter,  Paul,  Thomas,  andSteiihen,  aoine  fragments  of  which 

•  Woudhoii»e,  n.  S7.  Tlie  external  evidence  for  the  genuineness  of  thi.s 
book  is  (li.HcuBneil  at  length  l>y  lliig.     Introduction,  vol  ii.  pp.  rirwi-ri.Vl. 

»  We  miy  aild.  also,  that  ihe  malilij  of  t'hrist's  suflTeriiigH  is  explicitly 
asserted  (Rev.  i.  fi.  and  7.)  in  conformity  with  the  accouiils  of  the  evange- 
hsts,  and  the  conslant  tenor  of  the  New  Testament.  Whence  it  is  evld.nt 
that  the  .\jiocalyp<e  could  not  have  been  written  by  the  heresiarch  Cerin- 
t'lus  (aa  tnine  early  wiiter*  have  asserteil),  for  he  maiiitiiinerl  iliat  Christ 
'h.l  not  HiiflTer,  but  only  Jesus.  Michaelis  (vol.  Iv.  p.  Vfi  )  nml  Dr.  Lardner 
(Worku,  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  Ill,  1 12.  ;  Ho.  vol.  i.  pp.  li'H  tV»  )  have  both  ahown 
tliat  Cerinthus  could  not  liavc  been  the  author  of  tiie  Revelation. 

«  Wo<Alhou«c,  pp.  89—96.  133.  ♦  Ibid.  p.  99. 


are  still  extant.*  How  different  are  the  langiiage,  character,  and  senti- 
ments of  these  spurious  prt>ductions  !  The  lathers  of  the  first  centuries 
compared  them  at  length,  and  rejected  them  all  except  this  acknowledged 
work  of  Saint  John  ;  which  they  guarded  with  so  sedulous  a  care  as  to 
presei-ve  it,  in  the  main,  free  from  interpolations,  while  the  genuine  pro- 
ductions of  PoWcarp,  Ignatius,  and  other  apostolical  men,  are  known  to 
have  suffered  from  the  contact  of  profane  pens." 

(3.)  The  style  of  the  Apocalypse  coincides  -with  the  style  of 
the  undisputed  -writings  of  Saint  John. 

The  proof  of  this  depends  upon  a  collation  of  passages:  Wctslein  and 
Ur.  Lerdner  have  both  collected  a  great  number  of  evidences,  in  which 
the  same  forms  of  expression  occur  in  the  Apocalypse  as  are  found  in  hb 
Gospel  and  first  Epistle,  and  which  arc  peculiar  to  this  apostle. 

From  (heir  lists  we  have  selected  the  following;  more  might  easily  b 
added,  if  we  had  room  for  their  insertion.— Compare 

Rev.  i.  1.       -  -  with  John  xii.  33.  xviii.37.  xxi.  19. 

Rev.  i.  5.       -  •  -  1  John  i.  7. 

Rev.  i.  7.       .  •  •  John  xix.  37. 

Rev.  ii.  7.      .  •  •  John  vi.  32. 

Rev.  il.  10.    •  •  -  John  XX.  27. 

Rev.  ii.  17.     -  •  -  John  vi.  32. 

Rev.  iii.  4.     ■  •  •  John  vi.  (X5. 

Rev.  iii.  7.     -  -  •  John  i.  14.  xiv.  6.  1  John  t.  20. 

Rev.  iii.  7.  9.  .  .  John  x\'.  'JO.  xvii.  0.  1  John  ii.  5. 

Rev.  iii.  9.    -  •  -  John  xi.  27. 

Rev.  iii.  10.   -  •  -  John  xii.  27. 

Rev.  iii.  21.    -  -  -  1  John  ii.  13,-14.  iv.  4.  v.5. 

Rev.  V.  6. 12.  •  -  Jolin  i.29.  3t;. 

Rev.  vi.  2.      -  •  -  John  i.29. 

Rev.  ix.  5.  _  -  -  •  John  xviii.  26.  iii.  17. 

Rev.  xii.  9. "  -  -  •  John  xii.  31. 

Rev.  xix.  13.  -  ■  John  i.  1. 

Rev.  xxi.  6.  -  •  •  John  vii.  37. 

Rev.  xxi.  27.  •  John  vi.  36.  1  .I<,hn  i.  4.  (Gr.) 

In  all  wliich  passages  we  have  in- 
stances of  neuter  adjectives  and 
participles  put  for  masculines. 

Rev.  xxii.  14.  •  •  John  i.  12.     Ero<""'=«,  Ji'g'/i'. 

Rev.  xxii.  8. 10.  -  -  John  viii  51,  02.  55.  xiv.  23,  24.' 

In  these  passages  the  agreement  both  in  style  and  expressioD 
is  so  great,  that  it  is  impossible  to  conceive  how  such  striking 
coincidences  could  cxi.st  in  writings  so  difTercnt  in  their  natures 
as  the  Gospel  and  first  E[iistlc  of  John  and  the  Apocalyp.->e,  if 
they  were  not  all  the  productions  of  one  and  the  same  author. 
But  it  has  been  objected,  that  there  arc  dilTorenccs  in  the  style 
of  this  book,  which  render  it  uncertain  whether  it  was  really 
written  by  the  apostle.  These  objections  were  first  started  by 
Dionysius  of  Alexandria,  who  contended  that  the  ApocaIyp.se 
was  not  the  production  of  Saint  John,  and  conjectured  that  it 
was  written  by  John,  an  elder  of  the  Ephesian  church.  His 
objections  are  six  in  number;  and  as  some  of  them  have  been 
adopted  by  Michaelis,  we  shall  briefly  state  and  consider  them. 

Objection  1.  The  ex'angelist  John  has  not  named  himself 
either  in  his  Gospel  or  in  his  Catholic  Epistles  ;  but  the  writer 
of  the  Revelation  names  himself  more  than  once. 

Answer.  It  was  not  the  practice  of  the  other  evangelists  to  put  their 
names  to  their  Gospels ;  nor  is  any  name  prefixed  to  the  Episde  to  the 
Hebrews;  y«t  these  writings  are  universally  received  as  genuine  and  au- 
thentic. But  thougfi  St.  Julin  has  not  named  liiniself  in  his  Gospel,  yet  he 
has  there  so  described  himself,'  that  it  is  impossible  not  to  know  hiui ;  and 
with  regard  to  the  Epistles,  the  persons  to  whom  Uiey  were  sent  could  not 
be  ignorant  from  whom  they  came. 

Objkction  2.  Though  the  -writer  of  the  Bevelation  calls 
himself  Johji,  he  has  not  sho-wn  ns  that  he  is  the  apostle  of  that 
name.  Michaelis  thinks  that  he  ought  at  least  to  have  made 
himself  known  by  some  such  circumlocution  as  he  had  used  in 
the  Gospel — the  disciple  -whom  Jesus  loved. 

Answer.  "Such  addiiion  to  the  name  of  .lohn  was  totally  needless.  lie 
wrote  to  the  seven  churches,  and  from  Pntmos,  in  which  isl.ind  he  ex- 
presses that  '  he  is  sutfering  tribulation  for  the  word  of  Goil  and  the  tesli- 
iiiony  of  Jesus  Christ.'  All  ihe  clmrches  knew  that  he  was  then  suffering 
banishment  in  that  island,  and  tliey  knew  the  cause  of  it,  '  for  the  word 
of  God.'  An  Epistle  conlaining  the  liislory  of  a  heavenly  vision,  ser n  hy 
John  in  the  island  of  Patmos,  required  no  other  addition.  What  John 
would  write  John  alone,  without  other  ad<)ition  or  explanation,  exceptint 
Ihe  great  John,  John  the  apostle  and  president  of  all  the  churches  1  A  prP 
vate  person  would  have  described  himself  by  the  addition  of  his  faliier'a 
name,  according  to  the  custom  of  the  ancients.  A  bishop  or  presbyter 
wouici  have  mideil  the  name  of  his  chiirili ;  but  Jolm  the  apostle  needed 
no  such  distincuishing  mark  or  nnpellalion.  A  fabricator  of  an  Epistle, 
containing  a  ri'velation  in  .''aint  John's  name,  would  perhaps  have  utdecl 
his  lilies  of  '  Apostle  of  Jesus  Christ,'  Ac,  or  would  have  introduced  some 
circumlocution  in  imitation  of  those  in  his  Gospel ;  but,  from  the  exprca- 
sion  as  it  now  stands,  we  derive  a  much  stronger  evideuce  U>at  il  is  the 
genuine  work  of  Saint  John."* 
_____^ . > 

»  In  the  Codex  Pseudepigiaphus  Novi  Testamenti  of  Fabricius,  and  Mr- 
Jeremiah  .lones's  elaborate  work  on  Uie  New  Testament. 

•  Woodhouse,  p.  100. 

■>  Wetsienii  Nov.  Test.  lorn.  II.  p  747.  nolf.  Ijirdner's  Works,  8vo.  vol. 
ii.  pp.  121—123. ;  4to.  vol.  1.  pp.  (>1.1, 1^4.  See  also  Dr.  Jortin'a  UUcoursca 
on  the  Christian  Religion,  pp  'iii,  22C.  note. 

•  See  John  xxi.  'i\.  and  other  places. 

•  Saint  Paul,  In  the  opening  of  his  Epistles,  has  used  generally,  not 
iilways,  the  term  "Apostle;"  but  with  him  it  was  more  necessary  than 
wilh  Siiiiit  John,  who  was  conl'eiwedly  such,  having  been  nuiiibered  with 
the  twelve.  Saint  Paul's  right  to  the  apostleslup,  having  been  eslabliahed 
more  privately,  hod  been  doubted  by  some,  which  leads  him  to  say,  "  Aio 


Chap  V.] 


OX  THE  REVELATION  OF  SAINT  JOHN  THE  DIYINE. 


381 


Ob  ;ECTiO!f  3.  The  Rex^elation  does  not  mention  the  Catholic 

Epistle,  nor  the  Catholic  Epistle  the  licvelation. 

Assvrcsi.  It  is  not  the  practice  of  the  sacred  writers  to  quote  themselves, 
or  refer  to  their  own  worlts,  unless  they  write  more  than  one  Epistle  to 
the  same  churches  or  persons;  in  which  case  they  mention  such  former 
Epistle.  Tliis,  Dr.  Larilncr  observes,  is  natural,  and  it  is  done  by  Saint 
Paul ;  but  in  Ids  Epistle  to  the  Romans  he  is  totally  silent  concerning  any 
of  his  former  Epistles,  though,  at  the  time  of  writing  it,  he  had  written 
several. 

Objection  4.  There  is  a  great  resemblance  in  sentiment, 
manner,  and  expression  between  the  Gospel  and  the  first  Epis- 
tle of  Saint  John;  but  the  Revelation  is  altogether  different, 
•without  any  affinity  or  resemblance  -whatever. 

Answer.  In  the  first  place,  if  it  were  true  that  there  was  such  a  dif- 
ference of  slyle  as  Dionysius  and  (after  liim)  Michaelis  have  asserted,  it 
may  be  accounted  for  by  the  difference  of  subject.  The  style  of  history 
is  not  the  slyle  of  an  epistle  or  a  prophecy.  The  style  of  history  is  sim- 
ple ;  of  an  epistle,  faniiliar;  and  that  of  prophecy  is  sublime;  and  such 
unquestionably  is  the  style  of  the  Revelation.  But,  secondly,  this  objec- 
tion is  contradicted  bv  fact;  and  the  proofs  adduced  in  p.  380.  will  show 
thai  tlie  coincidence  between  the  Apocalypse  and  the  undisputed  Oospel 
and  Epistle  of  Saint  John  is  such,  that  they  must  have  been  written  by  one 
and  the  same  author. 

Objection  5.  The  Gospel  and  Epistle  of  John  are  -written 
In  correct  and  elegant  Greek,  but  the  -writer  of  the  Revela- 
tion discovers  no  accurate  knowledge  of  that  language :  on 
the  contrary,  the  Apocalypse  abounds  -ivith  barbarisms  and 
solecisms. 

Answer.  This  objection  is  founded  on  the  mistaken  idea  that  the  writers 
of  the  New  Testament  wrote  in  Attic  Greek;  which,  we  have  already  seen,' 
is  not  the  case.  The  same  grammatical  irregularities  which  have  been 
objected  to  in  the  Apocalypse  are  also  observable  in  the  Septuagint,  as  well 
as  in  the  Gospels  and  other  writings  of  the  New  Testament.  But  this  dif- 
ference of  language  may  also  be  accounted  for  by  the  length  of  time  which 
may  have  elapsed  between  the  composing  of  these  books ;  for  it  is  not  un- 
likely that  one  and  the  same  person  writing  upon  different  arguments,  and 
at  a  great  distance  of  time,  especially  if  he  be  one  who  does  not  frequently 
exercise  his  style,  or  write  in  the  intermediate  spare,  should  have  a  very 
different  manner  in  his  several  performances.  Now  the  Gospel  of  Saint 
John,  we  have  seen,  was  written  about  the  year  97 — that  is,  about  sixty 
years  after  the  events  recorded  in  it.  At  such  a  distance  of  time,  l)r.  Wood- 
house  remarks,  the  mind  is  enabled  to  look  back  with  composure,  and  to 
represent  with  serenity  transactions  which  could  not  be  narrated  soon 
after  they  had  happened,  witliout  warm  and  passionate  expressions.  It 
seems  to  be  owing  partly  to  this  cause,  that  the  evangelist  is  seen  to  relate 
in  so  cool  a  style,  in  the  Gospel,  those  sufferings  of  his  beloved  Lord  which 
he  hail  witnessed,  and  which,  if  related  by  him  immediately  after  the 
events  had  taken  place,  could  not  have  been  told  otherwise  than  with 
emotion  and  indignation.  But  the  Apocalypse  was  written  by  its  author 
immediately  after  he  had  seen  the  vision  ;  the  impression  on  his  mind  had 
no  time  to  cool ;  his  expressions  kept  pace  with  his  feelings,  and  his  style 
became  vivid  and  glowing.'  There  is  no  necessity,  therefore,  for  having 
recourse  to  the  hypothesis  of  a  Hebrew  original,  and  of  supposing  our 
Greek  text  to  be  a  version  of  it,  as  some  critics  have  imagined  ;  but  which 
hypothesis  is  totally  unsupported  by  the  evidence  of  antiquity. 

Objection  6.  The  book  is  so  obscure  as  to  be  unintelligible, 
and  is  therefore  improperly  called  a  Revelation. 

This  trifling  objection,  for  such  it  is  pronounced  to  be  by  Dr. 
Lardner,  was  first  published  by  Dionysius,  who  represents  it  as 
being  entertained  by  many  persons  in  his  time  (the  middle  of 
the  third  century).  In  our  time  it  has  been  adopted  by  Michaelis, 
who  has  laid  much  stress  upon  it ;  but  this  objection  admits  of 
the  following  simple  and  satisfactory. 

Answer.  In  the  first  place  the  author  might  with  great  propriety  call 
that  a  revelation,  which  had  been  communicated  to  him  in  an  extraordinary 
manner ;  though  he  had  received  it,  and  was  to  represent  it,  in  a  fig'irative 
and  emblematical  style.  But,  secondly,  this  revelation  is  often  spoken  of 
as  a  prophecy.  (See  Rev.  i.  13.  and  xxii.  7. 10. 18,  19.)  Now,  it  is  the  nature 
of  prophecies  to  be  obscure  when  delivered,  and  for  some  time  after,^ 
even  in  the  case  of  prophecies  fulfilled ;  "  because  the  language  in  which 
they  are  delivered  is  symbolical,  which,  though  governed  by  certain  rules, 
and  therefore  attainable  by  the  judicious  among  the  learned,  is  neverthe- 
less very  liable  to  misconstruction  in  rash  and  unskilful  hands.  But  pro- 
Ehecies,  yet  unfulfilled,  are  necessarily  involved  in  deeper  darkness, 
ecause  the  event  is  wanting  to  compare  with  the  prediction,  which  of 
itself  is  designedly  obscure.  This  same  objection  of  obscurity  will  operate 
as  forcibly  against  many  of  the  prophecies  of  the  Old  and  of  the  New 
Testament,  as  against  those  of  the  Apocalypse  ;  particularly  the  predictions 
which  appertain  to  the  latter  da^s.  The  Dook  of  Daniel,  which  has  our 
Saviour's  seal  to  it  (Malt,  x.xiv.  lo.),  must  be  rejected  with  the  Apocalypse, 
if  it  be  a  sufficient  objection  to  it,  that  it  is  yet  in  many  places  obscure."* 
A  conclusion  this,  to  which  no  Christian  can  or  will  give  his  assent. 

So  far,  however,  is  the  obscurity  of  this  prophecy  froln  making  against 
its  genuineness,  that  it  is,  on  the  contrary,  a  strong  internal  proof  of  its 
autlienticity  and  divine  original :  "  for  it  is  a  part  of  this  prophecy,"  Sir 
Isaac  Newton  well  argues,  "  that  it  should  not  be  understood  before  the 
last  age  of  the  world  ;  and  therefore  it  makes  for  the  credit  of  the  prophecy 
tliat  it  is  not  yet  understood.  The  folly  of  interpreters,"  he  justly  con- 
tinues, "has  been,  to  foretell  times  and  things  by  this  prophecy,  as  if  God 
designed  to  make  them  prophets.  By  this  rashness  they  have  not  only 
exposed  themselves,  but  brought  the  prophecy  also  into  contempt.    The 


not  1  an  apostle  1"  &c.  (1  Cor.  ix.  1.);  and  therefore  he  generally  asserts 
himself,  in  his  Epistles,  to  be  an  apostle.  Saint  John  had  no  need  to  use 
the  term  :  his  authority  as  an  apostle  was  undoubted  :  he  therefore  calls 
himself  by  an  humbler  title,  "A  brother  and  companion  in  tribulation  :" 
so  Saint  James,  although  an  apostle,  mentions  himself  only  as  "A  servant 
of  God,  and  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ."  (James  i.  1.)  Woodhouse,  p.  114. 

«  See  Vol.  I.  pp.  194—196.    On  the  Nature  of  the  New  Testament  Gret;k. 

«  Woodhouse,  p.  122. 

»  hf  0  2  Pet.  i.  19.  1  Pet.  i.  10—12.  and  Luke  xxir.  25—27.  32.  44-46. 

«  Woodhouse,  p.  103. 


design  of  God  was  much  otherwise.  He  gave  this  and  the  prophecies  of 
the  Old  Testament,  not  to  gratify  men's  curiosities,  by  enabling  them 
to  foreknow  things,  but  that,  after  that  they  were  fulfilled,  they  might  be 
interpreted  by  the  event,  and  his  own  providence,  not  the  interpreter's, 
be  then  manilested  thereby  to  the  world.  For  the  event  of  things,  pre- 
dicted many  ages  before,  will  then  be  a  convincing  argument  that  the  world 
is  governed  by  providence.  For  as  the  few  and  obscure  prophecies  con- 
cerning Christ's  first  coming  were  for  setting  up  the  Christian  religion, 
which  all  nations  have  since  corrupted  ;  so  the  many  and  clear  prophecies 
concerning  the  things  to  be  done  at  Christ's  second  coming  are  not  only 
for  predicting,  but  also  for  effecting  a  recovery  and  re-eslablishmentof  the 
long-lost  truth,  and  setting  up  a  kingdom  wherein  dwells  righteousness. 
The  event  will  prove  the  Apocalypse  ;  and  this  prophecy,  thus  proved  and 
under.stood,  will  open  the  old  prophels,  and  altogether  will  make  known 
the  true  religion,  and  establish  \\.  There  is  already  so  much  of  the  pro- 
phecy fulfilled,  that  as  many  as  will  take  pains  in  this  study  may  see  suffi- 
cient instances  of  God's  providence  ;  but  then  the  signal  revolutions  pre- 
dicted by  all  the  holy  prophets  will  at  once  both  turn  men's  eyes  upon  con- 
sidering the  predictions,  and  plainly  interpret  them.  Till  then  we  must 
content  ourselves  with  interpreting  what  hath  been  already  fulfilled."* 

Such  are  the  most  material  objections  that  have  been 
brought  aorainst  the  genuineness  and  divine  authority  of  this 
portion  of  the  New  Testament.  In  addition  to  the  very 
satisfactory  answers  above  given,  from  the  writings  of  pious 
and  learned  men,  it  were  no  difficult  task  to  add  numerous 
other  considerations,  all  tending  to  show  its  divine  original ; 
but  the  preceding  testimonies,  both  external  and  internal, 
w'ill,  w^e  apprehend,  be  found  abundantly  sufficient  to  prove 
that  the  Apocalypse  is  the  unquestionable  production  of  the 
apostle  and  evangelist  John,  and  of  no  other  John  who  is 
mentioned  by  ecclesiastical  writers.  It  consequently  follows, 
that  this  book  has  an  indubitable  right  to  that  place  in  the 
canon  of  sacred  Scripture,  which  the  ancient  fathers  of  the 
church  have  assigned  to  it,  and  which  the  reformers  in  the 
Protestant  churches  have  with  mature  deliberation  con- 
firmed.'^ 

III.  The  Time  when  this  book  was  written  is  a  subject 
that  has  much  engaged  the  attention  of  the  learned ;  and  on 
this  point  not  fewer  than  six  opinions  have  been  advanced. 
Four  of  these  are  of  sufficient  importance  to  be  considered  in 
this  place. 

1.  It  has  been  asserted  that  the  Apocalypse  was  written  in 
the  reign  of  the  emperor  Claudius.  Epipnanius  is  the  only 
ancient  father  whose  testimony  has  been  adduced  in  behalf 
of  this  opinion  ;  and  he  did  not  live  till  three  hundred  years 
later  than  St.  John.  Although  this  date  is  sanctioned  by 
Grotius,  who  supposes  that  the  visions  of  the  book  were 
seen  at  several  times,  and  that  they  were  afterwards  joined 
together  in  one  book ;  yet  there  are  two  very  material  objec- 
tions against  it.  The  first  is,  that  there  was  no  persecution 
of  the  Christians  in  the  reign  of  Claudius,  and  consequently 
John's  banishment  to  Patmos  cannot  be  referred  to  that 
period.  This  emperor  did,  indeed,  issue  an  edict  for  banish- 
ing the  Jews  from  Rome,  but  it  did  not  affect  the  Jews  in  the 
pro\inces,  much  less  the  Christians ;  and  the  governors  had 
no  authority  to  banish  either  Jews  or  Christians  out  of  their 
provinces  without  an  order  from  the  emperor:  besides,  it 
does  not  appear  that  Saint  John  was  at  Ephesus  during  the 
reign  of  Claudius.  The  second  objection  to  this  date  is 
founded  on  the  circumstance,  that  the  seven  churches  in 
Asia,  to  which  the  Apocalypse  is  addressed,  did  not  exist  so 
early  as  thfi  reign  of  Claudius ;  for  this  fact  cannot  be  recon- 
ciled with  the  Tiistory  given  of  the  first  planting  of  Chris- 
tianity in  Asia  Minor  related  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles. 

2.  It  has  been  maintained,  on  the  authority  of  the  sub- 
scription to  the  Syriac  version  of  the  Apocalypse,  that  Saint 
John  wrote  it  in  the  island  of  Patmos,  in  the  reign  of  the 
emperor  Nero,  before  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.  This 
opinion  is  adopted  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton ;'  but  it  is  untenable, 
for  the  Apocalypse  was  not  translated  into  Syriac  until  the 
middle  oi  the  sixth  century,  and  the  anonymous  subscription 
is  of  no  force. 

«  Sir  Isaac  Newton's  Observations  on  the  Prophecies  of  Daniel  and  the 
Apocalypse  of  Saint  John,  pp.  251—253. 

«  Lampe,  Comment,  in  Evang.  Joannis,  torn.  i.  pp.  125 — 131.  Lardner's 
Works,  8vo.  vol.  ii.  pp.  110 — 128. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  pp.  627—647.  Michaelis,  vol.  iv. 
pp.  461—500.  528—544.  Dr.  Woodhouse's  Dissertation,  pp.  89—141.  Dr.  W. 
has  considered  at  length  and  refuted,  several  minor  objections  of  Michaelis 
£md  Dr.  Less,  which  want  of  room  has  compelled  us  to  omit. 

1  Sir  Isaac  Newton  endeavoured  to  support  his  hypothesis  by  alleging 
that  the  apostolic  epistles  contain  quotations  from  the  Apocalypse  ;  and  hiis 
hypothesis  has  recently  been  adonted  by  Dr.  Tilloch  in  his  "Dissertations" 
introductory  to  the  study  of  this  book.  Dr.  T.,  it  must  be  acknowledged, 
has  conducted  his  view  of  the  subject  with  equal  ingenuity  and  skill ;  but 
the  arguments  for  the  late  date  are  decisive  to  the  writer  of  these  pages. 
The  collection  of  verbally  parallel  pa.ssages,  between  the  Apocalypse  and 
the  Epistles,  it  has  been  forcibly  observed,  "  appear  to  prove  tnat  the 
apostles  in  general  were  well  acquainted  with  the  subjects,  concerning 
which  Saint  John  prophesied,  but  that  they  knew  them  by  the  influence  of 
the  same  Holy  Spirit  which  dictated  them  to  St.  John.  The  expressions  in 
question,  therefore,  were  common  to  all  the  inspired  writers  of  the  New 
Teet.nment."  Townsend's  New  Testament  arranged  in  Chronological  Or  ler 
vol.  u.  p.  053. 


383 


A.XALYSIS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


[Paut  VI. 


3.    Another  hypothesis   mnkes  tliis  book   to  have  been  [  Chrislian  churclics  in  Asia;  zv.d,  secondly,  and  principally, 
written  before  the  time  of  Domitian,  and  bt^fore  th?  Jewish    to  reveal  to  him  "the  tliinjrs  vhich  shall  be  hereafu  r,"  or 


war ;  but  it  does  not  determine  whetlier  it  was  in  the  reign 
of  Claudius,  or  in  th  it  of  Nero. 

4.  The  most  probable  and  generally  received  opinion  is, 
that  John  was  banished   into  Patmos  towards  liie  end  of 
Domitian's  reign,  by  virtue  of  his  edicts  for  persecuting  the 
Christians;  and  that  he  had  the  Revelations  contained  in  the 
Apocalypse  during  his  exile;  though  the  book  itself  could 
not  h^ve  been  published  unlil  after  the  apostle's  release  and 
return  to  Ephesus.     The  unanimous  voice  of  (Christian  anti- 
c^uity  attests  that  John  was  banished  by  the  order  of  Domi- 
tian.    Irenanis,   Orig-^n,   and   other  early  fathers,  refer  the 
apostle's  exile  to  the  latter  pr.rt  of  Ddlnitian's  reign,  and  they 
concur  in   snying   that  he  there  received   the   llevelations 
described   in  the  Apocalypse.     Internal  evidence  likewise 
supports  this  conclusion.     For,  in  the  first  three  chapters  of 
the  Apocalypse,  the  seven  Asiatic  churches  are  described  as 
being  in  that  advanced  and  tlourishing  state  of  society  and 
discipline,  and  to  have  undergone  those  changes  in  their  faith 
and  morals,  which  could  not  have  taken  place  if  they  had  not 
been  planted  for  a  considerable  time.     Thus,  the  church  of 
Kpliesus  is  censured  for  having  left  "  her  first  love."     Tliat 
of  Sardis  "  had  a  name  to  live,  but  was  dead."     The  church 
of  Laodicea  had  fallen  into  lukewarmness  and  indifference. 
Now  the  church  of  Kphesus,  for  instance,  was  not  founded 
by  Paul  unlil  the  latter  part  of  Claudian's  reign  :  and  when 
he  wrote  to  them  from  liome,  a.  d.  61,  instead  of  reprov- 
ing them  for  any  want  of  love,  he  commends  their  love 
and    faith.     (Kph.   i.    15.)     Further,   it   appears   from   the 
Revelation  that  the  Nicolaitans  formed  a  sect  when  this  book 
was  written,  since  they  are  expressly  named  :  whereas  they 
were  only  foretold  in  general  terms  by  Saint  Peter  in  his 
second  Kpistle,  written  a.  d.  65,  and  in  Saint  Judc's  Epistle, 
which  was  written  about  a.  d.  65  or  66.     It  is  also  evident, 
from  various  passages  of  the  Revelation,  that  there  had  been 
an  open  persecution  in  the  provinces.     John  himself  had 
been  banished  into  Patmos  for  the  testimony  of  Jesus.     The 
church  of  Ephesus  (or  its  bishop)  is  commended  for  its 
"  labour  and  patience,''''  which  seems  to  imply  persecution. 
This  is  still   more  evident  in  the  following  address  to  the 
church  of  Smyrna  (Rev.  ii.  9.), — "  1  know  thy  works  and 
iriljulation,''^  S-»j./y :  which  last  word  always  denotes   perse- 
cution in  the  New  Testament,  and  is  so  explained  in  the 
following  verse. 

Lastly,  In  Itev.  ii.  13.  mention  is  made  of  a  martyr  named 
Antipas,  who  was  put  to  death  at  Pcrframos.  Though 
ancient  ecclesiastical  history  gives  us  no  information  con- 
cerning this  Antipas,  yet  it  is  certain,  according  to  all  the 
rules  of  language,  that  what  is  here  said  is  to  be  understood 
literally,  ana  not  mystically,  as  some  expositors  have  ex- 
plained it.  Since,  therefore,  the  persecution,  mentioned  in 
the  first  three  chapters  of  the  Apocalypse,  cannot  relate  to 
the  time  of  Claudius,  who  did  not  persecute  the  Christians, 
nor  to  the  time  of  Nero,  whose  persecution  did  not  reach  tiie 
provinces,  it  must  necessarily  be  referred  to  Domitian,  ac- 
cording to  ecclesiastical  tradition.' 

Domitian's  death  is  related  to  have  happened  in  September, 
A.  D.  96.  The  Christian  exiles  were  then  liberated,  and  John 
was  permitted  to  return  to  Ephesus.  As,  however,  the 
emperor's  decease,  and  the  permission  to  return,  could  not 
be  known  in  Asia  immediately,  some  time  must  intervene 
before  the  apostle  could  be  at  liberty  either  to  write  the 
Apocalypse  at  Ephesus,^  or  to  send  it  by  messengers  from 
Patmos.  We  conclude,  then^fore,  with  Dr.  Mill,  Le  Cicrc, 
iiasnage.  Dr.  Lardner,  IJisho))  Tomline,  Dr.  Woodhouse, 
and  other  eminent  critics,  in  placing  the  Ajiocalyiise  in  the 
year  96  or  97.' 

IV.  The  Occasion  of  writing  the  Apocaly|)se  is  suffi- 
ciently evident  from  the  book  itself.  John,  being  in  exile 
in  the  island  of  Patmos,  is  favoured  with  the  appearance  of 
Ihe  Lord  Jesus  Christ  to  him,  and  is  npeaUidlv  commanded 
to  commit  to  writiri"  the  visions  which  he  IicIkIiI.  (See 
Rev,  i.  11.  19.  ii.  1.  8.  1-2.  18.  iii.  1.  7.  11.  xiv.  13.  xix.  9. 
and  xxi.  5.)  The  Scope  or  design  of  this  book  is  twofold  ; 
^r/<l,  generally  to  make  known  to  the  apostle  '*  the  things 
which  are"  (i.  19.),  tliat  is,  the  then  present  state  of  the 

•  Dcauvobrc  ct  L'Enfant,  Preface  fur  rApocalypiO  dc  Saiiil  Jean,  pp. 
613,  611. 

»  From  tlio  OJrnfBsion  in  Rov.  I.  9.  "/wah  in  Ihr  h!r  qf  Palmnt,"  Pr. 
Woo'liiousc  Is  of  opinion  Ilinl  llicrc  gooinn  lo  [i<:  Internal  iivlilnnco  that  tlio 
Rcvphlion  wan  written  ndft  Hnint  Jolin  hail  lelt  I'alinn-t. 

»  Michaplis,  vol.  iv.  pp.  r.lS— ."W.  Jjinlner,  8vo.  vol.  vi.  pp.  C.T1— KM. ;  Ito. 
vol  i.  pp.  1.'>0-M.'>3.  Dr.  WoodUouae'a  UI«aertaUon,  pp.  6— ,6.  Tritii  IntroJ. 
»(1  Nov.  TcBt.  pp.  12&— 132. 


the  constitution  and  fates  of  the  Chrisiiim  church,  through 
its  several  periods  of  propagation,  corruption,  and  amend- 
ment, from  its  beginning  to  its  consummation  in  glory. 
"The  prophecy  of  the  Revelation,"  says  Daubuz,  "was 
designed  as  a  standing  monument  to  the  church,  to  know 
what  destinies  attend  it;  and  that,  when  men  should  suffer 
for  the  name  of  Christ,  they  might  here  find  some  consolation 
both  for  themselves  and  fir  llie  church :— for  themselves, 
by  the  prospect  and  certainty  of  a  reward; — for  tlie  church, 
by  the  testimony  that  Christ  never  forsakes  it,  but  will 
conquer  at  last." 

V.  The  Apocalypse,  therefore,  consists  of  two  principal 
divisions  or  parts  ;  viz. 

After  the  title  of  the  book.  (i.  1 — 3.) 
Part  I.  confains  u  u<ri,  the  '■'■  tilings  whtch  are,-^^  that  is,  the 

then  pr  extent  state  nf  the  church. 

Sect.  1.  The  Epistle  of  John  to  the  seven  churches,  and  his 
account  of  the  appearance  of  the  ]..ord  Jesus  with  the  sym- 
bols of  his  power,  together  with  the  commission  given  by 
him  to  the  apostle,  to  write  what  he  beholds,  (i.  9 — 20.) 

Sect.  2.  The  Address  or  Epistle  to  the  Church  at  Ephesus. 
(ii.  1-7.) 

Sect.  3.  The  Address  or  Ejjistle  to  the  Church  at  Smyrna, 
(ii.  8—11.) 

Sect.  4.  The  Address  or  Epistle  to  the  Church  at  Pergamos. 
(ii.  12—17.) 

Sxct.  5.  The  Address  or  Epistle  to  the  Church  at  Thyatira. 
(ii.  18—29.) 

Sect.  6.  The  Address  or  Epistle  to  the  Church  at  Sardis.  (iii. 
1-6.) 

Sect.  7.  The  Address  or  Epistle  to  the  Church  at  Philadel- 
phia, (iii.  7— 1.3.) 

Sect.  8.  The  Address  or  Epistle  to  the  Church  at  Laodicca. 
(iii.  14—22.) 

The  seven  cliurches  of  the  I.yilian  or  Proconsular  Asia,  to  wliidi  these 
n]'i.sllcs  werf  adilressol,  are  stippostj  to  have  been  plumed  by  the  ajiostlc 
I'-iiil  and  his  assistants  during  tlieir  ministry.  They  lie  nearly  in  an  am- 
phitheatre, and  arc  addressed  according  to  their  geographical  jnisilions.* 
Vilringa  .''.n<l  other  eminent  commentators  have  snpposed  that  ihe  seven 
EpisUcs  to  the  Apocalyptic  churches  are  prophetical  of  so  many  siiccesssive 
periods  and  slates  of  the  church,  from  the  beRinnini:  of  Christianity  to  the 
consummation  of  all  tliinjis.  lint  for  this  opinion,  lllshop  Newton  ibinks, 
Miere  docs  not  appear  to  be  sulficienl  evidence,  and  it  is  in  fact  contradicted 
b/  the  book  of  KevelaMon  itself;  for  the  last  state  of  the  chiircl;  is  here 
dciciibed  as  the  most  glorious  of  all,  but  in  Ihe  last  of  these  Epistles, 
that  of  Laodicea,  tlie  church  is  represented  as  "  wretcheil  and  miserable, 
and  poor,  and  blind,  and  naked."  JJut  ihoiigh  these  Epistles  have  rather 
a  literal  than  a  mystical  meaning,  yet  they  contain  excellent  prcc<-pls  and 
Cihortation.s,  coiimiendations  and  rejiroofs,  proiniiies  and  threatenings, 
which  arc  calcnlateil  to  aflTord  instruction  to  Ihe  universal  church  of  Christ 
at  all  times.  "Some  churche.-?,"  Dr.  Hales  remarks,  "like  those  of  Sardis, 
Thyatira,  and  Laodicea,  arc  lukewarm  ajid  greatly  corrupted;  others  in  a 
mixed  state,  as  those  of  Ejdiesus  and  P<'r?nmos ;  and  some  still  rich,  or 
rather  tlourishing,  and  have  not  denied  the  faith  of  Chri.st,  as  i^myrnaand 
Philadelphia.  And  the  admonitions  adilressed  to  ihein — I.  To  repent  and 
reform  their  ways  ;— 2.  To  reject  false  apostles  and  corrupt  doctrines; — 
■i-  To  retain  their  patience  and  steadfastness  in  the  faith; — 1.  I'mler  the 
penalty  of  having  their  'lamps  removed,'  or  thoir  cslaldished  churches 
e.vliupuished— are  equally  atidresscd  to  all.  '  Ifc  thiit  hnth  an  ear,  lei  him 
hear  ichal  the  Hpiril  naith  lo  Ihe  churches'  in  general."  (Kuv.  ii.'J9.  iii.  22.)' 

Part  II.  contains  a  Propheci/  of  at  /usx>.u  j«hj-3-«,  "  the  things 
which  Khali  be  hereafter,''^  or  the  Future  Stutc  of  the  Church 
throxifrh  succeeditis;  ffif^.s,  from  the  time  when  the  iipottle 
beluld  the  apocalyptic  visions  to  the  Grand  Consttnuiiation  of 
all  things. 

Sect.  1.  The  representation  ofthe  divine  glory  in  heaven,  (iv.) 
Sect.  2.  The  scaled  book,  the  Lamb  who  opens  it,  and  the 

praises  sung  by  the  heavenly  choir,  (v.) 
Sect.  3.  Tlie  ojiening  ofthe  first  six  seals,  (vi.) 
Sect.  4.  The  .'seiiling  ofthe  bundrcil  and  forty-four  thousand, 

and  the  presentation  of  the  palni-bcaring  multitude  before 

the  throng,  (vii.) 
Sect.  ."i.  The  opening  of  the  seventh  seal,  and  the  first  six 

trumpets,  and  the  prophetic  commission  to  John. 

i  i.  The  ojienini;  of  the  .seventh  seal,  and  Ihe  commission  to  the  angel 

with  the  seven  trntnpcts.  (viii.  1 — 6.) 
5ii.  The  first  four  trumpets  (viii.  C— 12.),  and  llie  dcnuncialion  of  the 

three  Woes.  (13.) 
i  iii.  The  Ji/lh  iriiinpet  and  the  firtt  wo.  (ix.  1—12.) 
4  Iv.  The  »i>//i  trumpet  and  the  a^rondv/n.  (ix.  1.1—21.) 
i  v.  The  firMi  propheiirnl  vixion  of  the  open  little  book,  reprcsontins  the 

difTermt  statesof  tlir>  (;hri-itian  cliurrh  lo  the  end  ofthe  »ixih  Iruinpel, 

—Ihe  measuring  of  tlio  temple,  and  Ihe  two  witnesses,  (x.  1—11.  xl. 

1—11) 

«  An  account  of  the  aliove.tnentlonf  d  cities  is  given  in  the  Historical 
and  fJcotTHphlcal  Ind"-x,  ill  VdI.  II.  of  the  present  work. 

•  Dr.  Ilidis's  AnalyKis  of  Chronology,  vol.  ii.  book  11.  p.  1294.  Bishop 
Newton's  Dlsstrtatjons,  vol.  II.  p.  167. 


Chap.   V.] 


ON  THE  REVELATION  OF  SAINT  JOHN  THE  DIVINE. 


383 


Sect.  6.  The  sounJing  of  the  seventh  trumpet — the  vision  of 
the  woman  persecuted  by  the  dragon,  and  of  the  wild  beasts 
from  the  sea  and  from  the  land.  (ix.  15 — 19.  xii.  xiii.) 

Sect.  7.  The  vision  of  the  Lamb  and  the  hundred  and  forty- 
four  thousand  elect  on  Mount  Sion,  and  the  proclamations 
or  warnings. 

§  i.  The  I.aiiib  on  Mount  Sion.  (xiv.  1 — 5.) 

§  ii.  The  first  anjel  proclaims.  (.\iv.  6,  7.) 

§  iii.  Thpflpcoiirf  angel  proclaims    (xiv.  S.) 

§  iv.  The  third  angel  proclaims,  (xiv.  9 — 12.) 

§  V.  The  blessedness  of  those  who  die  in  ihe  Lord  proclaimed,  (xiv.  13.) 

5  vi.  The  vision  of  the  harvest  and  tlie  vintage,  (xiv.  U— :.0.) 

Sect.  8.  contains  the  seven  vials  and  the  episode  of  the 
harlot  of  Babylon  and  her  fall. 

§  i.  The  vision  preparatory  to  the  seven  vials,  (xv.  xvi.  1.) 
§  ii  The  pouring  out  of  the  seven  vials,  (xvi.  2 — 21.) 
5  iii.  The  great  harlot,  or  Babylon,  (xvii.) 
§  iv.  The  judgment  of  Babylon  continued,  (xviii.) 

§  V.  Exullaiion  in  heaven  over  the  fallen  Babylon,  and  upon  the  approach 
of  the  New  Jeru.salem.  (xix.  1 — 10.) 

Skct.  9.  contains  the  grand  conflict,  the  millennium,  the  con- 
flict renewed,  the  judgment,  and  the  new  creation. 

§  i.  The  appearance  of  the  Lord  vfith  his  followers,  (br  battle  and  victory. 

(xix.  U— IS.) 
S  ii.  Tlie  conflict  and  victory  over  the  beast  and  false  prophet,  (xix. 

19-21.) 
*  iii.  Satan  bound,  and  the  millennium,  (x.x.  1 — 6.) 
§  iv.  Satan  loosed,  deceives  the  nations,  and  is  cast  into  the  burning  lake. 

(.XX.  7-10.) 
§  v.  The'gcneral  resurrection  and  final  judgment,  (xx.  11 — 15.) 

Sect.  10.  Description  of  the  new  Jerusalem,  (xxi.xxii.  1 — 5.) 
The  Coxci-usioN.  (xxii.  6 — 21.) 

VI.  No  book  has  been  more  commented  upon,  or  has  given 
rise  to  a  greater  variety  of  interpretations,  than  the  Apocalypse, 
wliich  has  ever  been  accounted  the  most  difficult  portion  of 
the  New  Testament.  The  figurative  language  in  which  the 
visions  are  delivered ;  the  variety  of  symbols  under  which 
the  events  are  presignified ;  the  extent  of  the  prophetical 
information,  which  appears  to  pervade  all  ages  of  the  Chris- 
tian church,  afford  little  hope  of  its  perfect  elucidation,  till  a 
further  process  of  time  shall  have  ripened  more  of  the  events 
foretold  in  it,  and  have  given  safer  scope  to  investigation.' 

Referring  the  reader,  therefore,  to  the  works  of  Mede, 
Daubuz,  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  Bishops  Newton  and  Hurd, 
Lowman,  Faber,  Dr.  Hales,  and  others,  who  have  attempted 
to  illustrate  these  sublime  and  mysterious  prophecies,  and 
especially  to  the  learned  and  pious  labours  of  Dr.  VVoodhouse, 
we  shall  conclude  this  article  with  the  following  canons  of 
interpretation,  which  have  been  proposed  by  the  last-men- 

i  Brit.  Crif.  vo).  xx-ix.  p.  191.  Rosenmuller  (Scholia,  vol.  v.  pp.  614—619.) 
and  Dr.  A.  Clarke  (Preface  to  the  Revelation,  pp.  i. — x.)  have  given  an  ab- 
stract of  various  hypotheses  relative  to  the  interpretation  of  the  Apoca- 
lypse, some  of  which  are  sufficiently  ex/raun^an*.  See  also  CcUerier's 
Introduction  au  Nouv.  Test.  pp.  49r — 501.  and  Hug's  Litroduction,  vol.  ii. 
pp.  0C5— 667. 


tioned  eminent  critic  and  divine,  who  has  most  successfully 
applied  them  to  the  exposition  of  the  Apocalyps"e : — 

1.  Compare  the  language,  the  symbols,  and  the  predictions  of 
the  Apocalypse  with  those  of  former  revelations ;  and  admit  only 
such  interpretation  as  shall  appear  to  have  the  sanction  of  this 
divine  authoritj'. 

2.  Unless  tlie  language  and  symbols  of  the  Apocalypse  should 
in  particular  passages  direct,  or  evidently  require,  another  mode 
of  appli.-ation,  the  predictions  are  to  be  applied  to  the  progressive 
church  of  Christ. 

3.  The  kingdom  which  is  the  subject  of  this  prophetic  book  is 
not  a  temporal  but  a  spiritual  kingdom  ; — not  "  a  kingdom  of  this 
world"  (John  xviii.  .36.),  not  established  by  the  means  and  ap- 
paratus of  worldly  pomp,  not  bearing  the  external  ensigns  of 
royalty  ;  but  governing  the  inward  man,  by  possession  of  the 
ruling  principles  :  the  kiugdom  of  God,  saj-s  our  Lord,  is  ivitliin 
yon.  (Luke  xvii.  21.)  The  predictions  relative  to  this  kingdom, 
therefore,  are  to  be  spiritually  interpreted.  Wars,  conquests,  and 
revolutions,  rfvast  extent  and  great  political  import,  are  not  the 
object  of  the  apocalyptical  pvojihecics ;  unless  they  appear  to  have 
promoted  or  retarded  in  a  considerable  degree  the  real  progress 
of  the  religion  of  Jesus  Christ,  whose  proper  reign  is  in  the 
hearts  and  consciences  of  his  subjects.  "  His  reign  is  advanced, 
when  Christian  principles,  when  faith,  and  righteousness,  and 
charity  abound.  It  is  retarded,  when  ignorance,  impurity,  ido- 
latrous superstition,  and  wickedness  prevail." 

4.  We  are  not  to  attempt  the  particular  explanation  of  those 
prophecies  which  remain  to  be  fulfilled.^ 

Although  many  parts  of  the  Apocalypse  art^ecessarily 
obscure  to  us,  because  they  contain  predictions  of  events 
still  future,  yet  enough  is  stifficiently  clear  to  convey  to  us 
the  most  important  religious  instruction.  This  book  is  to 
us  precisely  what  the  prophecies  of  the  Old  Testament  were 
to  the  Jews,  nor  is  it  in  any  degree  more  inexplicable.  "  No 
prophecies  in  the  Revelation  can  be  more  clouded  with  ob- 
scurity, than  that  a  child  should  be  bom  of  a  pure  virgin — 
that  a  mortal  should  not  see  corruption — that  a  person  de- 
spised and  numbered  amon^  malefactors  should  be  established 
for  ever  on  the  throne  or  David.  Yet  still  the  pious  Jew 
preserved  his  faith  entire  amidst  all  these  wonderful,  and, 
in  appearance,  contradictory  intimations.  He  looked  into 
the  holy  books  in  which  they  were  contained,  with  reve- 
rence ;  and  with  an  eye  of  patient  expectation  '  waited  for 
the  consolation  of  Israel.'  We,  in  the  same  manner,  look 
up  to  these  prophecies  of  the  Apocalypse,  for  the  full  con- 
summation of  the  great  scheme  of  the  Gospel ;  when  Chris- 
tianity shall  finally  prevail  over  all  the  corruptions  of  the 
world,  and  be  universally  established  in  its  utmost  purity."'^ 

a  Dr.  Woodhouse's  translation  of  the  Apocalypse,  pp.  xii. — xix.  Many  of 
the  observations  in  Vol.  L  PartU.  Chap.  IV.  Sect.  I.  are  applicable  to  the 
interpretation  of  the  Apocalypse. 

»  Gilpin's  E.xposition  of  the  New  Testament,  vol.  ii.  p.  423. 


APPENDIX. 

No.  I. 


ON    THE    SOURCES    OF    THE    FIRST   THREE  GOSPELS 

Different  Hypotheses  stated.— U.  Examination  of  the  Hypothesis,  that  the  Evangelists  abridged  or  copied  from  each  other. — 
ni.  Examination  of  the  Hypothesis,  that  the  Evangelists  derived  their  information  from  a  primary  Greek  or  Hebrevi  Docu- 
ment.— IV.  Examiiiation  of  the  Hypothesis,  that  they  consulted  several  Documents. — V,  And  of  the  Hypothesis,  that  oral 
Tradition  was  the  Source  of  the  first  three  Gospels. — VI.  That  the  only  Doacment  consulted  by  the  first  three  Evangelists 
was  the  Preaching  of  our  Saviour  himself. 


I.  That  the  Gospels  of  Matthew,  Mark,  and  Luke  should 
contain  so  much  verbal  agreement,  and  yet  that  there  should 
exist  such  striking  differences  as  appear  in  the  parallel  ac- 
counts of  these  three  Evangelists  when  they  relate  the  same 
discourses  or  transactions,  is  indeed  a  most  remarkable  cir- 
cumstance. Hence  several  eminent  writers  have  been  induced 
to  discuss  this  singular  fact  with  great  ability  and  equal 
ingenuity :  and  although  the  testimonies  which  we  have  to 
the  genuineness  and  authenticity  of  the  Gospels,  are  so  clear 
and  decisive,  as  to  leave  no  doubt  in  the  minds  of  private 
Christians ;  yet,  since  various  learned  men  have  offered  dif- 
ferent hypotheses  to  account  for,  and  explain,  these  pheno- 
mena, the  author  would  deem  his  labours  very  imperfect,  if 
he  suffered  them  to  pass  unnoticed. 

Four  principal  hypotheses  have  been  offered,  to  account 
for  these  verbal  similarities  and  occasional  differences  be- 
tween the  first  three  evangelists;  viz.  1.  That  one  or  two 
of  the  Gospels  were  taken  from  another; — 2.  That  all  three 
were  derived  from  some  original  document  common  to  the 
evangelists ; — 3.  That  they  were  derived  from  detached  nar- 
ratives of  part  of  the  history  of  our  Saviour,  communicated 
by  the  apostles  to  the  first  converts  to  Christianity; — and, 
4.  That  they  were  derived  from  oral  tradition.  We  shall 
briefly  state  the  arguments  that  have  been  offered  for  and 
against  these  various  hypotheses. 

II.  The  FIRST  and  most  commonly  received  opinion  has 
been,  that  one  or  two  of  the  first  three  evangelists  had  copied 
or  abridged  from  the  third,  or  one  from  the  other  two.  Thus 
Vogel  endeavoured  to  show  that  Mark  made  use  of  the  Gos- 
pel of  Luke,  and  that  Matthew  drew  from  Mark  and  Luke.' 
Grotius,  Mill,  Simon,  Calmet,  Wetstein,  Wolfius,  Drs. 
Owen  and  Harwood,  and  others,  after  Augustine,  have  as- 
serted that  Mark  was  an  epitomiser  of  Matthew.  Griesbach^ 
and  Dr.  Townson'  have  maintained  that  both  Mark  and  Luke 
had  seen  and  consulted  the  Gospel  of  Matthew.  Hug  has 
defended  the  opinion  that  Mark  had  before  him  the  Gospel 
written  by  Matthew  for  the  Jews  dwelling  in  Palestine,''  and 
that  Luke  made  use  of  the  Gospels  of  Matthew  and  Mark.* 
Seller  affirmod  that  Mark  translated  into  Greek  and  enlarged 
the  Syro-Chaldaic  Gospel  of  Matthew;  that  this  Syro-Chal- 
daic  Gospel,  enlarged  in  many  places,  either  by  Matthew 
himself,  or  by  other  men  worthy  of  credit,  was  subsequently 
translated  into  Greek  either  by  the  evangelist  or  some  other 
person ;  and  that  the  Greek  translator  consulted  the  Gospel 
of  Mark.s  Storr  endeavoured  to  prove  that  the  Gospel  of 
Mark  was  the  source  whence  Matthew  and  Luke  derived 

«  Vogel  uber  die  Entstehung  der  drey  ersten  Evangelien  (on  the  Origin 
of  the  first  Throe  Gospels),  in  Gabler's  Journal  fiir  auserlesene  Theologisch 
Literatur,  band  1.  stuck  1.  p.  1.  etseq. 

»  Griesbach,  in  Kuinoel's,  Ruperti's,  and  Velthusen's  Commentationes 
Theologicae,  torn.  i.  pp.  303.  et  seq.  Griesbach's  hypothesis  was  refuted  by 
Koppe,  ia  Pott's  and  Ruperti's  ^lloge  Commentationum  Theologicarum, 
torn.  i.  pp.  55.  et  seq.  Amtnon  defected  Griesbach's  hypothesis,  and  also 
contended  that  Luke  made  use  of  the  Greek  version  of  St.  Matthew's  Gos- 
pel, which  he  corrected  and  enlarged.  Dissertatio  de  Luca  einendatore 
Matthaei.    Erlangae,  1805.  4to. 

3  Discourses  on  the  Four  Gospels,  Oxford,  1778,  4to. ;  or  vol.  i.  of  Dr. 
Townson's  Works,  pp.  1—273. 

*  Hug's  Introduction  to  the  New  Testament,  translated  by  Dr.  Wait, 
vol.  ii.  pp.  73-83.  111-134. 

»  Ibid,  vol  ii.  pp.  152 — 185.  Dr.  Wait's  translation  having  been  executed 
from  Hug's  first  edition,  the  learned  translator  of  Dr.  Schleierniacher's 
Critical  Essay  on  the  Gospel  of  St.  Luke  has  given  an  abstract  of  Hug's 
hypothesis  from  his  second  edition  published  in  1821.  Introduction,  pp. 
Kcviii. — cxv. 

«  S^ler,  Dissertationes  IL  de  tempore  et  ordine  quibus  tria  Evangelia 
priora  canonica  scripta  sunt.    Erlanefe,  1805-6.  4to. 

Vor,.  II.— App.  3  C 


materials  for  their  Gospels.'  Busching  was  of  opinion  that 
Matthew  and  Mark  compiled  from  Luke.s  Saunier  main- 
tains that  the  Gospels  of  Matthew,  Luke,  and  John,  are 
authentic  and  independent  narratives ;  that  Mark  made  use 
of  those  by  Matthew  and  Luke ;  and  that  the  passages,  not 
to  be  found  in  either  of  these,  were  supplied  by  Peter,  under 
whose  direction  he  wrote.^  And,  lastly,  Janssens  affirms 
that  the  agreement  and  disagreement  between  the  Gospels 
of  Matthew  and  Mark  are  sufficiently  accounted  for,  by  say- 
ing, after  the  ancient  fatliers,  that  Mark  composed  his  Gospel 
after  that  of  Matthew,  and  after  the  preacning  of  Peter.'o 
Not  to  dwell  upon  the  uncertainty  of  these  various  hypothe- 
ses, all  of  which  differ  as  to  the  point  which  was  the  original 
writer,  and  which  of  the  evangelists  were  copyists  or 
abridgers,  the  opinion  which  they  respectively  are  designed 
to  advocate  is  contradicted  by  the  following  weighty  consi- 
derations : — 

1.  They  could  have  no  motive  for  copying  from  each  other 

"  For,  as  each  acknowledged  the  authority  and  veracity  of  tho 
others,  when  their  narratives  were  known,  they  could  not  have 
been  so  absurd  as  to  repeat  what  had  been  already  rightly  told 
Had  they  then  written  successively,  with  knowledge  of  each  other's 
writings,  it  is  probable,  nay,  it  is  almost  certain,  that  each  subse- 
quent author  would  have  set  down  only,  or  at  least  chiefly,  what 
his  predecessors  had  happened  to  omit.  To  repeat  in  substance, 
but  in  different  words,  what  another  had  sufficiently  told,  might 
have  been  practised  by  writers  who  valued  themselves  upon  their 
peculiar  style  of  expression,  or  their  own  mode  of  compilation.  But 
to  copy  the  very  words  of  another,  whose  account  we  do  not  mean 
to  supersede,  and  to  introduce  them  in  the  very  same  manner,  is 
an  idle  and  superfluous  task,  which  no  man  in  his  senses  would 
ever  undertake."  That  the  two  evangelists,  St.  Mark  and  St. 
Lake,  who  were  not  eye-witnesses  of  the  facts,  and  heard  not  the 
discourses  of  Christ  pronounced,  relate  them  nearly  in  the  samo 
words  with  those  who  were  actually  present,  appears  to  me  to 
prove  that  the  narratives  of  all  the  witnesses  perfectly  agreed. 
That  what  one  wrote  others  had  told,  and  each  precisely  in  the 
same  manner.  The  witnesses  had  all  taken  such  care  to  remem- 
ber, with  minute  exactness,  the  principal  discourses  of  their  Lord, 
and  the  occasions  on  which  they  were  spoken,  and  were  so  often 
called  upon  to  repeat  them,  in  making  and  confirming  converts  to 
the  faith,  that  a  precision  was  obtained  in  relating  these  particu- 
lars, of  which,  if  no  other  example  occurs  in  the  annals  of  the 
world,  the  reason  is,  because  no  other  relators  of  facts  and  dis- 
courses were  ever  so  situated.  No  other  men  ever  had  such 
words  and  actions  to  relate;  such  frequent  occasions  to  repeat 
them ;  or  so  many  powerful  reasons  to  relate  them  with  the  strict- 
est accuracy,  on  every  possible  occasion.  From  this  cause  it  natu- 
rally arose,  that  they  who  wrote  as  original  witnesses,  and  ihey 
who  wrote  from  the  testimony  of  such  witnesses,  agreed,  not  only 
substantially,  but  almost  verbally.  The  exact  and  literal  truth, 
without  alteration  or  embellishment,  was  equally  delivered  by 
them;  as  when  several  perfect  mirrors  reflect  the  same  object,  the 
images  will  be  the  same  in  form,  at  the  first  or  second  reflection."" 

'  Storr,  Dissertatio  de  fonte  Evangeliorum  Mattheei  et  Lucse,  in  Kuinoel's, 
Ruperti's,  and  Velthusen's  Commentationes  Theologies,  torn.  iii.  pp.  140. 
et  seq. 

8  Busching,  Harmonie  der  Evangelisten,  pp.  99.  108.  118.  et  seq.  Kui- 
noel's Coounentarius  in  Libros  Historicos  Novi  Testament!,  torn.  i.  Prole- 
gom.  pp.  1 — 3. 

«  Saunier,  Ueber  de  ftuellen  des  Evangeliums  des  Marcus.  Berlin, 
1827.  8vo.  The  above  notice  of  Saunier's  hypothesis  is  given  from  the 
Christian  Examiner  or  Church  of  Ireland  Magazine,  vol.  iv.  p.  339. 

>o  Janssens,  Hermeneutique  Sacr6e,  toin.  ii.  p.  11.     Paris,  1828.  8vo. 

»'  "If  I  follow  another  writer,  and  copy  the  substance  of  his  account  in 
other  words,  I  make  it  my  own,  and  become  responsible,  as  a  second  wit 
ness ;  but  if  I  take  his  very  words,  ray  account  is  resolvable  into  his,  and 
it  is  still  but  one  testimony." 

>»  Nares's  Veracity  of  the  Evangelists,  pp.  36—35, 

385 


388 


ON  THE  SOURCES  OF  THE  FIRST  THREE  GOSPELS. 


But,  further,  "the  copying  of  one  book  from  another  is  ttsually 
the  resource  either  of  ignorance  or  indolence.  Of  ignorance,  when 
tlie  writer  has  no  knowledge  of  the  facts,  except  what  lie  derives 
from  the  author  whom  he  copies:  of  indolence,  when,  thoiigli  pre- 
viously informed,  he  takes  the  slate(jjent  of  another,  wliich  he  ap- 
proves, to  save  himself  the  thought  and  trouble  which  would  be 
required  for  forming  an  original  narrative.  With  respect,  then,  to 
the  evangelists,  above  all  other  wriien*,  we  may  surely  ask,  if  they 
knew  not  of  a  certainty  what  they  undertook  to  write,  why  did 
Ihey  undertake  it?  But  if  they  knew  from  their  own  recollection 
or  inquiries,  why  should  they  copy  from  any  other  person  ?  If  they 
thought  a  new  narrative  was  wanted,  why  should  they  copy  one 
which  vva.s  already  to  be  had  ?  If  they  are  supiwsed  to  have  copied 
tiirough  ignoran<e,  why  did  they  presume  to  alter  even  a  single 
word  .'  If  they  copied  througli  indolence,  the  very  same  indolence 
would  doubtless  have  led  them  to  copy  word  for  word,  which  is 
nnich  more  easy  than  to  copv  with  variations,  but  which  it  never 
tan  be  pretended  they  have  done,  for  many  lines  together.  I  know 
bit  of  one  more  supposition,  which  can  be  made,  and  that  is  so 
tlishonourable  to  the  evangelists,  that  I  think  no  sincere  Christian 
could  be  induced  to  make  it.  It  is  this.  That  they  copied,  indeed, 
through  ignorance  or  indolence,  or  both,  but  inserted  slight  altera- 
tions, as  Ihey  went  on,  for  the  purpose  of  disguising  or  concealing 
their  thefts.  Should  an  enemy  even  presume  to  say  this,  for  surely 
no  other  would  say  it,  to  him  I  would  boldly  reply,  that,  if  so,  they 
were  very  awkward  and  blundering  contrivers;  for  they  altered 
to  very  little,  that  coj\ying  has  been  generally  imputed  to  them: 
and  yet  sometimes  so  indiscreetly,  that  their  dinerences  have  been, 
without  reason  indeed,  but  hastily,  regarded  as  contradictions."' 

2.  It  does  not  appear  that  any  of  the  learned  ancient  Chris- 
tian -writers  had  a  snspicion,  that  either  of  the  first  three 
evan^^elists  had  seen  the  other  Gospels  before  he  wrote  his  owti. 

They  luii/,  indeed,  "that  when  the  three  first-written  Gospels 
Lad  been  delivered  to  all  men,  they  were  also  brought  to  Saint 
John,  and  that  he  confirmed  the  truth  of  ihcir  narration;  but  said, 
tiiat  there  were  some  things  omitted  by  them  which  might  be  pro- 
fitably related :"  or,  "that  he  wrote  last,  supplying  some  things 
vliich  had  been  omitted  by  the  former  evangelists."  To  mention 
no  others,  Eusebius,  bishop  of  Caisaren,-  Epipluuiius,'  Theodore  of 
Mopsucstia,'  and  Jerome,''  express  themselves  in  this  manner. 
Towards  the  close  of  the  fourth  century,  indeed,  or  early  in  the 
Cfili,  Augustine''  supposed  that  the  first  three  evangelists  were  not 
totally  ignorant  of  each  other's  laljours,  and  considered  Murk's 
(Jospel  as  an  abridgment  of  Saint  Matthew's;  but  he  was  the  first 
of  the  fathers  wh(»  advocated  that  notion,  and  it  does  not  appear 
that  he  was  followed  by  any  succeeding  writers,  until  it  was 
revived  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  by  Grotius 
and  others. 

3.  //  »■»  not  suitable  to  the  character  of  any  of  the  evange- 
lists, that  they  should  abridge  or  transcribe  another  historian. 

Matthew  was  an  apostle  and  an  eye-witness,  and  consequently 
was  able  to  write  from  his  own  knowledge;  or,  if  there  were  any 
piris  of  our  Lord's  ministry  at  wliich  he  was  not  present,  he  might 
obtain  information  from  his  fellow-apostles  or  other  eye-witnesses. 
And,  with  respect  to  things  which  happened  before  the  calling  of 
the  apostles  (as  the  nativity,  infancy,  and  youth  of  Christ),  the 
npostles  might  ascertain  them  from  our  Saviour  himself,  or  from 
his  friends  and  acquaintance,  on  whose  information  they  could 
depend. 

Mark,  if  not  one  of  Christ's  seventy  disciples,  was  (as  we  have 
already  sern)''  an  early  Jewish  believer,  acquainted  with  all  the 
npostles,  and  especially  with  Saint  Peter,  us  well  as  with  many 
other  eve-witnesses:  conseiiuenlly  he  was  well  qualified  to  write 
■  Gospel ;  and  that  ho  did  not  anridge  Matthew,  we  have  shown 
by  an  induction  of  various  particulars.^  Luke,  though  not  one  of 
Christ's  seventy  disciples,  nor  an  eye-witness  of  his  discourses  and 
nctions,  was  a  disciple  and  companion  of  the  a{K)slles,  and  espe- 
cially of  Paul;  he  must  tlierefore  have  been  well  (|ualilied  to 
vrite  a  Gospel.  Besides,  as  we  have  shown  in  a  former  page,"  it 
is  miinifcst,  from  his  introduction,  that  he  knew  not  of  any  aiithen- 
lic  history  of  Jesus  Christ  that  had  been  then  written;  and  he 
expressly  says,  that  he'  h:id  nccurutely  traced  all  things  from  the 
source  in  succession  or  onlcr,  and  he  professes  to  write  of  them  to 
Tiicophilus.  After  such  an  explicit  declaration  as  this  is,  to  afJirm 
that  he  transcribed  many  things  from  one  historian,  and  still  more 
from  another,  is  no  less  than  a  contradiction  of  the  evangelist 
himself 

4.  It  ii  evident  from  the  nature  and  design  of  the  first  three 
Gospels,  that  the  evangelists  had  not  seen  any  authentic  -writ- 
ten history  of  Jesus  Christ. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  but  that  John  had  seen  the  other  three 
flo.Hpels;  for,  as  he  is  said  to  have  lived  to  a  great  age,  so  it  np- 
f'cars  from  his  Gospel  itself  that  he  carefully  avoided  the  repetition 

Nares'g  Veracity  of  the  EvanzclisU,  pp.  168—170. 
»  Aco.  iho  passaxcs  from  Ruscbius  ia  Ut.  Lanincr'8  Works,  8vo.  vol.  iv. 
pp.  'iV,,  227. ;  lio.  vol.  ii.  p.  30;t. 

»  Ibl.l.  flvo.  v.il.  Iv.  pp.  311,  315. ;  4lo.  vol.  ii.  p.  113. 
«  Il)i(l.  Svo.  vol.  Iv.  pp.  511,  512.  ;  4lo.  vol.  II.  p.  5'J3. 

•  Ihid.  Svo.  vol.  v.  p.  41. ;  llo.  vol.  ii.  p.  .'ij'J. 
«  ll.id.  Svo.  vol.  v.  p.  ro. ;  4!o.  vol.  ii.  p.  083L 
■>  .''••e  p.  301.  of  itiig  volume. 

•  ^e  iip.  3t«,  3«7.  of  thU  \oluiac.  »  See  p-  311.  ripra. 


of  tilings  related  in  them,  except  a  few  neoe.s.=<ary  facts.  But  there 
is  no  certain  evidence,  either  that  Mark  knew  that  Matthew  had 
written  a  Gospel  before  him,  or  that  Luke  knew  that  the  twc 
evangelists  had  written  Gospels  before  him.  If  Mark  had  seen  the 
work  of  Matthew,  it  is  likely  that  he  would  have  remained  satisfied 
with  it  as  being  the  work  of  an  apostle  of  Christ,  ihat  is,  an  eye- 
witness, which  he  was  not.  Nor  would  Luke,  w-ho,  frdm  the  t)egin- 
ning  of  his  Gospel,  appears  to  have  been  acquainted  with  several 
memoirs  of  the  i*nyings  and  actions  of  Christ,  have  omitted  to  say 
that  one  or  more  of  them  was  written  by  an  apostle,  as  Matthew 
was. — His  silence,  therefore,  is  an  additional  proof  that  the  first 
three  evangelists  were  totally  unacquainted  with  any  previous 
authentic  written  history  of  Christ. 

5.  The  seeming  contradictions  occurring  in  the  first  three 
Gospels  (alt  of  ivhich,  however,  admit  of  easy  solutions),  are 
an  additional  evidence  that  the  evangelists  did  not  write  by  con- 
cert, or  after  having  seen  each  other's  Gospels. 

6.  Jn  some  of  the  histories  recorded  by  all  these  three  evau' 
gelists,  there  are  small  varieties  and  differences,  ivhich  plainly 
shoiv  the  same  thing. 

In  illustration  of  this  remark,  it  will  suffice  to  refer  to  and  com- 
pare the  accounts  of  the  healing  of  the  demoniac  or  demoniacs  in 
the  country  of  the  Gadarenes  (Matt.  viii.  28 — 34.  with  Mark  v. 
1 — 20.  and  Luke  viii.  26 — 40.);  the  account  of  our  Lord's  transfi- 
guration on  the  mount  (Malt.  xvii.  1 — 13.  with  Mark  ix.  1 — 13.  and 
Luke  ix.  28 — 36.),  and  the  history  of  the  healing  of  the  young  man 
alter  our  Saviour's  descent  from  the  mount.  (.Malt.  xvii.  14 — 21. 
with  Mark  ix.  14 — 2'J.  and  Luke  ix.  37 — 42.)  In  each  of  the  ac- 
couni.s  here  cited,  the  agreeing  circumstances  wliich  are  discovera- 
ble in  them,  clearly  prove  ihat  it  is  the  same  hislory,  but  there  are 
also  several  differences  equally  evident  in  ihem.  Whoever,  there- 
fore, diligently  attends  to  these  circumstances,  must  be  sensible 
that  the  evangelical  historians  did  not  copy  or  borrow  from  each 
other. 

7.  There  are  some  very  remarkable  thi?igs  related  in  Saifit 
Mattheiv^  Gospel,  of  ivhich  neither  Saint  Mark  nor  Saint 
Luke  has  taken  any  notice. 

Such  are  the  extraordinary  events  recorded  in  Matt.  ii.  xxvii.  19. 
xxvii.  51 — 53.  and  xxviii.  11 — 15.:  some  or  all  of  which  would  have 
been  noticed  by  Mark  or  Luke,  had  they  written  with  a  view  of 
abridging  or  coniirniing  Matthew's  history.  It  is  also  very  observ- 
able, that  Luke  has  no  account  of  the  miracle  of  feeding  "foui 
thousand  with  seven  loaves  and  a  few  small  fishes,"  whicn  is  re- 
lated in  Matt.  xv.  32 — 39.  and  Mark  viii.  1 — 9.  The  same  remark 
is  applicable  to  Luke's  Gosiiel,  supposing  (as  Dr.  Macknight  and 
others  have  imagined)  it  to  have  been  first  written,  as  it  contains 
many  remarkable  things  not  to  be  found  in  the  other  Gospels. 
Now,  if  Matthew  or  Mark  had  written  with  a  view  of  abridging 
or  confirming  Luke's  history,  they  would  not  have  passed  by  those 
things  without  notice. 

8.  All  the  first  three  evangelists  have  several  things  peculiar 
to  themselves  ;  which  show  that  they  did  not  borrow  fron^each 
other,  and  that  they  were  all  well  acfjuainted  with  the  things 
of  which  they  undertook  to  write  a  history. 

Many  such  peculiar  relations  occur  in  Matthew's  Gospel,  besides 
those  just  cited ;  and  both  Mark'"  arwl  Luke,"  as  we  have  already 
seen,  have  many  similar  things,  so  that  it  is  needless  to  adduce  any  • 
additional  instances. 

9.  Lastly,  Dr.  Mill  ha.s  argued  that  the  similarity  of  style  and 
composition  is  a  proof  that  these  evangelists  had  seen  each 
other's  writings. 

But  this  argument  in  Dr.  Lardner's  judgment  is  insufficient.  In 
fact,  Mill  himself  allov\s'2  that  a  very  close  agreement  may  easily 
subsist  between  two  authors  writing  on  the  same  subject  in  the 
Greek  language. '^ 

in.  The  SECOND  hypothesis,  by  which  some  distintruished 
critics  have  attempted  to  e.\plaiii  the  verbal  harmony  ob- 
servable in  the  first  three  (Jospels,  is  that  vhich  derives 
them  from  some  Common  (iRKEK  or  Hebrew  Docu.ment  or 
source,  which  occasioned  the  evangelists  so  frecptently  to 
adopt  the  same  terms  and  forms  of  expression.  Le  Clerc'* 
was  the  first  writer  to  whom  this  idea  occurred ;  and  after  it 
had  lain  dormant  upwards  of  sixty  years,  it  was  revived  and 
advocated  by  Koppe,'*  and  has  been  modified  in  various 
ways  by  subsequent  writers,  so  that  (as  it  has  been  severely 
hut  not  unjustly  remarked)  "hypothesis  has  been  knocked 
down  by  hypothesis,  till  the  Gospels  must  begin  to  feel 
themselves  in  a  very  awkward  condition."'*' 

Of  these  various  modifications  the  following  is  a  concise 
outline : — 

<o  Poc  p  30G.  supra,  of  this  voliiino. 

<i  .-<it;  p.'  31 1.  note  6.  supra,  of  tlil.4  volume.  '»  Millii  Prolog,  i  108. 

u  I)i-.  I-nclii<r'8  Works,  8vo.  vol.  vl.  pj).  223— li33. ;  4to.  vol.  ii.  pi). 
2!.">— 2.'i<). 

•  •  C'lt-rici  Eccl.  Illst.  sjcr.  1.  anno  Ixiv.  i  xi.  pp.429,  430.  ^ 

•  >  III  his  clitisoriatiou  entitled  Marcue  iioii  EpuuuiaiorMailha>i.  SecPotl'il 


ami  UiiuiTll's  rtyllugo,  torn.  I.  mi.  ti5-0S. 
«•  Uriiish  Critic  and  Thcol.  Review,  vol. 


ii.  pp.  351. 


ON  THE  SOURCES  OF  THE  FIRST  THREE  GOSPELS.  337 

of  other  hypotheses,  and  varicus  forms  of  this  hypotliesis, 
Bishop  Marsh  proposes  his  own  in  tlie  foUowinjr  terms, 


1 .  MiCHAELis,  in  t'ne  fourth  German  edition  of  his  Introduc- 
tion,' abandoning  his  former  opinion  that  Mark  copied 
from  Matthew,  "  attributes  the  verbal  harmony  of  all  three 
evangelists  to  the  use  of  the  same  documents.  But,  as  he 
assumes  that  St.  Matthew  wrote  in  Hebrew,  he  supposes, 
not  that  Matthew  himself,  but  his  Greek  translator,  had 
access  to  the  same  Greek  document  or  documents  which 
had  been  used  both  by  St.  Mark  and  St.  Luke;  and  that 
hence  arose  the  verbal  harmony  between  the  Greek  Gos- 

Eel  of  St.  Matthew  and  the  Gospels  of  St.  Mark  and  St. 
,uke."i 

2.  Semler,^  in  1783,  intimated  rather  than  enunciated  the 
hypothesis  of  a  common  Hebrew  or  Syriac  document  or 
documents,  whence  the  first  three  evangelists  derived  the 

Srincipal  materials  of  their  Gospels.  The  hypothesis  of 
emler  was  subsequently  adopted  by  Berchtold,  who 
maintained  that  the  verbal  conformity  in  the  corresponding 
passages  of  our  Gospels  was  produced  by  the  alterations 
of  transcribers.'' 

3.  In  1784  Lessing  asserted  the  hypothesis  of  a  common 
Syriac  or  Chaldee  original,  which  ne  supposes  to  be  the 
Gospel  according  to  the  Hebrews,  or  the  Gospel  according 
to  the  twelve  Apostles.  From  this  Gospel  he  imagines 
that  Matthew  (who  in  his  opinion  wrote  only  in  Greek), 
Mark,  and,  Luke,  derived  the  principal  materials  of  their 
Gospels,  and  accordingly  translated  it  more  or  less  fully, 
more  or  less  closely  into  Greek.*  Niemeyer,'^  Halfeld,'' 
and  Paulus,3  adopted  and  improved  upon  Lessing's  notion  : 
but  their  views  have  been  eclipsed. 

4.  By  the  late  Professor  Eichhorn,  of  whose  earlier  modifi- 
cations of  the  hypothesis  of  a  primary  document.  Bishop 
Marsh  has  given  an  interestinw»account.9  According  to 
Eichhorn's  fiypothesis,  as  developed  in  the  second  edition 
of  his  (German)  Introduction  to  the  New  Testament,'o 
there  were  four  copies  of  the  Aramaic  Original  which 
formed  the  basis  of  the  first  three  Gospels;  which  with 
tlieir  respective  translations  he  thus  designates  : — 

"  A.  An  Aramaic  Text  of  the  original  doctrine,  with  some 
of  the  great  additions  now  found  in  St.  Matthew.  This 
was  early  translated. 

B.  An  Aramaic  Text,  with  some  of  the  ^eater  additions  now 

in  St.  Luke.     Not  translated  independently. 

C.  An  Aramaic  Text  compounded  of  A.  and  B.   This  forms 

St.  Mark's  Gospel,  having  been  either  translated  by 
himself,  or  an  early  translation  of  it  having  been  re- 
vised by  him. 

D.  An  Aramaic  Text,  with  some  of  the  other  great  additions 

in  St.  Luke,  which  was  also  translated  early. 

E.  St.  Matthew's  Aramaic  Text,  composed  out  of  A.  and 

D.,  except  some  additions  made  oy  St.  Matthew  him- 
self, who  arranged  the  whole  of  the  original  Gospel 
and  the  additions  chronologically.  The  translator  of 
this  into  Greek  used  the  early  translations  of  A. 
and  D. 

F.  St.  Luke's  Aramaic  Text,  composed  of  B.  and  D.  (except 

some  additions  peculiar  to  St.  Luke),  and  translated 
by  himself,  with  the  assistance  of  the  existing  trans- 
lation of  D.  B.  is  thus  common  to  St.  Mark  and  St. 
Luke,  but  they  had  no  common  translation  of  it."" 
This  scheme,  it  will  be  seen,  on  comparison,  does  not 
materially  vary  from  that  proposed  by 

5.  Bishop  Marsh,  in  his  elaborate  "  Dissertation  on  the 
Origin  and  Composition  of  our  first  three  Gospels."  After 
many  preparatory  steps,  assigning  reasons  for  the  rejection 

Vol.  iii.  part  1.  ch.  5.  sect.  5.  of  Bp.  Marsh's  translation. 

»  Bp.  Marsli's  Michaelis,  vol.  iii.  part  2.  p.  186. 

'  III  t!ie  notes  to  his  German  translation  of  Dr.  Townson's  Discourses. 
(Townson,  Abhandiungen  fiber  die  vier  Evangelien,  vol.  i.  pp.  221.  290.) 
.Michaelis,  vol.  iii.  part  2.  p.  187.  Kuinoel,  Couiment.  in  Lib.  Hist.  Nov. 
Test.  toni.  i.  Prolesoni.  pp.  3,  4. 

«  An  outline  of  Berchtold's  hypothesis  wiil  be  found  in  the  Introduction 
to  the  English  translation  of  Schleiermacher's  Critical  Essay  on  the  Gospel 
of  St.  Luke,  pp.  xcvi.  xcvii. 

»  Lessing's  Theolosischer  Naclilass  (Theological  Remains),  pp.  45 — 72., 
cited  by  Bp.  Marsh,  vol.  iii.  part  2.  pp.  187,  188. 

«  Nieineyer,  Conjectura;  ad  illustrandiim  plurimorum  N.  T.  Scriptorum 
Silcnlium  de  primordiis  Jesu  Cliristi.    Ifaln?,  1790.  4to. 

1  Ilalfeld,  Coniinentatio  de  Origine  quatuor  Evangeliorum  et  de  eorum 
canonica  auctoritate.     Gottingx,  1794.  4  to. 

8  Paulus,  Introductio  in  N.  T.  capita  selectiora,  quibus  in  origincm,  sco- 

Snm,  et  argnmentorum  Evangeliorum  et  Actuu.    Apostolorum  iiiquirilur. 
euK,  1799.  Svo. 

»  Michaelis,  vol.  iii.  part  2.  pp.  184—205. 
10  Einleitung  in  das  N.  T.  vol.  i.  1820. 

«'  For  the  preceding  abstract  of  Eichhorn's  latest  hypothesis,  the  atithor 
'3  indebted  to  Ihe  learned  reviewer  of  Sohleiermacher'sEssay  on  the  Gos- 
nel  of  St.  Luke  in  the  British  Critic  and  Theol.  Review,  vol.  ii.  pp.  345,  347. 


marking  the  common  Hebrew  document,  wliich  he  sup- 
poses the  evangelist  to  have  consulted,  by  the  sign  n,  and 
certain  translations  of  it  with  more  or  less  additions  by  tho 
letters  a,  /S,  &c. 

"  Saint  Matthew,  Saint  Mark,  and  Saint  Luke,  all  three, 
used  copies  of  the  cominon  Hebrew  document  n  :  the  ma- 
terivils  of  wiiich  Saint  Matthew,  who  wrote  in  Hebrew, 
retained  in  the  language  in  whicli  he  found  them,  but 
Saint  Mark  and  Saint  Luke  tran.slated  them  into  Greelc. 
They  had  no  knowledge  of  each  other's  Gospel;  but  Saint 
Mark  and  Saint  Luke,  besides  their  copies  of  the  Hebrew 
document  n,  used  a  Greek  translation  of  it,  which  had 
been  made  before  any  of  the  additions  a,  (i,  &c.  had  been 
inserted.  Lastly,  as  the  Gospels  of  Saint  Mark  and  Saint 
Luke  contain  Greek  translations  of  Hebrew  materials 
which  were  incorporated  into  Saint  Matthew's  Hebrew- 
Gospel,  the  person  who  translated  Saint  Matthew's  He- 
brew Gospel  into  Greek  frequently  derived  assistance  from 
the  Gospel  of  Saint  Mark,  where  Saint  Mark  had  matter 
in  common  with  Saint  Matthew;  and  in  those  places,  but 
in  those  places  only,  wiiere  Saint  Mark  had  no  matter  in 
common  with  Matthew,  he  had  frequently  recourse  to  St. 
Luke's  Gospel."'2 

The  hypothesis  thus  stated  and  determined,  its  author 
conceives,  will  account  for  all  the  phenomena  relative  to 
tlie  verbal  agreement  and  disagreement  of  our  first  three 
Gospels,  as  well  as  for  the  other  manifold  relations  which 
they  bear  to  each  other;  and  he  has  accommodated  it  with 
great  attention  to  particular  circumstances,  enumerated  by 
him  in  the  former  part  of  his  "  Dissertation  on  the  Origin 
of  the  first  three  Gospels,"  which  circumstances,  however, 
we  have  not  room  to  detail.  This  document,  he  thinks, 
may  have  been  entitled  in  Greek,  AiHFHSis  7rii,t  nea  ;ts,t/.))- 

a.u'T'.TrrM  km  viryfrrxt  t-.u  Kcyov,  that  is,  A  NARRATIVE  of  t/iOiC 
things  which  are  modjirntli/  believed  uniong  us,  even  as  they, 
who  from  the  beginning  were  eye-witnesses  and  iitinisters  uf 
ihe  word,  delivered  them  unto  us.  Consequently,  if  this 
conjecture  be  well  founded,  the  document  in  question  is 
actually  referred  to  by  Saint  Luke."  In  addition  also  to 
this  supposed  first  Hebrew  document  k  and  its  translations. 
Bishop  Marsh  supposes  the  existence  of  a  supplemental 
Hebrew  document,  which  he  calls  3,  and  w^hich  contained 
a  collection  of  precepts,  parables,  and  discourses,  delivered 
by  our  Saviour  on  various  occasions,  but  not  aiTanged  in 
chronological  order.  This  he  terms  a  T\M,uc\cytA,  and  con- 
ceives that  it  was  used  only  by  Matthew  and  Luke,  who 
had  copies  of  it  differing  from  each  other. 
6.  In  order  to  unite  the  two  hypotheses  of  Eichhorn  anil 
Bishop  Marsh,  Professor  Gratz  supposes  that  there  was 
a  Hebrew  or  Syro-Chaldaic  original  Gospel  for  the  use 
of  the  preachers  of  the  Christian  faith  in  Palestine,  from 
which  Matthew  composed  his  Hebrew  Gospel.  When 
they  began  to  propagate  the  Christian  doctrines  in  othei 
countries,  this  original  Gospel  was  translated  into  Greek, 
and  enriched  with  several  additions.  From  this  version 
Mark  and  Luke  composed  their  books,  and  hence  arose  tlie 
agreement  both  as  to  facts  and  expressions,  which  is  ob- 
servable in  their  respective  Gospels.  The  Gospel  of 
Matthew  was  also  translated  into  Greek,  in  execi;tinj| 
which  version  the  translator  made  use  of  the  writings  ot 
Mark,  whence  he  also  sometimes  interpolated  Matthew  ; 
and  this  circumstance  gave  rise  to  ^similarity  between 
them  as  to  matter,  in  places  where  Luke  diiTers  from  them. 
But  the  agreement  between  Matthew  and  Luke,  to  iiw. 
exclusion  of  Mark,  was  effected  by  subsequent  interpola- 
tions, since  these  passages  were  transcribed  from  the  Gos- 

n  Michaelis,  vol.  iii.  part  2.  p.  301. 

".Michaelis,  vol.  iii.  part  2.  pp.  303.  368.  But  the  absence  vt'  Ihe  Greek 
article  is  fatal  to  the  conjecture  of  Bishop  Marsh,  and  proves  that  tlie  sup- 
posed docunient  never  existed.  Tlie  force  of  tliis  objection  seems  to  have 
struck  the  rnind  of  that  learned  writer;  for  he  has  candidly  left  it  to  others, 
to  determine  whether  his  conjecture  is  not  rendered  abortive  by  the  want 
of  the  article  before  i'y.yr.a-iv  {narrative  or  declaration)  in  Luke  i.  1.  Ou 
this  topic  Bishop  Middlcton  is  decisively  of  opinion  that  it  is  rendered 
totally  abortive.  With  respect  to  the  Greek  article,  he  remarks,  that  "the 
rule  is,  that  the  title  of  a  book,  as  prefixed  to  the  book,  should  be  anar- 
l/irous"  (i.  e.  without  the  article);  "but  that  when  the  book  is  referred  to, 
the  article  should  be  inserted."  And  hs  adduces,  among  other  instances, 
Hesiod's  poem,  entitled  Ao-sn,-  UfxxKim:  {Hermles's  Shield),  which  Lon- 
ginus  thus  cites — !'>s  "Ha-mScv  xi>  THN  Ar-iSx^iTi'jv  (if  indeed  tkb 
shield  may  be  ascribed  to  Hesiod).  Bishop  Middleton  on  the  Greek  article, 
p.  289.  first  edition.  In  the  two  following  pages  he  has  controverted  clio 
translation  of  Luke  i.  1—4.  proposed  by  the  translator  of  Michaelis. 


388 


ON  THE  SOURCES  OF  THE  FIRST  THREE  GOSPELS. 


pel  of  Matthew  into  that  of  Luke;  and  in  those  places, 

where  the  original  Gospel  has  no  additions,  they  all  agree 

ia  matter  as  well  as  harmonize  in  words.' 

The  modifications  of  the  hypothesis  that  there  was  an 
original  Aramaean  Gospel,  proposed  by  Eichhorn  and  Bishop 
Marsh,  have  been  adopted  by  Kuinuel,^  iSchoell,^  and  some 
other  continental  critics;  but  they  have  been  strenuously 
opposed,  on  the  continent,  by  Professor  Hug,'  and  in  this 
country  by  the  late  Bishops  Randolph*  and  Middleton,^ 
Bishop  Gleig,'  the  editors  of  the  British  Critic,^  and  other 
distino-uished  writers.s  of  whose  arguments  and  reasonings 
the  foTlowing  is  an  abstract : — 

1.  Supposing  luch  a  theory  to  be  necessary,  in  order  to  ac- 
count for  the  verbal  similarities  and  differences  of  the  frst 
three  eranjelists  (which  necessity,  hoivever,  is  by  no  means 
admitted),  the  obvious  fault  of  this  hypothesis,  in  all  its  modifi- 
cations, is  its  extreme  complexity. 

To  omit  the  earlier  modifications  which  have  yielded  to  the 
Bchemcs  of  Eichhorn  nml  Bishop  Marsh: — Acconling  to  the  former 
lliere  are  an  Aramaic  original  Gospel,  which  was  translated  into 
Greek,  and  five  com))ilations  from  it,  with  various  additions. 
According  to  the  latter  there  are  two  Hebrew  or  Aramaic  docu- 
ments, and  several  Greek  versions,  with  additions  gratuitously 
supposed,  which  the  algebraical  notations,  introduced  by  their 
author,  can  scarcely  cnaiile  the  reader  to  distinguish  from  each 
other.  To  describe  the  sources  of  Saint  Matthew's  Gospel  by  this 
method,  not  fewer  than  seven  marks  are  employed  ;  viz.  N,  a,  y,  a, 
n,  3,  and  r».    Besides  these,  there  are  the  marks  peculiar  to  Saint 

Luke  or  Saint  Mark,  i,  b,  and  N,— in  all,  ten  different  signs  stand- 
ing ibr  so  many  separate  documents  or  modiilcationsof  documenis; 
and  all  these  gratuitously  supposed  without  proof  for  the  existence 
of  one  among  the  number.  This  hypothesis  Bishop  Marsh  consi- 
ders as  simple;  but,  with  every  possible  deference  to  such  an 
authority  in  nil  matters  respecting  biblical  literature,  it  is  sul>- 
mitted,  that  few  persons  will  be  found  to  coincide  in  his  opinion. 
And  alihough  he  states,  with  respect  to  the  steps  ol'  this  iiypolhesis, 
thul  -there  is  no  improbability  attending  any  one  of  them;  ihcy 
are  neither  inimerous  nor  complicated :"  yet  we  must  observe  that, 
altogether,  they  are  both  numerous,  and,  consequently,  by  the  com- 
binations supposed  in  their  application,  they  become  extremely 
nomplicatcd.  Further,  iliough  no  particular  step  may  be  in  itself 
improbable,  yet  the  discovery  of  ten  different  sources  to  certain 
works,  by  mere  analysis,  is  a  circumstance  of  the  highest  improba- 
Ijility,  aiid  forms  such  a  discovery  as  was  never  yet  made  in  the 
world,  and  prt>bably  never  will  be  made;  because,  if  not  ab.so- 
lutely  impos.sible,  it  approaches  so  nearly  to  impossibility,  that  the 
tninu  can  scarcely  conceive  a  distinction. '" 

2.  But  if  either  of  these  hypotheses  would  solve,  without  dif- 
ficulty or  exception,  all  the  phenomena,"  of  every  description, 
which  are  assumed  to  exist  in  the  first  three  Gospels,  the  total 
6iL£XC£  of  ecclesiastical  antiquity  presents  a  direct  and  invin- 
cible argument  against  the  existence  of  any  such  primary 
document. 

el.)  To  commence  with  the  apostolic  age: — is  it  to  be  supposed 
that  there  ever  existed  a  work  of  such  approved  excellence,  and 
Buch  high  authority,  as  to  become  the  basis  of  the  first  three  Gos- 
pels, and  yet  that  nothing — not  even  the  memory  of  it — sliould 
nurvive  that  age?'^  "Were  we  indeed  as  certiiin,  that  the  apostles, 
before  they  separated,  had  really  met  ibr  the  purpose  of  drawing 
up  a  copious  and  authentic  history  of  their  Divine  Master's  life  and 
iloclrincs,  as  we  are  that  an  authentic  record  was  kciit  at  Jerusa- 
lem of  the  reigns  of  the  different  kings,  the  state  of  religion  luider 
each,  and  the  ureaching  of  the  prophets,  this  would  I>e  by  much 
tlio  eauiest,  ana,  perhaps,  the  most  satisfactory  method  of  account- 

'  Gratz,  Ncuer  Vcr.such,  ilic  Enstehunjt  dcr  ilroy  crsten  Evangclieii  7.n 
crliliirun  (Tubingen,  I'^IJ),  cited  in  IIur's  Ininiduclion,  vol.  ii.  p.  KS.  There 
I.")  an  abstract  of  Qa^v/.'a  srheuic,  with  roninrks  by  the  translator  of 
Bctileiorniacher  (Inffoit.  pi>.  Ixxx\'i.— xciii),  who  considers  it  "to  be  not 
•  )nljf  unwi*rranted,  but  contnidicled  by  every  incinorlal  we  liavc  remain- 
Inn,  of  llic  earliest  transaciions  In  Christian  history."' 

»  Conini.  in  Hist.  Lib.  Nov.  Test.  vol.  i.  pp.  7—9. 

'  Ilistoire  Abre(t«'-e  de  la  Mtl-'rauire  fJnxquc,  torn.  ii.  pp.  6*5— 82. 

«  IIuk's  IiUroiluclion,  vol  ii.  pp.  K>— 101. 

>  Ur.  Randolph  in  his  "llcniurks  on  Micliaclis's  Introduction,  8vo.  vols, 
iii.  and  iv."     Lomlon,  1H02. 

•  On  tlic  Doctrine  of  the  Greek  Article,  pp.  2P6— 291. 

''  In  his  valuable  edition  of  Siackhousc's  History  uf  iho  Bible,  vol.  iii. 
pp.  IU3— 112. 

•  brii.  Crii.  vol  xxi.  (O.  3.)  p.  178.  elieq.  Brit.  Crit.  and  Theological 
Review,  vol.  ii.  pp.  317— 3J0. 

»  Particularly  Mr.  VcyHie,  in  his  "  Examination  of  Mr.  Marah's  Iiypolhe- 
sis," 8vo.  London,  1S08,  and  Mr.  Falroncr,  in  his  Ituniplon  Lectures  for 
1810.  p.  10.'),  et  teq.  See  nl.so  the  UhriKlian  ObHer\'er  fur  IfAW,  vol.  viii. 
pp.  QZi—O'Jlti.,  and  the  late  Dr.  Milner's  rttriclures  on  soiiio  of  tlio  Publica- 
tions of  Iho  ilcv.  Herbert  Marnh,  D.l).  Lond.  1813,  Svo. 

">  Bril.  Crit.  vol.  xxi.  (O.8.)  p.  180. 

■>  Mr.  VcvMio  has  indlilulcd  a  minute  rxnminalinn  of  Biiiliop  Marsh's 
Sinleinent  oflhe  phenomena  observable  in  the  first  three  GoiipclH,  in  wliirh 
lie  has  shown  its  incoinpeicncy  to  explain  llio.^c  plienmncna.  As  this  in- 
vemigniinn  Ik  not  of  a  naiure  lo  Rilinit  of  aliridgnicnl,  we  refer  the  reader 
to  Mr.  V.'b  "ExaiiiinaUon,"  pp.  12—50. 

'»  On  the  subject  here  necessarily  treated  with  brovity,  EceMr.  Falcon- 
er's Uau>]>ton  Lecturei  for  1«10,  pp.  11&— 120. 


ing  as  well  for  the  harmony  as  for  the  discrepancies  which  we  find 
among  the  several  abridgments  made  by  the  first  three  evangelists 
But,  that  the  ajwsiles  met  for  such  a  purpose  as  this,  before  they 
left  Jerusalem,  has  never  been  supposed;  and,  indeed,  the  hypo- 
thesis, had  it  even  been  made  and  supported  by  the  most  unexcep- 
tionable testimonies  of  the  earliest  uninspired  writers  of  the  church, 
would  deserve  no  regard  whatever,  unless  these  writers  had  each 
declared,  without  collusion  among  themselves,  that  he  had  pos- 
.sessed  a  copy  of  the  original  record.  Even  then,  unless  a  copy  of 
it  were  still  in  existence,  from  which  we  might,  from  internal 
evidence,  decide  on  its  claims  to  an  apostolical  origin,  we  should 
hesitate,  after  the  imposture  of  the  Ixjok  called  the  'Apostolical 
Conslituliojis,'  to  admit  the  authenticity  of  such  a  record.  The 
ajMjstles,  in  a  state  of  persecution,  had  not  the  same  facilities  for 
publicly  recording  the  actiorvs  ol"  their  Lord,  as  the  ministers  of 
state,  called  the  Scribe  and  the  Recorder,  possessed  in  the  king- 
doms of  Judah  and  Israel  for  writing  registers  of  the  deeds  of  their 
respective  sovereigns;  nor  do  we  ever  find  the  evangelists  ap7»eal- 
ing  to  any  such  record,  while  the  writers  of  the  historicjd  boolis 
of  the  Old  Testament  fre<iuenily  appeal  lo  the  annals  or  chronicles 
of  the  kingdom.'^  A  common  record,  from  which  all  the  evange- 
lists selected  the  materials  of  their  histories,  must,  therefore,  be 
abandoned  as  an  hypothesis  perfectly  groundless,  notwithstanding 
all  the  learning  and  ingenuity  which  have  been  displayed  in  sup- 
port of  tliat  Iiypolhesis."''' 

(2.)  If  we  consult  the  writings  of  the  apostolical  fathers,  who 
were  the  immediate  disciples  of  the  apostles  and  evangelists,  we 
shall  find  that  the  same  si!c«cc  prevails  among  them;  for,  although 
they  did  not  cite  by  name  the  various  lx)oks  of  the  New  Testament 
(the  canon  JWt  being  completed  until  the  close  of  the  first  century), 
yet  in  their  allusions  to  the  evangelical  writings  they  refer  to  our 
four  Gospels,  and  do  not  so  much  as  intimate  tlie  existence  of  any 
other  document.  Ignatius,  who  flourished  in  the  beginning  of  the 
second  century  (a.  u.  107),  is  supposed  to  have  mentioned  the  book 
of  the  Gospels  under  the  term  "Gospel,"  and  the  Epistles  under 
that  of  "  Apastlcs;"'^  bufcas  this  point  has  been  controverted  by 
learned  men,  we  shall  waive  any  positive  evidence  which  might 
be  offered  from  his  writings,  observing  only  that  he  nowhere  alludes 
or  refers  to  any  other  books  of  the  New  Testament,  besides  those 
which  have  been  transmitted  to  us;  and  lliat  his  silence  concerning 
the  existence  of  any  other  document  affo«]s  a  very  strong  pre- 
sinnptive  argument  against  its  existence.  Let  us  now  consider  the 
evidence  of  the  fathers  who  were  either  contemporary  with  Igna- 
tius, or  who  lived  within  a  few  yeare  of  his  lime.  The  first  witness 
we  shall  adduce  is  Papias,  who  flourished  a.  d.  116,  and  had  con- 
versed with  apostolical  men,  that  is,  with  those  who  had  been  the 
immediate  disciples  of  the  apostle.-;.  It  is  remarkable,  that  this 
father  refers  to  no  primary  document  whatever;  but,  on  the  con- 
trary, he  bears  a  most  express  testimony  to  the  number  of  the  Gos- 
pels, which  were  only /o(;r,  in  his  day."  Four-and-twenty  years 
afterwards  lived  Justin  Martyr,  whose  evidence  is  still  more  ex- 
plicit:— for  instead  of  quoting  any  such  source,  under  the  name  of 
A:70.uv>).uov!u/^»r:»  tuiv  Airerox.*!',  or  "Memoirs  of  the  Apostles,"  he 
expressly  declares  that  he  means  the  Gospels.^''  Talian,  Irenajus, 
Theaphilus,  Bishop  of  Antioch,  and,  in  short,  every  subsequent 
ecclesiastical  writer  ofantiquily,  is  equally  explicit  as  to  the  num- 
ber of  the  Gospels,  and  equally  silent  as  to  the  existence  of  any 
source  whence  the  evangelists  derived  the  materials  of  their  Gos 
pels.'8 

3.  The  incongruitiea  and  apparent  contradictions,  irhich 
(as  we  have  seen)  form  a  strong  objection  against  the  suppo- 
sition that  the  evangelists  copied  from  each  other,  form  an 
objection  no  less  strong  against  the  supposition  that  they  all 
copied  from  one  and  tlie  same  document. 

For  if,  as  this  hypothesis  requires,  they  all  adhered  to  their  do- 
cument, no  difference  could  have  arisen  between  them;  but  they 

>:■  Sec,  nniong  a  variety  of  such  appeals,  1  Kings  xvi.  19.  and  1  Chrun. 
xxvii.  1^4. 

n  Bp.  Gleig's  edition  of  Stackhouse's  History  of  the  Bible,  vol.  in.  p.  103. 

i»  On  iliis  topic,  see  Dr.  Larduer's  Works,  8vo.  vol.  ii.  p.  81. ;  4to.  vol.  i. 
p.  3>2. 

'•  Sec  the  testimony  of  Papias  in  Dr.  Lardncr's  Works,  Svo.  vol.  ii. 
pp.  107—110. ;  4to.  vol.  i.  pii.  X!?,  3.>*. 

'■•  In  his  first  apology  tor  Ihe  (yhrislians,  which  was  delivered  to  the 
EmpfTor  Antoninus  Pius  (c.  CC.),  Justin  gives  the  following  reason  for  the 
cclebralicjn  of  ilic  Lord's  supper  among  the  Christians : — "  For  the  apostles, 
in  the  Mrmoirs  ("^'^m^onu.uair'i') composed  by  them,  which  are  called 
GosPBLS  (a  K»>.iiT«»  KTAri'EAIA),  have  thus  assured  us,  that  Josiis  or- 
dered them  lo  do  it ;  that  he  look  bread,  gave  ihanks,  and  then  said,  'This 
do  in  remembrance  of  in<-;  this  is  my  body  :'  llial  in  like  manner  he  took 
the  cup,  and  alter  he  hail  given  thanks,  6ai<l,  'This  is  my  blood."' — And 
in  another  passage  (c.  67.),  when  giving  the  emperor  an  account  of  the 
('lirislian  worship,  he  says,  "The  Alrmoira  of  the  Apostles &rc  reail,  or  the 
Writings  of  (lie  Pruphels,  according  as  lime  allows;  and,  when  Ihe  reader 
has  ended,  Ihe  president  uf  the  coiniiiunily  iiiakCK^  a  discourse  exhorting 
Ihem  lo  Ihe  imitation  of  such  excellent  lliings." — An  evident  proof  Ihi.-*, 
thai,  BO  early  as  the  beginning  uf  Ihi;  secund  century,  the  four  Gospels 
(and  no  greater  niiinber)  were  not  only  generally  known  among  the  Chris- 
tians, but  were  revered  even  as  llie  Scriptures  of  Ihe  Old  Testament,  ihat 
Is,  08  divine  books.  The  late  Bishop  of  Unidon  (Dr.  Raiulolph)  has  salis- 
factorily  vindicaled  Ihe  tesliiiiony  of  Jiisliii  npainsl  Ihe  charge  made  by  the 
translator  of  Micliaells,  that  Ibis  father  had  (pioled  what  does  not  exi.sl  in 
sense  or  Hiibsloncc  in  any  of  our  four  Gospels.  See  his  "  Keoiarks  on 
Mirhaelis's  Introduction,"  Ate.  p.  78.  cl  srij.  second  cililion. 

"  8ec  the  references  to  the  Individual  toitiimonies  of  these  fathers  in 
the  Index  to  Dr.  I.jtrdncr'8  Works,  voce  Ootpitla.  Bee  al.<o  the  British 
Clitic  and  Theological  Ueview,  vol.  il.  )ip.  347—350.  for  some  forcible  objcc- 
tionH  against  the  cxiitcnco  of  any  primary  document. 


ON  THE  SOURCES  OF  THE  FIRST  THREE  GOSPELS. 


would  all  have  agreed  in  relating  the  same  thing  in  the  same  man- 
ner, as  much  as  they  must  have  done,  if  they  had  copied  from  each 
other.  II",  in  order  to  avoid  this  difficulty,  it  be  supposed  that  they 
did  not  ail  adhere  to  their  document,  but  that  occasionally  some 
one  (or  more)  of  them  gave  a  different  representation  of  some  fact, 
either  from  his  own  knowledge,  or  from  information  derived  from 
another  source  (as  the  supposed  document  3,  &c.),  this  appears  to 
sap  the  very  foundation  of  the  evidence ;  for  in  this  case,  what 
becomes  of  the  authority  of  the  primary  document  ?  And,  liow  can 
all  three  evangelists  be  said  to  have  derived  from  it  alone  all  the 
matter  which  tliey  have  in  common?  In  whatever  light,  then,  we 
view  the  subject,  we  cannot  see  how  any  modification  of  the  gene- 
ral supposition,  that  the  three  evangelists,  in  the  composition  of 
their  Gospels,  used  only  one  document,  can  satisfactorily  explain 
all  the  examples  of  verbal  disagreement  which  occur  in  the  Gos- 
pels. We  conclude,  therefore,  that  no  hypothesis  which  is  built 
upon  this  foundation  can  be  the  true  one.' 

IV^.  The  THIRD  hypothesis,  which  has  been  offered,  to 
account  for  the  verbal  similarities  and  disagreements  in  the 
first  three  Gospels,  is  that  of  a  plurality  of  documents. 
Of  this  hypothesis  there  have  been  t\vo  modifications  : — one 
by  the  late  Rev.  Mr.  Veysie,  the  other  by  Professor  Sclileier- 
macher. 

1.  Mr.  Veysie  gives  the  following  description  of  his  hypo- 
thesis:' — 

"The  apostles,  both  in  their  public  preaching  and  in 
their  private  conversations,  were  doubtless  accustomed 
frequently  to  instruct  and  improve  their  hearers  by  the 
recital  of  some  action  or  discourse  of  our  blessed  Saviour. 
And  many  pious  Christians,  unwilling  to  trust  to  memory 
alone  for  the  preservation  of  these  valuable  communica- 
tions respecting  their  Redeemer,  were  induced  to  commit 
to  writing  the  preaching  of  the  apostles  while  it  was  fresh 
in  their  memory.  And  thus  at  a  very  early  period,  before 
any  of  our  canonical  Gospels  were  written,  believers  were 
in  possession  of  many  narratives  of  detached  parts  of  the 
history  of  Jesus; — drawn  up,  some  in  the  Hebrew  lan- 
guage, and  others  in  the  Greek.  Of  the  Hebrew  narra- 
tives, the  most  important  was  soon  translated  into  Greek, 
for  the  benefit  of  the  Greek  Chrislians,  to  whom  they  were 
unintelligible  in  the  original,  and  vice  versa.'''' 

From  these  detached  narratives  Mr.  Veysie  is  of  opinion 
that  the  first  three  canonical  Gospels  were  principally  com- 
piled. Of  the  authors  of  these  Gospels,  he  thinks  that  as 
Matthew  alone  was  an  eye-wutness,  he  alone  could  write 
from  personal  knowledge  of  the  facts  which  he  recorded ; 
and  that  even  he  did  not  judge  it  expedient  to  draw  exclu- 
sively from  his  own  stores,  but  blended  with  these  de- 
tached narratives  such  additional  facts  and  discourses  as 
the  Holy  Spirit  brought  to  his  remembrance.  Mark,  cur 
author  further  thinks,  had  no  knowledge  of  Matthew's 
Gospel;  and  having  collected  materials  for  a  Gospel,  he 
added  to  them  numerous  explanations  in  order  to  adapt 
them  to  the  use  of  the  Gentile  converts,  together  with 
various  circumstances,  the  knowledge  of  which  he  proba- 
bly acquired  from  Peter.  And  he  is  of  opinion  also,  that 
Luke  compiled  his  Gospel  from  similar  detached  narra- 
tives, many  of  which  were  the  same  as  had  been  used  by 
the  other  evangelists,  though  some  of  them  had  been 
drawn  up  by  different  persons,  and  perhaps  from  the 
preaching  of  other  apostles ;  and  that  Luke,  being  diligent 
m  his  inquiries  and  researches,  was  enabled  to  add  greatly 
to  the  number.  Matthew,  Mr.  V.  thinks,  w^rote  m  He- 
brew, and  the  other  two  evangelists  in  Greek.  "  But 
Mark  being  a  plain  unlettered  man,  and  but  meanly  skilled 
in  the  Greek  language,  was,  for  the  most  part,  satisfied 
with  the  very  words  of  his  Greek  documents,  and  with 
giving  a  literal  version  of  such  as  he  translated  from  the 
Hebrew.  Whereas  Luke,  being  a  greater  master  of  the 
Greek  language,  was  more  attentive  to  the  diction,  and 
frequently  expressed  the  meaning  of  his  documents  in 
more  pure  words,  and  a  more  elegant  form.  Only  he 
adhered  more  closely  to  the  very  expression  of  his  dfocu- 
ments,  when  he  came  to  insert  quotations  from  the  Old 
Testainent,  or  to  recite  discourses  and  conversations,  and 
especially  the  discourses  of  our  blessed  Saviour.  Both 
Mark  and  Luke  adhered  to  the  arrangement  which  they 
found  in  those  documents  which  contained  more  facts  than 
one.  The  documents  themselves  they  arranged  in  chro- 
nological order.  All  the  evangelists  connected  the  docu- 
ments one  with  another,  each  tor  himself  and  in  his  own 
way."3  Our  author  also  conjectures  that  Matthew's  Gos- 
pel was  translated  into  Greek  some  time  after  the  two 


»  Veysie's  Examination,  p.  56.  » 

»  Examination  of  Mr.  Marsh's  Hypothesis,  pp.  93,  99. 


Ibid.  p.  97. 


389 

other  Gospels  were  in  circulation;  that  the  translator  made 
great  use  of  them,  frequently  copying  their  very  words 
where  they  suited  his  purpose;  that,liowevei,  he  made 
most  use  of  Mark's  Gosnel,  having  recourse  to  that  of 
Luke  only  when  he  could  derive  no  assistance  from  the 
other ;  and  that  where  he  had  no  doubt,  or  perceived  no 
difl!lculty,  he  frequently  translated  for  himself,  without 
looking  for  assistance  from  either  Mark  or  Luke.' 
Such  IS  the  Ivjnpothesis  proposed  by  Mr.  Veysie  in  pre- 
ference to  that  of  Bishop  Marsh.    That  it  accounts  for  all  the 
phenomena,  which  have,  in  Germany,  been  supposed  to  in- 
volve so  many  difficulties,  we  have  no  inclination  to  contro- 
vert;   for,   as   he   observes   of   his   lordship's   hypothesis, 
"  being  framed  by  a  man  of  genius  and  learning,  principally 
with  a  view  to  explain  the  phenomena  which  the  author  had 
observed,  it  may  reasonably  be  expected  to  answer,  in  every 
point  of  importance,  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  intended.'' 
We  are  even  ready  to  grant,  that  it  answers  this  purpose 
more  completely  than  that  of  the  learned  translator  of  Mi- 
chaelis,  oi  which,  therefore,  it  may  be  considered  as  an  im- 
provement ;  but  to  improve  requires  not  the  same  effort  of 
genius  as  to  invent.     Both,  however,  are  mere  hypotheses, 
or  rather  complications  of  various  hypotheses,  whicn  he  who 
rejects  them  cannot  by  argument  or  testimony  be  compelled 
to  admit;  while  both  appear  to  us  to  detract  much  from  the 
authority  w^hich  has  hitherto  been  allowed  to  the  first  three 
Gospels. 

To  this  author's  detached  narratives  the  same  objections 
seem  to  lie  which  he  has  so  forcibly  urged  against  the  very 
existence  of  Bishop  Marsh's  documents,  and  which  have 
been  already  stated.     Some  of  these  narratives  must  have 
been  of  considerable  length;  for  some  of  the  examples  of 
verbal   agreement,   which   they   have   occasioned   between 
Matthew  and  Mark,  are  very  long  and  remarkable.     They 
must  likewise  have  been  deemed  of  great  importance,  since 
they  were  translated  from  Hebrew  into  Greek  for  the  benefit 
of  the  Greek  Christians;  and  appear,  indeed,  from  this  ac- 
count of  them,  to  have  furnished  the  whole  matter  of  Mark's 
Gospel,  except  the  explanation  of  some  Jewish  customs  and 
names,  and  some  circumstances  acquired  from  Peter.     Such 
narratives  as  these  are  exactly  Bishop  Marsh's  documents, 
and  one  of  them  his  document  n  an  entire  Gospel,  of  which 
not  even  the  memory  survived  the  apostolic  age.* 
2.  The  hypothesis  of  Professor  Schleiermacher,  who  is  one 
of  the  most  distinguished  classical  scholars  in  Germany, 
is  developed  in  his  "  Critical  Essays  on  the  Gospel  of 
Saint  Luke."''     He  supposes  that  there  existed,  at  a  very 
early  period,  detached  narratives  of  remarkable  incidents 
in  the  life  of  Jesus  Christ,  of  his  miracles,  and  discourses ; 
which  were  collected  by  different  individuals  with  various 
objects.   From  these  minor  collections  Dr.  Schleiermacher 
conceives  that  the  works  now  called  Gospels  might  be 
framed ;  and  he  is  of  opinion  that  Saint  Luke  formed  hia 
Gospel  by  the  mere  juxta-position  of  these  separate  narra- 
tives, without  any  alteration  whatever  on  the  part  of  the 
compiler,  except  the  addition  of  copulative  particles.   The 
result  of  the  examination  which  he  institutes  in  support 
of  his  hypothesis  is,  that  the  evangelist  "  is  neither  an 
independent  writer,  nor  has  made  a  compilation  from  works 
which  extended  over  the  whole  life  of  Jesus ;"  and  that 
"  he  is,  from  beginning  to  end,  no  more  than  a  compiler 
and  arranger  of  what  he  found  in  existence,  and  w^hicn  ha 
allows  to  pass  unaltered  through  his  hands."' 

The  only  difference  between  this  hypothesis  and  thai 
of  Mr.  Veysie  is,  that  the  latter  supposes  the  first  Chris- 
tians to  have  made  memoranda  of  wnat  they  heard  in  the 
public  preaching  and  private  conversation  oi  the  apostles; 
while,  according  to  Professor  Schleiermacher,  the  memo- 
randa of  the  Christians  were  collected  by  various  persons, 
as  chance  or  inclination  directed  them.  On  the  continent, 
his  hypothesis  has  been  attacked  by  Fritsch,  Plank,  and 
Gersdorf ;  and  in  this  country  it  has  been  examined  and 
refuted  at  great  length  by  the  learned  author  of  the  critique 
upon  his  essay  in  the  British  Critic  and  Quarterly  Theo- 

<  Examination  of  Mr.  Marsh's  Hypothesis,  pp.  100,  101. 

5  Brilish  Critic,  vol.  xxxiv.  (O.  5.)  p.  114.  An  liypoiliesis  similar  to  that 
of  Mr.  Veysie  was  offered  by  a  learned  writer  in  the  Eclectic  Review  (vol. 
viii.  part  i.  pp.  423,  424.);  but  as  it  is  liable  to  t!ie  same  objections  as  Mr. 
V.'.s,  this  brief  notice  of  it  may  suffice. 

6  A  Critical  Essay  on  tlie  Gospel  of  St.  Luke,  by  Dr.  Frederick  Schlcier. 
macher,  with  an  Introduction  by  the  translator,  containing  an  account  of 
the  controversy  respecting  the  origin  of  the  first  three  Gospels  since  Bishop 
Marsh's  Dissertation.  London,  1525.  8vo.  The  original  Ocrunan  work  wad 
published  at  Berlin,  in  1817. 

1  Schleiermacher,  p.  313.   Brilish  Critic  and  Theol.  Rev.  vol.  ii.  p.  354 


390 


ON  THE  SOURCES  OF  THE  FIRST  THREE  GOSPELS. 


logical  Review;  of  whose  observations  the  following  is 
r.n  abstract : — 

1.  Tltis  hypothesis  is  in  itself  extremely  improbable,  and  not 
-ecoHcilable  -with  certain  facta  dcducible  from  the  study  of  the 
ttyle  and  language  of  St.  Luke's  Gospel. 

(1.)  The  hypothesis  is  in  itself  extremely  improlable. 

"That  a  person  employed  in  writing  nn  historical  work  should 
tifc  such  existing  narrutivea  as  he  could  drpond  on,  is  undoulitetlly 
lioth  probiible  and  rational.  Tliat  he  should  make  up  his  history 
of  such  fragmentary  materials  has  this  clear  objection  to  it,  that 
the  writer,  wantiu:;  narratives  of  fiery  period,  caiuiot  possibly  be 
nice  in  his  selection,  but  must  take  such  us  he  can  find,  and  where 
he  can  meet  with  none  of  high  authority,  must  of  necessity  be 
satisfied  wilh  others  nf  less.  That  this  inusi  be  the  consequence 
of  so  composing  an  history  is,  we  think,  quite  clear  on  mere  rea- 
sonable grounds;  and  that  it  is  practically  true  Professor  Schleier- 
macher,  at  least,  cannot  deny,  for  he  himself  states  that  St.  Luke 
has  introtlu(e<l  incorrect,  unfounded,  and  almost  fabnlotis  narratives 
isito  his  Gospel.  But,  we  would  ask,  is  an  author  to  be  supposed 
toially  without  ptrceptiou  of  this  obvious  objection;  or,  in  other 
words,  is  It  to  be  sui)|K>sed  that  he  williiiijly  ])roduces  a  less  valtia- 
bie  and  authentic  history  where  he  could  produce  one  more  so? 
We  must  be  allowed  to  think  that  if  this  is  true  of  a  common  his- 
tory, it  is  still  more  so  of  such  a  history  as  a  gosjicl — the  history  of 
a  new  religion  and  its  founder.  Whatever  may  be  thought  of  the 
knowledge  or  )><iwers  of  its  historian,  thus  intich  all  will  allow, 
that  he  tiiought  Christianity  true,  that  is  to  say,  he  thought  himself 
employed  in  ijiving  an  account  of  a  revelation  from  God,  the  whole 
value  of  which  depends  on  its  being  true." — IVow,  "a  person  so 
( mployed  would  assuredly  feel  a  deep  respcmslbility  attaching  to 
him,  and  an  earnest  desire  to  obtain  the  very  best  and  most  au- 
thentic accounts  of  the  weighty  mailers  of  which  he  was  treating. 
And  if  the  truth  of  these  remarks  be  admiited,  their  i()rce  can  only 
be  evaded  by  saying  either  that  St.  Luke  had  not  the  power  of 
obtaining  better  materials,  or  had  no  discrimination,  no  power  of 
judging  which  were  belter  and  which  worse.  A'ow  wilh  respect 
to  l^e  Hrst  of  these  aliernatives,  without  at  all  inquiring  whether 
he  was  or  was  nut  hiiUKclf  a  wilness  to  any  of  our  Lord's  miracles, 
it  cannot  be  denied,  with  any  show  of  argument,  that  he  lived  at 
the  lime  of  the  tr.insactions  of  which  he  trca'ed,  nor  th:it  he  had 
ready  access  to  lhm>e  most  capable  of  giving  him  exact  .•iiid  accu- 
rate accounts  of  all  that  passed  in  our  Lord's  life.  We  have  posi- 
tive evidence  of  his  having  been  for  a  long  lime  the  companion  of 
.St.  Paul,  and  of  his  havine  gone  with  him  to  Jerusalem,  when  that 
apostle  w:i«  seized,  and  his  long  imprisoumcnl,  previous  to  his 
voyage  to  Kome,  commenced.  At  the  close  of  that  imprisonment 
he  was  at  hand,  and  accompanied  St.  Paul  to  Koine.  Where  he 
spent  tlie  inlcrniediate  time,  certainly  is  not  jKtsiiively  mentioned, 
but  from  his  being  with  St.  Paul  at  the  coiiuiienceiacnt  and  the 
(lose  of  his  imprisonmrnt,  and  from  his  having  come  to  Jerusiilem 
as  hi«  companion  and  friend,  we  think  it  most  probable  that  he 
was  not  f-ir  distant  during  its  continuance;  at  all  events,  it  is  espe- 
«ially  mentioned  that  at  Jerusalem  he  went  wilh  St.  I'aul  to  St. 
James,  when  idl  tlie  ciders  were  present.  It  is  iherelbre  indis- 
jiutable,  that  he  had  every  opportiuiity  ol' acquiring  the  best  inlbr- 
laation  respecting  our  Lord,  Irorn  his  ajiosiks  and  other  cyc-wii- 
iiesses  of  his  lile  and  actions.  What,  then,  we  would  ask,  could 
be  the  temptation  lo  a  (x^rson  under  St.  I^uke's  circumstances,  to 
orefer  written  narratives,  cir<'ulating  with  an  aulheniicily  at  least 
loosely  established  (and,  in  fact,  accordin;^'  lo  Piolessor  Schleier- 
marher,  ofte.i  worthless^,  lo  the  oral  lestimoiiy  of  the  most  compe- 
tent wiines/!e«;  the  dead  words  of  dead  writing  to  the  living  voices 
of  living  men  who  had  been  ilie  coiislaiit  atlendanls  of  our  i/jril, 
and  must  daily  have  given  Luke,  at  least,  siiflicjcnt  testimony  that 
they  were  led  by  the  Spirit  of  (;od  ?  Tliey  w  ho  adopt  this  hyi>o- 
Ihesis  are  surely  bound  lo  give  some  account  o('  ilie  motives  winch 
could  indu<;e  a  |)ersoii  situated  like  St.  J^uke,  led  eilher  bv  inclination 
or  a  sense  of  duty  lo  become  the  historian  of  the  fuiih  he  had  learned 
and  accepted,  and  influence*!  by  the  feelings  by  which  he  and 
••very  honest  ("hrisiian  undertaking  such  a  w<irk  must  have  been 
influenced,  to  prefer  impcri'cct  to  perfect  lestiiiiony,  and  a  set  of 
lloaling  n'irratives  of  doubtful  character  lo  the  <-erlaiu  evidence 
of  cye-witiiesseH.  Prolinsor  Schleiermaclier,  who  c:iiiiiol  urgue 
that  the  evnngclisl  would  lake  pains  to  procure  only  aulhenlicaled 
narratives  (because  he  has  stated  his  Ixdief  Lliat  iiiaiiy  erronctms 
ones  have  found  iheir  way  into  this  CJiwpel),  lakes  the  other  alter- 
native to  which  we  have  alluded,  and  frequently  suys  ih.-ii  the 
nicely- and  exactness  which  we,  'who  arc  a  critical  generatiim,' 
require,  were  unknown  to  fiirmer  hkcs,  which  were  easily  s:itisfie<l 
with  a  less  rigid  s<-rupuloiisneHH  as  lo  accuracy,  and  that  .St.  Luke 
might,  ihercliire,  be  contented  with  materials  really  imperffct. 
But  to  lis  this  a(>pe:irs  a  [xior  answer  to  ihe  difficulty  ;  fiir  there  is 
no  question  here  as  to  any  research,  any  almtriise  reasoning,  any 
clifrieull  inqtiir}'.  The  (|iiesli(m  lo  be  considered  is  simply  this — 
wh«"ther  an  honest  and  sincere  man  iiiiderlaking  lo  write  the  his- 
tory of  events  of  no  trivial  iinixirLince,  but  concerning  the  eternal 
welfare  of  mankind,  and  living  with  thosr*  who  had  lieen  preseiii 
and  p<'rsoiially  engaged  in  the  most  remarkable  of  them,  would 
apply  to  these  competent  witnesses  for  liilijrination.  or  would  deem 
It  a  wiser  and  a  belter  jilaii  to  collect  a  set  ol'  doubtliil  ii.irratives 
of  these  evculs,  w.itlen  by  doubtful  authors,  till  he  had  obtained 
some  sort  of  account  of  all  that  intere»t«-d  him.  and  then  lo  string 
h.i  Collectanea  together  (without  a  word  of  addition,  oi' correction, 


or  of  explanation),  like  Martial's  Epigrams,  some  good,  some  indif- 
ferent, and  more  bad,  into  a  book."' 

(2.)  This  hypothesis  is  not  reconcilable  wilh  certain  facts  deducible 
from,  a  studq  if  the  style  and  language  of  St.  Luke's  Gospel. 

The  validity  of  this  objection  is  supported  by  the  learned  re- 
viewer, who  has  cited  very  numerous  instances  of  the  evangelist's 
style  and  language,  compared  with  those  occurring  in  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles,  for  which  the  reader  is  necessarily  referred  to  the 
journal  already  eitcil.^  It  must  suffice  to  state  in  this  place,  that 
the  passages  adduced  clearly  show  that  the  Gospel  of  Luke  and 
the  Acts  of  the  A|>f)siles  are  throughout  the  production  of  the  same 
author;  peculiar  words  and  phrases,  which  are  rarely  or  never 
used  by  the  other  evangelists,  being  used  through  various  parts 
of  the  Gospel  and  Acts;  while  a  large  number  of  these  peculiar 
words  and  jihrases  are  derivable  from  one  source — the  Septuagint ; 
and,  what  is  very  curious,  a  large  number  of  words  not  used  by  tlie 
other  writers  of  the  New  Testament  arecommon  to  St.  Luke  and 
to  St.  Paul,  whose  companion  Ihe  evangelist  was  f()r  many  years. 
"If,"  ihereliire,  the  reviewer  forcibly  argues,  "a  peculiar  phrase- 
ology runs  through  two  works,  if  much  of  that  peculiar  phraseology 
is  constantly  relerablc  to  one  known  source,  and  if  much  of  it  18 
also  to  be  found  in  the  works  of  a  person  for  many  years  the  con- 
stant com|)anion  of  the  reputed  author  of  these  works,  there  is  very 
strong  reason  for  believing  the  common  opinion  to  be  the  correcl 
one.  Chance  can  hardly  have  done  so  much — can  hardly  have 
distinguished  the  greater  part  of  above  forty  n.".rratives  (accortiing 
to  Professor  Schleiermacher)  by  the  use  of  the  same  peculiar 
phraseology— can  hardly  have  produced  a  striking  connection  be- 
tween their  style  and  that  of  the  intimate  friend  of  their  compiler."!* 
Ill  a  note,  the  reviewer  states  the  iollowing  to  be  the  result  of  a 
pretty  laborious  examination  of  llie  JNew  Testament:  "There  are 
in  St.  Luke  as  many  words  peculiar  to  him  as  in  the  tliree  other 
evangelists  together.  In  the  Acts  very  far  more.  In  .St.  Paul  as 
many  nearly  as  in  the  rest  of  the  New  Testament.  In  inqiiirine 
into  the  words  peculiar  to  one  of  the  Gosjiels  and  Acts,  we  fiiiil 
more  than  three  times  as  many  in  St.  Luke  as  in  either  of  the 
others.  With  respect  to  words  peculiar  to  one  of  the  (Jospels  and 
St.  Paul,  there  are  nearly  three  limes  as  many  in  St.  Luke  as  in 
St.  Matthew,  and  more  than  three  times  as  many  as  in  St.  Mark  or 
St.  John.  Of  surdi  words  th<'re  are  also  in  the  Acts  about ^/Tec  times 
as  many  as  in  either  Mallhew,  Mark,  or  John.  And  there  are 
alKJiit  as  many  words  common  to  St.  Luke,  the  .Ads.  and  St.  Paul, 
and  peculiar  to  these  books,  as  there  are  words  peculiar  to  St.  Luke 
and  St.  Paul  alone."' 

2.  Further,  the  principles,  on  lehich  Professor  Schleierma- 
cher conducted  the  examination  of  St.  Luke's  Gospel,  do  not 
bear  him  out  in  the  hypothesis  -which  he  has  framed. 

(1.)  F'or,  (71  ajtplying  the  tcit  of  prolahility,  Profrssnr  Schlticr- 
marker  assumes,  in  an  unuarrantalle  manner,lhf  right  of  supjdying, 
from  his  own  fancy,  all  Ihe  circumstances  and  details  of  etv/i/  nar. 
ration  rchich  he  finds  in  Ihe  Gospel;  and  then  tie  explains  the  whole 
transaction  by  means  of  Ihe  very  details  he  has  furnished. 

Five  exani)»les  are  adduced  ny  the  reviewer  of  Dr.  St. hleierma- 
cher,  in  illustration  of  this  remark :''  one  of  which  will  be  sufficient 
to  confirm  it.  "In  commenting  on  the  fifth  chapter  of  the  Gospel 
(p.  81.)  he  tells  us,  that  the  narrative  (ver.  27 — 39.)  of  the  calling 
of  Matthew,  and  our  L«r<]'s  discourse  with  the  scribes  and  phari- 
secs,  was  not  written  in  connection  with  the  narnilive  (ver.  17 — 26.) 
of  the  cure  of  the  paralytic,  which  tilso  contains  a  conversation  of 
the  same  (larlies,  lor  the  fiillowing  reasons:  According  lo  Professor 
Schleiermacher,  '  the  conversation  of  Christ  and  the  pharisees  is 
evidently  the  main  jioint  of'  the  second  narrative'  That  is,  the 
call  of  St.  MatilK'W  is  not  so.  That  is  oiilv  mentioned  because  the 
<  oiivcrsation  would  not  have  been  intelligible  without  the  fact 
thai  Christ  and  his  discijdes  had  partaken  of  a  repast  at  the  publi- 
can's house. 

"  •  Hut  the  doctors  of  the  law  would  scarcely  liave  stayed  without 
till  the  spltndid  repast  was  at  an  end,  l<>r  they  were  sure  enough  of 
tiiidiiig  Christ  and  his  disciples  at  the  usual  time  of  public  business 
the  next  day,  and  this  conversation  could  scarcely  follow  iminediatcly 
alter  the  Uiiujuii.  Had  this  history,  there.'bre,  been  related  in  a 
continuous  thread  with  the  liiriiier,  we  slioiild  have  found  them 
connected  eilher  in  this  manner,  Slill  Ihi  i/  wire  minded,  after  this, 
again  lo  (juesliun  his  disrijilis.  lor  that  the  day  before  hr  hnil  sal 
at  mial  with  them  at  the  house  of  a  publican,  wilh  nunii/  vthrr  publi- 
cans and  sinnrrs:  or  thus,  Aiut  hr  went  hrnce  to  a  great  feast  which 
a  puHiun  had  mmlr  for  him,  and  from  this  the  srribcs  and  pharisees 
Inuk  occasion  afrish,  \c.  Ours,  however,  sounds  quite  like  an  in- 
(lepemlent  narrative  whii-h  premises  the  circumstances  necessary 
lo  be  known,  without  concerning  iis'df  alioiit  any  further  connec- 
tion. The  phrase  Kti  /uura  rtur*  is  niinh  t<Ki  vngiie  to  seek  ill  it 
a  view  to  any  precise  reference  lo  the  preceding  passage.' 

"Prom  this  specimen  our  readies  will  see  somewhat  of  the  na- 
ture of  Professor  Schleiermacher's  piiK-eedings.  lie  supposes  that 
we  are  able  to  judge  accurately  of  the  wriler's  aim  in  ii  piirliciilar 
ii:irrative  ;  that  we  know  enough  of  the  circumstances  of  the  event 
he  r<  laics,  lo  judge  whether  it  is  probable  that  the  doctors  of  the 
|:iw  would  wait  I'or  Christ  till  he  had  finished  a  \isil  lo  a  given 
\)rTinm  pntunud  lo  be  objectionable  to  them;  that  we  can  decide 
w  hether  these  hobits  were  bo  strongly  rooted,  that  even  ihe  unuHUal 


I  nriiish  Critic,  vol.  11.  pp. 354—3:6. 
«  Ibid.  vol.  ii.  p.  357. 
•  I  bill.  pp.  3C&-3»a. 


»  Ibid  rp  3.'>8-,'«>J. 
«  Ibid.  p.  357.  nolo. 


ON  THE  SOURCES  OF  THE  FIRST  THREE  GOSPELS. 


SOI 


excitement  of  a  teacher  come  to  oppose  their  law  would  not  induce 
ihem  to  any  change,  bat  would  compel  them  to  wait  till  the  usual 
LourM  ol"  business  lor  an  interview  with  him ;  whether  in  a  small 
place  they  could  not  have  met  with  him  instantly  on  his  leaving 
the  house,  without  derogating  from  their  dignity;  and  again,  that 
we  can  pronounce  wilii  some  certainty  as  to  the  method  by  wliich 
the  writer  would  connect  the  preceding  and  succeeding  parts  of 
Lib  narrative."' 

(2.)  He  graliiitotcsly  assumes  the  existence  of  the  most  incredihle 
ftiipiditi/  and  igiioratice  on  (he  part  of  the  sacred  writers,  whenever 
he  c«H  gel  rid  of  any  diffwully  by  such  an  hypothesis. 

"For  example,  lie  states  it  (p.  92.)  as  his  belief,  that  there  was 
no  solemn  calling  of  the  apostles,  and  that  St.  Luke  did  not  mean 
to  state  any  siicii  calling.  But  he  allows  that  St.  Mark  does,  in  the 
most  decided  manner.  \nii  how  <loes  he  reconcile  this  with  his 
denial  of  the  fact?  Simply  by  supposing  that  St.  Mark  saw  this 
jiassage  in  St.  Luke,  and  misunderstood  it!  There  are  two  mon- 
strous improbabilities  to  be  got  over  in  this  statement;  for  we 
would  a-sk,  first,  whether  it  is  credible  that  St.  Mark  did  not  know 
whether  there  was  a  solemn  calling  of  the  apostles  or  not, ?  and, 
secondly,  what  possible  reasoti  there  is  for  supposing  that  he  was 
more  likely  to  misunderstand  St.  Luke  than  ourselves."^ 

(3.)  Not  only  docs  Professor  Schleiermacher  allow  himself  the 
tnosl  extraordinary  license  in  conjuring  up  feelings,  inteiitions,  7no- 
tivcs,  and  circumstances ;  but  in  many  instances  these  conjectures 
are  as  unhappy,  and  the  motives  and  circumstances  conjectured  \are'\ 
as  forced  and  as  improbable  as  it  is  possible  to  imagine. 

"He  forms  a  tlieory  as  to  the  way  in  which  a  particular  occur- 
rence took  place,  and  then  imagines  circumstances  to  suit  it." 
Thus,*  "  Prolessor  Schleiermacher  observes,  that  Luke  (viii.  22.) 
does  not  tell  us  the  object  of  our  Lord  and  his  disciples  in  going  on 
the  sea;  and  he  wishes  to  show  that  they  went  out  without  any 
jKirticnlar  object,  and  not  with  the  intention  of  making  a  journey. 

"'The  easiest  way  of  conceiving  the  whole  occurrence  is  to 
imagine  that  the  disciples  had  gone  out  in  the  boat  to/,<tA,  and  that 
Jesus  accompanied  them;  lor  why  should  he  always  have  let  the 
time  so  spent  be  lost  lor  tlioir  instruction  and  the  exertion  of  his 
whole  influence  on  ihem?'  &c.  He  appears  to  have  forgotten  that 
St.  Matthew  mentions  a  circumstance  rather  adverse  to  Jesus  being 
employed  in  teaching  his  disciples  on  this  occasion — namely,  that 
he  was  asleep.  (Matt.  viii.  24.)"-' 

(4.)  Lastly,  the  details  conjecturally  supplied  by  Prrfcssor  Schhier- 
inacher  are  not  only  improbable,  but  do  great  injustice  to  the  character 
of  Jesus  Christ,  considered  not  as  a  divine  Being,  hut  as  a  heavenly 
teacher,  and  are  quite  inappropriate  to  such  a  character. 

"It  may  not  be  very  easy  to  say  what  would  be  the  exact  line 
(if  conduct  pursued  l)y  su<:li  a  teacher,  or  how  far  he  might  enter 
into  the  common  detail  of  life;  but  surely  nothing  can  be  less  rea- 
sonable than  to  reduce  every  action  and  every  movement  to  the 
ordinary  level  of  ordinary  life,  and  to  contend  that  every  thing 
which  cannot  be  so  reduced  is  improbable^*  But  this  is  the  level 
to  which  Profes.sor  Schleiermacher  seeks  to  reduce  all  the  transac- 
tions of  the  life  of  Jesus;  this  is  the  test  by  which  he  tries  them; 
and  these  are  the  grounds  on  which  he  passes  sentence  of  impro- 
bability on  so  many  of  Ihem.  Now  let  any  man  look  at  the  Gospel 
of  Jesus  Christ,  and  believing  (if  after  such  examination  he  can) 
that  its  author  was  a  mere  man,  yet  under  that  belief  let  him  say 
whether,  in  a  system  so  opposed  to  the  spirit  of  the  time  in  which 
it  was  propagated,  so  abstract  from  the  world,  so  pure,  so  lioly,  so 
simple  it  may  be,  and  yet  so  sublime,  he  does  not  find  ample  reason 
for  concluding  that  its  author  must  on  very  many  occasions  have 
entirely  avoided  and  renounced  all  the  common  routine  of  life,  and 
dedicated  himself  to  thought,  retirement,  and  prayer.  Jesus,  we 
are  told,  passed  the  night  on  the  Mount  in  prayer.  Is  there  any 
thing  in  any  wa^  improbalile  in  this,  if  he  were  a  mere  man,  be- 
lieving himself  sent  by  God  to  instruct  and  reform  mankind?  It  is 
mockery  to  put  the  question  if  he  were  really  "a  heavenly  teacher. 
Yet  Professor  Schleiermacher  chooses  to  account  for  this  by  sup- 
posing (without  a  trace  of  it  in  the  history)  that  he  must  have  been 
at  a  festival;  that  he  was  returning  to  his  abode  with  a  caravan, 
and  firom  the  bustle  of  the  inn,  which  he  disliked,  was  driven  out 
to  pass  the  night  in  the  air!  All  this,  it  seems,  is  easier  than  the 
simple  fact,  that  he,  who  v\as,  or  at  all  events  believed  himself  to 
be,  a  heavenly  teacher,  desired  to  strengthen  h'imself  for  his  office 
by  solitude  and  prayer. "■'• 

V.  The  last  hypothesis,  which  remains  to  be  noticed,  is  that 
which  supposes  the  first  three  Gospels  to  be  derived  not 
from  any  written  Gospel,  but  from  oral  tradition  from  the 

APOSTLES  AND  OTHER  DISCIPLES  OF  JeSUS  ChrIST. 

1.  Tliis  hypothesis  was  first  suggested  by  Herder  about 
thirty  years  since.  He  agrees  with  Eichhorn  in  assuming 
a  common  Hebrew  or  Chaldee  Gospel;  but  he  differs  from 
him  in  most  other  respects,  by  supjposing  this  common  docu- 
ment to  be  a  mere  verbal  gospel,  which  consisted  only  in  the 
preaching  (xjfft/j.yM*)  of  the  first  teachers  of  Christianity ;  and 
which,  he  says,  had  been  verbally  propagated  for  thirty 
years,  when  the  substance  of  it  was  committed  to  writing  in 
three  different  Gospels.     According  to  the  form  of  this  oral 


Ibid.  n.  363. 

JJrit.  Crit.  vol.  ii.  p.  372. 


«  Urifish  Critic,  vol.  ii.  pp.  365,  366.  » 

3  Critical  Essay,  p]).  131,  132. 

»  British  Critic,  vol.  ii.  pp.  373,  374.  In  pp.  374 — 395.  various  other  exam' 
pies  are  adduced,  and  tlie  erroneous  reasonings  of  Professor  Sciileier- 
oitcUer  exposed  witli  equal  industry  and  learning. 


gospel  or  preaching,  the  written  Gospels  of  Matthew,  Mark, 
and  Luke,  were  regulated.  Hence  arose  their  similarity; 
but  It  is  useless,  Herder  further  asserts,  to  examine  the 
words  used  in  our  first  three  Gospels,  for  this  very  reason, 
that  they  proceeded  not  from  a  written  document,  but  from 
a  mere  oral  gospel  or  preaching :  and,  accordingly,  in  his 
opinion,  whoever  attempts  by  an  analysis  of  our  first  three 
Gospels  to  discover  the  contents  of  a  supposed  common 
document,  can  never  succeed  in  the  und«rtaking,6 

2.  The  hypothesis  of  Herder  was  adopted  by^EcKERMANN, 
who  conceived  the  existence  of  an  oral  or  traditional  gospel, 
in  which  the  discourses  of  Jesus  were  preserved;  and  he 
imagined  that  Matthew  wrote  the  principal  parts  of  it  in  the 
Aramaean  dialect.  Hence  he  accounted  for  the  similarity  in 
the  first  three  Gospels,  by  supposing  that  Mark  and  Luke 
collected  the  materials  of  their  Gospels  at  Jerusalem ;  which 
existing  in  this  oral  gospel  could  not  but  exhibit  a  striking 
resemblance  to  that  of  Matthew.'  Ho  improbable,  however, 
did  this  hypothesis  appear  in  itself,  at  the  time  it  was  an- 
nounced, that  it  was  generally  disapproved,  and  was  at 
length  exploded  as  a  mere  fiction;  and  Eckennann  him.selt 
is  stated  to  have  subsecjuently  abandoned  it,  and  to  have  em- 
braced the  ancient  opinion  respecting  the  first  three  Gospels.* 

3.  More  recently,  the  hypothesis  of  Herder  has  been 
revived  and  modified  by  Dr.  J.  C.  Gieselers  in  the  following 
manner : — 

The  evangelical  history,  previously  to  being  committed  to 
writing,  was  for  a  long  time  transmitted  from  mouth  to  mout.h 
with  respectful  fidelity:  thus  it  became  the  object  of  oral 
tradition,  but  a  pure  tradition,  and  carefully  preserved.  As 
the  first  Christians  came  out  of  the  Jewish  church,  and  were 
familiarly  acquainted  with  that  tradition,  they  had  neither 
desire  nor  occasion  for  possessing  a  written  history  of  their 
Master.  But  when  the  Gospel  was  propagated  in  distant 
places,  and  reckoned  among  its  followers  wise  men  who  had 
been  converted  from  paganism,  their  literary  habits  and  their 
previous  ignorance  of  the  history  of  Christianity  caused  them 
to  wish  for  written  books ;  and  the  first  Gospels  were  ac- 
cordingly published.  In  this  way,  Luke  wrote  for  Theo- 
philus.  But  the  evangelists  only  transcribed  accurately  the 
most  important  portions  of  the  oral  tradition,  selectino-  from 
it  such  particulars  as  were  best  suited  to  the  place,  time,  and 
particular  design,  on  account  of  which  they  wrote.  Drawing 
from  the  same  source,  they  have  frequently  said  the  same 
things;  but,  writing  under  different  circumstances,  they  have 
often  differed  from  each  other.  Further,  oral  tradition  was 
held  in  higher  authority  by  the  church  than  written  Gospels, 
and  was  also  more  frequently  consulted  and  cited.  By  de- 
crees those  Gospels,  which  followed  it  with  great  fidelity, 
became  possessed  of  the  same  respect,  and  finally  supplanted 
it.  The  heretics  contributed  much  to  this  result.  They, 
indeed,  first  introduced  into  the  church  a  spirit  of  argumenta- 
tion and  dispute,  and  they  were  the  first  persons  who  devoted 
their  attention  in  an  especial  manner  to  the  theoretical  part 
of  religion.  In  no  long  time,  from  the  love  of  discussion 
and  the  pride  of  knowledge,  they  composed  gospels  fcr 
themselves,  also  derived  from  oral  tradition,  but  mutilated 
and  altered.  The  true  Christians,  who  had  hitherto  been 
occupied  in  loving  and  in  doing  good,  rather  than  in  reason- 
ing upon  religion,  and  who  had  been  accustomed  to  derive 
their  requisite  knowledge  from  oral  tradition,  were  obliged, 
in  defence  of  their  faith,  to  have  recourse  to  their  Gospels, 
which  were  the  authentic  works  of  the  disciples  of  Jesus. 
Then  they  accustomed  themselves  to  read  them,  to  meditate 
upon  them,  and  also  to  quote  them,  in  order  that  they  might 
be  armed  against  the  heretics  and  their  falsified  histories. 
Thus,  gradually  and  silently,  without  any  decree  or  decision 
of  a  council,  our  four  Gospels  universally  displaced  oral  tra- 
dition. In  the  middle  of  ike  second  century,  they  were  ac- 
knowledged by  the  whole  church,  and  since  that  time  they 
have  constantly  and  universally  possessed  canonical  authority. 

Such  are  the  prominent  features  of  Gieseler's  system. 
That  it  solves  all  the  phenomena  and  difficulties  which  its 
author  imagines  to  exist  in  the  first  three  Gospels,  we  may 
readily  concede ;  because,  being  framed  for  the  purpose  of 
explaining  those  phenomena,  it  may  be  expected  to  answer 

«  Bp.  Marsh's  Michaeli!5,  vol.  ill.  part  2.  p.  203.,  where  Herder's  Christ- 
liche  Schriften  (Cliri.stian  Writings-),  vol.  iii.  pp.  3()3 — 416.  are  quoted. 
Kuinb'el,  Cominont.  in  Lib.  Hist.  Nov.  Test.  vnl.  i.  ]).  r>. 

I  Ur.  Wait's  Translation  of  Hug's  Introduction,  vol.  i.  Prcf.  pp.  v.  \\. 

8  Pareau,  de  Mythicalnterpretatione,  p   190. 

9  This  notice  of  Gieseler's  liypolliesis  is  abridged  from  Cellerier's  Intro- 
duction au  Nouv.  Test.  pp.  260— 267.,  who  cites  Ur.  G.'sHistorischKritis- 
chcr  Versuch  Tiber  die  Entstchuiig  und  die  friiliesten  schicksalc  dor 
schrifiliclien  Evangclien.  (HistoricoCriiical  Essay  on  the  Origin  end 
early  Fates  of  the  written  Gospels.)  Mindcn,  1618. 


392 


ON  THE  SOURCES  OF  THE  FIRST  THREE  GOSPELS. 


that  purpose;  but  that  both  this  hypothesis  and  that  of 
Herder  are  destitute  of  any  real  foundation,  will  (we  think) 
appear  from  the  following  considerations : — 

1.  In  the  first  place, — not  to  dwell  on  the  total  silence  of  anti- 
quity respecting  the  uxsuined  existence  of  these  verbal  gospels,  it 
id  utterly  incredible  that  so  long  a  time  should  elapse,  as  both 
Herder  and  Gicscler  suppose,  before  any  Gospel  was  committed  to 
writing;  because  every  Christian,  who  liad  once  heard  so  important 
a  relation,  must  have  wished  to  write  down  at  least  the  principal 
materials  of  it,  had  it  been  only  to  assist  his  own  memory.  Besides, 
a  mere  oral  narrative,  after  it  had  gone  through  so  many  different 
inoutits,  in  the  course  of  so  many  years,  must  at  length  liave  ac- 
quired such  a  variety  of  lorms,  that  it  must  have  ceased  to  deserve 
the  title  of  a  common  Gospel  (as  Herder  termed  it) ;  and  therefore 
the  supposition  that  our  first  three  GosjhjIs  were  moulded  in  one 
form  is  difficult  to  reconcile  with  the  opinion  of  a  mere  oral  gospel, 
which  must  necessarily  have  assumed  a  variety  of  fonns.'  Further, 
the  suppositions  of  these  w  riiers  respecting  the  length  of  time  which 
they  imagine  must  have  elapsed  before  any  Gospel  was  committed 
to  writing  is  contradicted  bv  the  evidence,  bolli  external  and  inter- 
nal, for  The  early  date  of  ^latthew's  Hebrew  Gospel,  which  has 
already  been  stated  in  pp.  296,  2'J7  of  this  volume. 

2.  Although  we  should  concede  to  Dr.  Gieseler,  that  the  evange- 
lical history  was  so  well  known  to  the  first  Christians,  that  tliey 
had  no  occasion  for  written  documents  until  after  the  expiration 
of  ffi/2ny  years;— that  the  first  Christians,  more  occupied  with  the 
cuUivation  of  Christian  virtues  than  with  theological  science,  paid 
less  attention  to  the  words  of  the  Gosjiels  than  to  the  facts  and  Ics- 
Bous  contained  in  the  evangelical  history; — that  they  restricted  the 
appellation  of  T;x^y,  or  Scripture  to  the  Old  Testament; — that  the 
b"X)ks  of  the  New  Testament  were  not  yet  collected  together,  and 
that  they  designated  its  precept*  and  instructions  by  the  formula  of 
i  X;.Trc;,  Chrtst  hos  Said  it: — although  these  points  should  be  con- 
ceded, yet  does  it  necessarily  follow  that  they  undervalued  or  dis- 
regarded written  documents  ?  that  they  preferred  oral  tradition  to 
thein,  and  that  they  did  not  generally  make  use  of  our  iour  Gospels 
until  the  middle  of  the  second  century  ?  By  no  means.  Such  a 
conclusion  appears  to  us  to  be  contradicted  by  the  nature  of  things, 
since  the  writings  of  the  apostles  must  liave  been  lield  in  at  least 
ciual  estimation  with  that  tradition,  by  which  tlie  subjects  of  their 
preaching  were  preserved  ;  since  the  heathens,  w ho  were  converted 
to  the  Christian  faith,  could  with  difficulty  have  recourse  to  oral 
tradition,  and  would  eagerly  avail  themselves  of  written  documents 
OA  wjon  as  ihey  could  obtain  them,  that  is  to  say,  early  in  the  second 
century. 

3.  Much  stress  has  l)een  laid  by  Dr.  Gieseler  on  the  small  num- 
ber of  quotations  fn>m  the  Gospels  in  the  writings  of  the  fathers, 
previously  to  the  middle  of  the  second  century.  But  this  paucitj; 
ol' quotations  is  sufficiently  accounted  for  by  the  small  number  of 
Christian  writers  whose  works  have  been  transmitted  to  us,  by 
liieir  preference  of  practical  piety  to  science  and  theory,  and  by 
the  persecutions  to  w  hich  the  church  of  Christ  was  exposed :  so 
liiat  there  is  no  necessiiv  for  concluding  tliat  the  Gospels  were  at 
that  time  but  little  kiio\Mi.  Such  of  those  quotations  as  refer  to 
the  Krfj-//'^  or  preaching  of  the  apostles  do  not  necessarily  imply  a 
reference  to  oral  tradition;  and  they  may  equally  be  understooil 
of  written  documents. 

4.  Gieseler  has  f;irlher  urged,  in  behalf  of  his  hypothesis,  our 
lotal  ignorance  6l  the  precise  time  when,  and  of  the  occasion  on 
which,  our  Gospels  were  admitted  us  canonical  by  the  whole 
church.  But  the  protijund  and  universal  veneration  in  wliich 
these  Gospels  were  held  from  and  after  tlie  middle  of  the  second 
century, — that  is  to  say,  froia  the  very  time  when  there  was  a 
greater  number  of  Cliri.iiiaii  writers  and  book.s, — evidently  demon- 
■trate.i  that  their  authority  wris  by  no  means  7iev.\  but  had  been  of 
■ome  continuance.  The  very  nature,  too,  of  our  Gospels  leads  to 
the  same  result.  In  every  one  of  them  there  is  so  evidently  dis- 
cernible a  special  design  with  reference  to  the  circumstances 
under  which  they  were  written,  and  to  llie  churches  which  became 
the  dcposiujries  of  them,  that  we  cannot  imagine  th.it  they  could 
have  been  addres.sed  to  a  few  individuals  only,  and  that  they  should 
have  been  forgotten  by  tlie  mass  of  believers  for  nearly  half  a 
ccntun-. 

5.  Lastly,  although  the  hypothesis  of  an  oral  traditionary  docu- 
ment shoul'l  be  necessary,  in  order  to  solve  all  the  difficulties 
which  are  alleged  to  exist,  respecting  the  sources  of  iho  first  three 
GospoLs.  yet  we  must  lake  into  consideration  the  real  difficulties 
winch  it  sulwlitiitos  in  plane  of  those  protended  difficuliie.i.  Wo 
mu-Ht  conceive  how  audi  oral  tradition,  which  was  diffused  from 
Rome  to  Babylon,  continued  without  the  slightest  alienuion,  amidst 
the  great  number  »i'  new  converts,  who  wore  daily  occupied  in 
studying  thorn,  and  in  trannmilting  them  toothers. —  vVe  must  ima- 
gine in  what  manner  such  tradition  continued  siifricionily  uniform; 
ifj  tliat  [)ors<ins,  who  committed  some  frugmoiits  of  it  to  writing.— 
one,  for  instance,  at  Jerusalem,  and  another  at  Koino, — sliould  in 
liio  same  narrative  frequently  make  use  of  the  same  phrases  and 
even  the  same  viords.  And,  finally,  we  must  recoiicilo  the  hvixj- 
thosis  with  the  authonti<:ily  of  our  (Jospels  (which  has  been  1)  dh 
historically  and  critically  proved) ;  and  prevent  the  follow  ore  <)f 
this  system  from  deducing  thence  the  evidently  false  conclusion, 
which  some  Gorman  neologians  have  not  boon  slow  in  forming,  viz. 
that  our  Gospels  were  sup|x>sitilious  productions  [losterior  to  the 
lime  of  the  evangolistM. 

>  Op.  Marth't  MichacIU,  vol.  lii.  part  2.  p.aM. 


V.  Since,  then,  the  four  hypotheses,  with  their  several 
modifications,  above  discussed,  are  insufficient  to  account 
for  the  harmony,  both  of  words  atid  of  thought,  which  appear 
in  the  first  three  Gospels,  should  it  be  asked  how  are  wc  to 
account  for  such  coincidences'?  We  reply  that  they  may  be 
sufficiently  explained  without  having  recourse  to  either  of 
these  hypotheses,  and  in  a  manner  that  cannot  but  satisfy 
every  serious  and  inquiring  reader. 

"  it  is  admitted  on  all  hands,"  says  Bishop  Gleig,  "  that 
the  most  remarkable  coincidences  of  both  language  and 
thought,  that  occur  in  the  first  three  Gospels,  are  found  in 
those  places  in  which  the  several  writers  record  our  Lord's 
doctrines  and  iniracles;  and  it  will  likewise  be  admitted, 
that  of  a  variety  of  things  seen  or  heard  by  any  man  at  the 
same  instant  of  time,  those  which  made  the  deepest  impres- 
sion are  distinctly  remembered  long  after  all  traces  of  the 
others  have  been  etfaced  from  the  memorj'.  It  will  also  be 
allowed,  that  of  a  number  of  people  witnessing  the  same 
remarkable  event,  some  will  be  most  forcibly  impressed  by 
one  circumstance,  and  others  by  a  circumstance  which, 
though  equally  connected  with  the  principal  event,  is,  con- 
sidered by  itself,  perfectly  difiVrcnt.  The  miracles  of  our 
blessed  Lord  were  events  so  astonishing,  that  they  must 
have  made,  on  the  minds  of  all  who  witnessed  tliem,  im- 
pressions too  deep  to  be  ever  effaced ;  though  the  circum- 
stances attending  each  miracle  must  have  affected  the  different 
spectators  very  uifferentl)',  so  as  to  have  made  impressions, 
some  of  them  equally  indelible  with  the  miracle  itself,  on 
the  mind  of  one  man ;  whilst  by  another,  whose  mind  was 
completely  occupied  by  tlie  principal  event  itself,  these  very 
circumstances  may  have  been  hardly  observed  at  al\  and  of 
course  been  soon  forgotten. 

"  That  this  is  a  matter  of  fact  which  occurs  daiiy,  every 
man  may  convince  himself  by  trying  to  recollect  all  the  par 
ticulais  of  an  event  which  powerfully  arrested  his  attention 
many  years  ago.     He  will  find  that  his  recollection  of  the 
event  itself,  and  of  many  of  the  circumstances  which  attended 
it,  is  as  vivid  and  distinct  at  this  day  as  it  was  a  month  after 
the  event  occurred ;  whilst  of  many  other  circumstances, 
which  he  is  satisfied  must  have  accompanied  it,  he  has  but  a 
very  confused  and  indistinct  recollection,  and  of  some,  no 
recollection  at  all.     If  the  same  man  take  the  trouble  to  in- 
quire of  any  friend  who  was  present  with  him  when  he  wit- 
nessed the  event  in  question,  he  will  probably  find  that  his 
friend's  recollection  of  the  princinal  event  is  as  vivid  and 
distinct  as  his  own ;  that  his  friena  recollects  likewise  many 
of  the  accompanying  circuinstances  Avhich  were  either  not 
observed  by  himself,  or  have  now  wholly  escaped  from  his 
memory;  and  that  of  the  minuter  circumstances,  of  which 
he  has  the  most  distinct  recollection,  his  friend  remembers 
hardly  one.     That  such  is  the  nature  of  that  intellectual 
power  by  which  we  retain  the  remetnbrance  of  past  events,  1 
know  froin  experience ;  and  if  there  be  any  man  who  has 
never  yet  made  such  experiments  on  himself,  let  him  make 
them  immediately,  and  1  am  under  no  apprehension,  that,  if 
they  be  fairly  made,  the  result  will  not  be  as  I  have  always 
found  it.     Let  it  be  remembered,  too,  as  a  universal  ftict,  oi 
a  law  of  human  nature,  as  certainly  as  gravitation  is  a  law 
of  corporeal  nature,  that  in  proportion  as  the  impression  mads 
on  the  mind  by  the  princival  ohjecf  in  any  interesting  scene 
is  strong,  those  produced  by  the  less  irnpurtimt  circuinstancea 
are  weak,  and  therefore  liable  to  bo  soon  effaced,  or,  if  re- 
tained at  all,  retained  faintly  and  confusedly;  and  that  wiien 
the  impression  made  liy  the  principal  object  is  exceedingly 
strong,  so  as  to  fill  the  mind  conipletel}',  the  unitnportant 
circumstances  make  no  impression  whatever,  as  has  been  a 
itundred  times  proved  bj'  the  hackneyed  instance  of  a  man 
absorbed  in  thought  not  hearing  the  sound  of  a  clock  when 
striking  the  hour  beside  him.  If  tliese  facts  be  admitted  (and 
I  cannot  suppose  that  any  retleclirig  man  will  call  them  in 
question),  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  have  recourse  to  fii/pf)- 
thescs,  to  account  either  for  that  degree  of  harmony  which 
prevails  among  the  first  tiiree  evangelists,  when  recording 
the  tnirarlrs  of  our  blessed  Lord,  or  for  the  discrepancy  which 
is  found  in  what  tlu^y  say  of  the  orfl-r  in  which  those  mira- 
cles W(ve  performed,  or  of  the  hss  important  cirrumslancea 
accompanying  the  performance.     In  every  one  of  tliem  the 
principal  n/jrct  was  our  I^ord  himself,  whose  powerful  voice 
the  winds  and  waves,  and  even  titc  devils,  obeyed.     The 
power  displayed  by  him  on  such  occasions  must  liave  made 
so  deep  an  iiin)ression  on  the  minds  of  all  the  spectators  as 
never  to  l)c  efiaced  :  but  wliether  unr.  or  tn'o  demoniacs  were 
restored  to  a  sound  mind  in  the  land  of  the  Gadarenes: 


ON  THE  SOURCES  OF  THE  FIRST  THREE  GOSPELS. 


393 


whether  one  of  two  blind  men  miraculously  received  their 
sight  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Jericho ;  and  whether  that  mi- 
racle was  performed  at  one  end  of  the  town  or  at  the  other, 
are  circumstances  which,  when  compared  with  the  miracles 
themselves,  are  of  so  little  importance,  as  may  easily  be 
supposed  to  have  made  but  a  slight  impression  on  the  minds 
of  even  some  of  the  most  attentive  observers,  whose  whole 
attention  had  been  directed  to  the  principal  object,  and  by 
whom  these  circumstances  would  be  soon  forgotten,  or,  if 
remembered  at  all,  remembered  confusedly.  To  the  order 
of  time  in  which  the  miracles  were  performed,  the  evange- 
lists appear  to  have  paid  very  little  regard,  but  to  have  re- 
corded them,  as  Boswell  records  many  of  the  sayings  of 
Johnson,  without  marking  their  dates ;  or  as  Xenophon  has 
recorded  the  memorabilia  ef  Socrates  in  a  work  which  has 
been,  in  this  respect,  compared  to  the  Gospels."' 

^Vith  respect  to  the  doctrines  of  our  Lord,  it  should  be 
recollected  that  the  sacred  historians  are  labouring  to  report 
with  accuracy  the  speeches  and  discourses  of  another;  in 
which  case  even  common  historians  would  endeavour  to 
preserve  the  exact  sense,  and,  as  far  as  their  memory  would 
serve  them,  the  same  words.  "  In  seeking  to  do  this,"  says 
the  late  eminently  learned  Bishop  of  London  (Dr.  Randolph), 
"  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at,  that  two  or  three  writers  should 
often  fall  upon  verbal  agreement :  nor,  on  the  contrary,  if 
they  write  independently,  that  they  should  often  miss  of  it, 
because  their  memory  would  often  fail  them.  With  re^rd 
to  the  sacred  writers,  it  is  natural  to  suppose  them  studious 
of  this  very  circumstance ;  and  we  have  also  reason  to  think, 
that  they  had  assistance  from  above  to  the  same  effect :  and  yet 
it  is  not  necessary  to  suppose  that  either  their  natural  faculty, 
or  the  extraordinary  assistance  vouchsafed  them,  or  both, 
should  have  brought  them  to  a  perfect  identity  throughout; 
because  it  was  not  necessary'  for  the  purposes  of  Providence, 
and  because  it  would  have  affected  their  character  of  original 
independent  witnesses.  Let  me  add,  that  these  discourses, 
before  they  were  committed  to  writing  by  the  evangelists, 
must  have  been  often  repeated  amongst  the  apostles  in  teach- 
ing others,  and  in  calling  them  to  remembrance  among 
themselves.  Matthew  had  probably  often  heard  and  known 
how  his  fellow-labourers  recollected  the  same  discourses 
which  he  had  selected  for  his  own  preaching  and  writing. 
We  know  not  iiow  much  intercourse  they  had  with  each 
other,  but  probably  a  great  deal  before  they  finally  dispersed 
themselves.  I\Iark  and  Luke  had  the  same  opportunities, 
even  if  they  were  not  original  eye-witnesses.^  I  admits  then, 

«  Bp.  Gleig's  edition  of  Stackhouse's  Hislory  of  the  Bible,  vol.  iii.  p.  104. 

'  "As  no  two  human  minds  ever  proceed  with  an  exact  parallelism  of 
ideas,  or  suggest  an  unvaried  flow  of  the  same  words,  so  in  reporting  these 
things,  with  all  their  care,  the  evangelists,  like  other  men,  made  some 
minute  variations.  Substantially,  their  accounts  are  the  same,  and  bespeak 
the  same  origin ;  namely,  truth,  reality,  and  correct  representation.  Inspi- 
ration was  doubtless  a  further  guarantee  for  this  substantial  agreement, 
ttiough  it  went  not  to  the  length  of  suggesting  words.  In  little  matters,  there- 
fore, tliey  vary,  so  that  one  reports  the  same  fact  rather  more  fully,  an- 
other more  concisely ;  one  preserves  more  of  our  Lord's  words,  another 


of  a  common  document,-  hut  that  document  was  no  other  than 

the  PREACHING    OF    OUR    BLESSED  LoRD    HIMSELF.       Ih  WaS  the 

great  Prototype.  In  looking  up  to  him,  the  .Author  of  their 
faith  and  mission,  and  to  the  very  words  in  ivhich  he  was  wont 
to  dictate  to  them  {which  not  only  yet  sounded  in  their  ears  but 
were  also  recalled  by  the  aid  of  his  Holy  Spirit  promised^  for 
that  very  purpose),  they  have  given  us  three  Gospels,  often 
agreeing  in  words,  though  not  without  much  diversification,  ana 
always  in  sense."* 

To  this  powerful  reasoning  we  can  add  nothing:  pro- 
tracted as  this  discussion  has  unavoidably  been,  the  import- 
ance of  its  subjects  must  be  the  author's  apology  for  the 
length  at  which  the  preceding  questions  have  been  treated ; 
because  the  admission  of  either  the  copying,  documentarj-, 
or  traditionary  hypotheses  is  not  only  detrimental  to  the 
character  of  the  sacred  writers,  but  also  diminishes  the  value 
and  importance  of  their  testimony.  "  They  seem  to  think 
more  justly,"  said  that  eminent  critic  Le  Clerc,  "who  say 
that  the  first  three  evangelists  were  unacquainted  with  each 
other's  design :  thus  greater  weight  accrues  to  their  testi- 
mony. When  witnesses  agree,  who  have  previously  con- 
certed together,  they  are  suspected :  but  those  witnesses  are 
justly  credited  who  testify  the  same  thing  separately,  and 
without  knowing  what  others  have  said."^ 

fewer;  one  subjoins  a  reason  or  an  explanation,  which  another  did  not 
feel  to  be  necessary ;  and  thus,  we  may  be  assured,  would  three  of  the 
most  correct  observers,  and  scrupulously  exact  reporters  in  the  world  do 
always,  if  they  separately  related  what  they  had  seen  or  heard  the  very 
day  before.  Probably  each  would  do  so  if  he  twice  related,  in  conversa- 
tion only,  the  very  same  transactions  or  discourses.  Our  daily  expprience 
may  prove  this  to  us.  Narrations  of  the  same  facts,  or  of  the  same  dis- 
courses, always  differ  from  each  other;  generally,  indeed,  more  than 
they  ought  to  differ;  from  carelessness,  inaccuracy,  or  the  love  of  embel- 
lishment. But  setting  these  causes  aside,  they  still  must  differ.  One  per- 
son will  relate  rather  more,  another  rather  less,  of  the  facts  or  words;  one 
will  try  to  explain  as  he  goes,  another  to  illustrate ;  and  the  expressions 
used  will  always  savour,  more  or  less,  of  the  habitual  mode  of  discourse 
peculiar  to  the  individual.  But  in  reporting  speeches,  the  more  care  is 
taken  to  preserve  the  very  words  of  the  speaker,  the  less  there  will  be,  in 
that  part,  of  the  usual  difference  of  expressions.  Still,  something  ttiere 
will  always  remain,  because,  however  careful  a  man  may  be  to  describe 
or  imitate  another,  he  is  never  able  to  put  off  himself.  This,  then,  is  the 
correct  view,  and  1  hesitate  not  to  say,  the  only  correct  view,  of  the  resein- 
blances  and  differences  in  the  Gospels.  They  agree  as  narratives  will 
agree,  whose  common  model  is  the  truth.  They  differ  as  distinct  narratives 
will  always  differ,  while  men  are  men  ;  but  they  neither  agree  nor  differ 
as  copied  narratives  would,  for  the  reasons  already  aasigned.''  Mr.  Arch- 
deacon Nares's  Veracity  of  the  Evangelists  demonstrated,  pp.  171—174. 
Ill  pp.  175,  176.  297 — 301.  the  coincidence  and  difference  of  the  evaii'^ehsts 
are  appositely  illustrated  by  harmonized  tables  of  the  parable  of  the  lower, 
and  of  St.  Paul's  two  narratives  of  his  own  conversion,  and  the  historical 
narrative  of  St.  Luke. 
'  John  xiv.  26. 

*  "Remarks  on  Michaelis's  Introduction  to  the  New  Testament."  p.  32. 
ct  seq.    See  also  Bishop  Gleig's  edition  of  Stackhousc,  vol.  iii.  pp.  105—112 

•  Multo  rectiiis  sentire  videntur,  qui  evangelistas  tres  priores  scrips'sse 
suas  historias  censent,  ctlm  neuter  aliorum  consilii  conscius  esset,  unde 
etiam  eorum  testimonio  majus  accedit  pondus.  Cum  enim  consp'ntiunt 
testes,  qui  inter  se  capita  contulerunt,  suspecti  potifls  habentur :  sed  te.stes, 
qui  idem  testantur  seorsim,  nescii  aliorum  teslimonii,  merito  verum  dicers 
videntur.— Joannis  Phereponi  [i.  e.  Le  Clerc]  Animadversiones  in  Aui^is. 
tini  Libruin  de  Consensu  Evangelioruia  A-Joendix  Augustiniana.  p  532- 
Antverris  1703.  foUo.  ■  °  "^  i     -«■ 


Vol.  U. — App. 


3D 


No.  II. 


TABLES  OF  WEIGHTS,  MEASURES,  AND  MONEY, 

MENTIONED    IN    THE    BIBLE. 


Extracted  chi»Jly  from  the  Second  Edition  of  Dr.  ArbuihnoVs  Tables  of  Ancient  Coins,  Wdglds,  and  Measures, 


[Referred  to  in  page  1S9.  of  this  Volume.] 


1.  Jewish  Weights  reduced  to  English  Troy  fVeight. 

The  gerah,  one-twentieth  of  a  shekel 

Bekah,  half  a  shekel 

The  shekel 

'Hie  maneh,  60  shekels  .... 

Tho  talent,  50  maneh  or  3000  shekels 


lb».  oz. 

0    0 

pen. 
0 

0    0 

5 

0    0 

9 

2    3 

6 

113  10 

1 

12 

0 

2* 
lOf 

104 


2.  Scripture  Measures  of  Length  reduced  to  English  Measure. 


A  jlijiit 


Kn?. 

fret  in.  dec, 

0    0  912 


12 


9o 
144 


A  palm 
3  I  A  span    . 

A  cubit 

A  faihom 


24  I      fi  I      3 


36  r 


12' r 


2| 


6  I  1^  I  Kzekiel's  reod     . 

192  I    48  I    16  I    8  I    2  1    H  |  An  Arabian  pole   . 

A  schcenuB  or  mca- 
eui'lng  line 


l'J2()  I  480  I  160  I  HO  I  20  |  13^^  |  10 


0 
0 

1 

7    3 

10  11 

14    7 

145  11 


3  648 
10  944 

9  688 

3  552 

328 

104 

004 


3.  The  long  Scripture  Measures. 


A  cubit 


4(tO  I  A  siadium  or  furlong 


2000  I      5  I  .\  sabbath-day '.«  journey    . 

4000  I    10  I    2  I  An  eastern  mile      . 
Y20<»0  j    30  I    6  I    3  I  .A.  parasang 
'■"' '(HX)  I  240  I  4H  j  24  "Tb"!  a  day's  journey 


F-ng. 
miles 

0 

jiaccs 
0 

n. 

1 

0 

145 

4 

0 

729 

3 

1 

403 

1 

4 

153 

3 

33 

172 

4 

d»c. 

824 

6 

0 

0 

0 

0 


4.  Scripture  Measures  of  Capacity  for  Liquids,  reduced  tu 
English  Wine  Measure. 

A  cnph  

•^  log 


Ji. 


4  I  Arab 


16  I    12  I 


32  I    2-1  I 


3  I  A  hin 

6  I    2  I  A  Hcah 


96^ 
9f/» 


72      16  I    6  I    3  I  A  bath  or  ophah 


720  I  180  I  60  I  30  I  10  J  a  koror  coroi,  ebomer  orbcmtr 


0 

pinU. 
Of 

0 
0 

1 

n 
I' 

2 

4 

7 

4 

75 

5 

5.  Scripture  Measures  of  Capacity  for  dry  Things,  reduced  tc 
English  Corn  Measure. 


Agachal 
20  I  A  cab 


pecka.  gttX. 
0     0 


36  I     1^1  An  omcr  or  goraer 
A  peah 


120 


^ 


360  I     18  I    10  I    3  I  An  ephah 


1800  I     90  I    50  I  15  I  5  I  A  Ictech 

36(K)  I  180  I  UK>  I  30  I  10  I  2  I  A^<^h."™",l>o'>'". »"'." 


0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

0 

3 

0 

16 

0 

32 

0 

pin's. 

"6 

^\ 

1 

3       . 

0 

1 


6.  Jewish  Money  reduced  to  the  English  Standard. 


A  gerah 0 

10  I  A  bfkah 0 

20  I        2  I  A  shekel 0 

1200  I    120  I      50  I  A  maneh,  or  mina  Hebraica  5 

(HKiOO  i  6tKX."    3000  I  60  I  A  talent       ,        .        .  342 


A  solidus  aureus,  or  eextnln,  was  worth 

A  siclus  aureus,  or  shekel  of  gold,  was  worth 

A  pound,  or  mina 

.\  talent  of  gold  was  worth 54 


s. 

d. 

0 

1 
2 

're  IT 
1 1 1 

14 

Oi 

3 

9 

X' 

s.    d. 

0 

12    Q\ 

1 

16    6 

3 

2    6 

75 

0    0 

7.  Roman  and  Greek  Money,  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament, 
reduced  to  the  English  Standard. 

A  mite  (Ai»Ter  or  AoT«fic»)  .... 

A  farthing  (Ko.TpxvTrO  about 
.\  penny,  or  denarius  (Aimpiov) 

In  the  preceding  table,  silver  is  valued  at  5».  and  gold  at  £A  pel 

ounce. 


£ 

$. 

d. 

far. 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

li 

0 

0 

7 

3 

394 


No.  ni. 

A  CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE 

OF   THE 

PRINCIPAL  EVENTS  RECORDED  IN  THE  BIBLE. 


PART  L 


i  Talk  of  the  most  Remarkable  Events  comprised  in  the  Old  Testament,  abridged  from  Archbishop  Usher  atid  Father 
Calmet,  together  with  the  corresponding  Bates  adopted  by  the  Rev.  Dr,  Hales  in  his  "  New  Analysis  of  Chronology,''''  and 
by  the  Right  Rev.  Dr.  Gleig,  in  his  new  Edition  of  Stackhouse^s  History  of  the  Bible. 


*^*  The  true  Bate  of  the  Birth  of  Christ  is  four  years  before  the  common  Xra,  or 


i.B. 


Dr. 


100 

101 

201 

230 

435 

625 

795 

960 

1122 

1287 

1474 

930 

1487 

1142 

1656 

1340 

1534 

1690 

1922 

2136 


2227 
2348 


.}.  M. 
or 

year 
of  the 
IVorld 

1 


3 

4 

128 

130 

235 

325 

395 

460 

622 

687 

874 

930 

987 

1042 

1056 

1140 

1235 

1290 

1422 

1536 


1651 
1656 


2257 


2258 
2393 
2523 
2657 
2797 
2857 

2857 


2787 
2919 
3049 
3128 
3198 
2606 
3258 


Period  1. 
From  the  Creation  to  the  Deluge. 

The  creation 

Eve,  tempted  by  the  serpent,  disobeys  God, 
and  persuades  her  husband  Adam  to  diso- 
bedience also.  God  drives  them  out  of  pa- 
radise. 

Cain  born,  Adam's  eldest  son. 

Abel  born,  Adam's  second  son. 

Cain  kills  his  brother  Abel. 

Seth  born,  son  of  Adam  and  Eve. 

Enos  born,  son  of  Seth. 

Cainan  born,  son  of  Enos. 

Mahalaleel  born,  son  of  Cainan. 

Jared  bom,  son  of  Mahalaleel. 

Enoch  born,  son  of  Jared. 

Methuselah  born,  son  of  Enoch. 

Lamech  bom,  son  of  Methuselah. 

Adam  dies,  aged  930  years. 

Enoch  translated :  he  had  lived  365  years. 

Seth  dies,  aged  912  years. 

Noah  born,  son  of  Lamech. 

Enos  dies,  aged  905  years. 

Cainan  dies,  aged  910  years. 

Mahalaleel  dies,  aged  895  years. 

Jared  dies,  aged  962  years. 

God  informs  Noah  ot  the  future  deluge,  and 
commissions  him  to  preach  repentance  to 
mankind,  120  years  before  the  deluge. 

Lamech  dies,  the  father  of  Noah,  aged  777 

«  years. 

Methuselah  dies,  the  oldest  of  men,  aged  969 
years,  in  the  year  of  the  deluge;  and  the 
same  year,  Noah,  being  600  years  old,  by 
divine  command  enters  the  ark. 


Year 

before 
Christ 

4000 
before 

A.  D. 

4004 


3998 

3997 

3876 

3874 

3769 

3679 

3609 

3544 

3382 

3317 

3130 

3074 

301 

2962 

2948 

2864 

2769 

2714 

2582 

2468 


Dr. 
ffala. 


5411 


5311 

5310 
5210 
5181 
4996 
4786 
4616 
4451 
4289 
4124 
3937 
4481 
3914 
4269 
3755 
4071 
3877 
3721 
3489 
3275 


2353 

2319 


3184 
3155 


1657 


1658 
1693 
1723 
1757 
1770 
1770 

1771 


1787 
1819 
1849 
1878 
1948 
2006 


Period  II. 
From  the  Deluge  to  the  Birth  of  Abraham. 

Noah  and  his  family  quit  the  Ark.  He  offers 
sacrifices  of  thanksgiving.  God  appoints  the 
rainbow  as  a  pledge  that  he  would  send  no 
more  an  universal  deluge. 

Arphaxad  born,  the  son  of  Sliem. 

Salah  bom,  sou  of  Arphaxad. 

Heber  born,  son  of  Salah. 

Phaleg  born,  son  of  Heber. 

The  building  of  the  tower  of  Babel. 

The  confusion  of  languages,  and  dispersion  of 
the  nations. 

The  beginning  of  the  Babylonian  or  Assyrian 
monarchy  by  Nimrod ;  and  of  the  Egyptian 
empire  by  Ham  the  father  of  Mizraim. 

The  trial  of  Job,  according  to  Dr.  Hales,  took 
place 

Reu  born,  the  son  of  Phaleg. 

Serug  bom,  son  of  Reu. 

Nahor  born,  son  of  Serug. 

Terah  born,  the  son  of  Nahor. 

Haran  bom,  the  son  of  Terah. 

Noah  dies,  aged  950  years. 


2008jAbram  bom,  the  son  of  Terah. 


2347 


2346 
2311 

2281 
2247 
2234 


2233 


Dr. 

Bales, 


3268 
3318 


.«.  M. 

or 

year 
of  the 
H'urid 


2018 

2083 


3154 


3153 

3018 
2888 
2754 
2614 
2554 

2554 


3333 

3334 

3341 
3344 

3357 


3358 
3383 


2083 

2084 

2091 
2094 

2107 


2108 
2133 


2130 

2217 

2185 

2155 

2126 

2056 

199812805 

199612153 


2337 
2624 
2492 
2362 
2283 
2213 


3398 
3418 


Year 
before 
Ch7-ist 

4004 
before 

.I.D. 


2148 
2168 
343812186 
3495  2245 

3526 

3539 
3548 

3683 

3723 

3763 


2276 

2289 
2298 

2433 

2473 

2513 


Period  III. 

From  the  Birth  of  Abraham  to  the  Depar- 
ture of  the  Israelites  out  of  Egypt,  and 
their  Return  into  the  Land  of  Canaan. 

Sarai  born,  wife  of  Abram.  1986  2143 

The  call  of  Abram  from  Ur  of  the  Chaldees  to  1917  2093 
Haran  in  Mesopotamia,  where  his   father 
Terah  died,  aged  205  years. 

The  second  call  of  Abram  from  Haran. — He  1921  2078 
comes  into  Canaan  with  Sarai  his  wife,  and 
Lot  his  nephew;  and  dwells  at  Sichem. 

Abram  goes  into  Egypt;   Pharaoh  takes  his  1920  2077 
wife,  but  soon  restores  her  again.     Abram 
returns  from  Egypt;  he  and  Lot  separate. 

Abram's  victory  over  the  five  kings,  and  rescue  1913  2070 
of  Lot. 

Sarai  gives  her  maid  Hagar,  for  a  wife,  to  her  1910  2067 
husband  Abram. 

Ishrnael  born,  the  son  of  Abram  and  Hagar. 
Abram  was  86  years  old.  (Gen.  xvi.  16.) 

The  new  covenant  of  the  Lord  with  Abraham.  1897  2054 
(Gen.  xvii.) 

Sodom,  Gomorrah,  Admah,  and  Zeboim,  burnt 
by  fire  from  heaven.  Lot  is  preserved ;  re- 
tires to  Zoar ;  commit^  incest  with  his  daugh- 
ters. 

Abraham  departs  from  the  plains  of  Mamre  to  18%  2053 
Beer-sheba.    Isaac  born. 

Abraham  offers  his  son  Isaac  lor  a  bumt-offer-  1871  2028 
ing. 

Sarah  dies,  aged  127  years. 

Isaac  marries  Rebekah.  1858  2013 

Jacob  and  Esau  born,  Isaac  being  60  years  old.  1836  1993 

Abraham  dies,  aged  175  years.  1818  1973 

Isaac  blesses  Jacob,  who  withdraws  into  Me-  1759  1916 
sopolamia,  to  his  uncle  Laban ;  and  marries 
first  Leah,  and  then  Rachel. 

Joseph,  being  17  years  old,  tells  his  father  1728 
Jacob  his  brethren's  faults ;  they  hate  him 
and  sell  him  to  strangers,  who  take  him  into 
Egypt.    Joseph  sold  again,  as  a  slave,  to 
Potiphar. 

Pharaoh's  dreams  explained  by  Joseph,  who  is  1715 
made  governor  of  Egypt, 

Joseph's  ten  brethren  come  into  Egypt  to  buy  1706 
corn.   Joseph  imprisons  Simeon. — His  breth- 
ren return;  Joseph  discovers  himself,  and 
engages  them  to  come  int«  Egypt  with  iheir 
father  Jacob,  then  130  years  old. 

A  revolution  in  Egypt.    The  Israelites  perse-  1571 
cuted. 

Moses  bom ;  exposed  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile ; 
and  found  by  Pharaoh's  daughter,  who 
adopts  him. 

Moses  kills  an  Egyptian;  flees  into  Midian;  1531 
marries  Zipporah,  the  daughter  of  Jethro: 
has  two  sons  by  her,  Gershon  and  Eliezer. 

According  to  archbishop  Usher,  the  trial  of 
Job  took  place  1520 

Moses,   commissioned   by   God,   returns    into  1491 
Egypt.    Pharaoh  refuses  to  set  the  Israelites 
at  liberty.    Moses  inflicts  ten  plagues  on 
Egypt;  after  which  the  Israelites  are  libe- 
rated. 

395 


Dr. 
Hala. 


1885 

1872 
1863 

1728 

1688 
1648 


396 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX. 


3763 


'3764 


.1.  M. 

2513 


2514 


3765  2315 


3803  2553 


3903 


3804 
3811 


2553 


2554 
25G1 


Pharaoh  pursues  the  Israelites  with  his  army, 
and  overtaives  thein  at  Pi-hahiroth.  The 
waters  divided.  Israel  goes  through  on  dry 
groimd.  The  Egyptians  drowned;  2Isl  of 
the  first  month. 

The  delivery  of  the  law,  with  various  circum- 
stances of  terror,  &;c. 

The  people  resolve  on  entering  Canaan,  but 
are  repulsed  by  the  Araalekiles  and  the 
Canaanitcs.  Establishment  of  the  priest- 
hood, &c. 

The  sedition  of  Korah,  Daihan,  and  Abiram, 
is  supposed  to  have  happened  about  this 
time. 

The  Israelites  enter  Canaan. 

The  death  of  Moses,  who  is  succeeded  by 
Joshua 

Joshua  sends  spies  to  Jericho. 


Period  IV. 

From,  the  Retxtrn  of  the  Israelites  into  the 
Land  of  Canaan  to  the  Establishment  of 
the  Regal  State. 

The  people  pass  the  river  Jordan. — Joshua 
restores  circumcision. — Jericho  taken. — The 
Gibeonites  make  a  league  with  Joshua. — 
War  of  the  five  kings  against  Gibeon,  wliom 
Joshua  defeats;  the  sun  and  moon  stand 
still. 

War  of  Joshua  against  the  kings  of  Canaan ; 
conquest  and  division  of  that  country,  Ac. 

Joshua  renews  the  covenant  between  the 
Lord  and  the  Israelites. — Joshua  dies,  aged 
110  years. 

After  his  death  the  ciders  govern  about  eigh- 
teen or  twenty  years,  during  which  time 
liappcn  the  wars  of  Judah  with  Adoni- 
bezck. 


i).  c. 
1491 


1490 


1451 


1451 


1451 
1443 


Dr.U. 

1648 


1647 


1608 


1608 


1609 

1582 


Dr.H. 

3849 


3985 

4045 
4189 

4259 


2469 

2519 
2663 

2723 


4341 
4343 


4351 
4361 
4375 

4381 


4391 
4421 


A.  M. 

2599 


2745 
274' 


2755 

2785 
2819 

2825 


3001 
3029 


During  the  succeeding  anarchy  happened  the 
idolatry  of  Micah,  and  the  w  ar  of  the  twelve 
tribes  against  Benjamin,  to  reveno[e  the  out- 
rage committed  on  the  wife  of  a  Levitc. 

God  sends  his  prophet-s  in  vain  to  reclaim  the 
Hebrews.  lie  permits,  therefore,  that  they 
should  fall  into  slavery  under  their  enemies. 

Deborah,  Barak,  and  otliers  judge  the  Israel- 
ites. 

Gideon  delivers  Israel. 

Under  his  judicature  God  raises  up  Samson. 

The  actions  of  Samson. 

The  birth  of  Samuel. 


Period  V. 

From  the  Establishment  of  the  Regal  State 
to  the  Babylonish  Captivity. 

The  Israelites  ask  a  king  of  Samuel. — Saul  is 
appointed  and  consecrated  king. 

War  of  the  Philistines  against  Saul,  who,  hav- 
ing disobeyed  Samuel's  orders,  is  rejected 
by  God. 

Saul's  second  offence. 

David  succeeds  to  Saul  on  the  throne  of  Israel. 

Absalom's  rebellion  against  his  father  David 
quashed. — The  restoration  of  David. 

Adonijah  aspires  to  the  kingdom.  David 
causes  his  son  Solomon  to  be  crowned,  who 
is  prot:laimcd  king  by  all  Israel. 

The  death  of  David,  aged  70  years. 

Solomon  reigns  alone,  having  reigned  about 
six  months  in  the  lilciime  of  his  lather  Da 
vid.     lie  reigned  in  all  40  years. 

The  temple  of  Solomon  linished,  being  seven 
years  and  a  half  in  building. — lis  dedication. 

The  deulh  of  Solomon,  succession  of  Heho- 
boam,  and  the  revolt  of  the  ten  tribes.  Jero- 
boam the  son  of  IS'cbat  acknowledged  king 
of  the  ten  tribes. 


B.  C.  Dr.H. 


1405 


1535 

1485 
1341 

1271 


1259 
1257 

1249 


1561 


1366 
1222 

1152 


1110 
1108 

1100 


1219  1070 
1185  1036 


1179 


1003 
971 


1030 


1020 
991 


Dr.H.' J.  M. 

4422  3030 


Kings  of  Judah,  for  388  years. 
Rehob<wm,  intending  to  subdue  the  ten  tribes, 
is  commanded  to  Ibrbear. 


1421  .'1032  Rehoboam  gives  himself  up  to  impiety. 
44383016  Rehoboam  dies.    Abijam  succeeds  him ;  reigns 
three  years. 
Abijam's  victory  over  Jeroboam;  who  loses 

many  thousands  of  his  troops. 
Abijam  dies.     Asa  succeeds   him,   and  sup- 
presses idolatry  in  Judah. 

Asa  engages  Ben-hadad,  king  of  Syria,  to  make 
an  irruption  into  the  territories  of  the  king- 
dom of  Israel,  to  force  Baaslia  to  quit  his 
undertaking  at  Ramah. 


4139 
4441 


4471 


4492 


,4514 


451; 


304"; 
3049 


3064 


3090 


451 
t515 


3107 
3108 


3115 
3117 


B.   C. 

970 


967 
954 

953 

951 

936 


Death  of  Asa,  who  is  succeeded  by  Jehosha- 
phat.    He  oxpels  superstitious  worship. 


Klijah  removed  from  this  world  in  a  fiery  cha- 
riot. 

Jchoshnphnt  arrompnnion  Ahnb  in  his  expedi- 
tion again.Ht  Ramoih  Giload;  where  he  nar- 
n)wly  cHcnjics  n  gri'at  dnngor. 

Jchonhaphat  ocpiiiw  a  flocl  furOuhir;  Ahiizinh 
king  i>f  Israel  jwirtaking  of  llio  di-sign,  the 
fleet  is  destroyed  by  t«rai>c«U 


Jehoshaphnt  dies;  Jehornm  jmcccedd  him. 

Jehornni,  at  the  imiwrtunity  of  his  wife  Alh.i- 
liah,  introduces  into  Jtitlah  tlie  worsliip  of 
Baal.  Ho  is  smitten  by  God  with  an  in- 
curable distemper  in  his  IwwuIh;  makes  his 
Sim  .\haziah  viceroy,  or  owociale  in  hi» 
kingdotn.    Jchorum  dios. 


910 


893 

892 


885 
884 


Dr.H. 
990 


987 
973 

972 

970 

940 


929 


897 

896 


904 
890 


Dr./l. 

4422 


A.  M. 

.3030 


4439 
4443 
4145 

4468 
4469 

4469 

4473 

4180 

1503 

4504 
450G 

4507 
4508 


3047 
3050 
3052 

3074 
3075 

3075 

3079 

3086 

3096 

3103 
3107 

310H 
3109 


Kings  of  Israel,  for  254  years. 

Jeroboam,  son  of  Nebat.  the  first  king  of  Is 
rael,  or  of  the  revolted  ten  tribes. — lie  abo- 
lishes the  worship  of  the  Lord,  and  sets  up 
the  golden  calves. 


Jeroboam    overcome   by   Abijam,   who   kills 

500,000  men. 
Jeroboam  dies ;  Nadab  his  son  succeeds ;  reigns 

two  years. 
Nadab  dies ;  Baasha  succeeds  him. 


Bansha  dies;  Elah  his  son  succeeds  him. 

Elah  killed  by  Zimri,  who  usurps  the  kingdom 
seven  days- 

Omri  besieges  Zimri  in  Tirzah;  he  bums  him- 
self in  the  palace. 

Omri  builds  Samaria;  makes  it  the  seat  of  his 
kingdom. 

Omri  dies ;  Ahab  his  son  succeeds. 


The   prophet  Elijah  presents  himself  before 

Ahab,  and  causes  the  false  prophets  of  Baal 

to  be  slain. 
CJivcs  the  prophetic  unction  to  Elisha. 
Ben-hadad  king  of  Syria  besieges  Samaria  ;  is 

fiircod  10  quit  it. 
Ahab  wars  against  Rnmoth  Gilead  ;  is  killed 

in  disguise.    Ahaziah  succeeds. 

Ahaziah,  falling  from  tlie  lattice  of  his  house, 
is  tlangorously  wounded,  and  ilics;  Johoruiii 
his  brother  succeeds  him,  and  makes  war 
against  Moab. 

Klisha  foretells  victory  to  the  army  of  Israel, 
and  procures  water  in  abundance. 


B.  c. 
97C 


953 
950 
^46 


92C 
925 

925 

921 

914 

904 

901 
897 

896 
895 


Dr.U. 

990 


972 
968 
966 

943 
942 

942 

938 

931 

908 

905 
900 

899 
898 


chroisojuOgical  index. 


397 


Dr.U. 

4515 
4516 


4522 


4562  3164 


A.  M. 

311 
3120 


3126 


4563 


4591 


4602 


3165 


3178 


Kings  of  Judah. 

Ahaziah  reigns  but  one  year. 

Joash  or  Jelioash  born. 

flomer  the  Greek  poet  flourishes. 

Ahaziah  accompanies  Jehoram  king  of  Israel 

to  the  siege  of  Ramoth  Gilead.    He  is  slain 

by  Jehu. 
Athaliah  kills  all  the  royal  family;  usurps 

the   kingdom.    Jehoash  is   preserved  and 

kept  secretly  in  the  temple  six  years. 
Jehoiada  the  high-priest  sets  Jehoash  on  the 

throne  of  Judah,  and  slays  Athaliah. 

Zechariah  the  high-priest,  son  of  Jehoiada, 
killed  in  the  temple  by  order  of  Jehoash. 

Hazael  king  of  Syria  wars  against  Jehoash. 

Hazael  returns  against  Jehoash;  and  forces 
large  sums  from  him.  (2  Chron.  xxiv.  23.) 

Jehoash  dies ;  and  is  succeeded  by  Amaziah. 

Amaziah  wars  against  Jehoash  king  of  Israel ; 
is  defeated  by  him. 


4654 


4659 
4670 

4671 


3189  Amaziah  dies;  Uzziah  or  Azariah  succeeds 
him. 
Isaiah  and  Amos  prophesy  in  Judah  under 
this  reign. 


3246 


3251 
3262 

3263 


4686  3278 


Uzziah  dies  ;  Jotham  his  son  succeeds. 
Isaiah  sees  the  glory  of  the  Lord.  (Isa.  vi.) 
Isaiah  and  Hosea  continue  to  prophesy. 


Rezin  king  of  Syria,  and  Pekah  king  of  Israel, 
invade  Judah. 

Jotham  dies ;  Ahaz  succeeds  him.  Rezin  king 
of  Syria,  and  Pekah  king  of  Israel,  continue 
their  hostilities  against  Judah. 

Isaiah  foretells  to  Ahaz  tlie  birth  of  the  Mes- 
siah, and  a  speedy  deliverance  from  the 
two  kings  his  enemies.  Nevertheless,  the 
year  following  they  return  again  and  spoil 
his  country. 

Ahaz  invites  to  his  assistance  Tiglath-pileser 
king  of  Assyria,  and  submits  to  pay  him 
tribute. 


Ahaz  king  of  Judah  dies,  and  is  succeeded  by 
his  son  Hezekiah,  who  restores  the  %vorship 
of  the  Lord  in  Judaea,  which  Ahaz  had 
almost  entirely  subverted. 


B.  c. 

884 

879 


878 
836 
835 

822 

810 


Dr.H. 
896 

895 


889 
849 
848 

820 

809 


Dr.H. 
4515 

4516 


4544 

4561 

4579 

4576 

4577 


J.  M. 

3119 


3120 


3165 


3168 


3178 
3179 


Kings  of  Israel. 
Samaria  besieged  by  Ben-hadad  king  of  Syria. 

Ben-hadad   and  his   army,  seized  with  a 

panic,  flee  during  the  night. 
Elisha,  going  to  Damascus,  foretells  the  death 

ol  Ben-hadad,  and  the  reign  of  Hazael. 

Jehoram  marches  with  Ahaziah  against  Ra- 
moth Gilead ;  is  dangerously  wounded,  and 
carried  to  Jezreel. 

Jehu  rebels  against  Jehoram ;  kills  him,  and 
usurps  the  throne. 
3148  Jehu  dies;  Jehoahaz  his  son  succeeds  him. 


754 


737 
736 

735 


722 


757 


742 
741 

740 


725 


4640 

4640 
4641 


4653 
4655 


4665 


4673 

4683 

4687 

4692 


3232 

3232 
3233 


3243 
3245 


3254 


3264 

3265 
3276 

3279 


Jehoahaz  dies.  Joash,  or  Jehoash,  whom  he 
had  associated  with  himself  on  the  throne 
A.  M.  3162,  succeeds  him. 

Hazael  king  of  Syria  dies;  and  Ben-hadad 
succeeds  him. 

Jehoash  wars  against  Ben-hadad. 

Jehoash  obtains  a  great  victory  over  Amaziah 
king  of  Judah. 

Jehoash  king  of  Israel  dies ;  Jeroboam  II.  suc- 
ceeds him. 

Jonah,  Hosea,  and  Amos  in  Israel,  prophesy 
during  this  reign. 


Jeroboam  II.  dies ;  Zachariah  his  son  succeeds 

him. 
The  chronology  of  this  reign  is  very  per- 
plexed. 
Zachariah  killed  by  Shallura,  after  reigning 

six  months. 
Shallum  reigns  one  month;  is  killed  by  Ble- 

nahem. 
Pul  (or  Sardanapalus)  king  of  Assyria  invades 

Israel;    Menahem    becomes    tributary    to 

him. 
Menahem  dies ;  Pekahiah  his  son  succeeds. 
Pekahiah  assassinated  by  Pekah,  son  of  Re 

maliah. 


Arbaces,  governor  of  Media,  and  Belesis,  go- 
vernor of  Babylonia,  besiege  Sardanapalus 
king  of  Assyria  in  Nineveh,  who,  after  a 
siege  of  three  years,  burns  himself  in  his 
palace,  with  all  his  riches.  Arbaces  is 
acknowledged  king  of  Media,  and  Belesis 
of  Babylon. 


Tiglath-pileser  defeats  and  slays  Rezin  king 
of  Damascus;  enters  the  land  of  Israel,  and 
takes  many  cities  and  captives,  chiefly 
from  Reuben,  Gad,  and  the  half  tribe  of 
Manasseh.    The  first  captivity  of  Israel. 

Hoshea  son  of  Elah  slays  Pekah,  and  usurps 
the  kingdom. 

Shalmaneser  succeeds  Tiglath-pileser  king 
of  Nineveh. 


Hoshea  makes  an  alliance  with  So  king  of 
Egypt,  and  endeavours  to  shake  off  the 
yoke  of  Shalmaneser,  who  besieges  Sama- 
ria; takes  it  after  three  years'  siege,  and 
carries  beyond  the  Euphrates  the  tribes 
that  Tiglath-pileser  had  not  already  carried 
into  captivity ;  and  puts  an  end  to  the  king- 
dom of  Israel,  after  it  had  subsisted  two 
hundred  and  fifty-four  years. 


D.  c 
881 


880 


852 

835 

822 

821 
820 


779 

768 
767 


757 
755 


746 


736 

735 
724 

721 


3D8 


CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX. 


ISOii 


t702 


4770 

1772 
4803 


33C1 


33C3 
337G 

3394 


Or. a.  A.  M.  Judah  alone. 

3285  On  tlie  death  of  Shalmancser,  Sennacherib 
succeeds  him,  and  invades  Juduit,  and 
takes  several  cities. 
3291  Hezekiah'a  sickness  and  miraculous  euro. 
He  gives  money  to  Sennacherib,  who  still 
continues  his  war  ayanist  him.  He  sends 
Kabshakeh  to  Jerusalem,  and  niarrhes  him- 
self against  Tirhakah  king  ofCusli  or  Ara- 
bia. Keturning  into  Juda;u,  the  angel  of 
the  Lord  destroys  many  thousands  of  his 
anny;  lie  retires  to  Ninevoh,  whore  he  is 
slain  by  his  sons. 
4087^3292  Esar-haddon  succeeds  Sennacherib. 

Micah  the  Morastliitc,  and  iSahum,  prophesy. 
4715;33UC  Hezekiah  dies,  and  is  succeeded  by  Manas- 

seh. 
4734^3323  Esar-haddon  becomes  master  of  Babylon;  re- 
unites the  empires  of  Assyria  and  Chaldaja. 
174013329  Manasseh  taken  by  the  Chaldaaans,  and  car- 
ried to  Babylon. 
4738i3347  The  war  of  Holofemes,  who  is  slain  in  Judaja 
by  Judith. 
Manasseh  dies.    He  returned  into  Judffia  a 
considerable  time  before,  but  the  period  is 
not  exactly  known;  Amon  succeeds  him; 
reigas  two  years. 
.\mon  dies;  Josiah  succeeds  him. 
Jeremiah  begins  to  prophesy,  in  the  thirteenth 

year  of  Josiah. 
Josiah  opposes  the  expedition  of  Necho  king 
of  Egypt  against  Carchemish,  is  mortally 
wounded,  and  dies  at  Jerusalem.   Jeremiah 
composes  lamentations  on  his  death. 
Jehoahaz  is  placed  on  the  thruge  by  the  peo- 
ple;   but  rsecho,  returning  from  Carche- 
misii,  dei>oses  him,  and  installs  Eliakim,  or 
Jchoiakim,  his  brother,  son  of  Josiah. 
4309  3398  Nebuchadnezzar  besieges  and  takes  Jerusa- 
lem; leaves  Jehoiakim  there,  on  condition 
of  paying  him  a  large  tribute.     Daniel  and 
his  companions  led  captive  to  Babylon. 
4813  3402  Nebuchadnezzar's  dream  of  a  great  statue 

explained  by  Daniel. 
1815  3404  Jchoiakim  revolts  against  Nebuchadnezzar, 
who  sends  an  army  fn^m  Chaldaja,  Syria, 
and    Moab,   which    ravages    Judiea,    and 
brings  away  3U23  Jews  to  Babylon,  in  the 
seventh  year  of  Jehoiakim. 
4816  3405  Cyrus  boni,  son  of  Cambyses  and  Mandano. 
Jehoiakim  revolts  a  second  lime  against  Ne- 
buchadnezzar; is  taken,  put  to  death,  and 
cast  to  the  fowls  of  the  air. 
Jehoiachin  or  Coniah,  or  Jeconiah  succeeds 
him.      Nebuchadnezzar    besieges   him   in 
Jerusalem,  and   takes  him,  after  he   had 
reigned  three  months  and  ten  days.     He  is 
carried  to  Babylon,  wxth  part  of  the  people. 
Mordecai  is  among  the  cajjtives. 
Zedekiah,  his  uncle,  is  left  at  Jeru.salem  in 
his  place. 

1821  3410  Ezekicl  begins  to  prophesy  in  Chaldica. 
1823  3112  Zedekiah  takes  secret  measures  with  the  king 
of  Kgypt,  and  revolts  against  the  Chaldie- 
ans.  Nebuchadnezzar  marchf^s  against  Je- 
rusalem; besieges  it;  quits  the  siege  to 
repel  the  king  of  Egypt,  who  comes  lo  as- 
sist Zedekiah ;  returns  to  the  siege.  Jere- 
miah continues  prophesying  during  the 
whole  of  the  siege,  which  continued  almost 
three  years.  Ezekicl  also  describes  the 
same  siege  in  Chaldica. 
4826  3415  Jerusalem  taken  on  the  ninth  day  of  the 
fourth  month  (July),  the  llth  year  of  Zede- 
kiah. ZedeKiah,  endeavouring  lo  (lee  by 
night,  is  tiiken,  and  brought  lo  liiljla,  to 
Nebuchadnezzar;  his  eyes  arc  put  out,  and 
he  is  carried  to  Babyhm. 
Jerusalem  ami  the  temple  burnt;  sovenlhday 

of  the  fourth  month. 
The  Jewi  of  Jeriisnlom  nnd  Judoea  carried 
caiilivo  lx;yoiid  the  Eiinhrales;  the  poorer 
claNRCs  only  left  in  the  land. 
Thus  ends  the  kingdom  of  Judma,  afier 
it    had   sulwisled    four    hundred    iiiu! 
sixty-eight  years,  from  the   beginning 
of  the  reign  of  l>Bvid  :  and  three  hun- 
dred ond  eighty-eight  years  from  ihi- 
separation  ol  Judah  and  the  ten  tribes. 


r..  V. 
712 

70C 


705 
G94 
677 
671 
653 
639 

637 
600 


602 

598 
5% 

595 


590 


Dr.H. 

715 

709 


703 
696 
677 
671 
653 
641 

639 
608 


602 

598 
596 

595 


590 


588  586 


Dr.H 


4827 


A.  M. 


3416 


4858 
4860 
4875 


487C 
4882 
4890 
4895 
492C 

4928 
4947 
4948 
4951 
4954 

4958 

4988 
4991 


3447 
3449 
3404 


3405 
3471 
3479 
3481 
3515 

3517 
353t) 
3537 
3540 
3513 

3547 

3577 
3580 


4991 
4998 
5038 
5070 


5090 
5111 
5120 
5135 
5101 
5194 
.5211; 
523(i 
5237 


5217 

5251 
5258 
5:it>N 
5'375 
5305 
5:W(". 
WX.V.i 
5312 
5342 


5318 

5371 
5.373 
5  111 


Period  VI. 

From  the  Bubyhuish  Cnptivity  to  J\'ehe- 

miu/t^s  IteJ'ovm. 

The  beginning  of  the  seventy  years'  captivity 
foretold  by  Jeremiah,  (icdaliah  made  go- 
vernor of  the  remains  of  the  peojde.  He  is 
slain. 

Median  and  Persian  Dvnastv. 

Darius  the  Mede. 

Cyrus  the  IVreian. 

Babylon  taken  liy  Cyrus,  who  sets  the  Jews 

at  liberiy.  and  permits  them  lo  return  into 

JudB;a  uiuler  Zorobabel.     Joshua,  the  lirsi 

high-priest,  in  the  same  year. 
The  second  tem])le  begun. 
Death  of  Cyrus ;  Cambyses  reigns. 
Darius  Hysiaspes. 
The  temple  fini.shed. 
Dcatli  of  Darius;  Xerxes  succeeds   to  the 

throne. 
Jehoiakim  high-priest. 
.\rtaxerxes  succeeds  Darius. 
He  stops  the  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem. 
.\rtaxerxes  marries  Esther. 
He  sends  Ezra  lo  Jerusalem,  with  several 

priests  and  Levites. 
Eliashib  high-priest. 
Nehemiah  governor  of  Judeea. 
Darius  Nothus. 

Nehemiaii's  reform  among  the  Jew3 
End  ol  the  Old  Testament  canon. 


358u 
3587 
3627 
3059 


3679 
3700 
3709 
3724 
3750 
3783 
3805 
3823 
382 


3837 

.3840 
3817 
3857 
3HC.I 
3894 
3H95 

■.y.m 
:t93i 

3931 


393' 

3900 

396 

1000 


Period  VIL 

From  JVehemialCs  Reform  to  the  Birth  of 
John  the  Baptist. 

Persian  Dvnastv. 

Jewish  High-priesCs. 

Eliasliib. 
Joiada  or  Judns. 
Jonathan  or  John. 
Jaddua  or  Jaddus. 

RIacedo-Grecian  Dvnastv. 

Jaoish  High-priests. 

Onias  I. 

Simon  the  Just. 

Eleazar. 

Manasses. 

Onias  11. 

Simon  II. 

Onias  HI. 

Jesus  or  Jason. 

Onias  or  Menelaus. 

AsJioNiKAN  Princes  on  Maccabees. 

Judas  Mnccabinufi. 

Jac.'uiu  or  Alcimus,  high-priest. 

Jonatlian. 

He  is  ap|>ointcd  high-priest. 

Simon. 

Joliii  llyrcanus. 

Arisiobiilus  and  Antigonus. 

Alexander  Jannicud. 

(iueen  .Mexandra. 

Hyrraiius  II. 

Aristobulus  II. 

Roman  Dvnastv. 

Pompey  lakes  Jerusalem. 

llyrcanus  H.  again. 

Aiiligoniis. 

Idiiinirnn  king,  Herod  the  CJronl. 

John  the  Baptist  boni  six  months  before  the 
l)irih  of  Jesus  Christ. 
The  l)irlh  ol  our  liord  and  Saviour  Jcsuh 
Christ  KMik  place  a.  .m.  4000  nrc-ording 
lo  the  vulgar  era  ;  but  its  true  dale  ac- 
cording lo  ('almel  is  a.  m.  40OI,  and 
A.  M..5411  according  lo  Dr.  Hales. 


n.  c. 

Or. II. 

587 

580 

553 

553 

551 

551 

530 

536 

535 

535 

529 

529 

521 

521 

516 

516 

485 

485 

483 

483 

464 

464 

463 

403 

460 

400 

457 

457 

453 

453 

423 

423 

420 

420 

420 

42(» 

413 

413 

373 

373 

341 

341 

321 

321 

300 

300 

291 

291 

270 

270 

250 

250 

217 

217 

195 

195 

175 

175 

172 

172 

163 

163 

160 

160 

153 

153, 

143 

143 

130 

136 

106 

106 

105 

105 

78 

78 

69 

69 

69 

69 

63 

63 

40 

40 

37 

37 

4 

5 

CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX. 


899 


PART  II. 

A  Table  uf  (he  Principal  Events  recorded  in  the  New  Testament,  from  the  Birth  of  Christ  to  the  Destruction  of  Jerusalem  ana 

the  Completion  of  the  Canon  of  the  New  Testament. 


A.  M. 

4000 


4012 
4032 
4033 


4034 
4035 
403C 


4038 
403'J 

4040 


4044 
4047 
4061 
4063 
40G4 


4065 

4066 

4066 
4067 

4068 


4069 


Tlie  nativity  of  Jesus  Christ. 

Tiie  circumcision,  purification,  and  presentation 

of  Clirisl  in  the  temple. 
Archelatts,  Ethnarch  of  Judasa. 


Christ  visits  the  temple 

The  ministry  of  John  the  Baptist. 

The  baptism  and  temptation  of  Christ. 

First  Passovpir. — Clirist  purges  the  temple,  and 
preaches  in  Judaea. — Imprisonment  of  John  the 
Baptist. 

Skcond  Passover. — ^The  twelve  apostles  sent 
forth.    John  the  Baptist  beheaded. 

Third  Passover. — Seventy  disciples  sent  forth. 

Transfiguration  of  Jesus  Clirist. 

FoLUTU  Passover. — The  crucifixion, death,  resur- 
rection, and  ascension  of  Christ. 

Feast  of  Pentecost. — Descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 

The  church  increased. 

The  church  multiplied. 

The  martyrdom  of  Steplien. — First  Jewish  perse- 
cution of  the  church. 

Conversion  of  Paul. 

The  Hebrew  Gospel  of  Matthew  probably  written 
about  this  time. 

Herod  Agrippa,  king  of  Judcea. 

Second  Jewish  persecution  of  the  church. 

Paul  imprisoned  at  Jerusalem. 

He  is  sent  to  Rome,  and  shipwrecked  at  Malta. 

He  arrives  at  Rome,  and  continues  there  a  pri- 
soner two  years. 

The  General  Epistle  of  James,  and  the  Greek 
Gospel  of  Matthew  written  about  this  time. 

Epistle  of  Paul  to  the  Philippians. 

Epistles  to  the  Colossians,  Ephesians,  and  Phile- 
mon. 

Martyrdom  of  James  the  Less,  bishop  of  Jerusalem. 

■Epistle  of  Paul  to  the  Hebrews,  written  from  Italy 
soon  after  he  was  set  at  liberty. 

Luke  writes  his  Gospel  and  the  Acts  of  the  -Apos- 
tles in  this  or  the  following  year. 

Epistle  of  Paul  to  Titus,  and  his  first  Epistle  to 
Timothy. 

Mark  writes  his  Gospel  about  this  time. 

Paul  comes  out  of  Italy  into  Juda;a:  visits  the 
churches  in  Crete,  Lphesus,  Macedonia,  and 
Greece. 

Peter  writes  his  first  Epistle,  probably,  from  Rome. 

Peter  writes  his  second  Epistle,  probably,  from 
Rome,  about  the  beginning  of  this  year. 

Several  prodigies  at  Jerusalem,  this  year,  during 
the  passover. 

Paul  goes  to  Rome  the  last  time ;  is  there  put  into 
prison ;  also  Peter. 

Second  Epistle  of  Paul  to  Timothy. 

The  Epistle  of  Jude  written  in  this  or  the  follow 
ing  year. 

The  martyrdom  of  Paul  and  Peter  at  Rome. 


Y  of 
J.  C. 

Before 

tht 
uu'^ar 
Xra. 

A.  M. 

1 

4 
3 

K  JE. 

or 

A.n. 

4069 

12 

8 

32 

29 

33 

30 

34 

31 

35 

32 

36 

33 

37 

34 

4070 

38 

35 

39 

36 

40 

37 

44 

39 

4071 

47 

44 

61 

58 

64 

61 

4073 

65 

62 

66 

63 

66 

63 

67 

64 

68 

65 

4074 

4098 
4100 

69 

66 

Cestius  Gallus  governor  of  Syria  comes  to  Jerusa- 
lem ;  enumerates  the  Jews  at  the  passover. 

Disturbances  at  Ca;sarea,  and  at  Jerusalem. 

Florus  puts  several  Jews  to  death. 

The  Jews  rise,  and  kill  the  Roman  garrison  at 
Jerusalem. 

A  massacre  of  the  Jews  at  Cajsarea  and  Palestine. 

All  the  Jews  of  Scythopolis  slain  in  one  night. 

Cestius  governor  of  Syria  conies  into  Juda;a. 

He  besieges  the  temple  of  Jerusalem;  retires;  is 
defeated  by  the  Jews. 

The  Christians  of  Jeru.salem,  seeing  a  war  about 
to  break  out,  retire  to  Pella,  in  the  kingdom  of 
Agrippa,  beyond  Jordan. 

Vespasian  appointed  by  Nero  for  the  Jewish  war. 

Josephus  made  governor  of  Galilee. 

Vespasian  sends  his  son  Titus  to  Alexandria; 
comes  himself  to  Antioch,  and  forms  a  numerous 
army. 

Vespasian  enters  Judaja;  subdues  Galilee. 

Tiberias  and  Taricliea,  which  had  revolted  against 
Agrippa,  reduced  to  obedience  by  Vespasian. 

Divisions  in  Jerusalem. 

The  Zealots  seize  the  temple,  commit  violences  in 
Jerusalem,  and  send  for  the  Idumaeans  to  suc- 
cour Jerusalem. 

Vespasian  takes  all  the  places  of  strength  in  Judsea 
about  Jerusalem. 

Simon  son  of  Gioras  ravages  Judaea  and  the  south 
of  Idumasa. 

In  this  or  the  following  year  John  writes  his  throe 
Epistles. 

Titus  marches  against  Jerusalem  to  besiege  it. 

Comes  down  before  Jerusalem  some  days  before 
the  passover. 

The  factions  unite  at  first  against  the  Romans,  but 
afterwards  divide  again. 

The  Romans  take  the  first  enclosure  of  Jerusalem ; 
then  the  second;  they  make  a  wall  all  round 
the  city,  which  is  reduced  to  distress  by  famine. 

July  17.  The  perpetual  sacrifice  ceases  in  the 
temple. 

The  Romans  become  masters  of  the  court  of  the 
Gentiles,  and  set  fire  to  the  galleries. 

A  Roman  soldier  sets  the  temple  on  fire,  notwith- 
standing Titus  commands  the  contrary. 

The  Romans,  being  now  masters  of  the  city  and 
temple,  offer  sacrifices  to  their  gods. 

The  last  enclosure  of  the  city  taken. 

Titus  demolishes  the  temple  to  its  very  founda- 
tion. 

He  also  demolishes  the  city,  reserving  the  towers 
of  Hippicos,  Phazael,  and  Mariamne. 

Titus  returns  to  Rome  with  his  father  Vespasian; 
they  triumph  over  Judaea. 

John  banished  to  Patnios. 

John  liberated  from  exile. 

John  writes  his  Gospel  and  Revelation  about  this 
time. 


Y.of 

J.  c. 
69 


70 


71 


73 


98 
100 


A.  D. 


66 


68 


71 


95 
97 


Grotto  at  Nazareth,  said  to  ftave  been  the  House  of  Joseph  and  Mary. 


No.  I. 

A  BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL 

INDEX 

OF  THE  PRINCIPAL  PERSONS,  NATIONS,  COUNTRIES,  AND  PLACES, 

MENTIONED    IN    THE    HOLY    SCRIPTURES. 


rhis  Index  is  compiled  from,  the  works  of  Calmet,  Reland,  Wdls,  Chompr4,  Gesenius,  Schleusner,  Robinson  {of  Andover,  N.  A.),  Serieys, 
Coqueret,  Macbean,  Drs.  Whiibt/,  Hales,  and  Parish,  M.  Anquetil,  and  various  other  writers  and  commentators,  who  have  treated  on 
Sacred  History,  Biography,  and  Geography  ;  and  also  from  the  Travels  in  Palestine  and  Asia  Minor,  of  Bishop  Pococke,  the  Rev.  Dr. 
E.  D.  Clarice,  Lieutenant-colonel  Leake,  the  Hon.  Capt.  Keppel,  Captains  Irbi/  and  Mangles,  the  Rev.  Messrs.  W.  Jowett,  Connor, 
Hartley,  and  Arundell,  Messrs.  Buckingham  and  Cariie,  and  of  Dr.  Robert  Richardson,  who  explored  various  parts  of  the  East,  in 
company  with  the  Rt.  Hon.  the  Earl  of  Belmore,  in  the  years  1816 — 1818.  Those  names  of  persons  and  places  only  are  omitted  which 
occur  but  seldom  in  the  Bible,  and  of  which  nothing  more  is  known  than  appears  in  the  passages  where  they  occur. 


AB 

Aahost,  the  son  of  Amram  and  Jochebed,  of  the  tribe  of  Levi 
(Exod.  vi.  20.),  was  born  three  years  before  his  brother  Moses. 
The  Scripture  is  silent  respecting  every  thing  wliich  preceded  his 
call  to  be  the  spokesman  or  interpreter  of  Moses  before  Pharaoh, 
king  of  Egypt,  From  this  time  (the  eighty-third  year  of  his 
age),  Aaron  was  the  associate  of  Moses  in  all  the  transactions  of 
the  Israelites,  until  his  death  on  Mount  Hor,  b.  c.  1452,  in  the 
hundred  and  twenty-third  year  of  his  age,  and  in  the  fortieth 
year  after  the  departure  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt.  (Num. 
xxxiii.  38,  39.)  Aaron  was  the  first  high-priest  of  the  Jews; 
and  was  succeeded  in  the  pontifical  office  and  dignity  by  his  son 
Eleazar.  (Deut.  x.  6.)  For  an  account  of  Aaron's  conduct  in 
the  affair  of  the  golden  calf,  see  p.  136.  of  this  volume. 

Ab,  the  eleventh  month  of  the  civil  year  of  the  Jews,  and  the 
fifth  month  of  their  ecclesiastical  year.  For  the  festivals  and 
fasts  observed  by  the  Jews  in  this  month,  see  p.  76. 

Abaddox  (Heb.),  or  Apollyox  (Gr.),  that  is,  the  Destroyer  : 
the  name  of  the  angel  of  the  bottomless  pit.  (Rev.  ix.  11.) 

Abaxa  and  Phahpar,  two  rivers  of  Damascus,  mentioned  in 
2  Kings  V.  12.  The  valley  of  Damascus,  which  lay  between 
Libanus  aitd  Anti-Libanus,  was  watered  by  five  rivers,  of  which 
these  were  the  two  principal.  Both  descended  from  Mount  Her- 
mon.  The  Pharpar  flowed  by  the  walls  of  Damascus:  the 
Abana  flowed  through  the  city,  and  divided  it  into  two  parts. 
J'hese  rivers  are  not  now  to  be  distinguished. 

Vol.— II  3  E 


AB 

•    Abarim,  mountains  of,  notice  of,  31. 

Abdox,  one  of  the  judges  of  Israel ;  he  succeeded  Elon,  and 
governed  the  Israelites  eight  years.  He  had  forty  sons  and  thirty 
grandsons,  who  rode  on  seventy  asses.  He  was  buried  in  Pira- 
thon,  in  the  land  of  Ephraim.  (Judg.  xii.  13 — 15.) 

Abdon,  the  name  of  a  Levitical  city,  situated  in  the  canton 
allotted  to  the  tribe  of  Asher,  and  given  to  the  Levites  of  the 
family  of  Gershon. 

Abedxego,  a  Chaldee  name,  given  by  the  king  of  Babylon's 
officer  to  Azariah,  one  of  Daniel's  companions.  He  was  thrown 
into  a  fiery  furnace,  with  Shadrach  and  Meshach,  for  refusing  to 
adore  the  statue  erected  by  the  command  of  Nebuchadnezzar ; 
but  both  he  and  his  companions  were  miraculously  preserved. 
(Dan.  iii.) 

Abel,  the  second  son  of  Adam,  and  the  first  shepherd :  he 
was  murdered  by  his  elder  brother  Cain,  through  envy  ;  because 
his  sacrifice,  offered  in  faith,  was  accepted  by  God,  being  (it  is 
supposed)  consumed  by  celestial  fire,  while  the  offering  of  Cain 
was  rejected.  (Gen.  iv,  2 — 8.     Heb.  xi.  4.) 

Abel,  the  name  of  several  cities  in  Palestine;  viz. 

1.  Abel-beth-maachah,  or  Abel-maix,  a  city  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  canton  allotted  to  the  tribe  of  Naphtali.  Hither  fled 
Sheba  the  son  of  Bichri,  when  pursued  by  the  forces  of  king 
David  ;  and  the  inhabitants,  in  order  that  they  might  escape  the 
horrors  of  a  siege,  cut  off  Sheba's  head,  which  they  threw  over 

401 


4C2  BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL, 

A  B 

the  wall  to  Joab  (2  Sam.  xx.  11 — 22.)  About  eighty  years 
after,  it  w  as  taken  and  ravaged  by  Benhadad  king  of  ^yria.  ( 1 
Kings  XV.  20.)  About  two  hundred  years  after  this  event,  it 
vas  cajitured  and  sacked  by  Tiglath-pilescr,  who  carried  the 
inhabitants  captive  into  Assyria,  (a  Kings  xv.  29.)  This  place 
wxs  subsequently  rebuilt ;  and,  according  to  Josephus,  became, 
under  the  name  of  Auil.v,  the  capital  of  the  district  of  Abi- 
lene.     «  . 

2.  Abzl-kehamim,  the  place  or  plain  of  the  vineyards  (Judg. 
y\.  33.),  a  village  of  tlie  Ammonites,  where  they  were  discom- 
fited by  Jephthah.  According  to  Eusebius,  it  abounded  in  his 
time  with  vineyards,  and  wa;s  six  Roman  miles  from  Rabbath 
Ammon. 

3.  Anr.L-MEiioLAn  was  the  native  country  of  El isha.  (1  Kings 
■XIX.  16.)  It  could  not  be  far  from  Scythopolia.  (iv.  12.)  Euse- 
bius places  it  in  the  great  plain,  sixteen  miles  from  Scythopolis, 
south.  IS'ot  far  from  hence,  Gideon  obtained  a  victory  over  the 
MiJiaiiiles.   (Judg.  vii.  22.) 

4.  AiiEL-MisiiAiM  (the  mourning  of  the  Egyptians)  was  for- 
merly culled  the  floor  of  Atad.  (Gen.  1.  H.)  Jerome  and  some 
others  after  him  believe  this  to  be  the  place  afterwards  called 
Bethagla,  at  some  distance  from  Jericho  and  Jordan,  west. 

5.  Abel-shittim  was  a  town  in  the  ]>lains  of  Moab,  beyond 
Jordan,  opposite  Jericho.  Accordingr  to  Jo.wphus,  Abel-yhittini, 
or  Abela,  as  he  calls  it,  was  .-sixty  furlongs  fioan  Jordan.  Euse- 
bius says,  it  was  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Mount  Peor.  Moses 
encamped  at  Abel-Shittiin  before  the  Hebrew  army  passed  the 
Jordan,  under  Joshua.  (Num.  xxxiii.  49.  xxv.  1.)  Here  the 
Israelites  fell  h)to  idolatry,  and  worshipped  Baal-Peor,  seduced 
by  Balak;  and  here  God  severely  punished  them  by  the  hands  of 
the  Levites.  (Num.  xxv.  1,  2,'&c.)  This  city  is  often  called 
Shittim  only.  (Antiq.  lib.  iv.  cap.  7.  and  v.  1.,  and  de  Bcllo,  lib. 
V.  cap.  3.) 

Adez,  a  town  in  the  canton  of  the  tribaof  Issachar.  Josh. 

xix.  20.  ,      , . 

Adiah. — 1.  The  second  son  of  Samuel,  who  intrusted  to  him 
and  his  brother  Joel  the  administration  of  justice,  which  they 
executed  so  ill,  that  the  elders  of  Israel  came  to  the  prophet  and 
demanded  of  him  a  king.  (1  Sam.  viii.  2— 5.)— 2.  A  priest  of 
the  posterity  of  Aaron,  and  the  founder  of  a  sacerdotal  family. 
When  all  the  priests  were  divided  uito  twenty-four  classes,  the 
eighth  class  was  denominated  from  him  the  cla.«s  of  Abia.  (1 
Chron.  xxiv.  10.)  To  this  class  belonged  Zechariah,  the  father 
of  John  the  Baptist.  (Luke  i.  .5.) 

ABiATiiAn,  the  son  of  Abimclech,  the  tenth  high-priest  of  the 
Jews.  Escajiing  from  the  massacre  of  the  priests  at  Nob,  he 
joined  the  party  of  David,  and  continued  in  the  pontificate  until 
the  reign  of  Solomon  :  by  whom  he  was  deprived  of  his  oflice, 
for  having  embraced  the  faction  of  Adonijah. 

Anin,  the  name  of  the  seventh  month  of  the  Jewish  civil 
year,  and  the  first  of  their  ecclesiastical  year.  It  was  also  called 
IS'isan.  For  an  account  of  the  fasts  or  festivals  occurring  in  this 
month,  sec  p.  70. 

Abigail.— 1.  The  wife  of  Nabal,  of  Carmcl ;  by  her  prudenrc 
and  address,  she  averted  the  wrath  of  David  against  her  husband, 
who  had  churlishly  refused  him  succours  during  his  distress  in 


consequence  of  the  persecutions  of  Saul.  On  the  death  of  Nal)al. 
she  became  the  wife  of  David.  (1  Sara,  xxv.) — 2.  The  sister  of 
David.  (1  Chron.  ii.  10,  17.) 

Ahiih-,  the  son  of  Aaron  and  Elisheha,  who  was  consumed, 
together  with  his  brother  Nadab,  by  a  lla.sh  of  fire  sent  from  God, 
for  offering  incense  with  strange  fire,  instead  of  taking  it  from 
the  altar  of  burnt-ofVering.  (Lev.  x.  1,  2.)  This  sevi-rity  of  pun- 
ishment was  necessary  towards  the  first  transgressors  of  the 
divine  law,  in  order  to  deter  others  from  the  .same  ollence,  and  to 
incrcxse  the  reverential  awe  of  the  Divine  Majesty.  It  would 
»eem  that  Nadab  and  Abihu  were  Iwlrayed  into  this  act  of  pre- 
8unii)lion  by  intemperancx-  at  the  feast  upon  the  fea-sl-oHiringK : 
for,  immediately  aAer,  and  in  cons«'c|uence  of  their  f.it<s  Moses 
prohibited  the  priests  from  drinking  wine  and  strong  drink,  when 
they  approached  the  sanctuary.     (.Marrt  and  l/Oyly,  on  Lev.  x.) 

Abijaii,  the  son  of  Jeroboam  I.  king  of  Israel,  a  young  prince 
of  promising  hopes,  who  is  suppcwd  to  have  shown  himsell 
averse  from  his  father's  idolatry,  and  died  early.  (1  Kings  xiv.) 

Abijaii,  or  .\bij\m,  the  son  and  tiuccessor  of  Kchoboam  king 
of  Jndah.  Ho  reigned  thirty-three  years;  a  wicked  prince,  who 
imitated  the  imj)iely  and  misconduct  of  hi.-j  father. 

AniJAii.  the  name  of  the  wife  of  Ahaz,  and  the  mother  of 
Hczckiah  king  of  Judob. 


AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 

AC 

Abila.     See  Abel-betii-maachah. 
Abilene,  region  of,-  18, 

A  u  IMA  EL,  the  name  of  a  descendant  of  Joktan.  (Gen  i.  28. 
1  Chron.  i.  22.)  In  these  passages  he  and  his  brethren  probably 
represent  diiVcrent  Arabian  tribes;  though  no  name  has  yet  been 
discovered  in  the  Arabian  writers  which  clearly  corresponds  to 
Abimael. 

AiiiMELEiii,  a  common  appellative  of  the  Philistine  kings,  as 
Pharaoh  was  of  the  Egyptian  monarcha.  Two  of  this  name  are 
mentioned  in  the  SLiiptures,  viz.  1.  Abimelech  king  of  Gerar, 
the  contemporary  of  AbralTam.  Struck  with  the  beauty  of  Sarah, 
he  took  her  from  the  patriarch,  who  had  passed  her  as  his  sister, 
but  restored  her  in  consequence  of  a  divine  command.  (Gen. 
XX.) — 2.  Abimelech  II.  supposed  to  be  the  son  of  the  preceding, 
with  whom  Isaac  entered  into  an  alliance.   (Gen.  xxvi.) 

Abimelech,  the  son  of  Gideon  by  a  concubine.  After  hia 
father's  death  he  took  possession  of  the  government ;  procured 
himself  to  be  acknowledged  king  ;  and  afterwards  put  to  death 
all  his  brcllircn,  except  Jothain,  who  escaped  his  fury.  He  was 
himself  subsequently  wounded  at  Thebez  by  a  woman,  who 
hurled  a  piece  of  a  mill-stone  upon  his  head;  and  indignant  at 
the  idea  of  perishing  by  the  hand  of  a  woman,  he  commanded 
his  armour-bearer  to  j)ierce  him  with  his  sword.  (Judg.  viii.) 

AniNADAB. — 1.  A  Levite  of  Kirjath-jcarini,  who  received  the 
ark  after  it  had  been  sent  back  by  the  Philistines.  It  continued 
in  his  house  until  David  sent  to  conduct  it  thence  to  Jerusalem. 
( 1  Sam.  vii.  2.  2  Kings  vi.  3,  4.) — 2.  One  of  Saul's  sons  who 
peri.shcd  with  him  at  the  battle  of  Gilboa. — 3.  The  brother  of 
David  and  the  son  of  Jesse.  (1  Chron.  ii.  13.) 

Abibam. — 1.  One  of  those  who  conspired  with  Korah  and 
Dathan  against  Moses,  and  who  perished  in  the  same  manner 
(Num.  xvi.) — 2.  The  eldest  son  of  Hiel  the  Bethulite,  who 
expired  as  his  father  was  laying  the  foundation  of  Jericho,  which 
he  had  undertaken  to  rebuild  (1  Kings  xvi.  34.),  as  Joshua  more 
than  .'>30  years  before  had  prophetically  announced  would  be  the 
case.  (Josh   vi.) 

ABisnAfi,  the  name  of  a  beautiful  virgin  who  was  sent  for  to 
cherish  David  in  his  old  age.  Interpretere  are  not  agreed  whether 
she  became  the  consort  of  David  or  was  only  his  concubine. 
After  David's  death,  she  was  demanded  in  marriage  by  Adonijah  : 
but  his  request  was  rejected  by  Solomon ;  who,  considering  that, 
if  it  were  granted,  Adonijah  would  all'ect  the  regal  power,  caused 
him  to  be  put  to  death.  CI  Kings  i.  3,  4.  ii.  13—2.5.) 

Abxeb,  the  son  of  Nor,  uncle  to  king  Saul,  and  general  ot 
his  forces.  After  the  death  of  liis  sovereign,  he  preserved  the 
crown  for  his  son  Ishboshcth  :  but,  afterwards  quarrelling  with 
him,  Abner  joined  David.  He  was,  subsequently,  slain  by  Joab, 
in  revenge  for  the  death  of  his  brother  .\sahel  who  was  slain  in 
open  battle.  David  honoured  Abner  with  public  obsequies.  (2 
Sam.  iii.) 

Abraham,  the  patriarch  and  founder  of  the  Israelitish  nation, 
celebrated  in  the  Scriptures  for  his  probity,  and  for  his  unshaken 
conlidenre  in  the  promises  of  God.  He  was  the  son  of  Terah, 
and  was  born  at  Ur,  a  city  of  Chabhea.  Called  by  God  out  of 
his  own  country,  by  faith  he  went  lorth  into  an  unknown  coun- 
try, where  he  dwelt  with  his  posterity,  re.sting  on  the  general 
promise  of  God  for  a  In'tter  inheritance.  Having  married  Sarah, 
he  became  llie  father  of  Isaac,  whom  by  faith  he  olVered  on  an 
altar,  thoueh  in  him  he  exjiected  a  completion  of  all  the  promis<« 
which  God  had  made  to  him  :  but,  as  at  first  he  had  iniraeubiusly 
received  a  son,  he  concluded  that  God  could  with  e(iual  ea-^e,  after 
death,  raise  him  again  to  life.  (Heb.  xi.  «— 10.  17—19.)  The 
patriarch's  first  name  was  Abram,  which  signifies  ihc  father  of 
elcvaUvv,  or  an  elcvattul  father ;  but  on  a  renewal  of  the  divine 
covenant  with  him  and  of  the  promises  made  to  him  by  (Jod,  it 
was  changed  to  Abrahnm,  the  import  of  wliich  is,  the  father  of 
a  great  imiltitiide.  (Gen.  xvii.)  He  died  at  the  age  of  175 
years,  and  was  interred,  with  Sarah  his  wife,  in  the  fietd  and  cave 
at  Machiielah,    (xxv.) 

.\hsm.(.m,  the  son  of  king  David  by  Maahah.  Ho  relwllcd 
njainsl  his  father,  and  was  slain  by  Joab,  about  1020  years  b.  e. 
(2  S;im.  xiii. — xviii.) 

A  BSTi  -N  E?«eE,  vows  of,  1 30. 
Aiciio.     Sec  Ptolkmais. 

AcKLOAMA,   a   place   without  the  south  wall  of  Jerusalem, 
beyond  the  pool  of  Siloam.     It  was  called    the   Potter's  Field 
(Matt,  xxvi 
they  made 
their  cloth  there";  but  being  afterwards  bought  with  that  munej 


e     pool     Ol     JMIOam.        ll     was    C.llll-U      im^     •  mn  i  .-.     i  1.  ivj 

rii.  7.  U).),  because  they  dug  thence  the  earth  of  which 
I  their  pots  :  ami  the  Fiilb-i's  Field,  l>ecnuse  thoy  dried 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


403 


AD 

by  which  the  high-priest  and  rulers  of  the  Jews  purchased  the 
blood  of  the  holy  Jesus,  it  was  by  the  providence  of  God  so 
ordering  it,  called  Aceldama,  that  is,  the  field  of  blood.  (Acts  i. 
19.  Matt,  xxvii.  7,  8.)  Ths  place,  which  in  modern  times  has 
been  shown  to  travellers  as  Aceldama,  is  described  by  Bishop 
Pocockc  as  an  oblong  square  cavern  about  twenty-six  paces  long, 
twenty  broad,  and  apparently  about  twenty  feet  deep.  It  is 
enclosed  on  every  side,  cither  with  the  rock  or  by  a  wall,  and 
covered  over.  There  ai-e  six  holes  in  the  top,  by  which  a  person 
may  look  down  into  it ;  and  through  these  holes  the  dead  bodies 
arc  thrown  in.  Several  sepulchral  grottoes  are  to  be  seen  in  the 
vicinity  of  this  spot. 

AcHAiA,  in  the  largest  sense,  comprehends  Greece  properly  so 
called.  It  is  bounded  on  the  west  by  Epirus,  on  the  east  by  the 
-^gean  Sea,  on  the  north  by  Macedonia,  on  the  south  by  Pelo- 
ponnesus. This  seems  to  be  the  region  intended  when  Saint 
Paul,  according  to  the  Roman  acceptation,  mentions  all  the 
regions  of  Achaia,  and  directs  his  second  Epistle  to  all  the  saints 
in  Achaia.  (2  Cor.  xi.  10.)  Thus,  what  is  Achaia,  in  Acts  xix. 
21.  is  Hellas,  that  is,  Greece.  (Acts  xx.  2.)  Achaia,  strictly  so 
called,  is  the  northern  region  of  Peloponnesus,  bounded  on  the 
north  by  the  Gulf  of  Corinth,  on  the  south  by  Arcadia,  on  the 
east  by  Sicyonia,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Ionian  Sea.  Of  this 
region  ConixxH  was  the  capital. 

AciiA>-,  the  son  of  Charmi,  of  the  tribe  of  Judali;  who,  con- 
trary to  the  express  command  of  God,  had  appropriated  some 
valuable  articles  out  of  the  spoils  of  Jericho :  for  which  he, 
together  with  all  his  family,  was  stoned,  and  all  his  effects  were 
consumed  with  fire.  (Josh.  vii.  22.) 

AcHisH,  a  king  of  Gath,  in  whose  court  David  took  refuge 
from  Saul ;  but,  his  life  being  endangered,  he  feigned  madness 
before  the  king.  When  war  broke  out  between  Saul  and  the 
Philistines,  David  marched  with  his  army  :  but  the  lords  of  the 
Philistinjs,  being  apprehensive  lest  he  should  turn  against  them 
in  battle,  desired  Achish  to  dismiss  him,  which  accordingly  he 
did,  with  commendations  for  his  fidelity.  (1  Sam.  xxi. — xxix.) 

ACHMETHA.       See  EciSATAKA. 

AcHOH,  a  valley  in  the  territory  of  Jericho,  and  in  the  canton 
of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  where  Achan  was  stoned.  (Josh. 
vii.  24.) 

AcasAH,  the  daughter  of  Caleb,  who  promised  her  in  marriage 
to  him  who  should  conquer  Kirjath-sepher  from  the  Phihstines. 
Othniel  took  the  place,  and  married  Achsah.  (Josh,  xv.  16,  17.) 

AcKSHAPH,  a  city  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Asher.  The  king 
of  Ackshaph  was  conquered  by  Joshua,  (xii.  20.)  Some  writers 
are  of  opinion,  that  Ackshaph  is  the  same  as  Ecdippa,  on  the 
Mediterranean,  between  Tyre  and  Ptolemais ;  others,  that  Ecdippa 
is  described  in  Josh.  xix.  20.  under  the  name  of  Achzib.  The 
Arabs  call  a  place,  three  hours  north  from  Ptolemais,  Zib,  which 
is  the  place  where  formerly  stood  Ecdippa.  It  is  probable  that 
Ackshaph  and  Achzib  are  but  different  n\imes  for  the  same  town. 
Mr.  Buckingham,  who  visited  this  place  in  January,  1816,  found 
it  a  small  town  situated  on  a  hill  near  the  sea,  and  having  a  few 
palm  trees  rearing  themselves  above  its  dwellings. 

AcatiTTAi,,  in  criminal  cases,  forms  of,  56. 

Actions,  civil  and  criminal,  how  determined  among  the  Jews. 
See  pp.  55 — 57. 

Adada,  a  city  in  the  southern  p-srt  of  the  canton  belonging  to 
the  tribe  of  Judah,  not  far  from  the  boundaries  of  Idumaea  or 
Edom.  (Josh.  xv.  27.) 

Adam,  the  first  man,  and  the  father  of  the  human  race,  was 
created  out  of  the  dust  of  the  earth,  by  God  himself,  who  ani- 
mated him  with  a  reasonable  soul,  and  formed  him  after  his  moral 
image,  in  righteousness  and  true  holiness.  Having  transgressed 
the  single  command  imposed  on  him  by  God,  in  token  of  his 
dependence  upon  Him  as  lord  paramount  of  the  creation,  Adam 
forfeited  the  state  of  happiness  in  which  he  had  been  created, 
and  entailed  a  curse  on  himself  and  his  posterity,  had  not  God 
made  a  promise  of  a  future  Saviour.  (Gen.  i.  ii.  iii.)  He  died, 
aged  930  years. 

Adama,  or  Admah,  one  of  the  five  cities  destroyed  by  fire 
from  heaven,  on  account  of  the  profligate  wickedness  of  their 
inhabitants,  and  afterwards  overwhelmed  by  the  waters  of  the 
Dead  Sea.  (Gen.  xix.  24.)  It  was  the  most  easterly  of  those 
which  were  swallowed  up  ;  and  there  is  some  probability,  either 
that  it  was  not  entirely  sunk  under  the  waters,  or  that  the  subse- 
quent inhabitants  of  the  country  built  a  city  of  the  same  name 
on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea ;  for  Isaiah,  according  to 
the  LXX.  says,  God  ~vill  destroy  the  JMoabites,  the  city  of  jlr 


AD 


and   the    remnant    of  Adama.  (Isa.    xv.  ult.)     'A^-ai  to  (rre>u3 
MCHU.C,  Kit  'Afiiiik,  ten  TO  Kt.TU.K-j  mv  "ASjfjLU., 

Adah,  the  twelfth  month  of  the  ecclesiastical  Jewish  year,  and 
the  sixth  of  the  civil  year.  For  a  notice  of  the  festivals,  &.c. 
during  this  month,  see  pp.  75,  76. 

Adoni-Bezeic  (the  Lord  of  Bezek)  was  the  first  Canaanitish 
king  conquered  by  the  Israelites  after  the  death  of  Joshua.  He 
was  taken  to  Jerusalem,  where  he  died,  after  his  toes  and  thumbs 
had  been  cut  off,  which  he  owned  to  be  a  just  retribution  of  divine 
providence,  in  retaliation  of  what  he  had  himself  inflicted  upon 
others.   (Judg.  i.  7.) 

Adonijah,  the  fourth  son  of  king  David  by  Haggith.  He 
aspired  to  the  kingdom  before  his  father's  death,  but  was  disap- 
pointed" of  his  hopes  by  the  command  of  David,  who  ordereti 
Solomon  to  be  proclaimed  king.  He  afterwards  desired  Abishag, 
the  Shunemite,  to  wife;  this  request  was  not  only  rejected,  but 
he  was  ordered  to  be  put  to  death,  as  one  guilty  of  treason. 
(1  Kings  ii.  13—25.) 

Adoni-Zedkk  (i.  e.  Lord  of  Zedek)  was  king  of  Zedek,  or 
Jerusalem,  and  one  of  llie  five  Canaanitish  kings  shut  up  in  tiie 
cave  of  Maklcedah,  whither  they  fled  after  their  defeat  by  Joshua: 
by  whose  command  they  were  taken  out  and  put  to  death,  and 
their  bodies  hung  on  five  trees.  (Josh,  x.) 

Adoption,  ceremony  of,  and  its  effects.   164,  165. 

Adohai:*!,  a  town  in  the  southern  part  of  the  tribe  of  Judah, 
which  was  fortified  by  Rehoboam.   (2  Chron.  xi.  9.  IT.) 

Ahoram,  the  chief  treasurer  of  Rehoboam,  who  was  sent  by 
that  prince,  in  the  commencement  of  his  reign,  to  the  rebellious 
tribes,  to  endeavour  to  reduce  them  to  their  allegiance ;  and  pe- 
rished, the  victim  of  an  infuriated  populace.  (1  Kings  xii.  13.) 
It  is  uncertain  whether  this  Adoram  was  the  same  as  Adoniram, 
who  had  filled  the  same  ofiice  under  Solomon.  (1  Kings  iv.  6.) 
He  might  be  his  son,  and  one  of  the  young  men  who  gave  evil 
counsels  to  Rehoboam.  However  this  may  be,  it  was  the  height 
of  imprudence  to  send  him  to  the  revolted  tribes  who  had  com- 
plained of  the  burden  of  taxes:  and  hence  some  expositors 
have  imagined,  that  Rehoboam  sacrificed  his  chief  treasurer  in 
the  vain  hope  that  his  death  would  calm  the  effervescenc"?  of 
popular  fury. 

Adrammelech,  and  Sharezer,  sons  of  Sennacherib,  were 
probably  the  children  of  slaves  who  had  no  right  to  the  Assyrian 
throne,  and  who  assassinated  their  father  on  his  return  from  his 
unsuccessful  expedition  against  Hezekiah,  at  Nineveh,  while 
worshipping  in  the  temple  of  Nisroch  his  god :  after  which  they 
fled  into  Armenia. 

Adrammelech,  an  idol  (probably  the  sun),  worshipped  by  the 
inhabitants  of  Sepharvaim,  who  caused  their  children  to  pass 
through  the  fire  to  it. 

Adramyttiu.m,  a  maritime  town  of  Mysia  in  Asia  Minor, 
over-against  the  island  of  Lesbos,  situated  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Ida.  (Acts  xxvii.  1,  2.)  .    It  was  a  colony  of  the  Athenians. 

AnniA  is  mentioned  in  Acts  xxvii.  27.,  where,  it  is  to  be  ob- 
served, that  when  Saint  Paul  says,  that  they  were  tossed  in  Adria, 
he  does  not  say  in  the  Adriatic  Gulf,  which  ends  with  the  Illy- 
rian  Sea,  but  in  the  Adriatic  Sea,  which,  according  to  Hesychius, 
is  the  same  with  the  Ionian  Sea ;  and  therefore  to  the  question. 
How  Saint  Paul's  ship,  which  was  near  to  Malta,  and  so,  cither 
in  the  Lybian  or  Sicilian  Sea,  could  be  in  the  Adriatic  I  It  is 
well  answered,  That  not  only  the  Ionian,  but  even  the  Sicilian 
Sea,  and  part  of  that  which  washes  Crete,  was  called  the  Adri- 
atic. Thus,  Ptolemy  says,  that  Sicily  \vas  bounded  on  the  east 
by  the  Adriatic;  and  that  Crete  was  compassed  on  the  west 
by  the  Adriatic  Sea ;  and  Strabo  says,  that  the  Ionian  Gulf  is  a 
part  of  that  which,  in  his  time,  was  called  the  Adriatic  Sea. 
{Whitby.) 

Adriel,  the  son  of  Barzillai,  married  Merab,  the  daughter  of 
Saul  (who  had  first  been  promised  to  David,  1  Sam.  xviii.  19.), 
by  whom  he  had  five  sons,  who  were  given  up  to  the  Gibeonitcs, 
to  be  put  to  death  in  revenge  of  Saul's  cruelty  to  them.  In 
2  Sam.  xxi.  8.  they  are  called  the  sons  of  Michal ;  she  having 
adopted  them,  or  else  the  name  of  Michal  is  by  mistake  put  for 
Tvlerab. 

AnuLLAM,  a  city  in  the  south  part  of  the  canton  of  the  tribe 
of  Judah  towards  the  Dead  Sea.  (Josh.  xv.  35.)  The  king  of 
this  place  was  killed  by  Joshua,  (xii.  15.)  In  a  cave  in  its  vi- 
cinity  David  wiis  concealed.  (1  Sam.  xxii.  1.)  Rehoboam  rebuilt 
and  fortified  this  place.  (2  Chron.  xi.  7.)  In  the  fourth  century 
it  was  a  considerable  town,  but  it  has  long  since  been  rcd'iceU 
to  ruins. 


404 


BIOGRArHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND   GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


AH 


AnvLTT.ni,  trial  of  a  woman  suspected  of,  56. 

AiiuMMiM,  a  town  and  mountain  belonging  to  the  tribe  of 
Benjamin.   (Josh,  xv,  9.  xviii.  17.) 

.i:>-o.v,  or  E>oN-,  signifies  the  place  of  springs,  where  John 
baptized.  (John  iii.  23.)  It  is  uncertain  where  it  was  situated, 
whether  in  Galilee,  Judasa,  or  Samaria. 

JEnAS,  or  Ekas  (Jewish),  account  of,  77. 

Agabcp,  a  prophet,  who  foretold  a  famine  which  took  place 
in  the  land  of  Juda:a,  in  the  fourth  year  of  the  reign  of  Claudius, 
A,  n.  44.  (Acts  xi.  28.)  This  famine  is  mentioned  by  Suetonius 
and  other  profane  writers.  Agabus  also  foretold  the  imprison- 
ment of  Paul  by  the  Jews,  and  his  being  sent  bound  to  the  Gen- 
tiles ;  all  which  literally  came  to  pass. 

Agar  was  probably  a  common  appellative  for  the  kings  of  the 
Amalekites.  One,  of  this  name,  was  conquered  and  taken  pri- 
soner;  and,  though  condemned  according  to  the  law  of  the 
interdict,  he  was  spared  by  Saul.  He  was  put  to  death  at  Gilgal 
by  order  of  Samuel.  The  fate  of  Agag  has  called  forth  the 
verbose  pity  of  infidels  ;  who,  while  they  have  aflected  to  deplore 
his  fate,  have  forgotten  only  one  thing,  viz.  that  he  had  been  a 
cruel  and  sanguinary  tyrant;  and  that  Samuel  reproached  him 
for  his  cruelty  before  he  commanded  him  to  be  put  to  death. 
(I  Sam.  XV.) 

Aged  Peksoxs,  laws  concerning,  82. 

Aghiclltuiie  of  the  Jews,  176 — 178.  Agricultural  allu- 
Eions,  180. 


Agjiippa  (Herod),  7 
Agiiippa  (Junior),  S 


b2. 


Aguu,  a  wise  man  to  whom  the  thirtieth  chapter  of  the  book 
of  Proverbs  is  ascribed,  otherwise  unknown.  As  the  appellative 
Agxira,  in  Syriac,  signifies  one  who  applies  himself  to  the  study 
of  wisdom,  Gesenius  thinks  it  possible,  that  the  name  may  be 
significant  and  allegorical. 

AiiAB*  a  king  of  Israel,  who  reigned  22  years,  and  surpassed 
all  his  predeces-sors  in  impiety.  He  was  entirely  under  the  influ- 
ence of  hi.s  idolatrous  wife  Jezebel.  He  died,  ii.  c.  897,  of  the 
*ounds  which  he  had  received  in  battle  with  the  Syrians,  ac- 
cording to  the  prediction  of  Micaiah  the  son  of  Imlah.  (1  Kings 
xvi. — xxii.) 

Ahai),  or  AciiAi),  a  Syrian  idol,  notice  of,  137. 
AiiAsiEnrs,  or  Aiitaxerxes  Lo>-gima?jus,  king  of  Persia, 
who  married  Esther.     See  p.  220,  note. 

Ahava,  a  river  of  Babylonia,  or  of  Assyria,  where  Ezra  as- 
sembled those  captives  whom  he  afterwards  brought  into  Judaea. 
(Ezra  viii.  15.)  It  is  supposed  to  be  that  which  ran  along  the 
regions  of  Adial)ene,  where  a  river  Diava,  or  Adiava,  is  men- 
tioned, on  which  Ptolemy  places  the  city  Abane  or  Aavane. 
This  is  probably  the  country  called  Ava  (2  Kings  xvii.  24.  xviii. 
34.  xix.  13.),  whence  the  kings  of  Assyria  translated  the  people 
called  Avites  into  Palestine ;  and  where,  likewise,  in  their  room 
they  settled  some  of  the  captive  Israelites.  Ezra  intending  to 
collect  as  many  Israelites  as  he  could,  to  return  with  him  to 
Judtca,  halted  in  the  country  of  Ava,  or  Ahava,  whence  he  sent 
ngent.s  into  the  Caspian  mountains,  to  invite  such  Jews  as  were 
wilUng  to  join  him.  (Ezra  viii.  17.) 

Ahaz,  king  of  Judah,  son  of  Jotham,  who  died,  n.c.  726; 
for  his  inlcjuities  he  was  denied  a  place  in  the  sepulchres  of  the 
kings  his  predecessors.   (2  Chron.  xxviii.) 

Ahaziah,  the  son  and  successor  of  Ahab,  king  of  Israel :  he 
was  as  distinguished  for  his  horrid  impiety  as  his  father  was. 
He  reigned  only  one  year  after  his  father's  death.  (1  Kings 
xxii.  .52.)  .    • 

Ahvziah,  king  of  Judah,  the  son  and  succx-ssor  of  Jehoram, 
by  .^thaliah;  he  reigned  one  year,  and  received  his  mortal  wound 
by  command  of  Jehu,  and  died  at  Megiddo.  (2  Kings  viii. 
2  Chron.  xxiii.) 

Ahijaii,  a  prophet  in  the  reign  of  Jeroboam  I.,  who  dwelt  at 
Rhiloh,  and  foretold  the  death  of  his  son  Al)ijah. 

.\iiiMELEtii,  a  priest  of  Nob,  to  whom  David  wont,  and  whom 
Saul  commanded  to  be  put  to  death  with  other  prii  sts  fir  assist- 
ing him. — Also  a  priest,  in  the  reign  of  David,  the  son  of  Abia- 
thar;  who  is  likewise  called  Abimrlech. 

AiiiTitopiiEL,  an  eminent  counsellor  in  the  reign  of  David,  bo 
distinifuinbrd  for  his  prude?ic«  and  wisdom,  that  his  advice  equally 
obtained  the  confidence  of  the  people  and  the  monarch.  He 
joined  the  conspiracy  of  the  rebel  Absalom  ap;aiitKt  David  :  but, 
finding  his  profligate  but  crafty  counsel  disregarded,  he  went  to 
his  house  at  Gillo,  hanged  himself,  and  was  buried  in  the  sepul- 
chre of  his  fathers.  It  has  been  a.-ktd,  What  motive  could  in- 
duce a  privy  coun.sellor  of  David,  who  wus  held  in  such  high 


AL 

consideration,  to  enter  into  Absalom's  conspiracy  \  The  pride 
of  overturning  a  throne,  of  which  he  was  the  support,  and  the 
hope  of  feigning  himself  under  the  name  of  Absalom,  will,  per- 
haps, account  for  the  conspiracy,  but  not  for  the  incest  which  he 
advised  Absalom  to  commit.  Ahitliophel  was  the  father  of  Eliam 
the  father  of  Bathsheba  (2 Sam.  xxxiii.  34.  xi.  3.  1  Chron.  iii. 
5.) :  and  there  is  every  reason  to  think,  tliathe  wished  to  revenge 
his  grand-daughter;  particularly  when  we  consider  the  infamous 
advice  which  he  gave,  his  eagerness  for  pursuing  David,  and  the 
desire  he  expressed  to  smite  the  king  himself  (2  Sam.  xvi.  21. 
xvii.  1,  2.)  His  suicide  was  as  deliberate  as  his  hatred  :  he  was 
one  of  those  men  who  are  as  useful  friends  as  they  are  danger- 
ous enemies,  equally  able  in  good  and  evil,  who  employ  their 
talents  in  the  service  of  their  passions,  do  nothing  by  halves,  and 
are  models  of  guilt  or  of  virtue. 

Aholah  and  AiiOLiiiAH,  two  fictitious  names,  employed  by 
the  prophet  Ezekiel  (xxiii.  4.)  to  denote  the  two  kingdoms  of 
Judah  and  Samaria.  Aholah  and  Aholibah  are  represented  as 
two  sisters  of  Egyptian  extraction  ;  the  former,  standing  for 
Jerusalem,  the  latter  for  Samaria.  Both  prostituted  themselves 
to  the  Egjptians  and  Assyrians,  in  imitating  their  abominations 
and  idolatries ;  for  which  reason  the  Loud  abandoned  them  to 
those  very  people,  for  whom  they  had  evinced  so  improjier  an 
attachment,  being  carried  into  caj-tivity,  and  reduced  to  the  seve- 
rest servitude  by  them. 

Ar,  or  Hai,  a  city  of  ancient  Canaan,  near  Bethel,  which  was 
taken  by  military  stratagem,  by  the  Israelites  under  Joshua. 
(Josh,  vii.) 

Ajalos,  a  city  in  the  canton  of  the  tribe  of  Dan,  assigned  to 
the  Levites  of  Kohath's  family.  It  was  situated  between  Tim- 
nath  and  Beth-Shemesh,  and  is  probably  the  city  alluded  to  in 
Josh.  X.  12.  There  were  three  other  cities  of  this  name;  one 
in  the  canton  of  Benjamin,  anotlier  in  that  of  Ephraim,  not  far 
from  Schechem ;  and  the  third  in  the  canton  of  Zcbulon ;  the 
situation  of  which  is  not  known. 
Ajalon,  valley  of,  notice  of,  31. 

Alexander. — 1.  A  man  whose  father  Simon  was  compelled 
to  bear  the  cross  of  Jesus  Christ.  (Mark  xv.  21.) — 2.  Another, 
who  had  been  high-priest,  and  who  was  present  at  the  interroga- 
tion of  the  apostles  Peter  and  John,  c«ncerning  the  healing  of 
the  man  who  had  been  lame  from  his  birth.  (Acts  iv.  6.)  Some 
have  imagined,  that  he  was  the  brother  of  Philo,  the  celebrated 
Jewish  writer,  who  flourished  in  the  reign  of  Caligula. — 3.  A 
Jew  of  Ephesus.  At  the  time  of  the  sedition  rai.'^ed  in  that  city 
by  Demetrius  against  Paul,  the  populace  in  their  blind  fury  seem 
to  have  confounded  the  Christians  with  the  Jews :  and  the  latter 
being  desirous  that  the  mob  should  direct  their  vengeance  against 
the  believers  in  Jesus  Christ,  commissioned  Alexander  to  ha- 
rangue the  Ephesians  and  to  plead  their  cause,  but  in  vain.  The 
Ephcsians,  as  soon  as  they  knew  that  he  was  a  Jew,  refused  to 
listen  to  him.  Beza  and  Bolten  have  conjectured  that  this  was  the 
Alexander  o  ^^KKtu;  (the  worker  in  metals,  or  smith),  who  did 
the  apostle  "  much  evil."  (1  Tim.  iv.  14.)  As  every  male  Jew 
was  obliged  to  learn  some  trade,  this  is  not  improbable.  Coque- 
rcl,  however,  thinks  that  he  was  one  of  those  venal  orators, 
whose  eloquence  was  always  at  the  command  of  any  that  would 
employ  them. — 4.  A  brazier  or  smith,  ncho  made  shipivreck  con- 
ceniiiiff  t lie  faith  (iTim.  i.  19,20.),  and  whom  Saint  Paul 
delivered  unto  Satan ;  that  is,  expelled  him  from  the  commu- 
nion of  the  Christian  church,  to  be  no  longer  considered  as  a 
Christian,  but  as  a  suiiject  of  Satan's  kingdom. 

Alkiandiiia,  a  celebrated  city  of  Egypt,  built  by  Alexander 
the  Great,  a.m.  3673,  b.  c.  331,  and  situated  between  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea  and  the  Lake  Moeris.  Alexandria  at  present 
exhibits  no  vestiges  of  its  former  magnificence,  except  the  ruins 
that  surround  it,  and  which  are  of  very  remote  antiquity.  I'lider 
the  Arabian  dynasty,  its  splendour  gradually  declined  with  its 
commerce.  From  the  neglect  of  the  canals,  which  anciently 
(lirtused  fertility  through  the  surrounding  countr)-,  and  the  en- 
croachments of  the  sand,  the  city  is  now  insulated  in  a  desert, 
and  exhibitji  no  vestiges  of  those  delightful  gardens  and  cultivated 
fields,  which  subsisted  even  to  the  time  of  the  Arabian  conquest. 
The  commerce  of  ancient  Alexandria  was  very  extensive,  espe- 
cially in  corn  (Egypt  being  considered  the  granary  of  Rome), 
which  was  exported  in  vessels  of  considerable  burden ;  so  that 
the  centurion  could  easily  meet  with  a  sltip  of  Alexandria,  laden 
with  corn,  sailing  into  Italy.  (.\cts  xxvii.  6.)  Alexandria  was 
the  native  place  of  .\pollos.     (Acts  xviii.  21.) 

Alph  «rs,  the  father  of  James  the  Less  (Matt.  x.  3.  Mark  iiL  18. 
Luke  vi.  15.  Act*  i.  13.),  and  the  husband  of  Mary,  the  sister  of 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


405 


AM 

the  mother  of  Jesus.  He  is  the  same  person  v/ho  is  called  Cleo- 
phas  in  John  xix.  25. ;  but  not  the  same  who  in  Mark  ii.  14.  is 
said  to  be  the  father  of  Levi  or  Matthew. 

Almouat),  a  people  or  tribe  in  Yemen,  who  sprang  from 
Joktan.     (Gen.  x.  26.) 

Amad,  a  city  beloni^ang  to  the  tribe  of  Asher.  (Josh.  xxix.  26.) 

Amalek,  the  son  of  Eliphaz  by  Timnah  his  concubine,  and 
grandson  of  Esau.    (Gen.  xxxvi.  12.)     He  was  the  father  of  the 

AxALEKiTES,  the  first  and  most  powerful  of  the  nations  in  the 
vicinity  of  Canaan.  They  dwelt  in  Arabia  Petrsa,  living  like 
the  present  Arabs  in  hamlets,  caves,  or  tents.  They  were  always 
the  enemies  of  the  Israelites,  whom  they  attacked  in  the  desert, 
but  were  repulsed.  Afterwards  they  joined  with  the  Midianites 
and  Moabites  in  a  desigp  to  oppress  the  Israelites ;  who  were 
delivered  by  Ehud  from  Eglou  king  of  the  Moabites  (Judg.  iii.), 
and  by  Gideon  from  the  Midianites  and  Amalekitcs.  (viii.) 
Balaam  predicted  that  they  should  perish  for  ever.  (Num.  xxiv. 
29.)  In  fact,  perpetual  wars  against  their  neighbours,  and  espe- 
cially the  Jews,  insensibly  ruined  them.  §aul  made  a  terrible 
slaughter  of  them,  and  was  not  permitted  to  save  Agag  their 
king,  who  was  hewn  in  pieces  by  the  prophet  Samuel :  David 
exterminated  those  who  had  escaped  the  former  massacre.  After 
this  terrible  execution,  we  meet  no  more  with  the  name  of 
Amalek  but  in  the  history  of  Esther;  in  whose  time  Haman,  an 
Amalekite,  to  revenge  an  affront  he  imagined  himself  to  have 
received  from  the  Jew  Mordecai,  conceived  the  design  of  causing 
to  be  cut  oft',  in  a  single  nig^it,  not  only  all  the  Jews  dispersed  in 
the  states  of  Ahasuerus  king  of  Babylon,  but  even  those  who  had 
been  left  in  Judca  to  mourn  over  the  ruins  of  their  country.  This 
dreadful  design  recoiled  on  Haman,  who  was  exterminated  with 
all  his  family ;  and  the  Jews  received  permission  to  pursue  and 
put  to  death  their  enemies  wherever  they  could  find  them.  They 
made  a  great  slaughter  of  them ;  and  since  this  event,  nothing 
more  has  been  certainly  known  concerning  the  Amalekitcs. 

Amam,  a  city  in  the  southern  part  of  the  tribe  of  Judah. 
(Josh.  XV.  26.) 

Ajiaxa,  a  mountain  mentioned  in  Sol.  Song  iv.  8.  which,  some 
have  imagined,  was  in  Cilicia,  whither  the  government  of  Solo- 
mon extended :  but  it  was,  most  probably,  a  part  of  Mount  Li- 
banus,  as  Shonir  and  Hermon,  which  are  mentioned  in  the  same 
passage,  were  parts  of  the  same  mountainous  range. 

Amas^,  a  nephew  of  David,  whom  Absalom  appointed  general 
of  his  army.  (2  Sam.  xMi.  25.)  After  the  defeat  of  that  prince, 
David  pardoned  Amasa,  and  olfered  him  the  command  in  chief 
of  his  forces  in  the  room  of  Joab,  by  whom  he  was  treacherously 
murdered.  (2  Sam.  xx.) 

Amaziaii,  the  eighth  king  of  Judah,  who  succeeded  Joash 
B.r.  839.  The  commencement  of  his  reign  was  auspicious:  but, 
after  he  had  subdued  the  Edomites  (2  Kings  xiv.),  he  carried  oft" 
their  idol  gods,  and  acknowledged  them  for  his  own,  by  adoration 
and  oflering  incense.  He  then  proclaimed  war  against  Joash 
king  of  Israel,  who  defeated  his  forces  and  took  him  prisoner. 
He  reigned  ingloriously  fifteen  years  after  this  event;  and  at 
length,  hated  by  his  subjects,  and  abandoned  by  the  Almighty, 
he  was  assassinated  by  conspirators  at  Lachish,  whither  he 
had  fled, 

Ammox.     See  No-AM:«OJr,  infra. 

Ammonites,  a  people  descended  from  Ammon,  son  of  Lot; 
called  sometimes  Ammanites.  They  destroyed  the  giants  Zam- 
tummim,  and  seized  their  country.  (Deut.  ii.  19,  20,  21.)  God 
forbad  Moses  and  Israel  from  attacking  the  Ammonites,  because 
he  did  not  intend  to  give  their  land  to  the  Hebrews.  Neverthe- 
less, as,  previously  to  the  Israelites  entering  Canaan,  the  Amor- 
ites  had  conquered  great  part  of  the  countries  belonging  to  the 
Ammonites  and  Moabites,  Moses  retook  this  from  the  Amorites, 
and  divided  it  between  the  tribes  of  Gad  and  Reuben.  Long 
after  this,  in  the  time  of  Jephthah  (Judg.  xi.  13.),  the  Am- 
monites declared  war  against  Israel,  pretending  that  Israel  de- 
tained the  country  which  had  been  theirs  before  the  Amorites 
possessed  it.  Jephthah  replied,  that  this  tenitory  being  acquired 
by  Israel  in  a  just  war  from  the  Amorites,  who  had  long  enjoyed 
it  by  right  of  conquest,  he  was  under  no  obligation  to  restore  it. 
The  Ammonites  being  dissatisfied  with  this  reply,  Jephthah  gave 
them  battle  and  defeated  them. 

The  Ammonites  and  Moabites  generally  united  in  attacking 
Israel.  After  the  death  of  Othniel,  the  Ammonites  and  Amalek- 
itcs joined  with  Eglon,  king  of  M.oab,  to  oppress  them.  Some 
yca«  after,  about  a.  m.  2799,  the  Ammonites  greatly  oppressed 
the  Israelites  beyond  Jordan;  but,  in  2817,  God  raised  up  Jeph- 


AM 


thah  to  deliver  them.  In  the  beginning  of  Saul's  reign,  a.  m. 
2909,  B.  c.  1195,  Nahash,  king  of  the  Ammonites,  having 
attacked  Jabesh-Gilead,  reduced  it  to  a  capitulation.  (1  Sam.  xi. 
1.)  Nahas.h  offered  no  other  conditions,  than  their  submitting 
to  have  every  man  his  right  eye  plucked  out,  as  a  reproach  upon 
Israel ;  but  Saul  coming  seasonably  to  the  succour  of  Jabesh, 
delivered  the  city  and  people  from  the  intended  barbarity  of 
Nahash.  David,  having  been  a  friend  of  the  king  of  Ammon, 
after  his  death  sent  compliments  of  condolence  to  Hanun  his  son 
and  successor  ;  who,  regarding  these  ambassadors  as  spies, 
treated  them  in  a  very  affronting  m-inner.  David  avenged  the 
aftront,  subdued  the  Ammonites,  the  Moabites,  and  the  Syrians, 
their  allies.  Ammon  and  Moab  continued  under  the  government 
of  David  and  Solomon,  and  after  the  separation  of  the  ten  tribes, 
were  subject  to  the  kings  of  Israel  till  the  death  of  Ahab. 
(2  Kings  i.  1.  a.m.  3107,  b.  c.  897.)  Jehoram,  son  of  Ahab, 
and  successor  of  Ahaziah,  defeated  the  Moabites,  a.  m.  3109. 
(2  Kings  iii.  4,  5,  6.  &c.)  But  it  does  not  appear,  that  this 
victory  reduced  them  to  his  obedience.  At  the  same  time  the 
Ammonites,  Moabites,  and  other  people,  made  an  irruption  into 
Judah,  but  were  repulsed  and  routed  by  Jehoshaphat.  (2  Chron. 
XX.  1,  2.  et  secj.) 

The  prophet  Isaiah  (xv.  xvi.)  threatens  the  Moabites  with  a 
misfortune  which  was  to  happen  three  years  after  his  prediction; 
this  probably  had  reference  to  the  war  of  Shalmanescr  against 
them,  about  a.  m.  3277,  b.  c.  727. — After  the  tribes  of  Reuben, 
Gad,  and  the  half-tribes  of  Manasseh  were  carried  captive  by 
Tiglath-pileser,  a.  m.  32G4,  b.  c.  740,  the  Ammonites  and 
Moabites  took  possession  of  the  cities  belonging  to  these  tribes, 
for  which  Jeremiah  reproaches  them.  (Jer.  xlix.  1.)  The  am- 
bassadors of  the  Ammonites  were  some  of  those  to  whom  that 
prophet  presented  the  cup  of  the  Lord's  fury,  and  whom  he 
directed  to  make  bonds  and  yokes  for  themselves,  exhorting  them 
to  submit  to  Nebuchadnezzar ;  and  threatening  them,  if  they  did 
not,  with  captivity  and  slavery.  (Jer.  xxvii.  2,  3,  4.)  The 
prophet  Ezekiel  (xxv.  4.  10.)  denounces  their  entire  destruction, 
and  tells  them,  that  God  would  give  them  up  to  the  people  of  the 
East,  who  should  set  their  palaces  in  their  country,  so  that  the 
Ammonites  should  be  no  more  mentioned  among  nations ;  and 
this  as  a  punishment  for  insulting  the  Israelites  on  their  calami- 
ties, and  the  destruction  of  their  temple  by  the  Chaldeans.  These 
calamities  happened  to  them  in  the  fifth  year  after  the  taking  of 
Jerusalem,  when  Nebuchadnezzar  made  war  against  all  the 
people  around  Judaja,  a.  m.  3420  or  3421,  b.  c.  5S3. 

It  is  probable  that  Cyrus  gave  to  the  Ammonites  and  Moabites 
the  liberty  of  returning  into  their  own  countrj',  whence  they  had 
been  removed  by  Nebuchadnezzar ;  for  we  see  them,  in  the  land< 
of  their  former  settlement,  exposed  to  those  revolutions  which 
included  the  people  of  Syria  and  Palestine ;  and  subject  some. 
times  to  the  kings  of  Egypt,  and  sometimes  to  the  kings  of  Syria. 
Antiochus  the  Great  took  Rabboth  or  Philadelphia,  their  capita!, 
demolished  the  walls,  and  put  a  garrison  into  it,  a,  m.  3806. 
During  the  persecutions  of  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  the  Ammonites 
manifested  their  hatred  to  the  Jews,  and  exercised  great  cruelties 
against  such  of  them  as  lived  in  their  parts.  (1  Mace.  v.  6 — 45.) 
Justin  Martyr  says  (Dialog,  cum  Triphone,  p.  272.),  that  in  hii 
time — the  second  century — there  were  still  many  Ammonite* 
remaining;  but  Origen  (Comm.  on  Job)  assures  us,  that  in  his 
days,  they  were  only  known  under  the  general  name  of  Arabian.'. 
Thus  was  the  prediction  of  Ezekiel  accomplished.  See  a  minuta 
account  of  the  fulfilment  of  prophecies  concerning  the  Ammonites 
and  their  country,  in  Mr.  Keith's  Evidence  of  the  Christian  Reli« 
gion  from  Prophecy,  pp.  152 — ICO. — Notice  of  the  idols  wor< 
shipped  by  the  Ammonites,  p.  137.  of  this  volume. 

Amxon,  the  son  of  David  and  Ahinoam.  Having  conceived  a 
criminal  passion  for  his  sister  Tamar,  he  violated  her :  and  two 
years  after,  when  he  was  intoxicated  at  a  feast  made  by  Absalom 
the  uterine  brother  of  Taraar,  the  servants  of  the  latter  assas- 
sinated him.    (2  Sam.  xiii.) 

Amon,  the  fourteenth  king  of  Judah,  succeeded  Manasseh, 
whose  impieties  he  imitated  :  he  was  assassinated  by  his  own 
servants  after  a  reign  of  two  years,  and  in  the  24th  year  of  his 
age,  B.C.  640. 

Amorites,  a  people  descended  from  Amori  or  Amorrhsus, 
the  fourth  son  of  Canaan.  They  first  peopled  the  mountains 
west  of  the  Dead  Sea.  They  likewise  had  establishments  east 
of  that  sea,  between  the  brooks  Jabbok  and  Amon,  whence  they 
forced  the  Ammonites  and  Moabites.  (Josh.  v.  1.  Num.  xiii.  29 
xxi.  29.)     Moses  wrested  this  country  from  their  kings,  Sihoi 


40; 


biographical,  historical,  and  geographical  index, 
an'  an 


and  Og,  A.  M.  2553,  b.  c.  1451.  The  prophet  Amos  (ii.  9.) 
speaks  of  their  gigantic  stature  and  valour.  He  compares  their 
height  to  the  cedar;  their  strength  to  the  oak.  The  name  Amor- 
ite,  is  often  taken  in  Scripture  for  Canaanites  in  general.  The 
lands  which  the  .^morites  possessed  on  this  side  Jordan,  were 
given  to  the  tribe  of  Judah  ;  and  those  which  tliey  had  possessed 
beyond  the  Jordan,  to  the  tribes  of  Reuben  and  Gad. 

Amos,  or  Amoz. — 1.  The  father  of  the  propliet  Isaiah;  who, 
according  to  ancient  traditions,  was  the  son  of  Joasli  and  the 
hrother  of  .\mazidh  king  of  Judah. — 2.  The  third  of  flie  Minor 
Prophets,  for  an  account  of  whom,  and  an  analysis  of  his  pre- 
dictions, sec  Vol.  H.  pp.  259,  2G0. 

Amthipolis,  a  city  between  .Vlaccdon  and  Thrace,  but  depen- 
dent on  Macedon,  mentioned  in  Acts  xvii.  I.  Paul  and  Silas, 
being  delivered  out  of  prison,  left  Philippi,  went  to  Thessalonica, 
and  passed  through  Amphipolis.  This  city  had  the  name  like- 
wise of  Clirysopolis. 

Amuaphel,  king  of  Shinar,  an  ally  of  Cliedorlaomer,  plun- 
dered the  Pentapolis  and  took  Lot  prisoner,  who  was  rescued  by 
Abraham  and  his  associates.   (Gen.  xiv.) 

Amvsf.mexts  of  the  Jews,  189,  190. 

Ana  11,  a  city  in  the  mountainous  parts  of  the  canton,  belong- 
ing to  the  tribe  of  Judah.   (Judg.  xv.  F,0.) 

Anakim,  the  descendants  of  Anak,  a  gigantic  tribe  who  dwelt 
in  the  land  of  Canaan ;  on  comparison  of  whom  the  unbelieving 
Hebrew  spies,  that  were  sent  to  e.xplore  the  country,  reported  that 
they  were  but  as  grasshoppers.  (Num.  xiii.  33.)  Their  capital, 
Kiijath-Arba  or  Hebron,  was  taken,  and  they  were  destroyed  by 
Caleb,  with  the  assistance  of  the  tribe  of  Judah.  (Josh.  xv.  14. 
Judg.  i.  20.) 

AxAMMKLEcn,  one  of  the  deities  in  honour  of  whom  the  Se- 
jharvaites  caused  their  children  to  pass  through  the  fire.  It  is 
supposed  to  have  signified  the  moon. 

A;^ASiAH,  a  city  of  Palestine,  where  the  Benjamites  dwelt 
after  the  captivity.   (Neh.  xi.  32.) 

AxAXiAS,  the  name  of  several  persons  mentioned  in  the  Scrip- 
tures, of  whom  the  following  were  the  most  remarkable  : — 

1.  The  son  of  Nebed»iis,  who  was  high-priest  a.  n.  47.  He 
was  sent  an  a  prisoner  to  Rome  by  Quadralus,  governor  t)f  Syria, 
and  Jonathan  was  appointed  in  his  place ;  but  being  discharged 
by  CIau<nu3,  in  consequence  of  the  protection  of  Agrippa,  he 
returned  to  Jerusalem ;  where,  as  Jonathan  had  been  murdered 
through  the  treachery  of  Felix  the  successor  of  Quadratus,  Ana- 
nias appears  to  have  performed  the  functions  of  the  high-priest, 
as  sagan  or  substitute,  until  Ismael  the  son  of  Pliaba;us  was  ap- 
pointed to  that  office  by  Agrippa.  (Compare  Vol.  I.  p.  50.) 
Before  this  Ananias  Saint  Paul  was  brought ;  and  the  apostle's 
prediction  that  God  leould  smite  him  (Acts  xxiii.  3.)  was  sub- 
sequently uccompli.shcd,  when  he  was  murdered  in  the  royal 
J  alace  by  a  body  of  mutineers,  at  the  head  of  whom  was  his 
own  son. 

2.  A  Jew  of  Jerusalem,  the  husband  of  Sapphira,  who  at- 
tempted to  join  the  Christians,  but  died  instantly  on  being  con- 
victed of  falsehood  by  Peter.   (Acts  v.  1.  3.  5.) 

3.  A  Christian  of  Damascu.s,  who  restored  the  sight  of  Paul, 
after  his  vision.  (Acts  ix.  10 — 17.  xxii.  12.) 

AvATiioTH,  a  city  in  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  memorable  as 
being  the  birth-place  of  the  prophet  Jeremiah.  (Josh.  xxi.  18. 
Jpf.  i,  1.)  According  to  Eusebius  and  Jerome,  it  was  situated 
about  three  miles  to  the  north  of  Jerusalem,  though  Josephus 
Ffates  it  to  be  twenty  furlongs.  This  city,  which  was  assigned 
as  a  residence  to  the  Levites  of  tho  family  of  Kohath,  and  also 
as  one  of  the  cities  of  refuge,  has  long  since  been  «iestroyed. 

AvnnEW,  one  of  the  twelve  apostles.  He  was  a  native  of 
Bethsaida  in  Galilee,  and  was  at  first  a  follower  of  Jolin  the 
Baptist,  but  afterwards  liecame  a  disciple  of  Jesus  Christ.  Ac- 
cording to  ecclesiastical  triidition,  after  the  ascension  of  Jesus 
•  'hrist,  he  preached  the  Gusfid  to  the  Scytliians,  and  was  cru- 
citied  at  Patra;  in  Achaia.  Epiphanius  mentions  the  .-Jctt  of 
.Inilreiv,  a  spurious  book,  whicii  was  used  by  the  Encratite«, 
Apostolics,  and  Origenians. 

ANfinoMcrs,  a  Jewish  (Christian,  a  kinsman  and  fellow-pri- 
soner of  St.  Paul,  who  says  that  he  was  nj  nnte  or  in  rrfnitution 
among  the  apostles;  by  which  expression  we  are  not  to  undcr- 
rtand  that  he  wa.t  one  of  the  number  of  ajMistles,  but  that  he 
was  one  of  those  early  converts  who  wore  luKhly  esteemed  by  the 
a^iostles,  before  the  ilispersion  occasioned  by  the  death  of  Stephen. 

Aner,  one  of  the  Levitical  cities,  situated  in  the  canton  of  the 
Iriltc  of  Manasseh.  (iChron.  xvi.  70.)  Also  the  brother  of 
Mamre,  a  confederate  of  the  patriarch  Abraham. 


AxiM,  a  city  in  the  mountainous  parts  of  the  canton  of  Judah 
(Josh.  XV.  50.) 

Animals,  reared  by  the  Jews,  175,  176.  Certain  animals, 
why  prohibited  to  be  eaten  by  them,  171,  172. 

Anna,  a  prophetess,  the  daughter  of  Phanucl,  of  the  tribe  of 
Asher.  This  pious  widow  constantly  attended  the  morning  and 
evening  service  at  the  temple  ;  and,  at  the  advanced  age  of  eighty- 
four  years,  when  the  venerable  Simeon  was  uttering  his  hymn 
of  thanksgiving  at  the  presentation  of  Christ  in  the  temple,  she 
coming  into  the  temple  began  to  praise  God  and  to  speak  of  the 
Messiah  to  all  those  who  were  waiting  for  the  redemption  of 
Israel.  (Luke  ii.  30 — 38.) 

Annas,  or  according  to  Josephus,  Ananus,  was  a  high-priest 
of  the  Jews.  He  obtained  the  pontificate  under  Quirinus,  pro- 
consul of  Syria,  but  was  deprived  of  it,  during  the  reign  of  Ti- 
berius, by  Valerius  Gratus  governor  of  Judaja.  'J'he  dignity  was 
transferred,  first  to  Ismael  the  son  of  Phabaeus,  and  shortly  after 
to  Eleazar.  He  held  the  office  one  year,  and  was  then  succeeded 
by  Simon ;  who,  after  another  year,  was  followed  by  Joseph  or 
('aiaphas,  the  son-in-law  of  Annas,  a.  d.  26.  As  Caiaphas  con- 
tinued in  ollicc  until  a.  n.  35,  Annas  appears  to  have  acted  as  his 
substitute  or  sagan,  and  enjoyed  great  influence  jointly  with  him. 
(Luke  iii.  2.  John  xviii.  13.  24.  Acts  iv.  6.) 

Antil-Libanus  (Mount),  account  of,  30. 

Antiocu,  the  metropolis  of  Syria,  was  erected,  according  to 
some  writers,  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes;  according  to  others,  by 
Seleucus  Nicanor,  the  first  king  of  Syria  after  Alexander  the 
Great,  in  memory  of  his  father  Antiochus,  and  was  the  royal 
seat  of  the  kings  of  Syria,  or  the  jjlace  where  their  palace  was. 
For  power  and  dignity  it  was  little  inferior  to  Seleucia  or  Alex- 
andria ;  and  the  inhabitants  were  celebrated  for  their  luxury, 
etreminacy,  and  licentiousness.  Josephus  says,  that  it  was  the 
third  great  city  of  all  that  belonged  to  the  Roman  provinces ;  it 
was  called  Aiiiiochiii  aj>ud  Dap/mem,  or  Antioch  near  Daphne, 
i.  e.  the  village  where  her  temple  was,  to  diitingnish  it  from 
fourteen  other  cities  of  the  same  name.  It  was  celebrate<l  among 
the  Jews,  for  the  ;«s  civitatis,  which  Seleucus  Nicanor  had  given 
to  them  in  that  city,  with  the  Grecians  and  Macedonians ;  and 
for  the  wars  of  the  Maccaba;ans  with  those  kings.  Among 
Christians  it  is  memorable  for  being  the  place  where  they  first 
received  that  name  by  divine  appointment,  and  where  both  St. 
Luke  and  Thcopliilus  were  born  and  inhabited.  Modern f\ntioch 
and  its  vicinity  were  comjjletely  destroyed  by  a  tremendous  earth- 
quake in  the  autumnal  months  of  the  year  1822. 

Antioch,  of  Pisidia,  a  city  mentioned  in  Acts  xiii.  14.  Here 
Paul  and  Barnabas  preached  ;  but  the  Jews,  who  were  angry  at 
seeing  that  some  of  tlic  Gentiles  received  the  Gospel,  raised  a 
sedition  against  Paul  and  Barnabas,  and  obliged  them  to  leave 
the  city. 

Antiochus,  a  common  name  of  the  kings  of  Syria,  after  the 
time  of  Alexander  the  Great ;  the  actions  of  many  of  whom  arc 
foretold  by  the  prophets,  and  related  in  the  books  of  the  Macca- 
bees. 

1.  ANTiocirrs  Soteu,  or  Saviour,  son  of  Seleucus  Nicanor, 
began  to  reign  ti.  c.  276.  He  conferred  many  immunities  upon 
the  Jews  of  Asia.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 
'  2.  ANTiomis  Thfos,  or  the  God,  n.  c.257;  whose  marriage 
with  the  daughter  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  king  of  Egypt,  is 
foretold  by  Daniel,  (xi.  6.) 

3.  Antiociii's  thk  Gueat,  son  of  Seleucus  Callinicus,  began 
to  reign  n.e.  219.  In  consequence  of  the  Jews  submitting  to 
him,  he  jjcrmilti  d  them  throughout  his  dominions  to  live  accord- 
ing to  their  own  laws. 

4.  Antiochis  Epiphanks,  or  the  Illustrious,  son  of  Anti- 
ochus the  Great,  was  one  of  the  most  sanguinary  persecutors  of 
the  Jewish  nation  that  ever  lived.  He  is  the  subject  of  Daniel's 
predictions.  (Dan.  xi.  21 — 29.)  Though  his  Syrian  flatterers 
gave  him  the  njiix  llution  of  Epiphauffi,  the  ejiithet  of  t'j7<»,  or 
desjiicalile,  given  him  by  the  projibet  (vcr.  21.),  agrees  better  with 
his  true  character;  for  he  disgraced  himself  by  such  profligate 
conduct  that  the  historian  Polybius,  his  contemporary,  and  others 
after  him,  insU-ad  of  Ei)ipbnnes,  more  correctly  called  biin  E/i* 
vianrs,  or  the  nindman.  This  Antiorluis  designed  notliing  less 
than  the  utter  extirjmtion  of  Judaism:  he  commanded  the  statue 
of  Jupiter  Olympius  to  be  placed  upon  the  altar  of  the  temjile  at 
Jerusalem,  and  a  sow  to  be  oflfered  in  sacrifice.  These  profana- 
tions, and  his  other  oppressions,  aroused  the  family  of  the  .Mao- 
cidiees,  who  bravely  resiste<l  the  forces  of  .\nliochus:  who,  filled 
with  indignation,  was  hastening  into  Juda-a.  to  make  Jerusalem 
(as  he  menaced)  o  grave  for  all  the  Jews  ■  but  divine  vengeance 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND   GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


407 


A  P 

pursued  him ;  and  Antiochus,  falling  from  his  chariot,  bruised 
his  limbs,  and  died  in  the  most  excruciating  tortures,  «.  c.  160. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 

5.  A.vTiocHus  EuPATOR,  who  reigned  only  two  years. 

G.  AsTiocHus  Theos,  son  of  Alexander  Balas,  was  treache- 
rously put  to  death  by  Tryphon  his  minister,  b.  c.  139. 

7.  Antiochus  Pius,  Soteti,  or  Sidetes  (that  is,  the  fisher 
or  hunter),  reigned  ten  years,  n.  c.  137  to  127;  in  which  last 
year  he  was  put  to  death  by  the  Parthians. 

An-tipas,  di  faithful  martyr,  mentioned  in  Rev.  ii.  13.  is  said 
to  have  been  put  to  death  in  a  tumult  at  Pergamos  by  the  priests 
of  .fJsculapius,  who  had  a  celebrated  temple  in  that  city. 

AxTiPAs  (Herod).     See  pp.52,  .53. 

AxTiPATRis,  a  small  town  which  was  situated  in  the  road 
from  Jerusalem  to  Ca;sarea.  It  was  formerly  called  Capharsalma : 
but  being  rebuilt  and  beautified  by  Herod  the  Great,  it  was  by 
him  named  Antipatris,  in  honour  of  his  father  Antipater.  Hi- 
ther St.  Paul  was  brought  after  his  apprehension  at  Jerusalem. 
(Acts  xxiii,  31.) 

AxToxiA,  (Tower  of),  20. 

Apharsites,  and  Apharsachthites,  were  two  tribes  or  na- 
tions in  subjection  to  the  king  of  Assyria,  by  whom  colonies  of 
them  were  sent  to  inhabit  the  country  of  Samaria  in  place  of 
the  Israelites,  who  had  been  removed  beyond  the  river  Euphrates. 
They  greatly  opposed  the  building  of  Jerusalem.  (Ezra  v.  6. 
iv.  9.)  Some  have  supposed  the  Apharsites  to  be  the  Parrhasii 
in  the  east  of  Media ;  others,  the  Persians ;  and  the  Apharsach- 
thites have  been  compared  with  Pareisitaceni,  Parcetaceni,  a 
pco])le  of  Media. 

ApiiEK. — There  are  several  cities  of  this  name  mentioned  in 
Scripture,  as, 

1.  Aphek,  in  the  tribe  of  Judah.  Here  the  Philistines  en- 
camped, when  the  ark  was  brought  from  Shiloh,  which  was 
taken  in  battle  by  the  Philistines.  ( 1  Sam.  iv.)  Probably  this  is 
the  Aphekah,  mentioned  in  Josh.  xv.  53. 

2.  Aphek,  in  the  valley  of  Jezrcel.  Here  the  Philistines 
encamped,  while  Saul  and  his  army  lay  near  Jezreel,  on  the 
mountains  of  Gijboa.  (1  Sam.  xxix.  1,  &c.) 

3.  Aphek,  a  city  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Asher,  near  the 
country  of  the  Sidonians.  (Josh.  xix.  30.  xiii.  4.)  Perhaps  this 
was  the 

4.  Aphek,  a  citj'  of  Syria,  one  of  the  principal  in  Ben-Hadad's 
kmgdom,  in  the  vicinity  of  which  the  battle  was  fought  between 
Ahab  and  Ben-Hadad,  when  the  Syrians  were  beaten  (1  Kings 
XX.  26,  &c.),  and  as  they  retreated  with  precipitation  into  the 
city,  the  city  wall  fell  upon  them,  and  crushed  27,000.  Probably, 
m  this  city  Aphek,  or  Aphaca,  situated  in  Libanus,  on  the  river 
Adonis,  stood  the  famous  temple  of  Venus,  the  Aphacite.  This 
city  lay  between  Hcliopolis  and  Biblos. 

Apollonia,  a  city  of  Macedonia  Prima,  situated  between  Ara- 
phipolis  and  Thessalonica,  about  a  day's  journey  from  the  former 
place.  St.  Paul  passed  through  this  city  on  his  way  to  Thessa- 
lonica. (Acts  xvii.  1.) 

Apollos,  a  Jewish  Christian,  bom  at  Alexandria,  and  distin- 
j^uished  for  his  eloquence  and  success  in  propagating  the  Gospel. 
His  history  and  character  are  given  in  Acts  xviii.  24 — 28.  xix.  1. 
He  preached  at  Corinth  with  such  eloquence,  that  the  Corin- 
thians, divided  in  their  affections,  boasted  that  they  were  the 
disciples  of  Paul,  or  of  Cephas,  or  of  Apollos.  From  these  vain 
disputes  St.  Paul,  certain  of  the  humifity  of  his  friend,  took  occa- 
sion to  write  those  admirable  passages,  in  which  he  requires  the 
Corinthian  Christians  to  forget  both  Paul  and  Apollos,  and  to 
refer  every  thing  to  Christ.  (1  Cor.  i.  12.  iii.  4.  iv.  6.)  It  is 
uncertain  whether  the  apostle  alludes  in  2  Cor.  iii.  1.  to  the 
letters  of  recommendation  which  Apollos  took  with  him  on  his 
departure  from  Ephesus  for  Corinth:  but  it  is  clear,  that  the 
success  of  the  latter  in  Achaia,  and  the  admiration  felt  by  the 
Corinthians  for  his  eloquence,  excited  no  envious  emotions  in 
the  mind  of  St.  Paul,  since  he  earnestly  pressed  him  to  return  to 
(Corinth  (1  Cor.  x\-i.  12.),  and  subsequently  recommended  him 
m  a  very  particular  manner  to  the  friendly  attentions  of  Titus. 
(Tit.  iii.  13.) 

Apparel,  royal,  notice  of,  44. 

Apphia,  a  Christian  woman,  whom  the  ancient  fathers  sup- 
posed to  be  the  wife  of  Philemon :  a  conjecture  which  is  rendered 
not  improbable  by  the  circumstance  that  in  the  inscription  of  his 
epistle  to  Philemon  in  favour  of  Onesimus,  St.  Paul  mentions 
Apphia  before  Archippus.  (Philem.  2.) 

Appii  Forum,  a  small  town  on  the  celebrated  Appian  Way, 
constructed  by  the  Roman  censor  Appius  Claudius,  and  which 


A  R 


led  from  Rome  to  Capua,  and  thence  to  Brundusium.  St.  Paul 
passed  through  this  place  on  his  first  journey  to  Rome;  whence, 
according  to  Antoninus's  Itinerary,  it  was  distant  43  Roman 
miles,  or  about  40  English  miles. 

Apple  trees  of  Palestine,  notice  of,  36. 

AauiLA,  a  native  of  Pontus,  in  Asia  Minor,  was  a  Jew  by 
birth,  and  a  tent-maker  by  occupation  ;  who,  with  his  wife  Pris- 
cilla,  was  converted  by  St.  Paul  to  the  Christian  faith.  When 
the  Jews  were  banished  from  Rome  by  the  emperor  Claudius 
(the  Christian  and  Jewish  religions  being  confounded  by  the 
Romans),  Aquila  and  his  wife  retired  to  Corinth,  and  aftcnvards 
became  the  companions  of  St.  Paul  in  his  labours,  by  whom  they 
are  mentioned  with  much  commendation.  (Acts  xviii.  2.  18.  26. 
Rom.  xvi.3.  1  Cor.  xvi.  19.  2  Tim,  iv.  19.)  The  most  cordial 
friendship  appears  to  have  subsisted  between  them :  Aquila  and 
Priscilla  had  even  saved  Paul's  life  at  the  risk  of  their  own  ;  which 
instance  of  devotedness  to  the  apostle  has  been  referred  to  tho 
accusation  preferred  against  the  apostle  before  Gallio  at  Corinth, 
or  to  the  tumult  excited  by  Demetrius  at  Ephesus.  (Acts  xviii. 
12.  xix.  24.) 

Ar,  or  Ariel,  of  Moab.     See  Rabeath-Moab. 

Arabia,  the  name  of  a  large  region,  including  the  peninsula, 
which  lies  between  Syria,  Palestine,  the  Arabian  and  Persian 
Gulfs,  and  the  Indian  Ocean  or  Sea  of  Arabia.  Its  inhabitants 
arc  supposed  to  be  principally  descended  from  Ishmael,  and  in 
the  earlier  books  of  Scripture  are  termed  Dip  >ja  (sexi  Kecex) 
or  children  of  the  east  C-fudg.  vi.  3.  1  Kings  v.  10.  Isa.  xi.  14. 
Jer.  xlix.28.) ;  and  in  the  later  books  CD'^a'^p  (ahabim),  or  Ara- 
bians. (2  Chron.  xxii.  1.  Neh.  ii.  19.)  The  Greek  geographers 
divided  this  country  into  three  parts,  Arabia  Eicfi/jf.&v  or  Felix, 
rTfrpa-Jxc  or  Petrtea,  and  2»)<wt/c  or  tf-xfjut,  Deserta :  but  these 
divisions  were  not  anciently  known  to  the  inhabitants  of  the 
East,  nor  are  they  recognised  in  any  part  of  the  Old  or  New 
Testament. 

1.  Arabia  Felix  lies  between  the  ocean  on  the  south-east, 
and  the  Arabian  and  Persian  gulfs.  It  is  a  fertile  region,  espe- 
cially in  the  interior,  producing  various  species  of  odoriferous 
shrubs  and  fragrant  gums,  as  frankincense,  m3'rrh,  cassia,  &c 
The  queen  of  Sheba  is  supposed  to  have  reigned  over  part  of  this 
region. 

2.  Arabia  Petr.'ea  received  its  name  from  the  city  Pctra : 
it  lies  on  the  south  and  south-east  of  Palestine,  extending  to 
Egypt,  and  including  the  peninsula  of  Mount  Sinai.  It  is 
remarkable  Ibr  its  mountains  and  sandy  plains. 

3.  Arabia  Deserta  lies  between  the  other  two,  and  extends 
northward  along  the  confines  of  Palestine,  Syria,  Babylonia,  and 
Mesopotamia  ;  including  the  vast  deserts  which  lie  between  these 
limits,  and  which  are  inhabited  only  by  wandering  tribes  of 
savage  Arabs.  For  a  description  of  the  horrors  of  a  journey 
across  the  great  desert  of  Arabia,  see  pp.  34,  35. 

The  Scriptures  frequently  mention  the  Arabians  (meaning 
those  adjoining  Judsea)  as  a  powerful  people,  who  valued  them- 
selves on  their  wisdom.  Their  riches  consisted  principally  in 
flocks  and  cattle  ;  they  paid  king  JehoshaphfTt  an  annual  tribute 
of  7700  sheep,  and  as  many  goats.  (2  Chron.  xvii.  11.)  The 
kings  of  Arabia  furnished  Solomon  with  a  great  quantity  of  gold 
and  silver.  (2  Chron.  ix.  14.)  They  loved  war,  but  made  it 
rather  like  thieves  and  plunderers,  than  like  soldiers.  They 
lived  at  Hberty  in  the  field,  or  the  desert,  concerned  themselves 
little  about  cultivating  the  earth,  and  were  not  very  obedient  to 
established  governments.  This  is  the  idea  which  the  Scripture 
gives  of  them  (Isa.  xiii.  20.),  and  the  same  is  their  character  at 
this  day.  Since  the  promulgation  of  the  Gospel,  many  Arabians 
have  embraced  Christianity ;  though  by  far  the  greater  part  con- 
tinue to  profess  the  faith  of  Mohammed. 

Arab,  a  Canaanitish  royal  city  in  the  southern  part  of  Pales- 
tine. Its  king  having  opposed  the  passage  of  the  Israelites,  they 
afterwards  took  it  with  its  dependencies.  (Num.xxi.  1 — 3.)  In 
later  times,  Arad  was  rebuilt ;  and  is  placed  by  Eusebius  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  desert  of  Kades,  at  the  distance  of  20  Roman  miles 
from  Hebron. 

Aram,  fifth  son  of  Shem,  was  father  of  the  people  of  Syria, 
who,  from  him,  are  called  Arama;ans.  The  region,  which  in  the 
Old  Testament  is  denominated  Aram,  is  a  vast  tract  extending 
from  Mount  Taurus  south  as  far  as  Damascus,  and  from  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  in  an  eastern  direction  beyond  the  Tigris  into 
Assyria.  Different  parts  of  this  region  are  called  by  different 
names;  as — Aram  jYahara'im,  or  Syria  of  the  Two  Rivers, 
that  is,  Mesopotamia  ;  Aram  of  Damascus  ;  Aram  of  Soba  ; 
Aram  Bethrehob ;  d.nA  Aram  of  Maacha ;  because  the  cities 


408 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


AR  I 

of  Damascus,  Soba,  Bethrehob,  and  Maacha,  were  in  Syria ;  or 
at  least,  because  Syria  contained  the  provinces  of  Soba,  Maacha, 
Rehob,  &c.  Homer  and  Hesiod  call  Aramaeans  those  whom 
the  more  modern  Greeks  call  Syrians.  The  prophet  Amos 
(ix.  7.)  seems  to  say,  that  the  first  Arama;ans  dwelt  in  the 
country  of  Kir,  in  Iberia,  where  the  river  Cyrus  runs  ;  and  that 
God  brought  them  from  tlience,  as  he  did  tlie  Hebrews  out  of 
Egypt;  but  at  what  time  this  happened  is  not  known.  Moses 
always  calls  the  Syrians,  and  inhabitants  of  Mesopotamia,  Arara- 
ites.  The  .\rama!ans  often  warred  against  the  Hebrews ;  David 
subdued  them,  and  obliged  them  to  pay  him  tribute.  Solomon 
preserved  the  same  authority ;  but,  after  the  separation  of  the  ten 
tribes,  it  docs  not  appear  that  the  Syrians  were  generally  subject 
to  the  kings  of  Israel ;  unless,  perhaps,  under  Jeroboam  II.,  who 
restored  the  kingdom  of  Israel  to  its  ancient  boundaries.  (2  Kings 
xiv.  25.) 

Arahat,  a  celebrated  mountain  in  the  Greater  Armenia,  on 
which  Noah's  ark  rested  after  the  deluge.  (Gen.  viii,  4.)  It  is  of 
stupendous  height,  and  inaccessible  to  the  summit,  which  is 
covered  with  perpetually  frozen  snow  ;  and  the  magnitude  of  the 
peak  is  annually  increasing  in  consequence  of  the  continual 
accession  of  ice.  Jlffridagh  is  the  name  given  to  this  sublime 
mountain  by  the  Turks ;  the  Armenians  call  it  JVIacis  ;  and  the 
Persians  in  the  neighbourhood,  Kuhi  J\'nach,  '  the  mountain  of 
Noah ;'  but  all  unite  in  reverencing  it  as  the  haven  of  the  great 
ship,  which  preserved  the  father  of  mankind  from  the  waters  of 
the  deluge.  (Sir  R.  K.  Porter's  Travels  in  Persia,  vol.  i.  pp.  183, 
131.  Stuart's  Hebrew  Chrcstomathy,  p.  150.) 
AnsA.     See  Hkbhon. 

AncHELAUB,  tlie  son  and  successor  of  Herod  the  Great  in 
the  government  of  part  of  his  dominions.  See  an  account  of 
him  in  p.  5 1 . 

Archippus,  a  Christian,  who  was  either  a  teacher  or  a  deacon 
of  the  church  at  Colossa;.  (Col.  iv.  17.) 

Ap^mvtf^v}'.!,  or  ruler  of  the  synagogue,  powers  and  functions 
of,  104. 

Arf.opagub,  tribunal  of,  CO,  61. 

Aretas,  the  third  of  the  name,  a  king  of  Arabia,  was  the 
father-in-law  of  Herod  Antipas,  against  whom  he  declared  war  in 
revenge  for  repudiating  his  daughter.  Antipas  called  the  Romans 
to  his  assistance  ;  but  some  unaccountable  delay  in  the  marching 
of  their  forces,  and  the  death  of  the  emperor  Tiberius,  put  an  end 
to  the  expedition,  and  saved  Aretas.  It  is  supposed  that  he 
availed  himself  of  this  favourable  opportunity  to  make  an  incur- 
sion into  Syria,  and  obtain  possession  of  Damascus,  where  he  ap- 
pointed an  ethnarch,  whoso  jurisdiction  probably  extended  only 
over  the  Jews  who  dwelt  there.  Some  learned  men  have  sujj- 
posed  this  name  to  have  been  of  Greek  origin,  and  to  be  derived 
from  (firx,  excellence  or  pre-eminence,  but  Dr.  Pococke  is  of 
opinion,  that  it  is  an  Arabic  name  (from  al-hareth)  which  was 
common  to  many  of  the  Arabian  kings. 

Anoon,  the  capital  city  of  a  region  of  the  same  name,  which 
was  situated  beyond  the  Jordan,  in  Bashan,  the  most  fruitful 
country  on  the  other  side  of  that  river :  it  belonged  to  the  half- 
tribe  of  Manasseh. 

Ahimathka,  a  small  town  to  which  Joseph  belonged  who 
begged  the  body  of  Jesus  from  Pilate.  (Matt,  xxvii.  57.)  It  was 
al)0ut  thirty-six  or  thirty-seven  miles  distant  from  Jerusalem,  and 
is  now  called  Uamla.  At  present  it  is  a  wretched  dilapidated 
place,  but  exhibits  the  marks  of  having  once  been  an  extinsive 
and  floujishing  town.  (Three  Weeks  in  Palestine,  p.  14.)  Its 
environs  arc  said  to  be  very  beautiful. 

Aristarchus,  a  native  of  Thessalonica,  a  city  of  Macedonia, 
who  embraced  Christianity,  and  accompanied  St.  Paul  in  several 
of  his  journeys.  He  was  seized  in  the  tumult  at  E|)hcsus,  and 
was  afterwards  canied  with  the  apostle  as  a  prisoner  to  Rome, 
where  he  shared  his  im|)ri8onment.  (Acts  xix.  29.  xx.  4.  xxvii. 
2.  Col.  iv.  20.  Philcm.  24.) 
Ahithmktic  of  the  Jews,  186. 
AnK.     See  Ndah. 

Ahmaokiidov,  the  name  of  n  place  menlioncd  in  Rev.  xvi.  10., 
the  position  and  nature  of  which  are  uiiknown.  .According  to 
some  expositors,  it  is  compoundi-d  of  two  words,  signifying  the 
mountain  of  Mageddo  or  Megiddo  ;  a  place  situated  at  the  foot 
of  Mount  Carniei,  and  celebrated  in  the  history  of  tJod's  i)eople 
for  two  mcmoralilo  slaughters,  first  of  the  (."aiinnnitrs  (Judg.  v. 
10.),  and  afterwards  of  the  Israelites.  (2  Kings  xxiii.  2!).) 
Others,  however,  conjecture  that  the  name  Armageddon  means  a 
dry  barren,  mountainous,  and  desert  country,  such  as  tlic  Jews 


AS 

deemed  to  be  the  abode  of  unclean  spirits.     This  meaning  of  the 
word  accords  with  what  is  said  in  Rev.  xvi.  12 — 14. 

Armies  of  the  Hebrews,  levies,  divisions,  officers,  and  disci 
pline  of,  83 — 87.,  and  of  the  Romans,  93,  94. 

Arms  of  the  Hebrews,  87.  Defensive  arms,  87,  88.  Offen 
sive  arms,  88.  Allusions  to  the  Greek  and  Roman  Srmour  in 
the  New  Testament,  93. 

Arsox,  a  brook  and  valley  of  the  same  name,  forming  the 
northern  boundary  of  the  country  of  Moab.  (Num.  xxi.  13. 
Deut.  iii.  8.  12.  IG.  iv.  28.)  According  to  the  observations  of  the 
travellei  Seetzen,  its  present  name  is  Mujeb. 

Aroer. — 1.  The  proper  name  of  a  city  of  the  Gadites,  on  the 
river  Arnon.  (Num.  xxxii.  34.  Deut.  ii.  36.  iii.  12.  Josh.  xii.  2. 
xiii.  25.)  The  cities  of,  or  about  Arocr,  mentioned  in  Isa.  xvii. 
2.,  Prof.  Gesenius  is  of  opinion,  may  mean  the  cities  beyond 
Jordan  generally. — 2.  The  name  of  a  place  in  the  canton  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah.  (1  Sam.  xxx'.  28.) 

Arpau,  a  city  and  country  in  Syria,  near  Hamath,  with  which 
it  is  often  joined,  and  which  for  a  time  had  its  own  kings.  (2 
Kings  xviii.  34.  xix.  13.  Isa.  x.  9.  Jer.  xlix.  23.) 

Arphaxad,  the  son  of  Sheni,  who  is  mentioned  in  the  gene- 
alogy of  Mary,  was  born  two  years  after  the  deluge.  (Gen.  x. 
22 — 24.  xi.  12,  13.)  The  names  of  his  brethren  are  most  of 
them  the  names  of  countries.  If  this  be  the  case  with  Arphaxad, 
the  most  probable  supposition  is  that  of  Josephus,  viz.  that  it 
denotes  Chaldtea. 

Arrows  used  by  the  Hebrews,  notice  of,  88.  Divination  by 
arrows,  143. 

Artaxerxf.s  (NPCtfnmN  artachsciiaschtha),  a  title  of 
several  Persian  kings.  Professor  Gesenius  derives  it  from  the 
ancient  Persian  word  Jlrtahshetr,  which  is  found  upon  the 
inscriptions  of  Nachschi  Roustam.  The  latter  part  of  this  word 
is  the  Zendish  Klishethro  (also  sherao),  a  king.  But  the  syl- 
lable art  (which  is  found  in  several  Persian  names,  as  Artabanus, 
Artaj)hernes,  Artabasus),  appears  to  have  signified  to  be  great  or 
mighty.  At  least  the  Greeks  gave  it  this  interpretation.  This 
signification  is  now  lost  in  the  Persian.  From  the  original 
Artuhslietr,  the  modern  Persians  formed  Ardeshiv  (a  naino 
borne  by  three  kings  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Sassanides)  ;  tlio 
Armenians,  Avtasldr  ;  the  Greeks,  Artaxerxes  ;  and  the  He- 
brews, Artaclischasclttha.  Two  Persian  sovereigns  who  bore 
this  name,  are  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament ;  viz. 

1.  Artaxerxes,  who  at  the  instigation  of  the  enemies  of  the 
Jews  issued  an  edict,  prohibiting  them  from  rebuilding  Jerusalem. 
(Ezra  iv.  7 — 22.)  This  Artaxerxes  is  generally  considered  to 
be  the  pseudo-Smerdis,  one  of  the  Persian  Magi,  who  assumed 
that  name,  and  pretending  to  be  Smcrilis  the  son  of  Cyrus 
and  the  brother  of  Cambyscs,  occupied  the  throne  between  the 
reigns  of  Cambyses  and  Darius  the  son  of  Hystaspes. 

2.  Artaxerxes,  who  issued  a  decree  extremely  favourable  to 
the  Jews,  which  was  carried  by  Ezra  to  Jerusalem.  (Ezra  vii.  1. 
viii.  1.)  This  sovereign  is  the  Artaxerxes  surnamed  Longimanus, 
or  the  Long-handed,  from  a  trifling  deformity.  Nehemiah  was 
his  cup-bearer,  and  was  permitted  by  him  to  return  to  Jerusalem, 
with  a  commission  to  rebuild  its  walls,  and  to  be  the  governor  of 
Juda;a. 

'AfTi/uic,     See  Diana. 

Arts,  origin  of,  180.  State  of  them  from  the  deluge,  until 
after  the  captivity,  181.  Account  of  some  of  the  arts  practised 
by  the  Jews,  183,  184. 

Aiiuiiom,  or  Ahahoth,  a  city  or  country  belonging  to  the 
tribe  of  Judah.  (1  Kings  iv.  10.)     Its  true  situation  is  unknown. 

Arvad,  or  Arahus,  a  small  island  at  the  mouth  of  tlie  river 
Eleutherus,  on  the  coast  of  Phanicia,  opposite  to  Tyre.  (Ezek. 
xxvii.  8.)  The  Arvauite  i.4  mentioned  in  Cien.  x.  18.  The 
Arvaditcs  were  employed  as  mariners  by  the  Tyrians. 

Asa,  king  of  Judah,  succeeded  his  father  Abijam,  u.  r.  951. 
He  was  distinguished  for  his  success  in  war,  and  his  zeal  for  the 
worship  of  the  true  God.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  reign,  the 
jirophet  Hiiiiaiii  having  reproved  him  for  his  distrust  in  (lod  in 
forming  an  alliance  with  Ben-hadad  king  of  Syria,  he  was  so 
exasjierated  that  he  jiut  the  prophet  in  chains,  and  at  the  same 
time  gave  order  n)r  the  execution  of  many  of  his  friends.  Ho 
is  supposed  to  have  died  of  a  severe  fit  of  the  gout,  ii.  c.  836, 

Asven,  IIema5,  and  Jehltiiin,  of  the  tribe  of  Levi,  were 
constituted  by  David,  chiefs  of  the  sacred  singers,  of  whom  their 
families  formed  a  i)arl.  (IChron.  xxi.  1.)  They  are  all  three 
termed  prophets  or  seers  (1  Chron,  xxv.  5.  2  Chron.  xxix,  30, 
XXXV,  15,),  which  appellation  is  supposed  to  refer  rather  to  their 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 
AS  AS 


409 


genius  as  sacred  poets  and  musicians,  than  to  their  possessing  the 
spirit  of  prophecy.  Psalms  1,  Ixxiii. — Ixxxiii.  were  composed  by 
Asaph. 

AsEXATH,  the  daughter  of  Potipherah,  and  wife  of  Joseph, 
was  the  mother  of  Ephraim  and  Manasseh.  (Gen.  xli.  45.  and 
xlvi.  20.)  The  etymology,  Gesenms  observes,  is  Egyptian  (but 
obscure),  and  this  circumstance  furnishes  an  additional  presump- 
tion in  favour  of  the  authenticity  of  the  writings  of  Moses;  for, 
according  to  Coquerel,  the  name  of  a  woman  absolutely  analagous 
to  this  has  been  discovered  on  Egyptian  monuments,  which  is 
composed  of  the  monosyllable  As  and  j\'eith,  the  name  of  the 
Egyptian  Minerva. 

AsHDOD.     See  Azotvs,  p.  411.  infra. 

Ash  EH,  the  son  of  Jacob  and  Zilpah,  gave  his  name  to  one  of 
the  tribes  of  Israel.  (Gen.  xxx.  13.  1  Ghron.  ii.  2.)  For  the 
limits  of  the  canton  assigned  to  this  tribe,  see  p.  17.  But  they 
never  expelled  the  nations  of  the  country,  nor  did  they  obtain 
entire  possession  of  the  district  allotted  to  them.  Their  soil  pro- 
duced abundance  of  tlie  comforts  and  luxuries  of  life,  and  was 
rich  in  mines.  The  tribe  of  Asher  tamely  submitted  to  the 
tyranny  of  Jabin  king  of  Canaan,  but  assisted  Gideon  in  his 
pursuk  of  the  Midianites.  On  the  exodus  from  Egypt,  the  fight- 
ing men  of  this  tribe  were  41,500  ;  in  the  wilderness  they 
amounted  to  53,400. 

AsuKKXAZ,  the  eldest  son  of  Gomer  (Gen.  x.  3.  Jer.  li.  7.), 
and  the  father  or  head  of  a  nation.  That  a  people  in  northern 
Asia  is  intended  is  evident  from  its  being  placed  next  to  Gomcr 
(Cymmeria),  in  the  first  instance,  and  next  to  Ararat  (Armenia), 
in  the  second.  The  Jews  understand  by  it,  Germany,  and  use 
the  word  in  that  signification.  Bochart  was  of  opinion  that  the 
res^io  Jlscania  in  Phrygia  and  Bithynia  was  peopled  by  the 
descendants  of  Ashkenaz. 

AsHfEXAz,  master  of  the  eunuchs,  or  rather  one  of  the  chief 
chamberlains  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  who  was  commanded  to  select 
certain  Jewish  captives  to  be  instructed  in  the  literature  and 
sciences  of  the  Chaldaeans.  In  this  number  he  included  Daniel 
and  his  three  companions,  whose  names  he  changed  into  Chal- 
daean  appellations.  Their  refusal  to  partake  of  the  provisions 
sent  from  the  monarch's  table  filled  Ashpenaz  with  apprehension ; 
he  had,  however,  the  generosity  not  to  use  constraint  towards 
them.  At  that  time,  as  in  our  days,  the  Asiatic  despots  frequently 
punj^ed  with  death  the  least  infraction  of  their  wills.  In  acced- 
ing to  the  request  of  Daniel,  Ashpenaz  had  every  thing  to 
apprehend ;  and  the  grateful  prophet  specially  records  that 
God  had  disposed  him  to  treat  him  with  kindness.  (Dan.  i.  3 
-16.) 

Astahoth,  a  Phoenician  or  Syrian  idol,  notice  of,  138. 

AsHun,  the  son  of  Shem  (Gen.  iii.  II.),  who  gave  his  name  to 
Asstuia. 

Asia,  one  of  the  largest  divisions  of  the  Old  World,  is  not 
mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament.  In  the  New  Testament  it  is 
always  taken  for  Asia  Minor,  as  it  includes  the  proconsular  Asia, 
which  comprised  the  four  regions  of  Phrygia,  Mysia,  Caria,  and 
Lydia.  In  this  proconsular  Asia  were  the  seven  churches  of 
Ephesus,  Laodicffia,  Pergamos,  Philadelphia,  Sardis,  Smyrna,  and 
Thyatira. 

AsiARCHS,  ofBcers  appointed  to  preside  over  the  worship  of  the 
gods,  and  the  sacred  games  in  Asia  Minor.  See  p.  140.  In  our 
version  of  Acts  xix.  31.  they  are  termed  the  chief  of  Asia. 

AsKELox,  a  city  in  the  territory  of  the  Philistines,  situated 
between  Azoth  and  Gaza  on  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  or 
Great  Sea,  about  520  furlongs  from  Jerusalem.  After  the  death 
of  Joshua,  the  tribe  of  Judah  took  Askelon,  which  subsequently 
became  one  of  the  five  governments  belonging  to  the  Philistines. 
(Judg.  i.  18.)  This  place  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Scrip- 
tures. During  the  crusades  it  was  a  station  of  considerable 
importance,  but  is  now  a  very  inconsiderable  place. 

AsMoxiEAJTS,  an  appellation  given  to  the  Maccabees,  the 
descendants  of  Mattathias,  surnamed  Asmon.     See  p.  50. 

AsxAPPER,  the  proper  name  of  an  Assyrian  king  or  general. 
(Ezra  iv.  10.)  On  account  of  the  statement  in  ver.  2.  it  is  sup- 
posed to  be  only  a  difierent  name  of  Esarhaddon. 

AsPHAH,  a  lake  mentioned  in  1  Mace.  ix.  33.  which  Calmet 
supposes  to  be  the  Lacus  Asphaltites,  or  Dead  Sea.  For  an 
account  of  which  see  pp.  27,  28. 

Ass,  a  well  known  quadruped,  which  was  declared  to  be  un- 
clean, and  consequently  not  fit  to  be  eaten  by  the  Israelites. 
(Lev.  xi.  26.)  Asses  were  reared  by  them  for  draught,  175. 
For  a  refutation  of  the  calumny  against  the  Jews,  of  worship- 

VoL.  IL  8  F 


ping  an  ass,  see  p.  137.    And  on  the  subject  of  Balaam's  ass 
speaking,  see  Vol.  I.  p.  421. 

AssEMBLT  at  Ephesus,  powers  of,  61. 

Assos,  a  maritime  city  of  Mysia,  according  to  some  geogra- 
phers, but  of  Troas,  according  to  others.  It  is  mentioned  in  Acts 
XX.  13,  14. 

Assyria,  a  country  of  Asia,  the  boundaries  of  which  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  assign.  It  appears  to  have  been  situated  between  the 
Tigris  and  the  Euphrates,  enclosed  between  those  two  rivers, 
from  the  part  where  they  begin  to  approach  each  other  on  leav- 
ing Mesopotamia  to  that  where  they  join,  not  far  from  their 
mouth,  in  the  Gulf  of  Persia. 

It  must  naturally  excite  surprise,  that  so  small  a  country  should 
have  been  able  to  send  forth  armies  of  a  million  or  tv?elve  hun- 
dred thousand  men  ;  a  number  which  dismays  the  imagination, 
especially  when  we  consider  how  many  attendants  they  must 
have  had,  exclusive  of  fighting  men.  But  this  kind  of  enigma 
is  explained  by  the  manner  in  which  these  vast  armies  were 
formed.  From  the  centre  of  a  not  very  extensive  domain,  a  war- 
like band  frequently  issued,  which  poured  upon  the  neighbouring 
country,  carrying  away  the  inhabitants,  who,  having  no  other 
resource,  incorporated  themselves  with  the  conquerors.  United, 
aiid  allured  by  the  hope  of  plunder,  they  proceeded  onwards, 
ravaging  other  lands,  and  increasing  their  army  with  the  despoil- 
ed inhabitants,  who  in  like  manner  joined  them.  Thus  were 
formed  those  wandering  hordes  which,  under  the  name  of  Assy- 
rians, subdued  Mesopotamia,  penetrated  to  Armenia,  Media,  and 
Persia,  inundated  Syria  like  a  torrent,  and  carried  devastation 
through  Chaldaja,  become  the  country  of  the  Jews.  As  their 
conquests  extended,  the  centre  of  their  power  became  surrounded 
with  deserts,  and  itself  a  desert.  It  is  in  vain  that  we  seek  the 
vestiges  of  the  most  famous  cities,  Nineveh  for  instance,  which, 
from  the  descriptions  that  have  reached  us,  have  been  justly  enu- 
merated among  the  wonders  of  the  world.  It  is  in  vain,  likewise, 
that  we  inquire,  what  were  the  manners,  religion,  commerce,  and 
usages  of  the  Assyrians.  They  must  have  been  those  of  all  the 
various  nations  who  united  to  form  them  ;  that  is  to  say,  they 
were  conquerors  and  barbarians,  who  allowed  the  greatest  liberty 
in  their  police  and  their  ceremonies,  provided  none  of  their  people 
adopted  laws  or  practices  which  might  obstruct  the  success  of 
their  warlike  expeditions. 

It  may  be  supposed  that  a  people  in  this  unsettled  state  had 
neither  the  time  nor  the  means  to  write  annals  which  may  serve 
as  a  basis  for  chronology,  or  furnish  ^ny  certain  dates.  The 
memory  of  the  principal  facts  could  only  be  preserved  by  tradi- 
tion, and  it  has  been  transmitted  to  us  with  not  a  few  variations 
by  the  Greeks.  At  the  same  time  that  it  is  allowed,  that  we  owe 
to  the  latter  almost  all  the  historical  knowledge  we  possess  rela- 
tive to  the  ancient  nations  of  Asia,  it  must  be  admitted,  that  they 
have  greatly  disfigured  it  by  accommodating  to  their  own  lan- 
guage and  pronunciation  the  names  of  persons  and  divinities, 
and  assimilating  events  to  their  own  traditions  in  such  a  manner, 
that  when  we  imagine  we  are  in  possession  of  authentic  facts, 
we  frequently  discover  them  to  be  only  Grecian  fables.  This 
observation  may  serve  to  point  out  the  degree  of  confidence 
which  ought  to  be  reposed  in  the  histories  of  these  ancient 
times. 

Sketch  of  the  History  o/AssyniA  illustrative  of  the  Prophetic 

Writings. 

The  empire  of  Assyria  was  founded  by  Ninus,  the  son  of 
Belus ;  and,  according  to  Herodotus,  it  continued  five  hundred 
and  twenty  years.  (Herod,  lib.  i.  c.  95.)  Ninus  reigned  one 
hundred  and  twenty-two  years,  according  to  some  historians 
(Jul.  African,  and  Eusebius  in  Chron.),  though  others  make  his 
reign  to  have  lasted  only  seventeen  years.  (Diod.  Sicul.  lib.  ii.  c. 
i. — iv.)  He  enlarged  and  embellished  the  ancient  city  of  Nine- 
veh, which  had  been  built  by  Nimrod,  many  ages  before  his  time. 
(Gen.  x.  9,  10.)  The  commencement  of  his  reign  is  fixed  by 
Archbishop  Usher  to  the  year  of  the  world  2737,  b.  c.  1267, 
during  the  period  when  Deborah  and  Barak  judged  the  Israel- 
ites. « 

Ninus  was  succeeded  by  his  queen  Semiramis,  who  reigned 
forty-two  years.  She  enlarged  the  Assyrian  empire,  which  she 
left  in  a  flourishing  state  to  her  son  Ninyas,  a.  m.  2831,  b.  c. 
1173.  The  Scriptures  are  totally  silent  concerning  the  subse- 
quent history  of  that  celebrated  monarchy,  and  the  successors  ot 
Ninyas,  until  the  time  of  the  prophet  Jonah,  who  flourished  a.  jt. 
3180,  B.  c.  824;  and  even  then  they  do  not  state  the  name  of 
the  monarch  who  filled  the  Assyrian  throne.    It  is  evident,  how. 


410 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  .VSJ)  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


AS 


ever,  that  Nineveh  was  at  that  time  a  city  of  immense  exlept, 
whose  inhaMtants,  like  thoso  of  other  great  cities  abounding  in 
wealth  and  luxury,  were  extremely  corrupt  in  their  morals.  But, 
at  the  preaching  of  Jonah,  both  sovereign  and  subjects  repented 
and  abandoned  their  evil  ways,  and  thus  for  a  time  delayed  the 
execution  of  the  divine  judgments.  About  fifty  years  after  the 
time  of  Jonah,  the  Scriptures  mention  a  king  of  Assyria,  named 
Pi'L,  who  invaded  the  kingdom  of  Israel  in  the  days  of  Mena- 
hem  (2  Kings  xv.  19.  1  Chron.  v.  26.),  who  gave  him  a  thou- 
sand talents  of  silver  to  engage  him  to  lend  him  his  assistance, 
and  secure  him  on  his  throne.  Pul  is  supposed  to  have  been 
the  father  of  Sardanapalus,  the  last  king  of  the  Assyrians, 
in  whose  reign  the  crimes  of  the  Ninevites  having  risen  to 
their  utmo.-rt  height.  God  raised  up  enemies  to  chastise  them. 
Arbaces  the  .Meditin,  indi-jnant  at  the  elleniinate  and  luxurious 
life  which  .^'ardanapalus  led  in  his  palace,  conspired  with  Belesis, 
governor  of  Babylon,  to  shake  olF  the  yoke  of  so  worthless  a 
sovereign.  After  various  engagements,  they  compelled  him  to 
retreat  to  Nineveh,  where  he  expected  that  he  should  be  able  to 
defend  himself  a  long  time,  because  the  city  was  strongly  fortified, 
and  the  In'siegers  had  not  machines  to  batter  the  walls.  But  in 
the  third  year  of  the  siege,  the  river  Tigris,  being  swollen  with 
continual  rains,  overflowed  part  of  the  city,  agreeably  to  the  pre- 
dictions of  Nahum  (particularly  i.  8 — 10.),  and  broke  down  the 
wall  for  twenty  furlongs.  Sardanapalus,  that  he  might  not  fail 
into  the  hands  of  his  enemies,  burnt  himself  in  his  palace,  with 
his  women  and  all  his  immense  treasures.  (Usher's  Annals,  p. 
48.  A.  T*.  32.54.  Athenscus,  lib.  xii.  c.  12.)  Arbaces  and  Belesis 
then  divided  the  dominions  of  Sardanapalus :  the  former  had 
Media,  which  he  restored  to  its  liberty  ;  the  latter  had  Babylon, 
where  he  reigned  fourteen  years  :  Nineveh  they  left  to  Ninus 
the  younger,  who  was  heir  to  the  ancient  kings  of  Assyria,  and 
maintained  the  second  Assyrian  monarchy  with  considerable 
splendour;  so  that  out  of  the  ruins  of  this  vast  empire  there 
were  formed  three  considerable  kinn;doms,  viz.  that  of  Nineveh, 
that  of  Babylon,  and  that  of  the  Medes.  We  shall  briefly  con- 
sider each  of  them,  separately,  according  to  the  share  they  had 
in  the  affairs  of  the  Jews. 

Belesis,  called  Bvlahax,  by  Isaiah  (xxxix.  1.  2  Kings  xx.  12.), 
is  the  Nabonassar  of  profane  historians.  He  founded  the  Baby- 
lonian emj.irc,  of  which  he  made  Babylon  the  metropolis.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  .«on  Merodach-Baladan,  who  cultivated 
Hezekiali's  friendship,  as  appears  from  the  embassy  which  he 
Ecnt  to  the  latter,  to  congratulate  him  on  his  recovery  from  sick- 
ness (2  Kings  XX.  12.),  a.  m.  .3291,  p..  c.  713.  After  this  time 
the  sacred  historians  are  silent  concerning  the  kings  of  Babylon, 
until  the  time  of  Esar-haddon,  who  is  noticed  in  the  next  column. 

The  younger  Ninus,  who  was  left  king  of  Assyria  and  Nine- 
veh, is  the  TioLATii-i'iLKSEii  of  the  Scriptures  (2  Kings  xv.  29. 
xvi.  7.  10.  2  Chron.  xxviii.  20.),  a.  m.  32.57,  ii.  c.  747.  His 
empire  appears  to  have  been  the  most  celebrated  in  the  East;  as 
.\haz  king  of  Judah  sent  to  request  his  assistance  against  lu-z.in 
king  of  Damascus,  and  Pekah  king  of  Israel.  Accordingly,  Til'- 
lath-jiileser  advanced  with  a  numerous  army,  defeated  Kezin,  cap- 
tured Damascus,  and  put  an  end  to  the  kingdom  erected  there  by 
the  Syrians,  agreeably  to  the  predictions  of  Isaiah  (viii.  4.)  and 
Amos.  (i.  .5.)  He  also  entered  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  concjuered 
Pekah.  and  carried  away  part  of  the  ten  tribes  beyond  the  river 
Euphfiites.  But  Ahaz  soon  had  cause  to  regret  this  unhallowcil 
alliance:  for  Tiglath-pilescr  exacted  from  him  such  immense 
sums  of  money,  that  \\v  was  obliged  not  only  to  exhaust  his  own 
trea.'iures,  but  also  to  fake  all  the  gold  and  silver  out  of  the  temjile. 
(2  Chron.  xxviii.  20,  21.  24.)  Ahaz  In-camc  tributary  to  the 
Assyrian  monarch,  whose  successors  found  abundance  of  pretexts 
for  entering  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  which  they  ultimately  ruined 
and  subverted. 

SfiALMAMisF.n,  the  successor  of  Ticlath-pileser,  came  into 
Syria,  A.  M.  3280,  n.  r.  724,  and  (!eBol;ite<l  the  country  of  the 
Moabites,  agreeably  to  the  pro|)hecy  of  I-iaiah  (xvi.  1.),  delivered 
three  years  iK'fore.  He  then  atf.-icked  Samariii,  and  completed 
the  misfoitunes  of  the  Israelites  who  remained,  by  carrying  them 
into  captivity  beyond  the  EuphratCK.  Thus  terminated  the  king- 
dom of  Israel,  a.  m.  .3283,  n.  r.  721.  (2  Kings  xvii.  .3.  xviii.  9 — 
II.)  Hezekiah,  by  the  Rj)ocial  j)rnteclion  of  (f*id,  e«ca[)ed  the 
fury  of  Sliiilmaneser,  to  whom,  however,  he  became  tributary, 
and  the  .\ssyrinn  returned  in  triumph  to  Nineveh. 

Shortly  after  these  cvcntu,  most  of  the  maritime  cities  that 
were  subject  to  the  Tyrians  revolted  against  them,  and  submitted 
to  the   Assyrians.     Shalmanescr  advanced  to  their  assistance. 


AN  .   - 

These  cities  furnished  him  with  a  fleet  of  sixty  or  seventy  ves- 
sels, manned  by  eight  hundred  Phoenician  rowers.  They  were 
attacked  by  the  Tyrians  with  twelve  vessels  only  ;  who  dispersed 
their  fleet,  and  took  five  hundred  prisoners.  The  Assyrian  mon- 
arch did  not  venture  to  lay  siege  to  Tyre  ;  but  he  left  bodies  of 
troops  in  its  vicinity  to  guard  the  river  and  aqueducts  whence  the 
Tyrians  obtained  their  supplies  of  water.  His  precautions  were 
frustrated  by  the  besieged,  who  dug  wells  within  their  city.  It 
was  about  this  time  that  Isaiah  denounced  against  them  those 
judgments  which  are  recorded  in  the  twenty-third  chapter  of  his 
prophecies.  And  Hezekiah  seems  to  have  availed  himself  of  the 
troubled  state  of  Phoenicia  and  the  whole  coast  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, in  order  to  attack  the  Philistines.   (2  Kings  xviii.  7,  8.) 

SENXACHF.niB  ascended  the  throne  of  Assyria  a.  m.  3287. 
B.  e.  717,  and  was  immediately  involved  in  war,  both  in  Asia  and 
in  Egypt.  While  he  was  thus  engaged,  Hezekiah  shook  ofi'the 
yoke  of  the  Assyrians,  and  refused  to  pay  the  tribute  exacted 
from  him  by  Shaimaneser.  It  appears  from  some  passages  of 
Scripture  that  Hezekiah  had  concluded  treaties  of  mutual  alliance 
and  defence  with  the  kings  of  Egypt  and  Ethiopia  against  the 
Assyrian  monarch.  (Isa.  xx.  1.  et  seq.  2  Kings  xviii.  24.  xix. 
9.)  Upon  Hezekiah's  refusal  of  the  tribute,  Sennacherib  invaded 
Judah  with  a  mighty  army,  and  captured  the  principal  cities 
of  that  country.  It  is  probable  that  he  took  Damascus  in  his 
progress.  The  pious  monarch,  grieved  to  see  his  kingdom  pil- 
laged, implored  peace  of  Sennacherib  on  any  terms  he  would 
prescribe  :  and  gave  him  three  hundred  talents  of  silver  and 
thirty  talents  of  gold  to  withdraw.  But  the  Assyrian,  regardless 
alike  of  the  sanction  of  oaths  and  of  treaties,  continued  the  war, 
and  prosecuted  his  conquests  more  vigorously  than  ever.  Nothing 
was  able  to  withstand  his  power ;  and  of  all  the  strong  places  of 
Judah,  none  remained  uncaptured  but  Jerusalem,  which  was 
reduced  to  the  very  last  extremity.  Isaiah,  however,  encouraged 
Hezekiah  by  promises  of  divine  interposition  and  deliverance, 
and  announced  that  the  enemy  would  soon  be  obliged  to  return 
into  his  own  country,  (2  Kings  xix.  20 — 34.)  Accordingly, 
after  Sennacherib  had  defeated  the  allied  forces  of  the  king  of 
Egypt  and  of  Tirhakah  king  of  Ethiopia,  who  h.id  advanced 
against  him  to  assist  Hezekiah,  he  returned  into  Judah  with  im- 
mense spoil,  and  renewed  the  siege  of  Jerusalem :  but  an  angel 
of  Jehovah  slew  one  hundred  and  eighty-five  thousand  of  his 
troops.  (2  Kings  xix.  35.)  Sennacherib  returned  to  Nineveh, 
where  two  of  his  sons,  weary  of  his  tyranny  and  savage  temper, 
slew  him  while  he  was  worshipping  in  the  temple  of  Nisroch  his 
god,  and  immediately  fled  into  the  mountains  of  Armenia,  (3 
Kings  xix.  37.  Tobit  i.  21.) 

It  was  during  the  first  year  of  this  war  that  Hezekiah  fell  sick, 
and  was  cured  in  a  miraculous  manner,  and  that  the  shadow  of 
the  sun  went  back  ten  degrees  on  the  dial  of  the  palace,  to  prove 
the  truth  of  Isaiah's  prediction  of  his  recovery.  (2  Kings  xviii. 
xix.  XX.  Isa.  xxxviii.  xxxix.) 

A.  M.  3294,  1!.  c.  710.  On  the  death  of  Sennacherib,  Esar- 
HAiiiioN,  another  of  his  sons  reigned  in  his  stead.  He  is  called 
Sargon  by  Isaiah,  (xx.  1.)  He  reigned  twenty-nine  years, 
during  which  he  waged  war  with  the  Philistines,  from  whom  his 
general,  Tartan,  took  Ashdod.  He  also  attacked  Egypt  and 
Ethiopia  (Isa.  xx.),  and  Idnrnteaor  Edom  (Isa.  xxxiv.),  in  order 
to  avenge  the  injuries  they  had  committed  against  his  father  Sen- 
nacherib ;  anil  at  length  he  took  Jerusalem,  and  carried  Manas- 
«eh  king  of  Judah  to  Babylon.  (2  Chron.  xxxiii.)  This  last 
war,  however,  hajipened  long  after  those  above  related.  Esar- 
haddon  restored  the  glory  of  Assyria;  and  in  addition  to  his 
other  victories,  to  the  sceptre  of  Nineveh  he  united  that  of  Baby- 
lon, having  availed  himself  of  the  intestine  troubles  and  commo- 
tions occasioned  by  the  extinction  of  the  royal  family,  to  make 
himself  master  of  that  city,  and  annex  it  to  his  former  dominions. 
Manasseh,  having  been  restored  to  the  divine  favour  after  a  deep 
and  sincere  repentance,  obtained  his  liberty,  and  returned  to  Jeru- 
salem, after  a  short  captivity  at  Baliylon.  (1,'sher's  Annalf, 
A.  M.  3327.) 

Saosduchin  or  NEBVcnADxr.zzAii  I.  succeeded  Esar-haddon, 
and  reigned  twenty  years,  according  to  I'tolemy.  Having  con- 
quered Arphaxad  king  of  the  Medes  (the  Deioces  of  Herodotus, 
lib.  i.  cc.  101,  102.),  he  resolved  to  subjugate  all  the  neighbour- 
injf  territories.  He  therefore  despatched  Ifolofcrnes  into  Syria 
and  Palestine  with  an  immense  army  ;  but  that  general  was  slain, 
and  his  army  totally  discomrtte<l,  before  Bethulia,  in  the  manRcr 
related  in  the  apocryphal  book  of  Judith. 

A.  M.  335G,  B,c,  648,  Saracus,  otherwise  aalled  Chinaldon  or 


BIOGKAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


411 


AZ 

Chyna-Ladanus,  succeeded  Saosduchin  in  the  Assyrian  throne. 
Having  rendered  himself  obnoxious  to  his  subjects  by  his  effemi- 
nac}',  and  the  little  care  he  took  of  his  dominions,  Nabopolassar, 
satrap  of  Babylon,  and  Cyaxares  the  son  of  Astyages  ki«g  of 
Media,  leagued  together  against  him.  He  was  besieged  in 
Nineveh,  which  was  taken  by  his  enemies,  who  partitioned  his 
-lominions  between  them  ;  Nabopolassar  becoming  master  of 
Nineveh  and  Babylon,  and  Cyaxares  having  Media  and  the 
adjacent  provinces.  (Usher's  Annals,  a.  x.  3378.  Calmet,  Precis 
de  I'Histoire  Profane  de  I'Orient,  §  I.  Dissert,  torn.  ii.  pp.  329 — 
333.) 

AssrniA>-  Iuols,  worshipped  by  the  Israelites,  133. 

Astaute,  a  Phoenician  or  Syrian  idol,  notice  of,  138. 

AsTHOSOMT  and  Astrology  of  the  Jews,  186,  187. 

Athaliah,  daughter  of  Omri  king  of  Samaria,  and  wife  of 
Jehoram  king  of  Judah.  Jehu  having  slain  her  son  Ahaziah,  she 
seized  (he  kingdom,  and  destroyed  all  the  sons  of  Jehoram  (whom 
he  had  by  other  wives)  except  Jehoash,  who  was  providentially 
saved  by  Jehosheba,  and  who  afterwards  succeeded  to  the  throne. 
Athaliah  was  slain,  after  an  usurpation  of  six  years.   (2  Kings xi.) 

Athexs,  a  celebrated  city  of  Greece,  sometimes  a  very  power- 
ful commonwealth,  distinguished  by  the  military  talents,  but  still 
more  by  the  learning,  eloquence,  and  politeness  of  its  inhabitants. 
Saint  Paul  coming  hither,  a.  d.  32,  found  them  plunged  in  idol- 
atry, occupied  in  inquiring  and  reporting  news,  curious  to  know 
every  thing,  and  divided  in  opinion  concerning  religion  and  hap- 
piness. (Acts  xvii.)  From  an  altar  erected  to  the  "  Unknown 
God"  (for  the  origin  of  which  see  Vol.  I.  p.  90),  the  great  apostle 
of  the  Gentiles,  taking  opportunities  here  to  preach  Jesus  Christ, 
was  carried  before  the  judges  of  the  tribunal,  called  the  Areopagus ; 
where  he  gave  an  illustrious  testimony  to  truth,  and  a  remarkable 
instance  of  powerful  reasoning.  (Sec  an  account  of  the  Anuo- 
PAGUs  in  pp.  60,  61.) 

Some  of  the  finest  specimens  of  ancient  art  at  Athens  now 
adorn  the  British  Museum.  The  reader,  who  is  desirous  of  a 
full  account  of  the  modern  state  of  Athens,  and  of  its  various 
monuments  of  former  times,  is  referred  to  the  Travels  of  Dr. 
Clarke,  to  the  Classical  Tour  of  Mr.  Dodwell,  and  to  Mr.  Stuart's 
Antiquities  of  Athens. 

AxoxEMEJfT,  fast  of,  127. 

Attalia,  a  maritime  city  of  Pamphylia,  and  the  chief 
residence  of  the  prefect.  It  derived  its  name  from  king  At- 
talus,  its  founder.  Hither  Saint  Paul  went  from  Perga  in 
Pamphylia.  (Acts  xiv.  25.)  It  still  subsists  under  the  name  of 
Sattalia. 

Au(;usTus  (Octavius)  the  first,  or,  according  to  some  writers, 
the  second  emperor  of  Rome.  He  commanded  the  enrolment  to 
be  made  which  is  mentioned  in  Luke  ii.  1. — The  forty-second 
year  of  his  reign  is  that  in  which  Jesus  Christ  was  born.  The 
title  of  Augustus,  which  he  received  from  the  flattery  of  the 
senate,  became  the  personal  appellation  of  his  successors ;  and 
St.  Luke  has  employed  the  corresponding  Greek  word,  to  desig- 
nate Nero.  (Acts  xxv.  21.25.) 
g  Atf.x.     See  Ox,  hifra. 

AvEST  (Plain  of),  a  beautiful  valley  in  the  part  of  Syria  near 
to  Damascus :  according  to  Gesenius,  it  is  now  called  Un,  and 
is  proverbially  considered  as  a  delightful  valley.  As  the  original 
word  (Bikath-Aven,  which  is  retained  in  the  marginal  rendering 
of  Amos  i.  5.)  signifies  the  plain  of  vanity,  it  is  conjectured  to 
have  been  a  place  remarkable  for  idolatry,  Bethel  being  called 
Beth-Aven  in  Hos.  v.  8.  for  that  reason. 

Atims,  the  original  inhabitants  of  the  country  afterwards  pos- 
sessed by  the  Caphtorim  or  Philistines.   (Deut.  ii.  23.) 

AviTEs  or  AviM,  the  inhabitants  of  Aveh  or  Ava,  a  city 
whence  colonies  were  sent  into  Samaria.  (2  Kings  xvii.  24.  31.) 
Ava  is  supposed  to  have  been  situated  in  the  north-west  of 
Chaldsea. 

AzAuiAir. — 1.  The  name  of  a  king  of  Judah,  also  called 
UzziAH  (which  see  infra)  : — 2.  The  name  of  several  high- 
jiriests  among  the  Jews  : — and,  3.  The  name  of  a  prophet  in  the 
time  of  Asa.  (2  Chron.  xv.  1,  2.) 

AzEKAH,  a  city  in  the  tribe  of  Judah,  to  the  south  of  Jerusalem, 
and  east  of  Bethlehem.  (Josh.  xv.  35.) 

.\zoTus,  or  Asmhoi),  a  city  of  Judaea,  is  situated  between  Gaza 
and  Jamnia,  or  Jafnia,  on  the  summit  of  a  hill,  which  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  pleasant  plain.  Here  the  ark  of  Jehovah  triumphed 
over  the  Philistine  idol  Dagon  (1  Sam.  v.  2.),  and  Philip  the 
Evangelist  was  found,  after  he  had  baptized  the  Ethiopian 
eunuch.  (Acts  viii.  40.)  It  is  at  present  an  inconsiderable  place, 
and  in  its  vicinitj'  are  numerous  reliques  of  antiquity. 


B  A 


Baal,  a  Phoenician  idol,  notice  of,  138. 

Baalberith,"^ 

Baalzeeub,  C  Phoenician  idols,  notice  of,  138. 

Baalzephon,  J 

Baalpeoh,  a  Canaanitish  idol,  notice  of,  137,  138. 

Baasha,  the  son  of  Ahijah,  and  commander  in  chief  to  Jero- 
boam I. :  he  treacherously  killed  his  sovereign  Nadab,  and  after- 
wards usurped  his  kingdom,  b.  c.  953 — 930. 

Babylon,  the  metropolis  of  Chalda;a,  began  to  he  built  at  the 
same  time  as  the  tower  of  Babel,  and  both  were  left  unfinished 
at  the  confusion  of  tongues.  (Gen.  xi.  4 — 8.)  It  was  celebrate)? 
for  the  magnificence  of  its  buildings,  especially  after  its  enlarge- 
ment and  improvement  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  when  it  became  one 
of  the  wonders  of  the  world.  It  is  said  to  have  covered  an  area 
of  480  stadia,  or  nearly  60  miles  in  circumference ;  and  the  wall 
by  which  it  was  surrounded  was  50  cubits  in  thickness,  and  20C 
in  height.  The  river  Euphrates  divided  the  city  into  two  parts, 
which  were  connected  by  means  of  a  noble  bridge,  about  a  fur- 
long in  length  and  sixty  feet  wide.  (Dr.  Hales  has  given  a 
copious  and  accurate  account  of  ancient  Babylon  in  his  Analysis 
of  Chronology,  vol.  i.  pp.  453 — 456.) 

The  banks  of  the  waters  of  Babylon  were  planted  with  willows, 
which  are  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures.  Thus,  Isaiah  (xv.  7.), 
describing  in  prophetic  language  the  captivity  of  the  Moabites  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  says,  that  they  shall  be  carried  away  to  the 
valley  of  -willows.  The  territory  surrounding  the  ruins  of 
ancient  Babylon,  is  at  present  composed  chiefly  of  plains,  whose 
soil  is  rich ;  and  the  river  banks  are  still  hoary  with  reeds,  and 
covered  with  the  grey  osier  willows,  on  which  the  captives  of 
Israel  suspended  their  harps  (Psal.  cxxxvii.  1 — 4.),  and  refused 
to  be  comforted,  while  their  conquerors  tauntingly  commanded 
them  to  sing  the  songs  of  Sion.  (Sir  R.  K.  Porter's  Travels  in 
Georgia,  &c.  vol.  ii.  p.  297.)  The  most  terrible  denunciations 
were  uttered  against  Babylon  by  the  Hebrew  prophets  (compare 
Vol.  I.  p,  12&.)  the  literal  fulfilment  of  whose  predictions  has 
been  shown  hy  various  modern  travellers  who  have  described 
the  present  state  of  its  ruins.  (See  particularly  Mr.  Rich's  Two 
Memoirs  on  the  Ruins  of  Babylon,  the  accuracy  of  whose  state- 
ments is  confirmed  by  Mr,  Buckingham,  in  the  interesting  de- 
scription contained  in  his  Travels  in  Mesopotamia,  vol.  ii.  pp.  258 
—394. :  Sir  R.  K.  Porter's  Travels  in  Georgia,  &c.  vol.  ii.  pp.  308 
—332.  337 — 400. ;  and  the  Hon.  Capt.  Keppel's  Narrative  of 
Travels  from  India,  vol.  i.  pp.  171 — 188.,  who  also  attests  the 
accuracy  of  Mr.  Rich,  and  has  adopted  his  measurements.)  The 
prophet  Isaiah,  describing  the  calamities  that  were  to  be  inflicted 
on  Babylon  by  Cyrus,  calls  this  city  the  desert  of  the  sea.  Jere- 
miah, to  the  same  purport,  says  (Ii.  36.  42.),  I  will  dry  up  the 
sea  of  Habylon  and  make  her  springs  dry. — The  sea  is  come 
lip  upon  her.  She  is  covered  with  the  multitude  of  the  waves 
thereof.  Megasthenes  (in  Eusebius  De  Pra;p.  E  vang.  lib.  ix.  c.41 .) 
states,  that  Babylon  was  built  in  a  place  which  had  before  so 
greatly  abounded  with  water,  that  it  was  called  the  sea. 

Babylon  was  very  advantageously  situated,  both  in  respect  to 
commerce  and  as  a  naval  power.  It  was  open  to  the  Persian 
Gulf  by  the  Euphrates,  which  was  navigable  by  large  vessels; 
and  being  joined  to  the  Tigris  above  Babylon,  by  the  canal 
called  JWiharinalca,  or  the  Royal  River,  supplied  the  city  with 
the  produce  of  the  whole  country  to  the  north  of  it,  as  far  as  tha 
Euxine  and  Caspian  Seas,  Semiramis  was  the  foundress  of  thii 
part  also  of  the  Babylonian  greatness.  She  improved  the  navi- 
gation of  the  Euphrates,  and  is  said  to  have  had  a  fleet  of  three 
thousand  galleys.  We  are  not  to  wonder  that,  in  later  times,  wa 
hear  little  of  the  commerce  and  naval  power  of  Babylon :  5or, 
after  the  capture  of  the  city  by  Cyrus,  the  Euphrates  was  not 
only  rendered  less  fit  for  navigation  by  being  diverted  from  its 
course,  and  left  to  spread  over  the  country ;  but  the  Persian 
monarchs,  residing  in  their  own  country,  in  order  to  prevent  any 
invasion^  by  sea  on  that  part  of  their  empire,  purposely  obstructed 
the  navigation  of  both  rivers  by  makilig  cataracts  in  them ;  that 
is,  by  raising  dams  across  the  channel,  and  making  artificial  falls 
in  them,  so  that  no  vessel  of  any  size  or  force  could  possibly  come 
up.  Alexander  began  to  restore  the  navigation  of  the  rivers  by 
demolishing  the  cataracts  upon  the  Tigris,  as  far  up  as  Seleucia, 
but  he  did  not  live  to  complete  his  great  designs ;  those  upon  the 
Euphrates  still  continued,  Ammianus  Marcellinus  mentions 
them  as  subsisting  in  his  time.  The  prophet  Isaiah  (xliii.  14., 
Bishop  Lowth's  translation)  speaks  of  the  Chaldxans  exulting 
in  their  ships  ;  which,  Bp.  L.  remarks,  he  might  justly  do,  in  his 
time,  though  afterwards  they  had  no  foundation  for  any  such 
boast,     (Bp,  Lowth,  on  Isa.  xliii.  14,) 


412 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND   GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


BA 


Babylon  rapidly  declined  during  the  Persian  dynasty :  Darius 
Hyatapcs  broke  down  the  walls  and  took  away  the  gates,  which 
Cyrus  had  spared.  Alexander  the  Great  designed  to  rebuild  the 
temple  of  Belus,  which  had  gone  to  dec^y,  and  actually  employed 
ten  thousand  labourers  for  two  months  in  removing  the  rubbish ; 
but  the  attempt  was  rendered  abortive  by  his  premature  death, 
in  the  flower  of  his  age,  and  pride  of  conquest.  Seleucus  Nicator, 
his  successor  in  the  kingdom  of  Syria,  dismantled  and  spoiled 
Babylon,  to  build  Scleucia  in  its  neighbourhood,  to  which  h^ 
transplanted  the  inhabitants;  and  in  Strabo's  time,  about  the 
Christian  tEra,  "  the  greater  part  of  Babylon  was  become  a  desert," 
which  the  Parthian  kings  converted  into  a  park,  where  they  took 
the  recreation  of  hunting,  in  Jerome's  time,  a.  d.  340.  Its  ruins 
are  now  the  haunts  of  lions  and  other  beasts  of  prey.  Thus 
gradually  have  been  fulfilled  the  predictions  of  Scripture  : — "  Ba- 
bylon, the  beauty  of  kingdoms,  the  glory  of  the  pride  of  the 
Chaldeans,  shall  become  as  Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  which  God 
overthrew.  It  shall  never  be  re-established,  neither  shall  it  be 
inhabited  from  generation  to  generation.  The  Arab  shall  not 
pitch  his  tent  there,  nor  shall  the  shepherd  make  his  fold  there : 
the  wild  beuKls  of  the  desert  shall  lie  there,  and  howling  monsters 
shall  fill  their  houses : — for  her  time  is  near  to  come,  and  her 
days  shall  not  be  prolonged."  (Isaiah  xiii.  19 — 22.) 

The  remains  of  ancient  Babylon,  as  described  by  recent  tra- 
vellers, arc  so  vast,  that  the  whole  could  never  be  suspected  of 
having  been  the  work  of  human  hands,  were  it  not  for  the  layers 
of  bricks  which  are  found  therein.  They  are  fire-baked,  and  ce- 
mented with  zepht,  or  bitumen  ;  between  each  layer  are  found 
oziers.  Here  are  found  those  large  and  thick  bricks  imprinted 
with  unknown  characters,  specimens  of  which  are  preserved  in 
the  British  Museum,  in  the  Museum  of  the  East  India  Company, 
and  in  other  depositories  of  antiquities.  The  composition  of 
these  bricks  corresponds  exactly  with  the  account  given  by  the 
sacred  historian  of  the  builders  of  Babel.  Let  lis  make  brick 
(said  they),  and  burn  them  thoroughly,  ^^iid  they  had  brick 
for  stone,  and  slime  had  they  for  mortar.  (Gen.  xi.  3.) 

The  name  of  Babylon  was  mystically  given  to  Rome  by  the 
apostle  Peter,  as  we  have  shown  at  length  in  the  critical  preface 
to  his  first  epistle,  in  Vol.  II.  pp.  361,  362.     The 

Baiitloxiax  Kin(;i)om 
was  founded  by  the  celebrated  hunter  and  hero  Nimrod,  after  the 
dispersion  which  followed  the  unsuccessful  attempt  to  build  the 
tower  of  Babel.  "  It  extended  from  Babylon  in  Mcso-potamia 
towards  the  north,  over  Calneh  (Ctesiphon),  as  far  as  Accad 
(Nisibis)  and  Erech  (Edessa),  including  the  whole  land  of  Shi- 
nar.  But,  however  powerful  for  those  times,  we  cannot  suppose 
it  to  have  been  either  populous  or  well  organized.  Even  the 
four  cities,  which  are  mentioned  as  the  strongholds  of  this  king- 
dom, were  nothing  more  than  small  villages  slightly  fortified.  As 
this  was  the  first  attempt  to  establish  an  extensive  domain,  it 
must  have  been  universally  disagreeable  to  the  men  of  that  period. 
Consequently,  it  wiis  of  short  duration;  and  Nimrod's  Babylon 
must  not  Iw  regarded  as  the  germ  of  that  universal  monarchy 
which  look  its  rise  in  a  later  acjc,  and  among  a  different  people." 
(Jahn's  Hebrew  Commonwealth,  vol.  i.  p.  6.) 
Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  Babtlomax  or  CiiALn.TiAN  Em- 
FIRK,  to  illustrate  the  Predictions  of  the  Prophets. 

A.M.  3398,  B.  c.  606.  Nabopolassar  having  associated  his  son 
NEBicHAnNEzzAii  with  him  in  the  empire,  sent  him  to  reduce 
the  provinces  of  Syria  and  Palestine,  which  had  revolted  from 
him.  In  his  way  thither,  the  young  prince  defeated  the  army 
of  Pharaoh  IS'echo  king  of  Egypt,  and  recaptured  (yarchomish. 
(Jer.  xlvi.  2.)  Having  penetrated  into  Juda;a,  he  besieged  Jeru- 
salem, and  took  it,  and  caused  Jehoiakim,  the  son  of  Josiah,  king 
of  Judah,  to  be  put  in  chains,  intending  to  have  him  carried  to 
Babylon  ;  but,  being  moved  with  his  rei)entancc  and  allliction, 
he  restored  him  to  his  throne.  (2  Chron.  xxxvi.  6.)  Great  num- 
bers of  the  Jews,  and  among  the  rest,  some  children  of  the  royal 
family,  were  carried  captive  to  Babylon,  whither  all  the  royal 
treasures,  and  part  of  the  sacred  vcsscIh  of  thi;  temple,  were  like- 
wise transported.  (2  Cliron.  xxxvi.  7.  Dan.  i.  1 — 7.)  Thus  w.as 
accomplished  th<!  judgment  which  (tod  had  denounced  to  llezo 
kiah  by  the  prophet  Isaiah,  (xxxix.  .*) — 7.)  From  this  celebruled 
period,  which  was  the  fourth  year  of  Jehoiakim  king  of  Jmlah, 
we  arc  to  date  the  seventy  years'  captivity  of  the  Jews' at  Baby- 
lon, so  often  fortifold  by  Jeremiah.  Arnoni?  the  mcmlM-rs  of  the 
royal  family  thus  taken  cai)tivcs  was  the  prophet  Daniel;  Ezekiel 
followed  some  time  aflcrwards, 

A.  M.  3399,  B.C.  605.  Nabopolaasar  died,  and  Nebuchadnezzar 
began  to  reign  alone ;  and  in  the  fourth  year  of  his  empire  he 


B  A 

had  the  memorable  vision  related  and  interpreted  by  the  prophet 
Daniel,  (ii.)  At  this  time  Jehoiakim  revolted  from  the  king  of 
Babylon,  whose  generals  marched  against  him,  and  ravaged  his 
country.  (2  Kings  xxiv.  1,  2.)  Jehoiakim  "  slept  with  his  fathers," 
neither  regretted  nor  lamented  by  his  subjects,  agreeably  to  the 
prediction  of  Jeremiah  (xxii.  IS,  19.)  ;  though  the  precise  man- 
ner of  its  fulfilment  is  not  recorded  by  the  sacred  historian.  Je- 
hoiachin  or  Jeconiah,  also  called  Coniah  (Jer.  xxii.  24.),  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  and  iniquity  of  his  father;  and  in  the  eighth 
year  of  his  reign  Jerusalem  was  besieged  and  taken  by  the 
generals  of  Nebuchadnezzar ;  and  Jehoiachin,  together  with  part 
of  the  nobility,  and  the  princes  of  the  people,  were  carried  into 
captivity,  to  13abylon.  (2  Kings  xxiv.  6 — 16.) — Mattaniah,  also 
called  Zedekiah,  who  was  the  uncle  of  Jehoiachin,  was  elevated 
to  the  throne,  and  left  at  Jerusalem,  a.  m.  3405,  b.  c.  699. 
(2  Kings  xxiv.  17.) 

Nebuchadnezzar  did  not  continue  long  at  Babylon.  Having 
received  intelligence  that  Zedekiah  had  made  an  alliance  with 
Pharaoh  Hophra  king  of  Egypt,  and  had  violated  his  oath  of 
fidelity,  Nebuchadnezzar  marched  against  him,  defeated  his  forces, 
and  laid  siege  to  Jerusalem,  agreeably  to  the  prediction  of  Jere- 
miah, (xliv.  30.)  The  arrival  of  the  Egyptian  monarch,  at  the 
head  of  a  powerful  army,  gave  the  besieged  a  gleam  of  hope, 
but  their  joy  was  of  short  duration.  The  Egyptians  were  de-  ■ 
feated,  and  the  conqueror  returned  to  Jerusalem,  which  he  took 
by  storm,  after  a  siege  of  two  years,  a.  m.  3416,  b.  c.  588,  Ze- 
dekiah was  arrested  in  his  flight,  and  conducted  to  Riblath, 
where  Nebuchadnezzar  was.  After  seeing  his  two  children  put 
to  death  before  his  face,  the  Jewish  king  was  deprived  of  both 
his  eyes,  loaded  with  chains,  and  carried  to  Babylon,  where  he 
died.  Jerusalem  was  destroyed,  the  temple  pillaged  and  burnt, 
and  the  chief  of  the  people  that  yet  survived  were  carried  into 
captivity  beyond  the  Euphrates.  Only  a  wretched  remnant  of 
the  common  people  was  left  in  Judcea,  under  the  government  of 
Gedaliah  the  son  of  .Ahikam  (Jer.  xl.  5.)  ;  who  being  afterwards 
put  to  death  by  Ishmael  the  son  of  Nethaniah,  part  of  the  people 
withdrew  into  Egypt  with  Jeremiah  (xli.  xlii.),  and  the  rest  were, 
a  few  years  afterwards,  transported  to  Babylon  by  Nebuzaradan. 
(Jer.  lii.  30.) 

A.M.  3419,  II. c.  5?5.  Three  years  after  the  capture  of  Jeru- 
salem, Nebuchadnezzar  commenced  the  siege  of  Tyre ;  he  closely 
invested  it  for  twelve  years,  and  in  the  thirteenth  year  of  the 
siege  he  took  that  city.  During  this  interval  he  waged  war  with 
the  Sidonians,  Ammonites,  Moabites,  and  Edomites,  or  Idumeans, 
in  conformity  with  the  prophecies  of  Jeremiah,  Ezckiel  and  Oba- 
diah.  (Jer.  xliii.  xliv.  xlvi.  Ezek.  xxvi. — xxviii.  Obad.  through- 
out.) Having  captured  Tyre,  Nebuchadnezzar  entered  Egypt, 
and  laid  waste  the  whole  country.  (Ezek.  xxix. — xxxi.)  Pha- 
raoh Hophra  (the  Apries  of  profane  historians)  was  put  to  death 
by  his  enemies  (Jer.  xliv.  30.  Ezek.  xxxii.)  ;  and  Ainasis,  his 
rival  for  the  throne,  was  left  to  govern  that  country  in  his  stead 
Nebuchadnezzar  carried  a  great  number  of  captives  from  Egypt 
to  Babylon. 

After  his  return  from  these  successful  expeditions,  NebuchaJ 
nezzar  employed  himself  in  embellishing  Babylon  ;  but,  to  hum- 
ble his  pride,  God  sent  him  the  memorable  admonitory  dream, 
recorded  by  the  prophet  Daniel  (iv.  1 — 27.);  and  twelve  months 
afterwards  he  was  bereft  of  his  senses,  precisely  in  the  manner 
that  had  been  foretold.  (28 — 33.)  At  length  he  recovered  his 
understanding  (34 — 37.),  and  shortly  after  died,  in  the  forty- 
third  year  of  bis  reign,  a.  m.  3442,  b.  r.  r^G'h  He  was  succeeded 
by  Evil-.Mkhoiiacm,  who  reigned  only  two  years.  He  liberated 
Jehoachin  king  of  Judah,  who  had  l>een  detained  in  captivity 
nearly  thirty-seven  years.  (Jer.  lii,  31.)  Evil-Merodach  becom- 
ing odious  to  his  subjects  in  consccjucnce  of  his  debaucheries 
and  iniijuities,  his  own  relations  conspired  against  him,  and  put 
him  to  death.  Neriglissar,  one  of  the  conspirators,  reigned  in 
his  stead  ;  and  after  a  short  reign  of  four  years,  being  slain  in 
battle,  he  was  succeeded  by  Laborosoorchod,  a  wicked  and  inglo- 
rious prince,  whom  his  sulijects  jiut  to  death  for  his  crimes.  To 
him  succeeded  Bklshazzah,  called  by  Berosus,  Nelmnidus,  and 
by  Heroditus,  Labynitus.  He  is  8ui'|>osed  to  have  been  the  son 
of  Kvil-Mcrodaeh,  and  conse(iuenlly  the  grandson  of  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, to  whom,  according  to  the  prophecy  of  Jeremiah,  all  the 
nations  of  the  cast  were  to  be  subject,  as  also  to  his  son  and 
grandson,  ((^almet,  Precis  dc  I'llistoire  Prophano  dc  I'Orient, 
§  II.     Dissertations,  toni.  ii.  pi>.  333 — 335.) 

BAiiri.oviAN  IiMiLS,  notice  of,  139. 

Baithtlia,  or  consecrated  stones,  notice  of,  138. 

Balaa.w,  the  son  of  Bcor,  dwell  at  Pcthor  in  Mesopotamia, 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL, 
B  A 

not  far  frjm  the  river  Euphrates.     He  was  sent  for  by  Balak 
king  of  Moab  to  curse  the  Israelites;  but  instead  of  curses,  he 
pronounced  only  blessings.  (Num.  xxii. — xxiv.)     It  is  a  ques- 
tion much  debated  among  commentators,  whether  Balaam  was 
1  true  prophet  of  the  Lord,  or  only  a  magician  and  diviner  or 
fortune-teller :  and  the  arguments  on  each  side  are  so  strong,  as 
to  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  he  was  both — a  Chalda;an  priest, 
magician,  and  astrologer  by  profession,  a  prophet  by  accident. 
He  dwelt  in  a  country,  which,  from  time  immemorial,  was  cele- 
brated for   the   observation  of  the  stars ;  and  the  astronomy  of 
antiquity  was  never,  perhaps,  free  from  astrology.     His  fame,  in 
every  thing  which  at  that  lime  formed  the  science  of  Chaldaia, 
filled  Asia :  the  honours  and  presents  which  he  received,  show 
the  high  estimation  in  which  he  was  held.     It  is  a  circumstance, 
moreover,  worthy  of  remark,  that  his  religion  was  not  a  pure 
idolatry.     He  knew  and  served  the  Lonn  :  the  knowledge  and 
worship  of  the  true  God  did  not  simultaneously  disappear  among 
the  nations;  as  is  evident  from  the  circumstances  recorded  of 
Melchisedek,  Jethro,  and,  perhaps,  Abimelech.     The  history  of 
Balaam  presents  the  last  trace  of  the  knowledge  of  the  true  God, 
which  is  found  out  of  Canaan.     If  the  rites  celebrated  by  him 
were  not  devoid  of  superstition ;  if  it  be  difficult  to  put  a  favoura- 
ble construction  upon  the  enchantments  which  Moses  seems  to 
attribute  to  him,  it  only  follows  that  Balaam,  like  Laban,  blended 
error  and  truth.     The  mixed  religion,  thus  professed  by  him, 
furnishes  a  key  to  his  mysterious  history.     Sacerdotal  maledic- 
tions were  at  that  time  regarded  as  inevitable  scourges,  and  the 
people  of  Moab  and  Midian   thought  that  they  should  find  in 
Moab  an  adversary,  who  was  capable  of  opposing  Moses;  and  it 
was  only  opposing  a  prophet  to  a  prophet,  a  priest  to  a  priest. 
In  the  judgment  of  these  nations,  Moses  was  a  formidable  magi- 
cian ;  and,  as  Pharaoh  had  done  forty  years  before,  they  sought 
out,  on  their  part,  a  magician,  to  defend  them :  they  wished  to 
curse  the  Israelites  in  the  very  name  of  Jehovah,  whom  they 
supposed  to  be  a  more  powerful  deity  than  their  own  god.  These 
circumstances  will  enable  us  without  difficulty  to  conceive  how 
Balaam  received  the  gift  of  prophecy.     The  terms  employed  by 
the  sacred  historian  are  so  express,  as  to  leave  no  doubt  that  he, 
occasionally,  at  least,  was  inspired.     Besides,  his  predictions  are 
extant ;  nor  does  it  avail  to  say,  that  Balaam  was  a  wicked  man. 
The  gift  of  prophecy  did  not  always  sanctify  the  heart.  (See 
Matt.  vii.  22.)     If,  then,  we  refer  to  the  circumstances  of  that 
memorable  day,  we  shall  find  in  that  dispensation  reasons  worthy 
of  the  divine  wisdom.    The  Hebrews  had  arrived  on  the  borders 
of  Canaan,  which  country  they  were  on  the  point  of  entering ; 
they  knew  that  Moses  would  not  enter  it ;  and  in  order  to  en- 
courage the  people  to  eflect  the  conquest  of  the  promised  land, 
even  without  Moses,  God  caused  one  who  was  hostile  to  them 
to  utter  predictions  of  their  victory.     How  encouraging  must 
this  circumstance  have  been  to  the  Hebrews,  at  the  same  time 
that  it  would  prove  to  them  (who  were  about  to  come  into  con- 
tinual contact  with  the  Canaanites)  how  vain  and  useless  against 
them  would  be  the  superstitions  of  those  idolatrous-  nations.  The 
three  hills  on  which  Balaam  offered  sacrifices  in  the  presence  of 
the  Israelitish  camp,  remind  us  of    one  of  the    prejudices  of 
ancient  times.     The  ancients  believed  that  a  change  of  aspect 
induced  a  change  of  condition.     On  this  subject  compare  p.  90. 

Baladax,  or  Meiiodach-Baladak,  the  Belesis  and  Nabonas- 
sar  of  profane  historians,  and  the  founder  of  the  Babylonian 
empire.  Originally  only  governor  of  Babylon,  he  entered  into 
a  conspiracy  with  Arbaces,  governor  of  Media,  against  Sardana- 
palus,  king  of  Assyria ;  on  whose  death  he  had  Babylon  for  his 
share  of  the  dominions  of  Sardanapalus,  as  already  related  in 
p.  192.  of  this  Index. 

Balak,  king  of  Moab,  is  known  only  by  the  circumstance  of 
his  having  invited  Balaam  to  his  assistance  against  the  Israelites. 
See  Balaam. 

Balm  of  Gilead,  36. 

Banishment,  a  Jewish  punishment,  notice  of,  66. 

Baptism  of  Proselytes,  109.  Analogy  between  Circumcision 
and  Baptism.     See  p.  110.  and  note. 

Barabbas,  the  name  of  a  seditious  robber,  whose  release  the 
Jews  demanded  of  Pilate.  (John  xviii.  40.) 

Bahachias,  the  father  of  Zacharias,  mentioned  in  Matt,  xxiii. 
35.,  is  supposed  to  have  been  Jehoiada  the  high-priest;  it  being 
not  uncommon  among  the  Jews  to  have  two  names. 

Bahak,  the  son  of  Abinoam,  who,  in  conjunction  with  Debo- 
rah, delivered  the  Israelites  from  the  oppression  of  the  Canaan- 
ites. (Judg.  iv.  v.  Heb.  xi.  32.) 

Barbarian,  one  who  belongs  to  a  diflercnt  nation^  and  uses 


413 


AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 

B  E 

a  different  language.     In  this  sense  the  word  was  used  by  the 
Greeks,  Romans,  and  Jews.     Under  the  terms  "Greeks"  and 
"  Barbarians"  Saint  Paul  comprehends  all  mankind. 
Bargains  and  Sales,  how  made  and  ratified,  81. 
Bak-jesus,  a  Jewish  magician  in  the  island  of  Crete;  who 
opposing  Paul  and  Barnabas,  and  endeavouring  to  prevent  Ser- 
gius  Paulus  from  embracing  Christianity,  was  by  St.  Paul  struck 
blind.  (Acts  xiii.  6.)    On  the  nature  of  this  blindness,  see  p.  197, 
The  same  miracle,  which  punished  the  impostor,  converted  the 
proconsul.     St.  Luke  calls  him  Elymas,  an  Arabic  name  signi- 
fying sorcerer.     He  is  supposed  to  have  been  one  of  the  procon- 
sul's council,  who  was  apprehensive  of  losing  his  credit,  if  the 
Roman  became  a  Christian. 

Bar-jonah,  a  patronymic  appellation  of  the  apostle  Peter. 
(Matt.  xvi.  17.) 

Barnabas,  a  surname  of  Joses,  a  Levite  by  descent,  and  born 
of  parents  who  lived  in  the  Isle  of  Cyprus.  Having  embraced 
Christianity,  he  became  St.  Paul's  principal  associate  in  his 
labours  for  propagating  the  Gospel.  He  is  supposed  to  have 
received  the  name  of  Barnabas,  which  signifies  a  son  of  coiisola- 
tion,  after  his  conversion  to  the  faith  of  Jesus  Christ.  (Acts  iv. 
36.  ix.  27.  xi.  22.  25. 30.  xii.  25.  xiii.  1,  2.) 

Bartholomew,  one  of  the  twelve  apostles,  is  supposed  to 
have  been  Nathaniel,  who  was  one  of  Christ's  first  disciples. 
According  to  ecclesiastical  tradition,  after  preaching  the  Gospel 
in  Persia  and  Arabia,  he  suflfered  martyrdom  at  Albanopolis. 

Bartim;eus,  or  the  son  of  Timoeus,  a  blind  beggar  of  Jericho, 
to  whom  Jesus  Christ  miraculously  imparted  the  gift  of  sicht 
(Mark  X.  46.)  &  fa     ■ 

Baruch,  the  son  of  Neriah,  descended  from  an  illustrious 
family  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  was  the  scribe  or  secretary  anc 
faithful  friend  of  the  prophet  Jeremiah,  whom  he  accompanied 
into  Egypt.  (Jer.  xxxvi.)  For  an  analysis  of  the  apocryphal 
book  of  Baruch,  see  p.  291,  292. 

Bashan,  or  Batan^a,  district  of,  18.  Forest  of  Bashan 
See  p.  36.  i 

Baskets  of  the  Jews,  155. 

Bath,  much  used  in  the  East,  170. 

Bath-Kol,  or  voice  from  heaven.     See  p.  256. 

Bathsheba,  or  Bathshua,  the  daughter  of  Eliarn  or  Ammiel, 
and  the  wife  of  Uriah  the  Hittite.  After  his  murder  she  became 
the  wife  of  David,  who  had  previously  committed  adultery  with 
her.     She  subsequently  was  the  mother  of  Solomon. 

Battle,  order  of,  89. 

Bkard,  reverence  of,  in  the  East,  157. 
forbidden  to  be  marred,  142. 

Beating  to  Death,  punishment  of,  68. 

Beatitudes,  Mount  of,  notice  of,  30. 

Beautiful  Gate  of  the  Temple,  99. 

Beelzebub,  or  Belzebub.     See  p.  138. 

Beehoth,  a  city  belonging  to  the  Gibeonites,  which  was  after- 
wards given  up  to  the  tribe  of  Benjamin.  (Josh.  ix.  7.  2  Sam. 
iv.  2.)  According  to  Eusebius,  it  was  seven  Roman  miles  dis- 
tant from  Jerusalem,  on  the  road  to  Nicopolis. 

Beehsheba  (the  well  of  an  oath,  or  the  well  of  seven),  be- 
cause here  Abraham  made  an  alliance  with  Abimelech,  king  of 
Gerar,  and  gave  him  seven  ewe-lamhs,  in  token  of  that  covenant 
to  which  they  had  sworn.  (Gen.  xx.  31.)  Beersheba  was  given 
by  Joshua  to  the  tribe  of  Judah ;  afterwards  it  was  transferred 
to  Simeon.  (Josh.  xv.  28.)  It  was  twenty  miles  from  Hebron^ 
south  ;  here  was  a  Roman  garrison,  in  Eusebius's  and  Jerome's 
time.  The  limits  of  the  Holy  Land  (as  we  have  already  remark- 
ed) are  often  expressed  in  Scripture,  by  the  terms — "  From  Dan 
to  Beersheba"  (2  Sam  xvii.  11,  &c.),  Dan  being  the  northenij 
Beersheba  the  southern  extremity  of  the  land. 

Beggars,  treatment  of,  83. 

Beheading,  punishment  of,  68. 

Bel,  a  Babylorush  idol,  139. 

Belshazzar,  the  last  monarch  of  Babylon,  grandson  of  Ne- 
buchadnezzar, who  was  slain  while  carousing  with  his  officers ; 
the  city  being  taken,  and  the  empire  translated  to  Cyaxares, 
whom  the  Scriptures  call  Darius  the  Mede. 

Belt,  or  Girdle  (Military),  Notice  of,  88. 

Benhadad  I.  king  of  Syria,  who,  gained  by  the  presents  of 
Asa  king  of  Judah,  broke  off  his  alliance  with  Baasha  king  of 
Israel,  and  assisted  him  against  the  latter.  (1  Kings  xv.  18.)  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  son, 

Benhadad  II.,  who  made  war  against  Ahab  king  of  Israel., 
and  was  defeated.  He  also  made  war  against  Jehoram  the  son  of, 
Ahab ;  but  by  means  of  the  prophet  Elisha  was  obliged  to  return 


The  corners  of,  why 


414 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


BE 

into  his  country  again,  as  related  in  2  Kings  vi.  Shortly  after 
he  besieged  Samaria,  which  city  he  reduced  to  tlic  utmost  distress 
(2  Kings  vii.)  ;  bur,  his  anny  being  seized  with  a  panic,  they 
deserted  the  besieged  city,  and  returned  home.  In  the  following 
year,  Benhadad  was  murdered  by  Hazael,  who  succeeded  to  the 
throne  of  Syria.  (2  Kings  viii.) 

Bexjamix,  the  youngest  son  of  Jacob  and  Rachel,  one  of 
the  twelve  patriarchs.  From  him  was  descended  the  tribe  of 
Benjamin  ;  for  the  bituation,  &c.  of  the  canton  allotted  to  which, 
sec  p.  17. 

Bkrvchah,  Valley  of,  31. 

BrufA,  a  city  of  Macedonia,  where  Paul  preached  the  Gospel 
with  great  success.  The  historian  Luke  gives  an  honourable 
character  to  the  Bereans,  in  Acts  xviii.  10. 

BtiiMCT,  notice  of,  52. 

Br.^on,  BnooK,  26. 

Br.THAi!AnA,  the  place  of  the  ford  or  passage,  viz.  of  the  Jor- 
dan. It  is  mentioned  in  John  i.  28.,  where  the  best  manuscripts, 
the  \'ulgate,  Saxon,  and  both  the  Syriac  versions,  as  well  as  the 
Greek  paraphrase  of  I>fonnus,  read  lihd  j.viu.  The  reading  Byiflx- 
Bifx  seems  to  have  arisen  from  the  mere  conjecture  of  Origen ; 
who,  in  travelling  through  that  region,  found  no  such  place  as 
Bj^Sic/i,  but  saw  e  town  called  Uti^ifi  -p*.,  and  therefore  changed 
the  common  reading.   (Campbell  and  Blomfield  on  John  i.  20.) 

B>  TIIAST. 

1.  A  town  in  Jud.-Da,  where  Lazarus  dwelt,  and  where  he  was 
raised  from  the  dead,  was  fifteen  furlongs  east  from  Jerusalem, 
on  the  way  to  Jericho  (John  xi.  8.),  and  was  situated  on  the 
retired  and  shady  side  of  Mount  Olivet.  It  is  now  a  miserable 
little  village,  consisting  of  a  cluster  of  mud  hovels.  Somewhere 
on  this  side  of  that  mountainous  tract,  which  reached  within 
eight  furlongs  of  Jerusalem,  from  wliich  it  was  only  a  Sabbath- 
day's  journey,  Mr.  Jowett,  with  great  probability,  places  the 
scene  of  the  Ascension:  "for  it  is  said  (LuHe  xxiv.  .00,  51.), 
that  Jesus  Christ  led  his  disciples  out  as  far  as  to  Bethany,  and 
then  was  parted  from  them  and  carried  up  into  heaven.  'J'he 
orcvious  conversation,  as  related  in  the  beginning  of  the  Acts  of 
tne  Apostles  (i.  G — 9.),  would  probably  occupy  some  time  while 
walKmg  toward  Bethany;  for  we  must  not  judge  of  the  length 
of  our  Lord's  discourses  by  the  brevity  with  which  the  evange- 
lists record  them.  Here  the  last  sparks  of  earthly  ambition  were 
extinguished  in  the  bosoms  of  the  apostles  ;  and  they  were  pre- 
pared to  expect  that  purer  fire  which  was  ere  long  to  burst  forth 
upon  the  day  of  Pentecost.  Here  their  Head  was  taken  from 
them  ;  and  two  or  three  ministering  spirits  of  his  train,  becoming 
visible  to  their  eyes,  interrupted  »l.eir  mute  astonishment,  and 
dismissed  them  to  their  proper  stations."  At  present  the  culti- 
vation around  Bethany  is  much  neglected ;  though  it  is  a  plea- 
sant, romantic  spot,  abounding  in  trees  and  long  grass.  Various 
supposed  Bites  of  the  houses  of  Lazarus,  of  Martha,  of  Simon 
the  leper,  and  of  Mary  Magdalene,  are  pointed  out  to  credulous 
Hud  ignorant  Christians.  (Jowett's  Christian  Researches  in  Syria, 
pp.  256—258.     Richardson's  Travels,  vol.  ii.  p.  371.) 

2.  A  village  on  the  eastern  side  of  Jordan,  where  John  bap- 
tized.   (John  i.  28  )     Its  exact  position    is   not   known.     Sec 

Bf.TIIAnAIlA. 

Bktu-avkx,  a  city  not  far  from  Ai,  the  same  as  Bf.tiikl, 
where  Jeroboam  I.  set  up  his  golden  calves  :  whence  the  prophet 
Hosca  (iv.  15.)  in  derision  calls  it  Bcth-Aven,  that  is,  the  Il'juse 
of  Vanity,  or  of  Idols  ;  instead  of  Bethel,  or  the  flniise  of  God, 
which  name  had  been  given  to  it  by  the  patriarch  Jacob  after  his 
memorable  vision,  related  in  Gen.  xxvii. 

Bkihesda,  pool  of,  20. 

Bktiilkiikm,  now  calN'd  Bkit-I.aiiiim,  was  a  celebrated  city, 
about  six  miles  south-west  from  Jerusalem :  it  was  formerly 
called  Ephrath  or  Ephrata.  (Gen.  xxxv.  19.  xlviii.  7.  Mic.  v.  2.) 
It  Wi.s  a  city  in  the  time  of  Boaz  (Ruth  iii.  II.  iv.  1.),  and  wa.s 
fortified  by  Rehoboam.  (2  Chron.  xi.  G.)  In  Matt.  ii.  1.  5.  it  is 
called  Bethlehem  of  Juda;a,  to  distinguish  it  from  another  town 
of  the  same  name  situated  in  Lower  (jnlilee,  and  mentioned  in 
Josh.  xix.  15.  In  Luke  ii.  4.  it  is  called  the  city  of  David,  be- 
cau.sc  Uavid  was  born  and  educated  there.  (Compare  John  vii. 
42.  and  1  Sam.  xvi.  1.  18.)  This  cityi  though  not  considendil.' 
lor  its  extent  or  riches,  is  of  great  dignity  as  the  appointed  birth- 
place of  the  Mciisiah  (Matt.  ii.  0.  Luke  ii.  f — 15.) :  it  is  plea- 
Kantly  situateJ  on  the  brow  of  an  eminence,  in  a  very  fertile  soil, 
which  only  wants  cultivation  to  render  it  what  the  name  Bethle- 
hem imports — o  house  of  bread.  Between  the  clefts  of  the 
fjck,  when  the  soil  is  culti\.iled,  vines,  figs,  and  olive.i,  ajipear 
o  grow  in  great  luxuriance.     Bethlehem  ij  said  to  be  nearly  as 


BE 

large  as  ?f  azausth,  and  to  contain  from  a  thousand  to  fifteen 
hundred  inhabitants,  who  are  almost  whollx-  Christians,  and  arc 
a  bold,  fierce  race  of  meti,  of  whom  both  Turks  and  Arabs  stand 
in  awe.  On  the  nortli-eastern  side  of  it  is  a  deep  vallej',  wh.ere 
tradition  says  that  the  angels  appeared  to  the  shepherds  of  Judoea, 
with  the  glad  tidings  of  our  Saviour's  nativity  (Luke  ii.  8 — 14.)  : 
and  in  this  valley  Dr.  Clarke  halted  at  the  identical  fountain  for 
whose  delicious  water  David  longed.  (2Sam.  xxiii.  15 — 18.) 
Of  the  various  pretended  holy  places  which  are  here  shown  to 
Christians,  the  cave  of  the  nativity  is  the  only  spot  verified  by 
tradition  from  the  earliest  ages  of  Christianity.  Between  one 
and  two  miles  from  this  place,  on  the  road  to  Jerusalem,  stood 
the  site  of  Rachel's  tomb  (Gen.  xxxv.  19,  20.  1  Sam.  x.  2.), 
which  is  now  covered  by  a  small  square  Mohammedan  building, 
surmounted  by  a  dome,  and  resembling  in  its  exterior  the  tombs 
of  saints  and  sheiks  in  Arabia  and  Egypt.  In  tlie  vicinity  of 
Bethlehem  are  the  pools  of  Solomon,  which  are  described  in  p. 
29.  supra.  (Dr.  Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  iv.  pp.  408 — 420.  Sec  also 
Hasselquist's  Travels,  p.  144.;  Buckingham's  Travels  in  Pales- 
tine, pp.218 — 222.;  Game's  Letters  from  the  East,  p.  277.; 
Three  Weeks  in  Palestine,  p.  49.)  On  the  age  of  the  children 
massacred  at  Bethlehem,  see  Vol.  II.  p.  77.  Historical  evidence 
of  that  fact,  I.  p.  4 1 9. 

Betiu'iiakk,  a  tract  of  land  and  also  a  small  village  at  the  foot 
of  the  Mount  of  Olives,  between  Bethany  and  Jerusalem.  It 
derived  its  name  from  the  abundance  of  figs  which  grew  there. 
This  tract  seems  to  have  run  along  so  near  to  Jerusalem  that  the 
utmost  street  within  the  walls  was  called  by  that  name.  It  is 
mentioned  in  Matt.  xxi.  1.  and  the  parallel  passages  in  the  other 
evangelists. 

Bktusaida,  a  city  beyond  Jordan,  on  the  coast  of  the  sea  of 
Tiberias,  near  the  place  where  the  river  enters  that  sea.  It  was 
originally  a  village,  and  was  enlarged  into  a  city  and  beautified 
by  Philip  the  Tetrarch,  who  called  it  JuHa  in  honour  of  the  em- 
peror's daughter.  It  was  one  of  the  cities  against  which  Christ 
denounced  a  woe  (Matt.  xi.  21.)  for  her  impenitence  and  infi- 
delil}',  after  the  mighty  works  he  had  done  in  her.  It  also  was 
the  residence  of  the  apostles  Philip,  Andrew,  and  Peter.  (John 
i.  44.)  At  present  Bethsaida  exists  in  little  more  than  the  name. 
(Jowett's  Christ.  Researches  in  Syria,  p.  178.) 

Betii-shax  or  B>;Tii-saKAN-,  a  city  belonging  to  the^ialf-tribe 
of  Manasseh,  not  far  from  the  western  banks  of  the  Jordan. 
(1  Sam.  xxxi.  10.)  After  the  defeat  of  the  Israelites,  and  the 
death  of  Saul  and  his  sons,  the  Philistines  fastened  the  body  of 
Saul  to  the  walls  of  this  place,  whence  the  men  of  Jabesh-Gilead 
took  it  down  and  carried  it  away.  In  the  fourth  century  it  was 
a  considerable  town,  and  bore,  as  it  had  done  for  several  ages, 
the  name  of  Scythopolis. 

BkT11S!1KM£SII. 

1.  A  Levitical  city  in  the  tribe  of  Judah,  whither  the  ark  was 
brouglit  after  it  had  been  sent  back  by  the  Philistines.  Some  of 
the  inhabitants,  having  looked  into  it  with  vain  curiosity,  fell 
down  dead,  to  the  number  of  seventy.     (1  Sam.  vi.  19.) 

2.  A  city  in  the  tribe  of  Lssachar.     (Josh,  xix.) 

3.  A  city  in  the  tribe  of  Nuphtali.     (Josh.  xix.  38.  Judg.  i.  33.) 
Bktiilf.i.,  the  son  of  Nahor  and  Milcha,  and  nephew  of  Abra- 
ham, was  the  father  of  Rebekah.     (Gen.  xxii.) 

Bkthllia,  a  small  city,  not  far  from  the  mountain  known  by 
the  name  of  the  .Mountain  of  the  Beatitudes.  It  is  generally 
supposed  to  be  the  city  set  on  a  hill,  mentioned  in  Matt.  v.  14. 
It  stands  on  a  very  eminent  and  conspicuous  mountain,  and  is 
.seen  far  and  near :  it  is  at  present  called  Sakkt,  and  is  a  very 
strong  position,  and  might  well  defy  the  power  of  Holoferncs 
and  his  army.  It  answers  exactly  to  the  description  given  in 
the  apocryphal  book  of  Judith.  (Carne's  Letters,  p.  3G7.)  Snfct 
is  said  to  be  peopled  by  about  four  hundred  Jewish  fiinilics. 
The  prospect  from  this  place  is  very  extensive.  "  The  view," 
says  the  Rev.  Mr.  Jowett,  "  to  the  south  and  on  either  side,  com- 
prehending about  one-third  of  the  circle,  presents  the  most  sur- 
prising assemblage  of  mountains  which  can  be  conceived.  It  i.s, 
if  such  an  expression  may  be  allowed,  one  vast  plain  of  hills.  To 
a  distance  of  twenty  or  thirty  miles  toward  Nazareth,  and  nearly 
the  same  toward  Mount  Tubor  and  Mount  Hermon,  the  fur- 
spreading  country  beneath  is  covered  with  ranges  of  mountains; 
which,  having  passed  over  them,  we  know  to  be  ascentfi  and  do- 
.scents  far  from  inconsiderable  ;  but  which,  from  the  eminence  of 
Safet,  appear  only  as  bold  undulations  of  the  surface  of  the 
earth.  To  the  left  are  the  inhospitable  and  unvisited  mountains 
eastward  of  the  river  Jordan.  In  the  centre  of  the  distant  scene 
appears  the  beautiful  lake  of  Tiberias,  fully  seen  from  one  ex 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


415 


C  .E 

Ircraity  to  the  other ;  and  in  the  background,  stretching  beyond 
he  utmost  power  of  vision,  are  the  mountains  of  Gilead.  On  a 
clear  day  the  View  in  that  direction  must  be  more  than  forty 
miles."     (Jowett's  Researches  in  Syria,  p.  184.) 

Betrothixg  in  marriage,  ceremony  of,  160,  161. 

BiRTU  of  children,  and  privileges  of  the  first-born,  163. 

BiTiirsriA,  a  region  of  Asia  Minor,  bounded  on  the  north  by 
the  Euxine  sea,  on  the  south  by  Phrygia,  on  the  west  by  the 
Propontis,  and  on  the  east  by  Gaiatia.  Saint  Peter  addressed 
his  first  Epistle  (among  others)  to  the  Hebrew  Christians  who 
wfTC  scattered  throughout  Bithynia.     (1  Pet.  i.  1.) 

BLASPHKMr,  punishment  of,  63. 

Blessixg,  valley  of,  notice  of,  31. 

Blixiixess  of  Elymas,  observations  on,  197.  Jewish  Law 
concerning  blind  persons,  82,  S3. 

Bloot-Avkxceh,  office  of,  67. 

BLooDT-OrFEnixGS,  account  of,  117 — 119. 

Bocium,  valley  of,  notice  of,  32. 

Books,  ancient,  form  of.     See  p.  183. 

BoTTL>:s,  form  of,  155.  179. 

BouxDAiiiES  of  the  Holy  Land,  14, 15. 

Bows  of  the  Hebrews,  notice  of,  88. 

BuAZEX  AtTAii'and  Layer,  96. 

Brazex  Serpext,  worship  of,  136,  137. 

Bread,  how  prepared.     See  p.  171. 

Breast-plate  of  the  high-priest,  114.;  and  of  the  Jewish 
soldiers,  87. 

Bricks,  ancient,  form  of,  151.  and  note. 

BiiiToxs  (ancient),  writing  of,  182.  note. 

Bruisixg  in  a  mortar,  punishment  of,  68. 

Bet,  a  Chald£Ean  name  of  the  eighth  month  of  the  Jewish 
civil  year, 

BrniAL,  rites  of,  199 — 201.  Not  always  permitted  to  capi- 
tal priboners  by  the  Romans,  72. 

Blkxixb  to  death,  punishment  of,  63. 

BuRXixr,  of  the  dead,  193,  199. 

Burnt-Offerixgs,  account  of,  118. 


C.F.Sin,  originally  the  surname  of  the  Julian  family.  After 
being  dignified  in  the  person  of  Julius  Caesar,  it  became  the 
usual  appellation  of  those  of  his  family  who  ascended  the  impe- 
rial throne.  The  last  of  these  was  Nero ;  but  the  name  was 
still  retained  by  his  successors,  as  a  sort  of  title  belonging  to  the 
imperial  dignity.  In  the  New  Testament  the  reigning  emperor 
is  called  Cajsar,  without  any  other  distinguishing  appellation. 
The  persons  mentioned  or  alluded  to  by  this  title  are  Augustus 
(Luke  ii.  1.),  Tiberius  (Luke  iii.  1.  xx.  22.  24,  25.),  Claudius 
(Acts  xi.  8.),  and  Nero  (Acts  xxv.  8.  Phil.  iv.  22.) 

C-BSAREA  OF  Palestixe,  SO  Called  as  being  the  metropolis 
of  Palestine  and  the  residence  of  the  Roman  proconsul,  was 
formerly  named  the  Tower  of  Strato ;  but,  its  harbour  being 
extremely  incommodious,  Herod  the  Great  erected  a  spacious 
mole,  and  greatly  enlarged  and  beautified  the  city,  which  he  de- 
nominated Caesarea,  in  honour  of  the  emperor  Augustus,  his 
great  patron,  to  whom  he  dedicated  it  in  the  twenty-eighth  year 
of  his  reign,  with  games  and  other  ceremonies,  in  a  most  solemn 
manner,  and  with  a  profusion  of  expense.  It  is  very  frequently 
mentioned  in  the  New  Testament ;  and  is  sometimes  called,  by 
way  of  eminence,  Caesarea.  Here  Peter  converted  Cornelius  and 
his  kinsmen,  the  first-fruits  of  the  Gentiles  (Acts  x.) ;  here  lived 
Philip  the  Evangelist  (Acts  xxi.  8.)  ;  and  here  St.  Paul  so  ad- 
mirably defended  himself  against  the  Jews  and  their  orator  Ter- 
tuUus.  (Acts  xxiv.)  Cffisarea  now  retains  nothing  of  its  former 
splendour  :  at  present  the  whole  of  the  surrounding  country,  on 
the  land  side,  is  a  sandy  desert :  the  waves  wash  the  ruins  of 
the  moles,  the  towers,  and  the  port,  which  anciently  were  both 
its  ornament  and  its  defence,  towards  the  sea.  Not  a  cieature 
(except  jackals  and  beasts  of  prey)  resides  within  many  miles  of 
this  silent  desolation :  and  its  ruins,  which  are  very  considerable, 
have  long  been  resorted  to  as  a  quarry  whenever  building  mate- 
rials were  required  at  Acre.  (Dr.  Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  iv.  pp. 
446 — 448.  Mr.  Buckingham  has  a  long  and  interesting  descrip- 
tion of  the  ancient  history  and  present  state  of  Cssarea.  See 
his  Travels,  pp.  126—138.) 

C;esarea  Philippi  (formerly  called  Paneas)  was  situated 
near  the  springs  of  the  river  Jordan.  It  was  first  called  Laish  or 
Lcchem  (Judg.  xviii.  7.),  and  after  it  was  subdued  by  the  Dan- 
ites  (v.  29.)  it  received  the  appellation  of  Dan.  Caesarea  was 
Q  day's  journey  from  Sidon  ;  a  day  and  a  half  from  Damascus. 


C  A 


Philip  the  Tetrarch  built  it,  or,  at  least,  embellished  and  enlarged 
it,  and  named  it  Caesarea,  in  honour  of  Tiberius  ;  afterwards,  in 
compliment  to  Nero,  it  was  called  Neronius.  The  woman  who 
was  troubled  with  an  issue  of  blood,  and  healed  by  our  Saviour 
(.Matt.  ix.  20.  Luke  viii.  43.),  is  said  to  have  been  of  Caesarea 
Philippi.  The  present  town  of  Paneas  is  small ;  and  the  ground 
it  stands  on  is  of  a  triangular  form.  From  this  compressed  situa- 
tion the  ancient  city  could  not  have  been  of  great  extent.  (Irby's 
and  Mangles'  Travels,  p.  289.) 

Caiaphas,  also  called  Joseph,  was  high-priest  of  the  Jews  at 
the  time  Jesus  was  crucified,  and  was  a  principal  agent  in  that 
transaction.  (Matt.  xxvi.  3.  57.  Luke  iii.  2.  John  xi.  49.  xviii. 
1 3,  14.  24.  28.  Acts  iv.  6.)     He  was  of  the  sect  of  the  Sadducees. 

Caix,  the  eldest  son  of  Adam  and  Eve.  He  was  the  first 
husbandman,  and  also  the  first  homicide.  (Gen.  iv.)  He  slew 
Abel,  because  his  own  works  were  evil,  and  his  brother's  right- 
eous.    (1  John  iii.  12.) 

Caixax  is  mentioned  in  the  genealogy  of  Jesus  Christ  by  St. 
Luke  (iii.  35,  36.)  as  the  son  of  Arphaxad,  and  father  of  Salah; 
while  in  the  genealogies  preserved  in  Gen.  x.  24.  xi.  12.  and  1 
Chron.  i.  24.  the  son  of  Arphaxad  is  denominated  Salah,  and  no 
mention  is  made  of  this  Cainan.  Various  suppositions  have 
been  offered  to  reconcile  the  seeming  contradiction.  The  sim- 
plest solution  is  always  the  most  certain.  St.  Luke  wrote  for 
those  Christians  who  read  the  Septuagint  Greek  version  more 
than  the  original  Hebrew  ;  and,  consequently,  he  preferred  their 
version,  which  adds  the  name  of  Cainan  to  the  genealogy  of 
Shem. 

Calamities,  with  which  Palestine  was  visited,  38 — 40. 

Caleb,  a  celebrated  Jewish  wanior,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah*, 
who,  as  a  reward  for  his  fidelity,  when  sent,  together  with 
Joshua,  to  explore  the  country  of  Canaan,  was  permitted  to 
enter  the  promised  land,  where  he  obtained  possessions.  (Josh, 
xiv.  6 — 13.)  A  district  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Judah  was 
called  after  his  name.     (1  Sam.  xxx.  14.) 

Calexdar,  Jewish,  75,  76. 

Calf,  golden,  worshipped  by  the  Israelites,  136.  Account  of 
the  golden  calves  of  Jeroboam  I.,  136. 

Calvary,  notice  of,  19. 

Camels,  notice  of,  175. 

Camps  of  the  Hebrews,  form  of,  86,  87. 

Caxa,  a  small  town  of  Galilee,  situated  on  a  gentle  eminence 
to  the  west  of  Capernaum.  This  circumstance  distinctly  proves 
how  accurately  the  writings  of  the  evangelists  correspond  with 
the  geography  and  present  appearance  of  the  country.  The 
ruler  of  Capernaum,  whose  child  was  dangerously  ill,  besought 
Jesus  to  cojne  doiun  and  heal  his  son.  (John  iv.  47 — 51.) 
About  a  quarter  of  a  mile  from  the  small  and  poor  village  (for 
such  it  now  is)  on  the  road  from  Nazareth,  there  is  a  well  of 
delicious  water  close  to  the  road,  whence  all  the  water  is  taken 
for  the  supply  of  the  inhabitants.  At  this  well,  which  is  sup- 
plied by  springs  from  the  mountains  about  two  miles  distant,  it 
is  usual  for  pilgrims  to  halt,  as  being  the  source  of  the  water, 
which  our  Saviour,  by  his  first  public  miracle,  converted  into 
wilie.  (John  ii.  11.)  In  consequence  of  this  miracle,  both  the 
Christian  and  Turkish  inhabitants  of  Cana  cherish  the  singular 
notion  that,  by  drinking  copiously  of  the  water  of  this  spring, 
intoxication  is  produced.  This  place  is  called  Cana  of  Galilee, 
to  distinguish  it  from  Cana  of  Kanah  (Josh.  xi.x.  28.),  which 
belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Asher,  and  was  situated  in  the  vicinity 
of  Sidon.  Here  are  shown  the  ruins  of  a  church,  which  is  said 
to  have  been  erected  by  the  empress  Helena,  over  the  spot  where 
the  marriage-feast  was  held.  (Dr.  Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  iv.  pp. 
18.5—188.)  • 

Caxaax,  the  son  of  Ham  and  the  progenitor  of  the  Canaan- 
ites.  For  an  account  of  the  land  called  after  him,  see  pp.  13. 
15.  How  divided  by  Joshua  among  the  twelve  tribes,  16,  17. 
Populousness  of  Canaan,  38.  Idols  worshipped  by  the  Ca- 
naanites,  137,  138.  Their  extirpation  considered,  Vol.  I.  pp. 
409,  410. 

Caxdace,  a  queen  of  Ethiopia  mentioned  in  Acts  viii.  27. 
This  name  was  common  to  the  Ethiopian  queens  in  the  time  of 
Christ ;  and,  according  to  Eusebius,  Ethiopia  continued  to  be 
governed  by  women,  even  to  his  time, — the  fourth  century. 
(Eccl.  Hist.  lib.  ii.  c.  1.) 

Caxjjlestick,  golden,  in  the  Temple,  at  Jerusalem,  100. 

Caperxaum,  a  town  of  Galilee,  situated  on  the  coast  of  the 

lake  of  Gennesareth,  on  the  bc^rs  of  the  tract  occupied  by  the 

tribes  of  Zebulon  and  Nephthalim.  This  place  is  celebrated  for  the 

many  mighty  isorks  and  discourses  performed  by  our  Saviour, 


416 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND   GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


CH 


which  brought  a  heavy  wo  upon  the  inhabitants  for  their  infi- 
delity. (Matt.  xi.  23.)  In  the  vicinity  of  this  town  or  city  our 
Lord  deUvercd  his  admirable  sermon ;  and  near  it  also  was  the 
custom-house,  at  which  Matthew  the  publican  was  sitting  when 
Jesus  called  him  to  the  apostleship.  (Matt.  ix.  1.  9.)  Here  the 
Jews  had  a  synagogue  (Mark  i.  23.  Luke  iv.  .33.),  as  the  Chris- 
tians afterwards  had  a  church.  Mr.  Buckingham  in  1817  found 
various  remains  of  some  ancient  settlement  in  its  vicinity  ;  but 
in  1823  scarcely  a  relique  remained  to  attest  its  former  existence. 
"'Recent  travellers  describe  the  appearance  of  the  Lake  of  Genne- 
sareth  from  Capernaum  as  singularly  grand  and  impressive. 
This  place  is  now  called  Tcil-hhc-wn  or  Tul-hhe~u;tn,  as  it  is  dif- 
ferently pronounced.  (Buckingham's  Travels  in  Palestine,  pp. 
4C9,  470.     Jowett's  Researches  in  Syria,  p.  168.) 

Caphtor  (Jer.  xlvii.  4.  Amos  ix.  7.)  and  Caphtorim  (Gen. 
X.  14.  DcuL  ii.  23.),  the  name  of  a  country  and  people  whence 
the  Philistines  arc  said  to  have  originated.  According  to  the 
passages  above  referred  to,  the  Caphtorim  came  originally  from 
Egypt  and  settled  in  Caphtor,  which  word  most  of  the  ancient 
versions  have  rendered  Cappadocia ;  but  some  have  supposed  it 
to  be  Cyprus,  or  Crete  ;  wliich  last  both  Calmet  and  Gescnius 
consider  to  be  the  place  most  probably  intended.  From  Caphtor, 
a  colony  migrated  and  settled  in  the  southern  part  of  Canaan. 

Capital  Punishments  of  the  Jews,  account  of,  66 — 69. 

(/APPADOciA,  a  kuigdom  of  Asia,  bounded  on  the  east  by  Ar- 
menia, on  the  west  by  Paphlagonia  and  Galatia,  on  the  north  by 
the  Euxinc  Sea,  and  on  the  south  by  that  part  of  Mount  Taurus 
which  looks  towards  Cilicia.  It  was  famed  for  mules  and  horses, 
of  which  it  gave  yearly  to  the  Persians,  horses  1.500,  mules 
2000.  The  Cappadocians  are  said  to  have  been  a  nation  so 
servile,  that  when  the  Romans  offered  them  their  freedom  to 
live  by  their  own  laws,  they  said  they  could  not  endure  liberty. 
This  country  is  mentioned  in  Acts  ii.  9.  and  also  by  the  apostle 
Peter,  who  addresses  his  first  Epistle  to  the  Hebrew  Christians 
who  were  dispersed  through  Pontus,  Galatia,  Cappadocia,  Bi- 
thynia,  and  Asia  Minor. 

Captain-  of  the  Lord's  Host,  authority  of,  and  influence,  85. 

Captives,  cruel  treatment  of.     See  pp.  90,  91. 

Capti  viTT  (Babylonish),  state  of  the  Hebrews  during,  49,  50. 

CARAVA?f9,  mode  of  travelling  by,  122,  note  7.  173. 

CARcnEMisii,  a  fortified  city  on  the  Euphrates  belonging  to 
the  Assyrians,  commanding  the  pass  into  the  northern  part  of 
Mesopotamia,  from  Syria.  Necho  king  of  Egypt  took  it,  and 
left  a  strong  garri-son  in  it ;  which  was  taken  and  cut  in  pieces, 
in  the  fourth  year  of  Jehoiachin  king  of  Judah,  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar king  of  Babylon.  (2  Chron.  xxxv.  20.  2  Kings  xxiii. 
29.)  Isaiah  speaks  of  Carchemish,  and  seems  to  say,  that 
Tiglath-pileser  conquered  it ;  perhaps  from  the  Egyptians.  Pro- 
fane authors  say  nothing  of  this  town,  or  of  these  wars :  it  is 
probable  that  Carchemish  is  the  same  as  Cercusium,  or  Circe- 
sium,  or  Circeium,  situated  in  the  ans^le  formed  by  the  conjunc- 
tion of  the  Chaboras  (the  modern  Chebour)  and  the  Euphrates. 

Cabmel,  Mount,  account  of,  30. 

CAiiTtxo,  art  of,  among  the  Jews,  183. 

Casiphia  (Ezra  viii.  17.),  the  name  of  a  country;  perhaps 
Caspia,  the  country  on  the  Caspian  Sea. 

Casluhim  (Gen.  x.  14.  1  Cliron.  i.  12.),  a  people,  spoken  of 
as  a  colony  of  the  Egyptians;  according  to  Bochart  (Phaleg. 
iv.  31.),  the  Colchians,  whom  the  Greek  writers  constantly 
represent  as  of  Egyptian  origin. 

Cattle  reared  in  Palestine,  notice  of,  37.  174 — 176. 

Caverns  in  Palestine,  account  of,  32,  33.  150. 

Cepars  of  Lebanon,  account  of,  29,  30.  36. 

Cedrok,  or  Kedran,  Brook,  notice  of,  26. 

Cenchrea,  a  haven  on  the  east  of  the  isthmus  of  Corinth,  to 
which  city  it  was  considered  as  a  kind  of  subsidiary  port.  It  is 
mentioned  in  Acts  xviii.  18. 

Cephas,  a  name  given  by  Christ  to  Simon:  it  means  the 
same  as  xiTf>-c,  that  is,  a  stone.     (John  i.  43.) 

Chains  of  the  Jewish  women,  158. 

CiiALii;KA,  a  country  of  Asia,  lying  near  the  jimction  of  the 
Tigris  and  Euphrates,  the  capital  of  which  was  Baiitlo.n, 
whence  it  was  also  denominated  Baiitioi^ia.  In  ancient  limes 
it  was  known  by  the  names  Shinar,  Shinaar,  &c. — For  a  sketch 
of  the  profane  history  of  the  Chaldican  or  Babylonian  em- 
pire, illustrative  of  the  prophetic  writings,  sec  p.  412.  of  this 
Index. 

Chariots,  military,  notice  of,  85,  86. 

CucoAR  a  river  of  Mesopotamia,  which  rises  in  Mount  Ca- 


C  L 

sius,  and  empties   itself  into  the  Euphrates   neai    Circesiua. 
(2  Kings  xvii.  6.  xviii.  11.    1  Chron.  v.  26.) 

Chkmosh,  a  Moabitish  idol,  notice  of,  138. 

Cheiiem,  or  irremissiblc  Vow,  account  of,  130. 

CiiERETHiTEs  and  Pelclhiles,  who  they  were,  47.  85.  87. 

Cherubim.     See  p.  96. 

Childhex,  birth  and  education  of,  163,  164.  Adoption  of, 
164,  165. 

Chinnereth,  sea  of,  26. 

Chios  (.\cts  xx.  15.)  is  an  island  of  the  -Egean  Sea,  between 
Lesbos  and  Samos,  celebrated  in  ancient  and  in  modern  times, 
for  its  wine,  figs,  marble,  and  white  earth. 

Chislec,  or  Casleu,  the  third  month  of  the  Jewish  civil 
year ;  and  the  ninth  month  of  the  ecclesiastical  year.  For  the 
feasts  and  fasts  in  this  month,  sec  p.  75. 

Chittiji. —  The  land  of  Cldttim,  and  the  tales  of  Chittim, 
denote,  in  general,  the  maritime  countries  and  islands  of  the 
Mediterranean,  Greece,  Italy,  Crete,  Cyprus,  Corsica,  &c.  Thus, 
Balaam  foretold  "  that  ships  should  come  from  the  coast  of 
Chittim,  and  should  afflict  Asshur  (the  Assyrians),  and  afflict 
Eber"  (the  Hebrews,  or  Jews)  ;  representing  tlie  Grecian  and 
Roman  invasions.  And  Daniel  foretold  that  "  the  ships  of  Chit- 
tim. should  come  against  the  king  nf  the  north  (Antiochus 
Epiphanes,  king  of  Syria) ;  and  titat  he  should  therefore  be 
grieved,  and  return"  from  the  south,  or  Egypt,  which  he  had 
invaded,  when  commanded  to  desist  by  the  Roman  ambassa- 
dors. (Dan.  xi.  30.  Livy,  xlv.  10 — 12.)  Perseus,  king  of 
Macedon,  is  called  "  king  of  Chittim."     (I  Mace.  viii.  5.) 

Chiun  (.\mos  v.  26.),  the  idol  Saturn. 

Chorazin,  a  small  town  situated  on  the  western  coast  of  the 
Sea  of  Galilee,  at  no  great  distance  from  Capernaum.  It  was 
one  of  those  places  where  very  many  of  our  Saviour's  miracles 
were  performed,  whose  inhabitants  he  upbraided  for  their  infi- 
delity.    (Matt.  xi.  21.    Luke  x.  13.) 

Christ  (X/:/o-t4c),  a  Greek  word  signifying  anointed,  and  cor- 
responding to  the  Hebrew  word  Messiah,  which  sec.  In  the 
New  Testament,  this  appellation  is  given  to  Jesus,  the  anointed 
one,  that  king  of  the  race  of  David,  promised  by  God,  and  long 
expected,  the  Messiah. 

Christians,  those  who  profess  to  believe  and  practise  the 
religion  of  Jesus  Christ.  This  appellation  was  first  given  by 
divine  appointment  to  the  believers  at  Antioch.  (Acts  xi.  26.) 
See  Vol.  I.  p.  350. 

Church  (Jewish),  account  of,  and  of  its  various  members, 
108 — 111.;   and  of  its  ministers.  111 — 116. 

Cuushak-riskathaim,  a  king  of  Mesopotamia,  who  op- 
pressed the  Israelites  for  eight  years.  This  monarch  must  have 
subdued  several  of  the  surrounding  nations  within  thirty  or 
forty  years  after  the  death  of  Joshua,  since  his  conquests  ex- 
tended westward  as  far  as  Canaan.  The  Israelites  were  delivered 
from  his  yoke  by  Othniel.     ^udg.  iii.  8 — 10.) 

Chuza,  or  CnusA,  the  steward  or  agent  of  Herod-Antipas, 
whose  wife  was  one  of  the  pious  women  who  ministered  to 
Jesus  Christ.  (Luke  viii.  3.)  Some  critics,  however,  suppose 
that  he  was  the  treasurer  or  overseer  of  Herod's  revenue. 

Cilicia,  a  country  of  Asia  Minor,  between  Pamphylia  on  the 
west,  and  Pieria  on  the  east.  Mount  Taurus  on  the  north,  and 
the  Cilician  Sea  on  the  south,  celebrated  on  the  account  of  Cicero, 
proconsul  there,  but  more  on  the  account  of  St  Paul's  birth  at 
Tarsus,  a  city  of  Cilicia.  (.\cts  xxii.  3.) 

CiNNERETH,  or  CiNSERoTH,  a  city  in  the  canton  of  the  tribe 
of  Ncphtali  :  it  is  supposed  to  be  the  same  which  w.as  afterwards 
calle<l  Tiiierias;  or  the  Lake  of  (Jcnnesareth,  which  in  Hebrew 
is  called  the  Sea  of  Cinnereth,  is  unquestionably  the  Lake  or 
Sea  of  Tilierius .-  for  an  account  of  which  see  pp.  26,  27. 

CiHCUMCisiojf,  how  and  when  performed.     Siee  p.  110. 

CisLEu.     See  Chisleu. 

Cisterns  in  Palestine,  notice  of,  29. 

Cities,  Jewish,  155.  How  besieged,  90.  Treatment  of,  \*hen 
caj)tured,  ibid.     Gates  of,  scats  of  justice,  54. 

Cities  of  Refuoe,  16. 

Citizens  of  Rome,  privileges  and  treatment  of,  when  prison- 
ers.    See  pp.  57 — 59. 

Classes  of  the  Jewish  priests,  1 12. 

Clauda,  an  island  near  Crete,  r:ituated  near  the  southern  and 
western  sea.     It  is  mentioned  in  Acts  xxvii.  16. 

CLAUDirS. 

1.  Tiberius  Claudius  Nero  Gcrmanicus,  the  fifth  cinperor  or 
Cssar  of  Rome.     Ho  was  the  son  of  Nero  Drusus,  and  obtained 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


417 


CO 

the  imperial  dignity  principally  through  the  exertion  of  Herod 
Agrippa.  (Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  1.  xix.  c.  4.  4  1.  Bell.  Jud.  1.  ii. 
c.  11.  §  2.)  In  the  fourth  year  of  his  reign  occurred  the  famine 
predicted  by  Agabus.  (Acts  xi.  28.  and  Kuin  el  in  loc).  In  the 
first  part  of  his  reign  he  was  favourable  to  the  Jews  (Jos.  Ant. 
Jud.  1.  XX.  c.  1.  §  2.)  ;  but  in  his  ninth  year  he  banished,  by 
edict,  all  those  who  had  taken  up  their  residence  at  Rome.  (Acts 
xviii.  2.  Suetonius  in  Claud,  c.  25.)  He  died,  a.  d.  54,  after  a 
weak,  and  inglorious  reign  of  14  years,  of  poison  administered 
by  his  wife  Agrippina,  who  wished  to  raise  her  son  Nero  to  the 
throne.     (Robinson,  voce  K\a.vi!tc;.) 

2.  Claudius  Lysias,  a  Roman  tribune,  who  preserved  Paul 
from  a  conspiracy  of  the  Jews.  (Acts  xxiii.  23 — 35,  xxiv. 
1-9.) 

Cleopas,  one  of  the  two  disciples  who  went  to  Emmaus. 
(Luke  xxiv.  18,  &c.)  The  name  is  of  Greek  extraction,  being 
contracted  from  Cleopatros,  like  Antipas  from  Antipatros.  He  is 
sometimes  confounded  with 

Clopas,  the  husband  of  Mary,  also  called  Alpheus.  (John  xix. 
25.)  By  comparing  this  passage  with  Luke  xxiv.  10.,  it  appears 
that  the  wife  of  Clopas  is  the  same  as  the  mother  of  James  the 
Less  (compare  Matt,  xxvii.  56.  with  Mark  xv.  40.)  ;  but  in 
Matt.  X,  3.  and  Mark  iii.  18.  James  is  said  to  be  the  son  of 
Alpheus. 

Climate  of  the  Holy  Land,  23. 

Clothes,  leprosy  of,  134.     See  Dress. 

CxiDrs  (Acts  xxvii.  7.)  was  a  city  and  promontory  of  Caiia, 
memorable  for  the  worship  of  Venus. 

CocK-CROWiNG,  a  division  of  time,  73. 

Coelo-Stria.     See  Stria,  9.  infra. 

Cohorts  (Roman),  notice  of,  92. 

Cold  Season  of  Palestine,  24. 

CoLosss  (or  Colassae)  was  a  city  of  Phrygia  Pacatiana  in 
Asia  Minor,  situated  near  the  conflux  of  the  Lycus  and  the 
Meander.  It  was  formerly  a  large  and  populous  place,  but  in  the 
time  of  Saint  Paul  had  lost  much  of  its  ancient  greatness,  and 
stood  nearly  equidistant  from  Laodicca  and  Hierapolis.  Accord- 
ing to  Eusebius,  all  these  cities  were  destroyed  by  an  earthquake 
in  the  tenth  year  of  the  emperor  Nero,  about  a  year  after  the 
writing  of  Saint  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Colossians.  A  few  ruins 
identify  its  site,  which  is  at  present  called  Khona  or  Khonas  by 
the  Turks  of  Asia  Minor.  (See  a  description  of  Colossee  and  its 
vicinity,  in  Mr.  Arundell's  Visit  to  the  Seven  Chuixhes  of  Asia, 
pp.  92—101.) 

Co-iiMERCE  of  the  Midianites,  Phcenicians,  and  Egyptians,  187. 
Of  the  Hebrews,  particularly  under  Solomon  and  his  successors, 
187,188.     Of  Babylon,  411. 

Compensation,  in  what  cases  allowed,  65. 

CoNcrBiNEs,  condition  of,  160. 

Contracts  for  disposing  of  property,  how  made,  81.  Con- 
tracts of  marriage,  1 60. 

Conversation  of  the  Orientals,  169,  170. 

Coos,  an  island  in  the  .^gean  or  Icarian  Sea,  near  Myndos 
and  Cnidus,  which  had  a  city  of  the  same  name,  from  which 
Hippocrates  the  celebrated  physician,  and  Apelles  the  famous 
painter,  were  called  Coi.  Here  was  a  large  temple  of  ^Escula- 
pius,  and  another  of  Juno.  It  abounded  in  rich  wines,  and  here 
were  made  those  Coae  vestes,  which  were  transparent,  and  are 
so  ofteu  noticed  by  the  classic  poets.  It  is  mentioned  in  Acts 
xxi.  1. 

CoRBAK,  nature  of,  explained,  119. 

Corinth,  the  metropolis  of  Achaia  Proper,  and  the  ornament 
of  Greece,  was  situated  on  an  isthmus  between  the  ^gean  and 
Ionian  Seas.  From  the  convenience  of  its  situation  for  com- 
merce, it  abounded  in  riches,  and  was  furnished  with  all  the 
accommodations,  elegances,  and  superfluities  of  life.  In  the 
Achaean  war,  it  was  destroyed  by  the  Romans  under  the  consul 
Memmius,  about  146  years  before  the  Christian  sera,  and  was 
rebuilt  about  one  hundred  years  afterwards  by  Julius  Caesar,  who 
planted  a  Roman  colony  here,  and  made  this  city  the  residence 
of  the  proconsul  of  Achaia.  Favoured  by  its  situation  between 
two  seas,  the  new  city  soon  regained  its  ancient  splendour ;  com- 
merce produced  an  influx  of  riches,  and  the  luxury  and  voluptu- 
ousness which  followed  in  consequence  corrupted  the  manners 
of  its  inhabitants,  who  became  infamous  to  a  proverb.  In  the 
xicinity  of  this  city  were  celebrated  the  Isthmian  games,  to  which 
Saint  Paul  alludes  in  different  parts  of  his  Epistles.  Corinth 
also  possessed  numerous  schools,  in  which  philosophy  and  rhe- 
toric were  taught  by  able  masters,  and  strangers  resorted  thither 
from  bll  quarters  to  be  instructed  in  the  sciences.     The  number 

Vol.  n.  3  G 


C  Y 


of  sophists  in  particular  was  very  great.  The  knowledge  of 
these  circumstances  affords  a  key  to  St.  Paul's  exhortations 
against  fornication,  lasciviousness,  and  covetousness  (1  Cor.  vi. 
9,  10.),  and  also  his  defence  of  the  Christian  doctrine  against 
the  sophists,  to  whom  the  fathers  attribute  all  the  strifes  and  con- 
tentions that  sprang  up  in  this  church.  In  consequence  of  the 
war  between  the  Greeks  and  Turks,  Corinth  has  been  reduced  to 
a  miserable  heap  of  ruined  hovels,  affording  very  insufficient 
shelter  to  some  wretched  outcasts  of  the  province  of  Roumelia. 
(Missionary  Register,  1828,  p.  3S8.) 

Corn,  culture  and  harvesting  of,  1 77.  How  threshed  out,  178 ; 
and  ground,  ibid. 

Cornelius,  a  devout  Roman  centurion,  who  was  converted 
to  Christianity  by  the  apostle  Peter. 

Corporal  injuries,  how  punished  among  the  Jews,  63,  64. 

Corruption  (Mount  oQ,  19.  Of  the  Jews  at  the  time  of 
Christ's  birth,  148 — 150. 

Council  (Great)  of  the  Jews.     See  p.  55. 

Coup-de-Soleil  in  Palestine,  effects  of,  24,  25. 

Courts  of  Judicatcre  {Je-u-ish),  and  proceedings  before 
them,  54 — 57.     {Roman),  proceedings  in,  57 — 59. 

Courts  of  Kings,  allusions  to,  45,  46.  Principal  officers  of, 
46,  47. 

Courts  of  the  Tekple,  99,  100. 

Covenants,  how  made,  80,  81.     Covenant  of  salt,  81. 

Crete,  an  island  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  A  Christian 
church  was  planted  here,  probably  by  St.  Paul,  who  committed  it 
to  the  charge  of  Titus.  (Acts  xxvii.  7.  12,  13.  21,  Tit.  i.  5.) 
Its  inhabitants  were  celebrated  archers,  but  infamous  for  their 
falsehood,  debaucheries,  and  piracies.  The  Cretans  of  the  present 
day  are  precisely  what  they  were  in  the  days  of  St.  Paul, — 
al-ways  liars,  evil  beasts,  slow  bellies.  They  are  notoriously, 
whether  Turks  or  Greeks,  the  worst  characters  in  the  Levant. 
(Hartley's  Researches  in  Greece  and  the  Levant,  p.  108.)  See 
the  testimonies  of  profane  writers  to  the  immoral  character  of  the 
Cretans,  in  A''ol.  I.  p.  81. 

Criminal  Law  of  the  Jews,  principles  of  the,  61 — 64. 

Criminals,  Jewish  mode  of  treating,  and  punishing.  See  pp. 
55 — 57.  59.     The  Roman  mode  of  punishing  them,  59,  GO. 

-Crispus,  the  chief  of  a  synagogue  at  Corinth,  who  embraced 
the  Christian  faith,  and  was  baptized  by  St.  Paul.  (Acts  xviii. 
8.  1  Cor.  i.  14.) 

Cross,  form  of,  69.     Reproach  of,  explained,  ibid. 

Crucifixion,  mode  of,  69.  Prevalence  of,  among  ancient 
nations,  ibid.  Lingering  nature  of  this  punishment,  ibid.  The 
circumstances  of  our  Saviour's  crucifixion  considered  and  illus- 
trated, 70 — 72.  Solution  of  supposed  difficulties  as  to  the  hour 
when  he  was  crucified.     Vol.  I.  pp.  403,  404. 

Cup,  Divination  by,  142. 

Cutting  asunder,  punishment  of,  68. 

CusH,  or  Ethiopia,  usually  rendered  Ethiopia  in  our  English 
Bible,  has  a  very  extensive  signification.  It  comprehends  all  the 
southern  and  eastern  borders  of  Egypt,  In  some  parts  of  the 
prophecies  of  Ezekiel,  it  plainly  denotes  African  Ethiopia,  or 
Nubia  and  Abyssinia,  and  in  many  other  passages.  (Isa.  xviii.  1. 
XX.  3.  Ezek.  xxx.  5,  &c.)  But  in  others  it  must  signify  Asiatic 
Ethiopia,  or  Arabia,  as  in  the  description  of  the  garden  of  Eden. 
(Gen.  ii.  13.)  The  wife  of  Moses  was  contemptuously  styled  a 
"  Cushite,"  or  Ethiopian  of  Arabia.  (Num.  xii.  1.)  And  where 
"  Persia,  Ethiopia,  and  Libya,"  are  recited  in  order,  the  second 
must  denote  Arabia.  (Ezek.  xxxviii.  5.)  Herodotus,  in  his 
curious  catalogue  of  the  various  nations  composing  the  army  of 
Xerxes,  distinguishes  the  long-haired  Eastern  or  Asiatic  £thio- 
pians  from  the  woolly-headed  Western  or  African  ;  both  being 
descendants  of  Cush,  a  roving  and  enterprising  race,  who  gradu- 
ally extended  their  settlements  from  Chusistan,  "the  land  of 
Cush,"  or  Susiana,  on  the  coasts  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  through 
Arabia,  to  the  Red  Sea ;  and  thence  crossed  over  to  Africa,  and 
occupied  its  eastern  coast,  and  gradually  penetrated  into  the  inte- 
rior of  Abyssinia.  (Dr.  Hales's  Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  i. 
p.  379.) 

Cyprus,  an  island  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  situated  between 
Cilicia  and  Syria,  and  anciently  celebrated  for  the  profligacy  of 
its  inhabitants,  whose  principal  deity  was  the  impure  goddess 
Venus.  Here  Paul  and  Barnabas  landed,  a.  d.  44.  and  success- 
fully preached  the  Gospel.  (Acts  xiii.  4.  et  seq.  xxi.  3.)  Cyprus 
proved  to  have  been  a  proconsulate.  Vol.  I.  p.  90. 

Cymbal,  a  musical  instrument,  notice  of,  184. 

Cyrene,  the  principal  city  of  the  province  of  Libya  in  .Africa 
which  was  thence  sometimes  denominated  Cyrenaica,  and  which 


418 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND   GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


DA 


by  the  evangelist  Luke  is  called  Libya  about  Cyrene,  (Acts  ii. 
10.)  Simon,  whom  the  Jews  compelled  to  bear  our  Saviour's 
cross  (Matt,  xxvii.  32.  Luke  xxiii.  26.),  was  a  native  of  this 
place.  At  Cyrene  resided  many  Jews,  who  had  a  syna(»o!Tue  at 
Jerusalem.  Among  the  Christians  who  were  scattered  abroad, 
in  consequence  of  the  persecution  that  arose  about  Stephen, 
Luke  enumerates  those  of  Cyrene.    (Acts  xi.  20.) 

Ctrexius,  in  Latin  Quirinus.  (Luke  ii.  2.)  Publius  Sulpi- 
cius  Quirinus  was  sent  from  Rome  as  t^overnor  of  Syria,  with 
wliich  province  Jud.-ea  was  connected  after  the  banishment  of 
Archelaus  to  Vicnne  in  Gaul,  in  order  to  take  a  census  of  the 
whole  province.  For  the  various  opinions  of  commentators  con- 
cerning that  census,  see  Vol.  I.  pp.  419,  420. 

Ctku.«,  king  of  Persia,  the  son  of  Cambyses  a  Persian  satrap 
or  grandee,  and  Mandane,  was  the  liberator  of  the  Jews  from  the 
Babylonish  captivity.  The  prophet  Isaiah  (xliv.  28.)  mentioned 
him  by  name  two  hundred  years  before  he  was  born.  See 
PtHSiA,  infra. 


Daoon,  a  Phoenician  idol,  notice  of,  138. 

Dalmasl'tua.     Sec  Mardala. 

Dalmatia,  a  province  of  Europe  on  the  cast  of  the  Adriatic 
Sea,  and  forming  part  of  the  ancient  Illyricum.  In  this  province, 
Titus  preached  the  Gospel.   (3  Tim.  iv.  10.) 

Damascus,  a  most  ancient  city,  where  Eliezer  the  servant  of 
Abraham  dwelt,  was  built,  according  to  Joscphus  ( Antiq.  I.  i.  c.  7. 
^  15.),  by  \'z,  the  son  of  Aram,  mentioned  in  Gen.  x.  23.,  and 
situated  in  the  valley  lx;twecn  Libanus  and  Antilibanus,  watered 
by  the  rivers  Abana  and  Pharpar.  (2  King.s  v.  12.)  It  was 
made  tributary  to  David  (2  Sam.  viii.  6.)  ;  afterwards  it  was  the 
capital  city  of  the  kings  of  Syria.  (Isa.  vii.  8.)  It  is  celebrated 
fjr  its  antiquity,  and  for  being  .still  one  of  the  ritliest  and  most 
magniiiccnt  cities  of  the  Levant,  but  most  of  all  for  being  the 
place  of  the  miraculous  conversion  of  St.  Paul.  It  is  situated  in 
n  beautiful  plain.  The  street,  still  called  Straight,  where  St. 
Paul  dwelt,  is  entered  from  the  road  by  Jerusalem  ;  it  is  as 
etraight  as  an  arrow,  a  mile  in  length,  broad  and  well  paved. 
(Irby's  and  .Mangles' Travels  pp.  2S1,  2S2.  Carnc's  Letters, 
p.  37.5.)  The  region  around  this  city  is  in  the  Old  Testamei>t 
culled  Syria  of  Damascus. 

Dav. 

1.  The  son  of  Jacob  and  Bilhah,  gave  his  name  to  one  of  the 
tribes  of  Israel.  For  the  limits  of  the  district  assigned  to  this 
tril)c,  see  p.  1 7, 

2.  The  name  of  a  city  in  the  northern  extremity  of  Juda;a, 
m  the  tribe  of  Nephtali ;  it  was  situated  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Libanus,  not  far  from  the  source  of  the  river  Jordan.  Here  Jero- 
boam I.  set  up  one  of  the  golden  calves.  In  Rev.  vii.  6.  tlic  name 
of  the  tribe  of  Dan  is  omitted,  either  through  the  mistake  of  the 
transcribers,  who  mistook  A.\N  for  MAN,  and  so  wrote  Ma- 
nasseh  ;  or  bccau.se  the  tribe  had  become  extinct ;  or,  by  its  early 
apostasy,  had  become  the  common  receptacle  of  idols  and  cor- 
rupter of  the  rest.  (See  Judg.  xviii.)  Dr.  Robinson  thinks  that 
the  first  opinion  is  the  most  probable,  because  the  tribe  of  Joseph 
i.-^  afterwards  mentioned,  which  included  Manas>t'h  and  Ephraiin. 
There  apjn-ars  to  have  been  an  ancient  tradition  in  the  church, 
lh.it,  when  Antichrist  should  come,  he  should  be  a  Jew,  and  of 
Ibe  tribe  of  Dan.  (W'oodhouse  on  Rev.  vii.  G.) 

Dax(  !>■«  of  the  Jews,  184. 

Damkl,  a  distinguished  Jewish  prophet,  who  lived  an<l  wrote 
at  Bai>ylon  during  the  captivity.  For  a  further  account  of 
Danio4and  his  predictions,  see  pp.  277 — 282. 

Daiiius,  the  common  name  of  several  Persian  king*,  three  of 
whom  arc  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament;  viz. 

1.  Dariut  the  jMnde,  or  Cyaxarcs.  (Dan.  vi.  1.) 

2.  JJuriun  the  ton  of  Hugtaifiea,  whom  Archbishoj)  irshcr  sup- 
poses to  be  the  Ahasucrus  that  married  Esther. 

3.  Darius  Codomannus,  who  is  mentioned  in  Neh.  xii.  22. 
See  Peiisia,  infra. 

Darts,  fiery,  explained,  93,  note  1. 

Dathav,  one  of  those  who,  with  Korah,  Abiram,  and  On,  con- 
spired against  Moses  ;  and,  with  his  accomplices,  was  swallowed 
up  in  the  earth.   (Num.  xvi.) 

DAcriHTKiiH,  education  of,  164.     Portions  of,  ibid. 

Daviii,  the  second  kincr  of  Israel,  was  the  son  of  Jeose,  of  the 
tribe  of  Judah,  anrl  the  town  of  Hethlehem.  He  was  the  founder 
of  the  Jewish  dynasty;  and  from  him,  in  the  fulni'sw  of  the  time 
appointed  by  God,  descended  the  Messiah,  of  whom  he  is  con- 
sidered as  an  illustrious  type.     In  what  sense  David  was  "  the 


DI 

man  after  God's  own  heart,"  see  Vol.  I.  pp.  41 1 ,  41 2. ;  and  for  the- 1 
Psalms  ascribed  to  him,  see  Vol.  II.  pp.  239,  240,  241. 

David,  city  of,  19. 

Day,  how  reckoned  by  the  Jews  and  Romans,  72. 

Day  of  atonement,  how  solemnized,  127. 

Dead,  law  of  Moses  concerning,  198.  Preparation  of,  foi 
interment,  198,  199.  Funeral  rites  of,  199— 202.  Duration  of 
mourning  for  the  dead,  202. 

Dead  Sea,  description  of,  27,  28. 

Deaf  persons,  law  concerning,  82. 

Death,  Jewish  notions  of,  197,  198. 

Deiioiiaii. 

1.  The  name  of  Sarah's  nurse,  who  attended  her  into  Canaan, 
and  continued  to  reside  in  the  family  of  Isaac,  until  her  death 
in  the  vicinity  of  Bethel,  where  she  was  interred  with  much 
lamentation,  under  an  oak,  from  that  circumstance  termed  Allon 
Bachuth,  or  the  Oak  of  M''ecping.  (Gen.  xxiv.  57.  xxxv.  8.) 

2.  A  prophetess,  the  wife  of  Lapidoth,  and  the  fourth  judge  of 
Israel.  She  was  the  only  woman  who  ever  filled  that  high  office. 
(Judg.  iv.  v.) 

DEiiTous,  laws  concerning,  63. 

Decaimtation,  punishment  of,  68. 

Decatolis,  district  of,  18. 

Depicatiox,  Feast  of,  128.     Vow  of  Dedication,  Itl. 

Dkouees,  Academical,  conferred  in  Jewish  seminaries,  185, 
note  3. 

Demas,  for  .some  time,  wns  a  companion  of  St.  Paul,  in  propa- 
gating tlio  (Tospii ;  but  he  aftenvards  deserted  him  when  a  pri- 
soner at  Rome,  and  rctiirnid  to  Thessalonica,  which  was  at  that 
time  a  very  llourisliing  commercial  city.  (Col.  iv,  14.  Philem.  24. 
2Tim.  iv.  10.) 

Demetkivs. 

1.  A  silversmith  at  Ephesus,  whose  chief  business  consisted  in 
making  little  models  of  the  temple  in  that  city,  with  the  image  of 
Diana  included  in  them.  He  excited  a  tumult  against  St.  Paul. 
(Acts  xix.) 

2.  A  Christian,  and  it  should  seem  a  Christian  teacher,  who 
is  mentioned  with  much  commendation  in  3  John,  12. 

Demoxiacal  possessions,  reality  of,  197. 

Dehbe,  a  city  of  Lycaonia,  near  Isauria,  not  far  from  the 
Cilician  range  of  Mount  Taurus.  It  was  the  country  of  Timothy, 
and  is  mentioned  in  Acts  xiv.  6.  Various  ruins  of  this  place  are 
said  still  to  exist,  but  they  have  not  been  described  by  anj 
modem  traveller.  (Col.  Leake's  Tour  in  Asia  Minor,  pp.  100, 
101.) 

Deserts  in  Palestine,  account  of,  33,  34.  Horrors  of  the 
Great  Arabian  Desert  described,  34,  35. 

"  Devout  Meit,"  who  they  were,  110. 

Dews,  heavy,  in  Palestine,  25. 

DiAXA  (A^i/ua:),  a  heathen  goildess,  the  fabled  daughter  of 
Jupiter  ami  Latona,  and  the  twin  sister  of  Apollo.  She  presided 
over  forests  and  hunting,  and  also  over  child-birth ;  and  was 
especially  worshipped  at  Ephesus,  where  a  temple  was  erected 
in  her  honour,  which,  for  its  extent  .ind  magnificence,  was 
anciently  rp|uted  to  be  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world.  (Acts 
xLx.  21.  27,  28.  34,  35.) 

DiciioroMY,  a  Jewish  punishment,  68, 

DixAU  was  the  <laughter  of  .Jacob  and  Leah,  at  the  time  the 
patriarch  dwelt  not  far  from  the  country  occupied  by  the  Hivites. 
l*romi)te(l  by  curiosity,  she  loent  out  to  see  the  daughters  of  the 
land,  most  probably  to  a  festival,  when  .><he  was  ravitihed  by 
Shcrhem,  a  prince  of  the  Hivites.  It  is  not  known  what  became 
of  her,  afier  the  extermination  of  the  Shechemites  (Gen.  xxxiv.) ; 
but  it  a}ij>cars  from  (Jen.  xlvi.  15.  that  she  was  living  in  the 
patriarch's  family,  and  accompanied  him  into  Egypt. 

DioxYsiLs,  a  member  of  the  tribunal  of  the  Areopagus  at 
.\thens,  who  was  induced  by  the  preaching  of  St.  Paul  to  embrace 
the  Christian  religion.  (Acts  xvii.  34.) 

Dioscuni,  or  the  Twins  (a/cs-x^i/^w).  Castor  and  Pollux,  the 
fabled  sons  of  Jupiter  and  Lcda,  were  supposed  to  have  some 
[leculiar  power  over  storms :  hence  they  became  the  patron  dei- 
ties of  seamen.     (Acts  x xviii.  1 1 .) 

DiirrnEPiiEH,  a  professing  Christian,  who  (it  appears)  did  noi 
receive  with  hospitality  those  whom  the  apostle  John  sent  to  him, 
or  permit  others  to  do  so.  (3  John  9.) 

Diseases  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures,  ond  their  treatment, 
sec  pp.  195—197. 

Divination,  by  the  cup.  142.  By  inspecting  the  liver  of 
victims,  M.I.  IJy  arrows,  ibid.  By  Uic  slatf,  ibid.  How  pu 
nished  among  the  Jews,  62. 


\ 


BI'JGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


419 


JCj   VJ 


DironcES,  Jewish  account  of,  162,  163. 

DoDAxiiM,  the  youngest  son  of  Javan.  (Gen.  x.  4.)  The 
country  peopled  by  his  desccnJants  cannot  be  exactly  ascertained. 
The  Samaritan  text  and  Septuagint  version  of  Gen.  x.  4.  read 
Rhodanim,  which  some  interpret  of  the  island  of  Rhodes  ;  but 
Bochart  refers  it  to  the  river  Rhodanus,  or  Rhone. 

DoKG,  an  Idamsan  proselyte  who  was  Saul's  chief  herdsman  : 
he  put  to  death  the  priests  at  Nob,  whom  Saul  imagined  to  be  in 
conspiracy  with  David,  and  to  supply  him  with  provisions. 
(ISam.  xxii.  9— 19.) 

Don,  or  Ddha,  the  capital  of  Nephet-Dora,  a  district  in  Ca- 
naan which  was  conquered  by  Joshua,  (Judg.  xii.  23.)  It  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  situated  on  the  coast,  not  far  from  Mount 
Carmel. 

DoucAS,  a  charitable  and  pious  Christian  widow  of  Joppa, 
whom  Peter  restored  to  life.  (Acts  ix.  36 — 41.)  Like  the  Syriac 
name  Tubitha,  it  signifies,  a  gazelle. 

DnEss,  of  the  Priests,  113.  Of  the  High-priest,  113,  114. 
Of  the  Jews,  description  of,  155 — 159.  Allusions  to  theatrical 
dresses,  159. 

DniKK,  medicated,  given  to  Christ,  nature  of,  71. 

Drink-Offerings,  account  of,  119. 

Dp.ownisg,  a  Jewish  punishment,  68. 

DncsiLLA,  notice  of,  52. 

DcKA,  a  plain  in  the  Babylonian  empire,  mentioned  in  Dan. 
fli.  According  to  the  historian  Polybius,  with  whom  Professor 
Gesenius  agrees,  it  was  situated  in  Mesopotamia,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  viver  Chaboras. 

Dwellings  of  the  Jews,  account  of,  150 — 155. 


Ear-kings  of  the  Jewish  women,  153. 

Eaktu,  frequently  denotes  the  land  of  JudsBa,  13. 

E  A  ETHauAKEs,  frequent  in  Palestine,  38. 

Ebal,  the  northern  peak  of  Mount  Ephraim,  a  naked,  unfruit- 
ful rock  near  Shechem,  and  over  against  Mount  Geriziji. 
These  two  mountams  are  separated  by  a  narrow  valley.  From 
Ebal  the  curses  were  pronounced.    (Deut.  xi.  29.    Josh.  viii.  30.) 

EcEATA-'TA,  the  Achmetha  of  Ezra  (vi.  2.),  was  the  principal 
city  of  Media,  on  the  site  of  which  stands  the  modern  Hamadan. 
It  was  remarkable  for  the  coolness  of  its  temperature :  on  which 
account  it  was  chosen  to  be  the  summer  residence  of  Cyrus  and 
the  succeeding  kings  of  Persia.  It  was  built  and  fortified  by 
Dioces,  king  of  the  Medes.  The  tombs  of  Esther  and  Mordecai 
are  said  to  be  still  preserved  here ;  and  a  colony  of  Jews,  who 
have  been  resident  at  Hamadan  from  time  immemorial,  protect 
their  remains.  (Alcock's  [unpublished]  Travels  in  Russia,  Persia, 
and  Greece,  in  1828-29,  p.  80.     London,  1831.  8vo.) 

Edkn. 

1.  The  name  of  the  country  in  which  the  Garden  of  our  first 
parents  was  placed.  (Gen.  ii.  8.  15.  iii.  23,  24.  iv.  16.)  It  has 
been  variously  supposed  to  have  been  situated  in  Syria,  in  Baby- 
Ionia,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Euphrates,  and  in  Armenia,  whence 
issue  the  heads  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  two  of  the  paradi- 
saical rivers  well  ascertained ;  and  two  others,  whose  springs  are 
in  the  neighbourhood,  agree  in<hiany  respects  with  the  third  and 
fourth  rivers  mentioned  by  Moses.  The  last  opinion  has  been 
chiefly  adopted. 

2.  A  pleasant  valley  near  Damascus.     (Amos  i.  5.) 

3.  A  country  of  Mesopotamia  or  Assyria,  under  the  power  of 
the  Assyrians.  (2  Kings  xix.  12.  Isa.  xxxvii.  12.)  In  Ezek.  xxvii. 
23,  it  is  joined  with  Asshur.  Prof.  Gesenius  conjectures  that  it 
may  be  Maedon  in  Diarbekir,  towards  the  Tigris. 

Edomites,  country  of.     See  p.  15.,  and  Idumsea,  p.  18. 

Education  of  children  among  the  Jews,  163,  164. 

Eglon,  a  king  of  the  Moabites,  who  oppressed  the  Israelites 
for  eighteen  years.  (Judg.  iii.  12.)  At  length  Ehud,  a  Benja- 
mite,  was  raised  up  to  deliver  them  from  their  oppression,  who 
slew  him  in  the  manner  related  in  Judg.  iii.  15 — 26. 

Egypt  (in  Hebrew  called  Mizraim,  after  Mizraim  the  son  of 
Ham),  a  country  of  Africa,  the  length* of  which  was  very  dispro- 
portionate to  its  breadth  :  its  extent  from  the  piouths  of  the  Nile 
to  Syene,  the  border  of  Nubia,  under  the  tropic  of  Cancer,  was 
about  500  miles  ;  but  it  was  little  wider  than  the  valley  through 
which  the  Nile  ran  in  Upper  Egypt,  until  it  reached  the  Lower 
Egypt,  at  some  distance  above  the  head  or  vertex  of  the  Delta, 
where  the  valley  expanded  itself.  The  Upper  Egypt  or  Thebaid 
seems  to  be  called  Pathros  in  Scripture,  as  distinguished  from 
the  Lower,  properly  called  Caphtor,  or  Egypt.  (Compare  Isa. 
si.  11,  with  Ezek.  xxix.  14. ;  and  Jer.  xUv.  1.  with  Ezek.  xxx. 


EG 


14—16.  Deut.  ii.  23.  Jer.  xlvii.  4.)  This  country  seems  to  have 
attained  an  earlier  and  a  higher  degree  of  civilization  and  refine- 
ment than  any  other  in  the  world.  Even  in  Abraham's  days  we 
find  it  the  seat  of  a  royal  government,  and  a  princely  court, 
abounding  with  provisions,  while  the  neighbouring  countries, 
and  even  the  fertile  regions  of  Palestine,  were  exposed  to  fre- 
quent famines.  (Gen.  xii.  10.)  In  his  grandson  Jacob's  time 
there  was  a  settled  caravan  trade  carried  on  through  Palestine 
from  Arabia  and  the  East,  for  spicery,  balm,  and  myrrh,  and  pro 
bably  also  for  slaves.  (Gen.  xxxvii.  25.)  Its  superior  fertilitv 
indeed,  was  occasioned  by  the  annual  inundation  of  the  Nile, 
the  rising  of  which  has  furnished  the  prophet  Jeremiah  (xlvi. 
7,  8.)  with  a  fine  image,'  and  by  the  irrigation  of  their  lands 
(Deut.  xi.  10.)  ;  and  wherever  this  is  still  practised  the  land 
now  Uterally  brings  forth  by  handfuls,  as  it  did  in  the  time  of  the 
patriarch  Joseph.  (Gen.  xii.  47.)  In  every  age  of  the  world 
Egypt  has  been  ceh-brated  for  those  stupendous  monuments  of 
ancient  art — the  pyramids ;  several  of  which  have  been  success- 
fully explored  by  the  enterprising  traveller,  M.  Belzoni.  The 
countless  multitude  of  date  trees,  which  form  even  forests  about 
some  of  the  villages,  furnish  a  great  source  of  subsistence  to  the 
people.  To  cut  these  down  (as  it  is  said  the  French  were  pro- 
ceeding to  do,  and  would  have  done,  but  that  the  people  surren- 
dered at  the  prospect  of  this  utter  ruin)  would  be  to  cut  off  the 
support  of  the  present  and  the  hopes  of  a  future  generation. 
Nothing  could  be  more  terrible  than  this  denunciation  of  Jere- 
miah (xlvi.  23,  23.)  against  Egypt : — Tlfy  shall  march  loitk 
an  armif,  and  come  against  her  ivith  axes  as  hewers  ofnuood: 
they  shall  cut  duxun  her  forest,  saith  the  Lord,  tlwugh  it  cannot 
be  searched  s  because  they  are  more  than  the  grasshoppers, 
and  are  innumerable.  (Jowett's  Christian  Researches  in  the 
Mediterranean,  pp.  167.  170.)  On  the  prophecies  concerning 
Egypt,  and  their  fulfilment,  see  Vol.  I.  p.  125. 

The  Egyptians  boasted  of  being  the  most  ancient  people  in 
the  world ;  the  inventors  of  arts  and  sciences ;  they  communi- 
cated to  the  Greeks  the  names  of  the  gods,  and  their  theology  : 
they  exceeded  in  superstition  and  idolatry,  worshijiping  stars, 
men,  animals,  and  even  plants.  Moses  informs  us  that  the  He- 
brews sacrificed  beasts  whose  slaughter  was  considered  by  the 
Egyptians  as  an  abomination  (Exod.  viii.  26.),  likewise  that 
they  v/ould  not  eat  with  the  Hebrews,  because  they  abhorred  all 
shepherds.  Concerning  the  motives  of  this  aversion  opinions 
are  divided.  Some  believe  it  to  be  founded  on  the  invasion  of 
Egypt  by  the  shepherd  kings  from  Arabia,  who  reigned  here  a 
long  time,  according  to  Manetho.  Others  think  that  the  Egyp- 
tians, after  their  king  Sesostris,  being  accustomed  to  a  soft  and 
idle  life,  detested  shepherds,  whose  profession  was  more  active 
and  laborious.  Others,  that  the  Egyptians  were  so  averse  to 
shepherds  because  of  their  killing  and  eating  sheep,  kids,  and 
goats,  which  were  objects  of  their  worship. 

The  antiquity  of  the  Egyptian  empire  is  indisputable,  though 
its  origin  is  involved  in  impenetrable  obscurity.  The  common 
name  of  the  Egyptian  kings  was  Pharaoh,  v^'hich  signified  sove- 
reign power,  though  each  had  another  name  peculiar  to  himself. 
History  has  preserved  the  names  of  several  kings  of  Egypt,  and 
a  succession  of  their  dynasties  :  but  the  inclination  of  these  his- 
torians to  magnify  the  great  antiquity  of  their  nation  has  injured 
their  credibility.  It  is  certain  that  the  Egyptian  dynasties  wera 
not  all  successive,  but  many  of  them  were  collateral  :  and  tha 
greatest  part  of  the  kings,  who  are  placed  one  after  the  other, 


'  At  Molubis,  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  Mr.  Jowett  observed  a  cattic- 
fair.  Several  bulTaloes  were  swiinming  from  ilie  opposite  side  across  iX.a 
water.  Their  unwiekly  body  sinks  deep  into  the  water,  so  that  only  a  part 
of  the  neck  is  level  with  the  surface  :  while  their  uplifted  head  just  raises 
the  snorting  nostrils  above  the  water.  Often  a  little  Aral)  boy  takes  hia 
passage  across  the  Nile  upon  the  back  of  this  animal;  setting  l:is  feet  on 
the  stioulders,  holding  fast  by  the  horns,  and  thu^  keepinji  his  balance. 
As  the  buffaloes  rose  out  of  the  water  on  the  bank  I  was  struck  with  their 
large  bony  size,  compared  with  the  little  that  li;id  appeared  of  them  whilo 
in  the  water.  Their  emerging  brought  to  mind  the  passage,  Gen.  .xii.  1,  2. 
—Bp.holdhe  stood  by  the  river  .-  and  behold,  there  came  up  out  of  the  river 
seven  iceU-favoured  kine  and  fat  fleshed ;  and  they  fed  in  a  meadow.  It 
was  the  very  scene,  and  the  very  country.  (Jowett's  Christian  Researches 
in  the  Mediterranean,  p.  166.)  Mr.  J.,  speaking  of  the  boat  in  which  he 
cro.sseithe  river  Nile,  says  that  it  "was  ballasted  with  earth  taken  from 
the  rim--banks— very  stiff  and  rich  soil,  without  stones.  With  this  same 
mud  the  sides  of  the  boat  were  plastered,  at  those  parts  in  the  fore-half  of 
the  vessel  where  moTpable  planks  were  placed  in  order  to  raise  the  gun- 
nel iiigher:  the  mud  filled  r.p  the  crevices,  and  prevented  the  water  from 
gushing  in,  as  would  otherwise  be  the  case.  This  mud  was  so  rich  and 
slimy,  and  when  dry  so  firm  and  impervious,  that,  together  with  the  strong 
reed  that  grows  on  the  banks,  it  is  easy  to  conceive  how  the  mother  of 
Moses  constructed  a  httle  ark  which  would  float  :  she  then  placed  I'  among 
tlie  ihigs,  in  order  that  the  stream  might  not  carry  it  down,  Exod.  in.  3  ' 
(Ibid.  p.  167.) 


420 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPICAL  INDEX. 
EG  EL 


were  contemporary,  one  reigning  in  one  part  of  Egypt,  another 
in  another. 

Sketch  of  the  Hixtory  of  the  Esyptian  Empire,  as  connected 
■with  that  of  the  Israelites. 

No  intercourse  sul):iisted  between  the  Israelites  and  Eg}p- 
tians  from  Uie  departure  of  the  former  out  of  Egypt  until  the 
reign  of  Solomon,  who  having  married  a  daughter  of  Pharaoh 
(1  Kings  iii.  1.  vii,  8.),  and  established  a  considerable  trade  be- 
tween Egypt  and  Palestine,  the  two  kingdoms  became  intimately 
connected'.  By  way  of  dowry  to  his  daughter,  the  king  of  Egypt 
gave  Solomon  several  cities  which  he  had  taken  from  the  Philis- 
tines. (1  Kings  ix.  IG.)  Afterwards,  however,  this  intimacy 
declined,  as  Pharaoh  affoidcd  shelter,  even  during  the  life  of 
Solomon,  to  Jeroboam  the  son  of  Nebat  (I  Kings  .xi.  26.  40.), 
and  to  Hadad  the  son  of  the  king  of  Edom  or  Idumaea.  (Ibid. 
1 8,  1 9.)  The  connection  was  totally  broken  off  in  the  reign  of 
Rehoboam,  the  son  and  successor  of  Solomon  :  Shishak  king  of 
Egypt  invaded  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  and  despoiled  the  temple 
of  its  treasures.     (.\iv.  25,  26.) 

Towards  the  end  of  the  kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Judah  the 
sovereigns  of  those  countries,  finding  themselves  too  weak  to 
resist  the  As.syrian  and  Babylonian  monarchs  who  pressed  them 
closely,  had  frequent  recourse  to  the  kings  of  Egj'pt  for  succour. 
But  these  applications  were  always  fatal  to  them.  The  vain 
confidence  of  the  people  of  God  in  these  heathen  princes  is  a  frc- 
•luent  subject  of  reproof  in  the  writings  of  the  prophets.  (Isa. 
xxx.  2.  xxxvi.  C.  Ezek.  xxix.  6,  7.  Hosca,  passim,  particularly 
chapters  vii.  viii.  and  ix.)  Hezekiah  derived  no  advantage  from 
his  alliance  wifli  the  king  of  Egypt  (2  Kings  xviii.  21.);  neither 
was  Hoshca  king  of  Lsrael  benefited  by  his  alliance  with  So, 
king  of  the  same  country.  (Ho.seavii.il.  viii.  13.  ix.  3.  xii.  9. 
Jcr.  ii.  IS.  2  Kings  xvii.  4.)  Josiah  king  of  Judah  was  -slain  in 
the  vain  attempt  to  oppose  the  passage  of  Pharaoh-Necho  through 
hi-i  territories,  when  marching  against  the  Assyrians.  (2  Kings 
xxiii.  29.)  Pharaoh  pushed  on  beyond  the  Euj  hrates,  and  took 
Carchemish,  which  place  he  garrisoned ;  and  on  his  return 
through  Judaja  he  deposed  Jehoahaz,  whom  the  people  had  raised 
to  the  throne,  and  placed  Eiialcim  or  Jehoiakim  in  his  stead,  on 
whom  he  imposed  a  tribute. 

The  governor  of  Syria  and  Pha3nicia,  who  held  these  pro- 
vinces in  behalf  of  the  king  of  Babylon,  having  put  them  under 
the  dominion  of  the  king  of  Egypt,  Nabopolassar,  king  of  Assy- 
ria, sent  his  son  Nebuchadnezzar  against  him  ;  who  first  retook 
Carchemish,  and  afterwards  reduced  the  whole  of  tlie  country 
between  the  Euphrates  and  the  Nile  to  his  father's  sceptre.  (Jer. 
xlvi.   Josephus,  Ant.  Jud.  lib",  x.  c.  6.) 

A.  M.  3334,  n.  c.  670.  Psammetichus  succeeded  his  father 
Pharaoh-Necho,  king  of  Egypt,  and  reigned  six  years.  (Hero- 
dotus, lib.  ii.  c.  159— IGl.)  After  his  death  Apries  (the  Pha- 
raoh-Hophra  of  the  Scriptures)  ascended  the  throne.  He  made 
an  alliance  with  Zcdekiah  king  of  Judah,  and  with  the  king  of 
Ethiopia,  agninst  Nei)uchadnezzar.  The  latter  marched  against 
•hem,  and  besieged  Jerusalem.  The  king  of  Egypt  came  to  the 
assistance  of  Zcdekiah,  but  was  repulsed,  and  obliged  to  retire 
into  his  own  country,  whither  he  was  pursued  by  Nebuchadnez- 
zar, who,  after  taking  the  cities  of  Jerusalem  and  Tyre,  conquered 
and  ravaged  Egypt,  whence  he  carried  away  great  numbers  of 
captives,  agreeably  to  the  predictions  of  Jeremiah  (xliii.  xliv. 
xlvi.)  and  Ezekiel.  (xxix. — xxxi.)  Apries  was  put  to  death,  and 
Amasis,  his  enemy  and  rival  for  the  Egyptian  .sceptre,  was  ele- 
vated to  the  throne,  a.  m.  adS.^,  H.r.  5G9. 

Egypt  continued  Bubject  to  Nebuchadnezzar  and  his  succes- 
sors until  the  time  of  Cyrus  the  Great.  This  power  rebelled 
towards  the  close  of  his  reign.  Cambyses,  his  son  and  successor, 
conducted  an  immense  army  into  Egyi)t.  'i'hal  country  was 
again,  subdued,  and  sulfercd  every  excess  which  the  cruel  victor 
rouM  possibly  inflict  upon  it,  a.m.  3479,  n.r.  .52.5.  In  the  reign 
of  Darius,  the  son  of  Hystaspcs,  the  Egyptians  once  more  shook 
off  the  Persian  yoke,  but  were  reduced  to  a  more  oppressive 
bondage  than  before  by  his  son  and  successor  Xcrxea.  In  those 
two  invasions  the  predictions  of  Isaiah  (xxix.)  and  Jeremiah 
(xliii.  II  — 13.)  were  most  signally  fulfilled. 

A.  .H.  3544,  II.  c.  460.  During  the  reign  of  .\rtaxerxe8  Longi- 
manus,  the  Egyptians  once  more  took  up  arms,  and  with  the 
a.'»sistanoe  of  the  Greeks,  their  allies,  ])rotraeted  the  war  for  six 
years.  Again  reduced  to  the  Pcrhian  yoke,  they  continued  de- 
pendent on  the  Persian  monarchs,  though  governed  by  their 
kings,  until  the  reign  of  .Artaxerxes  surnamed  Ochus,  who,  in 
order  to  jmnish  them  for  a  fourth  revolt,  totally  destroyed  the 


kingdom  of  Egypt,"and  made  it  a  province  of  the  Persian  empire, 
A.M.  3654,  B.C.  350.  (Calmct,  Hist.  Profane  de  I'Oricnt,  §  V. 
Dissert,  torn.  ii.  pp.  341—343.) 

Ehuu,  the  second  judge  of  the  Israelites,  whom  he  delivered 
from  the  oppression  of  Eglox,  king  of  Moab.  (Judg.  iii.  13 — 
26.) 

Ekuox,  a  city  and  government  of  the  Philistines,  allotted  to 
Judah  by  Joshua  (xv.  45.)  ;  but  afterwards  given  to  Dan.  (Josh. 
xix.  43.)  It  was  near  the  Mediterranean,  between  Ashdod  and 
Jamnia.  Ekron  was  a  powerful  city ;  and  it  does  not  appear 
that  the  Jews  ever  peaceably  possessed  it :  the  Ekronites  were 
the  first  who  proposed  to  send  back  the  ark,  to  be  delivered  from 
those  calamities  which  it  brought  on  their  country.  (1  Sam.  v.  10.) 
Beelzebub  was  adored  at  Ekron.  (2  Kings  i.  2.) 

Ela,  the  fourth  king  of  Israel,  succeeded  his  father  Baasha, 
and  reigned  two  years  at  Tirza,  where  he  was  assassinated  by 
Zimri,  at  an  entertainment  given  to  him  by  one  of  his  ofiicers. 
(1  Kings  xvi.  6 — 10.) 

Elaii,  ^'alley  of,  notice  of,  32. 

Ela.v,  the  eldest  son  of  Shem,  who  settled  in  a  countrj-  in  tho 
south  of  Media,  called  after  him  Elam.  Strictly,  Elam  denotes 
Elymais,  a  district  of  Persia,  near  tho  bottom  of  the  Persian 
Gulf  between  Media  and  Babylonia,  and  forming  part  of  the 
region  of  Susiana;  but  in  a  wider  sense  it  is  used  generally  for 
Media  itself,  as  in  Dan.  viii.  2.  Gen.  x.  22.  xiv.  1.  Isa.  xi.  11. 
xxii.  6.  Jer.  xlix.  34 — 39.  Ezek.  xxxii.  34.  In  most  of  these 
passages,  Elam  is  represented  as  a  contentious  people,  causing 
disturbance  to  the  neighbouring  nations.  Strabo  says  as  much 
concerning  the  inhabitants  of  Elymais.  In  Jer.  xxv.  25.  and 
Acts  ii.  9.  the  inhabitants  of  this  country  are  mentioned  in  con- 
junction with  the  Medes. 

Elath,  Eloth,  or  Ailath,  a  town  and  port  of  Idumsea,  situ- 
ated on' the  Red  Sea.  On  the  conquest  of  Edom  by  David,  be 
took  possession  of  this  place,  and  there  established  a  trade  to  all 
parts  of  the  then  known  world.  Solomon  built  sliiijs  here,  and 
sent  thexn  to  Ophir.  (2  Sam.  viii.  14.  2  Chron.  viii.  17,  18.) 
Elath  continued  in  possession  of  the  Israelites  about  150  years, 
until,  in  the  reign  of  Joram,  it  was  recovered  by  the  Edomites 
(2  Kings  viii.  20.),  from  whom  it  was  retaken  by  Azariah. 
(2  Kings  xiv.  22.)  Under  his  grandson  Ahaz  it  was  recaptured 
by  the  Edomites  (xvi.  6,)  ;  from  whom,  after  many  changes  undei 
the  Ptolemies,  it  finally  passed  into  the  possession  of  the  Romans. 
It  was  anciently  a  great  emporium  for  the  Tyrians. 

El-Bf.tkel  (Gen.  xxxv.  7.),  and  El-Elohk-Isiiaei,  (Qen. 
xxxiii.  20.),  the  name  of  two  altars  erected  by  Jacob  after  his 
return  to  Canaan.  The  first  signifies,  that  God  was  still  the  God 
of  Bethel  to  him  in  performing  the  promises  there  made :  tho 
second  implies,  that  the  mighty  God  was  still  the  object  of  wor- 
ship to  him  and  his  offspring. 

Eld  ad  and  Med  An  were  two  of  the  seventy  elders  appointed 
by  Moses ;  who  received  the  temporary  gift  of  prophesying,  or 
of  forming  divine  hymns,  and  singing  them  to  God.  (Num. 
xi.  26.) 

Eldf.hs  of  the  Israelites.  See  p.  42.  Elders  of  the  gate, 
p.  54. 

Elkazah. 

1.  The  third  son  of  Aaron,  whom  he  succeeded  in  the  ponti- 
ficate. Having  been  born  in  the  desert,  he  entered  the  land  of 
Canaan,  in  the  division  of  which  he  assisted  Joshua.  After 
executing  the  office  of  high-priest  about  23  years,  he  died  and 
was  buried  In  the  mountains  of  Ephraiin. 

2.  The  son  of  Abinadab  :  he  was  sanctified  or  set  apart  to 
keep  the  .ark  of  God,  which  was  deposited  in  his  father's  house, 
after  it  had  been  sent  back  to  the  Israelites,  by  the  Philistines. 
(1  Sam.  viii.  1.) 

3.  The  son  of  Dodo,  the  second  of  David's  mighty  men,  who 
distinguished  himself  by  his  brave  achievements.  He  was  ono 
of  the  three  warriors  who  forced  their  way  through  the  Philis- 
tine forces,  to  procure  water  for  David  from  the  well  of  Bethle- 
hem, at  the  ijnmincnt  hazard  of  their  lives.  (1  Chron.  xi.  17 
—19.)  • 

Elkct  Ladt,  more  correctly,  the  Lady  Electa,  a  pious  Chris- 
tian matron,  commended  by  St.  John  in  his  second  Epistle.  Com- 
pare p.  376. 

Elki'iiantiasis,  the  disease  of  Job,  196. 

ELHAXAy. 

1.  Anoihcrsonof  Dodo,  and  one  of  David's  warriors.  (1  Chron. 
xi.2G.) 

2.  'J'hc  son  of  Jair,  or  Jaare-orcgim,  another  warrior,  who 
slew  the  giant  Lahmi,  the  brotlier  of  Goliath.  (2  Sam.  xxi.  19^ 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND   GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


421 


EL 


Eli. 


1.  The  seventh  high-priest  of  the  Israelites,  v^hom  he  judged 
forty  years :  he  was  descended  from  Ithamar.  It  is  not  known 
why  the  pontifical  dignity  was  transferred  to  him  from  the  family 
of  Elcazar.  He  was  severely  reproved  for  his  false  indulgences 
to  his  profligate  sons,  Hophni  and  Phinehas :  he  died  suddenly 
on  hearing  tidings  of  the  capture  of  the  ark,  and  the  total  dis- 
comfiture of  the  Israelites  by  the  Philistines.  (1  Sam.  ii.  iii.) 

2.  The  name  of  a  man,  who  was  the  father  of  Joseph,  the 
husband  of  Mary.  (Luke  iii.  23.) 

Eliakim. 

1.  A  governor  of  the  royal  household,  under  Hezekiah  ;  by 
whom  he  was  deputed,  with  others,  to  receive  the  propo.-als  of 
Rahshakeh,  on  the  part  of  Sennacherib.  He  succeeded  Shebna 
in  this  office,  agreeably  to  the  prediction  of  Isaiah  ;  who  highly 
eulogized  his  character,  and,  under  images  borrowed  from  the 
genius  of  oriental  poetry,  promised  that  he  should  enjoy  un- 
bounded confidence  and  authority. 

2.  A  king  of  Judah,  the  son  of  Josiah,  whose  name  was  after- 
wards changed  by  Pharaoh-Necho  king  of  Egypt  into  Ji:hoiakim 
(which  see). 

Elias.     See  Elijah. 

Eliashiii,  grandson  of  Joshua,  the  high-priest,  rebuilt  part  of 
the  wall  of  Jerusalem.  He  was  allied,  by  marriage,  to  Tobiah 
the  Ammonite,  to  whom  he  gave  spacious  apartments  in  the 
second  temple,  to  the  scand;il  of  his  religion,  and  the  great 
damage  of  the  countiy.  (Neh.  xii.  10.  iii.  1.  xiii.  4 — 9.) 

Eliezer. 

1.  The  chief  of  Abraham's  servants,  and  emment  for  the  con- 
fidence reposed  in  him  by  the  patriarch,  as  well  as  for  the  piety 
and  prudence  with  which  he  executed  the  commission  of  pro- 
curing a  wife  for  Isaac.  (Gen.  xxiv.)  Before  the  birth  of  Isaac, 
it  should  seem  that  Abraham  had  designed  to  make  him  his  heir. 
(Gen.  XV.  2.) 

2.  The  son  of  Dodabah,  a  prophet,  who  foretold  ta  Jehosha- 
phat,  that  the  trade-fleet,  which  he  had  fitted  out  in  conjunction 
with  the  unworthy  Ahaziah,  should  be  wrecked,  and  prevented 
from  sailing  to  Tarshish.   (2  Chron.  xx.  37.) 

Eliiiu,  one  of  the  interlocutors  in  the  book  of  Job, was  "the 
son  of  Earachel  the  Buzite,  of  the  kindred  of  Ram,"  or  Aram. 
(Job  xxxii.  2.  Gen.  xxii.  21.)  He  was  of  the  family  of  the 
patriarch  Abraham,  and  was  descended  from  Buz  the  son  of  Na- 
hor  and  Milcah :  it  is  most  jirobable  that  that  branch  of  the 
patriarchal  family  settled  in  Iduma'a. 

Elijah,  or  Elias,  after  Moses,  was  the  most  celebrated  pro- 
phet of  the  Old  Testament,  surnamed  the  Tishbite,  from  Thisbe 
the  place  of  his  birth.  He  was  a  strenuous  vindicator  of  the 
worship  of  the  true  God,  in  opposition  to  the  idolatrous  kings 
under  whom  he  Uved.  (1  Kings  xvii. — xix.)  He  was  miracu- 
lously translated  to  heaven  (2  Kings  ii.  1 — 11.) ;  and  many  ages 
after  a  still  more  distinguished  honour  awaited  him.  Elijah  and 
Moses  are  the  only  men  whose  history  does  not  terminate  with 
their  departure  out  of  this  world.  Elijah  appeared,  together  with 
Moses,  on  Mount  Tabor,  at  the  time  of  Christ's  transfiguration, 
and  conversed  with  him  respecting  the  great  work  of  redemption, 
which  he  was  about  to  accomplish.  (Matt.  xvii.  1 — 3.  and  the 
parallel  passages  in  Mark  and  Luke.)  For  an  illustration  of 
the  conduct  of  Elijah  towards  the  prophets  of  Baal,  see  p.  141. 

EnTM,  the  seventh  encampment  of  the  Hebiews,  in  the  north 
skirt  of  the  desert,  where  they  found  twelve  fountains  and  seventy 
palm  trees.  When  this  place  was  visited  by  Dr.  Shaw,  in  the 
early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  he  found  here  nine  wells  or 
fountains,  and  2000  palm  trees.   (Exod.  xv.  27.) 

Eliphaz,  surnamed  the  Temanite,  one  of  the  friends  of  Job, 
was  most  probably  descended  from  Eliphaz  the  son  of  Esau,  to 
whom  the  city  or  district  of  Teman  was  allotted.  (Dr.  Good, 
on  Job  ii.  1 1 .) 

Elisha,  the  successor  of  Elijah  in  the  prophetic  office:  he 
wrought  numerous  miracles  in  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  which  are 
related  in  2  Kings  ii. — xiii.  See  Vol.  I.  p.  412.  where  the  de- 
struction of  forty-two  young  persons  by  this  prophet  is  vindicated 
from  the  cavils  of  skeptics. 

Elishah,  Islks  of  Elishah,  a  Grecian  province  whence  purple 
was  brought  to  Tyre.  (Gen.  x.  4.  Ezek.  xxvii.  7.)  According 
to  Prof.  Gcscnius,  the  name  is  most  probably  akin  to  Elis,  which 
in  a  wider  sense  is  used  for  the  whole  Peloponnesus.  According 
to  others,  it  is  Hellas,  or  Greece.  This  country  most  probably 
derived  its  name  from  Elishah  the  son  of  Javan,  whose  descend- 
ants peopled  part  of  Greece. 


E  P 


Elkosh,  the  birth-place  of  the"  prophet  Nahum  (i.  1.):  it  is 
either  .dlkiish  in  Assyria,  where,  Gesenius  thinks,  he  might  have 
been  born  of  Israelitish  parents  ;  or,  according  to  Jerome,  Elcese. 
a  village  in  Galilee. 

Elul,  the  sixth  month  of  the  Jewish  ecclesiastical  year,  and 
the  twelfih  month  of  the  civil  year.  The  etymology  of  this 
word  is  obscure.  For  a  notice  of  the  festivals  in  this  month, 
see  p.  76. 

Eltjiais.    .SccElam. 

Elymas.     See  Bar-Jesus,  p.  557. 

Embalmiitg,  Egyptian  and  Jewish  processes  of.     See  p.  198. 

Emijis,  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  land  of  Canaan,  to  the 
east  and  north-east  of  the  Dead  Sea.  They  were  a  numerous, 
warlike,  and  gigantic  race,  probably  descended  from  Ham.  They 
were  defeated  by  Chedorlaomer  in  Shaveh  Kiriathaim,  or  the 
Plain  of  Kiriathaim.  (Gen.  xiv.  5.) 

Ejimaus,  a  small  village  of  Judaea,  distant  sixty  furlongs  from 
Jerusalem.  It  is  memorable  for  the  very  interesting  conversation 
between  Jesus  Christ  and  two  of  his  disciples  in  the  evening  of 
the  day  of  his  resurrection.  (Luke  xxiv.)  "  The  mean  and  tri- 
fling village,  all  that  now  exists,  of  Emmaus,  stands  on  an  emi- 
nence, in  the  midst  of  hills.  The  people,  who  live  here,  are  poor 
and  wretched  ;  they  are  chiefly  Christians."  (Carne's  Recollec- 
tions of  the  East,  p.  213.) 

ExcAMPMEJTTS  of  the  Jews,  86,  87. 

Ey-Don,  a  city  belonging  to  the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh  on 
the  west  side  of  the  Jordan  :  according  to  Eusebius,  it  was  four 
Roman  miles  to  the  south  of  Mount  Tabor.  Here  dwelt  the 
sorceress,  who  was  consulted  by  Saul  a  short  time  before  the 
fatal  battle  of  Gilboa. 

Ex-Er.LAisr,  or  the  fountain  of  calves,  a  place  situated  on  the 
northern  point  of  the  Dead  Sea.     (Ezek.  xlvii.  10.) 

En'-gedda,  mountains  of,  30. 

En'-redi,  or  the  fountain  of  the  kid,  anciently  called  Haza- 
zon  Tamar,  was  a  city  in  the  tribe  of  Judah,  not  far  from  the 
southern  point  of  the  Dead  Sea.  Its  surrounding  district 
abounded  with  palm  trees  and  vines.  (Josh.  xv.  62.  2  Chron. 
XX.  2.  Song  of  Sol.  i.  14.)  In  the  vicinity  of  this  place  was 
the  cave  of  En-gedi ;  for  a  notice  of  which,  see  p.  32. 

ExGHAvixG,  art  of,  among  the  Jews,  183. 

Ex-MispHAT,  or  the  fountain  of  judgment,  the  same  as  the 
waters  of  Meribah,  or  contention,  the  name  of  a  fountain  in  the 
desert  of  Sin,  otherwise  called  Kadesh. 

Ex-noGEL,  or  the  fountain  of  the  spy,  a  fountain  on  the  south- 
east of  Jerusalem :  it  is  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  the  fountain 
of  Siloam;  for  a  notice  of  which,  see  p.  28. 

Enoch. 

1.  The  son  of  Cain,  in  honour  of  whom  the  first  city  men- 
tioned in  Scripture  was  called  Enoch  by  his  father,  who  erected 
it.  (Gen.  iv.  17.)  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  situated  on  the 
east  of  Eden. 

2.  The  father  of  Methuselah,  memorable  for  his  piety.  Having 
lived  365  years,  he  was  triinslated,  and  did  not  see  death.  (Gen. 
v.  18.  24.  Heb.  xi.  5.)  The  memory  of  which  event  is  confirmed 
by  heathen  traditions,  Vol.  I.  p.  71.  According  to  the  modern 
Jews,  and  the  Arabians  (who  call  him  Idris  the  learned),  he 
was  the  inventor  of  letters,  arithmetic,  and  astronomy ;  probably 
from  the  etymology  of  the  name,  which  signifies  initiated  or  ini- 
tiating. For  a  notice  of  the  apocryphal  prophecy  of  Enoch,  see 
Vol.  1.  p.  318. 

EsoN,  a  place  or  fountain,  not  far  from  Salim,  where  John 
baptized  many  persons.  According  to  Eusebius,  it  was  eight 
Roman  miles  from  Scythopolis,  and  fifty -three  north-east  of  Je- 
rusalem. 

Eiros,  the  son  of  Seth  and  grandson  of  Adam,  was  bom  a.  m. 
235,  and  died  at  the  age  of  905  j-ears :  consequently  he  was 
contemporary  with  Adam  695  years,  and  84  years  with  Noah. 
After  the  birth  of  Enos,  divine  worship,  which  till  that  time  had 
been  confined  to  private  families,  became  public.  The  descend- 
ants of  Seth  separated  themselves  from  the  descendants  of  Cain, 
and  invoked  the  name  of  God,  probably  on  fixed  days,  and  in 
assemblies  where  every  one  was  admitted.  (Gen.  v.  6.  1  Chron. 
i.  1.   Gen.  iv.  26.) 

Entertainments  of  the  Jews.     See  pp.  172,  173. 

Ep^netcs,  the  first  person  in  proconsular  Asia  who  em- 
braced the  Christian  faith.  (Rom.  xvi.  5.)  In  which  passage, 
'many  modern  versions,  and  among  them  our  authorized  version, 
read  Achaia,  which  is  a  mistake  in  the  copy  whence  they  were 
made :  for  the  Alexandrian  and  Vatican  manuscripts,  the  Co 


422 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 
E  P  E  U 


dices  Eplircm,  Claromontanus,  Augien^-is,  and  Bocrnerianus, 
and  the  readings  in  the  Codex  Vindoboncnsis  Lainbecianus  34. 
(No.  37.  of  Gricsbach's  notation),  together  with  the  Memphitic, 
Armenian,  Ethiopic,  and  Vulgate  versions,  besides  many  Latin 
fathers, — all  read  'Ao-jac  instead  of  'A-)(aj<t{ ;  which  lection  Gries- 
bach  considers  as  certainly  equal,  if  not  preferable,  to  the  re- 
ceived reading.  That  it  is  preferable  to  tliat  reading  is  clear 
from  1  Cor.  xvi.  15.,  where  the  family  of  Stephanas  is  said  to 
be  "  the  first-fruits  of  Jlchaia." 

Epaphhas,  the  coadjutor  of  St.  Paul  in  his  labours,  was  re- 
puted to  be  the  first  bisliop  of  the  church  at  Colossaj,  to  which 
he  was  affectionately  attiched.    (Col.  i.  17.  iv.  13.    Philem.  23.) 
'Kewas  with  iSt.  Paul  during  his  first  iinprisonnient ;  and  has 
sometimes,  but  without  proof,  been  confounded  with 

Epapuroihtus,  whom  that  apostle  styles  a  fellow-labourer 
and  fellow-soldier,  as  having  participated  in  his  labours  and 
dangers.  He  appears  to  have  been  the  minister  of  the  Pliilip- 
pian  church,  by  whicli  he  was  sent  to  carry  pecuniary  aid  to  8t. 
J'aul,  who  speaks  of  him  in  terms  of  great  respect.  (I'hil.  iv. 
18.  ii.  25—30.) 

Epiiksdammim,  a  place  between  Shochoh  and  Azekah  on  the 
west  of  the  valley  of  Elah.  Here  the  army  of  the  Philistines 
was  encamped,  when  Goliath  insulted  the  hosts  of  Israel :  and 
here  also  they  were  found  after  David's  coronation,  and  suffered 
a  great  slaughter. 

Ephf.sis  was  the  metropolis  of  proconsular  Asia.  (On  the 
powers  of  the  "assembly"  held  in  this  city,  see  pp.  135,  136.) 
'fhis  celebrated  city,  the  remains  of  which  give  a  high  idea  of 
its  former  beauty,  extent,  and  magnificence,  was  situated  in  that 
part  of  Asia  which  was  anciently  called  Ionia  (but  now  Natolia), 
about  five  miles  from  the  -Egean  Sea,  on  the  sides  and  at  tlic 
foot  of  a  range  of  mountains  overlooking  a  line  plain  that  was 
watered  and  fertilized  by  the  river  Caysler.  Ephesus  was  par- 
ticularly celebrated  for  tlie  temple  of  Diana,  a  most  magnificent 
and  statelj'  edifice,  which  had  been  erected  at  the  common 
expense  of  the  inhabitants  of  Asia  Proper,  and  was  reputed  one 
of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world  ;  but  the  very  site  of  this 
stupendous  and  celebrated  edifice  is  now  undetermined.  Widely 
scattered  anil  noble  ruins  attest  the  splendour  of  the  theatre 
mentioned  in  Acts  xix.  31.;  the  elevated  situation  of  which,  on 
Mount  Prion,  accounts  for  the  ease  with  which  an  immense 
mullituile  was  collected,  the  loud  shouts  of  whose  voices,  rever- 
berated from  the  neighbouring  Mount  Corissus,  would  not  a 
little  augment  the  uproar  which  was  occasioned  by  the  pojjulace 
rushing  into  the  theatre.  In  the  time  of  Saint  Paul,  this  city 
abounded  with  orators  and  philosophers ;  and  its  inhabitants,  in 
their  Gentile  state,  were  celebrated  for  their  idolatry  and  skill  in 
magic,  as  well  as  for  their  luxury  and  lasciviousness.  The  pre- 
sent slate  of  Ephesus  affords  a  striking  illustration  of  the  ac- 
complishment of  proj)hccy.  Ephesus  is  the  first  of  the  apoca- 
lyptic churches  addressed  by  the  evangelist  in  the  name  of  Jesus 
Christ.  "  His  charge  against  her  is  a  declension  in  religious 
fervour  (Kev.  ii.  4.),  and  his  threat  in  consequence  (Rev.  ii.  5.), 
a  total  extinction  of  her  ecclesiastical  brightness.  After  a  pro- 
tracted struggle  with  the  sword  of  Rome,  and  the  sophisms  of 
the  Gnostics,  Ephesus  at  last  gave  way.  The  incipient  indif- 
ference, censured  by  the  warning  voice  of  the  propiict,  increased 
to  a  total  forgetfulncss ;  till,  at  length,  the  threatenings  of  the 
Ap'jcalypic  were  fullillcd,  and  Ephesus  sunk  with  the  general 
overthrow  of  the  (Jrcek  empire  in  the  fourteenth  century." 
(Emerson's  Letters  from  the  .^gean,  vol.  i.  i)p.  212,  213.) 
Ephesus  is  now  under  the  dominion  of  the  Turks,  and  is  in  a 
state  of  almost  total  ruin.  The  plough  has  passed  over  the  city  ; 
and  in  March,  182C,  when  visited  by  the  Rev.  Messrs.  Hartley 
and  Arundell,  green  corn  was  growing,  in  all  directions,  amidst 
the  forsaken  ruins:  and  om^  solitary  iiulividua!  only  wjs  fiuiid 
who  bore  the  name  of  Christ,  instead  of  its  once  flourishing 
church.  Where  once  assembled  thousands  exclaimed,  "  (Jrcat 
is  Diana  of  the  Ephesians,"  now  the  eagle  yells  and  the  jackal 
moans.  In  the  time  of  the  Romans,  Ephesus  was  tlm  mrtro|)i)lis 
of  Asia  Minor.  (Hartley's  Journal,  ih  Missionary  Register, 
1827,  pp.  290 — 202,  Arundcll's  Visit  to  the  Seven  Churches, 
pl>.  27— :>G.) 

Epiiod  of  Gideon,  137;  and  of  the  High-priests,  113,  111, 
Epiiiiaim. 

1,  The  youngest  son  of  Joseph  by  Ascnath,  was  adopted  and 
blessed  by  lacob ;  who  laid  his  right  hand  on  Ephrdim,  and  his 
l«?ft  on  the  head  of  .Vtanassch,  to  intimate  that  the  youngest  son 
should  be  greater  than  the  eldest,  and  his  posterity  more  nume- 


rous. He  gave  his  name  to  one  of  the  tribes  of  Israel :  for  the 
limits  allotted  to  which,  see  p.  17.  The  Ephraimites  were  un- 
able to  utter  the  sound  sh,  to  which  they  gave  the  sound  of  s. 
(Judg.  xii.  6.)  It  is  a  singular  circumstance,  that  the  modern 
Greeks  have  not  the  sound  of  sli  in  their  language.  Hence 
they  are  liable  to  be  detected  like  the  Ephraimites,  (Hartley's 
Researches  in  Greece,  p.  232.) 

2.  A  considerable  city  of  Judsea,  eight  Roman  miles  north  of 
Jerusalem,  according  to  Eusebius,  and  near  a  desert  of  the  same 
name ;  to  which  Jesus  Christ  retired  after  he  had  raised  Lazarus 
from  the  dead.     (John  xi.  51.) 

3.  Ephraim,  Forest  of,  36,  ^ 

4.  Ephraim,  Mountains  of,  30, 
Ephuatah, 

1.  Another  name  for  the  town  of  Bethlehem,    (Mic,  v,  2.) 

2.  The  lot  of  Ephraim.     (Psal.  cxxxii.  G.) 

Ephuukans,  the  followers  of  Epicurus,  a  celebrated  Athe- 
nian philosopher :  they  acknowledged  no  gods,  except  in  name 
only,  and  absolutely  denied  that  they  exercised  any  providence 
over  the  world.  For  an  illustration  of  Saint  Paul's  masterly 
address  to  them  at  Athens,  sec  p.  326,  327. 

Epistlks,  Ancient,  form  of,  183. 

Ei'ocHAS  of  the  Jews,  account  of,  77, 

EnASTL's,  treasurer  of  the  city  of  Corinth,  who  embraced 
Christianity  and  became  the  fellow-labourer  of  Saint  Paul. 

EsAU-HAnnox,  the  son  and  successor  of  Sennacherib  king  of 
Assyria;  for  a  notice  of  whose  reign,  see  Assthia,  p,  410. 
col,  2, 

Esau,  or  Edo>i,  the  eldest  son  of  Isaac,  and  the  twin  brother 
of  Jacob.  He  delighted  much  in  hunting ;  while  Jacob,  being 
of  a  more  domestic  turn,  became  the  favourite  of  his  mother 
Rebekah,  by  whose  counsel  and  direction  he  surreptitiously  ob- 
tained his  father's  blessing  in  preference  to  Esau ;  who  found  no 
place  or  scope  for  a  change  of  purpose  in  his  father,  though  he 
sought  it^aafully  with  tears.  (Gen.  xxvil.  1 — 31,  Heb.  xii, 
17.)  On  Jacob's  return  into  Canaan  from  Mesopotamia,  whither 
he  had  fled  to  avoid  his  brother's  resentment,  Esau  received  him 
with  great  kindness ;  and  on  Isaac's  death  he  returned  to  Mount 
Seir.  Concerning  the  remainder  of  his  life  or  the  manner  of 
his  death  the  Scriptures  are  silent.  In  the  historical  and  pro- 
phetical books,  Esau  and  Edoin  respectively  denote  Idumsca  and 
the  Idumcean  tribes.  In  Rom.  ix.  13.  where  St,  Paul  cites  Mai. 
i.  2,  3.,  the  apostle  is  evidently  treating  only  of  the  posterities 
of  Jacob  and  Esau. 

EsDRAELOx,  Plain  of,  account  of,  33. 

EsHcoL,  Valley  of,  a  fertile  vale  in  the  land  of  Canaan  and 
in  the  southern  part  of  Judah.  Here  the  Hebrew  spies,  while 
exploring  the  co\mtiy,  cut  a  very  large  cluster  of  grapes,  which 
was  carried  back  by  two  men,  as  a  specLmen  of  the  delicious 
fruit  [)roduced  by  the  country. 

Espousals,  Jewish,  form  of,  IGO,  IGl. 

EssEXF.s,  sect  of,  account  of,  146, 

Estiikh,  or  HAnAss.vH,  the  great  niece  of  Mordecai,  by  whom 
she  was  adopted.  On  the  divorce  of  Vashti,  she  became  the 
queen  consort  of  Ahasuerus  :  her  history  is  rohiled  in  tlic  book 
of  Esther ;  for  an  analysis  of  which,  see  pp,  225,  226. 

Etam, 

1,  A  city  in  the  tribe  of  Judah  between  Bethlehem  and  Tc- 
koah,     (2  Chron.  xi.  C.) 

2.  A  rock,  til  which  Samson  retired  after  he  had  burned  tha 
harvest  of  the  Philistines,  (Judg.  xv.  8.)  From  a  celebrated 
spring  near  this  place,  Pilate  (and  probably  Solomon  before 
him)  brought  water  by  an  aqueduct  into  Jeru.salem, 

E'I'iiam,  the  third  station  of  the  Israelites  after  their  departure 
from  Egypt,  (Num.  xxiii.  6.  Exod.  xiii.  20.)  It  is  now  called 
lUti. 

Etiiav,  the  Ezrahitc,  was  one  of  the  philosophers,  to  whom 
Solomon  was  comjiared  for  wistlom  in  1  Kings  iv.  31.  and  1  Chron, 
ii.  6.     The  H'Jth  psalm  is  a.scribed  to  him. 

Ethamm,  the  ancient  name  of  the  lirst  month  of  the  Jewish 
civil  year.  For  a  notice  of  the  festivals,  «St,c,  in  this  month,  sec 
p.  75. 

Ethics  cultivated  by  the  Jews,  186. 

ErriiopiA.  See  Cisii,  p.  4  17.  col.  2.  On  the  iirophccy  con- 
cerning Ethiopia,  and  it.-;  fiilfdincnt,  sec  Vol.  I.  p.  125. 

Er.viC!:,  the  mother  of 'I'imolhy,  and  the  wife  of  a  Greek  pro- 
selyte.   She  was  early  convcrti'd  to  the  Christian  faith.    St.  Paul 
has  pronounced  a  higli  culogium  on    her  piety,    (Acts  xvi.  1 
2  Tim.  i,  5.) 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 
FA  GA 


423 


ECXXJCH. 

1.  One  who  has  been  emasculated.  Such  persons  anciently 
were  (as  in  the  East  they  still  are)  employed  to  guard  the 
harems  of  oriental  kings  and  nobles.     See  p.  47. 

2.  Since,  in  the  East,  eunuchs  often  rose  to  stations  of  great 
power  and  trust,  the  word  at  length  came  to  signify  a  minister 
of  a  court,  without  necessarily  including  the  idea  of  emascula- 
tion. Such  was  the  officer  of  Candace,  queen  of  Ethiopia,  whose 
conversion  is  related  in  Acts  viii.  27 — 39. 

EuouTAs  and  SrxriciiE  were  Cliristian  women  atPhilippi,  and 
probably  deaconesses  of  the  church  in  that  city.  From  Phil.  iv. 
2.  it  is  evident  that  a  difference  of  opinion  subsisted  between 
them :  most  probably,  it  was  respecting  the  necessity  of  retaining 
the  Mosaic  ceremonies  under  the  Gospel  dispensation  and  worship. 

EuPHBATEs,  a  large  and  celebrated  river  of  Western  Asia:  it 
rises  in  Armenia  Major  near  Mount  Aba,  and,  after  flowing  by 
Syria,  Mesopotamia,  and  the  site  of  Babylon,  it  empties  itself 
into  the  Persian  Gulf.  In  Gen.  x v.  1 8.  it  is  called  "  the  great  river," 
which  distinctive  appellation  it  deserves  in  contrast  with  rivers 
generally,  though  not  with  the  Nile.  (Buckingham's  Travels  in 
Mesopotamia,  vol.  i.  p.  54.)  Like  the  Nile,  at  certain  seasons  of 
the  year,  the  Euphrates  inundates  the  flat  countries  on  its  banks, 
and  renders  them  extremely  fertile.  -. 

EuRocLTDox,  a  tempestuous  wind  common  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean, and  well  known  to  modern  mariners  by  the  name  of  a 
J.evanter.  It  is  not  confined  to  any  one  single  point,  but  blows 
in  all  directions  from  the  north-east,  round  by  the  north,  to  the 
south-cast.  The  great  wind,  or  mighty  tempest,  or  vehement 
east  wind,  described  by  the  prophet  Jonah  (i.  4.  iv.  8.),  appears 
to  have  been  one  of  these  Levanters.  Of  this  description  was  the 
violent  or  tempestuous  wind  mentioned  in  Acts  xxvii.  14.  (Shaw's 
Travels,  vol.  ii.  pp.  127,  128.) 

Eve,  the  wife  of  Adam,  and  the  common  mother  of  the  hu- 
man race.  (Gen.  ii.  iii.)  The  character  of  Eve  is  only  known  to 
us  by  her  sin ;  in  the  commission  of  which  we  may  observe  the 
two  fundamental  passions,  of  which  all  the  others  are  modifica- 
tions ;  viz.  pride — ye  shall  be  as  gods  ;  and  sensuality — the  tree 
was  good  for  food,  and  its  ix\X]X  "was  pleasant  to  the  eyes.  (Gen. 
iii.  .5,  6.) 

Evit-irEnoDACH,  the  son  and  successor  of  Nebuchadnezzar, 
king  of  Babylon.  He  delivered  Jchoiakim  king  of  Judah  out  of 
prison,  upon  whom  he  conferred  many  fovours.  (2  Kings  xxv. 
27.  Jer.  Iii.  31.)  According  to  Archbishop  Usher,  he  reigned 
only  one  year,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Belshazzar. 

EuTYCiius,  circumstances  of  the  death  of,  explained,  153,  154. 

ExcoMMUNicATio.v,  punishment  of,  and  its  effects,  66.  106. 

ExEcurioK  of  sentences,  how  and  by  whom  performed,  57. 

ExpiATiojf,  day  of,  how  solemnized,  127. 

Exposition  of  Scripture,  part  of  the  synagogue  worship,  106. 

Exposure  to  wild  beasts,  a  capital  punishment,  C8.  St.  Paul 
not  thus  actually  exposed,  191. 

Eyes,  putting  out,  a  Jewish  punishment,  66.  Painting  of  the 
eyes  described,  158. 

Ezkkiel,  the  son  of  Buzi,  of  the  house  of  Aaron  (Ezek.  i.  1.) 
was  carried  captive  to  Babylon  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  with  Jchoia- 
kim king  of  Judah.  He  is  the  third  of  the  greater  prophets.  See 
a  further  account  of  Ezekiel,  and  an  analysis  of  his  predictions  in 
pp.  283—287. 

E'/.iojf-GEBKR,  a  port  in  Idumsea,  on  the  Elanitic  gulf,  whence 
Solomon  sent  ships  to  Ophir.  (1  Kings  ix.  26.)  In  later  times 
it  was  called  Berenice.  Dr.  Shaw  supposes  it  to  be  the  same 
port  which  is  now  called  by  the  Arabs  Mecnah-el-Dsahab,  or  the 
port  of  gold.    (Travels,  vol.  ii.  pp.  118,  119.) 

Ezra  or  Esdras,  the  son  (or,  according  to  Coquerel  and 
others,  the  grandson  or  great-grandson)  of  Seraiah,  was  a  priest 
and  scribe  or  doctor  of  the  law  ;  who,  returning  from  capiivity, 
with  a  full  commission  from  Artaxerxes,  to  settle  the  church  and 
state  of  the  Jews,  zealously  exerted  himself  in  rectifying  all  the 
disorders  which  had  crept  into  their  affairs  during  their  capiivity. 
See  a  further  account  of  Ezra,  and  an  analysis  of  the  historical 
book  which  bears  his  name,  in  pp.  224,  225. 


Fair  Haten-s,  a  place  so  called  on  the  coast  of  Crete,  most 
probably  because  it  had  good  anchorage,  (Acts  xxvii.  8.)  In 
the  fourth  century,  according  to  Jerome,  it  was  a  large  town. 

Families,  Heads  of,  41,  42. 

Famines  in  the  Holy  Land,  40. 

Fasts  of  the  Jews,  public  and  private,  how  solemnized,  132. 
Fast  of  the  atonement,  127 


Fathers,  Jewish,  power  of,  over  their  families,  164. 

Feasts  of  the  Jews,  account  of,  121 — 129.  Benefits  resulting 
from  them,  123.  Notice  of  their  funeral  feasts,  202.  See  Dedi- 
cation, Expiation,  JuuiLEE,  New  Moon,  Passover,  Pente- 
cost, Purim,  Saebath,  Sabbatical  Yeah,  Tabernacles, 
Trumpets. 

Feet,  washing  of,  169,  170.     Female  ornaments  of,  158. 

Felix,  procurator  of  Judaea,  account  of,  53.  and  327. 

Fertility  of  Palestine,  account  of,  35 — 38. 

Festus,  procurator  of  Judaea,  notice  of,  53. 

Fig  trees  of  Palestine,  36,  37. 

Fines,  various,  imposed  by  the  Jews,  65. 

First-born,  privileges  of,  163. 

First-fruits,  presentation  of,  119,  120. 

Florus,  procurator  of  Judaea,  notice  of,  53. 

Foon  and  entertainments  of  the  Jews,  171 — 173.  Particular 
kinds  of  food,  why  allowed  or  prohibited  to  them,  171,  172. 

Foot-race,  allusions  to,  explained,  192 — 194. 

Forest  of  Cedars,  36;  of  Ephraim's,  ibid;  of  Hareth,  ibid ; 
of  Oaks,  ibid. 

Fortifications  of  the  Jews,  88,  89. 

Fountains  in  the  Holy  Land,  account  of,  28,  29. 

Freedom  of  Rome,  how  acquired,  and  its  privileges,  58,  59. 

Funeral  Rites  of  the  Jews,  199,  200. 

Furniture  of  oriental  houses,  154,  155. 


Gaal,  the  son  of  Ebed,  who  raised  a  revolt  in  Shec.hem 
against  Abimelech  the  son  of  Gideon  ;  but,  being  defeated  by  the 
latter,  he  was  compelled  to  flee.  (Judg.  ix.  26 — 41.)  It  is  not 
known  who  he  was  or  what  afterwards  became  of  him. 

Gaash,  a  hill  in  the  inheritance  of  Ephraim,  on  the  north  side 
of  which  stood  Timnath-Serah,  memorable  as  being  the  plaoo 
where  Joshua  was  buried.  (Josh.  xxiv.  30.)  At  the  foot  of  this 
hill,  probably,  were  the  brooks  (or  valleys)  of  Gaash  mentioned  in 
2  Sam.  xxiii.  30. 

Gabbatha.     See  p.  21. 

Gad. 

1.  Gad,  or  Good  Fortune,  a  S3'^rian  idol,  notice  of,  137. 

2.  Seventh  son  of  Jacob,  born  of  Zilpah:  he  gave  his  name 
to  one  of  the  twelve  tribes ;  for  the  limits  of  whose  allotment, 
see  p.  16. 

3.  A  prophet,  the  friend  of  David,  whom  he  faithfully  followed 
during  his  persecutions  by  Saul.  After  David's  establishment  on 
the  throne  of  Israel,  Gad  was  commissioned  to  propose  to  him 
one  of  three  scourges,  which  was  to  punish  the  .sinful  numbering 
of  the  people ;  and  afterwards  directed  him  to  build  an  altar  in 
the  threshing-floor  of  Oman  or  Araunah.  (1  Sam.  xxii.  5.  2  Sam. 
xxiv.)  Gad  also  wrote  a  history  of  David's  reign,  whence,  per- 
haps, was  taken  the  narrative  of  that  census ;  and  he  transmitted 
to  that  monarch  the  divine  commands  concerning  the  establish- 
ment of  public  worship.  (2  Chron.  xxix.  25.) 

Gadara  was,  according  to  Josephus  (Bell.  Jud.  lib.  iv.  c.  24.), 
the  metropolis  of  Pcr.'Ea,  or  the  region  beyond  Jordan :  it  was 
one  of  the  cities  of  the  district  of  Decapolis,  and  consequently 
under  heathen  jurisdiction,  on  which  account,  perhaps,  it  was 
destroyed  by  the  Jews,  but  was  rebuilt  by  Pompey,  in  favour  of 
Demetrius  Gadarensis,  his  manumitted  servant,  according  to  Jo- 
sephus. The  inhabitants  of  this  city  being  rich,  sent  legates  to 
Vespasian  when  he  advanced  against  Judaea,  and  gave  up  this 
strong  city  to  him  ;  both  the  city  and  the  villages  belonging  to  it 
lay  within  the  region  of  the  Gergesscnes,  whence  Christ  going 
into  the  country  of  the  Gadarene.s,  (Mark  v.  1.),  is  said  to  go  into 
the  region  of  the  Gergesenes  (Matt.  viii.  28.)  The  remains  of 
the  warm  baths  for  which  this  place  was  anciently  celebrated,  and 
also  of  the  tombs  (among  which  the  Gadarene  demoniac  abode) 
are  still  to  be  seen,  Gadara  is  now  called  Oomkais,  or  Omkeis. 
The  modern  inhabitants  of  this  place  are  as  inhospitable  as  they 
were  in  the  time  of  Jesus  Christ.  (Quarterly  Rev.  vol.  xxvi.  p.  389. 
Irby's  and  Mangles'  Travels,  pp.  297,  298.  Madden's  Travels 
in  Turkey,  &c.  vol.  ii.  p.  31 1.) 

Gaivs. 

1.  A  Macedonian,  and  fellow-traveller  of  Saint  Paul,  who  was 
seized  by  the  populace  at  Ephesus.  (Acts  xix.  29.) 

2.  A  native  of  Derbe,  who  accompanied  Paul  in  his  last  journey 
to  Jerusalem.  (Acts  xx.  4.)  To  him  St.  John  is  supposed  to  have 
addressed  his  third  epistle. 

3.  An  inhabitant  of  Corinth,  with  whom  Paul  lodged,  and  in 
whose  house  the  Christians  were  accustomed  to  meet.  (Rom.  xvi 
23.   1  Cor.  i.  14.) 


424 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 

1  G  A 


G  A 


Galatia,  a  province  of  Asia  Minor,  bounded  on  the  west  by 
Phrygia,  on  the  cast  by  the  river  Halys,  on  the  north  by  Paphla- 
gonia,  and  on  the  south  by  I^ycaonia.  This  country  derived  its 
name  from  the  Gauls,  two  tribes  of  whom  (the  Trocnii  and  ToUs- 
toboii)  with  a  tribe  of  the  Celts,  or  according  to  Prof.  Hug,  Ger- 
mans (the  Teclosages),  llnding  their  own  country  too  small  to 
support  its  redundant  pojjulation,  migrated  thither  after  the  sack- 
ing of  Rome  by  Brcnnus;  and  mingling  with  the  former  inhabit- 
ants, and  adopting  the  Greek  language,  the  whole  were  called 
Gallo-Gra;ci.  During  the  nignof  Augustus  (a.  u.c.  521),  u.  c.  20.), 
Galatia  was  red ui;cd  into  a  Roman  province,  and  was  thenceforth 
governed  by  the  Roman  laws,  under  the  administration  of  a  pro- 
praetor. The  Galatians  seem  to  have  preserved  their  native 
'eligion,  to  which  they  superadded  the  worship  of  the  great 
mother  of  the  gods.  .  Their  principal  cities  were  Ancyra,  Tavium, 
and  Pessinus ;  the  latter  of  which  carried  on  some  commerce. 
Callimachus  (Hymn,  in  Dclum.  v.  181.)  and  Hilary  (Hymn. 
Hieron.  prcf.  in.  cp.  aJ  Galat.),  who  was  himself  a  Gaul,  repre- 
sent them  as  a  very  foolish  people ;  whence  St.  Paul  says,  (iii,  1.) 
O  FOOLISH  Galatians,  who  hath  bewitched  you  1  This  church  was 
so  dangerously  perverted,  and  almost  overturned,  by  the  Judaizcrs 
tliere,  that  the  apostle,  in  his  epistle  to  them,  does  not  call  them 
s.iints.  See  an  analysis  of  his  epistle  to  the  Galatians  in  Vol.  11. 
jip.  337,  333.  Galatia  was  also  the  scat  of  colonics  from  various 
nitions,  among  whom  were  many  Jews;  and  from  all  of  these 
St.  Paul  appears  to  have  made  many  converts  to  Christianity. 
(Gal.  i.  2.  iCor.  xvi.  1.  2  Tim.  4.  10.  IPet.i.  1.)  According 
to  Josephus  (Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xvi.  c.  G.),  the  Jews  here  enjoyed  con- 
siderable privileges.  Robinson,  voce  r^tA^Tw ;  Hug's  Introd.  vol. 
ii.  pp.  3G3 — 365.) 

GALiL>:r.,  Upper  and  Lower,  17,  IS.  The  Galila;ans  were 
accounted  brave  and  industrious,  though  the  other  Jews  affected 
to  consider  them  as  not  only  stupid  and  unpolished,  but  also  se- 
ditious, and  therefore  proper  objects  of  contempt.  (John  i.  47. 
viii.  52.)  They  were  easily  distinguished  from  the  Jews  of  Jeru- 
salem by  a  pecculiar  dialect ;  for  a  notice  of  which,  see  p.  17.  and 
note  2. 

Galilsjaks,  sect  of,  principles  of,  148. 

Galilee  op  the  IS'atioxs,  13. 

Galilee,  Sea  of,  account  of,  26,  27. 

Gallio,  a  proconsul  of  Achaia,  was  the  elder  brother  of  the 
philosopher  Seneca,  and  was  called  Marcus  Annnjus  Novatus ; 
but  took  the  name  of  Gallio,  after  being  adopted  into  the  family 
of  Lucius  Junius  Gallio.  Before  his  triljunal  Saint  Paul  was 
dragged  at  Corinth.  His  conduct  on  that  occasion  exhibits  him 
in  the  character  of  a  nuld  and  amiable  man ;  and  St.  Luke's 
account  is  confirmed  by  profane  writers.     See  Vol.  I.  p.  79. 

Gamaliel,  a  Pharisee  and  an  eminent  doctor  of  the  law,  under 
wliom  St.  Paul  was  cduc^ited.  (Acts  v.  24.  xxii.  3.)  He  possessed 
great  influence  among  the  Jews,  and  is  said  by  some  to  liave  pre- 
sided over  the  sanhedrm  during  the  reigns  of  Tiberius,  Caligula, 
and  Claudius. 

Games,  Olympic,  allusions  to,  explained,  191 — 194.  Gym- 
na.^tic  games  in  imitation  of  them  among  the  Jews,  190. 

Gahiie.xs  of  the  Hebrews,  notice  of,  180. 

G^hments  of  the  priests,  113.  Of  the  high-priests,  113,114. 
Rending  of,  a  sign  of  mourning,  159.  Great  wardrobes  of, 
ibid. 

Gates  of  cities,  155.;  were  scats  of  justice,  54.  Gates  of 
Jerusalem,  19,  20. 

GATii,  a  city  of  the  Philistines,  one  of  their  hve  principalities 
(1  Sam.  vi.  17.),  famous  for  having  given  birth  to  (iolialh.  David 
conquered  it  in  the  beginning  of  his  reign  over  all  Israel  (1  Sam. 
xvii.  4.) :  it  continued  subject  to  his  successors  till  the  declension 
of  the  kingdom  of  Jud.ih.  Rehoboain  rebuilt  or  fortified  il. 
(2  Chron.  »i.  8.)  l.'z/.iah  reconijuered  it,  as  did  Hr/cliiah.  Jose- 
phus makes  it  part  of  tlie  tribe  of  Dan;  but  Joshua  takes  no 
notice  of  it.  Calmct  thinks,  that  Mitheali,  mentioned  by  Moses 
(Num.  xxxiii.  29.),  is  the  Metheg  in  2  Sam.  viii.  1.  In  our  au- 
thorized version  it  is  rendered,  David  took  Mctheg-Anunah,  that 
is,  J\I)tliet(  the  ^MothiT,  which,  in  1  Chron.  xviii,  1.,  is  ex))lained 
by — He  took  (>ath  and  her  daughters  (or  towns)  ;  CJalh  being 
the  mother,  and  Metheg  the  daughter.  But  it  may  be  that  the 
district  of  Gath  and  its  dependencies  was  called  in  David's  time 
Methcg-.\mmah ;  but  this  being  unusual,  or  becoming  obsob'tc. 
the  author  of  the  Chronicles  explains  it  to  In-  (Jath  and  its  vil- 
lages. According  to  this  idea,  f  Jalh  of  the  Philistines,  the  birth- 
I'larc  of  giants  (2  Sam.  xxi.  20.  22.),  must  lie  fir  in  Arabia 
Petra;a,  towards  Egypt,  which  is  confirmed  by  tlie  author  of  the 


first  book  of  Chronicles,  who  says,  that  the  sons  of  Ephraim 
being  in  Egypt,  attacked  the  city  of  Gath,  and  were  there  slain, 
(1  Chron.  vi'i,  21.)  "" 

Jerome  says,  there  was  a  large  town  called  Gath,  in  the  way 
from  Eleutheroiiolis  to  Gaza ;  and  Euscbius  speaks  of  anothei 
Gath,  five  miles  from  Eleutheropolis,  toward  Lydda  (conse- 
quently difltrent  from  that  which  Jerome  sjieaks  of)  ;  also  an- 
other Gath,  or  Gattha,  between  Jamnia  and  Antipatris.  Jerome 
likewise,  speaking  of  Gath-Opher,  the  place  of  the  prophet 
Jonah's  birth,  says,  it  was  called  Gath-Opher,  or  Gath,  in  the 
district  of  Opher,  to  distinguish  it  from  others  of  the  same 
name. 

Gath  was  the  most  southern  city  of  the  Philistines,  as  Ekron 
was  the  most  northern ;  so  that  Ekron  and  Gath  are  placed  as 
the  boundaries  of  their  land.  (1  Sam.  vii.  14.  xvii.  52.)  Gnth 
lay  near  Mareshah  (2  Chron.  xi.  8.  Micah  i.  14.  Heb.),  which 
nearly  agrees  with  Jerome,  who  places  Gath  on  the  roml  from 
Eleutheropolis  to  Gaza.  Gath  was  a  place  of  strength,  in  the 
time  of  the  prophets  Amos  and  Micah,  independent  of  the  kings 
of  Judah  (Amos  vi.  2.  Micah  i.  10.  14.);  but  was  taken  by 
IJzziah,  king  of  Judah,  while  Amos  was  living;  and  afterwards 
by  Hezekiah,  in  Micah's  time.  Gethaim  (2  Sam.  iv,  3.  Neh.  xi. 
33.)  is  Gath.     David  had  a  company  of  Gitlite  guards. 

Gaulonitis,  District  of,  18. 

Gaza,  a  very  celebrated  city  of  the  Jews,  distant  about  60 
miles  south-west  from  Jerusalem :  it  was  one  of  the  five  cities 
of  the  Philistines,  which  fell  by  lot  to  the  tribe  of  Judah  (Josh. 
XV.  47.),  and  which  olfercd  their  golden  emerods  to  the  God  of 
Israel  for  a  trespass-ofl'ering.  (1  Sam.  vi.  17.)  Its  gates  were 
carried  away  by  Sumson  (Judg.  xvi.  2.),  and  hither  he  was  con- 
ducted when  taken  by  the  Philistines  (v.  21.),  three  thousand  oi 
whom,  both  men  and  women,  were  assembled  on  the  roof  of  tho 
temple  of  their  god  Dagon  (27.),  and  perished  when  Samson 
pulled  it  down.  (30.)  "  If  any  one  should  ipiestion  the  po.ssi- 
bility  of  3000  people  being  upon  the  roof  of  the  temple  in  ques- 
tion, he  may  be  referred  to  the  accounts  of  the  temples  at  Thebes 
in  Upper  Egyjjt,  which  have  been  given  by  all  recent  travellers; 
accounts,  which,  while  they  come  to  us  authenticated  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  admit  of  no  doubt  in  regard  to  their  verity  and 
correctness,  at  the  same  time  present  things  apparently  incredible, 
and  contrary  to  all  the  philosophizing  of  most  speculative  and 
theoretical  historians.  'I'he  ruins  of  ancient  Greece  and  Rome, 
so  far  as  vastness  and  extent  are  concerned,  dwindle  into  insigni- 
ficance when  compared  with  the  astonishing  remains  of  early 
architecture  at  Thelies.  \\'hat  is  most  confounding  of  all  to  that 
philosophizing,  in  which  historians  of  a  skeptical  cast  are  prone 
to  indulge,  is,  that  these  mighty  ruins  are,  beyond  all  doubt,  the 
relics  of  architecture  designed  and  executed  in  ages,  when  (as 
some  popular  writers  admonish  us  to  believe)  men  were  not  yet 
weaned  from  contending  with  the  beasts  of  the  forest  for  their 
lairs  and  for  their  acorns,  nor  but  verj'  little  elevated  above  them. 
The  ruins  at  'i'hebes  present  evidences  of  control  over  physical, 
mechanical  power;  of  skill  in  architecture  on  a  scale  of  surpris- 
ing magnitude;  and  of  art  in  mixing  and  laying  on  colours,  that 
are  fresh  as  if  painted  but  yesterday,  after  having  been  laid  on 
for  more  than  thirty  centuries ;  which  confound  and  put  to 
shame  all  that  the  arts  iuid  sciences,  and  the  experience  of  three 
thousand  years,  have  since  been  able  to  accomplish.  So  much 
for  the  rudeness,  and  bailiarity,  and  ignorance  of  the  primitive 
ages.  'J'he  Philistines,  the  near  neighbours  of  the  J^gyjitians, 
and  their  hearty  coadjutors  in  polytheism,  might  well  have,  and 
doubtless  had,  large  temjiles  as  well  as  tluy  ;  large  enough  to 
afford  room  for  three  thousand,  and  some  of  them  not  improba- 
bly for  many  more,  to  stand  upon  the  roof.  As  to  the  strength 
of  Samson,  in  tearing  away  pillars  on  which  such  enormous 
weight  rested  ; — those,  who  disbelieve  any  thing  which  is  mira- 
culous, will  of  course  regard  the  whole  as  a  mythos  (or  falile); 
those,  who  admit  the  reality  of  miracles,  will  doubtless  be  ready 
to  believe,  that  there  was  some  Bupernatnml  aid  alTorded  him  in 
the  case  under  consideration.  A  heavy  blow  was  inflicted  upon 
pidythi-'isin  by  the  event  in  question,  and  on  its  votaries,  who 
were  the  enemies  of  God's  chosen  pcojile."  (Stuart's  llebr. 
Chroslomalhy,  pp.  189,  190.) 

After  destroying  Tyrtf,  Alexander  the  Great  besieged  Gaza, 
which  was  at  that  time  held  by  a  Persian  garrison,  and  took  it 
after  a  siege  of  two  months.  He  aj)pears  to  have  left  the  city 
standing;  but  afterwards,  ii.r.Ofi,  Alexander  Jannajus,  reigning 
prince  of  the  .knvs,  took  it  after  a  siege  of  a  year  and  destroyed 
it.  Thus  was  Gaza  made  desolate  agreeably  to  the  prediction  of 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


425 


GE 

^ephaniah.  (ii.  4.)  Subsequently  Gabinius  rebuilt  this  city, 
whicli  Augustus  bestowed  on  Herod  the  Great,  after  whose  death 
it  was  annexed  to  Syria.  (Schlcusner  and  Robinson,  voce  Tdi^u..) 
The  city  of  Gaza  is  mentioned  in  Acts  viii.  26.  with  the  paren- 
thetical remark, — that  olutii  eo-t.v  ift/xo; — it  [or  the  satne]  is  desert : 
which  has  greatly  exercised  the  ingenuity  of  commentators,  some 
of  whom  refer  avTn  to  cVs?,  and  translate  it  by  uiifreq^iented ; 
while  others  referring  it  to  the  city,  explain  it  by  deprived  of 
fortifications :  others  again  suppose  the  ancient  city  to  have 
remained  desolate,  and  that  which  flourished  in  the  days  of  St. 
Luke  to  have  occupied  a  somewhat  diltcrent  site  nearer  to  the 
sea ;  and  others  consider  these  words  to  be  a  mere  gloss  which 
has  found  its  way  into  the  text.  A  passage,  however,  in  Jose- 
phus,  which  has  escaped  the  researches  of  most  of  the  learned 
men,  clears  up  the  dilhculty,  and  shows  the  minute  fidehty  of 
the  sacred  historian.  A  short  time  before  the  siege  of  Jerusalem, 
in  consequence  of  a  massacre  of  the  Jews  at  Ctesarea,  the  whole 
nation  became  greatly  enraged,  and  in  revenge  laid  waste  many 
villages  and  cities ;  and  among  these  were  Anthedon  and  Gaza, 
which  they  utterly  demolished.  Gaza  therefore  was  actually 
f^ii^if,  a  desert,  at  the  time  St.  Luke  wrote.  (Josephus,  Bell. 
Jud.  hb.  ii.  c.  18.  §  1.  Hug's  Introd.  vol.  i.  p.  25.)  The  neigh- 
bourhood of  modern  Gaza  is  described  by  Captains  Irby  and 
Mangles  as  being  richly  wooded  with  olives,  sycamores,  mulber- 
ries, cedars,  fir  trees,  &c.  &c.  The  country  is  enclosed  by  hedges 
of  prickly  pears,  the  hills  gently  rising  to  the  view  beyond  each 
other,  and  the  whole  has  a  beautiful  appearance.  Excepting  the 
perishable  materials,  with  which  the  houses  are  constructed,  stone 
being  substituted  for  mud,  the  town  partakes  of  the  wretched 
appearance  of  those  in  Egypt.  (Travels,  p.  1 78.) 

Gkbal,  Mount,  31. 

Gbdaliaii,  the  son  of  Ahikam,  was  left  by  Nebuchadnezzar 
in  Palestine,  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  to  govern  the 
remainder  of  the  people  who  continued  there.  He  was  treache- 
rously slain  by  Ishmael  the  son  of  Nethaniah.  (2  Kings  xxv. 
22—25.) 

Gehazt,  the  servant  _of  the  prophet  Elisha,  who,  contrary  to 
his  master's  intention,  fraudulently  obtained  presents  of  Naaman, 
the  Syrian  general,  and  was  smitten  with  leprosy  for  his  wicked- 
ness (2  Kings  v.  20 — 27.);  a  judgment  which  ought  to  warn  us 
not  only  of  the  curse  which  cleaves  to  ill-gotten  wealth,  but 
above  all,  of  the  just  vengeance  of  God,  which  "pursues  all  who, 
for  purposes  of  worldly  gain,  bring  a  scandal  and  reproach  upon 
their  religion. 

Gehinxom,  or  the  Valley  of  Hinnom,  32. 

Gknkalogiks  of  the  Hebrews,  79. ;  of  the  Herodian  family,  51. 

GENNESAnETH,  a  region  50  furlongs  in  length,  and  20  in 
breadth ;  a  very  pleasant  and  fruitful  place,  abounding  in  the 
gardens  of  great  men,  whence  it  had  its  name  from  Gen  and 
Sar,  as  being  the  garden  of  princes ;  it  lay  at  the  bottom  of  the 
Lake  of  Gennesareth,  and  gave  that  name  to  it.  (Luke  v.  1.) 

Genxesaiietii,  Sea  of,  26,  27. 

Gkxtiles,  court  of,  in  the  temple,  99. 

Geosraphy,  not  unknown  to  the  Jews  as  a  science,  187. 
Sketch  of  the  historical  and  physical  geography  of  Palestine, 
13—40. 

Gehgesa,  a  town  near  Gadara,  so  called,  either  from  the  Gir- 
gashites,  the  posterity  of  Canaan  (for  neither  did  Zebulon  nor 
Naphtali  drive  out  all  the  Canaanites,  Judg.  i.  30.  33.),  or  from 
Gergishta,  signifying  clay,  the  soil  being  clay  ;  it  gave  name  to 
a  region  so  called,  which  comprehended  in  it  Gadara,  Hippo, 
and  Magdala.     See  Gabaua,  p.  423. 

Gerizim  (Mount),  a  peak  of  Mount  Ephraim,  over-against 
Mount  Ebal ;  between  the  two  the  city  Shechem  was  situated. 
(Deut.  xi.  29.  xxvii.  11,  12.)  In  subsequent  times  this  moun- 
rain  became  the  seat  of  the  religious  worship  of  the  Samaritans, 
who  erected  a  temple  there  ;  for  a  notice  of  which,  sec  p.  101. 

Gekskom  and  Eliezeh,  the  sons  of  Moses  and  Zipporah, 
were  only  simple  Levites,  whilq  their  relations,  the  sons  of 
Aaron,  enjoyed  the  highest  honours  of  the  pontificate. 

Gi'.RSHON,  a  son  of  Levi,  who  gave  his  name  to  one  of  the 
three  great  branches  of  the  Levites.  The  ofllce  of  the  Gersfion- 
ites  was,  to  carry  the  veils  and  curtains  of  the  tabernacle,  on  the 
western  side  of  which  they  encamped. 

Gkshur,  a  country  in  Syria,  the  daughter  of  whose  king 
David  married,  and  by  her  had  Absalom  (2  Sam.  xv.  8.),  who, 
after  the  murder  of  his  brother  Amnon,  retired  to  the  king  of 
Geshur  his  grandfather.     (13.) 

(jf.ssius  Florcs,  the  procurator  of  Judsea,  notice  of,  53. 
Vol.  n.  8  H 


GI 


Gethsemane,  a  garden  beyond  Kedron,  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Olivet,  so  called  from  the  wine-presses  in  it:  it  is  memorable  in 
the  evangelical  history,  as  being  the  scene  of  our  Saviour's 
agony.  It  is  described  by  recent  travellers,  as  being  a  small 
plat  of  ground,  with  a  low  hedge  or  enclosure  of  stones;  no 
verdure  growing  on  it,  save  six  or  eight  venerable-looking  olives, 
which  have  stood  there  for  many  centuries :  they  are  highly 
venerated  by  the  Christians  here,  who  consider  any  attempt  to 
cut  or  injure  them  as  amounting  to  an  act  of  profanation.  (Mis- 
sionary Register  for  1824,  p.  504.  Jowett's  Researches  in  Syria, 
p.  303.  Carne's  Letters,  p.  290.  Rae  Wilson's  Travels,  vol.  i. 
p.  212.  third  edition.) 

GiBEAH,  a  city  in  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  not  far  from  Jerusa- 
lem :  it  is  frequently  called  Gibsah  of  Saul,  from  being  the 
birth-place  of  the  first  Hebrew  monarch. 

GiDEON^,  the  ciipital  city  of  the  Gibeonitcs,  who  took  ad- 
vantage of  the  oaths  of  Joshua,  and  of  the  elders  of  Israel,  on 
an  artful  representation  which  they  made  of  their  belonging  to  a 
very  remote  country.  (Josh,  ix.)  Joshua  and  the  elders  had 
not  the  precaution  to  consult  God  on  this  afiair,  and  inconsider- 
ately made  a  league  with  these  people :  they  soon  discovered 
their  mistake,  and  without  revoking  their  promise  of  giving 
them  their  lives,  they  condemned  them  to  cany  wood  and  water 
to  the  tabernacle,  and  other  servile  work,  as  a  jnark  of  their  pu- 
sillanimity and  duplicity,  as  slaves  and  captives ;  in  which  state 
of  servitude  they  remained,  till  the  entire  dispersion  of  the 
Jewish  nation,  a.  m.  2553,  b.  c.  1451.  Three  days  after  the 
Gibeonites  had  surrendered  to  the  Hebrews,  the  kings  of  the 
Canaanites  being  informed  of  it,  came  and  besieged  the  city  of 
Gibeon.  (Josh.  x.  3,  &c.)  The  Gibeonites  came  to  Joshua, 
and  desired  speedy  help.  Joshua  attacked  the  five  kings  early 
in  the  morning,  put  them  to  flight,  and  pursued  them  to  Beth- 
oron. 

The  Gibeonites  were  descended  from  the  Hivites,  the  old  in- 
habitants of  that  country,  and  possessed  four  cities ;  Cephirah, 
Beeroth,  Kirjath-jearim,  and  Gibeon,  the  capital,  afterwards 
given  to  Benjamin,  excepting  Kirjath-jearim,  which  fell  to  Judah. 
'I'he  Gibeonites  continued  subject  to  those  burdens  which  Joshua 
had  imposed  on  them,  and  were  very  faithful  to  the  Lsraelitet*. 
Nevertheless  Saul,  through  what  mistaken  zeal  we  cannot  tell, 
destroyed  a  very  great  number  of  them  (2  Sam.  xxi.  1,  2,  3, 
&LC.)  ;  but  God,  as  a  punishment  of  his  cruelty,  in  the  reign  of 
David,  sent  a  great  famine,  which  lasted  three  years  (a.  sr. 
2983,  B.  c.  1017)  ;  and  the  projjhets  told  David  that  this  ca* 
lamity  would  continue  so  long  as  that  cruelty  remained  unrei 
vended,  which  Saul  had  exercised  against  the  Gibeonites.  David 
asked  the  Gibeonites,  what  satisfaction  they  desired  1  They 
answered,  "Seven  of  Saul's  sons  tve  ivill  put  to  death,  to 
avenge  the  blood  of  ovr  brethren"  The  Gibeonites  hung  them 
up  before  the  Lord.  This  happened  early  in  the  spring,  when, 
in  Palestine,  they  begin  barley-harvest.  From  this  time  there  is 
no  mention  of  the  Gibeonites,  as  composing  a  sort  of  separate 
people.^  But  it  is  probable  that  they  were  included  among  the' 
Nethinim,  or  Given,  who  were  public  slaves,  appointed  for  the 
service  of  the  temple.  (1  Chron.  ix.  2.)  Afterwards,  those  of 
the  Canaanites,  who  were  subdued,  and  had  their  lives  spared, 
were  added  to  the  Gibeonites.  We  see  (Ezra  viii.  20.  ii.  58. 
1  Kings  ix.  20,  21.)  that  David,  Solomon,  and  the  princes  of 
Judah,  gave  many  of  them  to  the  Lord ;  these  Nethinim  being 
carried  into  captivity  with  Judah  and  the  Levites,  many  of 
them  returned  with  Ezra,  Zerubbabel,  and  Nehemiah,  and  con- 
tinued as  before,  in  the  service  of  the  temple,  under  the  priests 
and  Levites.  Gibeon  was  seated  on  an  eminence,  as  is  evidenced 
by  its  name.  It  was  forty  furlongs  from  Jerusalem  (according 
to  Josephus)  north.  It  is  called  Gabaa.  (2  Sam.  v.  25.  com- 
pared with  1  Chron.  xiv.  16.)  There  is  mention  of  the  foun- 
tain and  pool  of  Gibeon.     (2  Sam.  ii.  13.) 

We  neither  know  when,  nor  by  whom,  nor  upon  what  occa- 
sion, the  tabernacle  and  altar  of  burnt  sacrifices  made  by  Moses, 
in  the  wilderness,  were  removed  to  Gibeon ;  but  this  we  cer- 
tainly know,  that  toward  the  end  of  David's  reign,  and  in  the 
beginning  of  Solomon's,  they  were  there.  (1  Chron.  xxi.  29, 
30.)  David,  seeing  the  angel  of  the  Lord  at  Araunah's  thresh- 
ing-floor, was  so  terrified,  that  he  had  not  time  or  strength  to  go 
so  far  as  Gibeon,  there  to  ofiTer  sacrifice,  but  Solomon  being 
seated  on  the  throne,  went  to  sacrifice  at  Gibeon,  because  this 
was  the  most  considerable  of  all  the  high  places,  where  sacrifices 
were  then  tolerated,  the  temple  being  not  yet  built.  (1  Kings 
iii.  4.) 


426 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 
GO  HA 


Gideon,  the  fifth  judge  of  the  Israelites,  ■whom  he  delivered 
from  the  oppression  of  the  Midianites.  (Judg.  vii,  viii.)  He 
was  the  son  of  Joash,  of  the  tribe  of  Manasseh ;  and,  having 
destroyed  the  worship  of  Baal,  was  surnanicU  Jekubhaal. 
(Judg.  vi.  25—32.) 

GiDKO.v,  Ephod  of,  137. 

GiHox. 

1.  One  of  the  four  rivers  of  Paradise ;  which  Bishop  Patrick 
and  Dr.  Wells  suppose  to  be  the  easterly  channel  of  the  two, 
into  which  the  Euphrates  is  divided  after  its  junction  with  the 
Tigris.  Others,  however,  (and  among  them,  Gescnius,)  suppose 
it  to  be  the  Oxus  or  .\raxes.  Josephus  considers  it  to  be  the 
Nile,  (Ant.  Jud.  Hb.  i.  c.  I.  §  3.),  which  now  is  said  to  be 
called  Gut/on  by  the  Abyssinians. 

2.  A  fountain  or  watercourse  near  Jerusalem,  where  Solomon 
was  anointed  King  by  Zadok  the  priestr  and  Nathan  the 
prophet.  (1  Kings  i.  32 — 40.)  It  is  supposed  to  be  the  same 
which  was  afterwards  called  Siloam  ;  for  a  notice  of  which,  see 
p.  28. 

G1LB0.V,  Mountains  of,  notice  of,  30. 

GiLEAD,  Mountains  of,  notice  of,  31.     Balm  of,  36. 

GiLGAL,  a  celebrated  place  on  the  east  of  Jericho,  and  on  this 
6ide  Jordan,  where  the  Israelites  encamped  for  some  time  after 
their  passage  over  that  river.  A  city  was  afterwards  built  there, 
which  became  memorable  for  many  events.  It  was  a  seat  of 
justice  (or,  as  we  should  now  term  it,  an  assize-town):  Samuel, 
when  travelling  in  circuit  through  the  land,  went  yearly  to 
Gilgal.  ( 1  Sam.  vii.  16.)  Here  Saul  was  crowned  king  of  the 
Hebrews.  In  subsequent  times  it  was  the  seat  of  idolatry. 
(Hos.  iv.  15.    Amos  v.  5.) 

GiKiiLEs,  notice  of,  15G.     Military  girdle,  88. 

GiiiGAsiiiTKs,  an  ancient  people  of  Canaan,  whose  habitation 
was  beyond  the  sea  of  Tiberias,  where  we  find  some  vestiges  of 
their  name  in  the  city  of  Gekgesa  or  Gergasa,  upon  the  sea 
of  Til)crias. 

GoD,  crimes  against,  how  punished  by  the  Jews,  61,  62. 

GoEL,  or  blood-avenger,  oifice  of,  67. 

Goo  and  .Magog,  tiie  accurate  chronologer.  Dr.  Hales,  thinks, 
arc  the  general  names  of  the  northern  nations  of  Europe  and 
Asia,  or  the  districts  north  of  Caucasus,  or  Mount  Taurus,  colo- 
nized by  Gog,  or  Magog,  another  of  the  sons  of  Japhet  (Gen. 
X.  2.),  called,  by  the  Arabian  geographers,  Jajuie  and  Majuje. 
(Rtnnel.  Herod,  p.  112.)  Gog  rather  denotes  the  people,  Magog 
the  land.  Thus  Balaam  foretold  that  Christ  would  be  "  a  king 
higher  than  Agag,"  or  rather  "  Gog,"  according  to  the  more 
correct  reading  of  the  Samaritan  Hebrew  text,  and  of  the  Sep- 
tuagint  version  of  Num.  xxiv.  7.:  and  Ezekiel,  foretelling  a 
future  invasion  of  the  land  of  Israel  by  these  northern  nations, 
Meshech,  Tubal,  and  Togarmah,  styles  "  Gog  their  chief 
prince,"  and  describes  their  host  precisely  as  Scythian  or  Tar- 
tarian ;  "  coming  out  of  the  north,  all  of  them  riding  on  horses ;" 
"bows  and  arrows"  their  weapons;  "covering  the  land,  like  a 
cloud,  and  coming  like  a  storm,"  in  the  "latter  days."  (Ezek. 
xxxviii.  1  — 17.)  He  also  describes  their  immense  slaugbter,  in 
the  valley  of  the  passengers  on  the  east  of  the  sea,  thence  called 
the  valley  of  Hamon  Gog,  "  the  multitude  of  Gog."  (Ezek. 
xxxix.  1 — 22.)  This  prophecy  seems  also  to  be  revived  in  the 
Apocalyjwe,  where  the  hosts  of  Gog  and  Magog  are  represented 
as  corning  to  invade  "  the  beloved  city,"  and  jH-rishing  with 
immense  slaughter  likewise  in  Armageddon,  "  the  Mount  of 
Magcddo,"  or  Megiddo.  (Kev.  xvi.  14—16.  xx.  7—10.)  Dr. 
Hales's  Analysis  of  ('hronology,  vol.  i.  p.  463.  (first  edition). 

Golden  Calk,  worship  of,  136.  Golden  calves  of  Jeroboam, 
ibid. 

GoLooTHA,  notice  of,  19. 

Goliath,  a  Philistine  giant,  a  native  of  Gath,  well  known  for 
his  combat  with  David.     (1  Sam.  xvii.) 

GoMER,  the  son  of  Japhet  (Gen.  x.  2,  3.  Ezek.  xxxviii.  6.), 
whose  posterity  pcojilcd  Galatia,  according  to  Josephus;  Phrj'gia, 
according  toUochart;  but,  according  to  Calmct  and  Gesenius, 
they  were  the  Cimmerians  or  Cimbri,  ai  little  known  and  barba- 
rous northern  nation. 

GoMoiiiiAii,  one  of  the  four  citicB  in  the  vale  of  Siddim, 
which  wore  sunk  in  the  Dead  Sea.     (Gen.  x.  19.  xiii.  10.) 

GosHKX  (Land  of),  was  the  most  fertile  pasture  ground  in 
the  whole  of  Lower  Egypt :  thence  called  Goshen,  from  Gush, 
in  Arabic,  signifying  "a  heart,"  or  whatsoever  is  choice  or 
precious.  There  was  also  a  Goshen  in  the  terriiory  of  the  tribe 
of  Judah,  80  called  for  the  same  reanon.  (Josh.  x.  41.)  Hence 
Joseph  recommended  it  to  liis  family  aa  "  the  best  of  the  land" 


(Gen.  xlvii.  11.),  and  "the  fat  of  the  land."  (Gen.  xlv.  18.) 
The  land  of  Goshen  lay  along  the  most  easterly  branch  of  tho 
Nile,  and  on  the  east  side  of  it ;  for  it  is  evident?  that  at  the 
time  of  the  Exodus,  the  Israelites  did  not  cross  the  Nile.  In 
ancient  times,  it  was  considerably  more  extensive,  both  in  length 
and  breadth,  in  consequence  of  the  general  failure  of  the  eastern 
branches  of  the  Nile ;  the  main  botly  of  the  river  verging  more 
and  more  to  the  west  continually,  and  deepening  the  channels 
on  that  side.  (Dr.  Hales's  Chronology,  vol.  i.  p.  374.  Madden's 
Travels  in  Turkey,  &c.  vol.  ii.  p.  182.) 

GoTEiiNMENT  of  the  Jcws,  Under  the  patriarchs.  See  p.  40, 
41.  Under  Moses  and  the  judges,  41,  42.  Under  the  kings, 
42 — 48.  During  the  Babylonian  captivity,  49,  50.  Under  the 
Asmonaean  and  Herodian  princes,  50 — 52.  Under  the  Roman 
procurators,  52,  53. 

GozAX,  a  city  or  country  in  northern  Mesopotamia.  (2  Kings 
xvii.  6.  xviii.  11.  xix.  12.  Isa.  xxxvii.  2.)  By  the  geographer 
Ptolemy  it  is  called  Gauzunitis,  now  Kuusehan. 

Grain,  threshing  of,  178. 

Great  Plain,  account  of,  33. 

Great  Sea,  28. 

Greaves  (Military),  use  of,  88. 

Greece,  in  the  Scriptures,  often  comprehends  all  the  countries 
inhabited  by  the  descendants  of  Javan,  as  well  in  Greece  as  in 
Ionia  and  Asia  Minor.  Since  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great 
the  name  of  Greeks  is  taken  in  a  more  uncertain  and  enlarged 
sense,  because,  the  Greeks  being  masters  of  Egypt  and  Syria,  of 
the  countries  beyond  the  Euphrates,  &c.  the  Jews  called  all 
those  Gentiles  Greeks.  In  the  Maccabees,  the  Gospels,  and 
Paul's  writings,  a  Greek  commonly  signilies — a  Gentile.  In  the 
Old  Testament  Greece  and  Greeks  are  named  Javan.  Isaiah 
says  (Ixvi.  19.),  that  the  Lord  shall  send  his  ambassadors  to  Ja- 
van, to  the  isles  afar  off.  Ezekiel  tells  us  (xxvii.  13.  19.)  that 
Javan,  Tubal,  and  Meshech  came  to  the  fairs  at  Tyre.  Daniel 
(xi.  2.),  speaking  of  Darius,  says  "  that  he  shall  stir  up  all 
against  the  realm  of  Javan."  Alexander  the  Great  is  described 
by  the  name  of  King  of  Javan.     (Dan.  viii.  21.x.  20.) 

Grinding  of  corn,  178. 

Guard,  military,  of  the  Temple,  101. 

Guests,  reception  of,  169,  170. 

GiMXASTic  exercises  of  the  Jews,  190. 


Habakkuk,  the  eighth  of  the  twelve  minor  prophets,  who 
foretold  the  captivity  and  restoration  of  the  Jews.  For  an  analy- 
sis of  his  predictions,  see  Vol.  IV.  p.  277. 

Hadrach  (Land  of).  This  land,  which  is  mentioned  in 
Zech.  ix.  1.,  occurs  in  no  other  part  of  the  Old  Testament.  But 
a  Syrian  king,  who  is  called  Rehob  in  2  Sam.  viii.  3.,  is  by  Jo- 
sephus named  Ap^tcc  or  A^iyj,^,  which  Dr.  Blayncy  thinks  was 
his  proper  and  real  name;  that  of  Rehob,  or  the  charioteer,  having 
been  added  characteristically  on  account  of  the  number  of  his 
chariots.  (2  Sam.  viii.  4.)  This  prince  reigned  over  that  part 
of  Syria  which  was  called  Zobah ;  so  that,  if  by  the  land  of  Ha- 
drach  or  Arach  be  meant  the  kingdom  of  Zobah,  the  three  capi- 
tal kingdoms  of  Syria — Zobah.  Damascus,  and  Hamath,  will 
then  be  cited  for  the  whole.     (Bliiyney  on  Zechariah,  p.  37.) 

Hag  All,  an  Egyptian  woman,  handmaid  of  JSarah,  and  mother 
of  Ishmacl.  (Gen.  xvi.  1.  xxv.  12.)  In  (ial.  iv.  24,  2.').  St.  Paul 
ajjplies  this  name  by  allegorical  interpretation  to  the  inferior  con- 
dition of  the  Jews  under  the  law,  as  compared  with  that  of  Chris- 
tians under  the  Gospel. 

Haoarites  or  Hagahenks,  the  descendants  of  Ishmael.  (1 
Chron.  v.  10.)  They  constituted  a  tribe  of  .\raliians,  who  aro 
supposed  to  have  settled  in  the  vicinity  of  Mount  Sinai. 

IIaggai,  the  tenth  of  the  minor  prophets:  he  exhorted  the 
Jews  to  rebuild  the  temple.  For  an  analysis  of  his  psvdictions, 
see  p.  287. 

Hai.     See  Ai,  p.  404.  of  this  Index. 

Hair,  Jewish  mode  of  dressing,  156,  157.  Plucking  off,  a 
punishment,  66.     Forbidden  to  be  cut  in  certain  forms,  142. 

Ham. 

K  The  youngest  son  of  Noah,  from  whom,  according  to  Gen. 
X.  6 — 20.,  most  of  the  southern  nations  were  descended.  Ac- 
cording to  Gesenius  the  name  literally  denotes  warm  or  south- 
ern. 

2.  Land  of  Ham,  a  poetical  name  for  Egj'pt,  probably  (says 
Gesenius)  of  Egyptian  derivation,  but  to  the  Hebrew  presenting 
the  same  signification  as  above.  (PsaL  Ixxviii.  51.  cv.  23.  27. 
cvi.  22.) 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


427 


HE 

Hamax,  a  Persian  nobleman,  celebrated  as  the  persecutor  of 
the  Jews  :  he  was  an  Amalekite  by  nation,  and  descended  from 
the  posterity  of  Agag.     (Esth.  iii. — ix.) 

Hamath,  on  the  northern  boundary  of  Canaan,  a  colony  of 
Phoenicians,  and  the  residence  of  a  king  who  was  in  friendship 
with  David.  (Num.  xiii.  21.  Judg.  iii.  3.  2  Sam.  viii.  9.)  In 
Amos  vi.  2.  it  is  called  Hamath  the  Great,  and  in  2  Chron.  vjii. 
3.  Hamath-Zobah.  In  Gen.  x.  8.  the  inhabitants  are  called  Ha- 
mathites. 

HAXAXEF.t,  a  prophet  in  the  reign  of  Asa  king  of  Judah,  by 
whom  he  was  imprisoned  for  his  fidelity  in  reproving  the  mo- 
narch for  forming  an  alliance  with  Benhadad  king  of  Syria. 
(2  Chron.  xvi.  7—10.) 

Handmills  of  the  Jews,  154, 

Hannah,  the  wife  of  Elkanah,  and  the  mother  of  the  prophet 
Samuel,  whom  she  consecrated  to  the  service  of  God.  (1  Sam. 
i.  ii.) 

Hanuit,  the  son  of  Nahash,  king  of  the  Amorites.  By  the 
advice  of  evil-counsellors  he  maltreated,  contrary  to  the  law  of 
nations,  the  ambassadors  whom  David  had  sent  to  congratulate 
him  on  his  accession.  (See  p.  157.)  This  transaction  led  to  a 
war,  which  terminated  fatally  for  Hanun,  whose  army  was  utterly 
discomfited,  his  capital  taken,  and  his  subjects  destroyed.  (2  Sam. 
X.  xi.  1.  xii.  26 — 30.)  Hanun  is  supposed  to  have  perished 
during  the  war. 

HAPHTonoTH,  or  sections  of  the  prophets  read  in  the  syna- 
gogues, 104.     Table  of  them,  105. 

Hauax. 

1.  The  eldest  son  of  Terah,  and  brother  of  Abraham  and 
Nahor,  the  father  of  Lot,  Milcah,  and  Iscah.  He  is  said  by 
Moses  to  have  died  before  his  father  (Gen.  xi.  23.),  a  circum- 
stance which  to  us  may  appear  too  minute  to  be  recorded  ;  but 
in  those  days,  when  life  was  longer,  and  subject  to  fewer  dis- 
eases than  at  present,  the  death  of  a  son  before  his  father  was  an 
event  of  sufficient  importance  to  be  distinctly  noticed.  With 
the  exception  of  Abel,  Haran  is  the  first  man  mentioned  in  the 
sacred  history,  whose  father  beheld  him  depart  this  life. 

2.  Harax  or  CuAKAN,  a  city  in  the  northern  part  of  Meso- 
potamia, where  Abraham  sojourned  for  a  time  in  his  passage  to 
the  land  of  Canaan.  It  was  probably  the  same  city,  which  the 
Greeks  afterwards  called  K^fpiu  and  the  Romans  Carrse,  and  which 
tecame  celebrated  for  the  defeat  and  death  of  Crassus. 

Haheji  (Royal),  notice  of,  47. 

Hareth,  Forest  of,  36. 

Hakosheth  of  the  Gentiles,  a  city  near  Lake  Merom,  which 
probably  derived  its  name  from  the  number  of  Gentiles  Avho  re- 
sided in  its  vicinity.  Here  Sisera  dwelt,  whose  troops  were  dis- 
comfited and  pursued  by  the  Israelites  to  its  very  gates. 

Harp,  form  of,  184. 

Harvests  of  Palestine,  account  of,  23.  177,  178. 

Havtlah. 

1 .  Two  districts  in  Yemen,  the  one  inhabited  by  the  descend- 
ants of  Havilah,  the  son  of-Cush,  and  grandson  of  Ham  (Gen. 
X.  7.),  the  other  by  descendants  of  Shem.  (ver.  29.) 

2.  A  gold  country  (Gen.  ii.  11.),  perhaps  a  general  name  for 
Arabia  (and  India),  which  accords  best  with  the  opinion  of  those 
who  imagine  the  Pison  to  be  the  Ganges. 

Haurast,  a  district  in  the  north-eastern  part  of  Canaan,  which 
derived  its  name  from  the  town  or  city  of  Hauran.  (Ezek.  xlvi. 
18.)  It  is  the  same  with  the  Auranitis  of  Josephus  and  the 
Ituriia  of  St.  Luke.  (iii.  1.) — For  its  limits,  &c.  see  p.  18. 

Hazael,  a  general  officer  of  Benhadad  king  of  Syria,  whom 
he  treacherously  murdered  and  usurped  his  kingdom.  During  a 
reign  of  more  than  forty  years  he  was  the  vigilant  and  successful 
enemy  of  the  Hebrew  princes,  whose  territories  he  laid  waste, 
and  at  length  he  laid  siege  to  Jerusalem,  whence  he  consented  to 
withdraw,  only  on  condition  of  the  treasures  of  the  temple  and 
of  the  palace  being  delivered  up  to  him. 

'He All,  covering  for,  156. 

Heads  of  tribes  or  families,  41,  42. 

Heathen  Nations,  account  of  their  deities  worshipped  by, 
139.     Allusion  to  their  idolatrous  rites  explained,  139 — 142. 

Heber. 

1.  The  son  of  Salah  (Gen.  xi.  14.),  from  whom  some  critics 
and  commentators  have  supposed  that  his  descendants  the  He- 
brews derived  their  name. 

2.  A  descendant  of  Hobab,  the  brother-in-law  of  Moses,  and 
husband  of  Jael,  who  killed  Sisera. 

Hebrews  of  the  Hebrews,  who  they  were,  108. 


HI 


Hebrox,  anciently  called  Arba,  and  Kirj*.th-Arba,  a  city 
of  Judaia,  was  situated  on  an  eminence,  twenty  miles  southward 
of  Jerusalem,  and  twenty  miles  north  from  Beersheba.  Abraham, 
Sarah,  and  Isaac,  were  buried  near  Hebron,  in  the  cave  of  Mach- 
pelah.  (Gen.  xxiii.  7,  8,  9.)  Near  this  place  was  the  oak  oi 
turpentine  tree,  under  which  Abraham  received  three  angels. 
(Gen.  xviii.  ].)  Hebron  was  allotted  to  Judah.  The  Lord  as- 
signed it  to  Caleb  for  inheritance.  (Josh.  xiv.  13.)  Joshua  first 
took  Hebron,  and  killed  its  king  (Josh.  x.  3.  23.  37.),  but  after- 
wards Caleb  again  conquered  it,  assisted  by  the  troops  of  his 
tribe,  and  the  valour  of  Othniel.  It  was  appointed  for  a  dwel- 
ling of  the  priests,  and  a  city  of  refuge.  David,  after  the  death 
of  Saul,  settled  the  seat  of  his  kingdom  here.  At  Hebron,  Ab- 
salom began  his  rebellion.  During  the  captivity  of  Babylon,  the 
Edomites,  having  invaded  the  south  of  Judah,  took  Hebron ; 
wherefore  in  Josephus  it  is  sometimes  made  a  part  of  Edom. 
Here  Zachariah  and  Elisabeth  resided,  and  John  the  Baptist  was 
born.  It  is  described,  in  1823,  as  being  a  large  town,  with  a 
Turkish  mosque  erected  over  the  supposed  burial-place  of  the 
patriarchs.     (Game's  Letters,  p.  280.) 

Heliopolitan  Temple,  notice  of,  101. 

Heleenistic  Jews,  who  they  were,  110. 

Helmet  of  the  Jews,  87. 

Hermogenes,  the  name  of  a  man  who  at  first  was  St.  Paul's 
companion,  but  afterwards  deserted  him.  (2  Tim.  i.  15.) 

Hermon,  Mount.     See  p.  30.  * 

Herod  the  Great,  account  of,  50,  51.  Massacre  of  the  infants 
at  Bethlehem  by  his  order,  51.;  I.  419. 

Herod  Agrippa,  I.  and  II.,  account  of,  52. 

Herod  Antipas,  account  of,  52.  Why  he  was  at  war  with 
Aretas  king  of  Arabia,  I.  50. 

Herodian  family,  genealogy  of,  51. 

Herodians,  sect  of,  account  of,  148. 

Herodias,  the  grand-daughter  of  Herod  the  Great,  and  sister 
of  Herod  Agrippa  I.  She  was  first  married  to  her  uncle  Philip 
(Herod)  ;  but  afterwards  abandoned  him,  and  connected  herself 
with  his  brother  Herod  Antipas,  whom  she  persuaded  to  put  John 
the  Baptist  to  death,  because  he  had  boldly  denounced  their 
incestuous  union.  (Matt.  xiv.  3.  6.  Mark  vi.  17.  19.  22.  Luke 
iii.  19.) 

Heshbox,  the  capital  city  of  the  kingdom  of  Sihon,  situated 
about  20  miles  eastward  of  the  river  Jordan :  it  was  given  to  the 
tribe  of  Reuben.  It  is  supposed  to  be  the  same  place  which  is 
now  called  Hhubhzan.  Numerous  ruins  attest  its  ancient  splen- 
dour. This  town  is  situated  on  so  commanding  a  position,  that 
the  view  from  it  extends  at  least  30  miles  in  every  direction  ;  and, 
to  the  southward,  where  the  prospect  is  most  extensive,  the  eye 
ranges,  probably,  a  distance  of  60  miles  in  a  direct  line.  (Buck 
ingham's  Travels  among  the  Arab  Tribes,  p.  106.) 

Hezekiah,  the  son  and  successor  of  Ahaz  king  of  Judah:  ha 
was  a  wise  and  pious  prince,  who  extirpated  idolatry,  and  restored 
the  worship  of  the  true  God  throughout  his  dominions.  For  a 
notice  of  the  disease  with  which  he  was  afflicted,  see  p.  196. 

HiDDEKEL,  one  of  the  four  rivers  which  watered  Paradise. 
(Gen.  ii.  14.)  It  is  generally  supposed  to  be  the  same  as  tha 
Tigris. 

HiEL,  of  Bethel,  rebuilt  Jericho,  notwithstanding  the  maledic- 
tion denounced  in  Josh.  vi.  26. ;  the  effects  of  which  he  felt  in 
his  own  family ;  his  eldest  son  dying  when  the  foundations  of 
the  walls  were  laid,  and  his  youngest  son  when  the  gates  wer« 
set  up.  (1  Kings  xvi,  34.) 

HiERAPOLis,  a  city  of  Phrygia,  in  the  vicinity  of  Colossse  asd 
Laodicea  (Col.  iv.  13.),  celebrated  for  its  mineral  waters,  which 
now  flow  disregarded  by  the  Turcomans.  "  Once  there  existed 
on  the  self-same  spot  a  life-giving  stream  :  but  Epaphras  and  hij 
successors,  who  said  to  the  then  countless  multitudes  of  Hiera- 
polis, — '  Whosoever  will,  may  come  and  take  of  the  water  of  life 
freely,'  have  ages  ago  been  silent  in  the  grave."  (Arundell'a 
Seven  Churches  of  Asia,  p.  83.)  The  ruins  of  Hierapolis  are 
still  considerable :  they  are  described  by  Mr.  A.  (Ibid.  pp.  79 — 82.) 
This  place  is  now  called  Pambouk  Kalesi. 

Hieroglyphic  stojtes,  forbidden  to  be  worshipped  by  the 
Israelites,  139. 

High  places,  account  of,  101 — 103.  140. 

High-priests,  functions,  dress,  and  privileges  of,  113,  .14. 
Their  succession,  115. 

HiNNOM,  a  person  who  is  known  only  from  the  circumstance 
of  his  having  given  his  name  to  a  Valley,  situated  at  a  very 
short  distance  from  Jerusalem ;  for  a  notice  of  which,  see  p.  32 


42S 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


HO 


HiiiAM  I.  king  of  Tyre,  the  ally  or  tributary  of  David,  to 
whom  he  sent  ambassadors  to  congratulate  him  on  his  accession 
to  the  throne.  The  dominions  of  Hiram  are  supposed  to  have 
extended  over  the  western  part  of  the  chain  of  Mount  Lebanon. 
M'hen  David  was  building  a  palace,  Hiram  sent  him  cedar  tim- 
ber and  able  artificers.   (2  S>ain.  v.  11.  1  Chron.  xiv.  1.) 

Hi«AM  II.,  the  son  and  successor  of  the  preceding,  who  con- 
gratulated Solomon  on  succeeding  his  father  on  the  throne  of 
Israel.  He  also  furnished  Solomon  with  timber,  stone,  and  arti- 
ficers for  his  magnificent  buildings,  especially  the  temple  at  Jeru- 
salem. He  is  known  under  the  same  name  by  profane  histo- 
rians. 

HiHAM  or  HiRAM,  a  celebrated  artificer,  was  the  son  of  a 
widow,  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Dan,  and  a  Tyrian.  He  was 
Bent  by  Hiram  II.  to  Solomon,  for  whom  he  executed  the  princi- 
pal work  in  the  interior  of  the  tcmi)le,  as  well  as  several  of  the 
sacred  utensils.  (1  Kings  vii.  1.  3.  2  Chron.  ii.  14.  iv.  1 1.) 

Historical  Geography  of  the  Holy  Land,  13 — 32. 

HisTonicAL  Writing,  cuhivated  by  the  Jews,  1S.5,  186. 

HiTTiTEs,  the  descendants  of  Heth,  the  second  son  of  Canaan, 
riiey  dwelt  in  the  south  part  of  the  promised  land,  near  Hebron. 

HiviTES,  a  tribe  of  the  Canaanites.  They  seem  to  have  been 
the  same  with  the  Aviin,  whom  the  Philistines  expelled.  Driven 
from  the  south-west  of  Canaan,  part  of  them  appear  to  have  set- 
tled about  Avim,  Gibeon,  and  Shechcm,  whose  inhabitants  are 
called  Ilivites  in  Josh.  ix.  11.  19.  xvii.  23.  Gen.  xxxiv.  2.;  and 
another  part  seem  to  have  settled  near  Mount  Hermon.  (Josh, 
xi.  3.) 

Hon  AH,  the  son  of  Jethro,  and  the  brother-in-law  of  Mosos,  at 
whose  earnest  request  he  accompanied  the  Israelites  as  a  guide 
through  the  wilderness.  His  family  dwelt  among  them  during 
the  time  of  the  first  judges. 

Holocausts,  account  of,  118. 

Holt  Lamb,  the  country  of  the  Jews,  why  so  called,  13. 
Sketch  of  its  historical  geography,  13 — 22.  Physical  geography 
and  prrnluctipns,  23 — 37.  Testimonii's  of  ancient  and  modern 
geographers  to  its  fertility,  37,  38.  Calamities,  38 — 40.  Its 
present  degraded  state  accounted  for,  38.  Its  government  in  the 
jrtitriarchai  times,  40.  Under  Moses,  41 — 42.  Under  Joshua 
and  the  Judges,  42.  Under  the  Kings,  42 — 47.  Reason  why 
the  kingdom  of  Judah  subsisted  longer  than  that  of  Israel,  42. 
Its  condition  under  the  Asmonsean  princes  and  sovereigns  of  the 
Hcrodian  family,  and  under  the  Roman  procurators,  50 — 53. 

Holt  of  Holies,  account  of,  96.  100. 

H>)xiciDE,  proceedings  in  case  of,  G3. 

HoxET  of  Palestine,  36. 

Hoi'HRAH.      See  PUARAOlI-HopanAH. 

Hon. 

1.  A  mountain  on  the  confines  of  Edom  where  .\aron  died 
(Num.  XX.  22 — 28.),  whose  pretended  tomb  is  still  shown  to 
travellers;  but,  from  its  appearance,  it  should  seem  to  have  been 
rebuilt  at  no  very  distant  period.  The  view  from  this  mountain 
is  extensive.     (Irby's  and  .Mangles'  Travels,  pp.  433 — 438.) 

2.  A  mountain  in  Lebanon.  (Num.  xxxiv.  7,  8.) 

HoiiEB,  a  mountain  in  Arabia  Petrrca,  so  near  Mount  Sinai 
that  Horeb  and  Sinai  seem  to  be  two  hills  of  the  same  mountain. 
Sinai  lies  ca:;t,  Ilnreb  west :  so  that  when  the  .sun  rises,  the  latter 
is  covered  with  the  shadow  of  Sinai.  There  are  springs  and 
fruit-trees  on  Horeb,  but  only  rain-water  on  binai.  At  Horeb 
God  appeared  to  Moses  in  the  burning  bush.  (Exo<l.  iii.  1,  2,  3.) 
At  the  foot  of  this  mountain  .Moses  struck  the  rock,  and  rlrew 
water  from  it.  (Exod.  xvii.  6.)  Elijah  retired  here  to  avoid  the 
persecution  of  Jezebel  (1  Kings  xix.  8.);  and  the  cave  or  grotto, 
in  which  the  j)rophct  found  slielter,  is  yet  pointed  out  by  tradition, 
the  truth  of  which  is  confirmed  by  the  n|)i)earance  of  the  sur- 
rounding scenery.  This  cave  "  is  as  desolate  a  y)liice  of  refuge 
as  the  fancy  can  conceive: — no  brook  or  pool  is  nigh,  to  (juencli 
the  burning  thirst;  not  a  shrub  grows  on  the  soil,  but  sud  and 
useless  j)recii)ice«  are  on  every  side.  Every  [mrt  of  the  way  was 
strewed  with  broken  fragments  of  rocks."  ((Jarne's  Kecollections 
of  the  East,  p.  34.').)  It  is  friijuenlly  said  in  the  Old  Testuineiit, 
that  God  gave  the  law  at  Horeb,  though  other  places  expre8>.ly 
name  Sinai ;  because  Horeb  and  Sinai  in  some  sort  form  but  one 
mountain.  From  its  lofty  summit  nothing  is  to  be  seen  on  every 
side,  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach,  but  raiiRcs  of  naked  mountaiiiK 
succeeding  each  other,  like  waves  of  the  sea.  'i'liis  mountain  is 
now  called  St  Catherine's.  (Carne's  Letters  from  the  East, 
pp.  107,  198.) 

Horites,  a  people  who  dwelt  in  Mount  Scir  (Gen.  xiv.  C), 


I  S 

whence  they  were  subsequently  expelled  by  the  Edomiies.  (Deut 
ii.  12.  22.) 

HonsKs,  notice  of,  175. 

HonTiciLTiiiE' of  the  Jews,  account  of,  179,  ISO. 

Hose  A. 

1.  The  earlier  name  of  Joshua,  the  servant  and  successor  of 
Moses.  (Num.  xiii.  8.  16.) 

2.  The  last  king  of  Israel,  who,  having  conspired  against 
Pekali,  slew  him  and  usurped  his  throne.  In  his  reign  Shalma- 
neser  king  of  Assyria  invaded  Israel,  took  Samaria,  which  he 
reduced  to  a  heap  of  ruins,  and  removed  the  Israelites  beyond 
the  river  Euphrates. 

3.  The  first  of  the  minor  prophets.  For  an  analysis  of  whose 
predictions,  see  pp.  2G0 — 202. 

HosriTALiTr  of  the  Jews,  173.  Notice  of  Tesserae  Hospi- 
tales,  173,  174. 

Hot  Season  in  Palestine,  24,  25. 

Hours  of  the  Jcvis  and  Romans,  72,  73. 

Houses  of  the  Jews  and  their  furniture,  151 — 154.  Leprosy 
of  houses,  134. 

HuLiiAii,  a  prophetess,  the  wife  of  Shallum,  who  was  consulted 
by  Josiah  concerning  the  book  of  the  law,  which  was  found  in  the 
treasury  of  the  temple.  (2  Kings  xxii.  14.) 

HuR,  whom  some  have  supposed  to  be  the  husband  of  Miriam, 
and  the  brother-in-law  of  .Moses,  appears  to  have  been  one  of  the 
most  intimate  friends  of  the  latter.  During  the  battle  between 
the  Hebrews  and  the  Amalekites,  he  upheld  the  wear)-  arms  of 
Moses,  and  when  he  was  absent  he  shared  with  Aaron  the 
authority  over  the  Israelites.  (Exod.  xvii.  10.  xxiv.  14.) 

HiJsnAxmtT  of  the  Jews,  account  of,  174 — 178. 

HusiiAi,  the  friend  of  David  ;  who,  during  the  rebellion  of 
Absalom,  remained  with  that  prince,  and  w.is  of  eminent  service 
to  David  by  infatuating  the  counsels  of  Absalom.   (2  Sam.  xvi.) 

HvMENviius  is  sujjposcd  to  have  been  a  citizen  of  Ephcsus: 
who  being* converted  by  St  Paul,  afterwards  fell  into  tlie  heresy 
of  those  who  denied  the  resurrection  of  the  body,  or,  rather,  who 
maintained  that  the  term  was  to  be  understood  figuratively  in 
reference  to  conversion,  as  being  a  resurrection  from  their  former 
death  in  trespasses  and  sins ;  and  that  no  other  resurrection  was 
to  be  expected.   (Valpy  on  2  Tim.  ii.  17.) 

Hvssor,  notice  of,  35.  note  7. 


IiiZAV,  the  eighth  judge  of  Israel,  governed  seven  years.  His 
prosperity  is  indicated  by  the  circumstance  of  his  having  thirty 
sons,  and  as  many  daughters ;  and  his  riches,  by  all  of  them 
being  married.  (Judg.  xii.  8.) 

leo.viuM,  a  city  of  Lycaonia,  the  chief  of  the  fourteen  belong- 
ing to  that  tetrareliy.  Here  was  a  synagogue  of  Jews  and  prose- 
lytes, to  whom  Paul  and  Barnabas  preaching,  and  confirming 
their  doctrine  by  miracles,  converted  many  to  the  Christian  faith 
(Acts  xiv.  1,  2,  3.) ;  and  here  the  unbelieving  Jews  and  Gentiles 
made  an  assault  upon  them,  to  use  them  despitefuilv,  aud  to 
stone  them.  (ver.  5.)     It  is  now  called  Konieh. 

Idolathv,  origin  and  progress  of,  135.  History  of  it  among 
tlip  Israelites,  135,  136.  Dififerentkimls  of,  and  its  punishment,  61. 
Idols  worshipi>ed  by  them,  136 — 13"J.  Idols  of  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans mentioned  in  the  New  Testament,  139.  Allusions  in  Sorip 
ture  to  the  idolatrous  rites  of  the  heathen  explained,  139,  140. 

IiiL.MT.A,  or  Edom,  country  of,  18. 

iLLTUituM,  a  province  lying  to  the  north  and  north-wesst  of 
Macedonia,  along  the  eastern  coast  of  the  .Adriatic  Sea  or  Gulf 
of  Venice.  It  was  divided  into  two  parts,  Liburnia  to  the  north 
(now  called  Croatia),  which  is  not  nientioned  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment ;  and  Dalmatia  tt)  the  south,  which  region  still  retains  the 
same  name.  Hither,  St.  Paul  informs  Timothy,  Titus  went 
(2  Tim.  iv.  10.)  ;  and  in  Rom.  xv.  19.  he  says  that  he  preached 
the  (lospel  from  Jerusalem  round  about  unto  Jlli/ricuni. 

iMruisoNMnxT,  Jewish  modes  of,  05,  66. 

ifjuTht,  or  ['[ipir  Garments,  desciibed,  166. 

Imi'I  iiiTiEs,  legal,  purifications  of,  131. 

Inauouraj  loK  of  the  kings  of  Israel  and  Judali,  ceremonial 
of,  44. 

IvCKNRE,  oflcring  of,  119. 

I\ji  HIES  (corporal),  punishment  of,  63,  64. 

I>TEiieAi.AUv  .Month,  notice  of,  74. 

Inteusient,  rites  of,  198 — 200. 

Iiinir.ATiox  practised  by  the  Jews,  176,  177. 

Isaac,  the  son  of  Abraham  by  Si'arah,  and  one  of  the  patri* 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND   GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 
J  A  J  E 


429 


archs  of  the  Isracliti.sh  nation.  He  married  Rebekah,  and  was 
the  father  of  Esau  and  Jacoh,  by  whom  he  was  honourably 
interred  in  the  cave  of  Machpelah,  about  ten  years  before  Jacob 
went  into  Egypt. 

Isaiah,  a  celebrated  Hebrew  prophet,  distinguished  for  the 
strength  and  sublimity  of  his  conceptions  and  language.  For  a 
further  account  of  Isaiah,  and  an  analysis  of  his  predictions,  see 
pp.  262 — 2fj9.  In  Acts  viii.  28.  30.  Esaias  or  Isaiah  is  metony- 
mically  put  for  the  book  or  prophecy  of  Isaiah, 

IsuBosHETii,  or  IsaKAAL,  the  son  and  successor  of  SauL  He 
reigned  only  two  years ;  his  whole  party  being  thrown  into  con- 
fusion on  the  death  of  Abner,  and  himself  being  assassinated  by 
two  captains  of  his  own  troops.  (2  Sam.  il.  1  Chron.  viii.  33.  ix. 
39^ 

IscATiiOT.     See  Jdhas,  p.  432,  infra. 

IsuMAEL,  the  son  of  Abraham  and  Hagar.  On  the  birth  of 
Isaac,  Hagar  and  her  son  were  expelled  from  the  house  of  Abra- 
ham, at  the  desire  of  Sarah,  and  dwelt  in  the  wilderness  of  Paran, 
to  the  south  of  Palestine.  Of  Egyptian  origin  by  his  mother, 
Ishmacl  married  an  Egyptian, woman,  by  whom  he  had  two 
daughters,  one  of  whom  Esau  married,  and  twelve  sons,  who 
gave  their  names  to  as  many  tribes  of  Arabians,  conformably  to 
tlie  predictions  concerning  Ishniael.  (Gen.  xvii.  20.  xxv.  9.  xxviii. 
9,  xxxvi.  5.)  For  a  notice  of  these  predictions  and  their  fulfil- 
ment, see  Vol.  I.  p.  122.     Ishmael  died,  aged  137  years. 

IsLKS  OF  TiiK  Gkntiles  (Gcn.  X.  5,),  probably  mean  many  of 
the  maritime  countries  washed  by  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  The 
Hebrews  also  used  the  word  isles  to  signify  all  those  countries 
which  were  divided  from  them  by  the  sea.  (Isa.  xi.  10, 1 1.  xl.  15. 
Jer.ii.  10.) 

Israel,  (that  is,  a  prince  of  God,  or  a  mighty  prince,)  the 
name  given  by  the  angel  to  the  patriarch  Jacob  at  Peniel.  (Gen. 
xxxii.  24.)  By  Israel,  in  the  Scriptures,  is  sometimes  meant  the 
person  of  Jacob,  and  sometimes  his  whole  progeny,  including 
both  the  kingdom  of  Judah  and  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  or  the 
ten  tribes  as  distinct  from  Judah. 

Ishael,  Land  of,  13.    Kingdom  of,  17.  48.    Mountains  of,  31. 

Israelites,  the  descendants  of  Israel.  At  first  they  were 
called  iRebrews,  from  the  patriarch  Abraham,  surnamed  the  He- 
br^-i^',  from  his  having  passed  over  the  Euphrates  into  the  land 
of  Canaan.  After  the  exodus  from  Egypt,  they  were  generally 
called  Israelites ;  and  on  their  return  from  the  Babylonish  capti- 
vity, thej'  ivere  denominated  Jews,  from  the  tribe  of  Judah,  the 
most  considerable  of  the  twelve  tribes.  Their  political  state  from 
the  time  of  Moses  to  the  subversion  of  their  kingdom  by  the 
Assyrians,  40 — 50.  Idols  worshipped  by  them,  136 — 139.  Court 
of  the  Israelites,  99. 

IssAciiAR,  the  fifth  son  of  Jacob  and  Leah,  and  the  head  of 
one  of  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel.  For  the  limits  of  the  canton 
allotted  to  which,  see  p.  17. 

Italy,  an  extensive  and  fertile  region  of  Europe,  bounded  on 
the  north. by  the  Alps,  on  the  east  by  the  Adriatic  Sea  or  the 
Gulf  of  Venice,  and  on  the  west  and  south  by  the  Ligustine  and 
Tyrrhene  Seas,  which  names  were  formerly  applied  to  parts  of 
the  Mediterranean  Sea.  Rome  was  its  capital,  and  the  seat  of 
almost  universal  empire  in  the  time  of  the  writers  of  the  New 
Testament.     (Acts  xviii.  3.  xxviL  1.  6,  Hcb.  xiii.  24.) 

Itukjea,  region  of,  18. 


Jabbok,  Brook,  notice  of,  26. 

Jabesu,  a  city  in  the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh  beyond  Jordan, 
generally  called  Jabcsh-Gilead,  because  it  lay  in  Gilead,  at  the 
foot  of  the  mountains  so  named.  According  to  Euscbius  it  was 
six  miles  from  Pclla  towards  Gerasa  ;  consequently  it  must  have 
been  east  of  the  sea  of  Tiberias.  Jabesh-Gilead  was  sacked  by 
the  Israelites,  because  its  inhabitants  refused  to  join  in  the  war 
against  the  tribe  of  Benjamin.  (Judg.  xxi.  8.)  Nahash,  king  of 
the  Ammonites,  laying  siege  to  Jabesh,  proposed  hard  conditions 
to  the  inhabitants,  from  which  Saul  delivered  them,  a.  m.  2909, 
B.  c.  1094.  They  ever  after  showed  great  gratitude  to  Saul 
and  his  family :  they  carried  off  his  and  his  sons'  bodies,  which 
the  Philistines  had  hung  upon  the  walls  of  Bethshan,  and 
buried  them  honourably  in  a  wood  near  their  city.  (1  Sam.  xxxi. 
11—13.) 

•  Jakin  I.  king  of  Hazor,  one  of  the  most  powerful  Canaanitish 
chieftains,  ruled  over  the  northern  part  of  the  land  of  promise. 
After  the  ruin  of  the  confederation  formed  against  the  Israelites 
by  Adonizedck,  Jabin  assembled  his  tributaries  near  the  waters 
of  Merom,  and  summoned  all  their  forces  to  arms,    lliis  coalition 


was  destroyed,  as  well  as  the  preceding;  and  Jabin  himself 
perished  at  the  destruction  of  his  capital,  Hazor.  (Josh,  xi 
1—12.) 

Jabin  II.  king  of  Hazor,  was  probably  descended  from  the 
preceding  sovereign.  During  one  or  other  of  the  servitudes  of 
Israel  under  Cushan  or  Eglon,  the  kingdom  of  Hazor,  which 
Joshua  had  destroyed,  appears  to  have  been  re-established ;  and 
Jabin  must  have  possessed  a  powerful  dominion,  since  he  is  said 
to  have  brought  into  the  field  900  chariots  armed  with  scythes. 
This  Jabin  oppressed  the  Israelites  for  twenty  years.  After  the 
death  of  his  general  Sisera,  who  had  been  conquered  by  Barak, 
tlie  war  was  prolonged  for  some  time,  but  it  was  finally  termi- 
nated by  the  ruin  of  Jabin.  (Judg.  iv.) 

Jacob,  the  second  son  of  Isaac  and  Rebekah,  and  the  father  of 
the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel.  Having  surreptitiously  obtained  his 
father's  blessing  (Gen.  xxvii.),  to  avoid  his  brother's  resentment, 
Rebekah  sent  him  away  alone  into  Mesopotamia,  to  Laban  her 
brother,  whose  daughters,  Leah  iind  Rachel,  he  married.  After 
serving  Laban  many  years,  he  returned  into  the  land  of  Canann; 
having  during  his  journey  had  an  amicable  interview  with  his 
brother  Esau.  He  afterwards  dwelt  at  Shechem,  in  a  field  which 
he  had  purchased  of  the  Hivites ;  but  being  apprehensive  of  the 
resentment  of  the  people,  for  the  slaughter  of  the  Shcchcmitcs  by 
Simeon  and  Levi  on  account  of  the  violation  of  their  sister  Dinah 
by  Shechem,  Jacob  removed  to  Bethel,  where  he  offered  sacrifice, 
and  God  renewed  his  promises.  Many  years  after  this  he  went 
down  to  Egypt  to  his  son  Joseph,  where  he  resided  seventeen 
years,  and  died  in  a  good  old  age,  after  giving  his  prophetic 
blessing  to  his  sons.  Jacob  is,  in  Scripture,  frequently  put  meto- 
nymically  for  his  posterity,  that  is,  for  the  Israelitish  nation. 

Jacob's  Well,  notice  of,  28. 

Jael,  the  wife  of  Heber  the  Kenite.  She  killed  Sisera,  general 
of  the  Canaanitish  army,  whom  she  had  received  into  her  tent, 
by  driving  a  nail  into  his  temples :  concerning  this  transaction, 
see  Vol.  I.  p.  411. 

Jaih,  a  Gileadite,  who  judged  the  Israelites  for  twenty-two 
years.  He  had  thirty  sons  who  governed  thirty  towns,  which 
also  bore  the  name  of  the  towns  of  Jair. 

Jairus,  a  ruler  or  presiding  officer  of  a  synagogue,  whose 
daughter  Jesus  Christ  restored  to  life  by  a  miracle  :  the  circum- 
stances of  which  are  considered  in  Vol.  I.  p.  105. 

Ja3IES. 

1.  James,  the  son  of  Zebedee,  and  the  brother  of  the  apostle 
John :  he  was  put  to  death  by  Herod  Agrippa,  about  a.  n.  44. 
(Matt.  iv.  21.  X.  2.  Mark  iii.  17.  Luke  vi.  14.  Acts  i.  13.  xii.  2.) 

2.  James,  surnamed  the  Less.  (Mark  xv.  40.)  He  was  the 
son  of  ALpaajus,  and  wrote  the  epistle  which  bears  his  name. 
For  an  analysis  of  which,  and  a  further  account  of  James,  see 
pp.  359,  360. 

Jannes  and  Jambres,  two  of  the  principal  Egyptian  magi- 
cians ;  who  withstood  Moses  and  Aaron  by  attempting  to  imitate 
the  miracles  which  they  actually  performed.  (Exod.  vii.  11,  12. 
viii.  7.  18,  19.)  As  these  names  are  not  found  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, the  apostle  probably  derived  them  from  tradition  (2  Tim. 
iii.  8.),  as  they  are  often  mentioned  in  the  rabbinical  books. 

Japket,  the  eldest  son  of  Noah,  was  a  witness  of  the  deluge, 
and  one  of  those  who  were  saved  in  the  ark.  His  descendants 
first  settled  in  the  isles  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  on  the 
coasts  of  Asia  Minor  and  of  Europe,  whence  they  spread  into  the 
north  and  west. 

Jakhah,  the  Egyptian  slave  of  an  Israelite  named  Sheshan,  who 
gave  him  his  daughter  in  marriage,  and  consequently  gave  him 
his  liberty.  It  is  not  improbable  that  Jarhah  was  a  proselyte  to 
the  religion  of  Israel.  (1  Chron.  ii.  34.) 

Javelins  of  the  Hebrews,  notice  of,  88. 

Jazer,  a  city  beyond  the  Jordan,  given  to  the  tribe  of  Gad:  it 
afterwards  became  one  of  the  Levitical  cities.  (Josh.  xxi.  30.  xiii. 
25.)  The  Sea  of  Jazeb,  (mentioned  in  Jer.  xlviii.  32.),  Dr. 
Blaney  is  of  opinion  is  the  Dead  Sea,  Jazer  being  in  the  north 
border  of  Moab. 

Jebus,  the  son  of  Canaan,  and  father  of  the  Jebttsites  (Gen. 
ii.  16.),  who  dwelt  in  and  around  Jerusalem  in  the  mountains, 
where  they  continued  until  the  time  of  David,  when  Joab  took 
the  place.  (2  Sam.  v.  xxiv.) 

Jeduthun,  a  Levite,  one  of  David's  choristers.  (1  Chron.  ix. 
16.  xvi.  38.  41,  42.  xxv.  1.)  His  sons  were  employed  as  musi- 
cians. (2  Chron.  xxxv.  15.  Neh.  xi.  17.) 

Jehoauaz. 

1.  Jehoauaz,  or  Shallum,  the  second  son  ofJosiah  king  of 
Judah,  whom  he  succeeded  on  the  throne.    He  reigned  on  ; 


430 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND    GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


JE 

three  months,  being  taken  captive  and  ctirried  into  Egypt  by 
Pharaoh-IN'echo.   (2  Kings  xxiii.) 

2.  Jkho.viiaz,  the  son  and  successor  of  Jehu  king  of  Israel.  He 
followed  the  evil  example  of  Jeroboam  I.  during  a  reign  of  17 
years.  His  dominions  were  ravaged  first  by  Hazacl,  and  after- 
wards by  Ben-hadad.  kings  of  Syria:  but,  Jehoahaz  humbling 
himself  before  God,  he  and  his  people  were  delivered  by  his  son 
Joash. 

JciIOASH.       Sec  JoASH. 

Jkiioiakim  or  Eliakim,  son  and  successor  of  Jehoahaz,  king 
of  Judah.  After  a  wicked  and  inglorious  reign  of  1 1  years, 
Jerusalem  was  taken,  and  Jehoiakini  carried  as  a  prisoner  to 
Babylon  by  Nebuchadnezzar.  (2  Kings  xxiii.  31 — 37.  1  Chron.  iii. 
lr>.)     He  was  succeeded  by  his  son, 

jKHOiACHijf,  who  was  also  called  Coniah  and  Jechoniah. 
(1  Chron.  iii.  16.  Jer.  xxii.  24.  xxiv.  1.)  Alter  a  reign  of  three 
months  he  was  carried  to  Babylon  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  together 
with  a  multhude  of  his  people,  and  all  the  F))oils  of  the  city  and 
temple.  (2  Kings  xxiv.  8.  2  Chron.  xxxvi.  9.)  Through  the  kind- 
ness of  Evil-merodach,  the  son  and  successor  of  Nebuchadnezzar, 
he  was  restored  to  his  personal  liberty,  and  was  supported  at 
Babylon  by  the  king's  bounty.   (2  Kings  xxv.  27.  Jer.  Hi.  31.) 

Jehoiha,  the  successor  of  Azariah  in  the  pontificate;  who  with 
his  wife  Jkhoshkha,  preserved  his  nephew  Joash  from  the  mas- 
sacre of  the  royal  family  by  Athaliah,  and  placed  him  on  the 
throne  of  Judah.  He  reached  the  advanced  age  of  130  years, 
and  was  honoured  with  a  burial  among  the  kings,  in  consideration 
of  his  piety  and  disinterested  patriotism.  (2  Kings  xi.  4,  &c.  xii. 
1,2.  2  Chron.  xxii.  10—12.  xxiii.  xxiv.  1—3.  1.5,  16.) 

jEiioiAUin,  the  head  of  the  first  of  the  twenty-four  classes  of 
priests  established  by  David  (I  Chron.  xxiv.  7.),  from  whom  the 
family  of  the  Maccabees  were  descended.  (2  Mac.  ii.  1.) 

Jehouam. 

1.  jEHOBAM,the  son  of  Jehoshaphat  king  of  Judah,  with  whom 
for  a  shoit  time  he  was  associated  on  the  throne,  and  then  suc- 
ceeded him  as  sole  monarch,  n.  c.  889.  He  married  Athaliah  the 
daughter  of  Ahab,  who  seduced  him  into  idolatry.  He  began  his 
reign  by  murdering  his  brothers,  and  was  succeeded  by  Ahaziah, 
after  a  wicked  reign  of  eight  years.  (2  Chron.  xxi.)  On  the 
nature  of  his  disease,  see  p.  196. 

2.  Jkiioham  or  Jouam,  king  of  Israel,  the  son  and  successor 
of  Ahab,  whose  impieties  he  followed.  He  was  slain  in  the 
twelfth  year  of  his  reign  by  Jehu,  ii.  t.  884. 

JtiiosBAi-HAT,  the  son  and  successor  of  Asa  king  of  Judah: 
be  was  a  pious  prince ;  and  in  the  third  year  of  his  reign  he 
sent  some  of  the  chief  oHicers  of  his  court,  together  with  certain 
Levites  and  priests,  throughout  his  dominions,  to  instruct  the 
people  in  the  book  of  the  law  and  their  conseijuent  duties.  After 
a  reign  of  twenty-five  years,  he  died  in  peace,  u.  c.  889.  (2  Chron. 
xvii. — XX.  I — 34.) 

Jkhosiiai'hat,  Valley  of,  account  of,  33. 

J1.H0VAI1,  the  incommunicable  name  of  the  self-existent  Being, 
for  which  the  Jews  substituted  Adonai,  in  conformity  with  an 
ancient  superstition.  In  our  authorized  translation,  this  word  is 
rendered  "  the  Loiin,"  in  order  to  distinguish  it  from  Lord,  sig- 
nifying a  governor.  Concerning  the  pronunciation  of  Jehovah, 
see  Gcsenius's  Hebrew  Lexicon,  voce  nin<. — Land  of  Jeho- 
vah, 13. 

Jr.iir. 

1.  A  prophet,  the  son  of  Hanani,  who  was  sent  to  denounce 
the  divine  judgments  against  Baasha  king  of  Israel.  (1  Kings 
xvi.  7.) 

2.  The  son  of  Jehoshaphat,  and  grandson  of  Nimshi,  who 
conspired  against  Jchoram,  king  of  Israel,  b.  c.  884,  and  reigned 
28  years. 

Jkstima,  Kkzia,  and  KEnr.x-HAPPUCit,  the  three  daughters  of 
Job,  born  after  his  restoration  to  prosperity.  'J'hey  obtained  a 
portion  of  their  father's  inheritance, — a  privilege  which  in  those 
days  could  be  conferred  only  by  very  rich  parcnU. 

Jkpiitiiah,  the  ninth  iudi;n  of  Israel,  succeeded  Jair  in  the 
government  of  the  jieople,  whom  he  delivered  from  the  Ammon- 
ites. Concerning  his  vow,  see  Vol.  I.  p.  411.  His  administra- 
tion lasted  hix  years. 

Jr.iiKMiAir,  the  second  of  the  four  greater  prophets,  was  the 
son  of  Hilkiah,  of  the  sacxirdotal  race,  and  a  native  of  .\nathoth. 
Ho  was  distinguished  for  an  ardent  love  of  his  country,  for  the 
pathetic  tenderness  witli  whi -li  lie  deplored  her  fate,  and  for  the 
ungrateful  treatment  which  he  received  from  his  countrj-mcn. 
The  time  and  manner  of  his  death  are  unknown.    For  a  further 


JE 

account  of  Jcicmiah,  and  an  analysis  of  his  Piophocies  and 
Lamentations,  see  pp.  272 — 27G. 

Jkhuho,  a  celebrated  city  in  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  of  which 
frequent  mention  is  made  in  the  New  Testament.  It  was  the 
first  city  taken  from  the  Canaanites  by  Joshua,  who  razed  it  to 
the  ground,  and  denounced  a  severe  curt;e  on  the  person  who 
should  rebuild  it.  (Josh.  vi.  20.  26.  Heb.  xi.  30.)  'i'his  curso 
was  literally  fulfilled,  in  the  days  of  Ahab,  upon  Iliel  the  Bethel- 
ite,  by  whom  the  tity  was  rebuilt.  ( 1  Kings  xvi.  34.)  After  this 
event  it  was  ennobled  by  the  schools  of  the  prophets,  w  hich  were 
establi.shed  there  (2  Kings  ii.  5.) :  and  near  it  was  a  large  but 
unwholesome  spring,  the  waters  of  which  rendered  the  soil  un- 
fruitful, until  they  were  cured  by  the  prophet  Elisha  (2  Kings 
ii.  21.)  ;  and  from  that  time  they  have  become  exceedingly  whole 
some  and  fertilizing.  In  the  tinie  of  our  Saviour,  Jericho  yielded 
only  to  Jerusalem  for  its  size  and  the  magnificence  of  its  build- 
ings :  it  was  situated  in  a  bottom,  in  that  vast  plain  which  was 
named  the  great  plain  (which  marks  tlie  propriety  of  the  ex 
\>xcs%\o\\  going  cloiun  from  Jerusalem,  Luke  x.  30.)  ;  and  is  150 
furlongs,  about  nineteen  miles  distant  from  the  capital  of  Judffia. 
The  country  around  Jericho  was  the  most  fertile  part  of  Pales- 
tine, abounding  in  roses  and  palm  trees  (whence  in  Deut.  xxxiv.  3. 
it  is  called  tlw  city  of  palm  trees),  and  yielding  also  great  quan- 
tities of  the  opobalsarnum  or  balm  of  Gilead,  so  highly  esteemed 
in  oriental  courts  even  to  the  present  day  ;  and  which  being  an 
article  of  commerce  accounts  for  the  mention  of  publicans  and 
of  a  chief  publican  in  that  region.  (Luke  xix.  2.)  Jericho  was 
one  of  the  cities  appropriated  for  the  residence  of  the  priests  and 
Levites,  1 2,000  of  whom  dwelt  there  ;  and  as  the  way  thither 
from  Jerusalem  was  rocky  and  desert,  it  was,  as  it  still  is,  greatly 
infested  with  thieves.  A  country  more  favourable  for  the  attacks 
of  banditti,  and  caves  better  adapted  for  concealment,  than  those 
presented  on  this  road,  can  scarcely  be  imagined.'  This  circum- 
stance marks  the  admirable  propriety  with  which  our  Lord  made 
it  the  scene  of  his  beautiful  parable  of  the  good  Samaritan. 
(Luke  X.  30 — 37.)  Jericho  is,  at  present,  a  wretched  village, 
consisting  of  about  thirty  miserable  huts,  (compared  with  which 
the  worst  Irish  cabin  is  a  palace),  so  low,  that  at  night,  one  might 
almost  ride  over  them,  without  being  aware  of  the  fact.  The 
once  celebrated  "  City  of  Palms"  cannot  now  boast  of  one  of 
those  beautiful  trees  in  its  vicinity.  I'he  plain  that  surrounded 
it  (through  which  the  Jordan  flows)  is  watered  by  a  beautiful 
fountain  :  it  has  ever  been  venerated  as  the  same  which  the  pro- 
phet Elisha  healed  (2  Kings  ii.  19 — 22.),  the  w^rtr  of  which 
was  nought  (or  bitter)  and  the  ground  barren.  (Game's  Let- 
ters, pp.  322,  323.     Three  Weeks  in  Palestine,  p.  83.) 

Jeiiohoam  I.,  son  of  Nebat,  and  the  first  king  of  Israel.     He 
v\'as  a  wicked  prince,  who  from  political  motives  established  idola- 

»  "Tlie  whole  of  this  road,"  says  Mr.  HuckiiiKliam,  "  from  Jerusalem  lo 
the  Jonlan,  is  lield  to  he  the  most  (hmgerous  ahoiit  Piilcslirie,  ami,  indeed, 
iti  this  portion  of  it,  the  very  aspect  of  the  scenery  is  sulliciiiit,  on  the  one 
h:,nd,  to  tempt  to  rohbery  at;d  tnnrdcr.  .ind,  on  llie  other,  lo  occasion  a 
dread  of  it  in  those  who  pass  that  way.  It  was  partly  to  prevent  any  scci- 
(l''nt  happeiiins  lo  us  in  this  early  stage  of  otir  journey,  and  partly,  per- 
iiaiis,  lo  calm  our  fears  on  tlut  score,  that  a  messenger  had  been  des|iatcl.e(l 
by  our  guides  to  an  encampment  of  their  tribe  near,  desiring  them  10  send 
an  esccrt  to  meet  us  at  ilii.s  place.  Wo  were  met  here  accorilin{;ly,  by  a 
hand  of  about  t\s'enty  perscuis  on  fool,  all  armed  with  matchloi'ks,  and  pic- 
sentjng  the  most  ferocious  and  r(jbber.like  aiipe.iranco  that  could  be 
linH;;incd.  The  elTect  uf  this  was  neiyhtencd  by  the  ghouls  which  they 
sent  forth  from  hill  lo  hill,  and  which  were  re. echoed  Ihroush  all  the  vul- 
lev  s,  while  the  bold  projeclinj!  crncs  of  rock,  the  dark  shadows  in  which 
every  ihinn  Uiy  buried  below,  the  towering  height  of  the  clitfs  above,  and 
the  forbidding  desolation  which  every  where  reigned  around,  presentcil  a 
picture  that  was  fjuile  in  hnrmony  ihrougtiout  all  its  parts.  It  made  us 
feel  most  forcibly  the  projirirty  of  its  being  chosen  as  the  Fcene  of  iho 
delightful  lale  of  compassion  whiih  we  had  before  so  oflr'n  admired  for 
its  dorlrine,  indepcnd.'utly  of  its  local  beauly.  (See  Luke  x.  SO — 31.)  Olio 
must  be  amid  these  wild  and  gloomy  soIiludeB.  surrounded  by  an  armed 
baud,  and  feel  the  iinpaticuce  of  the  traveller  who  rushes  on  lo  caloli  a 
new  view  at  every  pass  and  turn ;  one  must  be  ulariucd  at  Ihe  very  iramp 
id' the  horses' iioofs  rebounding  tlirough  the  caverned  rocks,  and  at  Iho 
savage  shouts  of  the  footmen,  scarcely  less  loud  Ihaii  Ihe  echoing  thunder 
produced  by  llio  dischnrge  ol^iheir  jiieces  in  the  valleys  ;  one  must  witness 
all  this  upon  the  f|Kit,  before  Ihe  full  liirce  and  beauly  of  the  ailinirable 
story  of  the  Oood  Sainarilan  can  he  perceived.  Here,  pillage,  wounds,  nnd 
death  wruild  be  accompanied  wiih  double  terror,  from  the  iripblful  ii*ncct 
of  every  thing  around.  Here,  the  unfeelirig  act  of  passing  by  n  fellow^ 
creature  in  dlslresa,  as  the  Priest  and  I.evile  are  said  to  have  done,  strikes 
one  with  liorror,  as  an  act  hIiiiosI  more  ihan  inlnuuaii.  And  here,  loo,  ihn 
compassion  of  llic  Good  Samarilnn  is  doubly  viiluoiis,  from  Ihe  purity  of 
Ihe  motive  which  nuist  have  led  lo  it,  in  a  spot  where  no  eyes  were  fixed 
on  him  lo  draw  forth  Ihe  perf<.rmauce  of  any  duly,  and  from  Ihe  bravery 
which  was  necessary  lo  .idmil  of  a  nian's  exposing  liiinself,  by  faich  delay,- 
lo  the  risk  of  n  similar  falo  to  lliat  from  which  be  was  riideavoiirinjj  to 
rescue  his  fellowctenlurc."— (nuckingham'sTnivels  in  Palestine,  pp.  202, 
'JfXi.  Sec  a  good  illu.ilmtion  of  the  nature  of  tin,  road  lo  .Tericbo,  and  of  the 
Imndilli  who  infest  it,  in  Sir  F.  Henniker's  Notes  during  a  Visit  la  Egypt, 
NubUi,  &c.  pp.  l&'J— 231.   London,  1S23,  8vo.) 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX, 


431 


JO 

try  (see  p.  136.),  and  changed  the  order  of  the  Hebrew  calendar. 
He  is  never  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament,  but  in  terms  of 
detestation.     He  died  after  a  reign  of  22  years. 

JuHonoAiM  II.,  the  thirteenth  ^ing  of  Israel,  succeeded  his 
father  Jchoahash.  He  reigned  41  years;  and  is  recorded  to  have 
done  evil  in  the  sight  of  God,  following  the  example  of  Jero- 
boam I. 

Jeiiubbaax.     See  GrnEoy. 

Jehusalem  (city),  situation  of,  and  the  name  by  which  it  was 
called,  18,  19.  Fortifications  and  walls,  19,  20.  Its  state  before 
the  war  of  the  Jews  with  the  Romans,  20.  Remarkable  build- 
ings, 21.  Temple,  98 — 101.  Successive  captures  of  this  city, 
21.     Its  present  state  and  population,  22. 

Jksus,  that  is,  the  Saviour,  the  name  of  the  Messiah,  the  Son 
of  God,  and  the  Divine  Author  of  the  Christian  religion,  who 
is  constituted  by  God  the  Lord  of  all  things.  He  is  called  Jesus, 
because  he  came  to  save  his  people  fiom  their  sins.  (Matt.  i.  21. 
Eph.  i.  21,  22.  Heb.  i.  2.)  The  history  of  his  life,  miracles, 
doctrine,  death,  resurrection,  and  ascension,  is  related  in  the  four 
Gospels.  In  2  Cor.  i.  19.  Jesus  is,  metonymically,  put  for  the 
Gospel  or  religion  of  Jesus. 

Jkturo,  or  Raguel,  a  priest  of  Midian,  and  the  father-in-law 
of  Moses,  to  whom  he  gave  the  wise  counsel,  of  instituting  infe- 
rior judges  (from  him  sometimes  ietTn&A  Jethronian  prefects), 
to  hear  and  determine  minor  causes  ;  while  questions  of  moment 
were  brought  before  the  Hebrew  legislator  himself.     See  p.  42. 

Jkws. — After  the  captivity,  most  of  those  who  returned  and 
rebuilt  Jerusalem  and  the  temple,  and  restored  the  rites  of  the 
Mosaic  worship,  having  sprung  from  the  kingdom  of  Judah,  the 
term  Jews  became  a  general  appellation  for  all  the  inhabitants 
of  Palestine,  and  afterwards  for  those  descended  from  them. 
(Dan.  iii.  8.  Eslh.  iii.  10.  2  Mace,  ix.  17.)  For  the  political 
state  of  the  Jews,  from  the  patriarchal  times  to  their  final  disper- 
sion, see  pp.  40 — 53.  Their  courts  of  judicature,  legal  proceed- 
ings, criminal  law  and  punishments,  .54—57.  The  whole  nation 
why  accounted  holy,  108.  ,  Account  of  the  Jewish  church  and 
its  members,  108 — 111.  All  male  Jews  required  to  be  at  Jeru- 
salem, at  the  three  great  annual  festivals,  122.  Whither  they 
travelled  in  caravans,  ibid.  note.  Corruptions  of  religion  among 
them,  and  their  idolatry,  135 — 143.  Their  extreme  corruption 
during  the  time  of  Christ,  148 — 150.  Their  mode  of  computing 
time,  72 — 77.  Their  private  life,  manners,  customs,  occupations, 
arts,  and  sciences,  150 — 187. 

Jevjs  of  the  dispersion,  who  they  were,  109. 

In  the  New  Testament,  the  term  "  Jew"  is  employed, 

(1.)  With  reference  both  to  nation  and  religion.  (Matt,  xxviii. 
15.  Mark  vii.  3.) 

(2.)  With  reference  to  religion  only.  (Rom.  ii.  28,  29.  Rev. 
ii.  9.  iii.  9.) 

(3.)  With  reference  to  nation  only.  (Acts  xix.  34.  xxi.  39. 
xxii.  3.     Gal.  ii.  13.) 

Jezkhei. 

1.  The  daughter  of  Ethbaal  or  Ithobalus  king  of  the  Zido- 
nians,  and  wife  of  Ahab  king  of  Israel.  She  was  infamous  for 
her  idolatries,  and  for  her  cruel  persecutions  of  the  worshippers 
of  the  true  God,  particularly  the  prophets.  She  at  length  pe- 
rished miserably,  according  to  a  prediction  of  the  prophet  Elijah. 
(1  Kings  xvi.  31.    xviii.  4.  13.    xxi.  23.     2  Kings  ix.  30—37.) 

2.  In  Rev.  ii.  20.  Jezebel  is  put  as  a  generic  term  for  an  idol- 
atrous and  infamous  woman,  the  emblem  of  corrupt  teachers. 
Compare  p.  462. 

Jkzueel,  a  celebrated  city,  situated  in  a  valley  of  that  name, 
in  the  canton  of  the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh,  on  the  west  of  the 
river  Jordan,  and  on  the  confines  of  the  tribe  of  Issachar. 
(Josh.  xix.  18.)  Here  Ahab  had  a  palace;  and  here  the  retri- 
butive justice  of  God  overtook  Jezebel.     (2  Kings  ix.  30 — 37.) 

Jezueel,  Plain  of,  account  of,  33. 

JOAB. 

1.  JoAB,  the  son  of  Seraiah  and  the  grandson  of  Kenaz  (1 
Chron.  iv.  13,  14.),  nephew  of  Othniel  the  first  judge  of  the 
Hebrews,  was  the  founder  of  a  colony  of  artizans,  or  "crafts- 
men," at  Ono,  in  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  not  far  from  the  river 
Jordan.  The  valley,  where  he  settled,  obtained  the  name  of 
the  Valley  of  Craftsmen,  an  appellation  which  shows  that  the 
arts  practised  by  them  were  of  the  first  utility ;  and  Nehe- 
miah  gave  it  the  same  appellation,  (xi.  35.)  The  establishment 
of  Joab,  towards  the  time  of  the  first  judge,  from  whom  he  was 
descended,  proves  that  the  Hebrews  had  not  forgotten  the  arts 
which  they  had  acquired  in  Egypt,  and  shows  in  what  estima- 
tion trades  were  held.     The  people,  who  had  erected  the  tabcr- 


JO 


nacle  in  the  wilderness,  we  may  readily  conceive,  would,  in  no 
long  time,  form  establishments  of  this  kind,  after  they  were 
settled  in  Canaan. 

2.  Joab,  the  son  of  Zeruiah,  and  nephew  of  David.  With 
his  brothers  Abishai  and  Asahel,  he  commanded  his  uncle's 
troops  against  Abncr.  He  was  one  of  the  greatest  genorals  and 
most  valiant  men  in  David's  army,  but  was  of  an  imperious  and 
revengeful  disposition.  Having  conspired  to  raise  Adonijah  to 
the  throne  of  his  father  David,  Joab  was  put  to  death  by  com- 
mand of  Solomon. 

Joanna,  the  wife  of  Chuza,  steward  of  Herod  Antipas.  She 
is  enumerated  among  those  women,  who  having  been  healed  by 
Jesus,  followed  him  out  of  Galilee,  and  assisted  in  supporting 
him.     (Luke  viii.  3.  xxiv.  10.) 

JoASii,  the  eighth  king  of  Judah,  was  the  son  of  Ahaziah. 
On  the  massacre  of  his  family  by  Athaliah,  he  was  preserved  by 
Jehoiada  the  high-priest  and  his  wife  Jehoshubah,  and  secreted 
for  six  years  in  one  of  the  apartments  of  the  temple,  where  he 
was  brought  up.  At  the  age  of  seven  years,  the  courageous 
fidelity  of  the  high-priest  placed  him  on  the  throne  of  his  an- 
cestors. During  the  life  of  Jehoiada,  he  ruled  well ;  but  on  the 
death  of  that  wise  and  pious  counsellor,  he  listened  to  the  ad- 
vice of  some  of  his  courtiers ;  fell  into  gross  idolatry  ;  and  at 
length  put  to  death  the  son  of  his  bencCictor.  From  this  time, 
his  reign  became  disastrous  ;  his  kingdom  was  invaded  by  the 
Syrians  under  Hazael ;  his  armies  were  totally  discomfited  by 
very  inferior  forces;  and  he  could  only  save  his  capital,  by  de- 
livering to  the  Syrians  the  treasures  which  had  been  consecrated 
by  his  predecessors,  and  those  which  he  had  himself  oflered  in 
the  temple.  A  lingering  illness  seized  him  :  the  blood  of  Zecha- 
riah,  the  son  of  Jehoiada,  found  avengers ;  and  after  reigning 
40  years,  Joash  was  assassinated  by  three  of  his  servants. 
(2  Kings  xii.    2  Chron.  xxiv.) 

JoAsu  or  Jehoash,  king  of  Israel,  the  son  and  successor  of 
Jehoahaz.  Possessed  of  more  talents  than  virtues,  by  his  fortu- 
nate wars  he  prepared  the  splendid  reign  of  his  son  Jeroboam 
II. ;  and  wanted  nothing  but  piety.  He  reigned  sixteen  years, 
during  which  he  "  did  evil  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord,  and  departed 
not  from  all  the  sins  of  Jeroboam  the  son  of  Nebat,  who  made 
Israel  to  sin."     (2  Kings  xii.  10 — 12.  xiv.) 

Job,  an  inhabitant  of  the  land  of  Uz  or  Iduma;a,  whose  piety 
and  afflictions  are  celebrated  in  the  poetical  book  which  bears 
his  name  ;  for  an  account  of  which,  and  of  the  patriarch  himself, 
see  pp.  227 — 237.  For  a  notice  of  the  disease  with  which  he 
was  afiSicted,  see  p.  196. 

Joel,  the  son  of  Pethuel,  and  the  second  of  the  minor  pro- 
phets. His  history  is  entirely  unknown.  See  an  analysis  of  his 
predictions,  in  p.  270. 

John. 

1,  John  the  Baptist,  the  son  of  Zecharias  and  Elisabeth,  was 
the  kinsman  and  precursor  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  distinguished 
for  the  simplicity  and  integrity  of  his  life.  Notice  of  his  dress, 
see  p.  395.  He  was  beheaded  by  order  of  Herod  Antipas,  whom 
he  had  reproved  for  his  incestuous  marriage.  (Matt.  iii.  1.  xiv, 
2—4.  8.  10.) 

2.  John  tlie  Apostle  and  Evangelist,  was  the  son  of  Zebedee 
and  Salome,  brother  of  James  the  elder,  and  originally  a  fisher- 
man. He  seems  to  have  been  of  a  mild  and  aliectionate  dispo- 
sition, and  peculiarly  dear  to  his  Lord.  His  name  is  prefixed  to 
the  fourth  Gospel,  to  three  Epistles,  and  to  the  Apocalypse ;  for 
an  analysis  of  which,  see  pp.  313—318.  364—377,  378—383. 

3.  John,  sumamed  Maiik,  the  companion  of  Paul  and  Bar- 
nabas in  their  journeys. 

4,  John,  one  of  the  chief  men  among  the  Jews,  a  member 
of  the  Sanhedrin,  and  perhaps  related  to  the  high-priest.  (Acts 
iv.  6.) 

JoKTAN,  the  eldest  son  of  Eber,  from  whom  many  Arabian 
tribes  were  descended.     (Gen.  x.  25 — 30.) 

JOKTHEEl. 

1.  A  city  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Judah.     (Josh.  xv.  38.) 

2.  The  name  which  Amaziah  king  of  Judah  gave  to  Selah, 
an  Arabian  city  v/hich  he  took.     (2  Kings  xiv.  7.) 

Jonah. 

1.  Jonah,  the  son  of  Amittai,  and  the  fifth  of  the  minor 
prophets,  who  was  swallowed  by  a  large  fish,  and  continued 
three  days  and  three  nights  in  the  stomach  of  the  monster. 
See  an  analysis  of  his  prophecy  in  p.  259. 

2.  Jonah  or  Jonas,  the  father  of  the  apostle  Simon  Peter. 
He  was  a  fisherman.     (John  i.  42.   xxi.  15 — 17.) 

Jonathan,  the  son  of  Saul,  and  the  faithfully  attached  friend 


433 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


JO 

of  David  in  all  his  persecutions.  Jonathan  displayed  signal 
valour  in  the  wars  with  the  Philistines.  Kc  perished  in  battle 
with  his  father  on  Aloanl  Gilboa;  and  his  death  is  pathcticully 
lamented  by  David  in  a  funeral  elegy  which  he  composed  in 
honour  of  both.     (2  Sam.  i.) 

Jopi-A,  a  sea-port  of  Palestine,  on  the  Mediterranean,  called 
also  Japha,  and  now  universally  Julia,  owes  ail  the  circumstances 
of  its  celebrity,  as  the  principal  port  of  Judsea,  to  its  situation 
with  regai'd  to  Jerusalem.  It  is  situated  on  the  side  of  a  low 
hill,  over  the  sea.  "As  a  station  for  vessels,  its  harbour  is  one 
of  the  worst  in  the  Mediterranean  :  ships  generally  anchor  about 
a  mile  from  the  town,  to  avoid  the  shoals  and  rocks  of  the  i)lace. 
In  ancient  times  it  was  the  only  place  resorted  to  as  a  seu-port 
in  all  Juda;a.  Hither  Solomon  ordered  the  materials  for  the 
temple  to  be  brought  from  Mount  Libanus,  previous  to  their 
conveyance  by  land  to  Jerusalem."  (Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  iv. 
p.  442.  JoUilfe's  Letters  from  Palestine,  p.  198.  Irby's  and 
Mangles'  Travels,  pp.  186 — 188.)  It  is  a  place  of  very  great 
antiquity ;  and  it  appears  from  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  (ix.  x. 
xi.)  that  the  Gospel  was  received  here  soon  after  Christ's  ascen- 
sion. Here  also  St.  Peter  restored  Dorcas  to  life  (Acts  ix.  40.), 
and  from  this  place  it  was  that  the  prophet  Jonah,  many  centu- 
ries before,  had  embarked  for  Nineveh.  (Jonah  i.  3.)  The 
house  of  the  British  vice-consul  (signor  Damiani),  in  18.31, 
stood  on  the  reputed  site  of  the  house  which  had  been  Simon 
the  Taiuicr's,  the  host  of  the  apostle  Peter ;  and  a  portion  of  an 
ancient  wall  therein  was  pointed  out,  as  a  genuine  relic  of  the 
original  mansion.  (Three  Weeks  in  Palestine,  p.  6.  Loudon, 
1833.) 

JoRA>r.     See  Jf.iioram,  2.  p.  430. 

JouuAx,  River,  account  of,  pp.  25,  26.  Region  round  about, 
p.  33.     ThickcU  of,  p.  36. 

Joseph. 

1.  Joseph,  the  eleventh  son  of  Jacob,  bom  of  Rachel.  Hated 
by  his  brethren,  he  was  sold  by  them  as  a  slave  to  some  Mi- 
dianitish  merchants,  by  whom  he  was  carried  into  Egypt,  and 
again  sold  to  Potiphar.  He  subsequently  became  governor  over 
all  the  land  of  Egypt,  and  sent  for  his  father  and  brethren  to 
Egypt,  where  he  provided  for  them.  On  tlie  departure  of  the 
Israelites,  pursuant  to  his  command,  the  remains  of  Joseph, 
which  had  been  embalmed  according  to  the  Egyptian  process, 
were  carried  into  Canaan  (Heb.  xi.  22.),  and,  it  should  seem 
from  Josh.  xxiv.  31.,  after  the  conquest  by  Joshua,  were  interred 
in  Jacob's  field  near  Shechem.  (Gen.  xxxvii.  1.)  Joseph  is 
sometimes,  metonymically,  put  for  his  descendants,  that  is,  the 
half-tribe  of  Ephraim. 

2.  The  husband  of  JMary,  and  the  reputed  father  of  Jesus. 
(Matt.  i.  16.  18—20.  24.  ii.  13.  19.  Luke  i.  27.  ii.  4.  16.  33. 
43,  iii.  23.  iv.  22.     John  i.  46.  vi.  42.) 

3.  JosEiMi  of  Arimntlteu,  a  member  of  the  Jewish  Sanhedrin, 
and  privately  a  disciple  of  Jesus  Christ.  After  his  death,  Joseph 
requested  his  body  of  Pilate,  and  honourably  entombed  it  in  his 
own  new  sepulchre.  (Matt,  xxvii.  57 — 60.  Mark  xv.  43 — 45. 
Luke  xxiii.  50.     John  xix.  38.) 

4.  One  of  the  seventy  disciples  of  Jesus,  also  called  Barsabas 
and  Justus.  He  was  nominated  as  one  of  the  two  candidates 
for  the  apostleship  in  place  of  the  traitor  Judas,    (Acts  i,  23.) 

JOSES, 

1,  A  brother  of  James  the  Less,  and  a  kinsman  of  Jesus. 
(Malt,  xiii,  55,  xxvii,  50.  Mark  vi,  3,  xv,  40,  47.)  He  is  the 
only  one  of  the  sons  of  Cleojias  and  Mary  who  did  not  become 
an  apostle ;  which  circumstance  has  been  accounted  for  by  Co- 
qucrel,  who  sufiposes  that  Joseg  was  one  of  those  brethren  or 
kinsmen  of  Jesus  Christ  who  distinguished  himself  by  his  want 
of  faith  in  him  (compare  John  vii.  5.),  and  therefore  was  deemed 
unfit  for  the  ap(xstlc.ship.  As  it  appears  from  Acts  i.  14.  that 
the  brethren  of  Jesus  were  present  at  the  meetings  of  his  dis- 
ciples, which  were  held  between  the  ascension  and  the  day  of 
Pentecost,  it  is  not  improbable  that  Joses  was  converted  after  the 
resurrection. 

2.  JosKH,  surnamed  Babnabau,  the  companion  of  St.  Paul. 
(AcU  iv.  36.) 

Josh r. I,  the  son  of  Nun,  of  the  tribe  of  Ephraim,  called  Jesus 
by  the  Greeks.  He  was  the  minister  or  servant,  and  the  suc- 
cessor of  Moses ;  an  ofllcc  which  he  deserved  to  fill  on  many 
accounts  :  for  not  only  had  Moses  discovered  in  him  distinguished 
talents,  but  God  himself  had  destined  Joshua  to  be  the  com- 
mander-in-chief of  his  i)copIc,  in  which  capacity  Moses  presented 
him  to  them  a  short  time  before  his  death.  Joshua  had  dis- 
played both  knowledge  and  courage  during  the  life  of  Moses, 


J  U 

whom  he  accompanied  to  Mount  Sinai  at  the  giving  of  the  law 
In  the  battle  with  the  Amalekites,  he  had  bravely  commanded 
the  Israelites,  and  had  been  blessed  with  victory.  He  had  been 
one  of  the  twelve  spies,  whom  Mosos  had  sent  to  explore  the 
land  of  Canaan ;  and  as  Caleb  and  he  were  the  only  persons 
out  of  that  number  who  had  encouraged  the  people  when  intimi- 
dated by  tiie  report  of  the  other  spies,  so  they  were  the  only  Is- 
raelites who  were  more  than  twenty  years  of  age  that  survived 
their  forty  years'  wandering  in  the  desert,  and  participated  in  the 
conquest  of  Canaan.  Joshua  died  at  the  age  of  110  years,  after 
he  had  for  seventeen  years  governed  the  Israelites.  His  earlier 
name  was  Hoshca,  which  Moses  changed  to  Joshua,  or,  as  it  is 
pronounced  in  Hebrew,  Jehoshuah,  the  import  of  which  is  the 
Salvation  of  God.  Joshua  has  been  considered  as  a  type  of  our 
Saviour,  As  the  Hebrew  general  vanquished  the  impious  Ca- 
naanitcs  by  the  aid  of  God,  and  introduced  His  people  into  the 
rest  of  the  promised  land,  so  Jesus  (whose  name  in  Greek  is 
the  same  as  Jehoshuah)  will  one  day  subdue  and  exterminate 
the  enemies  of  his  name  and  disci|)les,  and  will  introduce  his 
people  into  that  place  of  rest,  in  which  they  v.'ill  enjoy  perfect 
and  eternal  happiness.  For  an  analysis  of  the  book  of  Joshua, 
see  pp,  214 — 2l6;  and  for  an  account  of  the  division  of  the 
Holy  Land  by  him,  sec  pp.  16,  17.  of  this  volume  ;  and  for  his 
government  of  the  Israelites,  see  p.  42.  Observations  on  the 
pile  of  stones  raised  by  Joshua  at  Gilgal,  I.  100,  101, 

JosiAH,  the  son  of  Amnon  and  Jedidah,  succeeded  his  father 
on  the  throne  of  Judah,  at  the  early  age  of  eight  years,  and  during 
a  reign  of  thirty-one  years  he  endeavoured,  with  much  success, 
to  restore  the  worship  of  God  to  its  original  purity.  Being  a 
tributary  or  ally  of  the  Assyrians,  he  refused  a  passage  through 
his  dominions  to  Pharaoh-Neclio  king  of  Egypt,  who  was  march- 
ing into  Assyria,  The  two  armies  met  at  Megiddo,  where  Josiah, 
entering  into  the  battle  in  disguise,  was  mortally  wounded  by  an 
arrow  :  he  died  at  Jerusalem,  deeply  regretted  by  all  his  subjects. 
Jeremiah  composed  Lamentations  in  his  honour,  (2  Kings  xxii. 
xxiii,  2  Chron.  xxxiv,) 

JoTHAM,  the  eleventh  kkig  of  Judah,  exercised  the  regal 
authority  during  the  leprosy  which  terminated  the  life  of  his 
father  Uzziah,  whom  he  succeeded  on  the  throne.  He  is  recorded 
to  have  done  that  which  was  right  in  the  sight  of  God,  and  to 
have  imitated  his  father's  piety.  "  He  became  mighty,  bucause 
he  prepared  his  tvays  before  the  Loud  his  God."  He  dis- 
comfited the  Ammonites,  and  for  three  years  received  of  them  a 
rich  tribute  in  silver,  barley,  and  corn,  which  his  father  had  im- 
posed ;  but  which  that  people  had  refused  to  paj'.  Magnificent 
erections  distinguished  his  reign.  The  ])rincipal  gate  of  the 
temple  was  enlarged  and  embellished  ;  the  hill  of  Ophel  received 
new  fortifications  ;  and  various  buildings,  both  for  hal)itation  and 
defence,  were  erected  in  the  mountains  of  Judah.  After  a  reign 
of  sixteen  years  he  died,  much  regretted  by  his  people,  and  was 
interred  in  the  sepulchres  of  the  kings,  e.  c.  742. 

JuiiAL,  the  son  of  Lamech  and  Adah :  he  was  the  father  of 
all  such  as  handle  the  harp  and  organ.  (Gen.  iv.  21.)  In  other 
terms,  he  was  the  inventor  of  musical  instruments.  By  compar- 
ing his  discoveries  with  those  of  Jabal,  the  inslitutor  of  the 
nomadic  life,  and  of  Tubal-Cain.  the  instructor  of  every  artificer 
in  brass  and  iron,  we  may  perceive  how  soon  the  agreeable  fol- 
lowed the  useful  arts. 

Jubilee,  Feast  of,  how  celebrated,  128,  129. 

Judah. 

1.  Judah,  the  fourth  son  of  Jacob  and  Leah,  gave  his  name  to 
the  most  numerous  of  the  tribes  of  Israel ;  for  the  limits  of  the 
canton  assigned  to  which,  see  p.  17,  At  the  time  of  the  revolu- 
tion under  Rehoboam  and  Jeroboam,  this  tribe  also  gave  its  name 
to  that  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel  which  continued  faithful  to 
the  house  of  David. 

2.  Desert  of  Judah,  account  of,  34. 

3.  Kingdom  of  Judah,  17,  Causes  of  its  duration  for  a 
longer  time  than  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  49, 

4.  Land  of  Judah,  notice  of,  14, 

5.  Mountains  of  Judah,  notice  of,  31. 
JuD-i^A,  Country  of,  18. 

Judas. 

1,  Judas,  surnamed  Iscariot,  (Heb.  v^H  nvVi  I""  KaniOTu), 
that  is,  a  man  of  Karioth  or  Carioth,  one  of  the  apostles  of  Jesus 
Christ.  He  seems  to  have  po8sessc<l  the  full  confidence  of  his 
fellow-aposlles,  by  whom  he  was  intrusted  with  all  the  presents 
which  were  made  to  them,  and  with  all  their  means  of  subsist- 
ence :  an<l,  when  the  twelve  were  sent  out  to  preach  and  to  work 
miracles,  Judas  appears  to  have  been  among  them,  and  to  have 


BIOGRAPHICAL    HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


433 


KA 

received  the  same  powers.  He  was  accustomea,  however,  evea 
at  this  time,  to  appropriate  part  of  the  common  stock  to  his  own 
use  (John  xii.  6.),  and  at  length  sealed  his  infamy  by  betraying 
his  Lord  for  money  to  the  Jews.  Judas  perished  miserably,  being 
driven  by  remorse  to  hang  himself;  but  the  cord  broke,  and  he 
fell  (probably  from  some  elevated  place)  with  such  violence  as  to 
rupture  the  abdomen,  and  dash  out  his  intestines  upon  the  ground. 
(Matt,  xxvii.  5.  Acts  i.  18.) 

2.  Judas,  a  Christian  teacher,  also  called  Barsabas,  who  was 
sent  from  Jerusalem  to  Antioch  with  Paul  and  Barnabas.  Judas 
and  Silas  are  termed  prophets  as  well  as  Agabus  :  which  title  is 
given  them  in  a  two-fold  sense,  as  zealous  preachers  of  the  Gos- 
pel, and  as  ministers  of  God,  who  were  divinely  inspired,  accord- 
ing to  the  exigencies  of  the  church,  to  predict  future  events. 
(Acts  XV.  22.  37.  32.) 

3.  Judas,  surnamed  the  Galilaean  in  Acts  v.  37.  and  also  by 
Josephus  (Ant.  Jud.  lib.  xviii.  c.  1.  §  6.  xx.  c.  5.  §  2.  Bell.  Jud.  1. 
ii.  c.  8.  §  1.),  who  further  calls  him  a  Gaulonite  (Ant.  Jud.  1.  xviii. 
c.  1.  §  1.),  was  born  at  Gamala,  a  city  of  Lower  Gaulonitis,  near 
the  south-eastern  shore  of  the  lake  of  Tiberias.  In  company 
with  one  Sadok  or  Sadducus,  he  attempted  to  excite  a  sedition 
among  the  Jews,  but  was  destroyed  by  Quirinus,  at  that  time 
governor  of  Syria  and  Judsea. 

4.  Judas  or  Jude,  one  of  the  apostles,  also  called  Lebbeus  and 
Thaddeus,  the  son  of  Alphaeus  and  Mary,  own  brother  of  James 
the  Less  and  cousin  of  our  Lord.  He  was  author  of  the  epistle 
which  bears  his  name ;  for  an  analysis  of  which,  as  well  as  a 
further  account  of  Jude,  see  pp.  377,  378. 

6.  Judas  MACcABy-Eus,  son  of  Mattathias,  whom  he  succeeded 
in  the  office  of  captain  of  the  Jews,  during  the  persecution  of 
Antiochus  Epiphanes.  (1  Mace.  iii.  1.)  After  performing  many 
heroic  and  glorious  actions,  he  at  length  fell  nobly  in  the  field  of 
battle,  in  an  engagement  with  the  Syrian  army  under  the  com- 
mand of  Bacchides,  the  general  of  Demetrius,  the  successor  of 
Antiochus.  (1  Mace.  ix.  18.) 

Judges  of  the  Israelites,  powers  and  functions  of,  42.  Judges 
appointed  by  Moses,  powers  of,  ibid. 

Judicature  (^Jewish),  courts  of,  and  proceedings  therein, 
54—57. 

Judicature  (Roman),  account  of,  57 — 60. 

JuiiA,  a  female  Christian  at  Rome,  who  is  supposed  to  have 
been  the  wife  of  Philologus.  (Rom.  xvi.  15.)  It  is  not  improba- 
ble that  she  was  a  freed-woman  of  the  family  of  the  Csesars. 

Julius,  a  centurion  of  the  Augustan  cohort,  who  conducted 
Paul  to  Rome,  and  treated  the  apostle  with  great  courtesy  and 
humanity.  (Acts  xxvii.) 

JuijfiAS  or  Junta,  a  Jewish  Christian,  who  is  supposed  to  have 
been  the  wife  of  Andronicus.  (Rom.  xvi.  7.) 

Jupiter,  the  supreme  god  of  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans. 
He  had  a  temple  in  the  suburbs  of  Ltstra,  (which  see). 

Jurisdiction  of  Moses,  41,42.;  of  Joshua  and  the  judges, 
42. ;  of  the  kings,  42 — 46. 

Justice,  seat  of,  54. 

Justice. 

1.  The  surname  of  Joseph-Barsabas,  who  was  one  of  those 
nominated  to  be  an  apostle.  (Acts  i.  23.)    See  Barsabas. 

2.  A  Christian  at  Corinth,  who  hospitably  received  Saint  Paul. 
(Acts  xviii.  7.) 

3.  Justus,  also  called  Jesus,  appears  to  have  been  known  to 
the  Jews  by  the  former  name,  and  to  the  Romans  by  the  latter. 
He  was  a  Jew  by  descent,  and  the  friend  and  coadjutor  of  Saint 
Paul.  (Col.  iv.  11.) 

Jr  AR,  the  eighth  month  of  the  civil  year  of  the  Jews ;  and  the 
second  of  their  ecclesiastical  year.  For  a  notice  of  the  festivals, 
&c.  occuring  in  this  month,  see  p.  76. 


Kadzsh,  Kabesh-Bahnea,  or  Ew-Mishpat,  a  city  celebrated 
for  several  events.  Here  Miriam,  the  sister  of  Moses,  died 
(Num.  XX.  1.),  and  the  Israelites  murmured  against  God.  (xxvii, 
14.)  It  belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Judah,  and  is  supposed  to 
have  been  situated  about  25  miles  to  the  south  of  Hebron. 
But  Dr.  Wells  is  of  opinion  that  the  Kadesh  in  the  wilderness 
of  Zin  was  a  different  place  from  Kadesh-Bamea  in  the  wilder- 
ness of  Paran.  (Compare  Num.  xiii.  26.  and  Deut.  i.  19.)  Dr. 
Lightfoot,  however,  considers  them  as  one  and  the  same  place. 
In  the  fourth  century,  the  pretended  sepulchre  of  Miriam  was 
shown. 

KADMoifiTEs,  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  land  of  Canaan,  who 
dwelt  beyond  the  Jordan,  to  the  east  of  Phoenicia,  about  Mount 

Vol.  II,  3  I 


K 


Lebanon.  (Gen.  xv.  19.)  They  derived  their  name  from  their 
eastern  situation. 

Kanau,  Brook,  26. 

Karioto  or  Kerioth,  a  town  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Judah. 
(Josh.  XV.-35.)  Also,  a  town  belonging  lo  the  tribe  of  Benja- 
min. (Josh,  xviii.  28.)  Of  one  or  other  of  these  places,  the 
traitor  Judas  was  a  native.     See  Judas,  1. 

Kedar,  a  tribe  of  Arabian  nomades,  descended  from  Kedar, 
the  son  of  Ishmael.  (Gen.  xxv.  13.)  The  habits  of  the  Turco- 
mans, a  nomadic  tribe  who  infest  the  inland  portions  of  Asia 
Minor,  are  precisely  those  of  the  wandering  hordes  of  Kedar,  as 
described  in  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament ;  and  their  black 
tents  would  fully  suit  the  simile  of  Solomon  (Song  i.  5).,  while 
their  pastoral  traffic  is  in  every  respect  that  adverted  to  in  Ezeluel 
(xxvii.  21.),  in  his  denunciations  of  destruction  against  Tyre, 
(Emerson's  Letters  from  the  ^gean,  vol.  i.  p.  192.) 

Kedron,  Kidrox,  or  Cedhon,  Brook,  account  of,  26. 

Kenites,  a  Canaanitish  people,  who,  according  to  1  Sam.  xv. 
6.,  compared  with  Num.  xxiv.  20,  21.,  dwelt  among  the  Amale- 
kites.  According  to  Judg.  i.  16.  iv.  11,,  they  appear  to  have 
been  descended  from  Hobab  the  brother-in-law  of  Moses. 

Kenizzites,  an  ancient  Canaanitish  people,  who  may  have 
been  descended  from  Kenaz,  a  grandson  of  Esau.  Their  place 
of  residence  cannot  now  be  determined.  (Gen.  xv.  19.  Num. 
xxxii.  12.) 

Keturah,  the  second  wife  of  Abraham,  who  married  her  after 
the  death  of  Sarah;  she  bore  him  six  sons.  (Gen.  xxv.) 

Kings,  person  of,  sacred,  44.  Their  powers,  functions,  and 
revenues,  43 — 46. 

Kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Judah,  17.  Latent  causes  of  the 
schism  between,  48.  Causes  of  the  longer  duration  of  the  king- 
dom of  Judah,  49. 

Kir  (or  Cyrus),  a  river  to  the  banks  or  vicinity  of  which 
Tiglath-Pileser,  king  of  Assyria,  sent  the  principal  inhabitants  of 
Syria,  whom  he  had  taken  captive.  (2  Kings  xvi.  9,)  At  present 
it  is  called  Kur  by  the  Russians,  and  Kier  by  the  Persians  :  it 
unites  its  waters  to  the  Aras  or  Araxes,  and  empties  itself  into 
the  Caspian  Sea,  under  the  30th  degree  of  north  latitude.  A 
people  of  foreign  aspect,  called  Usbecks,  dwell  there  to  this  time, 
who  (Prof.  Jahn  thinks)  may  be  the  descendants  of  these  cap- 
tives. (Hist,  of  Heb.  Commonwealth,  vol.  i.  p.  140.) 

KiH-HEREs.     See  Rabbath-Ammok. 

KiRjATH  or  KiHioTH  (n>-\p),  a  Hebrew  word  denoting  a  city. 
There  was  a  place  of  this  name  in  the  canton  of  the  tribe  of  Ben- 
jamin. (Josh,  xviii.  28.) 

The  following  proper  names  of  cities  are  compounded  of  it ; 
viz. 

1 .  KiRJATH-AiM,  or  the  Double  City. 

(1.)  The  proper  name  of  a  city  in  the  tribe  of  Reuben. 
(Num.  xxxii.  37.  Josh.  xiii.  19.)  It  was  afterwards  pos- 
sessed by  the  Moabites.       (Jer.  xlviii.  1.  3.  Ezek.  xxv.  9.) 

(2.)  A  city  in  the  canton  of  the  tribe  of  Naphtali.  (1  Chron. 
vi.  61.) 

2.  Kirjath-Arba,  or  the  City  of  Arba:  an  ancient  name 
of  Hebron,  which  see  in  p.  427. 

3.  Kirjath-Huzoth,  or  the  City  of  Streets,  a  royal  city  of 
Balak  king  of  Moab.     (Num.  xxii.  39.) 

4.  Kirjath-Jearisi,  or  the  City  of  Forests,  in  the  tribe  of 
Judah,  on  the  western  boundary  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin.  Here 
the  ark  was  lodged  for  many  years  in  the  house  of  Aminadab, 
until  David  removed  it  to  Jerusalem.  Urijah  the  prophet  was  a 
native  of  this  place.  (Josh.  ix.  17.  xviii.  5,  Judg.  xviii.  12.  1 
Sam,  vi.  21,  1  Chron.  xiii.  6.) 

5.  Kirjath-Sannah,  or  the  City  of  the  Law,  was  a  city  in 
the  tribe  of  Judah.     (Josh.  xv.  49.) 

6.  Kirjath-Sepher,  or  the  City  of  Writing,  otherwise  called 
Debir  ;  a  city  in  the  tribe  of  Judah,  which  was  captured  from 
the  Canaanites  by  Othniei.  (Josh.  xv.  15,  16.  Judg.  i.  10 — 13.) 
Concerning  the  import  of  its  name  there  is  a  difference  of  opin- 
ion ;  some  supposing  it  to  have  been  a  seat  of  learning,  while 
others,  from  Debir  signifying  an  oracle,  imagine  that  it  was  a 
seminary  for  the  education  of  priests. 

Kish,  the  son  of  Abdiel,  who  was  also  called  Ner,  and  the 
father  of  Saul,  of  an  obscure  family  in  the  tribe  of  Benjamin, 
was  both  a  shepherd  and  a  warrior,  conformably  to  the  custom 
of  those  ancient  times.  The  Scripture  eulogizes  his  valour. 
He  sent  his  son  in  pursuit  of  some  lost  asses,  and  he  returned  to 
his  father  the  first  king  of  Israel.  (I  Chron.  viiL  30.  ix.  39.  I 
Sam.  xiv.  51.  ix.  1.  and  x.  2.) 

KisHON,  Brook,  notic«  of,  26. 


434 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND   GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 
LE  L  Y 


Kneabisg-thoughs  of  the  Israelites,  154, 

KoHATH,  the  son  of  Levi.  (Gen.  xlvi.  1 1.)  He  was  the  head 
of  the  Kohathites,  who  were  appointed  to  carry  the  ark  and 
sacred  vessels  of  the  tabernacle,  during  the  marches  of  the  Israel- 
ites.    (Num.  iv.  1 — 15.)  ~ 

Kg  HA  II,  the  son  of  Izhar,  and  grandson  of  Levi,  who  conspired 
against  Moses.  (Exod.  vi.  21.  Num.  xvi.)  From  him  were 
descended  the  sons  of  Korah,  a  Levitical  family  of  singers,  whom 
David  appointed  to  guard  the  doors  of  the  temple.  (1  Chron. 
ix.  19.)  Eleven  psalms  arc  i  .scribed  "for  the  sons  of  Korah;" 
on  the  probable  import  of  which  title,  see  p.  239. 

KoHBAN,  nature  of,  119. 


Laba:?,  the  son  of  Bcthuel,  grandson  of  Nahor,  brother  to 
Rebekah,  and  father  of  Rachel  and  Leah.  (Gen.  xxviii.) — Also 
xhe  name  of  a  place  beyond  the  Jordan,  in  the  plains  of  Moab ; 
it  is  otherwise  unknown.     (Deut.  i.  1.) 

Lakes  in  the  Holy  Land,  account  of,  26 — 28. 

Lamb,  Paschal,  ceremonies  of  oflciing,  &c.  See  pp.  123 — 126. 

Lamestatioxs  for  the  dead,  account  of,  199,  200. 

Land-Suhvetiso,  not  unknown  to  the  Jews,  187. 

Laodicka,  a  city  of  Asia  Minor,  about  forty-two  miles  to  the 
south  of  Ephesus,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Colossi  and  Hicrapolis. 
Its  earlier  name  was  Diospolis  or  Cssarca,  but  after  being  en- 
larged by  Antiochus  II.  it  was  called  Laodicca  in  honour  of  his 
wife  Laodice.  This  city  was  often  damaged  by  earthquakes, 
and  restored  cither  by  the  opulence  of  its  inhabitants,  or  by  the 
munificence  of  the  Roman  emperors.  From  the  researches  of 
modern  travellers  it  appears  to  have  been  seated  on  a  volcanic 
Bill,  of  moderate  height,  but  of  considerable  extent.  Its  ruins 
attest  that  it  was  large,  opulent,  and  splendid  ;  and  there  are  still 
to  be  seen  the  remains  of  an  amphitheatre,  an  aqueduct,  and 
many  other  buildings.  In  the  primitive  times  of  Christianity,  as 
appears  from  Saint  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Colossians,  in  which 
the  Laodiceans  are  frequently  mentioned,  this  place  possessed  a 
flourishing  church.  But  the  doom  of  Laodicea  seems  to  have 
been  more  severe  and  terrible  than  that  of  the  other  six  apoca- 
lyptic churches :  and  its  present  condition  is  in  striking  con- 
formity with  the  rebukes  and  threatenings  of  God.  Not  a  single 
Christian  resides  at  Laodicea !  It  is  even  more  solitary  than 
Ephesus :  the  latter  has  a  prospect  of  a  rolling  sea,  or  a  whiten- 
ing sail,  to  enliven  its  decay  ;  the  former  sits  in  widowed  loneli- 
ness. Its  temples  are  desolate ;  the  stately  edifices  of  ancient 
Laodicea  are  now  peopled  with  wolves  and  jackals.  The  prayers 
of  the  mosque  are  the  only  prayers  heard  near  the  still  splendid 
ruins  of  the  city,  on  which  the  prophetic  denunciation  seems  to 
have  been  fully  executed,  in  its  utter  rejection  as  a  church.  "  Its 
crime  was  pride ;  its  punishment  desolation.  The  threatening 
is  accomplished :  it  now  stands  rejected  of  God  and  deserted  by 
men  ;  its  glory  a  ruin  ;  its  name  a  reproach,"  (Hartley's  Visit 
to  the  Apocalyptic  Churches,  in  1826.  Mission.  Register,  July, 
1827,  p.  296.  Arundell's  Visit  to  the  Seven  Churches,  pp.  84 — 
90.     Emerson's  Letters  from  the  ^gean,  vol.  i.  pp.  180.  219.) 

La&jex,  a  maritime  city  of  Crete  (Acts  xxvii.  8.),  which  is 
not  mentioned  by  any  of  the  ancient  geographers.  Its  exact 
site  cannot  now  be  ascertained. 

Law  and  the  Prophets,  tables  of  the  sections  of,  as  read  in 
the  Jewish  synagogues,  105.  The  Mosaic  law  perverted  by  the 
Pharisees,  144,  145. 

Laws,  how  promulgated,  47,  48. 

Lawyers  ^Jewish),  account  of,  146. 

Lazarus. 

1.  The  brother  of  Martha  and  Mary,  whom  Jesus  loved,  and 
miraculously  raised  him  from  the  dead.  For  an  examination  of 
the  circumstances  of  this  miracle,  see  Vol.  I.  pp.  105,  106. 

2.  The  name  of  a  i>erson  introduced  by  Jesus  into  a  very 
instructive  narrative  or  parable,  to  represent  the  poor  and  dis- 
tressed in  this  world.     (Luke  xvi.  19 — 25.) 

Leah,  the  daughter  of  Laban,  and  the  wife  of  Jacob,  on  whom 
her  father  imposed  her  in  lieu  of  Rachel.     (Gen.  xxix.) 

Lehano.t  (Mount),  account  of,  29,  30. 

LEnii;iiU8,  a  proper  name  of  the  apostle  Jdde,  who  was  also 
called  Thaddcus.     (Matt.  x.  3.) 

Legal  Piioceetiixos  of  the  Jews,  account  of,  55 — 57. 

Legions  (Roman),  notice  of,  92. 

LEpnoer  ( Disease  of).  Symptoms  and  treatment  of,  195,  196 
Purification  of  lepers,  1 34.     Leprosy  of  clollics  and  houses,  ibid. 

LcTTEitg  or  Epistles,  form  of,  183. 


Levi. 

1.  The  third  son  of  Jacob  and  Leah.     (Gen.  xxix.  34.)     He       1 
is  known  only  as  having  participated  in  the  revenge  of  Simeon        ' 
against  the  Shechemitcs,  for  the  violation  of  Dinah  (xxxiv.  25.), 
and  for  having  given  his  name  to  the  tribe  that  was  set  apart  for 

the  priesthood  and  worship  of  God.     For  the  functions,  &c.  of 
the  Levites,  sec  pp.  Ill,  112. 

2.  One  of  the  twelve  apostles,  also  called  Matthew.  See 
p.  430.  infra. 

Levies,  Military,  how  raised,  84. 
LiBEHTiNEs,  account  of,  103.  109.  I.  80. 
Libya,  among  the  Greeks,  was  used  as  another  name  for 
Africa,  as  it  imports  a  part  of  it.     It  was  divided  into  Libya  Inte- 
rior and  Exterior :  but  the  Libya  mentioned  by  Saint  Luke 
(Acts  ii.  10.)  is  that  by  Ptolemy  called  Libya  Cyrenaica  :  and 
by  Pliny  Pentapolitana  Regio,  from  its  five  chief  cities,  viz.  Be-      ■ 
renice,  Arsinue,  Ptolemais,  Apollonia,  and  Cyrene.     It  is  noted      ' 
in  the  Old  Testament  for  its  chariots  and  horses  used  in  fight 
(2  Chron.  xvi.  8.)    .  But  it  is  mentioned  by  Saint  Luke,  on  ac- 
count of  the  Jews,  who,  living  in  such  vast  numbers  in  Alexan- 
dria that  50,000  of  them  were  slain  at  one  time,  may  well  be 
thought  to  have  had  some  colonies  and  proselytes  in  this  neigh-        >, 
bouring  country. 

Life-Guauds  of  the  kings  of  Israel,  47. 

Lixrs,  a  disciple  whose  salutation  Saint  ~Paul  addresses  to 
Timoth}'.     (2  Tim.  iv.  21.)     He  is  commonly  supposed  to  have       4 
been  the  first  bishop  of  Rome.  i 

LiTEHATURE  of  the  Jews,  184 — 187. 
LivEH,  divination  by  the  inspection  of,  143. 
Locusts,  natural  history  of,  and  of  their  devastations,  39. 
Were  eaten  by  the  inhabitants  of  Palestine,  ibid. 

Lois,  a  Christian  matron,  and  the  grandmother  of  Timothy, 
of  whose  faith  the  apostle  speaks  with  great  commendation. 
(2  Tim.  i.  5.) 

Lord's  Piiayer,  collected  out  of  Jewish  Euchologies,  132. 
Lonii's  Sui'peh,  points  of  resemblance  between,  and  the  Pass- 
over, 123 — 126.      It  is  a  perpetual  memorial  of  the  vicarious 
atonement  of  Jesus  Christ,  I.  61. 

Lot,  the  son  of  Haran  and  nephew  of  Abraham ;  after  sepa- 
rating from  whom,  on  account  of  the  increase  of  their  cattle,  he 
chose  the  city  of  Sodom  for  his  abode.  On  its  destruction  Lot 
and  his  two  daughters  escaped  with  their  lives ;  but  his  wife, 
looking  back,  perished.  (Gen.  xix.  Luke  xvii.  28.)  The  Mo- 
abites  and  Ammonites  descended  from  Lot. 

Lots,  when  used  judicially,  122.  Notice  of  the  Feast  of  Lots, 
320,  321. 

JjUbim,  the  Libyans.     (2  Chron.  xii.  3.  xvi.  8.  Nah.  iii.  9.) 

Lucius,  a  Cyrenian,  one  of  the  prophets  or  teachers  of  the 

Christian  church  at  Antioch.   (Actijiii.  1.  Rom. xvi.  21.)  By  soma 

he  has  been  erroneously  confounded  with  the  evangelist  Luke. 

LuD,  the  fourth  son  of  Shem,  whose  descendants  peopled  the 

province  of  LrniA.     (Gen.  x.  22.) 

LuniM,  a  people  of  Africa,  frequently  mentioned  in  Scripture; 
probably  the  Ethiopians  or  Abyssinians. 

Luke  (Acux^c,  contracted  from  the  Latin  Lucanus),  was  a 
Gentile  proselyte  who  had  embraced  Christianity.  He  was  the 
friend  and  companion  of  St.  Paul  in  most  of  his  journeys,  and 
wrote  the  Gospel  that  bears  his  name,  and  the  Acts  of  the  Apos- 
tles ;  for  analyses  of  which,  see  pp.  307—313.318—321. 
Lycasthiiopy,  the  malady  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  196,  107. 
Lycaonia  (Acts  xiv.  6.),  a  province  in  Asia  Minor,  accounted 
the  southern  part  of  Cappadocia,  having  Isauria  on  the  west, 
.\rmenia  Minor  on  the  cast,  and  Cilicia  on  the  south.  Its  chief 
cities  are  all  mentioned  in  this  chapter,  viz.  Iconium,  Lystra, 
and  Derbe.  They  spake  (ver.  11.)  in  the  Lycaonian  tongue, 
which  is  generally  understood  to  have  been  a  corrupt  Greek,  in- 
termingled with  many  Syriac  words  :  but  Jablonski  supposes  it 
to  have  been  derived  from  the  Assyrian  tongue.  Why  they 
were  disposed  to  worship  Paul  and  Barnabas,  140.  Paul's  ad- 
dress to  them  illustrated,  326. 

Lydda,  which  in  later  times  was  called  Diospolis,  and  is  now 
known  by  the  name  of  Loudd,  was  a  large  village,  and,  accord- 
ing to  Josephus,  little  inferior  to  a  city  for  its  size.  This  place 
is  celebrated  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  for  the  miraculous  cure, 
of  Eneas  by  the  apostle  Peter  (Acts  ix.  32.  34.):  it  was  situated 
at  no  great  distance  from  Joppa  (ix.  38.),  on  the  way  from  the 
latter  place  to  Jerusalem.  The  soil  of  the  surrounding  country 
is  said  to  be  very  rich. 

Lydii,  a  woman  of  Thyatira,  who  traded  in  purple  cloths, 
for  which  that  place  was  celebrated.     She  was  a  Jewish  pros*- 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


435 


MA 

lyte,  of  a  sincere  and  pious  character,  and  prompt  in  acknow- 
ledging and  professing  the  truth.  She.  was  converted  to  the 
Christian  faith  in  consequence  of  the  preaching  of  Saint  Paul. 
(Acts  xvi.  14.  40.)  Coquerel  and  others  suppose  that  Lydia,  in 
this  place,  is  merely  a  patronymic  appellation,  that  is,  a  Lydian 
woman ; — most  probably  from  the  circumstance  of  Thyatira  being 
situated  on  the  confines  of  Lydia,  a  province  on  the  western 
coast  of  Asia  Minor. 

Ltstra,  a  city  of  Lycaonia,  chiefly  celebrated  for  the  miracu- 
lous cure  there  wrought  upon  the  lame  man,  which  made  the 
Lycaonians  think  the  gods  were  come  down  to  them  in  the  like- 
ness of  men  (Acts  xiv.  10,  11.),  and  also  for  the  circumcision  of 
Timothy,  (xvi.  1.) 


Maacah  or  Maachah.  See  Abel-Beth-Maachah,  pp.  401, 
402. 

Maccabees,  government  of,  50.  Origin  of  their  name,  50. 
note. 

Macedonia,  a  province  of  Greece,  formerly  called  ^mathia ; 
and  from  the  kings  of  Macedon,  Macedonia.  It  was  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  mountains  of  Haemus,  on  the  south  by  Epi- 
rua  and  Achaia,  on  the  east  by  the  ^gean,  on  the  west  by  the 
Ionian  and  Adriatic  Seas ;  and  it  is  celebrated  in  all  histories  for 
being  the  third  kingdom,  which,  under  Alexander  the  Great,  ob- 
tained the  empire  of  the  world,  and  had  under  it  150  nations. 
To  this  country,  whose  metropolis  was  then  Thessalonica,  Saint 
Paul  was  called  by  a  vision  (Acts  xvi.  9.)  ;  and  the  churches, 
by  him  planted  in  it,  are  celebrated  for  their  great  charity,  and 
ready  contribution  to  the  distressed  Jews  in  Judsea  (2  Cor.  viii. 
ix.),  when  they  themselves  lay  under  the  extrcmest  poverty. 

Mach^eiius,  a  city  and  fortress  east  of  the  Jordan,  between 
six  and  nine  miles  from  that  river,  and  not  far  from  its  mouth. 
Here  John  the  Baptist  was  imprisoned,  and  subsequently  put  to 
death  by  order  of  Herod  Antipas.  (Matt.  ix.  2.  xiv.  3 — 12.)  This 
place  is  not  mentioned  by  name  in  the  New  Testament. 

Machpelaii,  the  name  of  the  cave  purchased  by  Abraham  of 
Ephron  the  Hittite,  for  a  burial  place  for  his  wife  Sarah.  (Gen. 
xxxiii.  8.)  This  cave  has  been  covered  by  the  Turks,  "  by  a 
large  and  ancient  mosque ;  and  all  around  the  soil  is  held  invio- 
lable. The  cave  is  in  the  middle  of  the  interior  of  the  edifice ; 
its  dark  and  deep  entrance  only  is  visible,  and  it  is  rarely  entered. 
The  cave  is  said  by  the  Turks  to  be  deep  and  very  spa- 
cious, cut  out  of  the  solid  rock,  and  that  the  resting-places  of  the 
patriarchs  still  exist,  and  are  plainly  to  be  discerned."  (Game's 
Recollections  of  the  East,  pp.  158,  159.) 

Magdala,  a  city  and  territory  on  the  western  side  of  the  lake 
of  Gennesaret,  not  far  from  Capernaum  and  Gamala ;  it  is  sup- 
posed to  have  contained  within  its  precincts  Dalmanutha ;  hence, 
while  Matthew  says  (xv.  39),  Christ  came  into  the  coasts  of 
Magdala,  St.  Mark  says  more  particularly  (viii.  10.),  that  he 
came  into  the  parts  of  Dalmanutha. 

Magi,  an  appellation  given  among  the  Persians  to  priests, 
wise  men,  philosophers,  and  others  who  devoted  themselves  to 
the  study  of  the  moral  and  physical  sciences,  and  who  particu- 
larly cultivated  astrology  and  medicine.  They  enjoyed  the  highest 
consideration.  The  xvise  men  from  the  east,  who  came  to  wor- 
ship the  infant  Messiah,  were  philosophers  of  this  description ; 
according  to  some,  they  came  from  Persia,  or,  in  the  opinion  of 
others,  from  Arabia,  as  the  precious  gums  which  they  offered 
were  the  productions  of  Arabia. 

Magic,  prevalence  of,   143. 

Magistrates,  persons  of,  sacred,  44.  Crimes  against  them, 
how  punished  among  the  Jews,  62.  Magistrates  under  the  Jewish 
monarchy,  47. 

Magog.     See  Goc,  p.  426. 

Mahanaim,  a  city  beyond  the  Jordan  in  the  tribe  of  Gad,  near 
the  tribe  of  Manasseh ;  it  was  assigned  to  the  Levites.  (Josh, 
xiii.  26.  30.  xxi.  3S.)  Here  two  hosts  or  camps  of  angels  met 
Jacob  (Gen.  xxxii.  2.),  whence  the  name  is  derived. 

Malachi,  the  last  of  the  twelve  minor  prophets.  For  an  ac- 
count of  him,  and  an  analysis  of  hisjsrediclions,  see  pp.  288,  289. 

Malchus,  a  servant  of  Caiaphas  the  high-priest,  whose  name 
St.  John  has  very  naturally  preserved,  since  he  was  acquainted 
with  Caiaphas.  Malchus  was  one  of  the  company  that  was  com- 
manded to  seize  Christ  in  the  garden  of  Gethsemane :  Peter  cut 
off  his  right  ear,  which  was  instantly  restored  and  the  wound 
healed  by  the  omnipotent  touch  of  Jesus,  who  thus  conferred 
upon  him  a  signal  benefit  at  a  most  critical  time.  The  miracu- 
lous healing  of  Malchus  presents  a  union  of  justice,  power,  and 


MA 


goodness ;  and  could  not  fail  to  convince  the  apostles  of  the 
truth  of  our  Lord's  declaration,  that  no  man  could  take  his  hfe 
from  him,  and  that  he  could  lay  it  down  and  resume  it  again. 
(John  X.  17.)  It  has  indeed  been  asked,  how  such  a  miracle 
made  so  little  impression  upon  the  company  which  Judas  con- 
ducted. The  reply  is  easy.  The  whole  transaction  took  place 
in  an  instant.  Peter  struck  Malchus  with  a  sword.  Jesus  stood 
still,  with  one  hand  stopped  the  apostle,  and  with  the  other 
healed  the  servant ;  while  those  who  were  present,  in  the  middle 
of  the  night  and  by  the  pale  light  of  torches,  scarcely  had  time 
to  perceive  what  was  passing. 

Mauce,  crimes  of,  how  punished,  64. 

Malta.     See  Melita,  p.  436.  infra. 

Mamue,  Valley  of,  notice  of,  31. 

Manaex,  the  name  of  a  person  who  was  educated  with  Herod 
Agrippa  I.  (Acts  xiii.  1.)  Perhaps  he  was  the  son  of  that  Ma- 
naem  (Msii/joi^cf)  mentioned  by  Josephus,  who  predicted  the 
future  greatness  of  Herod.  (Ant.  Jud.  1.  xv.  c,  10.  §  5.) 

Maxasseh. 

1.  The  eldest  son  of  Joseph ;  who,  being  adopted  by  his  grand 
father,  inherited  equally  with  the  sons  of  Jacob.  (Gen.  xlviii.) 
For  the  limits  of  the  territory  allotted  to  the  tribe  of  Manasseh, 
see  pp.  16,  17. 

2.  Manasseh,  the  fourteenth  king  of  Judah,  succeeded  his 
father  Hezekiah,  at  the  early  age  of  twelve  years.  In  the  early 
part  of  his  reign,  most  probably  misled  by  the  profligate  counsels 
of  those  who  detested  the  reformation  introduced  by  the  pious 
Hezekiah,  Manasseh  was  a  most  wicked  and  idolatrous  prince ; 
and  for  his  various  crimes  was  carried  captive  into  Babylon,  about 
the  twenty-second  year  of  his  reign.  But,  upon  his  penitent 
confession  of  his  sins,  he  was  delivered  out  of  captivity  and  re- 
stored to  his  country  (it  has  been  conjectured  after  about  a  year's 
absence),  perhaps  in  consequence  of  some  revolution  in  the  As- 
syrian empire.  The  remainder  of  his  life  and  reign  was  as  ex- 
emplary as  its  commencement  had  been  inauspicious  and  profli- 
gate. The  worship  of  God  was  restored ;  the  fortifications  of 
Jerusalem  were  repaired  and  strengthened  ;  and  military  officers 
were  placed  in  all  the  fenced  cities  of  Judah.  (2  Chron.  xxxiii.'^ 

Man-slaughter,  punishment  of,  63. 

Max-stealing,  punishment  of,  63. 

Manures  of  the  Jews,  notice  of,  176,  177. 

Marah,  a  place  in  the  desert  of  Arabia,  so  called  from  the  bit- 
terness of  its  waters.  When  the  Israelites  came  out  of  Egypt, 
on  their  arrival  in  the  wilderness  of  Etham,  they  found  the  water 
so  bitter  that  neither  themselves  nor  their  cattle  could  drink  it : 
on  which  account  they  gave  the  name  of  Marah  or  bitterness  to 
this  encampment.  (Exod.  xv.  23.  Num.  xxxiii.  8.)  Most  tra- 
vellers attest  that  there  are  several  bitter  fountains  not  far  from 
the  Red  Sea ;  and  Dr.  Shaw  fixes  these  waters  at  Corondel,  a 
place  where  there  is  still  a  small  rill,  which,  unless  it  be  diluted 
by  dews  and  rain,  etill  continues  to  be  braclush.  (Travels,  vol.  i, 
p.  104.)  A  later  traveller,  who  visited  this  region  a  century  afteir 
Dr.  S.,  describing  these  waters,  says,  that  "  the  Pool  of  Marah 
is  of  a  circular  form,  about  sixty  feet  round  :  it  gushes  forth  from 
a  rock  at  the  foot  of  a  barren  mountain,  and  one  or  two  palm 
trees  spread  their  shade  over  it.  This  pool,  the  only  one  found 
for  a  great  distance  around,  in  spite  of  its  clear  and  temptihg 
appearance,  is  brackish  and  bitter  to  the  taste,  offering  one  of  tha 
greatest  disappointments  to  the  weary  traveller,  whose  thirsj 
indeed  may  be  quenched,  though  the  hope  of  a  sweet  and  deli* 
cious  draught  is  baffled."  (Game's  Recollections  of  the  East, 
p.  348.) 

Maresha,  a  fenced  city  in  the  plain  of  the  tribe  of  Judah. 
(Josh.  XV.  44.)  Jerome  and  Eusebius  call  it  Morasthi.  Tha 
prophet  Micah  was  a  native  of  this  city,  near  which  was  foughl 
the  memorable  battle  between  Zerah  king  of  Cush  or  Ethiopia, 
and  Asa  king  of  Judah,  who  obtained  a  most  signal  victory. 
(2Chron.  xjv.  8— 10.) 

Mark,  or  John-Mark,  the  author  of  the  second  Gospel,  was 
the  nephew  of  Barnabas,  and  also  the  companion  of  Paul  and 
Barnabas  ift  their  journey  through  Greece  (Acts  xiii.  5.  Col.  iv. 
11.),  and  afterwards  of  Barnabas  alone.  (Acts  xv.  37.  39.)  He 
afterwards  accompanied  Peter.  (1  Pet.  v.  13.)  As  he  was  the 
son  of  that  Mary,  at  whose  house  in  Jerusalem  the  apostles  were 
accustomed  to  meet,  it  has  been  conjectured,  with  great  proba- 
bihty,  that  he  was  particularly  instructed  in  the  doctrines  of  the 
Gospel  by  Peter,  who  therefore  terms  him  his  son.  ( 1  Tim.  v.  1 3. 
compared  with  1  Tim.  i.  2.  and  2  Tim.  i.  2.)  For  a  further  ac 
count  of  Mark  and  of  his  Gospel,  see  pp.  304 — 307. 

Markets,  where  held,  155. 


436 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 
ME  ME 


Mariiiagf.s  of  the  Jews,  ceremonies  of,  160 — 162.  How  dis- 
solved, 162,  163. 

Martha,  the  sister  of  that  Lazarus  who  was  raised  from  the 
dead  by  Jesus  Christ.  (Luke  x.  38.40,41.  John  xi.  1,  &c. 
vii.  2.) 

Mary,  the  name  of  several  women  mentioned  in  the  New 

Testament;  viz. 

1.  The  Virgin-mother  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ: 
she  was  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  and  of  the  royal  house  of  David, 
as  also  was  her  husband  Joseph.  After  the  crucifixion  of  Christ, 
who  had  commended  her  to  the  fdial  care  of  John,  she  found  an 
asylum  in  the  house  of  the  beloved  apostle  ;  and  when  the  dis- 
ciples and  apostles  were  met  together  in  an  upper  room,  she 
united  with  them  in  prayer.  (John  xix.  25.  27.  Acts  i.  15.) 
The  time,  place,  and  circumstances  of  her  death  are  uncertain. 

2.  A  woman  of  Magdala  is  supposed  to  be  the  same,  out  of 
whom  Christ  expelled  seven  demons.  (Luke  vii.  36,  37.)  She 
was  one  of  those  who  followed  him  and  contributed  to  liis  main- 
tenance. 

3.  One  of  the   sisters  of  Lazarus.    (Luke  x.  39 — 42.    John 

xi.  1,  &c.) 

4.  The  mother  of  James  the  Less  and  of  Joses :  she  was 
sister  to  the  mother  of  Jesus,  and  was  the  wife  of  Alphens  or 
Clopas.  (Matt,  xxvii.  56.  61.  xxviii.  1.  Mark  xv.  40.  47.  xvi.  1. 
John  xix.  25.) 

5.  The  mother  of  the  evangelist  Mark,  at  whose  house  the 
Christians  in  Jerusalem  were  wont  to  convene,   (Acts  xi.  12.) 

6.  Mary,  an  unknown  disciple  resident  at  Rome,  to  whom  St. 
Paul  sent  his  salutation,  with  this  eulogy — she  bestoived  much 
labour  on  vs  (Rom.  xvi.  6.),  or,  on  ror,  according  to  the  Alex- 
andrian and  other  MSS.,  and  the  Syriac,  Ethiopic,  Coptic,  and 
Arabic  versions.  It  is,  therefore,  uncertain,  whether  the  apostle 
here  speaks  of  services  actually  rendered  to  himself,  or  to  the 
believers  at  Rome. 

Matthew,  also  called  Levi,  the  son  of  Alpheus,  was  a  col- 
lector of  the  imposts  when  our  Saviour  called  him  to  follow  him 
and  l)e  an  apostle.  He  wrote  the  first  Gospel ;  for  an  account  of 
which,  see  pp.  295—304. 

Matthias,  one  of  the  disciples  who  was  chosen  by  lot  to  fill 
up  the  vacancy  occasioned  by  the  death  of  the  traitorous  aposUe 
Judas  Iscariot.  (Acts  i.  23.  26.)  Of  his  subsequent  labours 
and  history,  nothing  certain  is  known. 

Mkaslres  of  the  Jews  and  other  nations  mentioned  in  the 
Bible,  tables  of,  394. 

MKAT-OFFtuiNGs,  noticc  df,  119. 
Mechanic  Arts  of  the  Jews,  187. 

Medeiia,  a  city  in  the  tribe  of  Reuben,  situated  in  a  plain  of 
the  same  name.  (Num.  xxi.  30.  Josh.  xiii.  9.  16.)  According 
to  Eusebius,  it  was  not  far  from  Heshbon.  Here  Joab  gained  a 
memorable  victory  over  the  Ammonites  and  Syrians.  (1  Chron. 
xix.  7 — 14.)  According  to  Isa.  xv.  2.  it  afterwards  belonged  to 
Moab. 

Media  (Acts  ii.  9.)  was  a  vast  region  of  Asia,  having  on  the 
north  the  Caspian  Sea,  on  the  west  Armenia  and  Assyria,  on 
the  south  Persia,  on  the  east  Hyrcania  and  Parthia.     It  had  its 
name  from  Madai  the  son  of  Jaj)het,  mentioned  in  Gen.  x.  2. 
In  the  Babylonian  captivity,  the  Jews  were  carried  captive  into 
Assyria,  and  placed  in  the  cities  of  the  Modes.     (2  Kings  xvii. 
6.  and  xviii.  11.)    Hence  we  find  many  of  them  and  their  prose- 
lytes at  Jerusalem,  when  the  Holy  Ghost  fell  on  the  apostles. 
The  Medcs  or  Medians  were  subject  to  the  Assyrian  rnonarchs 
until  the  reign  of  Sardanapalus.   .\rl).'iccs  conspired  against  him, 
compelled  him  to  burn  hiniHclf  in  Nineveh,  and  restored   the 
Medea  to  liberty,  a.  m.  32.'i7,  it.  c.  747.     He  is  considered  as  the 
founder  of  the  Median  monarchy,  to  which  Justin  assigns  a  du- 
ration of  three  hundred  and  fifty  years,  but  Herodotus  only  one 
hundred  and  twenty  years.    (Justin.  Hist.  lib.  i.  c.  6.  ed.  Uipont. 
Herod,  lib.  i.  cc.  95— 107.  ed.  Oxon.  1809.)  'I'he  last-mentioned 
historian  has  recorded  the  names  of  only  four  Median  sovereigns, 
viz.  Dejoces,  Phraortcs,  Cyaxarrs,  and  Astyages.     Diodorus  Hi- 
culuB  (lib.  ii.  c.  32.  edit.  Bipoiit.)  enumerates  ten  kings;   Euse- 
bius and  Syncellus,  eight.     Herodotus,  however,  acknowledges 
'.hat  the  Medes  had  enjoyed  their  liberty  f  )r  some  lime  before 
Ihey  elected  Dejoces  to  be  their  king,  a.  m.  3291,  n.  c.  710.    He 
CauHcd   the  city  of  Ecbatana  to  l>e  built,  and  is  said  to  have 
reigned  fifty-three  y  an.    Phraortcs  his  successor  Hubjugated  the 
Persians  to  the  Median  empire,  and  reigned  twenty-two  years. 
A.  M.  3347—3369,   b.  c.  657 — 635.     Phraortcs  was  succeeded 
by  Cyaxares,  who  took  Nineveh,  and  considerably  enlarged  the 
Median  empire,  a.  m.  3369—3409,  b,  c.  020—595.     His  son 


and  successor  Astyages  reigned  thirty-five  years,  a.  m.  3409 — ■ 
3444,  B.  c.  595 — 5';0.  No  particulars  of  his  reign,  however 
arc  recorded  by  profane  historians,  excepting  his  repulsing  an 
invasion  of  his  territories  made  by  the  Babylonian  under  Evil- 
merodah,  the  son  of  Nebuchadnezzar.  On  the  death  of  Asty- 
ages, the  crown  devolved  on  his  son  Cyaxares  II.,  whom  the 
Scriptures  call  Darius  the  Mede,  a.  m.  3444.  b.  c.  500.  Media 
is  now  called  Irak  Adjami,  and  forms  (as  it  also  anciently  did 
form)  part  of  tlie  kingdom  of  Persia. 

Meuici.vk,  state  of,  among  the  Jews,  194 — 197. 
Meoiterrasean  Sea,  28.  Plain  of,  33. 
Megiduo,  a  fortified  town  of  the  tribe  of  Manasseh  in  the 
territory  of  Issachar:  it  was  formerly  a  royal  city  of  the  Ca- 
naanites.  The  fVater  of  JMet^iddo  (Judg.  v.  19.)  is  conjectured 
by  Prof.  Gesenius  to  be  the  river  Kishon.  Compare  Judg.  v.  21. 
and  iv.  13. 

Melchiskdek,  king  of  Salem  (which  was  afterwards  called 
Jerusalem),  a  contemporary  of  Abraham,  whom  he  met  with 
refreshments  on  his  return  from  the  pursuit  of  Cherdorlaomer 
and  his  allies.  (Gen.  xiv.)  After  the  manner  of  the  patriarchal 
ages,  he  appears,  as  the  head  of  his  tribe  or  family,  to  have  dis- 
charged the  functions  of  priest,  and  to  have  ollered  sacrifices  to 
the  true  God.  By  paying  him  tithes  Abraham  acknowledged 
him  to  be  a  priest  of  the  Most  High  God.  In  Heb.  vii.  St.  Paul 
exhibits  the  resemblance  between  Melchisedek  as  the  type  and 
Jesus  Christ  the  antitype. 

Melcom,  an  Ammonitish  idol.  See  p.  137, 
Melita,  or  Malta,  an  island  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  on 
which  St.  Paul  and  his  companions  were  wrecked.  (Acts 
xxviii.  1.)  Mr.  Bryant,  Dr.  Hales,  and  some  other  eminent 
critics  and  commentators,  have  endeavoured  to  show  that  this 
island  was  in  the  Adriatic  Sea,  on  the  coast  of  Illyricum, — the 
same  which  is  now  called  Meleda.  That  Malta  is  the  island 
intended  by  St.  Luke  will  be  evident  from  the  following  con 
siderations: — The  apostle  left  the  island  in  a  ship  of  Alexandria, 
which  had  wintered  there,  on  her  voyage  to  Italy ;  and  after 
touching  at  Syracuse  and  Rhegium,  landed  at  Puteoli,  thus  sail- 
ing in  a  direct  course.  The  other  Melita  would  be  far  out  of 
the  usual  track  from  Alexandria  to  Italy  ;  and,  in  sailing  from  it 
to  Rhegium,  Syracuse  also  would  be  out  of  the  direct  course. 
The  fact,  that  the  vessel  was  tossed  all  night  before  the  ship- 
wreck in  the  Adriatic  Sea,  does  not  militate  against  the  proba- 
bihty  of  its  afterwards  l>eing  driven  upon  Malta ;  because  the 
name  Adhia  (see  page  403.)  was  applied  to  the  whole  Ionian 
Sea,  which  lay  between  Sicily  and  Greece.  (Robinson's  Lexi- 
con, voce  M->jT».) 

Memorials  of  events,  account  of,  79,  80. 
Memphis.     See  Noph,  p.  440.  infra. 

Menahem,  the  sixteenth  king  of  Israel:  he  murdered  the 
usurper  Shallum,  and  in  his  turn  usurped  the  throne.  He  was 
a  wicked  and  cruel  prince,  who  followed  the  impious  example 
of  Jeroboam  I.     He  died  after  reigning  about  ten  years. 

Mem,  or  the  Moon  ;  a  Syrian  idol,  worshipped  in  Palestine 
during  the  time  of  the  prophet  Isaiah.     See  p.  137. 

Mephiboshetu,  a  son  of  Jonathan,  whom  David  took  under 
his  protection,  when  he  was  peaceably  seated  on  his  throne. 

Mercuht,  in  heathen  mythology,  the  son  of  Jupiter  and 
Maia.  He  was  the  fabled  patron  of  eloquence  (im  which  account 
tlie  people  of  Lystra  supposed  Paul  to  be  Mercury  in  di.'^gui.sc, 
Acts  xiv.  12.),  the  god  of  travellers,  shepherds,  &.c.  &c.,  and  the 
conductor  of  the  souls  of  llie  dead  into  the  infernal  regions. 

Merihaii,  the  name  of  a  spring  in  the  desert  of  Sin,  where 
the  Israelites  contended  against  God.  (Num.  xx.  13.  24.)  See 
Rephiim.m. 

Mehoiiacii,  the  name  of  an  idol  of  the  Babylonians.     Lowth 
and  other  commentators  (on  Jer.  i.  2.)  suppo.se  him  to  have  l>cen 
an  ancient  monarch  of  Babylon,  whom  his  subjects  deified  and 
worshipped.     See  Balaiian,  p.  413. 
Mehom,  waters  or  lake  of,  notice  of,  27. 

Mesopotamia,  a  region  of  countrj',  situated  between  tlic  rivers 
Tigris  and  Euphrates,  extending  from  the  Persian  (Julf  to  Mount 
Taurus,  The  Hebrews  call  it  Aram  Naharaim,  or  Aram  of  the 
two  rivers,  because  it  was  first  peopled  by  Aram,  father  of  the 
Syrians,  and  is  situated  between  two  rivers.  This  country  is 
celebrated  in  Scripture  as  the  first  dwelling  of  men  after  the 
deluge;  and  because  it  gave  birth  to  Phaleg,  Hel>cr,  Tcrah, 
Abraham,  Nahor,  Sarnh,  Rcbekab,  Rachel,  Leah,  and  to  the 
sons  of  Jacob.  Babylon  was  in  the  ancient  Mesopotamia,  till 
by  vast  lalwur  and  industry  the  two  rivers  Tigris  and  Euphrates 
were  reunited  in  one  chaimcl.     The  plains  of  Shinar  were  in 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 
MI  MO 


437 


this  country.  It  was  often  called  Mesopotamia  Syriie,  because 
It  was  inhabited  by  the  Aramseans,  or  Syrians ;  and  sometimes 
Padan-aram  (Gen.  xxviii.  2.),  or  the  plains  of  Aram:  or  Sede- 
uram,  the  fields  of  Aram ;  to  distinguish  them  from  the  barren 
and  uncultivated  mountains  of  the  same  country.  Balaam,  son 
of  Beor,  was  of  Mesopotamia.  (Deu'^.  xxiii.  4.)  Chushan- 
rishathaim,  king  of  Mesopotamia,  subd/ed  the  Hebrews.  (Judg. 
iii.  8.)  Some  Jews  or  proselytes  from  Mesopotamia  were  at 
Jerusalem  on  the  day  of  Pentecost.  (Acts  ii.  9.)  For  an  inte- 
resting description  of  the  modem  state  of  this  country,  see  Mr. 
Buckingham's  Travels  in  Mesopotamia.  London,  1827,  2  vols. 
8vo. 

Messiah,  (Heb.  n^iPD,  that  is,  anointed,)  the  same  as  Chhist 
in  Greek,  the  name  given  to  Jesus  our  Saviour,  by  way  of  ex- 
cellence; he  being  anointed  by  his  Father,  to  execute  for  us  the 
offices  of  Prophet,  Priest,  and  King,  for  all  which  offices  persons 
were  anointed  with  oil,  as  being  symbolical  of  the  graces  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  which  qualified  them  for  their  respective  duties. 
Jesus,  indeed,  was  not  anointed  with  material  oil,  such  as  was 
used  under  the  law,  but  with  the  Holy  Ghost  and  -with  power. 
(Acts  X.  38.)  For  a  view  of  the  predictions  respecting  the 
Messiah,  see  Vol.  I.  pp.  126—129.  453-^58.  As  a  Prophet, 
whose  office  was  to  teach  and  reprove,  Jesus  has  perfectly  in- 
structed us  in  the  will  of  God,  and  has  shown  himself  to  be  the 
teacher  of  the  most  sublime  religion  ever  promulgated  to  man- 
kind :  and  he  wrought  numerous  illustrious  miracles  in  proof  of 
his  divine  mission.  As  a  Priest,  (whose  office  it  was  to  ofifer 
sacrifices  for  the  expiation  of  the  sins  of  the  people,  to  bless 
them,  and  pray  for  them,)  Jesus,  who  was  both  priest  and 
victim,  offered  himself  a  sacrifice  to  God,  in  order  to  expiate  our 
sins ;  for  in  him  we  have  redemption  through  his  blood,  even 
the  forgiveness  of  sins,  according  to  the  riches  of  his  grace. 
(Eph.  i.  3.)  He  has  blessed  us,  in  turning  every  one  of  us  from 
our  sins :  and  he  ever  liveth  to  intercede  for  us  with  God  as  our 
Mediator:  for,  if  any  man  sin,  we  have  an  advocate  with  the 
Father,  Jesus  Christ  the  righteous.  (Rom.  viii.  34.  1  Tim.  ii.  5. 
I  John  ii.  1.)  As  a  King, — not  like  the  earthly  sovereign  whom 
the  Jews  expected  to  deliver  them  from  the  yoke  of  the  Romans, 
which  they  detested,  and  who  (they  believed)  would  make  them 
the  most  powerful  people  upon  earth, — Jesus  reigns  over  souls 
illuminated  by  the  light  of  his  doctrine,  and  over  hearts  called 
to  holiness.  To  his  people,  whom  he  hath  purchased  to  himself 
out  of  all  the  nations  of  the  world,  he  gives  for  their  government 
laws  which  are  calculated  to  make  them  permanently  liappy 
both  here  and  hereafter ;  he  defends  them  against  their  spiritual 
enemies,  and  he  will  judge  them  at  the  last  day.  His  mediatorial 
kingdom  commenced  after  his  resurrection,  when  he  entered  into 
his  glory  (Luke  xxiv.  26.)  :  but  it  will  not  be  eternal.  The 
authority  which  he  exercises  as  Mediator  and  Judge,  is  dnly  a 
temporary  dispensation  referring  to  the  actual  state  of  the  church, 
and  which  will  cease  when  he  shall  have  fulfilled  his  office,  that 
is,  after  the  last  judgment.  This  Saint  Paul  teaches  in  a  very 
striking  and  precise  manner,  which  deserves  the  greatest  atten- 
tion.    See  1  Cor.  xv.  24,  2.5.  28. 

METEMrsYCHosis,  doctriue  of,  believed  by  the  Pharisees,  144. 

MrcAH,  the  sixth  of  the  minor  prophets,  was  contemporary 
with  Isaiah,  Joel,  Hosea,  and  Amos.  See  an  analysis  of  his 
predictions  in  pp.  270,  271. 

MicHMASH,  a  town  in  the  tribe  of  Ephraim,  about  nine  miles 
from  Jerusalem,  to  the  east  of  Beth-Aven.  Contiguous  to  this 
place  was  a  ledge  of  sharp  rocks,  two  of  which,  named  Bozez 
and  Seneh,  faced  Michmash  and  Gibeah ;  tlie  one  north,  the 
other  south.  One  of  these  was  ascended  by  Jonathan  and  his 
armour-bearer,  who  routed  the  garrison  of  the  Pjhilistines  that 
defended  the  pass  of  Michmash.  (1  Sam.  xiii.  5.  23.  xiv. 
4 — 13.)  In  the  vicinity  of  this  place  were  caves,  thickets,  rocks, 
and  pits,  in  which  the  Israelites  concealed  themselves  from  their 
enemies.  (1  Sam.  xiii.  6.)  Rocks  and  pits  answer  to  the  pre- 
sent appearance  of  the  place  to  which  tradition  has  given  the 
name  of  Michmash ;  but  no  thickets  or  bushes  are  to  be  seen. 
A  succession  of  low  and  barren  hills  leads  up  to  the  higher  one 
of  Michmash,  which  commands  a  fine  and  extensive  view. 
There  are  also  several  caves  on  the  spot.  (Came's  Letters,  pp. 
330,  331.)  At  present,  this  place  is  distinguished  by  the  name 
of  Beer,  signifying  a  well;  most  probably  from  its  containing  a 
very  delicious  spring  of  water.  (Rae  Wilson's  Travels,  vol.  i.  p. 
364.     Third  edition.) 

MiDiAN,  the  land  into  which  Moses  fled  from  the  Egyptians. 
(Acts  vii.  29.)  Here  Jethro  lived  (Exod.  xviii,  1.),  and  the 
f«ople  were  descended  from  Madian  the  son  of  Abraham  by  Ke- 


turah  (Gen.  xxv.  2.),  whence  we  have  reason  to  believe  they  stil} 
retained  the  worship  of  the  true  God.     It  was  in  Arabia  Petraea. 

MiDiAxiTEs,  commerce  of,  187.     Account  of  this  people,  15. 

MiGDOL,  a  frontier  town  of  Lower  Egypt,  towards  the  Red 
Sea,  between  which  and  that  sea  the  Israelites  encamped.  (Exod. 
xiv.  1.)  It  is  there  rendered  by  the  Septuagint  Magdolus  ;  and 
there  also  Herodotus  represents  Nekus,  or  Pharaoh-Necho,  as 
gaining  a  great  victory  over  the  Jews,  when  Josiah  was  killed,  mis- 
taking Magdolus  for  Megiddo.  Jeremiah  represents  it  as  belong- 
ing to  Egypt  Proper  (xlvi.  14.),  and  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Tahpanes,  or  Daphnae. 

Miletus,  a  sea-port  of  Asia  Minor,  and  a  city  of  Ionia,  where 
Saint  Paul  deUvered  to  the  elders  of  the  church  of  Ephesus  that 
aflTecting  discourse  which  is  recorded  in  Acts  xx.  17 — 35.  In 
this  city  were  born  Thales,  one  of  the  seven  wise  men,  Anaxi- 
mander  his  disciple,  Timotheus  the  celebrated  musician,  and 
Anaximenes  the  philosopher.  There  was  another  Miletus  in 
Crete,  where  St.  Paul  left  Trophimus  sick.  (2  Tim.  iv.  20.) 

MiLiTAUT  Discipline  of  the  Jews,  83 — 91,  And  of  the 
Romans,  93,  94.  Military  Sports,  190.  A  military  order  estab- 
lished by  David,  92. 

Mills,  oriental,  notice  of,  154. 

Mines  of  Palestine,  37. 

Mirage,  eflfects  of,  34,  35.  and  notes. 

Minnons  of  the  Jews,  notice  of,  158.  and  note. 

Mittlene  was  a  large  and  beautiful  city  of  the  island  of 
Lesbos,  where  Pittacus,  one  of  the  wise  men,  Alcseus  the  poet, 
Diophanes  the  orator,  and  Theophanes  the  historian,  were  born. 
The  whole  island  was  also  called  by  that  name  ;  as  also  Penta- 
polis,  from  the  five  cities  in  it,  viz.  Issa  or  Antissa,  Pyrrha,  Eres- 
sos,  Arisba,  Mitylene.  If  it  had  that  name  in  St.  Luke's  time, 
we  may  understand  either  the  island  or  the  city,  when  he  says 
(Acts  XX.  14.),  JVe  came  to  Jilitylene. 

MizAR,  a  small  hill  not  far  from  Zoar,  once  a  place  of  resort 
for  David  ;  and  where  it  appears  from  Psal.  xiii.  6.  that  he 
experienced  some  peculiar  manifestations  of  the  divine  goodness. 

MizpEH,  a  high  place  affording  an  extensive  prospect.  (Isa.  xxi. 
8.)  Several  places  in  Palestine  bore  this  name,  most  probably 
from  being  situated  on  elevated  grounds  or  hills  ;  of  which  the 
following  were  the  principal : — 

1.  MizPEH,  a  city  iii  the  tribe  of  Judah,  to  the  south  of  Jeru- 
salem  (whence  it  was  distant  about  eighteen  or  twenty  miles) 
and  to  the  north  of  Hebron.  (Josh.  xv.  33.) 

2.  MizPEH,  a  place  in  Gilead  beyond  the  Jordan.  (Judg.  x.  17. 
xi.  34.)  In  Judg.  xi.  29.  it  is  called  Mizpeh  of  Gilead,  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  other  towns  or  places  of  the  same  name. 

3.  MizpEH,  a  city  in  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  where  assemblies 
of  the  Israelites  were  often  convened :  here  Samuel  dwelt,  and 
here  Saul  was  anointed  king.  (Judg.  xxi.  1.  1  Sam.  vii.  5 — 7.  x. 
1.  17.)  King  Asa  strengthened  it  for  a  frontier  fortification 
against  the  kingdom  of  Israel  ( 1  Kings  xv.  22.  2  Chron.  xvi.  6.) : 
and  afterwards  the  governor  Gadaliah  had  his  residence  here. 
(Jer.  xl.  6.  compared  with  Neh.  iii.  7.  19.) 

4.  Mizpeh,  a  ra//ey«n  the  region  of  Mount  Zziarajis,  which 
was  inhabited  by  the  Hivites.  (Josh.  xi.  3.  8.) 

MizHAiTii  (Gen.  x.  6.),  a  son  of  Ham,  whose  descendants  are 
supposed  to  have  peopled  Egypt,  which  country  derived  its  He- 
brew name  from  him.  Josephus  makes  the  name  to  be  of  Coptic 
origin  (Antiq.  1.  i.  c.  6.  ^  2.)  :  but  Gesenius  observes  that  nothing 
resembhng  it  is  found  in  the  present  remains  of  the  Coptic  lan- 
guage, in  which  this  dountry  bears  the  name  of  X»jU/. 

MoABiTES,  a  people  descended  from  Moab,  the  incestuous  off- 
spring of  Lot  Their  habitation  was  beyond  Jordan  and  the 
Dead  Sea,  on  both  sides  of  the  river  Amon.  Their  capital  city 
was  .situated  on  that  river,  and  was  called  Ar,  or  Rabbath-Moab, 
that  is,  the  capital  of  Moab,  or  Kirhcres,  that  is,  a  city  with  brick 
walls.  This  country  was  originally  possessed  by  a  race  of  giants, 
called  Eraim.  (Deut.  ii.  11, 12.)  The  Moabites  conquered  them, 
and  afterwards  the  Amorites  took  a  part  from  the  Moabites. 
Moses  conquered  that  part  which  belonged  to  the  Amorites  and 
gave  it  to  the  tribe  of  Reuben.  The  Moabites  were  spared  by 
Moses,  for  God  had  restricted  him  (Deut.  ii.  9.) :  but  there 
always  was  a  great  antipathy  between  the  Moabites  and  Israel- 
ites, which  occasioned  many  wars  between  them.  Balaam 
seduced  the  Hebrews  to  idolatry  and  uncleanness,  by  means  of 
the  daughters  of  Moab  (Num.  xxv.  1,  2.)  :  and  Balak,  king  of 
this  people,  endeavoured  to  prevail  on  Balaam  to  curse  Israel. 
God  ordained  that  the  Moabites  should  not  enter  into  the  congre- 
gation of  his  people,  even  to  the  tenth  generation  (Deut.  xxiii.  3.), 
because  they  had  the  inhumanity  to  refuse  the  Israelites  a  pa«« 


438 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


M  0 


eage  through  their  country,  and  would  not  supply  them  with 
bread  and  water  in  their  necessity. 

Eglon,  king  of  the  Moabitcs,  was  one  of  the  first  that  oppressed 
Israel,  after  the  death  of  Joshua.  Ehud  killed  Eglon,  and  Israel 
expelled  the  Moabites.  (Judg.  iii.  12,  &c.)  a.  m.  2079,  ii.  c.  1325. 
Hanun,  king  of  the  Amnionitcs,  having  insulted  David's  ambas- 
sadors, David  made  war  against  him,  and  subdued  Moab  and 
Ammon  •  under  which  subjection  they  continued,  till  the  separa- 
tion of  the  ten  tribes,  'i'hc  Ammonites  and  Moabitcs  continued 
in  subjection  to  the  kings  of  Israel  to  the  death  of  Ahab.  Very 
shortly  after  the  death  of  Ahab,  the  Moabites  began  to  revolt. 
(2  Kings  iii.  4,  p.)  Mesha,  king  of  Moab,  refused  the  tribute  of 
a  hundred  thousand  lambs,  and  as  many  rams,  which  till  then 
had  been  customarily  paid,  either  yearly  or  at  the  beginning  of 
every  reign, — which  of  these  two  is  not  clearly  exj)ressed  in 
Scripture.  The  reign  of  Ahaziah  was  too  short  to  make  war 
■with  them  ;  but  Jehorani,  son  of  Ahab,  and  brother  to  Ahaziah, 
having  ascended  the  throne,  th jught  of  reducing  them  to  obedi- 
ence. He  invited  Jehoshaphal,  king  of  Judah  ;  who,  with  the 
king  of  Edoni,  then  his  vassal,  entered  Moab,  where  they  were 
in  danger  of  perishing  with  tliirst,  but  were  miraculously  relieved. 
(2  Kings  iii.  16.,  &c.)  It  is  not  easy  to  perceive  what  were  the 
circumstances  of  the  Moabites  from  this  time  ;  but  Isaiah,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  reign  of  king  Hezekiah,  threatens  them  with  a 
calamity,  which  was  to  hap{>cn  three  years  after  his  prediction, 
and  which  probably  referred  to  the  war  that  Shalmaneser,  king 
of  Assyria,  made  with  the  ten  tribes,  and  the  other  people  beyond 
Ionian.  Amos  (i.  13,  &c.)  also  foretold  great  miseries  to  them, 
which,  probably,  they  sulTercd  under  Uzziah  and  Jotham,  kings 
of  Judah  ;  or  under  Shalmaneser  (3  Chron.  xxvi.  7,  8.  xxvii.  .5.)  : 
or,  lastly,  during  the  war  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  five  years  after  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem :  we  believe  this  prince  carried  them 
captive  bevond  the  Euphrates,  as  the  prophets  had  threatened, 
(Jer.  i\.  2G.  xii.  14,  1.5.  xxv.  11,  12.  xlviii.  74.  xhx.  3.  G.),  and 
that  Cyrus  sent  them  home  again,  as  he  did  the  rest  of  the  cap- 
tives. After  their  return  from  captivity,  tliey  niultiiilied  and  for- 
tified themselves  as  the  Jews  did,  and  other  neighbouring  people ; 
still  in  subjection  to  the  kings  of  Persia,  afterwards  conquered 
by  Alexander  the  Gieat,  and  in  obedience  to  the  kings  of  Syria 
and  Egypt  successively,  and  finally  to  the  Romans.  There  is  a 
probability,  also,  that  in  the  later  times  of  the  Jewish  republic, 
they  obeyed  the  Asmontcan  kings  arv.l  afterwards  Herod  the 
Great.  (Calmet,  Hist,  d--^  i'euples  Voisins  des  Juifs,  <Scc.  Art.  I\'. 
Diasert.  torn.  ii.  pp.  410 — 413.)  For  an  account  (by  recent 
travellers)  of  the  fulfilment  of  the  predictions  concerning  Moab, 
sec  Keith's  Evidence  of  the  truth  of  the  Christian  Religion  from 
Prophecy,  pp.  158—172. 

Moloch  or  Molkcii,  an  idol  of  the  Ammonites,  worshipped 
by  the  Israelites.     See  p.  137. 

MoNAUcns.     SceKiviis. 

MoxET  (Jewish  and  Roman),  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures, 
hibles  of,  391.     Anticpiity  of  money,  189. 

Moxr,y-i:fiijfi;KHH,  notice  of,  78. 

MoxTEXEonixs,  funeral  rites  of,  200,  7iote. 

Mil  NTII8  of  the  Hebrews,  see  pp.  73 — 76.  Intercalary  months, 
p.  74. 

MiixcMEWTS,  and  Monumental  Inscriptions,  account  of,  200 
— 2(»2. 

MoitiiKCAi,  son  of  Jair,  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  was  de- 
srcndcd  from  one  of  the  captives,  who  were  carried  into  Baby- 
lon, and  resided  at  Shushan.  He  was  the  foster-father  of  Estlier. 
through  whose  influence  with  .Ahasuerus,  on  the  fail  of  Haman, 
be  became  vizier,  or  prime  minister  to  the  Persian  monarch. 
Prof.  Gcsenius  thinks  that  tliis  name,  like  that  of  Esther,  is  pro- 
bably of  Persian  origin. 

Mull  I  AH,  .Mdunt,  19.  ' 

MosKs,  the  son  of  .\mram  and  Jochebi'd,  and  great-grandson 
of  Levi,  was  born  in  Egypt,  a.  m.  2133.  Providentially  delivered 
from  Uic  general  destruction  of  all  the  Hebrew  male  children, 
commanded  by  Pharaoh,  and  adopted  by  the  daughter  of  llie 
Eg)-pliaii  king,  .Moses  was  instructed  in  all  the  literature  and 
»rieuc4"3  of  Eifvpt.  In  the  eightieth  year  of  his  age,  lie  was  ai>- 
pointcd  the  leader  and  legislator  of  the  Jli-brews,  whom  he  de- 
livered from  their  bondage.  An  account  of  his  jurisdiction,  as 
Ihe  viceroy  of  Jehovah,  is  given  in  jip.  41,  48.  After  conducting 
the  Hebr(!ws  through  their  wanderings  in  the  desert  during  40 
years,  he  died  on  the  confines  of  the  land  of  Canaan,  aged  120 
years,  "when  his  eye  was  not  dim,  nor  his  natural  force  ul)ated." 
For  an  analysis  of  the  Penluteueh,  or  five  books  of  Moses,  bcc 
pp.  203 — 312.     In  Exod.  ii.  10.  there  is  given  a  Hebrew  dcriva- 


N  A 

tion  of  the  name  Moses,  viz.  drawn  out,  b<pcause  the  ark  in  which 
his  mother  had  deposited  him  was  drn-wn  ovt  of  the  river  Nile  : 
but  his  education  among  the  Egyptians,  Gesenius  observes,  would 
lead  us  to  regard  it  as  of  Egjptian  origin ;  and  so  it  is  inter- 
preted by  Josephus.  (Ant.  Jud.  1.  ii.  c.  9.  §  6.) 

Mountains  of  the  Holy  Land,  29 — 31.  In  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  Jerusalem,  19. 

MoLnxiNo  for  the  dead,  duration  of,  and  how  expressed,  199, 
200.  202.     Rending  of  garments,  a  sign  of  mourning,  159. 

Milks,  notice  of,  175. 

MunDKH,  laws  concerning,  63. 

Ml  SIC  and  .Musical  Instuvmext^  of  the  Jews,  183,  184. 

MriiA  was  one  of  the  six  great  cities  of  Lycia,  situated  near 
the  sea;  whence  St.  Luke  says  (Acts  xxvii.  5.),  ihaX,  sailing 
over  the  sea  of  Cilicia  and  Parr.phvlia  they  came  to  JMi/ria  in 
Lycia.  It  still  preserves  its  ancient  name  ;  and  there  are  many 
remains  of  its  former  greatness. 

Mtsia  (Acts  xvi.  7,  8.),  a  country  of  Asia,  was  bounded  on 
the  north  by  Bithynia,  on  the  east  by  Phrygia  Minor,  on  the 
west  by  Troiis,  on  the  south  by  the  river  Hermus;  there,  pi  r- 
haps,  St.  Paul  attempted  not  to  stay,  because,  as  Cicero  notes,  in 
his  oration  for  Flaccus  (cc.  51,52.)  they  were  a  people  despica- 
ble and  base  to  a  proverb. 


Naamax,  general  of  the  forces  of  Ben-hadad  king  of  Syria. 
Being  afllicted  by  a  leprosy,  he  was  healed  by  washing  seven 
times  in  the  river  Jordan,  according  to  the  command  of  the 
prophet  Elisha.  (2  Kings  v.) 

Nauath.i3ans.     See  Nehaioth,  p.  439. 

Nad  A II. 

1.  the  son  of  Aaron  and  the  brother  of  Abihu  :  who,  oflTering 
incense  with  strange  or  common  fire,  instead  of  that  which  had 
miraculously  been  kindled  upon  the  altar  <)i  burnt-offering,  was 
consumed  together  with  his  brother.  (Lev.  x.  12.) 

2.  The  son  of  Jeroboam  I.  king  of  Israel,  a  wicked  prince,  who 
followed  the  evil  example  of  his  father.  After  reigning  twi 
years,  he  was  assas.sinated  by  Baasha.  (2  Kings  xv.  25 — 27.) 

Nahash,  a  king  of  the  Ammonites,  who  laid  siege  to  Jabcsh- 
Gilead,  shortly  after  the  election  of  Saul  to  be  king  of  Israel.  He 
refused  to  the  besieged  any  terms  of  accommodation,  but  on  tin- 
ignominious  condition  of  every  one  losing  his  right  eye,  thereby 
for  ever  incapacitating  him  from  using  the  bow.  This  barbarous 
capitulation  was  rejected;  the  besieged  obtained  a  truce  of  seven 
days,  on  condition  of  surrendering  if  they  did  not  receive  suc- 
cour :  but  Saul  arrived,  and  Naliash,  after  seeing  liis  anny 
totally  discomfited,  made  a  shameful  retreat  (1  Sam.  xi.) 
Subsequently  Nahash  rendered  some  services  to  David,  most 
probably  by  giving  him  an  asylum :  we  may  eai^ily  conceive,  that 
the  enemy  of  Saul  would  be  the  friend  of  David.  (2  Sam.  x.  2 
I  Chron.  xix.  2.) 

Nahum,  a  native  of  Elkosh,  the  seventh  of  the  minor  prophets, 
is  known  only  by  his  projihetic  denunciations  against  the  .As-sy- 
rian  empire,  and  particularly  Nineveh  ;  for  an  account  of  which, 
see  p.  271. 

Naix,  a  small  city  or  town  of  Galilee,  not  far  from  Capernaum, 
at  the  gates  of  which  Jesus  Christ  raised  to  life  a  widow's  only 
son  (Luke  vii.  11 — 15.);  fiir  an  examination  of  which  miracle, 
see  Vol.  I.  pp.  101,  102.  lO.").  Nain  derived  its  name  from  its 
|>leasant  situation  :  it  is  now  a  decayed  village,  containing  be- 
tween one  and  two  hundred  inhabitants.  From  its  situation  on 
the  declivity  of  a  mountain  "  the  scene  of  that  miracle  must  have 
been  rendered  more  striking  as  the  funeral  procession  passed 
slowly  out  of  t^  gate  down  the  steep,  on  the  bold  breast  of  which 
the  remains  orthe  place  now  stand."  (Game's  Recollections  of 
the  East,  p.  55.) 

Nakkii,  tlie  Jewish  notion  of  being,  explained,  156. 

Names,  various,  of  tlie  Holy  Land,  13,  14.;  of  Jerusalem.  18, 
19.     When  given  to  the  Jewish  children.  111. 

Naphtali,  or  Nephthalim,  the  name  of  the  sixth  son  of 
Jacob,  born  of  Bilhah.  For  the  limits  of  the  canton  allotted  to 
this  tribe,  see  p.  17. 

Nahcissuh,  a  freedman  and  favourite  of  the  emperor  Claudius, 
who  possessed  groat  inlluenre  at  court.  (Sueton.  in  Claud,  c.  2'^. 
Tacit.  Annul.  I.  xii.  c.  57.)  In  his  fiimily  or  among  his  clients 
were  .some  Christians  whom  St.  Paul  salutes  in  Rom.  xvi.  11.  It 
does  not  appear  that  Narcissus  endiniced  the  Christian  faith, 
though  the  Cireeks  have  made  him  i)ishop  of  Athens  and  a  martyr, 
and  have  even  placed  him  in  the  number  of  the  'lO  disciples. 

Nathajt,  an  illustrious  prophet  m  the  reign  of  David,  whom 


BIOGRAPHICAL   HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 
NE  NI 


439 


tie  convinced  and  reproved  by  a  beautiful  and  pathetic  parable 
of  the  heinousness  of  his  guilt  in  the  affaif  of  Bathsheba  and 
Uriah.  (2  Sam.  xii.)  He  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  preceptor 
if  Solomon,  at  whose  court  his  sons  held  distinguished  offices, 
and  of  whose  reign,  as  vsrell  as  that  of  David,  Nathan  wrote 
memoirs  which  have  long  since  perished.  (IKingsiv.  5.  1  Chron. 
xxix.  29.  2  Chron.  ix.  29.)  In  the  book  of  Zechariah  (xii.  12.) 
the  house  of  Nathan  represents  the  descendants  or  family  of  the 
prophets. 

Nathan-ael,  orNATHANir.L,  one  of  the  disciples  of  Christ,  who 
is  supposed  to  be  the  same  person  as  the  apostle  Bakthoxomew. 
(John  i  46—50.  xxi.  2.) 

Nazareite,  vow  of.  Pc      n  lOA 

Nazaiiitks,  account  of.    5 

Nazareth,  a  small  city  of  Lower  Galilee,  celebrated  as  having 
been  the  place  where  our  Saviour  was  educated,  where  he 
preached,  and  whence  he  was  called  a  Nazarene.  In  the  time 
of  Christ  it  did  not  possess  the  best  of  characters.  (John  i.  46.) 
Nazareth,  which  is  at  present  called  Nassara,  stands  on  the  side 
of  a  barren  rocky  eminence,  or  hill,  facing  the  south-east,  which 
is  environed  by  mountains.  It  was  from  this  hill  which  overlooks 
the  town,  the  inhabitants  would  have  precipitated  him  headlong. 
(Luke  iv.  29.)  When  visited  by  Dr.  Clarke,  in  1801,  he  found 
:t  much  reduced.  The  town  was  in  the  most  wretched  state  of 
indigence  and  misery ;  the  soil  around  might  bid  defiance  to 
agriculture ;  and  to  the  prospect  of  starvation  were  added  the 
horrors  of  the  plague !  In  1827,  the  population  amounted  to  about 
2000  persons,  principally  Christians.  Here  are  numerous  re- 
puted holy  places  to  which  pilgrims  are  conducted.  The  vig- 
nette in  p.  40 1 .  represents  the  grotto  at  Nazareth,  which  is  said  to 
have  been  the  house  of  Joseph  and  Mary.  (Carne's  Letters,  pp. 
251,  252.  Madden's  Travels,  vol.  ii.  p.  294.)  The  Rev.  Mr. 
Jowett  has  given  a  very  interesting  description  of  the  site  of 
Nazareth,  together  with  some  observations,  to  account  for  the  bad 
character  which  it  bore  in  the  time  of  Jesus  Christ.  (See  his 
Christian  Researches  in  Syria,  &c.  pp.  165 — 169.) 

Neapolis.     See  Shechetc. 

Nekaioth,  the  son  of  Ishmael,  from  whom  the  Nabath;ean 
tribe  of  Arabs  is  supposed  to  have  been  descended.  (Gen.  xxv.  13. 
xxviii.  9.  Isa.  Ix.  7.)  During  the  several  wars  maintained  by 
the  Jews  against  the  Syrians,  under  the  Maccaba;an  princes,  the 
NabatliEeans  w^ere  the  onlj'  neighbouring  people  who  showed 
thcni  any  friendship.  (1  Mace.  v.  24 — 27.) 

Nebo. 

1.  A  mountain  beyond  the  river  Jordan,  where  Moses  died. 
(Deut.  xxxii.49.)     It  is  now  completely  barren. 

2.  A  city  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Reuben.  (Num.  xxxii.  38.) 
It  being  in  the  vicinity  of  the  country  >of  Moab,  the  Moabites 
became  masters  of  it ;  and  it  was  in  their  possession  in  the  time 
of  Jeremiah,  (xlviii.  1.)  The  site  of  this  ancient  city  can  no 
longer  be  traced.     J\''e-bo  is  spoiled.    (Jer.  xlviii.  1.) 

3.  A  city  in  the  tribe  of  Judah  (Ezra  ii.  29.  x.  43.),  which,  in 
Neh.  vii.  33.,  is,  by  way  of  distinction,  called  the  other  Nebo. 

4.  A  Babylonish  idol  (Isa.  xlvi,  1.),  which  Calmet  supposes  to 
be  the  same  as  Bel  or  Baal,  see  p.  1 39. 

NEBccHADjfEzzAR,  king  of  Babylon,  who  destroyed  Jerusalem, 
and  carried  the  Jews  into  captivity.  (See  p.  412.  col.  2.)  Like 
other  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  names,  this  word  is  best  explained 
from  the  Persian.  According  to  Gesenius,  after  Lorsbach,  it  is 
the  same  as  J\'ebu-godan-sar,  that  is,  Nebo  the  chief  of  the  gods. 
Concerning  the  nature  of  Nebuchadnezzar's  malady,  see  pp.  196, 
197. 

Necho.     See  Pharaoh-Necho. 

Neder,  or  Common  Vow,  account  of,  130.     «» 

Nehemiah  the  son  of  Hachaliah,  was  born  at  Babylon  during 
tlie  captivity,  but  his  family  and  tribe  are  not  known.  Raised  to 
the  distinguished  office  of  cupbearer  to  Artaxerxes  Longimanus, 
whose  favour  he  enjoyed,  Nehemiah  forgot  not  his  desolated 
country.  Having  obtained  a  royal  commission,  he  went  to 
Jerusalem  for  a  limited  time,  to  repair  its  walls  and  gates,  and  to 
regulate  many  abuses  which  had  crept  into  the  administration  of 
public  affairs.  He  subsequently  returned  to  Babylon ;  whence, 
by  permission  of  Artaxerxes,  he  proceeded  a  second  time  to 
Jerusalem,  where  he  died  b.c.  420;  having  governed  the  Jews 
about  30  years.  «For  an  account  of  the  book  which  bears  his 
name,  see  p.  226. 

Nehgai,  an  idol  of  the  Cuthites  (2  Kings  xvii.  30.),  which 
some  suppose  to  be  the  planet  Mars ;  and  others,  to  be  the  sun. 

Nethikims,  office  of,  112. 

New  Moon,  feast  of,  122, 


Ntbhaz,  an  idol  of  the  Avites  (2  Kings  xvii.  31.),  which,  some 
Hebrew  interpreters  think,  had  the  shape  of  a  dog ;  but  other 
expositors  suppose  it  to  have  been  the  sun.  The  former  opinion 
is  the  most  probable,  as  vestiges  of  the  ancient  worship  of  an  idol 
in  the  form  of  a  dog  have  been  discovered  in  Syria  in  modem 
times.     (Ikenii,  Dissert,  pp.  149.  et  seq.  1 749. 4to.) 

NicANOK,  one  of  the  seven  primitive  deacons  chosen  by  the 
church  at  Jerusalem  and  ordained  by  the  apostles.  (Acts  vi.  5.) 
.  NicoDEMus,  a  Pharisee  and  member  of  the  Jewish  sanhedrin, 
who  came  by  night  to  Jesus,  probably  as  a  serious  though  timid 
inquirer.  (John  iii.  1. 4.  9.)  He  afterwards  took  the  part  of  Jesus 
before  the  sanhedrin  (vii.  50.)  ;  and  at  last  joined  with  Joseph  of 
Arimathea  to  give  his  body  an  honourable  burial,  (xix.  39.) 

Nicholas,  a  proselyte  of  Antioch,  who  was  chosen  one  of  the 
seven  deacons  of  the  primitive  church.  (Acts  vi.  5.)  Many 
persons  have  supposed  him  to  be  the  head  of  the 

NicoLAiTAjf  s,  a  sect  mentioned  in  Rev,  ii.  6. 15.,  who  held  that 
the  divine  nature  of  Christ  descended  upon  him  at  his  baptism, 
and  redescended  at  his  ciucitixion,  and  who  abandoned  them- 
selves to  gross  impurity  and  profligacy  of  life.  Another  Nicholas 
has  also  been  supposed  to  be  the  founder  of  this  sect.  A  bettor 
opinion,  however,  seems  to  be,  that  the  appellation  here  is  not  a 
proper  name,  but  symbolical ;  and  that  it  refers  to  the  same 
persons  who  are  mentioned  in  Rev,  ii.  14.  as  holding  the  doctrine 
of  Balaam :  since  the  Greek  name  N/wsxaof  corresponds  to  the 
Hebrew  apVa,  which  is  formed  from  jjSa,  that  is  vwaa,  to  conquer, 

and  C2j>,  that  is  X:tsf,  the  people.     The  allusion  according  to  Mr. 

Robinson,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  this  article,  is  to  false 
and  seducing  teachers  like  Balaam,  and  perhaps  refers  more  par- 
ticularly to  such  as  opposed  the  decree  of  the  apostles.  The 
Nicolaitant^  are  conjectured  to  have  been  alluded  to  in  2  Pet.  ii. 
and  in  Jude  7 — 19. 

Nicopoi.is,  a  city  of  Epirus,  upon  the  Ambracian  Gulf  men- 
tioned by  St.  Paul  in  Tit,  iii,  12.  Others,  however,  suppose  it  to 
be  Nicopolis  of  Thrace,  on  the  confines  of  Macedonia,  near  the 
river  Nessus. 

Night,  Jewish  and  Roman  divisions  of,  73. 

Nile,  a  celebrated  river  of  Egypt,  which  formed  one  of  the 
boundaries  of  the  Holy  Land.  See  p.  14.  In  Gen.  xii.  1.  Exod,  i. 
22.  ii.  5.  iv,  9,  vii.  18.  and  viii.  3,  9.  11.,  it  is  termed  the  River 
without  any  addition.  On  the  turning  of  the  waters  of  the  Nile 
into  blood,  see  p,  206, 

NiMROD,  the  son  of  Cush,  and  founder  of  the  kingdom  of 
Babylon,  (Gen,  x.  8,  10,)  In  consequence  of  the  protection 
which  he  afforded  to  the  people  against  wild  beasts,  he  may  by 
their  own  consent  have  become  their  leader  and  chief;  or,  turn- 
ing his  weapons  of  hunting  against  men,  he  may  have  compelled 
them  to  submit  to  his  dominion.  His  name  (which  signifies  a 
rebel)  seems  to  favour  the  latter  supposition.  (Jahn's  Hebr.  Com- 
monwealth, vol,  i.  p.  5.)  In  Mic,  v,  6,  Babylon  is  called  the  Land 
of  JVimrod. 

Nineveh,  the  capital  of  the  Assyrian  empire,  could  boast  of 
the  remotest  antiquity.  It  was  founded  by  Nimrod,  or  (as  the 
text  of  Gen.  x,  1 1,  may  be  rendered)  by  Ashur  the  son  of  Shem : 
by  the  Greeks  and  Romans  it  was  called  Ninus.  According  to 
some  writers  it  ^tood  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Tigris  above 
Babylon,  while  others  represent  it  as  being  erected  on  the  west- 
ern bank  :  it  may  very  probably  have  occupied  both.  This  city 
was  very  splendid,  and  of  great  extent  ;  according  to  Diodorus 
Siculus  it  was  480  stadia  or  48  English  miles  (others  estimate  it 
60  miles)  in  circumference :  in  the  time  of  Jonah  it  was  "  an 
exceeding  great  city  of  three  days'  journey,"  containing  "  more 
than  six-score  thousand  persons  that  could  not  discern  between 
their  right  hand  and  their  left."  (Jon.  iii.  3.  iv,  11,)  Its  de- 
struction within  forty  days,  which  that  prophet  had  denounced, 
was  averted  by  the  general  repentance  and  humiliation  of  the 
inhabitants  (iii.  4 — 10.),  and  was  suspended  for  nearly  two  hun- 
dred years,  until  "  their  iniquity  came  to  the  full ;"  and  then  the 
prophecy  (see  Vol.  I.  pp.  1 25,  126.)  was  literally  accomplished,  in 
the  third  year  of  the  siege  of  the  city,  bj'  the  combined  Medes  and 
Babylonians  ;  the  king,  Sardanapalus,  being  encouraged  to  hold 
out  in  consequence  of  an  ancient  prophecy  that  Nineveh  should 
never  be  taken  by  assault  till  the  river  became  its  enemy  ;  when 
a  mighty  inundation  of  the  river,  swollen  by  continual  rains, 
came  up  against  a  part  of  the  city,  and  threw  down  twenty  stadia 
of  the  wall  in  length  ;  upon  which  the  king,  conceiving  that  the 
oracle  was  accomplished,  burnt  himself,  his  concubines,  eunuchs, 
and  treasures ;  and  the  enemy,  entering  by  the  breach,  sacked 


440 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


ON 


and  rased  the  city  about  b.  c.  606.  (For  a  copious  description 
of  ancient  Nineveh,  see  Dr.  Hales's  Analysis  of  Chronology, 
vol.  i.  pp.  448 — 450.)  Of  this  once  celebrated  city  there  are 
literally  no  remains.  Four  mounds,  the  largest  running  north 
and  south,  and  the  most  southerly  called  after  the  prophet  Jonah, 
whose  tomb  it  is  supposed  to  contain,  exhibit  all  that  can  now 
be  traced  of  the  metropolis  of  Asia.  (See  a  description  of  them 
in  Mr.  Buckingham's  Travels  in  Mesopotamia,  vol.  ii.  49 — 51. 
60.) 

NisHocn,  a  Babylonish  idol,  notice  of,  139. 

No,  No-Amon,  or  No-Amu.v,  the  Thel>es  of  ancient  geogra- 
phers, was  the  metropolis  of  Upper  Egypt.  It  is  mentioned  in 
Jer.  xlvi.  25.  Ezek.  im.  14 — 16.  and  Nahum  iii.  8.  It  the 
Septuaginf  version  of  Ezekicl  No  is  rendered  a/jstttj^k,  the  -ity 
of  Jupiter;  in  Nahum  No  Amon  is  rendered  Ms/i/c  A^yuwv.  The 
latter  appears  to  be  an  etymological  explanation  of  the  word  afl«r 
the  Coi)Uc.  In  that  language  J\'OH  signifies  a  cord,  or  meusur- 
inj  line,  hence  a  portion  measured  out ;  and  No-Amon  portio, 
totsessio  ^Imojiis,  that  is,  the  seat  of  the  god  Anion,  or  the  place 
where  he  was  principally  worshipped.  (Jablonskii  Opuscula, 
torn,  i,  pp.  163—168.     Gibbs's  Hebr.  Lex.  p.  406.) 

Noah,  the  son  of  Lamech,  and  the  father  of  the  post-diluvian 
world,  was  born  a.m.  1056.  Being  the  only  righteous  man  of 
his  time,  he  was  preserved  together  with  his  family  in  the  ark 
during  the  deluge.  (For  a  refutation  of  skeptical  objections  to 
which,  see  Vol.  I.  pp.  75,  76.)  Noali  lived  350  years  after  that 
catastrophe,  dying  at  the  age  of  950  years,  a.  m.  2006.  He  left 
three  sons  Shem,  Ham,  and  Japheth,  by  whom  the  whole  earth 
was  overspread  or  pcoplfil.  (Gen.  ix.  18,  19.  x.  3'4.)  The  seven 
precepts  of  Noah,  see  p.  109.  note  2. 

Nopii,  or  .Memphis,  a  very  celebrated  city,  the  same  as  Thebes 
and  the  capital  of  Egypt,  until  the  Ptolemies  removed  the  seat  of 
government  to  Alexandria.  By  the  modern  Copts  it  is  called 
MF.N*,  MRNOr*,  and  NOT'I' :  whence  we  may  explain  both  the 
Hebrew  forms  r|j  (noth)  and  ep  (mk;?iph),  and  also  the  Greek 
name  Mi^wi?/?.  Plutarch  (de  Isid.  et  Osirid.  p.  639  ed.  Stcphani) 
Interprets  the  name  'cfi/u-.y  aytibav,  from  the  Coptic  meh,  full,  and 
nouphi,  good  ;  or  rupoy  OiriftfK,  from  the  Coptic  mhcw,  a  grave, 
and  onphi,  fr^^«T;ic,  a  benefactor,  as  Osiris  is  called.  (Jablonskii, 
Opusc.  torn.  i.  pp.  137.  150.  179.  torn.  ii.  p.  131.  Gibbs's  Hebr. 
Lex.  p.  381.)  The  prophets  often  mention  this  city  ;  and  pre- 
dict the  calamities  which  it  was  to  softer  from  the  kings  of  Chal- 
da;a  and  Persia,  &c.  (See  Isa.  xix.  13.  Jer,  xliv.  1.  Hos.  ix.  6. 
Ezek.  XXX.  13.  16.)  Its  ruins  are  very  splendid.  Jeremiah  had 
foretold,  ages  before,  that  Noph  should  "  be  waste  and  desolate, 
without  an  inhabitant"  (xlvi.  19.),  and  not  a  family  or  cottage  is 
said  to  remain. 

Nosk-Jkwels  of  .he  Jewish  women,  notice  of,  158. 

Nuptial  Ckhemomes  of  the  Jews,  161,  162. 

NiHTUUK  of  children,  163,  164. 


Oaks,  forest  of,  36. 

Oaths  of  the  Hebrews,  how  taken,  81,  82. 

Obauiah,  the  fourth  of  the  minor  propliets :  he  probably  was 
contemporary  with  Jeremiah.     See  pp.  281,  282. 

Oblations,  diiiirent  kinds  of,  119.  Ordinary,  i7»«J.  Volun- 
tary, iiu/.     Prescribed,  120,  121.  \ 

Officeus  (miUtary)  of  the  Jewe,  85.  And  of  the  Romans, 
Q2,  93. 

Officeus  of  the  Palace,  notice  of,  47. 

Officehs  of  the  Synagogue,  104, 

Olives,  Mount  of,' 19.     Culture  of  Olives,  36.  179,  180. 

Olympic  Games,  allusions  to,  in  the  New  'i'chtament,  191 — 
194.  Qualifications  and  previous  diBci])liiie  of  tlie  candidates, 
192.  Foot-race,  ibid.  Rewards  to  the  victors,  ibiil.  Games  in 
imitation  of  them  instituted  among  the  Jews,  190, 

Omki,  general  of  the  army  of  Elah,  king  of  Israel,  who  was  as- 
sassinated by  Zimri  at  the  siege  of  Ciilil)ethon,  and  was  succeeded 
by  Omri.  (1  Kings  xvi.)  He  was  a  wickid  prince,  whose 
crimes  surpassed  those  of  his  predecessors  :  he  died  at  Samaria, 
B.  c.  914,  and  was  succeeded  on  the  throne  by  his  son  Ahab. 

Oif. 

1.  A  pleasant  valley  in  Syria  of  Damascus,  now  called  Un, 
and  used  proverbially  for  a  pleasant  vale. 

2.  On,  \vh,  or  Hi.liopolis,  a  city  of  Egypt.  The  father-in- 
law  of  Joseph  was  high-priest  of  f)n  ((irn.  xli.  45.)  ;  there  ren- 
dered Hrliupolis,  by  the  Sepluagint  version,  and  noticed  also  by 
Herodotus  ;  who  says  that  "  the  Heliopolitans  were  reckoned 
the  wisest  of  the  Egyptians."     This  was  the  city  of  Moses,  ac- 


PA 

cording  to  Berosus  :  and  well  accounts  for  his  scriptural  charac 
tcr,  that  "  he  was  learned  in  all  the  wisdom  of  the  Egyptians." 
(Acts  vii.  22.)  Heliopolis  was  the  Greek  translation  of  Bcth- 
shemcsh,  "  the  house  or  city  of  the  Sun,"  as  it  was  called  by 
Jeremiah,  "  Beth-sheniesh,  in  the  land  of  Egypt"  (xliii.  13.),  to 
distinguish  it  from  another  Beth-shemesh,  in  the  land  of  Canaan. 
It  was  called  Beth  Aven,  "  the  house  of  vanity,"  or  idolatry,  by 
the  Jews.     (Ezek.  xxx.  17.) 

O.NESiMCs,  a  Phrygian  by  birth,  and  the  slave  of  Philemon, 
from  whom  he  fled  ;  but  being  converted  to  Christianity  through 
the  preaching  of  St.  Paul,  he  was  the  occasion  of  the  apostle'." 
writing  the  admirable  Epistle  to  Philemon.     (Col.  iv.  9.  Philem 

OpHin,  a  country  whither  Solomon  sent  a  fleet,  aided  by  the 
subjects  of  Hiram  king  of  Tyre,  and  from  which  they  brought 
back  gold  (1  Kings  ix.  27,  28.  2  Chron.  viii.  17, 18.),  and  also 
almvg  trees  and  precious  sto7ies.  (1  Kings  x.  II.)  Not  fewer 
than  fiflen  or  sixteen  countries  have  been  assigned,  by  various 
commentators  and  critics,  as  the  site  of  Ophir,  but  the  most  pro- 
bable is  that  of  M.  Huet,  bishop  of  Avranches,  who  is  of  opinion 
that  it  was  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa,  by  the  Arabians  termed 
Zanguebar ;  that  the  name  of  Ophir  was  more  particularly  given 
to  the  small  country  of  Sofala  on  the  same  coast ;  and  that  Solo- 
mon's fleet  went  out  from  the  Red  Sea,  and  from  the  port  of 
Ezlon-gebcr  entered  the  Mediterranean  by  a  canal  of  communi- 
cation ;  and  doubling  Cape  Guardafui,  coasted  along  Africa  to 
Sofala,  where  was  found  in  abundance  whatever  was  brought  to 
the  Hebrew  monarch  by  this  voyage.  The  opinion  of  Huet  is 
adopted  by  Mr.  Bruce,  who  has  confirmed  it  by  various  additional 
considerations. 

OuATORiEs  of  the  Jews  described,  102,  103. 

OiiAToiir  cultivated  by  the  Jews,  186. 

Othniel,  the  son  of  Kenaz  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  and  a  rela- 
tion of  Caleb,  who  gave  him  his  daughter  Achsah  in  marriage, 
on  his  taking  Debir,  otherwise  called  Kiriath-sci)her,  from  the 
Canaanites.  (Josh.  xv.  16 — 19.)  After  the  Israelites  had  been 
oppressed  for  eight  years  by  Chushan-rishathcum,  king  of  Meso- 
potamia, Othniel  was  excited  to  levy  an  army  against  him.  He 
overcame  the  Mesopotamians,  and  delivered  his  countrymen,  who 
acknowledged  him  as  regent  or  judge.  During  the  forty  years 
of  his  administration  the  Israelites  remained  faithful  to  their  God 
and  king,  and  consequently  prospered.     (Judg.  iii.  8 — 11.) 

Ovens  of  the  Jews,  154. 


Pai?iti:»r,  art  of,  among  the  Jews,  183.  Painting  of  the  eye- 
lids practised  by  the  Jewish  women,  158. 

Palace,  officers  of,  47. 

Palestine,  boundaries  of,  14.  22.     See  Holt  Land. 

Palm  tree,  notice  of,  36. 

Palmyra.     See  Tadmoh. 

Palsv,  variety  of  diseases  so  termed,  197. 

Pamphtlia,  a  province  of  Asia  Minor,  having  to  the  south 
the  Pamphylian  Sea,  mentioned  Acts  xxvii.  5.,  Cilicia  to  the 
east,  and  Pisidia  to  the  north  (whence  we  find  Saint  Paul  pass- 
ing through  Pisidia  to  Pamphylia,  Acts  xiv.  24.),  and  from  Pam- 
phylia  to  Pisidia  (Acts  xiii.  11.),  and  lAcia  to  the  west.  The 
cities  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures  as  belonging  to  it  are  Pergu 
and  Attalia.  (Acts  xiii.  13.)  Hcte  numerous  Jews  dwelt,  and 
hence  thos<;  of  Pamjihylia  are  mentioned  among  those  who  ap- 
peared at  Jerusalem  at  the  day  of  Pentecost.     (Acts  ii.  10.) 

Papiios,  the  metropolis  of  the  island  of  t'yprus  (Acts  xiii.  4. 
6.),  and  the  residence  of  the  pro-consul.  It  was  memorable  for 
the  impure  worshij)  [)aid  to  Venus,  the  tutelar  deity  of  the  island. 
Here  Saint  Paid  struck  blind  Elymas  the  sorcerer,  and  converted 
Sergius  the  pro-consul.  The  Jews  dwelt  here  in  great  numbers, 
(ver.  6.)  Twenty-five  or  thirty  miserable  huts  are  all  that  remain 
of  this  orze  most  distinguished  city  of  Cyprus.     See  ('tphis. 

Pahaiiise,  a  word  of  Persian  original,  signifying  a  jiaik,  gar- 
den, or  inclosurc,  full  of  all  the  valuable  productions  of  the  earth. 
The  word  pas-sed  into  the  Hebrew  form  dtid  (pwrucs),  which 
occurs  in  Sol.  Song  iv,  13.  Neh.  ii.  8.  Eccles.  ii.  6. ;  and  in 
those  passages  it  is  rendered  n-jf^Sviru:  in  the  Septuagint  version, 
and  denotes  a  garden  of  trees  of  various  kinds,  a  pleasure  park, 
a  delightful  grove.  In  the  New  Testament  jiaradise  is  ai>plied 
to  the  state  of  faithful  souls  between  death  and  the  resurrection  ; 
where,  like  A<lam  in  Eden,  tliey  are  admitted  to  immediate  com- 
munion with  (iod  in  Christ,  or  to  a  particijmtion  of  the  tree  of 
life,  which  is  in  the  midst  of  the  i)aro<iisc  of  God.  (Luke  xxiii. 
43.  Rev.  ii.  7.)     Of  this  blessed  slate  Su  Paul  had  a  foretaste. 


/ 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


441 


PE 

See  2  Cor.  xii.  2.  4.,  where  he  states  that  he  was  caught  up  to 
the  third  heaven  ;  and,  again,  that  he  was  caught  up  to  paradise. 
He  was  caught  up  to  the  third  heaven  that  he  might  contemplate 
that  scene  of  supreme  feUcity,  which  awaits  the  just  after  the  re- 
surrection ;  and  he  was  caught  up  to  paradise  that  his  mind 
might  be  contented  with  a  view  of  their  nearer  consolations. 
(Valpy's  Gr.  Test,  on  Luke  xxiii.  43.) 

Parax,  Desert  of,  notice  of,  33,  34. 

Paraschioth,  or  ancient  divisions  of  the  Pentateuch,  read  in 
the  Synagogues,  104.     Table  of  them,  105. 

Paechmknt,  notice  of,  182. 

Parents,  crimes  against,  how  punished.     See  p.  62. 

Part;iians  are  mentioned  in  Acts  ii.  9.  in  conjunction  with 
the  Mcdes.  The  empire  of  Parthia  subsisted  four  hundred  years, 
and  disputed  for  the  dominion  of  the  East  with  the  Romans. 
The  Panhians  were  celebrated  for  their  veneration  of  their  kings, 
and  for  their  way  of  fighting  by  flight,  and  shooting  their  arrows 
backwards.  They  dwelt  between  Media  and  Mesopotamia  ;  in 
all  which  trans-Euphratensian  places,  except  some  parts  of  Baby- 
Ion,  and  of  some  other  small  prefectures,  the  Jews  abounded,  and 
some  of  them  were  at  Jerusalem  when  the  Holy  Ghost  fell  on 
the  apostles. 

Passover,  feast  of,  how  celebrated,  123 — 125.  Its  spiritual 
import,  12.5,  126.  A  proof  of  the  credibility  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, I.  66. 

Pataiia  (Acts  xxi.  1.),  a  sea-port  town  of  Syria,  anciently  of 
considerable  note.  Extensive  ruins  mark  its  former  magnificence 
and  extent.  Its  port  is  now  entirely  choked  up  by  encroaching 
sands.  (Col.  Leake's  Tour  in  Asia  Minor,  pp.  182,  183.) 

Pathros,  a  city  and  district  of  Egypt,  mentioned  by  the  pro- 
phets Jeremiah  (xliv.  i.  16.),  and  Ezekiel  (xxix.  14.  and  xxx. 
14.)  The  inhabitants  of  this  country  are  called  Pathrusim  in 
Gen.  X.  14. 

Pathos,  an  island  in  the  ^gean  Sea,  whither  the  apostle  and 
evangelist  John  was  banished,  a.  v.  94,  and  where  he  had  the 
revelations  which  he  has  recorded  in  the  Apocalypse. 

Patriarchal  government,  nature  of,  40. 

Paui,  who  was  also  called  Saul,  the  distinguished  apostle  of 
the  Gentiles.  A  Pharisee  V»y  profession,  and  a  Roman  citizen  by 
birth,  he  was  at  first  a  furious  persecutor  of  the  Christians ;  but 
after  his  miraculous  conversion,  he  became  a  zealous  and  faithful 
preacher  of  the  faith  which  he  had  before  laboured  to  ifestroy. 
See  a  copious  account  of  the  life  and  apostolic  labours  of  Saint 
Paul  in  pp.  321—329. 

Pax  of  Jewish  soldiers,  87. 

Peace-Offerings,  notice  of,  118. 

Pekahiah,  the  seventeenth  king  of  Israel,  succeeded  his  father 
Menahem,  and  followed  the  example  of  his  predecessors  in  main- 
taining the  idolatrous  institutions  of  Jereboam  I.  After  reigning 
about  two  years,  he  was  assassinated  at  Samaria  by 

Pekah,  an  officer  of  his  guards,  who  held  the  throne  about 
twenty  years.  He  also  "  did  evil  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord  ;  he 
departed  not  from  the  sins  of  Jeroboam  the  son  of  Nebat,  who 
made  Israel  to  sin."  (2  Kings  xv.  27,  28.)  Towards  the  close 
of  his  reign,  his  dominions  were  overrun  by  Tiglath-pileser  king 
of  Assyria,  who  carried  his  subjects  into  captivity;  and  Pekah 
himself  was  assassinated  by  Hoshea.  (2  Kings  xv.  29,  30.) 

Peeethites,  notice  of,  46.  87. 

Pextecost,  feast  of,  how  celebrated,  126.  A  proof  of  the 
credibility  of  the  Old  Testament,  I.  66. 

Peor,  or  Baal-peor,  notice  of,  137,  138. 

Per;ea,  district  of,  18. 

Perfume  boxes  of  the  Hebrew  women,  1 58. 

Pehga,  a  city  of  Pamphylia  (Acts  xiii.  13.),  memorable 
Bmong  the  heathens  for  a  temple  of  Diana  built  there ;  and  among 
the  Christians  for  the  departure  thence  of  John-Mark  from  Bar- 
nabas and  Paul,  to  Jerusalem,  which  occasioned  the  rupture 
between  them  for  a  season.  (Acts  xv.  37.  40.) 

Pehgahos  or  Pergamcs  was  the  ancient  metropolis  of  Mysia, 
and  the  residence  of  the  Attalian  kings ;  it  still  preserves  many 
vestiges  of  its  ancient  magnificence.  Against  the  church  at  Per- 
gamos,  was  adduced  the  charge  of  instability  (Rev.  ii.  14,  15.)  ; 
but  to  its  wavering  faith  was  promised  the  all-powerful  protection 
of  God.  "  The  errors  of  Balaam  and  the  Nicolaitanes  have 
been  purged  away.  Pergamos  has  been  preserved  from  the  de- 
stroyer; and  three  thousand  Cliristians"  (out  of  a  population  of 
about  15,000  inhabitants)  "now  cherish  the  rites  of  their  re- 
ligion in  the  same  spot  where  it  was  planted  by  the  hands  of  St. 
Paul."  (Emerson's  Letters  from  the  .Egean,  vol.  i.  p.  216.)  Of 
these  Christians,  about  200  belonged  to  the  Armenian  commu- 

Vot.  II.  3  K 


PE 


nion ;  the  remainder  arc  members  of  the  Greek  Church.  They 
have  each  07ie  church,  but  the  other  churches  of  Pergamos  have 
been  converted  into  mosques,  and  are  profaned  with  the  blasphe- 
mies of  the  pseudo-prophet  Mohammed.  There  are  also  about 
100  Jews,  who  have  a  synagogue.  Pergamos,  or  Bergamo,  as  it 
is  now  called,  lies  about  .sixty-four  miles  north  of  Smyrna.  Its 
present  state  is  described  by  Mr.  Arundell,  in  his  visit  to  the  Seven 
Asiatic  Churches,  pp.  281 — 290. 

Perizzites,  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Palestine,  mingled  with 
the  Canaanites.  It  is  very  probable  that  they  were  Canaanites, 
who  had  no  fixed  habitations,  and  lived  sometimes  in  one  coun- 
try, sometimes  in  another,  and  were  thence  called  Perizzites, 
which  term  signifies  scattered  or  dispersed.  The  Perizzites  did 
not  inhabit  any  certain  portion  of  the  land  of  Canaan.  In  several 
places  of  Scripture  the  Canaanites  and  Perizzites  are  mentioned 
as  the  chief  people  of  the  country.  Thus,  we  read  that,  in  the 
time  of  Abraham  and  liOt,  the  Canaanite  and  Perizzite  were 
in  the  land.  (Gen.  xiii.  7.)  Solomon  subdued  the  remains  of 
the  Canaanites  and  Perizzites,  which  the  children  of  Israel  had 
not  rooted  out,  and  made  them  tributary.  (1  Kings  ix.  20,  21. 
2  Chron.  viii.  7.)  There  is  mention  of  the  Perizzites  by  Ezra, 
after  the  return  from  Babylon  ;  and  several  Israelites  had  married 
wives  of  that  nation.  (Ezra  ix.  1.) 

Perjury,  punishment  of,  among  the  Jews,  62. 

Persia,  a  country  of  Asia,  bounded  on  the  west  by  Media  and 
Susiana ;  on  the  south  by  the  Persian  Gulf;  on  the  north  by  the 
great  desert  that  lay  between  it  and  Parthia  Proper  ;  and  on  the 
east  by  another  still  greater,  that  lay  between  it  and  the  river 
Indus.  Until  the  time  of  Cyrus,  and  his  succession  to  the  Me- 
dian empire,  it  was  an  inconsiderable  country,  always  subject  to 
the  Assyrians,  Babylonians,  or  Medes.  Its  capital  city  was  Per- 
sepolis,  now  Chelminar ;  lat.  30  degrees.  In  the  neighbourhood 
of  which,  to  the  south-east,  was  Passagardae,  where  was  the  tomb 
of  Cyrus. 

The  ruins  of  Persepolis  are  remarkable,  among  other  things, 
for  the  figures,  or  symbols,  to  be  seen  on  the  walls  and  pillars  of 
the  temple.  Sir  John  Chardin  observed  there  rams'  heads  with 
horns,  one  higher,  and  the  other  lower,  exactly  corresponding  to 
Daniel's  vision  of  the  Medo-Persian  empire :  the  lower  horn 
denoting  the  Medes,  the  higher,  which  came  up  last,  the  Persians. 
(Dan.  viii.  3.)  A  winged  lion,  with  a  crown  on  his  head ; 
alluding,  perhaps,  to  the  symbolical  representation  of  the  Assyrian 
empire,  by  "  a  lion,  with  eagle's  wings ;"  denoting  their  ferocious 
strength  and  cruelty,  and  the  rapidity  of  their  conquest.  (Dan. 
vii.  4.) 

Sketch  of  the  History  of  the  Pei'sian  Empire,  illustrative  of 
the  Prophetic  Writings. 

Ctrus,  who  is  deservedly  called  the  Great,  both  on  account  of 
his  extensive  conquests,  and  also  for  his  liberation  of  the  captive 
Hebrews,  was  the  son  of  Cambyses,  a  Persian  grandee,  and  Man- 
dane  the  daughter  of  Astyages  king  of  the  Medians.  He  was 
born  A.  M.  3405,  b.  c.  599.  one  year  after  his  uncle  Cyaxares  the 
brother  of  Mandane.  Weary  of  obeying  the  Medians,  Cyrus 
engaged  the  Persians  to  revolt  from  them.  He  attacked  and 
defeated  Astyages  his  maternal  grandfather,  whose  life  he  spared, 
and  gave  him  the  government  of  Hyrcania,  satisfied  with  having 
liberated  the  Persians,  and  compelled  the  Medes  to  pay  him 
tribute.  Not  long  after,  the  latter  rebelled  against  him ;  and 
involved  Cyrus  in  a  protracted  war.  Having  again  reduced  the 
Medes,  Cyrus  directed  his  arms  against  the  Babylonians,  whose 
ally  Crcesus  king  of  Lydia,  having  come  to  their  assistance,  was 
defeated  and  obliged  to  retire  into  his  own  country.  Cyrus  con- 
tinued to  prosecute  the  war  against  the  Babylonians,  and  having 
settled  every  thing  in  that  country,  he  followed  Crcesus  into 
Lydia,  whom  he  totally  discomfited,  and  overran  his  territories. 
Thus  far  we  have  followed  the  narrative  of  Justin  (lib.  i.  c.  7.)  : 
Herodotus  relates  events  nearly  in  the  same  order  (Ub.  i.  c.  178.), 
but  places  the  Babylonian  war  after  the  war  with  Crcesus,  and  the 
entire  reduction  of  Lj'dia.  He  says  that  Labynitus  (the  Bel- 
shazzar  of  Scripture)  was  at  that  time  the  king  of  Babylon,  and 
that  Cyrus,  having  subdued  his  other  enemies,  at  length  attacked 
and  defeated  the  Babylonians,  who  withdrew  into  their  city, 
which  was  both  strongly  fortified  and  amply  stored  with  pro- 
visions. Cyrus  finding  that  the  siege  would  be  protracted, 
diverted  the  course  of  the  Euphrates,  by  causing  great  ditches  to 
be  dug  on  both  sides  of  the  city,  above  and  below,  that  its  waters 
might  flow  into  them  ;  the  river  being  thus  rendered  passable,  his 
soldiers  entered  the  city  through  its  channel.  Babylon  was  taken, 
and  the  impious  Belshazzar  was  put  to  death.  (Den.  v.  30.)  So 
extensive  was  that  city,  that  the  inhabitants  of  each  extremity 


442 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL.  AND   GEOGRAPHICAL  INDE*. 
PH  PR 


were  ignornnt  of  its  capture,  though  the  enemy  was  in  its  very 
centre  ;  and  as  a  great  festival  had  been  celebrated  on  that  day, 
the  whole  city  was  absorbed  in  pleasure  and  aniusenicnts,  Cyrus 
constituted  his  uncle  Cyaxares  (or  Darius  the  Medo)  king  of  the 
Chaldaans.  (Dan.  v.  31.)  Cyrus  immediately  restored  the  cap- 
tive Jews  to  liberty  (2  Chron.  xxxvi.  22.  Ezra  i.  I.),  and  com- 
manded pecuniary  assistance  to  be  given  to  those  who  stood  in 
need  of  it.  He  died  a.  m.  347.1,  n.  c.  529,  in  the  seventieth  year 
of  his  age,  though  historians  are  by  no  means  agreed  concerning 
the  manner  of  his  death. 

Cambyses,  the  successor  of  Cyrus,  was  one  of  the  most  cruel 
princes  recorded  in  history.  As  soon  as  he  w.is  seated  on  the 
throne,  he  invaded  and  conquered  Egypt,  and  reigned  there  three 
years.  At  the  same  time  he  detached  part  of  his  army  against 
the  Ethiopians,  and  commanded  his  generals  to  pillage  the  temple 
of  Jupiler  Ammon.  13oth  thc^c  expeditions  were  unfortunate. 
The  anny  which  had  been  sent  against  the  latter  perished  in  the 
sands  of  the  deserts  ;  and  that  which  he  led  against  the  former,  for 
want  of  provisions,  was  compelled  to  return  with  great  loss.  Mor- 
tified at  his  disappointment!^,  Canujyses  now  gave  full  vent  to  the 
cruelty  of  his  disposition.  He  killed  his  sister  McrOe,  who  was  also 
his  wife ;  he  commanded  his  brother  Smerdis  to  be  put  to  death,  and 
killed  many  of  his  principal  officers  ;  he  treated  the  gods  of  the 
Egyptians  with  the  utmost  contempt,  and  committed  every  possi- 
ble outrage  against  them.  Hearing  at  length  that  his  throne  was 
filled  by  an  usurper,  who  pretended  to  be  his  brother  Smerdis, 
and  reigned  at  Babylon,  he  set  out  on  his  return  to  his  dominions, 
but  died  at  Ecbatana,  a  town  in  Syria,  situated  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Carmel. 

A.  M.  3482,  B.C.  522.  After  the  death  of  Cambyses,  the  Per- 
sian throne  was  usurped  by  seven  Magi,  who  governed  for  some 
time,  making  the  people  believe  that  their  sovereign  was  Smerdis 
the  brother  of  Cambyses.  The  Samaritans,  who  were  always 
jealous  of  the  prosperity  of  the  Jews,  obtained  an  edict  from  the 
pseudo-Smerdis  (called  AiiTAXF.nxES  in  the  Scriptures),  ])rohibi- 
ting  them  from  rebuilding  the  temple  and  fortifications  of  Jerusa- 
lem. (Ezra  iv.  7.  16.)  'J'his  interruption  continued  until  the 
second  year  of  Darius  the  son  of  Hystaspes, 

A.M.  3483,  B.C.  521.  The  imposition  of  the  Magi  being  at 
length  discovered,  Daihus  the  son  of  Hystaspes  was  acknow- 
ledged king.  Having  been  informed  of  the  permission  which 
Cyrus  had  granted  to  the  Jews  to  rebuild  their  temple,  he  allowed 
thern  to  resume  the  work  (Ezra  iv.  24.  vi.  1.),  which  they  had 
commenced  by  the  exhortations  and  encouragement  of  the  pro- 
phets Haggai  (i.  1.)  and  Zcchariah  (i.  1.  Ezra  v.  1.)  This 
Darius  is  tlic  Ahasuerus  who  married  Esther  and  granted  va- 
rious privileges  to  the  Jews.  (See  the  book  of  Esther,  through- 
out.) 

A.  M.  3519,  B.C.  485.  Xerxes  succeeded  Darius  in  the  Persian 
ihrone ;  l)Ut  as  no  particulars  are  recorded  of  him  as  connected 
with  the  Jews,  we  pass  on  to  the  reign  of  his  successor  Aktax- 
EiiXK.s,  who  greatly  favoured  them,  first  sending  Ezra  into  Judsea 
(Ezra  vii.  viii.),  and  afterwards  Nehemiah,  to  rebuild  the  walls 
of  Jerus.alem.  (Neh.  ii.  iii.)  The  Persian  monarchy  subsisted 
for  many  centuries  after  this  event ;  but,  as  its  history  is  not  con- 
nected with  that  of  the  Jews,  it  would  be  foreign  to  the  plan  of 
this  abstract  to  give  the  succession  of  its  sovereigns.  (Calmct, 
Histoire  Prophane  de  I'Orient,  §  IV.  Dissert,  torn.  ii.  pp.  336 
—341.) 

Pkhsov,  crimes  against,  how  punished,  63,  64. 

Pkstilf.xck  or  PLAr;t;K,  38. 

Phstiikntial  Ulast  or  \\'i:»d,  40. 

Pktkii,  one  of  the  apostles,  formerly  called  Simon:  he  was  of 
Bethsaida,  and  was  the  son  of  Jonas,  a  fisherman,  which  occu- 
pation he  also  followed.  When  he  was  called  to  the  apostleship 
by  our  Saviour,  he  received  the  name  of  Ilir^ic,  which  signifies 
a  stone  (John  i.  43.),  probably  in  reference  to  the  boldness  and 
firmness  of  his  character,  and  his  zeal  and  activity  in  jiromoting 
his  Master's  cause.  See  a  further  account  of  Peter  and  an  ana- 
lysis of  the  two  ei)i8tles  which  bear  his  name,  in  pp.  362 — 364. 

PiiAHAOii,  a  common  appellation  of  the  ancient  kings  of  Egypt, 
who  after  the  oge  of  ,\lexander  were  in  like  maimer  termed 
Ptolemy.  Jalilonski  states,  that  Piioino,  in  the  common  Egy|>- 
tian  dialcet,  and  Phahhh,  in  the  very  ancient  <lialect,  spoken  in 
the  Theliaid,  respectively  denote  a  kiiiff.  (()pusc.^Ia,  tom.  i.  p. 
376.)  Mr.  Weston  derives  this  name  from  IMUVJiO,  which 
signifies  mi/  king;  and  which  the  Greeks  rendered  <hi^iu».  (Sun- 
day Lessons  on  Gen.  xii.  15.)  The  following  are  the  principal 
sovereigns  of  this  name,  who  arc  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment : — 


1.  PHAHAoa,  king  of  Egypt,  and  contemporary  with  Abraham 
His  officers  having  eulogized  the  beauty  of  Sarah,  the  patriarch's 
wife,  Pharaoh  sent  for  her  to  his  harem,  and  conferred  many 
presents  on  her  husband,  whom  he  imagined  to  be  her  brother 
Pharaoh  and  his  family  being  "  plagued  with  great  plagues"  by 
the  Almighty,  he  discovered  his  error,  and  restored  Sarah  to 
Abraham,  whom  he  sent  out  of  Egypt.  (Gen.  xii.  10 — 20.) 

2.  PiiAHAoii,  the  contemporary  of  Joseph ;  who,  having  in- 
terpreted his  prophetic  dreams,  was  rewarded  wnh  distinguished 
honours,  and  raised  to  the  office  of  "  ruler  throughout  all  the 
land  of  Egypt."  (Gen.  xii.)  Pharaoh  participated  in  Joseph's 
joy,  at  his  reconciliation  with  his  brethren,  and  with  noble  gent- 
rosity  permitted  him  to  invite  his  family  into  Egypt.  On  the 
arrival  of  Jacob  and  his  sons,  he  gave  them  a  hospitable  recep- 
tion, notwithstanding  shepherds  were  held  in  abomination  by  the 
Egj'ptians,  and  assigned  them  a  residence  in  the  land  of  Goshen. 
And' on  Jacob's  decease,  he  permitted  Joseph  to  make  a  journey 
into  Canaan,  to  buiy  him.  (Gen.  xlv.  16.  xlvii.  1.  1.  4.)  This 
Pharaoh  is  the  sovereign  alluded  to  by  Stephen  in  Acts  viL 
10.  13. 

3.  Pharaoh,  a  king  of  Egypt,  gave  one  of  his  daughters  in 
marriage  to  Mered,  a  descendant  of  Judah.  (1  Chron.  iv.  18.) 
This  remarkable  alliance  must  have  taken  place  while  the  He- 
brews were  the  guests  and  not  the  slaves  of  the  Egj'ptians ;  and 
this  prince  must  certainly  have  been  one  of  the  first  successors 
of  the  master  of  Joseph. 

4.  Phahoaii,  king  of  Egypt,  the  contemporarj'  of  Moses, 
reigned  at  the  period  when  Jacob's  descendants  had  already  be- 
come a  great  people.  The  genealogical  lists  of  that  period,  which 
are  extant,  in  harmony  with  the  sacred  historians,  show  how 
rapidly  the  race  of  Israel  had  multiplied.  (1  Chron.  iv.  1 — 27.) 
This  prince  adopted  the  false  policy  of  oppressing  the  Hebrews 
in  the  manner  related  in  Exod.  ii.,  little  thinking  that  his  own 
daughter  would  save  from  the  waters  of  the  Nile  the  future 
avenger  and  deliverer  of  the  Israelites.  The  recent  discoveries, 
which  have  thrown  new  light  on  Egyptian  antiquities,  and  which 
harmonize  more  and  more  with  the  sacred  history,  enable  us  to 
recognise  the  Pharaohs,  who  are  mentioned  in  the  Bible  subse- 
quent to  the  time  of  Moses.  The  king,  during  whose  reign 
Moses  was  born,  can  only  be  Ramescs  or  Ramses  IV.  surnamed 
Mci-Amoun,  the  last  sovereign  but  one  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty 
The  first  oppression  of  the  Israelites  (Exod,  i.  11.  14.)  most  pro- 
bably commenced  under  Thoutmosis  III.  a  predecessor  of  this 
prince.  But  the  succeeding  narrative  of  the  proscription  of  all 
the  male  Hebrew  children,  and  the  birth  of  Moses,  relates  only 
to  this  Ramses-Mei-Anioun.     (Compare  Vol.  I.  p.  83.) 

5.  Phaiiaoh,  the  contemporary  of  Moses,  had  reigned  about 
eighteen  years,  when  Moses  was  commanded  to  return  into 
Egypt,  Ramscs-Mci-Amoun  and  his  personal  enemies  being  dead. 
(Exod.  iv.  19.)  His  history  is  contained  in  Exod.  vi. — xii. :  he 
jterished  with  his  army  in  the  Red  Sea.  (xiv.  5 — 31.)  This 
Pharoah  is  Amenophis  or  Ramses  V.  the  last  king  of  the  eigh- 
teenth dynasty,  and  the  father  of  Ramses  VI.  or  Sesostris. 

6.  Phaiiaoh,  the  contemporary  of  David,  received  at  his  court, 
and  honourably  entertained  Hadad,  prince  of  Idumrca  (to  whom 
he  gave  his  wife's  sister  in  marriage),  after  the  conquest  of  that 
country  by  the  Hebrews.  (1  Kings  xi.  17 — 19.)  He  was  one 
of  the  last  kings  of  the  twenty-first  or  Tanite  dynasty,  and  most 
probably  was  a  dillerent  person  from  the  Pharaoh  who  is  next  to 
be  noticed,  because  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  how  the  protector 
of  Hadad  could  be  the  father-in-law  of  Solomon. 

7.  Phaiiaoh,  the  contemporary  of  Solomon,  gave  the  Hebrew 
king  his  daughter  in  marriage,  with  the  city  of  Gezer  as  a  por- 
tion. (1  Kings  ix.  16.)  This  prince,  the  last  sovereign  of  the 
twenty-first  or  Tanite  dynasty,  was  probably  dethroned  and  put 
to  death  by  Shishak,  wlio  was  contemporary  with  Rehoboam. 
M.  Coquerel  (to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  this  account  of  tlio 
Pharaohs)  thinks  that  Eccl.  iv.  14.  may  allude  to  this  event. 

8.  Phaiiaoh-Necho,  the  contemporary  of  Josiah  king  of  Judah, 
took  up  arms  against  the  new  empire  of  the  Chaldavins,  which 
was  rapidly  advancing  and  threatening  Asia.  He  resolved  to 
carry  the  war  across  the  Euphrates  into  the  very  centre  of  tho 
(Jhaldasan  empire;  but  Iwing  opjiosed  in  his  pa.ssage  by  Josiah, 
an  ally  of  the  Clialdn'an  monarch,  to  whom  he  in  vain  offered 
terms  of  peace,  he  totally  discomfited  the  forces  of  the  Jewish 
king  near  Megiddo.  He  then  marched  to  Jerusalem,  which  city 
ho  entered  by  force  or  by  capitulation ;  and,  dcjwsing  Jehoahaz 
who  had  just  succeeded  his  father  upon  the  throne,  he  gave  the 
crown  of  Judah  to  his  elder  brother  Jehoi.ikim,  anl  levied  a  heavj 
military  contribution  on  the  kingdom  of  Judah.     Encouraged  by 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


443 


PH 

these  successes,  Necho  proceeded  on  his  Asiatic  expedition,  taking 
with  him  Jehoahaz,  whom  he  left  prisoner  at  Riblah.  He  made 
himself  master  of  Carchemish  on  the  Euphrates;  where,  after 
three  years'  warfare  with  various  success,  he  was  defeated  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  and  forced  to  return  into  Egypt  with  the  wreck 
of  his  army.  On  his  return,  he  took  the  captive  Jehoaliaz  with 
him.  (2  Kings  xxiii.  29—34.  xxiv.  7.  2  Chron.  xxxv.  20 — 24. 
xxxvi.  1—^.)  The  Scripture  account  of  the  war  carried  on  by 
Pharaoh-Nccho  against  the  Jews  and  Babylonians  is  confirmed 
by  an  ancient  monument  discovered  in  Egypt  by  the  late  enter- 
prising traveller  Belzoni.  (See  Vol.  I.  pp.  89,  90.)  Pharaoh- 
Necho,  the  son  of  Psammetichus,  and  the  sixth  king  of  the 
twenty-sixth  dynasty,  that  of  the  Saites,  is  celebrated  in  profane 
history,  for  his  project  of  digging  a  canal,  to  join  the  Nile  to  the 
Red  Sea,  and  by  the  voyage  of  discovery  which  his  vessels,  man- 
ned by  Phoenician  sailors,  made  round  Africa. 

9.  Phahaoh-Hophra,  the  Apries  or  Vaphres  of  profane  his- 
torians, was  the  son  of  Psammis,  and  grandson  of  Pharaoh- 
Necho.  He  was  the  eighth  king  of  the  twenty-sixth  dynasty, 
and  contemporary  with  Zedelciah  king  of  Judah,  with  whom  he 
formed  an  alliance  against  Nebuchadnezzar.  During  the  last 
siege  of  Jerusalem,  Hophra  took  arms,  and  advanced  to  succour 
his  ally.  This  diversion  was  useful  for  a  short  time ;  but,  agreea- 
bly to  the  predictions  of  Jeremiah,  the  Egyptians  notwithstand- 
ing their  brilliant  promises,  withdrew  without  fighting,  or  at  least 
without  making  any  resistance.  After  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem, when,  deaf  to  the  counsels  of  Jeremiah,  Azariah  and  Jo- 
hanan  took  refuge  in  Egypt,  the  prophet  predicted  to  them  the 
deplorable  end  of  Hophra.  (Ezek.  xvii.  15.  Jer.  xxxvii.  5.  xliii. 
9.  xliv.  30.  xlvi.  26.)  The  prophet  Ezekiel  (xxix.)  reproaches 
Pharaoh  with  his  base  conduct  towards  the  king  of  Judah,  and 
foretells  that  Egypt  should  be  reduced  to  a  desert,  and  that  the 
sword  should  cut  off  both  man  and  beast.  This  prediction  was 
afterwards  accomplished,  first  in  the  person  of  Pharaoh-Hophra, 
who  was  deprived  of  his  kingdom  by  Amasis  who  usurped  his 
throne,  and  subsequently  by  the  conquest  of  Egypt  by  the 
Persians. 

Pharisees,  tenets  of  the  sect  of,  144,  145. 

Phahpaii,  river.     See  Abaxa,  p.  401. 

Philatjelphia,  a  city  of  Asia  Minor,  derived  its  name  from 
its  founder,  Attalus  Philadelphus,  and  is  situated  about  twenty- 
seven  miles  to  the  south-east  of  Sardis.  Not  long  before  the 
date  of  the  Apocalyptic  Epistle,  this  city  had  suffered  so  much 
from  earthquakes,  that  it  had  been  in  a  great  measure  deserted  by 
its  inhabitants;  which  may  in  some  degree  account  for  the  po- 
vcrt)'  of  this  church  as  described  in  this  epistle.  And  its  poverty 
may  also  in  some  degree  account  for  its  virtue,  which  is  so  highly 
commended.  "  Phdadelphia  appears  to  have  resisted  the  attacks 
of  the  Turks  in  1312  with  more  success  than  the  other  cities. 
At  a  distance  from  the  sea,  forgotten  by  the  emperor,  encom- 
passed on  all  sides  by  the  Turks,  her  valiant  citizens  defended 
their  religion  and  freedom  above  fourscore  years,  and  at  length 
capitulated  with  the  proudest  of  the  Ottomans  (Bajazet)  in  1390. 
Among  the  Greek  colonies  and  churches  of  Asia,  Philadelphia 
is  still  erect — a  column  in  a  scene  of  ruins !"  (Gibbon's  Decline 
and  Fall,  vol.  xi.  p.  438.  8vo.  edit.)  Whatever  may  be  lost  of 
the  spirit  of  Christianity,  there  is  still  the  form  of  a  Christian 
church  in  this  city,  which  is  now  caWeH  All ah-Shehr,  or  the  city 
of  God.  It  contains  about  1000  Christians,  chiefly  Greeks,  most 
of  whom  speak  only  the  Turkish  language.  They  have  twenty- 
five  places  of  public  worship,  five  of  which  are  large  and  regular 
churches,  with  a  resident  bishop  and  inferior  clergy.  The  re- 
mains of  antiquity  here  are  not  numerous.  (Hartley's  Visit  to 
the  Apocalyptic  Churches,  in  Missionary  Register,  July,  1827, 
pp.  324—326.     Arundeli's  Visit,  pp.  167—174.) 

Philexon,  an  opulent  Christian  at  CoIossje;  whose  slave 
Onesimus  having  fled  from  him  to  Rgme,  where  he  was  converted 
by  Saint  Paul,  the  apostle  sent  him  back  to  his  master  with  the 
admirable  letter,  which  now  forms  the  epistle  to  Philemon  :  for 
an  analysis  of  which,  see  pp.  347 — 349. 

Philip. 

1.  The  son  of  Herod,  misnamed  the  Great,  by  his  wife  Cleo- 
patra ;  who,  in  the  division  of  his  father's  kingdom,  was  made 
tetrarch  of  Batanaea,  Trachonitis,  and  Iturasa.  (Luke  iii.  1.) 
He  enlarged  and  embellished  the  city  of  Paneas,  to  which  he 
gave  his  own  name,  and  called  it  Csesarea,  in  honour  of  the 
emperor  Tiberius. 

2.  Another  son  of  the  same  Herod  by  Mariamne,  daughter 
of  Simon  the  high-priest.  He  was  the  husband  of  Herodias, 
who  was  taken  from  him  by  his  brother  Herod  Antipas.   Having 


PH 

been  disinherited  by  his  father,  he  lived  a  private  life.  (Matt, 
xiv.  3.  Markvi.  7.  Luke  iii.  19.)  As  Joseph  us  calls  this  prince 
Herod,  and  the  evangelist  Philip,  it  is  not  improbable,  that,  after 
the  custom  of  the  Herodian  family,  he  bore  both  those  names. 

3.  One  of  the  apostles  of  Jesus  Christ,  a  native  of  Bethsaida. 
(Matt.  x.  3.  Mark  iii.  18.  Luke  vi.  14.  John  i.  44 — 47  49. 
vi.  5.  xii.  21,22.  xiv.  8,9.)  He  was  with  the  rest  of  the 
apostles  and  disciples  who  assembled  for  prayer  in  an  upper 
room  at  Jerusalem,  after  the  ascension.  (Acts  i.  13,  14.)  Of 
the  subsequent  history  of  this  apostle,  nothing  certain  is  known. 
He  is  said  to  have  preached  the  Gospel  in  Scythia  and  Phrygia, 
and  was  interred  at  Hierapolis  in  Phrygia  Pacatiana,  where  he 
suffered  martyrdom. 

4.  One  of  the  seven  deacons  of  the  church  at  Jerusalem. 
(Acts  vi.  5.)  He  preached  the  Gospel  at  Samaria,  where  he 
performed  many  miracles,  and  converted  many  to  the  faith  o 
Christ.  Afterwards  he  received  a  divine  command  to  go  towards 
the  south,  to  the  road  leading  from  Gaza  to  Jerusalem :  here  he 
met  an  eunuch  of  Candace  queen  of  Ethiopia,  whom  he  like- 
wise converted  to  the  Christian  faifli.  (Acts  viii.  5 — 38.)  After 
baptizing  the  eunuch,  Philip  stopped  some  time  at  Azotus;  anu 
"  passing  through,  he  preached  in  all  the  cities  until  he  came  to 
Csesarea,"  where  he  appears  to  have  fixed  his  residence.  He  had 
four  daughters ;  who,  like  Agabus,  according  to  circumstances, 
received  the  gift  of  prophecy.     (Acts  viii.  40.    xxi.  8,  9.) 

Phieippi  was  a  city  of  Macedonia  Prima,  or  the  first  of  the 
four  parts  into  which  that  province  was  divided.  (See  Vol.  I. 
p.  90.)  It  was  of  moderate  extent,  and  situated  on  the  con- 
fines of  Thrace.  It  was  formerly  called  Crenides  from  its  nu- 
merous springs,  and  aftei-wards  Datus  from  the  coal  mines  in  its 
vicinity.  The  name  of  Philippi  is  received  from  Philip  the 
father  of  Alexander,  who  fortified  it,  and  made  it  a  frontier  town 
against  the  Thracians.  Julius  Cscsar  planted  a  colony  here, 
which  was  afterwards  enlarged  by  Augustus,  and  hence  its  in- 
habitants were  considered  as  freemen  of  Rome.  Christianity 
was  first  planted  at  Philippi,  by  Saint  Paul,  a.  d.  50,  the  particu- 
lars of  which  are  related  in  Acts  xvi.  9 — 40. 

Philistines,  Land  of,  15,  Account  of,  ibid.  Nature  of  the 
disease  inflicted  upon  them,  196. 

PuiLOLOGUs,  a  Christian  at  Rome,  whom  St.  Paul  salutes  in 
his  epistle  to  the  Romans,  (xvi.  6.)  M.  Coquerel  is  of  opinion 
that  he  was  probably  a  slave  who  had  been  restored  to  liberty 
and  who  received  the  name  of  Philologus,  in  consequence  of 
his  having  been  instructed  in  literature  and  the  sciences. 

Phineas,  the  son  of  Eleazar,  and  grandson  of  Aaron,  was  the 
third  high-priest  of  the  Jews.  He  is  gredly  commended  for  his 
zeal  for  the  glory  of  God  in  the  affair  of  Zimri  and  Cosbi  (Num. 
XXV.  7.)  :  for  which  God  promised  that  tlie  priesthood  should  ba 
given  to  his  posterity  by  a  perpetual  covenant;  this  condition 
being  included  (as  interpreters  observe),  that  his  children  should 
continue  faithful  and  obedient.  The  time  of  his  death  is  not 
known. 

Phoebe,  a  deaconess  in  the  church  at  Cenchrea,  whom  Saint 
Paul  strongly  recommends  to  the  Christians  at  Rome  in  hij 
epistle  (xvi.  1,  2.),  for  her  hospitality  to  himself.  The  deacon- 
esses  in  the  primitive  church  were  sometimes  married  women, 
but  most  frequently  widows  advanced  in  years,  and  who  had 
been  the  wife  of  one  man ;  that  is,  one  who  had  not  parted  with 
one  husband  and  married  another,  a  practice  which  at  that  tima 
was  usual  both  among  the  Jews  and  heathens.  (1  Tim.  vi.  9, 
10.)  Their  functions  consisted  in  taking  care  of  the  sick  and 
poor  of  their  own  sex,  visiting  the  prisoners  and  martyrs,  in« 
structing  catechumens,  assisting  at  the  baptism  of  women,  anj 
various  other  inferior  oflrtces.  Phosbe  is  supposed  to  have  beea 
the  bearer  of  St.  Paul's  epistle  to  the  Romans. 

Phcenice,  or  Phcenicia,  a  province  of  Syria,  which  extended 
from  tjie  Gulf  of  Issus,  where  it  bounded  Cilicia  on  the  north, 
along  the  coast  southwards,  to  the  termination  of  the  ridges  of 
Libanus  and  Antilibanus,  near  Tyre,  where  it  met  the  border 
of  Palestine.  In  breadth  it  only  comprehended  the  narrow  tract 
between  the  continuation  of  Mount  Libanus  and  the  sea.  The 
country  was  exceedingly  fertile ;  and  as  a  commercial  nation,  the 
Phoenicians  are  the  most  celebrated  people  of  antiquity.  They 
planted  many  colonies,  and,  among  others,  Carthage.  The 
principal  cities  of  Phoenicia  were  Ptoeemais,  Sidox,  and  Ttre, 
of  which  a  notice  is  given  in  the  subsequent  part  of  this  index 
Idols  worshipped  by  them,  138. 

Phcesticiarchs,  notice  of,  140. 

Phrygia  is  a  province  of  Asia  Minor,  divided  into  the  Greater 
and  Lesser.    The  former  had  Bithynia  on  the  north,  Galatia  on 


Hi 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  A^B  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 
PO  PU 


the  east,  Pamphylia  and  Lycia  on  the  south,  Lydia  and  Mysia 
on  the  west.  Its  chief  cities  mentioned  in  Scripture  (Col.  ii.  1.) 
arc  Laodicea  and  Hicrapolis;  and  of  tliis  St.  Luke  seems  to 
speak  in  Acts  ii,  10.  because  he  joins  it  with  Pamphylia  below 
it.  In  Acts  xvi.  6.  he  means  Phrygia  Minor.  The  inhabitants 
are  said  to  have  been  a  servile  people,  kept  in  their  duty  best  by 
stripes,  and  maule  wise  only  by  sulVerings.  In  all  these  parts  of 
Asia  Minor,  even  to  Bythinia  and  the  Euxine  Sea,  the  Jews 
anciently  were  very  numerous. 

Phut,  or  Pit,  the  name  of  an  African  people.  According  to 
Josephus  (Ant.  Jud.  1.  i.  c  7.)  they  were  the  inhabitants  of 
Mauritania,  where  there  is  a  river  called  Phut  (Plin.  Nat.  Hist. 
I.  V,  c.  1.)  According  to  the  Scptuagint  and  Vulgate  versions 
they  were  the  Libyans.  (Jer.  xlvi.  9.  Ezek.  xxvii.  10.  xxxviii. 
5.  S'ah.  iii.  9.)  They  arc  supposed  to  have  been  the  descend- 
ants of  Phut,  the  third  son  of  Ham.     (Gen.  x.  6.) 

Phtlactebies  described,  15B. 

Puvsics,  or  Medicine,  state  of,  194 — 197. 

Phtsus,  or  natural  philosophy  of  the  Jews,  186. 

PiiiAHiHOTH  or  Hi noTii,  without  the  prefix,  a  place  on  the 
Red  Sea,  where  the  Israelites  made  their  second  encampment. 
(Exod.  xiv.  2.  9.  Num.  xiii.  7.)  As  the  Israelites  were  properly 
delivered  at  this  place  from  their  captivity,  and  fear  of  the 
Egyptians  (Exod.  xiv.  5.),  Dr.  Shaw  thinks  that  it  derived  its 
name  from  that  circumstance.     (Travels,  vol.  ii.  p.  98.) 

Pilate,  Pontius,  notice  of,  53. 

PisGAH,  Mount,  31. 

PisiPiA  (Acts  xiv.  24.),  a  country  in  Asia  Minor,  having 
Pamphylia  on  the  south,  Galatia  on  the  north,  Isauria  on  the 
east,  and  Phrygia  on  the  west.  Its  chief  city  was  Antioch  in 
Pisidia  (Acts  xiii.  14.),  so  called  to  distinguish  it  from  Antioch 
in  Syria. 

Pi  SOS,  one  of  the  four  great  rivers  wliich  watered  the  garden 
of  Eden.  (Gen.  ii.  1 1,  12.)  The  author  of  the  apocryphal  book 
of  Ecclesiaslicus,  speaking  of  a  wise  man,  says,  timt  "he  fiUeth 
all  things  with  his  wisdom,"  or  sjireads  it  on  every  side,  "  as 
Phison  and  Tigris"  spread  their  waU-rs  "  in  the  time  of  the  new 
fruits,"  that  is,  when  they  are  swollen  by  the  melting  of  the 
winter  snows.  Calmet,  Reland,  and  others,  suppose  it  to  be  the 
Phasis,  a  celebrated  river  of  Colchis ;  Eusebius  and  Jerome, 
after  Josephus,  make  it  to  be  the  Ganges,  which  passing  into 
India  falls  into  the  ocean. 

PiTHo.M,  one  of  the  cities  built  by  the  Israelites  for  Pharaoh. 
(Exod.-i.  11.)  Sir  John  Marsham  imagines  it  to  be  Pelusium  ; 
but  it  is  most  probably  the  Trwrcu/uit  of  Herodotus.  (Hist.  1.  ii. 
c.  158.),  by  the  Arabians  in  later  times  called  Fijum  or  Faijum 
(pronounced  Faioum),  which  is  also  applied  to  the  province. 

Plague,  not  unknown  in  Palestine,  38, 

Plains  of  the  Holy  Land,  account  of,  33. 

PLEAnisG,  form  of,  among  the  Jews,  in  civil  and  criminal 
cases,  55,  56. 

Ploughing,  Jewish  mode  of,  177. 

PoETRT,  cultivated  by  the  Hebrews,  186. 

PoLiTE.VESB,  Jewish  forms  of,  168,  169. 

Political  Divisions  of  the  Holy  Land,  15 — 18.  Pohtical 
Slate  of  the  Israelites  and  Jews  from  the  patriarchal  times  to  the 
destruction  of  their  polity  by  the  Romans,  40 — 48, 

PoLTOAMf,  why  tolerated  among  the  Jews,  160.  Abolished 
by  Christianity,  ibid. 

PoMEcnANATE  trccs  of  Palcstinc,  36. 

PioTis,  a  province  of  Asia  Minor,  having  the  Euxine  Sea 
on  the  north,  Cappadocia  on  the  south,  Paphlaiionia  and  Galatia 
on  the  east,  and  the  Lesser  Armenia  on  the  west.  It  is  supposed 
that  Saint  Peter  preached  in  Pontus,  because  he  addresses  his 
first  Epistle  to  the  believing  Hebrews,  who  were  scattered 
throughout  this  and  the  neighbouring  provinces. 

Pools  of  Solomon,  29.  Pool  of  Bethcsda,  21.  And  of  Si- 
loam,  ibid. 

Poo II,  Jewish  laws  concerning,  83. 

Population  of  the  Holy  Land,  38.     Of  Jerusalem,  22. 

Poniii  of  Solomon,  99. 

PossEssioNH,  demoniacal,  reality  of,  197. 

PoTipiiAii,  the  captain  of  Pharaoh's  body  guard,  who  pur- 
chased Joseph  of  some  Midianitish  merchants,  and  made  him 
superintendent  of  his  house.  Afterwards,  however,  listening  to 
the  false  charges  of  his  wife,  who  accused  Joseph  of  attempting 
to  seduce  her,  he  threw  Joseph  into  prison,  where  he  was  rigo- 
rously confined.  It  should  seem  that  this  rigour  was  not  of  very 
long  continuance ;  and  that  he  restored  Joseph  to  nil  liis  conli- 
Ucnce,  amd  intrusted  him  with  tlio  management  of  tlic  prison. 


(Gen.  xxxvii,  36,  xxxix.  19 — 23.)  Potiphar  is  an  Egyptian 
proper  name,  which  has  been  explained  by  the  Coptic  nifiT 
•I'PPO  father,  that  is,  prime  minister  of  PHaRiio,  or  Pharaoh. 
Some  expositors  have  made  a  distinction  between  the  master  of 
Joseph  and  the  keeper  of  the  prison  into  which  he  was  thrown. 
Others,  however,  have  conjectured,  with  more  probability,  that 
Potiphar,  after  having  punished  Joseph  in  a  transport  of  wrath 
and  jealousy,  acknowledged  his  innocence  ;  but  that,  in  order  to 
avoid  disgracing  his  wife,  instead  of  restoring  Joseph  to  his 
former  office,  he  confided  to  liim  the  command  of  the  state- 
prison. 

PoTiPiiERAH,  governor,  or,  more  correctly,  priest  of  On,  is 
known  only  from  the  circumstance  of  his  having  given  his 
daughter  in  marriage  to  Joseph.  (Gen.  xli.  45.  xlvi.  20.) 
Jablonski  supposed  it  to  be  the  same  as  the  Coptic  riHONT- 
<1>PH,  priest  of  the  sun;  and  the  recent  discoveries  among  the 
Egyptian  monuments  have  shown  that  his  conjecture  was  not 
altogether  without  foundation.  Pe-tueph-he  signifies  that  which 
belongs  to  Re  or  the  Sun :  this  name  was  peculiarly  suitable  for 
a  priest  of  On  or  Heliopolis,  the  city  of  the  sun.  Undesigned 
coincidences  like  these  strongly  corroborate  the  antiquity  and 
authenticity  of  the  Mosaic  nanative. 

Potter's  Field.     See  Aceldama. 

Phayers  of  the  Jews,  various  appellations  of,  131.  Public 
prayers,  ibid.  Private  prayers,  ibid.  How  offered  in  the  syna- 
gogues, 104,  Attitudes  in  prayer,  131,  132.  Forms  of  prayer 
in  use  among  the  Jews,  132.  The  nineteen  prayers  now  used 
by  them,  106,  107. 

Preaching,  a  part  of  the  synagogue  service,  106. 

Precipitation,  a  Jewish  punishment,  68. 

Preparation  of  the  Passover,  123.     Of  the  Sabbath,  122. 

Presents  offered  to  superiors,  169. 

Priests,  privileges  and  functions  of,  112, 113. 

Princes  of  tribes  and  families,  41. 

Phaisca  or  PnisciLLA,  the  wife  of  Aquila,  a  converted  Jew  of 
Pontus.     See  AaviLA,  p.  407. 

Prisoners  (Roman),  treatment  of,  58 — 60.  Oriental  mode 
of  treating  prisoners,  66.  Probable  origin  of  one  being  released 
at  the  Passover,  123.     Eyes  of,  put  out,  66. 

Prisons  (Jewish),  notice  of,  65,  66. 

Privileges  of  the  first-born,  163. 

Proceedings,  judicial,  forms  of,  55—60. 

PnocuRATOiis  (Roman),  powers  of,  52,  53.  Slate  of  the 
Jews  under  them,  53. 

Productions  of  the  Holy  Land,  35 — 37. 

Promise,  land  of,  13. 

Phomcloation  of  laws,  47, 48. 

Propehtt,  crimes  against,  how  punished,  62,  63.  Disposal 
of  property,  164. 

Prophets,  jjotice  of,  47.  116.  Punishment  of  false  prophets, 
62.  Schools  of  the  prophets,  184, 185.  (See  further  the  General 
Index  of  Matters,  No.  III.  infra,  article  Prophets.)  "  The  Pro- 
phets" an  ancient  division  of  the  Old  Testament,  p.  213.  of  this 
volume.  Table  of  the  sections  of  the  prophets,  as  read  in  the 
Jewish  Synagogue,  105. 

Proselytes,  account  of,  109. 

Proseuchje  or  oratories  of  the  Jews,  102,  103. 

Psaltery,  a  musical  instrument,  184. 

Ptolemais,  anciently  called  Accho  (Judg.  i.  31.),  and  now 
known  by  the  name  of  Acre,  is  a  port  and  town  situated  on  the 
shore  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  on  the  confines  of  Lower  and 
Upper  Galilee.  Here  Saint  Paul  rested  for  one  da"y  on  his  journey 
from  Ephesus  to  Jerusalem.  (.\cts  xxi.  7.)  As  this  port  must 
always  have  been  of  great  importance  in  time  of  war,  the  town 
has,  consequently,  undergone  great  changes.  During  the  croisades 
this  city  suffered  exceedingly  both  from  infidels  and  Christians, 
between  whom  it  was  the  scene  of  many  sanguinary  conflicts:  at 
length  it  fell  under  the  dominion  of  the  late  Djexzar  Pacha,  under 
whoso  government  and  that  of  his  successor  it  has  revived,  and 
is  now  one  of  the  most  considerable  towns  on  the  coast.  Acre 
has  a  beautiful  appearance,  when  beheld  from  a  short  distance. 
'J'his  j)lacc  is  celebrated  for  the  rejjulse  there  given  to  Napoleon 
Buonaparte,  by  the  Turks  under  the  command  of  Sir  Sydney 
Smith,  who,  after  a  long  and  inemornble  siege,  com))elled  the 
French  to  retire  with  great  loss,  and  ultimately  to  abandon  Syria. 

Publicans,  or  collectors  of  the  revenue,  account  of,  78,  79. 
Why  otlious  to  the  Jews,  79. 

PiTiiLius,  an  opulent  governor  of  Malta,  at  the  time  of  St 
Paul's  shipwreck,  who  miraculously  healed  his  f;itlier  of  a  dan 
gcrous  malady.    The  bay  in  which  the  vessel  was  wrecked  wa« 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


445 


R  A 

contiguous  to  his  estate ;  and  he  most  probably  entertained  the 
apostle  dunug  his  three  months'  residence  on  that  island.  (Acts 
xxiii.  7, 8.)  An  ancicMit  inscription  found  at  Malta  designates  its 
governor  by  the  same  appellation — npaT02  or  chief  man — 
which  St.  Luke  gives  to  Publius.  (Bloomfield  and  Kuinoel  on 
Acts  xxviii.  7,  8.) 
Per.,  or  Phul. 

1 .  The  proper  name  of  a  people  remote  from  Palestine.  (Isa. 
Ixvi.  19.)  The  Latia  Vulgate  renders  it  Africa;  according  to 
Bochart,  it  was  Philaj,  an  island  of  the  Nile  in  Upper  Egypt. 
Vitringa  supposes  it  to  be  a  place  in  the  extremity  of  Egypt;  it 
being  the  prophet's  object,  in-the  passage  just  cited,  to  designate 
the  most  remote  parts, 

2.  The  name  of  the  first  king  of  Assyria,  who  is  mentioned  in 
the  Scriptures.  He  invaded  the  kingdom  of  Israel  shortly  after 
Menahcm  had  usurped  the  throne,  who  gave  a  thousand  talents 
of  silver  to  support  him  in  his  kingdom.  (2  Kings  xv,  19,  20.) 

PuxisuxESTs  (Hebrew),  design  of,  64.  Inferior  punishments, 
64 — 66.     Capital  punishments,  66 — 69. 

Pl'sisumexts  (Roman),  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  account  of, 
G9— 72. 

PiRiFiTATioKs  of  the  Hebrews,  account  of,  133.  Purifica- 
tions of  the  leprosy,  in  persons,  garments,  and  houses,  133',  134. 
Purifications  in  case  of  minor  impurities,  134. 

PuRiM,  or  feast  of  Lots,  account  of,  128. 

PvTEOLi,  a  maritime  town  of  Campania,  in  Italy,  between 
Baisj  and  Naples,  founded  by  a  colony  from  Cumae.  It  was 
originally  called  Dicjearchia,  and  afterwards  Puteoli,  from  the 
great  number  of  wells  (putei)  which  were  in  the  neighbourhood. 
It  is  now  called  Puzzoli  or  Puzzuolo.  Here  Saint  Paul  abode 
seven  days,  by  the  favour  of  the  centurion,  on  his  first  journey  to 
Rome.  (Acts  xxviii.  1.3.)  It  appears  from  Acts  xxviii.  11.  that 
Puteoli  was  the  destination  of  this  vessel  from  Alexandria ;  and 
we  learn  from  the  independent  testimony  of  the  Jewish  historian, 
Josephus,  corroborated  by  the  geographer  Strabo,  that  this  was 
the  port  of  Italy  to  which  ships  from  Egj'pt  and  the  Levant  com- 
monly sailed.  (Antiq.  Jud.  lib.  xviii.  c.  7.  §  4.  c.  8.  §  2.  Strabo, 
Geogr.  1.  xvii.  p.  793.  ed  Casaub.) 


QuARTUs,  a  Christian  resident  at  Corinth,  whose  salutations 
Saint  Paul  transmitted  to  Rome.  He  was  probably  a  Roman, 
whom  commercial  affairs  had  led  into  Greece.  (Rom.  xvi.  23.) 

QcicKSANu  (2uoT«).  Two  syrtes  or  sand  banks,  on  the 
northern  coast  of  Africa,  were  particularly  celebrated  among  the 
ancients ;  one  of  which,  called  the  Syrtis  major,  lay  between 
Gyrene-  and  Leptis,  and  is  most  probably  THN  ^Eujiriv,  the 
Quicksand,  alluded  to  in  Acts  xxvii.  17.;  since  a  vessel  bound 
westward,  after  passing  Crete,  might  easily  be  driven  into  it  by 
a  strong  north-easterly  wind.  The  other  {^Syrtis  minor)  lay 
near  Carthage.  (KuiniJel  on  Acts  xxvii.  17.  Robinson's  Lexi- 
con, voce  2t//JT/f,) 

Qrinisus  or  Ctrexius  (Ku«v/oj,  in  Latin  Quirinus),  that  is, 
Publius  Sulpicius  Quirinus,  a  Roman  senator ;  who,  after  the 
banishment  of  Archelaus  to  Vienne  in  Gaul,  and  the  annexation 
of  Judsea  to  the  province  of  Syria,  was  sent  from  Rome,  as 
governor  of  Syria,  to  take  a  census  of  the  whole  province  with 
a  view  to  taxation.  (Compare  Acts  v.  37.)  This  census  he  com- 
pleted, A.  D.  8.  This  enrolment  is  alluded  to  in  Luke  ii.  2. ;  for 
an  elucidation  of  which,  see  Vol.  I.  pp.  419, 420. 


Rabbath. 

1.  Rabbath,  Rabbath-Amsioit,  or  Rabbath  of  the  children 
of  Ammon,  afterwards  called  Philadelphia,  the  capital  of  the 
Ammonites,  was  situated  beyond  Jordan.  It  was  a  place  of 
considerable  note  in  the  time  of  Moses.  When  David  declared 
war  against  the  Ammonites,  his  general  Joab  laid  siege  to  Rab- 
bath-Ammon,  where  the  brave  Uriah  lost  his  life,  by  a  secret 
order  given  by  this  prince,  that  Uriah  should  be  forsaken  in  a 
place  of  danger.  And  when  the  city  was  reduced  to  the  last 
extremity,  David  himself  went  thither,  that  he  might  have  the 
honour  of  taking  it.  From  this  time  it  became  subject  to  the 
kings  of  Judah.  Afterwards  the  kings  of  Israel  became  masters 
of  it,  with  all  the  rest  of  the  tribes  beyond  Jordan.  But  towards 
the  conclusion  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  Tiglath-pileser  having 
taken  away  a  great  part  of  the  Israelites  from  that  country,  the 
Ammonites  were  guilty  of  many  cruelties  against  those  who 
remained,  in  consequence  of  which  the  prophets  Jeremiah  and 
Ezekiel  pronounced  very  severe  prophecies  against  Rabbath,  the 


R  A 


capital  city  of  the  Ammonites,  and  against  the  rest  of  the  country, 
which  probably  had  their  completion  five  years  after  the  destruc 
tion  of  Jerusalem.  Antiochus  the  Greek  took  the  city  of  Rab 
bath-Ammon  about  a.  m.  3786.  Some  time  before  this,  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus  had  given  it  the  name  of  Philadelphia.  Which 
see  in  this  index. 

2.  Rabbath-moab,  or  Rabbath  of  the  children  of  Moab,  the 
capital  of  the  Moabites,  otherwise  An,  or  Ariel  of  Moab,  and 
KiRHERES,  or  the  city  with  brick  walls.  (Jer.  xlviii.  31.36.) 
This  city  was  situated  on  the  river  Ar :  it  underwent  many  revo- 
lutions, and  the  prophets  denounced  heavy  judgments  against  it. 

Rabbi,  or  RabboVi,  import  of,  185. 

Rabdomancy,  or  divination  by  the  staff,  143. 

Rabshakeu,  an  officer  of  Sennacherib  king  of  Assyria,  who 
was  sent  with  Rabsaris  and  Tartan  to  summon  Hezekiah  to  sur- 
render to  his  master.  (2  Kings  xviii.  17.) 

Raca,  a  Syriac  word  of  contempt,  meaning  a  worthless  person. 
(Matt.  v.  22.)  Those  who  applied  this  term  to  another  were  ob- 
noxious to  punishment  by  the  Council  of  twenty-three.  See 
p.  55.  supra. 

Rachel,  the  youngest  daughter  of  Laban,  and  the  wife  of 
Jacob.  She  was  the  mother  of  Joseph  and  Benjamin.  In  Jer. 
xxxi.  15.  the  prophet  introduces  Rachel  as  bewailing  the  exile  of 
her  posterity,  that  is,  Ephraim ;  by  quoting  which  language  the 
evangelist  Matthew  (ii.  18.)  in  a  similar  manner  introduces  her  as 
bemoaning  the  fate  of  the  children  who  were  massacred  at  Beth- 
lehem. (Compare  Vol.  i.  p.  317.)  The  tomb  of  Rachel  is  still 
shown  to  travellers,  near  the  ruins  of  the  village  of  Ramah.  "  It 
is  one  of  the  few  places  where  the  observer  is  persuaded  that 

tradition  has  not  erred The  spot  is  as  wild  and  solitary  as 

can  well  be  conceived  ;  no  palms  or  cypresses  give  their  shelter 
firom  the  blast ;  not  a  single  tree  spreads  its  shade  where  the 
beautiful  mother  [wife]  of  Israel  rests."  (Game's  Recollections 
of  the  East,  p.  157.)  Mr.  Maundrell  is  of  opinion  that  this  may 
be  the  true  place  of  Rachel's  interment :  but  the  present  sepul- 
chral monument  can  be  none  of  that  which  Jacob  erected  ;  for 
it  appears  to  be  plainly  a  modern  and  Turkish  structure.  The 
graves  of  the  Moslems  lie  thickly  strewn  around  this  tomb. 

Ra.iab. 

1.  A  woman  of  Jericho,  who  received  into  her  house,  and 
afterwards  concealed,  the  two  spies,  whom  Joshua  had  sent  to 
explore  that  city  and  its  contiguous  territory.  On  the  capture  of 
Jericho,  Rahab,  with  her  parents,  brethren,  and  all  that  she  had, 
under  the  conduct  of  the  two  spies,  quitted  her  house  in  safety. 
She  subsequently  married  Salmon,  one  of  the  chief  men  in  the 
tribe  of  Judah,  and  became  the  mother  of  Boaz.  (Josh.  ii.  vi,  17. 
22,23.  Ruth  iv.  21.  Matt.  i.  5.)  Much  discussion  has  taken 
place  respecting  Rahab,  whether  she  were  a  harlot  or  one  who 
kept  a  house  of  entertainment  for  strangers.  The  same  word  in 
the  Hebrew  language  denotes  persons  of  both  professions :  for 
the  same  reason,  the  appellation  of  harlot  is  given  to  Rahab  in 
the  Septuagint  version,  from  which  the  apostles  Paul(Heb.  xi. 
31.)  and  James  (ii.  25.)  make  use  of  the  same  expression  :  but 
the  Chaldee  paraphrast  calls  her  by  a  word  which  signifies  a 
woman  who  keeps  a  public  house,  without  any  mark  of  infamy. 
Since  those  apostles  cite  her  as  an  eminent  example  of  faith  in 
God,  and  have  ranked  her  with  Abraham,  we  shall  be  justified 
in  putting  the  most  charitable  construction  upon  the  appellation 
given  to  her. 

2.  A  poetical  name  of  Egypt.  (Isa.  xxx.  7.  Ii.  9.  Psal.  Ixxxvii. 
4.  bcxxix.  11.)  The  Hebrew  word  signifies  proud;  and  the 
name  seems  to  have  been  given  to  Egypt  from  the  pride  and  in- 
solence of  its  princes  and  inhabitants. 

Rains,  early  and  latter,  importance  of,  in  Palestine,  24. 

Rama,  Ramah,  or  Ramathaim,  was  a  small  town  or  village 
in  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  about  thirty  miles  north  of  Jerusalem  : 
it  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament.  As  it  stood  in 
a  pass  between  the  kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Judah,  Baasha  king 
of  Israel  seized  it,  and  began  lo  fortify  it,  to  prevent  his  subjects 
from  passing  that  way  into  the  kingdom  of  Judah.  (1  Kings  xv. 
17.  21.)  Here  Nebuzaradan,  the  Chaldoean  general,  disposed  of 
his  Jewish  prisoners  after  their  capital  was  taken,  which  occa- 
sioned a  great  lamentation  among  the  daughters  of  Rachel.  (Jer. 
xl.  1 — 3.  xxxi.  15.)  Oriental  geographers  speak  of  this  place 
as  having  formerly  been  the  metropolis  of  Palestine ;  and  Mr. 
Buckingham  informs  us  that  every  appearance  of  its  ruins  even 
now  confirms  the  opinion  of  its  having  been  once  a  considerable 
city.  "  Its  situation,  as  lying  immediately  in  the  high  road  from 
Jaffa  to  Jerusalem,  made  it  necessarily  a  place  of  great  resort  • 
and,  from  the  fruitfulness  of  the  country  around  it,  it  must  have 


446 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


RE 


been  equally  important  as  a  military  station  or  a  depot  for  sup- 
plies, and  as  a  magazine  for  the  collection  of  such  articles  of 
commerce  as  were  exported  from  the  coast.  In  its  present  state 
the  town  of  Ramah  is  about  the  size  of  J  alia,  in  the  extent  actu- 
ally occupied.  The  dwellings  of  the  last,  however,  are  crowded 
together  around  the  sides  of  a  hill,  while  those  of  Ramah  are 
scattered  widely  over  the  face  of  the  level  plain  on  which  it 
stands.  The  style  of  building  here  is  that  of  high  square  houses, 
with  flattened  domes  covering  them :  and  some  of  the  old  ter- 
raced roofs  are  fenced  around  with  raised  walls,  in  which  are 
seen  pyramids  of  hollow  earthenware  pipes,  as  if  to  give  air  and 
light,  without  destroying  the  strength  of  the  wall  itself.  The 
inhabitants  are  estimated  at  little  more  than  five  thousand  per- 
sons, of  whom  about  one  third  are  Christians  of  the  Greek  and 
Catholic  communion,  and  the  remaining  two-thirds  Mohamme- 
dans, chiefly  Arabs';  the  men  of  power  and  the  military  being 
Turks,  and  no  Jews  residing  there.  The  principal  occupation 
of  the  people  is  husbandry,  for  which  the  surrounding  country 
is  highly  favourable;  and  the  staple  commodities  produced  by 
them  are  com,  olives,  oil,  and  cotton,  with  some  soap  and  coarse 
cloth  made  in  the  town.  There  are  still  remains  of  some  noble 
Bubterranean  cisterns  at  Ramah,  not  inferior  either  in  extent  or 
execution  to  many  of  those  at  Alexandria:  they  were  intended 
for  the  same  purpose,  namely,  to  serve  in  time  of  war  as  reser- 
voirs of  water."     (Buckingham's  Travels  in  Palestine,  p.  168.) 

Ramotii,  a  fiimous  city  in  the  mountains  of  Gilead,  often 
called  Ramoth-gilead,  sometimes  Ramoth,  and  sometimes  Ramoth- 
mizpeh,  or  the  Watch-tower.  (Josh.  xiii.  26.)  This  city  be- 
longed to  the  tribe  of  Gad.  It  was  assigned  to  the  Lcvites,  and 
was  one  of  the  cities  of  refuge  beyond  Jordan.  (Deut.  iv.  43. 
Josh.  XX.  8.  xxi.  38.)  It  became  celebrated  during  the  reigns  of 
the  later  kings  of  Israel,  and  was  the  occasion  of  several  wars 
between  these  princes  and  the  kings  of  Damascus,  who  had  con- 
quered it,  and  from  whom  the  kings  of  Israel  endeavoured  to 
regain  it.  (1  Kings  xxii.  3 — 36.  2  Kings  viii.  28,  29.  2  Chron. 
xxii.  .').)  Jchoram,  king  of  Judah,  was  dangerously  wounded  at 
the  siege  of  this  place  ;  and  Jehu,  the  son  of  Nimshi,  was  here 
anointed  king  of  Israel  by  a  young  prophet  sent  by  Elisha.  (2 
Kings  ix.  1 — 10.)  Ahab,  king  of  Israel,  was  killed  in  battle 
with  the  Syrians  before  this  place.  (2  Chron.  xviii.  3,  4,  5.  et 
seq.)     It  is  now  called  Ramza.  * 

Reauixo,  oriental  mode  of,  183. 
Reaping,  notice  of,  177. 
Reuels'  Beating,  what,  67. 
Reception  of  visiters,  169,  170. 
Rechadites,  account  of,  116. 
REconnER,  office  of,  47. 
Recreations  of  the  Jews,  189,  190. 

Red  Sea,  that  branch  of  the   southern  sea  which  interposes 
Itself  between  Egypt  on  the  west,  Arabia  Felix  and  some  part 
of  Arabia  Petraja  on  the  east,  while  its  northern  extremities 
touch  on  the  coast  of  Edom.     Edom,  it  is  well  known,  in  the 
Hebrew  tongue  signifies  Red,  and  was  the  name  given  to  Esau 
for  selling  his  birthright  for  a   mess    of    pottage.       Both  the 
country  which  was  possessed  by  his   posterity  (Gen.  xxv.  30. 
xxxvi.  31 — 40.),  and  the  sea  which  was  contiguous  to  it,  wore 
called  after  his  name ;  but  the  Greeks,  not  understanding  the 
reason  of  the  appellation,  translated  it  into  their  tongue,  and 
called   it  Q^k-jl^o-a  Epuipu,  whence   the   Latins   termed   it  Metre 
Jhibrum,  and  wo  the   Red  Sea.     It   is  also  called   Yam  Suph, 
•'  the  weedy  sea,"  in  several  passages  (Num.  xxxiii.  10.  Psal.cvi. 
•J.,  «Stc.)  which  are  improperly  rendered  "the  Red  Sea."     Some 
learned  authors  have  supposed  that  it  was  so  named  from  the 
quantity  of  weeds  in  it.     But  Mr.  Bruce,  who  had  seen  and  ex- 
amined the  whole  extent  of  it,  states  that  he  never  saw  a  weed 
of  any  sort   in   it ;  and  remarks  that  a  narrow  gulf,  under  the 
immediate  influence  of  monsoons  blowing  from  contrary  points 
six  months  each  year,  would  have  too  much  agitation  to  produce 
such  vegetables,  ixildom  found   but  in  stagnant  water,  and  scl- 
domer,  if  ever,  found  in  salt  water.     He  is  of  opinion  that  the 
sea  derives  its  name  from  the  large  trees,  or  plants,  of  white  coral, 
perfectly  in  imitation  of  plants  on  land.     One  of  these,  which  he 
saw,  from  a  root  nearly  central,  threw*  out  ramifications  measur- 
ing twenty-six  feet  in  diameter  every  way.     (Travels,  vol.  ii.  p. 
138.)     This  seems  to  be  the  most  prol)able  solution  that  has 
been  hitherto  proposed  of  the  name.     The  tides  in  this  sea  arc 
but  moderate.     At  Suez,  the  difference  between  high  and  low 
water  did  not  exceed  from  three  to  four  feet,  according  to  Nie- 
buhr's  observations  on  the  tides  in  that  gulf,  during  the  years 
1762  and  1763.     (Voyage  en  Arabic,  p.  363.) 


RE 

Every  one  knows  the  celebrated  mi  aclc  of  the  passage  over 
the  Red  Sea,  when  God  opened  this  sea,  dried  it  up,  and  made 
the  Israelites  pass  through  it,  dry  shod,  to  the  number  of  600,000, 
without  reckoning  old  men,  women,  or  children.  The  rabbins, 
and  many  of  the  ancient  fathers,  relying  on  Psal.  cxxxvi,  13. 
(to  him  which  divided  the  Red  Sea  into  parts),  have  maintained 
that  the  Red  Sea  was  so  divided  as  to  make  twelve  passages ; 
that  each  of  the  twelve  tribes  passed  through  a  different  passage. 
But  other  authors  have  advanced  that,  Moses  having  lived  long 
near  the  Red  Sea,  in  the  country  of  Midian,  had  observed  that 
it  kept  its  regular  ebbing  and  flowing  like  the  ocean  ;  so  that, 
taking  the  advantage  of  the  time  of  the  ebb,  he  led  the  Hebrews 
over ;  but  the  Egyptians  not  knowing  the  nature  of  the  sea,  and 
rashly  entering  it  just  before  the  return  of  the  tide,  were  all 
swallowed  up  and  drowned,  as  Moses  relates.  Thus  the  priests  j 
of  Memphis  explained  it,  and  their  opinion  has  been  adopted  by  ^ 
a  great  number  of  moderns,  particularly  by  the  learned  critic  and 
philologer,  John  David  Michaelis,  who  in  the  queries  which  he 
sent  to  the  Danish  traveller  M.  Niebuhr,  while  in  Egypt,  proposed 
to  him  to  inquire  upon  the  spot,  "  Whether  there  were  not  some 
ridges  of  rocks  where  the  water  was  shallow,  so  that  an  army,  at 
particular  times,  may  pass  over  1  Secondly,  Whether  the  Etesian 
wintTs,  which  blow  strongly  all  summer  from  the  north-west,  could 
not  blow  so  violently  against  the  sea  as  to  keep  it  back  on  a  heap 
so  that  the  Israelites  might  have  passed  without  a  miracle  1"  anc 
<a  copy  of  these  queries  was  left  also  for  Mr.  Bruce,  to  join  his 
inquiries  likewise,  his  observations  on  which  are  excellent.  "  I 
must  confess,"  says  he,  "  however  learned  the  gentlemen  were 
who  proposed  these  doubts,  I  did  not  think  they  merited  any  at- 
tention to  solve  them.  This  passage  is  told  us  by  Scripture  to 
be  a  miraculous  one ;  and,  if  so,  we  have  nothing  to  do  with 
natural  causes.  If  we  do  not  believe  Moses,  we  need  not  believe 
the  transaction  at  all,  seeing  that  it  is  from  his  authority  alone 
we  derive  it.  If  we  believe  in  God,  that  he  made  the  sea,  we 
must  believe  he  could  divide  it  when  he  sees  proper  reason  ;  and 
of  that  he  must  be  the  only  judge.  It  is  no  greater  miracle  to 
divide  the  Red  Sea  than  to  divide  the  river  Jordan.  If  the  Ete- 
sian winds,  blowing  from  the  north-west  in  summer,  could  keep 
up  the  sea  as  a  wall  on  the  right,  or  to  the  south,  of  fifty  feet 
high,  still  the  difficulty  would  remain  of  building  the  wall  on  the 
left  hand  or  to  the  north.  Besides,  water  standing  in  that  posi- 
tion for  a  day  must  have  lost  the  nature  of  fluid.  Whence 
came  that  cohesion  of  particles  which  hindered  that  wall  to  es- 
cape at  the  sides  1  This  is  as  great  a  miracle  as  that  of  Moses. 
If  the  Etesian  winds  had  done  this  once,  they  must  have  repeated 
it  many  a  time  before  and  since,  from  the  same  causes.  Yet 
Diodorus  Siculus  (lib.  iii.  p.  122.)  says  the  Troglodytes,  the  in- 
digenous inhabitants  of  that  very  spot,  had  a  tradition  from  father 
to  son,  from  their  very  earliest  ages,  that  once  this  division  of 
the  sea  did  happen  there ;  and  that,  after  leaving  its  bottom  some 
time  dry,  the  sea  again  came  back,  and  covered  it  with  great 
fury.'  The  words  of  this  author  are  of  the  most  remarkable 
kind :  we  cannot  think  this  heathen  is  writing  in  favour  of  reve- 
lation :  he  knew  not  Moses,  nor  says  a  won!  about  Pharaoh  and 
his  host ;  but  records  the  miracle  of  the  division  of  the  sea  in 
words  nearly  as  strong  as  those  of  Moses,  from  the  mouths  of 
unbiassed,  undesigning  pagans.  Were  all  these  difficulties  sur- 
mounted, what  could  we  do  with  the  pillar  of  fire  1  The  answer 
is.  We  should  not  believe  it.  Why,  then,  believe  the  passage  at 
all  ?  We  have  no  authority  for  the  one  but  what  is  for  the  other : 
it  is  altogether  contrary  to  the  ordinary  nature  of  things ;  and, 
if  not  a  miracle,  it  must  be  a  fable."     (Vol.  ii.  pp.  135 — 137.) 

Still,  such  skeptical  queries  have  their  use ;  they  lead  to  a 
stricter  investigation  of  facts,  and  thereby  tend  strongly  to  con- 
firm the  veracity  of  the  history  they  meant  to  impeach.  Thus  it 
appears,  from  the  accurate  observations  of  Niebuhr  and  Bruce, 
that  there  is  no  ledge  of  rocks  running  across  the  gulf  any  where 
to  afford  a  shallow  passage.  And  the  second  query,  about  the 
Etesian  or  northerly  wind,  is  refuted  by  the  express  mention  of 
a  strong  easterly  wind  blowing  across,  and  scooping  out  a  dry 
passage,  not  that  it  was  necessary  for  Omnipotence  to  employ  it 
there  as  an  instrument,  any  more  than  at  Jordan  ;  but  it  seems 
to  be  introduced  in  the  sacred  history  by  way  of  anticipation,  to 
exclude  the  natural  agency  that  might  in  after  times  be  employed 
for  solving  miracles  ;  and  it  is  remarkable  that  the  monsoon  in 
the  Red  Sea  blows  the  summer  half  of  the  year  from  the  north, 
the  winter  half  from  the  south,  neither  of  which  could  iiroduco 

•  Diodonis  attributes  tliie  to  an  "  cxtrnonlinary  lii^h  tide."  Tlic  fnct, 
liowever,  tliat  "iheRround  wns  bore  to  the  very  bottom  of  llie  gulf"  If 
admitted  by  this  ciiriuus  tradition. 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


447 


RE 

the  miracle  in  question.  Wishing  to  diminish,  though  not  to 
deny  the  miracle,  Niebuhr  adopts  the  opinion  of  those  who  con- 
tend for  a  higher  passage,  near  Suez,  "  For,"  says  he,  "  the 
miracle  would  be  less  if  they  crossed  the  sea  there,  than  near 
Bedea.  But  whosoever  should  suppose  that  the  multitude  of 
the  Israelites  could  be  able  to  cross  it  here,  without  a  prodigy, 
would  deceive  himself;  for  even  in  our  days  no  caravan  passes 
that  way  to  go  from  Cairo  to  Mount  Sinai,  although  it  would 
shorten  the  journey  considerably.  The  passage  would  have  been 
naturally  more  difficult  for  the  Israelites  some  thousands  of  years 
back,  when-  the  gulf  was  probably  larger,  deeper,  and  more  ex- 
tended towards  the  north  ;  for  in  all  appearance  the  water  has 
retired,  and  the  ground  near  this  end  has  been  raised  by  the  sands 
of  the  neighbouring  desert."  (p.'354.)  But  it  sufficiently  ap- 
pears, even  from  Niebuhr's  own  statement,  that  the  passage  of 
the  Israelites  could  not  have  taken  place  near  Suez  :  for,  1.  He 
evidently  confounded  the  town  of  Kolsum,  the  ruins  of  which  he 
places  near  Suez,  and  where  he  supposed  the  passage  to  be  made 
with  the  bay  of  Kolsum,  which  began  about  forty-five  miles  lower 
down  ;  as  Mr.  Bryant  has  satisfactorily  proved  from  the  astrono- 
mical observations  of  Ptolemy  and  Ulug  Beigh,  made  at  Heroum, 
tlie  ancient  head  of  the  gulf.  (See  his  treatise  on  the  Plagues 
of  Egypt,  pp.  371,  372.) 

2.  Instead  of  crossing  the  sea  at  or  near  Ethan,  their  second 
station,  the  Israelites  "  turned"  southwards  along  the  western 
shore;  and  their  third  station  at  Pihahiroth,  or  Bedea,  was  at 
least  a  full  day's  journey  below  Ethan,  as  Mr.  Bryant  has  satis- 
factorily proved  from  Scripture.  (Exod.  xiv.  2.)  And  it  was 
this  unexpected  change  in  the  direction  of  their  march,  which 
intimated  an  intention  in  the  Israelites  to  quit  Egypt ;  and  the 
apparently  disadvantageous  situation  in  which  they  were  then 
placed,  "  entangled  in  the  land,  and  shut  in  by  the  wilderness," 
with  a  deep  sea  in  front,  the  mountains  of  Attaka  on  the  sides, 
and  the  enemy  in  their  rear,  that  tempted  the  Egyptians  to  pur- 
■sue  them  through  the  valley  of  Bedea,  by  the  direct  road  from 
Cairo ;  who  "  overtook  them  encamping  by  the  sea,  beside  Piha- 
hiroth, opposite  to  Baalzephon."  (Exod.  xiv.  2 — 9.) 

Niebuhr  wonders  how  the  Israehtes  could  suffer  themselves  to 
be  brought  into  such  a  disadvantageous  situation,  or  be  led  blind- 
fold by  Moses  to  their  apparent  destruction :  "  one  need  only 
travel  with  a  caravan,"  says  he  "  which  meets  with  the  least 
ohstacle,  viz.  a  small  torrent,  to  be  convinced  that  the  Orientals 
do  not  let  themselves  be  led,  like  fools,  by  their  Caravan  Baschi," 
or  leader  of  the  caravan,  (p.  350.)  But  the  Israelites  went  out 
of  Egypt  with  "  a  high  hand,"  though  led  by  Moses,  j-et  under 
the  visible  guidance  and  protection  of  "the  Lord  God  of  the 
Hebrews,"  who  went  before  them  by  day  in  a  pillar  of  a  cloud, 
and  by  night  in  a  pillar  of  fire  ;  and  who,  for  their  encourage- 
ment to  enter  the  passage  of  the  sea  miraculously  prepared  for 
them,  removed  the  cloud  which  went  before  the  camp  of  Israel 
hitherto,  and  placed  it  behind  them.  (Exod.  xiv.  8 — 20.)  "  And 
it  came  between  the  camp  of  the  Egyptians  and  the  camp  of 
Israel ;  and  it  was  a  cloud  and  darkness  to  the  one,  but  gave 
light  by  night  to  the  other ;  so  that  the  one  came  not  near  the 
other  all  the  night."  (Dr.  Hales's  Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol. 
i.  pp.  388 — 391.)  The  preceding  elaborate  view  of  this  subject 
furnishes  a  most  clear  and  satisfactory  answer  to  the  cavils  of 
modern  infidels. 

Various  ancient  traditions  among  the  heathen  historians  attest 
the  reality  of  the  miraculous  passage  of  the  Red  Sea  by  the  Is- 
raelites :  to  which  wc  may  add  that  it  is  mmiifest  from  the  text 
of  Moses  and  other  sacred  authors,  who  have  mentioned  this 
miraculous  passage,  that  no  other  account  is  supportable  but  that 
which  supposes  the  Hebrews  to  cross  over  the  sea  from  shore  to 
shore,  in  a  vast  space  of  dry  ground  which  was  left  void  by  the 
waters  at  their  retiring.  (Exod.  xiv.  16,  17,  &c.)  To  omit  the 
numerous  allusions  in  the  book  of  Psalms,  Isaiah  says  (Ixiii.  11, 
«&c.)  that  the  Lord  divided  the  waves  before  his  people,  that  he 
conducted  them  through  the  bottom  of  the  abyss,  as  a  horse  is 
led  through  the  midst  of  a  field.  Habakkuk  says  (iii.  15.),  that 
the  Lord  made  himself  a  road  to  drive  his  chariot  and  horses 
across  the  sea,  across  the  mud  of  great  waters.  Lastly,  in  the 
apochryphal  book  of  Wisdom  we  read  (xix.  7, 8.  x.  17, 18.),  that 
the  dry  land  appeared  all  on  a  sudden  in  a  place  where  water 
was  before ;  that  a  free  passage  was  opened  in  a  moment  through 
the  midst  of  the  Red  Sea  ;  and  that  a  green  field  was  seen  in  the 
midst  of  the  abyss. 

Refuge,  cities  of,  16. 

Regal  Government  of  the  Israelites  and  Jews,  42 — 46.  Its 
duration.  49. 


RH 


Reo«)n  round  about  Jordan,  notice  of,  33. 

Reiioboam,  the  son  and  successor  of  Solomon.  In  his  reign 
the  kingdom  of  David  was  divided,  the  tribes  of  Judah  and  Ben- 
jamin retaining  their  allegiance  to  Rchoboam,  while  the  othei 
ten  tribes  became  subject  to  Jeroboam  the  son  of  Nebat.  Reho- 
boam  died  after  reigning  17  years,  and  was  succeeded  on  the 
throne  of  Judah  by  his  son  Arijaii  or  Abi.tam,  b.  c.954. 

Religion,  corruptions  of,  among  the  Jews,  135 — 143.  Par- 
ticularly in  the  time  of  Christ,  148—150. 

.Rejiphan,  a  Coptic  name  of  Saturn,  who  was  also  worship- 
ped under  the  name  of  Molocu.  (Acts  vii.  43.  Compare 
p.  137.) 

Rending  of  garments,  a  sign  of  mourning,  159. 

Rephaim  or  RAPHAiM,the  sons  of  Rapha  (2  Sam.  xxi.  16. 18. 
Heb.  and  marginal  rendering),  a  Canaanitish  race  of  giants  that 
dwelt  beyond  the  Jordan  (Gen.  xiv.  5.  xv.  20.  Josh.  xvii.  15.), 
from  whom  the  gigantic  Og  king  of  Bashan  was  descended. 
(Deut.  iii.  11.)  In  a  wider  sense,  this  word  seems  to  have  in- 
cluded all  the  giant  tribes  of  Canaan.  (Deut.  ii.  11.  20.)  In 
subsequent  times,  the  sons  of  Rapha  appear  to  have  been  men 
of  extraordinary  strength  among  the  Philistines.  (2  Sam.  xxi. 
16.  18.  marg.  rend.)  The  Valley  or  the  Rephaim  (for  an 
account  of  which  see  pp.  31,  32.)  derives  its  name  from  this 
tribe. 

Rephidim,  a  station  or  encampment  of  the  Israelites  in  the 
desert  (Exod.  xvii.  1.),  where  the  Israelites  were  miraculously 
supplied  with  water  out  of  the  rock  of  Meiubah.  It  is  an  in- 
sulated rock,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Sinai,  about  six  yards  square, 
according  to  Dr.  Shaw,  but  Mr.  Came  says  that  it  is  about  five 
yards  long,  five  in  height,  and  four  yards  wide.  This  rock, 
which  is  of  granite,  is  in  Deut.  viii.  15.  rightly  called  a  rock  of 
Jiint,  in  consequence  of  its  hardness :  it  lies,  tottering,  as  it 
were,  and  loose,  near  the  middle  of  the  valley,  and  seems  for- 
merly to  have  been  a  part  or  cliff  of  Mount  Sinai.  The  ivaters 
which  gushed  out,  and  the  stream  v/hichjlo-ived tvit/ial  (Psal.vii. 
8.  21.),  have  hollowed  across  one  corner  of  this  rock  a  channel 
about  two  inches  deep,  and  twenty  inches  wide.  There  are  also 
four  or  five  fissures,  one  above  the  other,  on  the  face  of  the  rock, 
each  of  them  about  a  foot  and  a.  half  long,  and  a  few  inches 
deep,  "  the  lively  and  demonstrative  evidence  of  their  having 
been  formerly  so  many  fountains."  A  remarkable  circumstance 
is,  that  they  run  along  the  breadth  of  the  rock,  and  are  not  sent 
downwards :  they  are  more  than  a  foot  asunder.  Neither  art 
nor  chance  could  be  concerned,  says  Dr.  Shaw,  in  the  contri- 
vance :  inasmuch  as  every  circumstance  points  out  to  us  a  mira- 
cle ;  and,  in  the  same  manner  with  the  rent  in  the  rock  of  Cal- 
vary at  Jerusalem,  never  fails  to  produce  the  greatest  seriousness 
and  devotion  in  all  who  see  it.  (Shaw's  Travels,  vol.  ii.  pp.  109, 
110.  Game's  Letters,  pp.  198,  199.) 

Restitution,  in  what  cases  enjoined,  65. 

Retaliation  among  the  Jews,  64,  65. 

Reuben,  the  eldest  son  of  Jacob  and  Leah,  gave  his  name  to 
one  of  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel ;  for  the  canton  assigned  to 
which,  see  p.  16. 

Revenues  of  the  kings  of  Israel  and  Judah,  46.  Of  the  Le- 
vites,  112.     And  of  the  priests,  113. 

Reverence  of  the  Jews  for  their  temple,  100,  101.  Of  infe- 
riors to  superiors,  169.  •' 

Rezin,  king  of  Syria,  an  able  prince  who  knew  how  to  avail  St 
himself  of  the  divisions  of  his  neighbours,  in  order  to  aggrandize 
himself.  He  formed  an  aUiance  with  Pekah  king  of  Israel  against 
Ahaz  king  of  Judah,  whose  dominions  he  invaded ;  and,  after 
obtaining  considerable  advantages,  he  took  a  great  number  of 
prisoners,  whom  he  sent  to  Damascus,  and  then  proceeded  to  lay 
siege  to  Jerusalem,  in  which  he  failed.  (2  Kings  xv.  37.  xvi.  5. 
2  Chron.  xxxviii.  5.)  This  check,  which  had  been  foretold  by 
Isaiah  (vii.  1 — 8.),  frustrated  the  project  formed  by  the  allied 
princes  for  overthrowing  the  dynasty  of  David.  Rezin  was  more 
successful  in  Iduraoea,  where  he  made  himself  master  of  the  port 
of  Elath  on  the  Red  Sea ;  an  important  conquest  which  gave 
him  the  command  of  the  neighbouring  country  and  sea  (2  Kings 
xvi.  6.)  His  successes  were  of  short  duration  ;  in  the  following 
year,  agreeably  to  the  predictions  of  Isaiah  (viii.  4.  ix.  10.),  Da- 
mascus was  taken  by  Tiglath-pileser  king  of  Assyria,  who  car 
ried  its  inhabitants  into  bondage,  and  put  to  death  Rezin,  with 
whom  the  kingdom  of  Syria  terminated. 

RiiEGiUM,  a  maritime  city,  near  the  south-western  extremity 
of  Italy,  opposite  to  Messina  in  Sicily.  Here  St.  Paul  stayed  one 
day,  on  his  first  voyage  to  Rome.  (Acts  xxviii.  13.)  It  is  now 
called  Rheggio. 


448 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL, 

S  A 

Rhodes,  an  island  and  city  in  the  Levant,  which  is  said  to 
have  derived  its  name  from  the  abundance  of  roses  which  grew 
there.  When  St.  Paul  went  to  Jerusalem,  a.  d.  58,  he  went  from 
Miletus  to  Coos,  from  Coos  to  Rhodes,  and  thence  to  Patara  in 
Lvcia.  (Acts  xxi.  1.) 

RiBLAH,  a  city  of  Syria,  in  the  country  of  Hamalh,  which, 
according  to  .lerorae,  was  the  same  with  what  was  afterwards 
called  AxTiocH  in  Syria.  It  was  very  pleasantly  situated;  and 
here  Pharaoh-Necho  stopped,  on  liis  return  from  the  battle  of 
Megiddo.  (3  Kings  xxiii.  33.) 

RiMMON  signifies  a  pomegranate  tree. 

1.  An  idol  of  the  Syrians,  supposed  to  be  the  Jupiter  of  the 
ancients,  or,  according  to  some  writers,  the  sun.  (2  Kings  v.  8.) 

2.  A  city  in  the  tribe  of  Simeon,  on  the  southern  boundary  of 
Palestine.  (Josh.  xv.  3-2.  xix.  7.  Zech.  xiv.  10.) 

3.  A  rock  not  far  from/Sibeah,  whither  the  children  of  Benja- 
min retreated  after  their  defeat.  (Judg.  xx.  4.5.  47.  xxi.  1 3.)  Hi- 
ther also  Saul  and  his  men  went.   (1  Sam.  xiv.  2.) 

4.  RniMox-METiioAii  (^a  round  pomegranate),  a  city  in  the 
tribeofZebulon  (Josh.  xix.  13),  which  is  supposed  to  be  the  same 
as  R.'MMOxo,  which  is  mentioned  in  1  Chron.  vi.  62. 

5.  RiMMON-PAiiT.z  (split  pomegra7iate),  the  sixteenth  encamp- 
ment of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness.  (Num.  xxxiii.  I'J.) 

RiKos  worn  by  the  Jews,  157,  158. 

RiVEiis  of  the  Holy  Land,  25,  26. 

Ror.Ei.  or  En-hobei.,  fountain  of,  28. 

RoMK,  the  metropolis  of  the  world  during  the  period  comprised 
in  the  New  Testament  history.     According  to  the  chronology  of 
Archbishop  Usher,  this  city  was  founded  by  Remus  and  Romu- 
lus, A.M.  3966  of  the  Julian  period,  in  a.m.  3256,   k.c.  748, 
towards  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Hczekiah,  king  of  Judah.    This 
city  is  so  well  known,  that  it  is  needless  to  give  any  account  of 
it  here.     The  later  sacred  authors  of  the  Old  Testament  have 
not  mentioned  it ;  but  it  frequently  occurs  in  the  books  of  the 
Maccabees  and  in  the  New  Testament.     Saint  Peter  (1  Ep.  v. 
13.)  has  denoted  it  by  the  figurative  name  of  Babylon.     The 
church  that  is  at  Babylon,  elected  together  -with  yon,  saluteth 
you.    Saint  John,  in  his  Revelation  (xiv.  8.  xvi.  19.  xvii.  5.  xviii. 
2.  10.  21.),  points  it  out  by  the  same  name,  and  describes  it  in 
such  a  manner  as  can  only  agree  to  Rome:   1.  By  its  comiaand 
over  all  nations ;  2.  By  its  cruelty  towards  the  saints ;  and,  3. 
By  its  situation  upon  seven  hills.  (Rev.  xvii.  9.)     St.  Paul  came 
twice  to  Rome :  first,  a.  n.  61,  when  he  appealed  to  Ciesar;  and, 
secondly,  a.  d.  65,  a  year  before  his  martyrdom,  which  happened 
in  A.  D.  66.     Account  of  the  judicature  of  the  Romans,  57 — 59. 
Roman  tribunals,  60.     Powers  of  the  Roman  procurators,  52. 
Roman  mode  of  computing  time,  72,  73.    Disciphne  and  military 
triumphs,  93 — 95.     Tribute  reluctantly  paid  to  the  Romans  by 
the  Jews,  60. 

Roofs  of  houses,  153. 
RuDDEn-BAxns,  nature  of,  188. 

Rural  ash  Domestic  Economy  of  the  Jews,  174 — 180. 
Ri'Tii,  a  Moabitish  woman,  who  returned  with  her  mother-in- 
law  Naomi  to  the  land  of  Israel,  and  became  the  wife  of  Boaz. 
(Matt.  i.  5.)     See  an  analysis  of  the  Book  of  Ruth,  p.  218. 


AND   GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 

S  A 
side  of  the  island,   and 


was  afterwards  called 


Sabbath  of  the  Jews,  how  observed,  121,  122. 

Sabbatical  Yeah,  account  of,  128. 

Sabtechah,  a  people  or  country  of  the  Cushitcs ;  most  pro- 
bably Sabatha  or  Sal)ota,  a  considerable  city  of  Arabia  Felix, 
according  to  Pliny  (Nat.  Hist.  1.  vi.  c.  28.  §  32.),  the  principal 
city  of  the  Atramites,  a  tribe  of  Sabajans,  on  the  Red  Sea. 

Sackbut,  an  ancient  musical  instrument,  used  in  Chalda;a, 
supposed  to  consist  of  four  strings,  and  to  emit  a  shrill  sound. 

Sacbamest  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  points  of  resemblance  be- 
tween and  the  Jewish  Passover,  125. 

Sacbei)  Oblioatiotjs  and  Duties  of  the  Jews,  129 — 134. 

Sacked  Peiisoxk,  among  tbcm,  account  of,  108 — 116. 

Sacred  Places,  account  of,  95 — 107. 

Sacbed  Thisos,  account  of,  116 — 120. 

Sacked  Times  and  Seasons,  account  of,  121 — 129. 

Sacrifices  of  the  Jews,  divine  origin  of,  117.  Selection  of, 
and  how  ofTered,  117,  118.  DilTcrcnt  kinds  of,  118—120. 
Their  fitness  and  propriety,  120,  121.  I 'nbioody  sacrifices,  119. 
Allusions  to  the  sacrifices  of  the  heathens  explained,  139 — 142. 

Saiiducees,  sect  of,  tenets  of,  145,  146. 

Sauan,  or  substitute  of  the  high  priest,  1 13. 

Salamis,  the  chief  city  of  the  island  of  Cyprus,  where  the 
Gospel  was  early  preached.  (Acts  xiii.  5.)     It  was  situated  on 


the  south-east 
Constantia. 
Salem. 

1.  A  name  of  the  city  of  jEnrsALEM.  (Psal.  Ixxvi.  2.) 

2.  Or  Salim,  a  place  on  the  banks  of  the  Jordan,  where  Johr. 
baptized.  (John  iii.  23.)    Its  situation  cannot  now  be  ascertained 

Salmone,  a  maritime  city  and  promontory,  which  forms  the 
eastern  extremity  of  the  island  of  Crete.  (Acts  xxvii.  7.) 

Salome,  the  wife  of  Zebedee,  and  the  mother  of  the  apostles 
James  and  John.     She  was  one  of  those  who  attended  Jesus 
Christ  on  his  journeys,  and  ministered  to  him.  (Mark  xv.  40. 
xvi.  1.  Matt.  XX.  20.  xxvii.  56.) 
Salt,  covenant  of,  81. 
Salt  Sea,  account  of,  27,  28. 
Salt,  Vale  of,  notice  of,  31. 
Salutations,  forms  of,  168,  169. 
Sam  or  Samiel,  wind,  notice  of,  40. 

Samaria,  the  ancient  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  is  very 
frequently  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament :  it  was  situated  on 
a  hill  which  derived  its  name  from  Scmer  or  Shcmer,  of  whom 
it  was  purchased  by  Omri  king  of  Israel,  b.  c.  921,  who  made 
it  the  seat  of  his  government,  and  called  it  Samaria  (Heb.  Shorn- 
eroii),  from  its  former  owner.     By  his  successors  it  was  greatly 
improved  and  fortified  ;  and,  after  resisting  the  repeated  attacks 
of  the  kings  of  Assyria,  it  was  destroyed  by  Shalmaneser,  b.  c. 
717,  who  reduced  it  to  a  heap  of  stones.  (Micah  i.  6.  2  Kings 
xvii.  6.)     Samaria  seems  to  have   arisen  again  from  its  ruins 
during  the  reign  of  Alexander,  b.  c.  549,  after  whose  death  it 
was  subject  to  the  Egyptian  and  Syrian  kings,   until  it  was 
besieged,  taken,  and  rased  to  the  ground  by  the  high-priest  Hyr- 
canus,  b.  c.  129  or  130.     It  was  aftenvards  wholly  rebuilt,  and 
considerably  enlarged  by  Herod,  surnamed  the  Great,  who  gave 
it  the  name  of  Sebaste,  and  erected  a  temple  there  in  honour  of 
the  emperor  Augustus  (Sebastos)  Ca;sar.     The  situation  is  ex- 
tremely beautiful    and   strong  by  nature.     It  stands  on  a  fine, 
large,  insulated  hill,  surrounded  by  a  broad  deep  valley  ;  which 
is  environed  by  four  hills,  one  on  each  side,  that  are  cultivated 
with  terraces  up  to  the  top,  sown  with  grain,  and   (as  the  valley 
also  is)  planted  with  fig  and  olive  trees.     The  hill  of  Samaria 
likewise  rises  in  terraces  to  a  height  equal  to  any  of  the  adjoining 
mountains.     The  population  of  Samaria,  in  1819,  was  computed 
by  Mr.  Rae  Wilson  at  nearly  10,000  souls,  composed  of  Turks, 
Arabs,  and  Greeks,   and  a  few  Jews  of  the   Samaritan  sect. 
(Travels,  vol.  i.  p.  377.    Third  edition.)     For  a  notice  of  the 
idols  worshipped   in  Samaria  during  the  captivity,  see  p.  139. 
And  for  an  account  of  the  tenets,  &c.  of  the  Samaritans,  see 
pp.  147, 148. 

Samaria,  Mountains  of,  p.  29.  Region  of,  18. 
Samos,  an  island  of  the  Archipelago  on  the  coast  of  Asia 
Minor.  The  Romans  wrote  to  the  governor  of  Samos  in  favour 
of  the  Jews,  in  the  time  of  Simon  Maccabrcus,  a.  m.  3685, 
B.  c.  139.  (1  Mace.  xv.  23.)  St.  Paul  went  ashore  on  the  same 
island,  as  he  was  going  to  Jerusalcii),  a.  d.  58.  (Acts  xx.  15.) 

SAMOTnnACH,an  island  of  the  JEgean  Sea.  St.  Paul  depart- 
ing from  Troas  for  Macedonia,  arrived  first  at  Samothracia,  and 
then  landed  in  Macedonia.  (Acts  xvi.  11.)  It  was  anciently 
called  Dardana  and  Leucania,  and  afterwards  Samos;  and  in 
order  to  distinguish  it  from  the  other  Samos,  the  epithet  Thracian 
was  added,  which  passed  into  the  name  Samothrace. 

Samson  or  Sa-vji'so.v,  the  thirteenth  judge  of  Israel,  the  son  of 
Manoah.  of  the  tribe  of  Dan.  Before  his  birth  he  was  conse- 
crated to  be  a  Nazarite,  and  was  chosen  to  deliver  the  Israelites 
from  the  yoke  of  the  Philistines.  He  was  celebrated  for  his  vast 
physical  strength,  and  for  the  bravery  and  success  with  which  he 
defended  his  country  against  its  enemies.  (Judg.  xiii. — ^xvi.) 
He  judged  the  Israelites  twenty  years, 

Samuel,  a  celebrated  Hebrew  prophet,  the  son  of  Elkanoh 
and  Hannah,  of  the  tribe  of  Levi.  Having  been  consecrated  to 
God  from  his  birth,  he  received  divine  communications  even  in 
his  childhood  :  he  was  the  fifteenth  and  last  judge  of  the  Israel- 
ites. By  divine  direction,  he  convcited  the  Hebrew  common* 
wealth  into  a  kingdom ;  and  anointed  Saul  as  the  first  king,  and 
afterwards  David.  He  is  su[)posed  to  have  been  the  first  insti- 
tutor  of  schools  for  the  education  of  the  sons  of  the  prophets. 
He  died  at  the  age  of  ninety-eight  years,  about  two  years  before 
the  death  of  Saul.  For  an  analysis  of  the  two  books  of  Samuel, 
see  pp.  218 — 220. ;  and  on  the  appearance  of  Samuel  to  Saul  at 
Endor,  see  Vol.  I.  p.  95. 

Sanctuart  of  the  temple  described,  100 
Sandals  of  the  Hebrew:*,  notice  of,  157. 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 
SB  SH 


•149 


Sawhedhiit,  or  great  council  of  the  Hebrews,  powers  and 
functions  of,  54,  55. 

Sapphiha,  the  wife  of  Ananias,  who,  together  with  him,  was 
struck  with  instant  death,  for  attempting  to  deceive  God  the  Holy 
Spirit.  (Acts  v.  1.3.  9,  10.) 

Sarah,  the  wife  of  Abraham,  and  the  mother  of  Isaac,  whom 
she  bore  at  an  age  when  she  could  little  expect  such  a  blessing. 
(Gen.  xxi.)  She  died  at  the  advanced  age  of  127  years,  at  Kir- 
jath-arba,  afterwards  called  Hebron.  (Gen.  xxiii.  1.  9.) 

Sakdis,  the  metropolis  of  the  region  of  Lydia,  in  Asia  Minor, 
was  situate^  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Tmolus,  which  commands  an 
extensive  view  over  the  surrounding  country.  It  was  celebrated 
for  the  great  opulence  and  for  the  voluptuous  and  debauched 
manners  of  its  inhabitants.  Considerable  ruins  still  attest  the 
ancient  splendour  of  this  once  celebrated  capital  of  Crcesus  and 
the  Lydian  kings,  which  is  now  reduced  to  a  wretched  village 
called  Sart,  consisting  of  a  few  mud  huts  occupied  by  Turkish 
herdsmen.  "  A  great  portion  of  the  ground  once  occupied  by  the 
imperial  city  is  now  a  smooth  grassy  plain,  browsed  over  by  the 
sheep  of  the  peasants,  or  trodden  by  the  camels  of  the  caravan  ; 
and  all  that  remains  to  point  out  the  site  of  its  glory  are  a  few 
disjointed  pillars,  and  the  crumbling  rock  of  the  Acropolis."  No 
Christians  reside  on  the  spot :  two  Greek  servants  of  a  Turkish 
miller,  in  1826,  were  the  only  representatives  of  the  church  at 
Sardis,  the  present  state  of  which  affords  a  most  striking  illus- 
tration of  the  accomplishment  of  the  prophetic  denunciations 
against  the  church  in  that  city.  (Emerson's  Letters  from  the 
iEgean,  vol.  i.  pp.  201.  216 — 218 ;  Hartley's  Visit,  Miss.  Regis- 
ter, 1827,  p.  326. ;  Arundell's  Visit,  pp.  176—182.) 

Sarepta,  or  Zarephath  (Luke  iv.  26.),  was  a  city  in  the 
territory  of  Sidon,  between  that  city  and  Tyre.  It  was  the  place 
where  the  widow  dwelt  to  whom  the  prophet  Elijah  was  sent, 
and  was  preserved  by  her  cruise  of  oil  and  barrel  of  meal  that 
wasted  not.  (I  Kings  xvii.  9.)  It  is  now  a  small  \illage  called 
Zarfa. 

Sargon  (Isa.  XX.  1.),  a  king  of  Assyria,  whom  some  critics 
and  expositors  have  supposed  to  have  been  the  predecessor  of 
Sennacherib;  while  others  have  conceived  him  to  have  been 
Sennacherib  himself. 

Saron  or  Sharon,  a  town  adjoining  to  Lydda,  which  gave  name 
to  the  spacious  and  fruitful  valley  between  Csesarea  and  Joppa. 
Peter's  miraculous  healing  of  the  paralytic  Eneas  at  Lydda  was 
the  means  of  bringing  the  inhabitants  of  Saron  to  the  knowledge 
of  the  Gospel.  (Acts  ix.  35.) 

Sattl. 

1.  The  son  of  Kish,  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  and  the  first 
king  of  Israel.  In  consequence  of  his  disregarding  the  divine 
commands,  he  was  rejected  by  God,  and  David  the  son  of  Jesse 
anointed  to  be  sovereign  in  his  stead.  Saul,  after  persecuting 
David  for  many  years,  was  slain,  together  with  his  two  sons,  on 
Mount  Gilboa,  fighting  against  the  Philistines.  (2  Sam.  i.)  On 
the  nature  of  his  malady,  see  p.  196. 

2.  The  Jewish  name  of  the  apostle  Padl. 
Scape-goat,  typical  reference  of,  127. 
ScEPTRt  of  the  kings  of  Israel,  44. 

ScETA,  a  Jew,  one  of  the  chief  priests,  whose  seven  sons  went 
from  city  to  city,  as  many  Jews  did,  to  exorcise  those  who  were 
possessed  by  demons.  At  Ephesus  pretending  to  invoke  the 
name  of  Jesus  over  the  possessed,  they  were  so  severely  treated 
by  these  spirits  for  their  presumption,  that  they  were  forced  to  flee 
out  of  the  house  naked  and  wounded.  (Acts  xix.  14 — 17.) 

Schools  of  the  Jews,  particularly  of  the  prophets,  184,  185. 
Military  schools,  87. 

Sciences  cultivated  by  the  Jews,  account  of,  184 — 187. 

Scorpions  of  the  desert,  34.  note  2. 

Scourging,  punishment  of,  how  inflicted  among  the  Jews,  64, 
and  among  the  Romans,  ibid.  Could  not  be  inflicted  on  a  Roman 
citizen,  58,  69. 

Scribes,  account  of,  in  the  time  of  Moses,  42 ;  and  in  the 
time  of  Christ,  146.     Royal  scribes,  47. 

Scriptures,  reading  of,  in  the  Synagogues,  104,  105. 

Seals  or  Signets  of  the  Jews,  157,  158. 

Seas  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures.  See  pp.  26 — 28 ;  and  Red 
Sea,  p.  446. 

Seasons  of  Palestine,  23 — 25. 

Sects  of  the  Jews,  account  of,  144 — 146. 

Seed-time,  notice  of,  23. 

Seir. 

1 .  Mountains  of  Seir,  a  ridge  to  the  south  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
inclining  towards  Elath  and  Ezion-geber  upon  the  Red  Sea. 

Vol.  II.  8  L 


2.  A  mountain  upon  the  frontiers  of  the  tribes  of  Judah  and 
Dan. 

Seihath,  the  place  where  Ehud  stopped  after  the  death  of 
Eglon  king  of  Moab.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  near  Bethel. 
(Judg.  iii.  26.) 

Selah,  the  capital  of  the  Edomites,  which  Amaziah  captured, 
and  changed  its  name  into  Joktheel.  It  is  supposed  to  have  de- 
rived its  name  (which  signifies  a  rock)  from  its  rocky  situation, 
and  to  have  been  the  city  afterwards  called  Petra  in  Arabia. 
(2  Kings  xiv.  7.) 

Seleucia,  a  fortified  city  of  Syria,  situated  on  the  sea-coast, 
a  little  north  of  the  mouth  of  the  river  Orontes :  it  derived  its 
name  from  Seleucus  Nicator,  and  was  sometimes  called  Seleucia 
ad  mare,  to  distinguish  it  from  seven  or  eight  other  cities  in 
Syria  of  the  same  name.     (Acts  xiii.  4.) 

Seleucid2e,  area  of,  77,  and  note  4. 

Self-interdiction,  vows  of,  130. 

Senate  of  Seventy  in  the  wilderness,  notice  of,  42. 

Sennacherib,  a  king  of  Assyria,  who  invaded  the  kingdom 
of  Judah  in  the  reign  of  Hezekiah.  See  Assyria,  p.  410.  col.  2. 

Sentences  (Judicial),  how  performed  among  the  Jews,  57. 

Sepharad,  a  country  or  place  where  some  of  the  Jewish  cap- 
tives dwelt.  In  the  Latin  Vulgate,  it  is  rendered  Bosphorus  ; 
in  the  Syriac  and  Chaldee  versions,  and  by  modern  Hebrew 
commentators,  it  is  rendered  Spain.  Both  these  explanations, 
says  Gesenius,  are  undoubtedly  false ;  but  nothing  more  certain 
can  be  substituted  in  their  place. 

Sepharvim,  a  city  under  the  government  of  the  Assyrians, 
probably  situated  in  Mesopotamia ;  whence  colonists  were  sent 
into  the  country  of  Samaria.     (2  Kings  xvii.  24.) 

Sepulchres  of  the  Jews,  account  of,  200,  201. 

Sepulture,  rights  of,  199,  200. 

Serab,  nature  of,  35,  and  note  3. 

Sergius  Paulus,  the  Roman  proconsul  or  governor  of  Cy- 
prus, who  was  led  by  the  preaching  of  Paul  and  Barnabas  to 
embrace  the  Christian  faith.     (Acts  xiii.  7.) 

Serpent,  Brazen,  worshipped  by  the  Jews,  136,  137. 

Servants,  different  kinds  of,  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures, 
168.     How  hired  and  paid  in  Judaea,  167. 

Seth,  the  son  of  Adam  and  Eve,  and  father  of  Enos,  was 
bom  after  the  death  of  Abel.  He  lived  912  years.  His  posterity, 
who  were  distinguished  from  the  descendants  of  Cain  by  the  ap- 
pellation of  the  sons  of  God,  preserved  the  patriarchal  religion 
in  its  purity  until  the  time  of  the  deluge,  after  which  it  was 
transmitted  by  the  race  of  Shem.  (1  Chron.  i.  1.  Luke  iii.  I. 
Gen.  iv.  25.   v.  3.   vi.  2.) 

Shadow  of  Death,  Valley  of,  notice  of,  34.  note  3. 

Shalmaneser  or  Salmaneser  king  of  Assyria.  See  As- 
syria, 410.  col.  1. 

Sharon,  Vale  of,  notice  of,  32. 

Shaveh,  Valley  of,  notice  of,  31. 

Shechem.     See  Sichem,  infra. 

Sheep-husbandrt  of  the  Jews,  175,  176. 

Shem  or  Sem,  the  second  son  of  Noah.  (Gen.  v.  32.)  Ac- 
cording to  the  genealogical  table  in  Gen.  x.  the  nations  in  south- 
western Asia,  as  the  Persians,  Assyrians,  Syrians,  Hebrews,  and 
part  of  the  Arabians,  were  descended  from  him. 

Shemer,  the  name  of  the  possessor  of  the  mountain  on  which 
the  city  of  Samaria  was  erected  by  Omri  king  of  Israel,  to 
whom  he  sold  that  territory  for  two  talents  of  silver.  From  the 
circumstance  of  that  city  being  called  after  his  name,  as  well  as 
from  the  very  small  sum  given  by  way  of  purchase  money,  it, 
has  been  conjectured  that  Shemer  made  it  one  of  the  conditions 
of  sale  that  his  name  should  be  given  to  the  new  city.  As  the 
law  of  Moses  prohibited  the  irredeemable  cession  of  estates,  and 
as  Shemer's  name  is  mentioned  without  any  notice  of  his  gene- 
alogy, it  is  not  improbable  that  he  was  descended  from  the  Ca- 
naanites,  whom  the  Israelites  had  not  been  able  to  expel. 

Shemoneh  Esrah,  or  Jewish  Prayers,  107,  108. 

Shenir,  Mount,  30. 

Shepherds,  duties  of,  176. 

Sheshach,  another  name  for  Babylon.  (Jer.  xxv.  26.  li.  41.) 
This  is  evident  from  the  connection ;  but  the  derivation  of  the 
word  is  obscure.  Calmet  supposed  Sheshach  to  be  a  pagan  idol, 
worshipped  at  Babylon ;  and  that  Jeremiah  gave  to  that  city  the 
name  of  its  tutelar  deity. 

Shields  of  the  Hebrews,  and  of  the  Romans,  87,  88. 

Shiloh,  a  celebrated  city  in  the  tribe  of  Ephraim,  where  the 
people  assembled  (Josh,  xviii.  1.)  to  set  up  the  tabernacle  of  the 
congregation,  which  continued  there  until  the  time  of  Eli. 


450 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


SI 

(1  Sara.  iv.  3.)   It  was  situated  on  a  high  mountain  to  the  north 
of  Bethel. 

Shijtar,  the  territory  of  Babylon.  (Gen.  x.  10.  xi.  2.  xiv.  1. 
Isa.  xi.  11.  Dan.  i.  2.  Zech.  v.  11.)  The  boundaries  of  this 
country  are  defined  in  Gen.  x.  10.,  and  depend  on  the  interpre- 
tation given  to  the  names  of  cities  mentioned  in  that  verse. 

Ships,  of  the  ancients,  notice  of,  188,  189. 

Shishak,  a  king  of  Egypt  who  was  contemporary  with  Solo- 
mon and  Rehoboam.  He  first  gave  an  asylum  to  the  malcon- 
tent Jeroboam  (1  Kings  xi.  40.);  and  afterwards,  as  soon  as  he 
saw  that  Rehoboam's  power  was  weakened  by  the  revolt  of  the 
ten  tribes,  he  invaded  JudsDa  and  advanced  against  Jerusalem 
with  an  immense  army,  composed  of  Egyptians,  Ethiopians, 
Lybians,  and  Sukkira  or  Troglodytes.  But,  satisfied  with  the 
submission  of  the  Jewish  monarch  and  with  the  spoils  of  his 
capital,  including  the  treasures  of  the  temple,  he  left  him  his 
throne,  and  drew  oil"  his  forces.  (1  Kings  xiv.  25,  26.  2  Chron. 
xii.  2^9.)  Shishak  is  the  Sesonchis  of  profane  historians,  and 
the  head  of  the  Bubastite  or  twenty-second  dynasty  of  the 
Egyptian  kings.  His  name  has  been  discovered  on  the  recently 
explained  Egj-ptian  monuments  (compare  Vol.  I.  p.  88,  89.) ; 
and  he  is  supposed  to  have  been  an  Ethiopian,  who,  supported 
by  the  military  caste,  dethroned  the  Pharaoh  who  was  Solomon's 
father-in-law. 

SuoES,  or  Sandals  of  the  Hebrews,  157. 

Showbreas,  table  of,  notice  of,  100.  119. 

Shunem,  a  city  in  the  tribe  of  Issachar.  (Josh.  xix.  18. 
8  Sam.  xxviii.  4.)  Here  the  prophet  Elisha  was  hospitably  en- 
tertained by  a  benevolent  woman  ;  whose  son  dying,  he  miracu- 
lously restored  him  to  life.  (2  Kings  iv.)  According  to  Euse- 
bius,  there  was  a  place  called  Sulem  (by  a  commutation  of  I  and 
n)  five  Roman  miles  south  of  Mount  Tabor. 

Shuh,  Wilderness  of,  notice  of,  33. 

Shcshan,  the  capital  of  Susiana,  a  province  of  Elam  or  Persia, 
which  Daniel  terms  the  palace  (viii,  2.),  because  the  Chaldsean 
monarchs  had  here  a  royal  palace.  After  Cyrus,  the  kings  of 
Persia  were  accustomed  to  pass  the  winter  there,  and  the  sum- 
mer at  Ecbatana.  The  winter  was  very  moderate  at  Shushan, 
but  the  heat  of  the  summer  was  so  great,  that  the  very  lizards 
and  serpents,  if  surprised  by  it  in  the  streets,  are  said  to  have 
been  burned  up  by  the  solar  rays.  This  city  stands  on  the  river 
Ulai,  or  Choaspes.  In  this  city,  and  on  this  river,  Daniel  had 
the  vision  of  the  ram  with  two  horns,  and  the  goat  with  one 
horn,  &c.  in  the  third  year  of  the  reign  of  Belshazzar  (Dan. 
viii.  1 — 3,  &c.),  A.  M.  3447,  b.  c.  557.  In  this  city  of  Shushan, 
the  transactions  took  place  which  are  related  in  the  book  of 
Esther.  Here  Ahasuerus,  or  Darius  the  son  of  Hystaspes,  gene- 
rally resided  and  reigned.  (Esth.  i.  1,2.  5,  &c.)  He  rebuilt, 
enlarged,  and  adorned  iu  Nehemiah  was  also  at  Shushan,  when 
he  obtained  from  king  Artaxerxes  permission  to  return  into 
Judaea,  and  to  repair  the  walls  of  Jerusalem.  (Neh.  i.  1.)  Ben- 
jamin of  Tudela,  and  Abulfaragius,  place  the  tomb  of  Daniel  at 
Chuzestan,  which  is  the  ancient  city  of  Shushan,  and  a  tomb  is 
still  shown  to  travellers,  as  the  tomb  of  the  prophet.  Dr.  Light- 
foot  says,  that  the  outward  gate  of  the  eastern  wall  of  the  temple 
was  called  the  gate  of  Shushan  ;  and  that  upon  this  gate  was 
carved  the  figure  (more  probably  the  arms  or  insignia)  of  Shu- 
shan, in  acknowledgment  of  the  decree  there  granted  by  Darius 
son  of  Hystaspes,  which  permitted  the  rebuildbig  of  the  temple. 
The  site  of  this  once  noble  metropolis  of  the  ancient  sovereigns 
of  Persia  is  now  a  mere  wilderness ;  no  human  l>cing  residing 
there  excepting  one  poor  dervise,  who  keeps  watch  over  the  sup- 
posed tomb  of  the  prophet  Daniel.  See  an  account  of  the  ruins 
and  the  present  state  of  Shushan,  in  Sir  R.  K.  Porter's  Travels 
in  Georgia,  Persia,  &c.  vol.  ii.  pp.  411 — 418. 

Sjcarii,  or  assassins  mentioned  in  tlie  New  Testament,  no- 
tice of,  148. 

SicHEM,  SrciiAn  or  Shechem,  a  city  of  Samaria,  about  forty 
miles  distant  from  Jerusalem,  which  became  the  metropolis  of 
the  Samaritans  after  the  dostrnclion  of  Samaria  by  Hyrcanus. 
In  the  vicinity  of  this  place  is  Jacob's  well  (John  iv.  G),  memo- 
rable for  our  Saviour's  conversation  with  the  Samaritan  woman. 
It  stands  in  a  delightful  situation,  and  is  at  present  called  Napo- 
lose.  The  remains  of  the  sect  of  the  Samaritans,  now  reduced 
to  about  forty  [arsons,  chiefly  reside  hero.  Contiguous  to  this 
place  lies  a  valley,  which  opens  into  a  i)lain  watered  by  a  fruit- 
ful stream,  that  rises  near  the  town.  I'his  is  universally  allowed 
to  be  the  parcel  of  a  field  mentioned  by  Saint  John  (iv.  5.) 
which  Jacob  bought  at  the  hand  of  the  children  of  Humor. 
(Gen.  xxxiii.  19.)     Dr.  Clarke  (Travels,  vol.  iv.  pp,  260 — 280. 


MA 

8vo,)  has  given  a  minute  and  very  interesting  account  of  the 
antiquities  of  Shechem.  See  also  Mr.  Jolliffe's  Letters  from 
Palestine,  pp.  44 — 48. 

Sick,  healing  of,  why  deemed  unlawful  by  the  Jews,  on  the 
Sabbath-day,  121.     Treatment  of,  194,  195. 

SinniM,  Vale  of,  notice  of,  31. 

Sinox,  or  ZinoN,  a  celebrated  city  of  Palestine,  reputed  to 
have  been  founded  by  Sidon  the  eldest  son  of  Canaan,  from 
whom, .according  to  Josephus,  it  derives  its  name;  but  other 
authorities  derive  the  name  Sidon  from  the  Hebrew  or  Syrian 
word  m^x  (tsidch),  which  signifies  fishing.  If  the  primitive 
founder  was  a  fisherman,  the  two  accounts  may  be  easily  recon- 
ciled. Joshua  (xi.  8.)  calls  it  Sidon  the  Great,  by  way  of  emi- 
nence ;  whence  some  have  taken  occasion  to  say,  that  in  his 
time  there  were  two  Sidons,  a  greater  and  a  lesser :  but  no  ge- 
ographer has  mentioned  any  other  Sidon  than  Sidon  the  Great, 
Joshua  assigned  Sidon  to  the  tribe  of  Asher  (Josh.  xix.  28.)^ 
but  this  tribe  could  never  get  possession  of  it.  (Judg.  i.  31.) 
It  is  situated  on  the  Mediterranean,  one  day's  journey  from 
Paneas,  or  from  the  fountains  of  Jordan,  in  a  fine  level  tract 
of  land,  the  remarkably  simple  air  of  which  suits  with  that 
touching  portion  of  the  Gospel,  which  records  the  interview  of 
Jesus  Christ  on  this  very  spot, — the  coasts  of  Tyre  and  Sidon, — 
with  the  Syro-Phoenician  woman.  (Matt.  xv.  21 — 28.  Mark 
vii.  24 — 30.)  Abulfeda  places  it  sixty-six  miles  from  Damascus. 
This  city  has  been  always  famous  for  its  great  trade  and  navi- 
gation. Its  inhabitants  were  the  first  remarkable  merchants  in 
the  world,  and  were  very  early  celebrated  on  account  of  their 
luxury ;  foi,  in  the  days  of  the  judges  of  Israel,  the  inhabitants 
of  Laish  are  said  to  have  dwelt  careless  and  secure  after  the 
manner  of  the  Zidonians.  (Judg.  xviii.  7.)  The  men  of  Sidon 
being  groat  shipwrights,  were  particularly  eminent  above  all 
other  nations,  for  hewing  and  polishing  timber,  there  being  7i07ie 
who  were  skilled  how  to  hew  timber  like  the  Sidonians.  ( 1  Kings 
V.  6.)  This  place  is  now  called  Seide  or  Saide:  its  port  is 
small,  and  nearly  filled  up  with  the  accumulation  of  mud.  (Irby's 
and  Mangles'  Travels,  p.  201.)  The  city,  as  it  exists  at  present,  ■ 
rises  immediately  from  the  strand ;  and,  when  seen  from  a  slight  A 
distance,  presents  a  rather  imposing  appearance.  The  interior,  ^ 
however,  is  most  wretched  and  gloomy.  "  About  half-way  be- 
tween Saide  (or  Sidon)  and  Sour  (or  Tyre)  are  very  extensive 
ruins  of  towns  which  once  connected  these  two  cities ;  but  of 
these  ruins  there  is  now  scarcely  one  stone  left  upon  another. 
They  consist  chiefly  of  lines  which  show,  rased  even  with  the 
soil,  the  foundation  of  houses — many  stones  irregularly  scattered 
— a  few  cisterns  with  half-defaced  sculpture  on  them ;  and,  at  a 
considerable  distance  from  the  path,  there  are  at  one  spot  several 
low  columns  either  mutilated  or  considerably  sunk  in  the  earth. 
These  relics  show,  what  it  needed  indeed  no  such  evidence  to 
prove,  that  in  peaceable  and  flourishing  times,  on  this  road  be- 
tween two  such  considerable  cities  as  Tyre  and  Sidon,  there 
must  have  been  many  smaller  towns  for  business,  pleasure,  and 
agriculture,  delightfully  situated  by  the  seaside ;  but  peaceful  se- 
curity has  long  been  a  blessing  unknown  to  these  regions ;  and 
we  may  apply  to  them  the  language  of  Judges  v.  7. — The  villages 
ceased;  they  ceased  in  Israel."  (Jowctt's  Christ.  Researches  in 
Syria,  pp.  129,  130. 

SiEfiKs,  how  conducted,  89. 

Si o NETS,  notice  of,  157. 

Siiuijr,  a  king  of  the  Amorites,  who  refused  a  passage  through 
his  territories  to  the  Hebrews ;  and,  coming  to  attack  them,  was 
him.self  slain.  (Num.  xxi.  21.) 

Siiion,  River,  26. 

SiT.AS  or  SiLVANus  (the  former  name  being  a  contraction  of 
the  latter),  an  eminent  Christian  teacher,  who  was  Saint  Paul's 
companion  in  his  journeys  through  Asia  Minor  and  Greece. 

Si  LOAM,  Fountain  or  Pool  of,  21.  28.  Just  over  against  this 
pool,  near  the  bottom  of  the  valley,  through  wliich  its  waters 
flow  with  an  almost  imperceptible  current,  and  on  the  slope  of  a 
lofty  mountain  on  the  opposite  side,  is  a  village  called  Siloa ;  it 
has  a  miserable  aspect,  many  of  the  habitations  being  no  better 
than  excavations  from  the  rock,  and  the  rest  very  meanly  built 
houses  and  dilapidated  stone  huts;  though  it  once  could  boast 
the  jialace  of  Pharaoh's  daughter  and  Solomon's  queen.  The 
population  is  said  not  to  exceed  two  hundred  persons.  (Jowett's 
Researches  in  Syria,  p.  262.     Three  Weeks  in  Palestine,  p.  45.) 

SiMEOx,  the  son  of  Jacob  and  Leah :  he  was  the  head  of  one 
of  the  twelve  tribes;  for  the  Umita  of  whoso  allotment,  see 
p.  17. 

Siuox  or  SiMzos,  the  name  of  several  persons  mentioned  ic 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


451 


SO 

the  New  Testament ;  of  whom  the  following  are  the  most  re- 
markable : — 

1.  SiMOjf,  sumamed  Peter,  who  was  also  called  Simon  Bar- 
Jona.     See  Peteh,  p.  442. 

2.  SiMox,  sumamed  the  Canaanite  (perhaps  because  he  was 
a  native  of  Cana  in  Galilee),  and  also  Zelotes  or  the  Zealous, 
probably  because  he  had  been  of  the  Zealots.  (See  p.  148.  for 
a  notice  of-  their  principles.)  He  is  supposed  to  have  been  the 
brother  of  James  the  Less  and  Jude  :  the  particulars  of  his  life 
are  unknown. 

3.  SiMox,  sumamed  the  Cyrenean,  from  Cyrene  in  Libya 
(where  many  Jews  were  settled),  who  was  compelled  to  assist  in 
bearing  the  cross  of  Jesus.  (Matt,  xxvii.  32.)  Why  he  was  so 
compelled,  see  p.  70.  supra. 

4.  Simon,  sumamed  Bar- Jesus,  a  sorcerer.  (Acts  viii.  9.  13.) 
See  Bar-Jesus,  p.  413.  col.  2. 

SiMoosi  Wind,  pestilential  effects  of,  40. 
Six. 

1.  A  strong  city  in  Egypt  (Ezek.  xxx.  15,  16.),  according  to 
Jerome,  Pelusium :  it  was  situated  on  the  eastern  boundary  of 
Egj'pt,  and  was  defended  by  the  swamps  which  lay  around  it. 

2.  Desert  of  Sin,  a  part  of  Arabia  Deserta,  towards  Egypt, 
between  Elim  and  Mount  Sinai.  (Exod.  xvi.  1.  xvii.  1.  Num. 
xxxiii.  12.) 

SiN-oFFERixc,  notice  of,  118.    Account  of,  65. 
Sinai. 

1.  Desert  of  Sinai,  34. 

2.  Mount  Sinai,  a  mountain  in  Arabia  Petrjea,  where  the 
law  was  given.  It  had  two  summits  ;  the  one  lower,  called  Ho- 
reb,  or  the  Mount  of  God  (Exod.  iii.  1.),  when  he  appeared  to 
Moses  in  a  flame  of  fire  in  a  bush.  (See  Horeb,  p.  428.,  col.  1.) 
This  Horeb  is  therefore  called  Sinai  by  Saint  Stephen.  (Acts 
vii.  30.)  Mount  Sinai  is  an  enormous  mass  of  granite  rocks, 
with  a  Greek  convent  at  the  bottom,  called  the  Convent  of  St. 
Catharine.  It  is  the  highest  of  a  chain  of  mountains  called  by 
the  Arabians  Djebbel  Moosa  (or  the  mountains  of  Moses),  and 
which  requires  a  journey  of  several  days  to  go  entirely  round  it. 
This  chain  is  partly  composed  of  sand-stone :  it  contains  several 
fertile  valleys,  in  which  are  gardens  producing  grapes,  pears, 
dates,  and  other  excellent  fruits.  These  are  taken  to  Cairo, 
where  they  are  sold  at  a  high  price ;  but  the  general  aspect  of  the 
peninsula  of  Mount  Sinai  is  that  of  a  frightful  steriUty.  (Malte- 
Brun's  System  of  Geography,  vol.  ii.  p.  200.) 

SiNix,  a  land  very  distant  from  Palestine.  From  the  context 
of  Isa.  xlix.  12.  it  appears  to  have  been  situated  towards  the 
south  or  east.  Some  expositors  have  supposed  it  to  be  Pelusium 
or  Syene;  but  these  are  only  cities,  and  not  sufficiently  remote. 
It  were  better  (says  Gesenius)  to  understand  it  of  an  eastern 
country,  perhaps  China ;  of  the  name  of  which  the  Hebrews 
may  have  heard,  as  well  as  of  Scythia  and  India. 

SioN  or  SiRioN,  a  name  of  Mount  Hermon,  30. 

SivAN  or  SicTAN,  the  third  month  of  the  ecclesiastical  year 
of  the  Jews ;  and  the  ninth  (^  their  civil  year.  For  a  notice  of 
the  festivals,  &c.  in  this  month,  see  p.  76. 

Slates,  how  acquired,  165.  Their  condition  and  treatment 
among  the  Hebrews,  165,  166 ;  and  heathens,  166,  167.  Expla- 
nation of  customs  relating  to  them,  mentioned  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament, 167.     Different  kinds  of,  167,  168. 

Slating  with  the  sword,  a  Jewish  punishment,  67. 

SLiNCfs  of  the  Hebrews,  notice  of,  88. 

Smyrna,  a  city  of  Asia  Minor,  was  situated  between  forty  and 
forty-five  miles  to  the  north  of  Ephesus,  of  wliich  city  it  was 
originally  a  colony.  It  is  now  celebrated  chiefly  for  the  number, 
wealth,  and  commerce  of  the  inhabitants.  Of  its  population, 
which  is  estimated  at  about  75,000  inhabitants,  45,000  are  Turks ; 
15,000  Greeks;  8000  Armenians ;  8000  Jews;  and  less  than 
1000  Europeans.  (Hartley's  Visit,  p.  289.)  The  angel  of  the 
church  of  Smyrna,  addressed  in  the  second  apocalyptic  epistle, 
is  supposed  to  have  been  Polycarp,  the  disciple  of  Saint  John, 
by  whom  he  was  appointed  bishop  of  Smyrna.  As  he  afterwards 
suffered  much,  being  bumt  alive  at  Smyrna,  a.  n.  166,  the  exhor- 
tation in  Rev.  ii.  1 0.  would  be  peculiarly  calculated  to  support 
and  encourage  him. 

So,  an  Egyptian  king,  contemporary  with  Hoshea,  with  whom 
he  formed  an  alliance.  (2  Kings  xvii.  4.)  He  appears,  however, 
to  have  been  too  weak  to  succour  Hoshea  against  the  Assyrians, 
one  of  whose  lungs,  named  Sargon,  obtained  signal  advantages 
over  him.  (Isa.  xx.  1.)  According  to  Jablonski,  So  means  a 
chief  prince  or  prince  of  the  divelling.  For  a  long  time  the 
Pharaoh,  who  is  named  So,  in  the  Scriptures,  was  taken  for  the 


ST 


Sabacho  of  profane  history,  the  head  of  the  twenty-fifth  or  Ethi 
opian  dynasty,  who  invaded  Egypt,  caused  its  monarch  Boc- 
charis  to  be  thrown  into  the  flames,  and  usurped  the  throne. 
More  recent  and  correct  researches  have  shown  that  So  is  the 
Sevechus  of  profane  history.  (Coquerel,  Biog.  Sacr.  torn.  iv. 
p.  223.) 

Sodom,  the  chief  of  the  Pentapolitan  cities,  or  five  cities  of  the 
plain,  gave  the  name  to  the  whole  land.  It  was  burnt,  with  three 
other  cities,  by  fire  from  heaven,  for  the  unnatural  lusts  of  their 
inhabitants,  the  truth  of  which  is  attested  by  numerous  heathen 
writers.     See  pp.  27,  28.  supra. 

Soldiers  (Jewish)  levies  of,  how  made,  84.  Mosaic  statutes 
concerning  them,  84,  85.  How  commanded,  85,  86.  Their 
encampments,  86,  87.  Their  pay  and  training,  87.  Arms  of, 
87,  88. 

Soldiers  (Roman),  allusions  to  the  officers,  armour,  and  dis 
cipline  of,  92 — 94.  Their  treatment  of  Jesus  Christ,  70.  They 
watched  at  the  execution  of  criminals,  72. 

Solomon,  the  son  of  David  and  Bathsheba,  and  the  third  king 
of  Israel,  renowned  for  his  wisdom  and  riches,  and  for  the  mag 
nificent  temple  which  he  caused  to  be  erected  at  Jerusalem 
The  commencement  of  his  reign  was  characterized  by  piety  and 
justice;  but  afterwards  he  abandoned  himself,  through  the  influ- 
ence of  his  heathen  wives,  to  gross  and  shameful  idolatry.  Tem- 
ple of,  98.  Extent  of  his  dominions,  17.  His  commerce,  187, 
188.  He  died  n.  c.  975,  after  a  reign  of  forty  years.  For  analy 
ses  of  the  books  of  Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes,  and  Canticles,  which 
were  composed  by  him,  see  pp.  245 — 253. 

Solomon's  Poncu,  notice  of,  99. 

Sons,  education  of,  164.  Parental  authority  over  them,  Ibid. 
^  Sosthenes,  a  chief  ruler  of  a  synagogue  at  Corinth.  (Acts 
xviii.  17.)  Concerning  the  interpretation  of  which  passage  the 
learned  differ  greatly.  Some  suppose  him  to  have  been  at  this 
time  an  enemy  to  the  apostle  Paul,  and  his  accuser,  though  sub- 
sequently a  convert  to  the  Christian  faith ;  and  that  he  was 
beaten  by  the  unbelieving  Greeks,  in  consequence  of  the  opinion 
given  by  the  judge,  and  because  he  had  troubled  the  proconsul 
with  so  impertinent  an  affair.  Others  are  of  opinion,  that,  at 
this  time,  he  faroured  Christianity,  and  suffered  on  that  account, 
the  Greeks  beating  him  at  the  instigation  of  the  unbelieving 
Jews.  However  this  may  have  been,  Sosthenes  afterwards  joined 
with  Saint  Paul  in  sending  the  first  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians. 
(Biscoe  on  the  Acts,  vol.  i.  p.  417.) 

SowiNo  of  corn,  Jewish  mode  of,  177. 

Spain,  an  extensive  region  of  Europe,  which  anciently  com- 
prehended the  country  forming  the  modern  kingdoms  of  Spain 
and  Portugal.  In  the  time  of  St.  Paul  it  was  subject  to  the  Ro- 
mans. (Rom.  XV.  24.  28.) 

Spears  of  the  Hebrews,  notice  of,  88. 

Spoil,  how  distributed  by  the  Jews,  91,  92. 

Staff,  divination  by,  143. 

Stephanus,  one  of  the  principal  Christians  at  Corinth,  whom 
St.  Paul  baptized  with  all  his  family.  This  was  the  first  family 
in  Achaia  that  embraced  the  Gospel :  its  members  zealously  de- 
voted themselves  to  the  service  of  the  Christians,  and  their  affec- 
tionate hospitality  is  recommended  by  the  apostle,  as  an  exampla 
to  the  Corinthians.  (1  Cor.  i.  16.  xvi.  15,  16.) 

Stephen,  the  first  martyr  for  the  faith  of  Christ :  he  was 
one  of  the  seven  primitive  deacons  of  the  Christian  church. 
After  having  wrought  many  miracles,  and  ably  defended  th« 
doctrines  of  Christ,  he  was  put  to  death  by  the  Jews.  (Acts  vi. 
vii.)  On  the  stoning  of  Stephen,  see  p.  53.  note  4. 

Stocks,  punishment  of,  65. 

Stoics,  a  sect  of  philosophers  who  derived  their  name  from 
the  Itox  or  portico  where  their  founder  Zeno  delivered  his  lec- 
tures. Their  philosophy  required  an  absolute  control  over  all 
the  passions,  and  taught  that  man  alone,  even  in  his  present  state 
of  existence,  might  attain  to  perfection  and  felicity.  They  en- 
couraged suicide,  and  disbelieved  in  a  future  state  of  rewards  and 
punishments, — a  doctrine  which  they  deemed  unnecessary  as  an 
incitement  to  virtue. 

Stone,  white,  import  of,  56. 

Stones,  consecrated,  notice  of,  138.  Hieroglyphic  stones 
prohibited  to  the  Israelites,  Ibid. 

Stoning  to  death,  a  Jewish  punishment,  67,  68. 

Strangers,  laws  concerning  the  treatment  of,  83. 

Straw,  used  in  making  bricks,  151. 

Streets  (Oriental),  arrangement  of,  155. 

Studies  of  the  Jews,  185 — 187. 

Subordination,  military,  illustration  of,  93. 


452 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 
SY  TA 


SCCCOTH. 

1.  A  city  in  the  tribe  of  Gad.  (Josh.  xiii.  27.  Judg.  viii.  5, 
1  Kings  vii.  46.)  Hither  "  Jacob  journeyed,  and  built  him  a 
house,  and  made  booths  for  his  cattle :  therefore  the  name  of  the 
place  is  called  Succoth,"  that  is,  booths.  (Gen.  xxxiii.  17.) 

2.  The  first  encampment  of  the  Israelites  in  their  march  out 
of  Egypt.  (Num.  xxxiii.  5.  Exod.  xii.  37.  xiii.  20.)  Dr.  Shaw 
is  of  opinion  that  no  fixed  situation  can  be  assigned  for  this  place 
(it  signifying  only  a  place  of  tents),  being  probably  nothing  more 
than  some  considerable  Dou-war  (or  encampment)  of  the  Ish- 
maelites  or  Arabs,  such  as  may  be  still  met  with,  at  the  distance 
of  fifteen  or  twenty  miles  from  Cairo,  on  the  road  towards  the 
Red  Sea.  The  rendezvous  of  the  caravan  which  conducted  Dr. 
S.  to  Suez  was  at  one  of  these  Dou-wars ;  at  the  same  time  he 
saw  another  about  six  miles  off,  in  the  very  same  direction  which 
the  Israelites  may  be  supposed  to  have  taken  in  their  marches 
from  Goshen  to  the  Red  Sea.  (Travels,  vol.  ii.  p.  93.) 

Succoxn-BENOTH  (or  booths  of  the  daughters),  an  object  of 
idolatrous  worship  among  the  Babylonians.  According  to  the 
most  common  opinion  they  were  small  tents  or  booths,  in  which 
the  Babylonish  maidens  exposed  themselves  to  prostitution,  in 
honour  of  a  Babylonish  goddess  called  Mylitta.  Herodotus  (Hist. 
I.  i.  c.  199.)  gives  a  particular  account  of  these  abominable  prac- 
tices ;  which,  there  is  reason  to  conclude  from  1  Kings  xvii.  30., 
the  Babylonians  introduced  into  Judaa. 

ScKKiMs,  an  African  people  mentioned  in  2  Chron.  xiii.  3.  in 
conjunction  with  Libyans  and  Ethiopians.  In  the  Septuagint 
and  Vulgate  versions,  they  are  termed  Troglodytes,  probably  from 
their  dwelling  in  caves.     Such  a  people  dwelt  near  the  Red  Sea, 

Summer  of  Palestine,  notice  of,  24. 

SiTEHions,  reverence  to,  how  shown,  169. 

ScBVEviNG  of  land,  known  to  the  Jews,  187. 

SusANCHiTES,  the  inhabitants  of  Susaor  Suushax.  (Ezra  iv.9.) 

SwEAUijfo,  or  oaths  of  the  Jews.     See  pp.  81,  82. 

SwoHDs  of  the  Hebrews,  notice  of,  88. 

SrcAMonE  trees  of  Palestine,  37. 

SrcHAH.     See  Sichem,  p.  450. 

Stene,  a  city  on  the  southern  frontiers  of  Egypt,  bordering 
on  Etliiopia.  (Ezck.  xxix.  10.  xxx.  6.) 

Sr.vAooGUEs,  origin  and  form  of,  103,  104.  Officers  of,  104. 
Account  of  the  synagogue  worship,  104 — 106.  Its  ecclesiastical 
power,  106.  Nineteen  Jewish  prayers  read  in  the  synagogue, 
106,  107. 

SrnAcrsK,  a  large  and  celebrated  city  on  the  eastern  coast  of 
Sicily,  furnished  with  a  capacious  and  excellent  harbour.  Saint 
Paul  abode  here  three  days  on  his  first  journey  to  Rome.  (Acts 
XX  viii.  12.) 

SrniA,  properly  so  called,  was  a  country  of  Asia,  compre- 
hended between  the  Euphrates  on  the  east,  the  Mediterranean  on 
the  west,  Cilicia  on  the  north,  Phoenicia,  Juda;a,  and  Arabia 
Descrta,  on  the  south.  It  was  divided  into  various  provinces  or 
cantons,  which  derived  their  names  from  their  situation,  with 
respect  to  particular  rivers  or  cities.     Thus, 

1.  SrniA  of  the  two  rivers,  or  Mesopotamia  of  SyniA,  or 
Aram  Naharaim  (Hebrew),  was  comprehended  between  the 
two  rivers  Tigris  and  Euphrates. 

2.  SiniA  OF  Damascus,  that  of  which  Damascus  was  the 
capital,  extended  eastward  along  Mount  Libanus.  Its  limits 
varied  according  as  the  princes  that  reigned  at  Damascus  were 
more  or  less  powcriul. 

3.  SrRiA  OF  ZoBAH,  or  Soba,  or  Sobal,  as  it  is  called  by  the 
Septuagint,  was  probably  Cocle-Syria,  or  Syria  the  hollow.  Its 
capital  was  Zobah,  a  city  unknown,  unless  it  be  Hoba  or  Hobal, 
north  of  Damascus.  (Gen.  liv.  15.) 

4.  Syria  of  Maachar,  or  of  Bethmaacah,  was  also  towards 
Lil)anus.  (2  Sam.  x.  6.  8.  2  Kings  xv.  29.)  It  extended  beyond 
Jordan,  and  was  given  to  Manasseh.  (Dcut.  iii.  14.) 

5.  Stria  of  Rokob  or  Reiiob,  was  that  part  of  Syria  of 
which  Rchob  was  the  capital.  But  Roliob  was  near  the  northern 
frontier  of  the  land  of  promise  (Num.  xiii.  21.),  on  the  way  or 
pass  that  leads  to  Emath  or  Hamath.  It  was  given  to  the  tribe 
of  Ashcr,  and  is  contiguous  to  Aphek,  which  was  in  Libanus. 
(Josh,  xix.  28.  30.  and  xxi.  31.)  Laish,  otherwise  called  Dan, 
situate  at  the  fountains  of  Jordan,  was  in  the  country  of  Rohob. 
(Judg.  i.  31.)  Hadadazer,  king  of  Syria  of  Zobah,  was  son  of 
Rehob  or  Rohob,  or  perhaps  a  native  of  the  city  of  this  name. 
(2  Sam.  viii.  3.  12.)  The  Ammonites  called  to  their  assistance, 
against  David,  the  Syrians  of  Rehob,  of  Zoba,  of  Maachah,  and 
of  Uhtob.  (3  Sam.  x.  6.  8.) 


6.  Syria  of  Toe,  or  of  Ishtob,  or  of  the  land  of  Tob,  or  of 
the  Tubieni,  as  they  are  called  in  the  Maccabees,  was  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Libanus,  the  northern  extremity  of  Palestine. 
(Judg.  xi.  3.  5.  1  Mace.  v.  13.  2  Mace.  xii.  17.)  When  Jeph- 
thah  was  banished  by  his  brethren  from  Gilead,  he  withdrew  into 
the  land  of  Tob. 

7.  Syria  of  Emath,  or  Hamath,  that  of  which  the  city  Ha 
math,  on  the  Orontes,  was  the  capital. 

8.  Syria,  without  any  other  appellation,  stands  for  the  Kisg- 
noM  OF  Syria,  of  which  Antioch  became  the  capital  after  the 
reign  of  the  Seleucidae. 

9.  Coelo-Syria,  or  Cale-Syria,  or  the  Ijower  Syria,  occurs 
in  several  places  of  the  Maccabees.  (1  Mace.  x.  69.  2  Mace.  iii. 
5.  8.  iv.  4.  viii.  8.)  The  word  Coele-Syria,  in  the  Greek,  signi- 
fies Syria  Cava,  or  Syria  the  Hollow,  or  deep.  It  may  be  con- 
sidered, says  Strabo,  either  in  a  proper  and  restrained  sense,  as 
comprehending  only  the  tract  of  land  between  Libanus  and  Anti- 
libanus  :  or  in  a  larger  signification,  and  then  it  will  comprehend 
all  the  country  in  obedience  to  the  kings  of  Syria,  from  Seleucia 
or  Arabia  and  Egypt. 

Syria  at  first  was  governed  by  its  owti  kings,  each  of  whom 
reigned  in  his  own  city  and  territories.  David  subdued  them 
about  A.  M.  2960,  b.  c.  1044  (2  Sam.  viii.  6.),  on  occasion  of  his 
war  against  the  Ammonites,  to  whom  the  Syrians  gave  assistance, 
(2  Sam.  X.  6.  8.  13.  18,  19.)  They  continued  in  subjection  till 
after  the  reign  of  Solomon,  when  they  shook  off  the  yoke,  and 
could  not  be  reduced  again  till  the  time  of  Jeroboam  II.  king  of 
Israel,  a.  m.  3179,  b.  c.  820.  Rezin,  king  of  Syria,  and  Pekah, 
king  of  Israel,  having  declared  war  against  Ahab,  king  of  Judah, 
this  prince  found  himself  under  the  necessity  of  calling  to  his 
assistance  Tiglath-pileser,  king  of  Assyria,  who  put  Rezin  t* 
death,  took  Damascus,  and  transported  the  Syrians  out  of  their 
country  beyond  the  Euphrates.  From  that  time  Syria  continued 
in  subjection  to  the  kings  of  Assyria.  Afterwards  it  came  under 
the  dominion  of  the  Chaldaeans  ;  then  under  that  of  the  Persians; 
lastly,  it  was  reduced  by  Alexander  the  Great,  and  was  subject  to 
all  the  revolutions  that  happened  to  the  great  empires  of  the  East, 

Syrian  Idols,  notice  of,  137,  138. 

Syro-PuovNicia  is  Phoenicia  properly  so  called,  of  which 
Sidon,  or  Zidon,  was  the  capital ;  which  having  by  right  of  con- 
quest been  united  to  the  kingdom  of  Syria,  added  its  old  name 
Phoenicia  to  that  of  Syria.  The  Canaanitish  woman  is  called  a 
Syrophcenician  (Mark  vii.  26.),  because  she  was  of  Phoenicia, 
which  was  then  considered  as  making  part  of  Syria.  St.  Mat- 
thew calls  her  a  Canaanitish  women  (Matt.  xv.  22.  24.),  because 
this  country  was  really  peopled  by  the  Canaanites,  Sidon  being 
the  eldest  son  of  Canaan.  (Gen.  x.  15.)  The  Syro-Phoenicians 
were  so  called  to  distinguish  them  from  the  Phoenicians  of  Africa, 
who  were  called  Liby-Phoenicians.  Both  were  of  tlie  same 
Canaanitish  stock  or  original. 

Taberaii  (or  burning),  an  encampment  of  the  Israelites  in 
the  wilderness.  (Num.  xi.  3.  Deut.  ix.  22.)  It  derives  its  name 
from  the  circumstance  that  fire  wCnt  forth  from  the  tabernacle, 
and  burnt  a  considerable  part  of  their  camp,  as  a  punishment  for 
their  murmurings. 

Tabernacles,  feast  of,  how  celebrated,  126,  127.  A  proof 
of  the  credibility  of  the  Old  Testament,  I.  66. 

Tabernacles,  various,  in  use  among  the  Israelites,  96.  Form 
and  construction  of  the  tabernacle  of  Moses,  96,  97.  Its  migra- 
tions, 97. 

Tabitua,  the  Aramrcan  name  of  a  female  Christian,  otherwise 
called  Dorcas,  whom  St.  Peter  miraculously  restored  to  life.  (Acta 
ix.  30.  40.) 

Table,  ancient  mode  of  reclining  at,  explained,  154. 

Tablets,  for  writing,  form  of,  182. 

Tabor,  or  Tiiabor,  Mount,  account  of,  30,  31. 

Tab  RET,  notice  of,  183. 

Tactics,  military,  of  the  Jews,  89,  90. 

Tadmoh,  a  city  of  Syria,  erected  by  king  Solomon.  It  was 
situated  in  the  wilderness  of  Syria,  on  the  borders  of  Arabia 
Descrta,  whence  it  is  called  Tadmor  in  the  Wilderness,  in 
1  Kings  ix.  18.  Josephus  places  it  at  two  days'  journey  from 
the  Upper  Syria,  one  day's  journey  from  the  Euphrates,  and  six 
days'  journey  from  Babylon.  He  says  that  there  is  no  water  in 
the  wilderness  but  in  this  place.  (.\nt.  Jud.  lib.  viii.  c.  6.  §  1.) 
If  we  may  form  any  conjecture  of  this  city  by  the  ruins  of  it, 
which  later  travellers  have  described,  it  must  have  been  one  of 
the  first  and  most  magnificent  in  the  East ;  and  it  is  somewhat 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND   GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX, 
TE  I  TH 


surprising  that  history  should  give  us  so  little  account,  when  or 
by  whom  it  was  reduced  to  the  melancholy  condition  in  which  it 
now  appears.  The  reason  why  Solomon  erected  Tadmor  in  so 
desolate  a  place,  was,  probably,  the  commodiousness  of  its  situa- 
tion to  cut  oif  all  commerce  between  the  Syrians  and  Mesopota- 
mians,  and  to  prevent  them  from  conspiring  against  him  as  they 
had  done  against  his  father  David.  This  city  preserved  its  name 
of  Tadmor  to  the  time  of  Alexander.  It  then  received  the  name 
of  Palmyra,  which  it  preserved  for  several  ages.  About  the 
middle  of  the  third  century,  it  became  celebrated  as  tjic  seat  of 
the  empire  of  Odenatus  and  Zenobia.  When  the  Saracens  be- 
came masters  of  the  East,  they  restored  itr;  ancient  name  of  Tad- 
mor, which  has  continued  to  the  present  time.  Its  situation 
between  two  powerful  empires,  that  of  tho  Parthians  on  the  east, 
and  that  of  the  Romans  to  the  west,  often  exposed  it  to  danger 
from  their  contests.  In  time  of  peace,  however,  it  soon  recovered 
Itself,  by  its  trade  with  both  empires :  for  the  caravans  of  Persia 
and  of  the  Indies,  which  now  unload  at  Aleppo,  then  used  to 
stop  at  Palmyra  :  thence  they  carried  the  merchandise  of  the  East, 
which  came  to  them  by  land,  to  the  ports  of  the  Mediterranean, 
and  returned  the  merchandise  of  the  West  after  the  same  manner. 

Tahpanes. 
'  1.  Tahapaxes,  or  Tahpanhes  (Jer.  ii.  16.),  a  city  of  Egypt, 
which  anciently  was  a  royal  city,  of  considerable  note  :  it  is  sup- 
posed to  be  the  same  as  Daphnes  Pelusiacse.  Jeremiah,  and  the 
Israelites  with  him,  retired  to  this  place  :  and  here  it  was  revealed 
to  the  prophet,  that  Nebuchadnezzar  should  take  this  city,  and 
set  up  his  throne  in  the  very  place  where  Jeremiah  had  hidden 
stones.   (Jer.  xliii.  7 — 11.) 

2.  A  queen  of  Egypt,  the  wife  of  that  Pharaoh  who  was  con- 
temporary with  David,  and  gave  her  sister  in  marriage  to  Hadad 
the  Edomite.  Tahpanhes  educated  her  sister's  son  among  the 
a)yal  family  of  Egypt,  perhaps  from  the  mingled  motives  of  affec- 
tion and  of  pohtics. 

Tammcz,  or  Thammuz, 

1  The  tenth  month  of  the  civil  year  of  the  Jews,  and  the 
fourth  of  their  ecclesiastical  year.  For  a  notice  of  the  festivals, 
&c.  in  this  month,  see  p.  76. 

2.  An  Egyptian  and  Syrian  idol,  worshipped  by  the  Israelites, 
notice  of,  138. 

Tattis.  See  Zoan,  p.  456.  infra. 
Tares,  notice  of,  177. 

Tarshish,  or  Tartessus,  a  city  and  country  in  Spain,  the 
most  celebrated  emporium  in  the  West,  to  which  the  Hebrews 
traded;  the  ships  of  Tarshish  (Isa.xxiii.  1.4.  Ix.  9.)  denote  large 
merchant  ships  bound  on  long  voyages  (perhaps  distinguished 
by  their  construction  from  the  common  Phojnician  ships),  even 
though  they  were  sent  to  other  countries  instead  of  Tarshish. 
(Gibb's  Hebrew  Lexicon,  pp.  713,  714.,  where  the  proofs  are 
adduced  at  length.) 

Tarsus,  the  metropolis  of  Cilicia  (Acts  xxi.  39.),  was  cele- 
brated for  being  the  place  whither  Jonah  designed  to  flee,  and 
where  St.  Paul  was  born.  It  was  a  very  rich  and  populous  city, 
and  had  an  academy,  furnished  with  men  so  eminent,  that  they 
are  said  to  have  excelled  in  all  arts  of  polite  learning  and  philo- 
sophy ;  even  the  academies  of  Alexandria,  and  Athens,  and 
Rome  itself,  were  indebted  to  it  for  their  best  professors.  It  is  now 
called  Tersoos  ;  has  no  good  buildings ;  and  is  but  ill  supplied  with 
the  necessaries  of  life.  (Irby's  and  Mangles'  Travels,  p.  503.) 
Taxes  paid  by  the  Jews.  See  pp.  78,  79. 
Teachers,  Jewish,  appellations  of,  185.  Academical  degrees 
conferred  on  them,  ibid,  note.     Manner  of  teaching,  ibid. 

Tekoah,  a  village  south-east  of  Jerusalem,  not  far  from  which 
the  Great  Desert  commenced:  it  was  the  birth-place  of  the 
prophet  Amos.  (i.  1.) 

Temple    at  Jerusalem,  plan   of,  98.     Account   of  the  first 
temple  erected  by  Solomon,  ibid. ;  and  of  the  second  temple 
erected  after  the  captivity,  98 — 100.     Reverence  of  the  Jews  for 
it,  100,  101.     Account  of  the  temple-guard,  101.,  and  of  the 
ministers  of  the  temple,  111 — 114.     The   temple-worship  de- 
scribed, 121,  122.     Annual  payments  made  for  its  support,  78. 
Feast  of  the  dedication  of  the  temple,  128. 
Temples  at  Hehopolis  and  Gerizim,  101. 
Tenths,  when  and  of  what  things  paid,  120. 
Tents  of  the  Hebrews,  account  of,  150,  151. 
Teraphim,  notice  of,  137. 
Terraces  (Oriental),  notice  of,  153. 

Tehtius,  a  Christian  whom  St.  Paul  employed  as  his  amanu- 
ensis in  writing  his  epistle  to  the  Romans.  (Rom.  xvi.  22.) 
TiiBTtrx.Li7S,  a  Roman  orator  or  advocate,  whom  the  Jews 


453 


employed  to  bring  forward  their  accusation  against  St.  Paul, 
before  the  Roman  procurator  at  Caesarea ;  probably  because  they 
were  themselves  unacquainted  with  the  modes  of  proceeding  in 
the  Roman  courts.     (Acts  xxiv.  1, 2.) 

Tesser2e  Hospitales,  notice  of,  173,  174. 

Tetrarch,  office  of,  52,  note  1. 

Thaddeus.     See  Jude. 

Thammuz,     See  Tammuz. 

Theatres  and  Theatrical  performances,  allusions  lo,  ex- 
plained.    See  pp.  190, 191. 

Thebeth,  or  Tebeth,  the  fourth  month  of  the  civil  jear  of 
the  Jews,  and  the  tenth  of  their  ecclesiastical  year.  For  a  notice 
of  the  festivals,  &c.  in  this  month,  see  p.  75. 

Thebez,  a  city  in  the  tribe  of  Ephraim,  at  the  siege  of  which 
Abimelech  was  killed.  (Judg.  ix.  50 — 55.)  Eusebius  says,  that 
in  the  fourth  century  there  was  a  village  called  Thebez,  thirteen 
Roman  miles  from  Shechem. 

Theft,  punishment  of,  among  the  Jews,  62,  63. 

Theocract  of  the  Hebrews,  nature  of,  41.  It  subsisted  under 
the  kings,  43. 

Theophilus,  the  name  of  the  person  to  whom  Luke  inscribed 
his  Gospel  and  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  (Luke  i.  3.  Actsi,  1.) 
He  was  most  probably  some  Gentile  of  rank,  who  had  abjured 
paganism  and  embraced  the  Christian  faith. 

THEssALOnrcA,  a  large  and  populous  city  and  sea-port  of 
Macedonia,  the  capital  of  one  of  the  four  districts  into  which  the 
Romans  divided  that  country  after  its  conquest  by  Paulus  ^mi- 
lius.  It  was  situated  on  the  Thermoean  Bay,  and  was  anciently 
called  Thermffi ;  but,  being  rebuilt  by  Philip  the  father  of  Alex- 
ander, after  his  victory  over  the  Thessalians,  it  then  received  the 
name  of  Thessalonica,  At  the  time  of  vpriting  the  Epistle  to  the 
Thessalonians,  Thessalonica  was  the  residence  of  the  proconsul 
who  governed  the  province  of  Macedonia,  and  of  the  qurestor  who 
had  the  charge  of  the  imperial  revenues.  Besides  being  the  seat 
of  government,  this  port  carried  on  an  extensive  commerce, 
which  caused  a  great  influx  of  strangers  from  all  quarters ;  so 
that  Thessalonica  was  remarkable  for  the  number,  wealth,  and 
learning  its  inhabitants.  The  Jews  were  extremely  numerous 
here.  The  modern  name  of  this  place  is  Salonichi:  it  is  the 
chief  port  of  modern  Greece,  and  has  a  population  of  sixty  thou- 
sand persons,  twelve  thousand  of  whom  are  Jews.  According  to 
Dr.  Clarke,  who  has  given  a  very  interesting  account  of  the 
antiquities,  present  state,  and  commerce  of  Thessalonica,  this 
place  is  the  same  now  it  was  then  ;  a  set  of  turbulent  Jews  con- 
stituted a  very  principal  part  of  its  population  :  and  when  St. 
Paul  came  hither  from  Philippi,  where  the  Gospel  was  first 
preached,  to  communicate  the  "glad  tidings"  to  the  Thessa- 
lonians, the  Jews  were  sufficient  in  number  to  "  set  all  the  city 
in  an  uproar." 

Theudas,  a  seditious   person,  who  excited  popular  tumults 
among  the  Jews,  probably  during  the  interregnum  which  fol- 
lowed the  death  of  Herod  the  Great,  while  Archelaus  was  at 
Rome;  at  which  time  Judaea  was  agitated  with  frequent  sedi 
tions.   (Acts  v.  36.)     Compare  Vol.  I,  p.  420. 

TiiisBE,  a  town  in  the  tribe  of  Naphtali,  to  the  south  of 
Kadesh,  the  chief  city  belonging  to  that  tribe.  The  prophet 
Elijah  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  native  of  this  city,  though  he 
might  after^vards  have  dwelt  in  the  land  of  Gilead.  ( 1  Kings  xvii.  I .) 

Thomas,  called  Didymus,  one  of  the  twelve  apostles :  of  the 
circumstances  of  whose  life  very  little  is  known. 

Thorns,  of  which  Christ's  crown  was  made,  36,  note  2. 

Three  Taverns,  a  small  place  or  village  on  the  Appian 
Way  to  Rome,  where  travellers  stopped  for  refreshment.  Ac- 
cording to  the  Itinerary  of  Antoninus,  it  was  thirty-three  Roman 
(rather  less  than  thirty-three  English)  miles  from  Rome.  (Acts 
xxviii,  15.)  Some  critics  and  commentators,  however,  suppose 
that  they  were  retail  shops  for  the  sale  of  provisions  to  travellers. 
Threshing,  and  Threshing-floors,  account  of,  178. 
TnxATiRA,  a  city  of  Asia  Minor,  was  a  considerable  city  in 
the  road  from  Pergamos  to  Sardis,  and  about  forty-eight  miles 
eastward  of  the  former.  It  is  called  by  the  Turks  Akhisar,  and 
is  imbosomed  in  cypresses  and  poplars ;  it  is  now,  as  anciently 
it  was,  celebrated  for  dyeing.  In  1826,  the  population  was  esti- 
mated at  300  Greek  houses,  30  Armenian,  and  1000  Turkish. 
(Hartley's  Visit,  Miss,  Reg.  pp.  326,  327.  Arundell's  Visit,  pp. 
189—191.) 

Tiberias  (John  vi.  1 — 23.  xxi.  1,),  still  called  by  the  natives 
Tabaria  or  Tabbareeah,  was  anciently  one  of  the  principal  cities 
of  GaUlee :  it  was  built  by  Herod  the  Great,  and  so  called  in 
honour  of  the  emperor,  Tiberius,    The  privileges  conferred  upoi^ 


454 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


TI 


its  inhabitants  by  Herod  caused  it  in  a  short  time  to  become  a 
place  of  considerable  note :  it  was  situated  in  a  plain  near  the 
Lake  of  Gennesareth,  which  is  thence  tcnned  the  Lake  or  Sea 
of  Tiberias.  (See  it  described  in  pp.  26,  27.)  After  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem,  this  city  became  eminent  for  its  Academy, 
over  which  a  succession  of  Jewish  doctors  presided  until  the 
fourth  century.  On  every  side  ruins  of  walls,  columns,  and 
foundations,  indicate  its  ancient  splendour.  The  modern  popu- 
lation of  Tiberias  is  from  fifteen  hundred  to  two  thousand  :  it  is 
principally  inhabited  by  Jews,  who  are  said  to  be  the  descendants 
of  families  resident  there  in  the  time  of  our  Saviour.  Dr.  Clarke 
conjectures  that  they  are  a  remnant  of  refugees  who  fled  hither 
after  the  capture  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Romans.  Tiberias  is  about 
ninety  miles  distant  from  Jerusalem :  the  modern  town,  which 
is  very  small,  and  is  walled  round,  with  towers  at  equal  distances, 
stands  close  to  the  lake,  upon  a  plain  surrounded  by  mountains  ; 
and  is  celebrated  for  its  hot  baths,  which  are  much  frequented. 
Tiberias  has  the  most  imposing  appearance,  from  without,  of 
any  town  in  Syria ;  but  within,  it  is  as  wretched  as  any  other. 
About  a  mile  from  this  town,  and  exactly  in  front  of  the  lake,  is 
a  chain  of  rocks,  in  which  are  distinctly  seen  cavities  or  grottoes, 
that  have  been  proof  against  the  ravages  of  time.  These  have 
uniformly  been  represented  to  travellers  as  the  places  referred  to 
in  Scripture,  which  were  frequented  by  miserable  and  fierce 
demoniacs,  upon  one  of  whom  our  Lord  wrought  a  miraculous 
and  instantaneous  cure.  Matt.  viii.  28.  Mark  v.  2,  3.  Luke  viii. 
27.  (Dr.  Clarke's  Travels,  vol.  iv.  pp.  219— 233.  8vo.  Light's 
Travels  in  Egypt,  &c.  &c.  p.  203.  JoUifle's  Letters  from  Pales- 
tine, pp.  32 — 34.  Burkhardt's  Travels  in  Syria,  &c.pp.  320—330. 
Travels  in  Egypt  and  Nubia,  &c.  by  Captains  Irby  and  Mangles. 
p.  294.  Jowett's  Researches  in  Syria,  pp.  171.  173.  Carne's 
Letters,  pp.  361,  362.  Rae  Wilson's  Travels  in  the  Holy  Land, 
vol.  ii.  p.  25.  Third  edition.) 

Tib  FBI  IS,  Claudius  Drusus  Nero,  emperor  of  Rome,  succeeded 
his  stepfather  Augustus:  he  died,  a.  d.  37,  after  reigning  22^ 
years.  In  the  14th  year  of  his  reign,  John  the  Baptist  first 
appeared;  and  the  crucifixion  of  Jesus  Christ  took  place  in  the 
third  or  fourth  year  after.  (Luke  iii.  1.) 

TiGLATH-piLESER,  king  of  Assyria,  the  son  and  successor  of 
Sardanapalus.     See  Assvhia,  p.  409. 

Time,  Jewish  and  Roman  modes  of  computing,  72 — 75. 
Calendar  of  the  Jcwi.sh  year,  75,  76.  Parts  of  a  period  of  time 
reckoned  for  the  whole,  76,  77.  .^ras  of  time  in  use  among  the 
Jews,  77. 

TiMos,  the  name  of  one  of  the  seven  primitive  deacons  of  the 
church  at  Jerusalem.  (Acts  vi.  5.) 

TiMOTHELs,  commonly  called  Timothy,  a  Christian  of  Derbc, 
whose  mother  was  of  Jewish  descent,  and  eminent  for  her  piety, 
while  his  father  was  a  Gentile.  He  was  selected  by  St.  Paul,  as 
his  chosen  companion  in  his  journeys ;  and  was  left  by  him  at 
Ephesus  to  take  the  charge  of  the  church  there.  He  appears  to 
have  possessed  in  a  high  degree  the  confidence  and  aftection  of 
St.  Paul,  by  whom  he  is  often  mentioned  in  terms  of  warm  com- 
mendation. For  analyses,  &c.  of  the  two  epistles  addressed  to 
Timothy  by  the  apostle,  see  pp.  343 — 346. 

TiHiiARA,  a  king  of  Egypt  or  Ethiopia,  is  known  in  Scripture 
only  by  the  powerful  diversion  which  he  made  in  behalf  of  Heze- 
kiah,  king  of  Judah,  when  pressed  by  the  forces  of  Sennacherib, 
kingof  .\8tiyria.  (2  Kings  xix.  9.  xviii.  21.  Isa.  xxxvi.  6.  xxxvii. 
9.)  Although,  under  this  prince,  Egypt  appears  to  have  recovered 
some  of  the  advantages  which  it  had  lost  under  So,  the  prede- 
cessor of  Tirhaka;  it  is  not  clear  whether  we  are  to  understand 
in  the  passages  just  cited  a  mere  report  of  an  invasion  which 
was  circulated,  and  which  deceived  the  Assyrians,  or  an  actual 
war  in  which  they  were  engaged  with  the  Epy|)tian  monarch. 
Some  expositors  arc  of  opinion  that  he  carried  his  arms  into  As- 
syria, while  Sennacherib  was  in  Jud.-ca.  'I'irhaka,  the  third  sove- 
reign of  the  Ethiopian  or  twenty-fifth  dynasty,  whose  name  is 
confirmed  by  ancient  Egyptian  monuments  and  inscriptions 
(compare  Vol.  I.  p.  89.),  is  the  Taracus  of  profane  historians. 
If  the  predictions  cfjntained  in  the  thirtieth  and  following 
chapters  of  Isaiah  relate  to  llczekiah,  Tirhiika  niunt  be  the 
Pharaoh  intended  in  those  passages  ;  which  some  commentators 
refer  to  anterior  times.  The  prophecies  contained  in  the  nine- 
teenth chajiter  of  Isaiah,  particularly  verses  2.  and  4.,  have  Incn 
supposed  to  announce  the  events  which  followed  Tirhaka's 
death,  the  supplanting  or  removal  of  the  Ethiopian  dynasty  by 
that  of  the  Saitcs,  and  the  revolutions  which  are  recorded  to 
have  taken  place  in  that  period  of  the  history  of  Egypt. 

TinzAH,  a  delightful  city  of  Ephraim,  the  royal  seat  of  the 


T  R 

kings  of  Israel,  from  Jeroboam  I.  to  Omri,  who  built  the  city  of 
Samaria,  which  then  became  the  capital  of  his  kingdom.  (Josh 
xii.  24.  1  Kings  xiv.  17.  xv.  21.  2  Kings  xv.  14.)  Its  situation 
is  represented  as  pleasant  in  Sol.  Song  vi.  4. 

Tisni  or  Tizri,  the  first  month  of  the  civil  year  of  the  Jews, 
and  the  seventh  of  their  ecclesiastical  year.  For  a  notice  of  the 
festivals,  &c.  occurring  in  this  month,  see  p.  75. 

Tithes,  when  and  of  what  things  paid,  120. 

Titus,  a  Christian  teacher,  by  birth  a  Gentile,  but  converted 
by  St.  Paul,  who  therefore  calls  him  his  son  (Gal.  ii.  3.  Tit.  i. 
4.),  and  whose  companion  and  fellow-labourer  he  became.  In 
2  Tim.  iv.  10.  the  apostle  speaks  of  him  as  having  gone  to  Dal- 
matia ;  and  in  Tit.  i.  5.  he  assigns  the  reason  of  his  leaving  Titus 
in  Crete,  viz.  to  perfect  the  work  which  Paul  had  there  begun, 
and  to  establish  and  regulate  the  churches.  For  an  analysis  of 
St.  Paul's  epistle  to  Titus,  see  pp.  346,  347. 

Tola,  the  tenth  judge  of  Israel,  of  the  tribe  of  Issachar.  He 
succeeded  Abimelech,  and  died  after  an  administration  of  twenty- 
three  years.     (Judg.  X.  1,  2.) 

Tombs  of  the  Hebrews,  account  of,  200,  201. 

ToBNADoKs  frequent  in  Palestine,  38,  39. 

TowEii  of  Antonia,  21. 

Tbachoxitis,  district  of,  18. 

Tbauitions  of  the  elders  concerning  the  Sabbath,  exposed, 
121. ;  were  preferred  by  the  Pharisees  to  the  Law  of  Moses,  145. 

Tbaxsfiguratiojj,  mount  of,  31.  and  note  1. 

Tbajtsmicbation  of  souls,  believed  by  the  Jews,  144. 

Travelling,  Jewish  mode  of,  122.  note  7.  Horrors  of  travel- 
ling across  the  Great  Desert  of  Arabia,  34,  85. 

Treaties,  nature  of,  80.     How  made  and  ratified,  80,  81. 

Trees  of  Palestine,  notice  of,  36,  37. 

Trespass-Offehisgs,  notice  of,  65.  118. 

Trials,  proceedings  of,  among  the  Jews,  55 — 57. 

Tribes,  allotments  of.  See  pp.  16,  17.  Heads  or  princes  of, 
41,  42. 

Tribunal  (Imperial),  appeals  to,  59.  Roman  tribunals,  57. 
Jewish  tribunals,  54,  55. 

Triiiute  paid  by  the  Jews,  account  of,  78.  Reluctantly  paid 
to  the  Romans,  ibitl. 

Triu.mths  (military)  of  the  Romans,  allusions  to,  explained 
94,  95. 

Troas,  a  maritime  city  of  Mysia,  situated  on  the  western 
coast,  at  some  distance  to  the  southward  of  the  supposed  site  of 
ancient  Troy.  The  adjacent  region  is  also  called  Troas  or  the 
Troad.   (Acte  xvi.  8. 11.  xx.  5,  6.  2  Cor.  ii.  12.  2  Tim.  iv.  13.) 

Trogtllium  (Acts  xx.  15.),  a  promontory  at  the  foot  of 
Mount  Mycale,  opposite  to,  and  about  five  miles  from,  Samos. 

Trophies,  military,  of  the  Jews,  92. 

Trophimus,  a  Christian  disciple  of  Ephesus,  who  accompanied 
Saint  Paul  on  his  departure  from  Greece  to  Judaea,  and  at  Jeru- 
salem was  the  innocent  cause  of  the  dangers  to  which  he  was 
there  exposed.  Recognised  by  some  Jews  from  Asia  Minor,  who 
had  seen  him  with  St.  Paul,  they  took  occasion  to  accuse  the 
apostle  of  having  taken  Greeks  with  him  into  the  temple.  (Acta 
XX.  4.  xxi.  29.)  After  this  time  we  find  no  mention  made  of 
Trophimus  in  the  New  Testament,  until  after  his  master's  first 
imprisonment  at  Rome.  In  one  of  the  voyages  which  followed 
the  apostle's  liberation,  Trophimus  was  "  left  at  Miletum  sick." 
(2  Tim.  iv.  20.)  This  circumstance  proves,  if  further  proof 
were  wanting,  that  St.  Paul  was  twice  a  prisoner  at  Rome;  for 
Trophimus,  at  the  time  of  his  first  journey  to  Miletus,  hail  not 
been  left  there,  since  we  read  of  his  arrival  in  Judoia.  (Acts 
XX.  1.5.) 

Trumpets,  form  of,  184, ;  feast  of,  127. 

Trist,  violations  of,  how  punished,  63. 

Thtph.k:ta  and  Tryphosa,  two  Christian  women  resident  at 
Rome,  where  they  laboured  in  ditfusing  a  knowledge  of  tlie 
Gospel,  and  in  succouring  their  fcllotv-believers.  The  mention 
of  both  their  names  by  Saint  Paul  has  led  some  to  conjecture 
that  they  were  sister.'?.     (Rom.  xvi.  12.) 

Tithal-Cai.v,  the  son  of  Lamech  and  Zillah,  invented  the 
art  of  working  metals :  there  is  great  reason  to  believe  that  ho 
was  the  Vulcan  of  ancient  mythology.  * 

Tu/jLraLfia-/u{,c,  or  beating  to  death,  account  of,  68. 

Ttxics,  of  the  Jews,  form  of,  156. 

Tvemcus,  a  Christian,  ]irolmbly  of  Ephesus,  who  was  the 
friend  and  associate  of  St.  I'aul,  and  is  mentioned  by  him  in  the 
most  albxtionate  terms.  (Acts  xx.  4.  Eph.  vi.  21.  Col.  iv.  7 
2  Tim.  iv.  12.     Tit  iii.  12.) 

TrnAJfNcs,  a  person  at  Ephesus,  in  whose  house  or  school 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


455 


T  Y 

St.  Paul  proposed  and  defended  the  doctrines  of  the  Gospel. 
(Acts  xix.  9.)  By  some  he  is  thought  to  have  been  a  Jewish 
doctor  or  rabbi,  who  had  a  public  school  at  Ephesus;  while 
others,  with  more  probability,  suppose  that  he  was  a  Greek 
sophist,  because  the  apostle  taught  for  two  successive  years  in 
his  school,  after  he  had  ceased  to  preach  in  the  synagogues. 
(Acts  xix.  9.) 

Ttre,  a  celebrated  city  and  sea-port  of  Phoenicia,  that  boasted 
of  a  very  early  antiquity,  which  is  recognised  by  the  prophet 
Isaiah  (xxiii.  7.),  but  which  is  variously  estimated  by  profane 
writers,  whose  discordant  accounts  this  is  not  the  place  to  adjust 
and  determine.  Even  in  the  time  of  Joshua  it  was  strongly 
fortified  ;  for  it  is  called  the  strong  city  Tyre.  (Josh.  xix.  29.) 
Tyre  was  twofold,  insular  and  continental.  Insular  Tyre  was 
certainly  the  most  ancient,  for  it  was  noticed  by  Joshua :  the 
continental  city,  however,  as  being  more  comraodiously  situated, 
first  grew  into  consideration,  and  assumed  the  name  of  Palae- 
tyrus,  or  Old  Tyre.  Want  of  sufHcient  attention  to  this  dis- 
tinction has  embarrassed  both  the  Tynan  chronology  and 
geography.  Insular  Tyre  was  confined  to  a  small  rocky  island, 
eight  hundred  paces  long  and  four  hundred  broad,  and  could 
never  exceed  two  miles  in  circumference.  But  Tyre,  on  the 
opposite  coast,  about  half  a  mile  from  the  sea,  was  a  city  of 
vast  extent,  since,  many  centuries  after  its  demolition  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, the  scattered  ruins  measured  nineteen  miles  round, 
as  we  learn  from  Pliny  and  Strabo,  Of  these,  the  most  curious 
and  surprising  are,  the  cisterns  of  Ras-el-Ain,  designed  to  supply 
the  city  with  water;  of  which  there  are  three  still  entire,  about 
one  or  two  furlongs  from  the  sea ;  so  well  described  by  Maun- 
drell,  for  their  curious  construction  and  solid  masonry.  "  The 
fountains  of  these  waters,"  says  he,  after  the  description,  "  are 
as  unknown  as  the  contriver  of  them.  According  to  common 
tradition,  they  are  filled  from  a  subterraneous  river,  which  king 
Solomon  discovered  by  his  great  sagacity ;  and  he  caused  these 
cisterns  to  be  made  as  part  of  his  recompense  to  king  Hiram, 
for  the  materials  furnished  by  that  prince  towards  building  the 
temple  at  Jerusalem,  It  is  certain,  however,  from  their  rising  so 
high  above  the  level  of  the  ground,  that  they  must  be  brought 
from  some  part  of  the  mountains,  which  are  about  a  league  dis- 
tant ;  and  it  is  as  certain  that  the  work  was  well  done  at  first ; 
seeing  it  performs  its  office  so  well,  at  so  great  a  distance  of 
time  ;  the  Turks  having  broken  an  outlet  on  the  west  side  of  the 
cistern,  through  which  there  issues  a  stream  like  a'  brook,  driving 
four  corn  mills  between  it  and  the  sea."  From  these  cisterns 
there  was  an  aqueduct  which  led  to  the  city,  supported  by  arches, 
about  six  yards  from  the  ground,  running  in  a  northerly  direc- 
tion, about  an  hour,  when  it  turns  to  the  west,  at  a  small  mount, 
where  anciently  stood  a  fort,  but  now  a  mosque,  whifh  seems  to 
ascertain  the  site  of  the  old  city;  and  theuce  proceeds  over  the 
isthmus  that  connects  Insular  Tyre  with  the  main,  built  by 
Alexander,  when  he  besieged  and  took  it. 

Old  Tyre  withstood  the  mighty  Assyrian  power,  having  been 
besieged  in  vain,  by  Shalmaneser,  for  five  years,  although  he  cut 
oif  their  supplies  of  water  from  the  cisterns,  which  they  remedied 
by  digging  wells  within  the  city.  It  afterwards  held  out  for 
thirteen  years  against  Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of  Babylon,  and 
was  at  length  taken ;  but  not  until  the  Tyrians  had  removed  their 
effects  to  the  insular  town,  and  left  notliing  but  the  bare  walls  to 
the  victor,  which  he  demolished.  What  completed  the  de- 
struction of  the  city  was,  that  Alexander  afterwards  made  use 
of  these  materials  to  build  a  prodigious  causeway,  or  isthmus, 
above  half  a  mile  long,  to  the  insular  cit}',  which  revived,  as  the 
phcsnix,  from  the  ashes  of  the  old,  and  grew  to  great  power  and 
opulence,  as  a  maritime  state;  and  which  he  stormed  after  a 
most  obstinate  siege  of  five  months.  Bp.  Pococke  observes,  that 
"  there  are  no  signs  of  the  ancient  city ;  and  as  it  is  a  sandy 
shore,  the  face  of  every  thing  is  altered,  and  the  great  aqueduct 
is  in  many  parts  almost  buried  in  the  sand."  (Vol.  ii,  p.  81.) 
Thus  has  been  fulfilled  the  prophecy  of  Ezekiel :  Thou  shall  be 
built  no  more:  though  thou  be  sought  for,  yet  shalt  thou  never 
be  found  again  !  (xxvi.  21.) 

The  fate  of  Insular  Tyre  has  been  no  less  remarkable ;  when 
Alexander  stormed  the  city,  he  set  fire  to  it.  This  circumstance 
was  foretold :  "  Tyre  did  build  herself  a  strong-hold,  and  heaped 
up  silver  as  the  dust,  and  fine  gold  as  the  mire  of  the  streets. 
Behold  the  Lord  will  cast  her  out,  and  he  will  smite  her  power 
m  the  sea,  and  she  shall  be  devoured  with  fire."  (Zech.  ix.  3, 4.) 
After  this  terrible  calamity,  Tyre  again  retrieved  her  losses. 
Only  eighteen  years  after,  she  had  recovered  such  a  share  of  her 
ancient  commerce  and  opulence,  as  enabled  her  to  stand  a  siege 


VE 


of  fourteen  months  against  Antigonus,  before  he  could  reduca 
the  city.  After  this.  Tyre  fell  alternately  under  the  dominion 
of  the  kings  of  Syria  and  Egypt,  and  then  of  the  Romans,  until 
it  was  taken  by  the  Saracens,  about  a.  d.  639,  retaken  by  the 
Crusaders,  a.  d.  1124;  and  at  length  sacked  and  razed  by  the 
Mamelukes  of  Egypt,  with  Sidon,  and  other  strong  towns,  tha 
they  might  no  longer  harbour  the  Christians,  a.  d.  1289,  (Dr. 
Hales's  Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  i.  pp.  442 — 444.)  The 
population  of  modem  Tyre  is  estimated  at  7000;  of  whom 
1600  are  Christians  having  places  of  worship,  and  about  two 
hundred  are  Jews,  who  have  a  synagogue.  (Rae  Wilson's 
Travels,  vol.  ii.  p.  77.) 

From  Sidon  to  Tyre  is  generally  one  continued  plain,  varying 
from  300  to  1000  yards  in  width.  Nearer  to  Tyre,  it  becomes 
considerably  wider ;  and  forms  to  the  east  of  that  city,  on  every 
side,  a  rich  and  pleasing  country.  About  Ras-el-Ain,  in  particu- 
lar, the  meadows,  variegated  by  streamlets,  are  very  picturesque, 
and  capable  of  being  rendered  highly  productive.  (Jowett's  Chris- 
tian Researches  in  Syria,  p.  297.) 

The  following  description  of  the  modern  town  of  Surat,  by  a 
recent  intelligent  traveller,  will  give  the  reader  a  lively  idea  of 
the  splendour  of  ancient  Tyre  in  the  days  of  her  commercial 
prosperity,  as  delineated  by  the  prophet  Ezekiel  (xxvii.  3.)  : — 
"  The  bazaars,  filled  with  costly  merchandise,  picturesque  and 
interesting  groups  of  natives  on  elephants,  camels,  horses,  and 
mules;  strangers  fi:om  all  parts  of  the  globe,  in  their  respective 
costume ;  vessels  building  on  the  stocks,  others  navigating  the 
river ;  together  with  Turks,  Persians,  and  Armenians,  on  Ara- 
bian chargers ;  European  ladies  in  splendid  carriages,  the  Asiatic 
females  in  hackeries  drawn  by  oxen ;  and  the  motley  appearance 
of  the  English  and  nabob's  troops  on  the  fortifications,  remind 
us  of  the  following  description  of  Tyre :  O  thou  that  art  situate, 
&c.  (Ezek.  xxvii.  3.)  This  is  a  true  picture  of  Oriental  com- 
merce in  ancient  times ;  and  a  very  exact  description  of  the  port 
and  the  bazaars  of  Surat,  at  the  present  day."  (Forbes's  Oriental 
Memoirs,  vol.  i.  p,  244.) 

"  Numerous  beautiful  columns,  stretched  along  the  beach,  or 
standing  in  fragments  half  buried  in  the  sand  that  has  been  ac- 
cumulating for  ages,  the  broken  aqueduct,  and  the  ruins  which 
appear  in  its  neighbourhood,  exist,  as  an  affecting  monument  of 
the  fragile  and  transitory  nature  of  earthly  grandeur,"  (Jow- 
ett's Christian  Researches  in  the  Mediterranean,  Appendix,  p. 
422.)  See  also  his  Christian  Researches  in  Syria,  pp.  131 — 
141. ;  and  for  other  testimonies  of  modem  travellers  relative  to 
the  actual  state  of  Tyre,  see  Vol.  I.  pp.  124,  125.  supra.  On 
the  commerce  of  the  Tyrians  with  the  Hebrews,  see  pp.  187, 188, 
of  this  volume. 

Unbloody  Sacrifices,  119. 

Uncle  AW  Persons,  who  were  such,  133. 

Uphaz,  a  country  rich  in  gold,  the  situation  of  which  is  no 
where  pomted  out.  Calmet  supposed  it  to  be  the  same  with 
Ophir.   (Dan.  x.  5.  Jer.  x.  9.) 

Upper  Garments,  form  of,  156, 

Ur  of  the  Chaldees,  a  city  of  Mesopotamia,  the  dwelUng- 
place  of  Terah  and  Abraham ;  which  the  latter  was  ordered  to 
quit.  (Gen.  xi.  28.)  By  faith  he  obeyed,  and  went  out  not 
knowing  whither  he  was  going.  (Heb.  xi.  8.)  Ur  was  subse- 
quently called  Edessa,  by  the  Macedonians ;  and  by  the  Turks, 
Orfah.  Mr.  Buckingham  has  given  a  long  and  interesting  de- 
scription of  its  present  state.  (Travels  in  Mesopotamia,  vol.  i,  pp. 
121—191.) 

Urim  and  Thusimim,  what.     See  p.  114. 

Uz,  land  of  (Job  i.  1.),  is  Idumaea.  Here  Job  dwelt.  Com- 
pare p.  231. 

UzziAH,  also  called  Azariah,  a  king  of  Judah,  who  succeeded 
his  father  Amaziah,  when  he  was  only  sixteen  years  of  age. 
The  commencement  of  his  reign  was  auspicious  for  his  piety 
and  zeal  for  the  worship  of  God  ;  but,  afterwards,  presuming  to 
take  upon  him  the  sacerdotal  office,  he  was  struck  with  a  lepro- 
sy ;  and  he  continued  without  Jerusalem,  separated  from  other 
men,  until  his  death,  b.  c,  758,  (2  Kings  xiv,  21,  22,  xv.  1 — 7.) 

Valley  of  Ajalon,  31,  Berachah  or  Blessing,  iSjW.  Bochim, 
32.  Elah,  Jbid.  Hinnom,  Jbid.  Jehoshaphat,  Ibid.  Mamre, 
31.  Rephaim,  iZiJc?.  Salt.  Jbid.  Sharon,  32.  Shaveh,  31.  Sid- 
dim.  Ibid. 

Vegetables,  grown  in  Palestine,  35 — 37. 

Veils  of  the  Hebrew  women,  157. 

Vestmekts  of  the  priests,  113.    Of  the  high-priest,  113,  1 14. 


456 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 
ZE 


Victims,  selection  and  immolation  of,  117,  118. 

Victors,  reception  of,  91.  Triumphs  of,  among  the  Romans, 
94,  95. 

ViwES  and  Viitetakds  of  the  Jews,  culture  and  management 
of,  178—180, 

VisiTEHs,  how  received,  169,  170. 

VoLDjfTART  Oblations,  119. 

Vows,  nature  and  different  kinds  of,  129,  130. 

Wahs  of  the  Hebrews,  83,  Si.  89—91. 

Watches  of  the  Night,  73. 

Water,  importance  of,  in  the  East,  25.  28.  Fetched  by 
women,  29. 

Waters  or  Mkhom,  notice  of,  27. 

Weapons  (Military)  of  the  Jews,  87,  88.  Allusions  to  the 
Greek  and  Roman  weapons  in  the  New  Testament,  93. 

Weddings  of  the  Jews,  160 — 163. 

Weeks,  account  of,  73. 

Weights,  table  of,  394. 

Wells,  in  Palestine,  account  of,  28.  The  stopping  of  them 
up  an  act  of  hostility,  tOid. 

Wheat,  abundance  of,  in  Palestine,  35. 

Whirlwinds  in  Palestine,  38,  39. 

Widows,  portion  of,  164. 

Wilderness,  in  Palestine,  account  of,  33,  34. 

Wines  of  the  Jews,  179. 

Winter,  in  Palestine,  account  of,  23,  24. 

Withered  hand,  what  disease  intended  by,  197. 

Witnesses,  examination  of,  56.  Punishment  of  false  wit- 
nesses, 64,  65. 

Worship  of  the  Temple  and  in  the  Synagogue,  104 — 106. 
Allusions  to  the  idolatrous  worship  of  the  heathens  explained, 
140—142. 

Wounds,  treatment  of,  195. 

Whitino  of  the  Jews,  and  materials  used  for  this  purpose, 
181—183. 


Xtlophoria,  or,  feast  of  wood-offering,  128. 


Years  (Jewish),  civil  and  ecclesiastical,  account  of,  74,  Ca- 
lendar of  the  Jewish  year,  75,  76.  Years  of  plants  and  beasts, 
74.  Sabbatical  year,  128.     Year  of  jubilee,  128,  129. 


Zabulon,  or  Zebclon,  the  tenth  son  of  Jacob,  born  of  Leah, 
who  gave  his  name  to  one  of  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel ;  for  the 
limiu  allotted  to  which,  see  p.  17. 

Zaccheus,  a  chief  collector  or  receiver-general  of  the  customs 
or  taxes ;  who  entertained  Jesus  Christ  at  his  house,  and  became 
his  disciple.  (Luke  xix.  1 — S.) 

Zaphnath-Paankah,  the  name  given  by  Pharaoh  to  Joseph 
(Gen.  xli.  45.),  which  in  the  margin  of  our  larger  Bibles  is  ren- 
dered, a  revealer  of  secrets,  or  the  man  to  whom  secrets  are 
revealed;  this  is  the  inteqirctation  given  in  the  Chaldec  para- 
phrase, the  Syriac  and  Arabic  versions,  and  by  Kimchi.  It  has, 
however,  been  ascertained  to  be  the  Coptic  or  Egyptian  word 
Joph-tc-peneh,  which,  according  to  Louis  Picques  and  Jablon'ski, 
■ignifies  sulus  mundi,  the  salvation  of  the  world,  referring  most 
probably  to  the  preservation  of  Egypt  from  famine  by  the  wise 
counsels  of  Jospi)h  ;  and  which  in  the  Scjituagint  version  is  ren- 
dered by  'i'i^'./u<pxvn;/  and  ^cvSi^^nvny.  This  interpretation  of 
Picqucs  and  Jalilonski  is  approved  by  M.  Quatrcmere.  (Jablonski, 
Opuscula,  ed.  a  Te  Water,  tom.  i.  pp.  207 — 216.  Quatremcre, 
Recherches  sur  la  Langue  et  Litt^rature  de  I'Egypte,  p.  74.) 

Zauephath.     8ce  SAHErrA,  p.  419. 

Zealots,  a  Jewish  sect,  notice  of,  148. 

Zebedke,  the  husband  of  Kalome,  and  father  of  the  apostles 
James  and  John. 

Zeroim,  a  city  in  the  vale  of  Siddim,  which  was  sunk,  toge- 
ther with  Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  in  the  Dead  Sea. 

Zeiiulon.     Sec  Zabulon. 

Zkchariah. 

1.  The  son  of  the  high-priest  Jkhoiada  (or  Barachias),  who 
was  stoned  to  death  by  order  of  Joash  king  of  Judnli,  for  his 
fidelity  in  opposing  the  idolatry  of  the  Jews.  (2Chron.  xxiv. 
20,21.) 

2.  The  fourteenth  king  of  Israel,  who  succeeded  his  father 
Jeroboam  II.  He  imitated  the  idolatries  and  iniquities  of  his 
prixleccFsors  ;  and,  after  n  short  reign  of  six  months,  he  was  assas- 
sinated by  SuALLt'M.  (2  Kings  xiv.  29.  XT.  8—10.) 


Z  O 

3,  The  son  of  Berechiah,  and  the  last  but  one  of  the  mine 
prophets.     For  an  analysis  of  his  predictions,  see  pp.  287,  288. 

4.  A  priest  of  the  class  of  Abia,  the  father  of  John  the  Bap- 
tist. (Luke  i.) 

Zedekiah,  the  name  of  the  last  king  of  Judah,  to  whom  it 
was  given  by  Nebuchadnezzar  instead  of  his  former  name  of 
Mattaniah.  He  i-evolted  against  the  king  of  Babylon,  who 
besieged  and  captured  Jerusalem,  caused  the  children  of  Zede- 
kiah to  be  slain  before  his  face,  put  out  his  eyes,  and  commanded 
him  to  be  sent  to  Babylon.  (2  Kings  xxiv.  17.  Jer.  xxxii.  4. 
lii.  4—11.) 

Zemarite  (Gen.  x.  18.),  the  name  of  a  Syrian  people,  who, 
according  to  Calmet  and  others,  dwelt  in  Simyra,  a  city  of 
Phoenicia. 

Zeph  aniah,  the  son  of  Cushi,  the  ninth  of  the  minor  prophets, 
who  lived  in  the  time  of  Josiuh  king  of  Judah.  For  an  analysis 
of  his  predictions,  see  p.  272. 

Zerah,  king  of  Egypt,  and  contemporary  with  Asa  king  of 
Judah,  is  in  Scripture  termed  an  Ethiopian  or  Cushite ;  an  ap- 
pellation which  perhaps  marks  the  origin  of  the  dynasty  to  which 
he  belonged.  He  invaded  Juda;a  at  the  head  of  an  immense 
army,  which  was  met  by  Asa  in  the  valley  of  Mareshah,  in  the 
tribe  of  Judah,  and  totally  discomfited.  Interpreters  have  long 
been  perplexed  to  ascertain  where  the  dominions  of  Zerah  were 
situated ;  some  supposing  him  to  be  a  king  of  Cushite  Arabia 
(though  there  is  no  evidence  that  that  country  then  had  power- 
ful sovereigns),  while  others  have  imagined  that  he  was  king  of 
Abyssinia  or  African  Ethiopia,  but  without  being  able  to  explain 
how  he  could  have  traversed  Egypt,  in  order  to  penetrate  into 
Juda;a.  All  these  difficulties  are  now  removed.  The  name  of 
this  king  exists  on  ancient  monuments ;  and  tlie  Zerah  of 
Scripture  is  the  Osorchon  or  Osoroth  of  the  Egyptian  lists 
and  legends,  the  second  king  of  the  twenty-second  dynasty,  the 
son  and  successor  of  Shishak,  who  was  contemporary  with 
Rehoboam. 

ZERinnABEL  or  Zorobabel,  the  son  of  Salathicl,  of  the 
royal  house  of  David,  %vas  appointed  chief  of  those  Jews  who, 
by  the  permission  of  Cyrus,  came  from  Babylon,  at  the  com 
mencemeni  of  that  prince's  reign.  He  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
temple,  and  restored  the  Mosaic  worship.  It  is  not  known  whon 
this  great  man  and  pious  ruler  died. 

ZiDON.     See  SiDON,  p.  450.  supra. 

ZiF,  the  eighth  month  of  the  civil  year  of  the  Jews,  and  the 
second  of  their  ecclesiastical  year.  For  a  notice  of  the  festivals, 
&c.  in  this  month,  see  p.  267. 

ZiKLAc,  a  city  which  Achish,  king  of  Gath,  gave  to  David 
while  he  took  shelter  in  the  land  of  the  Philistines,  and  which 
afterwards  remained  as  a  domain  to  the  kings  of  Judah.  (1  Sam 
xxvii.  G.)  It  was  taken  and  plundered  by  the  Amulekites  during 
David's  absence  :  it  was  situated  in  the  extreme  parts  of  the  tribe 
of  Judah,  southward. 

ZiMRi,  the  fifth  king  of  Israel,  commander  of  one  half  of  the 
cavalry  of  Elath,  assassinated  his  master,  usurped  his  throne,  and 
destroyed  all  the  branches  of  the  royal  family.  His  roign  lasted 
only  a  week :  in  consequence  of  his  having  neglected  to  secure 
the  army,  they  chose  Omri  king  of  Israel,  who  besieged  him  in 
Tirzah  ;  and  Zimri,  finding  his  capital  taken,  set  the  royal  palace 
on  fire,  and  perished  in  the  flames.  (1  Kings  xvi,  9 — 20) 

ZiN,  a  desert  in  the  south  of  Palestine  towards  Idumoa. 
(Num.  xiii.  21.  xx.  1.  xxxiv.  3,  4,  Josh.  xv.  1.  3.) 

ZioN,  the  more  elevated  southernmost  mountain,  and  upper 
part  of  the  city  of  Jerusalem.  In  the  poetical  and  prophetical 
books  it  is  often  used  for  Jerusalem  itself. 

Ziph,  a  city  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  24.),  near  Hebron,  eastward. 
Its  modern  name  is  Sephoury.  It  was  a  place  of  rendezvous  for 
armies  during  the  crusades  ;  and  at  a  short  distance  from  it  is  a 
celebrated  fountain.    (Rae  Wilson's  Travels,  vol.  ii.  p.  40.) 

ZiPH,  wilderness  of,  34. 

ZoAN,  an  ancient  city  in  Lower  Egypt ;  according  to  the  Sep- 
tuagint  and  Targiims,  it  is  Tanis  on  the  eastern  mouth  of  the 
Nile.  (Num.  xiii.  23.  Isa.  xix.  11.  13.  xxx.  4.  Ezek.  xxx.  14.) 

ZoAR,  a  city  on  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Dead  Sea. 
(Gen.  xiii.  10.  xix.  22.  30.  Isa.  xv.  5.  Jer.  xlviii.  34.)  Its  more 
ancient  name  was  Bela. 

ZoBAH,  a  city  in  Mesopotamia,  otherwise  called  Nesibin,  Nisi- 
bis,  Antiochia,  Mygdonia.  (1  Sam.  xiv.  47.  2  Snm.  viii.  3.  xxiii. 
30.)  Its  territory  is  denominate*!  .\ram  of  Zobah  :  it  was  the 
residence  of  a  king  who,  in  the  time  of  David,  carried  on  con- 
siderable wars  with  Israel. 


ADDENDA 


TO  THE 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


AcHzro,  a  city  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Asher  (Josh.  xix.  29.), 
who  were  unable  to  expel  the  old  inhabitants  from  it.  (Judg.  i. 
31.)  It  is  now  called  Zib,  and  is  situated  on  the  sea-coast,  to  the 
north  of  Ptolemais.  Another  Achzib,  in  the  territory  of  Judah, 
is  mentioned  in  Josh.  xiv.  44.  and  Micah  i.  14. 

Advmmim,  a  rising  ground  at  the  entrance  of  the  wilderness 
of  Jericho  is  called  the  fi;oing  up  to  Aduminim,  in  Josh.  xv.  7. : 
which  name  signifies  red  or  bloody,  probably  from  the  sanguinary 
murders  there  committed.  A  town  of  t^iis  name  belonged  to  the 
tribe  of  Benjamin. 

A:ttioch  of  Pisidia. — Page  406.  col.  2.  after  "  city,"  last  line 
but  31.  add: — Hitherto,  on  the  authority  of  D'Anville  and  other 
subsequent  gcogilphers,  this  Antioch  has  been  considered  to  oc- 
I  cupy  the  site  of  the  modern  town  of  Aksher,  (the  ancient  Philo- 
melium)  but  the  Rev.  F.  V.  J.  Arundell,  by  whom  it  was  disco- 
vered in  November  1833,  after  it  had  been  long  lost  to  the  tra- 
veller, has  proved  that  it  was  at  Yalobatz,  a  place  several  miles  to 
the  south  of  Aksher.  The  site  and  present  state  of  this  once 
celebrated  city  are  minutely  described  by  Mr.  A.  The  remains 
of  a  splendid  aqueduct,  twenty -one  arches  of  which  are  perfect, 
of  massive  walls,  of  a  theatre,  acropolis,  and  of  a  temple  of  Bac- 
chus, together  with  the  ruins  of  two  if  not  more  extensive  Chris- 
tian churches,  attest  the  ancient  magnificence  of  Antioch.  (Dis- 
coveries, vol.  i.  pp.  267 — 312.) 

AnAKAT,  page  408,  col.  1.  after  line  18.  read  : — It  is  of  stupen- 
dous height,  and  was  inaccessible,  to  the  summit,  until  Pro- 
fessor Parrot,  of  the  University  of  Dorpat,  on  the  27th  of  Sep- 
tember, O.  S.  1829,  after  repeated  failures,  overcame  every  impe- 
diment. By  trigonometrical  measurement  he  ascertained  that  the 
larger  and  principal  peak  is  16,254  Paris  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  He  describes  the  summit  as  being  a  slightly  convex, 
almost  circular  platform,  about  200  Paris  feet  in  diameter,  which 
at  the  extremity  declines  pretty  steeply  on  all  sides.  He  subse- 
quently ascended  the  little  Ararat,  which  is  above  13,100  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  entire  upper  region  of  the  moun- 
tain is  covered  with  perpetual  snow  and  ice :  and  the  magnitude 
of  the  great  peak  is  annually  increasing  in  consequence  of  the 
continual  accession  of  ice.  The  eternal  snows  upon  its  summit 
occasionally  form  vast  avalanches,  which  precipitate  themselves 
down  its  sides,  with  a  sound  not  unlike  that  of  an  earthquake. 

AsKKLON,  or  AsHicELox,  page  409.  col.  1.  after  last  line  but 
12.  add: — Numerous  ruins  attest  its  ancient  strength;  its  walls 
are  broken  down,  and  at  present  not  a  single  inhabitant  is  to  be 
found  there,  thus  literally  fulfilling  the  prophecies  of  Jeremiah, 
Zephaniah,  and  Zechariah : — Ashkelon  is  cutoff  (Jer.  xlvii.  5.), 
Aishkdon  shall  be  a  desolation  (Zeph.  ii.  4.),  Ashkelon  shall  not 
he  inhabited,  (Zech.  ix.  5.) 

AssyniA,  page  409.  col.  2.  after  "Persia,"  line  12,  add  : — Ro- 
senmiUler  (Bib.  Geogr.  vol.  ii.  p.  120.)  states  that  it  "  nearly  cor- 
responded with  the  modern  Kourdistan  or  land  of  the  Kourds" 
(a  hardy  and  predatory  nomadic  tribe),  "with  the  pachalik  of 
Mosul,  which  contains  about  sixteen  hundred  German  miles,  and 
was  thus  about  the  size  of  the  United  Kingdoms  of  Naples  and 
Sicily.  The  northern  part  was  very  mountainous,  but  towards 
the  south  it  is  generally  level,  like  the  neighbouring  country  of 
Babylonia.  The  culture  of  the  soil  is  promoted  by  the  number 
of  rivers  which  traverse  the  country,  and  by  the  pleasant  alterna- 
tion of  hill  and  dale  which  diversify  its  surface ;  while  the  navi- 
gable Tigris"  (the  Hiddekel  of  the  Hebrews)  "  presents  great 
facilities  for  commerce.     In  different  parts  of  the  southern  division 

Vol.  II.— 3  M 


there  are  springs  of  naphtha.  The  country  abounds  in  wheat, 
and  in  the  more  esteemed  kinds  of  fruit,  as  also  in  wine,  cotton, 
and  manna.  It  was  therefore  with  truth,  that  the  Assyrian  com- 
mander Rabshakeh  called  his  native  country  a  land,  where  there, 
is  corn  a7id  wine,  bread,  and  vineyards,  olive  oil  and  honey. 
Isa.  xxxvi.  17.)"  Which  account  is  con- 
(Residence  in  Kourdistan,  vol.  i.  pp.  ISJJ 


xvni.  32. 
Mr.  Rich. 


(2  Kings 
firmed  by 
142.) 

Athens,  page  411.  col.  1.  after  line  33.  add  : — Modem  Athens 
suffered  severely  during  the  late  war  with  the  Turks.  It  is  in- 
tended to  be  the  metropolis  of  the  new  kingdom  of  Greece :  and 
the  plan  of  the  city  has  been  so  arranged,  that  many  of  the  prin- 
cipal remains  of  antiquity  will  be  brought  into  view  in  one  long 
street,  which  is  to  pass  through  the  centre,  and  finish  at  the  an- 
cient entrance.  The  present  small  population  is  daily  increasing. 
An  extensive  olive  grove  in  the  suburbs  affords  almost  the  only 
article  of  commerce  connected  with  the  place.  (Hardy's  Notices 
of  the  Holy  Land,  pp.  314—317.) 

AzoTUS,  or  AsHDOD,  a  city  of  Judsea,  was  anciently  one  of  the 
five  cities  belonging  to  the  princes  of  the  Philistines.  (Josh.  xiii. 
3.  I  Sam.  vi.  17.)  In  the  division  of  Palestine  by  Joshua  it  was 
allotted  to  the  tribe  of  Judah  (Josh.  xv.  47.) ;  but  the  possession 
of  it,  if  not  retained,  was  soon  recovered  by  the  Philistines,  who 
three  hundred  years  afterwards,  having  captured  the  ark  of  God, 
brought  it  to  Ashdod,  and  deposited  it  in  the  temple  of  their  idol- 
deity  Dagon.  (1  Sam.  V.  1.)  Subsequently  Uzziah  king  of  Judah, 
having  successfully  warred  against  the  Philistines,  broke  down  its 
walls.  (2  Chron.  xxvi.  6.)  The  city  was  captured  by  Tartan  the 
Assyrian  general,  in  the  time  of  Hezekiah.  (Isa.  xx.  1.)  After 
the  return  of  the  Jews  from  the  Babylonish  captivity,  the  numer- 
ous aUiances  made  by  them  with  the  women  of  Ashdod,  intro- 
duced the  worship  of  false  gods  into  their  families ;  so  that  the 
offspring  of  these  marriages  spake  half  in  the  language  of  Ashdod, 
and  could  nut  speak  in  the  Jews'  language,  but  according  to  the 
language  of  each  people.  For  this  crime  against  the  law  of  God, 
that  most  upright  and  patriotic  of  religious  governors,  Nehemiah, 
contended  with  them,  and  made  them  swear  that  they  would  con- 
tract no  more  such  idolatrous  unions.  (Neh.  xiii.  23 — 26.)  Ashdod 
was  afterwards  captured  by  Judas  Maccaboeus  (1  Mace.  v.  68.), 
by  whose  brother  Jonathan  it  was  reduced  to  ashes.  (1  Mace.  x. 
84.)  It  was  evidently  a  place  of  great  strength  and  consequence. 
By  the  Greeks  it  was  called  Azotus.  Here  Philip  the  evange- 
list was  found,  after  he  had  baptized  the  Ethiopian  eunuch  at 
Gaza,  vv'hich  was  about  thirty  niiles  distant.  (Acts  viii.  40.)  At 
present  Ashdod  is  an  inconsiderable  village  called  Esdud,  which 
exhibits  no  vestiges  of  its  former  splendour.  The  road  to  this  lies 
over  an  undulating  surface,  partially  covered  with  grain  and  this- 
tles: it  stands  on  the  summit  of  a  grassy  hill,  with  luxuriant  pas- 
ture around  it.     (Robinson's  Travels  in  Palestine,  vol.  i.  p.  21.) 

Baal-Gad,  a  city  which  was  situated  in  the  valley  of  Lebanon, 
under  Mount  Herrnon  (Josh.  xi.  17.  xii.  7.)  :  it  was  one  of  the 
places  which  remained  unconquered  by  the  Israelites  at  the  death 
of  Joshua.  (Josh.  xiii.  5.)  By  the  Greeks  and  Romans  it  was 
afterwards  called  Heliopolis,  and  by  the  modern  natives  it  is  called 
Baalbec,  both  which  names  mean  the  City  of  the  Sun.  It  is 
supposed  to  have  been  the  place  called  Baal-Hamox  in  Sol.  Song 
viii.  11.,  and  also  Baalath  in  2  Kings  ix.  18.  The  inhabitants 
of  the  country  believe  that  Baal-Gad  or  Baalbec  was  erected  by 
Solomon.  It  stands  at  the  foot  of  Anti-Libanus,  just  where  the 
mountain  terminates  in  a  plain,  and  it  presents  to  the  traveller  a 

457 


458 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


magnificent  spectacle  of  ruins,  among  which  those  of  the  Temple 
of  the  Sun  are  most  conspicuous.  The  splendid  work  of  Messrs. 
Wood  and  Dawkius,  published  at  London  in  1753,  and  rcjirintcd 
in  1827,  will  convey  some  idea  of  the  magiiificence  of  these  re- 
mains of  ancient  art ;  of  which  some  accurate  views  will  be  found 
in  the  "  Landscape  Illustrations  of  the  Bible,"  edited  by  the 
author  of  this  work.  The  population  of  Baalbec,  which  in  1751 
was  five  thousand,  in  1S35  was  reduced  to  two  hundred  persons. 
The  modern  town  consists  of  a  number  of  mean  huts,  and  a  few 
half-ruined  mosques.  A  description  of  the  ruins  of  this  place,  as 
they  appeared  in  the  autumn  of  1835,  is  given  by  i\Ir.  Addison, 
in  his  Damascus  and  Palmyra,  vol.  ii.  pp.  51 — 72. ;  and  by  Lord 
Lindsay,  as  they  apj)cared  in  the  summer  of  1837,  in  his  Let- 
ters from  Egypt,  &c.,  vol.  ii.  pp.  191—204. 

Babel,  the  name  of  a  lofty  lower,  wliich  the  descendants  of 
Noah  began  to  build  about  one  hundred  and  twenty  years  after 
the  deluge :  it  was  so  called  (Babel  .«i  unifying  cunfusiuii),  be- 
cause God  there  confounded  ihe  language  of  those  who  were  em- 
ployed in  the  undortakmg.  (Gen.  x.  10.  xi.  9.)  Their  object 
was  to  build  a  city  and  a  tower,  in  order  to  prevent  their  further 
dispersion  over  the  earth.  But,  as  this  was  contrary  to  the  divine 
purpose  of  replenishing  the  cartji  with  inhabitants,  God  caused 
them  to  be  scattered :  the  tower  was  left  apparently  incomplete  : 
but  the  foundations  of  the  city  werivprobably  laid,  and  a  portion 
of  the  builders  continued  to  dwell  there. 

Beiiotiiai,  a  town  in  the  territory  of  Hadadezer,  king  of  Syria, 
which  was  conquered  by  David,  and  from  which  he  took  away 
much  brass.  (2  Sam.  viii.  8.)  Hence  it  has  been  inferred  that 
there  were  mines  in  its  vicinity.  It  is  impossible  now  accurately 
to  determine  its  situation.  "  The  similarity  of  the  name  would 
lead  us  to  conjecture  that  Berothai  or  Bcrothah  was  not  dilTercnt 
from  Berjtus,  the  modern  Beirut  (Bcyrool),  a  seaport  town  which 
is  still  of  importance."  (Rosenmiiller's  Bibl.  Geogr.  vol.  ii. 
p.  2GC.) 

Beths.uda,  page  414.  col.  2.  after  line  10.  of  this  article, 
add : — 2.  The  other  Bethsaida  lay  in  the  region  of  Gaulonitis,  on 
the  eastern  side  of  the  sea  of  Tiberias,  and  near  the  i)lace  where 
the  river  Jordan  enters  it.  This  city  was  enlarged  by  Philip,  who 
was  Telrarch  of  that  region  (Luke  iii.  1.),  and  who  called  it  Ju- 
lias, in  honour  of  Julia  the  daughter  of  the  emperor  Augustus, 
though  it  is  not  known  by  tliat  name  in  the  New  TesUiment. 
This  Bethsaida  is  mentioned  in  Luke  ix.  10.,  where  Jesus  is  said  to 
have  withdrawn  himself  to  a  desert  place  belonging  to  Bethsaida, 
after  the  murder  of  John  the  Baptist  by  Herod ;  and  whence  also 
he  is  said  to  have  returned  across  the  lake  to  Capernaum,  after  he 
had  miraculously  fed  five  thousand  men  with  five  loaves  and  two 
small  fishes.  (Matt.  xiv.  22 — 34.  John  vi.  17.) 

BoziiAH,  a  celebrated  city  of  Edom  or  IdumiBa,  which  was 
afterward:*  called  Bostra  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  It  is  now 
"  for  the  most  part  a  heap  of  ruins,  a  most  dreary  spectacle.  Here 
and  there  the  direction  of  a  street  or  alley  is  discernible,  but  that 
is  all :  the  modem  inhabitants,  a  mere  handful,  are  almost  lost  in 
the  maze  of  ruins."  (Lord  Lindsay's  Letters  from  Egypt,  &c. 
vol.  ii.  p.  151.)  In  pp.  135 — 150^  his  lordship  has  given  a  very 
interesting  description  of  the  remains  of  this  once  celebrated  city, 
together  with  a  sketch  of  its  ancient  history. 

Cc.xcnnEA,  page  4lC.  col.  1.  After  Acts  xviii.  18.,  line  3.  of 
this  article,  add: — In  1834,  the  site  of  ancient  Cenchrea  was 
occupied  by  a  sint;le  farm-house :  close  to  the  sea ;  and  in  part.s 
even  covered  by  its  waters  are  the  foundations  of  a  variety  of 
buildings,  the  plans  of  which  may  yet  be  traced,  as  the  walls  still 
remain  to  the  height  of  from  two  feet  to  three  feet  and  a  half 
(Major  Sir  G.  Temple's  Travels  in  Greece  and  Turkey,  vol.  i. 
p.  51) 

Ekho:?,  page  420.  coL  2.  After  (2  Kings  i.  2.),  Ime  8.  of  this 
article,  add : — ^Thc  site  of  this  city  is  not  known,  thus  attesting 
the  literal  fulfilment  of  the  prophet  Zephaniah  (ii.  4.),  that  Ekrun 
shall  be  HOOTED  up. 

EriiEscs,  page  422.  col.  1.  last  line  but  C.  add: — The  soil  of 
the  plain,  on  which  the  ruins  of  Ejihesus  lie,  appears  rich:  in 
the  summer  of  1835,  when  visited  by  Mr.  .\ddi8on,  it  was  covered 
with  a  rank  burnt-up  vegetation,  'i'his  place  (he  staU-s,)  is  a 
dreary  uncullivatcil  spot :  a  few  corn-fields  were  scattered  along 
the  site  of  the  ancient  city,  which  is  marked  by  some  large  masses 
of  shapeless  ruins  and  stone  walls.  (Addison's  Damascus  and 
Palmyra,  vol.  i.  pp.  310,  341.) 

Etam. 

1.  A  rity  in  the  tribe  of  Judah  between  Bethlehem  and  Tekoah, 
which  WHS  rebuilt  -md  fortified  by  Kehoboam.  (2  Chron.  xi.  0.) 
Joseiihus  Roys,  Ibat  there  are  very  ])lea»ant  gardens,  abounding 
with  water,  at  Etham,  about  fifty  furlongs  or  six  miles  from  Jeru- 


salem, to  which  Solomon  used  to  resort  (.\nt.  Jud.  lib.  viii.  c.  7.) 
It  is  highly  probable  that  this  was  the  site  of  one  of  King  Solo 
mon's  houses  of  pleasure,  where  he  made  him  gardens  ana 
orchards,  and  pools  of  waler,  (Eccles.  ii.  5,  6.)  In  the  vicinity 
of  this  place  was 

2.  The  rock  Etam,  to  which  Samson  retired  after  he  had  burned 
the  harvest  of  the  Philistines.  (Judg.  xv.  8.) 

Gadara,  page  423.  col.  2.  after  last  lino  but  13.  add :— The 
ruins  of  the  ancient  city  arc  very  considerable.  "  Besides  the 
foundations  of  a  whole  line  of  houses,  there  are  two  theatres  on 
the  north  and  west  sides  of  the  town,  —  the  former  quite  de- 
stroyed, but  the  latter  in  very  tolerable  preservation,  and  very 
handsome.  Nc^ar  it  the  ancient  pavement,  with  wheel-tracks  of 
carriages,  is  still  visible.  Broken  columns  and  capitals  he  in 
every  direction."  (Lord  Lindsay's  Letters  from  Edom,  &c,  vol. 
ii.  p.  97.) 

Gath-Hepher,  the  birth-place  of  the  prophet  Jonah  (2  Kings 
xiv.  25.),  was  a  town  in  the  allotment  of  the  tribe  of  Zebulon. 
(Josh.  xix.  13.)  It  was  probably  situated  in  the  land  of  Hepher, 
mentioned  in  1  Kings  iv.  10. 

Geiial. 

1.  Gebal,  Mount,  see  p.  30. 

2.  Gebal,  a  Phoenician  city  between  Tripoli  and  Beyroot,  situ- 
ated on  a  hill,  and  inhabited  by  mariners  and  builders.  Its  caulkers 
are  specially  mentioned  in  Ezek.  xxvii.  9.,  where  its  chiefs  are 
termed  wise  men.     The  Arabs  still  call  it  Djehle  and  Djobail. 

3.  Gehal  (the  Gebalene  of  the  Romans),  was  a  mountainous 
district,  inhabited  by  the  Edomifes,  and  extending  from  the  Dead 
Sea  southwards  to  Selah  or  Petra.  It  is  mentioned  in  Psal. 
Ixxxiii.  8.     By  the  .\rabs  it  is  called  Djclal. 

GEsuun,  a  district  of  Syria,  bordering  north  of  the  Hebrew 
territory  (2  Sam.  xv.  8.  1  Chron.  ii.  23.),  and  situated  on  the 
eastern  side  of  the  river  Jordan,  between  Mouut  Hermon,  Maa- 
chah,  and  Bashan.  (Deut  iii.  13,  14.  Josh.  xii.  3,  4.)  The  Ge- 
shurites  and  Maachathites  were  not  expelled  by  the  Israelites 
under  Joshua.  (Josh.  xiii.  2.  13.)  In  the  reign  of  David,  Gcshur 
had  its  own  king  Talmai,  whose  daughter  Maachah  was  the 
mother  of  the  rebel  .Absalom.  (2  Sam.  iii.  3.  xiii.  37.  xv.  8.)  The 
Gcshur  signifies  a  bridge,  and  corresponds  to  the  .\rabic  Djisr  : 
and  in  the  same  region,  where  (according  to  the  above  data,)  we 
must  place  Gcshur,  there  still  exists  an  ancient  stone  bridge  of 
four  arches  over  the  river  Jordan,  called  Djisr-Beni-Jalcub,  or  the 
Bridge  of  the  Children  of  Jacob. 

Gkthsemase,  page  425.  col.  2.  line  12.  add: — .\lthough  we 
are  infi)rmcd  by  Joscphus  that  Titus  cut  down  all  the  trees  within 
one  hundred  furlongs  of  the  city,  yet  it  is  not  improbable  that 
these  trees,  which  are  unquestionably  of  remote  antiquity,  may 
have  arisen  from  the  roots  of  the  ancient  trees ;  because  the  olive 
is  very  long-lived,  and  possesses  the  peculiar  propterty  of  shooting 
up  again,  however  frequently  it  may  be  cut  down.  The  trees 
now  standing  in  the  garden  of  Gethsemane  are  of  the  species 
known  to  boUmists  as  the  Olea  Europa-a.  Mrs.  Bracebridgc,  from 
whose  sketch  the  beautiful  drawing  was  made,  which  is  given  in 
the  "  Landscape  Illustrations  of  the  Bible,"  states  that  they  are 
wild  olives,  and  appear  pollarded  from  extreme  age ;  and  their 
stems  are  very  rough  and  gnarled.  'The  soil  between  these 
trees  is  bare,  without  a  llower,  vegetable,  or  verdure  of  any  kuid 
growing  on  it.  A  footpath  inlt^rsects  the  place  in  an  oblique  di- 
rection, which  is  walled  otV  from  the  rest,  and  is  looked  upon  as 
accursed;  being  that  (as  it  is  said,)  in  which  Judas  walke<l  when 
he  betrayed  his  divine  Master  with  a  kiss."  The  view  from  the 
garden  of  Gethsemane  is  one  of  the  most  pleasinjj  in  the  vicinitj 
of  Jerusalem.  (Kobmson's  Travels  in  Palestine,  vol.  i.  p.  12S. 
Lord  Lindsay's  Letters  from  Egypt,  &c..  vol.  ii.  p.  61.) 

Halah,  a  province  of  Assyria,  into  which  Shalmancser  trans- 
ported part  of  the  ten  tribes.   (2  Kings  xvii.  6.  xviii.  1 1.) 
I      Hauan,  pase  427.  col.  1.  after  line  42.  add: — Haran  is  enu- 
merated among  the  towns  which  hail  been  taken  by  the  predeces- 
sors of  Sennacherib  king  of  .\ssyria  ( 1  Kings  xix.  12.  Isa.  xxxvii. 
12.)  ;  and  it  is  also  mentioned   by  Ezekiel  (xxvii.  23.),  among 
the   places   which   traded   with    Tyre.      Haran    was   favourably 
'  situated  for  commerce,  inasnuieh  as  the  great  road,  which  led  from 
the  Euphrates  to  the   countries  oi  the  east,  branched  oil'  in  two 
directions  eastward  to  Nisibis  anil  Assyria,  and  southward   into 
'  Babylonia.  (Roscnmiiller's  Bib.  Geogr.  vol.  ii,  p.  187.) 

Heliiott,  a  city  of  Syria,  cclebralcil  for  its  wine.s,  wliich  formed 
an  important  article  of  commerce.  (Ezek.  xxviii.  18.)  In  the 
opocryphal  second  book  of  Maccabees  (xiii.  4.),  it  is  mentioned 
uniler  the  name  of  Berea,  which  had  l>een  given  to  it  by  Seleucoa 
Nicatur,  who  greatly  cmlielli-^hed  this  city.  It  is  the  same  as  the 
present  HaUb,  or,  as  it  is  termed  by  Euroi)cans,  Aleiipo.    In  1822 


BIOGRAPHICAL,  HISTORICAL,  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


459 


it  was  almost  annihilated  by  the  tremendous  earthquake  which 
devastated  Syria. 

Hexa,  a  city  of  Mesopotamia,  the  same  probably  which  was 
afterwards  called  Arah :  it  was  situated  on  a  ford  of  the  river 
Euphrates.  (2  Kings  xviii.  34.  xix.  13.  Isa.  xxxvii.  13.) 

Meshech,  the  sixth  son  of  Jajihct  (Gen.  x.  2.),  who  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  the  father  of  the  Moschi,  a  people  inhabiting 
the  mountainous  region  between  Iberia,  Armenia,  and  Colchis. 

Nop,  Land  of: — "  When  Cain  after  the  murder  of  his  brother, 
tnent  forth  from  the  presence  of  Jehovah,  he  settled  in  the  land 
of  Nod,  which  lay  to  the  east  of  Eden,  (Gen.  iv.  16.)  The  word 
Nod  signifies,  in  Hebrew,  wandering,  fl'ght,  banishment :  and 
the  region  doubtless  obtained  that  name  from  the  circumstance  of 
the  fratricide  having  been  condemned  by  God  (Gen.  iv.  14.)  to 
Wander  as  an  exile."  (Rosenmiiller's  Biblical  Geography,  vol.  i. 
p.  85.)     It  is  now  impossible  to  ascertain  its  precise  situation. 

Phtgellus,  a  Christian  of  Asia,  who  being  at  Rome  during 
Paul's  second  imprisonment,  a.  d.  65,  basely  deserted  him,  with 
Hcrmogenes,  in  his  necessity.  (2  Tim.  i.  15.) 

Raamses,  or  Ra:weses,  a  city  erected  by  the  Hebrews  during 

their  bondage  in  Egypt.  (Gen.  xlvii.  11.  Exod.  i.  11.)     It  was 

situated  in  the  Land  of  Goshen,  and  appears  to  have  been  the 

apital  of  that  country.     Most  probably  it  was  the   same  with 

eroopolis,  which  stood  on  the  great  canal  between  the  Nile  and 

uez, 

Rabbath,  page  445.  col.  2.  line  6.  add: — Various  ruins,  lying 
n  both  sides  of  a  stream,  attest  its  ancient  splendour.  "  The 
reariness  of  its  present  aspect"  (says  Lord  Lindsay)  "  is  quite 
indescribable.  It  looks  like  the  abode  of  death  :  the  valley  stinks 
•with  dead  camels ;  one  of  them  was  rotting  in  the  stream ;  and 
though  we  saw  none  among  the  ruins,  they  were  absolutely 
covered  in  every  direction  with  their  dung.  That  morning's  ride 
would  have  convinced  a  sceptic  how  runs  the  prophecy.  I  will 
make  Rabbah  a  stable  for  camels,  and  the  Ammonites  a  couch- 
ing-place  for  flocks.  (Ezek.  xxv.  5.)  Nothing  but  the  croaking 
of  frogs  and  the  screams  of  wild  birds  broke  the  silence  as  we 
advanced  up  this  valley  of  desolation."  (Letters  from  Egypt,  &c., 
vol.  ii.  p.  112,)  In  pp.  113 — 117.  Lord  Lindsay  has  graphically 
described  the  ruins  of  Rabbath-Ammon,  which  is  now  deserted 
except  by  the  Bedouins,  who  water  their  flocks  at  its  little  river. 

RirnATH,  the  second  son  of  Gomer,  and  grandson  of  Japhet 
(Gen.  X.  3.  1  Chron.  i,  6.)  The  region  peopled  by  his  descend- 
ants is  supposed  to  be  the  mountainous  range  extending  from  the 
west  of  Europe  to  that  part  of  Asia  which  is  situated  on  the  east 
of  the  Black  Sea.  "But"  (Ros«imuller  is  of  opinion)  "it  is 
impossible  to  fix  with  precision  upon  any  one  chain  of  hills,  or 
tribe  of  people,  with  which  the  Riphath  of  Scripture  may  cer- 
tainly be  identified."  (Bibl.  Geogr.  by  Morren,  vol.  i.  p.  113.) 

RosH  (Ezek.  xxxviii.  2,  3.  xxxix.  1.),  the  proper  name  of  a 
northern  nation,  mentioned  together  with  Tubal  and  Meshech ; 
hy  whom  (Gesenius  says)  are  doubtless  to  he  understood  the  Rus- 
eians ;  who  are  described  by  the  Byzantine  writers  of  the  tenth 
century,  under  the  name  of  'VZ^,  as  inhabiting  the  northern  part 
cf  Taurus ;  and  also  by  Ibn  Fosslan,  an  Arabian  writer  of  the 
<5ame  period,  under  the  name  Riis,  as  dweUing  upon  the  river  Rha, 
that  is,  the  Wolga. 

Sheba,  probably  the  Saba  of  the  Greek  geographer  Strabo,  was 
a  region  situated  towards  the  southern  part  of  Arabia,  at  a  distance 
from  the  coast  of  the  Red  Sea.  The  queen  of  Sheba  who  visited 
Solomon  (1  Kings  x.  2.  2  Chron.  ix.),  appears  to  have  been  the 
sovereign  of  this  region.  The  tradition  of  her  visit  has  main- 
tained itself  among  the  Arabs,  who  call  her  Balkis,  and  atfirm 
that  she  became  the  wife  of  Solomon.  In  Matt.  xii.  42.  she  is 
said  to  have  come  from  the  uttermost  parts  of  the  earth,  to  indi- 
cate (according  to  the  Jewish  idiom)  that  Sheba  was  a  remote 
country  from  Judaea. 

SicHEM,  Stcuab,  or  Shechem,  a  city  in  the  allotment  of  the 
tribe  of  Benjamin,  near  which  Jacob  bought  a  field  which  he  gave 
to  Joseph,  who  was  buried  there.  (Gen.  xlviii.  22.  Josh.  xvii.  7. 
xxiv.  32.  Acts  vii,  16.)  In  its  vicinity  was  Jacob's  well  or  foun- 
tain, at  which  Jesus  Christ  conversed  with  a  woman  of  Samaria. 


(John  IV.  5.)  After  the  ruin  of  Samaria  by  Shalmaneser,  She- 
chem  became  the  capital  of  the  Samaritans,  a  remnant  of  whose 
sect,  now  reduced  to  a  very  small  number,  still  reside  there.  It  is 
about  forty  miles  north  of  Jerusalem.  Shechem  stands  m  a  de- 
hghtful  situation  at  the  foot  and  on  the  lowest  slope  of  Mount 
Genzim,  and  is  «  embowered  in  groves  of  the  richest  verdure- 
figs,  mulberries,  olives;  one  solitary  palm  tree  towering  over 
them  ;  and  hedges  of  the  prickly  pear,  vrith  its  fantastic  boughs 
and  yellow  blossoms,  guarding  every  plantation."  (Lord  Lindsay's 
Letters  from  Egypt,  &c.  [in  1837],  vol.  ii.  p.  74.)  This  place  is 
now  called  Napolose  or  Nablous  (a  corruption  of  its  Greek  name 
Neapolis). 

Smyrna,  page  451.  col.  1.  last  Hne  but  7.  add:— The  condi- 
tion of  the  Christians  residing  here  is  said  to  be  better  than  in 
any  of  the  sites  of  the  seven  churches  mentioned  in  the  Apoca- 
lypse ;  as  if  the  promise  was  still  in  some  measure  made  good  to 
Smyrna.  Fear  iwne  of  those  things  which  thou  shall  suffer. 
Be  thou  faithful  unto  death,  and  I  will  give  thee  a  crown  of  life. 
(Rev.  ii.  10.)  -^    •' 

Tadmoh,  page  453.  col.  1.  line  21.  add  :— Mr.  Addison  has 
described  the  ruins  of  Palmyra,  as  they  appeared  in  1835,  in  his 
"Damascus  and  Palmyra,"  vol.  ii.  pp.  284 — 326.;  and  Lord 
Lindsay,  as  they  appeared  in  1837,  in  his  "  Letters  from  Egypt," 
&c.,  vol.  ii.  pp.  168—178.  But  the  reader  who  would  see  these 
superb  remains  of  ancient  art  accurately  delineated  and  described, 
is  referred  to  Messrs.  Wood  and  Dawkins's  "  Ruins  of  Palmyra," 
which  were  first  published  at  London  in  1753,  in  one  volume 
folio.  The  modern  village  of  Tadmor,  or  (as  the  Arabs  call  it) 
Thadmor,  contains  12  or  15  families,  among  whom  there  are  not 
more  than  20  able-bodied  men :  their  chief  wealth  consists  of  a 
few  herds  of  goats  and  dromedaries,  with  poultry.  (Addison, 
vol.  ii.  p.  333.) 

Tel-Abib,  a  place  to  which  some  of  the  Israelites  were  car- 
ried captive.  (Ezek.  iii.  1 5.)  Gesenius  and  RosenmuUer  think  it 
not  improbably  to  be  the  place  now  called  Thelabba,  in  Mesopo 
tamia,  on  the  river  Chebar. 

Thee  AS  AR,  or  Telasar,  a  province  of  Assyria,  mentioned  in 
2  Kings  xix.  12.  and  Isa.  xxxvii.  12.  Its  precise  situation  has 
not  been  ascertained :  but  it  is  supposed  to  be  towards  Armenii 
and  Mesopotamia,  and  about  the  sources  of  the  rivers  Tigris  and 
Euphrates,  from  the  circumstance  of  the  children  of  Eden  in- 
habiting that  country. 

Tiberias,  page  454.  col.  1.  line  19.  add: — This  town  was  left 
in  ruins  by  the  earthquake  which  devastated  Syria,  on  Jan.  1. 
1837:  its  walls  were  cast  down  to  the  ground,  its  towers  split 
asunder,  and  their  galleries  laid  open.  (Lord  Lindsay's  Letters 
trom  Eg3'pt,  &c.  [in  1837],  vol.  ii.  p.  88.) 

Tipsah,  an  important  city  on  the  western  bank  of  the  river 
Euphrates,  which  was  the  frontier  town  of  the  north-eastern  ex- 
tremity of  Solomon's  dominions :  it  is  a  day's  journey  to  the  east 
of  Tadmor  or  Palmyra.  Here  was  a  celebrated  passage  or  ferry 
over  the  Euphrates.  (1  Kings  iv.  24.)  By  the  ancients  it  was 
called  Thapsacus :  its  modern  name  is  El  Deir. 

Tosar:.iah,  the  name  of  a  northern  region  and  people  sprung 
from  Gomer  the  son  of  Japhet.  (Gen.  x.  3.)  This  country 
abounded  in  horses,  which  were  sold  to  the  Tyrians.  (Ezek. 
xxvii.  14.)  Most  probably  it  was  Armenia,  part  of  which  coun- 
try was  celebrated  for  its  horses.  Such  also  is  the  opinion  of  the 
modern  Armenians  themselves,  who  claim  Torgom  the  son  of 
Gomer  as  the  founder  of  their  nation,  and  call  themselves  the 
House  of  Torgom. 

TcBAL,  or  Thubal,  the  fifth  son  of  Japhet  (Gen.  x.  2.),  whose 
descendants  are  supposed  to  have  peopled  a  region  of  Asia  Minor, 
near  the  Euxine  Sea,  on  the  west  of  Meshech.     Comjxire  Rosen 
miiller's  Biblical  Geography,  vol.  i.  pp.  130,  131. 

ZoBAH,  or  Aram-Zoeah,  was  the  name  of  a  city  and  petty 
kingdom  of  Syria,  whose  sovereign  carried  on  war  with  Saul  and 
David.  ( 1  Sam.  xiv.  47.  2  Sam.  viii.  3.  x.  6.)  It  seems  to  have 
been  situated  near  Damascus,  and  not  only  to  have  included  the 
city  Hamath  (2  Chron.  viii.  3.),  but  also  to  have  extended  towards 
the  Euphrates.  (2  Sam.  viii.  3.) 


No.  II. 


INDEX 


OP 


THE  SYMBOLICAL  LANGUAGE  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


{Designed  to  facilitate  the  perusal  of  the  Prophetic  Books,  analysed  in  this  Volume.y 


Abomi.nations. 

1.  Sil)  in  general. — Isa.  Ixvi.  3.  Their  soul  ddightetk  in  abomina- 
tion.s. — Ezek.  xvi.  50.  They  .  . .  committed  abomination  before  me. 
See  also  ver.  51. 

2.  An  Idol. — Isa.  xliv.  19.  Shall  1  make  the  residue  thereof  an  abomi- 
nation ?    See  also  2  Kings  xxiii.  13. 

3.  Tbe  rites  and  ceremonies  of  the  idolatrous  and  corrupt  church  of 
Rome. — Rev.  xvii.  4.  Having  a  golden  cup  in  her  hand,  full  of 
abominations. 

4.  Abomination  of  Desolation — The  Roman  army,  bo  called  on  ac- 
count of  its  ensigns  and  images  which  the  soldiers  worshipped,  and 
which  were  abominable  to  the  Jews. — Matt.  xxiv.  15.  When  ye 
shall  see  the  abomination  of  desolation  spoken  of  by  Daniel  the  Pro- 
phet. 

Accua.sED. 

1.  Devoted  to  destruction.    Josh.  vi.  17. 

2.  Accursed  from  Christ.  Excluded  from  tntercouree,  fellowship,  and 
alliance  with  Christ. — Rom.  ix.  3. 

AotJLTEiiESS,  or  Harlot. — An  apostate  church  or  city;  particularly 
the  daughter  of  Jerusalem  or  the  Jewish  church  and  people. — Isa. 
i.  21.  Horn  is  the  faithful  city  become  a  harlot?  See  Jer.  iii.  6.  8,  9. 
Ezek.  xvi.  22.  xxiii.  7.  In  Rev.  xvii.  5.  Babylon  the  Great,  the  Mo- 
ther of  Harlots,  means  the  idolatrous  Latin  church. 

■Adulterous  Generation  (Matt.  xii.  39.  xvi.  4.  Mark  viii.  38.) ;  a  faith- 
less and  impious  generation. 

Adultery. — Idolatry  and  apostacy  from  the  worship  of  the  true  God. 
Jer.  iii.  8,  9.  When  backsliding  Israel  committed  adultery  .  .  .  with 
stones  and  with  slocks.  See  also  Ezek.  xvi.  32.  xxiii.  37.  Rev.  ii. 
22. 

Air,  Wind,  Breath. — The  Holy  Spirit. — John  iii.  8.  The  wind  bloweth 
where  it  listeth  ;  and  thou  hearest  the  sound  tliereof  but  canst  not  tell 
whence  it  comelh  and  whither  it  goeth ;  so  is  every  one  that  is  born 
of  the  Spirit. — John  xx.  22.  He  breathed  on  them,  and  saith  unto 
them,  "  Receive  ye  the  Holy  Ghost." — Acts  ii.  2.  4.  Suddeidy  there 
came  a  sound  from  Heaven  as  of  a  rushing  mighty  wind  ....  And 
they  were  all  filled  with  the  Holy  Ghost. — See  Prince. 

Alpha  and  O.mega,  an  appellation  which  Jesus  Christ  appropriates  to 
himself;  to  denote  that,  as  he  is  the  Creator,  so  he  will  be  the  final 
judge  of  all  things. — Rev.  i.  8.  /  am  Alpha  and  Omega  the  begin- 
ning and  the  ending. 

A. MEN. 

1.  Truth  and  faithfulness;  a  title  of  Christ. — Rev.  iii.  14.  Thus  saith 
the  Amen  ;  Truth,  i.e.  He  who  is  true  says,  &c. 

2.  So  be  it :  a  form  of  wishing,  approving,  or  praying  at  the  end  of  a 
sentence.  Rom.  i.  25.  Gal.  i.  5.  Eph.  iii.  21.  Phil.  iv.  20.  1  Tim. 
i.  17.  It  was  customary  among  the  Jews,  when  the  priests  or  other 
persons  offered  up  prayers  or  praises  to  God  in  public,  for  the  whole 
assembly  to  respond  Amen.  Numb.  v.  22.  This  custom  was 
adopted  by  Christians ;  and  in  allusion  to  it  Amen  occurs  in  1  Cor. 
xiv.  16. 

Angels. 

1.  Angel  of  the  Lord. — Jesus  Christ.— Zech.  i.  12.  The  angel  of  the 
Lord  answered  and  said  ....  See  Lowth's  Commentary,  in  loc. 

2.  Those  intellectual  and  immaterial  Beings,  whom  the  -Almighty  em- 
ploys, as  the  ministers  of  his  providence  or  of  his  judgments. — Rev. 
XV.  8.  xvi.  1.  Seven  Angels. — xxii.  8.  I  fell  down  to  worship  before 
the  feet  of  the  angel,  who  showed  me  these  things. 

3.  The  presiding  ministers  or  bishops  of  the  church. — Rev.  ii.  1.  The 
angel  of  the  church  of  Ephesus.    See  also  ii.  8.  12.  18.  iii.  1.  7.  14. 

4.  Fallen  Spirits — Matt.  xxv.  41.  Everlasting  fire  prepared  for  the 
Devil  and  his  Angels. 

«  Besides  Iho  authorities  cited  for  particular  words,  this  Index  of  the 
Prophetic  or  Symbolical  Language  of  the  Scriptures  has  been  drawn  up, 
after  a  careful  perusal  of  tlie  remarks  on  this  subject  by  Sir  Isaac  New- 
ton, Bishops  Lowlh  and  Hurd,  the  Commentary  of  William  Lowth  on  the 
Piopliets,  the  Rev.  William  Jones's  Key  to  the  Language  of  Prophecy, 
Dr.  Lancaster's  admirable  Symbolical  Alphabetical  Dictionary  prefixed 
to  his  Abridgment  of  Daubuz's  Perpetual  Commentary  on  the  Revelation 
of  St.  John,  Robinson's  Greek  Lexicon  to  the  New  Testament,  and  Dr. 
Wood'.iouso's  Notes  to  his  Translation  of  the  Apocalypse.  Those  symbols, 
and  interpretations  of  symbols,  which  have  been  the  subject  of'contro- 
versy  amon^  some  late  'writers  en  prophecy,  are  designedly  omitted. 


Arm. 

1.  The  infinite  power  of  God  in  creating  the  world. — Jer.  xxvii.  5.  i 
have  made  the  earth  ■  .  .by  my  great  power,  and  by  my  outstreichca 
arm.    See  also  Jer.  xxxii.  17. 

2.  The  power,  strength,  and  miracles  of  Christ — Isa.  liii.  1.  John  xh. 
38.     To  whom  is  the  arm  of  the  Lord  revealed  ? 

3.  When  Jehovah  is  said  to  make  bare  his  holy  arm,  it  means  that  he 
hath  displayed  his  great  p)ower,  which  for  a  long  time  seemed  to  be 
hidden  and  unemployed. — Isa.  Iii.  10.  The  Lord  hath  made  bare  his 
holy  arm. 

^Armour. — Such  graces  and  spiritual  weapons,  as  are  for  the  defence 
of  the  soul,  and  by  which  we  may  be  enabled  to  combat  with  our 
spiritual  enemies. — Rom.  xiii.  12.  Let  us  put  on  the  armour  of 
light. — Eph.  vi.  11.    Put  on  the  whole  armour  of  God. 

Arrows. 

1.  Calamities,  or  judgments  of  God. — Job  vi.  4.  The  arrows  of  the 
Almighty  are  within  me,  the  poison  whereof  drinketh  vp  my  spirit. — 
2  Sam.  xxii.  14,  15.  compare  Psal.  xxxviii.  2,  3.  and  Ezek.  v.  16. 
That  calamities  are  represented  among  the  eastern  writers  as  the 
arrows  of  the  Almighty,  we  have  abundant  proofs:  one  single 
instance,  from  the  fine  sayings  ascribed  to  Ali  (or  Aaly)  the  son-in- 
law  of  the  impostor  of  Arabia,  will  illustrate  this  remark.  "  It  was 
once  demanded  of  the  fourth  Khalif  (Ali),  on  whom  be  the  mercy 
of  the  Creator,  if  the  canopy  of  heaven  were  a  bow ;  and  if  the 
earth  were  the  cord  thereof;  and  if  calamities  were  arrows  :  if  man- 
kind were  the  mark  for  those  arrows  ;  and  if  Almighty  God,  the 
tremendous  and  the  glorious,  were  the  unerring  archer,  to  whom 
could  the  sons  of  Adam  flee  for  protection  ?  The  Khalif  answered 
saying, '  The  sons  of  Adam  must  flee  unto  the  Lord.'  This  fine 
image  Job  keeps  in  view,  (vi.  8,  9.)  wishing  that  the  unerring  marks- 
man may  let  fly  these  arrows,  let  loose  his  hand,  to  destroy  and  cut 
him  off"    Dr.  A.  Clarke  on  Job  vi.  4. 

2.  Abusive  or  slanderous  words. — Psal.  Ixiv.  3.  Who  bend  their  bows  to 
shoot  their  arrows,  even  bitter  words. 

3.  Children. — Psal.  cxxvii.  4,  5.  As  arrows  are  in  the  hand  of  a  mighty 
man ;  so  are  children  of  the  youth.  Happy  is  the  man  that  hath  hn 
quiver  full  of  them.  "  The  orientals  are  accustomed  to  call  brav« 
and  valiant  sons  the  arrows  and  darts  of  their  parents,  because  they 
are  able  to  defend  them.  To  sharpen  arrows,  to  make  sharp  arrows, 
is,  among  them,  to  get  brave  and  valiant  sons."  [Burder's  Oriental 
Literature,  vol.  ii.  p.  53.] 

Ashes.    See  Dust  and  Ashes. 


Babes. 

1.  Foolish  and  inexperienced  princes. — Isa.  iii.  4.  I  will  give  children 
to  be  their  princes,  and  babes  (or  infants)  shall  rule  over  them.  Thii 
minatory  prediction  was  fully  accomplished  in  the  succession  of 
weak  and  wicked  princes  who  reigned  over  the  kingdom  of  Judah 
from  the  death  of  Josiah  to  the  destruction  of  the  city  and  temple, 
and  the  taking  of  Zedekiah,  the  last  of  them,  captive  by  Nebuchad« 
hezzar. 

2.  Those  who  are  weak  in  the  Christian  faith  and  knowledge,  being 
ignorant  and  inconstant,  like  infants. — 1  Cor.  iii.  1.  And  1,  brethren^ 
could  not  speak  unto  you  . .  .huX  as . . .  unto  babes  in  Christ.— 
Heb.  v.  )3.    For  he  is  a  babe. 

Barvlon.— Papal  Rome  with  all  her  idolatrous  rites. — Rev.  xiv.  8. 
Babylon  is  fallen.    See  also  Rev.  xvii.  xviii. 

Balaam,  Doctrine,  error,  or  way  of — A  defection  from  true  religion 
united  with  immoral  and  lascivious  practices. — Rev.  ii.  14.  Thou 
hast  them  that  hold  the  doctrine  of  Balaam. — Jude  11.  They  have 
....  run  greedily  after  the  error  of  Balaam. — 2  Pet.  ii.  15.  Following 
the  way  of  Balaam. 

Balance. 

1.  The  known  symbol  of  a  strict  observation  of  justice  and  fair  deal- 
ing. Prov.  xi.  1.  A  false  balance  is  abomination  unto  the  Lord. — 
Prov.  xvi.  11.  A  just  weight  and  ho\aace  are  the  Lord' s.  See  also 
Job  xxxi.  6. 

2.  Joined  with  symbols,  denoting  the  sale  of  corn  and  fruits  by  weight, 
it  becomes  the  symbol  of  scarcity. — Lev.  xxvi.  26.  When  I  have 
broken  the  staff  of  your  bread  ;  ten  women  shall  bake  your  bread  in 
one  oven  ;  and  they  shall  deliver  you  bread  again  by  weight,  and 

461 


462 


INDEX  or  THE  SYMBOLICAL 


I 


ye  fhall  eat  and  not  be  satisfied. — Ezek.  iv.  16.  They  shall  eat  bread 

Dy  weight  and  with  care. 
B.vLDN'Ess. — Destruction. — Jer.  xlvii.  5.    Baldness  ts  come  upon  Gaza. 
B\SHAN.    See  Kine,  Oaks. 
Beast. 

1.  A  heathen  kingdom  or  power  of  the  earth. — Dan.  vii.  17.  Thexe 
great  beasts,  which  are  four,  are  four  kings.  See  pp.  208^210.  of 
this  vuUime.  '' 

2.  The  Papal  antichrist.— Rev.  xiii.  2.  12. 

BtD. — Great  tribulation  and  anguish. — Rev.  it.  22.  I  will  cast  her  info 
a  bed.  To  be  tormented  in  bed,  where  men  seek  rest,  is  peculiarly 
grievous.    See  Paal.  vi.  6.  .xli.  3.  Isa.  xxviii.  20. 

Bird  of  Prey. — .\  hostile  army  coming  to  prey  upon  a  country. — Isa. 
xlvi.  11.  Calling  a  ravenous  bird /rowi  Uic  east;  Cyrus  and  his 
army.    Compare  Jer.  xii.  9.  Kzek.  xxxii.  4.  and  xxxix.  17. 

Bitter. — Bitter.vkss. — AfHiction,  misery,  and  servitude. — Exod.  i. 
14.  'I'heu  nuule  thiir  lives  biiter  with  hard  bondage.  See  Jer.  i\ 
15 — Gall  of  bitterness.    (Ads  viii.  23.)    A  state  offensive  to  God. 

Black. — Blackness. — Affliction,  disasters,  and  an<Tuish. — Jer.  xiv.  2. 
Judah  mourneth,  and  the  gales  thereof  languish  ;  thei/  are  black  unto 
the  ground. — Joel  ii.  G.  All  faces  shall  gather  blackness. — Rev.  vi. 
5.  Behold  a  black  horse.      The  black  colour  of  the  horse  in  this 

filace  indicates  that  the  publication  of  the  Gospel,  at  the  time  al- 
uded  to,  will,  by  way  of  punishment  upon  the  heathens,  for  re- 
fusing to  hear  it,  be  attended  with  great  affliction.    [Daubuz  and 
Wuotlhouse,  in  loc] 
Blessing  (Cup  of)    See  Clt,  2. 

Blindness. — Want  of  understanding  in  divine  wisdom. — Isa.  xxix.  18. 
In  that  datf  ....  the  eyes  of  the  blind  shall  see  out  of  obscurity,  and 
out  of  darkness. 
Blood. 

1.  Slauchfer  and  mortality. — Isa.  xxxiv.  3.  T/ie  mountains  shall  be 
meltid  with  blood.    See  Ezek.  xxxii.  6. 

2.  Our  natural  descent  from  one  common  family. — And  hath  made  of 
one  bloutl  all  nations  of  men,  for  to  dwell  on  all  the  face  of  tlie  earth. 
(Acts  ivii.  26.)  Flesh  and  Hood  is  an  expression,  which  signifies 
the  present  natural  state  of  man,  unaided  by  divine  grace.  When 
Paul  was  converted,  he  did  not  consult  viim  flesh  and  blood.  (Gal.  i. 
lf>.)  When  Peter  declared  his  belief,  ihat  his  Master  was  Christ, 
the  Son  of  the  living  God,  Jesus  answered  and  said  unlohim.  Blessed 
art  thou,  Simon  Bar-Jona  ;  for  flesh  and  bloo'l  hath  not  revealed  it 
unto  thee,  but  my  Father  which  is  in  heaven.  {Matt.  xvi.  17.)  We  are 
assured  that  flesh  and  blood  cannot  inherit  the  kingdom  of  God. 
(I  Cor.  XV.  50.) 

3.  Death. — To  resist  unto  blood,  is  to  contend  unto  death.  (Ileb.  xii.  4 ) 
When  I  passed  by  thee,  and  saw  thee  polluted  in  thine  own  blood,  / 
laid  unto  thee,  when  thou  wast  in  thy  blood,  Liix.  (Ezek.  xvi.  6.)  To 
shed  blood  is  to  murder;  hence  a  cruel  murderer  is  called  a  bloody 
man.  To  give  the  wicked  blood  to  drink,  is  to  put  into  tlieir  hand 
the  cup  of  death.  The  metaphorical  term  is  sometimes  employed 
in  personification.  What  ha.it  thou  done  ?  said  God  to  Cain.  Tlie 
voice  of  thy  brother's  blood  crieth  unto  me  from  the  ground.  (Gen.  iv. 
10.)  Ye  are  come  to  the  bUxnl  of  sprinkling,  that  speaketh  belter 
things  than  Oiatof  Abel.     (Heb.  xii.  24.) 

4.  The  suflferings  and  death  of  Christ,  considered  as  an  atonement  for 
the  souls  of  sinners      Being  justified  by  his  blood,  we  shall  be  saved 

from  wrath,  through  him.  (Rom.  v.  9.)  The  following  expressions 
in  the  New  Testament  are  allusions  to  the  typical  blood,  which  was 
BO  plentifully  shed  under  the  Old.  Christians  are  taught  to  reason  ; 
that  if  the  blond  of  bulls,  and  of  goats,  and  the  ashes  of  an  heifer 
sprinkling  the  unclean,  sanctifieth  to  the  purifying  of  the  flesh  ;  houi 
much  more  shall  the  blood  of  Christ,  who  through  the  eternal  Spirit 
offered  himself  without  spot  to  Gorl,  purge  your  consciences  from  dead 
works  to  serve  the  living  God  ?  (Heb.  ix  l3,  14.)  God  hath  set  forth 
Jesiis  Christ  to  be  a  propitiation,  that  we  may  have  faith  in  bin 
blood ;  that  is,  that  we  may  believe  in  the  efficacy  of  his  atonement. 
We  h/ive  redemption  through  his  blood  ;  even  the  forgiveness  of  sins, 
according  to  the  riches  of  his  grace.  (Eph.  i.  7.)  We  were  riot  re- 
deemed with  corruptible  things,  as  silver  and  gold,  but  tnith  the 
precious  blood  of  Christ,  as  rf  a  lamb  without  blemish,  and  uMtout 
spot.  (1  Peter  i.  18,  19 )  In  the  Scriptures,  the  blood  of  Christ  is 
sometimes  represented  nn  the  procuring  cause  of  our  justification. 
Much  more  being  justified  by  his  blood,  we  shall  be  saved  from  wrath 
Uirough  him.  (Rom.  v  9 )  The  term  blood,  when  used  in  this  sense, 
means  the  merits  of  Christ's  atonement.  B'lt  in  other  passages,  our 
sanciifiration  is  imputed  to  the  blood  of  Christ.  JJov>  much  more 
sh'Ul  the  blood  of  Christ,  who  through  the  eternal  Spirit  offered  him- 
Klf  without  spot  l/t  (Sod,  purge  your  conscience  from  dead  works,  to 
serve  the  living  God  ?  (Ilob.  ix.  II.)  The  saints  are  represented  ns 
walking  in  white ;  because  they  had  wn-shed  their  rolK's  in  the 
blood  of  the  f/imh.  (Rev.  vii.  14.)  The  term  blood,  when  used  in 
this  figumlivo sense,  evidently  sipnified  the  doctrines  of  the  cross; 
which  are  the  great  mean  of  purifying  the  believer's  heart.  Noui 
ae  arc  cUan,  said  Christ  to  his  disr-iples,  through  the  word,  which  / 
fiive  spoken  unto  you.  (John  xv.  3) 

5.  Hloofi  rfthe  rnvennrit—{Ma\\.  xxvlW.)  The  bloo<l  ofChriM,  who 
died  in  <oiiBef|uonce  of  a  covenant  to  re<loem  sinners. 

Bodv. — .\  society ;  the  church,  with  its  diflbrent  members. — 1  Cor. 
xii.  20—27. 

Book  of  Life. — Rev.  iii.  H.  I  villi  not  Mot  out  his  name  out  of  the  Book 
of  Life.  "  As,  in  states  and  cities,  those  who  oblnined  freedom  and 
fellowship,  were  enrolled  in  the  public  register,  which  enrolment 
wrtH  ilipjr  title  lo  the  privilcfjes  of  citizens,  so  the  King  of  heaven, 
of  the  New  Jerusalem,  engigos  to  preserve  in  his  register  and  en- 


rolment, in  the  book  of  life,  the  names  of  those,  who,  like  the  grwl 
Sardians,  in  a  corrupted  and  supine  societj', shall  preserve  allegianc 
and  a  faithful  discharge  of  tlieir  Christian  duties.  He  will  owl 
them  as  his  fellow-cilizens,  before  men  and  angels,  ftlatt.  ix.  32 
Luke  xii.  8.  See  also  Psal.  Ixix.  28.  Ezek.  xiii.  9.  Exod.  xxxii.  33j 
Dan.  xii.  1.  Mai.  iii.  16.  Luke  x.  20."  [Dean  Woodhouse  on  Kei 
iii.  5.] 

Bottles. — The  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem,  whom  God  threatened  to  fi| 
with  the  wine  of  terror. — Jer.  xiii.  12.  Every  bottle  shall  be  fillt 
with  wine. 

Bow. 

1-  Strength. — Job  xxix.  20.    My  bow  was  renewed  in  my  hand. 

2.  Viclorj'. — Rev.  vi.  2.  He  that  sat  on  him  had  a  bow  ;  where  it  sig 
nifies  the  progress  of  the  Gospel,  which  was  assisted  by  sudden  aiv 
unexpected  and  miraculous  aid  and  deliverance. 

BowEijj — Pity,  compassion. — Luke  i.  7,  8.  Through  the  tender  mercy 
(literally  bowels  of  mercy)  of  our  God. 

Branch.    See  Trees,  3. 

Brass. — Strength. — Psal.  cvii.  16.     He  hath  broken  the  gates  q/" brass ;^ 
that  is,  the  strong  gales.    See  Isa.  xlv.  2.    In  Jer.  i.  18.  and  xv.  20 
brazen  walls  signify  a  strong  and  lasting  adversary  and  opposer. 

Bread  or  Food. 

1.  The  word  of  God. — DeuL  viii.  3.  Matt.  iv.  4.  Man  doth  not  (or 
shall  not)  live  by  bread  oidy,  but  by  every  word  thai  prcceedeth  out 
of  the  mouth  of  God. 

2.  O/ic  bread.    (1  Cor.  x.  17.)    The  union  of  real  Christians. 
Breath.    See  Air. 

Brethren. — Christians  united  by  their  profes.«;ion. —  Rom.  xii.  1.    / 

beseech  you,  brethren.    See  Acts  xxi.  7.     1  Cor.  xv.  6. 
Briars. — -Mischievous  and  hurtful  persons — 'Isa.  Iv.  13.    Instead  oj 

the  briar  shall  come  vp  the  myrtle-tree.    See  Thorns,  2. 
Bride. — The   heavenly  Jerusalem. — Uev.  xxi.  9. ..  The  bride,  the 

Lamb's  wife. 
Bri  DEC  Roo.M.— Christ,  as  the  spouse  of  the  church. — Rev.  xxi.  9.    See 

also  Voice,  1. 
Bkimstone. 

1.  Perpetual  torment  and  destruction. — Job  xviii.  15.  Brimstone 
(hall  be  scattered  upon  his  habitation ;  that  is,  his  home  or  family 
shall  be  destroyed  lor  ever  by  an  inextinguishable  fire.  Compare 
Isa.  xxxiv.  9,  ]().     Rev.  xiv.  10,  Ac. 

2.  Corrupt,  infenial,  and  destructive  doctrines.  Rev.  ix.  17.  Out  of 
their  mouth  issued  fire  and  brimstone.    See  verse  18. 

Bulls. — Wicked,  violent  men. — Psal.  xxii.  12.  Many  bulls  have 
comj>assed  me;  strong  [bulls]  of  Bashan  have  beset  me  round:  that 
is,  mine  enemies,  who  arc  as  furious  and  formidable  as  the  bulls 
fed  in  the  rich  pastures  of  Bashan,  beset  me  on  every  side. 

Burning.    SeeFiuE,  2. 

Bu  V.  To  attain  in  preference  to  earthly  riches. — See  Isa.  Iv.  1.  Prov. 
xxiii.  13.    Rev.  iii.  18. 


Call — Called — Calling. 

1.  That  invitation  which  God  holds  out  to  men  to  come  and  enjoy  the 
blessings  which  flow  from  a  sincere  reception  of  the  Christian  reli- 
gion. Eph.  i.  18.  77ia<  ye  may /rnou)  Jt)//a<  «  Me  hope  of  his  calling: 
that  is,  what  is  the  nature  of  that  hope,  which  those,  who  have 
been  invited  into  the  divine  kingdom,  may  properly  indulge. 

2.  To  call  to  any  duty ;  that  is,  to  appoint,  constitute,  or  choose.  Gal. 
i.  15.     Who  calUd  me,  chose  nio,  by  his  grace,  viz.  to  be  an  apostle. 

Candlestick.    See  Lamp. 
Cedars. 

1.  Great  men. — Zecli.  xi.  2.     The  cedar  is  fallen. 

2.  Cedars  of  Lebanon. — Kings,  princes,  and  nobles  of  Judah. — Isa.  ii 
1 3.  'llie  day  of  the  Lord  shall  be  ... .  upon  all  the  cedars  of  Leba- 
non. 


3.  'J'op  of  the  young  twigs  of  cedars. — The  prime  nobility  and  able 

soluiery. — Ezek.  xvii.  4.     He  crojrped  off  the  top  of  the  young  twigs 
Cjiaef. — Unprofitable  and  worthless  men. — I'sal.  i.4.  The  ungodly  art 

.  . .  like  the  chair  which  the  wind  drivclh  away. — Matt.  iii.  14.    Ht 

will  burn  up  the  ihatt' with  unifuenrhubJe fire. 
Chain — Bondage  or  afllictiou. — Lam.  iii.  /.     He  hath  made  my  chain 

heavy. 
Child,  Children. 

1.  Those  who  have  received  their  religous  knowledge,  character 
education,  &c.  from  any  one:  i.e.  a  beloved  disciple.  2  Tim.  i. 2 
Timnlhy,  my  dearly  behnrd  child. 

2.  Children  joined  with  the  names  of  cities  denote  their  inhabitants  or 

citizens.     I\Iall.   xxiii.  37.      O  Jerusalem how  often,  wouUl  I 

have  gathered  thy  children.    Sec  also  Luke  xiii.  34.    xix.  44.    Gal 
iv.  25. 

3.  Children  of  God  ;  those  whom  he  regards  with  parental  nfllection 
and  on  whom  he  bestows  peculiar  favour.  John  i.  12.  As  many  a* 
rrrcived  him,  to  them  he  gave  the  privilege  to  bvci.me  tlie  children  of 
God. 

4.  Children  of  God  and  children  of  the  devil,  in  1  John  iii.  10.,  are 
those  who  resemble  God,  and  those  who  resemble  Satan. 

CiRci;.McisioN. — An  engagement  like  that  of  bniiiism,  to  renounce  the 
flchh  and  circumcise  the  heart. — Deut.  x.  16.  Circumcise  therefore 
the  foreskin  of  your  heart.— OqviX.  xxx.  6.  The  Ijord  thy  God  shall 
circumcise  ihiue  heart. — Rom.  ii.  29.  Circumcision  is  that  of  the 
heart. 

Clay  in  the  hands  of  the  potter. — Man  in  the  hands  of  his  Creator.-. 
Isa.  xliv.  8.      Now,  O  Loud,  thou  art  our  Father  ;  wc  are  lite  clay  i 
and  thnu  onr  potter,  and  we  arc  all  the  work  of  thy  hand.    See  aUo 
Rom.  ix.  21. 


LANGUAGE  OF  THL  SCRIPTURES. 


463 


Clouds. — 'Multitudes  anri  armies. — Jer.  iv.  13.    He  shall  come  vp  as 

clou'is. — Isa.  \x.  8.    Who  are  those,  thai. Jli/  as  a  cloud  ? — Heb.  xii.  1. 

A  cloud  of  witnesses. 
(;oi.D.  Inconstant  in  affections,  purpose,  and   conduct ;  destitute  of 

fervent  piety  .and  iioly  zeal.    Kev.  ill.  15, 16. 
CoLUM.v.    See  Pillak. 
UoRNER-SroNE.    Jesus  Christ,  who  is  compared  to  a  comer-stone  in 

three  points  of  view  ;  viz. 

1.  As  this  stone  lies  at  the  foundation,  and  serves  to  give  support  and 
strength  to  the  building,  so  Christ,  or  the  doctrine  of  a  Saviour,  is 
called  Iha  chief  cornerslone  in  Eph.  ii.  20. ;  because  this  doctrine  is 
the  most  important  feature  of  the  Christian  religion,  and  is  the 
fundamental  object  of  all  the  precepts  given  by  the  apostles  and 
other  Christian  teachers. 

2.  As  the  corner-stone  occupies  an  important  and  conspicuous  place, 
Jesus  is  compared  to  it  in  1  Pet.  ii.  6.,  because  God  has  mado  him 
highly  esteemed  (or  precious,)  and  has  advanced  him  to  a  dignity 
and  conspicuousness  above  all  others. 

3.  Since  men  ofien  stumlile  against  a  projecting  corner-stone,  Christ 
is  therefore  so  called  (Psal.  cxviii.  22.  Malt.  xxi.  42.  and  parallel 
passages,)  because  his  Gospel  will  be  the  cause  of  aggravated  con- 
demnation to  those  who  wilfully  reject  it.  (Robinson's  Lexicon, 
p.  21. 

Cross. 

1.  The  doctrine  of  the  cross,  that  is,  of  Christ  crucified.  The  cross  of 
Chrisi,  the  preaching  of  the  cross,  occur  in" this  sense  in  1  Cor.  i.  17, 
18.    See  also  Gal.  v.  11.  vi.  12.  14.  Phil.  iii.  18. 

2.  To  taive  up  or  bear  one's  cross,  that  is,  to  be  ready.to  undergo  the 
severest  trials,  or  to  expose  one's  self  to  the  most  imminent  dangers. 
Matt.  X.  33.  xvi.  21.    Mark  viii.  34.  x.  21.    Luke  ix.  23.  xiv.  27. 

Crow.v  of  Life,  a  triumphant  immortality. — Rev",  ii.  10.    Be  thou 

faithful  unto  death,  and  I  will  give  thee  a  crown  of  life. 
Cup. 

1.  The  blessings  and  favours  of  God. — Psal.  xxiii.  5.  My  cup  runneth 
over.  The  cup  nf  salvation,  in  Psal.  cxvi.  13.,  is  a  cup  of  thanks- 
giving, or  blessing  the  Lord  for  all  his  mercies. 

2.  The  Cup  of  Messing. — The  paschal  cup  was  called  by  the  Jews  the 
Cup  of  fdessing,  because  they  sanctified  it  by  giving  thanks  to  God 
for  it.  To  this  Saint  Paul  alludfis  in  1.  Cor.  x.  16.  when  he  terms  the 
sacrimental  cup  the  cup  of  blessing. 

i.  Afflictions  or  sufferings,  the  effficts  of  the  wrath  of  God. — Isa.  Ii.  17. 
Stand  up,  O  Jerusalem,  which  hast  drunk  at  the  hand  of  the  Lord 
tJie  cup  of  his  fury.  Thou  hast  drunken  the  dregs  of  the  cup  of 
trembling.    See  VVine,  2. 


Darkness. 

1.  Sin  and  ignorance. — Rom.  xiii.  12.  Let  ua  cast  off  the  works  of 
darkness. 

2.  Affliction,  misery,  and  adversity — Jer.  xiii.  15.  Give  glory  to  the 
Lord  your  God,  before  he  cause  darkness.  See  Ezek.  xxx.  18. 
XX  xiv.  12. 

3.  Darkness  of  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars.  General  darkness  and  de- 
ficiency in  the  government. — Isa.  xiii.  10.  The  stars  of  heaven,  and 
the  co7istellations  thereof,  shall  not  give  their  light ;  the  sun  shall  be 
darkened  in  his  going  forth,  and  the  moon  shall  not  cause  her  light 
to  shine.    See  Ezek.  xxxii.  7.  and  Joel  ii.  10.  31.  iii.  15. 

Day. 

1.  A  year,  in  prophetical  language. — Ezek.  iv.  6.  Thou  shall  bare 
the  iniquity  of  the  house  of  Judah  forty  days ;  /  have  appointed  thee 
each  day  for  a  year.  See  also  Isa.  xx.  3.  (Bp.  Lowth's  version  and 
notes.) — Rev.  ii.  10.     Ye  shall  have  tribulation  ten  days. 

2.  An  appointed  time  or  season. — Isa.  xxxiv.  8.  It  is  the  day  of  the 
Lord's  vengeance.    See  also  Isa.  Ixiii.  4. 

3.  A  state  of  truth,  hope,  and  knowledge. — 1.  Thess.  v.  5.  Ye  are  all 
children  of  the  light,  and  children  of  Oie  day. 

Death. 

1  The  separation  of  the  soul  from  the  body. — Gen.  xxv.  11.  After 
the  death  of  Abraham,  &c.  This  is  temporal  or  the  first  death, 
which  is  the  common  lot  of  man  by  the  divine  sentence.  (Gen.  iii. 
19.)    The 

2.  Second  death  (beyond  the  grave)  is  the  eternal  separation  of  the 
w-hole  man  from  the  presence  and  glory  of  God  ;  not  only  an  ex- 
tinction of  all  our  pleasurable  feelings,  and  of  all  our  hopes  of  hap- 
piness, but  an  ever-during  sense  of  this  extinction,  "  where  the 
worm  dieth  not,  and  the  fire  is  not  quenched." — Rev.  ii.  11.  He 
that  overcomelh  shall  not  be  hurt  of  the  second  death. 

3.  The  state  of  a  soul  insensible  of  sin  and  corruption,  and  destitute  of 

the  spirit  of  life. — Jude  12.     Twice  dead.— ReV/ iii.  1.     Thou 

art  dead. 

4.  A  state  of  mortification,  death  unto  sin,  and  crucifixion  with  Christ. — 
Rom.  vi.  8.  He  that  is  dead,  \s  freed  from  sin. — 1  Pet.  ii.  24.  Who 
his  own  self  bare  our  sins  in  his  own  body  on  the  tree,  that  we  being 
dead  to  sin,  should  live  to  righteousness. 

Desert. 
Desert  of  the  Sea. — Babylon. — Isa.  xxi.  1.  The  burden  of  the  desert 
of  the  sea.  Babylon  and  the  adjacent  coimtry  is  so  called,  because 
it  w^as  shortly  to  become  desert,  and  a  marsh  full  of  pools  of  water, 
as  if  converted  into  a  lake  or  inland  sea.  The  country  about 
Babylon,  and  especially  below  it  towards  the  sea,  was  a  great  flat 
morass,  often  overflowed  by  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris.  (Bp.  Lowth 
and  Dr.  Scott,  in  loc.) 

Dew  upon  Herbs. — The  blessing  of  Heaven,  and  the  power  of  the 
resurrection. — Hos.  xiv.  5.  I  will  be  :a  the  dew  unto  Israel. — Isa. 
rxvi.  19.     Thy  dead  men  shall  live ;  together  with  my  dead  body  shall 


they  arise.     Awake  and  sing,  ye  that  dwell  m  dust,  for  thy  dew  is  as 
the  dew  of  herbs,  and  the  earth  shall  cast  out  the  dead. 

DOG. 

1.  The  Gentiles.— The  bad  properties  cf  dogs  are  obstinate  barking, 
biting,  insatiable  gluttony,  fihhiness  in  lust,  vomiiiiie.  and  returning 
to  their  vomit.  (Compare  Prov.  xxi.  11.  2  Pet.  ii.  22.)  Hence  the 
Gentiles,  on  account  of  the  impuriiy  of  their  lives,  and  their  being 
without  the  covenant,  were  called  dogs  by  the  Jews. — Matt.  xv.  26 

It  is  not  meet  to  take  the  children's  bread  and  cast  it  to  dogs. Psal. 

sxii.  16.    Dogs  have  compassed  me,  the  assemlty  of  the  wicked  have 
inclosed  me. 

2.  A  watchman,  for  his  vigilance  to  give  notice  of  approaching 
danger. — Isa.  Ivi.  10.  His  watchmen  are  blind,  they  are  all  ignorant 
they  are  all  dumb  dogs,  they  cannot  bark. 

3.  Impudent,  shameless  persons,  and  false  teachers. — Rev.  xxii.  15 
Without  are  dogs. — Phil.  iii.  2.    Beware  rf  dogs. 

Dominion. 

1.  Power. — Neh.  ix.  28.     Tiiey  had  dominion  over  them. 

2.  Persons  over  whom  another  has  power. — Psal.  cxiv.  2.  Israel  vy 
his  dominion. 

3.  Angeli. — Col.  i.  16.     By  him  tvere  <-reated dominions. 

4.  The  universal  government  of  Almighty  God. — Dan.  vii.  14.  His 
dominion  is  an  everlasting  dominion. 

Door. 

1.  Door  opened  in  heaven.  The  beginning  of  a  new  kind  of  govern- 
ment.— Rev.  iv.  1.  /  looked,  and,  behold,  a  door  [was]  opened  in. 
heaven. 

2.  An  open  door. — ^The  free  exercise  and  propagation  of  the  Gospel. — 
1  Cor.  xvi.  9.  A  great  door  and  effiictual  is  opened  ujito  me.  See 
also  2  Cor.  ii.  12.    Col.  iv.  3.    Acis  xiv.  27. 

Dragon. 

1.  A  symbol  of  a  king  that  is  an  enemy. — In  Ezek.  xsix.  3.  it  means  the 
king  of  Egypt,  so  also  in  Psal.  Ixxiv.  13. 

2.  Satan  acting  and  ruling  by  his  visible  ministers. — Rev.  xii.  9.  Be- 
hold, a  great  red  dragon,  &c. 

3.  Any  hurtful  thing. — Psal.  xci.  13.  The  young  lion  and  the  dragon 
shall  thou  trample  under  foot. 

Drunk — Drunkenness. 

1.  The  symbol  of  the  folly  and  madness  of  sinners,  who,  making  no 
use  of  their  reason,  plunge  themselves  in  all  manner  of  crimes. — 

Isa.  xxviii.  1.  3.     Woe  to  the  drunkards   of  Ephraim 27(6 

drunkards  of  Ephraim  shall  be  trodden  under  feet. 

2.  That  stupidity,  which  arises  from  God's  judgments  ;  when  the  sin- 
ner is  under  the  consternation  of  his  misery,  as  one  astonished,  stag- 
gering, and  not  Icnowing  what  to  do. — Isa.  xxix.  9.  They  are  drunken, 
but  not  luith  wine  ;  they  stagger,  but  not  with  strong  drink. — Isa.  Ii.  21. 
Thou  afflicted  and  drunken,  but  not  with  wine.  See  also  Jer.  xiii 
13,  14.  and  Lam.  iii.  15. 

Dust  and  Ashes. — Mortal  man,  under  death  and  condemnation.— 
Gen.  xviii.  27.  /  have  taken  upon  me  to  speak  unto  the  Lord,  which 
am  but  dust  and  ashes. — Gen.  iii.  19.  Dust  thou  art,  and  to  dust  shalt 
thou  returju    See  Job  xiii.  6. 


Eagle. 

1.  A  king  or  kingdom. — Ezek.  xvii.  A  great  eagle,  with  great  wjngs 
long  winged, full  of  feathers,  which  had  divers  colours,  came  to  Leha 
nan:  that  is,  Nebuchadnezzar.  The  divers  colours  refer  to  the 
various  nations  that  composed  the  Babylonian  empire. 

2.  The  Roman  army,  whose  ensigns  or  standards  were  eagles. — Matt, 
xxi  v.  28.  Wheresoever  the  carcase  is,  there  will  the  eagles  be  gathered 
together.    See  Wings. 

3.  Eagles'  Wings. — To  be  borne  on  eagles'  wings  signifies  divine 
miraculous  deliverance.  Who  can  pursue  the  eagle  through  the 
air,  and  take  from  him  what  is  committed  to  his  charge  ?  Exod. 
xix.  4.   Psal.  xci.  4.   Isa.  xl.  31.   Rev.  xii.  14. 

Earthen  Vessel. — The  body  of  man. — 2.  Cor.  iv.  7.  We  have  this 
treasure  hi  earthen  vessels. 

Earthquakes. — Great  revolutions  or  changes  in  the  political  world. — 
Joel  ii.  10.  The  earth  sftall  quake  before  them.  See  also  Haggai  ii. 
21.     Heb.  xii.  25. 

EkiVrT. — A  mystical  name  of  wickedness.-r-Rev.  xi.  8.  Their  dead 
bodies  [shall  lie]  in  the  street  of  the  great  city,  which  spiritually  is 
called  Sodom  and  Egypt. 

Elders  (the  twenty-four.)  Probably  such  of  the  Patriarchs  and  Pro- 
phets of  the  old  church,  as  saw  by  faith  the  day  of  redemption  and 
rejoiced;  and  who  are  expressly  termed  Elders  (^pso-'uT.-pci)  in 
Heb.  xi.  2. — Rev.  iv.  10.  The  four  and  twenty  elders  fall  down  be- 
fore him  that  liveih  for  ever.  [See  Dean  Woodhouse  on  Rev.  iv. 
10.] 

Eyes  admit  of  various  interpretations,  according  to  circumstances. 

I.  As  applied  to  the  Almighty,  they  denote, 

1.  His  knowledge  and  prescience. — Prov.  xv.  3.  His  eye  is  in  every 
place  to  behold  good  and  evil.     See  Psal.  xi.  4. 

2.  His  watchful  providence. — Psal.  xxxiv.  15.  The  eyes  of  the  Lord 
are  upon  the  righteous. 

II.  As  applied  to  Jesus  Christ  they  signify  his  omnipresence. — Rev.  v 
6.  In  the  midst  of  the  elders  stood  a  lamb,  having.. . .  seven  eyes.  [See 
Dean  Woodhouse,  in  loc] 

III.  As  applied  to  Men,  the  eyes  denote, 

1.  The  understanding,  which  is  as  it  were  the  eye  of  the  soul. — Psal. 
cxix.  18.     Open  thou  mine  eyes. 

2.  A  guide  or  counseller. — Job  xxix.  15.    1  was  eyes  to  the  blind. 

3.  The  whole  man. — Rev.  i.  7.  Every  eye  shall  see  him ;  that  is,  all 
men. 


464 


INDEX  OF  THE  SYMBOLICAL 


.  Good  or  evil  desires  avi  designs. — Deut.  ixviii.  54.  His  eye  nhall 
be  evil  towards  his  brother. — ver.  56.  Her  eye  shall  be  evil  towards 
the  husband  cf  her  bosom,  and  tonMrds  her  son,  and  towards  her 
daughter.  I'hat  is,  ihey  shall  form  cruel  and  evil  designs  against 
them  to  kill,  and  even  to  eat  them.  History  confirms  ihe  predic- 
tion. 


Face. 

1.  As  applied  to  God,  it  denotes  his  favour. — Dan.  ix.  17.  Cause  thy 
face  to  shine  upon  thy  sanctuary. — See  Psal.  xxxi.  IC. 

2.  As  applied  to  man. 

Faces  harder  than  a  rock  (Jar.  v.  3.)  denote  unblushing,  shameless 
persons. 

Faith  (n.s-r.,-.)  In  consequence  of  not  attending  to  the  ambiguity  of 
the  word  tt,tt>;,  which  in  our  authorised  version  is  usually  trans- 
lated/aiM,  it  has  been  applied  by  many  divines,  wherever  it  occurs, 
exclusively  to  faith  \n  the  Messiah,  when  the  context  often  manifestly 
requires  it  to  be  taken  in  a  different  sense.  Faith  or  believing  then 
denotes, 

1.  Our  assenting  to  any  truth,  even  to  such  truths  as  are  known  by  the 
evidences  of  our  senses :  thus  in  John  xx.  2'J.  Thomas,  whom  the 
evidence  of  his  senses  had  convinced  of  the  reality  of  Christ's  re- 
surrection, is  said  to  have  belitved. 

2.  A  general  disposition  of  the  mind  to  embrace  aU  that  we  know  concern- 
ing God,  whether  by  reason  or  revelation  :  as  in  Hcb.  xi.  6.  Without 
faith  it  is  impossible  to  please  God  ;  which  expression  is  subsequent- 
ly applied  to  the  existenceof  God,  liis  goodness  and  bounty  towards 
Iiis  sincere  worshippers. 

3.  A  peculiar  assent  to  a  certain  revelation  ;  for  instance,  in  Kom.  iv. 
throughout,  and  in  other  passages  that  treat  of  Abraham's  faith,  it  is 
manifest  that  this  faith  must  be  referred  to  the  peculiar  promises 
made  to  Abraham  that  a  son  should  be  born  unto  him,  though  he 
himself  was  then  about  a  hundred  years  old,  and  Sarah,  who  was 
ninety,  was  barren. 

4.  An  assent  given  to  the  revelation  made  to  Moses;  as  when  the 
children  of  Israel  are  said  to  have  believed  the  Lord  and  his  servant 
Moses.     (Kxod.  xiv.  31.  compared  with  John  v.  45,  46.  and  ix.  28) 

5.  An  assent  given  to  the  relation  made  to  the  prophets  ;  as  when  King 
Jehoshaphat  says  to  the  Jews  (2  Chron.  xx.  20.,)  "  Believe  in  the 
Lord  your  God,  so  shall  ye  be  established  ;  believe  his  prophets,  so 
Bliall  ye  prosper."    Cora[)are  also  Isa.  vii.  9. 

C.  A  cordial  assent  to  the  Christian  revelation  or  to  some  of  its  leading 
and  fundamental  points  ;  as  in  those  passages  where  we  are  com- 
manded to  believe  in  Christ,  or  that  he  is  the  Son  of  God,  or  that  he 
rose  from  the  dead. 

I.  An  assent  to  future  and  invisible  things  revealed  by  God,  as  in 
Ileb.  xi.  1.  where  it  is  defined  to  be  the  substance  of  things  hoped 

for,  and  the  evidence  of  things  not  seen,  that  is,  the  giving  of  a  present 
subsistence  to  things  future,  which  are  fully  expected,  and  the 
proving  and  demonstrating  of  things  which  are  not  seen. 

8.  The  Gospel,  as  in  Gal.  iii.  2.  where  Saint  Paul  demands  of  the 
Galatians,  whether  they  received  the  Spirit  by  the  works  of  the  law, 
or  bif  the  hearing  of  faith:  in  which  pa.ssage  it  is  evident  that  the 
hearing  of  fail  h  denotes  the  hearing  of  the  preached  Gospel ;  and  in 
this  serise  the  word  faith  appears  to  bo  used  in  all  those  parts  of  the 
Epistle  to  the  Romans,  where  it  is  opjwsed  to  the  works  of  the  law. 

9.  A  persuasion  that  what  we  do  is  well  pleasing  to  God:  thus  the 
meaning  of  Rom.  xiv.  23,  Whatsoever  is  not  of  faith  is  sin,  is,  that 
it  is  sinful  in  us  to  do  any  thing,  which  we  are  not  fully  persuaded 
is  well  pleasing  to  God,  or  at  least  permitted  by  him. 

10.  Faith  in  miracles,  that  is,  a  firm  confidence  in  Christ,  to  which,  at 
the  first  propagation  of  the  Gospel,  was  annexed  the  performance 
of  miracles  :  such  was  the  faith  which  Jesus  Christ  frequently  re- 
quired of  his  disciples  and  others,  that  he  might  work  certain 
miracles  by  them  (compare  iMatt.  xvii.  20.  Mark  xi.  22.  xvi.  17.  and 
Luke  xvii.  6. ;)  and  to  which  Saint  Paul  refers  in  1  Cor.  xiii.  2. 
Listly,  faith  sometimes  signifies, 

II.  Fidelity,  or  faithfulness  in  the  discharge  of  duties  or  promises,  and 
80  the  Greek  word  a-nrnt  is  properly  rendered  in  Tit.  ii.  10. ;  as  it 
also  should  have  been  in  1  Tim.  v.  12.,  the  faith,  there  said  to  have 
been  cast  off  by  the  younger  widows,  being  their  fidelity  to  Christ. 

Falling  down,  or  prostrate,  before  another. — Submission  and  ho- 
mage.— Isa.  xiv.  14.  They  shall  full  down  unto  thee,  and  make  sup- 
plication unto  thee.    See  al.so  Gen.  xxvii-  29.  xxxvii.  7,  8. 

Family. — The  Church  of  God. — Kph.  iii.  15.  Of  whom  the  whole 
family  in  heaven  and  earth  is  named. 

Fat. 

1.  The  most  excellent  of  every  thing. — Psal.lxxxi.  16.  He  should  have 
fid  them  with  the  finest  (Heb./aO  of  the  wheal. — Psal.  cxlvii.  14.  He 
filielh  thee  with  the  finest  {llch.  fat)  of  the  w/ieat. 

2.  Riches.— Psal.  xxii.  29.  AU  the  fat  upon  earth.— Jer.  v.  28.  They 
are  wajen  fat. 

Fathkr. 

1.  God,  whoBC  children  we  all  are  by  creation  and  redemption. — Mai. 
i.  6.  If  I  be  a  father,  vihere  is  mine  honour  ? — Mai.  ii.  10.  Have  we 
not  all  one  Father?  Hath  not  one  Ood  created  ut?  See  Jer.  xxxi. 
9. 

2.  Father  of  any  thing;  that  i«,  the  anlhor,  cause,  or  source  of  it. — 
John  viii.  44.  When  he  (Satan)  tpcakelh  a  lie  ...  Ac  is  the  father  of 
»/.— James  i.  17.  The  Father  of  lights  ;  the  source  of  spiritual  and 
ooporeni  light. 

3.  F.xample,  nnllcrn,  or  prototype. — John  viii.  44.  Ye  are  of  your 
father,  the  uevil ;  yo  follow  the  example  of  Satan,  so  that  he  may  be 
properly  called  your  father,  and  yo  his  children. 


Field.    The  World.— Matt.  xiii.  38. 
Fire. 

1.  With  such  adjuncts  as  denote  that  it  is  not  put  for  light,  it  signifies 
destruction  or  torment,  great  sickness,  war,  and  its  dismal  effects. — 
Isa.  xlii.  25.  It  hath  set  him  on  fire. — Isa.  Ixvi.  15.  The  Lord  will 
come  with  fire.    See  E/.ek.  xxii.  20—22. 

2.  Burning  fire.— The  wrath  of  Go^l.— Ezek.  xxii.  31.  I  have  con- 
sumed them  with  the  fire  of  my  wrath. 

3.  Afflictions,  or  persecution. — Isa.  xxiv.  15.  Glorify  ye  ihe  Lord  God 
in  the  fires. 

4.  Coals  of  fire  proceeding  out  of  the  month  of  God,  or  from  his 
countenance,  denote  his  anger. — Psal.  xviii.  8.  12,  13. 

FiRMA.MENT.    See  Heavens. 
Flf.sh  (or  Meat.) 

1.  The  riches,  goods,  or  possessions  of  any  person  conquered,  oppres- 
sed, or  slain,  as  the  case  may  be. — Psal.  Ixxiv.  14.  7'hmt  brtakest 
the  heads  rf  leviathan  in  pieces  (didst  destroy  the  power  of  Pharaoh 
and  his  princes,)  [and]  gavest  him  [to  be]  meat  to  the  people  inhabiting 
the  wilderness:  that  is,  didst  enrich  the  Israelites  with  their 
six)ils. — Isa.  xvii.  4.  Thefatnese  of  his  flesh  shall  be  made  lean.  See 
also  Mic.  iii.  2,  3.  and  Zech.  xi.  9.  16. ;  in  all  which  places  the  Tar 
gum  expli>ins_/Ze.«A  by  riches  and  substance. 

2.  To  devour  much  flesh,  is  to  conquer  and  spoil  many  enemies  of  their 
lands  and  po-ssessions.  In  D.an.  vii.  5.  this  expression  is  used  to  de- 
note the  cruelty  of  the  Medes  and  Persians,  many  of  whose  sove 
reigns  were  more  like  ferocious  bears  than  men.  Instances  of  their 
cruelty  abound  in  almost  all  the  historians  who  have  written  of 
their  affairs. 

3.  Weak,  mortal  man. — Isa.  xl.  6.     All  flesh  is  grass. 

4.  The  exterior  of  man  ;  viz. 

(1.)  External  actions,  as  circumcision,  the  choice  of  food,  &c.  m 
which  the  body  is  the  part  chiefly  affected. — Rom.  iv.  1.  What  shall 
we  say  then,  that  Abraham  our  father  hath  found,  as  pertaining  to  the 
flesh  ?  i.  e.  so  far  as  regards  external  actions. —  1  Cor.  x.  18.  Behold 
Israel  after  the  flesh  ;  /.  e.  a.s  it  respects  the  external  performance  of 
their  religious  rites. — Gal.  iii.  3..  ..Are  ye  now  mode  perfect  by  the 
flesh  ?  will  ye  turn  again  to  mere  external  ceremonies  ? 
(2.)  External  appearance,  condition,  circumstances,  character  &c. — 
John  vi.  63.  The  flesh  profiteth  nothing. — 2.  Cor.  v.  16.  We  know 
no  man  after  the  flesh. 

Flood. — Extreme  danger. — Psal.  Ixix.  15.  Let  not  tlie  icafer-flood 
overflow  me.    See  River. 

Food.    See  Bread. 

Forehead. — A  public  profession  or  appearance  before  men. — An 
ticntly,  slaves  were  stigmatised  in  their  forehead  with  their  master's 
mark;  hence  to  be  scaled  in  the  forehead  (Rev.  vii.  3.,)  and  to  have 
a  mark  in  the  forehead  (Rev.  xiii.  16.  &c.,)  is  to  make  a  public  pro- 
fession of  belonging  to  the  person  whose  mark  is  said  to  be  re- 
ceived. 

Four.    See  Numbers. 

Forest  of  the  South-field.    See  South-field. 

Fornication. — All  those  carnal  impurities,  which  were  common 
among  the  heathens,  and  even  formed  a  part  of  their  sacred  rites, 
Rev.  ii.  20.  Thou  sufferest  that  woman  Jezebel  ....to  seduce  my  set 
vants  to  commit  firnification. 

Fortress. — See  Towkrs. 

Fox. — A  cunning,  deceitful  person. — Luke  xiii.  32  Go,  tell  that  fox. — 
Ezek.  xiii.  4.     Thy  prophets  are  like  the  foxes  j>i  the  deserts. 

Fruit. 

1.  The  consequences  of  an  action.  Prov.  i.  31.  They  shall  eat  the  Cniit 
af  their  own  wai/s. 

2.  Good  works — Psal.  i.  3,    He  (the  pious  man)  bringeth 

his  fruit  in  his  season. — Matt  iii.  8.    Bring  forth  fruits  meet 
pentance. 

Furnace. 

1 .  A  place  of  great  aflSiction. — Deut.  iv.  20.  The  Lord  hath  . . .  brought 
you  forth  out  of  the  iron  furnace,  out  of  Egypt. 

2.  Such  afllicfions  as  God  sends  for  the  amendment  and  correction  of 
men.  —Jer.  ix.  7.  I  will  melt  them,  and  try  them,  that  is,  in  the 
furnace  of  affliction. 


Garment."?. 

1.  White  garments  were  not  only  the  emblem  of  purity  and  being  in 
the  favour  of  G'xl  (Psal.  Ii.  7.  Isa.  i.  18.,)  but  olso,  as  being  worn 
on  festival  days,  were  tokens  of  joy  and  pleasure.  (Fsa.  Iii.  1  Ixi. 
10.)  Kings  and  princes  likewise  were  arrayed  in  white  garments 
of  fine  linen.  (Gen.  xli.  42.  1  Chron.  xv.  27.  Luke  xvi.  19.)  Hence, 
to  walk  or  be  clothed  in  white,  signifies  to  be  prosperous,  successful, 
and  victorious,  to  be  holy,  happy,  honoure<!,  and  rewarded. — Rev. 

iii.  4,  5.     They  shall  walk  in  white The  same  shall  be  clothed 

in  white  rnimont. 

2.  Souls. — Rev.  iii.  4.  ITtou  hast  a  few  names  in  Sardis  which  have 
not  defiled  their  garments. — The  Hebrews  considered  holiness  as  the 
garb  of  the  soul,  and  evil  actions  as  stains  or  spots  upon  this  garb. 

Gates. 

1.  Gates  of  the  daughter  of  Sion.  The  ordinances  of  Jehovah,  hy 
which  the  muI  is  helped  forward  in  the  way  of  salvation— Psul.  ix. 
14.  That  I  may  show  forth  all  thy  praise  in'ihe  gates  of  the  daughter 
of  Sion. 

2.  Gates  of  Death. 

Imminent  danger  of  death.— Psal.  ix.  13.    Have  mercy  upon  me,  O 

Ia)ru thou  that  ddivcrcst  me  from  the  gates  of  death.     "  Th^ 

Hobrew  poetn  Hup}K)scd  the  lower  world,  or  region  of  den'h,  to  havo 
gates.    Thus  it  is  i>aid  in  Job  xxxviii.  17.    Have  the  gates  of  death. 


>l 


thfc 
'for 


ortk 
re- 


LANGUAGE  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES, 


465 


been  opened  unto  thee  ?  or  hast  thou  seen  the  doors  of  the  shadow  of 
death  ? — King  Hezekiah,  in  his  hymn  of  thanksgiving  for  his  re- 
covery, (Isa.  xxxviii.  10.)  sings :  I  shall  go  to  the  gates  of  the  grave." 
■  "    erature,  vol.  ii.  p.  11.    The  same  image  is 


Ibid.  p.  12.    Dr.  Good's 


[Burder'a  Oriental  Literat 

found  among  the  Greek  and  Roman  poets 

Translation  of  Job,  p.  462.] 

3.  Security.— (Because  gates  are  aseojirity  to  a  fortress  or  city.)— Psal. 
cxlvii.  13.  He  hath  stretiffthened  the  bars  of  thy  gates.  That  is,  God 
has  given  Jerusalem  security,  and  put  it  out  of  danger.  So,  in  Job 
xxxviii  10.,  the  setting  of  bars  and  gales  against  the  sea,  means  the 
securing  of  the  earth  against  its  inroads.  The  decree,  there  alluded 
to,  as  imposed  by  the  Almighty  upon  the  ocean,  is  that  wonderful 
law  of  gravation  in  fluids,  by  which,  all  the  parts  of  them  exerting 
an  equal  pressure  upon  one  another,  the  equilibrium  of  the  whole 
is  maintained. 

Girdle. — The  eastern  people,  wearing  long  and  loose  garments,  were 
unfit  for  action  or  business  of  any  Idnd,  without  girding  their  clothes 
about  them.  A  girdle  therefore  denotes  strength  and  activity ;  and 
to  unloose  it  is  to  deprive  a  person  of  strength,  to  render  him  unfit 
for  action. — Isa.  v.  27.  Nor  shall  the  g\rd\e  ojf  their  loins  be  loosed. — 
Isa.  xlv.  1.  I  will  loose  the  loins  of  kings  to  open  before  him  (Cyrus) 
the  two-leaved  gates. 

Gold. 

1.  Good  men  bearing  trouble,  as  gold  bears  the  fire. — Job  xxiii.  10. 
VV7(e/j  he  hath  tried  me,  I  shall  cone  forth  as  gold. 

2.  Such  faith  and  virtue  as  will  enable  its  possessor  to  stand  a  fiery 
trial. — Rev.  iii.  18.  /  counsel  thee  to  buy  of  me  gold  tried  in  the 
fre. — See  Image. 

Grapes. — Fruits  of  righteousness. — Isa.  v.  2.   He  looked  that  it  should 

bring  forth  grapes,  and  it  brought  forth  wild  grapes. 
Grass. — The  common  people,  or  mankind  in  general. — Isa.  xl.  6,  7. 

All  flesh  is  grass  ;  that  is,  weak  and  impotent  as  grass. 
Ground. — The  heart  of  man. — Luke  viii.   15.      That  on  the  good 

ground,  are  they  which,  in  an  honest  and  good  heart,  having  heard 

the  word,  keep  it. 
Growth  of  plants. 

1.  Resurrection  and  glorification. — Hos.  xiv.  7.  They  that  dwell  under 
his  shadow  shall  return  ;  they  shall  remve  as  the  corn ;  they  shall 
grow  as  the  vine. — John  xii.  24.  Except  a  corn  of  wheat  fall  into  the 
ground  and  die,  it  abideth  alone  ;  but  if  it  die,  it  bringeth  forth  much 
fruit.    See  also  Isa.  Ixvi.  14.  and  1  Cor.  xv.  36 — 44. 

2.  Growth  in  grace. — Isa.  Iv.  10,  11.  For  as  the  rain  cometh  down, 
and  the  snow  from  heaven,  and  returneth  not  thither,  but  vialereth  the 
earth,  and  maketh  it  bring  forth  and  bud,  that  it  may  give  seed  to  the 
sower,  and  bread  to  the  ealer  ; — so  shall  my  word  be.  , 


Hail. 

1.  The  devastations  made  by  the  inroads  of  enemies. — Isa.  xxviii.  2. 
TVie  Lord  hath  a  mighty  and  a  strong  one  [which]  as  a  tempest  of 
hail shall  cast  down  to  the  earth  with  the  hand. — Under  this  re- 
semblance the  prophet  represents  the  utter  destruction  of  the  king- 
dom of  the  ten  tribes,  which  afterwards  was  accomplislied  by  Shal- 
maneser.    Compare  Isa.  xxxii.  19.    Ezek.  xiii.  11.  13. 

2.  Hail  and  fire. — The  calamities  of  war,  with  all  their  horrors. — Rev. 
viii.  7.     'I'here  followed  hail  and  fire  mingled  with  blood. 

Hair. 

1.  Grey  hairs. — Decay  of  natural  strength,  and  tendency  to  dissolu- 
tion.— Hos.  vii.  9.  Grey  hairs  are  here  and  there  upon  him,  and  he 
knoweth  it  not. 

2.  Shaving  the  head,  the  hair  of  the  feet  and  of  the  beard,  with  a 
razor  hired  (the  king  of  Assyria),  in  Isa.  vii.  20.  signifies  the  troubles,- 
slaughter,  and  destruction  that  were  to  be  brought  upon  the  Jews 
by  the  Assyrian  king  and  his  armies. 

Hand. — Power  and  strength. 

1.  Right  hand. — Great  protection  and  favour Psal.  xviii.  35.     Thy 

right  hand  hath  holden  me  up.. 

2.  Laying  the  right  hand  upon  a  person.  The  conveyance  of  bless- 
ings— strength — fwwer,  and  authority.  Thus  Jacob  conveyed  bless- 
ings to  the  two  sons  of  Joseph.  (Gen.  xlviii-  20.)  The  hand  that 
touched  the  prophet  Daniel  (x.  10.)  strengthened  him  ;  and  Moses 
by  laying  his  right  hand  upon  Joshua  (Numb,  xxvii.  18.),  delegated, 
a  portion  of  his  authority  to  him. 

3.  Hand  of  God  upon  a  prophet. — The  immediate  operation  of  God  or 
his  Holy  Spirit  upon  a  prophet. — Ezek.  viii.  1.  The  hand  of  the 
Lord  God  fell  upon  me.  Compare  1  Kings  xviii.  46.  2  Kings  iii. 
15. 

Harvest. 

1.  Some  destroying  judgment,  by  which  people  fall  as  corn  by  the 
scythe.— Joel  iii.  13.    Put  ye  in  the  sickle,  for  the  harvest  is  ripe. 

2.  The  end  of  the  ?wwW.— Matt.  xiii.  39. 
Head. 

1.  The  superior  part  or  governing  principle. — Isa.  i.  5.  The  whole 
head  is  sick. — Dan.  ii.  38.  Thou  art  this  head  of  gold. — Isa.  vii.  8, 
9.  The  head  (that  is,  the  sovereign,)  of  Damascus  is  Reain ;  and 
the  head  of  Samaria  is  Remaliah's  son ;  that  is,  Pekah  king  of 
Israel. 

2.  Heads  of  a  people. — Princes  or  magistrates. — Isa.  xxix.  10.  The 
prophets  and  your  heads  (marginal  rendering)  hath  he  covered. — 
Micah  iii.  1.  9. 11.  Hear,  O  heads  of  Jacob,  and  ye  princes  of  the 
house  of  Israel The  heads  judge  for  reward. 

3.  When  a  body  politic  is  represented  under  the  symbol  of  an  animal, 
and  is  considered  as  one  body,  the  head  of  it,  by  the  rule  of  analogy, 
is  its  capital  city. — Isa.  vii.  8,  9.  The  head  of  Syria  is  Damas- 
Vol.  IL  3  N 


cus ..And  the  head  of  Ephraim  (that  is,  of  the  kingdom  of 

Israel,)  is  Samaria. 

Heat.  (Scorching.)— Trouble  and  persecution.— Matt.  xiii.  6  il 
When  the  sun  was  up,  they  were  scorched,  and  because  they  had  nol 

root,  they  withered  away When  tribulation  or  persecution 

ariseth  because  of  the  word,  by  and  by  he  is  offended. 

Heavens. 

1.  The  Divine  Power  ruling  over  the  world. — Dan.  iv.  26,... After 
that  thou  shall  know  that  the  heavens  do  rule. 

2.  God. — Matt.  xxi.  25.  The  baptism  of  John,  whence  was  it?  From 
heaven  or  of  men  ?  &c. — Luke  xv.  18.  I  have  sinned  against  hea 
yen,  and  before  thee.    See  also  verse  21. 

3.  Heaven  and  earth. — A  political  universe. — Isa.  Ii.  16.  That  Imay 
plant  the  heavens,  and  lay  the  foundations  of  the  earth,  and  say  unto 
Sion,  "  Thou  art  my  people."  That  is,  that  I  might  make  those  who 
were  but  scattered  persons  and  slaves  in  Egypt  before,  a  kingdom 
and  polity,  to  be  governed  by  their  own  laws  and  magistrates.  See 
DooR,  1. 

Hell. 

1.  Utter  destruction,  a  total  overthrow. — Isa.  xiv.  15.  Matt.  xi.  23. 
Thou  shall  be  brought  down  to  hell. 

2.  The  general  receptacle  of  the  dead,  the  place  of  departed  souls.— 
Rev.  i.  18. — /  have  the  keys  o/"hell  and  of  death. 

Helmet. — Salvation. — Eph.  vi.  17.  1.  Thess.  v.  8. 

Hills.    See  Mountains. 

Hireling.     A  false  minister  who  careth  not  for  the  sheep. — John  x. 

12,  13.    He  thai  is  an  hireling,  wliose  own  the  sheep  are  not...  .fleefJi, 
because  he  is  an  hireling,  aiid  careth  not  for  the  sheep. 

Hope. 

1.  The  object  of  hope ;  t.  e.  future  felicity.  Rom.  viii.  24.  Gal.  v.  5. 
Col.  i.  5.  2.  Thess.  ii.  16. 

2.  The  author  or  source  of  hope. — 1  Tim.  i.  1. — Jesus  Christ,  our 
hope. — Col.  i.  27.     Christ  i?i  you,  the  hope  of  glory. 

3.  Confidence,  security. — Acts  li.  26.    My  flesh  shall  rest  in  hope. 
Horn. 

1.  Regal  power,  or  monarchy. — Jer.  xlviii.  25.  The  horn  of  Moab  is 
ctit  off.  In  Zeclj.  i.  18.  21.  and  Dan.  viii.  20 — 22.  the /our  horns  are 
the  four  great  monarchies,  each  of  which  had  subdued  the  Jews. 

2.  Horns  of  an  altar. — The  Divine  protection. — Amos  iii.  14.  The 
horns  of  the  altar  shall  be  cut  off  and  fall  to  the  ground.  That  is, 
there  shall  be  no  more  atonements  made  upon  the  altar.  The 
asylum  or  sanctuary  thereof  shall  not  stand.  Antiently,  both  among 
Jews  and  Gentiles,  an  aliar  was  an  asylum  or  sanctuary  for  such 
persons  as  fled  to  it  for  refuge. 

3.  Strength,  glory,  and  power, — Horns  (it  is  well  known)  are  emblems 
of  these  qualities  both  in  sacred  and  profane  writers,  because  the 
strength  and  beauty  of  horned  animals  consist  in  their  horns.  By 
the  seven  horns,  attributed  lo  the  Lamb,  (in  Rev.  v  6.)  is  signified 
that  universal  power  which  our  Lord  obtained,  when,  suffering 
death  under  the  form  of  an  innocent  victim,  he  thereby  vanquished 
the  formidable  enemy  of  man.  All  power,  said  he  to  his  disciples 
immediatelj  after  this  conflict,  is  given  to  me  in  heaven  and  in  earth. 
(Matt,  xxviii.  18.) 

4.  Horn  of  Salvation. — A  mighty  and  glorious  Saviour,  or  Deliverer. — 
Psal.  xviii.  2.  The  Lord  is . . .  the  horn  of  my  salvation.  See  Luke 
i.  69. 

Horse. 

1.  The  symbol  of  war  and  conquest. — God  hath  made  Judah  as  his 
goodly  horse  in  the  battle.  That  is,  He  will  make  them  conquerors 
over  his  enemies,  glorious  and  successful. 

2.  More  particularly  of  speedy  conquest.— Joel  ii.  4.  The  appearance 
of  them  is  as  the  appearance  of  horses  :  and  as  horsemen  so  shall  they 
run. — Hab.  i.  8.     Their  horses  are  swifter  than  leopards. — Jer.  iv. 

13.  His  horses  are  swifter  than  eagles. 

3.  W.kite  being  the  symbol  of  joy,  felicity,  and  prospf  rity,  and  white 
horses,  being  used  by  victors  on  their  days  of  triumph,  are  the  sym- 
bol of  certain  victory  and  great  triumph  upon  that  account. — Rev. 
vi.  2.  I  saiv,  and  behold  a  white  horse  ;  and  he  that  sat  on  him .... 
went  forth  conquering  and  to  conquer.    See  also  Black. 

House. 

1.  The  Church  of  God.— 1  Tim.  iii.  15.  The  House  of  God,  which  is 
the  church  of  the  living  Gvd.    See  Heb.  iii.  6. 

2.  The  body  of  man.— 2  Cor.  v.  1.  If  our  earthly  house  of  [thisi 
tabernacle  were  dissolved. 

Hunger  and  Thirst. — The  appetites  of  the  spirit  after  righteous- 
ness.— Luke  i.  53.  He  hath  filled  the  hungry  with  good  things. — 
Matt.  V.  6.  Blessed  are  they  which  do  hunger  and  thirst  after 
righteousness, /or  they  shall  be  filled. — Psal.  xiii.  2.  My  soul  thirst- 
eth  for  God. 


Idol. — Idolatry. — Any  thing  too  much,  and  sinfully  indulged. — 1 

John  v.  21.    Keep  yourself  from  idols. — Col.  iii.  5.     Covetousness 

which  is  idolatry. 
Image  of  gold,  silver,  brass,  and  iron. — The  four  great  monarchies  or 

kingdoms  of  the  world.— Dan.  ii.  31—45.    Compare  p.  207.  of  this 

volume. 
Incbnse.— Prayer,  or  the  devotion  of  the  heart  in  ofl^enng  up  prayer 

to  God. — Psal.  cxli.  2.    Let  my  prayer  be  set  before  thee  as  incense. — 

Rev.  V.  8.     Golden  vials  full  of  incense,  which  are  the  prayers  of 

the  saints.    See  also  Luke  i.  10. 
Infirmities  of  the  Body. — All  the  distempers  and  weaknesses  of  the 

mind. — Matt.  viii.  17.    Himself  took  our  infirmities,  and  bare  our 

sicknes-fes.    Compare  Isa.  liii.  4.  and  xxsv.  '•>,  6. 


406 


INDEX  OF  THE  SYMBOLICAL 


Isle — Island. — Any  place  or  country  to  which  the  Hebrews  went  by 
sea. — Gen.  x.  5.  By  i/icse  uxre  lite  isles  of  t!ie  Geniiles  divided  in 
their  lands  ;  that  is,  Kurope. — In  Isa.  .xx.  6.  TUis  ide  means  Ethio- 
pia, wiiither  the  Hebrews  went  by  sea  frum  Ezion-gcber.  And  in 
Isa.  xxiii.  2.  C,  the  inhabitants  of  the  tdc  are  the  Tyrians. 


IerusaLkm. 

I   The  earthly  Jerusalem. — A  sign,  earnest,  and  pattern  of  the  heaven- 

.y  Jerusalem. — Rev.  iii.  12.     Him  that  ovtrcomilh /  ivill  write 

upon  him  the  name  of  my  God,  and  the  name  <f  the  cili/  (f  my  (iod 
^which  is]  fieu)  Jerusalem. — "Tlie  numerous  prophecies,  foretelling 
great  and  everlasting  glory  to  Jerusalem,  have  not  been  fullillcd  in 
the  literal  Jeru.salem  ;  nor  can  bo  so  fulfilled,  without  contradicting 
other  predictions,  especially  those  of  our  Lord  which  have  de- 
nounced its  ruin.  They  remain,  thcrefire,  to  be  fulfdled  in  a 
spiritual  sense ;  in  that  sense  which  Saim  Paul  points  out  to  us, 
when  in  opposition  to  JeriisaUm  tiatt  now  if,  and  is  in  bondage  v>it/i 
her  c/iildrcn,  he  presents  to  our  view,  Jerusalem  which  is  above, 
XDhich  is  the  mother  (f  un  all.  (Gal.  iv.  24 — 20.)  This  is  the  city 
which  Abrafiam  looked  to;  a  huiUline:  not  made  with  hands,  whofe 
builder  and  maker  is  God  (Heb.  xi.  10— Iti.  xii.  22—24.  xiii.  11.) ; 
even  the  heavenly  Jerusalem."  [Dean  Woodhou-se  on  Key.  iii. 
12.] 

2.  Jerusalem  that  now  is  (Gal.  iv.  25.) ;  the  Jewish  or  Mosiac  dispen- 
sation. 

3  Jerusalem  that  is  above  (Gal.  iv.  26.),  the  celestial  Jerusalem,  t.  e. 
the  Christian  dispensation,  which  will  be  perfected  in  splendour 
and  majesty,  when  Christ  shall  descend  to  judge  the  world. 

Jezf.bsl. — A  woman  of  great  rank  and  influence  at  Thyatira,  who 
seduced  the  Christians  to  intermix  idolatry  and  heathen  impurities 
with  their  religion. — Rev.  ii.  20.  /  have  a  few  thim^s  a/rainst  thee, 
because  thou  hast  suffered  that  woman  Jezebel,  which  calleih  herself 
a  prophetess,  to  teach  and  to  seduce  my  servants  to  commit  f/rnicalion, 
and  tu  eat  things  offered  unto  idols. — Instead  of  that  woman  Jeze- 
bel— rr.v  yvvx>t.»  uCxi-.K — many  excellent  manuscripts,  and  almost 
all  the  ancient  versions,  read  rr.t  yvvxixx  o-.u  U(;xS''.>.,'rn\  wife  Jeze- 
bel; which  reading  asserts  that  this  bad  woman  was  the  wile  of  the 
bishop  or  angel  of  that  church  ;  whose  criminality  in  suffering  her 
was,  therefore,  the  greater.  She  called  herself  a  prophetess,  that  is, 
set  up  f  »r  a  teacher ;  and  taught  the  Christians  that  fornication  and 
eating  things  offered  to  idols  were  matters  of  indifTerence,  and  thus 
they  were  Keduced  fmm  tlio  truth.  [Dean  Woodhouse  and  Dr.  A. 
Clarke,  on  Rev.  ii.  20] 


Keys. 

J .  Power,  authority. — Rev.  i.  18.     /. . . .  hare  the  keys  of  hell  and  of 

death  ;  that  i»,  fiower  an<l  authority  over  life,  death,  and  the  grave. 

Compare  Rev.  iii.  7.  and  Isa.  xxii.  22. —  The  keys  of  the  kingdom  of 

heaven,  in  Matt.  xvi.  19.,  signify  the  power  to  admit  into  that  state, 

and  to  confer  the  graces  and  benefits  thereof. 

7'he  key  of  knowkdge,  in  Luke  xi.  52.,  is  the  power  or  mean  of  at- 

tainiiijt  knowledge. 
Ki.NE  ofTJxihan.    (Amos  iv.  1.)     The  Inxuriou.s  matrons  of  Israel. 
KiNC. — God,  the  King  of  kings,  and  origin  of  all  authority  and  power. 

See  Malt.  xxii.  2.    Rev.  xvii.  1 1. 


L*noUrtER.— The  minister  who  serves  under  God  in  his  husbandry. — 
Malt.  i.x.  37,  ^3.  The  harvest  truly  is  plenteous,  but  the  labourers 
are  few.  Pray  ye,  therefore,  Die  Lord  of  the  harvest,  that  he  will  send 
forth  latjourers  into  this  harvest — 1  Cor.  iii.  9.  We  are  labourers 
together  witlt  God. 

Lamb. — The  Messiah,  suffering  for  the  sing  of  the  world. — John  i.  29. 
Behold  the  Lamb  of  God  that  taketh  avay  the  sin  of  the  world. — Rev. 
v.  12.     Worthy  is  the  Lamb  thai  vtas  slain. 

Lamp. 

1.  Direction  or  jru7>/>or(. — 2  Sam.  xxii.  17.  Thai  thou,  quencli  not  the 
lit^ht  (Heb.  lamp)  of  Israel. 

2.  A  Chrii^tian  church. — Rev.  i.  12.  The  seven  golflen  lamps  (incor- 
rectly rendered  tandlestirks  in  our  version)  are  the  seven  churches 
of  Cnrist  (Rev.  i.  20),  represented  na golden,  to  show  how  precious 
they  are  in  the  sight  of  God. 

Leave:;. — Corrupt  dorlrine  and  corrupt  practices. — Matt.  xvi.  6.  Luke 
xii.  1.  Mark  viii.  15.  Bcu>are  of  the  leaven  of  the  Pharisees  and 
Saddurees,  vjhirh  is  hypocrisy. — 1  Cor.  v.  6 — S.  Know  ye  not  that  a 
Hub:  leaven  Uavenrth  the  vih/ile  tump  ?     Purine,  Iherrfnre,  the  obi 

leaven,  that  yc  may  be  a  nevi  lump l.el  us  keeji  the  feast,  not 

with  nil  leaven,  neither  with  the  leaven  rf  malire  and  xtickedness, 
but  viith  the  unleavened  bread  of  sincerity  and  truth. 

Leave.^.— Word.i,  the  service  of  the  Vifri,  ns  distinguiBhod  from  the 
fruits  of  good  works. — Psal.  i.  3.     His  Irnfrdso  shall  not  wither. 

J^EBAN'o.N. — Zech.  xi.  1.  Open  thy  doors,  O  Ix^banon  ;  i.  e.  the  temple 
at  Jerusalem,  the  stately  huildmgi  of  which  were  compared  to  the 
cedars  of  the  forests  of  Lebanon. 

Legion. — .\ny  groat  number. — Malt.  xxvi.  53.  More  than  twelve 
legions  of  angels. 

Lbopakd. 

1.  A  swift,  powerful,  and  rapncious  enemy. — D.in.  vii.  0.  /  brhcld, 
and  to,  another  tike  a  leopard,  i.  e.  Alexander,  faliiely  named  the 
Great,  whose  rapid  conquests  are  well  characterised  by  this  sym- 
bol. 

2   Men  of  fierce,  nntracL-iblo,  nnd  cruel  disposition. — Isa.  xi.  6.     The 

,    leopard  shall  lir.  down  with  the  kid. 


Life. 

1.  Immortality. — Psal.  xvi.  11.  Thou  wiit  show  me  the  path  oj  life.  ■ 
Psttl.  XXX vi  9.     With  thee  is  the  fountain  o/"life. 

2.  Christ,  the  fountain  of  natural,  spiritual,  and  eternal  life. — John  i. 
4.  Jn  him  was  life. — John  xi.  25.  /  am  the  resurrection  and  the 
life. — ('ol.  iii.  4.      When  Christ,  who  is  our  life,  shall  appear. 

3.  The  doctrine  of  the  Gospel,  ^^;hich  points  out  the  way  of  life John 

vi.  63.     The  words  that  I  sjieak  unto  you,  they  are  life.      See  Tree 
of  Life. 

Light. 

1.  Joy,  comfijrt,  and  felicity. — Esther  viii.  16.  The  Jews  had  light  and 
gladness,  and  joy,  and  honour. — Psal.  xcvii.  11.  Light  is  sown  for 
the  righteou.s. — Psal.  cxii.  4.  Unto  the  upright  there  ariselh  light  in 
the  darkness;  that  is,  in  affliction. 

2.  That  which  enlightens  the  mind  :  instruction,  doctiines,  &c.,  which 
illuminates  and  fills  the  mind  with  higher  and  more  perfect  know- 
ledge ;  so  that  men  are  led  to  adopt  a  new  and  belter  mode  of 
thinking,  feeling,  judging,  and  acting,  and  to  entertain  nobler 
views  nnd  higher  hopes.  1  Thess.  v.  5.  Eph.  v.  8.  Children  (or 
sons)  of  the  light;  that  is,  those  who  have  been  enlightened. 

3.  The  author  of  moral  light,  a  moral  teacher. — Ye  are  the  light  of  the 
world. — John  v.  35.  He  was  a  burning  and  shining  light ;  i.  e.  a 
distinguished  and  most  zealous  teacher  of  the  mysteries  of  the  king 
dom  of  heaven. 

Lio.v. 

1.  An  emblem  of  fortitude  and  strength. — Rev.  v.  5.  The  Lion  of  thi 
tribe  of  Judah,  means  Jesus  Christ,  who  sprang  fnim  this  tribe,  of 
which  a  lion  W'as  the  emblem. 

2.  The  lion  is  seldom  taken  in  an  ill  sense,  except  when  his  mouth  or 
rapacity  is  in  view. — Psal.  xxii.  13.  They  gaped  upon  me  with  their 
mouths  as  a  ravening  and  a  roaring  lion.    See  also  1  Pet.  v.  8. 

LoccsTS. — Antichristian  corrupters  of  the  Gospel. — Rev.  ix.  3.  TAere 
came  out  of  the  smoke  locusts  upon  the  earth.  Dean  Woodhouse  re- 
fers them  to  the  Gnostic  heretics  ;  but  most  other  commentators  to 
the  overwhelming  forces  of  Mohammed. 

Loins. — Gird  up  the  loins  of  your  mind :  hold  your  minds  in  a  state 
of  constant  preparation  and  expectation.  The  metaphor  is  derived 
from  the  customs  of  the  Orientals  :  who,  when  they  wish  to  apply 
themselves  to  any  business  requiring  exertion,  are  obliged  to  bind 
their  long  flowing  garments  closely  around  them. 


Mam.mon  of  unrighteousness. — Luke  xvi.  9.  Worldly  riches.  Mammon 
was  the  Syrian  god  of  riches. 

M.ANNA. 

1.  The  bread  of  life.    John  vi.  26—50. 

2.  Hidden  manna. — The  ineffable  joys  of  immortality. — Rev.  ii.  17. 
To  him  that  ovcrcometh  will  I  give  to  eat  of  the  hidden  manna. 

Meat.    See  Flesh. 
MooN. 

1.  The  Church. — Song  of  Sol.  vi.  10.     Fair  as  the  moon. 

2.  The  Mosaic  dispensation.— Rev.  xii.  1.  The  moon  under  her  feet. 
See  Sun,  3. 

MOUNTIAN. 

1.  High  mountains  and  lofty  hills  denote  kingdoms,  republics,  states, 

and  cities. — Isa.  ii.  12,  14.     The  day  of  the  Ijord  shall  lie upon 

all  the  high  mountains.    In  Jer.  Ii.  25.  the  destroying  mountain  means 
the  Babylonish  nation. 

2.  Mountain  of  the  Lord's  House. — The  kingdom  of  the  Messiah. — 
Isa.  ii.  2.  It  shall  come  to  pass  in  the  last  days,  that  the  mountain  of 
the  Loan's  House  shall  be  established  upon  the  top  of  the  mountains, 
and  shall  be  exalted  above  the  hills,  and  all  nations  shall  flow  ujUo  it. 
See  Isa.  xi.  9.  and  Dan.  ii.  35.  45. 

3.  An  obstacle  to  the  spread  of  the  Gospel.   Isa.  xl.  4. 

MySTKRY. 

1.  A  secret,  something  that  is  hidden,  not  fully  manifest,  not  published 
to  the  world,  though,  pcrha(>s,  communicated  to  a  selert  number. 
In  this  sense  it  occurs  in  2.  Thess.  ii.  7.  where  Saint  Paul,  speaking 
of  the  Antichristian  spirit,  says,  "  The  mystery  of  iniipiity  doth  al- 
ready work."  The  spirit  of  Antichrist  has  begun  to  operate,  but  the 
operation  is  latent  and  unperceived.  In  this  sense  also  the  same 
apostle  applies  the  words  "  mystery,"  and  "  mysterj'  of  Christ,"  in  n 
peculiar  manner  to  the  calling  of  the  Gentiles  (Eph.  iii.  3—9.); 
"  which  in  other  generations  v^is  not  made  known  to  the  sons  (fmen, 
as  it  is  now  revealed  to  his  holy  apostles  and  prophets  by  the  Spirit, 
that  the  Gentiles  should  be  fellow-heirs  and  of  the  same  body  (namely 
wilh  ihc  JewH),  and  partakers  of  hi  n  promisein  Christ  by  the  Gospel." 
Compare  also  Rom.  xvi.  25,  26.  Eph.  i.  9.  iii.  9.  vi.  lO.  Col.  i.  26, 
27. 

2.  "  A  spiritual  truth  couched  under  an  external  representation  or 
similitude,  nnd  concealed  or  hidden  thereby,  unless  some  explana- 
tion be  given."  To  this  import  of  the  word  our  Saviour  probably 
alluded  M'hen  he  said  to  his  disciples,  To  you  it  is  ifit^n  to  know  the 
mystery  of  the  kingdom  of  God ;  but,  to  them  that  are  without,  all 
these  things  are  done  in  jxirables.  (Mark  iv.  11.)  The  secret  was 
disclosed  to  the  apostles,  who  obtained  the  spiritual  sense  of  the 
similitude,  while  the  inullitudo  amused  thcnisplvcH  with  the  para- 
ble, and  sought  no  further.  In  this  sense,  mystery  is  used  in  the 
following  passages  of  the  New  Testament  .—Rev.  i.  2(1.  The 
mystery,  that  is,  the  spiritual  meaning,  (f  the  seven  stars. —  'J'he  seven 
stars  are  the  anpils  of  the  seven  churches  ;  and  the  seven  candksluks 
are  the  siivn  churches.  Again,  xvii.  5.  And  upon  her  fotrhcad  a  name 
wriltrn  Mystery,  Babylon  the  Great,  that  is.  Babylon  in  a  myiitical 
sense,  the  mother  of  idolatry  and  abominations  ;  anil,  in  verse  7.  m 
villi  (ell  thee  the  mystery,  or  sptrilual  signification,  of  Uie  woman,  and 


LANGUAGE  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


467 


of  the  beasl  ihal  canieth  her,  &c.  In  this  sense  likewise  the  word 
mystery  is  to  be  understood  in  Kph.  v.  32. 

J  "  Some  sacred  thing,  hidden  or  secret,  which  is  naturally  unknown 
to  human  reason,  and  is  only  known  by  the  revelation  of  God." 
Thus,  in  1  Tim.  iii.  16.  we  read — Without  controversy  great  is  the 
mystery  of  godliness :  God  loas  manifest  in  the  flesh.  Justified  in  the 
Spirit,  seen  of  angels,  preached  unto  the  Gentiles,  believed  on  in  the 
world,  received  up  info  glory.  "  The  mystery  of  godliness,  or  of  true 
religion,  consists  in  the  several  particulars  here  mentioned  by  the 
apostle — particulars,  indeed,  which  it  would  never  have  entered  into 
the  heart  of  man  to  conceive  (i  Cor.  ii.  9.),  had  not  God  accomplished 
them  in  fact,  and  published  them  by  the  preaching  of  his  Gospel ; 
but  which,  being  thus  manifested,  are  intelligible  as  fads  to  the 
meanest  understanding."  So  in  I  Cor.  xiii.  2.  the  understanding  of 
all  mysteries  denote  the  understanding  of  all  the  revealed  truths 
of  the  Christian  religion,  which  in  1  Tim.  iii.  9.  are  called  the  mys- 
tery of  faith,  and  of  which,  in  1  Cor.  iv.  1.,  the  apostles  are  called 
stewards  of  the  mysteries  of  God. 

1.  The  word  mystery  is  used  in  reference  to  things  or  doctrines  which 
remain  wholly  or  in  part  incomprehensible,  or  above  reason,  after 
they  are  revealed.  Such  are  the  doctrines  of  the  resurrection  of  the 
dead,  that  all  shall  not  die  at  the  last  day,  but  that  all  shall  be 
changed  (1  Cor.  xv.  51.),  the  incarnation  of  the  Son  of  God,  the 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  &c.  This  is  the  ordinary  or  theological 
sense  of  the  word  mystery :  it  does  not  imply  any  thing  contrary  to 
reason,  nor  utterly  unknown  as  to  its  being;  but  it  signifies  a  mat- 
ter, of  whose  existence  we  have  clear  evidence  in  the  Scriptures, 
although  the  mode  of  such  existence  is  incomprehensible,  or  above 
our  reason.  (Schleusner's  and  Parkhurst's  Greek  Lexicons  to  the 
New  Testament,  voce  Mvc-^^icv.  Dr.  Campbell's  Translation  of  the 
Four  Gospels,  vol.  i.  pp.  298—306.  See  also  J.  G.  PfeiHer's  Instit. 
Herm.  Sac.  pp.  704—724.) 

Naked. — Destitute  of  the  image  of  God  ;  not  clothed  with  the  gar- 
ment of  holiness  and  purity. — Rev.  iii.  17.  And  knowe.tt  not  that 
thou  art  wretched,  and  miserable,  and  poor,  and  blind,  and  naked. 

Names. — The  persons  called  by  them. — .'Vets  i.  15.  The  number  of  the 
names  were  about  an  hundred  and  twenty. — Rev.  iii.  4.  27tou  hast 
a  few  names  eve/i  in  Sardis. 

Nature. 

1.  Birth,  origin,  or  nativity.    Jews  by  nature.    Gal.  ii.  15. 

2.  The  constitution  and  order  of  God  in  the  natural  world.  Rom.  i. 
26.  xi.  21.  24. 

3.  The  native  dispositions,  qualities,  properties,  &;c.  of  any  person  or 
thing.  2  Pet.  i.  14.  Partakers  of  a  divine  nature. — Eph.  ii.  3.  TVe 
ivere  by  nature,  i.  e.  according  to  our  natural  disposition,  when  not 
enlightened  and  renewed  by  the  influences  of  the  Gospel,  children 
of  v>ralJi. 

4.  A  native  feeling  of  decorum,  a  native  sense  of  propriety,  by  which 
a  person  is  withheld  from  needlessly  receding  from  the  customs  of 
his  country. — 1  Cor.  xi.  14.  Doth  not  nature  itself— doth  not  your 
own  native  sense  of  decorum — teach  you,  thai  if  a  man  have  long 
hair,  it  is  a  shame  unto  him,  viz.  among  the  Greeks,  to  whom  alone 
the  apostle  was  writing ;  and  consequently  he  does  not  refer  to  the 
customs  of  the  Hebrews.  (Robinson's  Lexicon,  voce  <^u!^l;.) 

Night. — Intellectual  darkness;  adversity. — Rev.  xxi.  25.  There  shall 
be  no  night  there  ;  that  is,  there  shall  be  no  more  idolatry,  no  more 
intellectual  darkness,  no  more  adversity  in  the  i\ow  Jerusalem  ;  but 
all  shall  be  peace,  joy,  happiness,  and  security. 

Numbers. 

7^0  ;  a  few. — Isa.  vii.  21.  A  man  shall  nourish  two  sheep. — 1  Kings 
xvii.  12.     I  am  gathering  two  sticks. 

Three  or  third. — Greatness,  excellency,  and  perfection. — Isa.  xix.  24. 
In  that  day  shall  Israel  be  the  third  with  Egypt  and  Assyria  ;  that  is, 
as  the  prophet  immediately  explains,  great,  admired,  beloved,  and 
blessed. 

Four. — Universality  of  the  matters  comprised  therein. — Isa.  xi.  12. 
The  four  corners  of  the  earth  denote  all  parts  of  the  earth. — Jer.  xlix. 
6.  Upon  Elam  (or  Persia)  will  I  bring  the  four  winds //ww  the  four 
quarters  of  the  earth  ;  that  is,  all  the  winds.  In  Ezek.  vii.  2.  the  four 
corners  of  the  land,  signify  all  parts  of  the  land  of  Judea. 

Seven. — A  large  and  complete,  j'et  uncertain  and  indefinite,  number. 
it  is  of  very  frequent  occurrence  in  the  Apocalypse,  where  we  read 
of  the  seven  spirits  of  God,  seven  angels,  seven  thunders,  seven  seals, 
&c.  &c.     [See  Dr.  Woodhoiise  on  Rev.  i.  4.] 

Ten. — Many,  as  well  as  that  precise  number.  In  Gen.  xxxi.  7.  41.  Ten 
times  are  many  times  ;  in  Lev.  xivi.  26.  ten  women  are  many  wo- 
men.   See  also  Dan.  i.  20.    Amos  vi.  9.    Zech.  viii.  23. 


Oaks  of  Bashan. — ^The  princes  and  nobles  of  Israel  and  Judah. — Isa. 
ii.  13.     The  day  of  the  Lord  shall  be....  upon  all  the  oaks  of  Bashan. 

Ol.IVES. 

1.  The  wild  olive ;  Man  in  a  state  of  nature. — Rom.  xi.  17.  Thou  being 
a  wild  olive-tree,  werl  graffed  in  amongst  them 

2.  The  cultivated  olive;  the  church  of  God. — Rora.  xi.  24.  If  thou 
uoert  cut  out  of  the  olive-tree,  which  is  wild  by  nature,  and  wert  graffed 
contrary  to  nature  into  a  good  olive-tree . . . 


Pai.ms. — Symbols  of  joy  after  a  victory,  attended  with  antecedent  suf- 
ferings.— Rev.  vii.  9.  I  beheld,  and,  to,  a  great  multitude  . . .  clothed 
with  luhite  robes,  and  palms  in  their  hands. 

Paradise. — The  invisible  residence  of  the  blessed. — Rev.  ii.  7.  To 
him  that  overcometh  will  I  give  to  eat  of  the  tree  of  life,  which  is  in  the 


midst  of  the  paradise  of  Gaf.— Luke  xxiii.  43.    To  day  shall  thou  be 

with  me  in  paradise. 
Passover.— Jesus  Christ.— 1    Cor.  v.  7.      Christ  our  passover  is 

sacrificed  for  us.    On  the  spiritual  import  of  this  term,  compare  Vol. 

II.  Chap.  IV.  15 IV.  3. 
Physician.— The   Saviour,  curing  the  sins  and  sicknesses  of  the 

mind.— Matt.  ix.  12.     They  that  be  whole,  need  not  a  physician  ;  but 

they  that  are.  sick. 
Pillar  or  Column. 

1.  Thechief  prop  of  a  family,  city,  or  state.— Gal.  ii.  9.  James,  Cephas, 
atid  John,  who  seemed  to  be  pillars. 

2.  Pillar  of  iron. — The  symbol  of  great  firmness  and  duration. — Jer.  i. 
18.    I  have  made  thee ..  ..an  iron  pillar. 

Ploughing  and  breaking  up  the  ground. — The  preparation  of  the 
heart  by  repentance. — Hos.  x.  12.  Break  up  your  fallow-ground. 
See  also  Jer.  iv.  3. 

Poison. — Lies,  error,  and  delusion. — Psal.  cxl.  3.  Adders'  poison  is 
under  their  lips. — Psal.  Iviii.  3,  4.  They  go  astray  as  soon  as  they  are 
born,  speaking  lies.  Their  poison  is  like  the  poison  of  a  serpent. — 
Rom.  iiL  13.  The  poison  of  asps  is  under  their  lips;  whose  mouth 
is  full  of  cursing  and  bitterness. 

Power. 

1.  Dignity,  privilege,  prerogative.— John  i.  12.  As  many  as  received 
him,  to  them  gave  he  power  to  become  the  sons  of  God. 

2.  The  emblem  of  power,  or  of  honour  and  dignity,  that  is,  a  veil. — 1 
Cor.  xi.  10.  A  woman  ought  to  have  power  on  her  head,  that  is  to  be 
veiled,  because  of  the  spies,  or  evil-minded  persons  who  were  sent 
into  the  meetings  of  the  Christians  by  their  enemies,  in  order  that 
they  might  be  able  to  take  advantage  of  any  irregularity  in  their 
proceedings,  or  of  any  departure  from  established  customs.  The 
veil,  worn  by  married  v\-omen,  was  an  emblem  of  subjection  to  the 
power  of  the  husband.  The  marginal  rendering  of  1  Cor.  xi.  10. 
is, — o  covering,  in  sign  that  she  is  under  the  power  of  her  husband. 

Powers. — A  certain  order  of  angels  ;  whether  good,  as  in  Col,  i.  16. 

Eph.  iii.  10.    1  Pet.  iii.  22. ;  or  evil,  as  in  Col.  ii.  15.  and  Eph.  vi.  12. 

(Parkhurst  and  Robinson,  voce  'Ejouo-ia.) 
Prince  of  the  power  of  the  air. — Eph.  ii.  2.    Satan.    In  this  passage 

the  air  denotes  the  jurisdiction  of  fallen  spirits. 


Rain  (gentle). 

1.  The  divine  goodness. — Isa.  xxvii.  3.  xliv.  3. 

2.  Pure  and  heavenly  doctrine. — Deut.  xxxii.  2.  especially  the  word 
of  the  Lord.    Isa  Iv.  10,  11. 

Reapers. — The  angels. — ftlatt.  xiii.  39. 
Regeneration. 

1.  The  melioration  of  all  things,  the  new  condition  of  all  things  in  the 
reign  of  the  Messiah,  when  the  universe,  and  all  that  it  contains, 
will  be  restored  to  their  state  of  pristine  purity  and  splendour. — 
Matt.  xix.  28.  In  the  regeneration,  when  the  son  of  man  shall  sit  on 
the  throne  of  his  glory. 

2.  In  a  moral  sense,  renovation,  that  is,  the  change  from  a  carnal  to  a 
Christian  life. — Tit.  iii.  5.  (Robinson,  voce  rixKiyyivTix-) 

Riches  and  Talents. — Gifts  and  graces  from  God. — Matt.  xxv.  15. 

To  one  he  gave  five  talents,  &c.    See  also  Luke  xix.  13,  &c. 
River. 

1.  An  overflowing  river. — Invasion  by  an  army. — Isa.  lix.  19.  Tha 
enemy  shall  come  in  like  a  flood. — Jer.  xlvi.  7,  8.  Who  is  this  thai 
Cometh  up  as  a  flood,  whose  waters  are  moved  as  the  rivers  ?  Egypi 
riseth  up  like  a  flood,  and  his  waters  are  moved  like  the  rivers  :  and 
he  sailh,  I  will  go  up,  and  will  cover  the  earth  ;  I  will  destroy  the  city 
and  the  inhabitants  thereof.  See  also  Isa.  xxviii.  2.  Jer.  xlvii.  2. 
Amos  ix.  5.  Nahum  i.  4. 

2.  A  river  being  frequently  the  barrier  or  boundary  of  a  nation  or 
country,  the  drying  of  it  up  is  a  symbol  of  evil  to  the  adjoining  land  ; 
and  signifies  that  its  enemies  will  make  an  easy  conquest  of  it 
when  they  find  no  water  to  impede  their  progress.  Thus,  Isaiah, 
foretelling  the  conquest  of  Cyrus  and  the  destruction  of  the  Babylo- 
nian monarchy,  has  these  words  : — That  saith  to  the  deep,  Be  dry  ; 
UTid  I  will  dry  up  thy  rivers. — Isa.  xi.  15.  The  Lord  shall  utterly  <fe« 
stray  the  tongue  of  the  Egyptian  Sea  (that  part  of  the  land  of  Egypt, 
which  was  inclosed  among  the  mouths  of  the  Nile) ;  and  iciih  hit 
mighty  wind  shall  he  shake  his  hand  over  the  river,  arid  shall  smite 
it  in  the  seven  streams,  and  make  [men]  go  over  dry-shod.  See  also 
Isa.  xix.  6.  and  Zech.  x.  11. 

3.  A  clear  river  is  the  symbol  of  the  greatest  good. — Psal.  xxxvi.  8. 
They  shall  be  abundantly  satisfied  with  the  fatness  of  thy  house  ;  and 
thou  shah  make  them  drink  oj  the  river  of  thy  pleasures.  For  with 
thee  is  the  fountain  of  life.— Rev.  xxii.  1»  He  showed  me  a  clear 
river  of  water  of  life,  (that  is,  the  inexhaustible  and  abundant  hap- 
piness of  the  inhabitants  of  the  New  Jerusalem.)  bright  as  crystal, 
proceedins  out  of  the  throne  of  God  and  the  Lamb.  Its  clearness  in- 
dicates their  holiness  and  peace  ;  and  the  brightness  of  its  shining 
like  crystal,  the  glorious  life  of  those  who  drink  of  it 

Rock. 

1.  A  defence,  or  place  of  refuge.— Isa.  xvii.  10.  Thou  hast  forgotten 
the  God  of  thy  salvation,  and  hast  not  been  mindful  of  the  rock  of  thy 
strength.— Psal.  xviii.  2.     The  Lord  is  my  rock. 

2.  A  quarry,  figuratively  the  patriarch  or  first  father  of  a  nation  ;  who 
is,  as  it  were,  the  quarry  whence  the  men  of  such  nation  must  have 
proceeded. — Isa.  Ii.  1.  Look  unto  the  rock  whence  ye  are  hewn,  that 
is,  to  Abraham  and  Sarah,  whose  descendants  ye  are. 

3.  An  unfruitful  hearer.— Luke  viii.  6.  Some  fell  upon  a  rock,  and  as 
soon  as  it  sprang  up,  it  withered  away.  See  the  interpretation  of 
Christ  himself,  in  verse  13. 


468 


INDEX  OF  THE  SVMBOLICAL 


The  ahmrlancc  of  the  sea  shall  he 
and  Dr.  VVooiJhouse  thereon. 


4.  Rock  giving  water  to  the  Israelites.  (Exod.  xvii.  6.  Numb.  xx.  10, 
11.)  Christ. — 1  Cor.  x.  4.  They  drank  of  that  spiritual  lock  thai 
followed  them,  and  that  rock  was  ('iiniST. 

Rod  or  Wa.\d. — Power  and  rule. — Fsal.  ii.  9.  Thou  shalt  break  them 
in  pieces  with  a  rod  of  iron. 

S.VCRIFICE. 

1.  The  ihing  sacrificed  ;  a  victim. — Eph.  v.  2.  A  sacrifice  to  God.  Sec 
Heb.  ix.  ii6.  x.  12.  and  also  in  many  olher  passages. 

2.  Whatever  is  exhibited  or  undertaken  in  honour  ol'God  or  in  refer- 
ence to  his  will :  a.s, 

(1.)  Piety,  devotedncss. — l^et.  ii.5.   S/ziW/uaZ  sacrifices. 
(2.)  The  praises  of  God  and  works  of  charity  ki  men.    See  Heb.  xiii. 
15,  16. 
(3.)  Virtuous  conduct,  correct  deportment. — Rom.  xii.  1.      Present 
your  bodies  a  living  sacrifice. 

(4.)    Exertions  for  the  sup|iort  of  Christian  ministers  and  of  the 
Chri-stian  religion. — Phil.  ii.  17.    Jf  I  be  offered  upon  the  sacrifice 
aitd  service  of  your  faith. 
S.»LT. — Sound  doctrines,  such  as  preserves  the  world  from  corrup- 
tion.— Matt.  V.  13.    Ye  are  the  sTilt  of  the  earth. — Col.  iv.  6.   Let  your 
speech  l>e  always  with  grace,  seasoned  with  salt. 
Sa.nd  of  the  sea. — An  aggregate  Iwdy  of  innumerable  individuals. — 
Their  widows  are  increased  above  the  sand  of  the  »eas. — Gen.  xxii. 
17.    /  wiU  multiply  thy  seed....  as  the  sand  which  is  upon  the  sea- 
shore. 
ScoRCUi.NG  Heat.    See  He.vt. 
Sea. 

1.  The  Gentile  world.— Isa.  Ix.  5. 
converted.    See  also  Rev.  viii.  8. 
[.-Vpocalypse,  p.  213.] 

2.  The  great  river  Euphrates,  Nile,  &c. — Isa.  xxi.  1.  The  desert  of 
the  sea,  means  the  country  of  Babylon,  which  was  watered  by  the 
Euphrates. — Jer.  Ii.  36.  Iwill  dry  up  her  sea,  and  make  her  springs 
dry:  this  refers  to  the  stratagem  by  which  Cyrus  diverted  the 
course  of  the  river  and  captured  Babylon — Ezek.  xxxii.  2.  Thou 
art  as  a  v;hale  in  the  sea  ;  the  prophet  is  speaking  of  the  king  of 
E?ypt,  through  which  the  Nile  flowed.    See  Waves. 

3.  Sea  of  glass. — Kev.  iv.  6.  The  blood  of  the  Redeemer,  which 
alone  cleanses  man  from  sin.  It  is  called  a  sea,  in  allusion  to  the 
large  vessel  in  the  temple,  out  of  which  the  priests  drew  water  to 
wash  thenuselves,  the  sacrifices,  and  the  instruments  of  which  they 
made  use,  for  sacrificing. — 1   Kings  vii.  23.    See  also  Sa.vd  and 

WAVF..S. 

Seai. — Se.\lixg. 

1.  Preservation  and  security. — Sol.  Song  iv.  12.  A  fountain  scaled, 
is  a  fountain  carefully  preserved  from  the  injuries  of  weather  and 
beasts,  that  its  waters  may  be  preserved  good  and  clean. 

2.  Secresy  and  privacy,  because  men  usually  seal  up  those  things 
which  they  design  to  keep  secret.  Thus  a  hook  sealed,  is  one  whose 
contents  are  secret,  and  are  not  to  be  disclosed  until  the  removal  of 
the  seal.  In  Isa.  xxix.  11.  a  vision  like  unto  a  book  sealed,  is  a 
x-ision  not  yet  understood. 

3.  Completion  and  perfection,  al.so  authority ;  because  the  putting  of 
a  seal  to  any  decree,  will,  or  other  instrument  in  writing,  com- 
pletes the  whole  tran-saction. — Kzek.  xxviii.  12.  Thou  (the  King  of 
Tyre)  sealesl  up  the  sum  full  of  wisdom  and  perfect  in  beauty  ;  that 
i.s.  thou  lookest  upon  thvself  as  having  arrived  at  the  highest  pitch 
of  wisdom  and  glory.     See  Neh.  ix.  H.  Esther  viii.  8. 

4.  Restraint  or  hinderancc. — Job  xxxvii.  7.  He  sealeth  up  the  hand 
of  every  man  ;  that  is,  the  Almighty  restrains  their  power. — Job  ix. 
7.     Which  sealeth  up  the  stars  ;    that  is,  restrains  their  influences. 

6  Exclusive  property  in  a  thing. — .\nciently,  it  was  the  custom  to 
seal  goods  purchased  ;  each  person  having  his  peculiar  mark,  which 
ascertained  the  property  to  be  his  own.  'Hence,  the  seal  nf  God  is 
His  mark,  hy  which  he  knowelh  them  that  are  His.  (2  Tim.  ii.  19.) 
Under  the  law  of  Moses,  circumcision  is  represented  to  be  the  seal 
which  separated  the  people  of  God  from  the  heathen  who  did  not 
call  upon  his  name.  (Rom.  iv.  11.)  And  in  this  sense  the  sacra- 
ment of  baptism  succeeding  to  circumcision,  was  called  by  the  fa- 
thers of  the  church  the  seal  of  God  :  but  in  the  Gospel,  this  divine 
seal  is  more  accurately  described  to  be  the  Holy  Spirit  of  God. 
They  v.ho  have  this  spirit  are  marked  as  his  (2  Cor.  i.  22.  Eph.  i. 
13.  iv.  30.)  Our  L/trd  Jesus  Christ  is  represented  as  eminently  pos- 
sessing this  mark.  (Joiin  vi.  27.)  Generally,  all  who  name  the 
name  of  Christ  and  depart  from  iniijuity,  are  said  to  l)e  thus  divine- 
ly fenlod.  (2  Tim.  ii.  19)  By  the  seal  of  the  llvinq  God,  mentioned 
in  Rev.  vii.  2.,  is  signified  that  impression  of  the  Holy  Spirit  upon 
the  heart  of  man,  w)|ich  preserves  in  it  the  principles  of  pure  faith, 
producing  the  fruits  of  piety  and  virtue.  This  is  the  seal  which 
mirks  the  real  Christian  as  the  pn)[>erty  of  the  Almighty.  In  Rev. 
vii.  3,  4.  the  sealed  mark  is  said  to  lie  imprnsued  i//^on  the  foreheads 
of  the  servants  of  God,  either  Imjcbuso  on  this  consiiicuous  part  of 
the  person,  distinguishing  ornaments  were  worn  l)y  the  eastern 
nations ;  or  because  hIbvos  anciently  were  marked  ujion  their  fore- 
heads,  as  the  property  of  their  masters.  [Dean  Woudhousc  on  Rev. 
vii.  2,  3  ] 

Sr.KV^Thf  Word  of  God.— Luke  viii.  11. 

Serpent.— Siitan,  the  enemy  of  souls. — Rev.  xii.  9.  That  old  serpent, 
called  the  Devil  and  Satan,  which  deceiv-^ih  the  whole  world, — 2  Cor. 
xi.  3.     The  serpent  beguiled  Eve  through  his  suhtilily. 

SrvEN.     Sen  iNcmbeks. 

Smaoow. — Defence,  protection.  In  the  sultry  eastern  countries  this 
metaphor  is  highly  expruksivo  of  support  and  protection. — Numb. 
t;v.  9.  Their  defence  (Heb.  q'^X  TSM.flM,»hn(loW;  m  departed  from 
thsm.     Compare  also  Pi»al.  xci  1.  cxxi.  5.  Isa.  xxx.  2.  xixii.  2.  and 


Ii.  16.  The  Arabs  ntnf  PenLaiis  employ  Uie  saiot  woid  to  denolo 
the  same  thing,  using  these  expressions  : — "  3{ay  the  shadow  ofthi/ 
prosperity  be  extendtd." — May  the  shadow  of  thy  prosperity  ht 
spread  over  the  heads  of  thy  well-wishers." — "  May  thy  protection 
never  be  removed  from  thy  head  ;  may  God  extend  thy  shadow 
externally."  [Dr.  A.  Clarke  on  Numb.  xvi.  9.] 
SiiEEr — Shepherd. 

1.  Sheep  under  a  Shepherd. — The  people  under  a  king. — Zech.  xiii  7 
Smite  the  shepherd  ;  and  the  sheep  shall  be  scattered. 

2.  The  disciples  of  Christ,  who  is  their  shepherd,-  the  church  of 
Christ,  consisting  of  all  true  believers  in  Him  their  Shepherd. — 
John  X.  11 — 14.  1  am  the  gooil  shepherd  ;  the  good  shepherd  giveth 
his  life  for  the  ehee'p.  I..  ..know  jny  sheep. — 1  Pet.  ii.  25.  le.... 
are  nou)  returned  unio  the  Shepherd  and  Bishop  of  your  souls. 

3.  Ijost  or  straying  sheep  represent  persons  not  yet  converted,  but 
wandering  iri  sin  and  error.—  Matt.  x.  6.  xv.  24.  The  lost  sheep  of 
the  house  of  Israel. — 1  Pet.  ii.  25.  Ye  were  as  sheep  going  astray. 
Compare  also  Matt.  ix.  36.  and  Mark  vi.  34. 

Shield. 

1.  A  defence. — Psal.  xviii.  2.  The  Lord  is  my  buckler  or  shield.  See 
Psal.  xxxiii.  20. 

2.  Faith,  by  which  we  are  enabled  to  resist  the  fiery  darts  of  the 
wicked.    Eph.  vi.  16. 

Ships  of  Tarshifh  ;  merchants,  men  enriched  by  commerce,  and 
abounding  in  all  the  elegancies  and  luxuries  of  lile,  jorticularly  the 
merchants  of  Tyre  and  Sidon. — Isa.  ii.  12 — 16.  The  day  of  the 
Lord  of  Hosts  shall  be,.  ..upon  all  the  shijts  of  Tarshish. — fca.  xxiii. 
1.     Howl,  0  ye  ships  of  Tarshish. 

fnoES. — The  preparation  of  the  Gospel  of  peace. — Eph.  vi.  15. 
II.KNCE. 

1.  Bringing  to  silence,  or  putting  to  silence. — Utter  destruction.  Isa. 
XV.  1.  As  if  Mouh  is  laid  imsle,  and  brought  to  silence. — Jer.  viii. 
14.     The  Lord  our  God  hath  put  us  to  silence. 

2.  A  symbol  of  praying. — Luke  i.  9,  10. 
Sit — SiTTi.NG. 

1.  Reigning,  ruling,  and  judging — In  Judge  v.  10.  Ye  that  sit  m 
judgment,  are  the  magistrates  or  judges.    The  sitting  on  a  throne, 

which  occurs  so  very  frequently  in   the    Scriptures,  invariably 
means  to  reign. 

2.  With  other  adjuncts,  sitting  has  a  difl!erent  signification  :  as, 

(1.)  To  sit  upon  Oie  earth  or  dust,  (Isa.  iii.  26.  xlvii.  1.    Lam.  ii.  10. 
Ezek.  xxvi.  16.)  or  on  a  dunchill,  signifies  to  be  in  extreme  misery. 
(2.)  To  sit  in  darkness  (Psat.  cvii.  10.  Isa.  xiii.  7.)  is  to  be  in  prison 
and  slavery. 
(3 )  To  .lit  as  a  widow  (Tsa.  xlvii.  8.)  is  to  mourn  as  a  widow. 

Slave. — One  who  has  no  property  in  himself,  but  is  bought  by 
another.  Such  are  all  mankind,  whom  Christ  has  redeemed  from 
the  slavery  of  sin. — 1  Cor.  vi.  20.  Ye  are  bought  with  a  price.  See 
Deut.  vii.  8.     Isa.  Ixi.  1. 

Sleep. — Death.— Dan.  xii.  2.  Many  that  sleep  in  the  dust  of  the  earth 
sJiall  awake. 

Sodom  and  Gomarraii. — Any  apostate  city  or  people  :  or  the  wicked 
world  at  large. — Isa.  i.  10.  Hear  the  word  of  the  Lord,  ye  rulers  of 
Sodom ;  give  hear  unto  the  law  of  our  God,  ye  people  of  Gomorra)i. 
See  Rev.  xi.  8. 

Soldier. — A  Christian  who  is  at  war  with  the  world,  the  flesh,  and 
the  devil. — 2  Tim.  ii.  3.  Endure  hardness  as  a  good  soldier  of  Jesus 
Christ. 

Sore.'!,  or  Ulcers,  symbolically  denote  sins  ;  because,  according  to 
the  Hebrew  idiom  and  notions,  to  heal  signifies  to  pardon  sins ;  and 
to  pardon  a  sin  is  equivalent  to  healing. — 2  Chron.  xxx.  20.  The 
pious  monarch,  Hezckiah,  having  prayed  that  God  would  excuse 
and  pardon  those  wlio  had  eaten  the  passover  without  being  sufli- 
cienlly  purified,  the  LoiU)  hearkened  to  Hezekiah,  and  healed  the 
pcojtle. — Isa.  liii.  5.  Hy  his  stripes  we  are  healed.  In  Isa.  i.  6. 
Wou7uh,  bruises,  and  sores,  are  sins  ;  the  binding  up  of  them  signifies 
repentance  ;  and  the  healiti"  up,  remission  or  forgiveness. 

South. — Juda?a. — Ezek.  xx.  46.  Set  thy  face  towards  the  south,  and 
drop  [iKy  word]  towards  the  south. — Juda:a  lay  to  south  of  Chaldma, 
where  the  prophet  Ezekiel  stood. 

South  field— Kzck.  xx.  46.  Prophesy  against  the  forest  of  the  South 
field  ;  that  is,  against  Jerusalem,  in  which  there  were  g<>od  and  bad 
men,  as  there  are  trees  in  a  forest. 

Sower. — A  preacher  of  the  word. — Matt.  xiii.  3.  A  sower  went  forth 
to  sow.     See  verse  39. 

Speaki.nu.    See  Voice,  2. 

Star. 

1.  A  ruler  or  conqueror. — Numb.  xxiv.  17.  TTiere  shall  come  a  star 
out  ofjacoh  and  a  srejtire  shall  ari.te  out  of  Israel,  and  shall  smite  the 
corners  of  Moah,  and  shall  destroy  all  the  children  of  Sheth. — See  an 
exposition  of  this  prophecy  in  the  note  to  p.  208  of  this  volume. 

2.  The  rulers  of  the  cliurdi.— Rev.  i.  20.  The  seven  stars  are  the 
angels  of  the  seven  churches. 

3.  Glorified  saints.- 1  Cor.  xv-  41.  One  star  differelh  from  another 
star  in  clon/. 

4.  Wandering  stars.— Jade.  13.  Wicked  apostates,  that  go  from  light 
into  outer  darknss. 

Stone. 

1.  Head  stone  of  the  comer— J fbvsChkiht.    See  Corner  Stonk.       , 

2.  Stone  of  stumbling,  (1  Pel.  ii.  7.)  s|x)ken  of  Jesus  Christ;  who  is 
termed  a  stone  of  stumbling,  that  is,  an  occasion  of  ruin  to  the  Jews, 
since  they  tiX)k  offence  at  his  person  and  character,  and  thereby 
brought  dcslruction  and  misery  upon  them.srlves. 

3.  Stones.— Bf]ie\on  who  are  built  upon  the  true  foundation,  ih" 
Lord  Jesus  Christ. — 1  Pet.  ii.  5.  le  also  as  lively  (or  hviiig)  stoncit 
are  built  vp  a  spiritual  house. 


LANGUAGE  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


469 


4.  Heart  of  slone. — A  hard,  stubborn,  and  unbelieving  heart. — Ezek. 
xxxii.  26.     /  wM  take  aivay  the  stony  heart. 

5.  Sto7ie. — An  idol  of  stone.  Habak.  ii.  19.  Woe  unto  him  that  saitk 
unto  the  wood,  "  Awake !"  and  to  the  dumb  stone,  "Arise!"  audit 
shall  teach. 

6.  While  slone. — A  full  pardon  and  acquittal. — Rev.  ii.  17.  /  will  give 
him  a  white  stone.  See  an  explanation  of  the  custom  alluded  to,  in 
Vol.  II.  p.  56. 

7.  Precious  stones  (1  Cor.  iii.  12.),  the  doctrines  of  the  Christian  re- 
ligion, or  the  mode  of  teaching  them. 

Sun. 

1.  The  Lord  God.— Psal.  Ixxxiv.  11.     The  Lord  God  is  a  Sun. 

2.  Sim  of  Righteousness. — Jesus  Christ.— Wal.  iv.  2.  The  Sun  of 
Righteousness  shall  arise  toilh  healing  in  his  wings. 

Among  the  various  hieroglyphics  discovered  by  Dr.  Richardson  in  the 
ruins  of  the  ancient  temple  of  Tentyra  or  Dendera,  in  Upper  Egypt, 
is  one  which  may  illustrate  this  expression  of  the  prophet.^-"  Im- 
mediately over  the  centre  of  the  door-way,"  says  he,  "  is  the  beau- 
tiful Egyptian  ornament,  usually  called  the  globe,  with  serpent  and 
wings,  emblematic  of  the  glorious  sun,  poised  in  the  airy  firmament 
of  heaven,  supported  and  directed  in  his  course  by  the  eternal 
wisdom  of  the  Deity.  The  sublime  phraseology  of  Scripture,  The 
Sun  of  Righteousness  shall  arise  with  healing  in  his  wings,  could  not 
be  more  accurately  or  more  emphatically  represented  to  the  human 
eye,  than  by  this  elegant  device."  [Dr.  Richardson's  Travels  along 
the  Mediterranean,  &c.  vol.  i.  p.  187.] 

3.  Sun  and  moon. — The  sun  .ihall  be  turned  into  darkness,  and  the  moon 
into  blond.  (Joel.  ii.  31.  Acts  ii.  20.)  A  figurative  representation 
of  a  total  eclipse,  in  which  the  sun  is  entirely  darkened,  and  the 
moon  assumes  a  bloody  hue  :  it  signifies  the  fall  of  the  civil  and  ec- 
clesiastical state  in  Judca. 

Swi.NE. — Wicked  and  unclean  people. — Matt.  vii.  6.    Neither  cast  ye 

t/our  pearls  be/ore  swine. 
Sword. 

1.  Death  and  destruction.  See  Ezek.  xxi. — This  symbol  occurs  so  re- 
peatedly in  the  Scriptures,  and  is,  besides,  so  \vell  known,  as  to 
render  more  examples  unnecessary. 

2.  Sword  of  the  Spirit.—  The  word  of  God.  Eph.  vi.  17.  Heb.  iv.  12. 
Rev.  i.  16. 


Tabermacle. — The  body  of  man. — 2  Cor.  v.  1.  We  know  that  if  our 
earthly  house  of  [this]  tabernacle  were  dissolved. — 2  Pet.  i.  13, 14.  I 
must  shortly  put  off  this  tabernacle. 

Talfnts.    See  Riches. 

Tares. — The  children  of  the  wicked  one. — Matt.  xiii.  38. 

Tarshisii.    See  Ships.  « 

Teeth. — The  symbols  of  cruelty  or  of  a  devouring  enemy. — Prov.  xxx. 
14.  There  is  a  generation  vAose  teeth  are  as  swords  ;  and  their  i^w- 
teeth  as  knives  to  devour  the  poor  from  off  the  earth,  arid  the  needy 
from  among  men.    See  also  Deut.  xxxii.  24.  Psal  Ivi.  6.  Iviii.  6. 

Pen.    See  Numbers. 

Fhirst.    See  Hunger. 

Thor.xs. 

1.  The  cares,  riches,  and  pleasures  of  life. — Luke  viii.  14.  That 
which  fell  among  thorns,  are  they,  which,  when  they  have  heard  the 
word,  go  forth,  and  are  choked  with  cares,  and  riches,  and  pleasures 
of  life. 

2.  Thorns  and  briers ;  wicked,  perverse,  and  untractable  persons. — 
Ezek.  ii.  6.  Son  of  man,  be  notafraid  of  them ....  though  briers  and 
thorns  be  with  thee. 

Three  or  Third.     See  Numbers. 

Threshi.vg. — Destruction. — Jer.  Ii.  33.  Babylon  is  like  a  threshing- 
floor  :  it  if  time  to  thresh  her  ;  that  is,  to  subdue  and  destroy  her 
power.    See  Isa.  xli.  15.    Amos  i.  3.    Micah  iv.  13.     Hab.  iii.  12. 

Throne. — Kingdom,  government. — Gen.  xli.  40.  Only  in  the  throne 
unU  I  be  greater  than  thou.  In  2  Sam.  iii.  10.  kingdom  and  throne  are 
synonymus.  To  translate  the  kingdom /ro/«  the  house  of  Saul — and 
to  set  up  the  throne  (f  David  over  Israel.  The  setting  of  the  throne 
in  2  Sam.  vii.  12, 13.  16.  signifies  the  settling  or  establishment  of  the 
government  in  peace ;  and  the  enlargement  of  the  throne,  in  1 
Kings  i.  37.  compared  with  47.,  implies  a  great  accession  of  power 
and  dominions. 

Thunder. — The  voice  of  God. — Psal  xxix.  3.  The  voice  of  the  Lord 
is  upon  the  waters  ;  the  God  of  glory  thundereth.  In  Rev.  x.  4.  the 
seven  thunders  may  mean  either  a  particular  prophecy,  or  perhaps 
seven  distinct  prophecies,  uttered  by  seven  voices,  loud  as  thun- 
der. 

Towers  and  Fortresses ;  defenders  and  protectors,  whether  by  coun- 
sel or  by  strength,  in  peace  or  in  war. — Isa.  ii.  12.  15.     The  day  of 

the  Lord  of  Hosts  shall  be upon  every  high  tower,  and  every 

fenced  wall  (or  fortress). 

Travailing  with  child. 

1.  A  state  of  anguish  and  misery. — Jer.  iv.  31.  I  have  heard  a  voice 
as  of  a  woman  in  travail,  the  anguish  as  of  her  that  bringeth  forth 
herfirst  child,  the  voice  of  the  daughter  of  Zion. — Jer.  xiii.  21.  Shall 
not  sorrows  overtake  thee  as  a  woman  in  travail  ?  See  also  Isa.  xxvi. 
17,  18.    Ixvi.  7.    Jer.  xxx.  6.  7. 

2.  The  sorrow  of  tribulation  or  persecution. — Mark  xiii.  8.  These  are 
the  beginnings  of  sorrows,  literally,  the  pains  of  a  woman  in  travail. 
Seel.Thess.  v.  3. 

Tread  under,  or  trample  upon. — ^To  overcome  and  bring  under  sub- 
jection.— Psal.  Ix.  12.  Through  God  we  shall  do  valiantly ;  for  it  is 
he  that  shall  tread  down  our  enemies.    See  Isa.  x.  6     xiv.  25. 


Tree  of  Life.— Immortality.— Rev.  ii.  7.  To  him  that  overcometh,  wilt 
1  give  to  eat  of  the  tree  of  life.  See  a  description  of  it  in  Rev.  xxii. 
2 — 14.,  and  an  excellent  sermon  of  Bishop  Home's  Works,  vol.  iy. 
Sermon  iii.  on  the  Tree  of  Life. 

Trees. 

1.  Men  in  general,  fruitful  and  unfruitful. — Psal.  i.  3.    He  (the  good 

man)  shall  be  like  a  tree,  planted  by  rivers  of  uxifer. Matt.  iii.  10. 

Every  tree  which  bringeth  not  forth  good  fruit,  is  hewn  down,  and 
cast  into  the f  re. 

2.  A  great  tree. — A  king  or  monarch.    See  Dan.  iv.  20—23. 

3.  The  nobles  of  a  kingdom. — Isa.  x.  18,  19.  It  shall  consume  the 
glory  of  his  forest,  and  of  his  fruitful  field  both  soul  and  body .... 
And  the  rest  of  the  trees  of  his  forest  shall  be  few.  [See  Cedars 
Oaks.]  As  trees  denote  great  men  and  princes,  so  boughs,  branches, 
or  sprouts,  denote  their  offspring.  Thus,  uj  Isa.  xi.  ].,  Jesus  Christ, 
in  respect  of  his  human  nature,  is  styled  a  rod  of  the  stem  of  Jesse, 
and  a  branch  out  of  his  roots ;  that  is,  a  prince  arising  from  the 
family  of  David. 


Veil  of  the  Temple. — The  body  of  Christ  opening  the  kingdom  of 
heaven  by  his  death,  when  the  veil  of  the  temple  was  rent. — Matt 
xxvii.  51.  The  veil  of  the  temple  was  rent  in  tuxiin. — Heb.  x.  20. 
By  a  new  and  living  way,  which  he  has  consecrated  for  us  through  the 
veil,  that  is  to  say,  his  flesh. 

Vine. 

1 .  The  Jewish  Church. — Psal.  Ixxx.  8.  Thou  brovghtest  a  vine  cut  of 
Egypt.    See  also  verse  14.    Jer.  ii.  21.    Ezek.  xix.  10.  Hos.  x.  1. 

2.  Cnrist  the  head  of  the  church. — John  xv.  1.    I  am  the  true'xine. 
Vineyard. — The  church  of  Israel. — Isa.  v.  1 — 7.     The  vineyard  cf 

the  Lord  of  Hosts  is  the  house  of  Israel. 

Viper.— One  who  injures  his  benefactors.  Matt.  iii.  7.  xii.  34.  O 
generation  of  vipers,  that  is  descendants  of  an  ungrateful  race. 

Voice. 

1.  Voice  of  the  bridegroom. — The  festivity  of  a  wedding,  and  the  ex- 
pressions of  joy  which  are  uttered  on  such  occasions. — Jer.  vii.  34. 
Then  will  I  cause  to  cease  from  the  cities  of  Judah,  and  from  the 
streets  of  Jerusalem,  the  voice  of  mirth,  and  the  voice  of  gladness,  the 
voice  of  the  bridegroom,  and  the  voice  of  the  bride.  The  same  ex- 
pression also  occurs  in  Jer.  xvi  9.  xxv.  10.  xxxiii.  11.  and  John  iii. 
29. 
•2.  Speaking' with  a  feint  vd!ce,  denotes  the  being  in  a  weak  and  low 
condition. — Isa.  xxix.  4.  Thou  shalt  he  brought  down,  and  shall  speah 
out  of  the  ground ;  and  thy  speech  shall  be  low  out  of  the  dust. 

3.  Voice  of  the  Lord.    See  Thunder. 


Walking  among,  or  in  the  midst. — Watchfulness  and  protection. — 
Lev.  xxvi.  12.     I  will  walk  among  you,  and  will  be  your  God. 

Wall. — Stability  and  safety. — Zech.  ii.  5.  J  will  be  unto  her  a  wall 
of  fire  round  about ;  that  is,  I  will  defend  her  from  all  enemies  with- 
out, by  my  angels,  aa  so  many  flames  of  fire  surrounding  her. 

Wand.    See  Rod. 

Wandering  Stars.    See  Stars. 

Washing  with  water. — Purification  from  sin  and  guilt. — Psal.  Ii.  2.  7. 
Wash  me  throughly  from  mine  iniquity,  and  cleanse  trie  from  my 
situ    Wash  me,  and  I  shall  be  whiter  than  snow. 

Water. 

1.  The  purifying  grace  of  the  Holy  Spirit — John  iii.  5.  Except  a  man 
be  born  of  water  and  of  the  Spirit,  he  cannot  enter  into  the  kingdom 
of  God.    See  also  Psal.  Ii.  2. 

2.  Living  water. — The  word  of  the  Gospel. — John  iv.  10.  He  wovld 
have  given  thee  living  water. 

Waters. 

1.  Troubles  and  afllictions. — Psal.  Ixix.  1.  Save  me,  O  God:  for  the 
waters  are  come  in  unto  my  soul. 

2.  A  great  multitude  of  people. — Isa.  viii.  7.  The  Lord  bringeth  up 
upon  them  the  waters  of  the  river,  strong  and  many,  i.  e.  army  of  the 
king  of  A.ssyria ;  whose  overwhelming  force  is  compared  to  the 
waters  of  the  great,  rapid,  and  impetuous  river  Euphrates.  See 
Rev.  xvii.  15. 

3.  The  Blessings  of  the  Gospel. — Isa.  Iv.  1.  Hoi  every  one  thai 
thirstclh,  come  ye  to  the  waters. 

Waves  of  the  Sea. — Numerous  armies  of  the  heathens  marching 
against  the  people  of  God.— Psal.  Ixv.  7.  Which  stiUesl  the  noise  of 
the  seas,  the  noise  of  their  waves.  See  also  Psal.  Ixxxix.  9.  and  xcjii 
3,  4. — Jude  13.    Raging  waves  of  the  sea. 

Week. — Seven  years. — Dan.  ix.  24.  Seventy  weeks  are  determined 
upon  thy  people  ;  that  is,  seventy  weeks  of  years,  or  four  hundred  and 
ninety  years. 

Wheat.— Good  seed,  the  children  of  the  kingdom.    Matt  xiii.  38. 

White.    See  Garments,  1. ;  Horse,  3. ;  Stone,  5. 

Wilderness. 

1.  All  manner  of  desolation.— Isa  xxvi.  10.  The  defenced  city  shall 
be  desolate,  and  the  habitation  forsaken  and  left  like  a  wilderness. 
Jer.  xxii.  6.  Surely  I  will  make  thee  a  wilderness  [and]  cities  [which] 
are  not  inhabited.     See  also  Hos.  ii.  3. 

2.  This  world,  through  which  all  real  Christians  pass,  and  undergo  all 
the  trials  of  the  Hebrews  in  their  way  to  the  heavenly  Canaan. — 1 
Cor.  X.  6.  6.  They  were  overthrown  m  the  wldemess.  Now  these 
things  were  our  examples.— Isa.  xli.  18.  /  will  make  the  wilderness 
a  pod  of  water. 


470 


EVDEX  OF  THE  SYMBOLICAL  LANGUAGE  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


Wind. 

1.  Violent  wind. — Destruction. — Jer.  li.  1.  1  will  raise  vp  against  Ba- 
bylon   a  destroying  wind. — Jer.  iv.  1 1 ,  12.  A  dry  wind  of  the  high 

j.^uces  in  the  wilderness,  .even  a  full  wiad/rum  those  places  shall  come 
unto  me. 

2.  The  four  winds.— General  destruction.— Jer.  xlix.  36.  Upon  Elam 
will  I  bring  the  four  winds, /rom  the  four  quarters  of  heaven.  See 
also  Dan.  vii.  2.    viii.  8.    Kev.  vii.  1.    See  Air. 

Wine. 

1.  Wine,  when  mentioned  together  with  corn  and  oil  (as  it  very  fre- 
quently is),  denotes  all  kinds  of  temporal  good  things.— Hos.  ii.  8. 
1  gave  her  corn,  and  wine,  and  oil.    See  Joel  ii.  19.      Psal.  iv.  7. 

2-  As  the  choii  est  heavenly  blessings  are  frequently  represented  in 
the  Scriptures  by  the  saluturv  etlijcla  of  wine .-  so,  from  the  noxious 
and  intoxicating  qualities  of  that  liquor. — (which  anciently  was 
mixed  with  bitter  and  stupefying  ingredients,  and  given  to  male- 
factors who  v\ere  about  to  suiter  death,)— is  borrowed  a  mo.st  tre- 
mendous image  of  the  wrath  and  indignation  of  Almighty  God. — 
Psal.  Ixxv.  8.  In  the  hand  of  the  Lord  there  is  a  cup,  and  the  wine 
is  red  ;  it  is  full  of  mixture,  &c. — Pt^al.  Ix.  3.  Thou  haaf  made  us  lo 
drink  the  wine  of  astonishment.  See  Jer.  xxv.  15.  Rev.  xiv.  10. 
xvi.  19. 

iVi.NE-rRK.6:-  —Treading  the  wine-press,  from  their  custom  of  pressing 
grapes,  signifies  destruction  attended  with  great  slaughter. — Lament, 
i.  1.5.  The  Lord  halh  trodden  xinder  font  all  my  rnighl;/  men  in  the 
midst  of  me;  he  hath  called  an  assemldy  against  7ne  to  crush  my 
youjig  men  ;  the  Lord  halh  trodden  the  virgin,  the  daughter  ofJudah, 
as  in  a  wine-press.    See  Isa.  Ixiii.  3. 

Wings. 

1.  Protection. — Psal.  xvii.  8.  Hide  me  under  the  shadow  of  ihy  wings. 
See  Psal.  xxxvi.  7.  and  xci.  4. 

2.  Wings,  who.T  used  to  fly  upwards,  are  emblems  of  exaltation. — Isa. 
xl.  31.  They  fhall  mount  vp  with  wings  as  eagles  ;  that  is,  they  shall 
be  highly  exalted. 

Wolf. — A  thief,  or  religious  impostor;  a  dcvourer  of  the  church. — 
Luke  X.  3.  /  send  you  forth  as  lambs  among  wolves. — John  x.  12. 
He  that  is  a  hireling ....  seelh  the  \\o\fcomi7ig,  and  leaveth  the  sheep, 
andjleeth :  and  the  wolf  scadereth  them. 

Woman. 

I.  A  city,  a  state,  or  body  politic,  or  the  inhabitants  thereof. — The 
daughter  of  Tyre  in  P^al.  xlv.  12.,  of  Babylon  in  Psal.  cxxxvii.  8., 
and  of  Jerusalem  in  2  Kings  xix.  21,  signifies  the  inhabitants  of 
tiiose  cities,  respectively.      The  daughter  of   Jerusalem,  when 


virtuous,  is  honoured  with  the  high  appellation  of  the  espoused  of 
God  in  Isa.  liv.  1.  5.,  and  Jer.  xxxi.  4.  When  wicked  and  idolatrous 
she  is  styled  the  harlot,  the  adulteress.    See  Adultkkess. 

2.  The  true  church  of  Christ. — Rev.  xii.  1.  A  wcmian  clothed  with 
the  sun. 

Write. — To  publish  or  notify.  This  was  the  first  intention  of  writing ; 
and,  in  the  earliest  ages,  no  writings  were  made  but  upon  pillars  or 
monuments,  merely  to  notify  things. — Jer.  xxii.  30.  Write  this  man 
childless ;  that  is,  publish  it,  and  let  all  men  know  that  he  shall 
have  no  child  to  succeed  him  upon  the  throne.  For  it  appears  from 
1  Chron.  iii.  17,  18.  and  Matt.  i.  12.,  that  Jeconiah  (of  whom  the 
prophet  is  speaking)  had  children  ;  but  being  born  probably  aAer 
he  was  carried  to  Bnbylon,  where  he  lived  many  years  a  captive, 
none  of  them  ever  succeeded  to  the  royal  authority.  See  2  Kings 
xxv.  27. 

Yoke. 

1.  Oppressive  bondage. — Dent,  xxviii.  48.  He  sSiatlputa  3oke  of  iron 
upon  thy  neck,  until  he  shall  have  destroyed  thee.  Sec  Jer.  xxviii. 
14.  In  Gal.  v.  1.  the  yoke  of  bondage  means  the  burdensome  cere- 
monies of  the  Mosaic  law,  from  which  the  Christian  law  of  liberty 
has  delivered  us. 

2.  Punishment  for  sin. — Lam.  i.  14.  The  y'^e  of  my  (ransgressioiis 
is  bound  by  his  hand. 

3.  Those  useful  restraints,  which  arise  from  a  sense  of  the  duty  which 
we  owe  to  God,  and  the  obedience  we  ought  to  pay  to  his  laws. — 
Lam.  iii.  27.  It  is  good  for  a  man  to  hear  the  yoke  in  his  youth. 
The  doctrines  and  precepts  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  temper,  dispo- 
sitions, and  duties  which  flow  from  them. — Matt.  xi.  29,  SO.  Take 
my  yoke  upon  you,  and  learn  of  me,  for  I  am  meek  and  lowly  in 
heart,  and  ye  shall  find  rest  unto  your  souls.  For  my  yoke  is  easy,  and 
my  burden  is  light. — Quesnel's  remark  upon  the  last  sentence  is  not 
more  beautiful  than  devout.  "  How  easy  and  sweet  is  it,  to  sefve 
Christ  even  in  bearing  his  cross !  How  hard  and  painful  is  the  slavery 
of  the  world,  of  sin  and  of  our  own  passions,  even  with  all  their 
false  pleasures !  That  satisfaction,  peace,  and  comfort,  xvliich  grace 
gives  here  below,  and  that  which  hope  encourages  us  to  expect  in 
heaven,  make  a  Chriatian  full  amends  for  all  his  pains  in  subduing 

his  passions,  and  in  opposiiig  the  world A  yoA-e,  which  Christ 

takes  together  with  us. — can  that  he  uneasy  ?  Ahurdct\,  wl'ich  He 
bears  in  us  by  His  Spirit, — con  that  be  heavy  ?  Come,  then,  ta.sto 
and  know  by  experience  how  sweet  the  L'jrd  is,  and  how  worthy 
Hia  yoke  is  to  be  chosen  and  loved !" 


I 


No.  III. 


GENERAL  INDEX 


OP 


MATTERS    IN    VOLUMES    I.  AND  II. 


Abbreviations  in  manuscripts,  account  of,  I.  221. 
Abraham,  predictions  concerning,  and  iheir  fulfilment,  I.  122, 123. 
His  posterity,  in  what  sense  as  numerous  as  the  stars  of  hcavai 
for  mulliluac,  421. 
Abyssiiiiaii  (Ancient)  version  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  1. 
273,  274. 

Accents  (Hebrew),  uses  of,  I.  192. 

Accominodalion,  theory  of,  shown  to  be  unfounded,  I.  324. 
Accemets,  notice  of,  I.  223.  note. 

Acrostic  poetry  of  the  Hebrews,  I.  381. 

Acts  of  the  Apostles ; — Title,  II.  318.  By  whom  written,  ibid.  Genu- 
ineness and  authenticity,  ibid.  Scope,  ibid.  Chronology,  319. 
Analysis  of  this  book,  320.  Observations  on  its  stylo,  ibid.  Im- 
portance of  this  book,  as  an  evidence  for  the  truth  of  Christianity, 
320,  321.  Confirmation  of  its  veracity  by  Josephu.s,  I.  80.  Coin- 
cidence between  it  and  the  apostolic  epistles,  50,  51. 

Acts  of  the  Senate,  what,  I.  81.  Appeals  made  to  them  by  the  first 
Christians,  as  evidence,  82. 

Adjunct,  metonymy  of,  what,  I.  360,  361. 

Advantages,  peculiar  to  the  Christian  revelation,  a  proof  of  its  supe- 
riority over  all  other  religions,  and  that  it  is  from  God,  1. 177 — 180. 

Adverbs  (emphatic),  instances  of,  I.  328. 

Affections,  the  moral  government  of,  enforced  in  the  Gospel,  1. 153, 
154. 

Age  of  Hebrew  manuscripts,  how  ascertained,  I.  217. 

Agreement  of  ancient  manuscripts  and  versions,  a  proof  of  the  un- 
corrupted  preservation  of  the  Scriptures,  I.  54,  55.  Of  quotations 
by  Christian  writers,  a  like  proof,  55. 

Alexander  of  Pontus,  fabulous  miracles  recorded  of,  exposed,  I.  117. 

Alexandrian  Manuscript,  account  of,  I.  222 — 224.  Fac-simile  of  it, 
224. 

Alexandrian  Version.    See  Septuagint. 

Alexandrine  Recension  of  the  New  Testament,  account  of,  I.  205. 

Allegorical  Sense,  I.  323. 

Allegory  defined,  I.  364.  Different  species  of,  ibid.  Rules  for  the 
interpretation  of  allegories,  364,  365. 

Allusions  to  the  Old  Testament  in  the  New,  I.  312.  318. 

Alphabetical  Poems  of  the  Hebrews,  account  of,  I.  381. 

America,  observations  on  the  peopling  of,  I.  76. 

Ammonian  Sections,  what,  I.  214.     Ammonian  dialect,  273. 

Amos  (the  prophet),  account  of,  II.  259,  260.  Occasion  of  his  pro- 
phecy, 260.  Its  scope,  ibid.  Synopsis  of  its  contents,  ibid.  01> 
servations  on  his  style,  ibid. 

Avuy<':v!rfi.=!.Tx,  or  Church-Lessons,  I.  214. 

Analogy  of  languages,  defined,  I.  340,  341.  Use  of  grammatical 
analogy  for  interpreting  Scripture,  341.  Of  kindred  languages, 
341,342.  Foundation  of  analogy  in  all  languages,  342.  Analogy 
of  Scripture,  330--333.  Analogy  of  faith  defined,  342.  Its  im- 
portance in  studying  the  sacred  writings,  342,  343.  Rules  for 
mvestigating  the  analogy  of  faith,  343,  344. 

Ananias,  why  not  acknowledged  as  high-priest  by  St.  Paul,  I.  50. 

Ancestors  put  for  posterity,  I.  359. 

Anglo-Saxon  version  of  the  New  Testament,  account  of,  I.  280. 

Antediluvians,  longevity  of,  confirmed  by  heathen  writers,  I.  71. 

AnteHieronymian  Version  of  the  Bible,  I.  275. 

Anihropopalhy,  nature  of,  I.  362. 

Aviun-iTo,-,  propriety  of  the  title  of,  given  by  St.  Paul  to  Sergius 
Paulus,  I.  90. 

Antiquities  (Biblical),  importance  of,  to  the  study  of  the  Sacred 
Writings,  I.  350.    Cautions  in  applying  them,  350,  351. 

Antitype,  what,  I.  385.  Rules  for  the  application  of  types  to  anti- 
types, 386,  387. 

Apamean  Medal  confirms  the  Mosaic  account  of  the  Deluge,  I.  88. 

Apocalypse.     See  Revelation  of  St.  John. 

Apocrypha,  derivation  of  the  term,  I.  435. 

.'.  The  Apocryphal  Books  of  the  Old  Testament,  why  rejected  from 
the  canon  of  Scripture,  I.  435,  436.  Their  uses,  344.  436.  Ana- 
lysis of  these  books,  II.  289 — 293.  Supposed  quotations  from  them 
in  the  New  Testament,  I.  318.  Actual  value  of  these  produc- 
tions, 436. 


2.  Apocryphal  Books  of  the  New  Testament,  I.  437.  Enumeration 
of  these  writings,  ibid.  E.kternal  Evide.vce  to  show  that  they 
were  never  considered  as  inspired  or  canonical,  437,  438.  In- 
ternal Evidence,  438 — 442.  These  apocryphal  books  are  so 
far  from  affecting  the  credibility  of  the  genuine  books  of  the 
New  Testament,  that  the  latter  are  confirmed  by  them,  47, 
48.  442. 

Apollonius,  of  Tyana,  fabulous  miracles  ascribed  to,  exposed,  1. 118. 

Apostles  and  evangelists,  credibility  of  See  Credibility  and  Inspi- 
ration.   On  the  descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit  upon  them,  I.  447,  448. 

Apostolic  Fathers,  testimonies  of,  to  the  authenticity  of  the  New 
Testament,  I.  44,  45.  In  what  manner  they  quoted  the  Scrip- 
tures, 41.     Force  of  their  testimony,  45. 

Aqiiila's  version  of  the  Old  Testament,  I.  268,  269. 

Arabic  language,  notice  of,  I.  199. 

Arabic  versions  of  tht  Old  and  New  Testament,  I.  274,  275.  Of  the 
Samaritan  Pentateuch,  204. 

Aramaan  Language,  and  its  dialects,  I.  199. 

AramcBisms  of  the  New  Testament,  I.  198. 

Aretas,  a  king  of  Arabia  Petrcea,  why  at  war  with  Herod  the  Great, 
I.  50. 

Aristeas's  fabulous  account  of  the  Septuagint  version  exposed,  I. 
264,  305.  Fabulous  miracles  related  of  Aristeas  the  Proconnesian 
exposed,  117. 

Ark  ol'  Noah,  dimensions  of,  I.  75. 

Armenian  version  of  Scriptures,  I.  275. 

Arnobius,  testimony  of,  to  the  genuineness  of  the  New  Testament 
I.  42. 

Article  (Greek),  elucidations  of,  I.  327,  328. 

Articles  of  faith,  not  to  be  established  from  single,  obscure,  or  fio-ii- 
rative  texts,  I.  395. 

Arts,  the  late  invention  and  progress  of,  a  confirmation  of  the  .■  ri'- 
dibility  of  the  Mosaic  History  of  the  Deluge,  I.  73,  74. 

Asaph,  Psalms  ascribed  to,  II.  239. 

Ascension,  Odes  of,  II.  243. 

Ascension  of  Jesus  Christ,  circumstances  of,  considered,  I.  446. 

Asher  (Rabbi  Aaron  Ben),  Codex  of,  I.  203. 

Atheists,  principles  of,  contrasted  with  those  of  the  Gospel.  I.  170, 
177.    Effects  of,  in  republican  France,  25,  26. 

Athenagoras,  testimony  of,  to  the  genuineness  of  the  New  Testa  • 
ment,  I.  43. 

Athens,  miserable  condition  of  the  women  at,  I.  19.  note  7.  Origin 
of  the  altar  erected  at,  to  "The  unknown  God,"  90.  St.  Luke's 
and  St.  Paul's  account  of  the  Athenians  confirmed  by  Demos- 
thenes, 80. :  and  by  ancient  inscriptions,  91.  Remarks  on  Paul's 
admirable  address  to  them,  II.  326,  327. 

Atonement,  true  notion  of  unknown  to  the  heathen,  I.  17.  Though 
they  felt  the  necessity  of  an  atonement  for  sin,  70,  71.  The  doc- 
trine of,  as  set  forth  in  the  New  Testament,  150. 

Authenticity  defined,  I.  28.  Of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  proved, 
28 — 52.  Recapitulation  of  this  argument,  184.  Espe<;ially  of 
Matt.  i.  and  ii.  and  Luke  i.  and  ii.,  II.  299—302.  309.  Of  Luke 
viii.  27—39.,  310.;  and  xxii.  44.,  310.  Of  John  vii.  53.  and  viii.  1_ 
11.,  315.  Examination  of  the  authenticity  of  1  John  v.  7.,  366 — 
375. 

Author,  put  for  his  book  or  writings,  I.  359.  Importance  of  know- 
ing, 348. 


Babel,  erection  of  the  tower  of,  confirmed  by  heathen  testimony, 

Babylon,  prophecies  concerning,  and  their  fulfilment,  I.  126. 

Balaam's  ass  speaking,  remarks  on,  [.  421. 

Baptism,  observance  of,  a  proof  of  the  credibility  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament, I.  67. 

Barnabas,  testimony  of  to  the  genuineness  and  authenticity  of  the 
New  Testament,  I.  44. 


Baruch,  apocryphal  book  of,  II.  391,  392. 
Batk-Kol,  notice  of,  II.  256. 


471 


472 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


Bd  and  (he  Dragon,  apocryphal  historj-  of,  II.  292. 

Bcnefts  conferred  by  Christianity,  a  proof  that  it  is  from  God,  1. 169 
—177. 

Bethlehem,  massacre  of  the  infants  at,  I.  419. 

Bible,  a  perlect  rule  of  faith  and  practice,  I.  186.  Moral  qualifica- 
tions lor  studying  it  advantageously,  186,  187.  In  what  order  it 
should  be  read,  187.  Refutation  ol  the  assertion  that  the  Bible 
is  the  most  immoral  book  in  the  world,  166.  Docs  not  inculcate 
a  spirit  of  intolerance  and  persecution,  166,  167.  Harmony  be- 
tween all  its  pans,  a  proof  of  its  divine  origin  and  authority,  167, 
16^.  As  aho  its  preservation,  168.  See  Hcriptures,  Versions, 
Testament  (Old),  and  Testament  (New). 

Blind  man  restored  to  sight,  remarks  on  the  miracle  of,  I.  104,  105. 

Blotrit  (Mr.).  at>surd  and  contradictory  notions  of,  on  religion  and 
morals,  1.  23.     His  profligacy,  26. 

Boils,  on  the  plague  of,  in  Kirypt,  II.  207. 

Bdingibroke  (Lord),  alwurd  and  contradictory  tcneU  of,  on  religion 
and  morals,  I.  21,  25.  His  hypocrisy  exposed,  26.  His  involun- 
tary lestimonv  in  favour  of  the  evangelist,  68. 

.GooJt,  every  writing  so  termed  by  the  ancients,  however  small,  1. 56. 

Hook  of  the  Covenant,  I.  57. 

Book  ofjasher,  remarks  on,  I.  57.  II.  216. 

Book  of  the  Wars  of  the  Lord,  observations  on,  I.  57.  II.  210. 

Dyzanliiie  Recension  of  the  JN'ew  Testament,  I.  205. 


C.4ir:s  K0M.1..VU.S,  testimony  of.  to  the  genuineness  of  the  New  Tes- 
tement.  I.  42. 

Cawi,  t^hscrvation  on  the  miracle  wrought  at,  I.  103,  104. 

Canaanitts,  extirpation  of,  considered,  1.  409,  410. 

Canon  of  the  Old  Testament,  account  of,  I.  28 — 30.  Canon  of  the 
New  Testament,  39.  General  divisions  of  the  canonical  books 
of  the  Old  Testament,  II.  212,  213. 

Catalogues  of  the  Ixwks  of  the  Old  Testament,  I.  29,  30. ;  and  of 
the  iS'ew  TcHUiment,  11. 

Catholic  Epintles,  origin  of  the  appellation  of,  II.  358.  Its  antiquity, 
ibid.  The  authenticity  of  the  Catholic  Epistles,  and  in  what 
order  usually  placed,  ibid.    Their  dates,  330. 

Cause,  metonymy  of,  I.  359,  360. 

Celsus.  testimony  »f.  to  the  genuineness  and  authenticity  of  the 
New  Testament,  I.  46,  47.;  and  to  the  character  of  Christ,  82.; 
and  of  the  fu^t  Christians,  85. 

Census,  alluded  to  hv  St.  Luke,  explained,  I.  419,  420. 

CerinUius,  account  of  the  tenets  of,  II.  316.  317.  IIis  testimony  to 
the  genuineiiew  and  authenticity  of  the  New  Testament,  I.  46 

Cetuhim,  an  amient  division  of  the  Old  Testament,  account  of,  I. 
213. 

ChaMaany  pretence  of,  to  antiquity,  disproved,  I.  73. 

Chaldaisms  of  the  New  Testament,  I.  198. 

Vhal'Jec  Langun-e.  notice  of,  I.  199. 

Chaldrc  Paraphraurs  on  the  Scnpturef.  account  of,  I.  262—264, 

CliapUrs  and  verses,  origin  of,  in  the  Old  Testament,  I.  213 
in  the  New  Testament,  214. 

Characters  (Hebrew),  anti(iuity  of,  I.  190.  ,   t  ^ao 

Children,  the  visiting  of  the  fathers'  sins  on,  explained,  I.  409. 

Chinese,  pretence.^  of,  to  antiquity,  disproved,  1.  74.  Degraded  state 
of  religion  and  morals  amonij  the  Chinese,  I.  21. 

Christ  (Jesus).    Duration  of  his  ministry,  I.  321.     The  Lord's  sup- 
per a  perpetual  memorial  of  the  truth  of  the  Gospel,  67.    Testi- 
mony of  Josephus  to  the  cliaracler  of  Jesus  Christ,  81.  463,  464. 
Of  the  Tnlmuds,  81.     Of  roiitius  Pilate,  81,  82.     Of  Suetonius, 
Tacitus,  Pliny,  JEUuh,  Lampridius,  Celsus,  and  Porphyry,  82. 
Of  Julian  and  Mohammed,  83.     Jesus  Christ  put  for  Ins  doctrine, 
359.     Parables,  why  used  by  him,  308,  369.     Superiority  of  his 
parables.  .'i69,  370.     Diincultics  in  his  genealogy  solved,  400,  401. 
417,  418.     Why  he  used  external  moans  in  performing  some  ol 
his  miracles,  99,  100.;  and  gave  dillerent  degrees  of  notoriety  to 
them,  98,  99.     Their  number,  101.     Variety,  jAk/.     Design,  101, 
102.    Greatness,  102.    Before  whom  wrought,  103.    In  what  man- 
ner wrought,  ibid.     Their  effects,  ibid.    Were  never  denied,  tbid. 
A  critical  examination  of  some  of  Christ's  miracles,  particularly 
the  fonversion  of  water  into  wine,  ibid.     Tiio  feeding  ol  five 
thousand  men,  104.     The  healing  of  the  paralytic,  ibid.     The 
giving  of  sight  to  the  man  who  hail  been  born  blind,  l(l4,  10.0. 
The  raising  of  Jairus's  daughter  to  life,  105.    Of  the  widow's  son 
at  Nain,  ibid.     And  of  Lazarus,  105,  I06.     The  circumstances  of 
his  Resurrection  Minted  and  scrutini/fd,  1(J6 — 11.5.   And  of  his  .As- 
cension, 446.     The  miracles  of  Christ  compared  with  pretended 
pagan  and  popish  miracles,  115—119.     Character  of  Christ,  149. 
Testimonies  of  heathen  adversaries  to  his  life  and  <  haru<ter,  81 
83.     involuntary  testimonies  of  the  infidels,  Chuiib  niid  Rous- 
seau, to  his  character,  156.  and  note.     Christ  a  greater  prophet 
than  Mfjsod,  453,  454.     Salvation  only  through  hiin,  4o2.     JSif-es- 
•ity  of  believing  in  him,  and  danger  of  rejecting  him,  ibid.   Christ 
put  for  his  doctrine,  359.     See  Mf.shiaii. 
Chrlfianiti/,  propagation  of,  a  proof  of  the  credibility  of  the  New 
Testament,  I.  67.     And  that  the  Gospel  is  from  God,  130—132. 
GiblKjn's  five  secondary  cauKCs  of  it*  success  refuted,  133.     Its 
rejection  by  unbelieving  Jews  and  fieniiles,  and  non-universality, 
no  argument  aeainpt  its  divine  original,  but  rather  a  confinnatioii, 
134 — 140.     The  Mo-aic  dispensation  introductory  to  it,  I  17,  I  IH. 
KxccUence  of  its  doctrines,  149—151.     And  morality,  152—156. 
Superiority  of  iu  motives  to  duty,  15(J— 158.    Its  doctrines  not 


And 


contrary  to  reason,  158 — ICO.  Its  doctrine  of  a  future  judgment 
not  improbable,  160,  161.  Does  not  est.ablish  a  system  of  priest- 
craft, 161,  162.  Or  prohibit  free  inquiry,  but  on  the  contrary  in- 
vites it,  162.  Its  morality  not  too  strict,  162,  163.  Norany  of  its 
moral  precepts  unreasonable  and  impracticable,  163,  164.  Does 
not  produce  a  timid  spirit,  164.  Nor  overlook  the  generous  sen- 
timents of  friendship,  164, 165.;  ond  of  patriotism,  165,  166.  Nor 
inculcate  either  intolerance  or  persecution,  166,  167.  The  ten- 
dency of  Christianity  (evinced  by  facts)  to  promote  the  present 
and  eternal  happiness  of  mankind,  169— 17fL  Comparison  of  the 
actual  effects  of  the  Gospel,  with  those  proiiuced  by  the  atheisti- 
cal philosophy,  175 — 177.  A  further  proof  that  it  is  from  God,  is 
afforded  by  us  superiority  over  all  other  religions,  177.  Particu- 
larly in  its  perfection,  ibid.  Its  opcnneas,  ibid.  Its  adaptation  to 
the  capacities  of  all  men,  178.  The  spirituality  of  its  worship, 
ibid.  Its  opposition  to  the  spirit  of  the  world,  179.  Its  humilia- 
tion of  man  and  exalting  the  Deity,  ibid.  Its  restoration  of  order 
to  the  world,  ibid.  Its  tendency  to  eradicate  all  evil  passions 
from  the  heart,  ibid.  Its  contrariety  to  the  covetousness  and  am- 
bition of  mankind,  ibid.  Its  restoring  the  divine  image  to  man, 
ibid,  lis  mighty  effects,  ibid.  Kxamination  of  the  difficulties 
attendant  on  the  propagation  of  Christianity,  44*^* — 150. 
Christians,  exemplary  character  and  conduct  of,  I.  169,  170.  At- 
tested by  their  heathen  adversaries,  8.3^ — 85.  170.  The  crimes  of 
nominal  Christians  not  chargeable  on  the  Gospel,  173. 
Chronicles  (two  books  of),  II.  222.  Their  title,  ibid.  Author  and 
date,  ibid.  Scope  and  analysis  of  these  books,  223.  Observations 
on  these  books,  224.  Account  of  the  Targums  or  Chaldce  para 
phrases  on,  I.  263. 
Chronology,  alleged  contradictions  in,  considered,  and  shown  to  be 
nnfounded,  I.  401,  405.  Importance  of,  to  biblical  students,  349. 
Chubb  (Mr.),  absurd  and  contradictory  tenets  of,  concerning  religion, 
I.  23,  24.  His  hypocrisy,  26.  Involuntary  testimony  of,  to  the 
divine  mission  of  Jesus  Christ,  68.;  and  to  his  cliaracter,  155. 
Churches  (Cliristian),  state  of,  necessary  to  be  known  in  studying 

the  Epistles,  I.  393. 
Cilicisms  of  the  IVcw  Testament,  I.  199. 
Circumcision,  the  observance  of,  a  proof  of  the  credibility  of  the 

Old  TesLimoiit,  I.  66. 
CiTcumslaittialitu  of  the  Old  Testament  narratives  a  proof  of  their 
authenticity,  I.  31,  32.;  as  also  of  the  Pentateuch,  35,  36.;  and 
of  the  New  Testament  narratives,  49,  50. 
Clarius's  (Isidore)  revision  of  the  Vulgate  version,  notice  of,  I.  277 
Classijicalion  of  the  books  of  the  New  Testament,  II.  293,  ^94. 
Clement  of  Alexandria,  testimony  of,  to  the  genuineness  of  the  New 

Testament,  I.  43. 
Clement  of  Rome,  testimony  of,  to  the  genuineness  of  the  New 

Testament,  I.  45. 
Cognate,  or  kindred  languages,  what  so  termed,  I.  199.     Account 
of  them,  ibid.    The  use  of  the  cognate  languages  for  illustrating 
the  Scriptures  elucidated,  199.  341,  342. 
Coincidence  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament  narratives  with  the 
relations  of  profane  authors  a  proof  of  their  credibility,  1.49 — 52 
69—87. 
Coins  (ancient),  collateral   testimony  of,  to  the  credibility  of  the 
New  Testament,  I.  88 — 91.    Imixirtance  of,  as  an  hermeneutica' 
aid,  350. 
Collins  (Mr.),  absurd  and  contradictory  tenets  of,  on  religion,  I.  23 

His  hypocrisy,  26. 
Colossiuns,  Saint  Paul's  Epistle  to,  II.  340.     Account  of  the  churcJi 
at  Colossal,  341.     Date  of  this  K|>istle,  ibid.     Its  occasion,  ibi± 
Scope  and  analysis  of  its  contents,  ibid. 
Commentaries,  dilferent  classes  of,  I.  352.    Of  commentaries,  strictly 
so  called,  ibid.    Their  utility,  353.    Design  to  be  kept  in  view  in 
consulting  them,  ibid.     Rules  for  consulting  them  to  the  besl 
advantage,  353,  354. 
Comparison  not  to  be  extended  to  all  the  circumstances  of  an  alle 

gory,  1.  365. 
Complexion,  varieties  of,  in  different  nations,  not  contrary  to  the 

Mosaic  account  of  the  origin  of  mankind,  I.  76. 
Conjecture  (critical),  a  source  of  various  readings,  I.  284.     Rules 
fi>r  applying  it  to  the  determination  of  various  readings.  2^'.'.  290. 
Constanlinopolilan  Recension  of  the  ]\ew  Testament,  I.  2(.)5.  209. 
Contemporan/  Writers,  testimony  of  a  source  for  ascertaining  the 

meaning  of  Scripture,  I.  329 — 333 
Context,  dcliiiiiion  ol",  I.  336.     Riiles  for  investignling  it,  Z'Sl,  338 
Iiiiixjrtance  of  aliendiiig  to  the  context,  in  the  interpretation  of 
allegories,  365. 
Contradictions,  alleged  to  exist  in  the  Scriptures,  considered,  and 
shown  to  have  no  fiMiiidaiion.  I.  399,  400.     In  historical  p-assages, 
•loo — .t()4.     In  chronology,  404,  405.     Between   prophecies  and 
their  fidfilinent.  406.     In  doctrine,  406 — ■I08.     Apjiarent  contra- 
dictions to  morality,  408 — 414.     Between  the  sacred  writers,  414 
— ^118.    Between  sacred  and  profane  writers,  418— 420.    Seeming 
contradictions  to  philosophy  and  the  nature  of  tilings,  420 — 422 
Cohirrs'ition  with  the  Deity,  the  most  eminent  degree  of  prophetic 

inspiration,  II.  2.56. 
Conversion  of  Paul,  remarks  on,  II.  322,  323. 
Coptic  version  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  I.  272. 
Corinthians  (Saint  Paul's  First  Kpislle  to),  II.  334.    Paul's  chnrnctei 
of  the  GeniileT'oriiithians  conliriiicd  by  profane  historians.  I.  80. 
State  of  tho  C;orinthian  church,  II.  334.      CKcasion  ond  scope  of 
this  Kpistle,  ibiil.     Analysis  of  its  roulents,  335.     Date  and  ponii- 
ineness.  ibid.     Examination  of  the  (luestion,  how  many  cpiillet 
Paul  wrote  lo  the  Corinthians,  ibid. 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


473 


Corinthians  (Saint  Paul's  Second  Epistle  to),  II.  335.  Date  and 
where  written,  336.  Occasion  of  this  Epistle,  ibid.  Its  scope, 
ibid.  Synopsis  of  ils  contents,  ibid.  Observations  on  it,  ibid.  A 
supposed  chronological  difficulty  in  this  Epistle  elucidated,  336, 
337.  No  other  epistles  written  to  the  Corinthians  but  the  two 
which  are  no\v  extant,  I.  57,  58.  II.  335. 

Corruption  of  the  Scriptures,  impossibility  of,  proved,  I.  52 — 58. 
Wilful  corruption,  how  far  a  cause  of  various  readings,  285. 

Counsels  of  perfection,  nature  and  fallacy  of,  I.  396.  note. 

Covenant,  book  of  the,  I.  57. 

Creation  of  the  world,  true  account  of,  unknown  to  the  ancient 
philosophers.  I.  17.  Mosaic  narrative  of,  confirmed  by  profane 
history,  69.  And  by  the  modern  discoveries  in  philosophy,  I. 
420,  421. 

Credibility  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  I.  59.  Proofs  that  the 
writers'of  them  liad  a  perfect  knowledge  of  the  subjects  which 
they  relate ;  and  their  moral  character,  though  rigidly  fried,  was 
never  impeached  by  their  keenest  opponents,  i6tc/.  This  test  ap- 
plied to  the  Old  Tcstarfient,  ibid  And  also  to  the  New  Testa- 
ment, 60.  These  w-ritings,7iet'er  charged  with  containing  false- 
hoods, ibid.  This  proved  at  large  concerning  the  Old  Testament, 
60 — 62.  And  the  New  Testament,  62.  The  writers  of  which 
were  contemporary  with,  and  competent  witnesses  of,  the  events 
related,  62,  63.  And  could  not  have  recorded  the  actions  ascrib- 
ed to  Christ,  if  they  had  not  been  true,  62.  Were  neither  enthu- 
siasts nor  fanatics,  63.  Were  neither  deceived  themselves,  nor 
did  nor  could  deceive  others,  63,  64.  But  on  the  contrary  they 
were  men  of  the  strictest  integrity  and  sincerity,  64,  65.  Ap- 
pealed to  notorious  proofs,  66.  Andl  suffered  every  thing  for  the 
truth  of  their  narration,  ibid.  The  credibility  of  the  Scriptures  fur- 
ther confirmed  by  the  subsistence,  to  this  very  day,  of  monuments 
instituted  to  perpetuate  the  memory  of  the  principal  Tacts  and 
events  therein  recorded,  66,  67.  And  by  the  wonderful  establish- 
ment and  propagation  of  Christianity,  67,  68.  Testimonies  from 
natural  and  civil  history  to  the  credibility  of  the  Old  Testament, 
69 — 78.  And  also  of  the  New  Testament,  78 — 83.  The  silence 
of  profane  authors  concerning  facts  recorded  by  the  sacred  histo- 
rians no  argument  against  their  credibility.  85 — 87.  Which  is 
further  confirmed  by  coins  and  medals,  88—91.  Recapitulation 
of  this  argument,  185.    Credibility  of  miracles,  proved,  95 — 9/. 

Creed  of  unbelievers,  I.  159.  note. 

Cretans,  St.  Paul's  character  of,  confirmed  by  profane  writers,  1.81. 
Christianity,  when  planted  in  Crete,  II.  347. 

Criticism  of  the  Scriptures,  objects  of,  I.  188. 

Cyprian,  testimony  of,  to  the  genuineness  of  the  New  Testament, 
I.  42. 

Cyprian  Recension  of  the  New  Testament,  I.  209.  note. 

Cy renins,  cen.sus  of,  explained,  I.  419,  420. 


D'alembert,  miserable  death  of,  I.  176. 

Daniel  (the  prophet),  account  of,  II.  277.  Ilis  predictions  relative 
to  the  four  great  monarchies,  I.  129.  Analysis  of  his  prophecies, 
II.  277 — 279.  Observations  on  their  canonical  authority  and  style, 
with  a  refutation  of  neologian  objections,  279 — 282.  Account  of 
the  spurious  additions  made  to  the  book  of  Daniel,  282. 

Dnrkness,  on  the  plague  of,  in  Egypt,  II.  207. 

ijates  of  the  books  of  Scripture,  importance  of  knowing,  I.  348. 

David,  in  what  sense  the  "  man  after  God's  own  heart,"  I.  411,412. 
List  of  Psalrns  ascribed  to,  II.  239.  241. 

Deborah,  remarks  on  the  ode  of,  II.  217.  note. 

Deists,  or  enemies  of  divine  revelation,  origin  of,  I.  22.  note.  Are 
indebted  to  the  Scriptures  for  all  that  they  have  written,  which 
is  either  wise  or  good,  ibid.  Their  boast,  that  unassisted  reason 
is  H  sufficient  guide  to  man,  disproved,  ibid.  A  summary  of  their 
absurd  and  contradictory  tenets  concerning  religion,  the  worship 
of  God,  and  a  future  .stale,  23 — 25.  And  concerning  morals,  25. 
Deadly  effects  of  deism  on  nations,  25,  26.  And  on  individuals, 
26.  Effects  of  their  principles  contrasted  with  those  of  the  Gos- 
pel, 176,  177. 

Deities  (heathen),  immense  number  of,  I.  16.  and  note  8.,  21.  Hor- 
rid rites  of,  and  their  effects,  16,  17.    See  Idolatry. 

liJiiL'e,  JVIosaic  account  of,  not  contrary  to  philosophy,  but  confirm- 
ed b^  indubitable  testimonies  from  natural  and  civil  history,  I. 
"^"i — *5.  And  by  the  Apamean  medal,  88.  Infidel  objections  to 
it  refuted,  75,  76. 

De  Rossi,  notice  of  the  principal  Hebrew  MSS.  collected  by,  1. 219. 

Design  of  the  sacred  writers  m  composing  their  narratives,  a  source 
of  apparent  contradictions  in  historical  passages,  I.  400 — 402. 
And  also  in  points  of  doctrine,  408. 

Deuteronomy  (book  of),  date  and  chronology  of,  II.  210,  211.  Its 
scope,  211.  Prediction  relative  to  the  Messiah  contained  in  it 
illustrated,  ibid.  I.  453, 454.  Synopsis  of  its  contents,  II.  211,  212. 
Observations  on  this  book,  212. 

Dialects  of  the  Greek  Testament,  I.  196—199. 

A.xS^x,,  import  of,  I.  28.  39. 

£iiu.-i,x7,/ix,  import  of,  IT.  243. 

Didactic  poetry  of  the  Hebrews,  I.  381. 

Difficulties  attendant  on  the  propagation  of  Christianity,  e.Tamined, 
1.448—450. 

Dissection,  curious,  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  I.  202.  note. 

Divisions  (ancient  and  modern)  of  the  Scriptures,  I.  212 — 215. 

Doctrines  delivered  in  the  Bible  a  proof  that  it  must  be  from  God, 
I.  142.  Doctrines  of  the  patriarchal  age,  142,  143.  II.  236,  237. 
Vol.  II.  3  O 


Doctrines  delivered  by  Moses,  and  by  the  prophets,  I.  143—143. 
Summary  of  the  doctrines  of  tlie  Gospel,  149. ;  particularly  the 
vicarious  atonement  of  Christ,  and  the  blessings  thereby  procured 
for  man,  150—152.  Alleged  contradictions  in  doctrines  proved 
to  have  no  foundation,  406— 40a  On  the  doctrinal  interpretation 
of  the  Scriptures,  393—395. 

Double  Sense  of  prophecy,  I.  390,  391. 

Dramatic  Poems  of  the  Hebrews,  I.  381. 

Dreams,  prophetic,  II.  255. 

Duelling  not  sanctioned  by  the  Gospel,  I.  171.  ywte. 


Eber's  (Paul)  revision  of  the  Latin  Vulgate,  notice  of,  I.  277. 

Ebionites,  testimony  of,  to  the  genuineness  and  authenticity  of  the 
New  Testament,  I.  46. 

Ecclesiasles  (book  of),  II.  247.  Its  title,  author,  and  canonical  au- 
thority,  ibid.  Its  scope  and  synopsis,  247,  248.  Observations  on 
this  book,  249. 

Ecclesiasticus  (apocryphal  book  of),  account  of,  II.  291. 

Edessene  Recension  of  the  New  Testament,  account  of,  I.  206. 

Editions  (ancient)  of  the  Scripture,  considered  as  a  source  of  the 
sacred  text,  I.  280. 

Effect,  metonymy  of,  I.  360. 

Egypt,  prophecies  concerning,  and  their  fulfilment,  L  125.  The 
borrowing  from  the  Egyptians  by  the  Israelites  explained,  409. 
Remarks  on  the  plagues  inflicted  upon  the  Egyptians,  II.  206, 
207.  Pretensions  of  the  Egyptians  to  remote  antiquity  disproved, 
I.  73.  Confirmations  of  Scripture  from  Egyptian  hieroglyphics, 
88,  89. 

Egyptian  versions  of  the  Scriptures,  I.  272,  273.  Egyptian  Recen- 
sion of  the  New  Testament,  205. 

EichhoT7i's  theory  of  recensions,  account  of,  I.  209. 

Elegiac  Poetry  of  the  Hebrews,  I.  380. 

Elijah  fed  by  ravens,  remarks  on  the  narrative  of,  I.  422. 

Emphases,  definition  of,  I.  326,  327.  Different  kinds  of,  327.  Em- 
phasis of  the  Greek  article,  327,  328.  Emphases  of  other  words, 
328.  Emphatic  adverbs,  ibid.  Real  emphases,  ibid.  Rules  for 
the  investigation  of  emphatic  words,  328,  329. 

England,  beneficial  effects  of  Christianity  in,  I.  174. 

Enoch,  translation  of,  confirmed  by  heathen  traditions,  I.  71.  Re- 
marks on  the  apocryphal  book  of,  supposed  to  be  quoted  by  the 
Apostle  Jude,  318.  II.  377. 

Ejtlhusiasm,  characteristics  of,  I.  63.  Proof  that  Moses  was  not  an 
enthusiast,  60.  Nor  the  apostles  and  evangelists,  63.  Especially 
Saint  Paul,  II.  322,  323.  ' 

Ejihesus,  temple  of  Diana  at,  L  90.  That  city,  why  termed  NEii- 
KO  poy,  90,  91.  Account  of  the  church  at,  II.  338.  Genuineness 
and  authenticity  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians,  338,  339.  Its 
■j"f '  ^?"  Occasion  and  scope,  ibid.  Analysis  of  its  contents, 
tbid.     Observations  on  its  style,  ibid. 

Episilcs  of  the  apostles,  importance  of,  II.  329,  330.  Their  number 
and  order,  paiiicalarly  those  of  St.  Paul,  330.  Of  the  Catholic, 
epistles,  ibid.  Genera  plan  of  the  apostolic  epistles,  ibid.  Causes 
of  their  obscurity  explained,  331.  Remarks  on  the  phraseology 
of  bt.  1  aul  s  Epistles  in  particular,  ibid.  Rules  for  studying  the 
apostolic  epistles  most  beneficially,  I.  393—395.  Subscriptions 
attached  to  them,  215.     See  Catholic  Epistles. 

Epithets  of  Scripture,  different  kinds  of,  I.  325. 

Esdras,  account  of  the  two  apocryphal  books  of,  II.  289,  290. 

Esther  (book  of),  H.  225.  Its  title  and  author,  225,  226.  Argument, 
266.  Synopsis  of  its  contents,  ibid.  Account  of  the  Targums  or 
Chaldee  paraphrases  on  this  book,  I.  263.  Apocryphal  additions 
to  the  book  of  Esther,  II.  290. 

Ethan,  psalm  ascribed  to,  II.  240. 

Ethiopia,  prophecies  concerning,  and  their  fulfilment,  L  125,  126. 

Ethiopia  language,  notice  of,  I.  199.  Ethiopia  version  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, 273, 274.  '^ 

Eusebius's  account  of  the  classification  and  genuineness  of  the 
books  of  the  New  Testament,  I.  42.  Notice  of  his  Harmony  of 
the  four  Gospels,  319,  320. ;  and  of  his  recension  of  the  Septuagint 
version,  268.     Eusebian  Sections,  214. 

Euthalius,  Sections  of,  I.  214. 

Evangelists,  were  contemporary  with,  and  competent  witnesses  of, 
the  facts  recorded  by  them,  I.  62,  63.  Were  not  enthusiasts  nor 
fanatics,  63.  Neither  did  nor  could  deceive  or  impose  upon 
others,  63,  64.  Were  men  of  the  strictest  integrity  and  sincerity, 
64,  65.  Appealed  to  notorious  proofs,  66.  Suffered  every  thing 
for  the  truth  of  their  narrative,  ibid.  On  the  credibility  and  in- 
spiration of  the  evangelists. — See  Credibility,  Inspiration. 

Evidence.     See  Historical  Testimony. 

Evil  (moral  and  physical),  the  true  cause  of,  unknown  to  the  an- 
cients, I.  17.  The  Bible  account  of  it  confirmed  by  heathen 
writers,  70. 

Exodus  (book  of).  Title,  II.  206.  Author  and  date,  ibid.  Occasion 
and  subject-matter,  ibid.  Scope,  ibid.  Types  of  the  Messiah, 
ibid.   Synopsis,  ibid.   Illustration  of  Exodus,  ch.  vii. — xi.  206, 207. 

Expositors.     See  Commentators. 

Ezekicl  (the  prophet),  account  of,  II.  283.  Canonical  authority  of 
his  prophecies,  ibid.  Their  scope,  284.  Analysis  of  them,  284 — 
286.  Observations  on  the  style  of  Ezekiel,  286.  Supposed  dif- 
ference between  him  and  Jeremiah  reconciled,  I.  124. 

Ezra  (book  of),  11.224.  Its  title  and  author,  ibid.  Argument, 
scope,  and  synopsis  of  its  contents,  224,  225.  Observations  on 
a  spurious  passage  ascribed  to  Ezra,  225. 


474 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


Faith,  analogy  of,  1.  342.     Rules  for  investigating  it,  342 — 344. 

Fall  of  man,  Mos.iic  account  of,  confirtncd  by  tiie  existence  of 
moral  evil,  and  by  historical  testimony,  I-  69 — 71. 

Families  of  Hebrew  Manuscripts,  account  of,  I.  218.  And  of  the 
manuscripts  of  the  Greek  Testament,  204 — 212. 

Fathers,  testimony  of,  to  the  authenticity  of  the  New  Testament,  I. 
41 — 45.  A.ssistance  to  be  derived  from  them  in  the  interpretation 
of  Scripture,  346—348.  Ilemarks  on  their  mode  of  c|uoling  the 
Scriptures,  41.  Authority  of  their  quotations  as  a  source  of  the 
sacred  text,  281.  Kules  for  applvinp  their  quotations  to  the  de- 
termination of  various  readings,  288,  289. 

Felix,  procurator  of  Juda-n,  the  singular  propriety  of  Saint  Paul's 
address  to,  illustrated,  II.  327. 

Ferliltty  of  the  Holy  Land,  Ritested  by  heathen  writers,  I.  78. 

Fig-tree,  the  withering  of  th«-  l)arren,  explained,  I.  102. 

Figurative  Language,  ori^-in  oi",  I.  355.  Distinction  between  figures 
of  words  amr  figures  of  thought,  ibid.  General  observations  on 
the  interpretation  of  tropes  and  figures,  355 — 358.  The  figura- 
tive languQL'c  of  the  prophets  sometimes  the  source  of  seeming 
contradictions,  406.  See  AUigory,  Hyperbole,  Irony,  Metaphor, 
Mvtonymy,  Farnhle,  Proverbs,  and  Synecdoche. 

First-born,  on  the  destruction  of,  in  Egypt,  II.  2U7. 

First  day  of  the  week,  ob.*ervance  of,  a  proof  of  the  credibility  of 
the  Ntw  Testament,  I.  67. 

Five  thousand  men,  miracle  of  the  feeding  of,  I.  104. 

Flies,  on  ihe  plague  of,  II.  206. 

Fadns  cum  Grcecis,  account  of,  I.  212. 

Fool,  how  to  be  answered,  I.  397. 

Foigery,  impossibility  of,  as  it  respects  the  Old  Testament,  I.  29. 
And  the  New  Testament,  40.  54,  55. 

Forgiveness  of  sins.  New  Testament  doctrine  of,  I.  150. 

France,  horrible  state  of,  during  the  French  Revolution,  in  conse- 
quence of  infidelity,  I.  25,  26. 

Frederick  II.  king  of  Prussia,  impious  tenets  of,  I.  24. 

Friendship,  why  not  enforced  by  name,  in  the  Gospel,  1. 165. 

Frogs,  on  the  plague  of,  II.  206. 

Future  Mtate.    See  Immortality  of  the  Soul. 


GaLati.vn!?,  account  of,  II.  337.     Date  of  Saint  Paul's  Epistle  to 
them,  ibid.     Its  genuineness  and  authenticity,  ibid.    Occasion  and 
scope,  ibid.    Synojjsis  of  its  contents,  ibid.    Observations  on  this 
Epistle,  338. 
Gallio,  character  of,  I.  79. 

Gaon  (rabbi  Saadias),  Arabic  version  by,  notice  of,  I.  274. 
GewMjrn*  of  Jerusalem  and  Babylon,  account  of,  I.  345. 
Genealogy,  importance  of,  in  studying  the  Scriptures,  I.  351,  352. 
The  seeming  contradictions  in  the  genealogies  of  our  Saviour, 
as  recorded  by  iMatihew  and  Luke,  examined  and  reconciled, 
400,401.417,418.  Imjiortance  of  the  genealogies  in  the  first 
book  of  Chronicles,  II.  223.  ., . ,     ^  , 

Genesis  (book  of),  title,  IJ.  203.  Author,  204.  Date,  ibid.  General 
argument,  ibid.  Scope,  ibid.  Types  of  i)ie  Messiah  in  this  Ixxik 
Und.  Syiio[«i«  of  its  contents,  ibid.  Summary  of  the  patriarchal 
religion,  as  exhibited  in  this  bo.jk,  I.  142,  143.  The  literal  senso 
of  the  first  three  chapters  vindicated,  II.  205.  Whence  Mose.< 
derived  his  materials  for  it,  I.  34. 
Gentiles,  rejection  of  the  Gospel  by,  no  objection  to  the  truth  of 

Christianity,  I.  136. 
Gtnuineness  defined,  L  28.      Criteria  for  distinguishing  genuine 
from  spurious  writings,  39,  40.     Genuineness  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment demonstrated,  28—32. :  especially  of  the  Pentateuch,  32 — 
38.    And  of  the  New  Testament,  40— 50.    Recapitulation  of  this 
argument,  184. 
Geography,  importance  of,  to  the  study  of  the  Bible,  L  351. 
GeSogu,  testimony  of,  to  the  credibility  of  the  Mosaic  narrative  of 

the  deluge,  I.  7^,72. 
German  Divines,  heterodox  notions  of  many  of.  I.  326.     Refutation 
of  their  theory,  that  some  of  the  interpretations  of  Christ  and  his 
Apostles  are  doctrinal  accommodations  to  Jewish  opinions  and 
prejudices,  324. 
German  Jevis,  manuscripts  of,  I.  218. 

Giants,  Mosaic  account  of,  confirmed  by  heailicn  writer-",  I.  71. 
GiMjon's  false  account  of  the  spreuil  of  Christianity,  confuted  by 

facu,  I.  133.     Mis  immoral  principles  exposed,  25. 
Giltith,  import  of,  II.  244. 

Glossaries,  nature  of,  I.  335.     Rules  for  consulting  them  to  advan- 
tage, ibid. 
Gnostics,  tenets  of,  refuted  by  St.  John,  II.  316. 
God,  iho  true  nature  and  worship  of,  imiterfoctly  known  among  the 
ancioni  heathen  nati<ms,  I.  16,  17.     And  also  among  the  modern 
healhcriH,  21,  22.    Sublime  doctrines  of  the  .Scriptures  concerning 
G(mI,  in  the  imtrinrchnl  times,  142,  ILL     Under  the  Mosaic  dis- 
pen-sation,  14:J — Wb.     And  in  the  Gosnel,  149,  \M. 
Gnsjnl.  meaning  of,  II.  294.     tinneral  desiifn  ol  the  Gospels,  295. 
Their  number,  ibid.     Ami  im[«rtnnce,  ibid.     The  soiircis  of  the 
firnl  three  (;ospcls  examined,  38.''>— 393.     Why  rejected  by  the 
unbelieving  Jews,  I.  1.34,  n."*.     And  by  the  (.enlilcH,  V.iC,.     See 
Chrislinnily,  Doctrines,  Morality,  John,  Luke,  Mark,niv\  Matthew, 
in  this  Index. 
Gothic  vrrxion  of  the  Bible,  account  of,  T.  2T7.     Description  of  the 
l'(>sal  manuscript  of.  277,  278.     Important  remains  ol.  discovered 
in  the  Ambronian  lilirary  at  Milan,  278,  279. 
Gofyrnors  and  Governed,  duties  of,  under  the  Gospel,  1. 153. 


Grammaticn-Historical  Sense,  defined,  I.  323. 

Greek  Article,  elucidations  of,  I.  327,  328. 

Greek  Ijanguape,  Ihe  New  Testament  why  written  in,  I.  193,  194 
Similarity  of  the  New  Testament  Greek  with  that  of  the  Septu 
agint  version,  193.  Examination  of  its  style,  194,  195.  Dialects, 
1913—199. 

Greek  Versions  (ancient)  of  the  Old  Testament : — See  Aquila,  Sep- 
tuagint,  Symmachus,  Theodotion. 

Greeks,  the  New  Testament  character  of,  confirmed  by  heathctt 
writers,  I.  80. 

Griesbach's  (Dr.)  system  of  recension  of  ihe  New  Testament,  ac- 
count of,  1.  205,  20G. 


Habakkuk  (the  prophet),  notice  of,  II.  277.  Analysis  of  his  pro- 
phecy, ibid.     Its  style,  ibid. 

Haggai  (the  prophet),  account  of,  II.  287.  Argument  and  scope  of 
hia  prophecy,  ibid.     Analysis  of  its  contents,  ibid.     Style,  ibid. 

Hagiographa,  an  ancient  division  of  the  Jewish  Scriptures,  accoutit 
of,  I.  213.    Chaldee  parophrnse  on,  263. 

Hail,  on  the  plague  of,  in  Egypt,  II.  207. 

liaptoroth,  or  sections  of  the  Prophet.s,  origin  of,  I  213. 

Haziness,  dark  and  confused  notions  of  the  heathen  concerning. 

Harmonies  of  the  Scriptures,  occasion  of,  I.  319.    Observationa  <>n 
the  different  schemes  of  harmonizers,  and  on  the  duration  of  the 
public  ministry  of  Jesus  Christ,  319—321. 
Harmony  subsisting  between  all  parts  of  the  Bible,  a  proof  of  its 

divine  authority  and  original,  I.  107,  108. 
Heathen  J\'alions  (ancient),  deplorable  state  of  religion  and  moraU 
among,  I,  10 — 20. ;  and  among  the  modem  heathens,  21,  22.  Thi- 
a  proof  of  the  necessity  of  a  divine  revelation,  22.  Derived 
many  of  their  institutions  from  the  Scriptures,  77,  78.  Their 
characters,  as  incidentally  noticed  in  the  New  Testament,  con- 
firmed by  profane  writers,  80,  81. 
Heathen  ^Vriters,  testimonies  of,  to  the  credibility  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, I.  09 — 71.     And  of  the  New  Testament,  78—^3.     And  to 

.   the  beneficial  effecis  of  Ihe  Gospel,  in  the  character  and  conduct 

of  the  first  Ciiristians,  170. 
Hebraisms  of  the  New  Testament.  I.  196.     Examples  of  them,  and 
otjservations  on  them,  196,  197.    Rules  for  the  better  understand- 
ing of  Hebraisms,  197,  198. 

Hebrew  Language,  origin  and  antiquity  of,  1. 189.  Historical  sketch 
of,  190.  Antiquity  of  its  character,  j'AiVf.  Hebrew  vowel  points, 
191,  192.  And  accents,  192.  Rabbinical  Hebrew,  198.  The 
Hebrew  language  a  proof  of  the  genuinene.-^s  and  authenticity 
of  the  Old  Testament,  31.  Fnrticularly  of  the  Pentateuch,  3*i. 
Notice  of  the  principal  Hebrew  manuscripts,  216 — 221.  And  of 
the  printed  editions  of  the  Hebrew  Bible,  203. 

Hibreu)  Text  of  the  Old  Testament,  history  of,  from  the  writing  of 
the  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  until  the  time  of  Jesus  Chri.":!, 
I.  200.  From  the  time  of  Jesus  Christ  to  the  age  of  the  Masorites, 
200,  201.  From  the  age  of  the  Masorites  to  the  invention  of  the 
urt  of  printing,  201 — 203.  From  the  invention  of  the  art  of  print- 
ing to  our  own  time,  203. 

Hebrews  (Epistle  to),  II.  349.  To  whom  written,  349,  350.  In  wh;if 
language,  351,  352.  Its  genuineness  and  authenticity,  and  by 
whom  written,  352 — 3.56.  Di/te  of  this  Epi.stle,  .350.  It.s  occasion 
and  scope,  356,  357.  Synopsis  of  its  contents,  357.  Observations 
on  it,  ibid. 

Hcgesippus,  testimony  of,  to  the  genuineness  of  Uie  New  Testa- 
ment, I.  43. 

Helvetius,  immoral  tenets  of,  I.  25. 

Heman,  psalm  ascribed  to,  H.  2-10. 

Herbert  (Lord),  absurd  and  contradictory  tenets  of,  in  religion  and" 
morals,  I.  22.  25. 

Heretical  Writers  (ancient),  testimonies  of,  to  the  genuineness  and 
authenticity  of  the  New  Testament,  I.  45,  46.  Various  readings 
sometimes  to  be  found  in  their  works,  289. 

Ihrmas,  tesiiiiiony  of,  to  the  genuineness  and  authenticity  of  the 
New  Testament,  I.  45. 

Iffsi/chius's  Recension  of  the  Septuatrint,  notice  of,  I.  268. 

Hcxapla  of  Origeii,  s])ccimeii  of,  Willi  illustrative  remarks,  I.  267, 
208. 

llillel  (Rabbi),  Codex  of.  I.  203. 

Hindoos,  degraded  slate  of  religion  and  morals  among,  I.  21.  Their 
extravagant  pretensions  to  antiquity  refuted,  74. 

Historians  (profane),  confirm  the  truth  of  the  Old  Testament  nar- 
ratives, I.  09 — 78.  And  also  of  those  of  the  New  Tcsinmcnt,  78 
— 83.  This  coincidence  a  proof  of  their  genuineness  anil  authen- 
ticity, 49 — 52.  Seeming  inconsistencies  between  the  sacred  and 
profane  historians  accounted  for,  414 — 'H8.  Silence  of  ancient 
historians  concerning  many  fads  accounted  for,  85 — 87. 

Historical  Hooks  of  the  Old  Tesinnieni,  general  observations  on,  IF. 
213.  Their  authors.  i/«d.  Im|K)rlance,  214.  For  analyses  of  the 
Historical  IVkjIir,  see  their  several  titles  in  this  Index. 

Historirnl  (.'ircumslancrt,  imiwriance  of,  to  the  study  of  the  Scrip- 
tures conernlly,  I.  348—351.  Of  Scripture  allegories  in  particu- 
lar, 305.     Ami  bIho  of  parables,  368. 

Historical  Passages  of  Scripture,  alleged  contradictions  in,  consider- 
ed, and  shown  to  have  no  foundation,  I.  400 — 404. 

Hiflnrirnl  Sense  of  Scripture,  I.  323. 

Historical  'Jtslimorii/,  credibility  of,  illustrated,  I.  9.*),  96.  riumea 
objections  to  it,  considered  and  refuted,  %,  97.    Historical  testi- 


I 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


475* 


inony  not  diminished  by  the  lapse  of  ages,  I.  97,  98.  Historical 
testimony  of  Jews  and  Gentiles  to  the  authenticity  of  the  Penta- 
teuch, 32. 

Historical  Types,  I.  38G. 

History  (Jewish),  a  source  of  Scripture  metaphors,  I.  363.  The  cre- 
dibility of  the  Old  Testament  histories  confirmed  by  testimonies 
from  natural  and  civil  history,  69 — 78.  And  also  the  New  Testa- 
ment, 78 — 87.  Importance  of  sacred  and  profane  history  to  the 
riwht  understanding  of  Scripture,  349. 

Hobbes  (Mr.),  absurd  and  contradictory  notions  concerning  religion 
and  morals,  I.  23.  25.  His  base  conduct,  26.  His  involuntary 
testimony  in  lavour  of  the  Now  Testament,  68. 

Holden  (Rev.  George),  important  observations  of,  on  the  impreca- 
tions supposed  to  be  contained  in  tlie  Scriptures,  1.  413. 

Holy  Spirit,  put  for  his  effects,  operations,  and  gifts,  1.  3.59.  The 
descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit  on  the  apostles,  considered,  447. 

Homilies,  nature  of,  I.  353. 

Hosea  (the  prophet),  account  of,  11.  260.  Occasion  and  scope  of  his 
prophecy,  26io,  261.  Analysis  of  its  contents,  261.  Observations 
on  his  style,  261,  262. 

Hug  (Prof),  system  of  recensions  of,  I.  208,  209. 

Hugo  de  Sancto  Caro  (Cardinal),  invented  the  division  of  chapters 
in  the  Bible,  I.  213. 

Hume  (Mr.),  absurd  and  contradictory  notions  of,  concerning  religion 
and  morals,  1. 24, 25.  His  objection  against  the  Pentateuch  refuted, 
69.  Refutation  of  his  objections  to  the  credibility  of  miracles, 
%,  97. 

Hyperbole,  nature  of,  1. 272. 


Idol.vtry  of  the  ancient  heathen  nations,  I.  16, 17.  And  of  the 
modern  heathen  nations,  21,  22.  Idolatry  abolished  by  Chris- 
tianity, 171. 

tdyl  (Hebrew),  nature  of,  I.  381. 

fgnalius,  testimony  of;  to  the  genuineness  of  the  New  Testament, 
I.  45.  _ 

Immorality  unjustly  charged  upon  the  Bible,  I.  166.  Immoral  prin- 
ciples and  practices  of  deists  and  atheisis  proved,  24 — 26. 

Immortality  of  the  Soul  and  a  future  state,  imperfectly  known 
to  the  ancient  philosophers,  I.  18.  Revealed  in  the  Scriptures, 
143.  145,  146.  151. 

Impartiality  of  Moses  as  an  historian,  I.  61,  62.  Of  the  other 
writers  of  the  Old  Testament,  62  And  of  the  writers  of  the 
New  Testament,  64 — 66. 

Imprecations  contained  in  the  Scriptures  explained,  I.  413. 

Improvements  (spiritual),  observations  on,  I.  384. 

Indian  Jeu,s,  manuscripts  of,  I.  219 — 22^ 

Inferential  reading  of  the  Bible,  I.  423  Its  foundation,  ihid.  Rules 
for  it,  423,  424.  Sources  of  inferences,  424.  Rules  for  ascertain- 
ing them,  424,  425. 

Infidels,  absurd  and  contradictory  notions  of,  concerning  religion  and 
morals,  I.  22 — 25.  159.  note.  Their  objections  to  the  doctrines  and 
moral  precepts  of  the  Bible  refuted,  158 — 167.  Their  creed  full 
of  contradictions,  159.  note.  The  efforts  of  infidels  to  subvert 
Christianity,  a  fulfilment  of  prophecy,  140.  Their  total  want  of 
cnndoi  r,  158.  and  note.  Effects  of  their  writings  in  France,  25, 
26.  And  on  individuals,  26.  Particularly  at  the  hour  of'death, 
176.  Inability  to  answer  all  the  objections  of  infidels  no  just 
cause  for  rejecting  the  Scriptures,  180,  181.  Infidels  proved  to 
be  more  credulous  than  Christians,  182,  183. 

Inscriptions  of  the  Psalms,  observations  on,  II.  242,  243.  And  of 
the  books  of  the  New  Testament,  I.  215. 

Inspiration  defined,  I.  92.  443.  Reasonable  and  necessary,  92. 
Criteria  of  inspiration,  93.  Inspiration  of  the  Old  Testament 
443.  And  of  the  New  Testament,  443,  444.  Conclusions  thence 
derived,  444 — 446.  Nature  of  prophetic  Inspiration,  II.  257. 
(See  Miracles,  Prophecy,  Doctrines,  Morality,  &c.) 

Interpretation  of  Scripture,  principles  of,  illustrated,  I.  355. 

Intolerance  not  taught  in  the  Bible,  I.  165,  167.  Though  practised 
by  Jews  and  Pagans,  167. 

IrencBus,  testimony  of,  to  the  genuineness  of  the  New  Testament, 
I.  43. 

Irony,  nature  of,  I.  372.    Examples  of  it,  ibid. 

Is'iidh  (the  prophet),  account  of,  II.  262.  Genuineness  of  his  pre- 
dictions, 262--265.  Their  scope,  266.  Synopsis  of  their  contents, 
266 — 269.    Observations  on  the  style  of  Isaiah,  269. 

Ishmael,  predictions  concerning,  and  their  fulfilment,  I.  122. 

Israelites,  their  borrowing  from  the  Egyptians  explained,  I.  409. 
Table  of  their  stations  in  the  wilderness,  II.  210. 

Italian  Jews,  manuscripts  of,  I.  218. 

Italic  version  (ancient),  notice  of,  I.  275,  276. 


Jacob's  family  in  Egypt;  numerical  difficulties  as  to  the  number 
of  its  members,  solved,  I.  404.,  and  note  2.  The  circumstances 
of  his  alleged  fraud  upon  Isaac  considered,  408.,  note. 

Jairus's  daughter  restored  to  life,  I.  105. 

James  (Saint),  account  of,  II.  359.  Genuineness  and  authenticity 
of  his  Epistle,  ibid.  To  whom  addressed,  ibid.  Its  scope,  359, 
360.    Synopsis  of  its  contents,  360.    Observations  on  its  style,  ibid. 

Jasher  (book  of),  I.  57.  II.  216. 

Jedutkvn,  Psalms  ascribed  to  II.  240. 


Jephthah  proved  not  to  have  immolated  his  daughter,  I.  411. 

Jeremiah  (the  prophet),  account  of,  II.  272.  Occasion  of  his  pro- 
phecies, 273.  DilTerent  collections  of  them,  272.  Their  chrono- 
logical order,  273.  Synopsis  of  their  contents,  273—275.  His 
predictions  concerning  the  Messiah,  275.  Observations  on  his 
style,  276.    See  Lamentations. 

Jericho  (Codex  of),  I.  203. 

Jerome,  notice  of,  and  his  testimony  to  the  genuineness  of  the  New 
Testament,  I.  41.    Account  of  the  biblical  labours  of,  275,  276. 

Jerusalem,  prophecies  concerning  the  destruction  of,  and  their  ful- 
filment, I.  129,  130.  458 — 462.  Account  of  the  Jerusalem  Tar 
gum,  263. 

Jesus.    See  Christ,  Messiah. 

Jevjish  Nation,  predictions  concerning,  I.  123,  124.  The  rejection 
of  Christianity  by  them  accounted  for,  134.  136.  Did  not  corrupt 
the  Old  Testament,  52,  53  The  sects,  morals,  and  customs  of 
the  Jews,  as  described  in  the  New  Testament,  confirmed  by  pro- 
fane writers,  80.  Account  of  the  manuscripts  of  the  Indian  Jews 
219 — 221.  The  miseries  of  the  Jews  during  and  subsequently 
to  the  siege  of  Jerusalem,  460. 

Jewish  Writers,  benefit  of,  in  studying  the  Bible,  I.  344 — 346. 

Job  (book  of),  II.  227.    Its  title,  ibid.    Job,  a  real  character,  227 

228.  In  what  age  he  lived,  228,  229.     Scene  of  the  poem  of  Job, 

229,  230.  Its  author  and  canonical  authority,  230,  231.  Structure 
of  the  poem,  231,  232.  Its  argument  and  scope,  232 — 234.  Spu- 
rious addition  to  it,  234, 235.  Rules  for  studying  this  book  to  ad- 
vantage, 235.  Synopsis  of  its  contents,  235,  236.  Idea  of  the 
patriarchal  theologj',  as  contained  in  this  book,  236,  237. 

Joel  (the  prophet),  account  of,  II.  270.  Occasion  and  scope  rff  his 
prophecy,  ibid.  Sj'nopsis  of  its  contents,  ibid.  Observations  on 
its  style,  ibid. 

John  (Saint),  account  of,  II.  313,  314.  Title  of  his  Gospel,  313.  Its 
date,  ibid.  Its  genuineness,  ibid.  Especially  of  John  vii.  53.  and 
viii.  1 — 11.,  315.  Occasion  and  design,  315,  316.  Analysis  of  its 
contents,  316,  317.  His  Gospel  a  supplement  to  the  other  three, 
318.  Observations  on  its  style,  ihid.  Coincidences  between  it 
and  his  first  epistle,  I.  51,  52-,  notes.  Genuineness  and  canonical 
Authority  of  his  first  General  Epistle,  II.  364.  Its  date,  364,  365. 
To  whom  written,  365.  Its  structure,  occasion,  and  scope,  365, 
366.  Synopsis  of  its  contents,  366-  Style,  ibid.  The  question 
concerning  the  authenticity  of  the  disputed  clause  in  1  John  v. 
7,  8.  considered,  366 — 376.  Genuineness,  authenticity,  and  date, 
of  the  second  and  third  Epistles  of  St.  John,  376.  The  second 
Epistle,  to  whom  addressed,  ibid.  Its  scope,  ibid.  The  third 
Epistle,  to  whom  addressed,  ibid.  Its  scope,  ibid.  Observations 
on  this  Epistle,  ibid.     See  Revelation. 

Jonah,  circumstance  of  his  being  in  a  whale's  belly  explained,  I. 
422      Scope  and  analysis  of  his  prophetical  book,  II.  259. 

Jonathan  Ben  Vzziel,  "Targum  of,  I.  263.  Targum  of  the  pseudo- 
Jonathan,  Hid. 

Joseph  (Rabbi),  Targum  of,  on  the  Hagiographa,  I.  263. 

Josephus,  account  of,  I.  346.  His  testimony  to  the  genuineness  and 
authenticity  of  the  Old  Testament,  30.  And  to  the  accounts  of 
princes  and  governors,  79.  Especially  to  the  character  of  Jesus 
Christ,  81.  Vindication  of  the  genuineness  of  that  testimony, 
463,  464.  Importance  of  his  writings  as  a  source  for  ascertaining 
various  readings,  288.  And  in  the  study  of  the  Scriptures,  34(a 
His  silence  respecting  the  slaughter  of  the  infants  by  Herod  ac< 
counted  for,  419. 

Joshua,  observations  on  the  pile  of  stones  raised  by,  at  Gilgal,  I 
100,  101. 

Joshua  (book  of),  author,  genuineness,  and  authenticity  of,  II.  21^ 
215.  Its  argument,  215.  Scope,  215,  216.  Synopsis  of  its  con- 
tents, 216.    Observations  on  it,  ibid. 

Josiah,  prophecy  concerning,  I.  123,  134. 

Judas  Iscarioi,  character  of,  an  argument  for  the  truth  of  the  Gos- 
pel, I.  155.  7wte  1. 

Jude  (the  apostle),  account  of,  II.  377.  Genuineness  of  his  Epistle, 
ihid.  its  date,  378.  To  whom  addressed,  ibid.  Its  occasion  and 
scope,  ibid.     Observations  on  its  style,  ibid. 

Judges  (book  of),  II.  216.  Its  date  and  author,  217.  Its  scope  and 
chronology,  ibid.  Synopsis  of  its  contents,  ibid.  Observations  oa 
this  book,  ibid. 

Judgment  (future),  doctrine  of,  not  improbable,  I.  160,  161. 

Judith,  apocryphal  book  of,  II.  290. 

Julian,  the  apostate  emperor,  testimony  of,  to  the  genuineness  and 
authenticity  of  the  New  Testament,  I.  47.  And  to  the  charactel 
and  conduct  of  Jesus  Christ,  83.     And  of  the  first  Christians,  85 

Justification,  New  "restament  doctrine  of,  I.  150,  151. 

Justin  Martyr,  notice  of,  I.  44.  His  testimony  to  the  genuineness 
of  the  New  Testament,  ibid. 

Juvenal,  testimony  of,  to  the  persecution  of  the  Christians,  I.  83. 


Kant's  theory  of  interpretation,  unfounded,  I.  323,  324. 

Karkaphensian  recension,  I.  272. 

Kennicott  (Dr.),  account  of  the  principal  manuscripts  collated  by, 
I.  218,  219. 

Kf?£«x.a.=<,  account  of,  in  the  New  Testament,  I.  214. 

Keri  and  Ketib,  account  of,  I.  201. 

Kings  (the  two  books  of),  II.  220.  Their  title,  ibid.  Author,  220, 221. 
Argument  and  synopsis  of  the  first  book  of  Kings,  221.  And  of 
the  second  book  of  Kings,  222.   Observations  on  these  books,  ibid. 

Karah  (sons  of),  psalms  inscribed  for,  II.  239. 


476 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


Lactantius.  testimony  of,  to  the  genuineness  of  the  Now  Testa- 
ment, I.  4'i. ;  and  to  tlie  moral  change  produced  by  the  cordial 
belief  of  the  Gospel,  170. 

Lame  man  miraculously  healed  by  Peter  and  John,  I.  105. 

Lamenlations  of  Jeremiah,  date  of,  II.  276.  Synopsis  of  the  con- 
tents of  this  book,  ibid.  Observations  on  the  style  and  structure 
of  this  book,  ifiid. 

Lampriditis,  testimony  of,  to  the  character  of  Christ,  I.  82. 

Language  of  the  Old  Testament,  a  proof  of  its  authenticity,  I.  31. 
01  the  Pentateuch,  a  proof  of  its  authenticity,  32.  Of  the  New 
Testament,  also  a  proof  of  its  autheniicity,  48,  49.  See  the  ar- 
ticles Cogiicle  Languages,  Greek,  Hebrew. 

Laodicea,  church  of,  no  separate  epistle  addressed  to  by  St,  Paul, 
I.  58.     Pretended  epistle  of  Paul  to  them,  441. 

Latin  Versions  (ancient)  of  the  Scriptures,  account  of,  I.  275 — 277. 

Lalinisms  of  the  New  Testament,  I.  198. 

Law. — "The  Law,"  an  ancient  division  of  the  Old  Testament,  I. 
212. 

Law  (Mosaic),  a  proof  of  the  authenticity  of  the  Pentateuch,  I.  32, 
33.  Table  or  harmony  of  the  entire  Mosaic  law,  arranged  under 
heads,  II.  212,  213. 

Lazarus,  miracle  of  the  resurrection  of,  examined,  I.  105,  lOG. 

Lesal  li/pe.i,  I.  365. 

Letters',  antiquity  of  Hebrew,  I.  190.  Form  of  Greek  letters  in 
manuscripts,  221. 

Leviticus  (book  of),  title,  atuhor,  and  date,  II.  207.  Scope,  ibid. 
Synopsis  of  its  contents,  207,  208. 

Lice,  on  the  plague  of,  II.  206. 

LiteAil  sense,  nature  of,  I.  322.  In  what  cases  the  literal  meaning 
of  words  and  phrases  is  to  be  retained,  or  given  up,  356,  357. 
Vindication  of  the  literal  sense  of  the  first  three  cbapters  of 
Genesis,  II.  205. 

Literature,  influence  of  the  Gospel  on,  I.  172,  173. 

J.,ocusls,  on  the  plague  of,  in  Egypt,  II.  207. 

Longevity  of  the  early  inhabitants  of  the  world,  the  Scripture  ac- 
count of,  confirmed  by  profane  history,  I.  71. 

Lord's  Supper,  colebration  of  the  sacrament  of,  a  perpetual  memo- 
rial of  tlie  truth  of  the  New  Testament,  I.  07. 

Litcian's  Ucconsion  of  the  Septuagint  version,  I.  2C8. 

Lucian,  iho  philosopher,  testimony  of,  to  the  character  of  the  first 
Christians,  I.  85. 

Luke  (St.),  account  of,  II.  307.  Title  of  his  Gospel,  ibid.  Geniune- 
ness  and  authenticity  of  his  Gospel,  ibid.  Vindication  of  its 
genuineness  Iroiu  tlie  objections  of  Michaelis,  308,  309.  Vindi- 
cati<:>n  of  the  genuineness  ol'  chapters  i.  and  ii.,  309,  310.  Ol 
chapter  viii.  verses  27.  to  39.,  310.;  and  of  chapter  .xxii.  verses 
43.  and  44.,  ibid.  His  narrative  confirmed  by  profane  historians, 
I.  49,  50.  80. ;  and  by  ancient  coins  and  inscriptions,  90,  91.  Date 
of  his  Gospel,  II.  310.  For  whom  written,  310,  311.  Its  occasion 
and  scope,  311.  Synopsis  of  its  content.^,  312,  313.  Observations 
on  the  style  of  his  Gospel,  313.     See  Ads  <f  the  Apostles. 

J.ycaonians,  Paul's  address  to,  illustrated,  II.  326. 

Lying,  systematically  taught  by  some  heathens,  I.  20.  and 


Lyric  poetry  ol  the  Hebrews,  I.  381 


note. 


Maccabees,  account  of  the  first  apocryphal  book  of,  II.  292.  Of 
the  second  Iwok,  ibid.  Of  the  third  and  Iburih  books,  293.  Of 
the  fifth  Ijook,  ibid. 

Mai:is'rales  and  subjects,  reciprocal  duties  of,  I.  153. 

Mahalnlh  and  Mahalath-Leannolh,  import  of,  II.  243. 

Malafiar  coast,  account  of  a  valuable  Hebrew  MS.  brought  from,  I. 
219  220. 

Malarhi  (the  prophet),  account  of.  II.  288,  289.  Occasion  and  scope 
of  his  prophecy,  289.    Analysis  of  its  contents,  ibid.    Its  style,  ibid. 

Man,  Scripture  account  of  the  creation  and  fall  of,  confirmed  by 
profane  historians.  I.  69,  70.  Mutual  duties  between  man  and 
man,  enforced  in  the  Gospel,  1.V2,  153. 

Mnnasses.  apocryphal  prayer  of,  II.  292. 

Mariuscripis  of  the  Bible,  agreement  of  all  that  are  extant,  a  proof 
of  its  uncorrupted  preservation.  I.  54,  55.  Use  of  manuscripts 
for  determining  various  readings,  285. 

Manuscripts  (Hebrew)  of  the  Old  'J'f.stament,  different  classes  of. 
1.216.  The  rolled  manuscripts  of  the  synagopues,  jW.  Kiilcs 
attended  to  in  copyinc  them,  217.  S<|uarc  manuscripts  in  private 
use,  ibid.  The  nge  of  Hebrew  manuscripts,  ibid.  Order  of  lKj<»ks 
in  them.  217,  218.  Notices  of  tlie  most  ancient  manuscripts,  218, 
210.  Modern  families  of  Hebrew  mann.scriiils,  218.  Notices  of 
the  manuscript.^  of  the  Indian  Jews,  219 — 221.  Manuscripts  of 
the  Samaritan  Pentateuch,  221. 

Manurrripts  {Greek)  of  the  Septuagint  Version,  account  of,  I.  222 
—229. 

Manuscripts  tOreek)  of  the  New  Testament,  on  what  materials 
written,  I.  221.  Form  of  letters,  ibid.  Abbreviations,  ibid.  Co- 
diret  I'alimpsesti  or  liesrripti,  222.  Account  of  the  different 
families,  recensions,  or  editions  of  mannscripts,  205—212.  On 
the  Frrdus  cum  Grercis,  or  coincidence  between  many  (Jreek 
mnntiHcripts  amtl  the  Vulgate  version,  212.  IlpMcriptions  of 
mnnnsrripis  containing  both  the  New  and  the  Old  Testaments, 
222 — 226.  OC  Manuscripts  of  the  New  'I'estamcnt,  entire  or  in 
part,  which  have  been  used  in  critical  editions  of  the  Now  Tes- 
tament, 229—261. 
Marcion,  testimony  of,  to  tho  genuineness  and  autheniicity  of  the 
New  Testament,  I.  4G. 


Mark  (Saint),  account  of,  II.  304.  Genuineness  and  authenticity  of 
his  Gospel,  304,  305.  Its  title,  304.  Its  date,  305.  Occasion  and 
scope,  ibid.  In  what  language  written,  ibid.  Synopsis  of  its 
contents,  305,  306.  Examination  of  the  question,  whether  Saint 
Mark  transcribed  or  abridged  the  Gospel  of  Saint  Matthew,  306. 
Style  of  his  Gospel,  307. 

Martial,  testimony  of,  to  the  persecutions  of  the  Christians,  I.  83. 

Martyrdom,  how  far  a  test  of  truth,  I.  66. 

Masc/iil,  psalms,  why  so  called,  II.  243. 

Masora,  account  of,  I.  201,  202.     Estimate  of  its  real  value,  208. 

Massacre  of  the  infiints  at  Belhlftiem,  1.  419. 

MatthcEi's  system  of  recensions  considered,  I.  206. 

MattJiew  (Saint),  account  of,  II.  296.  Title  of  his  Gospel,  295.  Its 
date,  296,  297.  In  what  language  written,  297,  298.  Genuine- 
ness and  authenticity  of  his  Gospel,  299.  Particularly  of  the  first 
two  chapters,  299 — 302.  His  Gospel,  for  whom  written,  302, 303. 
Synopsis  of  its  contents,  303.  Observations  on  its  style,  ibid.  His 
narrative  of  tho  slaughter  of  the  infants  at  Bethlehem  vindicated, 
I.  419.  Apparent  contradiction  between  his  account  of  our  Sa- 
viour's genealogy  and  that  of  Saint  Luke  reconciled,  400,  401 
417,  418. 

Meaning  of  words,  general  rules  for  the  investigation  of,  I.  324 — 326 

Medals  (ancient),  a  proof  of  the  credibility  of  the  Scriptures,  I.  68 
—92. 

Mediator,  Scripture  doctrine  of  the  necessity  of,  confirmed  by  the 
traditions  and  opinions  of  the  heathens,  I.  70,  71. 

Megiltoth,  a  division  of  the  Jewish  Scriptures,  notice  of,  I.  S13 
710^6  2.   And  of  the  Targum  or  Chaldee  paraphra.se  on  it,  263. 

Mekama,  a  species  of  Oriental  poetry,  nature  of,  II.  232.  note  2.  TI'.c 
book  of  Job  a  poem  of  this  description,  ibid. 

Melilo  (Bishop  of  Sardis),  testimony  of,  to  the  genuineness  of  the 
New  Testament,  I.  43. 

Messiah,  or  the  Christ,  observations  on  the  accomplishment  of 
prophecy  concerning,  I.  126,  127.  390—393. 
Mkssiaii,  or  the  Christ. 

I.  Prophecies  in  the  Old  Testa.me.vt,  concerning  the  Messiah,  ana 
their  fulfilment: — That  a  Messiah  should  come,  I.  127.  451.  The 
lime  and  place  when  and  where  he  was  to  come,  127.451.  That 
he  was  to  be  God  and  man  together,  451.  From  whom  he  was 
to  be  descended,  127.  451.  That  he  was  to  be  preceded  by  a 
prophet,  in  tho  spirit  and  jxiwer  of  Elias,  451.  That  the  Messiah 
was  to  be  a  prophet,  and  confirm  his  doctrine  by  great  miracles, 
451,  452.  Predictions  relative  to  his  sufferings,  death,  resurrec- 
tion, and  ascension,  128.  452,  453.  Predictions  relative  to  the  par- 
ticular offices  of  the  Messiah,  as  a  prophet,  priest,  and  king,  453 
—456. 

II.  Predictions  of  Jesus  tlie  Messiah  relative  to  his  own  sufferings,  ^c. 


of  Jesus  t 
Hlment : — '. 


arid  their  fulfilment : — Predictions  and  their  fulfilment  for  the  con- 
firmation of  his  disciples'  faith,  I.  456,457.  Relative  to  the  time, 
place,  and  manner  of  his  sufferings,  and  the  persons  by  whom 
they  were  to  be  inflicted,  129.  457,  458.  His  resurrection  and 
ascension,  457.  The  descent  of  the  Holy  Spirit  on  hi.s  apostles, 
129.  Prophecies  concerning  the  various  minute  tircmnsiances 
which  were  to  precede,  accompany,  and  follow  the  destructiort 
of  Jerusalem,  129,  130.  458 — 462.  Prophecies  concerning  the 
'  spread  of  the  Gospel,  with  a  refutation  of  their  alleged  non-fulfil- 
ment, 130—141. 

Metaphors,  nature  of,  I.  361.  Sources  of  Scripture  metaphors,  361, 
362.  The  works  of  nature,  362.  The  occupations,  customs,  and 
arts  of  life,  363.  Religion  and  things  connected  with  it,  ibid 
Sacred  history,  ibid.  Rules  for  the  interpretation  of  them,  353 — 
358. 

Metonymy,  nature  of,  1.  359.  Metonymy  of  the  cause,  359,  360.  Of 
the  "effect,  360.     Of  the  subject,  ibid.     Of  the  adjunct,  360,  361. 

Micah  (the  prophet),  account  of,  II.  270.  Occasion  and  scope  of  his 
prophecy,  ibtd.  Synopsis  of  its  contents,  270,  271.  His  predic- 
tion concerning  the  Messiah,  271.    Observations  on  his  style,  ibid. 

Michaelis  {J.  1").;, notice  of  his  system  of  recensions  of  the  J\ew  Tes- 
tamenr,  1.  206. 

Mirhtam,  or  (iolden  Psalms,  II.  242. 

Midianites,  severity  of  Moses  to,  vindicated,  I.  410. 

Ministry  of  Christ,  duration  of,  I.  321. 

.Miracles  recorded  in  the  Scriptures  are  proofs  of  their  divine  inspi- 
ration, 1.  93.  Definition  of  a  miracle,  93,  94.  Nature  of  the  evi- 
dence from  miracles,  94.  Their  design,  91,  95.  The  credibility 
of  miracles  proved,  95 — 98.  Refutation  of  the  sophistry  of  Mr. 
Hume,  96,  97.  Six  criteria  for  a.sccriaining  miracles,  98,  W.  In- 
aiiplicuble  to  pretended  popish  miracles,  99.  note.  Why  Jesus 
Christ  on  some  occasions  enjoined  secrecy  on  the  persons  healed 
by  him,  98,  99.  And  used  external  applications,  99,  100.  Appli- 
cation of  our  six  criteria  to  several  miracles  related  in  the  Old 
Testament,  100.  And  to  tho  miracles  recorded  to  have  been 
wrought  by  Jesus  and  his  apostles,  101.  Their  number,  ibid. 
Variety,  iA(f/.  Design,  101,  102.  tJreatness,  102.  Persons />i/ or 
before  whom  they  were  wrought,  102,  103.  In  what  manner  per- 
f()rmed,  103.  Their  effects,  ibid.  Were  never  denied,  ibid.  Ex- 
amination of  some  of  them,  U>3 — 106.  Particularly  of  the  miracle 
of  Christ's  resurrection,  106 — l\h.  General  summary  of  the  argu- 
ment from  mirncles.  115,  1 16.  (Comparison  of  the  miracles  related 
in  the  Scriptures  with  pretended  uagan  ami  popish  miracles,  116 
—119.  Cessation  of  miracles,  117.  118.  note.  The  moral  and 
religious  instruction  concealed  under  the  miracles  of  Jesus  Christ 
illustrated,  384,  385. 

Mismor  and  Mismor-:S/iur,  titles  of  the  Psalma,  probable  import  ot 
II.  243. 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


477 


Misna,  account  of,  I.  344,  345. 

Mistakes  of  transcribers,  a  cause  of  various  readings,  I.  283,  284. 

Mohammed  aclinowledged  the  auiiiority  of  the  Gospels,  I.  83.  De- 
plorable stale  of  religion  and  morals  among  his  Ibllowers,  22. 
The  spread  of  Mohammcdism  no  objection  to  the  truth  of  Chris- 
tianity, but  rather  a  confirmation  of  it,  137.  Its  progress  accounted 
lor,  137,  138. 

Monarchies  (the  four  great),  Daniel's  prediction  concerning,  and  its 
fulfilment,  I.  126. 

Moral  Parts  of  Scripture,  rules  for  interpreting,  I.  395 — 398. 

Moral  Qualijicalioiis  for  studying  the  Scriptures,  I.  186, 187. 

Moral  Heuse  of  Scripture,  Kant's  theory  of,  unfounded,  I.  323,  324. 

Morality,  apparent  contradictions  to,  in  the  Scriptures,  considered, 
and  shown  to  have  no  foundation,  I.  408 — 414.  Morality  of  the 
patriarchal  ages,  143.  Of  the  Mosaic  dispensation,  146,  147.  Of 
the  Gospel,  152 — 156.  Superior  motives  of  the  morality  of  the 
Gospel,  156 — 158.  It  is  not  too  strict,  162,  163.  Nor  are  any  of 
the  moral  precepts  of  Christianity  unreasonable  and  impracti- 
cable,lC3,  164. 

Morgan  (Dr.),  contradictory  deistical  observations  of,  I.  23. 

Moses  not  a  mythological  but  a  real  person,  I.  34,  35.  77.  Charac- 
ter of,  as  an  historian,  59.  Was  not  an  enthusiast,  60.  Was  not 
himself  imposed  upon,  ihid.  Did  not  impose  upon  others,  61.  His 
impartiality,  ibid.  Credibility  of  his  writings  confirmed  by  tes- 
timonies from  natural  and  civil  history,  69 — 77.  Observations  on 
the  miracles  wrought  by  him,  100,  101.  Christ,  in  what  sense  a 
greater  prophet  than  Moses,  453,  454.  His  predictions  respecting 
the  Jewi.sh  nation,  and  their  fulfilment,  123.  Summary  view  of 
llie  doctrines  and  precepts  of  the  Mosaic  dispensation,  143 — 147. 
The  Mosaic  disi)ensation  introductory  to  that  of  the  Gospel,  148. 
Apocryphal  books  ascribed  to  Moses,  II.  203.  Psalms  ascribed  lo 
him,  239.  Accounts  of  his  genuine  writings;  see  the  articles 
Deuteronomy,  Exodus,  Genesis,  Leviticus,  Numbers,  Pentateuch, 
in  this  index. 

Murrain  among  cattle,  on  the  plague  of,  II.  206. 

Mulhlabben,  import  of,  II.  243. 

Mysteries  (Grecian),  inefficacy  of,  in  a  religious  and  moral  point  of 

View,  I.  17. 
Mysteries  in  religion,  no  just  ground  for  rejecting  the  Scriptures, 

I.  158,  159. 
Mystical  Sense  of  Scripture  defined,  I.  323.    Necessity  of  it  argued 
a,  priori,  382.    Instances  of  it  found  in  the  Old  and  Nevr  Testa- 
ments, 382,  383.    The  Song  of  Solomon,  a  sublime  mystical  alle- 
gory, II.  251—253. 


Nahum  (the  prophet),  account  of,  II.  271  Scope  and  synopsis  of  his 
prophecy,  ibid. 

Nain,  miracle  WTOught  at,  I.  105. 

Names,  synonymous  with  persons,  I.  197.  Of  persons  and  places 
liable  to  change,  402.  Several  names  sometimes  given  to  the 
same  persons  and  places,  ibid.  False  readings  sometimes  a  source 
of  differences  in  names,  ibid.  Names  of  things  put  for  the  things 
themselves,  361. 

Natural  History,  importance  of,  in  studying  the  Sacred  Writings, 
I.  352.    Confirms  the  Mosaic  narrative  of  the  deluge,  71,  72. 

Nature,  works  of,  a  source  of  Scripture  metaphors,  I.  362.  The 
course  of  nature  explained,  93,  94. 

Nebuchadnezzar,  prophecies  concerning,  and  their  fulfilment,  1. 124. 

Neginolh,  import  of,  II.  243. 

Neliemiah  (book  of),  II.  225.  Its  title  and  author,  ibid.  Argument 
and  synopsis  of  its  contents,  ibid.  Observations  on  the  character 
of  Nehemiah,  ibid. 

Nehiloth,  import  of,  II.  243. 

Neokoros,  office  of,  I.  90,  91. 

Neologian  Interpretations  exposed,  I.  326.  Particularly  in  the  book 
of  Genesis,  II.  205. 

New  Testament.     See  Testament  (New). 

Nineveh,  prophecies  concerning,  and  their  fulfilment,  I.  125,  126. 

Nolan's  (Dr.)  system  of  recensions,  abstract  of,  I.  206—208. 

Numbers,  apparent  contradictions  in,  explained,  I.  403,  404.  Singu- 
lar number  put  for  the  plural,  372.  And  a  definite  for  an  indefi- 
nite number,  ibid. 

Numbers  (book  of),  title,  author,  date,  and  argument,  II.  208.  Scope, 
ibid.  Types  of  the  Messiah,  208,  209.  note.  Predictions  of  the 
Messiah,  208.  Chronology,  ibid.  Synopsis  of  its  contents,  209. 
Observations  on  the  Book  of  the  Wars  of  the  Lord,  mentioned  in 
Num.  xxi.  21.,  I.  57.  II.  210. 


Obadiah  (the  prophet),  account  of,  II.  282.  Synopsis  of  his  pro- 
phecy, ibid. 

Obedience,  powerful  motives  to,  contained  in  the  Gospel,  1. 156 — 158. 

Objections,  various,  of  infidels  to  the  doctrine-  and  morality  of  the 
Scriptures  refuted,  I.  158 — 167.  Inability  to  answer  all  such 
objections  no  just  cause  for  rejecting  the  Scriptures,  180, 181. 

Observations  on  the  Scriptures,  importance  of  collections  of,  I.  353. 

Occasions  of  particular  books  of  Scripture,  importance  of  knowing, 
I.  349.  Particularly  for  the  interpretation  of  Scripture  allegories, 
364,  365. 

Occidental  Recension  of  the  New  Testament,  account  of,  I.  205. 

Old  and  New  Testaments,  alleged  contradictions  between,  explained, 
'  414—418.    See  Testament  (Old),  and  Testament  (New). 


Onkelos,  Targura  of,  I.  262. 

Oracles  (heathen),  vagueness  of,  contrasted  with  the  clearness  of 
the  Scripture  prophecies,  I.  120,  121. 

"Ordained  to  eternal  Life,"  the  phrase  explained,  I.  423,  424.  and 
notes. 

Order  of  books,  importance  of  knowing,  I.  348.  In  what  order  the 
Scriptures  should  be  read,  187.  In  what  order  the  books  of  the 
Old  Testament  are  arranged  in  Hebrew  Bibles,  217,  218. 

Oriental  Languages,  remarks  on,  I.  188,  189. 

Oriental  and  Occidental  Readings,  account  of,  I.  202,  203. 

OnentaZ  jRece?iSi"on  of  the  New  Testament,  I.  205. 

Origcn,  notice  of,  I.  42.  His  testimony  to  the  genuineness  of  the 
New  Testament,  i6jc?.  Account  of  his  biblical  labours,  267.  Spe- 
cimen of  his  Tetrapla  and  Hexapla,  ibid.  Observations  thereon, 
267,  268. 

Original  Sin,  Scripture  account  of,  confirmed  by  heathen  testimo- 
nies, I.  70. 

Osiander's  (Luke)  revision  of  the  Vulgate,  notice  of,  I.  277. 

Otaheite,  beneficial  effects  of  Christianity  at,  I.  175. 


Pagan  pretended  miracles,  observations  on,  I.  116 — 118. 

Pagan  writers,  value  of,  in  the  study  of  the  Scriptures,  I.  335,  336. 
Their  testimony  to  the  credibility  of  the  facts  related  in  the  New 
Testament,  78—87. 

Paleslino-Syriac  Version  of  the  New  Testament,  I.  272. 

Papias,  testimony  of,  to  the  genuineness  of  the  New  Testament. 
I.  44. 

Parable,  nature  of,  I.  366.  Antiquity  of  this  mode  of  instruction, 
ibid.  Rules  for  the  interpretation  of  parables,  366—368.  Para- 
bles, why  used  by  Jesus  Christ,  368,  369.  The  parables  of  Christ 
compared  with  the  most  celebrated  fables  of  antiquity,  369,  370. 

Parabolic  Sense,  I.  323. 

Parallel  Passages,  or  analogy  of  Scripture,  importance  of,  I.  330. 
Nature  of  them,  ifeid.  Different  kinds  of,  ?6i(i.  Verbal  parallel- 
isms, ?itrf.  Real  parallelisms,  330,  331,  Parallelisms  of  members, 
or  poetical  parallelisms,  331,  332.  Rules  for  investigating  paral- 
lel passages,  332,  333.  And  for  employing  parallel  passages  in 
the  determination  of  various  readings,  288. 

Paiallclism,  defined,  I.  374.  E.\amples  of  parallel  lines  gradational, 
375.  Parallel  lines  antithetic,  ibid.  Parallel  lines  constructive, 
375,  376.    Parallel  lines  introverted,  376.    The  poetical  parallel- 

•  ism  not  confined  to  the  Old  Testament,  377.  But  proved  to  exist 
ill  the  New  Testament,  377,  378.  Examples  of  parallel  couplets, 
378.  Triplets,  ibid.  Quatrains,  ibid.  Five-lined  stanzas,  ibid. 
Stanzas  of  six  lines,  379.  And  of  more  than  six  parallel  lines,  ibid. 
Parallel  lines  gradational  in  the  New  Testament,  ibid.  Intro, 
verted  parallelisms,  379,  380. 

Paralytic,  circumstances  of  the  healing  of,  I.  104. 

Paraphrases,  nature  of,  I.  353. 

Paraschioth,  or  ancient  divisions  of  the  Pentateuch,  notice  of,  L  213. 

Parents,  put  for  their  descendants,  I.  359. 

Parenthesis,  nature  and  use  of,  in  the  interpretation  of  Scripture, 

I.  338. 

Paris  (Abbe  de),  pretended  miracles  ascribed  to,  exposed,  I.  118, 
119. 

Paronomasia,  nature  of,  I.  372. 

Part  put  for  the  whole. — Examples  of,  I.  371. 

Passover,  observance  of,  a  proof  of  the  credibility  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, I.  66. 

Patriarchal  Theology,  idea  of,  as  contained  in  the  book  of  Job,  II. 
236,  237.    And  in  the  book  of  Genesis,  I.  142,  143. 

Patriotism,  the  duty  of,  taught  in  effect  in  the  New  Testament, 
though  not  by  name,  I.  165,  166. 

Paul  (St.),  account  of  the  life  and  labours  of,  II.  321—325.  Remarks 
on  his  conversion,  322,  323.  His  character,  325,  326.  Obser- 
vations on  the  style  of  his  writings,  326 — 329.  Was  intimately 
acquainted  with  the  Greek  classic  poets,  327.  note.  The  genuine- 
ness of  Paul's  writings  attested  by  Peter,  I.  45.  Propriety  of  his 
address  to  Felix  illustrated,  II.  327.  Number  and  order  of  his 
Epistles,  330.  Observations  on  their  phraseology,  330,  331.  Rules 
for  studying  them  most  advantageously,  I.  393 — 395.  Paul  wrote 
no  other  Epistles  to  the  Corinthians  than  those  now  extant,  57, 58. 

II.  335.    For  Critical  Analyses  of  Saint  Paul's  Epistles,  see  their 
several  titles  in  this  index. 

Pentateuch  (Hebrew),  import  of,  II.  203.  Its  divisions,  ibid.  Exter- 
nal Proofs  of  its  authenticity,  I.  32.  Its  language,  ibid  The 
nature  of  the  Mosaic  law,  .32, 33.  The  united  testimonies  of  Chris- 
tians, Gentiles,  and  Jews,  from  the  latest  to  the  remotest  times, 
33 — 35.  Internal  Evidences  arising  from  its  contents,  35,  36.  Its 
credibility  confirmed  by  natural  and  civil  history,  68^78.  Refu- 
tations of  objections  to  the  authenticity  of  the  Pentateuch,  36— 
38.  Its  argument,  II.  203.  How  divided  by  the  Jews,  L  213. 
History  of  the  Hebrew  text  of  the  Pentateuch,  200.  Form  of 
synagogue  rolls  of,  216.  The  Pentateuch,  the  best  executed  por- 
tion of  the  Septuagint  Greek  translation,  ibid.  For  accounts  of 
the  several  books  of  the  Pentateuch,  see  the  articles  Deuteronomy, 
Exodus,  Genesis,  Leviticus,  and  Numbers. 

Pentateuch  (Samaritan),  account  of,  I.  203.  Manuscripts  of  it,  221. 
Differences  between  it  and  the  Jewish  Pentateuch,  how  ac- 
counted for,  204.  Samaritan  version  of  it,  ibid.  Arabic  version, 
ibid. 

Pentecost,  feast  of,  a  proof  of  the  credibility  of  the  Old  Testament, 
I.  66. 


478 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


Persecution,  not  sanclionod  by  the  Scriptures,  I.  16G.  lf>7. 

Fersic  versions  (nncieiii),  of  the  Old  and  New  Testamenis,  I.  275. 

Persismx  ofihe  New  TcsitameiU.  iioiice  of,  I.  199. 

Persoiaficalion,  nnltirc  of,  I.  3(V2,  3(i3.  ■* 

Persons,  iransitions  of,  lo  he  carel'nlly  noticed,  I.  391,  395. 

Peacliii.0,  or  old  Syriac  version  of  the  Scriptures,  account  of,  I.  270, 
271. 

Pefukim.  or  verses  of  ilie  Pentateuch,  notice  of,  I.  213. 

PeItT  (St.),  account  of,  II.  3tiO,  361.  Genuineness  of  his  first  Epis- 
tle, 361.  To  whom  achlressed,  ihi>l.  Whence  wrillen,  361,  302. 
It.s-  scope,  362.  Analysis  of  its  contents.  Hid.  Genuineness  and 
auilieniicity  of  his  second  Rpislle,  362 — 364.  Its  date,  364.  Scope 
and  synopsis  of  its  contents,  ihid.  Observations  on  the  style  of 
St.  Peter's  two  P'pisliex,  362. 

Pharaoh,  hardening  of,  explained,  I.  409.  Pharaoh-Necho's  war 
against  Judeea  confirmed  by  one  of  llic  pyramids  of  Egypt,  I.  89. 

Philemon,  account  of,  II.  347,  343.  Dale  of  the  Episile  to  him,  348. 
lis  genuineness  and  autiienticitv,  il>iJ-  Occasion  ajid  scope  of  this 
Episile,  348,  3-19.    OI»servation's  on  it,  349. 

Philippinns,  notice  of,  II.  340.  Date  of  tlie  Epistle  to,  ibid.  Occa- 
sion, ibid.     Scope  and  synopsis  of  ils  contents,  ibid. 

Philo-Judiriis,  account  of,  I.  345.  \alue  of  his  writings  in  the  study 
of  ilie  Scriptures,  ibid.  His  testimony  lo  the  genuineness  of  the 
Old  Testament,  I.  30. 

Philosophers  (ancient),  ignorance  of,  concerning  the  true  nature  and 
worship  of  God,  I.  16.  Tiie  creation  of  the  world,  17.  And  ori- 
gin of  evil,  ibid.  The  means  of  reconciling  man  to  God,  17,  18. 
Divine  grace  and  assistance  towards  the  attainment  of  virtue,  18. 
Tlie  true  happines.s  of  man,  iliid.  The  immortality  of  the  soul, 
ibid.  A  fdtiire  state  of  rewards  and  punishments,  19.  Eflects  of 
their  ignorance  in  principle,  19,  20.  They  countenanced  flagi- 
tious practices-,  20.  Why  they  produced  so  little  eOcct  on  man- 
kind, ibid.  Im|H)rlance  of  a  knowledge  of  the  anrient  philoso- 
phical notions  and  sects  to  the  interpretation  of  Scripture,  352. 

Philosophers  (modern  deislical),  absurd  and  contradictory  tenets  (jf, 
concerning  religion,  I.  22 — 24.  And  morals,  25.  Baneful  effects  of 
their  principles  on  a  nation,  25,  26.  And  on  individuals,  26.  Arc 
indebted  for  every  thing  wise  or  good  in  their  writings  to  the 
Scriptures,  22.  173. 

Philosiiphy,  alleged  contradictions  to,  in  the  Sacred  Writings,  con- 
sidered, and  shown  lo  be  unfounded,  I.  421,  422. 

Philozcniaii-Si/riac  version  of  the  New  Testament,  account  of,  I. 
271,  272. 

Pilate  (Pontius),  procurator  of  Judcea,  testimony  of,  to  the  character 
of  Christ,  1.81,82. 

Place,  importance  of  know  ing  where  any  of  the  sacred  Iwoks  were 
written,  I.  348,  349.  E.xamples  of  place,  put  for  vvlial  is  con- 
tained therein,  3('>0. 

Pla/rius  inflicted  upon  the  Egyptians,  remarks  on,  11.  206,  207. 

Pliny's  account  of  the  <'haraeter  and  principles  of  the  Christians, 
with  remarks,  I.  8-1,  85. 

Poetry  of  the  Hebrews: — Account  of  its  j^eculiar  construction,  I. 
373 — 376.  Vestiges  of  the  poetical  style  in  the  New  Testament, 
377—380.  Different  species  of  Hebrew  poetry,  380,  381.  Obser- 
vations for  the  better  understanding  the  composition  of  ihe  sacred 
poets,  381,  382.  The  poetical  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  why 
80  termed,  II.  227.  For  analyses  of  the  poetical  books  of  the  Old 
Testament,  see  Errlcsiaslcs,  Job,  Proverbs,  Psalms,  and  iSong  of 
Solomon,  in  Ibis  index. 

Points.    See  Vov)cl  Points. 

Polycarp,  testimony  of,  to  the  authcniicity  of  the  Now  Testament, 
I.  45. 

Polytheism,  deplorable  effects  of,  I.  16,  17.  20—22.  Alwlished  by 
Christianity,  171. 

Popery,  corruptions  of  religion  by,  a  proof  of  the  fulfilnient  of  pro- 
phecy, I.  140.  Kcrnarks  on  some  pretended  (Mjpisli  miracles,  118, 
119. 

Porphyry,  testimony  of,  to  the  anthenlicity  of  the  Pentateuch,  I.  35. 
An<l  ofthe  New  Testament,  47.  And  to  the  character  of  the  first 
('hrisiians,  85.  His  objections  against  the  proj)hecics  of  Daniel 
refuted,  11.  280. 

Possessor  of  a  thing  put  for  the  thing  possessed,  I.  360. 

Poussines'  collcciion  of  various  readings,  notice  of,  I.  245. 

Practical  lieudni/r  of  the  Scriptures,  im|iortancc  of,  I.  425,  426. 
Ilules  tor  it,  426,  427. 

I'rai/er  of  Manasscs,  a|)Ocryphal,  H.  292. 

Preservation  ofthe  Scriptures,  a  proof  f)f  their  divine  origin,  1. 168. 

The  uncorrupted  preservation  of  the  Ojil  Testament  proved  from 

the  alisolute  iin|M)s.-(ibiliiy  of  its  being  falsified  or  Cf)rrupted,  cither 

by  Jews,  .'>2,  53. ;  or  liy  Christians,  53.    And  from  the  agreement  o( 

'I'      ancient  versions  and  manuscripts,  53,  54.    The  uncorruptecl  prc- 

i!      Bcrvation  of  the  New  'J'cslameni  proved  from  ils  cf)nienis,  54.;  from 

I       the  utter  im|K)ssil)ilily  of  its  being  universally  corrujited,  54,  .05. ; 

•      from  the  agreement  i)f  all  the  mainiscrijtts  extant,  .5.5.   Ofancient 

verHiKus,  and  of  the  nuotaiions  of  the  New  Testament  in  Ihe 

writings  of  Ihe  early  (.hrislians,  55,  56.     Proofii  ihat  none  of  ilio 

bofiks  of  ihe  Old  Testampnt  have  ever  been  lr)Mi.  56,  57.    Nor  any 

of  the  books  of  the  Now  Teslainent,  57,  58.     Uccaj)itulation  of 

this  arKUincnt,  184,  i85. 

Prinrijials  iucluile  acces.inric»,  I.  396. 

Profane  writers,  alleged  inconsiHlcncics  lietwoen,  and  the  sacred 
writer*,  considered,  I.  418 — 420.     Supposed  quotutiona  from,  in 
the  New  Testament,  318,  319. 
Promises  of  Scripture.  clasHificaiion  of,  I.  398.     Rules  for  tlio  right 
interpretation  of  them,  398,  399.  ' 


Propagation  of  Christianity,  a  proof  of  the  credibility  of  the  New 
Testament,  1.  67,  68.  .Arid  that  the  (jospel  is  from  t;od,  130 — 132. 
Examination  of  the  difliculties  attendant  on  the  propagation  of 
Christianity,  44S— 450. 

Prophecy  defined,  I.  119,  120.  Difference  between  the  pretended 
predictions  of  the  heathen  oracles  and  the  prophecies  contained 
in  Scripture,  120 — 122.  Use  and  intent  of  prophecy,  122.  On 
the  chain  of  prophecy,  ibid.  Classification  of  Scriiiture  prophe- 
cies, ibid.  Class  I.  Prophecies  relating  lo  Abraham,  Ishmael, 
and  the  settlement  ofthe  Israelites  in  Canaan,  122,  123.  Moses's 
prophecy  concerninij  the  sufferings,  captivity,  and  present  state 
of  the  Jews,  123.  Birth  of  Josiah  foretold,  and  his  destruction 
of  idolatry,  123,  124.  Predictions  of  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel, 
Daniel,  and  Hosca,  relative  to  the  Jews,  124.  Class  II.  Proplu- 
cics  relating  to  the  emjiires  or  nations  that  were  neighbouring  to 
the  Jews,  124.  Tyre,  124,  125.  Egypt,  125.  Ethiopia,  ibid. 
Nineveh,  125,  126.  Babylon,  126.  The  four  great  monarchies, 
ibid.  Class  III.  Prophecies  announcing  the  Messiah,  his  offices, 
atonement,  death,  resurrection,  and  ascension,  &c.  126 — 129.  454 
— 458.  Class  IV.  Prophecies  delivered  by  Jesus  Christ  and  his 
apostles,  129.  Predictions  of  Jesus  Christ  concerning  the  fall  of 
Jerusalem,  129,  130.  458 — 162.  And  the  spread  of  the  Gospel, 
130 — 132.  Refutations  of  objections  from  the  alleged  obscuriiy 
of  prophecy,  141.  Prophecy,  a  standing  miracle,  ibid.  Recapitu- 
lation of  this  argument,  185,  186.  Contradictions  asserted  to  sub- 
sist between  the  prophecies  of  Scripture  and  their  fulfilment 
shown  to  have  no  foundation,  406.  On  the  accomplishment  of 
prophecy  in  general,  390,  391.  And  on  Ihe  accomplishment  of 
prophecies  concerning  the  Messiah  in  particular,  391,  392.  And 
also  of  the  Apocalypse,  II.  383.  Tables  of  the  prophecies  cited 
in  the  New  Testament,  as  being  accomplished,  either  literally, 
typically,  or  by  way  of  illustration,  I.  316,  317. 

Prophets,  different  kinds  of,  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures,  II.  253, 

254.  Their  situation  and  manner  of  living,  254.  Mosaic  statutes 
concerning  prophets,  ibid.  Evidences  of  a  divine  mis.sion,  ibid. 
Qualifications  of  the  prophets,  255.     Nature  of  their  inspiration, 

255,  256.  Antiquity  and  succes.sion  of  the  prophets,  257.  Col- 
lection of  their  writings  and  mode  of  announcing  their  predic- 
tions, 257,  258.  Observations  on  the  structure  of  the  prophetic 
poesy,  I.  380.  The  prophetical  books,  why  so  called,  II.  253. 
Their  number  and  order,  258.  Tables  of  tlie  pro]>hets,  according 
to  the  times  when  they  are  supposed  to  have  flourished,  259. 
General  rules  for  ascertaining  the  sense  of  the  prophetic  writings, 
I.  388 — 390. ;  and  particularly  the  accomplishment  of  prophecies 
concerning  the  Messiah,  391,  392.  For  analyses  of  the  propheti- 
cal books,  see  their  several  titles  in  this  index. 

"  The  Prophets,"  an  ancient  division  of  the  Old  Testament,  I.  213 

Prophetic  Poetry  of  the  Hebrews,  I.  380. 

Prosopopoeia,  instances  of,  I.  362,  363. 

Proverbs  (Scripture),  nature  of,  I.  370,  371.  Prevalence  of  this  mode 
of  instruction,  370.  Different  kinds  of  proverbs  :  —  Proverbial 
sentences,  371.  Proverbial  phrases,  ibid.  The  proverbs  occur 
ring  in  the  New  Testament,  how  to  be  interpreted,  ibid. 

Proverbs  (Book  of),  II.  245.  Title,  author,  and  canonical  authority, 
245,  246.  Scope,  246.  Quotations  from  this  book  in  the  New 
Testament,  ibid,  and  note.  Synopsis  of  its  contents,  ibid.  Obser- 
vations on  this  book,  247. 

Psabns  (Book  of),  II.  237.  General  title,  ibid.  Their  structure,  238. 
Canonical  authority,  ibid.  Authors  to  whom  they  have  been 
ascribed,  ibid.  Moses,  239.  David,  ibid.  Asaph,  ibid.  The  sons 
of  Korah,  ibid.  Ileman  and  Ethan,  210.  Solomon,  ibid.  Anony- 
mous Psalms,  ibid.  Chronological  arrangement  ofthe  Psalms  by 
Calmet,  240,  241.  Collection  of  the  Psalms  into  a  volume,  241, 
242.  The  hundred  and  fifty-first  Psalm  spurious,  ibid,  and  note. 
On  the  inscriptions  or  titles  of  the  Psalms,  242,  213.  Probable 
meaning  of  the  word  Selali,  occurring  in  them,  243,  244.  Scope 
of  the  book  of  Psalms,  244,  245.  Table  of  Psalms,  strictly  pro- 
phetical of  the  Messiah,  1.  310.  Rules  lijr  better  understanding 
them,  II.  245.  Table  of  the  Psalms  classed  according  to  their 
several  subjects,  ibid. 

Pscudo-.Tonathan,  Targiim  of,  I.  263. 

Punctuation  of  the  New  Testament,  I.  214,  215. 

Pythagoras,  fabulous  miracles  ascribed  to,  exposed,  I.  117. 


QtJAi.iFic.\TiON3  (moral)  for  studying  the  Scriptures,  I.  186,  187. 

Huiilitlions : — 

1.  (iiiolations  from  the  Old  Testament  in  Ihe  Nev>,  general  observa- 
tions on,  I.  293.  Quotations  from  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  aihl  from 
the  Sepluagint  version  in  tli<;  New  Testament,  with  iifHes  ihcro- 
on,  293 — 310.  Classification  of  t|uotations  from  the  Hebrew  Scrip- 
lures  in  the  New  Testament,  31 1,  312.  Anil  of  qiioialions  from 
Ihe  Septimgint  versiim,  312,  313.  On  the  ]irobai)le  causes  of 
seeming  discrepancies  in  such  (juolalions.  313,  '.Hi.  On  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  ((uotations  from  Ilie  Old  Testament  are  applied 
in  Iho  New,  31.5.  Rabbinical  and  other  modes  of  quoting  in  the 
New  Testament,  315,  316.  Classificalion  of  quolali(ms  from  ih© 
Old  Testament  in  the  New,  316.  (Jiiointious  in  which  the  pro- 
dictions  are  llferally  ar-complished,  ibid.  Quotations  apnliod  in 
a  spiritual  or  mystic-al  sense,  ibid.  Quotations  made  in  tlio  wny 
of  illustration,  316,  317.  Quoiations  from  the  Old  Testament, 
which  are  alluded  to  in  the  New,  318.  Quotations  from  iho 
ajxjcryphal  writers,  ibid.     And  from  profane  authors,  318,  319. 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


4'79 


11.  Quotations  front  the  Scriptures,  how  maile  by  the  apostolical 
fathers,  I.  41.  Force  of  thoir  testimony,  45.  The  quotations  of 
Scripture  by  subsequent  writers,  a  proof  of  tlieir  uncorriiptod 
preservation,  55,  56.  Authority  of  quolations  by  the  fatlievs  as  a 
source  of  the  sacred  text,  280,  281.  Application  of  such  quota- 
tions to  the  determination  ol' various  readings,  288,  289. 


Rabbimcal  Hebrew  Dialect,  notice  of,  I.  198. 

Rabbinical  vsriLuigs,  importance  of,  in  studying  the  Scriptures,  I. 
344,  345. 

Rabbinisms  of  the  New  Testament,  I.  198. 

Rainbow,  observations  on,  1.  75,  76. 

Ravens,  t!ie  supplying  of  Elijali  by,  with  food,  explained  and  vin- 
dicated, I.  428. 

Reason  insufficient,  without  Revelation,  I.  22. 

Rcc€nsio7is,OT  editions  of  MSS.  found  among  ancient  classic  authors, 

I.  206.  Account  of  the  recensions  of  the  Old  Testament,  203. 
Of  the  Now  Testament,  204,  Bengel's  system  of  recensions,  205. 
Of  Griesbach's  system,  205,  206.  Of  Michaelis's,  206.  Of  Mat- 
thsii,  ibid.  OfA'olan,  206— 208.  Of  Hug,  208,209.  OfEichhorn, 
209.    Of  Scholz,  209—212. 

Redemption,  Scripture  doctrine  of,  not  inconsistent  with  the  received 
notions  of  the  magnitude  of  creation,  I.  159,  160. 

Regal  government  of  the  Israelites  and  Jews.     See  Kirigs. 

Reigns  of  Jewish  monarchs,  on  the  commencement  of,  I.  405. 

Religion  of  the  patriarchal  times,  I.  142,  143.  Of  the  Mosaic  dis- 
pensation, 143 — 148.  Religion  of  the  Jews,  a  source  ol'  Scripture 
melapliors,  363. 

Resurrection  (future),  doctrine  of,  unknown  lo  the  ancients,  I.  19. 
Fully  revealed  in  the  Scriptures,  145,  146.  151.    Believed  by  Job, 

II.  237.  And  by  the  patriarchs,  I.  143.  Circumstances  of  the 
resurrection  of  Jesus  Christ  considered,  106 — 115.  And  of  the 
resurrection  of  Lazarus,  105,  106. 

Revelation  (divine),  defined,  I.  15.  Its  possibilitv,  ibid.  Probability, 
15,  16.  Necessity  of,  shown  from  the  state  of  moral  and  religious 
knowledge  among  the  ancients,  16 — 21.  183,  184.  And  also  from 
the  actual  state  of  morals  among  the  modern  heathen  nations,  21, 
22.  184.  And  from  the  absurd,  impious,  and  contradictory  tenets 
of  modern  infidels,  22 — 26.  On  the  possible  means  of  atfbrding 
a  revelation,  26 — 28.     See  Scripture,  Testament,  Old  and  New. 

Revelation  of  St.  John  the  divine,  II.  378.  Title,  ibid.  External 
arguments  for  its  genuineness,  378 — 380.  Internal  evidences  of 
its  genuineness,  380.  Objections  to  the  Revelation  examined  and 
refuted,  380,  381.  Its  date,  381,  382.  Occasion  and  scope,  382. 
Synopsis  of  its  contents,  382,  383.  Observations  on  this  book, 
383. 

Revolution  in  France,  horrid  effects  of,  I.  25,  26. 

Rewards  and  punishments,  doctrine  of,  not  of  human  invention,  I. 
160,  161. 

Romans  (Epistle  to),  II.  331.  Its  date,  and  where  wriUen,  ibid.  Its 
genuineness  and  authenticity,  i6(ii.  And  of  chapters  xv.  and  xvi., 
ibid.  The  church  at  Rome,  when  and  by  whom  founded,  331, 332. 
Its  internal  state,  332,  333.  Occasion  of  this  Epistle,  332.  Its 
scope,  333.  Synopsis  of  its  contents,  333,  334.  Observations  on 
this  Epistle,  334. 

Romish  Church,  corruptions  of,  a  proof  of  the  truth  of  the  Gospel, 
I.  140. 

Rossi.    See  De  Rossi. 

Rousseau,  prolligate  principles  and  conduct  of,  I.  25.  His  involun- 
tary testimony  to  the  character  of  Jesus  Christ,  156.  note. 

Ruih'(Book  of),  title  and  argument  of,  II.  218.  Its  date  and  chro- 
nology, ibid.  Author,  ibid.  Scope,  ibid.  Synopsis  of  its  contents, 
ibid. 


Sacraments  of  baptism  and  the  Lord's  supper,  a  proof  of  the  cre- 
dibility of  the  New  Testament,  I.  67. 

Sacred  Writers,  alleged  contradictions  between,  shown  to  have  no 
foundation,  I.  414—418,  Seeming  contradictions  between  them 
and  profane  writers  accounted  for,  418 — 420. 

Sacrifices  (human),  universal  among  the  ancients,  I.  17.  and  note  1. 
Prevalence  of,  among  some  modern  heathen  nations,  21.  Abo- 
lished by  Christianity,  171. 

Sahidic  version  of  the  Scriptures,  I.  272,  273. 

Samaritans,  origin  of,  I.  203.  Account  of  the  Samaritan  Penta- 
teuch, ibid.  Differences  between  it  and  the  Hebrew  Pentateuch 
accounted  for,  204.  Manuscripts  of  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch, 
221.  Critical  use  of  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch  in  determining 
various  readings,  286,  287.  Samaritan  version  of  the  Pentateuch, 
204.  Arabic  version  of  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch,  ibid.  Account 
of  their  copy  of  the  book  of  Joshua,  II.  215. 

Samuel  (the  prophet),  reality  of  the  appearance  of,  to  Saul,  II.  219. 
note. 

Samuel  (two  books  of),  II.  218.  Hieir  titles,  ibid.  Authors,  218, 
219.  Argument,  scope,  and  analysis  of  the  First  Book  of  Samuel, 
219.  And  of  the  Second  Book  of  Samuel,  219, 220.  Observations 
on  the  importance  of  these  books,  220. 

Sanctification,  New  Testament  doctrine  of,  I.  151. 

Sarcasm,  instance  of,  I.  372. 

Scholia,  nature  of;  I.  335.  352.  Rules  for  consulting  scholia  to  ad- 
vantage, 335. 

Scholz  (Dr.),  abstract  of  the  system  of  recensions  of,  I.  209 — 212.   . 


Sclavonic  version  of  the  Scriptures,  notice  of,  I.  279,  280. 
Scope,  definition  of,  I.  339.    Its  importance,  ibid.     Particularly  in 
studying  the  epistles,  394.     Rules  for  invesiieating  it,  339,  340- 
Application  of  the  scope  to  the  intorpretaiion  of  parables,  367. 
Scriptures,  diflerent  appellations  of,  I.  212.    Why  commiiied  to  writ- 
ing, 27.     Proofs  that  none  of  the  canonical  books  of  Scripture 
either  are  or  ever  were  lost,  56—58.     Impossibility  of  their  being 
the  contrivance  or  invention  of  men,  92.     Proofs  that  they  are 
of  Divine  authority,  and  their  authors  divinely  inspired,  93.  (See 
Authenticity,  Genuirieness,  Chrislianity,  Miracles,  Fropllecti,  Doc- 
trine, Moral  Precepts,  Harmony,   Freservalion,  Jienefils,   Ohjec- 
iions.)    A  perfect  rule  of  faith  and  practice,  I.  186.    Moral  quali 
fications  for  the  study  of  the  Scriptures,  183,  187.    In  what  order 

they   should    be    read,   187.     Original    languages   of,   188 199. 

Manuscripts  of,  21(j — 261.  Divisions  and  "marks  of  distinction 
in,  212 — 215.  Ancient  versions  of,  261 — 280.  Knowledge  of  the 
order  of  time,  authors,  and  occasion  of  each  book,  necessary  lo 
a  right  interpretation  thereof,  348,  349.  And  also  of  biblical 
geography  and  antiquities,  &c.,  350—352.  See  Testament  (Old) 
and  Testament  (New). 

Selah,  import  of  the  word  explained,  II.  243,  244. 

Sennacherib's  army,  destruction  of,  I.  418. 

Sense  of  Scripture,  definition  of,  and  general  rules  for  investigating 
it,  I.  322 — 324.  Subsidiary  means  for  ascertaining  it,  329 — 354. 
Interpretation  of  the  figurative  meaning  of  Scripture,  355 — 358. 
Of  the  spiritual  sense,  382 — 384.  Of  the  typical  and  symbolical 
sense,  385 — 387.  Diflerent  senses  given  to  the  same  words  in 
different  texts,  a  source  of  apparent  contradiction  in  doctrinal 
points,  407. 

Septuagint  version,  critical  history  of,  I.  264 — 266.  From  what 
MSS.  it  was  made,  266.  Held  in  the  highest  esteem  by  the 
Jews  and  early  Christian  fathers,  ibid.  Biblical  labours  of  Origen 
concerning  it,  267,  268.  Recensions  of  Eusebius,  Lucian,  and 
Hesychius,  268.  Similarity  of  its  Greek  with  that  of  the  iMevv 
Testament,  193.  Estimate  of  the  real  value  of  the  Septuagint, 
268.  Its  importance  in  the  criticism  of  the  New  Testament,  208. 
and  note  6.  Syriac  version  of  Origen's  Hexaplar  edition  of  the 
Septuagint,  272.  Tables  of  quotations  from  the  Septuagint,  iu 
the  New  Testament,  312,  313. 

Shaftesbury  (Lord),  absurd  and  contradictory  notions  of,  concerning 
religion,  I.  23. 

Shechinah,  notice  of,  II.  255. 

Sheminith,  import  of,  II.  243. 

Shemitish  Languages,  remarks  on,  I.  188,  189. 

Sheggaion,  import  of,  II.  243. 

Shir,  Shir-Mismor,  and  Shir-Hammachaloth,  psalms  so  called,  II.  243. 

Sign,  put  for  the  thing  signified,  I.  361. 

Signification  of  words,  general  rules  for  investigating,  I.  324 — 326. 

Sin,  origin  of,  as  related  by  Moses,  confirmed  by  facts,  and  by  his- 
tory, I.  69,  70. 

Sinat  (Codex  of),  I.  203. 

Singular  number  put  for  the  plural,  I.  372. 

Society,  influence  of  Christianity  on,  I.  170,  171. 

Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  destruction  of,  confirmed  by  profane  histo- 
rians, I.  77. 

Solomon,  list  of  psalms  ascribed  to,  II.  240.  Notice  of  writings  at- 
tributed to  him,  I.  57.  See  Ecclesiastes,  Song  of  Solomo7i,  Wisdom 
of  Solomon. 

SoJi,  different  significations  of,  I.  197. 

So7ig  of  the  Three  Children,  apocryphal  book  of,  II.  292. 

Song  of  Solomon,  author  of,  II.  249.  Canonical  authority  of,  ibid. 
Structure  of  the  poem,  250.  Its  subject  and  scope,  250,  251.  A 
sublime  mystical  allegory,  251 — 253.  Observations  on  its  style,  253 

Songs  of  the  Steps,  what  psalms  so  called,  II.  243. 

Soul.     See  Immortality  of  the  Soul,  Transmigration. 

Spanish  Jews,  manuscripts  of,  I.  218. 

Spirit.    See  Holy  Spirit. 

Spiritual  Sense  of  Scripture,  nature  of,  I.  323.  Vindicated,  382, 
383.  Observations  on  the  spiritual  interpretation  of  the  Bible, 
383.  Rules  for  such  interpretation,  383,  384.  Cautions  against 
extremes  in  spiritually  expounding  the  Scriptures,  384. 

Sjjurious  writings,  criteria  for  ascertaining,  I.  39, 40.  None  of  these 
criteria  to  be  found  in  the  New  Testament,  39. 

Stations  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness,  II.  210. 

i;T.%oi  and  ST.%<i/.££r()ix,  account  of,  I.  214,  215. 

Style  of  the  Old  Testament,  a  proof  of  its  authenticity,  I.  31.  And 
also  of  the  New  Testament,  49.  Examination  of"^  it,  194 — 196. 
And  of  its  dialects,  196—199. 

Subject,  metonyrny  of,  what,  I.  359.    Examples  of  it,  360. 

Subject-matter  defined,  I.  338,  339.  Examples  showing  the  necessity 
of  considering  it  in  the  interpretation  of  the  Bible,  339. 

Subjects,  duties  of  I.  153. 

Subscriptions  annexed  to  the  epistles,  remarks  on,  I.  215. 

Substantives  used  by  the  Jews  in  lieu  of  adjectives,  1.  197. 

Suetonius,  testimony  of,  concerning  Jesus  Christ,  I.  82.  And  to  the 
persecutions  of  the  Christians,  83. 

Suicide,  recommended  and  practised  by  the  ancient  philosophers, 
I.  20.  and  note  1. 

Sun  standing  still,  account  of,  vindicated,  I.  421. 

Sunday,  or  Lord's  day,  observance  of,  a  perpetual  proof  of  the  cre- 
dibility of  the  New  Testament,  I.  67. 

Susanna,  apocryphal  history  of,  II.  292. 

Swine,  destruction  of  the  herd  of,  vindicated,  I.  102. 

Symbolical  language  of  Scripture,  remarks  on,  I.  387.  Symbolic 
actions,  how  to  be  interpreted,  390.    Concise  dictionary  of  the 


480 


GENERAL  INDEX. 


principal  symbolical  terms  occunng  in  the  prophetic  writings, 

II.  457—466. 
Symmar/ius's  Greek  version  of  the  Old  Testament,  account  of,  1. 2G9. 
Synecdoche,  nature  of,  I.  371.     Examples  of  it,  371,  372. 
t>i/nonj/mo'us  word.^,  observations  on,  I.  325. 
^  Syriac  Larifruage,  notice  of,  I.  199. 

Syriac  Verxioiis  of  the  Scriptures,  account  of,  I.  270 — 272.     Syriac 

version  of  Origen's  Ileiaplar  edition  of  the  Scptuugint,  272. 
Syriusms  of  the  New  Testament,  I.  198. 

Tabernacles  (feast  of),  a  proof  of  the  credibility  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, I.  f)6. 

TacUus,  testimony  of,  concerning  Jesus  Christ,  I.  82.;  and  the  cha- 
racter and  persecutions  of  the  Christians,  83. 

Talmud,  account  of  I.  344,  34.5.  Talmudical  arrangement  of  the 
books  of  the  Old  Tcslamcnt,  217.  Testimony  of  the  Talmuds  to 
the  character  of  Jesus  Christ,  81. 

rargitms,  or  Chaldee  paraphrases  of  the  Old  Testament,  critical 
nccouni  of,  I.  262—264. 

Tatian,  testimony  of,  to  the  genuineness  of  the  New  Testament,  I. 
43,  44.     Notice  of  his  harmony  of  the  Gospels,  319. 

Tertidlian,  testimony  o(,  to  the  genuineness  of  the  New  Testament. 
I.  42,  43. 

Testnmenl  (Old),  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  why  so  termed,  1.28.  Genu- 
ineness of  ibid.  Ex/enial  evidences  of  its  genuineness,  29,  30. 
Internal  evidences.  Its  language,  style,  and  manner  of  writing, 
31.  The  lircumslantialiiy  of  its  narratives,  31,  32.  Its  uncor- 
rupted  preservation  proved  from  the  absolute  impossibility  of  its 
being  falsified  or  corrupted,  eitiier  by  Jews,  52,  53.  184,  185. ;  or 
by  Christians,  53.;  and  from  the  agreement  of  all  the  ancient 
paraphrases,  versions,  and  manuscripts,  53,  54.  Particular  proofs 
of  the  integrity  of  the  Old  Testament,  56,  57.  Its  accounts  con- 
firmed by  profane  historians,  73 — 83.  History  of  the  Hebrew  text 
of,  200 — 203.  Different  appellations  given  to  it,  212.  Order  and 
ancient  divisions  of,  212, 213.  Modern  divisions  of,  213.  Ancient 
versions,  251 — 280.  Account  of  the  principal  Hebrew  MSS.  of 
the  Old  Testament,  21f)— 221.  Editions,  203.  See  Credibility, 
[ntpira'.ion,  Pentateuch,  Preservation. 

Pesiamenl  (New),  general  title  of,  1.  38,  39.  Account  of  its  canon, 
39.  The  New  Testament,  why  written  in  Greek,  193,  194.  Simi- 
larity of  its  Greek  with  that  of  the  Septuagint  version,  193.  Ex- 
amination of  its  style,  194 — 196.  Account  of  its  dialects,  19(3 — 
199.  Genuineness  and  authenticity  of  the  New  Testament  proved, 
from  the  impossibility  of  Ibrgery,  40.  54,  55.  From  the  external 
evidence  afforded  by  the  tesiimonies  of  ancient  Christians,  40 — 
45.  Of  heretical  writers,  4-5,  46.  And  heathen  testimonies  46 — 
43.  And  by  ancient  versions  of  it,  48.  From  the  internal  evi- 
dence furnished  by  the  character  of  its  writers,  ibid.  By  its 
language  and  style,  48,  49.  195,  196.  By  the  circumstantiality 
of  it-s  narratives,  49.  And  by  the  coincidence  of  its  accounts 
with  the  history  of  those  times,  49 — 51.  Its  uncorrupted  preser- 
vation proved  from  its  contents,  54.  From  the  utter  impoesibility 
of  its  being  imiversally  accomplished,  54,  55.  P'rom  the  agree- 
ment of  all  the  manuscripts,  55.  Versions  'and  quotations  from 
the  New  Testc-ment  in  the  writings  of  the  early  Christians,  55, 
56.  Particular  proofs  of  its  integrity,  57,  58.  Its  accounts  con- 
firmed by  profane  historians,  78—87.  (See  Credibility,  Inspira- 
tion.) Recensions  or  families  of  manuscripts  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, 204 — 212.  Descriptive  catalogue  of  the  principal  manu- 
scripts, 222—261.  Classification  of  its  several  books,  II.  293.  294. 
Ancient  divisions  of,  I.  213,  214.  Titles  to  each  book,  215.  Sub- 
scriptions, ibid.  Ancient  stichoi  and  modern  verses,  214,  215. 
Ancient  and  modern  punctuation,  214.     See  Versionx. 

Tcniimimy,  observations  on  the  credibility  of,  I.  95,  96.  Refutation 
of  Mr.  Hume's  objections  against  testimony,  96,  97.  Testimony 
of  native  contem|)orary  writers  a  source  of  inlerpreiiiion,  329 — 
333.  And  also  the  testimony  of  foreigners  who  have  acquired  a 
langtmge,  335,  336. 

Tetropla  of  Origen,  account  of,  I.  267. 

Theodotion's  (ireek  version  of  the  Old  Testament,  account  of,  I.  2C9. 
Its  critical  value,  ihirl. 

Theophilus  (bishop  of  Antioch),  testimony  of,  to  the  genuineness  of 
the  New  Testament,  I.  43. 

Thessalminns,  First  Ei)istle  to,  II.  341.  Account  of  the  Thcssalo- 
nian  churclj  there,  ibid.  Its  Renuineness,  342.  Occasion,  scope, 
and  synopsis  of  its  contents,  ibid. 

Thesfalonians,  Second  Epistle  to,  11.342.  Its  date,  occasion,  and 
scope,  ibid.  Analysis  of  its  contents,  ibid.  Observations  on  this 
Epistle,  ibid. 

Threatenings  of  Scripture,  interpretation  of,  I.  399. 

Time,  instances  of,  being  put  for  things  done  in  time,  I.  SCO.  Dif- 
ferent modes  of  computing  time  sometimes  adopted  by  the  sacred 
writers,  405, 

Timnthy,  account  of,  II.  343. 

Timothy,  First  Epistle  to,  H.  313.  lu  date,  343,  344.  Genuineness 
and  nuthonticity  of  the  Epistles  to  Timothy,  344.  Scope  and 
synopsis  of  the  First  F^pistlo,  311,  345. 

Timothy,  Second  Epistle  to,  II.  345.  Its  date,  345,  346.  Where 
wriltisn,  346.  Its  scope,  ibid.  Synop.,i»  of  its  contents,  ibid.  Ob- 
servations on  this  Epistle,  ibid.  On  the  use  which  the  Christain 
church  in  every  age  is  to  make  of  Iho  two  Epistles  to  Timotliy 
and  that  to  Titus,  345. 

Tin'/';/,  absurd  nnd  contradictory  teneu  of,  concemini?  religion. I.  23. 

TiU'f  of  l)ooks,  remarks  on.  1.  318.  Of  the  INidms,  II.  212,  213. 
Of  the  books  of  the  New  Teslamenl,  I.  215. 


Titus,  account  of,  II.  346,  347.  Date  of  the  Epistle  to  him,  347.  Its 
scope  and  analysis,  ibid.     Observations  on  it,  ibid. 

Titus  (the  Human  emperor),  triumphal  arch  of,  a  proof  of  the  ere 
dibility  of  the  Scriptures,  I.  91.  His  destruction  of  Jerusalem 
commemorated  by  a  coin,  ibid.  Inscription  erected  in  his  honour 
ibid.  note. 

Tobit,  apocrj-phal  book  of,  II.  290. 

Tradition,  insecurity  of,  1.  27. 

Trajan,  letter  of,  concerning  the  Christians,  I.  84. 

Transubflnntiation,  Romish  notion  of,  unsupported  by  Scripture,  1 
356,  357.     No  miracle  in  it,  99.  note. 

Tropes  nnd  figures,  on  the  interpretation  of,  I.  356 — 358. 

Tropical  Sense,  I.  322. 

Types,  nature  of,  I.  365.  Legal  lype3,ibld.  Prophetical  types,  385, 
386.  Historical  types,  386.  Rules  for  the  interpretation  of  types, 
386,  387.  Types  of  the  Messiah,  in  the  book  of  Genesis,  II.  204 
Exodus,  206.     Numbers,  218. 

Typical  sense  of  Scripture,  I.  323. 

lyre,  prophecies  concerning,  and  their  fulfilment,  I.  124,  125. 

Ui.PHiLAs's  Gothic  version  of  the  New  Testament,  account  oT,  I. 

277.     Notice  of  some  manuscripts  of  it,  277 — 279. 
Universal  Propositions  to  be  iMiderstood  witli  limitations,  I.  395,3%. 
"  Unknown  God,"  origin  of  the  aliar  to,  at  Athens,  I.  90. 
Urim  and  Thummim,  what,  II.  255. 
Usus  Loipiirtdi,  defined,  I.  329.    Direct  testimonies  for  ascertaining 

it,  329—336.    Indirect  tesiimonies  for  ascertaining  it,  336 — 352. 


Various  Readings,  the  Christian  faith  not  affected  by,  I.  55.  281, 
282.  Their  nature,  282.  Difference  between  them  and  mere 
errata,  ibid.  Notice  of  the  principal  collations  and  collections 
of  various  readings,  ibid.  Causes  of  them,  ibid.  The  negligence 
or  mistakes  of  transcribers,  errors  or  imperfections  in  the  manu 
script  coj^ied,  283,  284.  Critical  conjecture,  284.  Wilful  corrup 
tions  Irom  parly  motives,  285.  Sources  wlience  a  true  reading 
is  to  be  determined,  ibid.  Manuscripts,  285,  286.  Ancient  edi- 
tions, 285.  Ancient  versions,  286,  287.  The  writings  of  Josephns, 
2S8.  Parallel  passages,  ii/d.  Quotations  of  the  fathers,  288,289. 
Heretical  writings,  289.  Critical  conjecture,  289,  290.  General 
rules  for  judging  of  various  readings,  290 — 292.  Notice  of  the 
collections  of  various  readings  by  Poussines,  245.,  and  the  Mar- 
quis of  Velez,  ibid.  note. 

Vtlesian  Manuscripts,  notice  of,  I.  245.  note. 

Verses,  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  when  divided  into,  I.  213. 

Versions  (ancient),  a  proof  of  the  genuineness  and  authenticity  of 
the  New  Testament,  I.  48.  Account  of  the  ancient  versions  of 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  261 — ^280.  Versions  of  tlie  Sama 
ritan  Penlatcucli,  204.  The  critical  value  of  ancient  versions 
and  hints  for  consulting  tliem  to  the  best  advantage,  333 — 335 
Their  use  in  dctcrinining  various  readings,  286,  287. 

Vespasian,  pretended  miracle  of,  exposed,  1.  118. 

Victorinus,  testimony  of,  to  the  genuineness  of  the  New  Testament, 
1.42. 

Virtue,  no  motives  to,  among  the  heathen  nations,  I.  18.  Admi 
rable  and  beautiful  motives  to  virtue  presented  in  the  Gospel 
156—158. 

Visions,  prophetic,  11.  255,  256. 

Visiting  the  sins  of  fathers  upon  their  children  explained,  I.  409. 

Voltaire,  impious  opinions  of,  on  religion,  I.  24.  Advocated  immo- 
rality, 25.  And  exemjilified  his  precepts  by  his  own  profligate 
example,  26.     His  miserable  death,  llo. 

Vouwl  Points  (Hebrew),  evidence  concerning  the  ancient  or  mo- 
dem dale  of,  I.  191,  192.    Their  relative  utility,  192. 

Vulgate  Latin  version  of  the  Scriptures,  account  of,  I.  275,  276. 
Variations  between  the  Sixtine  aud  Clementine  editions,  276, 277. 
Its  critical  value,  277.    Modern  revisions  of  it,  ibid. 

Wars  of  the  Lord  (book  of),  observations  on,  I.  57. ;  II.  210. 

\Vater  turned  into  wine,  observations  on  the  miracle  of,  I.  103, 104 
Turned  into  blood,  in  Egypt,  11.  206. 

Weeks,  the  division  of  time  by,  a  confirmation  of  the  Mosaic  narra- 
tive, I.  69. 

Wcsierji  Recension  of  the  New  Testament,  I.  205. 

Whole  put  tor  part,  I.  371. 

Widow's  son  raised  to  life,  remarks  on,  I.  101,  102.  105. 

Wilderness,  table  of  the  stations  of  the  Israelites  in  the,  II.  210. 

Wisdom  of  Solomon,  account  of  the  ajwcryphal  book  of,  II.  290, 291. 

Wisdom  of  Jesus  the  Son  of  Sirach,  account  of  the  apocryphal  book 
of,  II.  291. 

Women,  miserable  condition  of,  at  Athens,  I.  19.  note  7.  Their 
condition  elevated  by  Christianity,  170. 

Woolston  (Mr.),  absurd  nnd  contrailictory  tenets  of,  I.  24. 

Words  and  phrases,  rules  lor  investigating  the  moaning  of,  I.  324 
—326.     Emphatic  words,  327—329. 

Writing,  the  Scripture*  why  committed  to,  I.  27. 

Zeciiariaii  (prophet),  account  of,  II.  287.  Analysis  of  his  prophecy, 

287,  238.  Remarlui  on  his  style,  288.  The  last  six  chapters  proved 

to  be  genuine,  iTiirf. 
Zedekiah,  prophecies  concerning,  and  their  fulfilment,  I.  124. ;  II. 

286.  ,     .      .,. 

Zrsihaniah  (prophet),  account  of,  II.  272.    Scope  and  analysis  of  Ins 

ixjok,  ibid. 
Zodiac  of  Dcndera,  comparatively  modem  date  of,  I.  73.  noU  8 


( 


No.  rv. 


INDEX 

OF 

THE  PRINCIPAL  TEXTS  OF  SCRIPTURE 

WHICH  ARE 

PARTICULARLY  ILLUSTRATED  OR  EXPLAINED. 


,*  Such  Texts  as  are  cited  merely  by  way  of  proof  or  illustration,  or  in  the  Biographical,  Historical,  and  Geographical  Index,  and 
also  in  the  Index  of  the  Symbolical  Language  of  Scripture,  are  here  designedly  omitted,  that  this  Index  may  not  be  unneceS' 
sarily  enlarged. 


Gewesis. 


Chap. 
ii.. . 
— iii. 


Verse 


u. 


lU. 


XV. 


VI. 


vu. 
viii. 
ix. 


XI. 


xu. 


Vol. 
.   i. 
.  ii. 


2,  3.  6,  7,  8 i. 

t/»     D*     *fm      ••••••• 

8 

26,27 

28 

3 


9.. 
17. 
24. 
15. 
22. 
1.. 
7.. 
8.. 


u. 

i. 

i. 

ii. 

i. 

ii. 

i. 

i. 

i. 

i. 

i. 

ii. 

i. 

i. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

i. 

ii. 

i. 


20 

21 

5 

6 

9 

12 

15,  16 i. 

19—21 i. 

2,  3.  8,  9.  15 i. 

12,  17.  24 i. 

3,4,5 i. 

22 

13 

20 

27 

5 


u. 

i. 

ii. 

i. 

i. 

8—10 ii. 

15.  et  seq ii. 

1—4 i. 

26.32 i. 


1. 
3. 
4. 


xiii.        10 I. 

18 ii. 

xiv.        2 — 10 ii. 

14 i. 

14,  15 ii. 

Vot.  n. 


Page 
420,421. 
205. 

420,  421. 
205. 
289. 

325.421. 
160. 
414.  421. 

73. 
197. 

142.noie. 
286.  295. 
333. 
372. 
204. 
407. 

371.note. 
287. 
151. 

183, 184. 
135. 
400. 
185. 
339. 

75. 
414. 
414. 
414. 
414. 

23. 

75. 
177. 
359. 

36. 

83. 

13.  15. 

77. 
404,  405. 

&  note. 
299.  403. 
359. 
404, 405. 

&  note. 
197. 

32. 

32. 

37. 

83.  85. 

3P 


Gekesis. 
Chap.       Verse  Vol.  Page 

xiv.         17 ii.       32. 

18 ii.       19.32. 

20 i.  287. 

22,  23 ii.      81. 

XV.         5 i.  301. 

6 i.  301. 

9,  10.17 ii.      80. 

13,  14 i.  299.403. 

405. 
xvi.        7 ii.      33. 

12 i.  337. 

xvii.       5 i.  301. 

12 ii.      76.110. 

12,  13 ii.  165. 

19 i.  371. 

21 i.  302.note. 

xviii.      1 — 10 ii.  151. &n. 

173.^71. 

10 i.  302. 

xix.        30 ii.      33. 150. 

30—38 ii.       15. 

XX.         7 i.  413. 

xxi.        8 ii.  163. 

10 i.  306. 

12 i.  302. 

14 ii.      40. 

22—32 ii.      80. 

33 ii.  102. 

xxii.       1 i.  414. 

1—12 i.  409. 

2—4 ii.       19. 

13 i.  286. 

18 i.  299. 

xxiii.      10.18 ii.      54. 

16 ii.  189. &n. 

xxiv.      15 ii.      29.&n. 

22 ii.  158. 

22—47 ii.  29. 

50,51.57.67 ii.  160. 

67 ii.  151. 

XXV.       2—6 li.       15. 

16 ii.  41. no/e. 

34 ii.  171. 

xxvi.      12 ii.  35. 

15—18 iL  28. 

30 ii.  80. 

xxvii.    6 — 29 i.  408.7iote. 

15 ii.  67 


Genesis. 
Cha^.       Verae                   ''      Vol.  Page 

xxvii.     27 ii.      38.159. 

28 ii.      25. 

41 ii.  202. 

xxviii.    18 ii.  138. 

20—22 i.  409. 

xxix.      1 — 8 i.  402. 

2—8 ii.       28. 

5 ii.  223.note. 

6.  9 ii.      28. 

XXX.       14 ii,      36. 

xxxi.      27 .'.....  ii.  183. 

34 ii.  175. 

38—41 i.  414. 

40 ii.      23.176. 

42.53 i.  358. 

44 — 54 '. ii.      80. 

xxxii,     13—17 ii.  I74.&n. 

22 ii.      28. 

xxxiii.    19 i.  414. 

xxxiv.    7 i.        36. 

ii.  228. 

XXXV.     2.4 ii.  158. 

20 ii.  202. 

21 i.       37. 

xxxvi.    31 i.       37. 

xxxvii.  25 ii.  187. 

xxxviii.  24 ii.      40. 68. 

xl.  15 ii.      13. 

xli.         45 i.        88. 

xlii.        15 ii.      83. 

38 i.  337. 

xliii.       11.26 ii.      45. 

xliv.       5 ii.  142.  &n. 

xlvi.      27 i.  299.404, 

&  note. 

34 i.       88. 

ii.  175.note. 

xlvii.      11 i.  414. 

31 i.  309. 

xlviii.     1 ii.  164. 

8,10.  22 i  414. 

xlix.       3,4 ii.  40. 

9 i.  357. 

10 i.  198.331 

342.  371.  406. 

14 i.  358. 

25 ii.  25. 

481 


482 


Chap. 


iiL 


IV, 
V. 

vii. 

viii. 

iz. 


XI. 

xii. 


xiu 

xiv. 

XV. 

xvi. 
xvii. 
xviii. 
xix. 

XX. 


GXNESIS. 

Verse  Vol.  Vas,c 

1 ii.  198. 

2,3 ii.  198. 

3.24—26 ii.  199. 

7—10 

25 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  OF  SCRIPTURE. 


EXODCS. 


ii.    200. 
i.      28G. 


Exodus. 

11.  14 i. 

ii. 

i. 

, i. 

i. 

i. 

i. 

i. 


19.. 
18.. 
2.4. 
6... 
22.. 
21.. 
23.. 


6—29.  •  • ii« 

/^•••••••••ta****         li» 

14,  15.  19 ii. 


13 I. 

14—25 ii. 

19—22 i. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

i. 

ii. 

i. 

ii. 

i. 


1—15... 
16—19., 
20—32.. 
1—7. . . 
6.  20. . . 
8—12.. 

12 

13—35. 
16 


18.  23,24 ii. 

28 i. 

1—20 ii. 

12,  13.  15.  19 ii. 

21—27 ii. 

1—8 iL 

5 ii. 

6 ii. 

9 ii. 

10 ii. 

8.  11.  46 ii. 

12—14.  29.  51....  ii. 

25,26 ii. 

29,  30 ii. 

34 ii. 

35 i. 

39 ii. 

40,41 i. 


46. 


51 

2 , 

18 

6,7 

17 

24 

1.21.... 
1.20,21. 
14 


18 

35,  36 i. 


126. 


8—16. 
11 


11. 

ii. 

13—23 i. 

14—26 

3—6 

3—5 

5 

6 

7 


XXI. 


II. 

ii. 

ii. 

i. 

ii. 

i. 

ii. 

10,  11 iL 

11 i. 

12 i. 

12—16 i. 

5,  6 ii. 


88. 
163. 
414. 
415. 

296.423. 
409. 
409. 
337. 

IG6. note. 
151. 
40. 
409. 
206. 
415. 
206. 
206. 
206. 
206. 
41.5. 
207. 
409. 
207. 

302.  409, 

&  note 

24. 

197. 

207. 

39. 

207. 

207. 

123. 

73 

124. 

124. 

124. 

123. 

125. 

207. 

154. 

409. 

124. 

287.403. 
405.  Wn. 
298, 

124.  126. 
85.  Wn. 
297. 
85. 
85. 
372. 
73. 
372. 
132. 
36, 
14. 
306, 
37. 
15. 
131. 
416. 
42. 
41. 
61. 
409. 
82. 
375. 
62. 
121. 
415. 
307. 
295. 
167.yn 


156. 


Chap. 
xxi. 

xxii. 

xxiii. 
xxiv. 

xxvii. 
xxviii. 

xxix. 

XXX. 

xxxii. 
xxxiii. 

xxxiv. 

XXXV. 

xxxvii 
xl. 

i. 

ii. 
iii. 
iv,  V, 
iv. 

V. 

vi.  vii. 
vi. 

vii. 

ix. 
xii. 

xiii. 

xiv.  - 
xvi. 

xvii. 
xviii. 

xix. 

Verse                          ' 

6 

7 11 

l^ol. 
i. 
ii. 
ii. 
ii. 
ii. 
ii. 
ii. 
ii. 
ii. 
ii. 
ii. 
ii. 
i. 
ii. 
ii. 
ii. 
ii. 
i. 
ii. 
ii. 
ii. 
ii. 
i. 
ii. 
ii. 
ii. 
ii. 
ii. 
i. 
i. 
ii. 
ii. 
ii. 
ii. 
ii. 
ii. 

ii. 

i. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 
.   i. 
.   ii. 
.  i. 
.  ii. 
.   i. 

ii. 
.   ii. 
.   ii. 
.   ii. 
.   ii. 
.   ii. 
.  ii. 
.   ii. 
.   ii. 
.   ii. 
.   ii. 
.   ii, 
,   i, 
ii. 
.  i. 
.   ii. 
.   ii. 
.   i. 
.   ii. 
.   i. 
.   ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 

Page 
351. 
166. 

67.  97. 
164. 

63. 

63. 

64. 

64. 

65. 

62. 

63. 

63. 
300. 

62. 

28. 
121. 
126. 

28.  57. 
204. 

42. 
ISO. 
114. 
382. 
114.118. 

97. 
136. 
141. 

96. 
415. 
302. 

61. 
126. 
181. 
158. 
207. 

96. 

207. 
41.5. 
207. 
207. 
207. 

65. 

65. 
118. 
207. 

65.    - 

96.7io/e. 
113. 
118. 
286. 

76. 
297. 
208. 
360. 

195. 

195. 

134. 

196.Wn. 

133. 

134. 

208. 

127. 

127. 
386. 
96.no?'*. 

132. 

415. 
61. 

303. 
61. 
64. 

410. 
64. 

S9fi. 
64. 

64.  66. 
62. 

Chap. 
xix. 

14 

XX. 

15.  17 

16 

18     21 

22—25.  27 

24 

xxi. 

xxiii. 

30.  32,  33,  34.  36.. 

1—4 

2,3 

8 

28 

31 

xxiv. 

12 

16 

xxiv. 

XXV. 

7 

12 

13 

20 

zs... ...... ...... 

1     37 

22,&c 

1—6 

19 

xxvi. 
xxvii. 

7 

15.  20 

19 

15 

1.  u. 

22 

!• 

30—35 

.8 

17 

u. 

20—29.  34,  35. . . . 
Leviticus. 

IV. 
V. 

1 

viii. 

X. 

2 

1.4—7.  14,  15.... 
17,  18 

xi. 

xii. 

1 — 7 

xiii. 

12,  13 

6.  10.33,34 

37,38 

21 

xiv. 

3 

s 

XV. 

3 

xvi. 

38,39 

47 59 

xviii. 

xix. 

4,  6 

33 — 37 

XX. 

2 — 5.  17 

3 — 28 

xxi. 

7 

12,  13 

29 

1 — 7 

5 

21.  24—30 

22,23 

28 

xxii. 

10 18 

xxiv. 

18 

20 

20—22 

26.31 

XXV. 

Leviticus. 
Verse  Vol.        Page 

27.  29 ii.  142. 

32 ii.       82. 

6.23.27 ii.       62. 

10 ii.       64.67. 

1.4*  ••••••••••••••     ll*  DO* 

24—26 ii.  171. 

9 ii.       68. 

4 ii.       73. 

6 ii.  123.  not?. 

14 ii.  178. 

24,  2.5.  27—30....   ii.  127. 

32 ii.       72. 

34.43 ii.  126. 

12 u.       65. 

18 ii.       65. 

XXV ii.  208. 

1—7 ii.  128. 

8.  10.  15.  30 ii.  128,129. 

10 ii.       16. 

34 ii.  113. 

39 ii.       63. 

11,  12 i.  306. 

22.  24 ii.  208. 

32 ii.       38. 

1—24 ii.  130. 

28 i.  411.^71. 

34 i.  415. 

Numbers. 

ii.  209. 

2 ii.       41. 

3.  22 ii.       84. 

16 ii.       41. 

2 ii.  209. 

3 i.  415. 

16 ii.  HI. 

11—31 ii.       56, 

19—22 ii.       82. 

23 ii.  182. 

6,7,8 ii.  112. 

24 i.  415. 

24,25 ii.  112. 

8.  10 ii.  184. 

12 ii.       33. 

29 i.  414. 

5,  6 ii.  179.;ij<<r. 

3 i.        37. 

ii.  209. 

3 ii.       33. 

23 ii.       35,36. 

33 i.  372. 

25.  45 i.  415. 

22,  23.  30 i.  404. 

37—40 ii.     156. 

2 ii.       41. 

23—3.5 i.  409. 

41—50 ii.  209.  y«. 

13.  15,  16 ii.     113. 

19 ii.       81. 

2 ii.  117. 

.3,4.  9.  17 ii.     133. 

15 ii.     134. 

11 ii.    208. 

23—29 i.  416, 

ii,  208. 

3 i,        37. 

6—9 ii.     130. 

8,  9 i.     383. 

14 i.        57. 

ii.      84. 

ii.    210. 

29 ii.     138. 

15 ii.     169. 

28 i.     421. 

2.  6,  6 ii.       86. 

5—9 i.  380.  &  n. 

17.  19 ii.     iOB.&H, 

1 ii.       33. 

1—6 ii.     137.^ 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  OF  SCRIPTURE. 


483 


Numbers. 
Cliip.      Verse                           Vol. 
xxix.      1 ii. 

XXX.  O.   f .  «7.  Xo.. .......   li. 

xxxi.      10 i. 

28 — 41 ii. 

xxxii.     41 ii. 

xxxiii.    49 ii. 

xxxiv.    1 — 1 6 ii. 

3 ii. 

6 ii. 

11 iL 

xxzv.    4,  5 ii. 

6—15 ii. 

16—22 ii. 

26,  27 ii. 

31,  32 iu 

xxxvi.    13 ii. 

Dectebonomt. 

i.  1 i. 

9—18 i. 

10 i. 

28 i. 

iii.  9 ii. 

12—17 ii. 

14 i. 

17 ii. 

iv.  15 — 20 ii. 

48 ii. 

49 ii. 

V.  15 i. 

vi.  5 i. 

9 ii. 

13 i. 

16 i. 

vii.         25,  26 ii. 

viii.        3 i. 

9 ii. 

15 ii. 

ix.  1 i. 

X.  6,7 i. 

16 ii. 

22 i. 

xi.  10 ii. 

14 ii. 

29 ii. 

xii.         5—12.  17—19 ii. 

6,7 ii. 

15.  20—22 i. 

15.  22 ii. 

30 ii. 

xiii.       i. 

2—6 ii. 

2— IS iL 

13—16 ii. 

13—18 iL 

xiv.        2,  o.ol.  ..........  11. 

XV.         1 — 12 iL 

7—10 ii. 

22 iL 

xvL        3 iL 

6 iL 

11—15 iL 

16,  17 • 11. 

18,  19 iL 

sviL       6,  7 iL 

8,  9 iL 

8—12 iL 

13 ii. 

14—20 ii. 

xviii.      3 ii. 

9—12 iL 

10 iL 

10,11 iL 

15.  19 L 

15.  18,  19 ii. 

18,  19 L 

20 — 22 ,,...  iL 

'L 


Page 
127. 
129. 
416. 
113. 

17.  165. 

33. 

14. 

27. 

28. 

26. 
113. 

16. 

63. 

63.  67. 

65. 
208. 


36. 

416. 
421. 
87-i. 

30. 

16. 

37. 

27, 28. 
^  notes. 
139. 

30. 

27. 
415, 
296. 
154. 
294. 
294. 

61. 
294. 

37. 

34.  yn. 
372. 
416. 

WQ.note. 
416. 
177. 

24.no/e. 

31. 

83. 

81. 
415. 
117. 

61. 
411. 
254. 

61. 

67. 

61. 
172. 

16.63. 

83. 
117. 
124. 

73. 
122. 
122. 

54. 

56,'  57. 

54. 

54. 

55.  64. 

43. 
113, 

62. 

61. 
142. 
299. 
211. 
453. 

62. 
214.  254. 


Chap. 
xix. 

Deutbhohtomt. 

Verse                           Vol. 
3 ii. 

Page 

67. 

63. 
359. 

64. 

42. 154. 

84. 

85. 

84. 

63. 
163. 
411. 

62. 

67. 
386. 

69.199. 
159. 
153. 
177. 

64. 
410. 

54. 

64. 

65. 

66. 

63.  154. 
178. 

63. 
156. 

56. 

64. 
170. 
125. 
147. 

61. 
413. 
326. 

35. 
179. 
180. 

64. 

64. 

41. 

38. 

27.  y  n. 

41. 

WO.note. 
372. 

25. 

35, 36. 
305. 
303. 
331. 
304. 

331.361. 
304. 
211. 

25. 
358. 

33. 

37. 

31. 
194. 

42. 
309. 

13. 

26. 

96. 
214. 

26. 

26. 
110. 

90. 

88. 
215. 

90. 

41. 

68. 

Chap 
viii. 

5, 
15. 
16- 
5.. 

B.  11 

. .  ii. 

IX. 

. .  i. 

—21 

. .  ii. 

XX. 

. .  ii. 

5—8 

9 

. .  iL 
. .  ii. 

xxi. 

10- 
1- 
15- 
18- 

22. 
23, 

5 

-15.  16—20. 
-9 

. .  ii. 
. .  ii. 

—17 

. .  ii. 

—21 

. .  ii. 

ii. 
. .  ii. 

xi. 

. .  i. 

xxii. 

ii. 
. .  ii. 

8.. 

10. 

13- 

13- 

15. 

18. 

19. 

26. 

6 

. .  ii. 
. .  ii. 

xii. 

-19 

. .  ii. 

xiii. 

-21 

. .  ii. 

. .  ii. 

XV. 

. .  ii. 

29 

. ,  ii. 

. ,  ii. 

xxiv. 

. .  ii. 

10- 
13. 
1 

-12 

1 .  ii. 

. .  ii. 

XXV, 

. .  ii. 

2,  S 
7— 
5— 
Il- 
ls. 
15- 
26.. 
24.. 
39.. 
40. 
58, 
9.. 
10- 
22. 
23. 
25- 
6 

t 

. .  ii. 

9 

. .  ii. 

xvii. 

XX  vi. 

11 

. .  ii. 

xxvii. 

-13 

. .  ii. 

xviii. 

. .  ii. 

-26 

. .  i. 

. .  i. 

XX. 

xxviii. 

. .  ii. 

xxi. 

. .  ii. 
. .  ii. 

xxii. 

xxix. 

59 

-18 

. .  ii. 
. .  ii. 
. .  ii. 

xxiii. 
xxiv. 

. .  ii. 

. .  ii. 

-27 

. .  ii. 
, .  ii. 

XXX. 

12. 
9, 

, .  i. 

I. 

xxxii. 

. ,  ii. 

13. 
17. 
21. 
25. 
35. 
42. 
43. 

. .  ii. 

. .  i. 

u. 

. .  i. 

. .  i. 

. .  i. 

lU. 

. .  i. 

xxxiii. 

. .  i. 
. .  iL 

iv. 

13.. 
17.. 
18.. 

. .  ii. 

. .  i, 
. ,  ii. 
. ,  i. 

xxxiv. 

v. 

1,2 
7 

.3 

. .  ii. 

. .  iL 

. .  ii. 

1^ 

1., 

Joshua. 

5, 

. .  i. 

ii. 

3, 

.  ii. 
. .  ii. 

15.. 

7,, 

vi. 

iv. 

. .  ii. 

vii. 

V, 

9... 
18. 
1,. 

. .  iL 
. .  iL 
. .  ii. 

vi. 

4.6 

4, 

,9 

. .  iL 
. .  ii. 

viii. 

21. 
25. 
26. 
14. 
25, 

. .  ii. 

ix. 

. .  ii. 

.  •  ii. 

X. 

vii. 

. .  ii. 

xi. 

26 

, .  ii. 

Joshua. 

Verse  Vol.  Page 

30—35 iL       31. 

3—27 iL  112. 

4 ii.  155. 

4.13 iL  179. 

10 iL       24. 

11 iL  21.5. 

12 L  421. 

13 L        57. 

iL  215.£<fn. 
216.  Wjt 

15.43 L  416. 

23.37 L  416. 

5.  7 iL       27. 

18 ii.       14. 

19 L  416. 

19,20 L  410. 

1—6 iL       16. 

3 iL      26. 

3 ii.       15. note. 

5 iL       14. 

2 — 4 iL       14.  y« 

5,..- iL       27,yn. 

7 iL  28. 

9 ii.  216. 

20—62 iL       38. 

47 iL      14. 

55 iL       30. 

63 L  416. 

iL      19. 

iL  214. 

8,  9 iL       26. 

15 ii.       36. 

16 iL       19.28. 

25 iL  216. 

28 iL       19. 

8 iL       18. 

17 iL  216. 

43,44 L  416. 

16—22 iL  237. 

5 L  407. 

14 iL  216. 

25 iL  215. 

26.29 iL  214.- 

Judges. 

1 iL  214. 

7 iL  90.£if7i. 

19 L  416. 

.5 iL       32. 

13 iL  135.138. 

20,21 L  412. 

15—26 L  411. 

16 iL  88. 

31 iL  nb.&n. 

•  •••••••••••••■••a     II*  0\/« 

13.  15y  16 •••«  11.  33« 

17—20 L  411. 

iL  217.7io/e. 

8 ii.  89. 

6 iL  217. 

10 iL  54.6f7j, 

11 iL  29. 

17 ii.       17.187 

19 iL  33. 

20 L  421. 

28—30 L  363. 

30 iL  91. 

1 L  416. 

3 iL  85. 

12 iL  175. 

18 L  288. 

19.. iL  73. 

2 ii.  llQ.note. 

24r—Tl iL  137. 

7—15 L  366. 

27 iL  141. 

14 L  372. 

30,  39 ii.  130. 

30,31 L  411. ^n. 


484 


Chap. 
zt. 
xiv. 
xvi. 

xvii. 
zviii. 

XX. 


XXI. 


1. 

ii. 
lii. 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  OF  SCRIPTURE. 


It. 


lU. 


Tll. 

viiL 


IX. 


X. 


XI. 


Xll. 

xiii. 


XV. 

xvi. 

xvii. 

zvilL 

xix. 
jxi. 
xxii. 


xxm. 
xxiv. 


XIV. 


Judges 
Verse 

34 

12 

21 

31 

6 : 

30 

8.  17 

16 

35.46 i. 

45.47 ii. 

25 ii. 


Vol. 

,  i.  411. 

.  ii.  162. 

.  ii.  66. 

.  ii.  199. 


II. 
ii. 
ii. 
ii. 


Ruth. 


1 

14 

15 

1,  2.7.  11. 
4 


11. 
ii. 
ii. 
ii. 
ii. 


1  Samuei.. 


13 

22—24. 
24—28. 

10 

14 

25 


11. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

i. 

2.  4,  5,  &:c ii. 

6.  12 ii. 

17 ii. 

19 i. 

4 ii. 

i. 

ii. 


5 

11—17. 

14 

2 

7 


II. 
i. 


9 

24 

25 

27 

1—3.... 
5—7.... 

17 

1 , 

1,2 

14 

7,8 

11 

12 

23 

33 

12 

14 

18 

20 

16.  23.. 

2,3 

5 , 

6,7.45., 
33.42.., 

OOa     •   •    •    •  • 

4 


11. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

i. 

i. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 


I. 
ii. 
ii. 
ii. 


11. 
i. 
ii. 


7,  8.... 

10 

17 

13—17. 


II. 
ii. 
ii. 
ii. 


15. 


1.... 
7.... 
1,2. 


Page 


u. 


17,  18 ii. 

14,  15 ii. 

2 iu 

4,5.11 ii. 

5—8 ii. 

8 ii. 

2 ii. 


217. 
217. 

84. 

87,  83. 
405. 

31. 

42. 


218. 
177. 
156. 
81. 
176. 


131. 
163. 
164. 
219. 

97. 
325. 

97. 
196. 
196. 
288. 
138. 
219. 

44.  no^e. 

46. 

43. 
287. 
2\3.note. 

43. 

43. 

46. 

84. 

43. 

25. 

77. 

85. 
411. &n. 
416. 
156. 

92. 
137. 

57.  67. 

43. 
196. 
403. 

46. 
184. 

32. 

87,  88. 

87.  &  «. 
403. 

87. 

81.88. 
&  note. 

91. 

44. 

46. 

28. 

i^i.note. 
417. 

46. 

31,32. 

46. 

43.  y  n. 

34. 

32. 

156, 

44. 
V5. 
30. 


Chap. 

XXV. 

xxvi. 

xxvii. 

xxviii. 


XXIX. 
XXX. 


XXXI. 


II. 
iii. 


IV. 
V. 

vi. 

vii. 

viii. 


X. 

xi. 


XII. 

xiii. 
xiv. 
XV. 

xvii. 
xviii. 


.XIX. 
XX. 

xxi. 

xxii. 

xxiii. 


IIIV. 


1  Sa:»uei.. 
Vcrac  Vol. 

18 ii. 

23 

5.7 

6 


1. 

, ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

7 ii. 

7—25 i. 

1 ii. 

1,  2 i. 

9 ii. 

12 ii. 

21 ii. 

1—6 i. 

10 ii. 

12 ii. 

13 ii. 


2  Samcbl. 


5—15.. 

10 

14 

18 

19—27. 

21 

18 


II. 

i. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

3 ii. 

31,  32 ii. 

33,34 ii. 

35 ii. 

9—12 


u. 

3 ii. 

18.  22 ii. 

5 ii. 

ii. 


17.... 

2 

14,... 
3—14. 


II. 

i. 

ii. 


13 II. 

16,  17 ii. 

18 ii. 


1 

9 

20 

26.... 
1—14. 
31.... 


29 

2 

20 

7 

18 

23 

8,9 

12 

6.  8.  17. 

9 

18 

24—27. 

4 

8 

15 

6 


11. 

i. 

ii. 

i. 

i. 

i. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

i. 

ii. 


Page 

37.  179. 
196. 

87. 
213. 
2l9.&n. 

89. 

95. 

28. 
416. 

26. 

37. 


1,2. 
3.... 
13.. 
1.... 
9.... 


II. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

i. 

ii. 

i. 

i. 


Chap, 
ii. 
iii. 
iv. 


1 Kixofl. 

20 i. 

32 — 40 iL 

33 ii. 

5,  6.  8 i. 

5,  6.  28—34 ii. 

26.  20— 31 ii. 

26,  27 ii. 


28. 

V. 

416. 

viii. 

138. 

199. 

202. 

jx. 

z. 

43. 

416. 

XI. 

44. 

216.7JO<e. 

88. 

88. 

87. 

XII. 

30. 

199, 200. 

200. 

XUl. 

202. 

XIV. 

43. 

43. 

XVII. 

32. 

XVIU 

184. 

97. 

219. 

307. 

14. 

31. 

XIX. 

47. 

46. 

155.157. 

XX. 

74. 

l52.note. 

196. 

202. 

XXI. 

366. 

XXII. 

412. 

427.note. 

46. 

202. 

45.  Wn. 

287. 
46. 
26. 

i. 
ii. 

87. 

2.5. 

36. 
85.  157. 

iii. 

31. 
44. 

iv. 

202. 

87. 
89. 

V. 

68. 
220. 

vi. 

24. -i. 

355. 
31. 

417. 

ix. 

X. 

421. 

xi. 

xiu. 

290. 

xiv. 

44. 

28. 

XV. 

411. 

67. 

57, 

xvi. 

43. 

xvii 

I  KlXGS. 

Verse                           Vol.  Pa({« 

25.  29.  31.  34.  46..  ii.  67. 

16 — 28 ii,  55. 

7 ii,  46, 

21,  24 ii.  14. 

21 ii.  17. 

22,  23.  28 ii,  44, 

23 i.  422. 

25 ii.  150. 

26 i.  403. 

32,33 i.  67. 

33 ii.  29. 

7—11 ii,  32.  187. 

9 i.  418. 

46 i.  343, 

63,  65 i,  422. 

12,  13 ii.  167. 

4,  5 ii.  46. 

14, 15.  22.  28,  29..  ii.  46. 

16,  17 ii.  Ql.iiote. 

7 ii.  19.  137. 

138. 

27 ii.  78. 

40 i.  88. 

41 ii.  221. 

14.  18 ii.  46. 

6 ii.  47. 

28.  32 ii.  136. 

4—6 ii.  197. 

21,  22 ii.  135. 

25 i.  88. 

4.  6 i.  422.  &n. 

ii.  141. 

19 — 40 ii.  30. 

26 ii.  141. y?!. 

27 i.  372. 

40 ii.  26. 

44,45 ii.  24. 

14 i.  303. 

18 i.  303. 

19 ii.  165. 

1 ii.  164. 

11 ii.  87,88. 

15 ii.  47. 

23 ii.  139. 

1 — 14 ii.  43.7ior*. 

5,  6 i.  120. 

6.19—23 i.  412. 

15 i.  336.372. 

34 u.  87. 

2KiiTfJS. 

2 ii.  153. 

9 i.  359. 

15 ii.  165. 

23,  24 i.  412. 

24 ii,  36. 

15 ii,  184. 

16,17 ii.  24. 

13 ii,  8.5, 

19,  20 ii,  24. 

38 ii,  184. 

8 ii.  138. 

18 ii.  141. 

1—4 ii.  254, 

25 ii.  176.  £^«. 

\79. note. 

30 ii.  158. 

15,10.23 ii.  116. 

11,  12.  19,  20 ii.  U.&n. 

1.  10 i.  406. 

17 ii.  89. 

7 ii.  31. 

13 ii.  19. 

5 ii.  196. 

30.  33 i,  406. 

35 ii.  102. 

3 iL  136,141. 

9—13 ii.  102. 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  OF  SCRIPTURE. 


485 


2  Kings. 

Verse  Vol. 

26 ii. 

24.  27,  28 ii. 

4 ii. 

5 ii. 

35 i. 

9 i. 

26 ii. 

2 ii. 

7 ii. 

11 ii. 

3 ii. 

10 ii. 

13 ii. 

25 ii. 

8 i. 

13 i. 

14 ii. 

17 ii. 

8—12 i. 

1  Chroxicies. 
31 ii. 

mO*     •     •••••••     •     ••     •     ■     •        U* 

34,  35 ii. 

14.  21.  23 ii. 

23 ii. 

15 ii. 

2.  8 ii. 

15 ii. 

9 ii. 

7 i. 

3 i. 

4 i. 

5 i. 

4 ii. 

11 ii. 

31 ii. 

16 — 22 ii. 

25 ii. 

26—31 ii. 

30 ii. 

I.    2 ii. 

4—7 i. 

29 ii. 

-       2  Chronicles. 

1.  10 ii. 

17,  18 ii. 

1 ii. 

26 ii. 

5.  12 ii. 

22 ii. 

1,2 ii. 

2 i. 

xvi.         10 ii. 

14 ii. 

six.        3 i. 

8—11 ii. 

XX.         22—26 ii. 

sxi.        8 — 10 ii. 

12—15.  18,  19 ii. 

xxii.       2 i. 

XXV.       12 ii. 

xxvi.      11 ii. 

14,  15 ii. 

xxviii.    2,3 ii. 

3 ii. 

7 ii. 

20 i. 

xiix.      11 ii. 

34 ii. 

xxxi.      2 ii. 

xxxiv.    5 ii. 

xxxv.    20—24 L 

25 ii. 

xxxvi.    1 — 4 i. 

4 ii. 


Page 
139, 
147. 
130. 

22l.note. 
418. 

89. 

30. 

40. 
139. 

132.710  te. 
196. 

72.  y  71. 
140. 

32. 

19. 
22l.7iote. 
405. 
416. 

89. 

91. 
416. 


18. 

17. 
166. 
181. 
223. 

32. 

87,  88. 

26.  74. 

32. 
417. 
412. 
417. 
421. 

42.  79. 

42. 
112. 

42. 

35. 46. 

46. 
175. 

43. 
422. 
218,219. 

179. 

82. 
178. 

14. 

77. 

44. 
153. 

88. 

65,  &  n. 
198. 
196. 

54.  79, 

31. 

15. 
196. 
403. 

68. 

42. 

87. 
135. 

32. 

46, 
417. 
112, 
113, 
112. 
198. 

89. 
200. 

89. 

91. 
223.n5.'e, 


Ezra. 


Chap. 
ii. 

iil. 

V. 

vi. 

vii. 

viii. 
ix. 

X. 


II. 

iii. 


V, 

vii. 

viii. 

ix. 
xii. 
xiii. 


Verse 


Vol. 


IV. 
V. 

vi, 

vii. 

ix, 

X. 


1, 

58 ii. 

10,  11 i. 

4 ii. 

2 ii, 

9 ii. 

23 ii, 

20 ii. 

8 ii. 

7,8 ii. 

9 ii. 

Nehemiah. 


14 

1.  3.  6,  11.  1.3 
15.  26,  28.  31 


u. 


5,7      .. 

J..U. 


II. 
ii. 


63. 
6„. 


16 

3 

38,  39. 

5 

25 


II. 
ii. 
ii. 
ii. 


Page 
417. 
112. 
374. 
224. 
182. 
243. 

226,  SJ  n. 
112. 
154. 

66. 

24. 


21. 
19,20. 

21. 

46. 
417, 
401, 
131. 
154, 

72. 

20, 

66, 

66,  157, 


Esther. 


14 

2 

1.8—11. 

8 

20.  23. . . 

1 

2 


Job. 


IV. 
V. 

viii. 

X. 

xii. 
xiii. 

XV. 

xvii, 

xviii, 

xix. 

XX. 

xxi, 

xxii, 

xxiii. 

xxvi, 

xxvii. 

xxix. 

xxxi. 


xxxu. 


1.3 

5.  11... 

8 

22 

5,9 

7 

9 

13—16,, 

19 

4 

13 

8,9 

2,3 

4 

2 

7 

27 

10 

28 

3 

13 

24 

25—29, 

24 

32 

15—20. 
3—14,. 
11,  12.. 

5 

7 

16 

19 , 

14 

19 

23 

26,  27, . 
26—28. 
33 


II. 

i. 

ii. 

ii, 

ii, 

ii. 

i. 

ii. 


II. 

i. 

ii. 

ii. 

i, 

ii, 

i. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

i. 

ii. 

ii. 

i. 

i. 

i. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

i. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 
,  ii. 
.  ii. 
,  i. 

i, 
.  ii. 
I  ii. 

ii. 

ii, 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 


Chap. 

xxxii, 

xxxiii. 

xxxvii. 

xxxix. 

xii, 

xiii. 


1. 


V. 

viii. 

X. 

xiv. 
xvi. 

xviii. 


l^^v.   •••••#•!.  ...    Ua 


128, 
196. 

xix. 

44. 

45. 

57. 

226. 

xxi. 

xxii. 

323, 

226. 

xxiii. 

230. 

XXIV. 

407. 

227. 

232. 

XXVllI, 

407. 

XXIX, 

196. 

XXX. 

336, 

XXXI, 

256. 

XXXll, 

l5l.note. 

54, 

XXXIll. 

305. 

228. 

235. 

XXXIV. 

339. 

XXXV, 

372. 

XXXVI, 

396. 

65. 

xxxvm 

228, 

xl. 

Ibl.iiote. 

xii. 

81. 

xiii. 

197, 

182, 

234,  237. 

88, 

xliv. 

202, 

237. 

xlv. 

235. 

237. 

376, 

xlvi. 

422, 

159. 

199. 

157. 

xlvii. 

25, 

xiviii. 

24. 

141. 

Ii. 

229.no/e. 

205.  237. 

Iv. 

note. 

ivi. 

233. 

lix. 

Job. 

Verse                          Vol.  Page 

16,  17 ii.  230.7iote. 

22,  23 ii.  237.nofe. 

9 ii.  38. 

9 i.  422. 

i.  336. 

6 ii.  231. 

7 i.  426. 

11 ii.  229.7iote. 

11—17 ii.  2d6.iiote. 

Psalms. 

1 i.  375. 

3 ii.  177. 

1,2 i.  198. 

299,  390. 

6 i.  290. 

7 i.  300. 

9 i.  310. 

12 ii.  44,  141. 

9 i,  301,359. 

12 ii.  87. 

2 i.  296. 

4—6 i.  307. 

7 i.  301. 

1—3 i.  301. 

4 ii.  119, 

8—11 i.  298,299. 

2 i.  356. 

49 i.  364. 

4 i.  303.Un. 

8 i.  357, 

7—11 i.  375. 

1,2 i.  297.375. 

1 i.  297. 

6 i.  294. 

16 i.  389, 

18 i.  297,298. 

22 i.  307. 

4 ii.  124.?jo{e, 

2, i.  422. 

ii.  205. 

3,  4 i.  375. 

8 i.  290. 

4,5 ii.  36. 

title ii.  84, 154. 

2 i,  362, 

1,  2 i.  301. 

4 ii.  25. 

9 ii.  206. 

13,14 i.  376. 

16 ii.  89. 

12—16 i.  310. 

13 ii.  132. 

1 i.  301. 

6 i.  197. 

.  10 i.  332. 

6—8 i.  308. 

9 i.  298. 

i,  349. 

1 ii.  30. 

2 i,  340. 

7 ii.  39. 

3 ii,  84. 

22 i.  301. 

2 ii.  252. 

3.  6 ii-  44, 

6,7 i-  307. 

2.3 ii.  19- 

2 5 ii.  38. 

6.10 i.  376, 

9 i.  372. 

5 ii.  44. 

2..... ii.  21. 

7 ii.  25. 

4 i.  301. 

10 i.  359. 

i.  413. 

8. ii.  201. yn 

6.  14,  15 ii.  176. 


486 


Chap. 
Ixiii. 

Ixv. 

Ixviii. 


Ixix. 


Ixxii. 
Ixxvi. 
Ixxviii. 


Ixxix. 
ixxxii. 
Ixxxiii. 
Ixxxiv, 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  OF  SCRIPTURE. 


16. 


Ixxxv. 
Ixxxvii. 
txxxix. 
xci. 

xcii. 

xciv. 

XCT. 


xc^u. 

xcviii. 
xcix 
cii. 
ciii. 

civ, 

cv 
cvi, 

oii. 

cLr. 


Psalms. 
Verse  Vol. 

title ii. 

6 ii. 

2 i. 

4 ii. 

9 i. 

18 i. 

9 i. 

9,  10 i. 

22,23 i. 

i. 

i. 

ii. 

i. 

i. 

ii. 

i. 

ii. 

i. 

ii. 

i. 

ii. 

ii. 

i. 

ii. 

i. 

i. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

i. 

ii. 

ii. 

i. 

i. 

i. 

ii. 

i. 

i. 

ii. 

ii. 


25.  . . 

9 

1 

I.  11, 

2 

19,  20 
24 

II.  ... 

6 

13.... 
5—7., 

6 

6,  7.  , . 

7 

10,,.. 
11.,.. 


12. 


10 
3.. 
20 
6„ 
11 

3 

12.,. 
11,., 
7—11 
11... 


7„ 
11, 
6.. 


25—27 i, 

11,  12 

15,  16,.... 

4 

5 

17 

28 

5 

34 


cxii, 

cxiv, 
cxvii, 
cxviii, 
cxix. 

cxxi. 
cxxvii, 

cxxix, 
cxxx, 

cxxxiii, 

cxxxiv, 

cxxxv. 

cxxxvii 

cxxxix. 

exl. 

cxli. 

cxliv. 

cilvii. 


a 

8 

23 

1 

4 

4 

10 

4.  6. . . . 

1 

22,2.3,., 

83 

90,  130, 
6 


CL 


5 

6 

1 

G 

o.. ,,,... .••... 

1^  2,  .3 

15_ll8......".. 

2 

3 

2 

5,6 

1.5.  18 

16,  17 ii 

5 u 


Page 

34. 

J3. 
339. 

244.  note. 
297. 

306.  yn, 
297. 

294,  297, 
303. 
298. 
361. 

14, 
376, 
295. 
139. 
297. 

66. 
297. 

38.  &n. 
331, 
122, 

2S.nole. 
332.7iote. 
111. 

362.  399. 
&n. 
362, 

'■ii.iiote. 

44. 

38. 
294, 
184. 

36. 
305. 
307. 
323. 
208. 
307. 
357. 

44. 

9G. 
307. 
376. 

40. 
307. 
422, 

66, 
138. 

34. 

413, 
298. 
298, 

39, 
296. 
383, 
357. 
376, 

.38, 
304, 
296, 

15.5.  179, 
42.5, 

2.5. 
240. 

54. 
1.53. 
356, 

7.3. 
25.£;fn..30, 

73.note. 
376. 

\C}6.note. 
361. 
301. 
119. 
376. 

37. 

24, 
183. 


Chap. 


u. 
iii. 

V. 

vi. 

vii. 

X. 


XI. 


XV. 

xvi. 


xvn. 
xviii, 

XX, 

xxi, 
I  xxii, 

xxiii. 

XXV. 


XXVI. 

rxvii, 

XXX. 

xxxi. 


VI. 

vii. 


vm. 
xi. 


Xll. 


111. 


IV. 


v. 
vii. 


viu. 


Phoverbs. 
Verse  Vol. 

27 ii. 

16 ii. 

11,  12 i. 

15—18 i. 

1,2 i. 

6—23 ii. 

1,  V 

12 

14 


15, 


21. 
22. 
1... 
4... 
14. 
15, 
18, 


I. 

i. 

i. 

ii. 

i. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

, i. 

i. 

ii. 

ii. 

i. 

21,  22 i. 

16 i. 

1 ii. 

6 i. 

27 ii. 

15.  16 i. 

11 i. 

13 ii. 

15 i. 

21,22 i. 

1 ii. 

4,5 i. 

23 ii. 

7—9 ii, 

6 ii. 

10—31 ii. 

24 ii. 

EcCLESIASTES. 

2 i. 

3 ii. 

5.  9 ii. 

3 ii. 

6 ii. 

20 i. 

1 ii. 

1 ii. 

9....' i. 

2—6 i. 

5.. ii. 

ii. 

6 ii. 

11 i. 


Page 

38. 

6i.note. 
377. 
365. 
397. 

158,7jo/e. 
375. 
310. 
350. 
247. 
397. 

63. 

80. 
158. 
395. 
343. 

57. 

24. 
397. 
286. 
397. 
177. 
395. 

63. 
376. 
370. 

30. 
359. 
304. 

25. 
397. 

68.  178. 
246, 

57, 
164, 
156, 


424. 

247, 

177,  Wn, 

199, 

247. 7i')te. 

343. 

ZALnote. 

176. 

372. 

365. 

199. 

ZM.note. 

371. 


Canticles, 
on  Song  of   SoLOMOir. 


1. 
3. 

5, 


5,  6. 

1.... 

3.. . . 

7..,, 

11.,, 

13., 

7,8, 


11,, 
1,,., 
4.,.. 
8,.,. 
15., 
4.... 
1,,.. 
13.. 
1.  8. 
2,,.. 


II. 
ii. 
ii. 

ii. 
ii. 
ii. 
ii. 
ii, 
ii, 
ii, 

ii, 
ii, 
ii. 
ii. 
ii. 
ii. 
ii. 
ii. 
ii. 
ii. 

ii. 


249. 
159. 

151. Wn. 
1 52.  note. 
1.59, 

32, 

36, 

82, 

24. 

37. 

88,  173. 
note, 
161, 

31, 

92, 

30. 

29. 
153, 
157,£!fn. 

36. 
251. 

172,y  «. 
179. 
157. 


Chap. 


II. 


111. 


IV. 


VI. 


VU. 


VIU. 


IX. 


XI. 


Xll, 

xiii, 
xiv. 


xvu. 
x\iii. 

xix. 


XX. 

xxi. 


xxu. 


xxut. 

xxiv. 

xxv, 

xxvii, 

xxviii. 


XXIX. 


XXX. 

xxxi. 
xxxii, 

xxxiv. 


Isaiah. 

Verse  Vol.  Page 

i,  339, 

1 ii.  266.no/e 

3 i.  376. 

5 i.  335. 

8 u,  179. 

notes  1  &  9 

9 i.  302. 

4 i.  336. 

19 ii.       32. 

16—24 ii.  158. 

17 ii.       90. 

18.  20 ii.  158. 

23 ii.  157,  158 

26 i.        91. 

1 i.  SSi.note. 

u.  151. 160. 

1—7 i.  366,367. 

3 i.  374. 

9,  10 i.  197.295 

298.  344, 
390. 

9,  10,  11 i,  295, 

3 ii,       20. 

ii.  262, 

14 i.  293.390. 

23 ii.  178. 

1—3 ii,  262, 

6 ii.       28.  183. 

12,  13 i.  3i0, 

14 i,  302,302, 

17,  18 i,  307. 

1 iL       18. 

1,  2 i,  294. 

2,  ,3 i,  287. 

4 i,  383. 

1 ii,       56. 

22,  23 i.  302. 

6 i.  391. 

10 i.  304. 

15 i.  388. 

3 i.  297. 

10,  13 i.  389. 

1—27 ii.  269. 

16 ii.  201. 

30 i.  197. 

5,.    ii.       32. 

13 ii.       38. 

2 ii.  lS9.&n. 

2.7 ii.  262. 

5 ii.  179, 

6,7 ii.  182.^71. 

18—25 ii.  264, 

19.21 i.  389, 

2 i,  385. 

1 i.  388. 

11,  12 i.  389. 

6 ii,       88. 

16 ii.  201. 

21 ii.  16,5, 

22 ii.  47. 

23 ii.  154. 

10—13 ii.  264. 

11 ii.  264. 

20 ii.  38. 

8 i.  805. 

1 i.  388. 

12,  13 i.  376, 

11,  12 i,  305, 

15 ii.       80. 

16 i.  302,303 

23—29 i.  366. 

1 ii.       19. 

10 i,  303, 

13 i,  295. 

14 i.  304. 

26 i,  389. 

4 i.  376. 

2 ii,  31,£/n 

30 ii.  176, 

i.  Z^O.note. 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  OF  SCRIPTURE. 


Chaji. 
xxxiv. 

XXXV. 

xxxvi. 
xxxvii. 


xxxviu 
xl. 


xH. 
xlii. 
xiiil. 
xliv. 

xlV. 
xlvi. 

xlvii. 
xlix. 


li. 


Hi. 


liii. 


liv. 


Iv. 

Ivii. 
Iviii. 

lix. 

Ix. 

lii. 

Ixii. 
Ixiv. 
Ixv, 


Ixvi. 


Isaiah. 
Verse^  Vol 

4 

4—6. 

2 

7 

6 

9 

24... 
27... 
38... 
.  17.  .. 
21... 
1- 
3. 


10. 


3—5. 

5 

6 


6,7.. 
C.  8. . 
13... 
21. . . 
19... 
1—4. 
5 


U, 

I  i. 
ii. 
ii. 
i. 
i. 
ii. 
ii. 
ii. 
ii. 
ii. 
i. 
ii. 
i. 
i. 
i. 
ii. 
i. 
i. 
ii. 
ii. 
i. 


26.. 
28.. 
23.. 
1,2. 
7.... 
2.... 
6.... 


8 

9—11. 
1.  4.  7. 
3 


1. 

ii. 

i. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

i. 

i. 

ii. 

i. 

i. 


17—23 1 

^0»  ■■•••••••••■■•    IJ 

2 

5 

7 

10 

11,  13 

15 

1 


4.... 
5.... 
7,8. 
10.. 
12.. 
1.... 


5.... 
5,  6. 
10.. 
13.. 
3.... 


11. 

i. 

i. 

i. 

i. 

i. 

i. 

i. 

i. 

i. 

ii. 

i. 

i. 

i. 

ii. 


6,7 i. 

1 ii. 

10 i. 

7,8 i. 

20,21 i. 

1 i. 


19.. 
1,2. 
4.... 


5.... 

4.... 
1,2. 
4.... 


10 

11 

21,  22. 
1,2... 
17 


1. 

i. 

i. 

ii. 

i. 

i. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

i. 

i. 

ii. 


Jeremiah. 
4—10,  11 ii. 


u. 


10. 
18. 
6.., 


I. 
i. 
iL 


Page 
182. 
389. 
30. 

35.  &  n. 
89. 

89. 

30. 
153. 
139. 

32. 
196. 
392. 

46.  £ifn, 
294. 
287. 
358. 

25.£!fn, 
310. 
305. 

38. 

36.  y  n. 
294. 
376. 
376. 

268.noie. 
304. 

91. 139. 
140. 

26.  178. 
300. 
317. 

25. 
375. 
196. 
367. 

90. 
l70.note. 
300. 
303. 
287. 
306. 
304. 
297. 

294.  358. 
389. 
300. 
119. 
297. 

306.  389. 
376. 
252. 
375. 
297. 
300. 
375. 
140. 
257. 

286.  Wn. 
301. 
304. 
362. 
389. 
297. 
288. 
252. 

304.  305. 
303. 
201.no;e. 

32. 
137. 
376. 
300. 
137. 


273. 

360.  390. 
356. 
34.  £?  n. 


Jehemiah. 
Chap.      Verse  Vol. 

ii.  18 ii. 

iii.  6 ii. 

26 i. 

iv.  10 i. 

11 ii. 

30 ii. 

vi.  6 ii. 

vii.         31 ii. 

viii.        20 ii. 

22 ii. 

ix.  17,18 ii. 

X.  1.3 i. 

xiii.        1 — 7 i. 

22 ii. 

xiv.        3 ii. 

XV.         18 ii. 

xvi.        2.  5.  8 i. 

7 ii. 

xvii.       5 i. 

8 ii. 

9 i. 

xviii.      2—10 i. 

xix.        2 ii. 

XX.         2 ii. 

7 i. 

xxi.        12 ii. 

xxii.       14 ii. 

19 ii. 

xxiii.      5,  6 <. .. .  iu 

5—8 i. 

xxiv.      2 ii. 

xxvi.      23 ii. 

xxix.      22 ii. 

26 ii. 

XXX.       18 ii. 

xxxi.      15 i. 

22 ii. 

31—34 i. 

38.40 ii. 

xxxii.     10—15 ii. 

35 ii. 

XXXV.    5 — 7. 18, 19 ii. 

xxxvi.    2.  18 ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

......  ii. 

, ii. 

, ii. 

ii. 

, i. 

ii. 

ii. 

, i. 

ii. 

i. 


XXXVll. 

xxxviii, 


xlvi. 

xlvii. 

xlviii. 

xlix. 


2.  18.  . . 

22 

30 

15 

16—20. 

6 

7 

23 

4 

11 

4 

36 

19 


li. 


lii. 


u. 

8 ii. 

19 i. 

20,21 ii. 

64 ii. 

24 ii. 


Lamentations. 


II. 
iv. 


II. 

iv. 

vii. 

viii. 


IX. 


1.. 
6... 
19. 
12. 


1. 
ii. 
ii. 

ii. 


Page 

Id.note, 
140. 

91. 
360.  376. 

40. 
158. 

89. 

19. 

24. 

36. 
199,200. 
197. 
386. 
154:. note. 

29.note. 

35. 
386. 
202. 
339. 
177. 
330. 
386. 

19. 

Q5.note. 
412. 

55. 
152. 
199. 
275. 
392. 

37. 
201. 

68.S^n. 

65.note. 
lol.note. 
294. 

276.7iote. 
308. 

19,20. 

19.81. 
137. 
116. 
182. 

23.  74. 
199. 

65. note. 

66. 

65. 

47. 
360. 

88. 

36. 
323. 
199. 
368. 

&  note. 

26. 

36,    ■ 
287, 

88, 
215.note. 
113. 


91. 

22. 
73. 
\2.note. 


EZERIEL. 

9,  10 ii,  183.yM, 

12 ii.  171. 

15 i.  360. 

8—10 .•.  ii.  201.£ifn. 

8—11 ii.  139. 

17 ii.  141. 

2 ii.  156.183. 

note. 


Chap. 
xiii. 


XIV. 


XV. 

xvi. 
xvii, 

xix. 

XX. 

xxi. 

xxiii. 
xxvii. 


xxvui. 

xxxi. 

xxxii. 

xxxiii. 

xxxvii, 

xliii. 
xlvi. 
xlvii. 

xlviii. 


HI. 

iv. 

V. 

vi. 

vii. 
viii. 


IX. 

xi. 
xii. 


1. 
ii. 
iv. 
vi. 

ix. 

X. 

xi. 

xiii. 

xiv. 


I. 
ii. 


487 

EZEKIEI. 

Verse  Vol.  Page 

11 ii.      24. 

18 ii.  153.  • 

19.22 i,  360. 

<  7 ii.  lOO.rio/e. 

9 i.  412. 

14 ii,  227. 

i.  366. 

12 ii.  158. 

3 ii.       29. 

22.24 ii.       36. 

1—9,  10—14 i.  366. 

11 ii.       44. 

25,26 i.  360. 

6 i.  372. 

21 ii.  143.  £^» 

14,15... ii,  183. 

25 ii.       90.Hc/e. 

6 ii.      Zl.noie. 

36. 

10,11 ii.      92. 

17,18 ii.       35. 

18 ii.  llQ.&n. 

26 ii.       25. 

12 ii.  269. 

3—17 i.  366. 

27 ii.  201. 

21.30 ii.      24. 

1 i.  359. 

16 ii.  \8l.&n. 

3 i.  390. 

23,24 ii.  154. 

16.18 ii.       18. 

18 ii.       27. 

1 ii.      14. 

Daniel. 

5 ii.  184. 

6.15 ii.       72. 

25,  26.  31—33 ii.  196. 

12 i.  196. 

7.  12.  16—24 ii.       68. 

10 ii.  131,  132. 

1—7 ii.  278. 

2 i.  338. 

1—7.  20—22 ii.  278. 

14 ii.       72. 

1—27 ii.  279. 

1—45 ii.  279. 

2 i.  372. 

HOSEA. 

2 i.  387. 

10 i.  302. 

6 ii.       37. 

23 i.  302. 

12 i.  357, 

ii,  143. 

4 ii.  25.y,i. 

5 i.  360. 

6 i.  295. 

4 ii.  202. 

9 i.  315. 

8 ii.  32. 

1 i.  293.391. 

8,9 i.  375. 

10,  11 ii.  2Q\.note. 

3 ii.  25.154. 

5 ii.  34. 

14 i.  305. 

2 i.  309. 

5.... ii.  2b. 

7 ii.  29.35. 

179.(yn. 

9 i.  376, 

JoE£. 

4—20 ii.  39. 

3 ii.  22. 


488 


Chap. 
ii. 


111. 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  OF  SCRIPTURE. 


VI. 


VII. 

vriL 


IX. 


I. 

iii. 


ui. 


IV. 


UI. 


I. 
ii. 


111. 


11. 


II. 
vii. 
viii. 
ix. 

xi. 


xiii. 

XiT. 


JoEt. 


Verse 
7 


Vol. 
I.  i. 


11 ii. 

20 ii. 

28—32 i. 

ii. 

2—12 ii. 

4 i. 


10. 
18. 


I. 
ii. 


Amos. 

2 ii. 

15 ii. 

16,  17 ii. 

25—27 i. 

26 ii. 

4 ii. 

10 ii. 

14,  15 ii. 

6 ii. 

9,  10 ii. 

2,  3 ii. 

11,12 i. 

12 i. 

JOSAH. 


17 i. 

2 i. 

4—10 L 


Page 
375. 

39.^71. 

27.  39. 
298.  389. 
lOb.note. 

32. 
389. 
336. 

33. 


30. 
153. 
199. 
299. 

96. 
153, 
199.    . 
185. 

54. 
260.^71. 

30. 
300. 
389, 


MlCAH. 


12. 


2. 
4. 


Nahijm. 


5,  6. 
12.. 


II. 
i. 
ii. 

i. 

ii. 

ii. 

i. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 


11. 
ii. 


Habakkuk. 


5,... 
3,4. 
4.... 

8,... 
12,. 


I. 

i. 

i. 

ii. 

i. 


Haooai. 


6. 
9. 


ZcciiAniAH. 


12.. 

1.... 

19,. 

9.,.. 

11.. 

2,3. 

13.. 


17., 
3... 
10,, 
11,, 
4... 
7... 
16., 


I. 
ii. 


140. 


139. 
422. 
197. 
391. 


271. 
462, 

19. 

90. 
336. 

36. 
271, 
293, 

42. 
271. 

25, 


&n. 


note. 


Cliap 
i. 

ii. 
iii. 

iv. 

Malachi. 

Verse                           Vol. 
2,  3 i. 

Page 
302. 
389.  note. 

46. 
U9.note. 
396. 
295.  &n. 

46. 
392. 
426. 
328. 
325. 407. 

5  OF 

I 

• 

Chap 
ii. 

6 i. 

8 ii. 

11 ii. 

7 i. 

1 i. 

ii. 
1 — 5 i. 

14 i. 

16 i. 

5j  6 i. 

APOCRYPHAL  BOOKS 

THE 

OLD  TESTAMENT 

iii. 

1. 

X. 

xvi 


11. 

vii. 

viii. 

X. 

xii. 
xvi. 
xviii. 


xu. 
xxiv. 

XXV. 


91. 
37. 


300. 
309. 
301. 
2^. note. 
363. 


i.     309. 
ii.      98, 99. 


u. 

ii. 

i. 

ii. 

ii. 

i. 


13. 

74. 
128. 
296,  297. 

65. 

36. 
296.  Wn. 
417. 
197. 
190. 
298.  389. 

33. 
254. 
296. 
389. 


v. 


I. 

ii. 

iii, 

iv. 

v. 

ix, 
xi. 
xiv. 
xvi. 


I. 
iv. 
vi. 
viii. 

X. 

xiii. 

XV. 


1.  II. 
i. 


To  BIT. 


12. 


ii.    228.  note. 


JnDITH. 


8., 
4. 
9. 


11. 
ii. 
ii. 


33.7iote. 
157.  Sjf  71. 
157.  &n. 


Wisdom. 


23,  24 ii.     205. 


26 

20 

1,2 

15.  17.20.. 

3 

4—12 

1,  7,  9,  20. 


11. 
ii. 
ii, 
ii. 
ii, 
ii, 
ii. 


ECCLESIASTICUS. 


11 

30,31. 
24. . . . 


II. 
ii. 
ii. 


IbS.note. 
lii.note. 
205. 
108. 
13. 
136. 
108. 


l58,?iote. 

177. 

205. 


IV. 


V. 


Baruch. 


7 ii.      46. 


1  Maccabees. 

63 ii, 

4 ii. 

54 ii. 

8—11.  13 ii. 

62—59 ii. 

52 ii. 

55—58 ii. 

67 ii. 

32 ii. 

7,  8 ii. 

2  Maccabees. 

7 ii.  13. 

9—15 ii.  190. 

19.28.  30 ii.  68. 

28.  30 ii.  91. 

1—8 ii.  98. 

2 ii.  86. 

37 ii.  76. 


110. 

80. 

90. 

90. 
128. 

76. 
197. 

26. 

87. 

89. 


VI. 


VII. 


THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


Matthew. 


ii.     299, 302. 


1—16 i. 

4 i. 

18 i. 

23 i. 

1—1 ii. 

1—16 i. 


400.417. 
288. 
285. 
293. 

51. 

79. 


viu. 


IX. 


Matthew. 

Verse                           Vol.  Page 

6 i.  293.377 

ii,  271. 

11 ii.  45. 

15 i.  293. 

16 i.  419. 

SJ  jiotet. 

ii.  51. 77. 

17,18 i.  317. 

18 i.  294. 

20,  21 ii,  13. 

22 i.  79. 

ii.  17. 51. 
note 

23 i.  294. 

1 ii.  34. 

1—4 ii,  46. 

I56.&n. 

3 i.  294. 

ii,  46, 

4 ii,  35,  156, 

5 ii.  33, 

9,  10 ii.  26. 

4 i.  294. 

5 ii.  18.99. 

6,  7.., i.  294. 

8 ii.  31. 

10 i.  294.396, 

15 ii,  18. 

15,  16 i.  294.^71. 

25 ii.  18. 

1 ii.  106.no;e. 

5 ii.  13. 

9.  19 i.  196. 

13 i.  365.389. 

note. 

14 i.  365. 

15 ii.  155. 

19 i.  394. 

21,  22.  27—30 ii.  144. 

22 ii.  ,   19.55. 

170. 

25 i.  340. 

ii.  55, 56, 

26 ii.  32. 

Sl.etseq ii.  144. 

33—37 ii.  82. 

34 i.  396. 

38 — 42 i.  358. 

41 ii.  47. 

42 i.  378. 

43 ii.  144. 

1 — 4 i.  289,396 

2 ii.  83. 

5 ii.  131. 

9—13 i.  399. 

13 i.  360. 

19 ii.  159. 

19,20 ii.  151. 

19.  31.  34 i.  358. 

28 ii.  3.5.  yn. 

32 ii.  13. 

33 i.  399.423 

2 i.  290. 

6 i.  380. 

16—20 i.  379. 

23 i.  197. 

24—27 i.  379. 6fn, 

25—27 ii.  24. 

26,27 ii.  151. 

6 ii.  197. 

8,  9 ii.  93. 

12 ii.  167. 

17 i.  294. 

20 i.  342.378 

22.... i.  356. 

23-27 ii.  27. 

28—34 i.  102. 

2 ii.  197. 

2—8 i.  104. 

6 ii.  l!)i.Un 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  OF  SCRTPTURE. 


489 


Matthew. 
tniap.      Verse  Vol.         Page 

ix.  9,10,11 ii.  79. 

13 i.  296. 

15 ii.  161. 

17 ii.  155.179. 

18—26 i.  105. 

20 ii.  156.197. 

23 ii.  199. 

36 i.  328. 

I.  5,6 i.  379. 

9 i.  336. 

ii.  156. 

10 ii.  124. 

14 ii.       14. 

17 ii.  54.104. 

25 ii.  187. 

27 ii.  106. 

34 i.  358.360. 

39 i.  197. 

xi.  10 i.  295. 

19 ii.       79. 

28 i.  398.&n. 

xii.         1 ii.  178. 

2 ii.  121. 

4 ii.       97. 

8 •»  i.  284. 

18—21 i.  295. 

35 i.  284. 

0 i.  383.406. 

422. 

Xiii.        3—30 i.  368. 

8 ii.       35. 

13—15 i.  390. 

14.  15 i.  295.298. 

31,  32 i.  367.368. 

&  note. 
ii.       36.  &  n. 

31—34 i.  365. 

35 i.  295.317. 

45 i.  367. 

47,48 ii.       26. 

xiv.        3—12 ii.       18.68. 

6—8 ii.  184. 

15—21 i.  104. 

24 — 26 ii.       27. 

25 ii.       73. 

34 ii.       26. 

XV.         2 ii.  145. 

3—6 i.  ZZ^.note. 

4 — 6 ii.       62.  129. 

8,  9 i.  295. 

14 ii.  149. 

31 i.  101. 

Xvi.        2,3 i.  379.425. 

6 ii.  124.7iore. 

16 i.  327. 

18 i.  343. 

ii.      54. 

19 i.  360. 

#wl«    ••••••••••••••    11*  ■  O* 

xvii.       1 — 8 ii.      2\.&n. 

14 ii.  131. 

20 i.  368. 

xviii.      1 — 10 ii.      45. 

6 ii.       68. 

8,  9 i.  356. 

11 i.  327. 

17 i.  338.340. 

23—35 i.  367. 

xix.        3.. ii.  163. 

3—12 ii.  144. 

5 i.  295. 

8 ii.  162. 

10 ii.  163. 

12 ii.  146. 

16.20 ii.  145. 

18,19 i.  295. 

19 i.  295. 

XX.         1—15 ii.  167.£ifw. 

3.5,6.9 ii.      72. 

Vol.  II.  3  Q 


Chap. 
XX. 

xxi. 

xxii. 

xxiii. 
ixiv. 

XXV. 

xxvi. 

Matthew. 

Verse 

15 

Vol. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  i. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  i. 
.  i. 
.  i. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 

.  i. 
.  i. 
.  i. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  i. 
.  ii. 
.  i. 
.  i. 
.  i. 
.  ii. 
.  i. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  i. 
.  ii. 
.  i. 

ii. 
.  ii. 
.  i. 
.  i. 
.  i. 
.  i. 

ii. 
.  i. 
.  i. 
.  ii. 
.  i. 
.  i. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 

.  i. 
.  i. 
.  ii. 
.  i. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  i. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
.  i. 

ii. 

. .  i. 

.  ii. 

. .  i. 

ii. 
.  ii. 

• 

.  1. 
.  i. 
ii. 
.  ii. 
.  ii. 
, ,  i. 

Page 
120. 

84. 

45. 
296. 
156. 
127. 

44. 

78. 

33. 
296. 
102. 
402. 

79. 
176.  179. 
note. 
296. 
378. 
368. 
161. 
161. 
162. 
167. 

43.ncre. 

78. 
145.£ifn. 
423. 
146. 
296. 
295. 
296. 

145.  156. 
197. 
201.  Wn. 

19. 
000. 

99. 
000. 

21. 

19. 
458. 

458,  459. 
459. 
460. 

99. 
460. 
000. 

23. 
196. 
197. 
155. 
161,162. 

&  notes. 

366. 

290. 

56. 
396. 

173. 

19.  125. 
402. 

115. 

55. 
l9Q.note. 
19. 

125. 

162. 

343. 

125. 

326.  356. 
70.  125. 

327. 
81. 

125.244. 
note. 

296. 

425. 
57. 

\M.note. 
56. 

396. 

Chap. 
xxvi. 

16 

20 23 

f, 

8 

xxvii 

8,  9 

9   10 

12 

13 

16   

19   

31 

31,  .32 

33  34 

42 

42 44 

1—15 

2 

11 

12 

13 

17 

17 21 

23        

23 32 

35 

37 

39 

xxvii 

44 

5 

15 

27 

33 

37  38 

i. 

1     3 

2 

ii. 

2  3 

4  5 

6   7 

9 

iii. 

15 

v. 

16.  18.24 

19  21 

20   

24 

36 

1     10 

vi. 

1     12 

1 13 

29   

33 

vii. 

34 36 

41.45 

2   6   7 

viii. 

3.57 

5 

12 

18 

21 25 

ix. 

X. 

23   

26 

li. 

26  28 

xii. 

27—31 

28 

30 

31 

xiii. 

39. 42 

50 

63 

63  64 

Matthew. 

Verse                           Vol.  Page 

64 ii.  82.170. 

66 ii.  56. 

67,  68 ii.  70. 

69 ii.  17. 

5 i.  418. 

9,10 i.  296.  yn. 

417. 

11 ii.  56. 

15 ii.  123. 

25 ii.  -  57. 

27 ii.  21. 

27—31 ii.  70.^71. 

72. 156. 

29 i.  372. 

33 ii.  19. 

35 i.  284.  297. 

ii.  69.  note. 

35.  43. I.  390. 

37 ii.  ll.note. 

40 ii.  101. 

46 i.  297.390. 

50. ii.  71. 

52,53 i.  425. 

54.58—60 ii.  71. 

62 ii.  73.122. 

63 , ii.  76. 

65 ii.  21.101. 

1 ii.  73. 

7.16 ii.  17. 

Mark. 

3 i.  29J. 

4 ii.  34. 

6 ii.  40. 

16—20 i.  321. 

4 ii.  152.£iJ'7i 

S— 12 i.  104. 

14 — 16 ii.  78,79. 

22 ii.  155. 

26 i.  315.417. 

5 i.  424. 

5 ii.  201.7jo/e. 

12—17 i.  102. 

20 ii.  18. 

22 — 43 i.  105. 

25,  26 ii.  197. 

29.  34.41.  43 ii.  195. 

38 ii.  200. 

13 ii.  195. 

17*  28*  ••••••*••••  !•  &"• 

27 ii.  47. 

35 — 44 i.  104. 

53 ii.  26. 

9 i.  372. 

y""""io»  •••••••••••  ii»  xi»/» 

31 ii.  17,18 

37. i.  284. 

15 ii.  148. 

31 ii.  76. 

2 — 9 ii.  31. 

43.  •••■••••• u«  it'* 

46 ii.  118. 

9 i.  336. 

19 i.  284. 

14.21 i.  102. 

17 i.  377. 

1 ii.  179. note 

12 i.  332. 

26 i.  296.315 

30,31 i.  396. 

o8»  ••••••••••••••    "•  lOD« 

41—44 ii.  18  (J  n. 

1,2 ii.  100. 

2 i.  461. 

5.  8 i  458. 

7,8 i.  458,4:.f9 

9, 10.  U i.  459,41)0, 

14—16.22 i.  460. 


490 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  OF  SCRIPTURE. 


Mahe. 
Chap.       Verse                           Vol. 
xiii.        17.19 i. 

32 i. 

35 ii. 

xiv ii. 

22.  24 i. 

30 ii. 

70 ii. 

XV.  16—20 ii. 

23 ii. 

28 i. 

32 i. 

42 ii. 

43 ii. 

xvi.         14 i. 

15,  16 i. 

Luke. 

i.  ii ii> 

i.  2 ii. 

5. 9 ii. 

10 ii. 

19 ii. 

32 i. 

35 i. 

46,47 i. 

46—55 i. 

5'2,  53 i. 

63 ii. 

67—79 i. 

80 ■.!. 

ii.  1 , ii. 

1—3 i. 

21 ii. 

23,24 i. 

ii. 

25.34 ii. 

39—51 ii. 

42 — 44 ii. 

44 ii. 

48 i. 

iii.  1 i. 

ii. 

4—6 i. 

ii. 

14.19,20 i. 

19 i. 

23—38 i. 

36 i. 

iv.  9.... i. 

15—22 ii. 

18 ii. 

18,  19 i. 

20 ii. 

2.") ii. 

33— 3G.  41 ii. 

V.  1 ii. 

18—26 i. 

19 ii. 

29.35,36 i. 

37,  36 ii. 

vi.  1 ii. 

vii.         11—15 i. 

36.  38 ii. 

44—46 ii. 

4.5 i. 

viii.        27-39 ii. 

43 ii. 

41—56 i. 

ix.  3 ii. 

13 i. 

22 ii. 

28 i. 

X.  1 i. 

27 i. 

OU«      •••••••••••■•■       11a 

30—37 i. 


Page 
460. 
285. 

73. 

19.  125. 
356. 

73. 

18. 

70. 

57. 
297. 
372. 

73. 
201.  yn. 
405. 
372. 


309. 

3ll.7iote. 

112. 

99. 

45. 
401. 
285. 

359.  378. 
332. 
374. 
182. 
332.note, 

34. 

13. 
419. 
&  notes. 

76. 
297. 
118. 
186. 

17. 
173. 

I22.no  te. 
361. 
40.5. 

18.  52. 
294. 

16. 

50. 
420. 

400.417. 
404. 
403. 
106. 

66. 
297. 
104. 

13. 
197. 

26. 

104,  105. 
1.52. 

W  notes. 
151. Tiole 
Sfi."). 
15.5. 

73.  177. 
10.5. 
154.. 
170.yn. 
397. 
310. 
197. 
105. 
124. 
361. 

76. 
405. 
289. 
296.  396. 

31. 
368.  395. 


Cliap. 
xi. 


Xll. 


xm 


XIV. 


XV, 

xvi. 


xvui. 
xix. 


XX. 

xxL 


xxu. 


xxui. 


xxiv. 


11. 


111. 


Luke. 
Verse  Vol. 

5—8 ii. 

13 i. 

44 ii. 

38 ii. 

42 i. 

47,48 L 

51 i. 

54 ii. 

58,  59 i. 

1 ii. 

6—9 i. 

ii. 
32 i. 

ii. 

34,35 i. 

1 ii. 

8—10 ii. 

13,  14 i. 

12 ii. 

1—8 i. 

8 i. 

19—31 ii. 

22 ii. 


10—13. 
12 


II. 
ii. 


u. 
i. 
ii. 
ii. 


4 

12 , 

12—27 

37—41 

40—44 i. 

41—44 ii. 

43 i. 

44 i. 

37 i. 

42,  43 ii. 

5 ii. 

6 i. 

8 i. 

9,  10,  11,  12 i. 

20,  21,  22,  23,  24..  i. 

i. 

24 ."i. 


7 

20.  . . . 

37 

43 

43,  44. 

66 

6 

7—11.. 

11 

38 

38 

44 


u. 

ii. 

ii. 

i. 

i. 

ii. 

ii. 


Jouir. 


8... 
14. 
18. 

28. 

;29. 

6... 


6—10 , 

8,  9 

14 

17 

18,  19 

19 

3—5 

14 

14    15 

Ifi,  17 i. 

19 i. 

A  J>  ••••••••••••••     11* 

36 i. 


11. 

ii. 

ii. 

i. 

i. 

i. 


1. 

i. 

i. 

i. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

i. 

ii. 

ii. 
ii. 
i. 
ii. 


Page 
173.^71. 
359. 
201. 

73. 
332. 

379.  &  n. 
358. 

24. 
340. 

18. 
367. 

37. 
355.  385. 

52. 
461. 

l22.note. 
162. 
407. 
164. 
367. 

197.413. 
228.note. 
l25.note. 
154. 

79. 

73.  132. 

37. 
368. 

51. 

19. 
372. 

19. 
460 
461. 
296 

94. 
100. 
461. 
458. 

459,  460. 
460. 
197. 
461. 

19.  125. 
126. 

l2o.&n. 
297. 
285. 
310. 

56. 

18. 

21. 

44. 
417. 
196. 
2l2.7iote. 


347. 
328. 
415. 
289. 
117. 
13.3.^^71. 


,315. 


155. 

154. 

162. 

78. 

xiv. 

297. 

1.50. 

364. 

99.7«o;e. 

XV. 

109. 

3.S3. 

XVI. 

136.201. 

XVIU 

326. 

390. 

101.  yn. 

378. 

xix. 

Chap. 
iv. 


VI. 


VU. 


VUl. 


IX. 


XI. 


xu. 


XIU. 


JoHXi 

Verse  Vol.  Page 

4.... ii.       18. 

5—30 ii.      28.  &n 

12 i.  415. 

48 ii.  149. 

2 ii.       21.99. 

not* 

2—7 ii.  195. 

9—16 ii.       73. 

17 i.  337. 

37 i.  415. 

40 i.  426. 

1 ii.       26. 

5—13 i.  104. 

25—65 i.  364. 

27.  51 ii.  117. 

.30,  31 ii.  150. 

31 i.  297. 

37—40 i.  424. 

45 i.  297. 

51—58 i.  343. 

59 i.  349. 

63 i.  359. 

69 i.  291. 

2 ii.  126. 

17 , i.  425. 

26 i.  283. 

37.  39 ii.  127. 

38 i.  297. 

1-11.5 "•  ^  ^• 

7 ii.       57. 

21—24 ii.      67. 

24 i.  197. 

44 ii.  205. 

48 ii.  147. 

51 i.  425. 

1—4 ii.  144. 

1,  2.  31—33 i.  104,  105 

6.  14 ii.  121. 

7 ii.       21.28. 

22.  33,34 ii.  106. 

3.  14 ii.  176.  y  «. 

22 ii.  128. 

AiZj  i^O*  •••••••••■•     11*  /  0« 

23 ii.   99. 

30 i.  322. 

.34 i.  297. 

39 ii.   34. 

i.  105,  106 

9,  10 i.  378. 

19 i.  3.50. 

31 ii.  202.^71. 

44 ii.  156.  198. 

1—3 i.  402. 

15 i.  297. 

20 11.  no  note. 

odi  ou*  •••••••••••   1<  OO*}* 

38.  40 i.  297,298. 

47 i.  407. 

ii.  12.'). 

1,  2 ii.  123.7io/e. 

5.  11 i.  397. 

10 ii.  133.  157. 

note. 

18 i.  298. 

23 ii.  154. 

26 ii.  125.      ' 

2 ii.       99. 

6 i.  197. 

24.  28 i.  3.56. 

27 ii.  168. 

10 i.  378. 

25 i.  298. 

2 ii.  117.7/ottf. 

ii.       19. 

13.  24.28 ii.  U.^. 

28 ii.       21. 

31 ii.       53. 

10 ii.      53.  c^7i. 


INDEX  0/  PASSAGES  OF  SCRIPTUKE. 


JOHK. 

Chap.  Verse  Vol. 
xix.        13 ii. 

14 i. 

ii. 

17—20 ii. 

19 ii. 

24 ; . . .  i. 

30,  31 .•.-..  ii. 

85 ii. 

o6,  o7.  ••••    «••••»  1. 

38—40 ii. 

40 ii. 

41 ii. 

XX.        7 ii. 

30—31 i. 

sxi.        1 ii. 

7 ii. 

18 i. 

xxix.      20 i. 

Acts. 

i.  11 ii. 

12 ii. 

18 i. 

20 i. 

11.  15 ii. 

17—21 i. 

25—28 i. 

47 i. 

iii.  2.  11 ii. 

21 i. 

^/ij  ^O,  tiD^w  ••■••••   L* 

iv.  6 ii. 

24—30 i. 

T.       '    18 ii. 

36 i. 

37 ii. 

39 i. 

ri.         1 ii. 

9 i. 

ii. 

vii.         3 i. 

4 i. 

6,7 i. 

8 ii. 

14 i. 

& 

16 i. 

20 i. 

41 i. 

42,43 i. 

45 ii. 

49,  50 i. 

58,  59 ii. 

viii.        27 ii. 

30,  31 ii. 

32,  33 i. 

39 i. 

ix.         9 i. 

29 ii. 

31 i. 

34 ii. 

37 ii. 

X.  1 ii. 

13 i. 

15 i. 

xi.  26 i. 

xii.         1-3 i. 

2—17 ii. 

6.  19 ii. 

20 ii. 

20—23 i. 

^If   <«<«••••••••••••    11* 

21—23 ii. 

25 i. 

xiii.       6 — 1 1 ii. 

7 i. 


Page 

21.  60. 
403.  405. 
123.171. 

71. 

71. 
297,  298. 

71,72. 

72. 6?  71. 
139. 
298. 

72. 
198. 

19. 
198.^71. 
321.401. 

26, 
lfS6. 
365. 
417. 


17 

97. 
360.418. 
298. 

IZ.&n. 
298. 

298. 390. 
423.(^71. 

99. 
343. 
299. 
115. 

378. no(e. 
299.  390. 

65. 
420. 
148. 
196. 
108.^71. 

80. 
103. 

110.  £^  71. 
299. 
404. 

299.  403. 
110. 

299.  404. 
7Jore.  416. 
299. 
197. 
407. 
299. 
216. 
300. 

57.67 

il.note. 
183. 
300. 
292. 
425. 
108. 
328. 

154:.  note. 
198. 

92. 
423. 

197.  360. 
350. 

79. 

52. 

60. 

32. 168. 

79. 

4:6.7iote. 

52. 
292. 
143.  197. 

90. 


Chap, 
xiii. 


xiv. 

XV. 

xvi. 


xvu. 


xvm. 
xix. 


XX. 


xxi. 


XXII. 


xxiu. 


XXIV. 


XXV. 


XXVI. 


XXVll. 


XXVllI. 


I. 
ii. 


Acts. 
Verse  Vol. 

14,  15 ii. 

18 i. 

22.33,  34.41.47..  i. 

48 i. 

11 ii. 

13 ii. 

16,  17 i. 

20 i. 

1 ii. 

11,  12 i. 

13—15 ii. 

14 i. 

24. ii. 

25—29 ii. 

37 ii. 

18 ii. 

21 i. 


23—31 ii. 

24.28 ii. 

26 i. 

28 i. 

14—16 i. 


18. 


•     •••»•••! 


12 

24—27.  31. 
34 


35. 


39 

6—12, 
13 


28 

23,  24.  26,  27. 


11. 

ii. 
i. 

ii. 
i. 
ii. 
ii. 


28 

34,  35. . . 
38 


.  .  .  .  II. 
.. .  i. 
ii. 


19 

21 

24,  25.  29.. 
28—36 


•••••* 


II. 
ii. 
ii. 
ii. 
ii. 


2—5. 

5 

8 


23 

24—26. 
27—35. 
2 


5 

14 

15 

2.%  26. 
e 


1,3.  23. 

16 

1 

11.  ... 

28 

1 


2,  16- 
14.  .. 


-20.  40. 


11.  ... 
16 

26,  27. 


Romans, 


1. 

i. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

i. 

i. 

i. 

i. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

1. 

i. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

i. 


17. 


16 

17—20 

24 


I. 

i. 

i. 

ii. 

i. 


Page 
106. 
287. 
300. 

423.^71. 
140. 

140.7io/e. 
300. 

289.  407. 
108. 

90. 
102.^71. 

90. 

65. 
140.^71. 

58. 

60. 

80. 

90. 
139. 

61. 
291.325. 
319. 

79. 
130.  £^  71. 
156. 
140. 
\4\.note. 

90.  350. 
140. 

61. 
153. 
424. 

194,7to;e. 
289.291. 
159. 
130. 
101. 

21. 

80. 
148. 

106. 148. 
185. 

54. 
149. 

21. 

59. 

57. 

56. 

50. 
300. 
144.  197. 

73.  93. 

53. 

bS.&n. 

53. 
371. 
314. 
351.7io/e. 

79. 

59. 

52. 

58. 

92. 

54. 
350. 

50. 

\m.&n. 

25. 
139. 
189. 

92. 
295. 


301. 

389.7io;e. 

338. 

149. 

301. 


Chap. 

ii. 

iii. 


IV. 
V. 


VII. 

viii. 
ix. 


XI. 


XII. 


XIII. 


XIV. 


XV. 


XVI. 


III. 


IV. 


VI. 


491 

RoHAirs. 
Verse  Vol.  Page 

25—29 ii.  110.7iore, 

4 i.  301. 

8 i.  396. 

10—12,13,14 i.  301. 

15—17,  18 i.  301. 

28 i.  333.340 

3.7,8.17,18 i.  301. 

12 i.  338. 

14 ii.  204. 

19 i.  372. 

7 i.  315. 

18 i.  395. 

2 i.  359. 

3 i.  330. 

19—21 i.  338. 

36 i.  301. 

3 ii.       66. 

5 i.  325. 

7.  9.  12,  13.  15.  17.  i.  302. 

18 i.  337. 

25—28,  29.  33 i.  302. 

5 i.  303. 

6—8 i.  303.6*K 

9.  13 i.  395. 

13—18 i.  378. 

15.18,19—21 i.  303. 

3,4 i.  303.£if7i. 

8—10 i.  MZ.&n. 

16 ill  IaO. 

17 i.  328. 

ii.  183.£^rj. 

26,27 i.  304.£^7!. 

33—35 i.  377. 

1 ii.  117,118. 

6 i.  342. 

19,  20 i.  304. 

4 i.  396. 

9 i.  315. 

11,12 ...i.  406. 

12 ii.       93. 

5 i.  393. 

11 i.  304.  .^H. 

13 i.  325. 

17 i.  424. 

22 ii.       56 

3 i.  304. 

4 i.  398.426. 

9,10 i.  304.£if7J. 

11,12.21 i.  304. 

9 ...i.  359. 

16 i.  397. 

1  COBINTHIANS. 

17 i.  196. 

19 i.  304. 

23 ii.      69. 

28 ii.       14.nofei 

4,  5 i.  196. 

9 i.  304.£;f7v 

11 i.  378. 

13 i.  342. 

16 i.  305. 

9 ii.  180.710^4 

9—13 i.  365. 

15 i.  341. 

17 i.  340. 

18 i.  197. 

19,  20 i.  305.  y  71 

5 i.  332. 

8 i.  372. 

9.13 ii.  191. 

13 i.  328. 

5 ii.      66. 

6—8 i.  ZM.i^  V. 

7,8 ii.  123,124 

note.  12Si, 

9 i.       57. 

1,  5* ••••«••••••*•  i^*      *^*^* 

5 ii.  101, 


492 


Chap, 
vii. 


vui. 
a. 


X, 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  OF  SCRIPTURE. 


SI. 


XII. 

xiii. 

xiv. 
XV. 


XVI. 


u. 
iii. 

iv, 

V. 

vi. 
X. 

xiii. 

iii. 


1  Corinthians. 
Verse  Vol. 

18 ii. 

18,  19 i. 

22 ii. 

29—31 ii. 

1—4 i. 


9,  10.. 
9—11. 
24.... 


24—27. 
1—4... 
1—11.. 
4 


I. 


u. 

ii. 
ii. 
i. 


8 i. 

20 i. 

28 i. 

1 i. 

4 ii. 

13—16 ii. 

3 ii. 

6 i. 

12 ii. 

21 i. 

20—23 ii. 

24 i. 

27.32 i. 

33 i. 

iL 
45 i. 


54. 

55. 
2... 
22. 


2C0RIXTUIAKS. 

3 i. 

21 i. 

22 i. 

14—16 ii. 

15,16 i. 

6 i. 

6.  14 i. 

18 i. 

6 ii. 

8 ii. 

13 i. 

7,  8 ii. 

21 i. 

2 i. 

7 ii. 

16—18 i. 

4 i. 

ii. 

9—11 i. 

1 i. 


Galatiaxs. 


8.., 
10. 
13. 


17 

4,5 

9 i 

10,  11 i 

17 

22—24 

24 , 

27 

30 

1 , 


1. 
i. 
i. 
i. 
i. 
ii. 


Page 
110. 
393. 
168. 

190.  &n. 
338. 
414. 
384. 
323. 
328. 

103.  &n. 
207. 
208. 

357.  383. 
289.415. 
205.  &n. 
283. 
426. 

9i.7iote. 
157. 

66. 
328. 
158. 

305.  &  n. 
120. 

327.  407. 
305. 
319. 

l9\.note. 
305.  &n. 
383. 

198.  305. 
305.  W  «. 

3S. note. 
413. 


327. 

331. 

80. 


<J  n. 


9:5. 
380. 
359. 

28. 
389.note. 
205. 

94. 
305. 
126. 

330.  407. 
317. 

93. 
306.^71. 
197. 

94. 

58. 
306.yn. 


306. 

:}()6. 6f  n. 
306.  U  n. 
.386. 
69. 
403. 
387. 
165. 
329. 
393. 
372. 
383. 
32.-). 
306. 

306. 6fn. 
168. 


VI. 


3 ii.  110. 

f> i.  331. 

15 i.  331. 

17 u.  167. 


Chap. 

i. 

ii. 


IV. 


V. 


VI. 


111. 


IV. 


UI. 

iv. 


u. 

iii. 

V. 


lu. 


I. 
ii. 


HI. 

iv. 


VI. 


Efuesians. 


Verse 

23 

8 

11—13. 
13,  14.. 
14—19. 

8 

14 

18 

22—24. 

5 

8 

8,  9.... 

27 

31 

2,3.... 
11—17. 


Vol. 
i. 
>  i. 
ii. 
ii. 
ii. 
i. 
ii. 
i. 
ii. 
i. 
L 
i. 
i. 
i. 
i. 
ii. 


Pago 
329. 

344.  407. 
110. 

99. 
118. 
306. 
189. 

329.  333. 
191. 
327. 
329. 
290. 
328. 
289. 
307.  &  n. 

93.  y  n. 


11—19 i.      365. 


PuiLIPPIANS. 

M\J*   ••••••••••••••      II* 

7,  8 ii. 

8 i. 

12 i. 

17 ii. 

25 ii. 

4,  5 ii. 

12—14 ii. 


11. 


CoLOSSIASS. 


6 i. 

11 ii. 

14 ii. 

15 ii. 

17 i. 

18.  20,  21 i. 

....  ii. 

.. .  i. 

...  i. 

...  ii. 

...  i. 


18.  21.  23.. 

22 

23 

9,10 

16 


I  Tbessalonians. 


69.no<e. 

69. 
196. 

396. note. 
141. 

94. 
108. 
193, 194. 

y  note. 
131. 


328, 
110.  note. 

81. 

95.  yn. 
385.  387. 
394. 
146. 
325. 
341. 
191. 

58. 


Chap. 
i. 

ii. 


ui. 
iv. 


I. 

11. 

iii. 


15. 

8.. 


u. 
1. 


149. 
325. 


8 1.  365, 

ii.  93,no(e. 

19 1.  359. 

21 i.  354, 

23 1.  332.  3R9. 


27. 


1.      348. 


2  TUESSAL0NIAX6. 


12.  . 

2.... 
8.... 
2,8. 


1  Tlmotbt. 


327. 
359. 
379. 
349. 


9,10 11.     16.5. 0'n. 


15. 
9... 
16. 
1.., 


8 

10 

17 

21 

1—10. 

8 

16.  ... 


2TlM0TnT. 


i.  425. 

ii,  157. 

ii,  3\5.note. 

1.  197. 359. 

408. 

i.  398, 

i.  397, 

ii.  185, 

1.  327. 

U.  165. 

i.  396. 

i.  415. 


6.. 
8.. 


1. 
1. 


359. 
425. 


ni. 
iv. 


V. 

vl. 


VII. 


VUI. 

Lx. 


X. 


XI. 


Xll. 


xni. 


2  TlMOTHT. 
Verso  Vol. 

16—18 i. 

ii. 

3,4 ii. 

5 ii. 

15 ii. 

15—22 i. 

8 v. i, 

6 ii. 

7,8 11. 

8 Ii. 

13 Ii. 

14 1. 


T1TC8. 


10,  11. 

12 

11.... 
13.... 
5 


Hebrews. 

2 i. 

5,  6,  7 1. 

8,9 1. 

10—12 1. 

6—8.  12,  13 1. 

17 U. 

7—10 1. 

8 ii. 

i, 

, ii. 

i. 


12.... 
12,  13. 
13.... 
14 


13,  14 i, 

13—18 11, 

1 i, 

3 

2—7 


u, 

ii, 

4 1, 

11. 

7—20 1. 

13,  14 ii. 

20 ii. 

21,22 11. 

27 1. 

5—7 1. 

19—22 ii. 

32,33 ii. 

35 ii. 

37,  38 1. 


21. 
34, 
35, 


37 

1—3,  12, 13, 


4,... 
5,  6. 
23.. 
24,. 
26.. 


I. 

i. 

ii. 

ii. 

ii. 

1. 

11. 

1. 

1, 

U. 

U. 

1, 

i. 


8 I. 

12,  13 ii. 

15 i. 

15,  16 11. 


Page 
338. 

60, 

94.  Wn. 
193, 

180.7io;e 
364. 
318. 
141. 
194,  Wn. 

94, 
156. 
413. 


8  . 
319.  395. 
325. 
327. 
383.  396. 


347. 

307.  Wn, 

307.  390. 

307.  y  71. 

307. 

209.?to/e. 

307. 

216, 

197, 

118. 

328. 

329, 

308. 

81. 
383. 

79. 
308. 

96.  100. 
418. 

96. 
323.  383. 
117. 

81. 
133. 

400.  407. 
308. 
100. 
191. 

88. 
209. 

196, 198. 
309, 
197,  . 

68, 

68,  155 
193, 
328. 
167. 
325. 
377. 
123. 
126. 
309. 
309. 
426. 

19.  Wn. 
309. 
118. 


Jamf.s. 


1.... 
12... 
13.., 
2.... 

10... 
21.., 
24.., 


•  •••••■•••• 


II, 

ii. 

i, 

ii. 

1. 

1. 

1. 


I 


A^.note. 

9'\. 
414, 

54. 
394,  399. 
407. 
333. 


INDEX  OF  PASSAGES  OF  SCRIPTURE. 


4^3 


Chap. 
V. 


1. 


u. 


James. 
Verse  Vol. 

1—3 ii.  159 

11 ii.  228. 

12 i.  286. 

14,  15,  16 i.  343. 


1  Petek. 

1 i. 

2 ii 

24,  25 i. 


5,9. 

6.... 

8.,.. 

9.... 

22.. 

3.... 


10—12 i 

13 

14,  15 

21 

4 


5.. 
8.. 
13. 


I. 

i. 

ii. 

i. 

ii. 

i. 

i. 

i. 


Page 


337. 

126. 

310.  385. 
358. 
i.  310. 
337. 
325. 
197. 
157. 
310. 
395. 
310. 

llO.noie. 
325. 
94. 
341.  424. 
358. 
286. 


Chap. 
i. 


II. 
iii. 


1. 

ii. 


III. 

V. 


2  Peteh. 


Verse 
1,2... 
18..., 
20..., 


Vol. 


2. 

1. 


I. 
i. 


•  1  JoHIf. 

8—10 i. 

1 ii, 

23 i. 

20.27 i. 


27.. 
1.... 
6.  9. 
7,8. 


16. 


Jude. 


1. 
4. 


Page 
327. 
348. 

342.  388. 
&  note. 
286. 
348. 


343. 
55. 

292. 

331. 
38.note. 

196. 

343. 

241.  260. 

284. 
ii.    366-376. 
ii.      67. 


291. 
327. 
56.  135. 


Chap. 


I. 
ii. 


III. 

V. 

vi. 
vii. 
\'iii. 
ix. 

X. 

xiiL 
xvi. 


Jdde. 
Verse  Vol. 

9 ii. 

12 u. 

14 i. 


Pagts 

203. 

25. 

318. 

332. 


Revelations. 

10 i.  359. 

10 ii.  94. 

17 ii.  56.174. 

&  note. 

27 i.  310. 

5 ii.  94.yn. 

1 ii.  183. 

8 ii.  lld.note. 

15,16 ii.  32. 

9,10 ii.  127. 

1 ii.  119. 

7 ii.  39. 

5 ii.  81.  yn. 

18,  17,  «&c ii.  142. 

15 i.  358. 

16 i.  402. 


X 


SYNOPTICAL  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


OF  THE 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  APPENDIX. 


INTRODUCTION. 

General  Bibliographical  Works,  treating  on  the  Edi- 
tions, Literary  History,  Criticism,  &c.  of  the 
Bible 


PAGE 


5,6 


PART  I. 
HOLY  SCRIPTURES. 


Chapter  I.  Entire  Texts  and  Versions  of  the  Bible, 


Section 

§  1. 
§2. 


§3. 

§4. 
Section 


§1. 


I.  Principal  Editions  of  the  Hebrew  Bible... 

Editiones  Principes 

Editiones  Primariae;  or,  those  which  have  been 

adopted  as  the  Bases  of  subsequent  Impres- 
sions  

Editions  of  the  Bible  with  Rabbinical  Com- 
mentaries   

Editions  with  Critical  Notes  and  Apparatus. . 

II.  Editions  of  the  Hebrew-Samaritan  Penta- 
teuch   

Section  III.  Principal  Editions  of  the  Greek  Testa- 
ment, and  of  detached  Books  thereof. 

Sectioit  IV.  Poly glott  Bibles  ;  or,  Editions  of  the  Old 
and   New  Testaments,   with   Versions    in 

several  Languages 

Triglott  Testament 

Diglott  Bibles 

Section  V.  Ancient  Versions  of  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 
taments  

Targums,  or  Chaldee  Paraphrases  on  the  Old 
Testament 

2.  Ancient  Greek  Versions 

[i.]  The  Septuagint 

[ii.]  Editions  of  Origen's  Hexapla 

[iii.]  Another  ancient  Greek  Version 

3.  Ancient  Oriental  Versions 

[i.]  The  Syriac  Versions 

The  Peschito,  or  Old  Syriac  Version 

The  Philoxenian  Syriac  Version 

The  Arabic  Version 

The  Persic  Version 

[iv.]  The  Egyptian  Versions 

The  Coptic,  or  Version  in  the  Dialect  of 

Lower  Egypt 

The  Sahidic,  or  Version  in  the  Dialect  of 

Upper  Egypt 

The  Bashmouric,  or  Dialect  of  Bashmour, 

a  Province  of  the  Delta 

[v.]  The  Ethiopic  Version 

[vi.]  The  Armenian  Version 

4.  Ancient  Western  Versions 

[i.]  The  Latin  Versions 

Ante-Hieronymian  Versions,  or  those  made 

before  the  Time  of  Jerome 

The  Version  of  Jerome 

The  Latin  Vulgate 

The  Gothic  Version 

The  Sclavonic  Version 


[ii.] 
[iii.] 


lb. 

6,7 

7 
7-9 

9 

9-19 


19-21 
21 
22 


ib. 
22,23 
23-25 

25 

ib. 

ib. 

ib. 

ib. 

26 

ib. 

ib. 

ib. 


[ii.] 
[iii.J 


[iv.]  The  Anglo-Saxon  Version 


Sectios  vi.  Modern  Versions  of  the  Old  and  New 

Testaments 

§  1.  General   Observations   on  the  Circulation  of 
the  Scriptures 

1.  Scarcity  and  high  Prices  of  the  Scriptures. — 
II.  Rude  Attempts  to  convey  an  Idea  of  their 
Contents  to  the  Poor  and  Illiterate. — Account 
of  the  BiBLiA  Pauperum. — III.  Number  and 
Classification  of  the  Translations  of  the  Bible 
into  modern  Languages 

§  2.  Modem  Latin  Versions  of  the  entire  Bible. . . 

Versions  made  by  Romanists 

Versions  made  by  Protestants 

§  3.  Versions  in  the  Languages  of  Modem  Europe 
[i.]  Versions  in  the  Languages  spoken  in  the 

British   Isles 

Wicliife's  Version 

EngUsh  Protestant  Versions : — 

Tindal's  Version 

Coverdale's  Bible 

Matthew's  Bible 

Hollybusche's  New  Testament 

Cranmer's  Great  Bible 

Tavemer's  Bible 

Other  Editions  of  the  EngUsh  Bible 
during  the  remainder  of  Henry  VIII.'s 
reign  and  the  reign  of  Edward  VI. . 

Anglo-Genevese  Version 

Archbishop  Parker's,  or  the  Bishops' 

Bible 

King  James's  Bible,  or  the  Authorized 

Version  now  in  use 

Testimonies  of  eminent  Scholars 

to  its  value 

Editions  of  the  Authorized  Ver- 
sions, with  Parallel  References 

Anglo-RoMisH  Versions 

Welsh  Version 

Irish  Version 

Manks  Version 

Gaelic  Version 

[ii.]  Versions  in  the  Languages  spoken  on  the 

Continent  of  Europe 

1.  German  Versions 

Luther's  Version,  and  Versions  in  other 

Languages  derived  from  it 

Jewish  German  Versions 

French  Versions 

Belgian  Versions 

Italian  Versions 

Spanish  Versions 

Russian  Version 

Croat  Version 

Basque  Version 

Hungarian  Version 

Polish  Version 

Bohemian  Version 

Romaic  or  Modem  Greek  Version 

Wallachian  Version 

15.  Bulgarian  and  Servian  Versions. . . 

Romanese  Versions 

Turkish  Versions 

Portuguese  Versions 


PAGE 

29 
ib. 


lb. 

2. 

3. 

ib. 

4. 

5. 

ib. 

6. 

27 

7. 

ib. 

8. 

ib. 

9. 

ib. 

10. 

11. 

ib. 

12, 

ib. 

13, 

27,28 

14, 

28 

16. 

29 

17. 

ib. 

18. 

29-31 
31 
ib 

31,32 
32 

ib. 
32,33 

3.3,  34 
34 
ib. 
ib. 

34,35 
35 


35,36 
36 


36,37 

37-39 

39-41 
41,42 

42 

ib. 

ib. 

43 

ib. 
ib. 

43,44 

44 
44,45 

45 

ib. 
45,46 

46 

ib. 

ib. 

ib. 

ib. 

47 

ib. 

ib. 

ib. 

ib. 

ib. 

ib. 


SYNOPTICAL  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


1 9.  Albanian  Version 

20.  Maltese  Version 

§  4.  Modern  Versions  in  the  Languages  of  Asia. . 

[i.]  Hebrew 

[ii.]  Chaldee 

[iii.]  Versions  in  the  Oriental  Languages,  either 
translated  by  the  Baptist  Missionaries  at 
Serampore,  or  printed  at  the  Mission 
Press 

1.  Versions  in  the  Arabic  Languages,  and 

its  Cognate  Dialects 

2.  Versions  in  the  Sanschit  Language,  and 

its  Cognate  Dialects 

3.  Versions  in  the  Chinese,  and  the  Lan- 

guages derived  from  or  bearing  Affinity 

to  it 

[iv.]  Other  Asiatic  Versions 

1 .  Formosan 

2.  Northern  Asiatic 

3.  Georgian 

4.  Modern  Arminian 

5.  Tahitan 

6.  Curdish 

Fac-similes  of  Specimens  of  the  Versions 

of  the  Sacred  Scriptures  in  the  Eastern 

Languages 

§  5.  Modem  Versions  in  the  Languages  of  Africa 

1.  Amharic  and  Tigre,  or  the  Vernacular  Lan- 

guages of  Abyssinia 

2.  Berber  Version 

3.  Bullom  Version 

4.  Susoo  Version 

5.  Malagass^  Version 

6.  South  African  Versions 

§  6.  Modern  Versions  in  the  Languages  of  America 

[i.]  North  American  Versions 


1.  Virginian  Indian  Version. 

2.  Delaware  Indian  Version  . 

3.  Massachusetts  Version  . . . 

4.  Mohawk  Version 

5.  Mohegan  Version 

6.  Esquimaux  Version 

7.  Chippeway  Version 

8.  Greenlandish  Version 

9.  Creolese  Version 

10.  Negro-English  Version... 

[ii.]  South  American  Versions. . . 


PAGE 

47 
48 
ib. 
ib. 
ib. 


ib. 
48,49 
49,50 


50,51 
51 
ib. 
ib. 
ib. 
ib. 

51,52 
52 


52-55 
56 

ib. 

ib. 

ib. 

ib. 

ib. 

ib. 

ib. 

ib. 

ib. 
56,57 

57 

ib. 

ib. 

ib. 

ib. 

ib. 

ib. 

ib. 
57,58 


Chapter  IL  Harmonies  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
I     «   ->_        meats 


58 


Section  I.  Harmonies  of  the  Old  Testament 58,  59 

Section  II.  Harmonies  of  the  entire  New  Testament, 

and  of  the  Four  Gospels 59-61 

Section  III.  Harmonies  of  particular  Parts  of  the  Four 

Gospels 61,  62 

Section  IV.  Harmonies  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles, 

and  of  the  Apostolic  Epistles 62 


Chapter  III.  Jlpocryplial  Books  and  Writings         .  63 

Section  I.  Apocrjrphal  Books  of  the  Old  Testament   .     03-67 
Section  II.  Apocryphal  Books  of  the  New  Testament 


67 


PART  II. 

SACRED  PHILOLOGY; 

OB,  THF.  CBITICISM  and  INTSRPHETATION  or  THE  SCniPTUREB. 

Chapter  I.   Treatises  on  the  Canon  of  Scripture,  and 

on  Jlpocryphal  Books 68,  C9 

Chapter  II.  Introductions  to  the  Study  of  the  Scrip. 

tures G9 

Section  I.  General  Introductions  to  the  entire  Bible. .     69,  70 
Section  II.  Introductions  to  the  Study  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament in  particular 70,  71 

SicTioir  III.  Introductions  to  the  Study  of  the  New 

Teatamcnt  in  particular 7 1 ,  72 


§1. 

§2. 
§3. 

§4. 

Section 

§  1. 
§2. 

Chapter 

Section 
§  1. 

§2. 


PAGE 

Chapter  III.  Treatises    on    the  Sacred    Text,  its 

Style,  Idiom,  and  Versions 72 

Section  I.  Treatises  on  Sacred  Criticism,  generally, 
and  on  the  Style  and  Idiom  of  the  Scrip- 
tures         72-76 

Section  II.  Treatises  on  Hebrew  Poetry 76 

Section  III.  Treatises  on  the  Quotations  from  the  Old 

Testament  in  the  New 76,  77 

Section  IV.  Treatises  on  Manuscripts  and  on  Various 
Readings. — Collations  of  Manuscripts,  and 

Collections  of  Various  Readings 77 

Treatises  on  Manuscripts 77,  78 

Treatises  on  Various  Readings 78,  79 

Collations  of  Manuscripts,  and  Collections 

of  Various  Readings 79,  80 

Treatises  on  the  Genuineness  of  the  Disputed 

Clauses  in  1  John  v.  7,  8 81,  82 

V.  Treatises  on  Versions  of  the  Scriptures. .  82 

Treatises  on  Ancient  Versions 82,  83 

Treatises  on  Modem  Versions 84,  86 

IV.  Treatises  on  the  Original  Languages 
of  Scripture,  and  Grammars  and  Lexi- 
cons thereof 85 

I.  Treatises,  &c.  on  the  Hebrew  Language  ib. 
Treatises  on  the  Study  of  the  Hebrew  Lan- 
guage, and  on  the  Vowel  Points ib. 

Hebrew  Grammars,  and  other  Treatises  on 

the  Hebrew  Language,  with  Points 86 

[i.]  In  the  English  Language 86,87 

[ii.]  In  the  Latin,  French,  and  German  Lan- 
guages   87, 88 

§  3.  Hebrew  Grammars,  &c.  wituout  Points. .  88,  89 
§  4.  Hebrew   Grammars,    with    and   wituoct 

Points 89 

Chaldee  Grammars ib. 

II.  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  Lexicons ib. 

Hebrew  Lexicons  with  Points 89-91 

Hebrew  Lexicons  -without  Points 91 

III.  Grammars  and  Lexicons  for  the  Greek 
Testament  and  for  the  Septuagint  Version  ib. 

Grammars  and  other  Treatises  on  the  Greek 

Language  of  the  New  Testament 9 1 ,  92 

Glossaries  and  Lexicons  to  the  Greek  Testa- 
ment   92, 93 

Lexicons  to  the  Septuagint  Version 93,  94 

IV.  Grammars  and  Lexicons  of  the  Cognate 

or  Kindred  Languages 94 

§  1.  General  Treatises,  and  Polyglott  Grammar  of 

the  Cognate  Languages ib. 

§  2.  Polyglott   Lexicons  of  the   Cognate   Lan- 
guages   94,  95 

§  3.  Syriac  Grammars  and  Lexicons 95 

§  4.  Arabic  Grammars  and  Lexicons 95,  96 

§  5.  Egyptian  Grammars  and  Lexicons 96 

§  6.  Elhiopic  Grammar  and  Lexicons 97 

§  7.  Persian  Grammars  and  Lexicons ib 

Chapter  V.  Commentators,  Interpreters,  and  Para- 

phrasts  on  the  Scriptures 97 

Section  I.  On  the  Interpretation  of  Scripture ib. 

§  1.  General  Treatises  on   the  Interpretation  of 

Scripture 97-99 

§  2.  Treatises  on  the  Interpretation  of  the  Figu- 
rative Language,  and  on  the  Spiritual  and 

Typical  Interpretation  of  Scripture 99, 100 

§  3.  Treatises  on  the  Interpretation  of  Scripture 

Proverbs  and  Promises 100 

§  4.  Treatises  on  the  Interpretation  of  Scripture 

Prophecies 100,  101 

Warburtonian  Lectures  on  Prophecy 101 

Section  II.  Jewish  Writers  and  Commentators,  and 
Illustrations  of  the  Scriptures  derived  from 

Jewish  Sources ib. 

§  1.  Jewish  Writers  and  Commentators 101-103 

I  2.  Illustrations  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  derived 

from  Jewish  Sources 103 

Section  III.    Christian    Commentators,   Interpreters, 

and  Paraphrasts  on  tlic  Scriptures i*. 


§5. 
Section 

§  1. 

§2. 

Section 

§1. 

§2. 

§3. 

Section 


i 


OF  THE  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  APPENDIX. 


3 


PAGE 

§  I.  Commentaries  by  the  Fathers,  and  other 
Divines  of  the  Christian  Church,  previ- 
ously to  the  Reformation 103 

[i.]  Greek  Fathers 104 

[ii.]  Latin  Fathers 104, 105 

[iii.]  Later  Divines  of  the  Greek  and  Latin 

Churches 105 

Greek  Writers ib. 

Latin  Writers ib. 

§  2.  Scholia  on  the  entire  Bible,  or  the  greater 

Part  thereof. 106,  107 

*  §  3.  The  Principal  Commentators  on  the  Scrip- 
tures, generally,  since  the  Reformation. .      107-114 
[i.]  Foreign    Commentators   on    the   whole 

Bible 107-109 

[ii.]  British  Commentators 109-114 

§  4.  Principal  Commentators  on  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, and  on  detached  Books  thereof. . . .      114-126 
[i.]  Commentators  on  the  Old  Testament. . .  114 

Iii.]  Commentators  on  detached  Books  of  the 

Old  Testament 1 15-126 

Commentators    on   the    Pentateuch 

and  Historical  Books 115, 116 

Commentators  on  the  Poetical  Books     1 17-120 
Commentators  on  the  Writings  of 

Solomon 120-122 

Commentators  on  the  Prophets. .. .     123-126 
[iii.]   Commentators  on  the  Apocryphal  Books 

of  the  Old  Testament 126 

§  5.  Principal  Commentators  on  the  New  I'esta- 

ment,  and  on  detached  Books  thereof. . .      127-142 
[i.J  Commentators  on  the  entire  New  Testa- 
ment       1 27-131 

[ii.]  Commentators  on  detached  Books  of  the 
New  Testament : 

Commentators    on    the    Historical 

Books 131-134 

Commentators     on    the    Apostolic 

Epistles 134-140 

Commentators  on  the  Apocalypse. .      140-142 
§  6.  Expository  Lectures  and  Sermons  on  the 
Scriptures,    and    on    detached    Portions 

thereof 142-146 

§  7.  Trefitises  on  reconciling  the  Contradictions 

alleged  to  exist  in  the  Scriptures 146 

§  8.  Principal  Collections  of  Observations  on  the 
Scriptures,  Critical,  Philological,  and  Mis- 
cellaneous       146-152 


Chapter  V L  Concordances  and  Blctionanes,  Com- 
mon-place Books,  Indexes,  and  Analyses 
of  the  Bible 152-1 54 

Section  I.  Concordances  to  the  Scriptures 153 

§  1.  Concordances  to  the  Hebrew  Bible 152,  153 

§  2.  Concordances  to  the  Septuagint  Greek  Ver- 
sion    153 

§  3,  Concordances  to  the  Greek  Testament. . . .  ib. 

§  4.  Concordance  to  the  Latin  Vulgate ib. 

§  5.  Concordances  to  the  English  Bible 153,  154 

§  6.  Concordance  to  the  French  Bible 154 

SrcTiox  II.  Dictionaries  of  the  Bible 154, 155 

Section'  III.  Common-place  Books  to  the  Bible. .. .  155,156 

Section  IV.  Indexes  and  Analyses  of  the  Bible. . . .  156 

Chapter  VII.  Treatises  on  Biblical  Antiquities,  and 
cm  other  Historical  Circumstances  of  the 
Bible 156-162 

Section  I.  General  Treatises  on  Biblical  Antiquities     156,157 
Section  II.  Treatises  on  particular  Subjects  in  Bibli- 

*  cal  Antiquities 157-162 

§  1.  Scripture  Geography 157,  158 

§  2.  Natural  History  of  the  Bible 158,  159 

§  3.  Political  Antiquities  of  the  Jews 169,  160 

Treatises  on  the  Laws,  Government,  Coins, 

&c.  of  the  Jews 159,  160 

§  4.  Sacred  Antiquities  of  the  Jews 1 60,  161 

[i.]  Treatises  on  the  Ritual  and  Sacred  Cere- 
monies of  the  Jews 160,  161 

[ii.]  Treatises  on  the  Religious  Notions  of  the 
Jews,  on  the  Corruptions  of  Religion 
among  them,   and  on   the  Sects  into 

which  they  were  divided 161 

§  5.  Domestic  Antiquities,  Literature,  and  Sci- 
ences of  the  Jews ib. 

§  6.  Miscellaneous  Illustrations  of  Biblical  An- 
tiquities, from  Voyages  and  Travels  in 
the  East,  and  from  other  Oriental  Sources  162 

Section  III.  Treatises  on  the  Genealogies  mentioned 

in  the  Scriptures 163 

Section  IV.  Treatises  on  Sacred  Chronology 163,164 

Section  V.  Connections  of  Sacred  and  Profane  His- 
tory.— Histories  of  the  Bible  and  Scrip- 
ture Biography 1 64,  1 65 

Index  to  the  Bibliographical  Appendix 167-179 


Vol.  IL 


3R 


CONTENTS   OF  THE  ADDENDA 


TO    THE 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL    APPENDIX. 


PAOE 

Editions  of  the  Hebrew  Bible 166 

Editions  of  the  Greek  Testament 166,  167 

Syro-Estrangelo  Version 167 

Coptic  Version. ib. 

Gothic  Version ib. 

Anglo-Saxon  Version ib. 

English  Protestant  Versions  of  the  Bible 167,  168 

King  James's  Bible,  or  the  Authorized  English  Ver- 
sion, with  Marginal  Renderings  and  Parallel  Re- 
ferences   168 

Editions  of  the  Authorized  Version,  the  Text  of 
which  is  divided  into  Paragraphs,  according  to  the 

Subject r ib. 

Anglo-Romidh  Versions  of  the  Scriptures ib. 

Versions  in  the  Languages  spoken  on  the  Continent  of 

Europe 168,  1 69 

Versions  in  the  Languages  spoken  in  Asia 169 

Modem  Versions  in  the  Languages  of  Africa ib. 

Harmonies  of  the  Four  Gospels 169,  170 

Harmonies  of  the  Epistles 170 

Apocryjjhal  Books ib. 

Introductions  to  the  Old  and  New  Testaments 170,  171 

Treatises  on  Sacred  Criticism 171 

Treatises  on  the  Disputed  Clauses  in  1  John  v,  7,  8. . . .  ib. 

Treatises  on  Ancient  Versions ib. 

Hebrew  Grammars  with  Points 171,172 

Hel)rew  Grammars  without  points 172 

Chaldee  Grammars ib. 

Grammar  of  the  Samaritan  Language ib. 

Hebrew  Lcxir/)n3  with  Points ib. 

English  and  Hebrew  Lexicons  with  Points ib. 


pxat 

Grammars  of  the  New  Testament 172 

Lexicons  to  the  New  Testament ib. 

Grammars  and  Dictionaries  of  the  Syriac,  Arabic,  and 

Egyptian  Languaj^es 172,  173 

Treatises  on  the  Interpretation  of  Scripture 173 

Treatises   on  the   Interpretation  of  Scripture   Prophe- 
cies   ib, 

Jewish  Writers  and  Commentators ib. 

Commentators  on  the  Old  Testament 173,  174 

Commentators  on  Detached  Books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, Pentateuch,  and  Historical  Books 174 

Job ib. 

Psalms 1 74,  1 7.5 

Commentators  on  the  Prophetical  Books 175 

Obadiah ib. 

Commentators  on  the  New  Testament,  and  on  Detached 

Books  thereof. 175,  176 

Hebrews 176,  177 

Expositions,  Lectures,  and  Sermons  on  the  Scriptures, 

arranged  in  the  order  of  the  several  Books 177,  178 

Collections  of  Philological  Observations  on  the  Scrip- 
tures     178,  179 

Greek  and  Latin  Concordances 179 

Treatises  on  Biblical  Antiquities 179,  180 

Miscellaneous  Illustrations  of  Scripture,  from  Voyages 

and  Travels  in  the  East,  and  from  other  Sources. .  180 
Treatises  on  the  Genealogies  mentioned  in  the  Scrip- 
tures   180,  181 

Treatises  on  Sacred  Chronology 181 

Connections  of  Sacred  and  Profane  History,  and  Scrip- 
ture Biography ib 


No.  IV. 
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL    APPENDIX. 


INTRODUCTION. 


GENERAL    BIBLIOGRAPHICAL    WORKS,    TREATING    ON    THE    EDITIONS,    LITERARY    HISTORY 

CRITICISM,   ETC.    OF    THE    BIBLE. 


1.  BiBiioTHECA  Sacha  in  binos  syllabos  distincta.  Quorum 
prior,  qui  jam  tertio  auctior  prodiit,  omnes  sive  Textus  Sacri 
eivc  Versionum  ejus  Jem  quavis  lingua  expressarum  edition  es, 
necnon  prffistantiores  MSS.  Codices,  cum  notis  historicis  con- 
tinet :  Posterior  vero  continet  omnia  corum  opera  quivis 
idiomate  conscripta,  qui  hue  usque  in  Sacram  Scripturam  edide- 
runt,  simul  collecta,  turn  ordine  alphabetico  disposita,  turn  serie 
sacrorum  librorum.  Huiccoronidisloco  subjiciuntur  Grammaticae 
et  Lexica  Linguarum  praesertim  oricntalium,  quae  ad  illustrandas 
sacras  paginas  aliquid  adjumenti  conferre  possunt.  Labors  et 
industria  Jacobi  Le  Long.     Parisii.s,  1723,  2  tomis  folio. 

The  third  and  best  edition  of*a  most  laborious  work.  The  first 
edition  appeared  at  Paris  in  1709,  in  2  vols.  8vo. :  the  second,  at 
Leipsic,  in  the  same  year,  with  additions  by  C.  F.  Boei-ner. 

2.  Discours  Historique  sur  les  principales  Editions  des  Bibles 
Polyglottes.  Par  I'Auteur  de  la  Bibiiothequc  Sacrce.  [Jacques 
Le  Long.]     Paris,  1713.  8vo. 

3.  Bibliotheca  Sacra  post  Jacobi  Le  Long  et  C.  F.  Boemeri 
iteratas  curas  ordine  disposita,  emcndata,  suppleta,  continuata  ab 
Andrea  Gottlieb  Masch.  Hate,  1774 — 1797.  5  vols.  4to.  fre- 
quently bound  in  two  thick  volumes. 

This  elaborate  work,  which  was  discontinued  for  want  of  ade- 
quate support,  is  confined  to  tlie  printed  editions  of  the  Holy  Scj-ip- 
lures.  Part  I.  contains  editions  of  the  original  Hebrew  and  Greek 
text.  Part  II.,  in  three  volumes  treats  on  the  Greek,  Oriental,  and 
Latin  versions,  and  on  editions  of  tliem  ;  and  the  last  volume  com- 
prises a  supplement  to  the  preceding  volumes. 

We  have  been  largely  indebted  to  this  publication  for  much  in- 
formation concerning  tlie  printed  editions  of  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 
tament. To  this  valuable  work  the  BthUotheca  Biblka  Serenissimi 
Wuertembcrgensium  Ducis,  olhn  Lorkiana,  published  by  J.  G.  C. 
Adler,  at  Altona,  in  1787  (in  five  parts  forming  two  quarto  volumes), 
is  an  indispensable  supplement.  It  is  very  justly  characterized  by 
Bp.  Marsh  as  "  a  catalogue  of  great  merit  and  utility,"  and  con- 
tains notices  of  some  versions  and  translators,  which  have  escaped 
even  the  researches  of  Dr.  Masch. 

4.  Calmet  (Augustin)  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  or  a  Catalogue  of 
the  best  books  that  can  be  read  in  order  to  acquire  a  good  under- 
standing of  the  Scripture.     Folio. 

This  catalogue  fills  a  considerable  portion  of  a  volume  in  the 
various  French  editions  of  Calmet's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible.  It 
'  also  occupies  two  hundred  and  eighty-four  pages  of  the  third 
volume  of  the  English  translation  of  that  Dictionary,  in  folio.  It 
contains  copious  notices  of  the  earlier  Vjiblical  critics  and  commen- 
tators, and  other  writers  on  Scriptural  Antiquities,  &c.  This  valua- 
ble catalogue  is  omiUed  in  the  quarto  edition  of  Calmet's  Dictionary, 
published  by  the  late  Mr.  C.  Taylor. 

5.  Joh.  Christophori  Wolfii  Bibliotheca  Hebraea ;  sive  No- 
titia  tum  Auctorum  Hebraeorum  cujuscumque  aetatis,  turn  Scrip- 
torum,  quae  vel  Hebraice  primum  exarata,  vel  ab  aliis  conversa 
sunt,  ad  nostram  aetatcm  deducta.  Accedit  in  calce  Jacobi  Gaf- 
farelli  Index  Codicum  Cabbalistic.  MSS,  quibus  Joh.  Picus, 
Mirandulanus  Comes,  usus  est.  Hamburgi  et  Lipsiae,  1715 — 
33.  4  tomis,  4to. 

6.  Jo.  Georgii  Waechii  Bibliotheca  Theologica  Selecta,  lite- 
rariis  adnotationibus  instructa.  Jenae,  1757 — 8 — 62 — 65.  4  vols. 
8vo. 

All  who  are  conversant  in  sacred  literature  have  borne  willing 
testimony  to  the  correctness  and  research  of  VValch,  whose  work 
will  always  remain  a  production,  admirable  for  the  diligence  and 
for  the  extensive  reading  and  accuracy  which  it  evinces.  The 
sound  judgment,  remarkable  in  other  works  of  this  theologian,  is 
conspicuous  in  this  publication.  All  possible  aids  for  theological 
literature  are  here  embraced.  The  whole  is  well  arranged  :  with 
regard  to  many  books,  their  contents  and  value  are  stated,  and 
directions  are  given  where  more  extensive  information  is  to  be 


obtained.  Of  many  important  works  an  extensive  and  accurate 
literary  histoiT  is  given.  All  departments  of  theology  have  a  rich 
collection  of  books  pertaining  to  them  described,  and  abundant 
materials  are  furnished  for  the  history  of  religion.  The  third  and 
fourth  volumes  are  chiefly  interesting  to  biblical  students.  How 
much  the  author  of  the  present  work  is  indebted  to  the  Bibliotheca 
Theologica  Selecta,  the  frequent  references  made  to  it  will  suffi- 
ciently attest.  In  1770,  Walchius  published  a  Bibliotheca  Patris- 
tica  in  one  large  volume  Bvo. :  it  contains  an  excellent  account  of 
treatises  on  the  lives  and  erudition  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Church, 
and  on  the  editions  of  their  writings. 

7.  A  Concise  Yiew  of  the  Succession  of  Sacred  Literature, 
in  a  Chronological  Arrangement  of  Authors  and  their  Works, 
from  the  Invention  of  Alphabetical  Characters  to  the  Year  of  our 
Lord  1445.  By  Adam  Clarke,  LL.D.  and  J.  B.  B.  Clabke, 
M.A.     London,  1831—32.   2  vols.  Bvo. 

The  first  part  of  the  first  volume,  v/hich  comes  down  to  a.d. 
345,  was  published  by  Dr.  Clarke  in  1821,  in  one  volume,  12mo. 
Tlie  remainder  of  the  work  was  composed  by  his  son,  the  Rev.  J. 
B.  B.  Clarke.  The  whole  contains  much  important  information 
relative  to  biblical  and  ecclesiastical  literature. 

8.  A  Course  of  Lectures,  containing  a  Description  and  Syste- 
matic Arrangement  of  the  several  Branches  of  Divinity,  accom- 
panied with  an  Account  both  of  the  principal  Authors  and  of  the 
Progress  which  has  been  made,  at  different  Periods,  in  Theologi- 
cal Learning.  By  Herbert  Marsh,  D.D.  [Bishop  of  Peterbo- 
rough.]    London,  1810—1823.  8vo. 

Seven  parts  of  these  Lectures  have  been  published.  They  em- 
brace almost  every  topic  of  Biblical  Criticism  and  Interpretation, 
and  also  the  genuineness,  authenticity,  and  credibility  of  the 
Scriptures ;  and  are  particularly  valuable  for  their  bibliographical 
and  critical  notices  of  the  principal  writers  who  have  treated  on 
these  subjects. 

8.*  Lectures  on  the  Criticism  and  Interpretation  of  the  Bible, 
with  two  preliminary  Lectures  on  Theological  Study  and  Theo- 
logical Arrangement :  to  which  are  added  two  Lectures  on  the 
History  of  Biblical  Interpretation.  By  Herbert  Marsh,  D.D. 
Bishop  of  Peterborough.    London,  1828.  8vo. 

This  is  a  new  edition,  revised,  corrected,  and  enlarged,  of  ihe 
first  four  parts  of  the  preceding  course  of  Lectures.  The  two  addi- 
tional Lectures  on  the  Histoiy  of  Biblical  Interpretation,  which 
were  published  separately,  contain  bibliographical  notices  of  the 
principal  writers  on  that  subject. 

9.  Illustrations  of  Biblical  Literature,  exhibiting  the  History 
and  Fate  of  the  Sacred  Writings,  from  the  earliest  Period  to  the 
present  Century:  including  Biographical  Notices  of  Transla- 
tors and  other  eminent  Biblical  Scholars.  By  the  Rev.  James 
TowNLET  [now  D.D.].     London,  1821,  3  vols.  8vo. 

"  The  ample  volumes  before  us  comprise  a  rich  fund  of  instruc- 
tive and  pleasing  information  on  the  subject  of  Sacred  Bibliogra- 
phy. They  have  been  compiled  from  a  great  variety  of  publica- 
tions, many  of  them  inaccessible  to  the  generality  of  readers,  and 
some  of  them  of  extreme  rarity."  .  .  .  .  "  The  industry  and  the 
accuracy  of  Mr.  Tovvnley  will  entitle  his  volumes  to  the  approba- 
tion of  the  critic  and  the  patronage  of  the  public.  They  aflbrd  a 
more  comprehensive  view  of  the  progress  of  biblical  translations 
and  of  the  Literary  and  Ecclesiastical  History  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures than  is  to  be  found  in  any  other  work."  (Eclectic  Review, 
N.  S.  vol.  xviii.  pp.  386.  407.) 

10.  An  Introduction  to  the  Literary  History  of  the  Bible.  By 
James  Townley,  D.D.     London,  1828.  12mo. 

This  handsomely  executed  volume,  which  is  a  second  edition  of 
the  Biblical.  Anecdotes  published  by  Dr.  Townley  in  1813,  may  be 
considered  as  an  epitome  of  his  Illustrations  of  Biblical  Literamre. 
It  contains  many  interesting  anecdotes  relative  to  the  Literary 
History  of  the  Scriptures  from  the  earliest  period  to  the  commence- 
ment of  the  nineteenth  century. 


6 


HEBREW  BIBLES. 


[Paiit  I.  Chap.  L 


11.  Bibliotheca  Biblica:  a  Select  List  of  Books  on  Sacred 
I-itcrature,  with  Notices  Biographical.  Critical,  and  Bibliogra- 
phical.    By  William  Oiime.     London,  1824.  8vo. 

For  many  of  his  titles  and  notices  of  books,  Mr.  Ormc  has  been 
indebted  to  the  present  Work,  to  which  he  has  honourahly  acknow- 
ledged his  obligations.  "The  theological  student  cannot  fad  to 
dcnve  much  advantoge  from  it ;  and  the  more  learned  divine  will 
iind  it  an  excellent  supplement  to  the  Biblioiheea  Theologiea  Sc- 
lecta  of  the  laborious  Wakhius.  or  to  the  erudite  Bibliotheca 
Sacra  of  Le  Long."     (British  Critic,  N.  S.  vol.  xxii.  p.  486.) 

12.  Bibliotheqae  Sacrce  Grccque-Latine  ;  contenant  le  Ta- 
bleau Chronologique,  Biographiqiic,  et  Bibliographiquc,  des 
Autcurs  Inspires  et  des  Autcurs  Ecclesiastiques,  depuis  Moise 
jusqu'a  Saint  Thomas-d'Aquin.  Ouvrage  redigc  d'apres  Mauro 
Boni  et  Gainba.     Par.  Ch.  Nodi  En.     Paris,  1826.  8vo. 

A  convenient  summary  of  biblical  and  ecclesiastical  Bibliogra- 
phy. The  author  first  gives  a  concise  biographical  notice  of  the 
sacred  and  ecclesiastical  writers,  and  then  specifies  the  principal 
pdiiioiis  of  their  works.  A  List  is  then  subjoined  of  the  Collec- 
tions of  the  Canons  and  Acts  of  Councils  and  of  the  Canon  Law. 
of  Ecclesiastical  Biographers,  and  of  the  Works  of  the  Greek  and 
Latin  Fathere,  and  other  Ecclesiastical  Writers,  and  of  the  Greek 
and  Latin  Christian  Poets. 

13.  Bibliotheca  Sussexiana,  A  Descriptive  Catalogue,  accom- 
panied by  Historical  and  Biographical  Notices,  of  tlic  Manu- 
scripts and  Printed  Books  contained  in  the  Library  of  His 
RoTAL  HioHNEss  THE  DuKE  OF  ScssEX.  By  Tliomas  Jo.scph 
Pettigrcw,  F.R.S.  &c.  &c.  Vol.  I.  in  Two  Parts.  London, 
1827.     Imperial  8vo. 

This  magnificent  publication  has  a  special  claim  to  bo  noticed 
in  the  present  Catalocrue  of  biblical  Works,  on  account  of  the  di- 
versified Jind  important  information  which  it  communicates  respect- 
ing Editions  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  which  is  not  to  be  Ibund 
in  the  bibliographical  treatises  already  described. 

The  first  portion  of  the  Bibliotheca  Sussexiana  is  appropriated 


to  Maxi'SCRIPTS,  the  number  of  which  amounts  very  nearly  to 
three  hundred:  these  are   arranged   according  to  languages,  viz. 
In  Ilebrew,  Greek,  Latin,  French,  Italian,  Spanish,  German,  Dutch, 
English,  Irish,  Arabic,  Persian,  Armenian,  Pali,  Singhalese,  audi 
Burman.  •] 

The  second  part  treats  on  Pri.nted  Editio.\s  of  the  Holy^crin- ! 
turos,  disposed  under  the  follov^ung  titles,  viz.  Polyglotts  of  the  Oid 
and  New  Testaments  and  of  detached  portions  thereof; — Hebrew 
Bibles,  Hebrew  and  Hebrew-Samaritan  Pentateuchs,  and  portions 
of  the  Old  Testament  in  Hebrew ; — Greek  Bibles,  Greek  Penta- 
teuch, and  portions  of  the  Old  Testament  in  Greek  ; — Latin  Bibles  ; 
and  parts  of  the  Old  Testament  in  Latin  :  forming  an  aggregate  of 
lour  hundred  and  ninety-nine  articles,  many  of  which  arc  among 
the  rarest  and  most  valuable  in  Sacred  Bibliography. 

I^uch  as  has  been  accomplished  by  preceding  authors  who  have 
treated  on  Sacred  Bibliography,  the  laborious  researches  of  Mr. 
Peitigrew  have  enabled  him  to  contribute  large  and  imj-iortant 
additions  to  this  branch  of  literature.  He  has  accurately  and  mi- 
nutely described  the  several  editions  of  the  Scriptures,  and  his 
Bibliographical  Notices  correct  the  errors,  and  supply  the  defi- 
ciencies, of  former  writers.  Curious  specimens  of  metrical  Ver- 
sions are  introduced,  besides  numerous  biographical  and  critical 
anecdotes  of  authors  and  editors.  The  numerous  engravings  are 
executed  in  the  highest  style  of  the  chalcographic  art.  Creditable 
as  the  work  is  to  Mr.  Petligrevv,  in  a  literary  point  of  view,  it 
would  be  injustice  to  the  distinguished  owner  of  this  magnificent 
librar}',  not  to  acknowledge  the  very  liberal  fiicility  vviih  which 
His  Royal  Highness  the  Duke  of  Sussex  permits  it  to  be  consulted 
by  scholars. 

There  are  copies  of  this  Catalogue  in  small  folio,  the  typogra- 
phical splendour  of  which  is  unequalled. 

%*  A  second  volume  of  this  Catalogue  has  been  announced  for 
publication :  it  is  to  contain  the  history  of  the  remaining  versions 
of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  or  of  parts  thereof,  bolli  ancient 
and  modern,  viz.  The  Syriac,  Pesehito,  Philoxcnian,  and  Pala-slino- 
Syriac ;  the  Arabic,  Persic,  Egyptian,  Etliiopic,  Armenian,  Latin, 
Gothic,  Sclavonic,  Anglo-Saxon,  German,  English,  French,  Italian, 
Bohemian,  &c.  &c.,  all  of  which  are  disposed  in  chronological 
order. 


PART  I. 

HOLY  SCRIPTURES. 


CHAPTER  I. 

ENTIRE    TEXTS    AND    VERSIONS    OP    THE    BIBLE. 


SECTION  I. 

PRINCIPAL   EDITIONS    OF   THE    HEBREW    BIBLE 


Bishop  Waitoit,'  Carpzov,2and  partirujarly  Le  Long,  have 
treated  at  great  length  on  the  various  editions  of  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures.  These  have  been  divided  by  De  Rossi  and  others 
into  Masoretic  and  Non-Masoretic  editions, — a  distinction,  the 
utility  of  which  is  not  perceived.  In  the  jirescnt  section,  Dr. 
Masch's  improved  edition  of  Le  Long's  Bibliotheca  Sacra'  has 
been  chiefly  followed.  The  various  impressions  of  the  Hebrew 
Bible  may  be  divided  into  the  four  following  .cla.sses,  viz. 

(I.)   Editiones  Principcs,  or  those  first  printed. 

(2.)  Editiones  Primarifc,  or  those  which  have  been  adopted  as 
the  b.asos  of  subsc(iucnt  impressions. 

(3.)  Editions,  the  text  of  which  is  accompanied  with  Rab- 
binical Commentaries. 

(4.)  Editions,  which  arc  Jumished  with  Critical  Apparatus. 


(j  1.     EniTiONKs  PnixciPES. 

1.  P?altcrium  Hebraicum,  cumcornmcntario  KiMCHii.  Anno 
237  (l4'/7).  4to. 

The  firM  printed  Hebrew  book.  It  is  of  extreme  rarity,  and  is 
printed   (probably  at  Bologna)  with  a  square  Hebrew  ly|>e,  ap- 

•  Prolcgom.  cap.  iv.    Pn  Dibliorum  Eilitiimiljus  prri'clpiiis. 
»  Crilii'-n  rtarr.i,  pjirs  i   cnp.  9.  pp.  3*7 — ('■W. 

*  lliblioilicra  Sarrn,  post.  Jacobi  Lc  I-ong  ot  C.  F.  Ilocrncri  ilor.ilns 
Cliras  or'liiio  dinpusiiH,  iMiiPiiclata  siipplota,  rontinuntn  ali  Ariilri'a  (ioltlii'b 
Masrii.  Ilala",  111).  177^—85—90.  1  vols,  with  Suppli-innnl.'  The  iircnunl 
of  Hebrew  cililiims  Is  in  llio  first  vobiinc,  pp.  I  — If"",,  .tjl — yi.\,  !),> 
Btirp'8  IliblioKranhio  Instruccivc.  torn.  i.  (Paris  lyM^,  ami  HnuiPl's  .Maiiiiol 
dii  Libraire,  el  iIr  i'Ain.-ttciir  clc  Livres,  (-1  vols.  8vo.  Paris  1820,  3U  edit.) 
have  alsu  buca  cuusulluci  occasionally. 


preaching  that  of  the  German  Jews.  The  text  is  without  points 
except  in  the  first  fi)ur  psalms,  which  are  clumsily  iwinted.  Th 
eonimentary  of  Ilabbi  Kiinchi  is  subjoined  to  each  verse  of  th 
text  in  the  rabi)inicMl  character,  and  is  much  more  complete  than 
in  the  siibse<juent  editions,  us  it  conlains  all  those  passaires  which 
were  afterwards  omitlcd,  as  being  hoslilo  lo  Cliristianiiy.  Prof. 
Jatin  states  that  it  is  iiic()rre<lly  printed,  and  tliat  the  matres  lectionis 
are  introduced  or  omitted  at  ihe  pleasure  of  tlie  editors. 

2.  Biblia  Hcbraica,  cum  punctis.     Soncino,  1488,  folio. 

The  first  edition  of  the  entire  Hebrew  Blhlc  ever  printed.  It  is 
at  present  uf  such  extreme  rarily,  that  only  nine  or  ten  c-opies  of 
it  are  known  to  be  in  existence.  One  of  iliese  is  in  the  library  of 
Exeter  College,  Oxiiird.  At  iho  end  of  Ihe  Pentaieiicli  there  is  a 
long  Hebrew  subscription,  indicating  the  name  of  ihe  editor  (.\bra- 
liain  Ben  Ciiaji.m),  the  place  where  it  was  printed,  and  ihe  dale  of 
iIk!  edition.  This  very  scarce  volume  consists,  accor^ling  ti)  Masch, 
of'M'.i  (but  Brunet  says  380)  l()li(>s,  nrinled  willi  |)oinI.>i  and  accents, 
and  also  with  signaiures  and  calcliwords.  The  initial  letlcrs  of 
eiich  lK)ok  arc  larger  than  llie  others,  and  are  oriiamonlcd.  Dr. 
Kennicoit  stales,  ihat  there  are  not  fewer  than  twelve  ihoiiitand 
verlwil  differences  between  this  edition  and  ihal  of  Vander  Hi>Ojjht ; 
his  nsscrlion  is  questioned  by  Masch.  The  researches  ol'  biblical 
critics  liiive  no|  succeeded  in  ascertaining  what  manuscript.s  were 
used  for  this  Hebrew  Bible.  It  is,  however,  acknowledged  that 
these  two  very  ancient  editions  are  c<|ual  in  value  to  manuscripts. 


i 


§  2.      Editiones  PniMAnm,  ou    those  which  hate   bekm 

ADOPTED     AS    THE     H.\SKS   OF    8f  BSEQ.fKXT   IMPKKSSIOXS. 

1.  Biblia  Hcbraica,  8vo.  Brixiss,  1494. 

This  edition  was  conducted  by  tJKRsoN,  the  son  of  R.ibbi  Mo.'es. 
It  is  also  of  extreme  rarity,  and  is  printed  in  long  lines,  except  part 


Sect.  I.  §  3,  4.] 


HEBREW  BIBLES. 


of  the  Psalms,  which  is  in  two  coliiiTinR.  The  identical  copy  of 
this  edition,  from  which  Lutlier  inade  his  German  translation,  is 
said  to  be  preserved  in  the  Royal  Library  at  Berlin.  This  edition 
was  the  basis  of,  1.  The  liebrt^w  Text  of  the  Complutensian  Poly- 
glott;  2.  Bomber<r'si  first  Rabbinical  Bible,  Venice,  1518,  in  4  vols, 
folio;  3.  Daniel  Bomberg's  4;o.  Hebrew  Bible,  Venice,  1518;  4. 
His  second  Hebrew  Bible,  4to.  Venice,  1521 ;  and,  5.  Sebastian 
Munster's  Hebrew  Bible,  Basil,  1536,  in  2  vols.  4to. 

2.  Another  primary  edition  is  the  Biblia  Hebraica  Bombergi- 
ana  IL  folio,  Venice,  152.5,  1526,  folio. 

Tills  was  edited  by  Rabbi  Jacob  Ben  Chajim,  who  had  the  repu- 
tation of  being  profoundly  learned  in  the  Masora,  and  other 
branches  of  Jewish  erudition.  He  pointed  the  textaccording  to  the 
Masoreiic  system.  This  eduion  is  the  basis  of  all  the  modern 
pointed  copies. 

§3.  Editions  of  the  Bible  with  Rabbinical  Oom- 

mestaries. 

Besides  the  Biblia  Rabbinica  L  et  IL  just  mentioned,  we  may 
notice  in  this  class  the  three  following  editions;  viz, 

1.  Biblia  Hebraica  cum  utraque  Masora,  Targum,  nccnon 
commentariis  Rabbinorum,  studio  et  cum  prtefatione  R.  Jacob 
F.  Chajim,  Venetiis,  1547 — 1549,  4  tomes  in  2  vols,  folio. 

This  is  the  second  of  Rabbi  Jacob  Ben  Chajim's  editions;  and, 
according  to  M.  Brunet,  is  preferable  to  the  preceding,  as  well  as 
to  another  edition  executed  in  1568,  also  from  the  press  of  Daniel 
Boinberg. 

2.  Biblia  Hebrjea,  cum  utraque  Masora  et  Targum,  item  cum 
commentariis  Rabbinorum,  studio  Joannis  BuxtorfRi,  patris ; 
adjecta  est  ejusdcm  Tiberias,  sive  commentarius  Masoreticus. 
Basileaj,  1618,  1619,  1620,  4  tomes  in  2  vols,  folio. 

Tliis  great  work  was  executed  at  the  expense  of  Lewis  Kcenig, 
an  opulent  bookseller  at  Basle  ;  on  account  of  the  additional  mat- 
ter which  it  contains,  it  is  held  in  great  esteem  by  Hebrew  scho- 
lars, many  of  whom  prefer  it  to  the  Hebrew  Bibles  printed  by 
Bombcrg.  Buxtorfs  Biblia  Rabbinica  contains  the  commentaries 
of  the  celebrated  Jewish  Rabbins.  Jarchi,  Aben  Ezra,  Kimclii. 
Levi  Ben  Gerson,  and  Saadias  Haggaon.  An  appendix  is  subjoined, 
conlaining,  besides  the  Jerusalem  Targum,  the  great  Masora  cor- 
rected and  amended  by  Baxtorf,  the  various  lections  of  the  Rabbis 
Ben  Ascher  and  Ben  Naphtali.  Buxtorf  also  annexed  the  poinis 
to  the  Chaldee  paraphrase.  The  Tiberias  published  by  Buxtorf,  in 
1620,  was  intended  to  illustrate  the  Masora  and  other  editions  to 
his  great  Bible. 

3.  Biblia  Hebraica  Magna  Rabbinica,  Amstelodami,  1724 — 
27.  4  vols,  folio. 

"This  is  unquestionably  the  most  copious  and  most  valuable  of 
all  the  Rabbinical  Bibles,  and  was  edited  by  Moses  Ben  Simeon 
of  Frankfort.  It  is  founded  upon  the  Bomberg  editions,  and  <'on- 
tains  not  only  their  contents,  but  also  those  of  Buxtorfs,  with  addi- 
tional remarks  by  the  editor."  Bibl.  Sussex,  vol.  i.  part  ii.  p.  188. 
In  pp.  189 — 195.  there  is  a  copious  and  interesting  bibliographical 
description  of  this  edition. 


§  4.   Editions  avith  Critical  Notes  aitd  Apparatus. 

1.  The  first  edition  of  the  Hebrew  Bible,  printed  by  Bom- 
berg, and  edited  by  Felix  Pratensis,  (Venice  1518),  contains 
the  various  lections  of  the  Eastern  and  W^estern  recensions ; 
which  are  also  to  be  found  in  Buxtorfs  Biblia  Rabbinica. 

2.  Biblia  Hebraica,  cum  Latina  Versione  Sebastiani  Mun- 
STERi.     Basilea3,  1534,  1535.  2  vols  folio. 

The  Hebrew  type  of  this  edition  resembles  the  characters  of  the 
German  Jews  :  the  Latin  version  of  Munster  is  placed  by  the  side 
of  the  Hebrew  text.  Though  the  editor  has  not  indicated  what 
manuscripts  he  used,  he  is  supposed  to  have  formed  his  text  upon 
the  edition  printed  at  Brescia  in  1494,  or  the  still  more  early  one 
of  1488.  His  prolegomena  contain  much  useful  critical  matter ; 
and  his  notes  are  subjoined  to  each  chapter.  This  is  the  first  edi- 
tion of  the  Hebrew  Bible  printed  in  Germany. 

3.  Biblia  Sacra  Hebrsea  correcta,  et  collata  cum  antiquissimis 
exemplaribus  manuscriptis  et  hactenus  impressis.  Amstelodami. 
Typis  et  sumptibus  Josephi  Athise.  1661 ;  1667.  Svo. 

An  extremely  rare  edition  of  a  most  beautifully  executed  Hebrew 
Bible.  The  impression  of  1667  is  said  to  be  the  most  correct.  So 
highly  were  the  labours  of  the  printer,  Athias,  appreciated,  that  the 
Stales  General  of  Holland  conferred  on  him  a  gold  chain  with  a 
gold  medal  appendant,  as  a  mark  of  their  approbation.  Athias 
adopted  the  text  of  Rabbi  Chaim's  edition,  printed  at  Venice  in 
1525 — 26  ;  but  he  avoided  his  errors,  and  rejected  several  of  the 
readings  which  are  peculiar  to  that  edition.  (Jewish  Expositor 
July,  1828.  p.  58.) 

4.  Biblia  Hebraica,  cum  notis  Hebraicis  ct  Lemmatibus  La- 
tinis,  ex  recensione  Dan.  Em.  Jabloxski,  cum  ejus  Praefatione 
Latina.     Berolini,  1699,  large  Svo, 

Dr.  Rossi  considers  this  to  be  one  of  the  most  correct  and  impor- 
tant editions  of  the  Hc'brew  Bible  ever  printed.    It  is  extremely 


scarce.  Jablon.ski  publislied  another  edition  of  the  Hebrew  Bible 
in  1712  at  Berlin,  without  points,  in  larse  12mo  ;  and  subjoined  to 
It  Leusden's  Catalogue  of  2294  select  ^'erses,  containing  all  the 
words  occurring  in  the  Old  Testament.  There  is  also  a  Berlin 
edition  of  the  Hebrew  Bible  without  points,  in  1711,  24mo.,  from 
the  press  of  Jablonski,  who  has  prefixed  a  short  preface.  It  was 
begun  under  the  editorial  care  of  S.  G.  Starcke,  and  finished,  on 
his  death,  by  Jablonski.  Masch  pronounces  it  to  be  both  useless 
and  worthless. 

5.  Biblia  Hebraica,  edente  Everardo  Van  der  Hoogut.  Am- 
stel.  et  Ultraject.  Svo.  2  vols.  1705. 

A  work  of  singular  beauty  and  rarity.  The  Hebrew  text  is 
printed  after  Athias's  second  edition,  with  marginal  notes  pointing 
out  the  contents  of  each  section.  The  characters,  especially  the 
vowel  points,  are  uncommonly  clear  and  distinct.  At  the  end. 
Van  der  Hooght  has  given  the  various  lections  between  the  edi- 
tions of  Bomberg,  Plantin,  Athias,  and  olhei-s.  Van  der  Hooght's 
edition  was  reprinted  at  London  in  2  vols.  Svo.  1811,  1812,  under 
the  editorship  of  Mr.  Frey,  and  is  executed  with  great  beauty. 

6.  Biblia  Hebraica  ex  aliquot  ManusCiiptis  et  compluribus 
impressis  codicibus ;  item  Masora  tarn  edita  quam  manuscripta, 
aliisque  Hebrffiorum  criticis  diligenter  recensita.  Cura  ac  studio 
D.  Jo.  Henr.  Michaelis.  1720.  2  vols,  large  Svo.  There  are 
also  copies  in  4to. 

This  edition  has  always  been  held  in  the  highest  estimation. 
The  text  is  printed  from  Jablonski's  Hebrew  Bible  (Berlin,  1699); 
and  there  were  collated  for  this  edition  five  manuscripts  in  the 
library  of  Erfurt,  and  nineteen  of  the  best  printed  editions.  A  se- 
lection of  various  readings,  and  parallel  passages,  both  real  and 
verbal,  is  subjoined,  together  with  brief  notes  on  the  most  difficult 
texts  of  the  Old  Testament  Michaelis  has  prefixed  learned  prole- 
gomena to  this  edition,  the  type  of  which  is  bad  and  unpleasant  to 
the  eye. 

7.  Biblia  Hebraica  secundum  editionem  Belgicam  Everardi 
Van  der  Hooght,  collatis  aliis  bonse  notte  codicibus,  una  cum 
Versione  Latina  Sebastiani  Schmidii.     Lipsioe,  1749,  4to. 

A  tolerably  accurate  reprint  of  Van  der  Hooght's  text,  but  upon 
very  indifferent  type,  with  additional  various  readings.  The  Latin 
version  of  Sebastian  Schmidt  is  placed  opposite  to  the  Hebrew 
text.  To  the  work  are  prefixed,  1.  A  Preface,  by  J.  C.  Claudius, 
vindicating  the  edition  of  Van  der  Hooght  against  some  critical 
censures  ;  2.  Van  der  Hooght's  Preface,  with  the  testimonies  of  some 
eminent  scholars  in  favour  of  his  edition  ;  and,  3.  The  Testimony 
and  Judgment  of  the  Theological  Faculty  of  Strasburgh  in  favour 
of  Sebastian  Schmidt's  Latin  Translation.  Masch,  Bibliotheca 
Sacra,  part  i.  p.  158. 

8.  Biblia  Hebraica  cum  notis  criticis,  et  Versione  Latina  ad 
notas  criticas  facta.  Accedunt  Libri  GriEci,  qui  Deutero-canonici 
vocantur,  in  tres  Classes  distributi.  Autore  Carolo  Francisco 
HouBiGANT,     Lutetia;  Parisiorum,  1753,  4  vols,  folio. 

The  text  of  this  edition  is  that  of  Van  der  Hooght,  without 
points  ;  and  in  the  margin  of  the  Pentateuch  Houbigant  has  added 
various  lections  from  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch.  He  collated 
twelve  manuscripts,  of  which  how-ever  he  is  said  not  to  have  made 
all  the  use  he  might  have  done.  Houbigant  has  also  printed  a  new 
Latin  version  of  his  own,  expressive  of  such  a  text  as  his  critical 
emendations  appeared  to  justify  and  recommend.  The  book  h 
most  beautifully  printed,  but  has  not  answered  the  high  expecta- 
tions that  were  entertained  of  it.  (See  Bishop  Marsh's  criticism 
on  it,  in  his  Divinity  Lectures,  part  ii.  pp.  101 — 104.  and  also  Bibl. 
Sussex,  vol.  i.  part  ii.  pp.  192 — 194.) 

9.  Vetus  Testamentum  Hebraicum  cum  variis  Lectionibus. 
Edidit  Bcnjaminus  Kennicott,  S.  T.  P.  Oxonii,  1776,  1780, 
2  vols,  folio. 

This  splendid  work  was  preceded  by  two  dissertations  on  tha 
state  of  the  Hebrew  text,  published  in  1753  and  1759 ;  the  object 
of  which  was  to  show  the  necessity  of  the  same  extensive  colla< 
tion  of  Hebrew  manuscripts  of  the  Old  Testament  as  had  already 
been  undertaken  for  the  Greek  manuscripts  of  the  New  'Testa* 
ment.  Tlie  utility  of  the  proposed  collation  being  generally  ad« 
mitted,  a  very  liberal  subscription  w'as  made  to  defray  the  expensa 
of  the  collation,  amounting  on  the  whole  to  nearly  ten  thousand 
pounds,  and  the  name  of  his  majesty  King  George  III.  headed  th» 
lis^(of  subscribers.  Various  persons  were  employed  both  at  home 
and  abroad  ;  but  of  the  foreign. literati  the  principal  was  Professor 
Bruns  of  the  University  of  Helmstadt,  who  not  only  collated  He- 
brew manuscripts  in  Germany,  but  went  for  that  purpose  into  Italy 
and  Switzerland.  The  business  of  collation  continued  from  1760 
to  1769  inclusive,  during  which  period  Dr.  Kennicott  published 
annually  an  account  of  the  progress  which  was  made.  More  than 
six  hundred  Hebrew  m.anuscripts,  and  sixteen  manuscripts  of  the 
Samaritan  Pentateuch,  were  discovered  in  different  libraries  in  . 
England  and  on  the  Continent;  many  of  which  were  wholly  col- 
lated, and  others  consulted  in  important  passages.  Several  years 
of  course  elapsed,  after  the  collations  w-ere  finished,  before  the 
materials  could  be  arranged  and  digested  for  publication.  The 
variations  contained  in  nearly  seven  hundred  bundles  of  papers, 
being  at  length  digested  (including  the  collations  made  by  Profes- 
sor Bruns) ;  and  the  whole  when  pat  together  being  corrected  by 
the  original  collations,  and  then  fairly  transcribed  into  thirty  folia 


8 


HEBREW  BIBLES. 


[Paht  I.  Chap,  I 


volumes,  the  work  was  pnf  lo  press  in  1773.  In  1776  the  first 
■  volume  of  Dr.  Kennicoti's  Hebrew  Rihle  was  delivered  lo  the 
public,  and  in  1780  tlie  second  volume.  It  was  printed  al  ilie  Cla- 
rendon Press;  and  the  University  of  Oxlord  has  the  honour  of 
having  produced  the  first  critical  edition  upon  a  large  scale,  both 
of  the  (ireek  Testament  and  of  the  Hebrew  Bible — an  honom' 
which  it  i.s  still  maintaining  by  a  similar  edition,  liitlierlo  indeed 
nnfinished,  of  the  Greek  version,  commenced  by  liie  late  Kev.  Dr. 
Holmes,  and  now  continuing  under  the  editorial  care  of  the  Rev. 
Dr.  Parsons. 

"The  text  of  Kennicott's  edition  was  printed  from  that  of  Van 
der  Hooght,  with  whidi  the  Hebrew  manuscripts,  by  Kennicott's 
direction,  were  all  collated.  But,  as  variations  in  the  points  were 
disregarded  in  the  collation,  the  points  were  not  added  in  the  text. 
The  various  reading?,  as  in  the  critical  editions  of  the  Greek  Tes- 
tament, were  printed  at  the  bottom  of  the  page,  with  references  to 
Ihe  corresiX)iident  readings  of  the  text.  In  the  Pentateuch  the 
deviations  of  the  Samaritan  text  were  printed  in  a  column  parallel 
to  the  Hebrew ;  and  the  variatitms  observable  in  the  Samaritan 
manuscripts,  wliich  diller  from  each  other  as  well  as  the  Hebrew, 
are  likewise  noted,  witii  references  to  the  Samaritan  printed  text- 
To  this  collation  of  manuscripts  was  added  a  collation  of  the  most 
distinguished  editions  of  the  Hebrew  Bible,  in  the  same  manner  as 
VVetstein  has  noted  the  variations  observable  in  the  principal  edi- 
tions ol'  the  Greek  Testament.  Nor  did  Kennicoit  confine  his  col- 
lation to  manuscripts  and  editions.  He  further  considered,  that 
as  the  quotations  from  the  Greek  Testament  in  the  works  of  eccle- 
siastical writers  afford  another  source  of  various  readin^.r,  so  the 
quotations  from  the  Hebrew  Bible  in  the  works  of  Jewish,  writers 
are  likewise  subjects  of  critical  inquiry.  For  this  purpose  he  had 
recourse  to  the  most  distinguished  among  the  rabbinical  writings, 
but  particularly  to  the  Talmud,  tlie  text  of  which  is  as  ancient  as 
the  third  century.  In  the  quotation  of  his  authorities  he  designates 
them  by  numbers  from  1  to  692,  including  manuscripts,  editions, 
and  rabbinical  writings,  which  numbers  arc  explained  in  the  Dis- 
sertalio  Gtneralin  annexed  to  the  second  volume. 

"  This  Disstrtatio  Generalis,  which  corresponds  to  what  are 
called  Prolegomena  in  other  critical  editions,  contains  not  only  an 
account  of  the  manuscripts  and  other  authorities  collated  Ibr  this 
edition,  but  also  a  review  of  the  Hebrew  text  divided  into  periods, 
and  beginning  with  the  formation  of  the  Hebrew  canon  alter  the 
return  of  the  Jews  from  the  Babylonish  captivity.  Though  in- 
quiries of  this  description  unavoidably  contain  matters  of  doubtful 
disputation,  though  the  opinions  of  Kennicott  have  been  frequently 
questioned,  and  sometimes  justly  questioned,  his  Disserlalio  Gene- 
ralis is  a  work  of  great  interest  to  every  biblical  scholar.  Kenni- 
cott was  a  disciple  of  Capellus  both  in  respect  to  the  integrity  of 
the  Hebrew  text,  and  in  respect  to  the  preface  of  the  Samaritan 
Pentateuch  ;  but  he  avoided  the  extreme  into  which  JMorinus  and 
Houbigant  had  fallen.  And  though  he  possessed  not  the  rabbini- 
cal learning  of  the  two  Buxtorfs,  his  merits  were  greater  than  some 
of  his  contemporaries,  as  well  in  England  as  on  the  Continent, 
were  willing  to  allow."  Bishop  Marsh's  Divinity  Lectures,  part 
ii  pp.  lO.T — 1U8.  For  a  very  copious  account  of  Dr.  Kennicott's 
edition  of  the  Hebrew  Bible,  see  the  Monthly  Review  (O.  S.),  vol. 
Iv.  pp.  92—100.  vol.  kiv.  pp.  173—182.  321—328.  vol.  Ixv.  pp. 
121—131. 

To  Dr.  Kennicott's  Hebrew  Bible,  M.  De  Rossi  published  an 
important  supplement  at  Parma  (1784 — 1787),  in  four  volumes  4io. 
of  \'arice  Lectiones  Veteris  Testamenti.  This  work  and  Dr.  Kenni- 
cott's edition  form  one  complete  set  of  collations.  Ol'the  immense 
mass  of  various  readings  which  the  collations  of  Dr.  Kennicott  and 
M.  Dc  Rxjssi  exhibit,  multitudes  are  insignificant ;  consisting  fre- 
quently of  the  omission  or  addition  of  a  single  letter  in  a  word,  as 
a  vau,  &.C.  "But  they  arc  not  therefjre  useless.  All  of  this  class 
contribute  powerfully  to  establish  the  authenticity  of  the  sacred 
text  in  general  by  their  conciurrcncc ;  while  they  occasionally 
afford  valuable  emendations  of  the  sacred  text  in  several  important 
passages,  supporting  by  their  evidence  the  various  readings  sug- 
gested by  the  ancient  versions  derived  from  manuscripts  of  an 
earlier  date."  (Dr.  Hales's  Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol.  ii.  (wok  i. 
p.  xiv.)  In  the  first  volume  of  Dr.  Masch's  edition  of  Le  Long's 
Bibliotheca  Sacra,  there  is  a  valuable  collection  of  various  read- 
ings made  from  Ihe  Ma.soretic  and  Non-Masorelic  printed  coj)ics 
of  the  Hebrew  Bible.     See  pp.  xl. — cxviii. 

10.  Biblia  Hcbraica,  dim  a  Christiano  Rcincccio  cJila,  nunc 
dcnuo  cum  variis  lectionlbus,  ex  ingenti  codicurn  copia  i  B. 
Kennicolto  et  J.  B.  De  Rosai  collalorum,  ediderunt,  J.  C 
DoKDEULKi.v  ct  J.  H.  MtiHSNEii,     Lipslu!,  1793,  8vo. 

This  edition  was  undertaken  by  the  celebrated  Dr.  Doodcrlein 
and  Professor  Moissner,  in  onler  to  supply  those  lovers  of  Hebrew 
litoratiiro  who  mny  not  be  able  to  consult  the  expensive  volumes 
of  Kennicott  and  Do  Rossi  They  have  selected  the  princijjal  va- 
rious readings  of  those  eminent  collators;  but  Professor  Juhn 
asserts  llmt  the  text  is  very  incorrect.  The  fine  jiaper  cojiies  are 
beautiful  and  convenient  books;  but  those  on  coininon  pai)er  are 
scarcely  legible,  'i'hey  are  usually  Ixuind  in  two  volumes.  In  ISjH 
a  second  e<liiion  of  lliis  valuable  Hebrew  Bible  was  published  nl 
Halle,  with  a  new  preface  by  Dr.  Knappo,  (uiiitled,  liihlin  Ifc/iraiai 
idiin  a  Christ.  Rrmrcrio  evulfriila,  poxl  fid  Jiilitm  rcrcnslonis  Mu.to- 
reticcr,  cinn  iviri'/.v  lictumilnis  ex  ingenti  ctxld.  m»s.  copia  a  liiiij. 
Kennirnllo  i.l  I.  B.  Dc  Rossi  collatorum  edila,  cur.  J-  C.  Dncdvrlviuio 
tt  I.  II.  Meisstiero.  (Quorum  edilioni  ante  hos  XXV.  annus  c  liilili- 
vpoho  Lij/sienti  tmisice,  nunc  emjitionis  jure  in  libr.  (Jrvliunotrophii 


Hulen.'is  tran.ila'ef,  accessit  G.  Chr.  Knappii  prafatio  de  cditicnt- 
bus  liihlioriiin  Hahnsibus,  8vo.  Halo;,  Lihraria  Orphan otrophd 
According  lo  the  Journal  (Jeneral  de  la  Litt^raturo  Etrantrore  (Jan 
1819),  the  above-noticed  edition  of  1793  consisted  of  ten  thousand 
copies;  the  unsold  stock  of  which  were  disfiosed  of  to  the  trustees 
or  governors  of  ihc  Orphan  House  at  Halle,  by  whom  the  title- 
page  was  altered  to  the  dale  of  1818,  and  a  new  preface  was  added 
byProt'essor  Kiiappe  relative  to  the  editions  of  the  Bible  published 
at  Halle. 

11.  Biblia  Hcbraica.  Dige.ssit  et  graviores  Lectionum  vane- 
tates  adjecit  Johannes  Jaiin.     Vienna,  1806,  4  vols.  Svo. 

Professor  Jahn  has  long  been  distinguished  for  his  successful 
cultivation  of  oriental  literature.  In  his  edition  the  text  is  very 
distinctly  printed,  the  principal  Hebrew  points  are  retained,  and 
the  poetical  parts  of  the  Old  Testament  are  metrically  arranged  : 
it  is  conveniently  divided  info  four  vols. ;  of  which  Vol.  I.  con- 
tains the  Pentateuch. — Vol.  II.  contains  the  Historical  Books  of 
Joshua,  Judges,  Ruth,  Samuel,  Kings,  Ezra,  Esther,  and  Nehe- 
miah. — Vol.  III.  comprises  the  Prophetical  Books  thus  arranged  ; — 
Amos,  Hosea,  Micah,  Isaiah,  Joel,  A'ahum,  Habakkuk,  Obadiah, 
Zephaniah,  Jeremiah,  Lamentations,  Ezekiel,  Daniel,  Ilaggai, 
Zechariah,  Jonah,  Malachi. — Vol.  IV.  contains  the  Psalms,  Pro- 
verbs, Job,  Song  of  Solomon,  and  Ecclesiastes.  The  Books  of 
Kings  and  Chronicles  are  given  in  a  kind  of  harmony. 

Each  book  is  judiciously  divided  into  greater  or  less  sections, 
to  which  is  prefixed  a  short  Latin  analysis  of  their  contents.  The 
division  into  chapters  is  preserved,  and  their  numbers  are  noted  at 
the  heads  of  the  sections.  The  number  of  the  verses  are  also 
marked  in  the  margin.  The  Masoretic  Notes,  which  are  generally 
added  in  the  margin  of  the  Hebrew-  Bibles,  are  retained,  with  the 
exception  of  a  very  few,  which  relate  to  the  accents,  and  mark  the 
middle  of  the  book.  They  are  all  expressed  atfiill  length,  and  many 
of  them  are  also  accompanied  with  a  Latin  version.  The  Jewish 
criticisms,  which  are  in  some  editions  added  at  the  end  of  each 
book,  are  omitted  by  Professor  Jahn,  as  being  of  no  use  to  the 
Christian  reader.  To  the  text  are  subjoined  the  more  important 
various  readings ;  and  in  some  more  diflicult  places,  all  the  varia- 
tions that  could  be  found  are  carefully  given.  These  various  read- 
ings are  taken  from  the  collations  of  Bishop  Walton,  Grabe, 
Montfaucon,  Dr.  Kennicott,  De  Rossi,  and  Dr.  Holmes.  The  text 
is  that  of  Van  der  Hooght,  from  which  Ihe  editor  has  departed 
onlv  in  nine  or  ten  places,  in  which  many  other  editions  had  pre- 
ceded him,  and  which  are  supported  by  numerous  and  very 
weighty  authorities.  There  are  copies  on  fine  paper  in  Svo., 
which  are  very  beautiful,  and  also  forty  copies  in  4io.,  which  are 
very  rare. 

12.  Biblia  Hcbraica,  or  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  of  the  Old 
Testament,  without  points,  after  the  text  of  Kennicott,  with  the 
chief  various  readings,  selected  from  his  collation  of  Hebrew 
manuscripts,  from  that  of  De  Rossi,  and  from  the  ancient  ver- 
sions ;  accompanied  with  English  notes,  critical,  philological, 
and  explanatory,  selected  from  the  most  approved  ancient  and 
modern  English  and  foreign  biblical  critics.  By  B.  Boothhoxd 
[now  LL.D.].     Pontefract  and  London,  1816.  2  vols.  4to. 

This  is  perhaps  the  cheapest  Hebrew  Bible,  with  critical  appa- 
ratus, that  is  extant;  it  was  published  originally  in  parts,  Ihe  first 
of  which  appeared  in  1810.  It  is  peculiarly  interesting  to  the 
Hebrew  scholar  and  critic,  as  it  contains  in  a  condensed  form,  the 
substance  of  the  most  valuable  and  expensive  works.  An  eminent 
critic  has  observed,  "  Mr.  Boothroyd  has  evidently  spared  neither 
expense  nor  labour  to  furnish  the  ^tudent  with  interesting  extracts, 
which  are  calculated  lo  a.ssist  him  as  w'ell  in  interpreting  as  in 
obtaining  a  critical  acquaintance  witli  the  original  text.  A  good 
philological  note  is  fre(|uently  of  more  importance  towards  the 
elucidation  of  a  difilcull  pa.ssage  than  a  long  theological  comment, 
which  is  often  little  better  than  a  detail  of  contrary  opinions. 
There  is  evidently  some  hazard  of  adopting  fanciful  and  con- 
jectural corrections  in  so  extensive  an  undertaking  as  this,  which 
is  principally  compiled  from  preceding  authors  of  almost  every 
description.  Against  this  danger  the  sobriety  of  the  editor's  judg- 
ment lins  been  a  powerful  protection ;  and  as  his  avowed  object 
v\as  the  solid  instruction  of  the  purchasers  of  his  book,  he  has,  in 
a  commendable  manner,  accomplished  his  pur|X)se."  (Eclectic 
Review,  vol.  vii.  p.  34.  New  Scries.)  The  type  is  very  clear; 
and  the  iioetical  parts  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  are  printed  in 
liemislichs,  according  lo  the  arrangement  proposed  by  Bishop 
l,i)\Mh,  and  adopted  by  Archbishop  Newcome.  There  are  copies 
in  royal  4to. 


13.  Biblia  Hcbraica  secundum  editionem  Everardi  Van  der 
Hooght,  denuo  recognita  et  emendata  a  Juda  D'Allema5D, 
Linguffi  Sanct-c  Doctore.  Editio  nova,  longe  accuralissima. 
Londini,  1822;   1833.  Svo. 

The  edition,  of  which  there  are  copies  on  fine  paper,  is  stereo- 
tyvid:  it  is  printed  after  Van  der  itorjphi's  lexi;  in  preparing 
which  for  the  jircss,  the  learned  edimr,  Mr.  D'Alleniand.  slates 
that  ho  discovered  not  fewer  than  two  hundrid  errnln.  These  ho 
has  carefully  corrected,  and  by  repeated  nn<l  most  attentive 
revision  he  has  perhaps  done  all  that  human  industry  can  accom- 
plish, in  order  lo  produce  an  accurate  ecliiion  of  ilie  Hebrew  Bible 
In  addition  lo  the  care  previously  bestowed  by  the  editor,  every 
page   was   revised  four  limes,  after  the   stereotype  plates   were 


Sect.  III.] 


GREEK  TESTAMENTS. 


9 


cast,  by  persons  familiar  with  the  Hebrew  Language.  Van  der 
llooght's  historical  summaries  of  the  contents  of  each  chapter  are 
omitted,  in  order  that  the  expense  of  the  book  may  not  be  unne- 
cessarily increased.  The  various  readings  and  Masoretic  notes 
«re  very  neatly  and  clearly  exhibited  at  the  foot  of  each  page. 
Upon  the  whole,  this  edition  may  safely  be  pronounced  the  most 
beautiful,  as  well  as  the  cheapest,  edition  of  the  Hebrew  Scrip- 
tures ever  published.  To  its  great  accuracy  a  learned  Polish 
Rabbi  has  borne  testimony.  (See  Jewish  Expositor,  September, 
1625,  p.  3-16.) 

14.  Biblia  Hebraica  Manualia,  ad  Exemplar  Athianum  accu- 
rata  [a  Juda  D'Allema>-d].     Londini,  1828.  large  12mo. 

This  edition  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  was  printed  by  the  Lon- 
don Society  for  promoting  Christianity  among  the  Jews.  "  In  com- 
pliance with  the  prejudices  of  those,  for  whose  benefit  it  was 
intended,  it  is  strictly  a  Jewish  Bible,  without  a  single  Roman 
letter  or  figure.  The  Jews  do  not  like  Van  der  Hooght's  edition, 
because  a  mark  (t),  which  they  deem  a  cross,  is  used  in  the  text 
as  a  mark  of  reference  to  the  notes."  The  editions  most  prized  by 
the  Jews  are  those  of  Athias  (seepage?.  No.  3  of  this  Appendix); 
and  from  his  second  edition,  printed  in  1667,  the  text  of  the  pre- 
sent Hebrew  Bible  is  taken,  wdth  one  or  two  variations.  "  From 
its  size,  price,  and  the  correctness  of  the  text,  this  book  will  be  a 
desirable  acquisition  to  the  Christian  reader  of  the  Old  Testament 
ill  its  original  language,  who  wishes  to  possess  the  Jews'  text.  But 
fijr  critical  purposes,  he  must  have  recourse  to  Bibles  free  from  the 
Ma.-orah,  such  as  those  of  Munster,  and  the  quarto  of  Stephens." 
(Jewish  Expositor,  July,  1828.  vol.  xiii.  pp.  256.  258.) 

15.  Biblia  Hebraica  secundum  editiones  Jos.  Athis,  Joannis 
LeusJen,  Jo.  Simonis  aliorumque,  imprimis  Everhardi  Van  der 
Hooght,  rccensuit,  sectionum  propheticarum  recensum  et  expli- 
cationem  clavemque  Masorjethicam  et  Eabbinicam  addidit  Au- 
gustus Haun.     Lipsiaa,  1831.  8vo. 

Tlie  text  of  Van  der  Hooght  is  scrupulously  followed  by  Dr. 
Hahn,  who  has  carefully  corrected  the  typographical  errors  in  Van 
der  Hooght's  edition.  The  volume  is  stereotyped  from  a  new  and 
very  clear  type,  with  singular  neatness,  and  it  is  printed  on  good 
paper.  As  all  the  late  editors  (Jahn  alone  excepted)  have  pre- 
ferred to  follow  the  judgment  of  Van  der  Hooght,  his  text  may 
now  be  regarded  as  the  textus  receptus  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures. 


Of  the  minor  editions,  containing  the  Hebrew  text  only, 
ivithout  any  critical  apparatus,  the  following  have  been  recom- 
mended to  biblical  students ;  viz. 

1.  The  most  useful  Hebrew  Bible,  for  any  person  who  is 
moderately  acquainted  with  Latin,  is  that  of  Benedictus  Arias 
Montanus,  with  an  interlineary  Latin  translation,  printed  by 
Christopher  Plantin  at  Antwerp,  1572,  1584,  folio. 

2.  Biblia  Hebraica,  accurante  M.  Christiano  REiifEccio. 
Lipsiffi,  1725,  1729,  1756. 

These  are  neat  and  accurate  editions.  Masch  mentions  another 
edition  dated  1729,  in  quarto,  in  w-hich  the  books  are  arranged  ac- 
cording to  the  order  adopted  in  the  editions  of  the  German  transla- 
tion of  the  Bible. 

■  3.  Biblia  Hebraica  manualia  ad  optimas  quasque  editiones 
recensita,  atque  cum  brevi  leclionum  Masorcthicarum  Kettriban 
et  Krijan  resolutions  ac  explicatione.  Edita  a  Johanne  Suio- 
xrs.     Halae,  1752;  1767.     Editio  nova,  1828.  8vo. 

The  second  edition  of  1767  is  the  best.  The  text  is  that  of  Van 
der  Hooght.  There  is  a  short  yet  full  Hebrew  and  Latin  Lexicon 
at  the  end  of  both  editions,  which  have  the  additional  merit  of 
being  portable,  cheap,  and  useful. 

4.  Biblia  Hebraica  sine  punctis.  Amstelodami,  1701,  small 
8vo. 

This  is  usually  though  incorrectly  called  Leusden's  Hebrew 
Bible.  The  real  editor  was  Rlaresius;  Leusden  wrote  a  preface 
to  the  Hebrew  Bible  printed  at  Amsterdam,  1694,  8vo.  which 
abounds  with  errors.  With  the  edition  of  1701  is  frequently  bound 
up  a  neat  and  accurate  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament,  printed 
by  Wetstein  at  Amsterdam,  1740,  in  small  8vo. 

5.  Biblia  Hebraica,  ad  optimarum  cditionum  fidem,  summa 
diligentia  recusa.  Societatum  Biblicarum  sumptibus.  Basilese, 
1827.  8vo. 

6.  Victorini  BrTHXEni  Lyra  Davidis  regis,  sive  Analysis 
Critico-Practica  Psalmorum ;  qua  Voces  Ehraeae  explicantur,  ac 
consensus  Textus  Sacri  cum  Paraphrasi  Chaldaica  ac  Septua- 
ginta  Virorum  Interprctatione  Grjeca  monstratur.  Londini, 
1G50,  1664,  1679,  4to.;  Tiguri,  1664,  1670,  8vo. ;  Glasgute 
(in  a;dibus  academicis)  et  Londini,  1823,  8vo. 

Bythner's  Lyra  Prophetica  has  long  been  known  as  perhaps  the 
most  valuable  help  to  the  critical  and  grammatical  study  of  the 
book  of  Psalms.    The  late  reprint,  at  the  university  press  of  Glaa- 
ow  is  very  beautiful. 


est, 


SECTION  n. 

EBITIOXS    OF   THE  HEBR.ISO-SAMAHITAX   PETfTATErCH. 

1.  CHnisTOPHORi  Celiahii  Horae  Samaritanfe :  hoc 
Excerpta  Pentateuchi  Samaritanae  Versionis,  cum  Latina  Inter- 
prctatione nova  et  Annotationibus  pcrpetuis.  Etiam  Gram- 
matica  Samaritana  copiosis  exemplis  illustrata,  et  Glossarium, 
seu  Index  Vcrborum.     Cizae,  16S2.  4to. 

2.  Pentateuchus,  Hebrso-Samaritanus,  charactere  Hebraico- 
Chaldaico  editus,  cura  et  studio  Benj.  Blayxet,  S.  T.  P 
Oxonii,  1790.  8vo. 

The  text  of  the  Hebraso-Samaritan  Pentateuch,  which  was 
printed  in  Bishop  Walton's  Polyglott,  described  in  p.  20.  t«/ra,  has 
been  adopted  as  the  basis  of  this  edition,  to  which  have  been  added 
various  readings  from  Dr.  Keimicott's  edition  of  the  Hebrevir  Bible, 
already  noticed. 


SECTION  m. 
paiyciPAi  EDiTioirs  of  the  greek  testament,  and  of 

DETACHED  BOOKS  THEREOF. 

Besides  the  works  of  Le  Long  and  Masch,  the  history  of  the 
various  editions  of  the  Greek  Testament  is  treated  at  considerable 
length  by  Pritius,'  by  Dr.  Mill  and  Wetstein  in  the  Prolegomena 
to  their  critical  editions  of  it,  by  Michaelis  and  his  learned  an- 
notator  Bishop  Marsh,2  Dr.  Griesbach,^  Professors  Beck^  and 
Harles,5  by  Mr,  Butler,!^  and  by  Dr.  Clarke,''  To  their  labours, 
which  have  been  consulted  for  this  section,  the  reader  is  once  for 
all  referred,  who  is  desirous  of  studying  this  important  branch 
of  the  literary  history  of  the  sacred  writings. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  four  principal  Standard' 
Text-Editions  of  the  Greek  Testament,  together  with  the  prin- 
cipal editions  which  are  founded  upon  them  -3 — 

1,  Erasmus.     1516-19-22-27-35. 


Aldus.  Fol.  Gr.  1518.— GericZ//.  Qto.  Gr.  lb2l.—CephalcEus.  Oct 
Gr.  \b2'i.—Behelius.  Oct.  1524.  Gr.  1531-35— Co?wcus.  Oct.  Gr 
IbU.—Platleri.  Oct.  Gr.  153S-40-43.—  Vp.n  Ess.  Oct.  Gr.  Lat.  1S27 

2.  CoMPLUTEjrsiA?r.     1514. 


Plantin.  Oct.  Gr.  1564-73-74-90-91-1601-12.  Fol.  Gr.  et  Lat.  1572. 
Oct.  1574-83.  Fol.  IbM.— Geneva.  Gr.  1609.  24mo.  1619,  1620. 
^to.—Goldhagen.  1753.  Oct.  Gr.—Gra!z.  Gr.  Lat.  1821.  Oct. 

3.  RoBT.  Stephen^s.     1546-49-50, 


Oporinus.  Duod.  Gr.  loo2.—  Wechel.  Fol.  Gr.  1597.  Duod.  1600. 
Fol.  1601.  Duod.  1629.— Imp.  Nicolai  Dulcis.  Fol.  Gr.  1687.— 
Edit.  Regia.  Fol.  Gr.  1642.— Crispin.  Duod.  Gr.  1553-63-1604. 
Duod.  Gr.  et  Lat.  1612-22.— FroscAoier?.  Oct.  Gr.  1559-66.- J5ry- 
linger.  Oct.  Gr.  1563. —  Voegelii.  Oct.  Gr.  1564. —  Vignonii.  Duod. 
Gr.  1584-87-1613-15— £es«.  Fol.  Gr.  et  Lat.  1565-82-89-98- 
l6i2.—  Waltoni.  Fol.  Gr.  Lat.  I6bl .—Millii.  Fol.  Gr.  1707.— 
Kusteri.  Fol.  Gr.  1110-23.— Birchii.  Gr.  1788.  Fol.  et  Qto  — 
Hardy.  Oct.  Gr.  1768.  1776.  1819.— Volpy.  Gr.  1816;  1826.  Oct 
—Lloyd.  Gr.  18mo.  1828.  1830.— Greenfield,  Gr.  48mo.  1829.— 
Bloomfield,  Gr.  1832.  8vo. 

4.  Elzevir.     1624-33,  &c. 


Boecleri.  Oct.  Gr.  l<oi!b.—Curcella;i.  Oct.Gr.  1658-75-85-99.— feZ/i. 

Oct.  Gr.  1675.— A'oHig/i.  Oct.  Gr.  1697-1702.— Greg-oru".  Fol.  Gr. 

1703.— G.  D.  T.  M.  D.  Oct.  Gr.  1111-35.— Wetstenii.   Fol.  Gr, 

lllb.—Birrii.  1749.  Oct.— Basil.  1825.  Ocv—Lond.  1827.  48mo. 

The  editions  of  Bengel,  Bowyer,  Griesbach,  Alter,  Harwood, 
Knappe,  Tittmann,  Boissonade,  Lachmann,  Scholz,  Naebe,  and 
Goeschen,  are  not  formed  on  the  text  of  either  of  the  above  editions. 

Of  the  various  editions  of  the  Greek  Testament,  which  have 
issued  from  the  press,  the  following  more  particularly  claim  the 
notice  of  the  biblical  student : — 

1,  Novum  Instrumentii  omne  diligenter  ab  Erasmo  Rotero- 
damo  recognitum  et  emendatum.  Basileae,  1516,  folio.  Gr.  Lat. 
edit,  princeps. 

»  Introd.  ad  Lect.  Nov.  Test.  pp.  403—423. 

2  Introduction  to  the  New  Test.  vol.  ii,  part  i.  pp.  429—494. ;  part  ii.  pp.  844 
— SS5.  Bishop  Marsh's  Divinity  Lectures,  part  i.  pp.  98—110. ;  part  ii. 
pp.  1 — 45. 

»  Nov.  Test.  vol.  i.  prolegom.  pp.  iii. — sxxi.T. 

*  Monogrammata  Henneneutices  Novi  Testament!,  pp.  110 — 115. 

5  Brevior  Notitia  Literaturje  Gr?ecae,  pp.  C56 — 664. ;  and  also  vol.  iv.  of  his 
improved  edition  of  Fabricius's  Bibliothcca  Greeca,  pp.  839—656, 

«  Horaj  Biblicte,  vol.  i.  pp.  1.30—159. 

'  Bibliographical  Dictionary,  vol.  vi.  pp.  16S — 203. 

8  This  table  is  taken  froin  Masch  and  Boerner's  edition  of  Le  Long's 
Bibliotheca  Sacra,  and  from  Dr.  Dibdin's  Introduction  to  the  Knowledge  of 
the  Classics,  voL  i.  pp.  05.  3d  edit,  with  the  requisite  corrections  and  addi- 
tions. 


10 


GREEK.  TESTAMENTS. 


[Part  I.   Chap.  1 


Erasmus  had  the  distinguished  honour  of  giving  to  the  worUl  the 
first  edition  of  the  entire  New  Testament.'  Il  was  reprinted  in 
1519,  1522,  1527,  and  1535.  The  first  edition  is  of  extreme  rarity, 
and  was  executed  with  great  haste,  in  the  short  space  of  five  months. 
Some  of  the  manuscripts  which  he  consulted  are  preserved  in  the 
public  library  at  Basle,  but  none  of  tliem  are  of  very  great  antiquity. 
For  the  first  edition  he  had  only  one  mnlUaled  niainiscript  of  the 
Ajxjcalypse  (since  totally  lost) ;  he  therefore  filled  uji  the  chasms 
with  his  own  Greek  translations  from  the  Latin  Vulgate.  The 
publication  of  this  edition,  in  which  ho  omitted  the  controverted 
clause  in  1  John  v.  7.  because  it  was  not  in  any  of  his  manuscripts, 
involved  him  in  a  literary  contest  witli  the  divines  of  Louvain,  and 
with  Stunica,  the  most  learned  of  tlie  Complutcnsian  editors.^  The 
editions  of  1516,  1519,  and  1522,  were  published  before  he  saw  the 
Complutcnsian  Polyglott,  from  wltich  he  corrected  the  edition  of 
1527,  particularly  in  the  Apfxalypsc.  Erasmus's  editions  were 
repeatedly  printed  after  his  death,  jjarticularly  at  Basle,  Frankfort, 
and  Lcipsic.  All  his  editions  are  much  esteemed,  notwithstanding 
tlieir  faults,  and  in  some  respects  they  are  considered  as  equal  to 
manuscripts.  In  the  first  edition  Dr.  Mill  discovered  about  five 
hundred  vitiated  passages,  and  about  one  hundred  genuine  ones ; 
a  copy,  on  vellum,  is  in  tiie  Cathedral  Librar)f  at  York.  Mr.  Nolan 
has  satisfactorily  vindicated  the  character  of  Erasmus,  as  a  sound 
critic  and  editor  of  the  New  Testament,  from  the  charges  of  Dr. 
Gricsbach.  (Inquiry  into  the  Integrity  of  the  Greek  Vulgate, 
pp.  410 — 419.) 

2.  Novum  Tcstamentum,  Gnece  et  Latine.    Compluti,  1514. 

This  forms  the  fifth  volume  of  the  Complutcnsian  Polyglott 
noticed  in  p.  19.  infra.  Though  it  bears  the  date  of  1514,  yet  as 
it  was  not  allowed  to  be  sold  generally  until  1522,  before  which 
time  Erasmus  hod  printed  three  editions  of  the  New  Testament,  it 
is  in  fact  entitled  only  to  tlie  second  place  in  our  list.  The  Greek 
text  of  this  edition  is  printed  without  spirits,  but  the  vowels  are 
frequently  accented.  The  characters  seem  to  have  been  cut  in 
imitation  of  those  foimd  in  manuscripts  of  the  twelfth  century ;  and 
were  probably  taken  from  some  manuscripts  of  that  asre,  which 
were  consulted  by  the  C-'oinplutensian  editors.  The  Complutcnsian 
edition  contains  the  celebrated  text  relative  to  the  heavenly  v.it- 
nes=es  in  1  John  v.  7,  8.,  of  which  we  have  given  an  engraved  fac- 
simile in  another  part  of  this  work.  VV^etstein,  Seiriler,  and  otlier 
Protestant  critics  charged  the  editors  with  having  altered  the  text, 
in  order  to  make  it  conformable  to  the  Latin  Vulgate ;  but  this 
charge  has  been  refuted  by  Goezo  and  Griesbach.  Their  vindica- 
tion is  pronounced  satisfiictory  by  Michaelis  (who  considers  the 
Apoc(ilyi>se  to  be  the  best  edited  part  of  the  Complutcnsian  Greek 
Testament) ;  and  also  by  his  annotator,  Bishop  Marsh,  who  states 
that  this  charge,  in  general,  is  not  true.  For  Ihougli  he  is  of  opinion, 
that  in  some  few  sinele  passages, — as  in  Matt.  x.  25.  and  1  John  v. 
7. — they  follow  the  Vulgate  in  opposition  to  all  the  Greek  manu- 
scripts, he  has  ascertained,  from  actual  collation,  thai  there  are  more 
than  two  hundred  jia-ssages  in  the  Catholic  Epistles,  in  which  the 
Complutcnsian  Greek  text  differs  from  tlie  text  of  the  Vulgate,  as 
printed  in  the  Complutcnsian  edition.  The  manuscripts  used  for 
this  edition  are  characterized  as  being  very  ancient  and  very  cor- 
rect, but  this  assertion  is  contradicted  by  internal  evidence  (see 
p.  20.  infra.) ;  and  it  is  a  most  remarkaWe  fact,  that  "  wherever 
modern  Greek  manuscripts,  manuscripts  written  in  the  thirteenth, 
fourteenth,  or  fifteenth  centuries,  differ  from  the  most  ancient  Greek 
manuscripts,  and  from  the  quotations  of  the  early  Greek  fathers,  in 
characteristic  readings,  the  Complutensian  Greek  Testament  almost 
invariably  agrees  with  the  modern,  in  opposition  to  the  ancient 
manuscripts.  There  cannot  be  a  doubt,  therefore,  that  the  Com- 
plutensian text  was  formed  from  modern  manuscripts  alone." 
(Bishop  Marsh's  Divinity  Lectures,  part  i.  p.  95.)  The  researches 
of  the  Danish  professor  Birch  have  shown  that  the  Complutensian 
editors  have  made  no  u.se  whatever  of  the  Codex  Vaticanus,  though 
they  boa.sted  of  valuable  manuscripts  being  sent  to  them  from  the 
Vatican  library. 

3.  Simonis    Colin;bi. — ^'H    Kmvm   Ai-jl^xh.     'Ev   Kturmx  tm 

tru  xi-c,  Toc  ^ny.yi-x;  a.  (p.  X.  <f.     (I'aris,  1534.  8vo.) 

An  edition  of  singular  rarity,  beauty,  and  correctness.  Colinncu.s 
was  a  very  careful  printer.  Ho  has  been  unjustly  charged  with 
partiality  in  following  some  unknown  manuscript;  but  fnjm  this 
accusation  he  has  been  fully  exonerated  by  Dr.  Mill  and  VVelstcin. 

4.  Novum  Tcstamentum,  Greece.  Lutctio;,  ex  officina  Robcrti 
Stephatvi  Typographi,  Typis  Regiis.  1546,  12mo.  1549,  12mo. 
1550,  folio. 

The  FiJisT  of  these  editions  is  usually  railed  the  O  tnirificam 
Edition,  from  the  introductory  sentence  of  the  preface,  O  mirijirnm 
re^is  nontri  optimi  el  prffftunliagimi  p'riticlpis  lilteralilnttm.  It  has 
always  been  admired  for  the  neatnesH  of  its  typography,  us  well  as 
for  itii  correctness,  only  twelve  errata  (il  is  said)  having  been  disco- 

«  The  fin t  portion  aver  printed  was  executed  by  Aldus  Mnnutlus  at 
Venice,  in  1501.  A  copy  is  in  the  Royal  Lihrnry  of  W|rtcinl)iirK  nt  Stulgard. 
The  wlioU;  of  St.  John's  tJospcl  was  pul>lisln'il  at  Tubingoii,  in  i.'il  1. 

'  In  Ills  disputes  Willi  .Slunica,  Kra-smus  professed  liis  rcndinos.s  to  innert 
this  verse  if  it  were  found  in  a  single  inanuscrlpt.  Tliou:;li  Stuniea  could 
not  produen  ono,  yet  as  it  was  afterwards  discovered  in  liio  ("ndex  Orilan- 
ulcus  (or  Montlortiiuiup),  a  manuscript  of  no  great  antiquity,  Ernsnnis  frit 
himnelf  bound  to  insert  it,  and  accordingly  admitted  It  Into  his  tliird  edition 


vered  in  it.  Robert  Stephens  compiled  this  edition  from  the  Com- 
plutensian, and  the  edition  printed  at  Basil,  in  1531,  and  again  in 
1535,  by  John  Bebelius  (which  last  followed  the  editions  of  Erasmus, 
and  that  of  Aldus,  printed  in  1518,)  together  with  tlie  fifth  edition 
of  Erasmus  according  to  Griesbach,  and  from  fifteen  ancient  manu- 
scripts in  the  Royal  Library  at  Paris.  Griesbach  (torn.  i.  proleg. 
pp.  xiv. — xxxi.)  has  given  a  long  and  critical  examination  of  this 
edition,  and  of  the  manuscripts  consulted  by  Stephens  lor  his  three 
editions.  Stephens's  first  edition  differs  from  the  Complutensian 
text  in  five  iiundred  and  eiglity-one  instances,  exclusive  of  the 
Apocalypse,  in  which  he  closely  follows  Erasmus.  The  second 
edition  closely  resembles  the  first  in  its  exterior  appearance,  but 
differs  from  il  in  sixty-seven  places ;  of  which  four  are  douhiful 
readings,  thirty-seven  not  genuine,  and  twenty-six  genuine ;  so  that 
this  latter  edition  has  eleven  readings  of  less  authority  than  the 
former,  to  which,  however,  il  is  preferred  on  account  of  its  greater 
rarity  and  correctness.  It  is  this  second  edition  which  has  the 
remarkable  erratum  pulres  {or  plures,  in  the  last  line  but  one  of 
the  first  jiagc  of  tlie  preface,  occasioned  by  the  transposition  of  a 
single  letter.  The  tiiiru  edition  of  1550,  in  folio,  is  a  chcf-d'neuvre 
of  splendid  typography.  It  was  once  supposed  to  have  been  formed 
entirely  on  the  authority  of  Greek  manuscripts,  which  Stephens 
professes,  in  his  preface,  to  have  collated  for  that  purjxise,  a  second 
and  even  a  third  time.  So  far,  however,  was  this  from  being  the 
case,  that  the  researches  of  critics  have  shown.that,  except  in  the 
Apocalypse,  it  is  scarcely  any  thing  more  than  a  reprint  of  Eras- 
mus's fifth  edition.  Though  its  value  as  a  critical  edition  is  thr.s 
considerably  reduced,  the  singular  beauty  of  its  typography  (which 
has  rarely  been  exceeded  in  modem  times)  has  caused  it  to  be  con- 
sidered as  a  distinguished  ornament  to  any  library.  Robert  Ste- 
phens reprinted  the  Greek  New  Testament  at  Geneva  in  1551,  in 
8vo.  with  the  V^ulgate  and  Erasmus's  Latin  versions,  and  parallel 
passages  in  the  margin.  This  is  the  scarcest  of  all  his  editions,  and 
is  remarkable  for  being  the  first  edition  of  the  New  Testament 
divided  into  verses.  (Marsh's  Michaelis,  vol.  ii.  p.art  i.  pp.  446. 448. 
part  ii.  pp.  848,  849.  Gricsbach,  Nov.  Test.  p.  xv.)  The  character 
of  Robert  Sle|)heiis,  as  an  editor  of  the  Greek  Testament,  has  been 
elaborately  vindicated  agaiust  the  criticisms  of  Professor  Por-son, 
by  the  Rev.  C.  P.  Grcswell  in  the  first  volume  of  his  "  View  of  the 
early  Parisian  Greek  Press"  (Oxford,  1823,  8vo.) ;  and  also  by  the 
Rev.  Francis  Iluyshe,  who  has  inserted  a  series  of  papers  in  the 
third,  fourth,  and  fifth  volumes  of  tiie  British  Magazine,  for  1833- 
34,  in  which  the  statements  of  Person,  Griesbach,  and  some  other 
modern  critics  are  mhiutely  investigated. 

5.  Novum  Tcstamentum,  cum  versionc  Latina  veteri,  et  nova 
Theodori  Bt.zjb.  Genevaj,  folio,  1565,  1576,  1582,  1580,  15'J8. 
Cantabrigia;,  1642,  folio. 

The  New  Testament  of  15G5  is  the  first  of  the  editions  coiiducteil 
by  Theodore  Bcza,  who  was  a  native  of  France,  and  a  Protestant, 
aiid  fled  to  Switzerland  on  account  of  his  religion.  "The  critical 
materials  which  he  employed  were  for  the  most  part  the  same  as 
those  wliich  had  been  used  by  Robert  Stephens.  But  ho  had  like- 
wise tlie  advantage  of  that  very  ancient  manuscript  of  the  Gospels 
and  the  Acts,  which  he  afterwards  sent  to  the  university  of  Cam- 
bridge, and  which  is  known  by  the  name  of  the  Codex  Cczae.  He 
had  also  a  verj'  ancient  manuscript  of  St.  Paul's  Epistles,  which  he 
procured  from  Clermont  in  France,  aaid  which  is  known  by  the 
name  of  the  Codex  Claromontanus.  lAstly,  he  had  the  advantage 
of  the  Syriac  version,  which  had  been  lately  published  by  TremeU 
lius,  with  1^  close  Latin  translation.  But  the  use  which  he  made 
of  his  materials  was  not  such  as  might  have  been  expected  from  a 
man  of  Beza's  learning.  Instead  of  applying  his  various  readings 
to  the  emendation  of  the  text,  he  used  Ihera  chiefly  for  polemical 
purposes  in  liis  notes.  In  slioct,  he  amended  Stephens's  text  in  not 
more  than  fifiy  places;  and  even  these  emendations  were  not  always 
founded  on  proper  aiitiiority."  (Bishop  Marsh's  Lectures,  part  i. 
p.  109.)  I$eza's  third  edition  of  1582  is  considered  as  the  most  com- 
jilete  of  those  printed  under  his  own  eye;  but  all  liis  editions  have 
the  Vulgate  Latjn  version,  and  a  new  one  of  his  own,  together 
with  philological,  doctrinal,  and  practical  notes.  The  edition  of 
1598,  being  esteemed  the  most  accurate  of  any  that  had  before  been 
published,  was  adopted  as  the  basis  of  the  English  version  of  the 
New  Testament,  publislieil  by  authority  in  1611.  This  testimony 
of  the  Anglican  church  is  highly  honourable  to  its  merit.  The  re- 
print of  Beza's  Testament,  at  Cambridge,  in  1642,  with  the  addi- 
tion of  Joachim  Camcrarius's  notes,  is  considered  as  the  edilio 
optima. 

6.  Novum  Tcstamentum  Grtpce.  Lugdum  Batavornm.  Ex 
OfTicina  ELZEVtniANA,  12ino.  1624. 

This  is  the  first  of  the  celebrated  Elzevir  editions,  and  descrvef* 
(says  Bishop  Marsh)  to  be  particularly  noticed,  because  the  text  of 
the  Greek  Testament,  which  had  fliii  tiiated  in  the  j)receding  edi- 
tions, acquired  in  this  a  consistency,  and  seemed,  during  upwards 
of  a  century,  to  be  ex|)Osed  to  no  future  alterntions.  Tlic  text  of 
this  edition  has  been  the  basis  of  almost  every  subsequent  impres- 
sion. Weisiein  adapted  his  various  readings  to  it ;  and  it  haa 
acquired  the  appellation  of"TiJ:tus  Receptus."  "  Tho  person  who 
conduclcd  this  edition  ((i)r  Elzevir  wiui  only  the  nrinler)  is  at  pre- 
sent unknown;  but,  whoever  he  was,  his  critical  exertions  wore 
confined  witliin  a  narrow  compass.  The  text  of  this  edition  was 
copied  from  Bczn's  text,  except  in  about  filly  places ;  and  in  these 
places  the  readings  were  Iwrrowed  partly  from  tlie  various  readings 
m  Stephens's  margin,  parliy  from  other  editions,  but  certainly  not 


Sect.  III.] 


GREEK  TESTAMENTS. 


11 


from  Greek  manuscripts.  The  textus  receptus,  therefore,  or  the  text 
in  common  use,  was  copied,  with  a  few  exceptions,  from  the  text 
of  Beza.  Beza  himself  closely  followed  Stephens  ;  and  Stephens 
(in  his  third  and  chief  edition)  copied  solely  from  the  fifth  edition 
of  Erasmus,  except  in  the  Revelation,  where  he  followed  sometimes 
Erasmus,  sometimes  the  Complutensian  edition.  The  text  there- 
fore in  daily  use,  resolves  itself  at  last  into  the  Complutensian  and 
Erasmian  editions."   (Bishop  Marsh's  Lectures,  part  i.  p.  110.) 

The  Elzevir  edition  of  1624  was  reprinted  at  Leyden  in  1633, 
and  a  third  time  in  1641,  at  Amsterdam  in  1656,  1662,  1670,  and 
1678,  and  also  at  Sedan,  in  1628,  Gr. — Of  these  various  impressions, 
the  Leyden  edition  of  1633  is  the  best  and  in  most  request :  it  is 
the  first  that  has  the  text  divided  into  separate  verses.  The  edition 
printed  by  Jannon,  at  Sedan,  has  long  been  regarded  as  a  typogra- 
phical curiosity.  It  is,  however,  greatly  inferior  in  point  of  execu- 
tion to  the  beautifully  small  and  clear  edition  printed  by  Bleau  at 
Amsterdam  in  1633.  (Brunet,  Manuel,  tom.  iii.  pp.  432,  433.  Dib- 
din's  Introd.  to  the  Classics,  vol.  i.  pp.  136, 137.)  Good  copies  of 
these  miniature  editions  are  scarce  and  dear ;  but  they  are  both 
surpassed  in  smallness  of  size  and  in  typographical  neatness  by  the 
London  edition  of  1827,  published  by  Mr.  Pickering.  See  No.  49. 
|v    17.   infra. 

7.  Novum  Testamentum,  studio  et  labore  Stephani  Curcel- 
vmi.  Amstelcedami,  1658,  l2mo.  1675,  1685,  12mo.  1699, 
8vo.  Gr. 

All  the  editions  of  Curcellaeus  or  Courcelles  are  in  great  repute 
for  their  beauty  and  accuracy  :  the  text  is  formed  on  that  of  the  Elze- 
virs. He  has  collected  the  greatest  number  of  various  readings  to 
be  found  in  any  edition  of  the  New  Testament  prior  to  that  in  the 
sixth  volume  of  Bishop  Walton's  Polyglott.  These  various  lections 
are  given  from  a  collation  of  manuscripts  and  printed  editions,  and 
are  partly  at  the  foot  of  the  page,  and  partly  at  the  end  of  the  Acts 
and  St.  Paul's  Epistles.  Curcellaeus  has  also  given  a  valuable  col- 
lection of  parallel  passages.  The  edition  of  1675  contains  a  pro- 
logue or  preface  to  St.  Paul's  Epistles,  which  Boeder  had  printed 
a  few  years  before  from  a  manuscript  brought  from  the  East  by 
Stephen  Gerlachius,  and  differs  from  the  first  edition  only  in  hav- 
ing all  the  various  readings  placed  at  the  foot  of  the  page.  The 
third  and  fourth  editions  were  printed  after  the  death  of  Curcel- 
leeus,  and  differ  from  the  second  only  in  having  the  text  printed  in 
columns.  In  1695,  John  Gottlieb  Moller,  a  divine  of  Rostock,  pub- 
lished a  dissertation  against  the  Curcellaean  editions,  entitled  Cur- 
cellcEus  in  editione  originalis  N.  T.  texlus  variantium  lectionum  et 
parallelorum  ScripturcB  Locorum  additamentis  vestita,  socinizans. 
Rumpoeus  (Com.  Crit.  ad  Nov.  Test.  p.  280.)  has  charged  Courcelles 
with  unnecessarily  multiplying  various  readings,  and  making  them 
from  conjecture,  in  order  to  subserve  the  Socinian  scheme.  Michae- 
lis  admits  that  these  charges  are  not  wholly  unfounded.  The  pas- 
sages noticed  by  Rumpseus  are  1  John  v.  7. ;  John  x.  30.  and  xvii. 
22.,  concerning  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity ;  Rom.  ix.  5.  1  John 
v.  20.  and  John  xvii.  3.,  concerning  the  Son  of  God ;  and  Rom.  iii. 
25.  Matt.  xxvi.  39.  42.,  concerning  the  satisfaction  made  by  Jesus 
Christ.     All  the  editions  of  Curcellaeus  are  scarce  and  dear. 

8.  Novum  Testamentum,  Gr.  Lat.  in  the  fifth  volume  of  the 
London  Polyglott,  which  is  described  in  p.  20.   infra. 

This  edition  is  deserving  of  particular  notice,  as  being  the  first 
edition  of  the  New  Testament  that  is  furnished  with  a  complete 
critical  apparatus.  The  text  is  that  of  Robert  Stephens's  folio  edi- 
tion of  1550,  whose  various  readings  Bishop  Walton  has  incorpo- 
rated in  his  sixth  volume ;  and  in  addition  to  them  he  has  given  a 
collection  of  extracts  from  sixteen  Greek  manuscripts,  which  were 
collated  under  the  direction  of  Archbishop  Usher.  "  They  are 
described  at  the  head  of  the  collation  in  the  sixth  volume  by  Wal- 
ton himself;  and  a  further  account  of  them  is  given  in  'he  Prole- 
gomena to  Mill's  Greek  Testament  ($  1372 — 1396.)  and  in  Michae- 
lis's  Introduction  to  the  New  Testament-  (vol.  ii.  chap,  viii.)  But 
the  extracts  from  the  Greek  manuscripts  were  neither  the  sole  nor 
the  chief  materials  which  the  Polyglott  afforded  for  the  emendation 
of  the  Greek  text.  In  addition  to  the  Latin  Vulgate,  it  contains  the 
Syriac,  the  Arabic,  and  the  Ethiopic  versions  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, with  the  Persian  in  the  gospels.  And  these  oriental  ver- 
sions are  not  only  arranged  in  the  most  convenient  manner,  for  the 
purpose  of  comparing  them  with  the  Greek,  but  they  are  accom- 
panied with  literal  Latin  translations,  that  even  they  who  are  un- 
acquainted with  the  oriental  languages  might  still  have  recourse 
to  them  for  various  readings,  though  indeed  with  less  security,  as 
every  translator  is  liable  to  make  mistakes." — (Bishop  Marsh's  Lec- 
tures, part  ii.  p.  5.) 

9.  TH2  KAINHS  AIA0HKH2  AOANTA.  Novi  Testamenti 
Libri  Omnes.  Accesserunt  Parallela  Scripturse  Loca,  nee  non 
variantes  Lectiones  ex  plus  100  MSS.  Codicibis  et  antiquis 
versionibus  collectae.  Oxonii,  e  Theatre  Sheldoniano.   1675.  Svo. 

This  edition  was  superintended  by  the  learned  Dr.  John  Fell, 
Bishop  of  Oxford,  whose  design  in  giving  it  to  the  public  was,  to 
remove  the  apprehensions  which  had  been  raised  in  the  minds  of 
many  persons  ignorant  of  criticism,  relative  to  the  supposed  uncer- 
tainty of  the  Greek  text  in  the  New  Testament,  by  the  great  num- 
ber of  various  lections  contained  in  Bishop  Walton's  Polyglott.  To 
show  how  little  the  integrity  of  the  text  was  affected  by  them, 
Bishoj)  Fell  printed  them  under  the  text,  that  the  reader  might  the 
more  easily  compare  them.  To  the  readings  copied  from  the  Lon- 
don Polvglotf,  he  added  those  quoted  by  Curcellajus,  and  the  Bar- 
VoL.II.  3  S 


bermi  readings,  also  Marshall's  extracts  from  the  Coptic  and  Gothic 
versions,  and  the  readings  of  twelve  Bodleian,  four  Dublin,  and 
two  Paris  manuscripts.  As  Bishop  Fell's  edition  sells  at  a  low 
price,  it  may  be  substituted  for  the  more  expensive  critical  editions 
of  the  New  Testament  by  those  who  cannot  purchase  them.  The 
text  is  formed  according  to  that  of  Robert  Stephens  and  the  Elze- 
virs ;  though  Wetstein  has  accused  it  of  retaining  the  errors  of  the 
former,  as  well  as  of  some  of  Walton's  Polyglott.  Bishop  Fell's 
edition  was  reprinted  at  Leipsic  in  1697  and  1702,  and  at  Oxford  in 
1703,  in  folio.  Tliis  magnificent  edition,  which  takes  its  name  from 
the  editor.  Dr.  Gregory,  contains  no  accession  of  critical  materials, 
and  sells  at  a  low  price. 

10.  'H  KAINH  AIA0HKH.  Novum  Testamentum  GrEecum, 
cum  lectionibus  variantibus  MSS.  Exemplarium,  Vcrsionum, 
Editionum,  SS.  Patrum  et  Scriptorum  Ecclesiasticorum,  et  in 
easdem  notis.  Studio  et  labore  Joannis  Millii,  S.T.P.  Oxonii, 
e  Theatro  Sheldoniano.  1707.  folio. 

The  labour  of  thirty  years  was  devoted  to  this  edition  by  Dr. 
Mill,  who  finished  it  only  fourteen  d.iys  before  his  death.  Tlie 
text,  which  is  that  of  Robert  Stephens's  edition  of  1550,  is  beauti- 
fully printed ;  and  the  various  readings  and  parallel  passages  are 
placed  below.  Dr.  Mill  has  inserted  all  the  previously  existing 
collections  of  various  readings;  he  collated  several  original  edi- 
tions, procured  extracts  from  hitherto  uncollated  Greek  MSS.,  and 
revised  and  augmented  the  extracts  from  the  Gothic  and  Coptic 
versions  which  had  appeared  in  Bishop  Fell's  edition ;  and  added 
numerous  readings  from  other  ancient  versions,  and  from  the  quo- 
tations of  the  New  Testament  in  the  writings  of  the  fathers.  'The 
prolegomena  contain  a  treasure  of  sacred  criticism.  Michaelis 
observes  that  "notwithstanding  those  of  Wetstein,  they  still  retain 
their  original  value,  for  they  contain  a  great  deal  of  matter  which 
is  not  in  Wetstein ;  and  of  the  matter  which  is  common  to  both, 
some  things  are  more  clearly  explained  by  Mill.  This  edition  was 
reprinted  by  Kufeter  at  Rotterdam,  in  1710,  in  folio,  with  the  read- 
ings of  twelve  additional  MSS.,  some  of  which  had  been  previ- 
ously but  imperfectly  collated.  Whatever  readings  were  given  in 
Mill's  appendix,  as  coming  too  late  for  insertion  under  the  text, 
were  in  this  second  edition  transferred  to  their  proper  places.  In 
point  of  accuracy,  however,  Kuster's  edition  is  considered  inferior 
to  that  of  Dr.  Mill.  There  are  copies  of  Kuster's  edition  with  the 
date  of  Amsterdam,  1723,  in  the  title-page  ;  but  Masch  says  that  it 
probably  is  nothing  more  than  the  edition  of  1710  with  a  new- 
title-page.  Some  copies  are  also  dated  1746.  To  render  this  edi- 
tion more  easy  of  reference,  the  Rev.  Joseph  Hallett,  jun.,  a 
learned  dissenting  minister,  in  1728,  published  an  Index,  contain- 
ing an  account  of  the  MSS.  consulted  by  Mill  and  Kustcr;  entitled 
Index  Librorum  MSS.  GrcBCorum  et  Versionum  Antiquarum  Novt 
Foederis,  quos  viri  eruditissimi  J.  Millius  et  L.  Kusterus  cum  teriicl 
editione  Stephanica  contulerunt.  This  publication  is  in  8vo.,  and  is 
not  of  common  occurrence. 

The  various  readings  of  Dr.  Mill,  amounting  to  30,000,  were 
attacked  by  Dr.  Whitby,  in  1710,  in  an  elaborate  work  entitled 
Exanicn  Variantium  Lectionum  Joliannis  Millii,  with  more  zeal 
than  knowledge  of  sacred  criticism.  It  was  afterwards  annexed 
to  Whitby's  Commentary  on  the  New  Testament.  Dr.  W.'s  argu- 
ments were  applied  by  Anthony  Collins  against  Divine  Revelation, 
in  his  Discourse  on  Free-thinking;  which  was  refuted  by  Dr. 
Bentley  under  the  assumed  title  of  Phileleutherus  Lipsiensis, 
"  whose  reply,"  says  Bishop  Marsh,  "  has  been  translated  into  seve- 
ral foreign  languages,  and  should  be  studied  by  every  man  who  is 
desirous  of  forming  just  notions  of  biblical  criticism."  (Lectures, 
part  ii.  p.  13.) 

1 1 .  Dr.  Edward  Wells  published  an  edition  of  the  Greek 
Testament,  at  Oxford,  in  4to.  in  detached  portions,  between  the 
years  1709  and  1719.  It  is  noticed  among  the  commentaries 
infra,  in  this  Appendix ;  but  "  as  it  exhibits  a  corrected  text  of 
the  Greek  Testament,  it  claims  also  a  place  in  the  present  list 
of  editions,  though  subsequent  improvements  in  sacred  criticism 
have  in  a  great  measure  superseded  the  emendations  of  Dr. 
Wells."  (Bishop  Marsh.)  Dr.  Nares,  in  his  Strictures  on  the 
Unitarian  Version  of  the  New  Testament,  has  made  frequent 
and  honourable  mention  of  the  critical  labours  of  Wells. 

12.  "H  KAINH  AIA0HKH.  Novum  Testamentum,  post 
priores  Steph.  Curcellssi  et  D.D.  Oxoniensium  labores.  Cum 
prolegomenis  G.D.T.M.  et  notis  in  find  adjectis.  Amstelodami, 
ex  Ofiicina  Wetsteniana.     1711;  1735.  small  Svo. 

These  are  most  beautiful  editions,  but  the  second  is  said  to  be 
the  most  accurate.  The  editorof  ihe^r*^  was  Gerard  von  Maestricht 
(Gerardus  De  Trajecto  AIoscb)  a  syndic  of  the  republic  of  Bremen ; 
the  second  was  revised  by  the  celebrated  critic  J.  J.  Wetstein. 
Having  been  published  by  his  relative  Henry  Wetstein,  a  book- 
seller of  Amsterdam,  these  editions  of  the  New  Testament  are 
sometimes  improperly  called  Wetstein's ;  and  from  the  name  of 
Curcellaeus  being  printed  in  the  title,  they  are  in  most  catalogues 
erroneously  styled  Nov.  Test.  Grac.  Curcellaii. 

The  text  is  formed  on  the  second  Elzevir  edition  of  1633,  and 
Curcellffius's  editions.  It  has  the  most  judicious  selection  of 
parallel  texts  ever  appended  to  any  edition  cf  the  New  Testament. 
These  are  placed  immediately  under  the  Greek  text,  and  below 
them  is  a  selection  of  various  readings,  taken  from  upwards  of 
100  manuscripts  and  versions.    Prefixed  are  very  useful  prolego- 


12 


GREEK  TESTAMENTS. 


[Part  I.  Chap.  I 


mcna,  containing  an  account  of  manuscripts  and  collectors  of 
various  readings,  with  43  critical  canons  to  emble  the  reader  to 
determine  concerning  the  various  lections  exhibited  in  tiie  worii  ; 
an  abstract  of  Dr.  Whitby's  Ejcamtn  above  noticed ;  and  the 
prefaces  of  Henry  Wetstein,  Curcellieus,  and  Bishop  Kell.  These 
editions  arc  oniumenied  with  an  engraved  frontispiece,  copied 
from  that  of  the  splendid  folio  Paris  edition  of  1G42,  a  plan  of 
Jerusalem,  an  ichnograph  of  tho  Temple,  and  two  maps.  At  tlio 
end  there  are  38  pages  of  critical  notes,  containing  an  examination 
of  the  most  important  various  readings  which  occur  in  the  course 
of  tlie  work.  Michaelis  does  not  speak  very  higlily  of  the  edition 
.  f  1711  ;  but  Dr.  DiMin  says  that,  upon  the  whole,  the  edition  of 
1735  "may  be  considered  as  the  very  best  critical  duodecimo 
(rather  small  octavo)  edition  of  the  CJreek  Testament,  and  the 
biblical  student  will  do  well  to  procure  bo  valuable  and  commo- 
dious a  publication."     (Oa  the  Classics,  vol.  i.  p.  1)7.) ' 

13.  Acta  Apostolorum  Grsco-Latina,  Lifcris  Majusculis.  E 
Codice  LauJiano  characteribus  uncialibus  cxarato  ct  in  Biblio- 
theca  Bodleiana  adservato,  descripsit  ediditquc  Tho.  Heaunivs, 
A.M.  Oxoniensis,  qui  et  Symbolum  Apostolorum  ex  codem 
codice  subjunxit.     Oxonii.    E  Thcatro  Sheldoniano,  1715.  8vo. 

The  Codex  Laudianus,  of  which  this  edition  is  a  transcript,  is 
described  in  Part  I.  Chap.  111.  '^  4.  of  the  iirst  volume:  a  ihc- 
simile  of  the  MS.  is  prefixed.  This  is  the  scarcest  of  all  Mr. 
Hcame's  publications:  the  impression  was  limited  to  one  hundred 
and  twenty  copies,  at  ten  shillings  each.  A  copy  was  sold  at  the 
sale  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Heath's  library,  in  1610,  lor  the  sum  oi' thirteen 
pounds  two  shilUit^s:  it  now  adorns  tho  veiy  valuable  library  of 
the  Writers  to  his  Majesty's  Signet  at  Edinburgh.  There  is 
another  copy  in  the  Library  of  the  British  Museum. 

14.  The  New  Testament  in  Greek  and  English,  containing 
the  Original  Text,  corrected  from  the  authority  of  the  most 
authentic  Manuscripts,  and  a  new  Version,  formed  agreeably  to 
the  Illustrations  of  the  most  learned  Commentators  and  Critics. 
With  Notes  and  various  Headings,  [By  W.  Mace.]  London, 
1729.  2  vols.  8vo. 

Tliia  is  a  beautifully  printed  book;  whose  editor  has  altered 
various  passages  in  conlbrmiiy  with  the  Arian  hy|)olhesis.  His 
arbitniry  alterations  and  bolil  criticisms  were  exposed  by  Dr. 
Leonanl  TwelU  in  A  Critical  Examination  of  the  hfe  New  Ttxt 
und  Version  of  the  Greek  TtstamenL  London,  1732,  8vo.  Mi- 
chaelis has  also  very  severely  and  jusily  censured  tho  very 
great  liberties  taken  by  Mace.  Introd.  to  N.T.  vol.  ii.  pp.  403,  464. 
15.  'H  KAlNH  AlAeHKH.  Novum  Testamcntum  Griecum. 
Edente  Jo.  Alberto  Benoelio.  Tubingse,  1734.  4to.  1763.  4to, 
This  is  an  excellent  edition,  formed  with  an  extraordinary 
degree  of  conscientiousness,  sound  jiidgment,  and  good  taste.  John 
Aloert  Bengel,  or  Bcngclius,  as  lie  is  generally  called  in  tliis 
country,  abbot  of  Alpirspach  in  the  duchy  (present  kingdom)  of 
Wirieiiiburg,  was  led  to  direct  his  attention  to  sacred  criticism,  in 
consequence  of  serious  and  anxious  doubts  arising  from  the  devb- 
tions  exhibited  in  preceding  editions  ;  und  the  result  of  his  labori- 
ous researches  was,  the  edition  now  under  consideration.  The 
text  '\3  preceded  by  an  Introductio  in  Crisin  Novi  Testamenti,  and 
is  followed  by  an  Epilo^us  and  Appendix. 

The  text  is  not  Ibrined  on  any  particular  edition,  but  is  corrected 
and  improved  according  to  the  editor's  judgment;  and  so  scrupu- 
lous was  Bengel,  that  he  studiously  avoided  inserting  any  reading 
which  did  not  exist  in  some  printed  edition,  except  in  tlie  Apoca- 
lypse ;  in  which  book  alone  lie  inserted  readings  that  hail  never 
been  printed,  because  it  had  been  printed  from  so  lew  manuscripts, 
and  in  one  passage  had  been  printed  by  Erasmus  firom  no  manu- 
iicript  whatever.  Beneath  the  text  he  placed  some  select  readings, 
reservinjj  the  evidence  in  their  favour  lor  his  Apparatus  Criticus. 
His  opinion  of  these  marginal  readings  he  expressed  by  tiie  Greek 
letters  »,  ;  y,  i,  and  i,  and  some  few  other  marks.  Thus,  a  donoic.« 
that  he  held  the  reading  to  be  genuine  ;  z,  thai  its  gouuineness  was 
not  absolutely  certain,  but  that  the  reading  was  still  prefcrnblo  to 
that  in  tho  text;  >,  liiat  the  reading  in  the  margin  was  of  e(|nal 
value  with  that  in  the  text,  so  that  lie  could  not  dctcriuino  which 
was  preferable  ;  ^,  that  the  reading  in  the  margin  was  ol  less  value  ; 
and  «,  that  it  was  alwolutely  spurious,  though  defemled  by  some 
f-ritics.  Bengel's  edition  was  jirinled,  afier  iiis  death,  by  Burke, at 
Tubingen,  in  17C3,  llo.  with  imjiortaiit  corrections  and  additions. 
Several  small  impressions  of  Beiigri's  (j reek  Teslaiaciit  have  been 
printed  in  (iornuiny,  without  the  Critical  Apparatus;  viz.  at  Slut- 
gard,  1734,  1739,  1/53,  8vo. ;  at  Tubingen,  17G2,  1770,  17'J0,  8vo. ; 
and  at  Lcipsic,  1737,  8vo. 

16.  'H  KAlNH  A1A0HKH.  Novum  Testamcntum  Grtccum 
editionia  receptjc,  cum  Lcclionibus  Variantibu.s  Codicum  MSS., 
Edilionum  aliarutn,  Vcrsionum  ct  Palruni,  nccnon  Commeiitario 

•  In  1720,  thn  celebrated  critic.  Dr.  Ricliar>l  Ilrntley.  circulated  propo- 
sals for  a  MOW  edition  of  tlic  <fri;ck  TcsiaiiirnI,  witli  varioua  Icctluiis, 
which  was  never  executed.  The  pr(>|><jf>alt  UifiiiHrlves  arc  jirjnlcd  in  the 
Uiugrapliia  liriinnnica,  (article  Itrnlli.y,  note  AT.);  and  llui  lUiiKlmtlvo 
specimen,  Ilov.  xxii.  is  jiivcn  in  I'rilius'*  Introd.  od  I.fcl.  Nov.  T(:.|.  pji 
415— 41;!.     A   dchiilod  accnunt  of  UcniUy'a  propngcd  work   is  invcn   ni 

Bishop  Monk's  Life  of  Dr.  U.  whose  criliral  materials  lor  In--  !•■!  edi. 

lion  oflhcOrcckTcslnninnt,  amounting  \o  [')  voluincu,  arc  i'  .i  Ilic 

library  of  Trinity  Collo({i>,  Cambridge  ;  I. lit  Hciillcy  left  noil.  icol 

preparation  for  the   prcsH.     (IllHliop    llurRons's  Annivrrnary   i>ir*ct<nrbe, 
ilcUvercd  to  ilie  Royal  Society  of  Literature,  ta  1830.    AjipeuOiJt,  p.  Vi.) 


pleniore  ex  Scriptoribus  vetcribus,  Hebrieis,  Grscis,  et  Latiiiis, 
historiam  et  vim  verborum  illustrante.  Opera  et  atudio  Joannis 
Jacobi  Wetstenii,  Amstcla;dami,  1751,  1752,  2  vols,  folio. 
Editio  altera,  aucta  et  emendata,  curantc  J.  A.  Lotze.  Vol.  I. 
Quatuor  Evangelia  complectens.    Roterdami,  1831.    Royal  4to. 

Of  all  the  editions  of  the  New  Testament,  this  is  pronounced  by 
Micliaelis  to  be  the  most  imiiortanl,  and  tlic  mo.st  necessary  to  those 
w'ho  are  engaged  in  sacred  criticism.  Welstein's  Prolegomena, 
which  contain  a  treasure  of  sacred  criticism,  were  first  published 
in  1730.  The  text  is  copied  from  the  Elzevir  editions ;  the  verses 
were  numbered  in  the  margin;  and  the  various  readings,  with 
their  authorities  (containing  a  million  of  quotalion."!),  are  |)laccd 
beneath  the  text.  Weistein's  edition  is  divided  into  four  parts, 
each  of  which  is  accompanied  wilh  Prolegomena,  describing  the 
Greek  manuscripts  quoted  in  it-  The  firet  jiart  contains  the  four 
(iospcls ;  the  second,  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul ;  the  third,  the  Acta 
of  the  Apostles,  and  the  Catholic  Epistles ;  aii'l  tlie  fourth,  the 
Apocalypse.  To  the  last  part  are  nnnoxeil  two  Epistles  in  Syriac, 
with  a  Latin  version;  which,  according  to  Wetstein,  were  written 
by  Clement  of  Rome.  But  Dr.  Lardner  has  showTi  that  they  are 
not  genuine.  (Works,  8vo.  vol.  xi.  pp.  l97 — 22ti.  4lo.  vol.  v.  pp. 
432—440.)  The  critical  obser\'ations  on  various  readings,  and  on 
the  interpretation  of  the  New  Testament,  "  must  be  studied,"  says 
Bishop  Marsh,  "  by  every  man  who  would  fully  appreciate  the 
work  in  question."  Michaelis  has  criticised  the  labours  of  Wet- 
stein with  great  severity ;  but  the  latter  has  been  vindicated  by 
Bishop  Marsh,  lioth  in  his  notes  on  Michaelis  (pp.  805 — 877.),  and 
in  hi.^  Divinity  Lectures  (part  ii.  pp.  21 — 23.). 

In  consequence  of  the  great  rarity,  and  very  high  price  of  Wet 
stein's  edition.  Dr.  Lotze  was  induced  to  undertake  a  new  impres- 
sion of  it;  which  would  have  been  greatly  improved  by  the 
correction  of  errors,  and  the  more  accurate  exhibition  of  various 
readings  from  MSS.  and  particularly  from  tho.se  derived  from 
ancient  versions,  in  which  Wetstein  is  acknowledged  to  have  been 
defective.  But  tlie  decease  of  the  learned  editor  (whose  valuable 
critical  and  theological  library  was  dispersed  by  auction  in  the 
summer  of  1833)  has  caused  this  projected  edition  to  be  abandoned. 
The  Prolegomena  of  Wetstein,  therefore  (forming  a  royal  quarto 
volume  of  279  pages),  are  all  that  has  been  published  by  Dr. 
Lotze,  who  has  edited  them  with  great  care  and  with  con- 
siderable improvements.  Dr.  L.  has  scrupulou.sly  retained  Wet- 
stoin's  text,  with  the  exception  of  those  passages  in  which  tho 
latter  had  thrown  out  unjust  observations  upon  other  critics,  espe- 
cially the  pious  and  erudite  Bengel,  and  also  wilh  the  omission  of 
his  literary  quarrels  with  Prey  and  Iselius:  and  he  has  added  from 
the  second  volume  of  the  folio  edition  Wetstein's  critical  observa- 
tions upon  various  readings,  and  his  rules  for  judging  of  their 
value,  together  with  most  of  the  notes  of  Dr.  John  Solomon  Semler, 
who  republished  the  Prolegomena  at  Halle  in  1761.  Dr.  Lotze  has 
further  subjoined,  in  an  Appendix,  Dr.  Glocester  Ridley's  learned 
Dissertation  on  the  Syriac  Versions  of  the  New  Testament,  in 
whicli  the  errors  of  Wetstein  are  corrected,  and  his  deficiencies 
are  supplied.  This  edition  of  Wetstein's  Prolegomena  is  very 
neatly  executed. 

17.  'H  KAlNH  A1A0HKH,  sivc  Novum  D.  N.  J.  C.  Tcsta- 
mentum  Grtecum  cum  Variantibus  Lcctionibus,  quaj  demon- 
strant  Vulgatam  Lalinain  ipsis  e  Gra;cis  Codicibus  hodienura 
oxtantibus  Authenticam.  Accedit  Index  Epistolarum  et  Evan- 
gclioruni,  Spicilcgium  Apologeticum,  ct  Lexidion  Grajco-Lati- 
num.  Cura  et  Opera  P.  Hermanni  Goliuiagex.  Editio  Catho- 
lica  ct  Novissima.     Moguntice,  1753.     8vo. 

Michaelis  states  that  he  has  never  boon  able  to  discover 
from  what  edition  Goldiiagen  took  his  text:  ho  has  given  filty-iwo 
readings  from  the  Codex  ^lolshemiensis,  a  manuscript  containing 
the  Go.^pcls,  Acts,  and  Kpisiles,  and  which  liirmeriy  i)e!ongcd  to 
the  college  of  Jesuits  at  Mulsheim  in  Alsace.  (Introd.  to  New 
Test.  vol.  ii.  part  i.  pp.  283.  490.)  The  book  is  not  common :  a 
copy  is  in  the  Britisli  Museum. 

18.  'H  KATNH  AIA0HKH,  Novum  TcBtamentum  Gnccum. 
In  Sccliones  di visit,  Intcrpuncliones  accurate  posuit,  et  Dispo- 
sitioncm  Logicam  adjccit  Christianus  Bciioettoenius.  Lipsiae, 
1744;   1749,  8vo.     WraUslaviaj,  1765,  8vo. 

The  divisions  into  sections  and  the  punctuation  nro  reputed  to 
be  judiciously  executed.  The  ordinary  divisions  of  chajiters  and 
verses  are  retained  in  the  margin.  An  account  of  the  principal 
alterations  is  given  in  the  appendix. 

19.  Novum  Testamcntum  Graicum  ad  fidcm  Gnccorum  solum 
MSS.  nunc  primum  expressum,  adstipulante  Jo.  Jac.  Wetstcnio, 
juxta  Scctioncs  Albcrti  Uengdii  divisum;  ct  nova  iiiterpunctione 
Kicpius  illustratum.  Accesserc  in  altero  voluminc  cmendationes 
conjecturales  virorum  doctorum  undccunque  collccla?.  Jiondini, 
cura,  typis  ct  sumptibus  G.[uliclmi]  D.[owiEn.]  1763.  8  vols. 
Umo. 

A  very  valuable  edition,  and  now  scarce ;  it  was  reprinted  in 
1772,  but  not  wilh  the  some  accuracy  as  tho  first  edition.  The 
conjectures  were  published  in  a  separate  form  in  1772,  and  again 
in  4to.  in  1782,  to  accompany  n  handsomo  quarto  edition  of  iho 
fireck  TcMtninenl,  which  was  jiublishcd  by  NIr.  Nichols  in  1783, 
with  the  n.«»iHtJUice  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Owen.  It  is  now  exlreraely 
rare   and  dear.    Tho  coi^jccturcs  were  rcphulcd  in  1812  with 


Sect.  III.] 


GREEK  TESTAMENTS. 


13 


numerous  corrections  and  additionp.  In  his  edition  of  the  New 
Testament,  Mr.  Boyer  adopted  the  emendations  proposed  by  Wet- 
stein.' 

20.  Novum  Testamentum,  Greece  et  Latine,  Textum  denuo 
recensuit,  Varias  Lectiones  numquam  antca  vulgatas  collegit — 
Scholia  Grseca  addidit — Animadversiones  Criticas  adjecit,  et 
edidit  Christ,  Frid.  Matth.ei.  Riga.  1782— 178S.  12vols.  Svo. 

01'  Professor  Matthtei's  recension  of  manuscripts  some  account 
has  already  been  given  in  Part  I.  p.  206.  of  the  first  volume.  "  The 
scurrility  which  the  professor  ming^led  in  his  opposition  to  Gries- 
bach's  system  of  classification,  tended  greatly  to  injure  the  work 
at  the  time  of  its  appearance,  and  to  lower  the  author  in  the 
esteem  of  the  candid  and  moderate ;  but  now  that  the  heat  of 
controversy  has  cooled  down,  the  value  of  his  labours  begins  to 
be  more  highly  appreciated,  and  more  impartially  appealed  to,  on 
the  subject  of  the  various  readings  of  the  Greek  text."  (Dr.  Hen- 
derson's Biblical  Researches,  p.  53.)  The  late  Bishop  Middleton 
considered  it  as  by  far  the  best  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament 
extant;  and  though  Michaelis  has  criticised  it  with  considerable 
severity,  he  nevertheless  pronounces  it  to  bo  absolutely  necessary 
tor  every  man  who  is  engaged  in  the  criticism  of  the  Greek  Tes- 
tament. As,  however,  Matthsei  undertook  a  revision  of  the  Greek 
text  on  the  authority  of  one  set  of  manuscripts  of  the  Byzantine 
family,  Bishop  Marsh  regrets  that  he  made  so  partial  an  applica- 
tion of  his  critical  materials.  "  And  since  no  impartial  judge  can 
tdmit  that  the  genuine  text  of  the  (5reek  Testament  may  be  esta- 
alished  as  well,  by  applying  only  a  part  of  our  materials,  as  by  a 
judicious  employment  of  the  whole,  the  edition  of  Matthaji  is  only 
so  far  of  importance,  as  it  furnishes  new  materials  for  future  uses ; 
materials,  indeed,  which  are  accompanied  with  much  useful  infor- 
mation and  many  learned  remarks."  (Bishop  Marsh's  Lectures, 
part  ii.  p.  31.) 

21.  Novum  Testamentum  Groece.  Ad  Codices  Mosquenses 
utriusque  Bibliothecse  S.S.  Synodi  ct  Tabulavii,  Imperialis,  item 
Augustanos,  Dresdenses,  Goettingenses,  Gothanos,  Guelpherby- 
tanos,  Langeri,  Monachienses,  Lipsienses,  Nicephori  et  Zittavi- 
ensera,  adhibitis  Patrum  Grtecorum  Lectionibus,  Editionibus  N. 
Testamenti  principibus  et  Doctorum  Virorum  Libellis  criticis, 
iternm  recensuit,  Sectiones  raajores  et  minoves  Eusebii,  Euthalii, 
et  Andres  Caisariensis  notavit,  primum  quoque  nunc  Lectiones 
Ecclesiasticas,  ex  usu  Grsecas  Ecclcsiae  designavit,  ac  Synaxaria 
Evangeliarii  et  Praxapostoli  addidit,  et  Criticis  interpositis  Ani- 
madversionibus  edidit  Christianus  Fridericus  Matth^ei.  Vol. 
L  Wittebergaj,  1803;  Vol.  IL  Curise  Variscorum,  1806;  Vol. 
in,  Ronneburgi,  1807,  Svo. 

This  second  edition  of  Matthffii's  Greek  Testament  is  seldom  to 
be  met  witli.  A  copy  of  the  first  volume  is  in  the  library  of  the 
British  Museum.  The  critical  annotations  of  the  editor  are  placed 
at  the  end  of  the  volume  ;  the  various  readings  are  at  the  loot  of 
each  page.  Matthasi  is  very  severe  on  the  editorial  labours  of  Dr. 
Griesbach. 

22.  "H  KAlNH  aTAGHKH.  The  New  Testament  collated 
with  the  most  approved  manuscripts ;  with  select  notes  in  Eng- 
lish, critical  and  explanatory,  and  references  to  those  authors 
who  have  best  illustrated  the  sacred  writings.  By  Edward  Hak- 
wooD,  D.D.  London,  1776,  2  vols.  12mo.;  1784,  2  vols.  12mo. 

"This  edition,"  says  the  learned  annotator  of  Michaelis,  "  is  cer- 
tainly entitled  to  a  place  among  the  critical  editions  of  the  Greek 
Testament,  though  it  is  not  accompanied  with  various  readings; 
for,  though  Dr.  Harwood  has  adopted  the  common  text  as  the  basis 
of  his  own,  he  has  made  critical  corrections  wherever  the  received 
reading  appeared  to  him  to  be  erroneous.  The  manuscripts  which 
he  has  generally  followed  when  he  departs  from  the  common  text, 
are  the  Cantabrigiensis  in  the  Gospels  and  Acts,  and  the  Claromon- 
tanus  in  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul."  These  Dr.  Harwood  considered 
as  approaching  the  nearest  of  any  manuscripts  now  known  in  the 
world  to  the  original  text  of  the  sacred  records.  "  It  is  not  impro- 
bable that  this  edition  contains  more  of  the  ancient  and  genuine 
text  of  the  Greek  Testament  than  those  which  are  in  common  use  : 
but  as  no  single  manuscript,  however  ancient  and  venerable,  is 
entitled  to  such  a  preference  as  to  exclude  the  rest,  and  no  critic 
of  the  present  age  can  adopt  a  new  reading,  unless  the  general 
evidence  be  produced,  and  the  preponderancy  in  its  favour  dis- 
tinctly shown,  the  learned  ani  ingenious  editor  has  in  some  mea- 
sure defeated  his  own  object,  and  rendered  his  labours  less  applica- 
ble to  the  purposes  of  sacred  criticism."  (Bishop  Marsh's  Michae- 
lis, vol.  ii.  part  ii.  pp.  88=1,  885.)  At  the  end  of  the  second  volume 
there  is  a  catalogue  of  the  principal  editions  of  the  Greek  Testa- 
ment, and  a  list  of  the  most  esteemed  commentators  and  critics. 
The  work  is  very  neatly  printed ;  and  under  the  Greek  text  are 
short  critical  notes  in  English,  chiefly  relating  to  classical  illustra- 
tions of  Scripture.  In  the  list  of  commentators  and  critics,  those  are 
most  commended  by  Dr.  Harvi'ood  who  favour  the  Socinian  scheme, 
to  which  he  was  strongly  attached,  and  he  therefore  admitted  or 

« Dr.  Griesbach's  first  edition  of  the  New  Testament  should,  in  strict- 
ness, be  noticed  here  ;  but  as  it  is  superseded  by  his  second  and  greatly 
improved  edition,  described  in  the  ne.xt  two  pages,  it  is  here  designe-Jly 
oniltled.  The  edition  of  Koppe,  being  accompanied  with  a  commentary, 
is  noticed  in/ro,  among  the  commentators  on  the  New  Testament. 


rejected  a  variety  of  readings,  according  as  they  favo  ir  or  oppose 
the  Socinian  doctrine. 

23.  Novum  Testamentum  Graecum,  e  Ccdice  MS.  Alexan- 
drino,  qui  Londini  in  Bibliotheca  Musei  Britannici  asservatur, 
descriptum  a  Carolo  Godofredo  WoinE.  Londini,  ex  prelo 
Joannis  Nichols,  typis  Jacksonianis,  1786.    folio. 

This  is  an  elegant  fac-simile  edition  of  the  Alexandrian  Manu- 
script which  is  preserved  in  the  British  Museum,  and  is  described 
in  Part  I.  pp.  222 — 224.  of  Vol.  I.  Twelve  copies  were  printed  on 
vellum.  The  fac-simile  itself  fills  two  hundred  and  sixty  pages : 
and  the  preface,  comprising  twenty-two  pages,  contains  an  accu- 
rate description  of  the  Manuscript,  illustrated  by  an  engraving 
representing  the  style  of  writing  in  various  manuscripts.  To  this 
is  subjoined  an  exact  list  of  all  its  various  readings,  in  eighty-nine 
pages ;  each  reading  is  accompanied  with  a  remark,  giving  an 
account  of  what  his  predecessors  Junius  (i.  e.  Patrick  Young), 
Bishop  Walton,  Drs.  Mill  and  Grabc,  and  Wetstein,  had  performed 
or  neglected.  The  preface  of  Woide,  and  his  collection  of  various 
readings,  were  reprinted,  with  notes,  by  Professor  Spohn,  at  Leijj- 
sic,  in  1790,  in  Svo.  To  complete  this  publication,  there  should  be 
added  the  following :  Appendix  ad  Editionem  Novi  Teslamenti 
Grceci  e  Codicc  Alexandrino  descripti  a  C.  G.  Woide.  Oxonii :  i 
Typograplico  Clarendoniano.  1799.  folio.  This  splendid  work  was 
edited  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Ford,  who  added  many  useful  notes.  Long 
before  Dr.  Woide  executed  his  fac-simile  edition  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament from  the  Alexandrian  Manuscript,  it  had  been  suggested  to 
King  Charles  I.  to  cause  a  fac-simile  of  the  entire  MS.  to  be  engraved. 
But  the  importance  and  value  of  such  an  undertaking  do  not  appear 
to  have  been  understood — at  least  they  were  not  duly  appreciated — 
by  that  monarch :  he  therefore  refused  to  have  it  done.  The  cir- 
cumstance is  thus  related  by  the  industrious  antiquary  Aubrey,  in 
his  inedited  "  Remaines  of  Gentilismo  and  Judaisrae,"  preserved 
among  the  Lansdowne  MSS.  in  the  British  Museum,  No.  231.  folio 
169.  Writing  on  the  disputed  clause  in  1  John  V.  7.  Aubrey  says  : — 

"  The  last  clause  of  this  verse  is  not  found  in  the  antient  MSS. 
copies,  e.  g.  that  in  the  Vatican  Library,  and  y«  Tecla  MS.  in  S*. 
James's  Library  and  others  :  as  it  is  not  in  an  old  MS.  in  Magdalen 
Coll:  Library  in  Oxford.  That  at  St.  James's  was  sent  as  a  Presen 
to  King  Charles  the  First,  from  CyriUus  Patriark  of  Constantinople  : 
as  a  jev.el  of  that  antiquity  not  fitt  to  be  kept  amongst  Infidels. 
Mr Rosse  (translator  of  Statins)  was  Tutor  to  y®  D.  of  Mon- 

gott  him  the  place  [of  ] 

mouth  who  made  him  Library  Keeper  at  St.  James's :  he  desired 
K.  Cha.  I.  to  be  at  y<^  chardge  to  have  it  engraven  in  copper  plates  : 
and  told  him  it  would  cost  but  ^^200,  but  his  Ma*y  would  not  yield 
to  it.  Mr.  Ross  aayd  '  that  it  would  appeare  glorious  in  History, 
after  his  Ma's's  death.'  '  Pish,'  sayd  he,  '  I  care  not  what  they 
say  of  me  in  History  when  I  am  dead.'  H.  Grotius,  J.  G.  Vossius, 
Heinsius,  &c.  have  made  Journe3's  into  England,  purposely  to  cor- 
rect their  Greeke  Testaments  by  tliis  Copy  in  St.  James.  S"".  Chr. 
Wren  sayd  that  he  would  rather  have  it  engraved  by  an  Engraver 
that  could  not  understand  or  read  Greek,  than  by  one  that  did." 

In  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  the  design  of  printing  this  manuscript 
was  resumed ;  and  the  editing  of  the  fac-simile  was  to  have  been 
confided  to  the  Rev.  Dr.  Smith,  to  whom  the  king  promised  a 
canonry  of  Windsor,  or  of  Westminster,  for  his  labour.  But,  from 
some  circumstance  or  other  which  cannot  now  be  ascertained,  this 
design  was  abandcned.  (Wood's  Athenae  Oxoniensis,  vol.  ii  col 
1020.) 

The  value  of  such  an  undertaking  has  been  better  understood  in 
our  times :  and  the  British  Parliament  nobly  guaranteed  the  expense 
of  the  Fac-simile  Edition,  which  was  executed  under  the  editorship 
of  the  Rev.  H.  H.  Baber.  See  an  account  of  it  in  No.  17.  p.  24. 
infra. 

24.  Novum  Testamentum  Grsecum,  ad  Codicem  Vindobonen- 
scm  Graece  expressum  :  Varietatem  Lectionis  addidit  Franciscua 
Carolus  Altek,    1786,  1787,   2  vols,  Svo, 

This  edition  differs  entirely  from  those  of  Mill,  Wetstein,  and 
Griesbach.  "  The  text  of  this  edition  is  neither  the  common  text  nor 
a  revision  of  it,  but  a  mere  copy  from  a  single  manuscript,  and  thai 
not  a  very  ancient  one  (the  Codex  Lambecii  I.),  in  the  imperial 
library  at  Vienna.  The  various  readings,  which  are  not  arranged 
as  in  other  editions,  but  printed  in  separate  parcels  as  made  by  the 
collator,  are  likewise  described  from  Greek  manuscripts  in  the 
imperial  library :  and  the  whole  collection  was  augmented  by 
extracts  from  the  Coptic,  Sclavonian,  and  Latin  versions,  which 
are  also  printed  in  the  same  indigested  manner  as  the  Greek  read- 
ings. Alter's  edition  therefore  contains  mere  materials  for  future 
uses."  (Bp.  Marsh's  Lectures,  part  ii.  p.  32.)  Where  the  editor  has 
discovered  manifest  errata  in  the  Vienna  manuscript,  he  has 
recourse  to  the  text  of  Stephens's  edition  of  1546. — See  a  more 
copious  account  of  this  edition  in  Michaelis,  vol.  ii.  pp.  880 — 882, 
where  it  is  said  that  Alter's  edition  is  a  work  with  which  no  one 
engaged  in  sacred  criticism  can  dispense. 

25.  Quatuor  Evangelia,  GriEce,  cum  Variantibus  a  textu 
Lectionibus  Codd.  Manuscriptorum  Bibliotheca;  Vaticana; ;  Bar- 
berinae,  Jjaurcntiante,  Vindobonensis,  Escurialcnsis,  Havniensis, 
Regise  ;  quibus  accedunt  Lectiones  Versionum  Syrarum  Veteris, 
Philoxenianse,  et  Hierosolymitanffl,  jussu  et  sumptibus  regiis 
edidit  Andreas  BiiicH.     Havniae,  1788,  folio  et  4to. 


14 


GREEK  TESTAMENTS 


This  splendid  and  valuable  work,  containing  onlj'  the  four  Gos- 
pels, is  the  rosult  of  the  united  labours  of  Prolcssoi-s  Birch,  Adler, 
and  Moklenhawer,  who  for  several  years  travelled  into  Germany, 
Italy,  France,  and  Spaircat  the  exi)ense  of  the  king  of  Denmark, 
in  order  to  examine  and  collate  the  precious  remains  of  sacred 
antiquity.  Birch  collated  all  the  Greek  manuscripts  quoted,  except 
those  in  the  library  of  the  Escurial,  which  were  collated  by  Mol- 
denhawcr.  The  Syriac  collations  wore  made  by  Adler.  A  detailed 
account  of  these  manuscripu  is  given  in  the  Prolegomena;  from 
which  we  learn  that  the  manuscripts  which  passed  under  his 
inspection  were  very  numerous.  In  the  \'alican,  forty  were  col- 
luted  ;  in  the  Barberi'ni  library,  ten;  in  other  Roman  libraries,  seven- 
teen; in  the  libraries  at  Florence,  and  in  other  parts  of  Italy,  ihirly- 
e'ght;  in  ihe  imperial  library  at  Vienna,  twelve;  and  in  the  royal 
library  at  Copenhagen,  three.  The  text  is  from  Robert  .Slejihens's 
edition  of  155U;  but  the  great  value  of  this  splendid  work,  and  in 
which  it  surpasses  all  former  editions,  consists,  frst,  in  the  very 
complete  extracts  which  are  given  from  the  celebrated  Codex  Vali- 
canus,  described  in  pp.  22-1 — 226.  of  the  fir-st  volume  ;  and,  secondly, 
in  the  cxiraels  from  the  Versio  Si/ra  Hvfi'osoli/milana,  which  is 
remarkable  for  its  agreement  witii  tlie  Codex  Bcza;,  where  it  is 
wholly  unsupjwrted  by  any  other  auvhorily;  a  circumstance  which 
bhows  the  value  and'  antiquity,  not  so  intu  !i  of  the  manuscripts 
themselves,  as  of  the  text  wliich  they  contain. 

In  17y8,  Professor  Birch  published,  at  Copenhagen,  a  collection 
of  various  readings  to  the  Acts  and  Epistles,  drawn  from  the  same 
sources  ;  intituled  Varies  Lcctiones  ad  textum  Aclorum  Aposloforinn, 
Epislolarnm  Catholicarum  et  Paiili,  e  Codd.  (Jra-cis  MSS.  Jiiblio- 
theccE  Vulicano',  Barherincp,  Avgustinlanornm  Ercmitnrum  Roma', 
Borgiants  Viiitris,  NeapolitancB  Regies,  Lnnreiifiviana',  S.  Marci 
Venetorum  Vindohoncnsix  Casarca,  el  Hafnien»is  Region,  coUectcB  el 
ciitte  ah  Andrea  Birch,  Theol.  D.  et  Prof.;  in  1800,  he  published 
Vari<B  Lectiones  ad  Apocalijpsin :  and  in  1801,  Varia:  J^tctionis  ad. 
Texliim  IV.  Evangeliorum  e  Codd.  MSS.  ileriim  recognita;  ct  qtiam- 
plurimis  accessionibits  auctcp, :  all  in  8vo.  to  Ihe  lour  gospels.  The 
completion  of  the  magnificent  edition  of  the  Grcel;  Testament, 
bo  gun  in  1788,  was  prevented  by  a  calamitous  fire  at  Copenhagen, 
wir.ch  coiLsumcd  the  royal  printing  office,  together  with  the  beau- 
tiful types  and  paper,  whi<h  had  been  procured  from  Italy,  for 
tiiat  purjHjse. 

26.  XIII.  Epistolarum  Pauli  Codex  Grsecus,  cum  Vcrsione 
LatinA  vetere,  vulgo  Antc-Hieronytniana,  olim  Bocrncrianus, 
nunc  Bibliothcca  Elcctoralis  Drcsdensis,  summa  fide  ct  diligentia 
transoriptus  et  cditus  d  C.  F.  M.\TTU/ia.  Meisste,  1791  (re- 
liiiitcd  in  1818);  4to. 

Of  the  Cudex  Boernerianus,  of  which  manuscript  this  publica- 
tion is  a  copy,  an  account  has  been  given  in  the  first  volume  of  this 
work.  The  transcript  is  said  to  be  executed  with  great  accuracy, 
aud  is  illustrated  with  two  plates. 

27.  Codex  Theodori  Bezai  Cantabrigicnsis,  Evangelia  et 
Acta  Apostolorum  coniplectens,  quadratis  Uteris,  GiEeco-Latinus. 
Acadeniia  auspicante  venerandiE  has  vetustatis  reliquia.s,  summa 
qua  fide  potuit,  adumbravit,  expressit,  edidit,  codicis  historiam 
prffifixit,  notasque  adjccit,  Thomas  Ku'lixo,  S.T.P.  Coil.  Div. 
Joan,  nuper  socius.  Cantahrigite,  c  Prelo  Academico,  impensis 
Acadeniia;.   17'J3.  2  vols,  folio. 

This  fac-simile  of  the  Codex  BezoB  (which  manuscript  has  already 
neon  described)  is  executed  with  the  utmost  typographical  splen- 
dour. In  a  preface  of  twenty-eight  jiages,  the  learned  editor  dis- 
f  i--fs  the  high  antiquity  of  the  manuscriiit;  its  nature  and  excel- 
!■  .11 1- ;  its  migrations ;  the  various  collations  of  it  which  have  been 
made  at  diflerent  times  ;  and  conclii<l<-s  with  a  very  brief  descrip- 
tion of  the  manuscript  itself,  and  an  Index  Capitum.  To  this  suc- 
ceeds the  text  of  the  manuscript,  which  is  divided  into  two  parts 
or  volumes;  the  first  ending  with  page  412.,  and  the  second  con- 
taining pages  413.  to  828.  Opposite  to  the  modem  supplement, 
which  concludes  the  Gospels,  on  page  G.57.,  is  the  end  of  the  Latin 
\ersion  of  Saint  John's  third  Epistle.  Pages  829.  to  8.^1.  contain 
Dr.  Kipling's  notes.  The  impression  of  this  nic-similc  was  limited 
to  two  huii.-ired  and  fifty  copies  ;  and  it  usually  sells  lor  six  or  <'iglit 
guineas,  according  to  the  condition  and  binding  ol' the  copies.  Dr. 
Kipling's  fiic-similo  was  criticised,  with  gfc-ut  severity,  in  the 
Monthly  Review  (N.  S.),  vol.  xii.  pp.  211 — 210.  And  his  preface 
was  attacked,  in  no  verv-  courteous  manner,  in  a  immphlet  entitled 
'  Remarks  on  Dr.  Kipling'n  i're/arc  In  Beza.  J'art  the  First. 
By  Thomas  Edimrds,  LL.D.'  8vo.  179J.  No  second  purl  ever 
ai'|>carcd. 

Although  the  execution  of  this  noble  undertaking  did  not  answer 
the  expectations  of  some  learned  men,  in.coii.'<equeiire  of  v\hich  it 


[Paut  I.   Chap,  i 

Lonclini  ct   Halre  Saxonum,  1796, 
Editio  secunda. 


Was  held  in  comparatively  little  estimation  for  many  years,  yet  its 
value  is  now  more  justly  appreciated.  "  A  critic  of  the  first  cele- 
brity, who  would  have  gladly  seized   an  opportunity  of  ex|Mwing 


Dr.  Kipling,  was  unable  to  delect  iho  smalh^si  error  in  the  text. 
Porson  himself  collnled  the  printed  copy  with  llie  original  manii- 
licript,  and  tlio  only  (iiiill  he  could  detect  was  in  a  tingle  letler  of 
the  margin.  This  fact  must  surely  place  the  value  of  Dr  Kipling's 
publication  far  beyond  the  reach  of  controversy."  (Brit.  Cril.  vol. 
xi.  p.  G19.) 

23    Xovum  Testamcntum  Grxce  Textum  n  1  fidcm  Codicum 
Vcrsionum  ct  Patrum  rcccn^uit  ct  Lcctionls  A'arictatcm  odjocit 


D.  Jo.  Jac.  Ghif.sbach. 
1806.    2  vols,  large  Svo. 

Notwithstanding  the  diflferent  opinions  entertained  by  some 
learned  men  relative  to  the  correctness  of  Dr.  Griesbach's  system 
of  recensions  or  editions  of  manuscripts,  all  parties  have  united  in 
commendation  of  the  learning,  diligence,  and  labom*  which  he 
i)estowed  upon  his  arduous  unilertakirig. 

Dr.  Griesbach  commenced  his  critical  labours,  first,  by  publish- 
ing at  Halle,  in  1774,  the  historical  books  of  the  New  Testament, 
under  the  following  title :  Libri  Hislorici  Novi  Testamenti,  Greece, 
Pars  i.  sistcns  Si/nopsin  Evangeliorum  Matthcei,  Marci,  ct  Lucee. 
Textum  adfidem  Codd.  Versionum  et  Patrum  cmcndavit  el  lertionis 
varictatem  adjeci  Jo.  Jac.  Grieslach.  (2d  edit,  llala;,  1797,  3d  edit. 
Ilalffi,  1809.)  Svo.  pars  ii.  sislens  Evangilivm  Johannis  et  Acta 
Apostolorum,  Ilalaj,  1775,  Svo.  This  edition  was  iniblished  as  a 
manual  or  text-book  for  a  course  of  lectures  which  Professor 
Griesbach  was  at  that  time  delivering  at  Jena,  and  in  which  he 
explained  Ihe  first  three  evangelists  si/uoptically,  that  is  to  say,  by 
uniting  together  the  three  narrations  of  ine  same  event.  The  re- 
ceived text,  which  is  adopted,  is  divided  into  one  hundred  and 
thirty-four  sections,  and  is  printed  in  three  columns  ;  and  Griesbach 
indicated  by  various  marks  the  alterations  which  he  judged  neces- 
sary to  be  made.  Tlie  various  readings,  t.aken  from  the  edition  of 
Mill,  Bengel,  and  Wetstein,  were  not  chosen  until  they  had  under- 
gone a  very  severe  revision;  but  this  edition  also  contained  other 
lections,  which  the  learned  editor  ibund  in  manuscripts  preserved 
in  the  British  Museum  at  London,  and  also  in  the  Royal  Library 
at  Paris.  In  177-5,  Dr.  Griesbach  publislied  the  Apostolical  Epistles 
and  the  Apocalypse,  in  a  similar  manner ;  but  as  manv  persons 
had  expressed  themselves  dissatisfied  with  his  synoptical  arrange- 
ment of  the  historical  books,  he  printed  another  edition  of  ihem  in 
1777,  in  the  usual  order.  This  volume  forms  the  frst  part  of  his 
Jirst  crfi<(07i,  of  which  the  Epistles  and  Revelation,  printed  in  1775, 
are  considered  as  the  second  part.  A  few  copies  were  struck  off 
in  4to.,  which  are  both  scarce  and  dear.  This  edition  is  of  a  very 
convenient  and  portable  size,  and  was  that  principally  used  in  the 
Universities  of  Germany.  Dr.  Hales  prefers  it  to  ihe  second  edi- 
tion, because  he  tliinks  that  Griesbach  was  at  that  time  more  scru- 
pulous of  innovating  upon  the  text  than  he  afierwards  was. 

The  first  volume  of  the  second  edition  appeared  in  1796.  in  large 
octavo,  with  the  imprint  of  Londini  et  Halai  Saxonum  in  the  title- 
page ;  and  the  second  with  that  of  IfiilcB  Saxonum  et  Londini,  on 
account  of  the  expense  of  the  paper  of  the  fine  copies  having  been 
munificently  defrayed  by  his  Grace  the  late  Duke  of  Grafton,"at  that 
time  Chancellor  of  the  University  of  Cambridge.  These  arc  most 
beautiful  books,  and  arc  now  only  procurable  at  a  veiy  high  price, 
though,  through  his  Grace's  liberality,  they  were  originally  sold, 
we  believe,  at  twelve  or  fourteen  shillings  per  volume.  Fifti/ 
copies  are  said  to  have  been  struck  off  on  large  paper  in  quarto. 
But  the  whole  of  these  two  volumes  was  printed  at  Jena,  under 
Griesbach's  own  eye.  In  addition  to  the  various  readings  exhi- 
bited in  Griesbach's  first  edition,  he  collated  all  the  Latin  Versions 
published  by  Sabatier  and  Blanchini ;  and  corrected  the  mistake 
made  by  Mill,  Bengel,  and  Wetstein,  in  their  (juotations  from  the 
oriental  versions.  lie  also  inserted  the  principal  readings  collected 
by  Matthsei,  Birch,  and  Alter;  together  with  extracts  liom  the  two' 
Vvolfenb'uttol  manuscripts  collated  by  Knittel,  and  the  readings  of 
the  Sahidic  version,  furnished  by  Woldc,  Georgi  and  M  (inter.  Of  the 
Armenian  version  a  collation  was  made  for  him  by  M.  Bredenkampf 
of  Bremen  :  and  the  Sclavonic  version  was  collated  for  him  by  M. 
Dobrowsky  at  Prague. 

The  first  volume  contains  the  four  Gospels.  To  these  are  pre- 
fixed copious  prolegomena,  exhibiting  a  critical  history  of  the  printed 
text,  a  catalogue  of  all  iho  manuscri));s  from  which  various  read- 
ings are  quoted,  anil  an  account  of  the  method  pursued  by 
Griesbach  in  executing  this  second  edition,  Intrciher  with  the  prin- 
cipal rules  forjudging  of  various  reudinus.  Tlie  text  is  printed  in 
two  columns,  the  miiubcrs  of  the  verses  Ijeing  placed  in  the  mar- 
gin, below  which  are  the  various  lections. 

The  second  volume  contains  the  remaining  books  of  the  New 
Testament,  which  is  preceded  by  an  introduction  or  preface, 
accounting  fijr  liie  delay  of  its  appearance,  and  an  account  of  the 
manuscripts  consiiltcii  for  lliul  volume.  .\t  i\\(}  end  are  J'orty  pages, 
KC|)aralely  numbered,  consisting  of  a  Diatribe  on  the  dis|)uted 
clause  relative  to  the  three  witnesses  in  1  John  v.  7,  8.,  and  of 
additional  various  readings  to  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  and  Saint 
Paul's  Epistles,  with  two  jiages  of  corrections.  Griesbach's  second 
edition  was  re)irinlcd  at  Lomhm  in  1809,  in  two  elegant  Svo. 
volumes;  one  by  Mr.  Collingwood  of  Oxliird,  anil  the  other  by 
Mr.  R.  Taylor;  the  text  is  printed  in  long  lines,  and  the  notes  in 
columns,  and  Griesbach's  addenda  of  various  readinpsare  inserted 
in  their  jiroper  places.  A  very  few  inaccuracies  have  been  dis- 
covered in  tlioso  insertions,  which  perhaps  could  hardly  be  avoided 
in  a  work  of  such  minuteness.  This  edition,  which  consisted  of 
Olio  thousand  cojiies,  h»ving  been  exhausted,  a  second  London 
edition  issued  l'n>m  ihe  press  of  Messrs.  R.  &.  A.  Taylor,  in  two 
volumes,  Svo.  1818.  It  is  executed  in  llie  same  handsome  form  ns 
before,  and  (losscs.scs  some  ndvanlnges  even  over  Griesbach's  own 
seconil  edition.  In  Iho  first  place,  the  addenda  of  various  lections 
above  noticed  have  been  newly  collated,  and  inserted  in  their 
various  places  with  great  accuracy.  Secomlly,  the  reading  of  Acts 
XX.  2H.  in   the  \'alicnii  manuscript   (which  Gricisbach  could   not 

ifive,  in  consoqueiico  of  Professor  Birch,  wlio  collnled  it,  having 
ost  or  mislaid  hi«  memorandum  of  that  particular  text)  is  hcra 


Sect.  IH.] 


GREEK  TESTAMENTS. 


15 


printed  from  a  transcript  obtained  by  Mr.  R.  Taylor  from  the 
keeper  of  the  Vatican  library.  The  reading  of  the  clause  in  ques- 
tion, in  the  Codex  Vaiicanus  is  thus  determined  to  be  conformable 
fo  the  lection  of  the  Tcxlas  Receptus,  viz.  Tiji/  Exjt?.>;(rixv  tcu  esou, 
the  Church  of  God.  And,  lastly,  as  Griesbach,  in  his  Leipsic  edi- 
tion of  1805,  preferred  some  readings  different  from  those  adopted 
m  that  of  Halle,  179(5 — 1806,  a  Synoptical  Table  is  given  indicating 
such  differences.  Bishop  Marsh  hai3  given  a  high  character  of  the 
labours  of  Dr.  Griesbach,  in  his  Divinity  Lectures,  part  ii.  pp.  44, 
45.  See  some  strictures  on  them  in  Dr.  Hales's  Treatise  on  Faith 
in  the  Holy  Trinity,  vol.  ii.  pp.  61—64.  In  1830,  Mr.  J.  G.  Palfrey, 
published  m  12mo.  at  Boston,  in  the  state  of  Massachusetts,  "Tlie 
New  Testament,  in  the  common  version,  conformed  to  Griesbach's 
standard  Greek  Text."  This  is  a  successful  endeavour  to  exhibit 
to  the  mere  English  reader  the  results  of  Griesbach's  critical 
labours  on  the  Greek  Text  of  the  New  Testament.  The  text  of 
our  authorized  Englisli  version  is  reprinted  without  note  or  com- 
ment; and  the  words  arc  in  no  case  altered,  except  where  a  change 
in  the  original  Greek  required  it, — that  is,  in  conformity  to  the 
emendations  of  tiie  Greek  text  made  by  Dr.  Griesbach.  In  the 
tran.^lations  which  the  editor  has  introduced,  to  correspond  with 
the  amended  Greek,  he  states  that,  "  it  has  been  his  careful  endea- 
vour to  imitate  the  style  of  the  received  version,  and  no  one  has 
been  admitted  witliout  study  and  consideration."  [Preface,  p.  viii.] 
From  an  examination  of  different  parts  of  Mr.  Palfrey's  volume, 
the  writer  of  these  pages  is  enabled  to  slate  that  he-has  not  observed 
any  departure  from  the  principles  by  which  Mr.  P.  professes  to 
have  been  guided. 

To  complete  Griesbach's  edition  of  the  New  Testament  there 
should  be  added  the  following  publications : 

1.  Curse  in  Historiam  Textus  Grasci  Epistolarum  Paulinarum. 
Jena? ;  1774,  4to. 

2.  Symbolte  Criticce,  ad  supplendas  et  corrigendas  variarum 
N.  T.  Lectionum  Collectiones.  Accedit  mulrorum  N.  T.  Codicum 
Graecorum  Descriptio  et  Examen.  Halae,  1785,  1793,  2  vols, 
small  Bvo. 

3.  Commenlarius  Criticus  in  Textum  Grsecum  Novi  Testament!. 
Particula  prima,  Jenoe,  1798.     Particula  secunda,  Jena;,  1811. 

29.  Novum  Testamentum,  GrEce.  Ex  Recensione  Jo.  Jac. 
Griesbachii,  cum  selecta  Lectionis  Varietate.  Lipsise,  1803 — 
1807.    4  vols,  imperial  4to.  or  folio. 

This  is  a  most  sumptuous  edition  ;  the  text  is  formed  chiefly  on 
that  of  Griesbach's  second  edition,  and  on  that  of  Knapp,  noticed 
below.  The  type  is  Ijrge  and  clear ;  the  paper  beautiful  and 
glossy ;  at  the  foot  of  the  page  are  some  select  various  readings  : 
and  each  volume  is  decorated  with  an  exquisitely  engraved 
frontispiece. 

30.  Novum  Testamentum,  Greece.  Ex  Recensione  Jo.  Jac. 
Griesbachii,  cum  selecta  Lectionum  Varietate.  Lipsije,  1805, 
1825,  2  vols.  8vo. ;  Cambridge  (New  England),  1809,  2  vols. 
8vo.;  Glasguffi,  1817,  18mo. ;  Philadelphia,  1822,  12mo.;  Lon- 
dini,  1829,^18mo. 

This  edition  contains  the  text,  together  with  a  selection  of  the 
principal  various  readings,  and  an  extract  from  the  Prolegomena 
of  the  second  edition.  It  is  veiy  neatly  printed,  and  forms  a  valu- 
able manual  for  constant  reference.  This  is  the  edition  now  chiefly 
used  in  the  universities  of  Germany.  The  Anglo-American  edition 
printed  at  Cambridge  is  handsomely  executed  ;  and  the  typography 
of  the  large  paper  copies  is  very  beautiful.  The  reprints  at  Glas- 
gow, Philadelphia,  and  London,  are  also  neatly  executed. 

31.  Novum  Testamentum  GriEce.  Textum  ad  Fidem  Codi- 
cum Versionum  et  Patrum  recensuit,  et  Lectionis  Varietatem 
adjecit  D.  Jo.  Jac.  Griesbach.  Volumen  I.,  Quatuor  Evangelia 
complectens.  Editionem  tertiam  emendatam  et  auctam  curavit 
D.  David  ScHULZ.     Berolini,  1827,  8vo. 

A  new  edition  of  Dr.  Griesbach's  revision  of  the  Greek  text  of 
the  New  Testament  having  become  necessary,  the  task  of  editing 
it,  with  such  additional  various  readings  as  have  been  discovered 
since  the  date  of  that  distinguished  critic's  last  labours,  was  con- 
fided to  Dr.  Schulz,  who  has  executed  it  in  the  following  manner : 

In  the  first  place  he  procured  and  collated  the  various  printed 
books  of  which  Griesbach  had  made  use  in  preparing  his  edition, 
as  well  as  the  various  critical  materials  which  the  researches  oi 
learned  men  had  discovered  within  the  last  thirty  years ;  that  is, 
from  the  date  of  the  first  volume  of  his  second  edition,  in  1796. 
Dr.  Schulz  then  proceeded  to  correct  all  the  typographical  errors  he 
had  detected;  and  he  expunged  a  great  number  of  stops,  especially 
commas,  which  (he  says)  had  been  unnecessarily  introduced  by 
modern  editors,  and  which  in  many  instances  only  tended  to  obscure 
the  sacred  text  He  ha.s  also  deviated  in  very  many  places  from 
the  received  mode  of  placing  certain  accents,  and  has  made  various 
improvements  in  the  spellin.g  of  certain  words. 

These  preliminary  steps  having  been  taken.  Dr.  Schulz  collated 
anew  the  principal  authorities  cited  by  Griesbach,  to  which  he 
could  procure  access,  and  noticed  in  what  respects  they  differed 
from  the  notation  of  former  editors.  He  then  inserted  readings 
from  some  new  manuscripts  and  versions,  which  had  hitherto  been 
either  little  known  or  altogether  neglected.  More  particularly,  he 
collated  anew, 

1.  The  Alexandrian  Manuscript  of  the  New  Testament  edited 


by  Dr.  Woide,  the  Cambridge  Manuscript  edited  by  Dr.  Kipling, 
and  the  Latin  Manuscript  edited  by  Sabatier  and  Blanchini ;  to 
which  he  added  a  collation  of  the  celebrated  Codex  Vaticanus  from 
the  papers  of  Dr.  Bentley,  printed  at  Oxford  in  1799,  in  the  Appendix 
to  Dr.  Woide's  edition  of  the  Alexandrian  MS.,  which  was  un- 
known to  Griesbach,  and  which  in  many  instances  differs  from 
Dr.  Birch's  readings  collated  from  the  same  manuscripts. 

2.  Dr.  Barrett's  splendid  fac-simile  of  the  Codex  Rescriptus  of 
part  of  Saint  Matthew's  Gospel  published  at  Dublin  in  1801,  and 
here  noted  by  the  letter  Z. 

3.  The  entire  collation  of  the  Codex  Cyprius,  made  and  described 
by  Dr.  Augustine  Scholz,  and  printed  in  pp.  80 — 90  of  his  Curoe 
Crilicce  in  Historiam  Textus  IV.  Evangelionna,  but  \ery  inaccu- 
rately, in  consequence  of  Dr.  S.'s  absence  on  his  biblico-criiical 
travels,  so  that  he  could  not  personally  edit  his  collation  of  the 
Codex  Cyprius.  (Scholzii  Nov.  Test.  vol.  i.  p.  xl.)  The  possessor 
of  Dr.  Scliulz's  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament  must  therefore 
place  no  dependence  upon  the  readings  of  the  Codex  Cyprius,  as 
exhibited  by  hira.  Further,  he  has  selected  from  Dr.  Scholz'a 
Biblische-Krilische  Reise  (Biblico-criiical  Travels)  the  various  read- 
ings contained  in  certain  MSS.  preserved  in  the  Royal  Library  at 
Paris,  which  he  has  noted  by  the  numbers  240,  241,  242,  243,  and 
244.     To  those  are  added  the  principal  various  readings  from 

4.  The  Codex  Rehdigeranus,  containing  a  Latin  Ante-Hicrony- 
mian  'V'ersion  of  the  four  Gospels,  written  in  the  seventh  or  eigiiih 
tentur^',  wiiich  the  editor  had  himself  transcribed  in  the  year  1813. 

5.  The  Codex  Messanensis  I.  of  the  fourteenth  or  fifteenth  cen- 
tuiy,  in  quarto,  inspected  by  Miinter;  of  which  an  account  is  given 
in  Dr.  Birch's  prolegomena  ad  Varr.  Lectt.  Evv.  p.  xciii.  et  stq. 
This  MS.  is  numbered  237.  by  Dr.  Schulz. 

6.  The  Codex  Syracusanus  in  the  Landolini  Library,  which  was 
also  inspected  by  Dr.  Miuiter,  and  which  is  described  by  Birch, 
p.  xcvi.  et  seq.     This  is  numbered  238. 

7.  The  Berlin  Manuscript  of  the  four  Gospels,  of  the  eleventh 
century,  of  which  a  description  was  published  by  Pappelbaum  in 
1823.     It  is  numbered  239. 

8.  The  Codex  Gronovianus  131.,  a  manuscript  of  the  four  Gospe'3 
collated  by  Dermout  in  his  Collectanea  Criiica  in  Novum  Testa- 
mentum, part  i.    (Lugd.  Bat.  1825) :  this  is  numbered  245. 

9.  The  Codex  Meermannianus,  containing  the  four  Gospels,  Acta 
of  the  Apostles,  the  Epistles  of  James,  Peter,  1  John,  and  a  frag- 
ment of  the  epistle  to  the  Romans,  also  collated  by  Dermout :  this 
is  numbened  246. 

10.  The  readings  of  the  Gothic  Version,  from  Zahn's  correct 
edition  published  in  1805,  and  the  new  readings  contained  in  the 
fragments  of  this  version  first  published  by  Mai  in  1819,  together 
with  the  fragments  of  the  Sahidic  Version  published  in  the  Appen- 
dix to  Woide's  fac-simile  of  the  Codex  Alexaudrinus,  and  the  frag- 
ments of  the  Basmurico-Coptic  Version  edited  by  Engelbreth  in  1811. 

Dr.  Schulz  has  also  enriched  his  edition  with  many  valuable  note^' 
relative  to  the  Syriac,  Arabic,  Persian,  and  Ethiopic  versions,  writ- 
ten by  C.  Benedict  Michaelis,  in  his  own  copy  of  Kuster's  editioi: 
of  the  New  Testament,  which  is  now  deposited  in  the  Library  of 
the  Orphan  House  at  Halle.  Further,  Dr.  S.  had  constantly  open 
before  him  the  more  valuable  critical  editions  of  the  New-  Testa- 
ment, as  well  as  other  w  orks  which  might  afford  him  any  assistance, 
including  the  editions  of  Stephens,  Mill,  Wetstein,  Birch,  Matthsei 
(two  editions),  and  Knappe,  and  also  Griesbach's  edition  printed  at 
Leipsic  in  1809,  which  differs  from  his  own  second  edition  in  very 
many  respects;  but  which  exhibits  that  form  and  condition  of  the 
sacred  text  which  in  his  latter  years  and  maturest  judgment 
Dr.  Griesbach  deemed  to  be  true  and  correct.  The  readings 
peculiar  to  these  later  editions  have  been  diligently  noted. 

The  Symbolse  Criticoe  and  other  works  of  Griesbach  mentioned 
in  the  preceding  colurftn,  together  with  the  critical  publications 
of  Gersdorf;  Bode,  Bowyer,  Valckenaer,  and  Wassenberg,  were  in 
like  manner  constantly  at  hand ;  and  in  doubtful  or  more  impor- 
tant cases,  the  best  editions  of  the  most  valuable  of  the  Fathers 
were  consulted. 

The  typographical  execution  of  this  edition  is  much  more  com- 
modious than  that  of  Griesbach's  second  edition.  There,  the  text 
was  printed  in  two  columns,  and  the  notes  were  printed  in  a  mass 
in  long  lines,  with  the  notation  of  chapters  and  verses  in  the  mar- 
gin, wTiich  rendered  it  perplexing  to  the  eye  to  compare  the  various 
readings  therein  contained.  In  Dr.  Schulz's  third  edition  the  text 
is  printed  in  long  lines,  and  the  notes  are  very  distinctly  exhibited 
in  two  columns,  each  note  forming  a  distinct  paragraph.  The  con- 
venience thus  afforded  in  consulting  the  work  is  very  great.  Be- 
sides the  editor's  preface,  and  the  corrected  preface  of  Griesbach 
(which  is  enlarged  in  the  catalogue  of  MSS.),  the  volume  now 
published  contains  the  four  Gospels :  at  the  end  there  are  eighteen 
closely-printed  pages  of  addenda,  which  ought  to  be  carefully 
transcribed  and  inserted  in  their  proper  places  before  the  book  can 
be  advantageously  consulted :  these  addenda  have  principally  been 
caused  by  the  acquisition  of  many  hundreds  of  various  readings, 
obtained  from  M.  Dermout's  Collectanea  Critica  in  Novum  Testa- 
tamentum  (of  which  an  account  will  be  found  in  a  subsequent 
page),  and  which  did  not  come  into  Dr.  Schulz's  possession  until 
after  the  present  volume  was  finished.  Such  additions  are  unavoid- 
able in  a  work  embracing  so  many  tJiousand  minute  references  and 
figures;  and  every  candid  scholar  will  readily  extend  to  such  a 
laborious  undertaking  as  the  present,  the  liberal  apology  offered  by 
Bishop  Marsh  for  Wetstein : — "  That  mistakes  and  oversights  are 
discoverable  m  the  work,  detracts  not  from  its  general  merits  No 
work  is  without  them ;  and  least  of  all  can  consummate  accuracy 


16 


GREEK  TESTAME^'TS. 


Paiit  I.  Chap.  I 


be  expected  where  so  many  causes  never  ceased  to  operate." 
(Bp.  Marsh's  Divinity  Lectures,  part  ii.  p.  23.)  This  edition  is  not 
yet  completed.  Tlie  second  volume  is  to  contain  the  Acts,  Epistles, 
and  Apocalypse.    The  work  is  very  neatly  printed. 

32.  Evangelium  secundum  Mattlia;um,  ex  Codice  Rescriplo 
in  Bibliothcca  Collegii  SSse.  Trinitatis  juxta  Dublin :  Descrip- 
tuni  Opera  et  Studio  Johannes  Barkett,  S.  T.  P.  Soc.  Sen. 
Trin.  Coll.  Dublin.  Cut  adjungitur  Appendix  CoUationem 
Codicis  Montfortiani  complectens.  Dublini :  ..^Idibus  Academi- 
cis  cxcudebat  R.  E.  Mercier,  AcadcmL-B  Typographus,  1801.  4to. 

The  prolegomena  fill  fifty-two  pages,  and  comprise,  1.  A  descrip- 
tion of  the  manuscript  itself,  with  an  account  of  its  ago,  and  the 
mode  of  collating  it  adopted  h-i  the  learned  edilor;  and,  2.  An 
elaborate  dissertation  reconciling  the  apparent  discrepancies 
between  the  genealogies  of  Jesus  Christ  as  recorded  by  the 
Evangelists  Matthew  and  Luke.  The  fragments  of  the  Codex 
Rescnptus  are  then  exhibited  in  sixty-four  fac-simile  plates,  and  are 
also  re|)resen:ed  in  as  many  pages  in  the  coinmon  Greek  small 
type.  This  truly  elegant  votiime  concludes  with  a  collation  of  the 
Codex  Montfortianus  with  Wetstein's  edition  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, which  occupies  thirty-five  pages.  An  account  of  this  manu- 
scri])t  is  given  in  Part  I.  of  the  firet  volume. 

33.  Novum  Testamentuni  Grfece.  Rccognovit  atquc  insig- 
niores  lectionuin  varictatcs  et  argunicntorum  notationcs  subjecit 
Geo.  Christian.  Kxappivs.  Hala;,  1797,  8vo. ;  2d  edit.  1813, 
2  vols.  8vo. ;  3d  edit.  1824,  2  vols.  8vo. ;  4th  edit.  1829,  2  vols. 
8vo. ;  Londoni,  1S24,  2  vols,  in  one,  8vo. 

In  this  edition  of  the  New  Testament,  which  received  the  warm 
approbation  of  Griesbach  in  his  preface  to  the  splendid  edition 
above  noticed.  Dr.  Knappe  has  availed  himself  of  Griesbach's 
labours;  aitd  has  adniilted  into  the  text  not  only  tliose  readings 
which  the  lalier  considered  to  he  ni'  miiiouhted  authority,  but  like- 
wise Sf)rao  others  which  Dr.  K.  him.=eil' regarded  as  such,  but  with- 
out distinguishing  either  of  them.  Such  words,  also,  as  it  might  on 
the  same  grounds  be  thought  ri'^ht  to  exclude  from  the  text,  as  not 
originally  belonging  to  it,  are  here  enclosed  in  brackets,  partly  of 
the  common  kind,  and  partly  formr-il  on  purpose  fjr  this  edition. 
The  most  probable  readuigs  are  marke<l  willi  an  asierisk :  to  all  of 
them  the  word  alii  is  prelixed,  in  order  to  disiinguish  them  irom 
the  rest  of  these  lections,  which  in  reality  are  those  in  which  the 
exegelical  student  is  chiefly  interested.  Great  attention  is  paid  to 
typographical  and  grammatical  accuracy,  to  the  accents,  and  to  the 
punctuation,  which  ditter  in  this  edition  from  those  of  Leusden,  or 
Gerard  von  Maeslricht,  in  more  than  three  hundred  places.  Very 
useful  summaries  are  likewise  added  under  tlie  text.  This  valuable 
edition  is  not  common  in  England.  The  second  impression,  j)iib- 
iished  in  two  volumes,  in  1813,  is  very  neatly  printed,  and  is  cor- 
rected throughout.  In  editing  it.  Dr.  K.  has  availed  himself  of 
Griesbach's  second  volume,  which  was  not  published  when  his 
first  edition  appeared.  The  third  edition  is  a  neat  reprint  of  the 
second,  of  which  the  London  edition  is  also  a  reprijit.  The  Iburlh 
edition  is  revised  with  great  care,  and  the  additions  at  the  end  are 
arranged  in  a  more  convenient  form. 

34.  'H  KAINH  AIA0HKH.  'J'hc  New  Testament  in  Greek, 
according  to  the  Text  of  Mill  and  Stephens,  and  the  Arrange- 
ment of  Mr.  Reeves's  Bible.  [Edited  by  John  Reuves,  Esq.] 
London,  1803.    8vo. 

This  edition  is  printed  with  singular  neatness. 

35.  Novum 'JVstamenlum  Grace,  ex  Recensionc  Griesbachii, 
nova  Latina  versionc  illustratum,  indice  brevi  prsEcipua;  lectio- 
num  ct  intcrpretationum  diversitatis  instructum,  edidit  Henricus 
Augustus  ScHOTT.  Lipsis,  1805;  cdilio  sccunda,  1811; 
cditio  tertia,  1825.    8vo. 

The  text  is  formed  after  that  of  Griesbach  ;  under  it  are  printed 
the  most  inijiortaiit  various  readings,  together  with  very  concise 
notes.  Tlie  Latin  version  in  the  third  edition  prolesses  to  bo  so 
much  corrected,  as  to  l>e  in  effect  a  new  translation:  many  of  its 
inter|)retaIions  and  notes,  however,  equally  with  those  in  the 
second  edition,  are  in  the  worst  style  of  German  neologism. 

36.  Novum  Tcstamcntum  Grtec^.  Lectiones  Variantes, 
Griesbachii  judicio,  iis  <|uas  textus  receptus  exhibet  antejionen- 
das  vel  iE()uiparandas,  adjecit  Joseplius  Wiiitk,  S.  T.  P.  J>in- 
giiaruin  Ileb.  et  Arab,  in  Academia  Oxoniensi  Professor. 
Oxonii,  e  Typographco  Clarendoniano,  1808.  2  vols,  crown  8vo. 

This  is  a  very  neat  and  neeurate  edition.  The  Textus  Receptus 
is  adopted  ;  and  Professor  While  has  contrived  to  exhibit  in  a  very 
inielli;{ible  form — 1.  Those  readings  which  in  Griesbncirs  o|)inioii 
ought,  eillior  certainly  or  probably,  to  be  removed  from  the  received 
text ;  8.  Tliose  various  readings  whieii  the  same  editor  judged  either 
preferable  or  equal  to  those  of  ihc  reeei\ed  text;  and,  3.  Tliose 
additions  which,  on  the  authority  of  manuseript.H,  (Jriesliach  con- 
siders as  fit  to  be  ndriiilted  into  the  text.  "  An  intermediate  ndvati- 
las^o  to  be  deri\ed  from  an  edition  thus  marked,  is  (x)inte(|  out  by 
liie  learned  editor  at  the  eomdusion  of  his  short  prefiiee  ;  viz.  that 
it  may  thus  be  seen  at  once  by  everyone,  how  very  little,  after  all 
the  laixmrs  of  learned  men,  and  the  collation  of  so  many  manti- 
«cri|)t."i  and  version»,  is  liable  to  just  objection  in  the  received  text." 
Rrittih  Critic,  vol.  xxxiv.  (O.  S.)  p.  386.) 


37.  Novum  Testamcntum  Graecum ;  jiixta  exemplar  Wet- 
stenii,  Glasguffi,  ct  J.  J.  Griesbachii,  Hala;  impressum  :  acccdunt 
Prolegomena  in  Evangelia,  in  Acta,  et  in  Epistolas  Apostolorum. 
Accurante  Guliclmo  Whitfield  Dakins.  Editio  Stereotypa, 
Londuii,  1808,  royal  8vo.  Numerous  subsequent  editions  arc 
in  12mo. 

38.  Novum  Testamentum  Gra;cum  et  Latinum,  secundum 
curam  Leusdenii  et  Griesbachii,  editum  ab  A.  H.  Aitton. 
Lugduni  Batavorum,  1809.  18mo. 

A  neat  impression,  into  the  text  of  which  the  editor  has  intro- 
duced  most  ol"  Griesbach's  emendations. 

39.  Testamcntum  Novum  Grjece,  ad  fidera  Rccensionis 
Schoettgenianse  ;  addita  ex  Griesbachii  apparatu  Lectionis  varie- 
tate  pnecipuae.     Upsalffi,  1820.    8vo. 

A  reprint  of  Schoettgenius's  text,  which  has  been  noticed  in 
p.  12.  of  tiiis  Appendix,  with  the  addition  of  select  various  read- 
ings from  Griesbach. 

40.  Novum  Testamentum  Grscce.  Ad  fidem  optimorum 
librorum  recensuil  A.  H,  Tittmassus.  Lipsite,  1820,  ISmo. 
Ljpsiae,  1824,  8vo. 

The  text  of  the  edition  in  18mo.  is  a  corrected  one ;  that  is.  Pro- 
fessor Tittnian  has  inserted  in  it  such  various  readings  as  are  in 
his  judgment  j)referable  to  those  commonly  received,  and  which 
have  been  ajiproved  by  the  most  eminent  critics  ;  and  he  has  printed 
an  index  of  the  altered  passages  at  the  end  of  the  volume.  lis 
portal)ility,  in  addition  to  its  intrinsic  excellence,  is  no  mean  recom- 
mendation of  it  to  students  of  the  New  Testament;  the  Greek 
characters,  though  small,  being  very  distinctly  and  neatly  stereo- 
typed. The  8vo.  edition  of  the  same  text  is  beautifully  stereotyped. 
There  are  copies  of  both  editions  on  fine  paper. 

41.  'H  KAtNH  AlAGHKH.  Novum  Testamentum  Man ualc. 
Glasguae,  ex  Prelo  Acadeinico:  impensis  Rivingtons  ct  Cochran, 
Londini,  1821.  32mo. 

This  edition  contains  the  Greek  text  only:  it  follows  the  text  of 
Aitton,  except  in  a  few  instances,  in  which  the  received  readings 
are  supported  iiv  the  best  authorities,  and  consequently  are  most  to 
be  preferred.  Tliis  edition  is  beautifully  i)rinted  on  the  finest  blue- 
tinted  writing  jiaper :  it  was  read  six  tijies,  with  the  utmost  care, 
in  passing  through  the  press,  and  will  be  found  to  be  luiusually 
accurate.     No  contractions  are  used. 

42.  Novum  Testamentum  Gra-co-Latinum.  Vulgata  Intcr- 
pretatione  Latina  Editionis  Clementis  VIIL  Graeco  Textui  ad 
Editionem  Complutensem  diligentissime  expresso  e  regione 
opposita.  Studio  ct  cura  Petri  Aloysii  Guatz.  Tubings,  1821, 
1828.    2  tomis,  8vo. 

An  edition  which  is  not  of  very  common  occurrence  in  this 
coimtiy.  The  first  part  or  volume  contains  the  four  Gospels;  the 
second,  the  remaining  Books  of  the  New  Testament.  The  Greek 
text  is  a  reprint  of  that  in  the  Complutensian  Poljglott,  with  the 
exception  of  the  contractions,  and  the  correction  of  some  ortho- 
graphic errors :  opjwsite  to  this  is  the  l^atin  Vulgate  version, 
according  to  the  Clementine  Recension.  At  the  foot  of  each  page 
are  exhibited  various  readings,  from  Robert  Stephens's  third  edition, 
printed  in  1550;  from  Matthffii's  critical  edition,  and  from  Gries- 
bach's last  edition.  To  the  labours  of  these  editors  Professor  Gratz 
pays  a  brief  but  high  tribute  of  commend.it ion.  In  order  to  ensure 
correctness,  the  jjroof  sheets  were  repeatedly  rend  by  the  editoi 
and  his  friends.  After  the  editor's  preface,  ibllow  the  preface  ot 
Jerome  on  the  fbnrCiospels,  addressed  to  Damasus,  bishop  of  Rome 
and  J'ope  Clement  VIII. 's  ])refa(e  to  his  edition  of  the  Latin  Vul 
gale  Bilde  :  together  with  a  synopsis  of  the  fi)ur  Gospels,  and  paral- 
lel passages.  The  fine  paper  copies  are  very  bcautit'ul  books:  there 
is  one  in  the  library  of  the  Biirrisii  and  Forki(;n  Rini.ii  SociK'fv, 
from  nn  cxniiiination  of  which  the  preceding  description  is  drawn 
up.  Tliefre(|uent  appeals  made  to  the  Compluten.>iian  text,  and  tho 
extreme  rarity  of  that  rolyfih'"-  concur  to  render  ihis  edition  by 
Professor  Gratz  an  acceptable  present  to  the  biblical  critic. 

43.  Novum  Testamentum.  Textum  Grrecum  Griesbachii  ct 
Knappii  denuo  rccognovit,  Dclectu  A'arictatuiu  Lectionis  Testi- 
inoniis  confirinatarum,  Adnotationc  cum  ('ritica  turn  Exegctica 
et  Indicihus  llistorico  et  Goographico,  A'ocuin  (Jra'caruni  Infre- 
quentiorum  et  Subsidiorum  Crilicorum  Excgeticoruinque,  in- 
struxit  Joannes  Severinus  Vatek,  Thcol.  Doct  ct  Prof.  Hal. 
Halis  Saxonum,  1824.  8vo. 

"Of  the  various  critical  editions  of  the  New  Testament,  whi<-h 
of  late  years  h:ive  been  >;iven  to  the  public,  this  is  not  only  one 
of  the  neatest,  l)ul  one  ol'  the  cheapest  ;  it  is,  in  e\  cry  rcsjiect,  a 
practical  edition,  equally  adapted  to  the  lecture-room  and  to  Iho 
private  study.  It  will  not,  indeed,  render  unnecessary  the  critical 
lalxuirs  of  VVelslein,  (Jriesliaeh,  or  Maltluei.  hut  it  will  be  a  valua- 
ble substitute  fi»r  lliem  to  those  students  who  have  not  the  lime  or 
the  means  <if  purehasiiiK  thi-ir  costly  but  valuable  labours.  The 
lollowitig  is  the  plan  on  which  Professor  Vater  has  li)rined  hia 
edition  : 

"The  text  of  each  book  or  epistle  is  exhibited  in  continuous 
paragraphs,  with  tho  numbers  of  tho  chapters  and  versos  in  the 


GREEK  TESTAMENTS, 


J5ECT.  III.] 

margin,  for  the  convenience  of  reference;  and  in  tlie  Gospel 
tlie  parallel  passages  are  also  referred  to  in  the  margin.  The 
oimciuation  of  the  text  is  frequently  improved.  Below  the  text 
are  exhibited,  in  long  lines,  the  principal  various  readings,  di- 
vested of  Griesbach's  stenographic  marks,  with  tHe  authori- 
ties on  which  they  rest;  and,  beneath  thera,  in  two  columns, 
are  brief  but  satisfactory  exegetical  notes  on  passages  whicli  are 
really  difficult.  Four  indexes  are  subjoined,  viz.  1.  Historical  and 
Geograpliical,  of  the  Names  of  Persons  and  Places,  occurring  in 
the  Now  Testament;  2.  Of  the  more  diflicult  and  uncommon 
Greek  words ;  3.  Of  the  Manuscripts  and  other  critical  aids  for 
determining  various  readings  ;  and,  4.  Of  Exegetical  or  Expository 
Aids,  comprising  a  list  of  the   best  commentaries  on  particular 

books,  chapters,  or  verses The   book   is   printed   on   two 

papers — one  inferior,  which  is  bad  enough ;  the  other  on  a  better 
sort  of  paper,  which  is  both  easy  to  read  and  pleasant  to  the  eye." 
(Universal  Review,  vol.  ii.  pp.  683,  684.) 

44.  'H  KAINH  AIA0HKH.  Novum  Testamentum  Grsece. 
Textui  ante  Griesbachium  vulgo  recepto,  additur  Lectionum 
V'ariantium  earum  praecipue,  qute  a.  Griesbachio  potiores  censen- 
tur. Delectus.     Basiles,  1825.  2  tomis,  Svo. 

Tliis  very  neat  edition  may  occasionally  be  met  with.  The  text 
is  reprinted  frcnn  an  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament,  edited  at 
Basle  by  Andrew  Birr,  in  1749;  who  added  a  copious  selection  of 
Parallel  Passages.  The  preface  of  the  present  edition  is  signed 
with  the  initial  letters  J.  H.  Whoever  the  editor  may  be,  he  has 
in  many  passages  improved  the  punctuation,  as  well  as  the  selec- 
tion of  parallel  texts.  Those  various  readings  of  Griesbach's 
which  affect  the  sense  are  retained  ;  and  the  editor  has  sometimes 
successfully  vindicated  the  ordinary  Greek  text  against  the  pro- 
posed alterations  of  that  critic.  The  Epistle  of  Jude  is  placed 
unmediately  after  St.  Peter's  second  Epistle,  on  account  of  the 
similarity  of  its  subject.  The  passages  cited  from  the  Old  Testa- 
ment are  exhibited  in  a  very  distinct  form. 

4.5.  'H  KAINH  A1A0HKH.  Novum  Testamentum,  curante 
•To.  Fr.  BoissoxADE.     Parisiis,  1824.  2  tomis,  ISmo. 

In  this  beautifully  and  accurately  printed  edition  of  the  Greek 
Text,  Professor  Boissonade  states  that  he  has  followed  the  best 
copies,  particularly  that  of  Dr.  Gricsbach;  yet  not  so  servilely,  but 
that  he  has  availed  himself  of  the  judgment  of  other  critics,  and 
especially  of  the  Vulgate  Latin  Version.  The  value  of  this  edi- 
tion, considered  as  a  critical  one,  is  much  diminished  by  the  total 
omission  of  any  notes,  to  apprize  the  reader  when  the  editor  has 
depa)  td  from  the  received  text,  as  also  on  what  authority  he  has 
adopted  particular  readings.  To  specify  two  or  three  instances : — 
On  the  authority  of  Griesbach,  he  omits  the  doxology  of  the  Lord's 
Prayer  in  Matt.  vi.  13.  On  the  same  authority,  in  Acts  xx.  2S.  he 
reads  thv  fiy.f.yi>rtxv  Tcu  Kupicu,  Church  of  the  Lord,  instead  of  tou  ©sou, 
of  God,  notwithstanding  this  last  reading  is  supported  by  the  Vati- 
can manuscript.  So  also,  in  1  Tim.  iii.  16.  he  reads  o  ti;>xvsfj«Sy, 
which  (mystery)  was  manifested,  instead  of  Sso;,  God.  But  the 
much  disputed  clause  in  1  John  v.  7.  is  printed  as  in  the  Complu- 
■  tensian  and  other  editions,  without  any  intimation  that  its  genuine- 
ness has  been  denied ;  although  that  clause  is  omitted  in  Gries- 
bach's edition,  and  is  now  generally  considered  to  be  spurious. 

46.  Novum  Testamentum  Graece  et  Latine,  expressum  ad 
binas  editiones  a  Leone  X.  approbatas,  Complutensem  silicet 
et  Erasmi  Roterodami.  Additse  sunt  aliarum  novissimarum 
Recensionum  Variantes  Lectiones  Gtscib,  una  cum  Vulgata 
liatina  Editionis  Clementinaj,  ad  exemplar  ex  Typographia 
.\postolica  Vaticana  Romse,  1592,  correctis  corrlgendis  ex  Indi- 
cibus  Correctoriis  ibidem  editis,  necnon  cum  additis  Lectionibus 
ex  Vaticanis  Editionibus  Latinis,  de  annis  1590,  1592,  1593, 
1598,  Variantibus;  adpositisque  locis  parallelis.  Studio  et  cura 
E.  Leandri  Van  Ess.  Tubingce,  1827.  8vo. 

A  very  neatly  printed  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament.  The 
revised  texts,  consulted  for  it  by  Dr.  Van  Ess,  are  the  original  Com- 
plutensian,  the  live  editions  of  Erasmus,  Robert  Stephens's  edition, 
printed  at  Paris  in  1546,  with  the  preface  O  mirificam,  &c.  Mat- 
thaji's  second  edition,  published  at  VVittcmberg  in  1803 — 1807,  and 
Griesbach's  manual  edition,  published  at  Leipzig  in  1805,  with 
select  various  readings.  The  following  is  the  plan  followed  by 
Dr.  Van  Ess  in  the  Greek  text  of  his  edition : — 

1.  The  text  adopted  is  fundamentally  tliat  of  Erasmus's  fifth 
edition ;  and  is  preferably  retained  in  all  those  places  where  the 
revisions  above  enumerated  vary  from  that  edition. 

2.  Where  the  text  of  the  Complutensian  and  Erasmus's  fifth  edi- 
tion agrees  (as  most  frequently  is  the  case)  tiiat  text  alone  is  uni- 
formly adopted. 

3-  Where  these  two  texts  differ,  that  reading  of  one  or  other  of 
them  is  retained,  which  is  supported  by  the  authority  of  Gries- 
bach's text. 

4.  All  the  readings  of  the  five  recensions  above  enumerated, 
which  vary  from  the  text  of  Van  Ess's  edition,  are  placed  in  notes 
at  the  foot  of  the  page :  and  where  no  various  reading  is  specified, 
the  texts  of  the  several  editions  uniformly  agree. 

The  Latin,  text  of  the  Vulgate  is  printed  opposite  to  the  Greek, 
on  each  page,  according  to  the  edition  printed  at  the  Vatican  press, 
at  Rome,  in  1592,  with  the  requisite  corrections  from  the  Roman 
"  Index  Correctorius."  References  to  parallel  passages  are  added 
in  the  notes,  together  with  lite  various  readings  from  the  editions 


17 


of  the  Latin  Vulgate  printed  at  the  same  press  m  the  years  1590 
1592,  1593,  and  1598. 

The  ordinary  divisions  of  chapters  and  verses  are  retained  ;  but 
there  are  no  summaries  or  tables  of  contents. 

47.  'H  KAINH  AlAGHKH.  Novum  Testamentum.  Acce- 
dunt  Parallela  S.  Scripturae  Loca,  necnon  Vetus  Capitulorum 
Notatio,  et  Canones  Eusebii.  Oxonii,  e  Typographeo  Claren- 
doniano,  1828;  Editio  altera,  1830;  royal  18mo. 

For  this  very  commodious  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament,  jtmior 
biblical  students  (for  whose  use  it  is  especially  designed)  are 
indebted  to  the  Right  Rev.  Charles  Lloyd,  D.D.  Bishop  of  Oxford. 
The  plan  of  it  is  as  follows  : — 

The  text,  which  is  that  of  Dr.  Mill,  is  printed  in  paragraphs, 
with  the  division  into  sections,  and  the  punctuation  of  John  Albert 
Bengel :  the  numbers  of  the  chapters  and  verses  are  placed  in  the 
margin  on  the  left  of  each  page,  in  which  are  inserted  the  x--9x>.x.» 
or  chapters  found  in  ancient  manuscripts,  of  which  an  account  is 
given  in  Part  I.  p.  214.  of  the  first  volume.  These  are  printed  from 
Kuster's  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament,  for  the  convenience  of 
those  who  may  wish  to  consult  manuscripts  for  particular  passages 
of  the  New  iTestament.  In  the  other  margin  there  are  printed 
select  but  highly  valuable  Parallel  References  to  Scripture,  accord- 
ing to  the  edition  of  Courcelles  (or  Curcellceus).  The  Epistle  to 
Carpianus  and  the  canons  of  Eusebius  (of  which  an  account  is 
given  in  the  first  volume)  are  prefixed,  for  the  purpose  of  enabling 
any  one  who  may  be  so  disposed,  to  compile  for  himself  a  hannony 
of  the  four  Gospels 

48.  'H  KAINH  A1A0HKH.  Novum  Testamentum  Grsece, 
secundum  editiones  probatissimas ;  expressum  cum  Arise  Montani 
Interpretatione  Latina.  Curante  Carolo  Christiano  Leutsch. 
LipsiiB,  1828.  Svo, 

A  neat  reprint  of  the  Greek  text  after  that  of  Dr.  Knappe's  criti- 
cal editions,  with  the  Latin  version  of  Arias  Montanus,  which 
from  its  general  fidelity  is  held  in  high  estimation  by  Protestants 
and  Romanists.  The  Greek  text  and  the  Latin  translation  are 
printed  in  columns  on  each  page  :  the  ordinary  divisions  of  chap- 
ters and  verses  are  retained. 

49.  Novum  Testamentum  Grtece.  Londini,  impensis  G, 
Pickering,  1828,  48mo. 

This  is  the  first  Greek  Testament  printed  in  England  with  dia- 
mond type ;  and  it  is  also  the  smallest  in  point  of  size  which  has 
ever  been  printed.  The  matrices,  from  which  the  types  were  cast, 
were  cut  by  Mr.  Caslon.  The  text  is  stated  lo  be  copied  exactly 
from  the  Elzevir  edition  of  1624 ;  and,  in  order  lo  ensure  the 
greater  correctness,  every  proof  sheet  was  critically  examined 
EIGHT  times.  There  is  a  frontispiece,  engraved  on  steel,  repre- 
senting the  Last  Supper,  after  the  celebrated  picture  by  Leonardo 
da  Vinci. 

50.  'H  KAINH  AIA0HKH.  Novum  Testamentum  ad  Exem- 
plar Millianum,  cum  emendationibus  et  lectionibus  Griesbachii, 
prEcipuis  vocibus  ellipticis,  thematibus  omnium  vocum  ditficili- 
orura,  atque  locis  scripturje  parallelis :  studio  et  labore  Gulielmi 
GnEEi'riELD.     Londini,  1829.  48mo. 

The  Greek  text  of  this  beautifully  executed  pocket-edition  of  the 
New  Testament  is  printed  after  Dr.  Mill's  edition  (No.  10.  p.  qoO' 
supra)  in  columns,  and  with  the  usual  divisions  of  chapters  and 
verses.  The  critical  emendations  and  various  readings  include  the 
prmcipal  of  these  in  Griesbach's  edition  of  1805  (No.  30.  p.  11. 
supra).  These  emendations  and  readings,  together  with  the  themes 
of  the  more  difficult  words,  and  a  selection  of  really  parallel  pas- 
sages, are  all  clearly  exhibited  in  a  column  in  the  centre  of  each 
page.  Such  of  Griesbach's  various  readings  as  could  not  be  in- 
serted in  the  central  column  are  printed  in  an  appendi.x.  Two 
neat  miniature  maps, — one  of  Palestine,  and  another  illustrating 
St.  Paul's  Travels,  increase  the  utility  of  this  xery  portable  manual 
edition  of  the  Greek  Testament ;  as  a  companion  to  which.  Mr. 
Greenfield  publiRliod,  in  1829,  "The  Polymicrian  Lexicon  to  the 
New  Testament,"'  also  in  48mo.  "  Elegance  and  accuracy  of  typo- 
graphical execution,  and  the  extreme  smallness  of  the  volume, 
which  renders  it  a  curiosity,  are  but  the  least  of  its  recommenda- 
tions. The  work  does  the  highest  honour  to  the  editor's  fidelity, 
competent  learning,  and  sound  judgment."  (Eclectic  Review. 
February,  1832.  vol.  vii.  p.  160.1 

51.  'H  KAINH  AIA0HKH,  sive  Novum  Testamentum  Graece; 
cui  subjicitur  Selectio  copiosa  Lectionum  Variantium  Emen- 
dationumque  Griesbachii  prsecipuarum,  necnon  quamplurimae 
Voces  EUipticae ;  accurante  Gulielmo  Duncax.  Edinburgi, 
1830.   12mo. 

A  new  and  greatly  improved  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament, 
first  published  at  Edinburgh  in  1811  by  Mr.  Adam  Dickinson, 
with  a  small  selection  of  various  readings,  for  the  use  of  the  senior 
classes  in  schools.  It  was  stereotyped  in  1817,  and  w'as  subse- 
quently often  reprinted.  The  text  is,  for  the  most  part,  that  of  Dr. 
Mill :  at  the  foot  of  the  pages  are  printed  the  principal  elliptical 
words,  collected  from  the  publications  of  Bos,  Leisner,  and  other 
eminent  critics.  In  the  text  all  the  words  and  passages,  absolutely 
rejected  by  Griesbach  as  spurious,  are  pointed  out  by  enclosing 
them  within  brackets.  The  editor  (Mr.  Duncan)  has  anne.tcd  a  co- 
pious selection  of  tlie  most  important  of  Griesbach's  various  read- 


18 


GREEK  TESTAMENTS. 


mgs  and  emendations,  which  appears  to  iiave  been  made  with 
1,'reat  tare.    The  typographical  execution  is  very  neat. 

52.  Novum  Testimentum  Gr33ce.  Textum  ad  fidcm  Testium 
Criticorum  recensuit^  Lectionum  Familias  subjecit,  e  (rra;cis 
Coditibus  Manuscriplis  qui  in  Europrc  ct  Asia;  Bibliothecis 
reperiuntur  fere  omnibus,  e  Versionibus  Antiquis,  Conciliis, 
Sanctis  Patribus  et  Scriptoribus  Ecelcsiasticis  quibu-sfunque,  vel 
primo  vel  iterum  collatis,  Copias  Criticas  addidit,  atquc  Cond'i- 
tionem  horum  Testium  Criticorum,  Historiamqiie  Textus  Novi 
Testaraenti  in  Prolegomenis  fiisius  cxposuit,  prsterea  Synaxaria 
Codicum  K.  M.  262.  271.  typis  cxscrihonda  curavit  Dr.  J.  Mar- 
tiniis  Augustinus  Scholz.     Vol.  I.     Lipsia;,  1830.  4to. 

The  precediKi?  copious  title-page  of  this  bcautifnlly  ex<united 
work  will  con\ey  to  the  reader  an  idea  of  the  plan  adopted  by  the 
learned  editor.  Or.  J.  Martin  Schol/,  who  (!evoted  twelve  years  of 
incessant  labo-ir  to  his  arduous  undertakin;?.  In  order  to  obtain 
materials,  he  visited  in  person  the  libraries  of  Paris,  Vienna,  Land- 
Bhut,  Munich,  Berlin,  TrC-ves,  London,  Geneva,  Turin,  Florence, 
Venice,  Parma.  Kome.  Naples,  of  the  Greek  monasteries  at  Jerusa- 
lem, of  St.  Saba,  and  the  Isle  of  Patmos;  and  collated,  either 
wholly  or  in  part,  all  the  manuscripts  of  the  New  Testament 
which  are  to  be  Ibund  in  the  libraries  jxst  enumerated  (iii  Cireek, 
Latin,  Arabic,  &c.),  comparing  them  with  tite  text  of  Griesbach. 
He  also  professes  to  have  examined  anew  most  of  the  ancient  ver- 
sions, as  well  as  the  passages  cited  from  the  New  Testament  in 
the  writings  of  the  Fathers  of  the  Christian  Church,  and  of  suc- 
ceeding ecclesiastical  authors,  and  in  the  acts  of  councils.  In 
addition  to  all  which  sources,^c  has  availed  himself  of  the  printed 
collations  of  preceding  critical  editors  of  the  Creek  Testament. 

The  Prolegomena,  which  fill  one  hundred  and  seventy-two 
pages,  contain  a  critical  history  of  the  text  of  the  New  Testament, 
together  with  a  copious  history  and  critical  estimate  of  all  the 
soiirces  of  various  readings  consulteil  by  Professor  Scholz,  distin- 
guishing the  MSS.  collated  by  others  from  those  which  he  had 
himself  collated  (or  the  first  time,  either  wholly  or  in  part.  These 
AIS.S.  form  a  total  ol  six  hundred  and  sevenlv-lour;  of  wl.ich  num- 
ber three  hundred  and  forty-three  were  collated  by  his  predeces- 
sors in  this  department  of  sacred  literature, — 286  of  various  portions 
of  the  New  Testament,  and  57  evangelisleria  or  less<5ii-b<X)ks  ex- 
tracted from  the  four  Gospels;  and  tliree  hundred  an<l  thirty-one 
were  for  the  first  time  collated  by  Dr.  Scholz  himself,  viz.  210  MSS. 
of  parts  of  the  New  Testament,  and  121  evangelisteria.  Of  the 
theory  of  recensions  ado|)ied  by  Dr.  S.  in  his  Prolegomena  and  in 
his  Biblico-Critical  Travels,  and  of  the  two  classes  of  instruments 
OT  documents  to  which  he  refers  all  the  .MS-S.  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, an  account  is  given  in  Part  I.  pp.  209 — 212.  of  the  first 
volume. 

To  the  Prolegomena  succeed  the  four  Gospels,  which  fill  four 
hundred  and  filiy-two  pages,  separately  numbered.  The  text, 
which  is  generally  that  called  the  lextus  reccptus,  is  judiciously 
printed  in  paragraphs,  with  the  numbers  of  chapters  and  verses 
placed  in  the  side  margin:  not  a  word  is  altered  without  the  sup- 
port of  the  most  decisive  critical  testimonies.  In  the  inner  margin 
oelow  the  text  are  placed  the  families  of  readings,  as  Dr.  Scholz 
terms  them;  that  is,  the  general  readings  found  in  the  two  great 
classes  of  manuscripts,  viz.  the  Constantinoiwlitan,  and  the  Alex- 
andrine: and  beneath  these,  in  the  outer  margin,  are  given  the 
more  detailed  specifications,  wliich  are  very  clearly  and  commo- 
iliously  disfiosed  of  in  two  columns,  and  in  the  following  order,  viz. 

1.  Manuscripts  of  the  greatest  antiquity,  wiiich  are  written  in  un- 
cial or  capitiil  letters:  these  are  designated  by  the  letters  of  the 
alphabet,  from  A  to  Z,  and  by  the  two  Greek  letters  r  and  .i  ; 

2.  Manuscripts  written  in  cursive  or  ordinary  Greek  characters; 

3.  F.vangelisteria.  The  references  to  these  two  classes  of  manu- 
FcripLs  are  by  Arabic  figures;  4.  The  readings  found  in  the  several 
ancient  versions;  and  5.  The  quotulions  found  in  the  writings  ot 
the  father*  and  other  ecclosiastical  authors  and  in  the  acts  of 
eouncils. 

Dr.  Scholz  is  proeeo<ling  in  the  seoond  volume  of  his  most  valua- 
ble work  with  all  the  despatch  practicable,  considering  the  minute 
tnd  various  objccU  which  necessarily  demand  his  attention.  It  ih 
•xpectod  to  appear  in  iho  course  of  the  present  year,  or  early  in 
1835. 

5.3.  Novum  Testamentum  Gra;c^,  nova  Vcrsionc  Latinu 
donatum,  ad  o[)tiina3  recensioncs  exprcssurn,  selectis  Variis  Lec- 
tionibus  pcrpetuAquc  Kingularuin  librorum  argiimento  instructum 
(additfi  HI.  Pauli  ad  Corinthios  Ei>istola),  edidit  M.  Fred.  Aug. 
Adolph  Naf.iik.     Lipsim,  1831.  8vo. 

In  the  arrangement  of  the  (Jreek  text  of  this  edition.  Dr.  Naobe 
"has  chiefly  lollowed  the  version  of  (Jrij'Hbach,  cuiisultiiii.',  how- 
ever, the  critical  labours  of  Drs.  Schi/lz  and  .Scholz.  and  avail im: 
himself  of  nr)t  a  few  of  the  emcndmionH  proixi^ed  by  KiiupiM', 
Scholl,  Valer,  and  Titlmann.  He  has  also  carefMlly  correi  led  the 
punctuation  ihrouBhoiit.  In  fnwuuii;  Ium  I.iitni  version,  th*>  eilitor 
acknowledges  his  obligatioas  to  the  (  ritical  and  exeireiical  com- 
mentaries and  irontiKes  of  (InitMiR,  Welstein.  NiM'snell,  Keil,  llnMen- 
miJller,  Kuiiiilel,  I'aulus.  Poit,  Ifcirtfer,  lleinriehs,  Titlmann,  Th(»- 
.uck,  Winer,  Hretschiieidor,  FrilHcbe,  and  ninny  o'.hers,  and  espe- 
cially to  the  Latin  versions  of  (Bsteilin.  Jleicluml,  Srhott,  Thnle- 
mann,  and  Jasjiis.  1 1  is  version."  [therefore,  i«  nn  eclectic  one:  it] 
'  ia  accurate,  conspicuous,  and  concise;  and  lliough  it  pretends 


[Pabt  I.  CnAr.  ^ 

not  to  elegance  of  Latinily,  it  is  nowhere  barbarous  or  uncouth 
The  principal  various  readings  only  are  given,  which  are  best 
sup[X}ried  by  critical  testimonies;  and  ihc  brief  summaries  of  con 
tents  in  the  several  chapters  will  be  found  a  convenient  aid  to  the 
student,  tn  compiling  them,  M.  Naebe  has  followed,  sometimes 
Fritsche,  sometimes  Knappe,  sometimes  Jaspis,  sometimes  Eich- 
hom,  and  sometimes  Iliig,  according  as  one  or  other  of  these  cri- 
tics appear  to  have  treated  the  several  subjects  with  the  greatest 
accuracy.  The  third  epistle  of  Paul  to  the  Corinthians,  which  is 
here  given  in  La  Cwze's  Latin  version  from  the  Armenian  trans- 
lation  of  the  New  Testament,  is  confessedly  apocryphal,  and  of  no 
use  whatever  to  the  biblical  student."  (F'oreign  Quarterly  Review, 
vol.  viii.  p.  107.) 

54.  Novum  Testamentum  Gnece,  ex  reccnsionc  Caroli  Lacb 
MANsi.     Berolini,  1831.   12mo.  * 

The  editor  of  this  impression  of  the  Greek  Testament  states  thai 
he  has  Iranied  it  upon  the  principles  developed  in  his  work  enti 
tied  "  Tlieologipche  Stiidien  und  Kriliken"  (pp.  817— S-lo.),  pub- 
lished in  1830,  which  the  writer  of  these  pages  has  never  sc^tn. 
It  ma)'  therefore  sufiice  to  slate,  that  M.  Lachmann  proiesscs  that 
lie  has  in  no  instance  followed  his  own  judgment,  but  that  he  has 
restored  the  text  as  it  was  received  by  the  Oriental  Church  in  the 
first  four  centuries;  and  further,  that  wherever  he  could,  he  h.as 
given  a  prclerence  to  those  readings  which  could  be  supjMjrled  by 
the  consent  of  the  Italians  and  Africans.  Wherever  there  was  a 
discrepancy  between  all  the  authorities,  he  has  indicated  it  partly 
in  brackets,  and  partly  in  the  margin.  The  Apostolic  Epistles  are 
given  in  a  diU'ereut  order  i'rom  that  which  is  found  in  every  other 
edition.  After  the  Acts  come  the  seven  Catliolic  Epistles:  these 
are  followed  by  those  written  by  St.  Paul,  in  ilic  following  order, 
viz.  R<)mans,  1  and  2 Corinthians,  Galatians,  Ephesians,  Philippians, 
Colossians,  1  and  2  Thcssalonians,  Hebrews,  1  and  2  Timothy, 
Titus;  the  Ajxicalypse  terminates  the  volume.  At  the  end  there 
are  forty-three  pages  containing  the  readings  of  the  Textus  Recep- 
tus,  which  Lachmann  had  rejected  from  the  text.  The  type  of  this 
edition  is  vei-y  neat,  but  the  paper  is  of  very  inferior  quality. 

55.  'H  KAlNH  .MA0HKH.  The  New  Testament;  with  Eng- 
lish Notes,  Critical,  Philological,  and  Explanatory.  [By  he 
Rev.  E.  Valpt,  B.D.]  A  New  Edition,  London,  1831  3 
vols.  8vo. 

The  former  edition  of  this  Greek  Testament  appeared  in  1>.2G, 
and  in  this  new  edition  the  work  is  greatly  improved.  The  text 
is  that  of  the  edilio  princeps,  at  the  foot  of  which  are  exhibited  Uie 
principal  various  readings;  and  below  these  are  placed  copious 
critical,  philological,  and  expl.inatorv  notes,  in  English,  selected  * 
with  great  care  from  Raphelius,  Kypke,  Palairet,  Schlcusner, 
Uosenmullcr,  and  other  distinguished  foreign  critics.  Ample  use 
has  been  made  of  the  late  much-respected  Bisliop  Middleton's 
admirable  Treatise  on  the  doctrine  of  the  Greek  Article,  an  ab- 
stract of  which  is  prefixed  to  the  first  volume.  V^orbal  criticism  is 
also  introduced,  together  with  observations  on  the  Greek  Idiom 
from  Vigerus,  on  the  Ellipses  from  Bos,  and  on  the  Particles  from 
Hoogeveen.  .\s  the  notes  on  ihc  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew  are  full 
and  copious,  there  was  less  ncessity  in  many  instances,  especially 
in  the  parallel  p.assages,  for  the  same  extended  mode  of  illustra- 
tion; but  a  frequent  reference  is  made  from  one  to  the  other;  and 
thus  the  student  is  induced  to  consult  and  to  coiupare  the  whole 
body  of  annotations,  and  is  further  enabled  to  fix  more  durablv  on 
his  mind  the  result  and  fruit  of  his  industry  and  research.  Two 
well-executed  Maps  of  Jiidma,  adajited  to  tlie  Gospel  History  and 
of  the  Travels  of  the  AjKistles  (both  copied  by  permission  from  the 
Maps  illustrating  this  work),  with  Greek  and  English  Indexes- 
contribute  to  enhance  the  utility  of  this  edition. 

56.  'H  KAINH  A1A0HKH.  Tho  Greek  Testament;  with 
English  Notes.  By  the  Rev.  Edward  BunTO>f,  D.D.  Oxford, 
1831.  2  vols.  8vo. 

The  text  of  Bishop  Lloyd's  editions,  printed  at  Oxford,  in  1828 
and  1830,  is  adopted  in  this  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament.  The 
divisions  of  chapters  and  verses  are  thrown  into  the  margin,  in 
which  Dr.  Burton  has  printed  the  paniUel  references  of  Curccllauis, 
after  a  very  careful  revisicm  of  them,  which  enabled  him  to  detect 
numerous  errors.  These  corrected  marginal  references  are  very 
valuable,  not  only  as  pointing  out  the  parallel  passages  in  the  four 
Gospols,  but  also  as  frecpuMilly  saving  the  iii'^erlion  oi  a  note,  where 
a  quotation  is  ma<ie  from  the  Old  Testament,  which  does  not  ro- 
(|iiirc  any  further  illustr-.ilion.  Below  the  ti'xlare  placed  the  notes, 
which  (the  editor  stales)  "are  calculat(>d  i;)r  those  |)ersons  who  are 
not  reading  the  (Jreek  Testament  for  the  first  lime,  but  who  as  yet 
have  little  ac(|uaintaiice  with  the  laliours  of  crilical  coniineuta- 
lors."  (Prof  p.  iii.)  They  are  (lartly  explanatory  and  philoionical, 
and  partly  crilical  on  the  various  readings  occurring  in  the  Mew 
Testaiiienl.  In  iire|iaring  these  critical  notes.  Dr.  Burton  examined 
tiir  himself,  with  no  small  lalwiir  and  attention,  ihe  co,*iinus  mate- 
rials which  had  been  collected  by  (Jriesbach;  and,  after  weighing 
tlu'  evidence  addured  by  him  in  favour  of  any  particular  reading, 
Dr.  B.  noted  down  all  the  variations  from  ihe  r»'ceive<l  text,  which 
seem  to  have  a  majority  of  dociinients  in  their  liivoiir.  The  most 
remarkable  variations  are  simply  stated  in  the  notes:  but.  in  hun- 
dreds of  instances,  where  the  ililli'rence  consisls  in  llie  collocation 
of  words,  in  the  addition  or  ihr-  omission  of  ihe  article,  the  siibsti 
tution  of  01  for  x^n,  &c.  d:c.  Dr.  Burton  has  not  thought  it  ncccssa'V 


Sect.  IV.] 


POLYGLOTT  BIBLES. 


10 


to  mention  the  variation.  In  all  tlie  oases  which  he  has  noticed, 
the  various  reading  is  probably  that  which  ought  to  be  admitted 
jnto  the  text.  The  dates,  which  he  has  followed  in  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles  and  in  arranging  the  apostolic  epistles,  differ  from 
those  commonly  adopted.  Dr.  B.  has  staled  his  reasons  for  prefer- 
ring this  chronological  scheme  in  "  An  Attempt  to  ascertain  the 
Clironology  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  and  of  St.  Paul's  Epistles" 
(London,  1830,  8vo.),  to  which  the  reader  is  necessarily  referred. 
Two  very  useful  indexes  terminate  this  edition  of  the  Greek  Tes- 
tament, viz.  1.  A  list  of  the  most  remarkable  Greek  terms  explained 
in  the  notes;  and,  2.  An  index  of  facts  and  proper  names.  The 
typographical  execution  of  this  edilion  is  singularly  beautiful  and 
nccurate. 

•'57.  "H  KAINH  ATAGHKH.  The  Greek  Testament;  with 
English  notes,  critical,  philological,  and  exegetical.  By  the' 
Rev.  S.  T.  Bloomfield,  D.D.  Cambridge  and  London,  1832. 
2  vols.  8vo. 

Of  this  Edition  the  Text  is  a  new  Recension,  formed  most  care- 
fully on  the  basis  of  that  of  Stephens,  adopted  by  Dr.  Mill,  from 
which  there  is  no  deviation  but  on  the  fullest  evidence ;  such 
alterations  only  having  been  introduced,  as  rest  on  the  united 
authority  of  MSS.  Versions,  Fathers,  and  early  printed  editions ; 
and  which  have  been  adopted  in  one  or  more  of  the  critical  edi- 
tions of  Wetstein,  Griesbach,  Matthaji,  and  Scholz.  Nothing  has 
been  omitted  which  is  found  in  the  Stephanie  text ;  such  words 
only  as  are,  by  the  almost  universal  consent  of  editors  and  critics, 
regarded  as  interpolations  being  placed  within  distinctly  marked 
brackets,  more  or  less  inclusive  according  to  the  degree  of  suspi- 
cion attached  to  the  words.  Nothing  has  been  inserted  but  on  the 
same  weighty  authority ;  and  even  those  words  are  indicated  as 
insertions  by  being  printed  in  smaller  characters.  All  altered 
readings  (which  are  comparatively  few,  and  generally  found  in 
the  invaluable  Editio  Princeps)  have  asterisks  prefixed,  the  com- 
mon readings  being  indicated  in  tiie  Notes.  And  such  readings  as, 
though  left  untouched,  are  generally  thought  to  need  alteration, 
have  an  obelisk  prefixed.  In  all  cases  the  reasons  for  any  devia- 
tion irom  the  Stephanie,  or  common  text,  are  given.  Thus,  the 
reader  possesses  the  advantage  of  having  both  texts  placed  before 
him,  the  common  text  and  the  corrected  text,  constituting,  it  is 
conceived,  the  true  Greek  Vulgate.  The  punctuation  has  been 
most  carefully  corrected  and  adjusted,  after  a  comparison  of  all 
the  best  editions.  To  each  verse  is  subjoined,  in  the  outer  margin, 
a  select  body  of  parallel  references  from  Curcelleeus's  edition  of 
the  New  Testament,  the  iiiner  margin  being  appropriated  to  the 
numbers  of  chapters  and  verses.  The  citations  from  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, and  the  words  of  any  speaker,  are  clearly  indicated  by  a 
peculiar  mode  of  printing.  Under  the  text  are  copious  notes  (mostly 
original,  but  partially  derived,  with  acknowledgment,  from  the 
best  commentators  ancient  and  modern)  comprising  whatever 
respects  the  interpretation,  or  tends  to  establish  the  grammatical 
sense.  In  these  the  editor  has  endeavoured  to  unite  comprehen- 
siveness with  brevity,  so  as  to  form  one  consistent  body,  in  epitome, 
of  exegetical  and  philological  annotation,  of  which  the  matter 
(very  carefully  digested)  is,  in  its  general  character,  elementary, 
and  introductory  to  the  larger  Commentaries,  especially  Dr.  Bloom- 
field's  Recensio  Synoptica  Novi  Testamenti,  noticed  in  a  subse- 
quent page  of  this  appendix  :  and  it  further  systematically  indicates 
the  interpretation  of  controverted  passages ;  being  especially  adapt- 
ed to  the  use  of  academical  students,  and  candidates  for  the  sacred 
office,  though  intended  also  as  a  manual  edition  for  theological 
readers  in  general. 

Of  the  three  preceding  editions  of  the  New  Testament,  the  fol- 
lowing just  and  comparative  characters  have  been  given  in  an 
ably-conducted  journal.  "  Dr.  Bloomfield's  edition  of  the  Greek 
Testament  is  the  most  valuable  that  has  yet  been  issued  from  the 
press  in  this  country.  We  say  this  without  disparaging  the  merit 
and  usefulness  of  the  labours  of  his  predecessors.  Dr.  Burton's 
edition  not  only  strongly  recommends  itself  by  the  singular  beauty 
of  the  typography,  but  the  weight  of  his  critical  authority  in 
respect  to  the  varied  lections  which  he  has  noted,  impart  to  it  a 
substantial  and  independent  value ;  although,  in  other  respects,  w^e 
must  confess  the  notes  have  greatly  disappointed  us.  Mr.  Valpy's 
edition,  in  point  of  general  utility,  may  compete  with  Dr.  Bloom- 
field's."  *****  "  It  is  rather  an  invidious  task  to  adjudicate  the 
comparative  claims  of  competitors ;  but  we  may  perhaj^s  recom- 
mend Mr.  Valpy's  and  Dr.  Burton's  editions  as  the  more  suitable 
for  those  who  have  as  yet  little  acquaintance  with  critical  com- 
mentators, for  the  upper  classes  of  schools,  and  for  persons  wishing 
to  familiarize  themselves  with  the  sacred  oracles  in  their  genuine 
form,  without  embarrassing  their  minds  with  the  details  of  criti- 
cism. Dr.  Bloomfield's  edition,  though  less  suitable  for  the  novice, 
will  be  invaluable  to  all  whose  profession  requires,  or  whose  lei- 
sure admits  of  a  more  critical  study  of  the  Sacred  Writings."  (Eclec- 
tic Review,  December,  1832,  pp.  473,  474.  492.) 

58.  Novum  Testamentum  Grace  ad  optimorum  librorum 
iidem  recensuit  Antonius  Jaumaxx.  Cum  selecta  Lectionum 
Varietate.     Monachii.  1832.  8vo. 

This  is  professedly  a  manual  edition  for  the  use  of  such  students 
in  the  Universities  of  Germany  as  are  unable  to  procure  the  larger 
and  more  expensive  critical  editions  of  the  New  Testament.  The 
text  is  for  the  most  part  taken  from  Tittmann's  edition  (No.  40.  p. 
16.  supra.)  Various  readings  are  selected  from  the  editions  of 
Griesbach,  Matthsei,  Gratz  and  Knappe.     As  might  be  expected 

Vol..  II.  3  T 


from  a  Romanist,  the  editor  has  been  guided  very  materially  by  the 
authority  of  the  Latin  Vulgate  version.  A  tabular  harmony  of  the 
four  Gospels  is  prefixed  :  and  the  volume,  which  is  very  neatly 
printed,  concludes  with  an  index  of  the  Epistles  and  Gospels  for 
eveiy  Sunday  and  festival  of  the  Romish  Church. 

59.  Novum  Testamentum  Graece  ct  Latine.  Ex  Rccensione 
Knappiana,  adjectis  variis  et  Griesbachii  et  Lachmanni  lectioni- 
bus,  edidit  Adolphus  Goeschex.     LipsiiE,  1832.  8vo. 

This  also  is  a  manual  edition  for  the  use  of  German  biblical 
students.  The  text  is  taken  from  Knappe's  edition  ;  and  below  it 
are  the  principal  various  readings  adopted  by  Griesbach  and  Lach- 
mann.  The  Latin  version,  which  is  placedf  below  them,  is  close 
and  faithful.  The  divisions  of  chapters  are  reUiined,  but  the  num- 
bers of  the  verses  are  given  in  the  margin  ,•  and  to  each  chapter  is 
prefixed  a  copious  summary  of  its  contents.  A  chronological  table 
terminates  this  convenient,  cheap,  and  beautifully  printed  edition 
of  the  New  Testament. 


SECTION   IV. 

POLTGLOTT    BIBLES,  OR  EDITIOXS    OF  THE    OLD    AND    NEW  TES- 
TAMENTS WITH  TEKSIOJfS   IX    SEVEHAt  LANGUAGES. 

The  honour  of  having  projected  the  first  plan  of  a  Polyglott 
Bible  is  due  to  the  illustrious  printer,  Aldus  Maxutius  the 
elder ;  but  of  this  projected  work  only  one  page  was  printed  : 
it  contains  the  first  fifteen  verses  of  the  first  chapter  of  the  Book 
of  Genesis  in  collateral  columns  of  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Latin. 
The  typographical  execution  is  admirable :  M.  Rcnouard  has 
given  a  fac-simile  of  it  in  the  second  edition  of  his  excellent 
work  on  the  productions  of  the  Aldine  Press.'  A  copy  of  this 
specimen  page  (perhaps  the  only  one  that  is  extant)  is  preserved 
among  the   manuscripts   in  the   Royal  Library  at  Paris,  No. 

MMM.LXIT. 

In  1516  there  was  printed  at  Genoa,  by  Peter  Paul  Porras 
(in  iEdibus  Nicolai  Justiniani  Pauli)  the  Pentaglott  Psalter 
of  Augustin  Justiniani  Bishop  of  Nebo.  It  was  in  Hebrew, 
Arabic,  Chaldee,  and  Greek,  with  the  Latin  Version,  Glosses, 
and  Scholia.  In  1518  John  Potken  published  the  Psalter  in 
Hebrew,  Greek,  Latin,  and  Ethiopic,  at  Cologne.  But  the  first 
Polyglott  edition  of  the  entire  Hebrew  Bible  was  that  printed  at 
Alcala  in  Spain,  viz. 

1.  Biblia  Sacra  Polyglotta,  complectenfia  Vetus  Testamentum, 
Hebraico,  Grsco,  et  Latino  Idiomate ;  Novum  Testamentum 
Groecum  et  Latinum ;  et  Vocabularum  Hebraicum  et  Chaldaicum 
Veteris  Testamenti,  cum  Grammatica  Hebraica,  nee  non  Dic- 
tionario  Graeco ;  Studio,  Opera,  et  Impensis  Cardinalis  Francisci 
XiMEXES  de  Cisneros.  Industria  Arnaldi  Gulielmi  de  Brocario 
artis  impressorie  magistri.  Compluti,  1514,  1515.  1517,  6  vols, 
folio. 

The  printing  of  this  splendid  and  celebrated  work,  usually  called 
the  Complulensian  Polyglott,  was  commenced  in  1502;  though  com- 
pleted in  1517,  it  was  not  published  until  1522,  and  it  cost  the  muni- 
ficent cardinal  Ximenes  50,000  ducats.  The  editors  were  JEAina 
Antonius  Nebrissensis,  Demetrius  Ducas,  Ferdinandus,  Pincianus, 
Lopez  de  Stunica,  Alfonsus  de  Zamora,  Paulus  Coronellus,  and 
Johannes  de  Vergera,  a  physician  of  Alcala  or  Complutum.  The  last 
three  were  converted  Jews.  This  Polyglott  is  usuallydivided  intosix 
volumes.  The  first  four  comprise  the  Old  Testament,  with  the 
Hebrew,  Latin,  and  Greek  in  three  distinct  columns,  the  Chaldee 
paraphrase  being  at  the  bottom  of  the  page  with  a  Latin  interpre- 
tation; and  the  margin  is  filled  with  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  radicals. 
The  fifth  volume  contains  the  Greek  Testament,  with  the  Vulgate 
Latin  version  in  a  parallel  column ;  in  the  margin  there  is  a  kind 
of  concordance,  referring  to  similar  passages  in  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments.  And  at  the  end  of  this  volume,  there  are,  1.  A  single 
leaf  containing  some  Greek  and  Latin  verses ;  2.  Interprctationes 
Hehrworum,  Chaldaorum,  Gracorumque  Nominum  Novi  Testamenti, 
on  ten  leaves :  and  3.  Introdiictio  quam  hrevis  ad  Grcscas  Litteras, 
<^c.  on  thirtj'-nine  leaves.  The  sixth  volume  contains,  1.  A  sepa- 
rate title;  2.  Vocabularirim  Hebraicum  totitts  Veteris  Testamenti, 
cum  omyiihus  dicfionibus  Chaldmis,  in  eodem  Veteri  Testamento  con- 
tentis,  on  one  hundred  and  seventy-two  leaves  ;  3.  An  alphabetical 
Index,  on  eight  leaves,  of  the  Latin  words  occurring  in  different 
parts  of  the  work ;  4.  Interpretationes  Hebraicorum,  Chaldaicorum, 
Gracorumque  Nominum,  Veteris  ac  Novi  Testatnenti,  secundum 
Ordinem  Alpkabeti  ;  5.  Two  leaves  entitled  Nomina  qua  sequuntur,, 
sunt  ilia,  quae  in  utroque  Testamento  vicio  Scriptorum  sunt  aliter 
scripta  quam  in  Hebra:o  et  Grceco,  et  in  aliquihus  Bibliis  nostris 
antiquis,  &c. ;  6.  Fifteen  leaves  entitled  Introductiones  Artis  Gram- 
maliccB  HebraiccB  et  primo  de  modo  legendi  et  pronuntiandi.  These 
several  pieces  are  sometimes  placed  in  a  different  order  from  that 
above  indicated.  With  the  exception  of  the  manuscript  cited  as 
the  Codex  Rhodiensis  (now  utterly  lost),  and  the  Codex  Bessarionis 

•Renouard,  Annales  de  I'Iniprimerie  des  .\ldes,  torn.  iii.  pp.  44,  45. 
(Paris,  182S.) 


20 


POLYGLOTT  BIBLES. 


[PjiiiT  r.    Chap,  I 


presented  to  cnrJinal  Ximcnes  by  the  republic  of  Venice,  the 
Kl>SS.  roiisiilled  by  his  editors  were  partly  purchased  at  an  un- 
bounded expense,  and  partly  lent  to  him  "by  pope  Leo  X.  out  ot' 
the  \'atican  Librarj',  wliilher  (we  are  informed  by  Alvaro  Gomez, 
the  cardinal's  b.'ographer)  they  were  returned  as  soon  as  the  I'oly- 
glott  was  completed.  The  RISS.  belonging  Uj  Xinienes  were  sub- 
sequently deposited  in  the  library  of  the  University  of  Alcala. 
Learned  men  had  long  suspected  that  they  were  of  modern  date. 
A.~  it  was  important  to  collate  anew  tlie  manuscripts  at  Alcala, 
Professors  Moldenhawer  and  Tycljsen,  who  were  in  Spain  in  1784, 
went  thither  for  this  purpose:  but  they  were  informed  that  above 
tiiirty-five  years  belbre,  in  1749,  they  had  been  sold  by  an  illiterate 
librarian  to  a  dealer  in  fireworks  as'  materials  for  making  rockets. 
(Marsh's  Michaclis,  vol.  ii.  part  i.  pp.  410,  441.)  Notwithstanding 
liiis  staiement,  there  is  "good  reason  to  believe  that  those  learned 
Germans  were  the  subjects  of  an  imposition  practised  upon  them 
by  some  people  in  the  Spanish  University,  who  were  not  disposed 
to  pemiii  tlieir  manuscript  treasures  lo  be  scrutinized  by  Protest- 
ants." J>r.  Bowri^;:^  during  the  short  time  that  Spain  enjoyed  the 
blessing  of  a  constitutional  govenuuent,  "  had  the  opportunity  of 
carefully  examining  the  manuscripts  at  Alcala:  he  li:is  published 
reai^ons  aniounling  to  a  demonstration,  that  no  sale  or  destruction  of 
manuscripts  ever  took  place.  By  his  personal  examination  he  found 
Till"  SA.MK  scripture  manuscripts  which  had  been  described  by  Al- 
varo Gomez,  wlio  died  in  1580 ;"  and  he  adds, "  that  the  manuscripts 
in  question  are  modern  and  valtielfss,  there  can  be  no  longer  any 
question."  (.Monthly  Repository  ibr  1821,  vol.  xii.  p.  203.,  and  vol.  i. 
N.  S.  Ibr  1827,  p.  572,  ciled  in  Dr.  J.  P.  Smitli's  "  .-Answer  to  the 
Manifesto  oi  the  Christian  Evidence  Society,"  &;c.  pp.  48, 49.  {TUird 
Edition.) 

The  impression  of  the  Complutensian  Polyglott  was  limited  to 
600  copies ;  three  were  struck  off  on  vellum.  One  of  these  was 
deposited  m  llie  Royal  Library  at  Madrid,  and  Hnotiicr  in  the  Royal 
Liorary  at  Turin.  '  Tlie  third  (which  is  supposed  to  have  been 
reserved  lor  cardinal  Ximenes),  alter  passing  tlirough  v.nrious 
hands,  was  purchased  at  the  Pinelli  sale,  in  1789,  ibr  the  late 
Count  M'Carihy  of  Thoulouse,  for  lijur  hundred  and  cighly-three 
pounds.  On  the  sale  of  tiiis  I'enilcman's  library  at  Paris,  in  1817, 
i(  was  bought  by  George  Ilibbert,  I'.sq.  for  16,100  francs,  or  six 
ItHiidrcd  and  gcvtnhi-.ii-  pounds  three  f.'u/Uiigs  and  four  pence  :  and, 
at  the  sale  of  Mr.  llibbert's  library  in  1829,  it  was  sold  to  Messrs. 
Payne  and  Koss,  booksellers,  of  Pull  Mall,  i'otjive  hundred  guineas. 
Copies  ot'the  Complutensian  Polyglott,  on  paper,  are  in  the  Libra- 
ries of  the  British  Museum  and  Sion  College,  and  also  in  several 
of  the  College  Libraries  in  the  two  Universities  of  Oxford  ajid 
Cambridge.  For  m'lch  inleresling  additional  inlbrmalion  rcsj-.cct- 
iiig  the  Complutensian  and  other  I'olygloit  Bibles,  see  Mr.  Petti- 
grew's  Bibl.  Sussex,  vol.  i.  part  ii.  pp.  3 — 124. 

2.  Biblia  Sacra  Hebraice,  Chaldaice,  Grfficc,  et  Lattnc,  Philippi 
II,  Regis  Cathol.  Pictatc,  ct  Studio  ad  SacrosanctiD  Eccicsiai 
I'sum,  Christophorus  Plantinus  c.xcudebat,  Antverpiac,  1569 — 
1572.  8  vols,  folio. 

Five  hundred  copies  only  were  printed  of  this  magnificent  work, 
which  is  sometimes  called  the  liu!/(d  Poli/glult,  because  it  was  exe- 
cuted at  the  expense  of  Piiilip  II.  King  of  Spain,  and  the  Antvrrp 
Polwloll  from  the  i)lace  where  it  was  prinie<l.  The  greater  part 
of  the  impre.«sicjn  being  lost  in  a  voyage  to  Spain,  lliis  Polyglott 
ha-o  become  of  extreme  rarity.  It  was  primed  in  Hebrew,  Cireek, 
Latin,  and  Chaldee ;  and  contains,  besides  the  whole  of  the  Com- 
plulcn»ian  Polyglott,  a  Chaldee  parajihrase  of  part  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, \Oiich"  cardinal  Ximenes  had  de|X)siled  in  the  Public 
Library  at  Alcala,  having  particular  roa.sons  for  not  publisiiing  it. 
This  edition  ul.'-o  lias  a  Syriac  version  of  the  New  Testament,  and 
the  Latin  transhition  of  Santes  Pagninus,  as  reformed  by  Arias 
MontanuH,  the  principal  editor  of  this  noble  undcrlaking.  The 
sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  volumes  are  tilled  wilh  lexicons  and 
grammars  of  the  various  languages  in  which  the  Scriptures  are 
printed,  together  wilh  indexes,  und  a  treatise  on  sacred  antiquities. 
The  Hebrew  text  ifl  said  lo  be  compiled  from  the  Complutensian 
and  Bomberg  editions. 

3.  Biblia,  1,  Hebraica,  2,  Samaritana.  3.  Chaldaica.  4. 
GrjDca.  5.  Syriaca.  6.  Lalina.  7.  Arabica.  Lutcti:c  Parisi- 
oruiD,  cxcudebal  Antonius  Vitro,     1645.   10  vols,  large  folio. 

This  edition,  which  i»  oxiremely  magnificent,  contains  all  that 
i^  inserled  in  the  Compliiiensinn  and  ,\niwerp  Tolyglolls,  with 
the  aildilion  of  a  Syriac  and  Arabic  version  of  iho  greaicst  part  of 
the  Old,  and  of  the  entire  New  Te.-<tanienl.  The  Samaritan  Pentn- 
leuch,  with  a  Samaritan  version,  was  printed  Ibr  the  (irst  liino  in 
this  Polyglott,  the  expenses  of  which  ruined  the  Kditor,  M.  Li.  Jav. 
His  learned  nssociatcs  wore  Pliilippus  A<iuini\s.  Jacobus  Moriniis, 
Abraham  Fclicllensis,  Onhriol  Sionitn.Aic.  The  Hebrew  text  is 
that  of  the  .\nlwfrp  PolvgloU.  'I'lu-re  are  exiniit  CMpies  of  Lo  .lay's 
edition  of  the  Tolyglott  iJible,  under  the  following  title,  viz.  lUldiu 
Alexandriiin  Jfiplri^loHa  aimniriis  S.  I).  Alrxnntlri  VII.  nriiin  .tis- 
lionit  ijiis  lii.  fvticitrr  inrhmti.  Luletirr  I'arifiDriim  pmlixtant 
npiid  Jwinnem  Jrnisnniiim  a  Wactbcrgc,  Johaniiem  Jacobum  Chipper, 
Kliiiaum  W'eirstrncI,  1606. 

4.  Biblia  Sacra  Polyglotta,  complectcntia  Textus  Originales, 
Hebraicuin  cum  Pentatcucho  Samarttano,  (Jlmldaicum,  Grncum, 
Vcrsionumcjue  aiili({uarutn  Sainaritanae,  Gr.xca;  Ij.XXII.  Iiiler- 
pretum,    ChalJaicm,    Syriacaj,    Arabictc,    --ElUiopicic,    Vulgata; 


LatinfT,  quicquid  comparari  potcrat  .  ,  .  ,  EJidit  Brianus  WAt- 
Tox,  S.T.D.  Lor.dini,  imprinicbat  Thomas  Roycroft,  1C57.  6  vols, 
large  folio. 

Though  less  magnificent  than  the  Paris  Polyglott,  this  of  Bi.shop 
Walton  is,  in  all  other  respects,  preferable  ;  being  more  ample  and 
more  commodious.  Nine  languages  are  used  in  it,  though  no  one 
l)ook  of  the  Bible  is  printed  in  so  many-  In  the  New  Testament, 
the  four  Gospels  are  in  six  languages;  the  other  books,  only  in  five; 
those  of  Judith  and  the  Maccabees,  only  in  three.  The  Septtm- 
gint  version  is  printed  from  the  edition  printed  at  Rome  in  1587, 
which  exhibits  the  text  of  the  Vatican  manuscript.  The  Latin  is 
the  V^ulgate  of  Clement  \'1II.  The  Chaldee  paraphrase  is  more 
complete  than  in  any  former  publication.  The  London  Polyglott 
Tilso  has  an  interliiieary  Latin  version  of  the  Hebrew  text ;  and 
some  paris  of  the  Bible  are  printed  in  F.thiopic  and  Persian,  none 
of  which  are  found  in  any  jireeeding  Polyglott. 

The  FIRST  volume,  besides  very  learned  and  useful  Prolegomena, 
contains  the  Pentateuch.  F.veiy  sheet  exhibits,  at  one  view,  1st, 
The  Hebrew  Text,  wilh  Monianns's  interlineary  Latin  version, 
very  correctly  printed  :  2.  The  same  verses  in  the  Vulgate  Latin  : 
3.  The  Greek  version  of  the  Sepfiiagint,  according  to  the  Vatican 
MS.,  with  a  literal  Latin  Translation  by  Flaminius  Nobilis,  and  the 
various  readings  of  tlie  Alexandrian  MS.  added  at  the  bottom  of 
the  column :  4.  The  Syriac  version,  with  a  collateral  Latin  trans- 
lation :  5.  The  Targum,  or  Chaldee  Paraphrase,  of  Onkclos,  with 
n  Latin  translation  :  G.  TheHebraeo-Samaritaii  text,  which  is  nearly  ' 
t!ie  same  with  the  unpointed  Hebrew,  only  the  character  is  diffe 
rent ;  and  the  Samaritan  version,  which  differs  vastly  from  the 
other  as  lo  the  language,  though  the  sense  is  pretty  nearly  the  same  ; 
and  therefore  one  Latin  translation  (with  a  few  notes  added  at  the 
bottom  of  the  column)  serves  lor  both :  7.  The  Arabic  version,  wilh 
a  collateral  Latin  translation,  which  in  general  agrees  with  the 
Septuagint.  This  fii-st  volume  also  contains,  or  should  contain,  a 
portrait  of  Bishop  Wallon,  engraved  by  Lombart;  and  a  frontis- 
|)ieee,  together  wilh  three  plates  relating  to  Solomon's  temple,  all 
engraved  by  Hollar.  There  are  also  two  plates  containing  .sections  of 
Jerusalem,  Arc.  and  a  chart  of  the  Holy  Land.  These  are  inserted 
in  Capellns's  Treatise  on  the  Temple.  Tliat  part  of  the  Prole- 
gomena, in  this  volume,  which  was  written  by  Bisliop  Walion, 
was  commodiously  printed  in  octavo,  at  Leipsic,  in  1777,  by  Pro- 
fessor Dathe.     It  is  a  treasure  of  sacred  criticism. 

The  SECOND  volume  comprises  the  historical  books  in  the  same 
languages  as  are  above  enumerated,  with  the  exception  of  the  Sa- 
maritan (which  is  confined  to  the  Pentateuch)  and  of  the  Targum 
of  Rabbi  Joseph  (surnamed  llie  blind)  on  the  books  of  Chronicle.^, 
whi(-h  was  not  discovered  till  after  the  Polyglott  was  in  the  press. 
It  has  since  been  published  in  a  separate  form,  as  is  noticed  in  the 
Ibllowing  page. 

The  TiiiKi>  volume  comprehends  all  the  poetic  and  prophetic 
lx)<)ks  from  Job  to  Malachi,  in  the  same  languages  as  before,  only 
that  there  is  an  Ethiopic  version  of  the  book  of  Psalms,  which  is 
so  near  akin  to  the  Septuagint,  that  the  same  Latin  translation 
serves  for  both,  with  a  few  exceptions,  which  are  noted  in  the 
margin. 

The  FOiiuTii  volume  contains  all  the  Apoerj'phal  Books,  in  Greek, 
I,atin,  Syriac,  and  Arabic,  with  a  iwo-fold  Hebrew  text  of  ihe  book 
oi' T<djit ;  the  first  from  Paul  Fagius,  the  second  from  Sebastian 
Munster.  After  the  Aiwcrj'pha  there  is  a  ihree-ibid  Targum  of 
the  Penlaleuch  :  the  first  is  in  Chaldee,  and  is  ascribed  to  Jonathan 
Ben  Uzziel :  the  second  is  in  Chaldee  al.xo  ;  it  lakes  in  only  select 
parts  of  tlie  Law,  and  is  commonly  called  the  Jerusalem  Targum  : 
the  third  is  in  Persic,  the  work  of  one  Jacob  Tawus,  or  Toose,  and 
seems  to  be  a  pretty  literal  version  of  the  Hebrew  Text.  Each  of 
ihese  has  a  collateral  Latin  translation.  The  first  two,  though  they 
contain  many  fables,  are  exceedingly  useful,  because  they  explain 
many  words  and  customs,  the  meaning  of  which  is  to  be  found  no 
where  else ;  and  the  latter  will  be  fijiind  very  useliil  to  a  student 
in  the  Persian  language,  though  it  contains  many  obsolete  phrases, 
and  the  language  is  by  no  means  in  the  pure  Shirazian  dialect. 

The  FIFTH  volume  includes  all  the  hooks  of  the  New  Tef  lament. 
The  various  languages  are  here  exhibited  at  one  view,  as  in  ihe 
others.  The  Greek  text  stands  at  the  head,  wilh  Monianns's  inier- 
lineary  Latin  Imnslation;  the  Syriac  next;  the  Persic  third;  Ihe 
\'iilgate  iiiiirih  ;  the  .Ariibic  fifth  ;  and  Ihe  Eihionic  sixth.  Each  of 
the  oriental  versions  has  a  collalend  Latin  Iranslation.  The  Persic 
version  only  lakes  in  the  liiur  Gospels  ;  and  ibr  ihi.e,  the  Pars  Altera, 
or  Persian  Uictionury,  in  CastcH's  Lexicon,  was  peculiarly  t  alcii- 
late-l. 

The  SIXTH  volume  is  composed  of  various  readings  and  critical 
remarks  on  all  the  preccMling  versions,  and  concludes  wilh  nn 
explanation  of  all  the  proper  names,  both  Hebrew  and  (Jreek,  in 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  The  characters  rsed  liir  Ihe  several 
oriental  versions  are  clear  and  good  ;  the  Hebrew  is  rather  the 
worst.  The  simple  reading  of  a  text  in  Ihe  seveml  versions  oflen 
ihrovvs  more  liglu  on  the  meaning  of  the  sacred  writer  than  the 
best  commentators  which  can  be  met  wilh.  This  work  sells  at 
from  twenty-five  pounds  lo  seventy  guineas,  according  to  Ihe  dif- 
ference of  condition.  Many  copies  are  ruled  wilh  red  lines,  whieli 
iti  a  creaf  help  in  rending,  because  it  distinguishes  the  ditTorent 
texts  belter,  and  such  copies  ordinarily  sell  ibr  three  or  four 
guineas  more  llian  Ihe  olh"rs. 

In  cxeculinsr  Ibis  great  and  splendid  work.  Bishop  Walton  was 
asHisied  by  Dr.  Edmund  Cnslell,  Dr.  Tho.  Hyde,  Dr.  Pocoek 
Dr.  Lighlfoot,  Mr.  Alex.nnder  Huisli,  Mr.  Samuel  Clarke,  Loiii-i  de 


Sect.  IV.] 


POLYGLOTT  BIBLES. 


21 


Dicu,  and  other  eminentlv  learned  men.'  It  was  begun  in  October 
1C53,  and  completed  in  r657 ;  the  lirst  volume  was  finished  in  Sep- 
tember 1C54;  the  second  in  July  1G55;  the  third  in  July  1656;  and 
the  fourth,  fifih,  and  sixth,  in  1657,  three  years  before  the  Restora- 
tion.    (The  Parisian  Polyglott  was  seventeen  years  in  the  press .') 

This  work  was  published  by  subscription,  under  the  patronage 
of  Oliver  Cromwell,  who  permitted  the  paper  to  be  imported  duty 
free  ;  but  the  Protector  dying  before  it  was  fini.shed.  Bishop  Walton 
cancelled  two  leaves  of  the  preface,  in  which  he  had  made  honour- 
able mention  of  his  patron,  and  others  were  printed  containing  com- 
pliments to  Charles  II.,  and  some  pretty  severe  invectives  against 
republicans.  Hence  has  arisen  the  distinction  of  republican  and 
loyal  copies.  The  former  are  the  most  valued.  Dr.  A.  Clarke  and 
Mr.  Butler  have  both  pointed  out  (especially  the  former)  the  varia- 
tions between  these  two  editions.  For  a  long  time,  it  was  disputed 
Bm(mg  bibliographers,  whether  any  dedication  was  ever  prefixed 
to  the  London  Polyglott.  There  is,  however,  a  dedication  in  one 
of  the  copies  in  the  Ro)'al  Library  at  Paris,  and  another  was  dis- 
covered a  few  years  since,  which  was  reprinted  in  large  folio,  to 
bind  up  with  other  copies  of  the  Polyglott ;  it  is  also  reprinted  in 
the  Classical  Journal,  vol.  iv.  pp.  355—361.  In  the  first  volume 
of  Pott's  and  Ruperti's  Sylloge  Commenlationum  Theologicarum 
(pp.  100 — 137.),  there  is  a  collation  of  the  Greek  and  other  versions, 
as  printed  in  the  London  Polj^glott,  Avith  the  Hebrew  text  of  the 
prophet  Micah,  accompanied  with  some  explanations  by  Professor 
Paulus.2  To  complete  the  London  Polyglott,  the  following  publi- 
cations should  be  added,  viz. 

1.  Paraphrasis  Chaldoica  in  librum  priorem  et  posteriorcm  Chro- 
nicorum.  Auctore  Rabbi  Josepho,  rectore  ArademicB  in  Syria  :  cum 
versione  Lalina  a  Davide  Wil/iins.     Cantabrigiffi,  1715,  4to. 

2.  Dr.  Castell's  Lexicon  HeptagloUon  ;  of  which  an  account  is 
given  in  a  subsequent  part  of  this  Appendix. 

The  purchaser  of  the  London  Polyglott  should  also  procure 
Dr.  John  Owen's  Considerations  on  the  Folyglolt,  8vo.  1658  :  Bishop 
Walton's  Reply,  entitled  The  Considerator  considered,  <^c.  Svo. 
1659:  and  (a  work  of  much  more  importance  than  either)  Walton's 
Introductio  ad  Lcctioitcm  Linguaruvi  Orienlalium,  Hebraicce,  Chal- 
daiccB,  Samar italics,  Syriacce,  ArabiccB,  Persicw,  jUthiopica,  Arme- 
nicce,  Copliccs,  ^c.     18mo.  London,  1615. 

Bishop  Walton's  Polyglott  having  long  been  extremely  scarce 
and  dear,  it  has  been  the  wish  of  biblical  students  ibr  many  years 
that  it  should  be  reprinted.  In  1797,  the  Rev.  Josiah  Pratt  issued 
from  the  press,  A  Prospectus,  with  Specimens,  of  a  new  Polyglott 
Bible  in  Quarto,  for  the  Use  of  English  Students,  and  in  1799, 
another  Prospectus,  with  Specimens,  qj  an  Octavo  Polyglott  Bible  ; 
but,  for  want  of  encouragement,  the  design  was  not  carried  into 
execution.  A  similar  fate  attended  The  Plan  and  Specimen  of 
BIBLIA  POLYGLOTTA  BRITANNICA,  or  an  enlarged  and 
improved  edition  of  the  London  Polyglott  Bible,  with  Castell's  Hep- 
lagloit  Lexicon,  which  were  published  and  circulated  by  the  Rev. 
Adam  Clarke,  LL.D.  F.S.A.  in  1810,  in  iblio.  The  reader  may  see 
them  reprinted  in  the  Classical  Journal  (where,  however,  7io  yiotice 
is  taken  of  the  author  of  the  plan),  vol.  iv.  pp.  493 — 497.  An  abstract 
of  this  plan  is  given  in  the  Bibl.  Sussex,  vol.  i.  part  ii.  pp.  6(5 — 68. 

5.  Biblia  Sacra  Quadrilinguia  Veteris  Testamenti  Hebraici, 
cum  Versionibus  e  regione  positis,  utpote  versione  Grsca  LXX 
Interpretum  ex  coJice  manuscripto  Alexandrine,  a  J.  Em.  Grabio 
primum  cvulgata — Item  versione  Latina  Sebast.  Schinidii  noviter 
rcvisa  et  textui  Hebraeo  accuratius  accommodata,  et  Germanica 
beati  Lutheri,  ex  ultima  beati  viri  revisione  et  editions  1544 — 45 
expressa.  Adjectis  textui  HebrfEO  Notis  Masorethicis  et  Grascse 
Versioni  Lectionibus  Codicis  Vaticani;  notis  philologicis  ct 
exegeticis  aliis,  ut  et  summariis  capitum  ac  locis  parallelis 
locuplctissimis  ornata.  Accurante  M.  Christ.  Reineccio.  Lip- 
siae,  1760.  3  vols,  folio. 

The  comparative  cheapness  of  this  neatly  and  accurately  printed 
work  rendered  it,  before  the  publication  of  Mr.  Bagster's  Polyglott, 
a  valuable  substitute  for  the  preceding  larger  Polyglotts.  Dr.  A. 
Clarke,  who  states  that  he  has  read  over  the  whole  of  the  Hebrew 
and  Chaldee  text,  with  the  exception  of  part  of  the  Pentateuch, 
pronounces  it  to  be  one  of  the  most  correct  extant. 

6.  Biblia  Sacra  Polyglotta,  Textus  Archetypos,  Versionesque 
praicipuas,  ab  Ecclesia  antiquitus  receptas  complectentia.  Acce- 
dunt  Prolegomena  in  eorundem  crisin  literalein,  auctore  Samuel 

Lee,  S.  T.  B Lingua;  Hebroeae  apud  Cantabrigiensis  Pro- 

fessore  Regio.     Londini,  1831,  4to  et  folio. 

•  Concerning  these,  as  well  as  tlie  literary  history  of  the  London  Poly- 
glott, the  readnr  will  lind  much  and  very  Interesting  inlonnation  in  the 
Rev.  H.  J.  Todd's  Memoirs  of  the  Life  and  Writings  of  the  Right  Rev.  Brian 
Walton,  U.D.,  Lord  Bishop  of  Chester,  editor  of  the  London  Polyglott  Bible ; 
with  notices  of  his  coadjutors  in  that  ill astriou.s  work;  of  the  cultivation 
of  oriental  learning  in  this  country,  preceding  and  during  their  time;  and 
of  the  authorized  English  version  of  the  JJible,  to  a  projected  revision  of 
which  Dr.  Walton  and  some  of  his  assistants  in  the  Polyglott  were  ap- 
pointed. To  which  is  added,  Dr.  Walton's  own  vindication  of  the  London 
Polvjlott.    London,  1821,  in  2  vols.  Svo. 

^'For  a  more  particular  account  of  the  London  Polyglott,  wc  refer  the 
reader  to  Dr.  Clarke's  Bibliographical  Dictionary,  vol.  i.  pp.  248 — 270. ; 
vol.  ii.  pp.  1—12.  ;  Mr.  Bullei's  Ilora;  Biblicee,  vol.  i.  pp.  13.3—149. ;  and 
Dr.  Dibdin's  Introduction  to  tlie  Knowledge  of  the  Editions  of  the  Greek 
and  Latin  Classics,  3d  edit.  vjl.  i.  pp.  13—27.,  from  which  publications  the 
above  account  is  abridged. 


The  great  rarity  and  consequent  high  price  of  all  former  Poly 
glotts,  which  render  them  for  the  most  part  inaccessible  to  biblical 
students,  induced  the  publisher,  JNIr.  Bagster,  to  undertake  these 
beautiful  Polyglott  editions  of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  The  quarto 
edition  contains  the  original  Hebrew  text  of  the  Old  Testament, 
the  Samaritan  Pentateuch,  the  Septuagint  Greek  version  of  the 
Old  Testament,  the  Vulgate  Latin,  and  the  authorized  English  ver- 
sion of  the  entire  Bible  ;  the  original  Greek  text  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment; and  the  venerable  Peschito  or  Old  Syriac  version  of  it.  The 
folio  edition,  besides  tliese  languages,  contains  entire  translations 
of  the  Bible,  in  the  following  modem  langu.iges,  viz.  the  Gennan. 
by  Dr.  Martin  Luther ;  the  Italian,  by  Giovanni  Diodati ;  the  French, 
by  J.  F.  Ostervald  ;  and  the  Spanish  (from  the  Romiah  Latin  Vul- 
gate), by  Padre  Scio.  These  are  so  disposed  as  to  exhibit  eight 
languages  at  once,  on  opening  the  volume,  the  press- work  of  which 
is  singularly  beautiful.  The  pointed  Hebrew  text  is  printed  from 
the  celebrated  edition  of  Vander  Ilooght,  noticed  in  No.  5.  page  7. 
supra.  The  Samaritan  Pentateuch  is  taken  from  Dr.  Kennicott's 
edition  of  the  Hebrew  Bible,  and  is  added  by  way  of  Appendix. 
The  Septuagint  is  printed  from  Bos's  edition  of  the  Vatican  text ; 
and  at  the  end  of  the  Old  Testament  there  are  given  the  various 
readings  of  the  Hebrew  and  Samaritan  Pentateuchs,  together  with 
the  ma.sorctic  notes  termed  Keri  and  Ketib,  the  various  lections  of 
the  Alexandrian  MS.  as  edited  by  Dr.  Grabe,  and  the  apocryphal 
chapters  of  the  book  of  Esther.  The  Greek  text  is  printed  from 
Mill's  edition  of  the  Textus  Receptus,  with  the  whole  of  the  impor- 
tant readings  given  by  Griesbach  in  his  edition  of  1805  (No.  30. 
p.  15.  supra) ;  the  Peschito  or  Old  Syriac  version,  from  Widman- 
stadts'  edition  published  at  Vienna  in  1555,  collated  with  the  accu- 
rate edition  executed  in  1816  under  the  auspices  of  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society,  and  edited  by  Profes.sor  Lee.  The  Apoca- 
lypse and  such  of  tlie  Epistles  as  are  not  extant  in  the  Old  Syriac 
version,  are  given  from  the  Philoxenian  or  New  Syriac  version. 
The  text  of  the  Latin  Vulgate  version  is  taken  from  the  edition  of 
pope  Clement  VIII.  The  authorized  English  version  is  accom- 
panied with  the  marginal  renderings,  and  a  new  selection  of  well- 
chosen  parallel  texts.  The  other  modern  versions  are  professedly 
given  from  accurate  editions.  The  prolego.mena  of  the  Rev.  Dr. 
and  Professor  Lee  present  a  compendious  and  neatly  written  epitome 
of  the  Literary  History  of  the  Text  and  Versions  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments,  which  contains  some  new  and  important  critical 
information.  Copies  of  the  several  texts  and  versions  of  this  poly- 
glott edition  are  thrown  off  in  detached  small  octavo  volumes :  and 
copies  of  the  quarto  Polyglott  New  Testament  may  also  be  pro- 
cured, with  a  distinct  title-page.^ 


Several  editions  of  the  Bible  are  extant,  in  two  or  three  lan- 
guages, called  Diglotts  and  Triglotts,  as  well  as  Polyglott  edi- 
tions of  particular  parts  of  the  Scriptures.  For  an  account  of 
these,  we  are  compelled  to  refer  the  reader  to  the  Bibliotheca 
Sacra  of  Le  Long  and  Masch,  and  the  Bibliographical  Dictionary 
of  Dr.  Clarke,  already  cited.  A  complete  account  of  all  these 
Polyglott  editions  is  a  desideratum  in  Engli.sh  literature :  the 
following,  however,  may  be  mentioned  as  the  principal  Triglolt 
and  Diglott  editions. 

(1.)  Triglott  Testamejtt. 

Novi  Testamenti  Biblia  Triglotta:  sive  Graaci  Textus  Arche- 
typi,  Versionis  Syriacae,  et  Versionis  LatinsE  Vulgatas  Synopsis : 
cui  acccdunt  Subsidia  Critica  varia.  Evangelia.  Londini. 
1828.  4to. 

Those  who  may  not  be  able  to  procure  any  of  the  more  costly 
polyglotts,  will  find  a  cheap  substitute  for  them  in  this  handsomely 
printed  volume.  The  Greek  text  is  printed  after  the  editions,  with 
improved  punctuation,  of  Knappe  and  Vater ;  this  is  accompanied 
by  the  Syriac  Version,  after  the  text  of  Professor  Lee's  accurate 
edition,  printed  in  1816 ;  and  at  the  foot  of  the  page  is  the  Latin 

3  The  publisher  of  the  Polyglott  Bible  above  noticed,  in  1819  issued  from 
the  press  an  ocloglolt  edition  of  the  Liturgy  of  the  Anglican  church,  in  ona 
quarto  volume,  which  may  justly  be  pronounced  one  of  the  finest  speci- 
mens of  typography  that  ever  issued  from  the  British  press.  The  eight 
languages,  printed  in  this  edition,  are  the  English,  French,  Itahan,  German, 
Spanish,  Ancient  Greek,  Modern  Greek,  and  Latin.  The  JCvglish  text  \t 
given  from  a  copy  of  the  Oxford  Edition  of  the  Common  Prayer  Book. 
The  French  version  is  modern,  and  is  well  known  to  most  readers  of  that 
language,  having  frequently  been  printed  and  received  with  general  appro- 
bation. The  Psalms  are  printed  from  the  Basle  Edition  of  Ostervald's  Bible. 
Tlie  Italian  is  taken  from  the  edition  of  A.  Montucci  and  L.  Valletti,  pub- 
lished in  1796,  but  revised  throughout,  and  its  orthography  corrected.  The 
Psalras  are  copied  from  the  Bible  of  Diodati.  The  German  translation,  by 
the  Rev.  Dr.  Kiiper  (Chaplain  of  his  Majesty's  German  Chapel,  St.  James's), 
is  entirely  iiev?,  except  the  Psalms,  which  are  taken  from  Luther's  German 
Version  of  the  Scriptures.  The  Spanish,  by  the  Rev.  Blanco  White,  is  for 
the  most  part  new.  The  Psalms  are  printed  Irom  Padre  Scio's  great  Spanish 
Bible,  published  at  Madrid  in  1807,  in  sixteen  volumes.  The  translation  into 
the  Ancient  Greek  language  is  that  executed  by  Dr.  Duport  (a.  b.  1665), 
who  was  Regius  Professor  of  Greek  in  the  University  of  Cambridge.  The 
Psalms  are  from  the  Septuagint.  The  Modern  Greek  \s  an  entirely  new 
tranlation  by  M.  A.  Calbo,  a  learned  native  Greek,  of  the  island  of  Zaiitc. 
And  the  Latin  version  is  nearly  a  reprint  of  the  edition  which  was  first 
printed  by  W.  Bowyer,  in  1730,  with  some  alterations  and  additions  by  the. 
present  editor  (John  Carey,  LL.D.),  sometimes  taken  from  the  translation 
of  Mr.  Thomas  Parsel,  tho  fourth  edition  of  which  was  published  in  1727. 
The  Psalms  are  from  the  Vulgate. 


22 


ANCIENT  VERSIONS. 


[Paht  I.  Chap.  I 


Vulgate  version,  according  to  the  Sixtine  rerension,  printed  from 
the  Antwerp  edition  of  lt)03,  which  was  superintended  bv  John 
Moret.  To  the  work  is  prefixed  Prof  Vater's  Inilex  of  Critical 
Subsidia;  and  in  an  Appendix  there  is  given  his  selection  of  Vari- 
ous Readings,  wilti  the  authorities  by  which  Ihey  are  supported. 

(2.)  DioLOTT  Bibles. 

1.  Biblia  Saci^  Hebraica,  cum  intorlincari  intcrpretatione 
Latina  Xantis  Pagnini :  acccssit  Bibliorum  pars,  qum  Hebraice 
non  rcperitur,  item  Novum  Tcstamentum,  Gnece,  cam  Vulgata 
Interprctatione  Latina  Studio  Bcnedicti  Aria:  Montaxi.  Ant- 
werpiE,  1572,  1584.  Geneva;,  IGO'J,  1019,  (with  a  new  title 
only.)     Lj^)sisE,  1657,  folio. 

"  You  will  find  the  edition  of  the  Hebrew  Scri]>ture9  by  Arias 
Montanus  more  useful  to  you  than  perlinps  any  otl\er."  (Bishop 
Gleig's  Directions  for  the  Study  of  Theology,  p.  93.)  The  edition 
of  1572  forms  the  sixth  volume  of  the  Antwerp  Polyglott  (p.  20. 
supra) :  as  it  is  the  first,  so  it  is  the  best  edition.  The  octiivo  edi- 
tions, ex  ojfifina  Plandnlana  Kaphtlt  iifiii  (Lui^duni  Jiatavorum), 
1599  or  IGIO — 1613,  in  nine  volumes,  are  of  very  little  value.  In 
the  folio  editions  above  noticed,  the  Latin  word  is  placed  above 
the  Hebrew  and  Greek  words,  to  which  they  belong.  The  Latin 
version  of  Xanti-s  or  Sautes  I'agiiinus  is  corrected  Ijy  Montanus, 
and  his  learned  coadjutors,  Raphelenge,  and  others. 

2.  Biblia  Hebraica,  i.  e.  Vetus  Testamentum,  sou  Hagiographi 
Canonici  Veteris  nempe  Testament!  Libri,  qui  originarlo  nobis 
etiamnum  ore  Icguntur,  ct  Hebraico  in  Latinum  ad  litteram 
versi,  atljecta  editione  Vulgat.i.  Hebraice  et  Latine,  curu  et 
studio  Ludovici  ue  Biel,  e  Societatc  Jcsu.  Viennaj,  174.3. 
4  vols.  8vo. 

This  is  an  elegant  edition,  little  known  in  this  country,  but  in 
many  respect*  higiily  valuable.  It  contains  the  Hebrew,  and  two 
Latin  versions — that  of  the  Vulgate  edition  in  1592,  and  that  of 
Arias  Montanus.  It  is  ornamented  with  vignettes,  and  the  initial 
letters,  which  are  well  engraved  on  copper,  represent  some  fact  of 
sacred  history,  to  which  llie  immediate  subject  is  applicable. 

3.  The  Old  Testament,  English  and  Hebrew,  with  remarks, 
critical  and  grammatical,  on  the  Hebrew,  and  corrections  of  the 
Encfiish.  By  Ansclm  Batlet,  LL.D.   London,  1774.  4  vols.  8vo. 

The  Hebrew  text  is  printed  in  long  lines  on  the  loft  hand  page; 
and  the  authorized  English  version  on  the  right  hand  page,  divided 
into  two  columns.  The  critical  note?,  which  are  very  few,  are 
placed  under  the  Knglish  text.  The  Hebrew  text  is  accompanied, 
throughout,  with  the  Keri  and  Ketib;  but  all  the  accents,  Arc.  are 
omitted,  except  the  athnach,  which  answers  to  our  colon,  and  the 
toph  p-.ishuk,  v\hich  is  placed  at  the  end  of  each  verso  in  the  Bible. 
At  the  end  of  each  book  is  given  an  epilogue,  containing  a  sum- 
mary view  of  the  history,  transactions,  &:c.  recorded  therein.  The 
work  is  ornamented  with  a  frontispiece,  representing  Moses  receiv- 
ing the  tables  of  the  law  on  Mount  Sinai,  and  two  useful  maps — 
one  of  the  journeying  of  the  Israelites,  in  which  each  station  is 
numbered  ;  and  another  of  their  settlement  in  the  promised  land. 
The  letter-press  of  the  Hebrew  is  very  unequally  distributed  over 
the  pages;  some  are  long,  and  others  sliorl ;  some  are  wide,  and 
others  narrow.  On  some  pages  not  fewer  than  thirty-seven  lines 
are  crowded  together,  while  others  contain  only  tweniy-thrce.  In 
other  respects,  L)r.  A.  Clarke  pronounces  it  to  be  a  pretty  correct 
work;  but,  besides  the  errata  noticed  l)y  the  editor,  he  ailds,  that 
the  render  will  find  the  sentence — thou  niialt  visit  thy  habitation,  left 
out  of  the  English  text,  in  Job  v.  24. — Bibliogr.  Die.  vol.  i.  p  274. 


SECTION  V. 

AXCIENT    TEHSIOXS    OP    THE    OLD    AND    NEW    TESTAMENTS. 

§  1.  Targums,  or  Chahlee  Paraphrases  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. 

1.  TAttocM,  seu  Paraphrasis  Chaldaica  O.vkelosi  in  Penta- 
tcuchum,  Latino,  ex  vcrsionc  Alfonsi  de  Zamora.  Vcnetiis, 
1747,  4to. 

Also  in  the  Complulcnsian,  Antwerp,  Paris,  and  l»ndon  Poly- 
glotlA.  Tlii.s  version  of  the  Targum  oi  (Jiikelos  was  likewise  {irnitcd 
ut  Antwerp,  1616,  and  at  Venice,  I6U9,  in  foliu. 

2.  Thargum,  hoc  est,  Paraphrasis  Onkeii  Chaldaica  in  Sacra 
Biblia;  ex  Chaidaico  in  Latinum  fidclissimc  versa,  udditis  in 
singula  fere  capita  succinctis  annotationibuM,  Aulhoro  Paulo 
Faoio.  PentateuchuH,  sivc  quinquc  lil)ri  Moysi-s.  Tom.  I, 
Argenlorali,  1546,  folio. 

One  volume  only  of  this  work  was  published.  Fagius's  learned 
annotations  are  inserted  in  the  Crilici  Sacri. 

3.  Targum  Pseido-Joxathanis  in  Pentateuchum,  Latine,  ex 
veniono  Antonii  Ccvalorii.  Londini,  1657,  folio.  (In  Bp.  Wal- 
ton's Polyglott.) 

4.  Tahoux  HiEnosoLTMiTAHL'x  \n  Pcntatcuchum,  Latine, 


ex  versione  Antonii  Ccvalorii.     Londini,  1667,  folio.     (In  Bp 
Walton's  Polyglott.) 

Bp.  VValioa  states  that  the  Latin  version  of  Chevalier  is  more 
fiiiliful  than  that  published  by  Francis  Taylor,  at  London,  in 
1649,  4to. 

5.  Targum  Jonathanis  in  Josue,  Judicos,  Libros  Regum, 
Isaia?,  Hiercmiac,  Ezechielis  et  XII.  Minorum  Prophetarum, 
Latine,  ex  versione  Alfonsi  dc  Zamora,  a  Bcnedicto  Aria  Mon- 
tano  ad  Hebraicam  et  Chaldaicam  veritatem  corrccta,  folio.  (In 
the  Antwerp,  Paris,  and  London  Polyglotts.) 

Various  other  eililions  of  the  Targum  of  Jonathan  Ben  Uzziel  are 
notice<l  in  Masch's  and  Boerncr's  edition  of  Leiong's  Bibliulheca 
Sacra,  Part  II.  vol.  iii.  pp.  651 — 656. 

6.  Targum  R.  Joskphi  Cocci  et  aliorum  in  Chotuvim,  Latine, 
ex  versione  Alfonsi  de  Zamora,  ct  recognitionc  Arije  Montani, 
folio. 

7.  Targum  in  Psalmos,  Ecclcsiasten,  et  Librum  Esther,  ex 
vcrsionc  Aria;  Montani,  folio. 

Both  the  preceding  Targums  are  found  in  the  Antwerp,  Paris 
and  Lontloii  Polyglotts ;  in  the  last,  the  translation  has  been  furthci 
revised  by  Dr.  F.dmund  Caslell. 

8.  Liber  Jobi,  Chaldaicc  et  Latine,  cum  notis.  Op<?ra  et  stu- 
dio Johannis  Tercntii.     Franeckera;,  1663,  4to. 

The  Latin  translation  is  that  of  Alfonso  de  Zamora,  revised  by 
Montanus,  and  further  corrected  by  tlie  editor.  Masch  pronounces 
this  to  be  a  rare  and  erudite  publication. 

9.  Cantica  Canticorum  ct  Ecclesiastes  Salomonis  paraphrastico 
sermone  conscripti,  et  ex  Chaldma  lingua  in  Latinam  versi  pet 
Eiasmum  Oswaldum  Schreckcnfuchsiuni.     Basilcte,  1553,  8vo. 

10.  Chaldaica  Paraphrasis  Libelli  Ruth,  a  mcndis  repurgata 
et  punctis  juxta  analogiam  grammaticam  notata,  cum  Latina 
Interprctatione  et  Aimotationibus,  per  Joaimem  Mcrcerum. 
Parisiis,  1564,  4to. 

11.  Paraphrasis  Chaldaica  lahrorum  Chronicorum,  Latino, 
cura  Matthiaj  Friderici  Beckii.  Augusta;  Vindelicorum,  1680 — 
83 — 84,  2  vols.  4to. 

12.  Paraphrasis  Chaldaica  in  Librum  priorcm  ct  postcriorcm 
Chronicorum.  Auctorc  Rabbi  Josepho,  Rcctore  Acadcmice  in 
Syria.  Nunc  demum  a  Manu.«!cripto  Cantabrigiensi  descripta, 
ac  cum  Versione  Latina  in  luccm  nii.ssa  aDavidc  Wilkins.  Can- 
tabrigia;,  1717,  4to.     Amstelodami,  1725,  4to. 

The  manuscript,  from  which  this  edition  was  printed,  was  written 
A.  D.  1477.  It  was  discovered  by  Mr.  Samuel  Clarke,  an  eminent 
oriental  scholar,  in  the  University  of  Cambridge:  and,  besides  iho 
ChaUlee  n;ira phrase  on  the  books  of  Chronicles,  it  contained  the 
Iwoks  of  Psalms,  Proverbs,  Job,  Daniel,  Ezra,  and  Nehemiah,  with 
a  lareum  or  paraphrase  on  each.  The  book  is  elegantly  printed, 
the  Chaldee  text  with  vowel  points  being  on  the  right  hand  page, 
and  the  Latin  translation  on  the  left :  boili  are  divided  into  verses. 
The  copies,  dated  Amstelodami,  1725,  arc  the  same  as  those  printed 
at  Cambridge,  but  with  a  new  tille-page. 


§  2.  Ancient  Greek  Versions, 

[i.]  TuE  Septuaoixt.' 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  four  principal  Standard 
Text  Editions  of  the  Septuagint  Greek  version,  together  with 
the  principal  editions  which  arc  founded  upon  them. 

1.  Complctexsian  Text,  1514. 

. A . 


Aniuurp  Ptih/f^lotf,  P"ol.  Gr.  Lat.  (Xrc.  15t'9-72. — (.'(immflirii.  Fol.  (.W. 
1586, 1599,"1616.— UW'/er/— Kol.  Gr.  1596.— //»//. n.  Fol.  1599.  Gr 
Lat.  &.C.— Paris  PdyglotI,  Fol.  Gr.  Lat.  &c.  1629 — 15. 

2.  Aldink  Text,  1518. 

I *■  \ 

Criihalfri.  Oct.  dr.  1526. — llrrvapii,  F"ol.(;r.  1545. — Urylingcri.  Oct. 
Gr.  1550.— Utf/iWj/  JIarcd.  Fol.  Gr.  1597. 

3.  Roman  on  Vatican  Text,  1587. 

, ■ , 

HV//^i;ii  Pidiiglotla.  Fol.  (Jr.  Lat.  Ac.  1657. — iVoriHi.  Fol.  (Jr.  Lat 
1628.— />n;iiV/.  Qlo.  et  Oct.  (Jr.  1653,  1665.  1683.- C7«i>fri.  Oct 
(Jr.  1697.— «o/i;"i.  (Jr.  (^to.  1709.— v1/i/n',  Oct.  (J.  1725.— 7?rinfrcii 
Oct.  (Jr.  1730,  17.'>7.— A'lrf/incri.  Oct.  (Jr.  1759— /Wmrsii.  Fol 
(Jr.  1798.  &c.  The  iditinns  priutrd  fit  Oxford,  Oct.  Gr.  1805 
\H\1.—  Valpii,  1819— L.  Von  Ess,  1824. 

I  Tills  notice  of  the  principal  cililionB  of  llio  Beptua^lnl  version  is 
chiefly  Uikcii  from  Mnscli  and  Hocriicr's  pdituin  of  I'-i-'lniid'H  Itibliullieca 
Hncrn,  pnrt  li.  vol.  11.  pp.  2f)3— 323.  .Mnny  other  editions  ef  ibis  vori>ion. 
and  of  d'-uichrd  books  of  It,  arc  there  described,  which  wc  have  not  haa 
room  to  detail. 


Sect.  V.  §  2.] 


THE  SEPTUAGINT. 


23 


4.  The  Alexandrian  Text,  1707—9—19—20. 

, " :; ^^ 

Breilingeri.    Qfo.  Gr.  1730-33.      Reineccti   Bihlla    Quadrilbiguia. 
Fol.  Gr.  Lat.  &c.  1750.    Bahcri.  Fol.  1816—27. 

Of  the  various  editions  of  the  Scptuagint  Greek  version,  which 
have  issued  from  the  press,  the  following  more  particularly  claim 
the  notice  of  the  biblical  student.  Most  of  them  contain  the 
New  Testament,  in  addition  to  the  Old ;  but  as  the  principal 
editions  of  the  former  have  already  been  described,  no  notice  will 
be  taken  of  them. 

1.  Biblia  Grajca;  cum  versionc  Latma  ad  verbum.  In  Bibliis 
Polyglottis  Compluti  editis,  1514,  1515,  1517. 

The  text  of  this  edition  was  composed  after  several  manuscripts 
wliich  the  editors  neglected  to  describe ;  they  have  frequently 
been  charged  with  having  altered  the  Greek  text,  to  make  it  har- 
monize with  the  Hebrew,  or  rather  with  the  Vulgate  version,  and 
with  having  filled  up  the  chasms  in  the  Alexandrian  or  Septuagint 
version  from  other  Greek  interpreters. — For  a  further  account  of 
the  Complutensian  Pdlyglott,  see  pp.    19,  20.    of  this  Appendix. 

ViLKum  Ts  Ktu  v'sug. — Sacrse  Scripturse  Veteris  Novceque  omnia. 
Venetiis,  1518,  small  folio. 

This  edition  appeared  in  1518,  two  years  after  the  death  of  Aldus 
Manutius;  it  was  executed  under  the  care  of  his  father-in-law, 
Andreas  Asulanus.  The  text  was  compiled  from  numerous  ancient 
MSS.  Archbishop  Usher  is  of  opinion,  that  in  many  instances  it 
follows  the  readings  of  Aquila's  vereion,  instead  of  those  of  the 
Septuagint.  The  Aldine  text,  however,  is  pronounced  by  Bishop 
Walton  to  be  much  purer  than  that  in  the  Complutensian  Polyglott, 
to  which  it  is  actually  prior  in  point  of  time ;  for  though  the  Poly- 
glott bears  date  1514 — 1517,  it  was  not  published  until  the  year  1522. 
Father  Simon  and  M.  dc  Colomies  concur  in  speaking  very  highly 
ol'  the  execution  of  the  Aldine  edition. 

3.  T»?  ©fwc  rp«j»f,  ?ri.XMU.;  JriKuSn  KUi  vi/.^  eiLTrivrx.,  DivinED 
Scripturte  Veteris  Nova;que  omnia.  Argentorati,  apud  Wo!- 
phium  Cephalffium,  1526.  4  vols.  Svo. 

This  edition  is  of  great  rarity :  the  fourth  vohime  contains  the 
New  Testament.  It  Ibllowsthe  text  of  Aldus,  and  is  not  only  vi'ell 
and  correctly  printed,  put  possesses  the  additional  merit  of  judicious 
punctuation.  Tliougli  the  chapters  are  distinguished,  the  text  is 
not  divided  into  verses ;  and  a  space  is  left  at  the  beginning  of 
eacb  chapter  for  the  insertion  of  the  initial  letter.  The  Apocry- 
phal books,  and  a  small  but  valuable  collection  of  various  readings, 
are  added  in  this  edition  by  the  editor  John  Lonicerus,  a  disciple 
and  follower  of  the  illustrious  reformer.  Dr.  Martin  Luther.  Copies 
of  this  edition  are  sometimes  to  be  met  with,  having  the  date  of 
1520.  They  are  however  all  of  the  same  impression,  the  beginning 
of  the  prefiice  being  altered,  tlie  name  of  Lonicerus  omitted,  and 
that  of  Jerome  submitted  for  Luther,  witli  a  new  title-page. 

4.  T>i?  ©£/a.c  TpuipK,  TTiKoLixc:  JifK:tS>i  k-j.i  vm?  etTrAvra..  Divinse  Scrip- 
tura:  Veteris  ac  Novi  Testament!  omnia,  innumeris  locis  nunc 
jemum,  et  optimorum  librorum  collatione  et  doctorum  vivorum 
opera,  multo  quam  unquam  emendatiora,  in  lucem  edita.  Cum 
Ca;s.  Majest.  gratia  et  privilegio  ad  quinquennium.  Basilia,  per 
Joannem  Hervagium,  1545,  foho. 

In  this  rare  and  little  known  edition,  the  text  of  Lonicerus  is 
chiefly  followed  ;  it  is  said  to  surpass  in  correctness  both  the  Slras- 
burg  and  Venetian  editions,  and  also  has  some  valuable  various 
readings.    The  preface  was  written  by  Melanclhon. 

5.  Biblia  Graeca,  Graece  et  Latine Basileae,  per  Nicho- 

'aum  Bryhngerum.     1550,  5  vols.  Svo. 

Each  of  the  five  volumes,  of  which  this  edition  consists,  has  a 
distinct  title-page  which  is  printed  by  Masch.  The  Greek  and 
Latin  are  placed  in  opposite  rolumns  ;  the  former  from  the  Aldine 
text,  the  latter  from  the  Vulgate,  as  printed  in  the  Complutensian 
Polyglott.  The  type,  though  rather  too  small  to  be  read  with  ease, 
is  pronounced  by  Masch  to  be  distinct  and  neat. 

6.  H  TluXAiA  A/*S«;t)(,  K'xru,  tcu;  EQ-j/uhx-ovta  Si'  slvSivti-jli:  Svttcu 
E'  d^pou  hfX'^f^^  aJcbita-ct. — Vetus  Testamentum  Grmcum,  juxta 
LXX.  Interpretes,  studio  Antonii  Cardinalis  C a  n af;b,  ope  viroruin 
doctorum  adjuti,  cum  prefatione  et  scholiis  Petri  Morini.  Komae 
ex  Typographia  Francisci  Zannetti,  1586,  folio. 

A  beautiful  edition,  of  great  rarity  and  value.  The  copies  of  it 
are  of  two  dates — some  with  m.d.lxxxvi,  as  they  originally  ap- 
peared, and  others  with  the  date  of  m.d.lxxxvii,  the  figure  i.  hav- 
ing been  subsequently  added  with  a  pen.  The  latter  copies  are 
most  commonly  met  with,  and  hence  this  edition  is  usually  dated 
1587.  They  contain  783  pages  of  text,  preceded  by  four  leaves  of 
preliminary  matter,  which  are  followed  by  another  (subsequently 
added),  entitled  Corrigenda  in  notationibus  Psalterii.  This  last 
mentioned  leaf  is  not  found  in  the  copies  bearing  the  date  of  1586, 
w^hich  also  want  the  privilege  of  Pope  Sixtus  V.'' dated  May  9th, 
1537,  at  wliose  request,  and  imder  whose  auspices,  it  was  under- 
taken by  Cardinal  Antonio  Carafa,  aided  by  Antonio  Agelli,  Peter 
Morinus,  Fulvio  Ursino,  Robert  Bellarmin,  Cardinal  Sirlet,  and 


others.  The  celebrated  Codex  Vaticanus  1209  was  the  basis  of  the 
Roman  or  Sixtine  edition,  as  it  is  usually  termed ;  but  the  editors 
did  not  exclusively  adhere  to  that  MS.,  having  changed  both  the 
orthography  and  readings  wlienever  these  appeared  to  them  to  be 
faulty.  Such  is  the  opinion  of  Drs.  Hody  and  Grabe,  Eichhorn, 
Morus,  and  other  eminent  critics ;  though  the  late  Dr.  Holmes  has 
contended  tliat  the  text  of  the  Roman  edition  was  printed  from  one 
single  MS.,  which  was  exclusively  followed  throughout.  The  first 
forty-six  chapters  of  Genesis,  together  with  some  of  the  Psalms,  ana 
the  book  of  Maccabees,  being  obliterated  from  the  Vatican  manu- 
script through  extreme  age,  tlie  editors  are  said  to  have  supplied 
this  deficiency  by  compiling  those  parts  of  the  Septuagint  from  a 
Grecian  and  Venetian  MS.  out  of  Cardinal  Bessarion's  library,  and 
from  another  which  was  brought  to  them  from  Calabria.  So  great 
was  the  agreement  between  the  latter  and  the  Codex  Vaticanus, 
that  they  were  supposed  to  have  been  transcribed  either  the  ono 
from  the  other,  or  both  from  the  same  copy.  Various  readings  are 
given  to  each  chapter.  This  edition  contains  the  Greek  text  only. 
In  1588,  Flaminio  Nobili  printed  at  Rome  in  folio  Vel-us  Testa- 
mentum secundum  LXX.  Latine  redditum.  Tliis  Latin  version  was 
not  composed  by  him,  but  compiled  out  of  the  fragments  of  the 
ancient  Latin  translations,  especially  the  Old  Italic.  It  is  a  splen- 
did volume,  and  of  considerable  rarity.  The  Roman  edition  was 
reprinted  at  Paris  in  1628,  in  three  folio  volumes;  the  New  Testa- 
ment in  Greek  and  Latin  forms  the  third  volume.  This  reprint  is 
in  great  request,  not  only  for  the  neatness  and  correctness  of  its 
execution,  but  also  for  the  learned  notes  which  accompany  it. 
Some  copies  are  occasionally  met  with,  dated  Parisiis,  Figet  1641, 
which  might  lead  us  to  suppose  that  they  were  distinct  editions. 
De  Bure  however  says,  that  they  are  but  one  and  the  same  edition, 
with  a  new  title-page,  probably  printed  by  the  bookseller  who  had 
purchased  the  unsold  copies. 

7.  T>fc  0€/xc  TfupK,  TTAXtiAc  iiiK'JLi»  X.M  n-JLc,  et-ruvTct.  Divinae 
ScripturiE,  nempe  Veteris  ac  Novi  Testamenti,  omnia  ....  Fran- 
cofurti,  apud  Andrese  Wechelii  Haeredes,  1597,  folio. 

This  edition  is  formed  after  that  of  Hervagius,  the  errors  of  the 
latter  being  previously  corrected.  It  has  a  collection  of  various 
readings,  taken  from  the  Complutensian,  Antwerp,  Strasburg,  and 
Roman  editions.  Morinus  charges  the  editor  (who  is  supposed  to 
have  been  Francis  Junius  or  Frederick  Sylbergius)  with  abandon- 
ing the  Aldine  text  in  four  chapters  of  the  book  of  Exodus,  and  in 
tlie  twenty-lburth  chapter  of  the  book  of  Proverbs,  and  substituting 
the  Complutensian  text  in  its  stead.  It  is  very  neatly  printed  on 
clear  types,  and  is  divided  into  verses. 

8.  'H  naxa.;*  A;«S;ik;)  kuth.  tcu;  ECScjuhkhvt*.  Vetus  Testa- 
mentum Graecum  ex  versione  Septuaginta  interpretum.  Lon- 
dini,  excudebat  Rogerus  Daniel,  1653,  4to.  ^ 

This  edition  is  frequently  mentioned  in  catalogues  as  being  both 
in  quarto  and  in  octavo.  Masch  states  that  there  is  but  one  size, 
viz.  in  quarto,  though  the  paper  be  diflferent.  It  professes  to  follow 
the  Sixtine  edition:  but  this  is  not  the  fact;  the  editors  having 
altered  and  interpolated  the  text  in  several  places,  in  order  to 
bring  it  nearer  to  the  Hebrew  text  and  the  modern  versions.  The 
errors  of  this  edition  have  been  retained,  1.  In  that  printed  at  Cam- 
bridge in  1C53,  8vo.  with  a  learned  preface  written  by  Bishop 
Pearson  (whose  initials  are  at  the  end) ;  and,  2.  In  the  very  neat 
Cambridge  edition  printed  by  Field  in  1665,  in  three  volumes,  Svo. 
(including  the  Liturgy  in  Greek  and  the  New  Testament.)  Field's 
edition  was  counterfeited,  page  for  page,  by  John  Hayes,  a  printer 
at  Cambridge,  who  executed  an  edition  in  1684,  to  which  he  put 
Field's  name,  and  the  date  of  1665.  The  fraud,  however,  may 
easily  be  delected,  by  comparing  the  two  editions;  the  typography 
of  the  genuine  one  by  Field  being  very  superior  to  that  of  Hayes. 
The  genuine  Cambridge  edition  was  reprinted  at  Amsterdam,  in 
1683,  in  12mo.  without  the  Greek  Testament.  The  editing  of  it  is 
commonly,  but  erroneously,  ascribed  to  Leusden.  The  omission  of 
Bishop  Pearson's  initials  at  the  end  of  the  preface,  has  caused  the 
latter  to  be  attributed  to  Leusden.  The  book  is  very  neatly  but 
very  incorrectly  printed  in  two  columns,  divided  into  separate 
verses.  The  Apocryphal  books,  which  are  found  in  the  Cambridge 
edition,  arc  altogether  omitted. 

9.  'H  Vlcthcuu.  AixBhkm,  KJtTi  T'.uc  iiCJo/u.nx.ov'Tit.  Vetu.s  Testa- 
mentum Graecum,  ex  versione  Septuaginta  interpretum,  cum 
libris  Apocryphis,  juxta  exemplar  Vaticanum  Romse  editum,  et 
Anglicanum  Londini  excusum.     Lipsite,  1C97,  Svo. 

The  editors  of  this  impression  were  M.  J.  Cluver  and  Tho. 
Klumpf  ;  though  inferior  to  the  London  and  Amsterdam  editions 
in  beauty  of  execution,  it  is  very  far  superior  to  them  in  point  of 
correctness.  The  prolegomena  of  John  Frickius,  prefixed  to  it, 
contain  a  critical  notice  of  preceding  editions  of  the  Septuagint 
Version,  which  is  said  to  be  very  accurate. 

10.  Vetus  Testamentum  Grfecum,  ex  versione  LXX  Interpre- 
tum, ex  antiquissimo  MS.  Codice  Alexandrino  accurate  descrip- 
tum,  et  ope  aliorum  exemplarium  ac  priscorum  scriptorum,  prae- 
sertim  vero  Hexaplaris  Editionis  Origenianae,  emendatum  atque 
suppletum,  additis  saepe  asteriscorum  ct  obelorum  signis,  summa 
curaedidit  Joannes  Ernestus  Grabe,  S.T.P.  Oxonii,  1707, 1709, 
1719,  1720.   4  vols,  folio,  and  S  vols.  Svo. 

This  splendid  edition  exhibits  the  text  of  the  celebrated  Codex 
Alexandrinus,  now  deposited   in  the  British  Museum.    Though 


24 


ANCIENT  VERSIONS. 


[Part  I.  Chap.  I. 


Dr.  Grabc  prepared  the  whole  for  the  press,  yet  he  only  lived  to 
publish  the  Odateuch,  forming  the  first  volume  of  the  folio  edition, 
in  1707,  and  the  fourth,  containing  the  metrical  books,  in  1709.  The 
second  volume,  comprising  the  historical  books,  was  edited  by 
Francis  Lee,  M.D.,  a  very  eminent  Greek  scholar,  in  1719;  and 
the  third  volume,  including  the  prophetical  books,  by  W.  Wigan, 
S.  T.  D.,  in  1720.  This  edition  gives  a  fair  representation  of  the 
Alexandrian  Manuscript  where  it  was  perfect ;  but  where  it  was 
defective  and  incorrect,  the  passages  supf)iicd  and  corrected  read- 
ings are  given  partly  from  the  Codex  Vaticanus,  and  partly  from 
the  Complutensiaii  edition,  in  a  smaller  character  than  that  em- 
ployed in  the  text,  tlie  erroneous  lections  being  printed  in  the  mar- 
gin. The  prolegomena  of  Dr.  Grabe  contain  a  treasure  of  sacred 
criticism.  Dr.  Grabe  designed  to  have  added  copious  notes  to  this 
work,  but  was  prevented  by  death  from  composing  them.  After 
the  folio  sheets  were  slruck'olfi  the  pages  were  divided,  and  over- 
run into  an  octavo  form,  to  prevent  the  book  from  being  piratically 
printed  in  Germany. 

1 1 .  'H  riAA'UjL  A«Si-zjj  xxTX  T(,v(  ^ti'.uy.K-.VTa..  Vetus  Tcsta- 
nientum  ex  vcrsione  Septuaginta  Intcrprctum  secundum  Exem- 
plar Vaticanum  RomsE  editum,  accuratissime  denue  recognitum  ; 
una  cum  scholiis  eju.sdem  editiouis,  variis  Manuscriptorum  Codi- 
cum  Vetcrumque  Exemplarium  Lectionibus,  necnon  fragmcntis 
Versionum  AquiliE,  Synimachi,  et  Theodotionis.  Sumnia  curfi 
edidit  Lainbertus  Bos.     Franequeroe.  1709.  4to. 

An  elegant  and  accurate  edition,  which  is  deservedly  esteemed. 
The  preface  of  the  editor.  Professor  Bos,  contains  a  critical  disqui- 
tiiion  on  the  Septuagiut  Version  and  its  utility  in  sacred  criticism, 
together  with  an  account  of  the  preceding  principal  editions.  Bos's 
text  was  reprinted  at  Amsterdam  in  17'2.^,  in  two  8vo.  vols,  under 
the  editorial  care  of  David  ;\Iill.  It  contains  various  reading.s  Ironi 
some  MS.S.  at  Leyden,  v.hich,  however,  are  of  no  great  critical 
value. 

12.  'H  ITaAsui  ^i'^iiim  KtLra.  T'.vi  LSSc/ui^K'.vra.  Vetus  Testa- 
mcntum  ex  Versione  Septuaginta  Inteqiretum,  dim  ad  fidem 
Codicis  MS.  Alexandrini  summo  studio  ct  incredibili  diiigenta 
cxpressum,  emendatum  et  suppletum  a  Joanne  Ernesti  Grabio, 
5S.T.P.  Nunc  vcro  cxemplaris  Vaticani  aliorumque  MSS.  Codd. 
Lectionibus  var.  nee  non  criticis  dissertatioiiibus  iliustratum 
insigniterque  locupletatuni,  summa  cura  edidit  Joannes  Jacobus 
BnEiTiNUEHCS.     Tiguri  Helvetiorum.     1730-1-2.    4  vols.  4to. 

This  edition  is  a  correct  reprint  of  Dr.  Grabe's  edition,  to  which 
are  added,  at  the  foot  of  the  page,  the  various  readings  of  the  Roman 
or  Vatican  edition,  and  of  three  manuscripts  belonging  to  the  library 
of  the  Academy  at  Basle.  The  beauty  of  its  typography  and  paper, 
aiid  its  critical  value,  concur  to  render  this  edition  highly  esteemed  ; 
it  is  consequently  both  scarce  and  dear.  Michaelis  pronounces  it 
to  be  the  best  edition  of  the  Septuagint  ever  printed,  that  is,  up  to 
his  time. 

13.  'H  UctK-Jju.  AiidnKn  )ciT*  rev;  EQ'.juuk'a-tu.  Vetus  Testa- 
mentum  Grajcuin  ex  Versione  Se[)tuaginta  Interpretum,  una  cum 
Libris  Apocryphis,  secundum  Exemplar  Vaticanum  Romre  edi- 
tum et  aliquoties  recognitum,  quod  nunc  dcnuo  ad  optinias 
([uasque  editionis  recensuit,  et  pofiorcs  quaswlain  CodicLs  Alexan- 
drini et  aliorum  Lectiones  variantes  adjccit  M.  Christianus  Rei- 
XEcrics.     Lipsia;,  1730,  8vo.     17.^7,  Svo.  edit,  secunda. 

A  neat  and  commodious  edition,  though  the  type  is  rather  loo 
small.    The  apocryphal  books  are  at  the  end  of  tlie  volume. 

14.  'H  rixKiua.  Ai-xSitiui.  Vetus  Tcstamcntum  ex  versione  Sep- 
tuaginta Intcrprctum,  ad  exemplar  Vaticanum  Roma3  editum  ex 
optimis  cotiicibus  impressum.  Acccsserunt  Libii  Apocryphi. 
liala;,  sumptibus  Orphanotrophei.     1759.  12mo. 

An  edition  of  more  promise  than  execution.  Masch  denounces 
it  as  very  incorrect,  and  says,  that  instead  of  being  taken  from  the 
best  coiliccs  (as  the  editor  professes),  or  editions,  it  agrees  with  the 
London,  Cambridge,  and  Leipsic  editions. 

15.  Vetus  Testamentum  Graicuni,  cum  variis  Lectionibus, 
edidit  Robcrlus  Holmks,  D.D.,  Decanu.s  W'intonicnsis.  Tom.  I. 
Oxonii,  e  Typographco  Clarendoniaiio.   1798.  folio. 

Vetus  Testamentum  Grjrrum,  cum  variis  Lectionibu.f.  Edi- 
tionem  a  Roberto  Holmes,  S.T.P.  inchoaUim  continuavlt  Jacobus 
Pahsons,  H.T.U.  Tom.  II. — V.  Oxonii,  e  Typographeo  Claren- 
doniano.    1818 — 27.  folio. 

To  llie  University  of  Ojiford  belongs  the  honour  of  giving  to  the 
public  this  valuable  and  splfndid  editimi  of  the  Sei'lnairint  \'cr- 
sion.  In  the  year  1788,  the  late  licv.  Dr.  IIoImich,  Dean  nf  Win- 
ehcstcr,  circulated  proposals  lor  coll.itiiig  nil  Ihn  MS.S.  of  that 
VcrHioM  known  to  be  cxlunl.  These  Ifcitig  libendly  RupiHtrlcd  by 
riiVilic  anil  private  patrons.  Dr.  II.  published  annual  accounts  of 
Lis  rollalion.>;,  which  amounted  to  sixteen  in  nuiulicr,  up  to  the 
tJiue  of  his  decease.  In  1795  he  published,  in  (<>lio,  two  Latin 
epistles  to  the  Bishop  of  Durham,  rontaining  specimeris  of  his  pro- 
jiotted  work;  and  in  1798  appeared  the  first  part  of  vol.  i.  coninui- 
ing  the  JKKjk  of  Genesis:  part  il.  comprising  Kxodus  and  Levilicu.'*, 
was  published  in  1801;  and  the  books  of  iN'umljers  and  Deuteronomy, 
Which  Complete  iho  first  volume,  in  1604.   The  date  of  1798,  tliere- 


fore,  in  the  title-page  of  the  first  volume,  is  not  strictly  correct.  A 
general  preiace  to  this  volume,  in  four  chapters,  discusses  the  his- 
tory of  the  Koivji,  or  common  text  of  the  Septuagint  Version,  and  its 
various  corrections ;  describes  the  MSS.  consulted  for  this  edition 
(eleven  of  which  were  written  in  uncial  letters,  and  upwards  of 
one  hundred  in  small  letters) ;  and  gives  an  account  of  the  printed 
editions  of  the  LXX.,  of  the  Fathers,  and  other  Greek  writers  quoted 
in  the  various  readings,  and  of  the  several  ancient  versions,  viz. 
the  Old  Italic  or  Ante-IIieronymian  Latin,  the  Coptic,  Sahidic 
Syriac  (made  from  the  Greek  text),  Arai)ic,  Sclavonic,  Armenian, 
and  the  Georgian  versions,  whence  various  readings  in  the  Penta- 
teuch have  been  extracted.  Each  of  the  five  books  of  Moses  is 
furnished  with  a  short  preface  and  an  appendi.x ;  and  at  the  end  of 
the  volume  are  eleven  \)a.ges  of  addenda  et  cmeiidaiiJa.  Dr.  Holmes 
also  published  the  book  of  Daniel,  in  1805,  according  to  the  text 
of  Theodotion  and  the  Septuagint,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  Pen- 
tateuch, a  few  months  before  his  death.  The  text  is  printed  on  a 
strong  and  beautiful  type,  after  the  Sixline  or  Roman  edition  of 
1587;  and  the  deviations  from  it,  which  are  observable  in  the 
Complutensian  and  Aldiue  editions,  and  in  that  of  Dr.  Grabe,  are 
constantly  noted.  For  this  edition  were  collated  three  hundred 
and  eleven  manuscripts,  the  various  lections  of  which  are  exhibited 
at  the  fool  of  the  page.  On  Dr.  Holmes's  death,  in  1805,  after  a 
considerable  but  unavoidable  delay,  the  publication  of  this  impor- 
tant work  was  resumed  by  the  Rev.  J.  Parsons,  A.  M.  (now  B.D.), 
under  whose  editorial  care  the  second  volume  was  completed  in 
1818.  It  comprises  all  the  historical  books  from  Joshua  to  the 
second  book  of  Chronicles  inclusively  ;  tiie  several  fasciculi  of 
which  were  published  in  the  following  order,  viz.  Joshua  in  1810; 
Judges  and  Ruth  in  1812 ;  1  Kings  in  1813  ;  and  the  five  remain- 
ing books  in  the  four  succeeding  years,  tlie  whole  being  printed 
oil'  in  the  early  part  of  1818.  The  third  and  fourth  volumes  con- 
taining the  book  of  Job  to  the  prophet  Jeremiah,  inclusive,  were 
published  between  the  j'ears  1819^ — 1825:  and  the  remaining  (or 
fifth)  volume,  which  contains  the  Apocryphal  books,  between  the 
years  1825  and  1827.  The  jilari  laid  down  by  Dr.  Holmes  has  been 
followed  by  his  learned  successor,  whose  continuation  is  executed 
in  the  same  splendid  and  accurate  manner  as  the  Pentateuch. 
Tlie  reader  will  find  a  copious  and  very  interesting  critique  on  the 
Jii-gf  volumeof  this  inasruiticcnt  undertaking  in  the  Eclectic  Review, 
vol.  ii.  part  i.  pp.  85—90.  214—221.  267—274.  337—348. ;  and  of  the 
si:co7id  volume  in  the  Classical  Journal,  vol.  ix.  pp.  475 — ^179.  and 
vol.  xix.  pp.  367 — 372. 

16.  Psalterium  Graicum  e  CoJice  MS.  Alexandrino,  qui  Lon- 
dini  in  Bibliotheca  Musei  Britannici  asservatur,  Tyjiis  ad  Simili- 
tudincm  ipsius  Codicis  Scripturro  fidelitcr  descriptum,  Cura  et 
liaborc  Henrici  Herveii  Baker,  A.M.  Musei  Britannici  fiib- 
liothccarii.     Londini,  1812,  folio. 

This  is  an  exact  fac-siniile  of  the  book  of  Psalms,  from  the  Codex 
Alcxandrinus,  which  has  been  described  in  Part  I.  of  the  second 
volume.  There  is  a  chasm  of  about  nine  leaves  in  the  original 
manuscript,  from  Psalm  xlix.  19.  to  Psalm  Ixxix.  12.  The  types 
are  the  same  as  were  used  for  Dr.  Woide's  fac-simile  edition  of  the 
jNew  Testament,  noticed  in  p.  13.  supra.  Tlie  numbers  of  the 
Psalms  and  verses  are  subjoined  at  the  fb<jt  of  the  page,  for  conve- 
nience of  reference.  Appropriate  marks  are  introduced,  to  point 
out  words  which  have  citlier  become  obliterated  in  course  of  time, 
or  have  been  designedly  erased,  or  which  have  been  rewritten 
by  a  later  hand.  At  the  end  of  the  volume  there  is  a  collation  of 
the  various  readings  of  the  .•\lexaiidrian  MS.  of  the  book  of  Psalms, 
with  the  Roman  edition  of  the  Vatican  text  of  the  Si>|tluagint, 
printed  in  1587.  Twelve  copies  of  this  elegant  (iic-siniile  were 
printed  on  vellum,  to  match  with  (he  same  number  of  copies  of 
Dr.  Woide's  edition.  . 

17.  Vetus  Testamentum  Graicum  c  Codicc  MS.  Alexandrine, 
qui  Londini  in  Bibliotheca  Musei  Britannici  asservatur,  Typis 
ad  Simililudineni  ipsius  Codicis  Scriptura;  fidelitcr  descriptum, 
Cura  et  Lahore  Henrici  Herveii  Bauer,  A.M.  Londini,  1816 — 
28.  4  vols,  folio. 

At  the  close  of  his  preface  lo  the  preceding  fac-simile  edition  of 
the  book  of  Psalms,  the  Rev.  II.  II.  Babcr  nnuouiieed  his  intention 
of  proceeding  with  the  Old  Testament,  in  a  similar  manner:  but 
this  was  an  undertaking  loo  vast  and  too  extensive  for  an  uubene- 
fictnl  clergyni;in.  In  consequence,  therefore,  of  a  memorial  by  Mr. 
B.,  seconded  by  the  recouimendatiou  of  several  dignitaries  cif  llio 
Anglican  ciiurch,  us  well  as  professors  and  heads  of  colleges  in 
the  two  universities,  the  British  Purluunent  engaged  to  dcfi-ay  the 
expense  of  complelinjj  this  noble  work.  (.See  the  Memorial  and 
oih'T  Proceedings  in  llie  Literary  P.morama,  vol.  i.  N.S.  110.465 — 
478.)  The  first  three  volumes  comprihc  the  entire  text  of  the  Se])- 
luagmt;  and  the  Iburtli  volume  coiiiuins  the  .Notes  and  the  Prole- 
gomena. The  whole  is  executed  in  a  s|)lendid  folio  size,  and  in 
such  a  mantu'r  as  fnithfully  to  represent  every  iota  of  the  original 
luunuscript.  The  better  I'o  preserve  the  identity  of  the  oriuinal, 
Mr.  Bailor  has  introduced  a  greater  variety  of  type  than  Dr.  Woide 
could  command  lor  his  liic-simile  edition  of  the  New  Testument, 
together  with  numerous  wooil-culs.  The  tail  jiieces,  or  ruile  ara- 
besque ornainenis  at  the  end  of  each  Ixxik,  are  also  represented  by 
means  of  fiie-similes  in  \vo(h1.  The  edition  is  limited  to  two  hun- 
dre<!  and  fifty  conies,  ten  of  which  are  on  vellum.  The  execution 
of  the  whole  ot  this  iiolile  undertaking  is  such  as  reflects  the 
highest  credit  (m  the  learned  editor,  and  on  his  printers,  Messrs. 
R.  and  A.  Taylor. 


Sect.  V,  §  3.] 


ANCIENT  VERSIONS. 


25 


1 8.  Vetiis  Testamentum  Grsecum  ex  Versione  LXX  secun- 
dam  Exemplar  Vaticanum  Romse  editum.  Acccdunt  varise 
Lectiones  e  Codice  Alexandrino  necnon  Introductio  J.  B.  Carp- 
zovii.  Oxonii,  e  Typographeo  Clarendoniano.  1817,  6  vols.  8vo. 

An  accurate  and  beautifully  printed  edition  :  there  are  copies  on 
large  paper.  The  introduction  is  extracted  from  the  second  and 
third  chapters  of  Carpzov's  Critica  Sacra,  Part  III.,  which  trea- 
tise is  noticed  in  the  subsequent  part  of  this  Appendix. 

19.  Vetus  Testamentum  ex  Versione  Septuaginta  Interpre- 
tum,  juxta  Exemplar  Vaticanum,  ex  editione  Holmesii  et  Lam- 
berti  Bos.     Londini,  in  ^dibus  Valianis.     1819,  8vo. 

This  elegantly-executed  volume  is  very  correctly  printed,  after 
the  editions  of  ilolmes  and  Bos,  and  (which  cannot  but  recommend 
it  to  students  in  preference  to  the  incorrect  Cambridge  and  Am- 
sterdam reprints  of  the  Vatican  text)  its  price  is  so  reasonable  as  to 
place  it  within  the  reach  of  almost  every  one. 

20.  'H  XlAK'xtA  Ata.6>iK-ri  x.3.Ta.  rove  eCSo/ui;x.ovtu.  Vctus  Testa- 
mentum ex  Versione  LXX  Interpretum,  juxta  Exemplar  Vati- 
canum, ex  editione  Holmesii  et  Lamberti  Bos.  Glasguae,  1822. 
3  tomis,  12mo.  Editio  nova,  Glasguie  et  Londini,  1831.  2  tomis, 
18mo. 

These  very  neatly  printed  editions  are  also  formed  after  those 
of  Holmes  and  Bos  :  they  were  executed  at  the  university  press  of 
Glasgow.  To  the  edition  of  1831  is  prefixed  the  learned  preface 
of  Bp.  Pearson,  which  is  copied  from  the  Cambridge  edition  of 
1C53. 

21.  'H  Uuintu.  A/afl^w)  )ta,Tst  tcv;  'ESSo/umovrct :  seu  Vetus  Tes- 
tamentum Graece,  juxta  Septuaginta  Interprctes  ex  auctoritate 
Sixti  V.  Editionis,  juxta  Exemplar  Originale  Vaticanum  Romas 
editum  quoad  tcxtum  accuratissime  et  ad  amussim  recusum, 
cura  et  studio  Leandri  vox  Ess.     Lipsite,  1824,  8vo. 

This  edition  is  stereotyped,  and  is  very  neatly  executed.  There 
are  copies  on  thick  paper,  which  are  an  ornament  to  any  library. 


23.  Daniel  secundum  Septuaginta  ex  Tctraplis  OrigenLs,  nunc 
primum  editus  e  singulari  Codice  Chisiano  annorum  supra 
icccc.    Romse,  1772,  folio. 

For  a  full  account  of  this  splendid  work,  see  Bibl.  Sussex  vol.  i. 
part  ii.  pp.  281 — 283.,  and  Masch's  Bibliotlieca  Sacra,  part  ii.  vol.  ii. 
pp.  320-— 322.  The  octavo  reprints  at  Gottingen  in  1774,  and  at 
Utrecht  in  1775,  are  very  inferior  to  the  original  edition. 

[ii.]  Editions  of  Origkn's  Hexapla. 

1.  Hexaplorum  Origensis  quse  supersunt.  Ex  Manuscriptis 
et  ex  Libris  editis  erait  et  Notis  illuslravit  D.  Bernardus  de 
MoxTFAucoN.  Accedunt  Opuscula  quasdam  Origenis  anecdota, 
et  ad  calcem  Lexicon  Hebraicum  ex  vaterum  Interpretationibus 
concinnatum,  itemque  Lexicon  Grsecum,  et  alia.  Parisiis,  1713. 
2  vols,  folio. 

The  best  edition,  unhappily  very  rare,  of  the  remains  of  Origen's 
Hexapla.  The  first  volume  contains  a  very  valuable  preliminary 
disquisition  on  the  Hebrew  text,  and  on  the  difl<3rent  ancient  Greek 
versions ;  together  with  a  minute  account  of  Origen's  biblical 
labours,  and  some  ineditcd  fragments  of  Origen,  &c.  To  these  suc- 
ceed the  remains  of  the  Hexapla,  from  Genesis  to  the  Book  of 
Psalms  inclusive.  The  second  volume  comprises  the  rest  of  the 
Hexapla  to  the  end  of  the  twelve  minor  prophets,  together  with 
Greek  and  Hebrew  Lexicons  to  the  Hexapla. 

2.  Hexaplorum  Origenis  quae  supersunt.  Edidit,  notisquc 
illustravit  Car.  Frider.  Bahbdt.  Lipsiae  et  Lubeca,  1769 — 70. 
2  vols.  8vo. 

Professor  Bahrdt  undertook  this  edition  for  those  who  could  not 
afford  to  purchase  Monlfaucon's  magnificent  edition.  He  has 
omitted,  as  mmecessary,  the  translation  of  the  fragments,  the  ex- 
planation of  particular  words  occurring  in  the  notes,  and  some 
scholia.  He  has  improved  the  arrangement  of  the  materials  col- 
lected by  Montfaucon,  and  has  added  some  further  fragments  of 
Origen's  Hexapla,  from  a  Leipsic  manuscript.  Bahrdt  has  also 
given  many  additional  notes,  which  however  are  not  distinguished 
from  those  of  Montfaucon.  The  Hebrew  words  are  given  in  Greek 
characters.  This  edition  was  severely  criticised  by  Fischer,  in  his 
Prolusiones  de  Versionibus,  Grascis,  p.  34.  note. 

The  Fragments  of  the  versions  by  Aquila,  "Theodotion,  and  Sym- 
machus,  collected  by  Morin  and  others,  are  printed  in  the  editions 
of  the  Septuagint  Version  executed  at  Rome  in  1587,  at  Frankfort 
in  1597,  at  London  in  1653,  at  Leipsic  in  1697,  and  at  Franeker  in 
1709. 

3.  Animadversionis,  quibus  Fragmenta  Versionum  Grsecarurn 
V.  T.  a  Bern.  MontcMconio  collecta,  illustrantur,  [et]  emendan- 
tur.  Auctore  Jo.  Gottfr.  Scarfbnbekg.  Specimina  duo  Lipsiaj, 
1776—81,  8vo. 

4.  Curae  Hexaplares  in  Jobum,  e  Codice  Syriaco-Hexaplari 
Ambrosio-Mediolanensi.  Scripsit  Henricus  Mibbexdoupf. 
Vratislavise,  1817,  4to. 


[iii.]  Another  ancient  Greek  Version. 


1.  Nova  Versio  Grseca  Pentateuchi,  ex  unico  S.  Marci  Biblio- 
thecoe  Codice  Veneto.  Edidit  atque  recensuit  Chr.  Frid.  Am.mon. 
Erlangffl,  1790-91.    3  vols.  8vo. 

2.  Nova  Versio   Gra;ca   Proverbiorum,   Ecclesiastis,    Cantici 
Canticorum,  Ruthi,  Threnorum,  Danielis,  et  selectorum  Penta- 
teuchi Locorum.    Ex  unico  S.  Marci  Bibliothecse  Codice  Veneto 
nunc  primum  eruta,  et  notulis  illustrata  a  Joanne  Baptiste  Cas 
pare  D'Ansse  de  Villoison.     Argentorati,  1784. 


§  3.  Ancient  Oriental  Versions. 

[i.  The  Striac  Versions.] 
The  Peschito  or  Old  Syriac  Version. 

1.  Biblia  Syriaca  Veteris  et  Novi  Testamenti.  Parisiis,  1645, 
folio.     (In  Le  Jay's  Polyglott  Bible.) 

2.  Biblia  Sacra  Veteris  et  Novi  Testamenti.  Londini,  1657, 
folio.     (In  Bp.  Walton's  Polyglott  Bible.) 

3.  Vetus  Testamentum  Syriace,  eos  tantum  Libros  sistens,  qui 
in  Canone  Hebraico  habentur,  ordine  vero,  quoad  fieri  potuit, 
apud  Syros  usitato  dispositas.  In  usum  Ecclesia?  Syrorum 
Malabarensium,  jussu  Societatis  Biblics3  recognovit,  ad  fidem 
codicum  Manuscriptorum  emendavit,  edidit  Samuel  Lee,  A.M. 
LinguiE  Arabicse  apud  Cantabrigienses  Professor.  Londini, 
1823,  4to. 

This  edition  was  printed  under  the  patronage  of  the  Church 
Missionary  Society,  and  at  the  expense  of  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society.  Three  manuscripts  have  been  collated  for  this  edi- 
tion, viz.  1.  The  valuable  manuscript  brought  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Bu- 
chanan from  Travancore  in  the  East  Indies,  collated  by  Professor 
Lee ;  2.  Another  manuscript  belonging  to  the  Rev.  Dr.  Adam  Clarke; 
and,  3.  A  manuscript  of  the  Syriac  Pentateuch  found  by  Mr.  (now 
Dr.)  Lee  in  the  Library  of  New  College,  Oxford.  (Report  of  the 
Church  Missionary  Society  for  1817 — 18,  p.  154.) 

4.  Novum  Testamentum,  Syriace,  cura  Albcrti  VI^idman- 
STADii.    (Vienna^  Austriacie,  1555.)  4to. 

The  first  edition  of  the  Syriac  New  Testament:  it  is  very  rare 
Dr.  Masch  has  given  a  long  account  of  it  in  his  Bibliotheca  Sacra, 
part  ii.  vol.  i.  pp.  70 — 79.  There  are  copies  dated  Viennsc  Austri- 
acse,  1562, 4to. ;  but  they  are  the  same  edition  with  a  new  tiile-page. 

5.  Novum  Domini  Nostri  Jesu  Christi  Testamentum  Syria- 
cum,  cum  Versione  Latina;  cura  et  studion  Johannis  Leusden 
et  Caroli  Schaaf.  Ad  onmes  editiones  diligenter  recensitum,  ct 
variis  lectionibus,  mano  labore  collectis,  adornatum.  Secunda 
editio  a  mendis  repurgata.   Lugduni  Batavorum,  1717,  4to. 

The  first  edition  appeared  in  1708 ;  but  copies  are  most  com- 
monly to  be  met  with  bearing  the  date  of  1709.  Michaelis  pro- 
nounces this  to  be  "  the  very  best  edition  of  the  Syriac  New  "l^es- 
tament.  The  very  excellent  Lexicon  which  is  annexed  to  it  will 
ever  retain  its  value,  being,  as  far  as  regards  the  New  Testament, 
extremely  accurate  and  complete,  and  supplying  in  some  measure 
the  place  of  a  concordance."  (Introd.  to  New  Test.  vol.  ii.  part  i. 
p.  17.) 

6.  Textus  Sacrorum  Evangeliorum  Versionis  Simplicis  Syri- 
ace, juxta  Editionem  Schaafianam,  coUatus  cum  duobus  ejusdem 
vetustis  Codd.  MSS.  in  Bibliotheca  Bodleiana  repositis ;  nee  non 
cum  Cod.  MS.  Commehtarii  Grcgorii  Bar-Hebraei  ibidem  adscr- 
vato,  a  Ricardo  Jones.  Oxonii,  e  Typographeo  Clarendoniano, 
1805,  4to. 

This  publication  is  neccssaiy  to  complete  Schaaf 's  edition ;  it  has 
two  fac-sirailes  of  the  Syriac  MSS.  collated  by  the  editor. 

7.  Michaelis  (Joannis  Davidis)  Cura;  in  Versionem  Syria- 
cam  Actuum  Apostolicorum ;  cum  Consectariis  Criticis  de  In- 
dole, Cognationibus,  et  usu  Versionis  Syriacse  Novi  Foederis. 
Gottingffi,  1755,  4to. 

8.  Novum  Testamentum  Syriace,  denuo  recognitum,  atque 
ad  fidem  Codicum  Manuscriptorum  emendatum.  Londini, 
1816,  4to. 

A  beautiful  edition,  executed  at  the  press  of  Mr.  Richard  Watts, 
for  the  use  of  the  Syrian  Christians  in  India,  by  whom  it  is  stated 
to  have  been  received  with  the  utmost  gratitude.  This  edition 
was  corrected  for  the  press,  as  far  as  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  by 
the  late  Rev.  Dr.  Buchanan ;  and  was  completed  by  the  Rev.  Samuel 
Lee,  A.M.  [now  D.D.],  Professor  of  Arabic  in  the  University  of 
Cambridge.  The  expense  of  the  edition  was  defrayed  by  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  There  is  an  interesting  com- 
munication by  Prof  Lee  concerning  this  edition  in  Dr.  Wait's 
translation  of  Hug's  Introduction  to  the  New  Test.  vol.  i.  pp.  368- 
370.  notes. 


26 


AN'CIENT  VERSIONS. 


[Part  I.  Cbap.  L 


The  preceding  are  ihe  principal  editions  of  the  Old  Syriac  Ver- 
Bions.  For  a  more  copious  account  of  them  and  of  various  other 
editions,  see  Bp.  Marslj's  Translalion  of  Michaelis's  Introduction 
to  the  New  Testament,  vol.  ii.  part  i.  pp.  4 — 18.  and  part  ii.  pp. 
636—546 ;  also  Masch's  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  part  ii.  vol.  i.  pp.  71 — 1U2. 

The  Pldhxenian  Svriac  Version. 

1.  Sacrorum  Evangeliorum  Versio  Syriaca  Philoxeniana,  e.v 
Codd.  MSS.  Ridleianis  in  Bibliotheca  Collegii  IS'ovi  O.Kon.  repo- 
sitis;  nunc  primum  cdita,  cum  Intcrprctatione  Latina  et  Anno- 
tationibus  Joscphi  White.  O.xonii,  e  Typographeo  Clarcndo- 
niano,  1778.  2  tomis,  4to. 

2.  Actuum  Apostolorum,  et  Epistolarum  tam  Catholicarum 

quam  Paulinarum,  Versio  Syriaca  Philo.\cniana cum 

Iiitcrpretatione  Latina  ct  Annotationibus  Joseph!  White.  Oxo- 
nii,  e  Typographeo  Clarcndoniano,  1799.  2  tomis,  4to. 

The  Syro-Estran^elo  or  Syriac  Jlexaplar  Version. 

1.  Specimen  iiiedita;  et  Hexaplaris  Bibliorum  Versionis,  Syro- 
Estranghclae,  cum  simplici  atquc  utriusque  fontibus,  GriECO  et 
HcbrsBO,  collatffi  cum  duplici  Latina  vcrsionc  et  notis.  Edidit, 
ac  diatribam  de  rarissimo  codice  Ambrosiano,  iinde  illud  haustum 
est,  pra!raisit  Johannes  Bern.  Rossi.     Parmae,  1778,  Bvo. 

This  specimen  consists  of  the  first  psalm  printed  in  six  columns. 
The  first  contains  the  (ireek  text  of  the  Sepiuagint;  the  second, 
the  Syro-Estrangelo  text;  the  third,  the  Latin  text  translated  from 
tlje  S'eptuagint;  the  fourth,  tiic  Hebrew  text;  the  fifth,  iho  Fcsc/iito 
or  Old  Syriac  text  above  noticed ;  and  the  sixtli,  the  Latin  text 
translated  from  tliis  latter  version. 

2.  Codex  Syriaco-Hexaplarie.  Edidit  Henricus  Middeldoupf. 
Berolini,  1831.  2  tomis,  4to. 

Vol.  I.  contaim  the  Syriac  text  of  the  books  of  Kings  and  Chro- 
nicles, Isaiah,  the  twelve  Minor  Prophets,  Proverlw,  Job,  Song  of 
Saitgs,  tlie  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah,  and  Ecclesiastes.  \o[.  II. 
contains  the  critical  commentary  of  the  learned  editor. 

[ii.]  The  Arauic  Vehsiox. 

1.  Biblia  Arabica  Vctcris  et  Novi  Tcstamenti.  Parisits,  1645, 
folio.    (In  Lc  Jay's  Polyglott  Bible.) 

2.  Biblia  Arabica  Vetcris  ct  Novi  Tcstamenti.  Londini,  16.57, 
folio.    (In  Bp.  Walton's  Polyglott  Bible.) 

3.  Biblia  Sacra  Arabica,  Sacra  Congregationis  de  Propaganda 
Fide  jussu  edita  in  usum  Ecclesiarum  Orientalium :  additis  e 
Rcgionc  Bibiiis  Latini-s  Vulgatis.     Romx,  1671.  3  tomis,  folio. 

This  edition  was  published  under  the  inspection  of  Sergius 
IllRiu.-s,  the  Romisli  Bisliop  of  Damascus.  It  is  in  Arabic  and  Lalin. 
•'  But  il  is  of  no  use,  eiiher  to  a  critic  or  an  exposiior  of  the  New 
Testament,  bein;;  altered  from  the  Latin  Version."  (Michaelis, 
vol.  ii.  part  i.  p.  93.) 

4.  The  Holy  Bible,  containing  the  Old  and  New  Testaments 
m  the  Arabic  Language.     Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  1811,  4to. 

Twelve  copies  of  this  beautifully  executed  edition  were  prinled 
in  large  lolio  lor  prescnLs:  one  of  these  is  deposited  in  tlio  British 
Museum. 

5.  Novum  T).  N.  Jc.^u  Christi  Tcstamentum,  Arabice,  ex 
Bibliotheca  Lcidensi;  odcnte  Thoma  Erpenio.  In  Tyjwgraphia 
Erpcniana  Linguarum  Orientalium.  [Lugduni  Batavorum] 
Anno  1616,  4to. 

Erponuis  published  this  edition  of  the  Arabic  New  Testament, 
from  a  manuscript  said  to  be  written  a.  i>.  VMZ,  in  the  monaslory 
of  Saint  John,  in  the  desert  of  Tliobais:  he  has  copied  liis  niaini- 
script  with  singular  accuracv,  even  where  there  appeared  to  be 
grammatical  errors.  Micliaelis  says  that  this  is  the  most  elen;nnt, 
Ihithful,  and  genuine  edition  of  the  Arabic  vcraion,  but  is  unlbrtu- 
natoly  \eTy  ditficult  to  be  procured. 

6.  Novum  Tcstamentum  Arabicum.     Londini,  1727,  4to. 
This  eililion,  whicli  ronsiste.l  often  lliousnnd  copies,  was  printed 

nt  tlie  expense  of  the  Society  lor  pDmoling  ChriMian  Knowledge, 
f  )r  the  use  of  the  ChriHlians  in  Asia.  Its  basis  is  the  text  of  the 
Paris  and  I.ondon  PoIvk'""":  ''"'  ''"^  editor,  Solomon  Negri  ha-s 
altered  it  in  those  passages  whieh  vary  from  the  reading  of  onr 
presenKireek  text.  It  is  theriffore  of  no  Use  either  in  the  criticism 
or  interpretation  of  the  New  Testament.  The  same  remark  is 
applicable  to 

7.  Quatuor  Evangelia,  Arabice,  Romse,  e  Typographia  Medi- 
cea,  Romo!,  1501,  folio. 

"This  edition  was  printed  nt  Romo  in  1590  nnrl  1591  in  tho 
Medicean  printing-hoiisr; :  1590  slands  on  the  filh-  page,  1591  in 
the  iubscriplion:  to  some  of  tho  copies  is  annexed  a  Latin  transla- 
tion." cMichaelis.)  This  version  ii|)|)ears  to  liave  l>een  made  from 
the  Greek  le»t.  i'he  llornan  edition  of  the  J'our  (;ospelM  was  ro- 
prmlcd  with  noino  corroctionn  in  the  Paris  Polyglott,  and  again 


witli  very  numerous  corrections  from  manuscripts  by  Bishop  Wal 
ton  in  the  London  Polyglott. 

For  more  particular  accounts  of  the  preceding  and  of  other  edi 
tions  of  the  Arabic  Versions  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  or  of 
detached  portions  thereof,  the  reader  is  referred  to  RIasch,  part  ii. 
vol.  i.  pp.110 — 139.;  Michaelis's  Introduction,  vol.  ii.  parti,  pp 
84 — 94. ;  Schnurrer's  Bibliotlieca  Arabica,  pp.  389 — 397.;  and  Hug's 
Introduction  by  Dr.  Wait,  vol.  i.  pp.  445—454. 

8.  Commcntatio  Critica,  exhibens  c  Bibliotheca  Oxoniensi 
Bodleiana  Specimina  Versionum  Pentateuchi  septem  Arabica- 
rum,  nondum  editarum,  cum  Observalionibus.  Scripsit  Henricus 
Eberhardus  Gottlob  Paulvs.     Jena;,  1789,  8vo. 

[iii.]  The  PEnsic  VEnsiox. 

1.  Pentateuchi  Versio  Pcrsica,  interprete  Jacobo  fdio  Joseph 
Tavos,  seu  Tawscnsi,  Judaso.     Constantinopoli,  1546,  folio. 

This  extremely  rare  edition,  which  is  printed  with  Hebrew- 
types,  and  accompanied  with  the  Hebrew  text,  is  reprinted  in  the 
iburth  volume  of  the  London  Polyglott,  with  Persian  characters, 
and  a  Latin  translation. 

2.  Quatuor  Evangeliorum  Domini  nostri  Jesu  Christi,  Versio 
Pcrsica  Syriacam  ct  Arabicam  suavissimc  reddens :  ad  verba  et 

mentcm  Grajci  Textiis  fidelitcr  et  venuste  concinnata Per 

Abrahamum  Whelocu.'*!.     Londini,  1657,  foUo. 

3.  Evangelia  Quatuor  Persice,  interj)rete  Symone  F.  Joseph 
Taurinensi,  juxta  codicem  Pocockianum,  cum  Ver.sione  Latina 
Samuelis  Clerici.  Londini,  1657,  folio.  (In  the  fifth  volume 
of  Bp.  Walton's  Polyglott  Bible.) 

[iv.]  The  Egtptiait  Versions. 
Coptic,  or  Dialect  of  Loxver  Egypt. 

1.  Quinque  Libri  Moy.sis  Propheta;  in  Lingua  .^gj'ptiaca. 
Ex  MSS,  Vaticano,  Parisiensi,  et  Bodleiano  descripsit,  acLatine 
vertit  David  Wilkins.     Londini,  1731,  4to. 

2.  Psalterium  Coptico-Arabicum.     Romre,  1744,  4to. 

3.  Psalterium  Alexandrinum  Coptico-Arabicum.  Romoj, 
1749,  4to. 

Both  these  editions  of  the  Coptic  Psalter  were  printed  at  the 
expense  of  the  Congregation  de  Propaganda  Fide  at  Rome,  for  tiie 
benefit  of  the  Coptic  Christians  in  Egypt.  The  Arabic  version  \a 
placed  by  the  side  of  the  Coptic  text. 

4.  Novum  Tcstamentum  .^gyptium,  vulgo  Copticum,  ex 
MSS.  Bodleianis  descripsit,  cum  Vaticanis  et  Parisiensibus  con- 
tulit,  ct  in  Latinum  Sermonem  convertit  David  Wilkins. 
OxoniJ,  e  Theatro  Sheldoniano,  1716,  4to. 

A  fragment  of  the  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah  (ch.  iv.  22.  and  ch. 
v.)  and  some  fragments  of  the  prophet's  epistle  to  tiie  Jewish  caj>- 
tives  at  Babylon,  forming  the  sixth  chapter  of  the  apocryphal  book 
of  Baruch,  are  prinled  in  Coptic,  with  a  literal  Latin  version,  by 
M.  Quatremere,  in  his  Recherchea  sur  la  Langue  et  Liiicrature  de 
1'Egypte,  pp.  228—246.  (Paris,  1804),  who  has  illustrated  them 
!  witli  numerous  learned  notes. 

Sahidic,  or  Dialect  of  Upper  Egypt- 

5.  Appendix  ad  Editionem  Novi  Tcstamenti  Gncci  e  Codicc 
Alexandrino  descripti  a  G.  C.  Woide:  in  qua  continentur  Frag- 
menta  Novi  Tcstamenti,  juxta  Interpretalionem  Dialecti  Supc- 
rioris  ^Egypti,  qua;  Thcl)aica  vel  Sahidica  appcllatur,  e  Codd. 
Oxoniens.  maxima  ex  parte  dcsumpta :  cum  Dissertatione  de 
Versionc  .Egj'ptiaca,  quibus  subjicitur  Codicis  Vaticani  CoUatio. 
Oxonii,  c  Typographco  Clarcndoniano.  1799,  folio. 

This  work,  wliich  contains  the  completest  collection  of  fracrmenta 
of  tho  Salii(Iiu  W-n-^ion,  was  prepared  for  tlie  press  by  Dr.  Woide, 
and  published  after  his  death  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Ford. 

6.  Friderici  Mi'jfTEn  Commcntatio  de  Indole  Versionis  Novi 
Testamenti  Sahidiae.  Acccdnnt  Fragmenta  Epistolarum  Paulli 
ad  'I'imothcum,  ex  Membranis  Sahidicis  Musci  Borgiani,  Vcli- 
tris.     Hafniaj,  1789,  4to. 

Bashmoxiric,  or  Dialect  of  Bashmour,  a  Province  of  the  Delta^ 

7.  Fragmentum  Evangelii  S.  Joannis  Gnrcf>-Coptico-Thebai-. 
cum,  ex  Museo  Borgiano,  Latinc  versum  et  Notis  illustratum  ab 
Augufilino  Antonio  Geouhio.     Romte,  1789,  4to. 

There  is  an  interesting  account  of  this  publication  in  the  Analy- 
tical lieview,  vol.  xvi.  pp.  Il^* — I'Jl. 

8.  Fragmenta  Bnsmurico-Coplica  Vctcris  et  Novi  Testamenti, 
qua;  in  Museo  Borgiano  Velitris  asscrvanlur,  cum  rcliquis  Vcr- 
sionibiis  ^gyptiis  contulit,  Latinc  vertit,  nee  non  criticis  et 
I)hilologicis  adnotationibiis  illuslravit,  W.  F.  E.noelbhetu. 
Hafnia;,  1816,  4lo. 


J 


Skct.  V.  §  4.] 


POLYGLOTT  BIBLES. 


27 


Tliis  publication  contains  fragments  of  the  first  and  fifth  chapters 
of  the  Prophecies  of  Isaiah,  of  the  fourth  chapter  of  St.  John's  Gos- 
pel, of  St.  Paul's  first  Episile  to  the  Corinthians,  the  Epistles  to  the 
Ephesians  and  to  Philemon,  the  first  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians, 
and  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  in  the  Bashmouric,  Thebaic, 
and  Memphitic  Dialects,  with  a  literal  Latin  version.  The  corres- 
ponding Greek  Text  is  placed  at  the  foot  of  the  page.  Notes  are 
subjoined  pointing  out  the  various  readings,  with  critical  remarks. 


[v,]  Ethiojpic  Veksiox. 

No  entire  Ethiopic  Bible  has  been  printed.     Masch  (Bibl. 

Sacr.  part  ii.  vol.  i.  pp.  145 — 155.)  has  given  an  account  of  the 

various  portions  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament  which  have 

appeared.     Of  these  the  following  are  most  worthy  of  notice: — 

1.  Psalmi  et  Canticorum  ^thiopicc.     Studio  Johannis  Pot- 
KEx.     Rora£e,  1513,  4to. 

The  first  portion  of  the  Ethiopic  Scriptures  ever  printed.  It  is 
very  rare:  it  was  reprinted  at  Cologne  in  1518,  in  folio. 

2.  Psalteriura  iEthiopice,     Londini,  1657.  folio. 

In  the  third  volume  of  Bp.  Walton's  Polyglott  Bible :  the  text  is 
taken  from  Potken's  two  editions,  with  various  readings,  and  notes 
by  Dr.  Edmund  Castell. 

3.  Testamentum  Novum;  cum  Epistola  Pauli  ad  Hebraeos 
.....  Quae  omnia  Fr.  Petrus  ^thiops,  auxilio  piorum,  sedente 

Paulo  III.  Pont.  Max.  et  Claudio  illius  regni  imperatore,  im- 
primi  curavit  anno  salutis  1548.     [Romte]  4to. 

This  edition,  which  is  of  extreme  rarity,  is  divided  into  two  vo- 
lumes and  four  separate  parts,  viz.  1.  The  Gospels,  the  translation 
of  which  is  much  superior  to  that  of  the  Epistles,  where  the  trans- 
lator appears  to  have  been  unequal  to  the  task.  (The  Epistle  to 
the  Hebrews  is  placed  after  the  Gospels,  because  it  was  the  only 
one  of  St.  Paul's  Epistles  which  they  had  received  when  they  put 
to  press  the  Gospels,  Apocalypse,  the  Catholic  Epistles,  and  the 
Acts); — 2.  The  Acts  of  the  Apostles; — 3.  The  fourteen  Epistles  of 
Saint  Paul; — 4.  The  seven  Catholic  Epistles; — The  Apocalypse  is 
added  as  an  Appendix.  The  MS.  of  the  Acts  being  very  imper- 
fect, its  chasms  were  supplied  from  the  Vulgate.  The  Roman 
edition  was  reprinted  in  the  London  Polyglott;  and  a  Latin  trans- 
lation of  the  Ethiopic  version  was  published  by  Professor  Bode  at 
Brunswick,  in  1752 — 1755,  in  2  voLs.  4to.  (Michaelis,  vol.  ii.  pp. 
95—98.  610—614.    Masch,  part  ii.  vol.  i.  pp.  152,  153.) 

4.  Evangelia  Sancta  /Ethiopica.  Ad  Codicum  Manuscripto- 
rum  fidem  edidit  Thomas  Pell  Platt,  A.  M.  Londini,  1826,  4to. 


[vi.]  Thk  Akmeniax  Vehsiox. 
Biblia,  Armenice.  Venetiis,  1805,  4to. 

The  first  edition  of  the  Armenian  Bible  was  printed  at  Amster- 
dam in  16G6,  4to.,  and  was  not  verj'  cordially  received  by  the  Ar- 
menian Christians,  in  consequence  of  its  editor  Uscan,  Archbishop 
of  Erivan,  having  altered  it  conformably  to  the  Romish  Vulgate  Latin 
version.  The  second  edition,  w'hich  was  printed  at  Constantinople 
in  1705,  also  in  4to.,  is  much  more  valuable :  it  was  collated  for 
Dr.  Holmes's  Edition  of  the  Septuagint.  Separate  editions  of  the 
Armenian  New  Testament  were  printed  at  Amsterdam  in  1608  and 
1698,  and  another  at  Venice  in  1789,  which  was  superintended  by 
Dr.  Zohrab,  a  learned  Armenian  divine,  who  had  collated  a  few 
manuscripts  for  it,  and  who  accompanied  it  with  some  short  notes. 
In  this  impression,  which  was  reprinted  verbatim  in  1816,  the 
editor  marked  1  John  v.  7.  with  an  asterisk. 

In  1805,  the  same  learned  editor  published  at  Venice,  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  college  of  the  monks  of  St.  Lazarus,  his  critical  edition 
of  the  entire  Armenian  Bible,  for  which  he  made  use  of  sixty-nine 
manuscripts,  viz.  eight  of  the  entire  Bible,  fifteen  of  the  Psalms, 
thirty-two  of  the  Gospels,  and  fourteen  of  the  Epistles  and  Acts  of 
the  Apostles.  He  took  for  the  basis  of  this  edition,  that  manuscript 
of  the  whole  Bible,  which  appeared  to  be  the  most  ancient  and 
accurate :  such  errors  as  were  discovered  he  corrected  by  means 
of  other  copies;  and  in  the  margin  he  inserted  the  various  readings, 
together  with  the  number  of  manuscripts  by  which  they  were  sup- 
ported, and  a  few  criti/^al  explanations,  when  necessary.  In  this 
edition.  Dr.  Zohrab  has  expunged  1  John  v.  7.,  it  being  imsupportcd 
by  any  of  the  manuscripts  which  he  had  collated.  (Masch,  part  ii. 
vol.  i.  pp.  173—180.  Cellerier,  Introduction  au  Nouv.  Test,  pp  185, 
186.)  In  1825,  Dr.  2.  published  a  neat  edition  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment in  ancient  and  modern  Armenian,  in  one  volume,  8vo.  The 
modern  version  is  said  to  be  very  exact  and  literal. 


§  4.  Ancient  Western  Versions. 

[i.]  The  Latin  Vehsioxs. 

Ante-Hieronymian  Versions,  or  those  made  before  the  time  of 

Jerome. 

1.  Vetvs  Testamentvm  secvndvm  LXX  Latine  redditvm,  et 
ex  avtoritate  Sixti  V.  Pont.  Max.  editvm.  Additvs  est  Index 
Dictionvm  et  Loquutionum  Hebraicarum,  Graecarum,  Latinarum, 
quarum  observatio  visa  est  non  inutilis  futura.  Romae,  in  JEdibvs 
Popvli  Romani,  1588,  folio. 

Vol.  II.  3  U 


This  edition  was  designed  as  a  companion  to  the  celebrated  edi- 
tion of  the  Septuagint,  printed  at  Rome  in  1586,  and  described  in 
page  23,  of  this  Appendix.  The  editor,  Flaminio  Kobili,  with  the 
assistance  of  Antonio  Agelli,  collected  with  infinite  labour  all  the 
fragments  of  the  Ante-Hieronymian  versions,  which  he  found  cited 
in  the  works  of  the  ancient  Latin  Fathers  i  the  deficient  passages 
he  translated  de  novo  into  Latin,  a  circumstance  which  diminishes 
the  value  of  his  work.  (Masch,  part  ii.  vol.  iii.  pp.  0,  7.)  This  vo- 
lume is  extremely  rare:  a  copy  of  it  is  in  the  Library  of  the  British 
Museum. 

2.  Bibliorum  SacArum  Latins  Vcrsiones  Antique,  seu  Vetus 
Italica,  et  ceterjB  qujecunque  in  Codicibus  MSS.  et  Antiquorum 
Libris  reperiri  potuerunt:  quae  cum  Vulgata  Latina  et  cum 
Textu  Graeco  comparantur.  Accedunt  Prajfationes,  Observa- 
tionis,  ac  Nots,  Indexque  novus  ad  Vulgatam  e  regione  editam, 
idemque  locupletissimus.  Opera  et  studio  D.  Petri  Sabatieb. 
Remis,  174—349.  3  tomis,  folio. 

The  first  two  volumes  contain  the  Old  Testament,  and  the  apo- 
cryphal books.  There  are  three  versions  of  the  Psalms,  viz.  the  Old 
Italic  Version,  that  of  Jerome,  and  the  modern  Vulgate  Version. 
The  New  Testament  forms  the  third  volume.  The  Greek-Latin 
MSS.  consulted  by  Sabatier,  having  chasms,  he  has  supplied  them 
from  the  modem  Latin  Vulgate,  and  has  sometimes  added  in  iie 
notes  quotations  from  the  Latin  Fathers.  For  a  full  description 
of  this  magnificent  work,  see  Masch,  part  ii.  vol.  iii.  pp.  9,  10. 

3.  Evangeliarium  Quadruplex  Latinae  Versionis  Antiqua;,  seu 
Veteris  Italicae,  editum  ex  Codicibus  Manuscriptis,  aureis,  argen- 
teis,  purpureis,  aliisque  plusquam  millenariae  antiquitatis :  a 
Josepho  Blaxchino.     Romae,  1749.    2  tomis,  folio. 

A  splendid  edition  of  the  four  Gospels,  taken  from  five  manu- 
scripts of  the  old  Italic  version,  viz.  the  codices  Vercellensis,  Vero- 
nensis,  Corbeiensis,  Brixianus,  and  Forojuliensis.  But  Michaelis 
has  reduced  thes^  to  four,  as  the  last-cited  MS.  contains  only  the 
corrected  version  of  Jerome,  and  therefore  ought  not  to  have  been 
printed  with  the  others.     (Introd.  to  New  Test.  vol.  ii.  p.  109.) 

For  bibliographical  details  of  this  edition,  as  well  as  of  other 
portions  of  the  Ante-Hieronymian  versions,  the  reader  is  referred 
to  Masch,  part  ii.  vol.  iii.  pp.  16 — 19. 

4.  Codex  Quatuor  Evangeliorum  Latinus  Rehdigerianus, 
Matthffius  et  Marcus,  cum  Textu  Graeco  et  Editione  Vulgata 
collatus  a  Joh.  Ephr.  Scheibei..     Vratislaviae,  1763,  4to. 

The  manuscript,  the  text  of  which  is  here  published,  is  preserved 
in  the  library  belonging  to  the  church  of  St.  Elizabeth  at  Breslau. 

5.  Fragmenta  Versionis  Antiquae  Latinas  Ante-Hieronyraiansa 
Prophetarum  Jeremiae,  Ezechielis,  Danielis,  et  Hoseae,  e  Ccdice 
Rescripto  Bibliothecae  Wirceburgensis.  Edidit  Dr.  Fridericus 
Mi;?fTEH.  Hafniae,  1821,  8vo.  (In  the  Miscellanea  Hafnien.sia 
Theologici  et  Philologici  Argumenti,  torn.  ii.  fascic.  i.  pp.  SI- 
US.) 

The  Codex  Rescriptus,  whence  these  fragments  of  an  Ante- 
Hieronymian  version  have  been  transcribed,  was  discovered  by 
Dr.  Feder,  in  the  library  of  the  university  of  Wurtzburg ;  who 
copied  nearly  all  that  is  legible,  comprising  portions  of  the  pro- 
phecies of  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  Daniel,  and  Hosea.  Dr.  Feder  hav- 
ing allowed  Dr.  Frederick  Miinter,  bishop  of  Seeland,  to  make  use 
of  his  labours,  that  learned  prelate  has  here  printed  the  fragments 
in  question.  They  differ  materially  from  the  fragments  occurring 
in  Sabatier's  splendid  publication  above  noticed.  Bp.  Miinter 
refers  the  date  of  the  original  writing  to  the  sixth  or  seventh 
centuiy. 


The  Version  of  Jerome. 

S.  Eusebii  Hieron/mi  Stridonensis  Presbyteri  Divina  Biblio- 
theca  ante  hac  inedita ;  complectens  Translationes  Latinas  Vete- 
ris et  Novi  Testamenti,  turn  ex  Hebraeis  turn  Gra3cis  fontibus 
derivatas,  innumera  quoque  scholia  marginalia  antiquissima 
Hebraei  cujusdam  scriptoris  anonymi,  Hebrceas  voces  pressius 

experimentis Studio  et  Lahore  Monachorum  ordinis  S. 

Benedicti  e  congregatione  S.  Mauri.    Parisiis,  1693,  folio.   (The      * 
first  volume  of  the  Benedictine  edition  of  Jerome's  works.) 

For  an  account  of  Jerome's  biblical  labours,  see  Part  I.  Chap.  II. 
Sect.  IV.  of  the  first  volume.  This  edition  is  printed  fi-om  six 
manuscripts.  Editions  of  other  portions  of  Jerome's  translation  ara 
described  by  Masch,  part  ii.  vol.  iii.  pp.  21 — 23. 


The  Latin  Vulgate  Version. 
The  printed  editions  of  the  Latin  Vulgate  are  so  very  nume- 
rous, that  two  or  three  of  the  most  important,  or  most  accessible, 
can  only  be  here  noticed.  A  particular  description  of  all  the 
editions  is  given  by  Masch,  part  ii.  vol.  iii.  pp.  58 — 372. ;  and 
of  the  principal  editions,  by  Brunet,  Manuel  du  Libraire,  torn.  i. 
art.  Biblia.  Two  hundred  and  seventeen  Latin  Bibles,  princi- 
pally of  the  Vulgate  version  (many  of  which  are  of  extreme 
rarity),  are  described  in  the  Bibl.  Sussex,  vol.  i.  part  ii.  pp.  238 
—510. 


28 


GOTHIC  VERSION. 


[Pabt  I.   Chap.  I 


1.  Biblia  Sacra  Vulgatae  Editionis,  tribus  toinis  distincta. 
Roma,  ex  Typographia  Apostolica  Vaticana,  folio. 

After  ihe  preceding  title  we  read  the  following  on  an  engraved 
title-page : 

"  Biblia  Sacrse  Vulgat®  Editionis  ad  Concilii  Tridenlini  prte- 
Bcriptum  emendata  et  a  Sixto  V.  P.  M.  rccognita  ct  ajjprobata. 
Romse,  ex  Typographia  Apostolica  Vaticana,  M.  D.  XC." 

Notwithstanding  the  great  pains  bestowed  upon  this  edition, 
which  by  a  bull  was  authoritatively  declared  to  be  the  standard 
of  all  future  impressions,  its  extreme  incorrecrness  excited  general 
discontent.  At  first,  it  was  attempted  to  remedy  the  evil  by  print- 
ing the  requisite  corrections  on  small  slips  of  paper,  which  were  to 
be  pasted  over  the  incorrect  passages:  but  Gregory  XJV'.,  who 
succeeded  Sixtus  V.  in  the  jwniificatc,  fotind  it  more  convenient  to 
suppress  the  remaining  copies  of  this  edilioii,  wliich  has  therefore 
become  of  extreme  ranty.  (Renouard,  Annalcs  dc  I'lmprimerie  des 
Aides,  torn.  ii.  pp.  161 — 1C6. 

2.  Biblia  Sacraj  Vulgatoj  Editionis  Sixti  V.  Pontiilcis  Max. 
jussu  rccognita  ct  edita.  Roma-,  ex  Typographia  Apostolica 
Vaticana.    1592,  folio. 

This  edition  was  printed  under  the  auspices  of  Clement  VIII., 
the  successor  of  Sixtus  V.,  whose  constitution  declares  it  to  be  the 
only  auihenlic  edition:  it  is  the  basis  of  all  subsequent  editions, 
printed  for  the  members  of  the  Romish  church.  For  an  account 
of  the  fatal  variances  between  these  two  revisions,  see  J^art  I. 
Cliap.  III.  Sect.  II.  $  4.  of  the  first  volume.  A  third  edition  was 
printed  in  1593,  in  4to.  They  are  both  very  rare.  Copies  of  them, 
as  well  as  of  tlie  Sixtine  edition,  are  in  the  British  Museum. 

3.  Bibliorum  Sacrorum  Vulgatae  Versionis  Editio.  Jussu 
Christiaiiissimi  Regis  ad  Institutionem  Serenissimi  Delphini. 
Parisiis.  excudebat  Fr.  Amb.  Didot,  1785.    2  tomis,  4to. 

A  chef-d'oeuvre  of  typography  :  only  two-hinidred  and  fifty  copies 
were  prinlecl  with  the  words  "  ad  institutionem  Serenissimi  Del- 
phini"' in  the  title-page.  These  bear  a  higher  price  than  the  other 
quarto  copies,  which  were  dedicated  to  the  clergy  of  France, 
reignot  slates,  that  two  copies  of  this  edition  were  printed  on  vel- 
lum. There  are  copies  of  the  same  edition  in  eight  volumes,  8vo., 
with  a  dedication  to  the  Gallican  clergy,  by  the  printer,  F.  A.  Didot. 

4.  Biblia  Sacra  Vulgate  Editionis  Sixti  Quinti  Pont  Max. 
ju.ssu  rccoijnita  alque  e<lita  Roma;  ex  Typographia  Apostolica 
Vaticana  MDA'CIII.  E<litio  nova,  auctoritate  summi  pontificis 
Lconis  XII.  excusa.  Francofurti  a.  M.  [ad  Moenum],  182G, 
Royal  Svo. 

A  beautiful  and  correct  edition,  which  contains  all  the  prefatory 
and  other  preliminary  matter  of  the  Roman  edition;  and,  besides 
ihe  ordinary  divisioius  of  chapters  and  verses,  it  also  has  the  old 
subdivisions  of  A.  B.  C,  &,c.,  introduced  by  Cardinal  Hugo,  of 
which  an  account  is  given  in  the  first  volume. 

5.  Biblia  Sacra  Vulgatic  Editionis,  Sixti.  V.  Pont.  Max.  jussu 
rccognita,  ct  Clemcntis  VIII.  auctoritate  edita.    Paris,  1828,  8vo. 

A  neat  edition  from  the  press  of  F.  Didot, 

%*  The  Latin  Vulgate  is  found  in  all  the  Polyglott  editions  of 
llie  Bible;  and  various  other  editions  may  be  met  with,  the  jjrice 
»f  which  varies  from  twelve  shillings  to  three  or  four  guineas  and 
ujiwurds,  according  to  their  rarity  and  condition. 


[ii.]  Gothic  VRnsiox. 

1.  Sacrorum  Evangcliorum  Vcrsio  Gothica  ex  Codicc  Argen- 
tco  emendata  atque  supplcta,  cum  Intcrpretatione  Latina  ct 
.\nnotiitioiiibus  Erici  Benzelii  non  ita  prideni  Archiepiscopi 
(Jpsalicnsis.  Edidit,  Obscrvationes  suas  adjccit,  ct  Grammaticatn 
Gothicam  prxinisit  Edwardus  Lie.  Oxonii,  e  Typographco 
Clarcndoniano.    IT.'iO,  4to. 

The  best  edition  of  the  Gotliic  version  of  the  four  Gospels.  The 
#  first  appeared  at  Donlrecht,  under  the  Kuperiniendonce  of  Fraiicix 
Junius  in  IGCO,'  4to.  which  has  the  Anglo-Saxon  version  annexed. 
For  the  second  fdilion  we  are  indebted  lo  (;<'<irgc!  Stirrnhelni,  at 
Slockliolni,  in  1(J71,  who  lias  added  iho  SwediKli,  Ict'laiidic,  and 
Latin  Vulgate  verwions  to  the  translation  of  I'IphilaH.  This  thir<l 
edition  was  prepared  for  the  press  by  the  leameil  F.ric  Henzel, 
archbiKhop  of  Un?al  (who  made  a  new  copy  from  t!i(>  original 
niniiUHcripl) ;  and  was  |iubliHhed  after  his  decrasr  by  Mr.  I^ye,  at 
Oxford,  in  1700,  in  small  folio.     It  is  executed  in  (ioihir  Icllcrs; 


the  errors  of  the  pret'ediiig  editions  ai'e  corrected;  nnd  many  of 
the  various  lections,  wiih  whi<h  the  Gothic  version  furnishes  the 
Greek  Testament,  are  remarked  in  (he  notea. 

2.  npliiK-n  Vcrsio  CJothira  nonnullorum  Capitum  Epistola; 
Pauli  ad  Hohianos,  c  Cod.  IJiblioth.  Guelpherbytana;,  cum  coni- 
mcnlariia  Francisci  Antonti  Knittel.  [1702,]  4to. 

The  fragment  of  the  Gothic  version,  printed  in  this  publication, 

'  Tlierc  arc  cnplps  datnil  in  1684  ;  bill  they  nrc  snld  \>y  Masch  to  be  the 
nine  tdiiiun  witlt  a  new  uilc-pn^e.    Purt.  ii.  vul.  iii.  p.  7U0. 


has  been  reprinted,  in  the  following  article,  and  also  in  the  appcn» 
dix  to  the  second  volume  of  Mr.  Lye's  Saxon  and  Gothic  Latin 
Dictionary. 

3.  Fragmenta  Versionis  Ulphilanae,  continentia  Particulas  ali- 
quot Epistolffi,  Pauli  ad  Roiuanos,  ex  Codice  Rescripto  Bibli- 
ofheca;  Guelphcrbytante  eruta,  et  a  Francisco  Antonio  Knittel 
edita,  cum  aliquot  annotationibus  typis  rcddita  a  Johanne  Iiirk 
Acccdunt  duae  Dissertationes  ad  Philologiam  Moeso-Gothicam 
spectantes.     Upsalije,  1763,  4to. 

4.  Johannis  ab  Ihre  Scripta  Versionem  Ulphilanam  et  Lin 
guatn  Mceso-Gothicam   illustrantia,  ab  ipso  doctissimo  auctore 
emendata,  novisque  accessionibus  aucta,  jam  vero  ob  prsestantiam 
ac  raritatem  collecta,  et  una  cum  aliis  scriptis  siniilis  argunienti 
edita,  ab  Antonio  Fridcrico  Busching.     Berolini,  1773,  4to. 

This  volume,  wluch  is  not  of  very  frequent  occurrence,  contains 
Hire's  learned  Disquisition,  entitled  Ulphilas  lUustratus;  various 
fragments  of  Ulphilas's  version ;  five  dissertations  illustrative  of 
them  ;  a  specimen  of  a  Glossarium  Ulphilanum,  with  prefices  pre- 
fixed to  it.  In  an  appendix,  the  editor  has  subjoined  dis-sertaiions 
on  Ulphilas,  by  Heupelius  (with  remarks  on  lleupelius  by  Oelrichs), 
Esberg,  and  Scedermann;  specimens  of  critical  observations  on  the 
old  Gothic  translation  of  the  Gospels,  by  John  Gordon,  a  learned 
Scottish  advocate ;  and  a  dissertation  by  Wachter,  on  the  language 
of  the  Codex  Argcnleus. 

5.  Ulfilas  Gothische  Bibcl-ubcrsetzung,  die  alteste  Gcrman- 
ische  Urkimde,  nach  Ihre'ns  Text;  mit  einer  gramniattsch- 
wortlichcn  Lateinischen  Uebersetzung,  und  einem  Glossar, 
ausgearbeitct  von  Fricdrich  Karl  Fulda  ;  das  Glossar  umgear- 
beitet  von  W.  F.  H.  REixwAr.D  ;  und  den  Text  nach  Ihre'ns 
gcnauer  abschrift  dor  silbcrncn  Handschrift  in  Upsal,  sorgfaltig 
bcrichtigt,  saint  cincr  historisch-kritischcn  Einlcitung,  vcrschen 
und  herausgegeben  von  Johanii  Christian  Zahx.  Weissenfels, 
1805,  4to. 

A  learned  preface  by  J.  C.  Zahn,  in  the  German  language,  con- 
tains a  history  of  the  Gothic  version,  and  of  the  various  preceding 
editions  of  its  fragments.  To  this  succeed  the  fragments  them- 
selves, in  the  Roman  character.  The  text  of  them  is  given  from 
a  very  beautiful  and  exact  copy,  which  the  celebrated  scholar  Ihre 
had  procured  to  be  made  under  his  own  inspection,  and  w  ilh  the 
design  of  priming  it.  The  editor  has  placed  Hire's  Latin  trunsla- 
lion  by  the  side  of  the  text;  and  has  also  added  an  interlineary 
Latin  version,  critical  notes  placed  at  the  foot  of  each  page,  and 
an  historical  introduction.  These  are  followed  by  a  Grammar  of 
the  Gothic  language  by  F.  K.  Falda,  and  by  a  Gothic  Glossary 
compiled  by  W.  F.  If.  Reinwald.  "The  text  is  carefully  given; 
the  gnimmatical  and  critical  remarks,  added  in  the  margin  below, 
are  short,  directly  applied  to  the  point,  and  well  conceived;  and 
the  whole  of  the  rich  apparatus  of  the  Ixiok  is  valuable." — (Hug's 
Introd.  to  the  New  Test,  by  Dr.  Wait,  vol.  i.  pp.  487,  488.'>  A  copy 
of  this  curious  and  valuable  work  is  in  the  library  of  the  British 
Museum. 

6.  The  Gothic  Gospel  of  Saint  Matthew,  from  the  Codex 
Argcntcus  of  the  fourth  Century;  with  the  corresponding  Eng- 
lish or  Saxon,  from  tlic  Durham  Book,  of  the  eighth  Century, 
in  Roman  Characters;  a  literal  English  Lesson  of  each;  and 
Notes,  Illustrations,  and  Etymological  Disquisitions  on  Organic 
Principles.     By  Samuel  Hexshall,  M.A.     London,  1807,  8vo. 

7.  Ulphila;  Partium  Ineditaruin,  in  Ainbrosianis  Palimp.5esti3 
ab  Angclo  Ma  to  repertarum.  Specimen,  conjunctis  curis  ejus- 
dem  Maiict  Caroli  Octavii  Castilionxi  cdituru.  Mcdiolani,  1819, 
4  to. 

This  work  is  illustrated  by  two  plates ;  the  first  containing  fac- 
similes of  the  Coiliccs  Hescrijiti  discovered  in  the  .\mbrosiun  Li- 
bniry  (of  which  some  account  has  already  been  given),  and  the 
other  containiiit;  a  fac-simile  specimen  of  a  (Jreek  matliemaiical 
treatise,  in  which  the  names  of  .Archimedes  and  A|wdl<iiiiuH  arc 
menlioned,  and  which  Signor  Mai  discovered  under  some  Lom- 
bard Latin  writing  of  great  antiquity. 

8.  iriphila;  Gothica  Vcrsio  EpistoI.T?  Divi  Pauli  ad  Corinthios 
secuiida;,  quain  ex  Ambrosianu  Bibliothcca  Palinipsestis  de- 
promptam,  cum  Interprctatione,  .\dnotationiluis.  Glossario,  edidit 
Carolus  Octavius  Castillios.«i's.     Mcdiolani,  182S>,  4to. 

9.  Evangclii  secundum  Matthasum  Vcrsio  FrancicasiBculi  IX. 
nccnon  Gothica  sa^c.  IV.  quoad  sui)ercRf.  Edidit  J.  Andraajs 
SciiMKLLER.     Stuttgart  und  Tubingen,  1827,  Svo. 

This  work  was  published  by  I'rofcssor  Schrneller,  lo  illustrate 
his  lectures  on  the  (Jerman  Language  and  Literature,  delivered  in 
the  University  of  Munich.  It  contains  the  Closiiel  of  St.  .Matthew 
in  the  P'rnnkish  dialect,  from  a  MS.  of  Taiiaiis  Ilarniony,  of  tho 
ninth  century,  preserved  in  the  Library  nt  St.  (iall,  in  Switzerland. 
The  fragments  of  the  (Jothic  Version  are  piven  according  to  the 
Codex  ArKcnteus.  and  the  remains  of  tho  Gothic  Version,  discover- 
ed by  MiiV  and  Count  Casliglioni.  A  coniparison  ot  these  two 
versions  will  show,  that  the  Franki>h  and  (Jothic  languages  are 
only  dialects  of  the  suine  ancient  luncimge,  which  in  iho  lapse  of 
ages  have  gradually  deviated  from  each  other. 


FAC   SIMILE  OF   THE   BIBLIA  PAUPERUM. 

Supposed  to  have  been  ejreculed  between  a.  d.  1420  and  1435. 


f*J» 


\\^>m^i:^mimmm!imitiiimmMimmmm///w//, 


Tofuctpage  29  of  Bibliographical  ^jipendix,  Vol.  II. 


Sdct.  VI.  §  1.] 


MODERN  VERSIONS  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES,     ^ 


29 


[iii.]  The  Sclavonic  Versiox. 

Wiwlia,  sinetz  Knigi,  wetchago  i  nowago  sawieta  pojasiku 
slowensku. — The  Bible,  that  is  to  say,  the  Books  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testament  in  the  Sclavonic  language.  Ostrog,  1581, 
folio. 

This  is  the  editio  princeps  of  the  eTttire  Sclavonic  Bible  :  an  in- 
teresting account  of  various  previous  editions  of  detaclipd  portions 
of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  as  well  as  of  the  pains  bestowed 
in  order  to  render  this  impression  correct,  will  be  found  in  Dr. 
Henderson's  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  78 — 82.  Clement  (Biblioth. 
Curieuse,  torn.  iii.  pp.  441 — 444.)  has  given  a  minute  description  of 
it;  to  which  Dr.  Dibdin  acknowledges  himself  indebted  for  part 
of  hfs  account  of  Earl  Spencer's  copy.  (Bibliothcca  Speneeriana, 
vol.  i.  pp.  90 — 93.)  But  Dr.  Henderson,  from  his  residence  in 
Russia,  and  his  critical  acquaintance  with  the  Sclavonic  language, 
has  been  enabled  to  add  much  important  information  (which  does 
not  admit  of  abridgment)  relative  to  this  and  to  subsequent  edi- 
tions of  the  Sclavonic  version,  which  was  utterly  unlcnown  to 
those   bibliographer.    See   his   Biblical  Researches,  pp.  83 — 8G. 

y^-103. 

[iv.]  The  Anglo-Saxon  Versions. 

1.  Heptateuchus,  Liber  Job,  et  Evangelium  Nicodemi,  Anglo- 
Saxonice.  Historic  Judith  Fragmentum,  Dano-Saxonice.  Edi- 
dit  nunc  primuni  ex  MSS.  Codicibus  Edwardus  Thwaites. 
Oxonia;,  1699,  8vo. 

The  Anglo-Saxon  version  of  the  Heptateuch,  that  is,  of  the  five 
books  of  Moses  and  the  books  of  Joshua  and  Judges,  was  made 
towards  the  close  of  the  tenth  century  by  .^Ifric,  archbishop  of 
Canterbury ;  and  was  published  by  Mr.  Thwaites  from  an  unique 
manuscript  preserved  in  the  Bodleian  Library.  The  book  of  Job, 
also  translated  by  .^Ifric,  was  printed  from  a  transcript  of  a  MS. 
in  the  Cottonian  Library  (now  in  the  British  Museum)«;  and  the 
apocryphal  Gospel  of  Nicodemus,  from  Junius's  copy  of  t\e  origi- 
nal manuscript  in  the  Library  of  Corpus  Christi  College,  Cambridge. 
The  Danish-Saxon  version  of  the  book  of  Judith  (a  fragment  of 
which  is  given  in  the  publication  now  under  notice)  was  made 
during  the  time  when  England  groaned  under  the  yoke  of  the 
Danish  kings.  A  few  notes  on  ^Ifric's  preface,  and  some  various 
readings  collected  from  an  Anglo-Saxon  Iragment  of  the  book  of 
Exodus,  and  the  pseudo-gospel  of  Nicodemus,  close  this  curious 
and  rare  volume. 

2.  Psalterium  Davidis  Latino-Saxonicum  Vetus,  a  Johanne 
SpE-L>tANxo,  D.  Hcnrici  fil.  editum  e  vetustissimo  exemplar! 
MS.  in  Bibliotheca  ipsius  Henrici,  et  cum  tribus  aliis  non  multo 
miniis  vetustis  collatum.     Londini,  1640,  4to, 

3.  The  Gospels  of  the  fower  Euangelistes  translated  in  the 
olde  Saxons  tyme  out  of  Latin  into  the  vulgare  toung  of  the 
Saxons,  newly  collected  out  of  auncient  Monumentes  of  the 
eayd  Saxons,  and  now  published  for  testimonie  of  the  same. 
London,  printed  by  John  Daye.  1571,  4to. 

The  Anglo-Saxon  text  is  divided  into  chapters,  and  is  accompa- 
nied by  the  English  version  then  in  use,  in  a  parallel  column, 
divided  into  chapters  and  verses,  "  which,"  it  is  stated  in  a  prefa- 
tory note,  "  was  observed  for  the  better  understanding  of  the 
reader."  The  editor  of  this  now  rare  volume  was  Matthew 
Parker;  it  has  a  preface,  written  by  the  celebrated  martyrologist, 
lohn  FoxE,  by  whom  it  is  dedicated  to  Queen  Elizabeth. 

Two  other  editions  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Gospels  have  been 
printed,  viz.  by  William  Lisle,  in  4to.,  London,  1658;  and  by 
Thomas  Marshall,  in  4to.,  Dordrecht,  1665,  with  the  Maeso-Gothic 
vei-sion.  Of  the  last  edition  there  are  copies,  with  Amsterdam, 
1684,  in  the  title  ;  but  these  are  the  same  edition,  with  a  new  title- 
page. 


SECTION  VL 

modern  versions  of  the  old  and  new  testaments. 

§  1.  General  Observations  on  the  Circulation  of  the 

Scriptures. 

{.  Scarcity  and  high  prices  of  the  Scriptures. — II.  Rude  attempts 
to  convey  an  idea  of  their  contents  to  the  poor  and  illiterate. 
— Account  of  the  Biblia  Paupehum. — III.  JYumber  and 
classification  of  the  translations  of  the  Bible  into  modern 
langxiages. 

I.  In  the  early  ages  of  Christianity,  however  anxious  its  pro- 
fessors must  have  been  to  become  possessed  of  the  sacred  volume, 
and  however  widely  it  was  read  in  their  assemblies  for  divine 
worsliip,  still  the  publication  of  a  version  was  not  what  it  now 
is — the  emission  of  thousands  of  copies  into  the  world.  It  con- 
sisted, in  a  great  measure,  in  translators  permitting  their  manu- 


scripts to  be  transcribed  by  others ;  and  so  long  as  the  tedious 
process  of  copying  was  the  only  one  which  could  be  resorted  to 
exemplars  of  the  sacred  writings  must  have  been  multiplied  very 
slowly.  Before  the  inventions  of  paper  and  printing,  manuscripts 
were  the  only  books  in  use,  and  bore  such  excessively  high 
prices,  especially  those  which  were  voluminous,  that  few  besides 
the  most  opulent  could  aflbrd  to  purchase  them:'  even  monas- 
teries of  some  consideration  had  frequently  only  a  missal.  So 
long  as  the  Roman  empire  subsisted  in  Europe,  the  reading  of 
the  Scriptures  in  Latin  universally  prevailed :  but,  in  consequence 
of  the  irruptions  of  the  barbarous  nations,  and  the  erection  of 
new  monarchies  upon  the  ruins  of  the  Roman  power,  the  Latin 
language  became  so  altered  and  corrupted,  as  no  longer  to  be 
intelligible  by  the  multitude,  and  at  length  it  fell  into  disuse, 
except  among  the  ecclesiastics. 

In  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries,  when  the  Vulgate  Latin 
version  had  ceased  to  be  generally  understood,  there  is  no  reason 
to  suspect  any  intention  in  the  Church  of  Rome  to  deprive  the 
laity  of  the  Scriptures.  "  Translations  were  freely  made,  although 
the  acts  of  the  saints  were  generally  deemed  more  instructive, 
Louis  the  Debonnair  is  said  to  have  caused  a  German  version 
of  the  New  Testament  to  be  made.  Otfrid,  in  the  same"  (that 
is,  the  ninth)  "  century,  rendered  the  Gospels,  or  rather  abridged 
them,  into  German  verse :  this  work  is  still  extant,  and  is  in 
several  respects  an  object  of  curiosity.  In  the  eleventh  or  twelfth 
century,  we  find  translations  of  the  Psalms,  Job,  Kings,  and  the 
Maccabees,  into  French.  But,  after  the  diffusion  of  heretical 
principles,  it  became  expedient  to  secure  the  orthodox  faith  from 
lawless  interpretation.  Accordingly  the  council  of  Thoulouse, 
in  1229,  prohibited  the  laity  from  possessing  the  Scriptures ;  and 
tliis  prohibition  was  frequently  repeated  upon  subsequent  occa- 
sions."2 

II.  Although  the  invention  of  paper,  in  the  close  of  the  thir- 
teenth or  early  in  the  fourteenth  century,  rendered  the  transcrip- 
tion of  books  less  expensive,  yet  their  cost  necessarily  placed 
them  out  of  the  reach  of  the  middling  and  lower  classes,  who 
(it  is  well  known)  were  immersed  in  the  deepest  ignorance. 
Means,  however,  were  subsequently  devised,  in  order  to  convey 
a  rude  idea  of  the  leading  facts  of  Scripture,  by  means  of  the 
Block  Books,  or  Books  of  Images,  as  they  are  termed  by  Bibli- 
ographers, of  which  the  following  notice  may  not  be  unaccept- 
able to  the  reader. 

The  manufacturers  of  playing  cards,  which  were  first  invented^ 
and  painted  in  the  fourteenth  century,  had  in  the  following  cen- 
tury begun  to  engrave  on  wood  the  images  of  the  saints,  to  which 
they  afterwards  added  some  verses  or  sentences  analogous  to  the 
subject.  As  the  art  of  engraving  on  wood  proceeded,  its  profes- 
sors at  length  composed  historical  subjects,  cliiefly  (if  not  en- 
tirely) taken  from  the  Scriptures,  with  a  text  or  explanation 
engraved  on  the  same  blocks.  These  form  the  Books  of  Image s^ 
or  Block  Books  just  mentioned  :  they  were  printed  from  wooden 
blocks ;  one  side  of  the  leaf  only  is  impressed,  and  the  corres< 
ponding  text  is  placed  below,  beside,  or  proceeding  out  of,  tha 
mouth  of  the  figures  introduced. 

Of  all  the  Xylographic  works,  that  is,  such  as  are  printed  from 
wooden  blocks,  the  Biblia  Pauperum  is  perhaps  the  rarest,  as 
well  as  the  most  ancient ;  it  is  a  manual,  or  kind  of  catechism 
of  the  Bible,  for  the  u.se  of  young  persons,  and  of  the  common 
people,  whence  it  derives  its  name — Biblia  Paupermn — the 
Bible  of  the  Poor ;  who  were  thus  enabled  to  acquire,  at  a  com* 
paratively  low  price,  an  imperfect  knowledge  of  some  of  th« 
events  recorded  in  the  Scriptures.  Being  much  in  use,  the  few 
copies  of  it  which  are  at  present  to  be  found  in  the  libraries  of 
the  curious  are  for  the  most  part  cither  mutilated  or  in  bad  con« 
dition.  The  extreme  rarity  of  this  book,  and  the  circumstance* 
under  which  it  was  produced,  concur  to  impart  a  high  degree  of 
interest  to  it. 

The  Biblia  Pauperum  consists  of  forty  plates,  with  extracta 
and  sentences  analogous  to  the  figures  and  images  represented 
therein ;  the  whole  are  engraven  on  wood,  on  one  side  of  the 
leaves  of  paper ;  so  that,  when  folded,  they  are  placed  opposite  to 
each  other.  Thus,  as  the  white  sides  of  the  leaves  may  be 
cemented   together,  the   total   number  is   reduced   to    twenty, 

»  Concerning  the  rarity  and  high  prices  of  books  during  the  dark  ages, 
the  reader  will  find  several  authentic  anecdotes  in  tlie  first  volume  of  an 
"  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Bibliography,"  (pp.  345—519.),  by  the  author 
of  this  work. 

a  Hallam's  View  of  Europe  daring  the  Middle  Ages,  vol.  ii.  p.  536.  4to 
edition. 

'  They  appear  to  have  been  first  invented  in  1390,  by  Jacquemin  Grin- 

fonncur,  a  painter  at  Paris,  for  the  amusement  of  Charles  VI.  king  of 
Vance,  who  had  fallen  into  a  confirmed  melancholy,  bordering  on  insanity 
Kees's  Cyclopsedia,  vol.  vi.  article  Cards. 


30 


MODERN  VERSIONS  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


[Part  I.  Cuap.  Tj 


Decause  the  first  and  last  page  remain  blank.  Copies,  however, 
are  sometimes  found,  the  leaves  of  which,  not  having  been 
cemented  on  their  blank  side,  are  forty  in  number,  like  the 
plates.  Each  plate  or  page  contains  four  busts,  two  at  the  top, 
and  two  at  the  bottom,  together  with  three  historical  subjects  : 
the  two  upper  busts  represent  the  prophets  or  other  persons 
whose  names  are  always  written  beneath  them ;  the  two  lower 
busts  are  anonymous.  The  middle  of  the  plates,  which  are  all 
marked  by  letters  of  the  alphabet  in  the  centre  of  the  upper  com- 
partment,' is  occupied  by  three  historical  pictures,  one  of  which 
IS  taken  from  the  New  Testament :  this  is  the  type  or  principal 
subject,  and  occupies  the  centre  of  the  page,  between  the  two 
antitypes  or  other  subjects  which  allude  to  it.  -  The  inscriptions 
which  occur  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  page,  consist  of  texts 
of  Scripture  and  Leonine  verses. 

Thus  in  the  fortieth  plate,  of  which  our  engraving  is  a  copy ,2 
the  two  busts  of  David  and  Isaiah  are  placed  in  the  middle  of 
the  upper  part  of  the  page,  between  two  passages  of  the  Bible. 
The  Jirst  of  these,  on  the  left  of  those  prophets,  is  partly  taken 
from  the  Song  of  Solomon  (chap.  v.  7,  8.),  and  runs  thus: — 
Leg-itttv  in  Cantico  Cantkorum  quarto  cupite,  quod  (or  quo) 
tponaus  alloquilur  sponsam,  et  earn  sumendo  dixit;  "Tata 
pulchra  et  arnica  tnea,  et  macula  non  est  in  te.  Vcni,  arnica 
mea ;  veni,  coronabere."  Sponsus  verus  iste  est  Christus; 
qui,  in  assumendo  earn  sponsam,  qux  est  anime  sine  macula 
omnis  peccati,  et  introducit  earn  in  reqtiiem  eternain,  et  coronat 
cum  corona  immortalitatis.^ 

The  second  passage,  which  is  on  the  right  of  David  and 
Isaiah,  is  taken  from  the  Book  of  Revelation,  and  runs  thus: — 
Legitur  in  Apocalypsi  xxi°.  capite,  quod  angelus  Dei  appre- 
hendit  Jhoannem  Evangelistam,  cum  esset  in  spiritu,  et  volens 
aibi  ostendere  archana  Dei  dixit  ad  eum  ;  "  Veni,et  ostendam, 
tibi  sponsam,  uxorem  agni."  Angebis  loquitur  ad  omnes  in 
frenerali,  ut  veniant  ad  auscvltandum  in  spiritu  agnum  inno- 
centem' Christum,  animam  innocentem  coronantem.^ 

Beneath  the  bust  of  David,  which  is  indicated  by  his  name,  is  a 
scroll  proceeding  from  his  hand  inscribed  Tamquam  sponsus  domi- 
nus  procedens  de  thalamo  suo.  [See  Ps.  xix.  5.  Vulgate  Version.] 

Beneath  Isaiah  is  ysaye  vi,  with  a  label  proceeding  from  his 
hand  inscribed  Tanquam  sponsus  decoravit  me  corona.  [See 
Isa.  Lxi.  10.  Vulgate  Version.] 

The  letter  .  b  .  between  these  two  labels  denotes  the  order 
of  the  plate  or  page,  as  the  cuts  in  this  work  follow  each  other 
according  to  tv/o  sets  of  alphabets,  each  of  which  extends  from 
a  to  b  only :  when  the  first  series  is  completed,  a  second  is 
oegun,  the  letters  of  which  are  distinguished  by  two  points 
.  a  .  •  b  .  .  C  .  .  &c. 

In  the  central  compartment,  between  the  busts  above  described, 
is  the  type  or  principal  subject ;  it  represents  the  rewards  of  the 
righteous  in  the  eternal  world,  and  the  Redeemer  is  introduced 
as  bestowing  the  crown  of  life  on  one  of  the  elect  spirits.  The 
antitype  on  the  left  is  the  daughter  of  Sion,  crowned  by  her 
epouse  with  the  following  Leonine  verse, 

Laus  ale  vere:  spusu  bh  sest  here  ; 
that  is, 
Laus  anime  vere  sponsum  bene  sensit  habere. 
The  antitype  on  the  right  is  an  angel,  speaking  to  St.  John, 
witii  this  verse  beneath  : — 

iS/»o«i  amat  sp'osam  X'  nimis  et  speciosam; 
that  is, 
Sponsus  amat  sponsam  Christus  nimis  et  speciosam. 
From  the  left-hand  figure  of  the  bust  at  the  bottom  of  the  plate 
proceeds  this  label: — corona  tua  ccnliguta  [circumligata]  siet 
'sit]  et  calciame  [calciamenbx]  j  peb''  [in  pcdibus],  with  a  rufer- 
2ncc  to  Ezckicl,  ch.  xxiv.     'i'he  twcnty-tliird  verse  of  tliat  chap- 
ter [Vulgate  Version]  is  most  probably  the  passage  intended. 

From  the  figure  on  the  right  (wliicli  seems  to  have  been  de- 
signed for  the  prophet  Hosca,  as  the  other  figure  may  mean  the 
prophet  Ezckiel)  proceeds  the  label  Sponsabo  te  mihi  in  sempi- 
\'nium,  &c.  with  a  reference  to  Hosca  v.  The  passage  alluded 
to  will  be  found  in  Hos.  ii.  19.  which  runs  thwi: — Sponsabo  te 
mihi  in  sempiternum,  et  sponsabo  te  mihi  injustitia,  et  in  mise- 
ricordia  et  in  miserationibus,    [Vulgate  Version.] 


The  last  line  in  our  fac-simile  of  the  Biblia  Pauperum  may  ba 
thus  read : — 


1  Tlicsc  Lptlors,  Dr.  Dibdin  tliiiikfi,  arc  Ihc  oriRin  of  tho  gli;naturng 
note  ilio  order  ot 
Hpenr.  vol.  I.  p.  xxvi. 


which  are  iwed  to  ileriote  iho  order  ot  the  shceta  in  printed  Lioolcs.     Uib. 


«  Made  rroin  the  last  plate  or  pone  of  the  exemplar,  which  was  the  late 
Mr.  Wjllot'H.    8ce  tho  cngravlnit  facing  the  title  pafic. 

»  The  ahnve  sentcncen  are  prinlcil  irithoul  the  (-((nlrartiens,  which  are 
$0  niiiocruua  and  so  complex,  an  to  be  wllli  dllTiculty  undoraluod  by  any 
who  are  not  convcr.sant  in  ancient  records  and  early-printed  boolcs. 

*  liec  preceding  note. 


Versus. 


F*  tuc  gaudet  aie  sibi,  qU  bonii  dat'  ome. 

that  is, 
Tunc  gaudent  animxsibi  quum  bomun  datur  omne. 


Bibliographers  are  by  no  means  agreed  concerning  the  age* 
which  they  assign  to  the  curious  volume  above  described.  Dr. 
Dibdin,''  it  is  apprehended,  dates  it  too  low,  in  fixing  it  to  the 
year  1450;  and  though  the  cuts  are  not  designed  in  so  heavy 
and  Gothic  a  style  as  Baron  Heinecken  ascribes  to  them,  yet  the 
execution  of  them  on  the  wood-blocks  is  confessedly  very  coarse, 
as  our  specimen  (which  is  an  exact  fac-simile)  will  abundantly 
prove.  The  form  of  the  letters  also  is  too  Gothic,  and  too  void 
of  proportion,  to  bear  so  late  a  date :  indeed,  if  they  be  compared 
with  the  letters  exhibited  in  some  of  the  fac-similes  in  the  liiblio- 
theca  Spenceriana  (which  arc  supposed  to  have  been  executed 
between  1420  and  1430),  the  similarity  of  coarseness  in  the 
shape  of  the  letters  will  render  it  probable  that  the  Biblia  Pau- 
perum is  nearly  of  equal  antiquity.  In  fact,  it  is  this  very 
coarseness  of  the  letters  (as  Heinecken  has  remarked)  which  has 
caused  the  edition  above  described  to  be  preferred  to  every  other 
of  the  Biblia  Pauperum.' 

III.  The  discovery  of  the  art  of  printing  in  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, and  the  establishment  of  the  glorious  Reformation  through- 
out Europe  in  the  following  century,  facilitated  the  circulation 
of  the  Scriptures.  Wherever  its  pure  doctrines  penetrated,  the 
nations  that  embraced  it,  adopting  its  grand  principle — that  the 
Bible  contains  the  religion  of  Protestants — were  naturally  de- 
sirous of  obtaining  the  sacred  volume  in  their  respective  lan- 
guages. .  And  even  in  those  countries  into  which  the  reformed 
doctrines  were  but  partially  introduced,  it  was  found  necessary 
to  yield  so  far  to  the  spirit  of  the  times,  as  to  admit,  in  a  limited 
degree,  vernacular  translations  among  the  people.^  Since  the 
Reformation,  wherever  learned  and  pious  missionaries  have  car- 
ried the  Christian  faith,  the  Scriptures  have  been  translated  into 
the  languages  of  its  professors. 

The  total  number  of  dialects,  spoken  in  any  part  of  the  world, 
is  computed  to  be  about  five  hundred ;  and  of  these  somewhat 
more  than  one  hundred  appear  to  constitute  languages  gencrically 
distinct,  or  exhibiting  more  diversity  than  resemblance  to  each 
other.  Into  upwards  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  of  these  various 
dialects  the  sacred  Scriptures  have  been  translated,  either  wholly 
or  in  part;  and  not  less  than  sixty  of  them  are  versions  in  tho 
languages  and  dialects  of  Asia.  It  is  obvious  that  very  few 
modern  versions  can  be  of  service  in  the  criticism  or  interpreta- 
tion of  the  Bible ;  but  as  the  author  has  been  censured  for 
omitting  them  in  the  first  edition  of  this  work,  he  has  endea 
voured  to  supply  that  deficiency,  and  to  procure  the  best  infor- 
mation possible,  on  a  topic  so  interesting  to  every  sincere 
professor  of  Christianity. 


»  Baron  Heinecken,  who  has  examined  several  copies  of  this  work  with 
minute  atteniicMi,  has  discovered  five  different  editions  of  the  Biblia  Pau- 
perum; the  fiflli  is  easily  known,  as  it  has  lilly  plates.  In  execulin-'  the 
other  four  editions,  the  engravers,  he  observes,  have  worked  with  such 
exactness,  that  there  is  very  litlie  difference  between  any  of  them,  so  that 
it  i.s  iiiipossil>le  to  determine  wliich  is  the  tirst.  Tiie  attentive  bil>liogra- 
jilier,  iiowever,  will  discover  several  variations.  Ttiese  are  pointed  out  by 
Ilcliier.ken,  wlio  has  described  the  subjects  of  the  UillVrent  plate.-i  or  leaves 
with  much  miiiuteiioss.  As  his  inlercstinsf  work  is  in  tho  liand  of  every 
bibliographer  an<l  amateur,  it  will  be  suflicient  to  refer  to  his  Idee  d'uiie 
Collection  d'Eslampes,  pp.  293 — 333. ;  from  whicli  Santaitdcr  has  abridned 
his  neat  accoimt.  Diet,  du  xv.  Sii'-cle,  vol.  ii.  pp.  'J07--210.  Lambinet  (Re- 
cherchcs  sur  riinT)rinierie,  pp.  61— 72.)  and  Dauimu  (Analyse  desOpinion.s 
sur  rOrijiine  de  riiiiprimerie,  pp.  7 — 15.)  have  short  but  interesting  notices 
relative  to  this  and  the  other  books  of  ima;;es,  which  will  repay  the  trouble 
of  perut;id  to  tliosc  who  have  not  the  dear  volume  of  Heinecken,  or  the  ela- 
borate work  of  .Santander. 

«  Ihbliottiecn  Spenceriana,  vol.  i.  p.  xxvi- 

1  The  rarity  of  tho  Uiblia  Pauperum  has  caused  the  few  copies  of  it, 
which  are  known  to  be  e.xtant,  to  be  sold  for  the  most  exorbitant  prices. 
Tliese  inileed  have  varied  according  to  the  condition  and  difference  of  the 
several  editions.  Ttie  coj)y  which  lieiuecken  describes  as  tlie  first  (and 
which  is  noticc<l  above)  cost  at  the  sale  of  M.  de  Hozc,  in  17j3,  IikKJ  livres 
(13/.  l.'is.);  at  the  sale  of  M.  Gai;(iiat,  in  17ra,  Kit)  livres  (%l.  (•s.);  at  tho 
sale  of  M.  Paris,  in  1791,  rAl.  ;  and  that  of  Mr.  Willet,  in  IHP,  two  hundred 
and  forty  five  guineas!  Tlie  edition  described  by  Heinecken  as  tho  se- 
cond, produced,  at  M.  Verdusscn's  sale,  in  177H,  SRO  lloriiis  of  exchange 
(at)out  'Ml.) ;  at  lliat  of  M.  la  Vallbre,  in  17S3,  780  livres  (34/.  2.->.  6/i.) ;  and 
at  that  of  .M.  Creveniia,  in  1761),  'J-IG  livres  (41/.  7s.  9it).    Copies  of  ll>e  Hiblia 


Paupermn  are  in  lii.s  Maje.-dv's  library  (lorim-rly  (laiciial's  copy ) ;  in  that 
of  I'larl  Spencer ;  the  Uodleian  and  Corpus  Cliristi  Kibraries,  at  Oxford; 
('orpus  (/hrisli  College  Library,  Cambridpe ;  in  the  Himlerian  Museum, 
(ilatijrow  (it  is  very  imperfect);  in  the  Koyal  Library  at  Paris  (formerly 
Valliere's  copy  ;  it  is  imperfect);  and  in  the  Public  Lihrnry  at  Rasle.  Tor 
all  account  of  tlie  Hpnctitiim  Hmnnnm  Hulvaliottin  and  the  other  curious 
liookn  of  Images,  sec  llie  author'.slnlrr)durllon  to  HiblioKrnphy,  vol.  ii.  Ap- 
pendix, pp.  V. — xiv.;  and  Haron  Heinecken's  Idee  Gen<Talc  d'uno  Collec- 
tiuii  iMimpli-le  iI'D.Hlampes.     Leipsic,  1771,  Hvo. 

•  Hisiiirical  f'kelch  of  the  Transtniion  and  Circulation  of  the  Scriptures 
by  the  Uev.  Messrs-  Thoiuson  and  Oriue  (Perth,  1S15,  8vo.},  p.  41 


MODEilN  LATIN  VERSIONS. 


31 


The  modem  versions  of  the  Scriptures  are  twofold,  viz,  in  the 
Latin  language,  and  in  the  vernacular  language  of  all  the  coun- 
tries in  which  Christianity  has  been  propagated ;  and  bo^  are 
made  either  by  persons  in  communion  with  the  Church  of  Rome 
or  by  Protestani.s. 

§  2.  Modern  Latin  Versions  of  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 
tament. 
[i.]  Latin  Vehsioss  of  the  entibe  Bible,  or  of  the  Old 

Testament. 

Versions  made  by  Romanists. 

Of  the  modern  Latin  Versions  of  the  Old  Testament,  made 

by  individuals  in  communion  with  the  Church  of  Rome,  those 

of  Pagninus,  Montanus,  Malvenda,  Cajetan,  and  Houbigant,  are 

particularly  worthy  of  notice.^ 

1.  Pagninus. — Veteris  ac  Novi  Testamenti  nova  translatio, 
per  Sanct.  Pagninum  edita.     Lugduni,  1528,  in  large  4to. 

S-'nctes  Pagninus,  a  Dominican  monk,  was  the  first  modern  ori- 
ental scholar  who  attempted  to  make  a  new  translation  of  the 
Scriptures  from  the  original  languages.  Havmg,  ni  the  course  of 
his  studies,  been  led  to  conceive  that  the  Vulgate  Latm  Version 
of  Jerome  (of  which  an  account  has  been  given  m  the  first  volume 
of  this  work)  was  greatly  corrupted,  he  undertook  to  form  a  new 
translation  of  the  Old  Testament  from  the  Hebrew,  following 
Jerome  only  where  he  thought  that  his  version  corresponded  to  the 
original.  Under  the  patronage  of  the  Popes  Leo  X.,  Hadrian  VI., 
and  Clement  VII.,  he  devoted  twenty-five  years  to  this  great  work; 
which  was  first  published  at  Lyons  in  1528.  The  Jews  who  read  it 
attested  its  fidelity.  The  great  fault  of  Pagninus  is,  that  he  has  ad- 
hered too  closely  and  servilely  to  the  original  text ;  and  this  scrupu- 
lous attachment  has  made  his  translation  obscure,  barbarous,  and  full 
of  solecisms.  He  has  also  altered  the  commonly-received  names 
of  men  and  cities,  and  has  substituted  others  in  their  place,  which 
are  pronounced  according  to  ihp  pronunciation  of  the  iVlasontes. 
Though  this  translator's  labours  were  very  severely  criticised  by 
Father  Simon,  yet  he  acknowledges  his  great  abilities  and  learn- 
in"  ;  and  all  the  latter  commentators  and  critics  concur  in  justly 
coTn'mending  his  work,  as  being  remarkably  exact  and  faithful,  and 
admirably  adapted  to  explain  the  literal  sense  of  the  Hebrew  text. 
Pagninus  afterwards  translated  the  New  Testament  from  the 
Greek,  which  he  dedicated  to  his  patron,  Pope  Clement  VII.  It 
was  printed  with  the  former  at  Lyons,  in  1528.  In  1557,  Robert 
Stephens  printed  a  new  edition  of  his  translation  m  two  volumes 
fol'o,  with  corrections  ;  but  it  contains  only  the  Old  Testament  of 
Pagninus's  -version.  The  New  Testament  is  given  in  the  Latin 
vereion  of  Beza,  which  is  noticed  in  p.  32.  infra.  ^ 

2.  Montanus. — Biblia  Latina  Pagnini,  a  Benedicto  Aria 
MoNTANO  rccognita.     Antverpiae,  1584,  foUo. 

The  translation  of  Pagninus  was  revised  by  Benedict  Arias 
Montanus,  who  has  erroneously  been  considered  as  a  new  trans- 
lator of  the  Bible  in  the  Latin  language.  His  chief  aim  was  to 
translate  the  Hebrew  words  by  the  same  number  of  Latin  ones  ; 
so  that  he  has  accommodated  his  whole  translation  to  the  most 
scrupulous  rules  of  grammar,  without  any  regard  to  the  elegance 
of  his  Latinity.  Montanus's  edition,  therefore,  may  be  considered 
rather  as  a  grammatical  commentary,  than  a  true  version,  and  as 
being  adapted  to  instruct  young  beginners  in  the  Hebrew,  than  to 
be  read  separately:  being  printed  interimearily  with  the  Latm 
word  placed  exactly  over  the  Hebrew,  it  saves  the  student  the 
trouble  of  frequently  referring  to  his  Lexicon.  In  the  New  Tes- 
tament, Montanus  changed  only  a  few  words  in  the  Vulgate  ver- 
sion, where  he  found  it  to  difler  from  the  Greek.  This  revision 
has  been  very  frequently  printed  in  various  sizes :  it  is  also  found 
in  the  Antwerp,  Paris,  and  London  Polyglotts. 

3.  Malvenda. — Thoms  Maltend^s  Commentarii  in  Scrip- 
turam  Sacram,  una  cum  nova  ex  Hebraeo  translatione,  variisque 
lectionibus,     Lugduni,  1650,  5  tomis,  folio. 

The  translation  of  Thomas  Malvenda,  a  Spanish  Dominican, 
being  more  grammatical  and  barbarous  than  that  of  Montanus,  is 
but  little  esteemed,  and  has  fallen  into  oblivion. 

4.  Cajetan. — Librorum  Veteris  Testamenti,  scilicet  Penta- 
teuchi,  JosuiE,  Judicum,  Regum,  Paralipomenon,  Esdrse,  Nehe- 
mis5.  Job,  Psalmomm,  Proverbiorum  Salomonis,  et  priorum 
trium  capitum  Esaiae,  Versio  nova  Latina  ex  Hebrseo  a  Thoma 
de  Vio,  Cardinals  Cajetano,  ope  duorum  Linguam  Hebraeam 
scientium  (alterius  Hebraei  Magistri  illius  linguae,  alterius  Chris- 
tiani)  instituta  juxta  methodum  quam  ipse  tradidit  in  praefatione 
commentariorum  in  Psalmos.    Lugduni,  1639,  5  vols,  folio. 

The  version  which  bears  the  name  of  Cardinal  Cajetan,  strictly 
speaking,  is  not  his  production  ;  having  been  made  by  two  per- 
sons (one  a  Jew,  the  other  a  Christian),  both  of  whom  were  well 

1  The  materials  of  this  section  are  derived  from  Marsh's  and  Boerner's 
Edition  of  Lelong's  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  vol  ii.  Walchii  Bibliotheca  Theo- 
logica  Selecta,  vol.  iv.  pp.  64—76.  Carpzovii  Critica  Sacra,  Veteris  Tes- 
tamenti, pp.  707—757.  Simon's  Hist.  Critique  du  Vieux  Testament,  livre  u. 
ch.  xiHi. 


skilled  in  the  original  language  of  the  sacred  volume.  Cajetan 
carefully  avoided  those  barbarous  expressions  which  he  must  havv 
used  if  his  version  had  been  grammatically  literal. 

5.  HouBiGANT. — Biblia  Veteris  Testamenti  Latine,  ex  Ver 
sione  Caroli  Francisci  Houbigant.  Lutetiae  Parisiorum,  1753, 
4  tomis,  folio. 

The  Latin  version  of  the  Old  Testament,  printed  by  Fathet 
Houbigant  in  his  critical  edition  of  the  Hebrew  Bible  (noticed  in 
p.  31.  supra),  is  not  framed  according  to  the  present  Hebrew  text, 
but  according  to  the  text,  as  he  thought  it  should  be  corrected  by 
manuscripts,  ancient  versions,  and  critical  conjectures.  The  Latin 
text  of  Houbigant's  version  was  also  printed  at  Paris  in  1753,  in 
8  vols.  8vo.  This  version  is  much  admired  for  its  elegance  and 
energy. 

Versions  made  by  Protestants. 

Since  the  Reformation,  several  Latin  versions  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament have  been  made  from  the  original  Hebrew  by  learned 
Protestants.  The  most  esteemed  are  those  of  Munster,  Leo 
Juda,  Castalio,  Junius  and  Tremellius,_  Schmidt,  Dathe,  Schott, 
and  Winzer. 

1.  Munster. — Biblia  Latina,  ex  Versione  Sebastian!  Mun- 
STERi.     Basileae,  1534;  1546,  folio. 

In  the  year  1534,  Sebastian  Munster  printed  at  Basle  a  new 
translation  of  the  Old  Testament  from  the  original  Hebrew,  with 
the  Hebrew  text;  and  in  1546  he  published  a  second  edition, 
with  the  addition  of  some  notes,  which  Father  Simon  thinks  useful 
for  understanding  the  style  of  the  sacred  writings.  Without  rigidly 
adhering  to  the  grammatical  signification  of  the  words,  like  Pagni- 
nus and  Montanus,  he  has  given  a  more  free  and  intelligible  version : 
but  by  not  deviating  from  the  sense  of  the  Hebrew  text,  he  has 
retained  some  of  its  peculiar  idioms.  He  has  also  availed  himself 
of  the  commentaries  of  the  best  of  the  rabbinical  writers.  Though 
Simon  freely  censures  particular  parts  of  Munster's  version,  he 
decidedly  prefers  it  to  those  of  Pagninus  and  Montanus ;  and  Huet 
gives  him  the  character  of  a  translator  well  versed  in  the  Hebrew 
language,  whose  style  is  very  exact,  and  conformable  to  the 
original. 

3.  Leo  Juda. — Biblia  Sacro-Sancta  Testamenti  Veteris  et 
Novi,  e  sacra  Hebrajorum  lingua  Grsecorumque  fontibus,  con- 
sultis  simul  orthodoxis  interpretibus  religiosissime,  translata  in 
sermonem  Latinum.  Tiguri,  1543,  folio ;  1544,  8vo.,  and  various 
subsequent  editions. 

The  translation  which  bears  the  name  of  Leo  Juda  was  com 
menced  by  him ;  but  being  prevented  by  death  from  finishing  the 
work,  he  left  it  to  be  completed  by  Theodore  Bibliander,  professor 
of  divinity  at  Zurich.  With  the  assistance  of  Conrad  Pellican, 
who  was  professor  of  Hebrew  in  the  same  place,  Bibliander  trans- 
lated the  rest  of  the  Old  Testament  from  the  Hebrew ;  the  New 
Testament  was  undertaken  by  Peter  Cholin  and  Rodolph  Gualter, 
two  learned  Protestants,  at  that  time  resident  at  Zurich.  This 
version  was  first  printed  in  1543,  and  was  reprinted  by  Robert 
Stephens  at  Paris,  in  1545,  with  the  addition  of  the  Vulgate  version, 
in  two  columns,  and  with  short  notes  or  scholia,  but  without 
specifying  the  translator's  name.  Though  it  was  condemned  by 
the  divines  at  Paris,  it  was  favourably  received  by  those  of  Sala- 
manca, who  reprinted  it  with  some  trifling  alterations.  It  is  ac- 
knowledged to  be  very  faithful ;  and  its  style  is  more  elegant  than 
that  of  Munster :  but  the  translators  are  said,  in  some  instances,  to 
have  receded  too  far  from  the  literal  sense. 

-3.  Castalio.— Biblia  Latina,  Interprete  Sebastiano  Casta- 
LioNE.     Basileae,  1573,  folio;  Lipsiae,  1738,  4  tomis,  12mo. 

The  Latin  version  of  Sebastian  Chatillon,  or  Castalio  (as  he  is 
generally  called),  was  begun  at  Geneva  in  1542,  and  finished  at 
Basle  in  1550,  where  it  was  printed  in  the  following  year,  with  a 
dedication  to  Edward  VI.  king  of  England.  His  design  was,  to 
render  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  in  elegant  Latin  like  that  of 
the  ancient  classic  authors ;  but  his  style  has  been  severely  cen- 
sured by  some  critics,  as  being  too  much  aflfected,  and  destitute  of 
that  noble  simplicity,  grandeur,  and  energy,  which  characterize 
the  sacred  originals.  Professor  Dathe,  however,  has  vindicated  this 
learned  Protestant  from  these  charges.  Castalio's  version  has  been 
frequently  reprinted :  the  best  edition  of  it  is  said  to  be  that  printed 
at  Leipsic,  in  1738,  in  4  vols.  12mo.;  but  the  folio  edition,  printed 
in  1573,  is  in  most  request,  not  only  on  account  of  its  beauty,  but 
also  because  it  contains  the  author's  last  corrections,  together  with 
a  very  complete  table  of  matters. 

4.  Junius  and  Tremellius.— Testamenti  Veteris  Biblia 
Sacra:  sive  Libri  Canonici  priscae  Judaeorum  Ecclesiae  a  Deo 
traditi,  Latini  recens  ex  Hebraeo  facti  brevibusque  scholiis  illus- 
trati  ab  Immanuele  Tremellio.  Accessenint  Libri,  qui  vulgo 
dicuntur  Apocryphi,  Latine  redditi  et  notis  qoibusdam  aucti  a 
Francisco  Junio.  Quibus  etiam  adjunximus  Novi  Testamenti 
Libros  ex  Sermone  Syro  ab  eodem  Tremellio,  et  ex  Graco  a 
Theodoro  Be z A  in  Latinum  versos,  notisque  itidem  illustrados 
Secunda  curi  Francisci  Junii.    Geneve,  1590,  4to 


32 


MODERN  VERSIONS  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


■4 
[Paht  I.*a>aAp.  1 


The  version  of  Francis  Junius  and  Immannel  Tremellius  was 
first  published  at  Frankfort  on  the  Main,  in  four  tomes  folio,  in  the 
vears  1575-76-79:  it  was  subsequently  corrected  l)y  Junius,  and 
has  since  been  repeatodly  printed.  By  the  I'roteslant  churches  it 
was  received  with  great  approbation ;  and  to  this  day  it  is  held  in 
great  esteem  for  its  simplicitv,  perspicuity,  and  fidelity.  Fallier 
Simon  criticised  it  with  great  severity ;  but  our  learned  country- 
man, Matthew  Poole,  in  the  preface  to  his  iii/nopsia  Criticorum 
Sacrorum,  reckons  it  among  the  best  vereions :  and  the  ecclesias- 
tical historian,  Dupin,  commends  it  for  its  close  adherence  to  the 
Hebrew.  Junius  and  Tremellius  have  been  very  particular  in 
expressing  the  article  by  demonstrative  pronouns. 

5.  Schxiht, — Biblia  Sacra,  sive  Testiuncntum  Vctus  ct 
Novum  ex  Unguis  originalibus  in  Linguam  Latinam  translatum, 
additis  Capitum  Summariis  ct  Partitionibus,  a  Sebastiano  ScuMi- 
Dio.     Argentorati,  1696,  4to. 

Sebasiian  Schmidt  was  professor  of  oriental  langtiagcs  at  Stras- 
burgh.  Of  his  version,  which  was  published  after  the  author's 
decease,  there  have  been  several  editions.  It  is  strictly  literal ; 
and  is  chiefly  useful  to  students  in  the  Hebrew  language. 

6.  Dathe. — Libri  Veteri-s  Testamenti,  ex  recensione  Textus 
Hebraii  ct  Vcrsionum  Antiquaruni,  Latinc  versi,  Notis  pliilologicis 
et  crilicis  illustrati  a  Joanne  Augusto  Dathio.  Hala;,  1773- 
89.    6  vols.  8vo. 

The  version  of  John  Augustus  Dathe,  who  was  professor  of  ori- 
ental literature  at  Leipsic,  is  deservedly  in  high  repute  for  its 
general  tldelity  and  elegance,  both  in  this  country  and  on  the 
Continent.  Prof  Dathe  "  never  published  any  part,  until  he  had 
repeatedly  explained  it  in  his  public  lectures,  and  convinced  him- 
eelf  that  no  difficulty  remained,  but  such  as  could  not  be  removed. 
In  this  manner  was  his  translation  produced,  which  may  be  con- 
sidered as  a  perpetual  commentary."  (Aikin's  Biographical  Dic- 
tionary, vol.  X.  Supplement,  p.  306.) 

7.  ScuoTT  and  Winzeh. — Libri  Sacri  Antiqui  Foederis  ex 
Sermonc  Hcbnco  in  Latinum  translati ;  notalione  brevi  prrccipuse 
Lectionum  et  Intcrpretationum  diver.sitatis  addita.  Auctoribus 
D.  Henrico  Augusto  Scuott  et  Julio  Friederico  VVinzer. 
Volumcn  primum.     Altonaj  et  Lipsic,  1816,  8vo. 

This  volume  comprises  the  Pentateuch  only  ;  the  three  first  books 
were  translated  by  M.  Schott,  and  the  two  last  by  M-  Winzer;  but 
the  whole  work  has  been  so  carefully  revised,  that  it  appears  to  be 
the  production  of  only  one  person.    It  professes  to  be  very  close. 


[ii.]  Latik  Vehsioxs  of  the  New  Testament. 

1.  Erasmus. — Novi  Testamenti  ^Editio  postrcma,  per  Deside- 
rium  Erasmum,  Roterodamum.     Basilea;,  1535,  8vo. 

The  celebrated  Erasmus  has  the  honour  of  being  the  first  trans- 
lator of  the  iS'evv  Testament  into  the  Latin  languago  from  the 
original  Greek.  His  object  was,  to  give  a  iailhful  and  clear  ver- 
sion, in  which  it  is  admitted  that  he  succeeded  as  fiir  as  it  was  pos- 
sible at  that  time.  In  this  version  he  followed  not  only  the  printed 
copies,  but  also  four  Greek  manuscripts  ;  according  to  the  example 
of  Jerome,  he  varied  but  little  from  the  Vulgate.  The  first  edition 
of  his  imnslatiun  appeared  with  his  Greek  Testament  in  1516,  and 
was  dedicated  to  Pope  Leo  X.,  by  whom  it  was  higlily  commended 
in  a  letter  of  thanks  which  he  wrote  to  Erasmu.s.  The  pontifTs 
praises,  however,  did  not  prevent  his  labours  from  being  censured 
with  great  severity  by  certain  writers  belonging  to  the  Romish 
communion,  against  wliom  Erasmus  defended  himself  wilii  great 
spirit.  His  version  h.is  been  frequently  printed  and  corrected,  bolli 
by  himself  and  by  his  editors. 

2.  Beza. — Novum  D.  N.  Jesu  Chri.sti  Testamentum.  liatinc 
jam  olim  a  Vctcri  Intcrprete,  nunc  denuo  ;i  Theodoro  Beza 
vcrsum,  cum  ejusdeni  annotationibus,  in  quibus  ratio  intcrprcta- 
tionis  redditur.     Oliva  Robcrti  Stephani  [Gcncvae],  1556,  folio. 

This  version  has  been  repeatedly  printed.  On  account  of  its 
fidelity,  it  has  always  been  highly  esteemed  by  Prolcstnnts  of 
e\CTV  denomination.  Bishop  VVuiton,  indeed,  was  of  opinion  that 
he  was  jusily  chiirged  with  departing  unnecessarily  from  the  com- 
mon readings,  without  the  authority  of  manuscripts;  but  a  careful 
examination  of  Beza's  translation  will  show  that  that  distinguished 
prelate  was  in  this  instance  mistaken. 

3.  Chr.  Guil.  Thalemanm  Versio  Latina  Evangeliorum 
Matthffii,  Marci,  Lucaj,  ct  Johannis,  itcmquc  Actuum  Apostolo- 
rum,  cdita  a  C.  C.  Tiltmanno.  Berolini,  1781,  8vo.  The  re- 
maining books  of  the  New  Testament  were  translated  by  M. 
laspis,  and  entitled, 

Versio  Latina  Epistolarum  Novi  Testament!,  pcrpetua  anno- 
tatione  illustrate  a  Godofredo  Bigismundo  Iaspik.  Lipsioc, 
Vol.1.  1793,  Vol.  n.  1797,  8vo.  Editio  nova,  Liiwia;,  1821. 
2  toraiii  8vo. 

4.  Sacri  novi  Testamenti  Libri  omnes,  veteri  Latinitalc  donati 
ab  Henrico  Godofredo  Reii  II  \nno.     Lipsi.T,  1799,  8vo. 

6.  Sebabtiaxi. — Novum  Tcbtumcntum  ob  frequcalcs  omni- 


um Interpretationum  Hallucinationes,  nunc  demuni  ex  Codicc 
Alexandrino,  adhibitis  etiam  compluribus  manuscriptis  varjanti- 
busque  Lcctionibus  editis,  summa  fide  ac  cura  Latine  reddituin 
Omnibus  Sacris  Auctoribus  Grajcis,  Sacris  Criticis,  Glossarii-s,  ei 
Instructioribus  per  totain  Grsciam  Ecclesiasticis  Viris  diligentis- 
sime  consuUis.  Intcrprete  Leopoldo  Sedastiaxi.  Londini, 
1817,  royal  8vo. 

M.  Sobasiiani  is  advantageously  knov\Ti  to  scholars  as  the  editor    J 
of  Lycophron  (Roma;,  1803,  4to.).    His  version  is  made  from  the     I 
text  of  the  Alexandrian  Manuscript,  witli  which  the   translator    1 
states  that  he  collated  several  manuscripts  and  collections  of  various     ' 
readings,  availing  hiuiself  also  of  every  critical  aid  he  could  pro- 
cure, and  particularly  of  the  writings  of  the  Greek  fathers,  and  the 
assistance  of  the  most  learned  of  the  modern  Greek  clergy.    To 
obtain  the  latter,  M.  Sebastiani   expressly  travelled    through  the 
whole  of  Greece.    In  all  doctrinal  p<iints,  this  version  is  made  con- 
formable to  the  tenets  inculcated  l/y  the  Romish  church. 

%*  For  notices  of  the  modern  Latin  Versions  of  Sehott,  Naebe, 
and  Goeschen,  see  pp.  16,  18,  and   19,  of  this  Appendix. 


§  3.  Versions  in  the  Languages  of  Modern  Europe. 
[i.]  Versions  in  the  Lancuares  spoken  in  the  British 

Isles. 

Eii£^lish  Protestant  Versions.^ 
Although  it  is  impossible,  at  this  distance  of  time,  to  ascertain 
when  or  by  whom  Christianity  was  first  planted  in  this  island, 
as  well  as  the  earliest  time  wlien  the  Scriptures  were  translated 
into  the  language  of  its  inhabitants,  yet  we  know  that,  for  many 
hundred  years,  they  were  favoiired  with  the  possession  of  part,  at 
least,  of  the  sacred  volume  in  their  vernacular  tongue.  Of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  versions  an  account  has  already  been  given;  to 
which  we  may  now  add,  that  a  Saxon  translation  of  tlie  Penta- 
teuch, of  Joshua,  part  of  the  bool^s  of  Kings,  Esther,  and  of  the 
apocr}'phal  book  of  Judith,  and  the  Maccabees,  is  attributed  to 
Elfric  or  Elfred,  who  was  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  a.  n.  995. 

A  chasm  of  several  centuries  ensued,  during  which  the  Scrip-  \ 
tures  appeared  to  have  been  biuicd  in  oblivion,  the  general  read- 
ing of  them  being  prohibited  by  the  papal  see.  The  Jlrst  ExoLisft 
translation  of  the  Bible  known  to  be  extant  was  executed  by  an 
unknown  individual,  and  is  placed  by  Archbishop  Usher  to  the 
year  1290:  of  this  there  arc  three  manuscript  copies  preserved, 
in  the  Bodleian  library,  and  in  the  libraries  of  Christ  Church  and 
Queen's  Colleges  at  Oxford.  Towards  the  close  of  the  following 
century,  John  de  Thevisa,  vicar  of  Berkeley  in  the  county  of 
Gloucester,  at  the  desire  of  his  patron.  Lord  Berkeley,  is  said  to  ja 
have  translated  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  into  the  Engli.sh  j| 
tongue.  But  as  no  part  of  this  work  appears  ever  to  have  been 
printed,  the  translation  ascribed  to  him  is  supposed  to  have  been 
confined  to  a  few  texts,  which  are  scattered  in  some  parts  of  his 
works  (several  copies  of  which  are  known  to  exist  in  manu- 
script), or  which  were  painted  on  the  walls  of  his  patron's  chapel 
at  Berkeley  Castle.  It  is  by  no  means  improbable,  that,  before 
the  invention  of  printing,  recourse  v.as  had  to  the  painting  of  the 
principal  events  in  the  sacred  history,  on  the  windows  of 
churches,  in  order  to  convey  some  knowledge  of  Scrii)ture  facts 
to  the  illiterate.  Among  the  finest  specimens  of  this  pictoria' 
instniction,  we  may  mention  the  lieautifully-executed  windows 
of  King's  College  Chapel,  Cambridge.* 

1.  Wicliffe's  Version. 

The  New  Testament  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ, 
translated  out  of  the  Latin  Vulgat  by  John  Wiclif,  S.T.P. 
about  1378.  To  which  is  pnefixt  a  History  of  the  Translations 
of  the  H.  Bible  and  N.  Testament,  &c.  into  English,  both  in 
MS.  and  print,  and  of  the  most  remarkable  Editions  of  them 
since  "the  Invention  of  Printing.  By  John  Lewis,  M.A.  London 
1731,  folio;  1810,  4to.» 

«  Our  account  of  Enalish  translations  is  riravvn  from  Lewis's  II    ' f 

flic  tran.slaiions  of  lite  li\\>U'.,  prrfixpd  to  his  edition  of  Wick 
Tfslainciil,  fi'lio,  17.TI  ;  Jolciisnn".s  Ilislorir.-il  Arrmiiil  of  tlic  scvr  1 
Imnslatlonti  of  ihr  Hil>l'>,  nrisiiinlly  ptihlishrd  in  17;30,  in  H\-o.  and  niirinn'd 
ill  the  third  volume  of  Hisliop  Wiiloon's  f'olleclion  of  Tlicolopicnl  Tracts ; 
Arcldiisliop  Ncwroine's  View  of  tliP  Lnjrlisli  IJiblicalTi-aiislations,  Dublin, 
17'J2,  Ovo. ;  Mr.  Whlttnki;r'8  It-arnrd  and  elftboratn  Inigiiiry  into  iho  Inter 
prolatioii  of  Iltbrew  Scriptures,  pp.  33— lU. ;  ami  .Mr.  Uallcr's  I-ellcr  (o 
tlic  Dislioj)  of  Pctcrborou(jh,  on  the  Independence  of  the  auUiorized  Ver 
sioii  of  tliu  Ilible. 

»  Tliorc  Is  a  peculiar  corrpRpnndencc  lietwccn  the  painilncs  en  t!io 
same  window,  in  the  upprr  anil  lower  divisionu:  for  Instance,  in  the  upper 
division  is  palntcH  a  piccr  of  history  taken  from  tlic  OldTcsIainnnl ;  and  in 
the  lowerillvision,  l»  painted  some  clrcunist.inrc  selected  from  the  New 
Tentanient,  corrosponding  to  ilmt  aliovf  it  from  the  Old. 

»  Tho  titles  of  this  and  ibo  f<illowiiifi  KiiuliHli  versions  aro  given  from  the 
roniPR  preserved  in  the  liliraiy  of  the  British  Museum,  with  the  exception 
of  HollybuHhc's  New  TesUiiient,  In  p.  68.,  and  the  AngloOenevese  Blbl* 
in  p.  7i. 


Skct.  at.  §  3.] 

Nearly  contemporarv  with  John  de  Trevisa  was  the  celebrated 
John  Wiclif,  or  WiclitTo,  who,  about  the  year  1378  or  1380,  trans- 
lated the  entire  Bible  from  the  Latin  Vulgate  into  the  English  hin- 
ginge  as  then  spoken,  not  being  sufTiciently  acquainted  with  the 
IIe!)rew  and  Greek  languages  to  translate  from  the  originals. 
Boftre  the  invention  of  printing,  transcripts  were  obtained  with 
difficulty,  and  copies  were  so  rare,  that,  according  to  the  registry 
of  William  Alncwick,  bishop  of  Norwich,  in  1429,  the  price  of  one 
of  Wicklifle's  Testaments  was  not  less  than  lour  marks  and  forty 
pence,  or  tv\  o  pounds  sixteen  shillings  and  eight-pence,  a  sum  equi- 
valent to  more  than  forty  pounds  at  present.  This  translation  of 
the  Bible,  we  are  informed,  was  so  offensive  to  those  who  were  for 
taking  away  the  key  of  knowledge  and  means  of  better  informa- 
tion, that  a  bill  was  brought  into  the  House  of  Lords,  13  Rich.  II. 
A.  D.  1390,  for  the  purpose  of  suppressing  it.  On  which  the  Duke 
of  Lancaster,  the  king's  uncle,  is  reported  to  have  spoken  to 
this  effect: — "We  will  not  be  the  dregs  of  all ;  seeing  olher 
nations  have  the  law  of  God,  which  is  the  law  of  our  faith,  written 
in  their  own  language."  At  the  same  time  he  declared  in  a  veiy 
solemn  manner,  "  That  he  would  maintain  our  having  this  law  in 
our  own  tongue  against  those,  whoever  they  should  be,  who  first 
brought  in  tlie  bill."  The  duke  was  seconded  by  others,  who  said  : 
"  That  if  the  Gospel,  by  its  being  translated  into  English,  was  the 
occasion  of  running  into  error,  they  might  know  tliat  there  were 
more  heretics  to  be  found  among  the  Latins  than  among  the  people 
of  any  other  language.  For  that  the  Decretals  reckoned  no  fewer 
than  sixty-six  Latin  heretics  ;  and  so  the  Gospel  must  not  be  read 
in  Latin,  which  yet  the  opposers  of  its  English  translation  allowed." 
Through  the  duke  of  Lancaster's  influence  the  bill  was  rejected  ; 
and  this  success  gave  encouragement  to  some  of  Wicliffis's  followers 
to  publish  another  and  more  correct  translation  of  the  Bible.  But 
in  the  year  1408,  in  a  convocation  held  at  Oxford  by  Archbishop 
Arundel,  it  was  decreed  by  a  constitution,  "  That  no  one  should 
thereafter  translate  any  text  of  Holy  Scripture  in  English,  by  way 
of  a  book,  or  little  book  or  tract;  and  that  no  book  of  this  kind 
should  be  read,  that  was  composed  lately  irt  the  time  of  John 
Wicliffe,  or  since  his  death."  This  constitution  led  the  way  to 
great  persecution,  and  many  persons  were  punished  severely,  and 
some  even  with  death,  for  reading  the  Scriptures  in  English. — 
(  Lewis's  History,  pp.  7 — 18. ) 

No  part  of  Wicliffe's  version  of  the  Scriptures  w-as  printed, 
until  Mr.  Lewis  published  the  New  Testament  in  folio,  in  the 
year  1731.  In  1739,  his  history  of  translations  was  printed  by  it- 
self in  an  octavo  volume.  WiclifTe'si  translation  of  the  New  f  es- 
tament  was  handsomely  re-edited  in  quarto,  in  1810,  by  the  Rev. 
Henry  Hervey  Baber,  M.A.,  one  of  the  Librarians  of  the  British 
Museum ;  who  prefixed  a  valuable  memoir  of  the  life,  opinions, 
and  writings  of  Dr.  Wicliffe,  and  also  an  Historical  Account  of  the 
Saxon  and  English  Versions  of  the  Scriptures,  previous  to  the 
opening  of  the  fifth  century. 

2.  Tindal's  VEnsioy. 

In  England,  as  in  other  parts  of  Europe,  the  spread  of  the  pure 
doctrines  of  the  Reformation  was  accompanied  with  new  transla- 
tions into  the  vernacular  language.  For  the  first  ]>ri?ifed^  English 
translation  of  the  Scriptures  we  are  indebted  to  V/illiam  Tindal, 
who,  having  formed  the  design  of  translating  the  New  Testament 
from  the  original  Greek  into  English  (an  undertaking  for  which  he 
was  fully  qualified),  removed  to  Antwerp  in  Flanders  for  this  pur- 
pose. Plere,  with  the  assistance  of  the  learned  John  Fry,  or  Fryth, 
who  was  burnt  on  a  charge  of  heresy  in  Smithfield,  in  1552,  and 
a  friar,  called  William  Roye,  who  suffered  death  on  the  same  ac- 
count in  Portugal,  he  finished  it,  and  in  the  year  1526  it  was  print- 
ed either  at  Antwerp  or  Hamburg,  without  a  name,  in  a  middle- 
sized  8vo.  volume,  and  without  either  calendar,  references  in  the 
margin,  or  table  at  the  end.  -  Tindal  annexed  a  "pistil"  at  the 
close  of  it,  in  which  he  "desyred  them  that  were  learned  to 
amende  if  ought  were  found  amysse."  Le  Long  calls  this  "  The 
New  Testament  translated  into  English,  from  the  German  Version 
of  Luther ;"  but  for  this  degrading  appellation  he  seems  to  have  no 
other  authority  besides  a  story  related  by  one  Cochlaeus,'  an  enemy 
of  the  Reformation,  with  a  view  of  depreciating  Tindafs  trans- 
lation. Many  copies  of  this  translation  having  found  their  way 
into  England,  in  order  to  prevent  their  dispersion  among  the  people, 
and  the  more  affectually  to  enforce  the  prohibition  published  in  all 
the  dioceses  against  reading  them,  Tonstal,  bishop  of  London,  pur- 
chased all  the  remaining  copies  of  this  edition,  and  all  which  he 
could  collect  from  private  hands,  and  committed  them  to  the  flames 
at  St.  Paul's  cross.  The  first  impression  of  Tindal's  translation  being 
thus  disposed  of,  several  other  editions  were  published  in  Holland, 
before  the  year  1530,  in  which  Tindal  seems  to  have  had  no  in- 
terest, but  which  found  a  ready  sale,  and  those  which  were  import- 
ed into  England  were  ordered  to  be  burned.  On  one  of  these  oc- 
casions. Sir  Thomas  More,  who  was  then  chancellor,  and  who 
concurred  with  the  bishop  in  the  execution  of  this  measure,  in- 
quired of  a  person,  who  stood  accused  of  heresy,  and  to  whom  he 

»  Though  Wicliffe's  translation  is  prior  in  point  of  time,  no  part  of  it  was 
printed  before  the  year  1731. 

9  Specimens  of  Tindal's  translation  of  the  New  Testament,  as  well  as  of 
Che  other  early  English  translations  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  are 
given  (together  with  concise  bibliographical  description.^)  in  the  appendix 
to  the  Rev.  Dr.  Cotton's  "List  of  Editions  of  the  Bible,  and  of  parts 
thereof,"  &c.  pp.  85—140. 

*  In  Actis  Martini  Luthori  ad  an.  1S36,  p.  1^. 


ENGLISH  VERSIONS. 


33 


promised  indemnity  on  consideration  of  an  explicit  and  satisfactory 
answer,  how  Tindal  subsisted  abroad,  and  v.lio  \vcre  the  persons 
in  London  that  abetted  and  supported  him :  to  wliich  inquir}'  the 
heretical  convert  replied,  "It  was  the  Bishop  of  London 'who 
maintained  him,  by  sending  a  sum  of  money  to  buy  up  the  im- 
pression of  his  Testament."  The  chancellor  smiled,  admitted  the 
truth  of  the  declaration,  and  suflTered  the  accused  person  to  escape. 
The  people  formed  a  very  unfavourable  opinion  of  those  who 
ordered  the  word  of  God  to  be  burned,  and  concluded,  that  there 
must  be  an  obvious  repugnance  between  the  New  Testament  and 
the  doctrines  of  those  who  treated  it  with  this  indignity.  Those 
who  were  suspected  of  importing  and  concealing  any  of  these 
books,  were  adjudged  by  Sir  T.  More  to  ride  with  their  faces  to 
the  tails  of  their  horses,  with  papers  on  their  heads,  and  the  New 
Testaments,  and  other  books  which  they  had  dispersed,  liung  about 
their  cloaks,  and  at  the  standard  in  Cheapside  to  throw  them  into 
a  fire  prepared  for  that  purpose,  and  to  be  fined  at  the  king'a 
pleasure. 

When  Tonstal's  purchase  served  only  to  benefit  Tindal,  and 
those  who  were  employed  inprintingand  selling  succes.sive  editions 
of  his  Testament,  and  other  measures  for  restraining  their  disper- 
sion seemed  to  have  little  or  no  effect,  the  pen  of  t!ie  witty,  elo- 
quent, and  learned  Sir  Thomas  More  v.as  employed  against  tlie 
translator;  and  the  bishop  granted  him  a  license,  or  faculty,  dated 
March  7,  1527,  to  have  and  to  read  the  several  books  which  Tin- 
dal and  others  published  ;  and  at  his  desire  Sir  Thomas  composed 
a  dialogue,  written  with  much  humour,  and  designed  to  expose 
Tindafs  translation,  which  waj  published  in  1529.  In  this  dia- 
logue, he  alleges,  among  other  charges,  that  Tindal  had  mistrans- 
lated three  words  of  great  importance,  viz.  the  words  priests, 
church,  and  charity  ;  calling  the  first  seniors,  the  second  congre- 
gation, and  the  third  love.  He  also  charges  him  with  changing 
commonly  the  term  grace  into  favour,  confession  into  knowledge, 
penance  into  repentance,  and  a  contrite  heart  into  a  troubled  liearl. 
The  Bishop  of  London  had,  indeed,  in  a  sermon,  declared,  that  he 
had  found  in  it  no  less  than  2CC0  errors,  or  mistranslations  ;  and  Sir 
Thomas  More  discovered  (as  he  affirmed)  about  1000  texts  by  talc, 
falsely  translated.  In  1530,  a  royal  proclamation  was  i.ssued,  by 
the  advice  of  the  prelates  and  clerks,  and  of  the  universities,  for 
totally  suppressing  the  translation  of  the  Scripture,  corrupted  by 
William  'Tindal.  The  proclamation  set  forth,  that  it  was  not  ne- 
cessary to  have  the  Scriptures  in  the  English  tongue,  and  in  the 
hands  of  the  common  people ;  that  the  distribution  of  them,  as  to 
allowing  or  denying  it,  depended  on  the  discretion  of  their  supe- 
riors ;  and  that,  considering  the  malignity  of  the  time,  an  English 
translation  of  the  Bible  would  rather  occasion  the  continuance  or 
increase  of  errors,  than  any  benefit  to  their  souls.  However,  the 
proclamation  announced  the  kmg's  intention,  if  the  present  trans- 
lation were  abandoned,  at  a  proper  season  to  provide  that  the  Holy 
Scriptures  should  be  by  great,  learned,  and  catholic  persons,  trans- 
lated into  the  English  tongue,  if  it  should  then  seem  convenient 
In  the  mean  time,  Tindal  wa-s  busily  employed  in  translating  from 
the  Hebrew  into  the  English  the  five  boolcs  of  Moses,  in  which  he 
was  assisted  by  Myles  Coverdale.  But  his  papers  being  lost  by 
shipwreck  in  his  voyage  to  Hamburgh,  where  he  designed  to  print 
it,  a  delay  occurred,  and  it  was  not  put  to  press  till  the  year  1530. 
It  is  a  small  8vo.,  printed  at  different  presses,  and  with  different 
types.  In  the  preface  he  complained,  that  there  was  not  so  much 
as  one  i  in  his  New  Testament,  if  it  wanted  a  tittle  over  its  head, 
but  it  had  been  noted  and  numbered  to  the  ignorant  people  for  a 
heresy,  who  were  made  to  believe  that  there  were  many  thousand 
heresies  in  it,  and  that  it  was  so  faulty  as  to  be  incapable  of  amend- 
ment or  correction.  In  this  year  he  published  an  answer  to  Sir 
Thomas  More's  dialogue,  containing  his  reasons  for  the  changes 
which  he  had  introduced  into  his  translation.  The  three  former 
editions  of  Tindal's  English  New  Testament  being  all  sold  off,  the 
Dutch  booksellers  printed  a  fourth  in  this  year,  in  a  smaller  volume 
and  letter.  In  1531,  Tindal  published  an  English  version  of  the 
prophet  Jonah,  with  a  prologue,  full  of  invective  against  the 
church  of  Rome.  In  1534,  was  published  a  fourth  Dutch  edition, 
or  the  fifth  in  all,  of  Tindal's  New  Testament,  in  12mo.  In  this 
same  year,  Tindal  printed  his  own  edition  of  the  New  Testament 
in  English,  which  he  had  diligently  revised  and  corrected ;  to 
which  is  prefixed  a  prologue;  and  at  the  end  are  the  pistils  of  the 
Old  Testament,  closing  with  the  following  advertisement,  "  Ira 
printed  at  Antwerp,  by  Marten  Emperour,  anno  m.d.  xxxiv."  An 
other  edition  was  published  this  year  in  16mo.  and  printed  in  a 
German  letter.  Upon  his  return  to  Antwerp,  in  1534,  King  Henry 
VIII.  and  his  coimcil  contrived  means  to  have  him  seized  and  im- 
prisoned. After  a  confinement  of  about  a  year  and  a  half  he  was 
condemned  to  death  by  the  emperor's  decree  in  an  assembly  at 
Augsburg ;  and  in  1536,  he  was  strangled  at  V^ilvorde  (or  Villefort), 
near  Bi'ussels,  the  place  of  his  imprisonment,  after  which  his  body 
was  reduced  to  ashes.  He  expired,  praying  repeatedly  and  earnest- 
ly, "  Lord,  open  the  King  of  England's  eyes."  Several  editions  of 
his  Testament  were  printed  in  the  year  of  his  death.  "  His  papers 
seem  to  have  remained  in  the  hands  of  his  friends ;  at  least  so 
much  of  them  as  contained  translations  of  the  Old  Testament  from 
Joshua  to  Chronicles  inclusive,  with  prefaces  to  several  diflferent 
books  of  Scriptures."  Some  writers  on  the  history  of  English 
Bibles  (by  whose  authority  the  author  was  misled  in  preceding 
editions)  have  asserted  that  Tindal  had  little  or  no  skill  in  tlie 
Hebrew  language,  and  therefore  probably  translated  the  Old  Tes- 
tament from  the  Latin :  but  Mr.  Walter  has  proved,  by  a  copious 
and  elaborate  collation  of  particular  instances,  that  this  able  and 


3i 


MODERN  VERSIONS  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


[Paht  I.  Chap.  I 


pious  martyr  for  the  word  of  God  was  fully  competent  to  translate, 
and  did  actual!}'  execute  his  translation,  directly  from  the  Hebrew 
original,  and  not  from  the  German  Version  of  Luther.  (Letter  to 
Bp.  Marsh,  pp.  43 — 52.  75 — 90.)  Few  first  translations,  says  the 
late  Dr.  Geddes,  will  be  found  preferable  to  Tindafs.  It  is  astonish- 
ing, says  this  writer,  how  little  obsolete  the  lanpuage  of  it  is,  even 
at  this  day ;  and  in  point  of  perspicuity,  and  noole  simplicity,  pro- 
priety of  idiom,  and  purity  of  style,  no  English  version  has  yet 
surpassed  it.    (Prospectus  lor  a  new  translation  of  the  Bible,  p.  88.) 

3.  Coverdale's  Bible. 

Biblia.  The  Bible,  that  is,  the  holy  Scripture  of  the  Okie 
and  New  Testament  faithfully  and  truly  translated  out  of  the 
Douche  and  Latyn  in  to  Englishc.     [Zurich.]  ji.d.xxxv,  folio. 

This  first  English  translation  of  the  entire  Bible  was  made  from 
the  Latin  and  German,  and  dedicated  to  king  Henry  VHL  by  Mylcs 
CovERDALE,  who  was  greatly  esteemed  for  his  piety,  knowledge 
of  the  Scriptures,  and  diligent  preaching;  on  account  of  wliich 
qualities  king  Edward  VL  subsequently  advanced  him  to  the  see 
of  Exeter.  In  liis  dedication  and  preface,  he  observes  to  this  pur- 
pose, that,  as  to  the  present  translation,  it  was  neither  his  labour 
nor  his  desire  to  have  this  work  put  into  his  hand ;  but  "  when 
others  were  moved  by  the  Holy  Ghost  to  undertake  the  cost  of  it," 
he  was  the  more  bold  to  engage  in  the  execution  of  it.  Agreeably, 
therefore,  to  desire,  he  set  Ibrih  this  "  special"  translation,  not  in 
contempt  of  other  men's  translation,  or  by  way  of  reproving  them, 
but  humbly  and  faithfully  following  his  interpreters,  and  that  under 
correction.  Of  these,  he  said,  he  used  five  different  ones,  who  had 
translated  the  Scriptures  not  only  into  Latin,  but  also  into  Dutch. 
He  further  declared,  that  he  had  neither  wrested  nor  altered  so 
much  as  one  word  for  the  maintenance  of  any  manner  of  sect,  but 
had  with  a  dear  conscience  purely  and  faithfully  translated  out  of 
the  foregoing  interpreters,  having  only  before  his  eyes  the  manifest 
truth  of  the  Scriptures.  But  because  such  different  translations,  he 
saw,  were  apt  to  offend  weak  minds,  he  added  that  there  came 
more  understanding  and  knowledge  of  the  Scripture  by  these  sun- 
dry translations,  than  by  all  the  glosses  of  sophistical  doctors ;  and 
lie  therefore  desires,  that  ofTencemight  not  be  taken,  because  one 
translated  "scribe,"  and  another  "  lawyer,"  one  "  repentance,"  and 
another  "  penance,"  or  "  amendment.  This  is  the  first  English 
Bible  allowed  by  royal  authority;  and  also  the  first  translation  of 
the  whole  Bible  printed  in  our  language.  It  was  called  a  "special" 
translation,  because  it  was  different  from  the  former  English  trans- 
lations ;  as  Lewis  has  shown'  by  comparing  it  with  Tindal's.  It 
is  divided  into  six  tomes  or  parts,  adorned  with  wooden  cuts,  and 
fumislied  with  Scripture  references  in  the  margin.  The  last  page 
has  these  words :  "  Prynted  in  the  yeare  of  our  Lorde  m.d.xxxv. 
and  fynished  the  fourth  day  of  October."  Of  this  Bible  there  was 
another  edition  in  large  4to.  1550,  which  was  republished,  with  a 
new  title,  1553 ;  and  these,  according  to  Lewis,  were  all  the  editions 
of  it.  Coverdale,  in  this  edition  of  the  English  Bible,  prefixed  to 
every  book  the  contents  of  the  several  chapters,  and  not  to  the 
particular  chapters,  which  was  afterwards  the  case:  and  he  like- 
wise omitted  all  Tindal's  prologues  and  notes.  Soon  after  tliis 
Bible  was  finished,  in  1536,  Lord  Cromwell,  keeper  of  the  privy 
seal,  and  the  king's  vicar-general  and  vicegerent  in  ecclesiastical 
matters,  published  injunctions  to  the  clergy  by  the  king's  authority, 
the  seventh  of  which  was,  that  every  parson,  or  proprietary  of  any 
parish  church  within  this  realm,  should,  before  the  first  of  Au- 
gust, provide  a  book  of  the  whole  Bible,  both  in  Latin  and  in  English, 
and  lay  it  in  the  choir,  for  every  man  that  would,  to  look  and  read 
therein ;  and  should  discourage  no  man  from  reading  any  part  of 
the  Bible  either  in  Latin  or  English,  but  rather  comfort,  exhort, 
and  admonish  every  man  to  read  it,  as  the  very  word  of  God,  and 
the  spiritual  food  of  a  man's  soul,  &c. 


4.  Matthew's  Bible. 

The  Bible,  which  is  all  the  Holy  Scripture  ;  In  whych  are 
contayned  the  Olde  and  Newe  Testament,  truly  and  purely 
translated  into  Englysh.  By  Thomas  Matthew,  m.d.xxxvii. 
folio. 

From  the  appearance  of  the  types,  it  is  most  probable  tliat  this 
edition  was  printed  at  Marlborow  in  Hesse ;  it  was  edited  by  Co- 
verdale, though  it  bears  the  name  of  Thomas  Matthew,  and  it  was 
published  with  the  royal  license,  wliich  vvas  granted  in  conse- 
qiience  of  Archbishop  Cranmer's  nnplicatioii  to  Lord  Cromwell.^ 
The  Old  Testament  is  Tindnl  s  to  the  end  of  the  second  l)Ook  of 
Chronicles;  it  then  becomes  a  mere  copy  of  Coverdale's  Bible,  with 
a  few  corrections,  and  continues  so  to  the  end  of  the  Apocryphal 
Books.  The  New  Testament  is  wholly  a  transcript  of  Tindal's 
version,  as  contained  in  his  last  published  edition  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament.* In  the  year  1538,  an  injunction  was  published  by  Crom- 
well, as  vicar-general  of  the  kingdom,  ordaining  the  clergy  to  pro- 
vide, before  a  certain  festival,  ono  book  of  tho  whole  Bible,  of  the 

•  Hist,  of  Eng.  Transl.  p.  29.  ^ 

•  Hrrypii'a  Life  of  Cranmer,  p.  58. 

•  Mr.  Walter's  Letter  to  the  Dishop  of  Peterborough,  pp.  101.  102.  In 
Ihe  folliiwing  panes  he  has  corrected  various  errorBof  nrcccillnit  hisuiriana 
of  the  English  Uibles,  respecting  Matthew'i  (or  rather  Coverdalo'i)  edition. 


largest  volume,  in  English,  and  to  set  it  up  in  some  convenient 
place  within  their  churches,  where  their  parishioners  might  mos' 
commodiously  resort  to  read  it,  A  royal  declaration  was  also  pub 
li.'-hed,  which  the  curates  were  to  read  in  their  several  churches 
informing  the  people,  tliat  it  had  pleased  the  king's  majesty  to  per 
mit  and  coininand  the  Bible,  being  iran.slalcd  into  their  mother 
tongue,  to  be  sincerely  taught  by  them,  and  to  be  openly  laid  forth 
in  every  parish  church.  But  the  curates  were  very  cold  in  this 
affair,'*  and  read  the  king's  injuiiciions  and  declarations  in  such  a 
manner,  that  scarcely  any  body  could  know  or  understand  what 
they  read.  Johnson^  adds,  that  they  al.^o  read  the  word  of  God 
confusedly  ;  and  that  they  bade  their  parishioners,  notwithstanding 
what  they  read,  which  they  were  compelledlo  read,  "  to  do  as  they 
did  in  times  past,  and  to  live  as  their  liithers,  the  old  fashion  being 
the  best."  Fox  observes,"  that  the  setting  I'orth  of  this  book  much 
offended  Gardiner  and  his  fellow-bishops,  both  lor  the  prologues, 
and  especially  because  there  was  a  table  in  the  book  chiefly  about 
the  Lord's  supper,  the  marriage  of  priests,  and  the  mass,  which 
was  there  said  not  to  be  found  in  Scripture.  Strj'pe,  however, 
says,^  it  was  wonderful  to  see  with  what  joy  this  book  was  re- 
ceived, not  only  amon^  the  more  learned,  and  those  who  were 
noted  lovers  of  the  reformation,  but  generally  all  over  England, 
among  all  the  common  people;  and  with  what  avidity  God's  word 
was  read,  and  what  resort  tliere  w:is  to  the  places  appointed  for 
reading  it  Every  one  that  could,  bought  the  book,  and  busily 
read  it,  or  heard  it  read,  and  many  elderly  persons  learned  to  read 
on  purpose.  During  a  vacancy  in  the  see  of  Hereford,  it  was 
visited  by  Cranmer,  who  enjoined  the  clergy  to  procure,  by  the  1st 
of  August,  a  whole  Bible  in  Latin  and  English,  or  at  least  a  New 
Testament  in  these  languages;  to  study  every  day  one  chapter  of 
these  books,  conferring  the  Latin  and  English  together,  from  the 
beginning  to  the  end ;  and  not  to  discourage  iny  layman  from 
reading  them,  but  encourage  them  to  it,  and  to  read  them  for  the 
reformation  of  their  lives  and  knowledge  of  their  duty. 


5.  Holltbcshe's  New  Testament. 

The  Newe  Testament  both  in  Latine  and  Englishe,  eche  cor- 
respondent to  the  other,  after  the  vulgarc  Text,  commonly  called 
St.  Jerome's.  Faithfully  translated  by  Johan  Holltbcsue. 
London,  M.n.xxxviii.  4to.  m.d.xxxix.  8vo. 

This  translation  of  the  Latin  Vulgate  was  executed  by  Mylcs 
Coverdale,  who  dedicated  it  in  his  own  name  to  Henry  VIII.  It 
is  not  known  why  he  assumed  the  fictitious  name  of  John  Ilolly- 
bushe.  We  are  indebted  for  our  knowledge  of  this  edition  to  Air. 
Walter's  letter  to  the  Bishop  of  Peterborough,  p.  31. 

6.  Craxmer's  Great  Bible. 

The  Byble  in  Englyshe,  that  is  to  sayc,  the  content  of  all  the 
holy  scripture  bothe  of  y"  olde  and  newe  testament,  truly  trans- 
lated after  the  veryte  of  the  Hebreue  and  Grcke  textes  by  y« 
dylygcnt  studye  of  diuerse  excellent  learned  men,  expert  in  the 
forsaydc  tonges.  Printed  by  Rychard  Grafton  &  Edward  Whit- 
church. Cum  privilegio  ad  imprimendum  solum,  m.d.xxxix 
folio. 

In  1538,  an  edition  in  4to.  of  the  New  Testament,  in  English, 
with  Erasmus's  Latin  translation,  was  printed,  with  the  king's 
license,  by  Redman.  In  this  year  it  was  resolved  lo  revise 
Matthew's  Bible,  and  to  print  a  correct  edition  of  it.  With  this 
view  Graflon  went  to  France,  where  the  workmen  were  more 
skilful,  and  the  paper  was  both  better  and  cheaper  than  in  Eng- 
land, and  obtained  permission  from  Francis  I.,  at  the  request  of 
king  Henry  VIII.,  to  print  his  Bible  at  Paris.  But  notwithstanding 
the  royal  license,  the  inquisition  interposed,  and  issued  an  order, 
dated  December  17,  1538,  summoning  the  French  printers,  their 
English  employers,  and  Coverdale,  the  corrector  of  the  work,  and 
prohibiting  them  to  proce(Jd  ;  and  the  impression,  consisting  of  2500 
copies,  was  seized,  confiscated,  and  condemned  to  tho  flames. 
Some  chests,  however,  of  these  books  escaped  the  fire,  by  the  avarice 
of  the  person  who  was  appointed  to  superintend  the  burning  of 
them  ;  and  the  English  proprietors,  who  had  fled  on  the  first  alarm 
returned  to  Paris  as  soon  as  it  subsided,  and  not  only  recovered 
some  of  these  copies,  but  brought  with  them  to  I»ndon  the  prcs-ses, 
types,  and  printers,  and,  resuming  the  work,  finished  it  in  tho  follow- 
ing  year. 

As  soon  as  the  papal  nower  was  abolished  in  England,  and  th« 
king's  supremacy  settled  by  parliament  in  1634,  Cranmer  was  very 
assiduous  in  promoting  the  translation  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  into 
Ihe  vulgar  tongue ;  well  knowing  how  much  Ihe  progress  of  the 
reformation  depended  upon  this  measure.  Accordingly,  he  moved 
in  convocation,  that  a  petition  should  be  presented  to  the  king  for 
leave  to  procure  a  new  lrnn!<lation  of  Ihe  Bible.  This  motion  was 
vigorously  opposed  by  Gardiner,  bishop  of  Winchester,  and  his 
party  :  but  Cranmer  jjrevailed.  The  .•irguments  for  a  new  tninsla- 
tion,  urged  by  Cranmer,  and  enforced  by  Queen  Anno  Bullen,  who 
had  then  great  interest  in  the  king's  aflcclions,  were  so  much  con 

♦  Lewis,  p.  lOa  ,  ,  ,., 

»  Mist.  Account,  &c.  in  Bishop  Watson's  Collection,  vol.  ill.  p.  9i. 

•  Acts,  &c.  vol.  ii.  p.  61C. 
'  Life  of  Cranmer,  p.  M. 


Sect.  VI.  &  3.] 


ENGLISH  VERSIONS. 


35 


sidered  by  him,  that,  notwithstanding  the  opposition,  public  and 
private,  on  the  part  of  Gardiner  and  his  adherents,  Henry  gave 
orders  for  setting  about  it  immediately.    To  prevent  any  revocation 
of  the  order,  Cranmer,  whose  mind  was  intent  on  introducing  a 
Iree  use  of  the  English  Scriptures  by  faithful  and  able  translators, 
proceeded  without  delay  to  divide  an  old  English  translation  of 
tlie  New  Testament  into  nine  or  ten  parts,  which  he  caused  to  be 
transcribed  into  paper-books,  and  to  be  distributed  among  the  most 
learned  bishops  and  others;  requiring  that  they  would  perfectly 
correct  their  respective   portions,  and   return   them  to  him  at  a 
limited  time.    When  the  assigned  day  came,  every  man  sent  his  ap- 
propriate portion  to  Lambeth,  except  Stokesly,  bishop  of  London. 
This  laudable  design  of  the  archbishop  failed  ;  but  the  business 
was  executed  by  other  persons,  whom  he  countenanced  and  en- 
couraged.   In  April,  1539,  Grafton  and  Whitchurch  printed  the 
Bible,  the  title  of  which  is  given  at  the  head  of  this  article.  From 
its  containing  a  prologue  or  preface  by  archbishop  Cranmer,  as 
well  as  from  its  size,  it  is  commonly  termed  "  Cranmer's   Great 
Bible."'     A  magnificent  and  probably  unique  copy  of  it,  on  vellum, 
which  formerly  belonged  to  Henry  VIII.,  is  preserved  in  the  Li- 
brary of  the  British  Museum.    It  is  richly  illuminated ;  and  the 
vividness  of  the  colours  is  very  little  impaired.      This  edition  has 
a  beautiful  frontispiece,  designed  by  Holbein,  and  particularly  de- 
scribed and  exhibited  in  an  engraving  by  Lewis;  and  in  the  text 
those  parts  of  the  Latin  Version,  which  are  not  found  in  the  He- 
brew or  Greek,  are  inserted  in  a  smaller  letter ;  such,  for  instance, 
Bs  the  three  verses  of  the  14th  Psalm,  which  are  the  5th,  6th,  and 
7th,  in  the  translation  of  the  English  liturgy,  and  the  controverted 
clause  in  1  John  v.  7,  8. ;  and  a  mark  is  used  to  denote  a  difference 
of  reading  between  the  Hebrew  and  Chaldee,  afterwards  explained 
in  a  separate  treatise.    In  this  edition  Matthew's  Bible  was  re- 
vised, and  several  alterations  and  corrections  were  made  in  the 
translation,  especially  in  the  book  of  Psalms.     Tindal's  prologues 
and  notes,  and  the  notes  added  by  others,  in  the  edition  of  1537, 
were  wholly  omitted.      The  superintendence  of  this  work  was 
confided  taCoverdale,  who,  in  a  sermon  at  St.  Paul's  Cross,  defend- 
ed his  translation  from  some  slanderous  reports  which  were  then 
raised  against  it,  acknowledging  that  "  he  himself  now  saw  some 
faults,  which,  if  he  might  review  the  book  once  again,  as  he  had 
twice  before,  he  doubted  not  he  should  amend  :  but  for  any  heresy, 
he  was  sure  that  there  were  none  maintained  in  his  translation." 
This  is  related  by  Dr.  Fulke,  who  was  one  of  Coverdale's  auditors. 


7.  TArERJfEii's  Bible. 

The  most  sacred  Bible,  whiche  is  the  holy  scripture,  contayn- 
ing  the  olde  and  new  testament,  translated  into  English,  and 
newly  recognised  with  great  diligence  after  most  faythful  exem- 
plars, by  Richard  Taverneb.  London.  Pryntcd  by  John  Byd- 
dell.  M.n.xxxix.  folio. 

Richard  Tavemer,  the  editor  of  the  Bible  which  bears  his  name, 
was  educated  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford,  patronized  by  Lord  Crom- 
well, and  probably  encouraged  by  him  to  undertake  the  work,  on 
account  of  his  skill  in  the  Greek  tongue.  This  is  neither  a  bare 
revisal  of  Cranmer's  Bible,  nor  a  new  version ;  but  a  kind  of  inter- 
mediate work,  being  a  correction  of  what  is  called  "Matthew's 
Bible,"  many  of  whose  marginal  notes  are  adopted,  and  many 
omitted,  and  others  inserted  by  the  editor.  It  is  dedicated  to  the 
king.  After  his  patron's  death,  Tavemer  was  imprisoned  in  the 
Tower  for  this  work;  but  he  had  the  address  to  reinstate  himself  in 
the  king's  favour.  Wood^  gives  a  particular  account  of  Tavemer ; 
attributes  his  imprisonment  to  the  influence  of  those  bishops  who 
were  addicted  to  the  Romish  religion ;  and  informs  us,  that  his 
version  was  read  in  churches  by  royal  authority. 


8.  Other  Editions  of  the  English  Bible,  DtrRiNo  the 
Remainder  of  Henry  VIII.'s  Reign,  and  the  Reign 
OF  Edward  VI. 

In  November,  1539,  the  king,  at  the  intercession  of  Cranmer, 
appointed  Lord  Cromwell  to  take  special  care  that  no  person 
within  the  realm  should  attempt  to  print  any  English  Bible  for 
five  years,  but  such  as  should  be  admitted  by  Lord  Cromwell ; 
and  assigns  this  reason  for  the  prohibition,  that  the  Bible  should 
be  considered  and  perused  in  one  translation,  in  order  to  avoid 
the  manifold  inconveniences  to  which  human  frailty  might  be 
subject  from  a  diversity  of  translations,  and  the  ill  use  that  might 
be  made  of  it.  In  the  year  1540,  two  privileged  editions  of  the 
Bible,  which  had  been  printed  in  the  preceding  year,  issued  from 
the  press  of  Edward  Whitchurch,  Lewis  mentions  three  other 
impressions  of  the  "  Great  Bible,"  which  appeared  in  the  course 
of  this  year;  two  printed  by  Whitchurch,  and  one  by  Petyt 
and  Redman.  Cranmer  wrote  a  preface  for  the  editions  of  the 
year  1540,  from  which  we  learn  the  opinions  and  practice  of 
those  times.    In  May  of  this  year,  the  curates  and  parishioners 

«  Johnson's  Hist.  Ace.  in  Bp.  Watson's  Tracts,  vol.  iii.  p.  76. 
»  HisL  et  Ant,  Univ.  Oxon.  1.  ii.  p.  261.    Edit  1674. 


Vol.  II. 


3X 


of  every  pansa  were  required  by  roval  proclamation,  to  provide 
themselves  with  the  Bible  of  the  largest  volume  before  the  feast 
of  All  Samts,  under  the  penalty  of  40«.  for  every  month  dur- 
ing which  they  should  be  without  it.     The  king  charged  all 
ordinaries  to  enforce  the  observance  of  this  proclamation  ;  nr.d 
he  apprized  the  people,  that  his  allowing  them  the  Scriptures  in 
their  mother-tongue  was  not  his  duty,  but  an  evidence  of  his 
goodness  and  liberality  to  them,  of  which  he  exhorted  them  not 
to  make  any  ill  use.      In  May,  1541,  one  edition  of  Cranmer's 
Bible  was  finished  by  Richard  Grafton  ;  who,  in  the  Novembei 
following,  completed  also  another  Bible  of  the  largest  volume, 
vvhich  was  superintended,  at  the  king's  command,  by  Tonstal' 
bishop  of  Durham,  and  Heath,  bishop  of  Rochester. 

In  consequence  of  the  king's  settled  judgment,  "  that  his  sub- 
jects should  be  nursed  in  Christ  by  reading  the  Scriptures,"  he 
again,  on  the  7th  of  May,  published  a  brief  or  decree  for  setting  up 
the  Bible  of  the  great  volume  in  every  parish  church  throughout 
England.  However,  this  decree  appears  to  have  been  very 
partially  and  reluctantly  observed  ;  and  the  bishops  were  charged, 
by  a  writer  in  1546,  with  attempting  to  suppress  the  Bible,  un- 
der pretence  of  preparing  a  ve/sion  of  it  for  publication  within 
seven  years.  After  the  death  of  Cromwell  in  1540,  the  bishops 
inclined  to  popery  gained  strength ;  and  the  English  translation 
was  represented  to  the  king  as  very  erroneous  and  heretical,  and 
destructive  of  the  harmony  and  peace  of  the  kingdom.  In  the 
convocation  assembled  in  Feb.  1542,  the  archbishop,  in  the 
king's  name,  required  the  bishops  and  clergy  to  revise  the  trans- 
lation of  the  New  Testament,  which,  for  that  purpose,  was  di- 
vided into  fourteen  parts,  and  portioned  out  to  fifteen  bishops ; 
the  Apocalypse,  on  account  of  its  difficulty,  being  assigned  to 
two.  Gardiner  clogged  this  business  with  embarrassing  instruc- 
tions; and  Cranmer,  clearly  perceiving  the  resolution  of  the 
bishops  to  defeat  the  proposed  translation,  procured  the  king's 
consent  to  refer  the  matter  to  the  two  universities,  against  which 
the  bishops  protested  ;  but  the  archbishop  declared  his  purpose 
to  adhere  to  the  will  of  the  king  his  master.  With  this  contest 
the  business  terminated  ;  and  the  convocation  was  soon  after  dis- 
solved. The  Romish  party  prevailed  also  in  parliament,  which 
enacted  a  law  that  condemned  and  abolished  Tindal's  transla- 
tion, and  allowed  other  translations  to  remain  in  force,  under 
certain  restrictions.  After  the  passing  of  this  act,  Grafton,  the 
king's  printer,  was  imprisoned ;  nor  was  he  released  without 
giving  a  bond  of  3001.  neither  to  print  nor  sell  any  more  English 
Bibles  till  the  king  and  the  clergy  should  agree  on  a  translation. 
In  1544,  the  Pentateuch  was  printed  by  John  Day  and  William 
Seres;  and  in  1546,  the  king  prohibited  by  proclamation  the 
having  and  reading  of  WiclifTe's,  Tindal's,  and  Coverdale's 
translations,  and  forbad  the  use  of  any  other  than  what  was  al- 
lowed by  parliament.  From  the  history  of  English  translations 
during  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  we  learn  that  the  friends  to 
the  reformation  conducted  themselves  with  zeal  and  prudence  in 
the  great  work  of  introducing  and  improving  English  tranlsations 
of  the  Bible  ;  that  they  encountered  many  difficulties  from  the 
dangerous  inconstancy  of  a  despotic  prince,  and  from  the  inve- 
terate prejudices  of  a  strong  Romish  party;  and  that  the  Eng- 
hsh  Scriptures  were  sought  after  and  read  with  avidity  by  the 
bulk  of  the  people. 

Upon  the  accession  of  Edward  VI.  the  severe  stat.  34  and  35 
Hen.  VIII.  c.  1.  was  repealed,  and  a  royal  injunction  was  pub- 
lished, that  not  only  the  whole  English  Bible  should  be  placed 
in  churches,  but  also  the  paraphrase  of  Erasmus  in  English  to 
the  end  of  the  four  Evangelists.  It  was  likewise  ordered  by  this 
injunction,  that  every  parson,  vicar,  curate,  &c.  under  the  degree 
of  a  bachelor  of  divinity,  should  possess  the  New  Testament, 
both  in  Latin  and  English,  with  the  paraphrase  of  Erasmus 
upon  it ;  and  that  the  bishops,  &c.  in  their  visitations  and  synods 
should  examine  them,  how  they  had  profited  in  the  study  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures.  It  was  also  appointed,  that  the  epistle  and 
gospel  of  the  mass  should  be  read  in  English;  and  that  on  every 
Sunday  and  holiday,  one  chapter  of  the  New  Testament  in 
English  should  be  plainly  and  distinctly  read  at  matins,  and  one 
chapter  of  the  Old  Testament  at  even-song.  But  in  the  year 
1549,  when  the  book  of  Common  Prayer,  &c.  was  finished, 
what  nearly  resembles  our  present  custom  was  enjoined,  viz. 
that  after  reading  the  Psalms  in  order  at  morning  and  evening 
prayer,  two  lessons,  the  first  from  the  Old  Testament,  and  the 
second  from  the  New  Testament,  should  be  read  distinctly  with 
a  loud  voice.  During  the  course  of  this  reign,  that  is,  in  less 
than  seven  years  and  si.x  months,  eleven  impressions  of  the 
whole  English  Bible  were  published,  and  six  of  the  F^^Hish 
New  Testament ;  besides  an  English  translation  of  th 


38 


MODERN  VERSIONS  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


[Paht  I.  Chap.  I 


New  Testament,  paraphrased  by  Erasmus.  The  Bibles  were 
reprinted,  according  to  the  preceding  editions,  whether  Tindal's, 
Coverdale's,  Matthew's.  Cranmer's,  or  Taverner's ;  that  is,  with 
a  ditfeient  text,  and  different  notes.  But  it  is  doubted  by  the 
writer  of  the  preface  to  King  James's  translation,  whether  there 
were  any  translation,  or  correction  of  a  translation,  in  the  course 
of  this  reign. 

In  1562,  the  "  Great  Bible,"  viz.  that  of  Coverdale's  transla- 
tion, which  had  been  printed  in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  and 
also  in  the  time  of  king  Edward,  was  revised  by  Archbishop 
Parker,  and  reprinted  for  the  use  of  the  church  ;  and  this  was 
to  serve  till  that  projecU'd  by  his  grace  was  ready  for  publication. 

9.  Axglo-Oesevese  Vtnsiox. 

(I.)  .•V«e>  Testament.  ■ 
The  Newe  Testament  of  our  Lord  lesus  Christ,  conferred  di- 
ligently with  the  Greke  and  best  approued  translations.  With 
the  arguments  as  wel  before  the  chapters,  as  for  euery  Boke  and 
Epistle,  also  diuersities  of  readings,  and  moste  proHitable  anno- 
tations of  all  harde  places  :  whereunto  is  added  a  copious  Table. 
At  Geneva.  Printed  by  Conrad  Badius.  1557,  Svo.  Second 
edition,  Geneva,  15G0,  Svo. 

This  translation  was  made  by  many  of  the  principal  English  Re- 
formers, who  had  been  driven  lo  Geneva  during  the  sanguinary 
per.-iecutions  of  the  bigoted  Queen  Mary:  it  is  the  first  in  our  lan- 
L'unge  which  contains  the  di.stinctions  of  verses  by  niimericnl 
iigures  after  the  manner  of  the  Greek  Testament,  which  had  been 
published  by  Itobert  .Stephens  in  1.5.01.  11.  Stephens,  indeed,  pub- 
li.«hed  his  figures  in  the  margin:  whereas  the  Geneva  editors  pre- 
fixed ilieiro  to  the  beginning  of  minute  subdivisions  willi  brealis, 
after  uur  present  maimer.  When  Queen  Elizabeth  jjassed  through 
London  from  the  tower  to  her  coronation,  a  pageant  was  erected 
in  Cheapside,  representing  Time  coming  out  of  a  cave  and  leading 
0  person  clothed  in  white  silk,  who  reiiresenied  Truth,  his  daugh- 
ter. Truth  had  the  F.nglish  Bible  in  her  hand,  on  which  was 
written  "  V'erbuni  verilaiis."  Truth  addressed  liie  (jueen,  and 
presented  her  with  the  Ixxjk.  She  kissed  it,  held  it  in  her  hand,  laid 
It  on  her  breast,  greatly  thanked  tiie  city  for  their  present,  and 
lidded,  that  she  would  often  and  diligently  read  it.  Upon  a  royal 
visitation  in  15.59,  the  Bible,  and  Knismus's  paraphrase,  were  re- 
stored to  the  fliurclies;  and  articles  of  inquiry  were  exhibited, 
whether  the  clergy  discouraged  any  from  reading  any  part  of  the 
bcriptures.  "  Aliiiisiers  were  also  enjoined  to  read  every  day  one 
chapter  of  the  Bible  at  least  ;  and  all  who  were  admitted  readers 
in  the  church  were  daily  to  read  one  chapter  at  lca:n  of  the  Old 
Testament,  and  another  of  the  New,  with  good  advisement,  to  the 
increase  of^  their  knowledge." 

(2.)  The  entire  Bible. 
The  Bible :  that  is,  the  Holy  Scriptures,  contcincd  in  the  Olde 
and  Newe  Testament.  Translated  according  to  the  Ebrewe 
and  Greke,  and  conferred  with  the  best  translations  in  divers 
languages,  with  most  profitable  annotations  upon  all  the  harde 
places,  and  other  thinges  of  great  importance,  as  may  appcare 
in  the  Epistle  to  the  Reader.  Imprinted  at  London  by  Christo- 
pher Barker,     m.u.lxxvi.  large  4to.' 

The  first  edition  of  the  Geneva  Bible  was  printed  at  Clenevn  by 
Rowland  llarle  in  lofiO.     Kight  years  after,  it  was  printed  in  two 
V'diinies  folio,  an<)  again  at  Geneva,  1.070,  folio  ;  at  London,  in  folio 
nnd  (juarlo,  in  1.572,  and  in  1.575  and  1576,  in  ipinrto.     The  transla- 
tors were  bishop  Coverdalo,  Anthony  Gilby,  William  Whiiiingham, 
(.'liristopher  W<K)drnan.  Thomas  Simpson,  nnd  'J'liomas  Cole;    to 
whom  some  add  John  Knox,  John  Bodleigh,  and  John  Fiilhiiii ;  nil 
zealous  Cnlvinists,  Iwth  in  doctrine  and  discipline:  but  the  chief 
and  tlie  most  learned  of  them  were  the  three  first.      Prole.ssiiig  to 
ob.-erve  the  sense,  and  to  adhere  sw  much  as  [mssible  lo  the  words 
of  the  original,  and  in  many  places  to  preserve  the  Hebrew  phrasen- 
Jogv,  nf>er  the   unremitting  lal^iur  nnd  study  of  more   than   two 
years,  they  finished  tlieir  translation,  and  publishcn]  it ;  with  iin 
ejii.Htle  dedicatory  to  the  queen,  and  nnother,  i>y  way  of  preface,  to 
their  brethren  of   Knghuid,  SScolland,  and  Irel.iiid.      Besides  the 
translation,  the  editors  of  ilie  (Geneva  Bible  noted  in  the  luargin  the 
diversities  of  speer-h  iind  rr-ading,  esj.ecially  lu-cording  to  the  He- 
brew ;  then  inserted  in  the  text,  with  another  kind  of  letter,  every 
w-ord  that  seemed  lo  Im-  necessary  for  exphiiniiiR  any  [mriicular 
Kcntenco;  in  ihctlivision  of  ilie  verses,  they  Ibllowed  the  ll«brew 
examples,  nnd  nddeil  the  nnml)er  to  each  verse;  they  also  noted 
the  prinei|ml  matters,  and  the  argiiiiients,  b<ith  for  each  Iniok  and 
each  chapter;  they  set  over  the  head  of  every  page  some  remark- 
able  «<>rd  or  sonlence,  fi>r  hel|>ing  the  memory;  they  ininiduced 
brief  nnnoiations  for  nsrortaininc  the  text  and  explaining  obscure 
words;  they  Net  f('>r(h  with   figlirefi  certain  plnreH  in  the  fx>oks  of 
Mo*e»,  of  the  Kings,  and  Kzekiel,  which  ( ould  not  be  made  intelli- 
gible by  any  other  description  ;  lliey  iiilded  niH\«  i>l  <li\ern  places 
and  couiiiries  meniioned  in  the  Old  and  .\ew 'I'esiament ;  and  ihey 
annexed  two  tables,  one  fijr  the  interpretation  id  Hebrew  names, 
and  the  other  containing  all  the  chief  mallem  of  the  whole  Bible. 

I  In  LrwiH'd  IlUtorv,  pp. 861—209.  (8vo.  cdh.)  there  is  n  full  ilc»crlption 
of  till*  contwiils  of  tliii  voUiuie. 


Of  this  translation,  there  were  above  thirty  cdilion.<  in  folio,  4to.,  or 
8vo.,  mostly  printed  by  the  queen's  and  king's  printer,  Insiween  the 
years  1560  and  1616.  Kdilions  of  it  were  likewise  printed  at  (Geneva, 
Edinburgh,  and  Amsterdam.  To  some  editions  of  the  Geneva 
liible,  (as  to  those  of  1599  and  of  1611)  is  subjoined  Beza's  Iranshi 
tion  of  the  New  Testament,  Englished  by  L.  Tompson. 

10.  AncunisHOP  Pahkeii's,  or,  thf.  Bishops'  Bible. 
The  holie  Bible.     Imprinted  at  London  in  povvles  Chiirch- 
yarde,  by  Richard  Jugge.     m.u.lxtiii.  folio. 

In  the  year  15G8,  the  Bible,  proposed  by  Archbishop  Parker  three 
years  before,  was  completed.  This  edition,  according  to  Lc  I>ong, 
was  undertaken  by  royal  command  ;  and  it  is  mentioned  by  Strypo, 
to  the  honour  of  the  archbishop,  that  he  had  resolution  to  perform 
what  Cranmer,  as  opposed  l>y  the  bishops  of  ibis  days,  had  in  vain 
endeavoured  to  accomplish.  In  this  jierformance,  distinct  portions 
of  the  Bible,  at  least  15  in  number,  were  allotted  to  select  men  of 
learning  and  abilities,  appointed,  as  Fuller  says,  by  the  queen's 
commission;  but  it  still  remains  uncertain  who,  and  whether  one 
or  more,  revised  the  rest  of  the  New  Testament.  Eight  of  the 
persons  employed  were  bishops;  whence  the  book  was  called  the 
"  Bishops'  Bible,"  and  the  "  Great  English  Bible."  The  archbishop 
employed  other  critics  to  com|>are  thi.s  Bible  with  the  original  lan- 
guages, and  with  the  former  translations;  one  of  whom  was  Laurence 
a  man  famous  in  those  times  for  his  knowledge  of  Greek,  whose 
castigations  the  Bishops'  Bible  followed  exactly.  His  grace  also 
sent  instructions  concerning  the  method  which  his  translators  were 
to  observe  ;  and  recommended  the  addition  of  some  short  marginal 
notes  for  the  illustration  or  correction  of  the  text.  But  the  p;irticu- 
lars  of  these  instructions  are  not  known.  The  archbishop,  however, 
directed,  reviewed,  and  finished  the  whole  ;  which  was  printed  and 
published,  in  15C8,  in  a  large  folio  size,  and  with  a  beautiful  Eng- 
lish letter,  on  royal  paper;  and  embellished  with  several  cuts  of 
the  most  remarkable  things  in  the  Old  and  New  Testawent-s,  and 
in  the  Apoci-vpVia,  with  maps  cut  in  wood,  and  other  engravings  on 
copper.  It  has  numerous  marginal  references  and  notes,  and  many 
usefiil  tables.  It  also  has  numerous  insertions  between  brackets, 
and  in  a  smaller  character;  whicji  are  equivalent  lo  the  Italics 
afterwards  used  by  James's  translators.  Dr.  Geddes  is  of  opinion,*' 
that  Italic  supplements  were  first  used  by  Arias  Montanu.s,  who 
died  in  1598.  The  several  additions  from  the  vulgar  Latui,  insert- 
ed in  the  "Great  Bible,"  are  omitted;  and  verse  7.  of  1  John  v., 
which  was  before  distinguished  by  its  being  printed  in  a  different 
letter,  is  here  jjrinted  without  any  distinction  ;  and  the  chapters  are 
divided  into  verses.  In  the  following  year,  15G9,  it  was  again  pub- 
lished in  large  Svo.  for  the  use  of  private  families.  This  Bible  was 
reprinted  in  1572,  in  large  folio,  with  several  corrections  and  amend- 
ments, and  several  prolegomena  ;  this  is  called  "Matthew  P.arker'a 
Bible."  With  regard  to  this  Bible,  Lewis^  observes,  that  the  editions 
of  it  are  mostly  in  fol;o  and  4to.,  and  that  he  never  heard  but  of 
one  in  Svo. ;  for  which  he  supposes  this  to  be  the  reason,  that  it  was 
)irincipally  designed  for  the  use  of  churches.  In  the  convocation  of 
the  province  of  Canterbury,  which  met  in  April,  1.571,  a  canon  was 
made,  enjoining  the  rhurchwardens  lo  see  that  the  Holy  Bible  bo 
in  every  church  in  the  largest  volumes, if  convenient;  and  it  was 
likewise  ordered,  that  every  archbishop  and  bishop,  every  dean  and 
chief  residentiary,  and  every  arcMeacon,  should  have  one  of  these 
Bibles  in  their  cathedrals,  churches,  an*"  families.  This  translation 
was  used  in  the  churches  for  forty  years ;  though  the  Geneva  Bible 
was  more  read  in  private  houses. 

11.  King  James's  Bidle,  or,  the  AUTHoniz>:D  Veiisio.n  xow 

IX  rsK. 

The  last  English  version  that  remains  to  be  noticed,  is  the  au- 
thorized translation  now  in  u.se,  xvhich  is  commonly  called  King 
James's  Bible.  He  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  England  in  1602  ; 
and,  several  objections  having  been  made  to  the  Bishops'  Bible 
at  the  conference  held  at  Hamilton  Court  in  1603,  the  king  in 
the  following  year  gave  orders  for  the  undertaking  of  a  new 
version,  and  fiily-four  learned  men  were  appointed  to  this  im- 
portant labour :  but,  before  it  was  commenced,  seven  of  the 
persons  nominated  were  either  dead  or  had  declined  the  task  ;  for 
the  list, as  given  us  liy  Fuller,'  comprises  only  forty-seven  names. 
All  of  them,  however,  were  pre-eminently  distingui.she<l  for  their 
piety  and  for  their  profound  learning  in  the  original  languages  of  the 
sacred  writings  ;  and  such  of  thern  as  survived  till  the  conunencc-  • 
metit  of  the  work  were  divided  into  six  cla.s.ses.  Ten  were  to  meet 
at  Westminster,  and  to  translnle  from  the  Pentateuch  to  the  end  of» 
the  8<>cond  hook  of  Kings.  Eight  assembled  at  Cambridge,  were, 
to  finish  the  rest  of  the  Historical  Books,  and  the  Hagiogrnpha. 
At  Oxford,  seven  were  to  undertake  the  four  greater  prophets, 
with  the  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah,  and  the  twelve  minor  pro- 
phets.. The  four  Gospels.  Act.s  of  the  .Xjio.stles,  and  the  .Apoca- 
Ivjise,  were  assigned  lo  another  company  of  eight,  al.so  ;it  Oxfonl . 
and  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul,  together  with  the  remaining  ca- 


•  I.eitei  to  \\\e  Hinliop  of  I/Jndon,  p.  33. 

«  Hist  Enal.  Tri»n»l.  p.  01. 

«  Cliinch  Hi.?tory,  lk.uk  x  pp.  H-4C. 


Sect.  YI.  §  3.] 


ENGLISH  VERSIONS. 


37 


nouical  epistles,  were  allotted  to  another  company  of  seven,  at 
Westminster.  Lastly,  another  company  at  Cambridge  were  to 
translate  the  apocryphal  books,  including  the  prayer  of  Manasseh. 
To  these  six  companies  of  venerable  translators,  the  king  gave 
the  following  instructions: — 

"  1.  The  ordinary  Bible  read  in  the  church,  commonly  called  the 
Bishops'  Bible,  to  be  Ibllowed,  and  as  little  altered  as  the  original 
will  permit. 

"  2.  The  names  of  the  prophets  and  the  holy  writers,  with  the 
other  names  in  the  text,  to  be  retained  as  near  as  may  be,  accord- 
ingly as  ihey  are  vulgarly  used. 

"  S.  Tlie  old  ecclesiastical  words  to  be  kept,  as  the  word  church 
not  to  be  translated  congregation. 

"4.  When  any  word  hath  divers  significations,  that  to  be  kept 
which  hath  been  most  commonly  used  by  the  most  eminent  fathers, 
being  agreeable  to  the  propriety  of  the  place  and  the  analogy  of 
faith. 

"  5.  The  division  of  the  chapters  to  be  altered  either  not  at  all,  or 
as  little  as  may  be,  if  necessity  so  require. 

"6.  No  marginal  notes  at  all  to  be  affixed,  but  only  for  the  ex- 
planation of  the  Hebrew  or  Greek  words,  which  cannot,  without 
some  circumlocution,  so  briefly  and  fitly  be  expressed  in  the  text. 

"  7.  Such  quotations  of  places  to  be  marginally  set  down,  as  shall 
serve  for  the  fit  references  of  one  Scripture  to  anotlier. 

"  8.  Every  particular  man  of  each  company  to  take  the  same 
chapter  or  chapters ;  and  having  translated  or  amended  them 
severally  by  himself,  where  ho  thinks  good,  all  to  meet  together,  to 
confer  what  they  have  done,  and  agree  lor  their  part  what  shall 
stand. 

"  9.  As  any  one  company  hath  despatched  any  one  book  in  this 
manner,  they  shall  send  it  to  the  rest,  to  be  considered  of  seriously 
and  judiciously :  for  his  majesty  is  very  careful  in  this  point. 

"  10.  If  any  company,  upon  the  review  of  the  book  so  sent,  .shall 
doubt  or  differ  upon  any  places,  to  send  them  word  thereof,  lo  note 
the  places,  and  therewithal  to  send  their  reasons  ;  to  which  if  they 
consent  not,  the  difference  to  be  compounded  at  the  general  meet- 
ing, which  is  to  be  of  the  chief  persons  of  each  company,  at  the 
end  of  the  work. 

"  11.  When  any  place  of  special  obscurity  is  doubted  of,  letters 
to  be  directed  by  authority,  to  send  to  any  learned  in  the  land  for 
his  judgment  in  such  a  place. 

"  12.  Letters  to  be  sent  from  every  bishop  to  the  rest  of  his  clergy, 
admonishing  them  of  this  translation  in  hand,  and  to  move  and 
charge  as  many  as,  being  skilfiil  in  the  tongues,  have  taken  pains 
in  that  kind,  to  send  their  particular  observations  to  the  company, 
either  at  Westminster,  Cambridge,  or  Oxford,  according  as  it  was 
directed  before  in  the  king's  letter  to  the  archbishop. 

"  13.  The  directors  in  each  company  to  be  the  Deans  of  West- 
minster and  Chester  for  Westminster,  and  the  King's  Professors  in 
Hebrew  and  Greek  in  the  two  Universities. 

"  14.  These  translations  to  be  used,  when  they  agree  better  with 
the  text  than  the  Bishops'  Bible,  viz.  Tindal's,  Coverdale's,  Mat- 
thew's, Whitchurcli's,  Geneva. 

["  15.  Besides  the  said  directors  before  mentioned,  three  or  four 
of  the  most  ancient  and  grave  divines  in  either  of  the  Universities, 
not  employed  in  translating,  to  be  assigned  by  the  Vice-chancellor, 
upon  conference  with  the  rest  of  the  heads,  to  be  overseers  of  the 
translation,  as  well  Hebrew  as  Greek,  for  the  better  observation  of 
the  4th  rule  above  specified."]' 

According  to  these  regulations,  each  hook  passed  the  scrutiny 
of  all  the  translators  successively.  In  the  first  instance,  each  in- 
dividual translated  every  book,  which  was  allotted  to  his  division. 
Secondly,  the  readings  to  be  adopted  were  agreed  upon  by  the 
whola  of  that  company  assembled  together,  at  which  meeting 
each  translator  must  have  been  solely  occupied  by  his  ov/n  version. 
The  book,  thus  finished,  was  sent  to  each  of  the  other  compa- 
nies to  be  again  examined ;  and  at  these  meetings  it  probably 
was,  as  Selden  informs  us,  that  "  one  read  the  translation,  the  rest 
holding  in  their  hands  some  Bible,  either  of  the  learned  tongues, 
or  French,  Spanish,  Italian,  &c.  If  they  found  any  fault,  they 
spoke;  if  noi,  he  read  on."^  Further,  the  translators  were  em- 
powered to  call  to  their  assistance  any  learned  men,  whose  studies 
enabled  them  to  be  serviceable,  when  an  urgent  occasion  of  diffi- 
culty presented  itself.  The  translation  was  commenced  in  the 
spring  of  1 607,  and  the  completion  of  it  occupied  almost  three 
years.  At  the  expiration  of  that  time,  three  copies  of  the  whole 
Bible,  thus  translated  and  revised,  were  sent  to  London, — one 
from  Oxford,  one  from  Cambridge,  and  a  third  from  Westminster. 
Here  a  committee  of  six,  two  being  deputed  by  the  companies  at 
Oxford,  two  by  those  at  Cambridge,  and  two  by  those  at  West- 
minster, reviewed  and  polished  the  whole  work :  which  was 
finally  revi.sed  by  Dr.  Smith  (afterwards  bishop  of  Gloucester), 
who  wrote  the  preface,  and  by  Dr.  Bilson,  bishop  of  Winchester. 
This  translation  of  the  Bible  was  first  published  in  folio  in  1611. 

After  the  publication  of  the  present  authorized  translation,  all 

'  Tlie  preceding  rules  arc  given  from  a  corrected  copy  in  the  Rev.  11.  .1. 
Tod.i's  Vindication  of  our  authorized  Translation  and  Translators  of  the 
BiM»,  rr-  9— l'.^.     london.  1819,  Svo. 

aSeldeu's  Table  Ta.k,  article  Bible.    Work?,  vol.  iii.  col.  2009. 


the  other  versions  gradually  fell  into  disuse,  with  the  exception 
of  the  Psalms,  and  the  Epistles  and  Gospels  in  the  book  of  Com- 
mon Prayer,  which  were  still  continued,  the  former  according  to 
the  translation  of  Cranmer's  Bible,  and  the  latter  according  to 
that  of  the  Bishops'  Bible,  until  the  final  revision  of  the  Liturgy, 
in  1661;  at  which  time  the  Epistles  and  Gospels  were  taken 
from  the  present  version,  but  the  Psalms  are  still  retained  accord- 
ing to  the  translation  of  Cranmer's  Bible. ^ 

Upwards  of  two  centuries  have  elapsed  since  the  authorized 
English  Version  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  now  in  use,  was  given 
to  the  British  nation.  During  that  long  interval,  though  many 
passages  in  particular  books  have  been  elucidated  by  learned 
men,  with  equal  felicity  and  ability  ;  yet  its  general  fidelity, 
perspicuity,  and  excellence,  have  deservedly  given  our  present 
translation  a  high  and  distinguished  place  in  the  judgment  of  the 
Christian  world,  wherever  the  English  language  is  known  or 
read.  Of  late  years,  however,  this  admirable  version — the  guide 
and  solace  of  the  sincere  Christian — has  been  attacked  with  no 
common  virulence,  and  arraigned  as  being  deficient  in  fidelity, 
perspicuity,  and  elegance ;  ambiguous  and  incoiTCct,  even  in 
matters  of  the  highest  importance.  The  principal  antagonists 
of  this  version,  in  the  present  day  (to  omit  the  bold  and  un- 
measured assertions  of  the  late  Dr.  Geddes,  and  others),  are  Mr. 
John  Bellamy,'  in  the  prospectus,  preface,  and  notes  of  his  new 
translation  of  the  Bible,  and  Sir  James  Bland  Burgcs,  in  hi.'^ 
"  Reasons  in  favour  of  a  New  Translation  of  the  Scriptures," 
(Svo.  London,  1819,)  which  were  designed  as  a  defence  of  Mr. 
Bellamy  against  the  severe  strictures  of  the  Quarterly  Review. 
The  former  of  these  writers,  in  his  octavo  prospectus  issued  in 
1818,  affirmed  that  "  no  translation  has  been  made  from  the  ori- 
ginal Hebrew  since  the  128th  year  of  Christ :"  and  that  "in  the 
fourth  century  Jerome  made  his  Latin  version  from  this"  [the 
Greek]  "  translation ;  from  which  came  the  Latin  Vulgate,  and 
from  the  Latin  Vulgate  all  the  European  translations  have  been 
made  ;  thereby  perpetuating  all  the  errors  of  the  first  translators." 
These  erroneous  and  unqualified  assertions  of  Mr.  Bellamy,  as 
well  as  the  assertions  or  implications  of  Sir  J.  B.  Burg^,  have 
been  answered  in  detail  by  the  Rev.  Messrs.  Whittaker  and  Todd, 
in  their  works  cited  below,''  to  which  the  reader  is  referred :  and, 
in  further  rel'utation  of  Mr.  Bellamy's  assertions,  it  is  sulTicicnt 
to  refer  to  the  account  already  given  of  cur  present  authorized 
version. '^ 

We  shall  conclude  the  present  notice  of  their  admirable  version, 
with  a  few  of  the  very  numerous  testimonies  to  its  value,  which 
have  been  collected  by  Archbishop  Ncwcome  and  Mr.  Todd,  and 
shall  subjoin  two  or  three  others  that  appear  to  have  eluded  their 
researches. 

1.  John  Selden.'' — "The  English  translation  of  the  Bible  is  the 
best  translation  in  the  world,  and  renders  the  sense  of  the  original  best, 
taking  in  for  the  English  translation  the  Bishr^ps'  Bible  as  well  o.( 
King  James' s.  The  translators  in  King  James's  time  took  an  excellent 
way.  That  part  of  the  Bible  was  given  to  him,  who  was  most  ex- 
cellent in  such  a  tongue  :  as  the  apocrypha  to  Andrew  Downs :  and 
then  they  met  together,  and  one  read  the  translation,  the  rest  hold- 
ing in  their  hands  some  Bible,  either  of  the  learned  tongues,  or 
French,  Spanish,  Italian,  &c.  If  they  found  any  fault,  they  spoke , 
if  not,  he  read  on.  There  is  no  book  so  translated  as  the  Bible  for 
the  purpose.  If  I  translate  a  French  book  into  English,  I  turn  il 
into  English  phrase,  not  into  French-English.  II  fait  froid  ;  I  sav, 
'tis  cold,  not  makes  cold.  But  the  Bible  is  rather  translated  into  Eng- 
lish words  than  into  English  phrase.  The  Hebraisms  are  kept,  and 
the  2}li-io-^c  of  that  language  is  kept."  ^ 

3  About  the  tiino  when  King  .lames  resolvod  on  a  new  translation  of  tlis 
Scriplure.5,  another  translation  was  finished  by  Mr.  Ambrose  Usher,  tha 
elder  brother  of  Archbishop  Usher.  It  is  still  in  manuscript,  and  is  pr'-^. 
served  in  the  library  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin.  There  are  likewise  extant 
in  print  several  English  translations  oflhe  Old  and  New  Testament,  and  of 
detached  parts  thereof :  but  as  these  are  more  or  less  accompanied  will! 
notes,  an  account  of  them  will  be  found  in  a  subsequent  part,  of  this  Ap. 
pendix. 

<  .\.  notice  of  Mr.  Bellamy's  work  will  also  be  found  in  a  subsequent  par; 
of  this  Appendix. 

s  A  Vindication  of  our  authorized  Translation  and  Translators  of  the 
Bible,  and  of  preceding  English  Ver.Mons  authoritatively  commended  to  the 
Notice  of  those  Translators,  <Scc.  <fec.  By  the  Rev.  H.  J.  Todd,  M.A.  hondon, 
1810,  Svo. —  An  Historical  and  Critical  Inquiry  into  the  Interpretation  of  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures,  with  Remarks  on  Mr.  Bellamy's  New  Translation.  By 
J.  W.  Whittaker,  M.A.    London,  1819,  Svo. 

s  The  seventh  section  of  Mr.  Todd's  Vindication  of  the  latter  translation 
contains  an  account  of  the  forty.seven  translators  who  were  employed  on 
it,  and  of  the  state  of  learning  in  their  time.  This  does  not  admit  of  abridg- 
ment, but  the  result  is  hiiihly  satisfactory,  and  proves  that  those  venerable 
men  were  eminently  skilled  in  tlie  Oriental  and  Greek  languages,  and  con- 
soqucntly  were,  in  every  respect,  fitted  for  the  high  and  honourable  task 
assigned  to  them  by  their  sovereign.  That  I-uther's  German  Version  was 
made  from  the  original  languages'of  the  Scriptures,  see  page  43.  infra  ; 
and  for  other  European  translations,  see  the  following  pages  of  this  section. 

'  Selden,  Works,  iii.  2009.  Thi.9  is  cited  by  Abp.  Newcorae,  without  ad- 
dition.  Selden  was  the  contemporary  of  the  translator^.  He  died  in  1654, 
at  the  age  of  70. 


38 


MODERN  VERSIONS  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


[Part  I.  Chap.  I. 


2.  Bishop  Walton.' — "The  last  English  translation  made  by 
Oivers  learned  men  at  the  command  of  King  James,  though  it  may 
jus'.ly  contend  with  any  now  extant  in  any  oiher  language  in  Europe, 
was  yct'carped  and  cavilled  at  by  diverse  among  ourselves;  espe- 
cially by2  one,  who  being  passed  by,  and  not  employed  in  the  work, 
HS  one,  though  skilled  in  the  Hebrew,  yet  of  little  or  no  judgment 
in  that  or  any  other  kinde  of  learning,  was  so  highly  offended  that 
he  would  needs  undertake  to  show  how  many  thousand  places  (hey 
had  falsely  rendered,  when  as  he  could  hardly  make  good  his  under- 
taking in  any  one .'" 

3.  Bishop  Lowth.' — "  The  vulgar  translation  of  the  Bible — is 
the  best  standard  of  our  language." 

4.  Bishop  Horsi.ev.'* — "  When  the  translators  in  James  the 
First's  time  began  their  work,  they  prescribed  to  themselves  some 

ules,  which  it  may  not  be  amiss  for  all  translators  to  follow.  Their 
reverence  for  thesncred  Scrii)tures  induced  them  to  be  as  literal  as 
they  could,  to  avoid  obscurity  ;  and  it  must  be  acknowledged,  (hat 
they  were  extremely  happy  in  the  simplicity  and  dignity  of  their 
expressions.  Their  adherence  lo  the  Ilehrcw  idiom  is  supposed  at 
onre  lo  have  enriched  and  adorned  our  lansruage  ;  and  as  ihey  labour- 
ed for  the  general  benefit  of  the  learned  and  the  unlearned,  they 
avoidetl  all  Words  of  I^atin  original,  when  they  could  find  words  in 
their  own  language,  even  with  the  aid  of  adverbs  and  propositions, 
which  would  express  their  meaning." 

5.  Bishop  Miudleto.v.' — "The  style  of  our  present  version  is 
incomparably  superior  to  any  thing  which  might  be  expected  from 
the  finical  and  perverted  taste  of  our  own  age.  It  is  simple,  it  is 
harmonious,  it  is  energetic  ;  and,  which  is  of  no  small  importance, 
use  has  made  it  famiHar,  and  time  has  rendered  it  sacred." 

6.  Dr.  White,  Professor  of  Arabic  at  Oxford. — "  .^fter  stating 
the  accuracy  and  scrupulous  attention  of  the  authors  of  this  trans- 
lation, he  adds  : — "  When  the  version  appeared,  it.  appeared,  like- 
wise, that  this  accuracy  and  scrupulousness  had  not  been  mis- 
employed. The  necessities  of  the  national  church  could  require  no- 
thing further.  It  contained  nothing  but  what  was  pure  in  its  re- 
presentation of  scriptural  doctrine,  nothing  but  what  was  animated 
m  its  expros-sions  of  devout  aflcction  :  general  fidelity  to  it.s  original 
is  hardly  more  it«  characteristic,  than  sublimity  in  itself.  The  Eng- 
I'sh  language  acquired  new  dignity  by  it ;  and  has  hardly  acquired 
additional  purity  since  ;  it  is  still  considered  as  a  standard  of  our 
tongue."  ..."  lJ|x)n  tlie  whole,  the  national  churches  of  Europe 
will  have  abundant  reason  to  be  satisfied,  when  their  versions  of 
Scripti^e  shall  approach  in  point  of  accuracy,  purity,  and  sublimity, 
to  the  ^knowledged  excellence  of  our  English  translation."'' 

7.  Rev.  J.  W.  Whittaker.'' — "The  highest  value  has  always 
been  attached  to  our  translation  of  the  Bible.  Sciolists,  it  is  true, 
have  often  attempted  to  raise  their  own  reputation  on  the  ruin  of 
that  of  others  ;  and  the  authors  of  the  English  Bible  have  frequent- 
ly been  calumniated  by  charlatans  of  every  description  ;  but  it  may 
safely  be  asserted,  without  fear  of  contradiction,  tliat  the  nation  at 
large  haa  always  paid  our  translatore  the  tribute  of  veneration  and 

«  Dr.  Bryan  Walton's  Considcrafor  considered,  or  a  defence  of  hif  Poly- 
rlult  Bible,  du:.  105!),  p.  5.  This  is  not  noticed  by  Abp.  Newcoiue.  Ituta 
most  iiiiporiaiit  testimony  il  is.  lie  was  one  of  tho.se  most  learned  divines, 
who  in  IGM,  were  publicly  re(iuesif(l  lo  consider  of llic  translations  and  im- 
pre.<«slunKof  the  Bible,  an<l  lo  ofTer  their  opinion  therein  to  the  committee 
for  rcliirion  ;  Bulstrode  Whilelock  having  ihe  care  of  this  alTair,  at  who.se 
house  they  met.  They  pretended  to  discover  some  mistakes  in  the  last 
En^^lish  translation  ;  but  Ihe  b'lsinpss  came  to  nothing.  See  Lewis,  <fec.  p. 
3.'i5. ;  Johnson,  Sec.  p.  99.  In  the  above  citation  we  have  the  opinion  of 
Walton  (than  whom  a  more  competent  judKe  ncitlier  friends  nor  foes  of 
our  tran.slation  can  produce),  three  years  subscqueiit  lo  this  meeting,  upon 
the  excollonceof  this  version,  together  with  his  notice  of  an  impotent  attack 
made  upon  it.  He  has  also,  in  ihc  Prolegomena  to  his  Biblia  Polyglolla, 
1057,  placed  our  own  in  the  hifihest  rank  of  FJuropean  translations. 

•  Thi."!  person  was  undoubtedly  Ilu^h  Brotifrhton,  fellow  of  Christ  Collepe. 
("anibridge,  who  had  certainly  attained  prcal  knowledge  inthe  Hebrew  and 
Greek  tongues.  But  a  more  conceited  or  arrogant  man  hardly  cxisttil. 
With  the  Bishops'  Bible  he  had  found  great  fault ;  In.sisted  upon  the  neces- 
sity of  a  now  translation;  pronounced  tii.s  own  sufTiticncy  to  make  one 
exactly  agreeable  lo  the  original  text  of  the  Hebrew  ;  boasted  of  encourage 
ment  to  ihApurposc  from  men  of  all  ranks ;  and  al  length  excited  a  very 
Warrantable  suspicion,  that,  in  so  important  a  task,  he  was  unfit  to  be  trust- 
ed. Thus  discountenanced,  he  went  abroad  ;  leaving  behind  him  lliis 
quaint  character,  expressive  at  once  of  his  vanity  and  learning,  "  Ihat  ho 
was  gone  to  teach  the  Jews  Hebrew  !"  See  Sir  J.  Hnrringtcm's  Brief  View 
of  Ihe  State  of  the  Church,  lO.'Vt,  p.  75.  He  returned  to  Kirpl.ind,  however, 
in  llill,  and  commenced  his  defamation  again.'<t  the  new  translation  to  which 
Walton  adverts.  By  the  contents  of  a  litile  trad,  which  he  published  in 
IGOS,  enlille<t "  A  petition  to  Ihe  l.ords  to  examine  the  religion  anrl  carriage 
of  Archbishop  Bancroft,"  he  gives  us  no  cause  to  lament  that  he  had  no 
Kharc  in  the  new  translation.  ItpicHlioii  if  his  countrymen  would  have  un. 
derstoo.l  hi.t  language  ;  as  the  ra.'ie  Ims  been  with  anntlier  partial  translator, 
who  wn?  not  of  the  authnrized  selection.  Hron^hlun  thus  rails  at  Bancroft : 
"  Bancrofl,  seeing  himself  in  Juilaisme,  as  I  heard  in  his  allowed  libel  equal 
srotTer,  a.s  of  a  mist  soone  acatlered,  raved  ag.iinst  me  for  pearls  lo  such, 
and  holy  things  lo  such !"  p.  2.  "Bancroft  is  a  deadly  enemy  to  both  Tes- 
lainents,  and  unallowable  in  this  course  lo  be  a  teacher  nr  to  rule  in  learn- 
ing!" p.  R.  AOerlhis  foolery  and  slander,  tlic  reader  will  not  besur|)rised 
to  liear  that  he  abuses  Lively  and  Barlow  also,  two  of  our  authorize!  trans- 
lators. 

»  I/nvih,  Introd.  to  Eng.  Grammar,  2d  edit.  p.  93.,  cited  by  Archbishop 
Ncwcome. 

«  Review  of  Dr.  OertdeB'*  Tranalation  of  the  Holy  Oiblc,  Brit.  Crll.,  July, 
1701,  p.  7.  The  reviewer  Is  now  known  to  have  been  tlic  lato  liishop 
Horslcy. 

•  Dr.  MIddleton  flatc  Bishop  of  Cnlciitta)  on  the  Greek  Article,  p.  ^2^. 

•  White's  Sermon  before  Ihe  University  of  Oxford,  recommending  a 
lovisalof  the  English  Translation  of  the  Old  Testament,  p.  9.  Oxford,  1779. 
ito. 

'  WhiUAker,  Dist.  and  Crit.  Enq.,  p.  <«. 


gratitude  which  they  so  justly  merit  Like  the  mighty  of  former 
times,  they  have  departed,  and  shared  the  common  fate  of  mortali- 
ty ;  but  they  have  not,  like  those  heroes  of  antiquity,  gone  without 
their  fame,  though  but  little  is  known  of  their  individual  worth. 
Their  reputation  for  learning  and  piety  has  not  descended  with 
them  to  the  grave,  though  they  are  there  alike  heedless  of  the  voice 
of  calumny,  and  deaf  to  the  praise  which  admiring  posterity  awards 
to  the  great  and  good.  Let  tis  not,  therefore,  too  h.astily  conclude 
that  they  have  fallen  on  evil  days  and  evil  tongues,  because  it  has 
occasionally  happened  tliat  an  individual,  as  inferior  to  them  in  eru- 
dition as  ill  to.lcnisand  integrity,  is  found  questioning  their  motives, 
or  denying  their  qualif  cations  for  Ihe  task  which  they  so  V)ell  per- 
formed. Their  version  has  been  used,  ever  since  its  first  ap- 
pearance, not  only  by  the  church,  but  by  all  the  sects  which  have 
forsaken  her ;  and  has  justly  been  esteemed  by  all  for  its  general  faith> 
fulness,  and  the  severe  beauty  of  its  language.  It  has  survived  the 
convulsion  both  of  church  and  state,  being  universally  respected 
by  the  enemies  of  both,  when  the  established  religion  was  perse- 
cuted with  the  most  rancorous  malignity ;  as  if  its  merits  were  in- 
dependent of  circumstances,  and  left  at  a  distance  all  the  petty 
rivalships  of  sectarianism,  and  the  efli'rvescence  of  national  phren- 
sy.  It  may  be  compared  with  any  translation  j»i  the  world,  without 
fear  of  inferiority  ;  il  has  not  s)tru7ik  from  the  most  rigorous  ex- 
amination ;  il  challenges  investigation  ;  and,  in  spite  of  numerous 
attempts  to  supersede  it,  has  hitherto  remained  unrivalled  in  the  affec- 
tions of  the  country." 

8.  Dr.  Doddridge. — "On  a  diligent  comparison  of  our  transla- 
tion with  the  original,  wo  find  that  of  the  New  Testament,  and  I 
might  also  add  that  of  the  Old,  in  the  main,  faithful  and  judicious. 
You  know,  indeed,  that  we  do  not  scruple,  on  some  occasions,  to 
animadvert  upon  it:  but  you  also  know,  that  these  remarks  affect 
not  the  fundamentals  of  religion,  and  seldom  reach  any  further 
than  the  beauty  of  a  figure,  or  at  most  the  connection  of  an  argu- 
ment."* 

9.  The  Testimony  of  Dr.  John  Taylor,  of  Norwich,  author  of 
the  excellent  Hebrew  and  English  Concordance  (whose  theological 
creed,  we  regret  to  say,  was  Arian),  is  yet  more  striking. — "  In 
above  the  space  of  one  [now  two]  hundred  years,"  says  he,  "  learn- 
ing may  have  received  considerable  improvements ;  and  by  that 
moans  some  inaccuracies  mav  be  found  in  a  translation  more  than  a 
[two]  hundred  years  old.  But  you  may  rest  fully  satisfied,  that  as 
our  English  translation  is,  in  itself,  by  fir  the  most  excellent  book  in 
our  language,  so  it  is  a  pure  and  plentiful  fountain  of  divine  knoxo- 
le.dgc,  giving  a  tri;e,  clear,  and  full  account  of  the  divine  dispen- 
sations, and  of  the  gospel  of  our  salvation :  insomuch  that  whoever 
studies  the  Bible,  the  English  Bible,  is  sure  of  gaining  that  know- 
ledge and  faith,  which,  if  duly  applied  to  Ihe  heart  and  conversation. 


WILL  l.N'FALI.IBLV  GUIDE  HIM  TO  ETER.VAL  LIFE 


"9 


10.  Dr.  Geddes.'O — "  Tiie  highest  eulogiums  have  been  made  on 
the  translation  of  James  the  Fu'st,  both  by  our  own  writers  and  by 
foreigners.  And  indeed,  if  accuracy,  fidelity,  and  the  strictest  at 
tention  to  the  letter  of  the  text,  be  supposeil  to  constitute  the  qua- 
lities of  an  excellent  version,  this  of  all  versions  must,  in  general,  be 
accounted  Ihc  7)}nst  excellent.  Every  sentence,  every  word,  every 
syllable,  every  letter  and  point,  seem  to  have  been  weighed  with 
the  nicest  exactitude,  and  expressed  either  in  the  text,  or  margin, 
with  the  greatest  precision.  Paaninus  himself  is  hardly  nfore 
literal ;  and  it  was  well  remarked  ^jy  Robertson,  above  a  hundred 
years  ago,  that  il  may  serve  for  a  Lexicon  of  tfie  Hebrew  language 
as  well  as  for  a  translation." 

11.  Dr.  James  Beattie. — "It  is  a  striking  beauty  in  our  English 
Bible,  that,  though  the  language  is  always  elegant  and  nervous,  and 
for  the  most  part  very  harmonious,  the  words  are  all  plain  and 
common — no  affectation  of  learned  terms,  or  of  words  of  Greek  or 
Latin  etymology."" 

12.  Dr.  Ada.m  Clarke. — "Those  who  have  compared  most  of 
tlio  European  translations  with  the  original,  have  not  scrupled  to 
say,  that  the  English  translation  of  the  Bible,  made  under  the 
direction  of  King  James  the  First,  is  the  most  accurate  and  faithful 
of  the  whole.  Nor,"  adds  Dr.  C,  "  is  this  its  only  praise  :  tho  trans- 
lators have  seized  the  very  spirit  ami  soul  of  the  original,  and  ex- 
pressed this  almost  every  trhere  with  jtalhos  and  energy.  Besides, 
our  translators  have  not  only  made  a  standard  translation,  but  they 
have  made  their  translation  the  standard  if  our  languncc :  tho 
English  tongue  in  their  day  was  not  equal  to  such  a  work — but  God 
enabled  them  to  stand  .as  ujxjn  Mount  Sinai,  and  crane  up  their 
countrj''s  language  (o  the  dignity  of  tho  orif^inals,  so  that,  after  tho 
lapse  of  two  hundred  years,  the  English  Bible  is,  with  very  few 
exceptions,  the  standard  of  the  purity  and  excellence  of  the  Eng- 
lish tongue.  The  original,  from  which  it  was  taken,  is  alono 
superior  to  tho  Bible  translated  by  the  authority  of  King  James. "'^ 

13.  The  Kev.  Professor  SruART,  of  Andover,  Massachtisc'ttc,  tho 
most  eminent  orientalist  in  North  America. —  Contrasting  the  Eng- 
lish version  with  the  Latin  Vulgate,  he  says:  "Ours  is,  on  the 
whole,  a  most  noblo  production  for  the  time  in  which  it  was  made. 
The  divines  of  that  day  were  very  different  Hebrew  scholara  from 


I 


•  Dr.  Doddridge's  Works,  vol.  ii.  p.  329   Locd.-!  edit. 

•  Scheme  of  Scripture  Divinity,  ch.  xl.,  in  Bishop  Watson's  Collection 
of  Theolngicnl  Tracts,  vol.  i.  p.  W. 

'0  Dr.  Geddes's  Prospectus  of  n  new  Translation  of  llio  Holy  Bible, 
n,  92.  Cited  by  Abp.  Newcome,  with  a  long  extract  from  the  author. — 
Todd's  Vindication,  pp.  68.  70.75.60. 

»'  Hir  William  Korbcs's  Life  of  Dr.  Dcaltic,  vol.  II.  p.  198.  8vo.  edit. 

'»  Dr.  A.  Clarke's  General  Preface  to  his  Commentary  on  the  Bible, 
vol.  i.  p.  21. 


Sect.  VI.  §  3.] 


ENGLISH  VERSIONS. 


39 


from  whatmost  of  theirsuccessors  have  been,  in  England  or  Scotland. 
With  the  exception  of  Bishop  Lowih's  classic  work  upon  Isaiah,  no 
other  effort  at  translating,  among  the  English  divines,  will  compare, 
either  in  respect,  to  taste,  judgment,  or  sound  understanding  of  the 
Hebrew,  with  the  authorized  version."' 

14.  The  American  Monthly  Review. — "No  new  translation 
can  succeed,  which  is  not  based  upon  that  now  in  use.  The  phrase- 
ology of  King  James's  translation  is  connected  too  intimately  with 
the  religious  impressions  of  individuals,  and  with  almost  all  the 
religious  literature  extant  in  our  language,  to  be  renounced  by  those 
who  cherish  the  former  and  renounce  the  latter.  Nor  would  we 
wish  to  renounce  it,  if  the  Christian  public  would  consent  to  it.  It 
IS  euphonious,  elegant,  and  lofty.  It  comprises  few  words  now- 
obsolete, — few  whicli  every  well-trained  child  does  not  understand. 
And  King  James's  translation  has  been  itself  the  reason,  why  its 
phraseology  has  not  become  obsolete.  It  has  been  as  an  anchor  to 
the  English  language,  which,  before  that  work  was  undertaken, 
had  been  constantly  fluctuating."'^ 

Notwithstanding  these  decisive  testimonies  to  the  superior  ex- 
cellency of  our  authorized  version,  it  is  readily  admitted  that  it  is 
not  immaculate,  and  that  a  revision  or  correction  of  it  is  an 
object  of  desire  to  the  friends  of  religion,  were  it  only  to  silence 
the  perpetually  repeated  cavils  of  the  opposers  of  divine  revelation ; 
who,  studiously  disregarding  the  various  satisfactory  answers  which 
have  been  given  to  their  unfounded  objections,  persevere  in  re- 
peating them,  so  long  as  they  find  a  very  few  mistranslated 
passages  in  the  authorized  version.  But  that  the  existing  trans- 
lation is  so  faulty  in  innumerable  instances,  and  so  ambiguous 
and  incorrect  even  in  matters  of  the  highest  importance,  as  to 
render  a  new  translation  absolutely  necessary, — or  that  sacred 
criticism  is  yet  so  far  advanced  as  to  furnish  all  the  means  that  may 
be  expected,  we  hesitate  not  to  deny.  Indeed,  when  we  consider 
the  vertf  few  real  faults  which  the  most  minute  and  scrupulous 
inquirer  has  been  able  to  find  in  our  present  translation  ;  when 
we  perceive  such  distinguished  critics  as  Archbishop  Newcome 
and  Bishop  Horsley  (to  mention  no  more),  producing  very  tlis- 
cordant  interpretations  of  the  same  text  or  word,  we  cannot  but 
call  to  mind,  with  gratitude  and  admiration,  the  integrity,  wisdom, 
fidelity,  and  learning  of  the  venerable  translators,  of  whose  pious 
labours  we  are  now  reaping  the  benefit;  who,  while  their  reve- 
rence for  the  Sacred  Scriptures  induced  them  to  be  as  literal  as 
they  could,  to  avoid  obscurity,  have  been  extremely  happy  in  the 
simplicity  and  dignity  of  their  expressions,  and  who,  by  their  ad- 
herence to  the  Hebrew  idiom,  have  at  once  enriched  and  adorn- 
ed our  language.  And  instead  of  being  im/jatient  for  a  new 
translation,  we  shall  (to  adopt  the  energetic  expression  of  Mr. 
Todd)  *'  take  up  the  book,  which  from  our  infancy  we  have 
known  and  loved,  with  increased  delight;  and  resolve  not  has- 
tily to  violate,  in  regard  to  itself,  the  rule  which  it  records : — '  Fon- 

SAKE  NOT  AN  OLD  FRIEND,  FOR  THE  NEW  IS  NOT  CO-nPARABLE 
TO  HIM.'  " 

"  Happy,  thrice  happy,  hath  our  English  nation  been,  since 
God  hath  given  it  learned  translators  to  express,  in  our  mother 
tongue,  the  heavenly  mysteries  of  his  holy  word,  delivered  to  his 
church  in  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  languages;  who,  although 
they  may  have  in  some  matters  of  no  importance  unto  salvation, 
as  men,  been  deceived  and  mistaken,  yet  they  have  faithfully 
delivered  the  whole  substance  of  the  heavenly  doctrine  contained 
in  the  Holy  Scriptures,  without  any  heretical  translations  or 
wilful  corruptions.  With  what  reverence,  joy,  and  gladness, 
then,  ought  we  to  receive  this  blessing !  Jjet  us  read  the  Scrip- 
tures with  an  humble,  modest,  and  teachable  disposition :  with 
a  willingness  to  embrace  all  truths  which  are  plainly  delivered 
there,  how  contrary  soever  to  our  own  opinions  and  prejudices  ; 
and,  in  matters  of  difficulty,  readily  hearken  to  the  judgment  of 
our  teachers,  and  those  that  are  set  over  us  in  the  Lord  ;  check 
every  presumptuous  thought  or  reasoning  which  exalts  itself 
against  any  of  those  mysterious  truths  therein  revealed  ;  and  if 
we  thus  search  after  the  truth  in  the  love  of  it,  we  shall  not  miss 
of  that  knowledge  which  will  make  us  wise  unto  salvation."^ 


Editions  of  the  Authorized  Version,  with  Parallel  Hefei'- 

ences.  * 

1 .  The  Holy  Bible,  contey ning  the  Old  Testament  and  the  New : 
Newly  translated  out  of  the  Originall  tongues,  &  with  the  former 

I  Stuart's  Dissertations  on  the  Importance  and  Best  Method  of  studying 
the  Original  Languages  of  tlie  Bible,  p.  61. 

a  The  Auiericaii  M9ntl)l);  Review,  vol.  iii.  (March,  1833),  p.  224. 

«  Jotinsou's  Hist.  Ace.  in  the  concluding  paragraph.  Bp.  Watson's 
Tracts,  vol.  iii.  p.  100. 

«  The  reader,  who  is  desirous  of  perusing  more  minute  bibliographical 
accounts  of  the  English  Versions  executed  anterior  to  King  James's  (or 
the  authorized  English)  version  of  the  Bible,  is  referred  to  Le'wis's  History 
of  the  principal  Translations  of  the  Bible  ;  Dr.  Cotton's  List  of  Editions  of 


Translations  diligently  compared  and  reuised  by  his  Maiestie's 
speciall  Comandement.  Imprinted  at  London  by  Robert  Barker, 
Printer  to  the  King's  most  Excellent  Maiestie.  Anno  Dom.  1611, 
folio. 

This  is  the  title  of  the  first  edition  of  the  authorized  English 
version :  it  is  retained  in  all  the  subsequent  editions,  the  spelling 
being  modernized,  and  "  command"  being  substituted  ibr  "  comande- 
ment." To  this  edition  there  are  prefixed  a  Calendar  of  Lessons, 
the  Genealogical  Tables  ascribed  to  the  industrious  antiquary  John 
Speed,  and  an  engraved  map  of  Canaan,  together  with  an  alpha- 
betical list  of  the  places  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures.  "The  firet 
quarto  edition  appeared  in  1612. 

In  some  of  the  very  numerous  editions  printed  between  the  years 
1638  and  1685,  an  alteration  is  introduced  in  Acts  vi.  3. ;  where, 
instead  of  we  may  appoint,  we  read  ye  may  appoint.  This  altera- 
tion has  been  charged  uiwn  the  Independents  during  the  time  of 
Cromwell's  usurpation;  but,  as  the  first  Bible  in  which  it  was  ob- 
served is  that  printed  at  Cambridge,  by  Buck  and  Daniel,  in  1638 
(which  was  revised,  by  royal  command,  by  Dr.  Ward,  Dr.  Goad, 
Mr.  Boys,  Mr.  Mode,  and  other  eminent  scholars),5  it  is  in  all  pro- 
bability an  error  of  the  press,  without  any  design  to  favour  any 
particular  party.''  In  1653,  an  edition  was  printed  by  John  Field, 
at  Cambridge,  in  24mo.,  which  is  of  extreme  rarity  and  beauty  :  il 
is  called  the  Pearl  Bible,  from  the  very  small  type  with  which  it 
was  printed,  but  is  disgraced  by  very  numerous  errata,  some  of 
which  are  of  importance.'  An  imitation  of  it  was  made  in  Hol- 
land, in  1658;  but  the  genuine  edition  is  known  by  having  the 
first  four  psalms  on  a  page,  without  turning  over.  In  1660,  the 
same  printer  executed  a  splendid  folio  edition  of  the  Bible,  which 
was  illustrated  with  chorographical  plates,  engraved  by  Ogilby,  an 
eminent  artist  of  that  time  :  he  also  printed  several  other  editions 
in  8vo.  and  12mo.,  but  they  are  not  considered  as  typographical 
curiosities.  From  the  time  of  Field  to  the  end  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  several  curious  flat  Bibles  were  printed,  which  are  deno-  • 
minated  preaching  Bibles,  from  the  use  made  of  them  in  the  pulpit 
during  that  period.  The  typographical  execution  of  them  is  very 
clear,  the  type  being  a  broad-laced  letter,  upon  thin  paper,  with  a 
few  marginal  notes,  which  gives  them  a  superiority  over  many  of 
the  thick  and  heavy  volumes  that  have  since  been  printed.  In 
1683,  this  translation  was  corrected,  and  many  references  to  paral- 
lel texts  were  added  by  Dr.  Scattergood ;  and  in  1701,  a  very  fine 
edition  was  published,  in  large  folio,  under  the  direction  of  Dr. 
Tenison,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  with  chronological  dates,  and 
an  index  by  Bishop  Lloyd,  and  accurate  tables  of  Scripture  weights 
and  measures  by  Bishop  Cumberland :  but  this  edition  is  said  to 
abound  with  typographical  errors.  The  latest  and  most  complete 
revision  is  that  made  by  the  late  Rev.  Dr.  Blayney,  under  the  di- 
rection of  the  vice-chaficellor  and  delegates  of  the  Clarendon 
press,  at  Oxford.  In  this  edition,  which  was  printed  both  in  quarto 
and  folio,  in  1769,  the  punctuation  was  thoroughly  revised  ;  the 
words  printed  in  Italics  were  examined  and  corrected  by  the  He- 
brew and  Greek  originals  ;  the  proper  names,  to  the  etymology  of 
which  allusions  are  made  in  the  text,  were  translated  and  entered 
in  the  margin  ;  the  summaries  of  chapters,  and  running  titles,  at  the 
top  of  each  page  corrected  ;  some  material  errors  in  the  chronology 
rectified ;  and  the  marginal  references  were  re-examined  and  cor- 
rected, and  thirty  thousand  four  hmwlred' and  ninety-five  new  refer 
ences  were  inserted  in  the  margin.^  From  the  singular  pains  be 
stowed,  in  order  to  render  this  edition  as  accurate  as  possible,  it 
has  hitherto  been  considered  the  standard  edition,  from  which  all 
subsequent  impressions  have  been  executed.  A  few  copies  of  the 
quarto  edition  were  printed  on  thick  paper,  which  are  now  vevy 
rare  :  nearly  the  whole  impression  having  been  destroyed  by  fire. 

Notwithstanding  the  great  labour  and  attention  bestowed  by 
Dr.  Blayney,  his  edition  must  now  yield  the  palm  of  accuracy  to 
the  very  beautiful  and  correct  edition  published  by  Messrs.  Eyre 
and  Strahan,  his  majesty's  printers  (but  printed  by  "Mr.  Woodfall), 
in  1806,  and  again  in  1813,  in  quarto ;  as  not  fewer  than  one  hun- 
dred and  sixteen  errors  w'ere  discovered  in  collating  the  edition  of 
1806  with  Dr.  B.'s,  and  one  of  these  errors  was  an  omission  of  con- 

the  Bible  ;  and  Dr.  Dibdin's  Edition  of  Herbert's  and  Ames's  Typographi- 
cal Antiquities,  of  which  work  four  volumes  have  been  published. 

»  Kilbourn's  "  Dangerous  Errors  in  some  late  printed  Bibles,"  p.  6.  Lon- 
don, 1659,  410. 

s  Another  material  error  has  crept  into  many  modern  editions  of  the 
Englisli  Bible  in  I  Tim.  iv.  16.,  where  we  read  Take  heedunio  t/iyselj'and 
THY  doctrine,  in.stcad  of  the  doctrine.  The  origin  of  this  niistiike  (which 
the  author  of  this  work  has  found  in  various  editions  printed  between  the 
year  1690  and  the  commencement  of  the  present  century)  it  is  now  imp«s- 
Bible  to  ascertain.  It  was  first  pointed  out  by  the  eminently  learned 
Bisliop  Horsley. 

'  Mr.  D'Isracli  has  an  interesting  article  on  the  above  noticed  "  Pearl 
Bibles  and  Six  Thousand  Errata,"  from  which  the  following  instances  are 
copied  :— Rom  vi.  13.  "  Neither  yield  ye  your  members  as  instruments  ot 
righteousness  unto  sin;" — ior- unrighteousness. — 1  Cor.  vi.  0.  "Know  ye 
not  that  the  unrighteous  sliall  inherit  the  kingdom  of  GoiW— (or  shall 
not  inherit.  "This  erratum,"  Mr.  D.  reiriarks,  "ser^'ed  as  ihe  foundation 
of  a  dangerous  doctrine  :  for  many  libertines  urged  Ihe  text  from  this  cor- 
rupt Bible,  against  the  reproofs  of  ii  divine."  Curiosities  of  Literature  (2ii 
Series),  vol.  iii.  p.  318.  To  the  two  preceding  instances  we  may  add  that 
in  John  ix.  2.  the  words  "  or  who  hath  opened  his  eyes,  ve  know  not,"  are 
wholly  omitted.  (Kilbourn's  "Dangerous  Errors  in  some  late  printed 
Bibles,"  p.  7.) 

8  A  full  account  of  Dr.  Blayney's  Collation  and  Revision  was  communi- 
cated by  liim  to  the  Gentleman's  Magazine  for  November,  1769.  vol  xxxix 
pp.  517—519 


40 


MODERN  VERSIONS  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


[Part  I.  Chap.  I 


siderable  importance.'  Messrs.  Eyre  and  Strahan's  editions  may 
therefore  be  regarded  as  approaching  as  near  a.s  possible  to  what 
bibliographers  term  an  immaculale  text.  Only  one  erratum,  we  be- 
lieve, has  been  distovered  in  the  edition  of  1806.  The  following 
particulars  relative  to  the  above-mentioned  London  editions  of  the 
Bible  may  not  be  unacceptable  to  the  bibliographical  reader,  at  the 
same  lime  they  will  show  that  their  claims  to  be  considered  as 
Kiaiidard  editions  are  not  altogether  unlbunded.  The  booksellers 
of  the  mctroiwlis  having  applied  to  his  majesty's  printers  to  un- 
dertake a  handsome  edition  of  the  Bible,  confidQd  the  execution  of 
it  to  Mr.  George  Woodfall  in  180-1.  The  copy  printed  from  \yas 
the  then  current  Cambridge  edition,  with  whicliAIr.  W.'s  edition 
agrees  page  for  page.  It  was  afterwards  read  twice  by  the  Oxford 
impression  then  in  use,  and  the  prootis  were  transmitted  to  the  liev. 
Launcelot  Slmrpe,  by  whom  they  were  read  with  Dr.  Blayney's 
4io.  edition  ot'  1709.  Afier  the  proofs  relumed  by  Mr.  S.  for  pre.s.s 
had  been  correctetl,  the  forms  were  placed  upon  the  press  at  which 
ihey  were  to  be  worked,  and  anoiher  proof  was  taken.  This  was 
read  by  Mr.  VVoodlall's  superintendent,  and  afitrw:.rds  by  Mr.  W. 
himselt,  with  Dr.  Blayney's  edition,  and  c.ny  errors  that  had  pre- 
viously e.'caped  were  corrected  ;  the  l()rins  not  having  been  ro- 
nioveti  Irom  the  press  after  the  last  proofs  had  been  taken  off.  By 
this  preC4iiition  they  avoided  the  danger  of  errors  (a  danger  of  very 
irequent  occurrence,  and  of  no  small  magnitude),  arising  from  the 
removal  ol"  the  forms  from  the  prooi-press  to  the  presses  on  which 
the  slieets  were  finally  worked  off.  Of  this  edition,  which  was 
ready  for  pu1>lication  in  1806,  five  hundred  copies  were  printed  on 
imperial  4lo.  two  thousand  on  toyal,  and  three  thousand  on  me- 
ilium  quarto  size.  In  the  course  of  printing  this  edition  from  the 
(Cambridge  copy,  a  great  number  of  errors  m  the  latter  were  dis- 
covered and  corroded.  The  London  edition  of  1806  being  ex- 
hausted, a  new  impression  was  put  to  press  in  1810,  which  was 
completed,  with  e<iual  beauty  and  accuracy,  in  1812,  and  published 
in  1813.  it  will  gra'tify  the  reader  lo  know  that  tiie  edition  of  1813 
ha-s  been  recommended  by  tlie  General  Conveiitio:i  of  ilic  Protest- 
ant Episcopal  Church  in  the  United  Slates  of  .Vmcrica,  to  be  adopt- 
ed as  the  Standard  Edition  to  which  future  editions  of^  the  English 
Version  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  (for  the  use  of  the  members  of  that 
church)  arc  to  be  made  conformable.  (Journal  of  the  Proceedings 
of  the  Bishops,  (.'lergy.  and  L«aily  of  the  Protestant  Episcojjal 
Church  in  tlie  I'nited  Slates  of  America,  in  a  general  Convention 
lield  in  the  city  of  Philadelphia,  from  the  16th  to  the  24th  of  May, 
1620,  p.  54.  Journal  of  the  Convention  of  the  same  Church  in 
May,  1823,  p.  101.) 

Ol'  the  various  editinns  of  the  authorized  English  Version,  pub- 
lished with  parallel  texts,  those  printed  at  Oxlbid  (after  that  ot  Dr. 
Blayney  in  1769,  and  that  of  Bishop  Wilson)  are  among  the  best 
aiKi'mcwt  copious  of  the  larger  editions.^  The  Oxford  minion  octa- 
vo, which  issued  from  the  press  in  1821,  is  one  of  the  most  commo- 
dious and  correct  editions  that  has  ever  been  printed.  The  mcr 
•lium  octavo  Uilde,  executed  by  his  majesty's  printers,  in  1814,  is 
a  most  beuiitifut  b<x)k.  Canne's  octavo  edition,  1682,  and  Wat- 
fDn's,  Edinbiirg.  8vo.  1722,  are  ihc  most  valuable  of  the  earlier /)ocAt< 
cditioiLs,  and  are  all  scarce  and  dear.  The  Rev.  Thomas  Scotts 
('ommentary  on  the  Bible,  in  6  vols.  4to.,  has  a  very  copious  and 
judicious  seiectmn  of  parallel  references  on  the  plan  of'  Canne's 
Bible.  The  Rev.  Dr.  .\dam  Clarke's  Commentary  also  has  a  simi- 
lar selection  of  parallel  texts.  The  jjockel  edition  of  the  entire 
English  Bible,  published  l>y  .Mr.  Bagster  in  1816,  contains  a  new 
helection  of  upwards  of  sixty  thousand  references  to  passages  thai 
are  really  parallel.  But  the  cheapest,  ns  well  as  one  of  the  most 
elegant  and  useful  of  all  Ihe  jwcket  editions,  is  that  published  at 
Oxford  in  1H27,  afier  Dr.  Blayney's  revision,  at  the  very  low  price 
of  eight  shillings  in  sheets,  which,  from  its  type  and  size,  is  known 
by  the  appellation  of  the  oxforh  rL/'dy  octavo  Bible. 

In  1833  various  charges  of  inaccuracy  were  matlc  against  the 
nimlern  editions  of  the  authorized  English  version  by  Mr.  Thomas 
Curti^,  in  four  letters  addressed  lo  the  Bishop  of  i/mdon.  The 
mmrepresentations  of  this  wriler  were  exposed  and  refutc<l,  on  the 
part  of  the  University  of  Oxford,  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Ciirdwell,  and  on 

'  In  I>r.  Blayney's  quarto  edition  of  17C9,  the  followiiia  words  an-  omitted 
ill  Hev.  XVIII.  -ivi.  after  llie  worilij  "  no  more,"  viz.  "  at  nil  in  Ihtf  ;  and  no 
crnfldiiiaii,  of  whatsoever  cralt  he  lie,  sliall  be  found  any  more."  The  au- 
U\i)(  has  lie>'n  imorincd  tlini  tlio  same  ouiissiuii  occurs  in  the  fuUu  ediliuii 
fit  1769.  tfiiiiilar  errors  liave  been  detcct'd  in  olJicr  cilitions  of  the  Bible, 
Boiiie  of  which  are  sulliciciilly  curious.  Tims,  in  l'V!2,  Barker  and  I.iicas 
(Ihc  king's  printers)  executed  an  e(hlion  of  tin;  English  Hilile,  consisliu);  of 
•  lie  moiisiind  copies,  in  which  a  very  serioiid  error  \mis  coinniilhil  by 
having  out  llie  word  nof  in  the  sevenib  coiiiniandmcnl,  which  nm  ihiis: 
'J'ltou  8IIALT  commit  nilutteri/.  This  fart  beiiiK  proved  before  llie  bi^li 
1  oiuniUs;u.i  rom  t,  tlie  wliole  inipreiiBiuii  was  called  In,  and  a  very  lieavy 
riiic  was  Imposed  upon  (he  primers.  (Townley's  Illusirulions  uf  Bibliciil 
I.iteratiire,  vol.  In  pp.  rjl8 — yjit  )  The  splendid  folio  Bible,  printed  by  Bas- 
ket, iil  Oxfonl,  in  1.17-lfi,  i.s  coinniooly  termed  the  Vimqnr  liilili,  from 
an  1  rror  in  (be  runnhijf  tide  at  I.iikc  xx  ,  where  we  read  the  '■jiarableuj 
the.  rin^e'ir,"  inste,id  of  llie  "jiiiralile  ufthe  viNByABD." 

'  The  folliiWMiK  »horti»ble  will  runvey  an  accurate  ide*  of  the  progres- 
five  increase  of  le.creiices  tO|iarallc!  icxtn  invariouii  cditiunH  of  tlie  Bible. 

In  the  Ul  rillll.ti  if  IRIl  ' 
.'.  IUjr«%  llf/7 
lir.  Sc«llrrfi<«d°l,  1R78 
liikhup  'J'ruisiiii  Hull  ( 
1.1  .>il'«,  IbW  J 

llr.  Il'lnynrj'a,  I7HII 
llUhnli  WlllolLl,  iTxa 

Htwli.ll'K Commentary,  vol.i.p.  '45.410.  edit.,  in  which  Mr.  H.  ba.s  adopted 
tho  parallel  irxts  in  Bishop  WiIbou's  Bible,  M  being  the  luoit  copioua,  and 
upon  the  whole  well  selected. 


-! 

H.-J#l 

, 

RH.1 

tu 

i4,(ian 

1, 

1,1111 

31,1.17 

<i 

1,117 

M.8.12 

MIB 

1^1 

41,T.« 

a" 

t.772 

htt 

L«,iuo, 

^ 

.  1,771' 

i>  a 

'I 


axsr  a'.,-ii."i 

ii.j;i  I  •;  J  »;i,'''i 

^i\  13.717  f  .=  I  3«,t.v 


the  part  of  the  University  of  Cambridge,  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Turton 
(the  titles  of  whose  pamphlets  will  be  found  in  a  subsequent  page 
of  this  bibliographical  appendix).  The  result  is  that,  though  ab«o 
lute  inerrancy  is  impracticable  in  anij  printed  book,  yet  all  the 
modem  editions  (those,  for  instance,  which  have  been  printed  since 
the  year  1820)  have  been  proved  to  be  as  correct,  as  unwearied 
and  incessant  industry  can  make  them.  With  relerence  to  the 
alleged  charges  of  inaccuracy,  the  editors  of  an  ably  conducted 
Journal  thus  express  themselves  :  —  "  These  charges  we  have  ex- 
amined ;  and  we  assert,  without  hesitation  or  difficulty,  that  the 

TE.VT  OF  ScRirTl'RE  l.N    TIIE  E.N«LISH  BiBLE  IS  IVOT  VITIATED    BY 

THE  modern  Itulicg,  as  the  charges  allege  ;  a.nd  that  in  a.ny  copy 
OF  THE  translatio.n  i.n  co.mmo.n  use  there  is  nothing  to  be 

FOU.ND  WHICH  CAN  RENDER  THE  TK.XT  OF  ScRlPTURE  U.NWORTHY 
OF  THE  CONFIDENCE  OF  TIIE  UNLEARNED.  .  .  .  .^Ild  lllOSC  claSSCS  of 

the  community,  amongst  whom  the  Bible  most  largely  circulates, 
should  be  told  that,  in  the  copies  which  have  been  put  into  their 
hands,  there  is  neither  i-erversion  nor  obscuratio.n  of  the 
TRUTH.  The  Bibles  of  Ihc  Oxford,  Caml/ridge,  and  London"  [lliat 
is,  the  king's  printers']  "presses,  recently  issued,  are  most  beauti- 
ful books ;  and  certainly,  in  respect  to  the  imjiorlant  purposes  of 
their  publication  and  use,  may  be  read  without  distrust.  We 
do  not  aflirm  ihcm  to  bo  immaculate,  but  they  nffbrd  no  grounds 
for  such  imputations  as  those  which  have  been,  we  regret  lo  say, 
so  inconsiderately  and  so  reproachfully  directed  against  them." 
(Eclectic  Review,  Third  Series,  vol.  ix.  p.  533.) 

3.  The  New  Testament,  with  References  under  the  Text  in 
words  at  length,  so  that  the  Parallel  Texts  may  be  seen  at  one 
view.  By  the  Rev.  Francis  Fox,  M.A.  London,  1722.  Se- 
cond edition,  1742.     2  vols.  8vo. 

The  editor  of  this  useful  publication  has  given,  for  the  most  part, 
all  the  references  in  the  then  last  and  fullest  edition  of  the  Bible, 
together  with  a  great  number  collected  by  himself;  mid  has  further 
added  the  chronology  of  Archbishop  Usher,  the  marginal  render- 
ings, and  several  good  notes  on  really  difficult  passages,  together 
with  a  copious  index.  This  work  is  now  only  to  be  procured  at  a 
very  high  price. 

4.  Scicntia  Biblica  ;  being  a  copious  Collection  of  Parallel 
Passages,  for  the  illustration  of  the  New  Testament,  printed  in 
words  at  length,  the  whole  so  arranged  as  to  illustrate  and  con- 
firm the  different  clauses  of  each  verse  ;  together  with  the  text 
at  large,  in  Greek  and  English,  the  various  readings  and  the 
chronology.     London,  1825.     3  vols.  8vo.  * 

There  are  copies  of  this  work  in  royal  8vo.  Its  design  is  lo  ex- 
pound Scripture  by  Scripture :  with  this  view  the  different  verses 
of  the  New  Testament  are  neatly  printed  by  themselves,  in  Greek 
and  English  ;  and  below  them  is  placed  (in  words  at  length)  a  new 
selection  of  parallel  references,  which  is  evidently  the  result  of 
great  labour  and  research,  and  is  calculated  to  save  much  time  and 
trouble  to  biblical  students.  The  typographical  execution  is  very 
neat. 

5.  The  Collateral  Bible;  or,  a  Key  to  the  Holy  Scriptures; 
in  which  the  corresponding  texts  are  brought  together  in  one 
view,  and  arranged  in  a  familiar  and  easy  manner.  By  William 
M'Corklf.,  assisted  by  the  Rev.  Ezra  8tvles  Ei.r,  D.D.  and  the 
Rev.  Gregory  BfnKLL,  A.M.  Philadelphia,  1826-1828.  3  vols. 
4to.     [Containing  the  Old  Testament.] 

In  this  work  the  best  marginal  references  are  printed  at  large 
and  in  connection  with  every  passage ;  by  which  means  every  pa- 
rallel or  related  phrase  in  the  sacred  volume  is  brought  at  once 
under  the  eye,  so  as  to  present  the  whole  scope  and  subject  of 
every  text  at  a  single  view.  On  sfime  passages  the  references  are 
extremely  copious.  This  work,  which  in  England  is  extremely 
rare  and 'dear,  is  very  neatly  printed  :  and  some  useful  Tables  are 
prefixed  to  the  first  volume. 

6.  A  new  Self-Interpreting  Testament,  containing  many  thou- 
sands of  Various  Readings  and  Parallel  Passages,  collected  from 
the  most  approved  Translators  and  Biblical  Critics,  including  ail 
those  of  tlic  authorized  Version  ;  and  set  under  the  Text  in 
words  at  length.  With  Introductory  Arguments,  concerning  the 
Origin,  Occasion,  and  Character  of  each  Book;  a  Reconcilia- 
tion of  seeming  Contradictions;  and  the  Meaning  and  Pronun- 
ciation of  Scripture  Proper  Names.  By  the  Rev.  John  Platts. 
London,  1827,  royal  4to. ;  also  in  4  vols.  8vo. 

Tho  plan  of  this  work  differs  from  that  adopted  in  "  Scientia 
Biblicn."  In  the  first  place,  the  (Jreck  text  is  omitted  ;  and  the 
pamllel  pnssnpcs  here  given  ni  leiifjth  are  much  Ies8  numerous. 
The  conifiilcr  professes  lo  have  proceeded  on  a  principle  of'  silec- 
lion,  and  to  have?  inserted  npposiic  texts,  while  ho  bus  rejecied  all 
such  as  were  not  really  panillul.  Little  that  is  new  is  confessedly 
to  be  found  in  this  publication,  in  preparing  wliirh  iho  editor  ho- 
nourably acknowledges  his  obligiiliniis  to  ibe  previous  hihoiirs  of 
Mr.  Fox  (No.  3.  in  this  page),  and  of  Mr.  Cruiiwell,  in  his  o<lition 
of  the  Bible  with  Bishop  Wilson's  Notes,  and  the  VHrinus  re:ider- 
ings  of  preceding  tmnsliitnrn.  The  iiiiriMluctions  to  each  book  are 
necessarily  bri<  f  Several  genealogical  tables  are  nrefixod,  and 
the  work  termiiiatrs  with  a  reconcilintiim  of  ihirlycignt  seemingly 
discrcpuni  passages  of  the  New  Testament,  tog<tlicr  with  variom 


Sect.  VI.  §  3.] 


ANGLO-ROMISH  VERSIONS  OF  THE  BIBLE. 


41 


miscellaneous  observations  for  understanding  it :  a  collection  of 
the  principal  prophecies  of  the  Old  Testament  relating  le  the  Mes- 
siah and  his  Kingdom  ;  the  meaning  and  pronunciation  of  the  New 
Testament  Proper  Names  ,•  a  Table  of  Scripture  Weights,  Mea- 
sures, and  Time;  and  an  Index  to  tlie  New  Testament  Ilisiory, 
which  is  copied  from  that  usually  annexed  to  the  quarto  editions  of 
our  authorized  V'ersion. 

7.  A  Scriptural  Commentary  on  the  Book  of  Genesis  and  the 
Gospel  according  to  St.  Matthew,  comprising  the  Sacred  Text 
of  these  Books,  with  the  most  copious  Marginal  References 
annexed  to  each  clause  of  each  verse,  in  the  wonls  of  Scripture. 
By  the  Rev.  Charles  Lambert  Cogulan,  D.D.  London,  1832. 
2  vols.  8vo. 

8.  The  Epistle  of  Paul  the  Apostle  to  the  Ephesians :  With 
Parallel  Texts  printed  at  length.  By  the  Rev.  H.  A.  Simcoe. 
London,  183.3,  foolscap  4to. 

These  very  copious  parallel  texts  are  selected  from  the  labours 
of  the  Rev.  Thomas  Scott,  from  Mr.  Piatt's  Self-interpreting  New 
Testament,  from  Mr.  Cruttwell's  Concordoiice  of  Parallels,  from  the 
parallel  references  given  in  the  English  Version  of  the  Polyglott 
Bible,  published  by  Mr.  Bagster  in  1816,  and  from  other  sources. 

^Jitglo-Rotnish  Versions  of  the  Bible. 

1.  The  Holie  Bible  faithfvlly  translated  into  English  ovt  of  the 
Avthentical  Latin.  Diligently  conferred  with  the  Hebrew, 
Grecke,  and  other  Editions  in  diuers  languages.  With  Argv- 
ments  of  the  Bookes,  and  Chapters:  Annotations:  Tables:  and 
other  helpes  for  better  vnderstanding  of  the  text:  for  discouerie 
of  corruptions  in  some  late  translations :  and  for  clearing  Contro- 
versies in  Religion.  By  the  English  College  of  Doway.  Printed 
at  Doway  by  Lavrence  Kellam.     1609-10.   2  vols.  4to. 

2.  The  New  Testament  of  lesvs  Christ,  translated  faithfvlly 
into  English  out  of  the  authentical  Latin,  according  to  the  best 
corrected  copies  of  the  same,  diligently  conferred  with  the  Greeke, 
and  other  editions  in  diuers  languages :  Vvith  Argvments  of 
oookcs  and  chapters.  Annotations,  and  other  necessaric  helpes, 
for  the  better  vnderstanding  of  the  text,  and  specially  for  the  dis- 
couerie of  the  Corrvptions  of  diuers  late  translations,  and  for 
cicering  the  Controversies  in  religion,  of  these  dales :  In  the 
English  College  of  Rhemes.  Printed  at  Rhemes  by  lohn  Fogny. 
1582,  4to. 

These  are  the  first  editions  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament:  they 
are  not  often  to  be  met  with.  Fine  copies  of  them  are  in  the  Li- 
brary of  the  British  Museum. 

In  the  year  1582,  the  Romanists,  finding  it  impossible  to  with- 
hold the  Scriptures  any  longer  from  the  common  people,  printed  an 
English  New  Testament  at  Rheims:  it  was  translated,  not  from  the 
original  Greek,  but  from  the  Latin  Vulgate.  The  Old  Testament 
was  translated  from  the  Vulgate  at  Douay  (whence  it  is  called  the 
Douay  Bible),  in  two  volumes  4to.,  the  first  of  which  appeared  in 
1609,  and  the  second  in  1610.  Annotations  are  subjoined,  which 
are  ascribed  to  one  Thomas  Worthington:  the  translators  were 
William  (afterwards  Cardinal)  Allen,  Gregory  Martin,  and  Richard 
Bristow.  This  translation,  with  the  Rhemish  version  of  the  New 
Testament  above  noticed,  ibrms  the  English  Bible,  which  alone  is 
used  by  the  Romanists  of  this  country.  The  translators  retained 
th%  words  aztjmes,  tunike,  holocaust,  pasche,  and  a  multitude  of  other 
Greek  words  untranslated,  under  the  pretext  of  wrmting  proper  and 
adequate  English  terms  by  which  to  render  them;  and  thus  con- 
trived to  render  it  unintelligible  to  common  readers.  Hence  the 
historian  Fuller  took  occasion  to  remark  that  it  was  "a  translation 
which  needed  to  be  translated;"  and  that  its  editors  "by  all  means 
laboured  to  suppress  the  light  of  truth,  under  one  pretence  or  other." 
Our  learned  countryman,  Thomas  Cartwright,  was  solicited  by 
Sir  Francis  Walsingham  to  refute  this  translation:  but,  after  he  had 
made  considerable  progress  in  the  work,  he  was  prohibited  from 
proceeding  further  by  Archbishop  Whifgift;  who,  judging  it  im- 
proper that  the  defence  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Church  of  England 
should  be  committed  to  a  puritan,  appointed  Dr.  William  Fulke  in 
his  place.  By  him  the  divines  of  Rheims  were  refuted  with  great 
spirit  and  ability.  Fiilke's  work  appeared  in  1617;  and  in  the  fol- 
lowing year,  Cartwright's  confutation  was  published  under  the 
auspices  of  Archbishop  Abbot;  both  of  them  were  accompanied 
with  the  Rhemish  translation  of  the  New  Testament;  the  titles  of 
Iheir  publications  are  subjoined. 

(1.)  The  Text  of  the  New  Testament  of  Jesus  Christ,  translated 
out  of  the  vulgar  Latine,  by  the  Papists  of  the  traiterous  semi- 
nary at  Rheims,  with  arguments  of  Bookes,  Chapters,  and  An- 
noialiuns,  pretending  to  discover  the  corruptions  of  divers 
translations,  and  to  clear  the  controuersieis  of  these  dayes.  With 
the  authorized  English  Version,  and  a  confutjition  of  all  such 
arguments,  glosses,  and  annotations,  as  contain  manifest  impiety 
or  heresy,  treason  and  slander,  against  the  Catholic  Church  of 
God,  and  the  true  teachers  thereof,  or  the  translations  used  in 
the  Church  of  England.  By  W.  Fulke,  D.D.  London,  1617; 
1633,  folio. 

This  elaborate  work  first  appeared  in  1586,  and  was  again  re- 
printed in  ICOl.    That  late  elegant  scholar  and  pious  divine,  the 


Rev.  James  Hervey  (though  sometimes  rather  too  candid  and  in- 
discriminate in  his  public  recommendations  of  books),  passed  the 
following  very  just  encomium  on  Dr.  Fulke 's  noble  performance : — 
He  styles  it  "a  valuable  piece  of  ancient  controversy  and  criticism, 
full  of  sound  divinity,  weighty  arguments,  and  important  observa- 
tions;" adding, — "would  the  young  student  be  taught  to  discover 
the  very  sinews  of  popery,  and  be  enabled  to  give  an  effectual 
blow  to  that  complication  of  errors,  I  scarce  know  a  treatise  better 
calculated  for  the  purpose."  ' 

(2.)  A  Confutation  of  the  Rhemists'  Translation,  Glosses,  and 
Annotations  of  the  New  Testament.  By  Thomas  Cartwright 
London,  1618,  folio. 

In  1749,  a  new  edition  of  the  Anglo-Romish  Bible,  with  some 
alterations  in  the  text,  and  many  in  the  notes,  was  published  from 
the  copy  of  Dr.  Chaloner,  titular  bishop  of  Debra,  and  one  of  the 
vicars  apostolic  of  the  Romish  Church  in  England.  Various  other 
editions  have  been  printed  at  different  times  and  in  different  sizes. 

3.  The  Holy  Bible,  translated  from  tlie  Latin  Vulgat:  dili- 
gently compared  with  the  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  other  Editions  in 
divers  languages;  the  Old  Testament,  first  published  by  the 
English  College  at  Doway,  a.d.  1609;  and  the  New  Testc- 
ment,  first  published  by  the  English  College  at  Rhemes,  a.  v. 
1582.  With  Annotations,  and  an  Historical  and  Chronological 
Index.  Revised  and  corrected  according  to  the  Clementin  Edi- 
tion of  the  Scriptures,  and  approved  of  by  the  most  reverend  Doc- 
tor Trot,  R.CJl.D.    Dublin,  1816,  4to. 

This  edition  of  the  Anglo-Romish  Bible  was  commenced  by  a 
Romish  bookseller  at  Cork,  and  circulated  in  numbers,  imder  the 
authority  of  Dr.  Troy,  the  Romish  archbishop  in  Dublin,  who  de- 
puted one  of  his  clergy  (the  Rev.  P.  A.  Walsh,  of  Denmark-street, 
Ciiapel)  to  revise,  correct,  and  approve  the  said  Bible  for  publica- 
tion. On  the  publisher's  bankruptcy,  his  assignee  (a  Protestant 
bookseller)  purchased  the  unfinished  part,  and  resolved  to  perfect 
the  work  in  order  to  cover  his  own  losses.  lie  affixed  to  the  title 
the  name  of  a  Romish  bookseller  in  Dublin,  who  agreed  to  publisii 
the  work,  on  condition,  that  the  same  Romish  clergyman  continued 
to  correct  the  unfinished  part.  In  the  mean  time,  copies  of  the 
New  Testament  found  their  way  into  England;  where  the  mur- 
derous and  implacable  spirit  of  some  of  its  notes,  and  also  the  cha- 
racters of  cardinal  Allen  and  other  traitors  to  their  country,  who 
were  concerned  in  the  original  publication  of  the  text  and  notes 
of  the  Rhoimish  Testament,  were  briefly  but  severely  exposed  in 
the  British  Critic  for  September,  1817  (pp.  297 — 308.);  and  much 
more  fully  in  the  Courier  London  Newspaper  of  Oct.  11,  and  23, 
1817.  The  reader  will  find  a  detailed  account  of  this  edition  of  the 
Anglo-Romish  Bible,  and  of  the  subsequent  unsatisfiictory  dis- 
claimer of  the  notes  by  Dr.  Troy  on  the  New  Testament,  in  the 
Rev.  Dr.  Kenney's  "Enquiry  concerning  .some  of  the  Doctrines 
maintained  by  the  Church  oi  Rome"  (Loiidon,  1818),  pp  65 — 118., 
from  which  the  above  particulars  are  abridged. 

4.  The  Holy  Bible,  translated  from  the  Latin  Vulgate,  dili- 
gently compared  with  the  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  other  editions,  in 
divers  languages :  the  Old  Testament,  first  published  at  Doway, 
A.  n.  1609;  and  the  New  Testament,  first  published  by  the 
English  College  at  Rheims,  a.  n.  1582.  With  Annotations, 
References,  and  an  Historical  and  Chronological  Index.  The 
whole  revised  and  diligently  compared  with  the  Latin  Vulgate. 
Dublin  and  London,  1825,  8vo. 

This  is  the  latest  and  most  easily  accessible  edition  of  the  Anglo- 
Romish  version  of  the  Bible.  It  has  been  altered  for  the  better,  ami 
made  cotformahle  to  our  Protestant  authorized  version,  in  several 
instances,  which  had  been  stigmatized  by  Romanists  as  heretical! 
(See  Mr.  Hamilton's  Observations  on  the  present  State  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  English  Bible,  pp.  19 — 21.)  It  is  worthy  of  observation, 
that  the  translators  of  the  Rheimish  Testament  have  taken  various 
liberties  with  the  Sacred  Text,  which  would  have  been  denounced 
as  heretical  depravations,  if  they  had  been  committed  by  Protest- 
ants, who,  however,  shudder  at  mutilating  and  perverting  the  word 
of  God.  As  the  liberties  here  referred  to  are  equally  taken  with 
the  New  Testament,  printed  in  1825,  under  the  sanction  of  the 
Romish  archbishop  in  Dublin,  Dr.  Murray,  it  may  be  satisliictory  to 
the  reader  to  have  a  few  of  them  put  upon  record. 

(1.)   Wards  not  extant  in   the  original  Greek,  but  foisted  into 

THE  TEXT  1\  THE  A.NGLO-RoMISH  VeRSIO.V. 

In  2  Pet.  i.  10.  we  have  "  by  good  works"  inserted. — "  Where- 
fore, brethren,  labour  more  that  by  good  works  you  may  make  sure 
your  calling  and  election." 

Those  words,  which  were  necessarily  supplied  from  the  idiom 
of  the  language,  they  have  not  put  into  Italics  (as  our  venerable 
translators  have  done),  but  into  the  same  character  with  the  text 
itself,  without  any  mark  or  note  whatever;  as  "  their"'  in  Matt.  iv. 
20.,  "  are"  in  Matt.  v.  3,  4,  5.  <Sic.,  "  garments"  in  Matt.  xi.  8. 

(2.)  Words  OMITTED  i.\  THE  Anglo-Romisii  Versio.n,  wJiich  are 
found  in  the  original  Greek  Text. 

In  Matt.  ii.  18.  the  words  "  and  weeping,"  are  omitted  after  "  la- 
mentation." So  in  Matt,  jtxvi.  59.,  "and  elders"  are  omitted  after 
"  chief  priests." 

In  Acts  ii.  47.  the  words  "  lo  the  church"  are  omitted.    The  sen 
fence  runs  thus:  "And  the  Lord  added  daily  to  the  church  the 
saved,"  or,  those  who  were  saved.    In  the  Anglo-Romish  Version 


42 


MODERN  VERSIONS  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


[Paht  I.  Chap.  I. 


we  read,  '■  and  the  Lord  increased  daily  together  euc-h  as  should 
be  saved." 

In  Rom.  xi.  6.  a  whole  sentence  is  omitted,  ibrming  the  latter 
part  of  the  verse:  "And  if  by  grace,  it  is  not  now  by  works;  otlior- 
wjse  grace  is  no  more  grace.  But  if  of  works,  then  i»  it  no  more 
grace-  otherwise  work  is  no  more  vnirk."  This  last  sentence  is 
altogether  omitted!  On  the  subject  of  these  unhnllowed  additions 
to  and  subtractions  from  the  divinely  in-^pircd  wonl  of  God,  the 
reader  is  referred  to  Deul.  xii.  32.  and  Rev.  xxii.  it*,  19.' 

5.  The  New  Testament  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus 
Christ,  newly  translated  out  of  the  Latin  Vulgate,  and  with  the 
original  Greek,  and  divers  Translations  in  vulgar  Languages, 
diligently  compared  and  revised.  Together  with  Annotations 
upon  the  most  reniarkabio  passages  in  the  Gospel.s,  and  marginal 
Notes  upon  other  didicult  tcxta  of  the  same,  and  upon  the  rest 
of  the  Books  of  the  New  Testament,  for  tlie  better  understanding 
of  the  Literal  Sense.  By  C.[orneUus]  N.[AnT]  C.[onsultissima;] 
F.[acultatis]  P.[arisiensis]  D.[octor.]   1718-19,  8vo. 

This  edition  has  no  place  or  printer's  name;  but  Dr.  Geddes 
says  that  it  was  printed  at  Dublin.  (Prospectus  for  a  new  transla- 
tion, p.  110.)  See  a  full  account  of  it  in  Lewis's  Hist,  of  English 
Translations,  pp.  356 — 363.  (8vo.  edition.) 

6.  The  New  Testament,  translated  from  the  Latin  Vulgate, 
with  Annotations.  By  R.  W.[etham]  D.[uacensis]  P.[rofessor.] 
1730-33,  2  vols.  8vo. 

This  edition  alco  is  without  plac6  or  printer's  name :  it  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  printed  at  Douay.  See  an  account  of  it  in 
Lewis's  History,  pp.  363 — 365. 

Welsh  Version. 
Y  BeibI  Cyssegr-Lan.     Sef  yr  hen  Destament,  a'r  Newydd. 
Imprinted  at  London  by  the  Deputies  of  Christopher  Barker, 
1588,  folio. 

From  an  epi.stle  of  Dr.  Richard  Davis,  Bishop  of  Saint  David's, 
prefixed  to  the  Welsh  New  Testament,  printed  in  15G7,  we  learn 
that  there  was  a  Britisli  or  Welsh  version  of  the  Pentateuch  extant 
about  (if  not  before)  the  year  1527,  though  the  translator's  name  is 
not  known.  Some  other  small  and  detached  pu.s.sage6  of  Scripture 
appear  also  to  have  been  translated  into  this  language  in  the  reign 
of  King  Kdward  \1.,  which  were  printed,  in  all  probability,  lor 
the  use  of  his  Liturgy.  But  it  was  not  until  the  reign  of  Elizabeth, 
that  efficient  stei>8  were  taken  to  supply  the  inliubitants  of  the 
principality  of  Wales  with  the  Holy  Scriptures  in  tiieir  vernacular 
dialect.  In  1563  an  act  of  parliament  was  passed  (5  Eliz.  c.  28.), 
enacting  that  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  together  with  the 
Book  ol  Common  Prayer,  should  be  translated  into  the  British  or 
\Vcl8h  tongue;  and  coininittiiig  tlie  direction  of  the  work  to  the 
Bishops  of  St.  Asaph,  Bangor,  Saint  David's,  Llandaff,  and  Here- 
tord.  They  were  to  view,  peruse,  and  allow  the  translation,  and 
to  tJike  care  (under  a  penally  of  Jt/'40  on  each  of  ihcni)  that  such  a 
number  should  be  printed  and  distributed  by  March  ^1,  1566,  as 
wruld  furnish  copies  to  c\cry  cathedral,  collegiate  and  pari.sh 
church,  and  chapel  of  ease,  within  their  respective  dioceses,  where 
Welsh  was  commonly  sp<jkpn.  In  1567,  was  printed  at  L<iiidon, 
the  first  translation  of  the  INew  Testament.  Tfie  translators  were 
Thomas  Iluet,  Chanter  of  ?)t.  David's,  Dr.  Richard  Davis,  Bishop 
of  Saint  David's,  and  William  Salesbury,  a  man  of  great  industry, 
learning,  and  piety.  Bui  ilierc  was  no  edition  or  version  of  the 
Old  Testament  in  the  Britisli  tongue  till  more  than  twenty  years 
after  the  publication  of  llie  New  Testament-  The  person  chieHy 
concenied  in  rendering  this  important  service  to  the  aiicieiil  Bri- 
tons, was  William  Morgan,  D.D.,  who  was  bishop  of  Llaiiduff  in 
15'J5,  from  wliifh  see  lie  was,  in  1601,  translated  to  that  of  Saiiil 
A.sajih.  Hk  first  translated  the  entire  Old  Testuineni,  together  with 
the  Apoerypha,  int<»  Welsli,  and  also  revised  and  corrected  the 
former  version  of  the  New  Testament,  Ixnh  of  which  wore  printed, 
t\\  one  volume  folio,  in  1588.  ]>uriiig  the  reign  ol'  Jiinies  I.  the 
Welsh  version  underwent  a  further  examination  and  correction 
from  Dr.  Parry,  Morgan's  succeiwjr  in  the  .see  of  Saint  .Asaph.  This 
corrected  version,  which  in  usually  ci»llod  Parry's  Bibl«»,  w  the 
b.i<<is  of  all  siibseqiirnt  editions.  It  was  printed  at  J<oiidoii  in  1G20. 
Seventy  yearn  afterwards,  aiioilier  liilio  edition  was  primed  at 
Oifi)rd,  under  the  nupertion  of  Bishop  Lloyd,  in  lO'.IO.  "The.se  folio 
impressions  were  int<ndcd  principally,  il' iiol  wholly,  liir  the  use 
of  churches;  so  that,  for  upwards  of  seventy  yeara  from  the  setile- 
ment  of  the  Reformation  by  Queen  Elizabeth,  there  was  no  provi- 
sion ma<l<^  li)r  furnishing  the  country  or  peo|i|i>  in  general  with 
copies  of  the  Scriptures.  The  honour  oi'  the  firni  supply  of  this 
kind  is  duo  to  one  or  more  citizens  of  London,  at  whose  private 
CX|>enHe  nri  o(-tavo  edition  was  printed  in  1630.  In  16>1  mid  H)78, 
two  other  octavo  editions  appeared;  the  latter  of  theso  consisted 
of  8000  copies,  to  the  puhlicntioii  of  which  the  R'-v.  'I'lioninsCJoiige, 
a  learned  nonconlbrinist  minister,*  not  only  eontrilxiicd  very  largely 
out  of  his  private  fortune,  but  procured  aiii]>lo  suljscriptiuiis  !n>m 

>  Brief  Illstory  of  the  Versions  of  the  Bible  of  the  Eiijflish  and  Roman 
Churches,  p.  IllO.  Diihhn,  1H30. 

»  The  reader  will  liml  a  pleasing  account  of  Mr.  Ooii/e's  various  liene- 
Tolent  and  ptnav  uii'lertaMni^s  m  ArrhhishoiiTlllotsnii's  tjcruion  on  liis 
duMii.    Works,  tuI.  il.  pp.  ^tO— MV.  8%-«).  LoikJoo,  IcUJ. 


numerous  opulent  ami  benevolent  individuals.  The  next  octavo 
edition  of  the  Welsh  Bible  was  published  in  1690,  under  the  pa- 
tronage of  Thomas  Lord  Wharton,  by  Mr.  David  Jones ;  who  w  as 
assisted  in  the  undertaking  by  some  ministers  and  citizens  of  Lon 
don.  This  was  the  last  edition  that  appeared  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  and  al.stj  the  most  numerous;  the  editor,  it  is  said,  having 
distributed  not  fewer  than  ten  thousand  copies.'*  During  the 
eighteenth  century,  six  editions  of  the  Welsh  Bible  were  printed' 
chiefly,  if  not  wholly,  at  the  expense  of  the  venerable  Sociktv  for 
PKOMOTiNc.  CnmsTiA.N  K.NOwi.EDUK,  viz.  in  1718,  1727, 1746, 1752, 
1769  or  1770,  and  1799.  This  last  edition  consisted  »( ten  thousand 
copies  of  the  Welsh  Bible,  Common  Prayer,  and  singing  Psalms, 
besides  two  thotnuind  extra  copies  of  the  New  Testament  Ample 
as  this  edition  was,  in  a  few  years,  copies  of  the  Scriptures  became 
e.vtremely  scarce  and  dear  in  the  Principality:  and  in  1802,  some 
pious  and  benevolent  individuals  projected  a  new  impression,  the 
circumstances  connected  with  which  ultimately  led  to  the  forma- 
tion of  the  Briti.sh  a.no  Forkign  Bible  Society.''  Their  attention 
was  immediately  directed  to  the  wants  of  the  Principality:  in 
1806,  a  large  and  very  correct  stereotype  impression  of  the  New 
Tcsiamcnt  was  issued,  which  obtained  a  rapid  sale;  and  subse- 
quent editions  have  been  printed,  particularly  a  very  neat  pocket 
edition,  executed  for  the  Society  by  his  majesty's  printers,  in  1825. 
In  1821,  the  Society  for  promoting  Christian  Knowledge  defrayed 
the  expense  of  a  large  edition,  in  crown  octavo,  of  the  Welsh  Bible, 
with  the  Liturgy  and  Psalms.  It  was  executed  at  thi;  press  of  the 
University  of  Oxford,  and  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  specimens 
of  typography  ever  printed ;  so  that  the  inhabitants  of  Wales  are 
now  abundantly  supplied  with  the  Scriptures  in  their  native  tongue. 


Irish    Version. 

The  Books  of  the  Old  Testament,  translated  into  Irish  hy  the 
care  and  diligence  of  Dr.  William  BEntLt,  late  Bi.shop  of 
Kilmore.  With  the  New  Testament,  translated  by  William 
O'Domhnuill.  [In  the  vernacular  Irish  character.]  London, 
1685-81,  4to. 

The  New  Testament  having  been  translated  into  Irish  by  Dr. 
William  Daniel,  archbishop  of  Tuam,  Dr.  Bedell  (who  was  ad- 
vanced to  the  see  of  Kilmore  and  Ardagh  in  1629)  procured  the 
Old  Testament  to  be  translated  by  a  Mr.  King  ;  who,  being  ignorant 
of  the  original  languages,  executed  it  from  the  English  \trsion. 
Bedell,  therefore,  revised  and  compared  it  with  the  Hebrew,  the 
Septuagint,  and  the  Italian  vereion  of  Diodati.  He  8up|K3ried  Mr. 
King,  during  his  undertaking,  to  the  utmost  of  his  ability;  and 
vviicn  the  translation  was  finished,  he  would  have  printed  it  in  his 
own  house,  and  at  his  own  (rhnrgo,  if  he  had  not  been  prevented  by 
the  troubles  in  Ireland.  The  translation,  however,  escaped  the 
hands  of  the  rebels,  and  was  subsequently  printed  in  1685,  at  the 
expense  of  the  Hon.  Robert  Boyle.*  What  editions  were  printed 
during  the  eighteenth  centuiy,  the  author  of  the  present  work  has 
not  been  able  to  ascertain.  The  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society 
early  exerted  itself  to  supply  the  want  of  the  Bible  in  the  Irish  lan- 
guage. In  1811,  an  edition  of  the  New  Testament  was  completed ; 
and  in  1813,  the  Bible  was  stereotyped.  A  handsome  octavo  edition 
of  the  Irish  Bible,  in  the  Irish  character,  was  printed  by  his  ma- 
jesty's printers  at  Dublin,  in  1827. 


Manks  Vernon. 
Yn  Vible  Cashcrick;  goaill  stiagh  yn  Chcnn  Chonaant,  as^j-n 
conaant  Noa  :  veih  ny  Chicd  Ghlaragliyn  ;  dy  Kiaralagh  Chyn- 
dait  ayns  Gailck  ;  ta  shen  dy  ghra,  Chengcy  ny  Mayrcy  Elian 
Vannin.  Poinlit  dy  ve  ihaiht  ayns  Kialteenyn.  Whitehaven, 
1775,  4to. 

Towards  the  close  of  his  life,  the  truly  venerable  Bishou  of  Sodor 
and  Man,  Dr.  Thomas  Wilson,  foriucj  a  plan  for  Iranslalins;  the 
New  Testament  into  the  Manks  language;  but  he  did  not  live  to 
make  a  further  progress  than  to  procure  the  four  (iosiH-ls  and  Acta 
i>f  the  Apo.--tles  to  he  iraiislaied,  and  to  print  at  his  own  expense 
the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew.  His  exemplary  sui-cessor.  Bishop  Hil- 
dcsley,  revi.sed  tlie  manuscript,  and  completed  the  version  oi'  the 
New  Testanieiil,  which,  by  the  niuniliccnt  aid  of  the  S<jciety  lor 
promoting  Christian  Knowledge,  and  of  other  hene\olent  indivi- 
duals, ho  was  enabled  to  print  between  tlie  years  1756  and  1760. 
In  17('>6,  he  was  encouraged,  by  the  indux  of  beneliiclioiw,  to 
undertake  a  Manks  Version  of  the  Old  Testament,  which  was  com- 
pleted only  two  days  before  liis  deiense,  on  tln^  30lli  November, 
1772."  In  1775,  the  mlirr  Bible  was  priiiU'd  at  the  expense  of  the 
same  venerable  society,  at  Whitehaven,  in  one  volume  (jtiarto  :  i| 
is  very  neatly  printed  in  thre<'  coliiiniiH  on  a  page. 

In  iHiy,  a  beautiful  and  accurate  oi-lovo  edition  of  Uie  Manks 
Bible  was  executed  by  his  majesty's  printers,  lor  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society. 

»  Mrwcllyn's  nistorical  Account  of  the  British  Versions  and  Editions  of 
ihf  nilil»!,  pp  1— M). 

«  iifK  (he  Ilcv.  Jolm  Owen's  History  of  tho  British  and  Foreign  Oibio 
Soci.lv.  vol.  I.  pj..  1-lZ  13S.  I.V).  'JfW  :«i. 

»  lli.>i(iapliii»  llrilaiinlcn,  ailnle  Hcdill,  vol.  ii.  p.  136  2'lrililion. 

•  fh.iliiiPrR's  DliyfrnphlrRl  Dictionary,  vol.  xvii.  pp.  410— 482.  from  Mr 
Uatlcr's  Memoirs  ofBp  lliidcsley. 


Sbct.  VI.  §  3.] 


GERMAN  VERSIONS. 


43 


Gaelic  Version. 


Leabraichean  an  T-seann  Tiomnaidh,  air  an  tarruing  o'n 
cheud  chanain  chum  Gaelic  alban  naich  ;  agus  air  an  cur  a 
mache  le  h-ugdarras  ardsheanaidli  eaglais  na  h-alba.  Duncidin 
[The  Holy  Bible  in  the  Gaelic  Language.  Edinburgh],  1826, 4to. 

The  Society  in  Scotland  for  propagating  Christian  Knowledge  has 
the  honour  of  giving  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  Highlands  the  Holy 
Scriptures  in  their  vernacular  dialect.     The  New  Testament  was 
translated  by  the  late  Rev.  James  Stuart,  minister  of  Killin,  and  print- 
ed at  iheir  expense  in  1765 :  it  bears  a  high  character  for  fidelity  and 
accuracy.    The  several  books  of  the  Old  Testament  were  trans- 
lated and  published  in  detached  portions  or  volumes,  at  different 
times,  as  the  Society's  funds  would  permit,  viz.  The  prophetical 
books,  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Smith,  in  1783,  and  the  remaining  books  by 
the  Rev.  Dr.  John  Stuart,  minister  of  Luss  (son  of  the  translator  of 
the  New  Testameni),  in  three  parts,  which  appeared  successively  in 
the  years  1783,  1787,  and  1801.     In  1796  the  first  edition  of  the 
New  Testament  being  exhausted,  the  Society  published  another, 
consisting  of  twenty  l/ioumnd  copies.    And  as  some  of  the  first  print- 
ed volumes  of  the  Old  Testaipent  w^ere  so  much  reduced  in  num- 
ber, in  1802,  as  to  be  insufficient  to  supply  the  urgent  demands  of 
the  Highlands  in  general,  and  of  the  Society's  own  schools  in  par- 
ticular, a  new  edition  of  twenty  thousand  copies  was  printed. 
Three  parts  out  of  four,  into  which  this  portion  of  the  Bible  had 
been  divided,  were  rendered  from  the  Hebrew  with  great  simplici- 
ty, and  with  as  literal  an  adherence  to  the  original  text  as  the  idiom 
of  the  respective  languages  would  admit.  As  the  style  of  the  fourth 
part  (containing  the  prophetical  books)  had  receded  from  this  sim- 
plicity, it  was  revised  and  corrected  with  the  utmost  care.      From 
this  corrected  text  (a  copy  of  which  was  furnished  by  the  Society 
in  Scotland  as  soon  as  it  was  finished),  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society  executed  their  stereotype  editions  in  1807,  which  (as  the 
Scottish  Society  was  unable  to  supply  the  urgent  and  very  numerous 
demands  for  the  sacred  writings)  were  purchased  at  reduced  prices 
by  the  poor  Highlanders,  with  the  liveliest  expressions  of  grati- 
tude.'     In  1816,  this  Gaelic  version  of  the  Bible  received  the  ap- 
probation of  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Church  of  Scotland.  The 
quarto  edit'ion,  printed  at  Edinburgh,  may  be  considered  as  the 
standard  edition  of  the  Gaelic  Bible :   it  was  revised  by  a  com- 
mittee of  clergymen  well  skilled  in  the  Gaelic  language,  who  were 
ap|x)inted  by  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  to 
superintend  the  work.    This  edition,  with  a  revised  Gaelic  Metri- 
cal Version  of  the  Psalms  and  Paraphrases  on  certain  portions  of 
Scripture  subjoined  to  it,  was  completed  in  the  year  1826.      It  was 
then  submitted  to  the  General  Assembly  of  the  Church  of  Scot- 
land, who  were  pleased  to  approve  of  it,  and  to  authorize  its  exclu- 
sive use  in  the  churches  and  chapels  within  their  bounds  in  which 
public  worship  is  conducted  in  the  Gaelic  language.' 

[ii.]  Vehsioxs  IX  TiiE  Languages  spoken  ok  the  Conti- 
NEST  OF  Europe. 

1.  German  Versions. 
Luther's  Version, 
And  the  Versions  derived  from  it. 
As  Germany  has  the  honour  of  being  the  country  where  the  art 
of  printing  was  first  discovered,  so  it  was  distinguished  in  the  an- 
nals of  sacred  literature,  by  being  the  first  in  which  the  Holy 
Scriptures  were  issued  from  the  press  in  the  vernacular  language 
of  its  inhabitants.  So  early,  indeed,  as  the  year  1466,  a  German 
translation  from  the  Latin  Vulgate  was  printed,  the  author  of  which 
is  unknovvn.2  Scarcely,  however,  had  the  Reformation  commenced, 
when  Luther  meditated  a  new  version  of  the  Scriptures  for  the 
general  use  of  his  countrymen.  His  first  publication  comprised  the 
seven  penitential  Psalms,  from  the  Latin  of  John  Reuchlin.  These 
appeared  in  1517 ;  and  were  followed  by  the  New  Testament,  in 
1522;  by  the  Pentateuch,  in  1523  ;  by  the  book  of  Joshua,  and  the 
remaining  historical  books,  in  1524 ;  in  which  year  also  appeared 
the  books  of  Job,  Psalms,  Proverbs,  Ecclesiastcs,  and  the  Song  of 
Songs.  In  152(5,  were  published  the  prophecies  of  Jonah  and 
Habakkuk  ;  in  1528,  those  of  Zachariah  and  Isaiah  ;  in  1529,  the 
apocryph.al  book  of  Wisdom  ;  in  1530,  the  book  of  Daniel,  together 
with  the  remaining  apocryphal  books  ;  in  1531,  the  entire  book  of 
Psalms  ;  and  1531  and  1532,  the  rest  of  the  prophetical  books.  All 
these  portions  of  Luther's  translations  are  of  extreme  rarity  :  in  the 
revision  of  it  he  received  very  important  assistance  from  the  learn- 
ed and  candid  Philip  Melancthon,  who  also  corresponded  with 
eminent  men  on  various  topics  of  biblical  criticism,  in  order  to 
render  the  translation  as  correct  as  possible.  Further  to  ensure  its 
accuracy,  a  select  party  of  learned  men  assembled  daily  with  Lu- 
ther at  Wittemberg,  to  revise  every  sentence  which  he  had  made 
directly  from  the  Hebrew  and  Greek.  Melancthon  collated  the 
Greek  original,  Cruciger  the  Chaldee,  and  other  professors  the  Rab- 
binical writings.  Justus  Jonas,  John  Bugenhagen,  and  Matthew 
Aurogallus,  also  contributed  their  aid.      The  whole  Bible  thus  re- 

«  Address  of  the  Society  in  Scotland  for  propagating  Christian  Knowledge, 
1803  Owcn'sHistory  of  the  Bible  Society,  vol.  i.  pp.  205,  20(i.  ,314—3 16.  In 
ISCO,  a  Gaelic  translation  of  the  Book  of  Conitnon  Prayer  was  conipletcd 
and  printed  at  the  expense  of  the  London  Society  for  promoting  Christian 
Knowledge. 

»  A  copy  of  this  very  rare  work  is  in  the  splendid  collection  of  Earl  Spen- 
cer. See  a  description  of  it  in  Mr.  Ulbdin's  Bibliotheca  Spenceriana,  vol.i. 
pp.  42-47. 

Vol.  IL  3  X 


vised  was  first  published  in  1530,  and  again  in  1534, 1541,  and  1545.'" 
Luther  made  his  version  directly  from  the  original  Hebrew  and 
Greek,  and  not  one  of  his  numerous  enemies  ever  durst  charge  him 
with  ignorance  of  those  languages.  His  translation  is  represented 
as  being  uncommonly  clear  and  accurate,  and  its  style  in  a  high 
degree  pure  and  elegant.  Having  originally  been  published  in  de- 
tached portions,  as  these  were  gradually  and  successively  circu- 
lated among  the  people,  Luther's  version  produced  sudden  and  al- 
most incredible  effects,  a/;d  contributed,  more  than  any  other  cause, 
to  extirpate  the  erroneous  principles  and  superstitious  practices  of 
the  church  of  Rome  from  the  minds  of  a  prodigious  number  of 
persons.4  Since  that  time  it  has  been  printed  times  without  num- 
ber ;  and  as  the  reformation  spread,  it  served  as  the  basis  of  several 
other  translations,  viz. 

(1.)  The  Lower  Saxon  Translation  was  printed  at  Lubeck,  in 
1533-4.  Its  authors  are  not  known.'  This  version  was  undertaken 
at  the  suggestion  of  Luther  himself,  and  under  the  direction  of  John 
Bugenhagen  (or  Bugenhagius),  who  wrote  a  preface,  and  supplied 
short  notes,  and  also  arguments  to  the  different  books. 

(2.)  The  Pomeranian  Version  was  printed  in  1588,  in  quarto,  by 
the  command  of  Bogislaus  XIII.  duke  of  Pomcrania;  it  was  made 
from  the  Wirtemberg  edition  of  Luther's  Bible,  printed  in  1545. 

(3.)  The  Danish  Version  was  undertaken  by  command  of  Chris- 
tian III.,  king  of  Denmark,  and  at  the  suggestion  of  Bugenhagen : 
it  was  printed  at  Copenhagen  in  1550,  and  is  of  ej^eme  rarity. 
Previously  to  the  publication  of  this  vereion,  the  New  Testament^ 
had  been  translated  from  the  Vulgate,  as  well  as  the  Psalms,  and 
the  five  books  of  Moses.  The  Danish  version  was  subsequently 
revised  and  corrected  in  the  reigns  of  Frederic  II.  and  Christian 
IV.  kings  of  Denmark ;  the  revision,  made  by  command  of  the  last- 
mentioned  monarch,  is,  we  believe,  the  standard  of  the  succeeding 
editions  of  the  Danish  Scriptures,  which,  however,  are  said  to  vary 
considerably  from  Luther's  German  version. — In  1823,  the  Gospel 
of  Matthew  was  printed  at  Copenhagen,  in  the  dialect  of  the  Danish 
language  spoken  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  Faroe  Islands :  the  Danish 
and  Faroese  texts  are  printed  in  parallel  columns. 

(4.)  The  Icelandic  Translation  of  the  entire  Bible  was  printed  at 
Holum,  in  Iceland,  in  1584,  under  the  patronage  of  Frederic  II. 
The  New  Testament  had  been  translated  by  Oddur  Gottshalkson 
(whose  father  filled  the  episcopal  see  of  Holum),  and  printed  in 
Denmark,  in  1539,  at  the  expense  of  Christian  III.  This  was  fol- 
lowed by  an  Icelandic  version  of  the  Epistles  and  Gospels  for  all 
the  Sundays  in  the  year,  published  in  1562,  by  Olaf  Hialteson,  the 
first  Lutheran  bishop  of  Holum;  which  may  be  considered  as  a 
second  edition  of  certain  portions  of  Oddur's  New  Testament,  the 
compiler  having  availed  himself  chiefly  of  that  version,  in  writing 
out  the  lessons  of  which  the  work  consists.  In  1580,  the  Proverbs 
of  Solomon  were  translated  by  Gissur  Eincerson,  the  first  Lutheran 
bishop  of  Skalholt,  who  also  translated  the.  book  of  Sirach,  printed 
in  the  same  year  at  Holum.  At  length,  in  1584,  as  above  noticed, 
the  whole  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  was  printed  in  Ice- 
landic,  through  the  unremitting  zeal  and  pious  liberality  of  Gud- 
brand  Thorlakson,  bishop  of  JHolum,  who  not  only  contributed 
largely  to  the  undertaking  himself,  but  also  obtained  a  munificent 
donation  from  Frederic  II.,  with  authority  to  raise  a  rix-dollar  in 
aid  of  the  work  from  every  church  in  Iceland.  It  is  not  known 
what  share  this  eminent  prelate  had  in  the  translation,  which  is 
considered  as  the  production  of  different  hands.  Gottshalkson's 
version  of  the  New  Testament,  as  well  as  some  parts  of  the  Old 
Testament,  was  adopted,  after  having  been  revised  by  Gudbrand. 
This  edition  has  always  been  very  highly  esteemed,  on  account 
of  the  purity  of  its  diction;  and,  even  at  this  day,  it  is  preferred 
before  more  modern  translations.  A  second  edition  of  the  Icelandic 
Bible  appeared  at  Holum  in  1644,  under  the  editorial  care  of  Thor 
lak  Skuleson,  bishop  of  that  see;  by  whom  it  was  carefully  revised 
and  corrected.  This  is  the  standard  text  from  which  the. two  most 
recent  impressions  of  the  Icelandic  Version  have  been  printed.'' 

»  For  further  particulars  relative  to  Luther's  German  Version  of  the  Scrip, 
tares,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  life  of  PhilipMelancthon,  by  Francis  Cox, 
M.A.,  pp.  206—213.  (2d  edit.),  and  also  to  Dr.  Townley's  Illustrations  of  Bib- 
lical Literature,  vol.  ii.  pp.  271—300.  Of  the  editions  of  Luther's  versions 
"above  noticed,  the  venerable  Reformer  bestowed  the  greatest  care  in  re- 
vising and  correcting  that  of  1541.  It  was  beautifully  printed  in  two  folio 
volumes,  and  ornamented  with  wood-cute.  A  Unique  Copy  of  this  edition, 
which  had  been  Luther's  oirn  copy,  and  constantl^'  used  by  hiui  until  his 
decease,  was  in  the  possession  of  the  late  Mi-.  Edwards  (formerly  an  eminent 
bookseller),  of  Manor  House,  near  Harrow-on-the-Hill.  On  the  sale  of  his 
choice  library  by  auction,  in  1813,  these  precious  volumes  were  j)urchased 
by  Geo.  Ilibbert,  Esq.  for  the  sum  of  89/.  5s.  Gd.  (See  a  description  of  them 
copied  from  the  sale  catalogue  (No.  812.)  in  Mr.  Dibdin's  Bibliographical  De- 
cameron, vol.  iii.  pp.  123, 124.,  or  in  the  Gentleman's  Magazine,  vol.  Ixajcv. 
part  i.  p.  254.)  At  the  sale  of  Mr.  Hibbert's  library,  in  182(),  this  copy  of 
Luther's  Bible  was  purchased  for  the  British  Museum,  for  the  sum  of  255/. 
Fac-similes  of  the  handwritings  of  the  venerable  reformers,  Luther,  Bugen- 
hagen, Melancthon,  and  Major  (into  whose  possession  this  copy  succes- 
sively passed),  are  given  in  the  sale  catalogue  of  Mr.  Hibbert's  library,  p.  481. 

*  Mosheim's  Ecclesiastical  History,  vol.  iv.  p.  60. 

*  Another  Lower  Saxon  Version  from  the  Vulgate  was  printed  at  Lubeck    ' 
in  1494,  in  two  folio  volumes.     The  reader  will  fiiid  a  bibliographical  notice 
of  it  in  the  Bibliotheca  Spenceriana,  vol.  i.  pp.  55—58. 

6  An  interesting  account  of  this  version  is  given  by  Dr.  Henderson  in  his 
"Dissertation  on  Hans  Mikkelsen's  (or  the  first  Danish)  translation  of  the 
New  Testament,"  Copenliagen,  1813,  4to. 

■"  The  above  particulars  are  abridged  from  the  Rev.  Dr.  Henderson's 
"Historical  View  of  the  Translation  and  different  Editions  of  the  Icelandic 
Scriptures,"  in  the  second  volume  (pp.  249—306.)  of  his  very  interesting 
.Journal  of  a  Residence  in  Iceland,  during  the  years  1814  and  1815.  Svo. 
Edinburgh,  1818. 


44 


MODERN  VERSIONS  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


[Part  I.  Chip.  I 


(5.)  Tlie  Swedish  Version  was  made  from  the  first  edition  of 
Luther's  German  Translation;  it  was  begun  by  Laurence  Anilroas, 
end  finished  by  Laurence  Petri,  and  was  printed  at  Upsal,  in  154L 
by  ihe  command  of  Guslavns  I.,  king  of  Sweden. 

(G.)  The  Dutch  Translation  appeared  in  1560,  and  after  being 
repeatedly  printed,  was  superseded  by  a  new  Protestant  transla- 
tion, of  which  an  account  is  given  in  page  45.    infra. 

<1 — 10.)  The  Finnish  \'er!<ion  was  jirinted  at  Stockholm  in  1642,' 
and  again  in  16J2;2  the  Lrllish  (or  Livonian)  was  made  by  Ernest 
Gluck,  dean  of  the  Lutheran  church  in  Livonia,  who  completed  it 
between  the  vears  1680  and  1688:  the  entire  Bible  was  printed  at 
Riga,  in  1689",-3  the  Sornhic  or  Wendish  (a  dialect  spoken  in  Upper 
Lusatiai,  at  Bautzen  (Budissff).  in  1728,  and  apain  in  1742;  and  the 
Lithuanian,  at  Koni^slterg  (Kcgiomonti),  in  1735. 

Valuable  as  Luther's  German  translation  of  the  Scriptures  con- 
fes.«edly  is,  it  was  severely  attacked,  on  its  publication,  by  the 
enemie's  of  the  Reformation,  whose  productions  are  enumerated  by 
VValchius.-*  Luther's  translation,  reformed  by  the  Zuinglians  and 
Calvinists,  was  printed,  in  various  editions,  at  Neustadt,  between 
the  years  1679  and  1095;  at  Ilerb<irn  in  1695,  1C98,  1701-5-8,  and 
21;  at  Hciddberg  in  1617  and  1618,  and  many  times  since;  at 
Caesel  in  1602;  and  at  Basle  in  1651,  1659,  and  in  the  last  century 
very  frequently. 

Between  the  years  1525  and  1529,  Leo  Jiida  published  at  Zurich 
a  German-siriss  translation  of  the  Scriptures.  As  far  as  he  could, 
he  availed  himself  of  such  part.s  of  Luther's  version  as  were  then 
printed.  In  1667,  a  new  and  revised  edition  of  Leo  Juda's  trans- 
lation was  published  at  Zurich:  the  alterations  and  corrections  in 
it  are  so  numerous,  that  it  is  considered  as  a  new  translation,  and 
is  commonly  called  the  New  Zurich  Bible,  in  order  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  Old  Zurich  vei-sion  of  Loo  Juda.  "  It  was  undertaken 
by  Hottingcr,  Miiller,  Zeiler,  HofTineister,  and  others,  and  con- 
ducted with  great  care  and  precision.  As  their  plan  scerns  to  have 
had  some  resemblance  lo  tliat  pursued  by  our  own  admirable 
translators,  and  may,  perlia|>s,  have  been  copied  from  it,  this  ver- 
sion is  more  particularly  deserving  of  notice.  When  these  learned 
men  met  together,  Hottingcr  and  Miiller  had  each  of  them  the 
Hebrew  text  put  into  their  hands:  Zeiler  had  the  Old  Zurich  ver- 
sion; WiLxser  took  the  Italian  of  Giovanni  Diodati  and  Parens' 
edition  of  Luther's  Bible;  Ilortincister  had  the  Septuagint  and  the 
Junio-Tremellian  version  before  him,  and  Freitz  the  Belgian  Bible. 
When  any  diflercnce  arose,  the  p<jint  was  argued  by  them  all ; 
each  was  called  U|)on  to  give  iiis  opinion  of  the  translation  wliich 
was  in  his  hands:  and  that  reading  was  ailopted,  which,  after  ma- 
ture consideration,  seemetl  most  agreeable  to  the  Hebrew."* 

As  tlie  Zurich  edition  differs  very  materially  from  that  of  Luther, 
John  Pisfator  undertook  another,  from  the  Latin  version  of  Junius 
and  Tremellius,  which  he  has  followed  very  closely.  It  appeared 
in  detached  jiortions  between  the  years  1602  and  1604,  and  was 
repeatedly  printed  during  the  seventeenth  century.  Piscator's 
version,  having  become  very  scarce,  has  lately  been  revised  by  the 
Biblical  and  Divinity  Profes.sors,  and  three  pastors  of  the  Helvetic 
church,  who  have  corrected  its  orlhograpliy,  and  such  words  as 
have  become  ol>solete,  previously  to  an  edition  of  8000  copies  of 
the  entire  Bil)le,  and  4000  copies  of  the  New  Testament,  which 
has  been  executed  by  the  Berne  Bible  Socictv,  aided  by  a  pecuni- 
ary grant  from  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  of  London. 

Besides  the  preceding  German  versions  made  by  Protestants, 
there  are  also  translations  made  i)y  Romish  divines:  some  of  them 
appeared  almost  as  early  as  that  of  Luther,  to  which,  however, 
they  are  greatly  inferior  in  jxtint  of  perspicuity.  Three  of  these 
are  particularly  iiiciitioned  by  Walchius,  viz. 

(1.)  That  of  John  Detemberger,  whose  translation  clearly  evinces 
that  he  was  iillerly  unfit  lijr  the  task  he  undertook,  and  who  hesi- 
tated not  U)  acknowledge  that  he  was  totally  ignorant  of  Hebrew. 
He  took  much  from  Luther,  against  whom,  however,  he  vehciiuntlv 
inveighs.  His  translation  was  first  pulWished  at  Mayence  in  1534, 
and  has  been  several  times  printed  since  that  time. 

(2.)  The  version  which  bears  the  name  of  John  Eckius.  He 
translated  only  the  Old  Testament,  the  New  being  executed  by 
Jerome  ICmscr.  It  wa»  first  published  in  1537,  and  has  also  been 
re|)ealedly  printed. 

(3.)  The  vereirdi  of  Ca-spar  Ulenberg,  which  was  undertaken 
under  the  patronage  of  Ferdinand,  arrhbishop  and  elector  of  Co- 
logne, is  preferred  by  those  of  bin  own  communion  to  all  the  other 
German  versions.  He  follows  the  Sixtine  edition  of  the  Latin 
Vulgate.  This  translation  first  ajipcared  in  1630,  and  ha«  under- 
gone very  numerous  impressions. 

The  three  translations  just  noticed  include  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments.     In  addition  lo  ihem,  three  new  versions  of  the  New 


>  This  orlidon  was  nccoiiipanicd  wild  a  Iranslaiion  in  the  lUlhonian  lan- 
fiuage,  spoken  in  tlic  provlnci-  of  FMttiliiii'Ior  Kslhiuiia      It  iH  a  totally  (lis- 
linct  Un^iiai;e,  being  closely  allied  lo  ttio  Kinnisti.     Up  Marsti's  History  of 
TraiiKlHliniis,  p.  4  rinlr..   There  is  also  a  diaJi-cl  of  tlii;  ('Ntlionian,  rallci 
Dorvatidn  Exlhonian.  into  which  the  New  TcKlaiiiciit  was  translated 
•«..kr..t..^.i  i»  t» ..»..  t^.vr 


story 
llhr 
and 


Lhi-  ypar  17»v. 

■»  A  traiiAlalinn  of  the  Hrrinliircs  Into  the  KnroIInn  langu.-tirc  (xpokon  in 
Karelia,  a  provini-n  of  Ei.-t  Finland),  was  pruned  in  \^\tL  under  tin;  diror- 
tion  of  the  St.  Petersburg  Hihle  Society  ;  but  it  is  not  known  whether  this 
vorHion  is  made  from  the  Finnish,  or  not. 

»  Henderson's  llil. Ileal  Kesrarches,  p.  111.  An  edition  of  the  New  Tes 
lament,  both  in  I.ivonian  and  E?<lhnnlan,  had  been  already  printed  at  lUga, 
in  lOHo  .ind  l'W().     The  I.etliah  or  I.ivonian  is  a  Sclavonian  illaluct. 

•  Walchii  HiMiothecaThcoloRira  Helccta,  vol.  Iv.  pp  70-81. 

•  Whitiaker's  Infjnirv  into  il>e  Interpretation  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures 
in  Europe,  p.  33.    CainCri>Jgc,  1&19,  Svo. 


Testament  have,  within  a  few  years,  been  circulated  very  largely 
among  the  Romanists  of  Germany,  who  have  evinced  an  ardent 
desire  for  the  Scriptures,  notwithstanding  the  fulminations  of  the 
Papal  See  against  them.  Of  two  of  these  versions,  the  Katisbon 
edition,  and  that  executed  by  M.  Gossner,  a  learned  Romish  priest, 
formerly  of  Munich,  the  author  has  not  been  able  to  obtain  any 
authentic  particulars;  the  third  was  executed  about  the  year  1812, 
by  the  Rev.  Loander  Von  Ess,  profes.sor  of  divinity  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Marburg,  in  conjunction  with  his  brother.  It  is  made  di- 
rectly from  the  Greek,  and  has  been  recommended  by  the  first 
Protestant  clergymen  at  Dresden  and  Zurich,^  as  well  as  by  seve- 
ral authorities  among  the  literati  of  the  Romish  communion,  as 
exhibiting  a  pure  and  correct  version  of  tlicKurcd  original.'      . 

There  are  also  two  translations  of  the  On^J^-siamenf,  in  ihe  dia- 
lect spoken  by  the  Jews  in  Germany,  called  the  Jewish-German. 
One  was  made  by  Joseph  Josel  Ben  Alexander,  and  was  printed 
by  Joseph  Athias,  at  Amsterdam,  in  1679:  previously  lo  publica- 
tion it  was  revised  by  Rabbi  Meir  Stern,  chief  rabbi  at  the  syna- 
gogue at  Amsterdam.  The  other  Jewish-German  translation  was 
executed  by  Rahbi  Jckuthiel  Hen  Isaac  Blitz,  and  was  printed  by 
Uri  Veibsch  Ben  Aaron,  also  at  Amsterdam,  in  1679.  Korihoft 
terms  this  translator  a  blasphemous  impostor,  and  charges  him  with 
having  disguised  certain  pro])hecies  relative  to  the  Messiah,  incon- 
sequence of  liis  Jewish  predilections.  Of  these  two  semi-barba- 
rous, unfaithful,  and  now  almost  universally  neglected  translations, 
which  can  be  of  no  use  whatever  in  Scripture  criticism,  Carpzov 
has  given  an  account,  with  specimens.^  And  as  the  Cierman  Jews 
arc  at  this  time  said  to  be  animated  by  a  spirit  of  candid  in(|uiry.  a 
Jewish-German  translation  of  the  New  Tcsfament  has  lately  been 
printed  for  their  benefit,  at  the  expense  of  the  London  Society  for 
promoting  Christianity  among  the  Jews. 

2.  French  Versions. 

The  earliest  attempt  towards  translating  the  Scriptures  into 
French  was  made  by  Jean  de  V'ignay  or  de  Vignes,  who  translated 
the  epistles  and  gospels  contained  in  the  Romish  missal,  at  the 
request  of  Jane  of  Burgundy,  queen  of  Philip  king  of  France,  in  the 
early  part  of  the  fourteenth  century.'  Later  in  the  same  century, 
Riioul  de  Presles,  or  Praelles,  at  the  command  of  Charles  V.  king 
of  France,  translated  the  Bible  into  French  as  far  as  the  Psalms 
or  Proverbs.'"  A  very  fine  manuscript  of  his  version  is  preserved 
among  the  Lansdowiie  MSS.,  No.  1175.,  in  the  Briiif;h  Museum." 
In  1512,  James  le  Fevre,  of  Estaples  (better  known  by  the  name  of 
Jacobus  Faber,  Stapulensis),  published  a  translation  of  St.  Paul's 
epistles,  with  critical  notes  and  a  commentarj',  in  which  he  freely 
censures  the  Vulgate;  and  in  1523 he  published  at  Paris,  in  a  simi- 
lar manner,  the  whole  of  the  New  Testament.  This  was  followed 
by  detached  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  by  an  edilion  of  the 
entire  French  Bible,  translated  by  himself.  It  was  printed  at 
Antwerp,  by  Martin  I'Emperenr,  in  1530  (again  in  1534  and  1541), 
and  was  revised  by  the  divines  of  Lou  vain,  whose  edition  appeared 
in  1550,  and  has  since  been  repeatedly  printed.  The  translation 
of  Le  Fevre  is  said  to  be  the  basis  of  all  the  siibseiiuent  French 
Bibles,  whether  executed  by  Roman  Catholics  or  Protestants.  The 
first  Protestant  French  Bible  was  published  by  Robert  Peter  Olive- 
tan,  with  the  assistance  of  his  relative,  the  illustrious  reformer, 
John  Calvin,  who  corrected  the  Antwerp  edition  wherever  it  dif- 
fered from  the  Hebrew.  It  was  printed  at  Neufchatel,  in  1535,  in 
folio  ;  and  at  Geneva  in  1540,  in  large  quarto,  with  additional  cor- 
rections by  Calvin.  Both  these  editions  are  of  extreme  rarity. 
.Another  edition  appeared  at  the  same  place  in  1588,  revise<l  by 
the  college  of  pastors  and  professors  of  the  Reformed  Church  at 
(ieneva  (Beza,  Genlart,  Jaquemot,  Bertram,  and  others),  who  so 
greatly  improved  Olivelan's  Bible,  both  in  correctness  and  diction, 
that  it  hcncelbrih  obtained  the  name  of  the  Geneva  Bible,  by 
which  it  is  now  generally  known.  It  has  gone  through  very  nu- 
merous editions,  the  latest  of  which  is  that  of  Geneva,  1805,  in 
folio,  and  also  in  three  volumes,  8vo.  revised  by  the  college  of  pas- 
tors at  Geneva.  This  is  confessedly  the  most  di-gaut  French  ver- 
sion extant;  but  many  Pmteslants  have  wished  that  it  were  a  lit- 
tle more /iVc/rj/,  and  they  continue  to  prefer  David  Martin's  revi-  j 
sion  of  the  Genevan  version  of  the  French  Bible  (of  wliich  the  1 
New  Testament  was  printed  in  1696,  at  Uirecht,  in  4io.,  and  the 
entire  Bible  at  Amsterdam,  in  1707,  in  two  (olio  volumes),  or  the 
revision  of  Jeaii-Frcdcri<:  Osiervald  ;  the  best  edilion  of  which  is 
said  lo  be  that  printed  at  Neufchatel,  in  1772,  in  folio,  with  his 
argumenis  ami  rcflcclioiLs  on  the  difTereni  books  and  chaiitcre  of 
liie  Bible.  Ostervald's  revised  text  (fre<|ueiitly  but  erroneously 
termed  a  version)  has  been  several  limes  nrinlcil.  Another 
French  Protestant  version  (made  from  the  Italian  Imnslatioii  of 
Diodati)  was  published  in  1562,  \vhi<h  fl>r  a  short  lime  was  held 

°  The  laic  Ki;v.  Dr.  Keinhart,  first  chaplain  to  the  court  of  Saxony,  uii 
the  venerable  superior  of  Ihe  /iirich  rlerny,  Aniistcs  Hess. 
'  Owen's  HiHlory  id"  the  Hrilish  ami  I'orei»tii  lliljlc  Society,  vol.  ii.  p.  229. 

•  Carpjiovii  I'riiicB  Velciis  TeitlaMienu,  pp.  7.">7— 7'''C. 

•  Giiiars  do  Moulins,  canon  of  St.  Pierre  d'Airc,  in  the  diocese  of  Tou- 
raine,  is  comincinly  hut  erroneously  considered  as  the  first  French  trnns- 
lalorof  Ihe  Iliblo.  Between  the  years  I'/Jl  and  VJ!.*\  he  iraiitilaled  the  Mis- 
loria  Scliolastica  of  Peter  Comeslor  ;  apopnlar  abstract  of  sacred  hisiiry, 
which  has  been  confounded  with  the  Scriptures.  (Townley's  IlluKtralluna 
ofllddical  I.ileiature,  vol.  I.  pp.  ;i<.)|,  ^W.)  Several  copiosof  this  Iranslaiion 
are  in  Ihe  Rtiyal  Library  at  I'ari.i  ;  and  an  cililion  of  It  was  printed  by  order 
uf  (Charles  Vl'll..  lo  whom  it  was  dedicated,  at  Paris,  in  Ub7. 

>»  Townley's  llhistialion'*,  vol.  ii.  pp.  8—11. 

>>  Sec  a  description  of  Uiia  MS.  in  Iliu  Dibliothcca  Lu).sduwniuia,  pp.  28^ 
285. 


Sect.  VI.  §  3.] 


SPANISH  VERSIONS. 


45 


in  estimation  by  the  Calvinists.  The  French  translation  of  Sebas- 
tian Caslalio,  who  was  but  indifferently  skilled  in  that  language, 
appeared  at  Basil  in  1655  ;  being  accommodated  to  his  Latin  ver- 
sion above  noticed,  it  was  liable  to  the  same  objections,  and  was 
never  held  in  any  esteem.  The  translation  of  the  entire  Bible  by 
Cliarles  le  Cene,  who  quitted  France  on  the  revocation  of  the  edict 
of  iVantes,  was  publisiicd  in  a  folio  volume  in  1741,  thirty-eight 
years  after  his  dealii,  by  his  son,  a  bookseller  at  Amsterdam.  The 
States  of  Groningen  prohibited  the  circulation  of  this  version  in 
their  province,  on  account  of  its  Socinian  tendency.  A  French 
translation  of  the  New  Testament,  by  the  celebrated  critic  Le 
('lerc,  appeared  at  Amsterdam  in  two  volumes  4lo. :  it  is  said  to 
be  tainted  with  Socinian  principles,  and  has  never  been  much 
read.  But  the  French  Protestant  version  of  the  New  Testament, 
executed  by  MxM.  Beausobre  and  L'Enfant  (Amsterdam,  1718,  in 
two  volumes,  4to.),  is  highly  and  deservedly  esteemed  lor  its  close- 
ness. An  English  translation  of  the  gospel  of  Matthew,  made  from 
this  version,  w-as  published  at  Cambridge  in  1779,  in  8vo.,  to  which 
was  prefixed  a  translation  of  the  excellent  introduction  which  ac- 
companied the  French  edition.  This  volume  has  been  several 
times  printed. 

A  reformation  of  the  Geneva  Bible  was  undertaken  by  Renat 
Benoist  (Renatiis  Benedictus),  professor  of  divinity  in  the  "college 
of  Navarre.  It  was  published  with  notes  in  1566 ;  but  being  con- 
demned by  a  brief  of  pope  Gregory  XIII.  in  1575,  a  new  edition 
ivas  undertaken  by  the  divines  of  Louvain,  w'ho  ireed  it  from  the 
corrections  of  the  reformed,  and  made  it  altogether  conlbrmable  to 
the  Latin.  This  edition  was  printed  at  Antwerp  in  1575,  and  at 
various  places  since.  In  1820  a  version  of  St.  John's  gospel,  in  the 
dialect  spoken  at  Toulouse  and  in  its  vicinity,  was  printed  at  Tou- 
iouse.i  There  are  several  other  French  translations  by  private  in- 
dividuals, as,  1.  The  entire  Bible,  translated  from  the  Latin  Vul- 
gate by  Jacques  Corbin,  an  advocate  of  the  parliament  of  Paris, 
and  published  in  1643,  with  the  approbation  of  the  faculty  of  the- 
ology of  Poitiers  :  at  present  it  is  but  little  esteemed  in  France; — 
2.  The  New  Testament,  from  the  Vulgate,  by  Michael  de  Ma- 
rolles,  published  in  1649 :  it  is  executed  principally  from  Eras- 
mus's Latin  version,  but  in  some  passages  from  the  Vulgate,  and 
has  often  been  reprinted  ; — 3.  Father  Amelotte's  translation  of  the 
New  Testament  from  the  Vulgate  was  published  in  1666,  1667, 
and  1668,  in  four  volumes,  8vo.,  with  notes.  It  has  been  very  justly 
and  severely  criticised,  for  its  blunders,  by  Father  Simon.  His  prin- 
cipal design  in  publishing  this  version  was  to  supersede  the  French 
Protestant  translation,  and  especially  that  of  the  learned  Port- 
Royalists  (which  was  then  in  the  press),  whose  bitter  enemy  Ame- 
lotte  was ; — 4.  The  version  of  the  New  Testament  by  the  Port- 
Royalists,  which  was  depreciated  before  its  publication  by  the 
adversaries  of  the  Jansenists,  appeared  in  1667,  in  two  volumes, 
8vo.  It  was  printed  at  Amsterdam  by  the  Elzevirs,  for  Gaspard 
Migeot,  a  bookseller  of  Mons  (whence  it  is  sometimes  called  the 
Testament  of  Mons),  with  the  approbation  of  the  archbishop  of 
Cambray,  and  the  bishop  of  Namur,  and  with  the  privilege  of  the 
king  of  Spain;  but  it  was  condemned  by  the  popes  Clement  IX. 
and  Innocent  XI.  This  version  (which  is  from  the  Vulgate)  was 
begun  by  Antoine  le  Maitre,  after  whose  death  it  was  finished  by 
his  brother  Isaac  Louis  le  Maitre  de  Sacy,  with  the  assistance  of 
the  celebrated  Port-Royalists,  Arnaud,  Nicole,  Claude  Sainte  Mar- 
the,  and  Pierre-Thomas  du  Fosse.  This  version  was  greatly  es- 
teemed, especially  by  the  Jansenists ; — 5.  The  version  of  the  New 
Testament,  by  Antoine  Godeau,  bishop  of  Grasse,  appeared  at  Paris 
in  1668,  in  two  volumes,  8vo. :  it  is  made  from  the  Vulgate,  and 
holds  a  middle  way  between  a  literal  version  and  a  paraphrase ; — 
6.  The  New  Testament,  by  Father  Quesnel,  is  made  more  con- 
formable to  the  Vulgate  than  the  translation  published  at  Mons 
(No.  4.),  which  he  took  fojr  his  basis  :  it  is  accompanied  with  moral 
reflections,  which  are  justly  admired  for  their  piety,  and  were  com- 
mended by  pope  Clement  XL,  who  afterwards,  in  1713,  condemned 
his  version  by  the  celebrated  bull  beginning  with  the  words  "  Uni- 
genitus  Dei  Filius,"  together  with  one  hundred  and  one  proposi- 
tions extracted  from  it,  and  every  thing  that  either  had  been  written 
or  should  be  written  in  defence  of  it !  The  first  part  of  Quesnel's 
Version  and  Reflections  was  published  in  1671,  and  the  work  was 
completed  in  the  course  of  the  following  nine  years.  Editions  of 
the  whole  work  were  printed  at  Brussels  in  1693  and  1694,  in  4 
vols.  8vo.,  at  Trevoux  in  1698,  and  at  Paris  in  1699.  This  edition 
is  ."iaid  to  be  more  ample  than  the  preceding,  and  has  often  been 
reprinted,  both  in  8vo.  and  12mo.  Quesnel's  Reflections  were 
translated  into  English,  and  published  in  four  volumes,  8vo.,  at  Lon- 
don, in  1719-1725 ; — 7.  A  translation  of  the  New  Testament,  pub- 
lished by  the  Jesuits  at  Bordeaux  in  1686,  with  the  approbation 
and  permission  of  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  of  the  place.^  Of 
the  wilful  alterations  and  falsifications  introduced  into  this  version, 
in  order  to  support  the  peculiar  dogmas  of  the  Romish  church,  an 
account  was  published  by  bishop  Kidder  in  1690.  It  is  supposed 
that  nearly  the  whole  of  this  version  was  bought  up  and  destroyed, 
as  very  few  copies  are  known  to  be  in  existence  ;' — 8,  9.  Between 

'  Lc  Sent  Ebangely  de  Nostr6  Seigneur  Jesus  Christ  seloun  S6nt  Jan, 
Iraiiuit  en  Lengo  Toulouzeiizo.     A  Toulouso,  1820,  12ino. 

»  Le  Nouveau  Testament  de  notie  Seigneur  J.  C,  traduit  de  Latin  en 
Franfois  par  les  Theologiens  de  Louvain ;  imprime  a  BordPaux,  chez 
Jarqut-s  Mongiron-Millanges,  Imprimeurdu  Roi  etdu  College,  1686.  Avec 
approbation  et  permission. 

3  Two  copies  are  at  Oxford,  one  in  the  Bodleian  Library,  and  another  in 
that  of  Christ  Church  College;  two  others  are  in  Dublin,  in  the  X'niversity 
Library,  and  in  the  Library  founded  by  Archbishop  Marsh ;  and  a  fifth  is 
jn  the  possession  of  his  royal  highness  the  Duke  of  Sussex.    (Dr.  Cotton's 


1697  and  1703,  the  Jesuits,  Bouhours,  Michael  Tellier,  and  Pierre 
Bernipr,  published  another  translation  of  the  New  Testament;  but 
this,  as  well  as  the  version  of  Charles  Hure,  also  from  the  Vulgat 
(Pans,  1702,  m  lour  volumes,  12ino.),  are  now  nearly  forgotten  ;— 
10.  The  French  version  of  the  ingenious  critic.  Father  Simon,  pub- 
lished with  notes  m  1702,  was  translated  into  English  by  Mr.  Web- 
ster, in  two  volumes,  4to.,  1730.  This  version  was  condemned  by 
an  ordinance  of  the  cardinal  de  Noailles,  archbishop  of  Paris,  and 
also  by  two  "  Instructions,"  issued  by  the  celebrated  Bossuet,  bishop 
of  Meaux.-*  Various  portions  of  the  Bible  have  been  translated 
into  French  by  other  writers,  who  are  not  of  sufficient  note  to  re- 
quire a  distinct  mention. 

3  Belgian  Versions. 
A  Flemish  translation  of  the  Scriptures  was  made  from  the  Vul- 
gate in  the  sixteenth  century,  and  printed  at  Cologne  in  1475,  at 
Delft  in  1477,  and  at  other  places.  For  a  long  time  the  Protestants 
in  the  Low  Countries  had  only  the  Dutch  translation,  made  from  Lu- 
ther's German  version  in  1560,  which  has  already  been  noticed  in 
page  44  ;  but  in  1618,  in  consequence  of  an  order  issued  by  the 
Synod  of  Dort,  a  new  transLition  was  undertaken  from  the  Hebrew 
and  Greek.  The  translators  of  the  Old  Testament  were  John  Bo- 
germann,  VVilliam  Baudart,  and  Gerson  Bucer ;  the  New  Testament 
and  apocryphal  books  were  assigned  to  James  Roland,  Antliony 
Vnlffius,  and  Festus  Hommius.  Their  portions,  when  finished,  were 
submitted  to  the  careful  revision  of  others.  This  Dut(;h  version 
was  first  printed  in  1637,  and  is  highly  valued  for  its  fidelity;  the 
Remonstrants,  however,  being  dissatisfied  with  the  New  Testament, 
translated  it  anew  from  the  Greek;  and  their  version  was  printed 
at  Amsterdam  in  1680. 

4.  Italian  Versions. 

Four  versions  of  the  Bible  are  extant  in  the  Italian  language. 
Tlie  earliest  is  that  of  Nicolao  Malermi,  who  translated  it  from  the 
Latin  Vulgate:  it  was  first  published  at  Venice  in  1471,  in  folio. 
The  second  is  that  of  Antonio  Bruccioli,  also  printed  at  Venice  in 
1532:  he  professes  to  have  made  his  version  from  the  Hebrew  and 
Greek;  but  Walchius  says,  that  he  chiefly  followed  the  Latin 
translation  of  Sanctes  Pagninus.  A  revised  edition  of  Bruccioli's 
Italian  Bible,  rendered  conformable  to  the  Vulgate  by  Sanctes 
Marmochinus,  was  printed  at  Venice  in  1538.  An  Italian  version 
has,  moreover,  been  said  to  have  been  published  under  the  auspices 
of  pope  Sixtus  V. ;  but  its  existence  is  very  doubtful.  A  Protestant 
Italian  version  of  the  New  Testament  was  published  at  Geneva  in 
1561,  and  of  the  entire  Bible  in  1562,  which  is  usually  considered 
as  a  revision  of  Bruccioli's,  but  Walchius  asserts  that  it  is  altogether 
a  new  translation.  It  has,  however,  long  been  superseded  by  the 
elegant  and  faithful  versiqn  of  Giovanni  Diodati,  published  in  1607. 
The  latest  Italian  version  is  that  executed,  in  conformity  with  the 
V^ilgate,  by  Antonio  Marlinr,  archbishop  of  Florence,  towards  the 
close  of  the  eighteenth  century :  it  received  the  sanction  of  the 
late  pope  Pins  VL  The  New  Testament  was  published  at  Turin 
in  1769,  and  the  Old  Testament  in  1779:  both  were  accompanied 
with  explanatory  notes  professedly  taken  from  the  fathers.  Martini'.>i 
translation  has  been  repeatedly  printed :  the  edition  of  Livorno 
(Leghorn),  1818,  and  that  of  Italia,  1817,  with  the  stereotype  New 
Testament  executed  by  T.  Rutt,  Shacklewell  (near  London),  1813, 
were  put  into  the  Index  or  Catalogue  of  Books,  prohibited  to  bo 
sold,  by  a  decree  dated  January  13th,  1820.*      ^ 

5.  Spanish  Versions. 
The  earliest  edition  of  the  Scriptures  in  the  Spanish  language 
was   executed   from   the   Vulgate,   and    printed   at  Valencia   in 

Memoir  of  a  French  Translation  of  the  New  Testament,  p.  9.)  The  lata 
Rev.  Dr.  Grier,  in  the  preface  to  his  "  Answer  to  Ward's  Errata  of  tha 
Protestant  Bible"  (London,  1812,  4to.),  has  given  many  specimens  of  th« 
falsifications,  forgeries,  and  additions  made  by  the  Jesuits  to  the  text  of 
the  Bordeaux  French  version  of  the  New  Testament.  Two  or  three  pas. 
sages  are  subjoined  as  examples  of  the  corruptions  thus  wilfully  made  ia 
this  version  :— 

Acts  xiii.  2.  .Or  comme  ilsofTroient  au  Seianeurle  sacrifice  de  la  niesse. 
— Now  as  they  ofTered  unto  the  Lord  Ihc  sacrifice  of  the  mass.  &c. 

Tliis  is  one  of  the  most  notorious  falsifications  to  be  found  in  the  Frencll 
translation  ;  it  was  designedly  made  to  support  the  unscriptural  doctrine  of 
the  sacrifice  of  the  mass.  By  it  the  translators  departed  from  the  Latin 
Vulgate,  as  well  as  from  the  English  Protestant  version.  This  is  ihe  very 
passage  respecting  whicli  Monsieur  Veron,  when  asked  why  he  wrested  it 
from  its  natural  meaning,  replied,  ''Because  he  had  often'been  asiced  by 
Calvinists  what  scripture  affirmed  that  the  apostles  said  mass."  (Simon's 
Crit.  Hist,  of  the  New  Testament,  p.  357.) 

1  Tim.  iv.  \.  Or  I'E.sprit  dit  clairement,  qu'en  demiers  temps  quel(,ues 
uns  se  sipareront  de  la  foy  Rmnaine. — Now  the  Spirit  says,  that  in  the 
latter  times  some  shall  depart  from  the  Roman  faith. 

Here  the  Bordeaux  translators  have  been  guilty  of  another  forgery,  foi 
the  purpose  of  representing  the  Romish  chuixh  as  the  otily  church. 

2  Cor.  viii.  19.  Etnon  seulement  cela,  mais  aussi  il  a  est6  ordonnS  par 
les  eglises,  compagnon  de  notre  p61erinage. — And  not  only  that,  but  he  was 
also  appointed  by  tlie  churches  the  companion  of  our  pilgrimage. 

In  this  passage  Saint  Paul  is  merely  speaking  of  his  having  selected  a 
brother  to  accompany  him  on  his  travels ;  but,  in  the  Bordeaux  version, 
the  apostle's  language  is  altered,  for  the  purpose  of  showing  that  the  prac- 
tice of  pilgrimage  is  warranted  by  Scripture. 

*  Schoell,  Histoire  Abregfee  de  la  Liiii'ralure  Grecque,  tome  ii.  pp.  159— 
166.    Chalmers's  Biographical  Dictionary,  art.  Quesnel,  vol.  xxv.  pp.  4at- 

•  Townley's  Illustrations  of  Biblical  Literature,  vol.  iii.  p.  483. 


46 


MODERN  VERSIONS  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


[Part  I.  Ciup.  I 


1478 ;'  it  is  now  of  verj'  rare  occurrence.  In  1553,  a  Spanish  version 
of  the  Old  Testament  was  made  for  the  Jews  by  Edward  Pinel ;  it 
was  printed  at  Fcrrara.  In  1C30,  a  revised  edition  of  it  was  pub- 
lished at  Amsterdam,  by  Manasseh  Ben  iKrael.  A  much  earlier 
translation  than  this  is  said  to  have  been  made  by  some  learned 
Jews,  which  has  been  too  hastily  attributed  to  Rabbi  David  Kiinchi. 
An  edition  of  the  Old  Testament  in  Hebrew  and  in  Jewish  Spa- 
nish was  printed  at  Vienna,  in  the  years  1813, 14, 15.  and  16,  in  four 
volumes,  quarto,  for  the  use  of  the  Jews  of  Constantinople,  and  of 
most  of  the  cities  of  Turkey,  who  are  Spanish  Jews.  1  he  Hebrew 
text  is  printed,  with  vowel  points,  on  one  half  of  the  page,  and 
.the  Jewish-Spanish,  with  rabbinical  characters,  on  the  other  ;^  and 
a  translation  of  the  New  Testament  into  the  Jewish-Spanish  dialect 
is  in  progress  at  Constantinople,  under  the  direction  of  the  Rev.  H. 
D.  Lecves.  The  Gospels  of  Matthew  and  Mark  have  been  com- 
pleted.3  Among  the  Christians,  Ca.ssiodore  de  Reyna  translated  the 
Scriptures  into  Spanish,  from  the  original  languages,  but  availed 
himself  of  the  a.s.Mstance  afforded  by  the  Latin  versions  of  Pagni- 
nus  and  Leo  Jiida  :  it  was  published  at  Basil  in  1569.  A  revised 
edition  of  it  by  Cyprian  de  Valera,  a  Protestant,  who  consulted  later 
versions  and  notes,  especially  Ihe  Genevan  French  Bible,  was  pub- 
lished at  Amsterdam  in  lOO'i'.  A  new  Spanish  version  of  the  entire 
Bible  from  the  Latin  Vulgate  was  published  at  Madrid  in  1793-4, 
by  Don  Philipe  Sciode  San  Miguel  (subsequently  apfwinted  bishop 
of  Segovia),  m  ten  folio  volumes ;  it  is  adorned  with  three  hundred 
engravings,  copied  from  those  of  Marillier  and  Monsiau,  which 
were  executed  for  the  edition  of  Sacy's  French  version  of  the  Bible, 
printed  at  Paris  in  1789  and  the  following  years.  This  edition  is 
very  rare  and  dear,  even  in  Spain.  Padre  Scio's  Spanish  version 
was  reprinted  at  Madrid  between  the  years  1794  and  1797,  in  rnne- 
Uen  largo  Bvo.  volumes,  with  jilates.  There  are  copies  of  this 
edition  both  with  and  without  the  Latin  text.  The  third  edition  of 
this  version  was  published  at  Madrid  in  1808,  in  Latin  and  Spanish, 
.n  sixteen  volumes,  which  have  the  appoaraiu^e  of  small  quartos  : 
they  are  very  neatly  executed.  The  Vulgate  text  and  Spanish 
translation  are  iirinted  in  parallel  columns.  To  each  book  is  pre- 
fixed a  critical  preface;  and  at  the  f(K)t  of  the  page  is  a  copious 
commentary,  drawn  principally  from  the  writings  of  the  fathers. 
In  1824,  another  Spanish  version  of  the  Bible,  from  the  Latin  Vul- 
gate, with  notes,  was  published  by  Don  Felix  Torres  Amat,  in  eight 
volumes,  4to.  Thirty  thousand  copies  are  said  to  have  been  work- 
ed off,  [lart  of  which  was  destined  for  America.^  In  1832,  a  trans- 
lation of  the  New  Testament  into  the  Catalonian  dialect,  by  Mr. 
Prat,  a  native  of  the  province  of  Catalonia,  was  completed  and 
printed.  This  dialect  is  sixiken  by  about  four  millions  of  persons. 
The  translator  has  completed  (but  not  printed)  a  version  of  the 
Botk  of  Psalms.* 


6.  Russian  Versions. 

"  About  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century  considerable 
changes  were  introduced  into  the  Russian  language,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  relations  subsisting  between  Russia  and  Poland,  the 
progress  of  the  Poles  in  grammar  and  lexicography,  and  other 
powerfully  operative  causes,  whereby  a  peculiar  Polish  Russian 
dialect  was  formed,  which  continues  to  be  spoken  to  this  day  by  the 
common  people  inhabiting  the  provinces  comprehended  under  the 
name  of  White  Russia."  Info  this  dialect  the  Pentateuch,  and 
other  di'tached  portions  of  the  Scripture  (which  are  enumerated 
by  Dr.  Ilf-nderson,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  for  this  account  of  the 
modern  Russian  Bibles),  were  tran-slated  by  Dr.  Francis  Skorina,  a 
physician,  who  published  thcin  between  Ihe  years  1517  and  1.V25. 
The  V  hull e  of  the  copies  apiiear  to  have  been  sent  into  While 
Riidfii;-     ihey  are  of  very  rare  occurrence.* 

"'f'he  next  attempt  that  was  made  to  furnish  the  Russians  with  a 
version  of  Ihe  Scriptures  in  their  vernacular  tongue,  was  that  of 
Krncst  Gliick,  dean  of  the  Lutheran  church  of  Livonia,"  who,  to- 
wards the  close  of  the  seventeenth  ceriturv,  undertook  a  version  of 
the  whole  Srlavoiiic  (or  ancient  Russian)  Bilile  into  the  dialect  at  that 
time  spoken  in  Russia.  It  has  l>een  errtnieously  asserted  that  this 
ycrtiion  w.is  printed  at  Amsterdam  in  1698;  but  Dr.  Henderson 
states  that  it  was  destroyed,  with  the  whole  of  Gliick's  library  and 
papers,  at  the  sirge  of  Marienbiirg  in  17()2. 

When,  in  consequence  of  the  formation  of  the  Rusnian  Bible 
Society,  the  public  attention  was  raised  to  the  imiKirtance  of  the 
Holy  S-ripiiires,  it  was  found  necessar>'  to  undertake  a  translation 
into  the  modem  Riiss  hincuHife.  The  eni|)eror  Alexander  having 
reffrreij  it  lo  the  rnrnibers  of  the  Holy  Synod  at  Moscow,  they  re- 
commended the  members  of  the  Committee  of  Sjjiritual  Schools  lo 

I  Thomson'fi  and  Orma'a  Historical  Sketch  of  the  Translation  of  the 
Scrlpi'iri'-f,  p.  40.  note. 
»  Siiieeiith  Rci>ort  of  the  Uritiah  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  Appendix, 

>  Ninelnenlh  Report  of  the  Brillsli  mid  Foreign  Bible  Society,  pp.  Iv.  &S. 
To  ensiiro  corrrrmnsB,  Iho  Rev.  II.  U.  Leevcii  hUiIck,  that  the  Irnimlalor 
anil  his  anHimant  pansi-d  wilh  liiiii  tlirec  or  fiiiir  iiiorniiiKB  in  >;vpry  week ; 
anil  llini,  Willi  his  Orrck  Tesraninnt  and  vari<'UH  vcriloiiH  buforc  liiin,  he 
hcani  ibi;  wliolo  read  over,  and  allowr.l  no  phraae  or  word  to  |)aaa  wlilcli 
dill  not  roiivey  the  Honsn  of  the  »airc<l  oriKiiiid.     Il>id.  p.  90. 

•  Bililiolh"<|UP  dn  la  I.ilttraloK?  Elraiigiru  pniir  \~*Ja,  p.  312.  A  cotni>l(te 
copy  ofAinat'slranglarioii  is  In  the  library  of  the  BritUli  and  Foreign  Ild^le 

Boclely. 

•  Twcniy-sfvpnlli  R<'nnrt,  p.  jliii.    Twenty  ninth  Rriiort,  p.  xlviil. 

•  Dr.  Hcnder(i'>n'8  llibllcal  Rosearchea,  pp.  IIXJ— 105.  In  np.  106—110.  he 
hax  kIvcu  apcciuicaa  of  Ihla  vcraion,  with  valuable  philological  ubocrva- 
tiona. 


select  proper  persoas  for  the  undertaking.  On  the  completion  of 
the  four  Gospels,  they  were  examined  by  a  committee  of  revision, 
who  published  in  1819  two  editions,  consisting  of  15,000  copies  each, 
wilh  the  Sclavonic  text  in  parallel  columns.  In  1820,50,000  copies 
of  the  Gospels  and  Acts  were  issued  from  the  i)resis:  the  epistles 
were  added  successively,  as  they  pissed  the  committee  of  revision, 
and  in  1823,  the  entire  New  Testament  was  published,  for  the  first 
time,  in  the  modern  Russian  language.  In  1822,  a  version  of  the 
Psalras,  from  the  original  Hebrew,  was  published  ;  the  principal 
labour  in  preparing  which  had  iiillen  on  the  Rev.  Dr.  Pavsky,  the 
first  Hebrew  scholar  in  the  empire.  Of  the  other  books  of  the  Old 
Testament  (the  translation  of  w  hich  was  confided  to  the  learned 
members  of  the  Spiritual  Academies  of  St.  Petersburg,  Moscow, 
and  Kief),  the  Pentateuch,  and  the  books  of  Job,  Proverbs,  and  Ec- 
clesiastes,  were  iranslaled  at  the  beginning  of  1822,  and  ibrvvarded 
to  the  committee  of  revision  ;  and  ihe  archbishop  Philaret  had  com- 
menced the  translation  of  Isaiah.  It  having  been  ascertained  that 
the  first  edition  would  make  several  volumes,  the  Committee  of 
the  Russian  Bible  Society  undertook  an  edition  of  10,000  copies  of 
the  Pentateuch,  or  five  liooksof  Moses,  Joshua,  Judges,  and  Ruth: 
but  "  this  edition,  though  ready  for  publication  at  Midsummer,  1824, 
has  not  yet  made  its  appearance;  not  having  obtained  the  sanction 
and  blessing  of  the  Holy  Synod.  Nor  is  it  likely  soon  to  see  the 
light,  unless  the  successor  of  Alexander  act  in  the  spirit  by  which 
that  illustrious  monarch  was  guided  when  he  ordered  the  transla-  ■ 
tion  to  be  made."'  So  fiir  as  it  has  been  published,  the  Modern 
Russian  version  is  stated  to  have  been  received  wilh  the  liveliest 
gratitude  both  by  clergy  and  laity. 


7.    Croat  Version 

The  New  Testament  in  the  language  of  Croatia  was  first  pub- 
lished at  Tubingen  in  1551.  It  was  translated  by  the  pastor  Truber, 
and  Wiis  reprinted  with  some  corrections  by  the  translator,  at  the 
same  place,  in  two  octavo  volumes,  in  1581-2.  These  editions  are 
of  e.vtreme  rarity.  The  first  edition  of  the  entire  Croat  Bible  a|v 
pearcd  at  Wiliemburg  in  1584.  The  New  Testament  is  the  version 
of  Truber.  The  Pentateuch,  Proverbs,  and  book  of  Ecclesiasticus 
were  translated  by  the  editor,  George  Dalmatlnus,  who  also  wrute 
the  preface." 


8.  Basque  Version. 

The  New  Testament,  in  the  Basque  dialect,  was  first  printed  at 
Rochelle  in  1571,  with  a  dedication  in  French  to  Joan  d' Albert, 
queen  of  Navarre,  by  John  de  Licarraguo  de  Briscous.  It  is  furnish- 
ed with  parallel  passages  in  the  margin,  and  at  the  end  are  sum- 
maries of  contents,  indexes,  &.c?  In  1826,  a  new  edition  of  the 
Gospel  of  St.  Matthew  in  this  dialect  was  printed  at  Bayonne,  from 
a  copy  (perhaps  unique)  that  was  discovered  in  the  University 
Library  at  Oxlord  :'"  and  in  1829  the  entire  New  Testament  was 
printed  at  Paris,  besides  one  thousand  extra  copies  of  the  four 
Gospels." 


9.  Hungarian  Version. 

The  Hungarian  Protestant  version  was  executed  by  Caspar 
Caroli,  who  availed  himself  of  the  previous  labours  of  Valablus, 
Pagninus,  Munster,  Tremellius,  and  of  the  Vulgate.  It  was  first 
published  in  1589,  at  Wysolyn;  and  subsequently  at  Hanau,  in 
1608;  at  Oppenheim,  in  1612;  at  Amslerdnm,  in  1645,  If.'*!,  and 
1685,  and  at  other  places.  Of  the  edition  printed  in  Holland,  in 
1717,  three  thousand  copies  are  said  to  have  been  intercepted  by 
the  Jesuits,  into  whose  custody  they  were  committed,  to  prevent 
any  use  from  being  made  of  them.  There  is  also  a  Popish  version, 
made  from  the  Latin  Vulgate,  by  George  Kuldi,  and  printed  at 
Cologne  and  Vienna. 

10.  Polish  Version. 

Three  versions  of  the  Scriptures  have  been  published  in  the 
Polish  language.  The  first  was  underiaken  for  the  tise  of  the 
Romanists,  ami  was  published  at  Cracow  in  1561 ;  reprinted  at  the 
same  place  in  1.577,  1599,  and  1619,  and  at  other  places.  The 
second  w.as  made  by  the  Socinians,  under  the  patninape  and  at  the 
expense  of  prince  Nirrholas  Rad/ivil ;  it  was  published  at  Pinczow, 
in  Lithuania,  in  1563,  and  is  one  of  ihe  rarest  books  ever  printed.'- 
This  translation  was  reprinleil  nt  Zoslau,  in  Lithuania,  in  1572. 
The  third  Polish  version  was  made  by  the  Refonned,  or  Calvinists, 
in  LVJC.  A  translation  of  the  N<w  Testamenl  into  the  Judao- 
Polish  dialect  (which  is  spoken  by  the  Jews,  who  are  very  nume- 
rous in  Poland)  has  been  made  by  the  Rev.  N.  Solomon,  at  the 
expense  and  under  the  patronage  of  the  London  Society  for  pro- 

'  Dr.  II^^ndorBon'a  Bihllcil  Rfsearcbes,  pp.  115,  II*!.  12r>— 127.  In  pp. 
119—121.  12C.  I'2f^l30,  Dr.  H.  has  given  apoclniens  of  Uio  Modern  Rusaton 
Version,  with  philiilok'iriil  rriiKirks. 

•  AdI.rr's  llibliolheca  Hiblica,  part  Iv.  pp.  131,  132. 

»  Ibid  p.  151.  .„_        .. 

«o  Archives  diiChrlsllanisine  pour  ISae,  p.  47.  .    .„ 

■  '  Twenty  fifth  Report  of  the  Illblc  Socltiy,  p.  xxvil.    Twenty-sixth  Rt- 

i»'a  copy  of  this  traiisl.iliim  la  in  the  library  of  Earl  Spcuccr,  and  ia 
I  deacribcd  by  Dr.  DIbdIn,  bib  Spenc.  vol.  I.  pp.  116—69. 


Sect.  VI.  §  3.] 


ALBANIAN  VERSIONS. 


47 


'  moting  Cliristianity  among  the  Jews ;  it  was  printed  in  1821.1  A 
translation  of  the  New  Testament  into  the  language  of  Samogifia, 
a  province  of  Poland,  was  primed  in  1820,  at  the  expense  of  the 
Russian  Bible  Society. 

11.  Bohemian  Version. 

The  first  Bohemian  translation  was  made  from  the  Latin  Vulgate, 
and  was  published  at  Prague  in  1488.  The  other,  for  the  use  of 
the  Protestants  in  Bohemia,  was  made  from  the  sacred  originals  by 
Albert  Nicolai,  John  Capito,  Isaiah  CoepoUa,  and  other  learned 
reformers,  at  the  expense  of  the  baron  John  Zerolimus.  It  was 
published  between  the  years  1579  and  159.3,  in  six  quarto  volumes, 
without  any  indication  of  the  place  where  they  were  printed, 
which  is  supposed  to  have  been  Kralitz. 

12.  Romaic,  or  J^fodern  Greek  Version. 
The  Romaic  is  a  corruption  of  the  ancient  Greek,  so  great,  in- 
deed, that,  compared  with  the  latter,  it  may  be  pronounced  a  new 
language :  it  is  at  present  in  general  use,  both  for  writing  and  con- 
versation, the  ancient  Greek  being  used  solely  for  ecclesiastical 
affairs.  Into  this  language  the  New  Testament  was  translated  by 
Maximus  Calliergi,  and  was  printed  at  Geneva  in  1638,  in  one 
large  quarto  volume,  in  two  columns,  one  containing  the  ancient, 
and  the  other  the  raodern'Greek.  It  was  published  at  the  expense 
of  the  then  United  Provinces,  upon  the  solicitation  of  Cornelius 
Haga,  their  ambassador  at  Constantinople.  The  Greeks,  however, 
did  not  receive  it  with  much  favour.  This  translation  was  reprinted 
at  London  in  1703,  in  one  volume,  12mo.,  by  Seraphin,  a  monk  of 
Mitylene;  who  prefixed  to  it  a  preface,  which  gave  offence  to  the 
Greek  bishops,  particularly  to  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople.  By 
his  order  it  was  committed  to  the  flames.  Tlie  edition  of  1703 
(which,  in  consequence  of  this  suppression,  has  become  extremely 
rare)  was  reprinted  in  1705 ;  and  in  that  edition  the  objectionable 
passages  in  Seraphin's  preface  were  omitted.  A  more  correct  edi- 
tion of  it  was  printed  at  Halle,  in  Saxony,  in  1710,  in  one  volume, 
12mo.,  under  the  patronage  and  at  the  expense  of  Sophia  Louisa, 
Queen  of  Prussia.^  From  this  last  edition  w-as  printed  the  im- 
pression executed  at  the  expense  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible 
Society,  in  one  thick  volume,  12mo.  (Chelsea,  1810),  the  ancient  and 
modern  Greek  being  in  parallel  columns.  To  this  edition  the 
patriarch  of  Constantinople  gave  his  unqualified  approbation.^ 
With  regard  to  the  Old  Testament,  though  the  book  of  Psalms  was 
translated  into  Romaic,  and  printed  at  Venice  in  1543,  and  the 
Pentateuch  (by  the  Jews  at  Constantinople)  in  1547,  yet  no  entire 
version  of  the  Scriptures  was  extant  in  modern  Greek,  until  the 
archimandrite  Hilarion  (whom  the  general  suffrage  of  the  learned 
Greeks  concurs  in  representing  as  best  qualified  for  the  task)  un- 
dertook first  to  prepare  a  new  translation  of  the  New  Testament, 
which  wa.s  printed  in  1830,  and  afterwards  of  the  Old  Testament, 
from  the  ancient  into  the  modem  Greek;*  the  Pentateuch  was 
printed  in  1832,  and  the  Book  of  Psalms  in  1831.^ 

13.  Wallachian  Version. 

"  Previous  to  the  year  1648,  no  part  of  the  Scriptures  existed  in 
the  Wallachian  language,  the  Greek  or  Sclavonic  being  used  in 
the  church  service,  and  the  only  Bibles  in  use  were  in  those  lan- 
guages; but  in  that  year  the  New  Testament  was  printed  at  Bel- 
grade." Of  the  Bible  four  editions  have  been  printed ;  at  Bukharest, 
in  16G8  and  1714;  at  Blaje,  in  Transylvania,  in  1795;  and  at  St. 
Petersburg,  in  1819.  "The  translation  was  made  by  the  Metropo- 
litan Thcodosius,  by^order  of  Jo.  Scherban  Woivoda,  a  prince  of 
Wallachia.  An  edition  of  the  New  Testament  was  also  printed  at 
St.  Petersburg,  in  1817.  The  number  of  those  by^vhom  this  lan- 
guage is  spoken  is  estimated  at  nearly  two  millions."^ 

14,  15.  Bulgarian  and  Serbian  Versions. 

The  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew  was  translated  and  printed  in  the 
Bulgarian  language,  at  St.  Petersburg,  in  1823;  but  doubts  being 
entertained  of  the  competency  of  the  translator,  its  further  progress 
was  discontinued.  Tlie  Serbian  Version  of  the  New  Testament, 
which  was  executed  some  years  since,  being  deemed  unfit  for  the 
press,  the  Russian  Bible  Society  engaged  a  native  Serbian  to  un- 
dertake a  new  translation,  the  printing  of  which  was  completed  in 
1825;  but,  owing  to  the  cessation  of  the  Society's  operations,  the 
distribution  of  the  copies  has  hitherto  been  retarded.'' 

16.  Romanese  Versions. 

Tlie  Romanese  language  is  divided  into  two  dialects,  the  Chur- 
xaelsche  and  Ladiniche.    The  former  is  spoken  by  the  inhabitants 

«  Thirteenth  Report  of  the  London  Society  for  promoting  Christianity 
among  the  .lews,  p.  8. 

a  Butler's  Horae  Biblicse,  vol.  i.  pp.  177—179. 

»  Owen's  History  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  vol.  ii.  p.  358. 
note. 

<  .Sixtcentli  Report  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  Appendix, 
I  p.  19,  20.     Seventeentli  Report,  p.  liv.    Twenty-third  Report,  p.  xxix. 

•  Twenty-fifth  Report,  p.  1.  Twenty-seventh  Report,  p.  xlli.  Twenty- 
eli'hth  Report,  p.  1.    Twenty-ninth  Report,  p.  xlix. 

«  Dr.  Henderson's  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  249,  250. 

'  Ibid.  pp.  262,  263. 


of  the  Engadine  (one  of  the  loftiest  valleys  in  Switzerland,  border 
ing  on  the  Tyrol) ;  the  latter,  by  the  Ladins,  who  reside  on  the 
confines  of  Italy.  The  Scriptures  were  translated  into  the  Chur 
welsche  dialect,  and  published  in  1657,  at  Schuol,  a  town  of  the 
Lower  Engadine,  and  into  the  Ladiniche  at  Coire,  in  1719.  Editions 
of  both  these  versions  have  been  printed  by  the  Bible  Society  at 
Basle,  aided  by  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  in  London. 


17.  Turkish  Versions. 

In  1666,  the  New  Testament  was  printed  in  Turkish,  at  Oxford: 
it  was  translated  by  Dr.  Lazarus  Seaman,  and  was  published  at  tho 
joint  expense  of  the  Hon.  Robert  Boyle,  and  of  the  Levant  or 
Turkey  Company  of  London,  for  the  benefit  of  the  Christians  in 
Turkey,  by  whom  it  was  very  gratefully  received.  In  the  same 
year  a  translation  of  the  whole  Bible  into  the  Turkish  language 
was  completed  by  Albertus  Boboosky,  better  known  by  his  Turkish 
name  of  Hali  Bey,  first  dragoman  or  interpreter  to  the  Porte.8  He 
undertook  this  arduous  work  at  the  request  of  the  celebrated  Levin 
Warner,  at  that  time  ambassador  from  Holland,  and  his  translation 
was  sent  to  Leyden,  corrected  and  ready  for  the  press.  Here  it  lay 
until  1814,  when  the  Rev.  Dr.  Pinkerton,  having  ascertained  its 
value,  recommended  it  to  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society. 
The  curators  of  the  university  of  Leyden  having  confided  the 
manuscript  to  his  excellency  Baron  voii  Diez,  at  that  time  coun- 
sellor of  legation  to  the  court  of  Berlin,  this  distinguished  scholar 
devoted  the  last  two  years  of  his  life  to  its  revision,  and  to  super- 
intending the  printing  of  it.  On  his  decease,  in  1817,  the  editing 
of  this  version  was  undertaken  by  M.  Kieffer,  professor  of  the  ori- 
ental languages  at  Paris ;  and  in  1820,  the  New  Testament  was 
finished.^  The  printing  of  the  entire  Turkish  Bible  was  completed 
in  1828,1*'  and  its  accuracy  has  been  attested  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Hen- 
derson, who  had  (not  without  reason)  objected  to  some  passages  in 
the  first  edition  of  the  Turkish  New  Testament. 

The  five  books  of  Moses,  the  book  of  Joshua,  and  the  New  Tes- 
tament, were  translated  into  what  is  called  the  plain  Turkish  dia- 
lect, and  publi-shed  at  Astrachan,  in  1825.  This  version  was 
executed  by  the  Rev.  John  Dickson,  missionary  from  the  Scottish 
Missionary  Society,  at  Astrachan ;  v.'ho,  in  executing  it,  derived 
essential  assistance  from  the  preceding  version  of  Hali  Bey."  A 
copy  of  this  plain  Turkish  version  is  in  the  library  of  the  British 
Museum. 


18.  Portuguese  Versions. 

In  1681,  the  New  Testament  was  printed  in  the  Portuguese  lan- 
guage at  Amsterdam ;  and  some  portions  were  printed  in  the  former 
part  of  the  last  century  by  the  missionaries  at  Tranquebar.  A 
Portuguese  version  of  the  Old  Testament,  executed  by  Joao  Fer- 
reira  d'Almeida  and  Jacob  op  den  Akker,  was  published  at  Batavia, 
in  1748-53,  in  two  volumes,  8vo.  These  were  Protestant  versions. 
In  1781,  Antonio  Pereira  published  a  Portuguese  version  of  the 
New  Testament,  at  Lisbon ;  and  in  1783,  the  entire  Bible.  This 
translation  is  made  from  the  Vulgate  Latin  version,  and  in  all  doc- 
trinal points  is  in  unison  with  the  church  of  Rome. 


19.  Albanian  Version. 

'H  KiUv»  A;3t8»x«  Tcu  Kw^«u  km  Sjjtd/joc  y\y.m  Imrcu  Xpurrcv  A/yX*T- 
Tsc,  TouTWT/,  T/ii/K!)  Ktu  Ax/invuiii.  [The  New  Testament  of  our 
Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ  in  two  languages,  that  is,  Greek 
and  Albanian.]     Corfu,  1827,  Svo. 

The  Albanians  are  a  hardy  people,  inhabiting  the  countries  an- 
ciently known  by  the  names  of  Illyricum  and  Epirus;  numerous 
tribes  of  them  are  also  spread  over  Macedonia  and  the  Morea  or 
Peloponnesus.  A  translation  of  the  New  Testament  into  their  lan- 
guage was  finished  in  the  year  1820  by  Dr.  Evangelos  Mexicos, 
under  the  patronage  and  at  the  expense  of  the  British  and  Foreigu 
Bible  Society.  The  Albanian  dialect  had  never  been  brought  to  a 
standard,  until  the  committee  of  the  Ionian  Bible  Society  accom 
plished  it,  and  printed  the  New  Testament  under  the  direction  of 
Gregory,  archbishop  of  Euboea,  in  1827,  in  parallel  columns,  ona 

8  Owen's  History  of  the  Bible  Society,  vol.  iii.  pp.  13, 14.  257.  500.  Six- 
teenth  Report  of  the  Society,  Appendix,  p.  17.  Albertus  Boboosky  was 
born  in  Poland  in  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century.  While  a  youth 
he  was  stolen  by  the  Tartars,  and  sold  to  the  Turks  in  Constantinople.  By 
them  he  was  educated  in  the  Mohammedan  faith,  and  when  he  grew  ujp 
became  first  dragoman  or  translator  to  Blahomet  or  Mohammed  IV.  Ha 
Turkish  name  was  Hali  Bey.  He  understood  seventeen  languages,  and  i( 
said  to  have  spoken  French,  German,  and  English  with  the  fluency  of 
native.  To  the  English  language  he  was  greatly  attached;  and  at  the  re- 
quest of  Mr.  Boyle  translated  the  catechism  of  the  Church  of  England  into 
Turkish.  He  also  composed  several  works  himself,  several  of  which  have 
been  published :  but  his  great  work  was  the  Translation  of  the  Scriptures, 
above  noticed.  Boboosky  also  wrote  a  grammar  and  dictionary  of  ths 
Turkish  language.  But  it  is  not  known  what  has  become  of  them,  and  of 
the  church  catechism.  This  wonderful  man  intended  to  have  returned 
into  the  bosom  of  the  Christian  Church  ;  but  died,  before  he  accomplisbej 
his  design.    Owen's  Hist.  vol.  iii.  p.  14.  note. 

»  See  the  Collection  of  Documents  relative  to  the  Turkish  Version,  in 
the  twentieth  Report  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  AppendUr, 
pp.  134—155. 

«o  Twenty-fourth  Report,  p.  xxix.  and  Appendix,  p.  161, 

"  New  Baptist  Miscellany,  voL  ii.  p.  382. 


48 


MODERN  VERSIONS  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


[Part  I.  Chap.  !. 


containing  iho  Greek  text,  the  other  the  Albanian  version.     An 
alphabet  of  the  Albanian  characters  faces  the  title-page.' 


20.  Maltese  Veraion. 

The  Maltese  mav  almost  be  considered  as  a  dialect  of  the  Arabic 
language.  Into  lliis  dialect  the  New  Testament  was  a  few  years 
since  translated  by  signor  Giuseppe  Cannolo,  a  native  of  the  island 
of  Malta,  under  the  direction  and  with  the  a.<sistance  of  the  Rev. 
William  Jovvett,  M.A.,  at  that  time  one  of  the  representative.?  of  the 
Church  Missionary  Society  in  the  Mediterranean.  The  Old  Testa- 
ment is  in  progress.  As  very  few  books  have  appeared  in  Maltese, 
the  Gospel  of  John  has  been  printed  in  this  country,  in  Maltese  and 
Knglish,  in  parallel  columns;  and  copies  have  been  sent  to  Malta 
for  distribution  chiefly  among  persons  capable  of  forming  a  judg- 
ment of  the  Miltcse,  in  order  to  render  the  translation  as  perfect  as 
practicable,  before  tlie  entire  New  Testament  shall  be  put  to  press. 
The  imixjrtaoce  of  this  undertaking  will  be  felt,  when  it  is  consi- 
dered tixat  th3  crowded  population  of  the  islands  of  Malta  and 
Gozo  never  yet  possessed  the  Scriptures  in  their  own  tongue.  The 
value  of  this  translation  is  furilier  enhanced,  by  the  circumstance 
that  it  may  serve  as  a  step  to  Europeans  who  are  desirous  to  learn 
the  Arabic  language.^ 


§  4.  Versions  in  the.  Langlages  of  Asia. 

[('.]  Hebrew  Version. 
The  New  Testament  was  firs'  iranslated  into  Hebrew  by  the 
learned  Elias  Hutter,  who  publisned  it  in  his  Polyglott  edition  of 
the  New  Testament  in  twelve  languages,  viz.  Greek,  Syriac,  He- 
brew, Latin,  German,  Bohemian,  Italian,  Spanisli,  French,  English, 
Danish,  and  Polish,  at  Nurcm!>erg,  in  1599—1000,  in  two  volumes, 
4to.  In  his  prcdice  he  states,  that  when  meditating  that  work,  he 
sought  in  vain  for  a  Hebrew  version  of  the  New  Testament.  No 
alternative  therefore  was  left  to  him,  but  to  attempt  it  himself. 
Accordingly,  laying  aside  every  other  undertaking,  he  translated, 
corrected,  and  finished  it  in  the  space  of  one  year.  For  a  first 
translation,  especially  when  v^e  consider  the  shortness  of  the  time  in 
which  it  was  accomplished,  it  is  truly  a  w-onderful  performance. 
From  Hutter's  PolygloU  the  Ilcbrcw  text  was  detached,  and  printed 
separately,  with  some  corrections,  under  the  superintendence  of. 
William  Kobertsoii,  8vo.  London,  1661.  It  is  a  volume  of  extremely 
rare  occurrence,  as  the  greater  part  of  the  impression  was  consumed 
in  the  iireat  fire  of  I/Ondon,  in  1066.  Roberuson's  edition  was  be.iu- 
tifullv  rej)rinted  in  Timo.  at  London,  in  1798,  by  the  llev.  Rich.ard 
Caddick,  with  the  pious  and  benevolent  design  of  enlightening 
the  minds  of  the  Jews.  This  translation  not  being  executed  in 
pure  biblical  Hebrew,  and  consequently  not  adapted  to  the  Jews, 
the  London  Society  ibr  iiromoting  Christianity  among  them,  in 
1817,  completed  and  published  a  new  tran.slation  in  biblical  He- 
brew, the  purity  of  which  has  been  acknowledged  by  learned 
Jews.  The  Gospel  of  S:iint  Matthew  was  published  in  1814,  and 
the  succeeding  books  at  diflerent  times,  as  they  could  be  completed. 
Another  Hebrew  trnnslaiion  of  the  New  Testament  with  points 
was  executed  by  Mr.  William  Greenfield,  and  published  at  London 
in  1931,  in  Svo.'  The  lute  Rev.  Dr.  Buchanan,  during  his  re- 
searches in  the  interior  of  India,  obtained  a  Hebrew  manuscript 
of  the  New  Testament  in  the  country  of  Travancore,  which  is  now 
deposited  in  the  University  Library  at  Cambridge.  It  is  written  in 
the  small  Rabbinical  or  Jerusalem  character.  The  translator  was 
a  learned  rabbi,  and  the  translation  is  in  general  faithful:  his  de- 
sign was,  to  make  an  accurate  version  of  the  New  Testament,  for 
the  express  purpose  of  confuting  it,  and  of  repelling  the  arguments 
of  his  neighbours,  the  Syrian  or  St.  Thome  Christians.  His  own 
work  was  the  providential  instrument  of  subiluing  his  unbelief; 
and  he  lived  and  died  in  the  faith  of  Christ.  A  tran.script  of  this 
Travancore  Hebrevv'  New  Testament  is  in  the  Library  of  the  Lon- 
don Society  for  promoting  Christianity  among  the  Jews.'*  A  He- 
brew translation  of  the  Apocry|>hal  Books  of  tlie  Olil  Testament 
Irom  the  Greek  was  made  by  Sockel  Isaac  Fkae.nkei,,  and  pub- 
lished at  Leipzig  in  1830.* 


[ii.]  Cliuldee. 
The  New  Testament  has  not  hitherto  been  puhlisheJ  in  this  lan- 
guage; but  a  manuscript  copy  both  of  the  Old  and  Now  Testa- 
ment is  said  to  exist  in  the  Vatican  Library.''  In  the  course  of  his 
missionary  Inlxjurs  in  Persia,  tlio  Rev.  Mr.  WoKf  purchased  the 
manuscripts  of  diflfereiil   portion.-   of  tlie   Chaldce    Bible  ;  which, 

>  Twcniysecon>l  Report  of  the  Dible  Society,  pp.  xxxv.  xxxvi.  Twenty- 
third  nopr)rl,  n.  xxv. 

»  Eiiditocnlli  Report  of  the  Church  Miaslonary  Sorloly  for  1817-lS,  p.  69. 

»  Tli<>  rfvider  will  fimi  a  rrilical  account  of  iliis  Hflin-w  vorHion  of  Itn' 
entire  NVw  TPHtainorit  iii  the  C'oiitfr<>Ka(ional  Mai^aziiin  fur  Ocliil>pr,  I'iJl 
Thcrp  arp  pxtani  vnrious  oltinr  Hotjrow  trnnsblion.s  of  dflactied  hooks  of 
the  Ni;w  Tctnment,  by  diffcrcnl  inrllvtclijaJH,  wliirh  w  liave  noi  room  lo 
cnuinprate.  For  an  account  of  lliom  see  Ur.  Clarke's  Uihllogrnphicul  Dic- 
tionary, vol.  vi.  pp.  21ti— 222. 

«  Fourth  Report  of  the  London  Society  for  promoting  Christianity  among 
the  .lews.  Appendix,  p.  46. 

•  KaijioKrapha  I'o.storiora  denoininaia  Apocrypha,  hactcnus  Israolilis 
ifCnota,  nunc  autPiii  e  Textn  Oriec)  in  I.ingiiam  llchralcam  convcrtit  atque 
In  liir<-m  cmlsit  rfockcl  fwaac  Fn^■^.SKy.t■     Mp«i.T.  IH:«),  8vo. 

•  C'lirkij's  Bibli'iijraphical  Uicti'.niry,  rol.  vi.  p  vjl^l. 


though  the  same  in  language  as  the  Syriac,  is  written  in  a  different 


character.' 


[Hi.']    Versions  in  the  Oriental  Ijtngxagcs,  either  tranflaterl  l»f  the 

Baptist  Missionaries  at  i>eram.pure,  or  printed  at  the  Mission  Press. 

The  Baptist  Missionaries  entered  India  in  1793,  and  ultimately 
fixed  themselves  at  the  Danish  settlement  of  Serainpore,  near  Cal- 
cutta. To  this  mission  chiefly  belongs  the  honour  of  reviving  the 
spirit  of  promoting  Christian  knowledge,  by  translations  of  the 
Bible.  Soon  after  their  establishment  at  Serainpore,  they  were  con- 
\  inced  that,  if  ever  Christianity  look  deep  root  in  India,  it  must  be 
through  the  Holy  Scriptures  bong  translated  and  put  into  the  hands 
of  the  various  tribes  who  inhabit  that  vast  country,  .\idcd  by  a 
noble  fund  lor  translations,  raised  by  subscriptions  among  the  socie- 
ties of  the  Baptist  denomination  in  Great  Britain,  almost  from  the 
commencement  of  their  pious  labours,  and  also  by  various  an- 
nual grants  of  tnoney  from  the  British  and  Foreign  Bil)le  Society, 
from  the  year  1806  to  the  present  time,  the  missionaries  applied 
themselves  to  the  great  work  of  translating  the  Scriptures.  In  this 
undertaking,  which  has  been  honoured  with  the  sanction  of  the 
Marquess  Welleslcy,  and  subsequent  governore-general  of  India, 
the  Rev.  Doctors  Carey  and  Marshman,  and  the  late  Rev.  William 
Ward,  have  pre-eminently  distinguished  themselves;  and,  with 
their  coadjutors,  have  continued  with  uiijvearicd  assiduity  to  pro- 
secute their  arduous  work.**  Having  formed  a  typographical  esta- 
blishment at  Serainpore,  they  have  also  been  enaoled  to  print  trans- 
lations of  the  Scriptures,  entire  orin  part,  which  had  been  made  by 
other  learned  and  pious  individuals.  And  when  tlie  Mission  Col- 
lege, founded  at  Calcutta  by  the  late  Right  Rev.  Dr.  T.  F.  Middlk- 
T0.\,  Bishop  of  Calcutta  (one  of  whose  special  objects,  for  the  spi- 
ritual wellare  of  India,  is  ilie  translation  of  the  B.ble  into  the 
hitherto  untranslated  dialects  of  India),  shall  commence  its  active 
operations,  we  may  with  just  confidence  anticipate  the  ultimate 
triumphs  of  our  holy  religion  ainongthe  numerous  tribes  who  inhabit 
that  immense  continent.^ 

The  languages  spoken  in  India  form  three  classes,  viz. 

1.  The  Arabic,  and  the  languages  derived  from  or  bearing  an 
affinity  to  it.  2.  The  Sanscrit  or  Sungscrit ;  and  3.  The  Chinese, 
with  the  languages  respectively  derived  from  or  bearing  an  affinity 
to  them.w 


1 


1.  JModern  Versions  in  the  AnABic  language,  and  its  cognate 

diidects. 

(1.)  Arabic. —  A  version  of  the  entire  Bible  in  Arabic  has  come 
down  to  us,  of  which  an  account  has  been  given  in  Part  I.  of  the  first 
Volume.  Though  highly  valued  by  some  oriental  scholars  for  its 
general  accuracy  and  fidelity,  it  has  become  antiquated  in  its  dia- 
lect, and  consequently  unacceptable  to  the  Icarriea  Arabians.  On 
this  account  a  new  translation,  in  elegant  modern  .Arabic,  was  com 
menced  by  Sabat,  an  eminent  Arabian  scholar,  under  the  superin- 
tendence of  the  late  Rev.  T.  T.  Thomason,  M..\.,  one  of  the  Hon. 
Ea.st  India  Company's  Chaidains.  The  New  Testament  was  com 
pleted  and  published  at  Calcutta,  in  1816,  at  the  expense  of  the 
Britisli  and  Foreign  Bible  Society."  A  second  edition  of  the  New 
Testament,  much  revised  and  inijproved,  was  printed  in  182G  at  the 
press  belonging  to  the  Bishop's  College,  Calcutta.  An  edition  of 
the  Arabic  New  Testament,  in  Syriac  characters,  was  printed  at 
Paris,  at  the  expense  of  the  Bible  Society,  in  1822.  See  a  specimen 
of  the  Arabic  version  in  p.  55.   infra. 

(2.)  Persian. —  The  Persian  version,  already  noticed  in  Part  I.  of 
the  first  Volume,  having  also  become  antiquated  and  obsolete,  a  new 
one  was  undertaken  by  Lieut.  Colonel  Colebrooke,  who  completed 
the  Four  Gospels.  They  were  published  at  Calcutta  in  1804.  An 
entire  version  of*  the  New  Testament,  in  pure  and  elegant  Persian, 
was  executed  by  tlie  late  Rev.  H.  Mnrlyn,  who  travelled  from 
India  to  Siiiraz,  the  Athens  of  Persia,  for  that  purjxjsc.     He  ar- 

I  Twcnly-lhirfl  Report  of  the  Bible  Society,  p.  xxxil. 

8  Forun  aceoiint  of  I  he  very  ;;real  cari-  liestowed  on  the  versions  under- 
la.kcii  liy  the  iiii.'<3ionirie»  at  Serainpore  (each  of  whicli,  upon  tlio  avorase, 
was  the  result  of  s-ccn  years'  labour),  the  reailer  is  referred  to  the  Rt  v 
Dr.  Marshinan's  "Brief  Memoir,"  relaiivo  to  their  operations  in  Bcnzul 
(pp.  1—7.  London,  1827),  which  most  satisfaciorily  repels  the  assertions 
of  their  incompetency,  which  had  been  made  by  an  anonymous  writer  in 
one  of  the  i)enodii:al  journals. 

»  As  soon  as  it  was  known  in  Eniflund  that  Bp.  Middleion  was  foriuiiifi  thu 
Mission  (.'olleseatCalculta,  Ihi'  Hniii  of  .'iOtXI/.  slerliiift  was  voled  lo  liiiii  by 
each  of  (he  venerable  Societies  for  proiiioiina  Chrislian  Knowledge,  and 
for  the  Propagation  of  the  Oospel  In  Foreign  I'arls,  in  aid  of  tlial  Iiislilii- 
tion.  The  same  sum  was  voted  lo  his  lordvhlp  by  the  Church  Missionnry 
So.icty,  without  condition  or  roslriclion,  in  fiirihcrniiceof  his  plan.  .And 
the  like  sum  of  .'j<«iO/.  was  voted  by  the  llriiisb  unU  Foreign  Uiblo  .Society, 
in  aid  of  ihp  iraiislali'in  of  the  Holy  Scriptures. 

'0  Where;  iiootlior  aulhorily  is  riled,  oiir  notices  of  origin.il  translallons 
are  ahrid;,'ed  from  the  "  Hiief  View  of  Baptist  Missions  and  Trnnslalion.>^," 
fivo.  London,  \ri\j;  from  the  ''  rcriodiral  Accounts  of  the  Bautiit  Missionary 
Society,"  No.  XX.X. ;  from  the  Supplement  to  No.  XXXl.,  containing  a 
further  memoir  of  iho  lran»lalii)nsoi  the  Sacreil  Srripturcs,  dated  March 
21,  181G,  8vo.  I>ondon,  IS17  ;  from  specimens  of  Editions  of  the  Sacred 
Scriptures  In  the  Eastern  l.inirnaijes.  translated  by  the  Brethren  of  the  Se- 
r.iinporo  Mi.M.sion,  anil  of  bev.TuI  others,  prinli'd  at  the  Mi-'ssinn  pres.s  Se- 
rainpore, Hia,  Ito.  ;  and  from  the  "  Scvenlti  Memoir  respectinif  the  Trans- 
lations of  the  Sacred  Scriptures  Inlothi:  Lniicua{:es  of  India,  lomluctcd  by 
the  Brethren  at  Serainpore,"  8vo.  Serainpore,  1*J0.  The  Specimens  of 
Versions,  in  pp.  C.2— iVi,  have  been  siereolypcd  from  fuc-.-^imiles,  libe- 
rally coinniuiiicaicd  for  the  iifp  of  this  work,  by  the  Rov.  J.  Dyer,  one  of 
the  Serretaries  of  that  S.iriety. 

II  B\iclia:uii'iiCluis'.ian  Ue.,earches  in  .Asia,  pp. 2BC— 230.  (London,  1811. 


StcT.  VI.  §  3.] 


SANSCRIT  VERSIONS  AND  ITS  DIALECTS. 


49 


rived  there  in  June,  1811,  and  bv  the  middle  of  the  following  j'ear 
he  had  completed  his  work,  with  the  assistance  of  Mecr  Seyd  Ali, 
n  learned  native.  He  next  proceeded  to  translate  the  book  of 
Psalms  into  the  same  language  ;  and  thus  rendered  those  important 
parts  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures  into  the  vernacular  langtiage  of  two 
hundred  thousand  who  bear  the  Christian  name,  and  which  is 
'known  over  one  fourth  of  the  habitable  globe.  A  beautifully 
written  copy  of  Martyn's  translation  was  presented  by  Sir  Gore 
Ouseley,  bart.,  liis  majesty's  plenipotentiary  to  the  sovereign  of 
Persia,"  who  publicly  expressed  his  approbation  of  the  work.'  He 
subsequently  carried  another  copy  of  the  manuscript  to  Petersburg, 
where  it  was  printed  in  1815,  at  the  expense  of  the  Petersburg 
Bible  Society,  under  the  superintendence  of  Sir  G.  Ouseley.  A 
specimen  of  this  version  is  given  in  page  55.  A  modern  Persian 
version  of  the  historical  books  of  the  Old  Testament  is  in  progress 
also  at  Petersburg;  and  of  the  poetical  and  prophetical  books,  by 
the  Rev.  Mr.  Glen,  a  Scotfi.sh  missionary  at  Astraehan.^  The  book 
of  Psalms  and  the  Proverbs  have  been  printed.*  A  new  version 
of  Isaiah,  bv  Mirza  Ibrahim,  a  learned  Persian,  has  been  completed 
and  printed.-*  A  Persian  translation  of  the  Old  Testament  has 
been  commenced  by  the  Rev.  T.  Robinson,  chTiplain  at  Poonah, 
with  the  ianclion  of  the  late  Rt.  Rev.  Reginald  Ileber,  bi.shop  of 
Calcutta.' 

(3.)  Fiishloo  or  Affghan. — ^This  language  is  spoken  beyond  the 
river  Indus  by  a  people  who,  there  is  e\CTy  reason  to  conclude 
(from  the  coincidence  of  their  language  with  the  Chaldaic,  and 
irom  other  circumstances),  are  descended  from  the  ten  tribes  of 
Lsrael.  The  eminent  linguist,  the  late  John  Leyden,  M.D.,  com- 
menced a  translation  of  the  New  Testament ;  and  on  his  death,  in 
1812,  the  Baptist  missionaries  at  Serampore  procured  men  skilled 
in  the  language  to  complete  his  undertaking.  The  whole  of  the 
New  Testament  was  printed  at  the  mission  press  in  1818;  and  the 
Pentateuch  is  advanced  at  the  press  as  far  as  the  book  of  Leviticus. 
A  specimen  of  this  version  is  given  in  page  53. 

(4.)  Bulocha  or  Buloshee. — This  language  is  spoken  on  the  west- 
era  banks  of  ihe  Indus,  the  countrj'  of  Bulochistan  extending  west- 
ward to  Persia.  Considerable  progress  has  been  made  by  the  mis- 
sionaries in  tran.slating  the  New  Testament  into  this  dialect,  in 
which  they  have  primed  the  four  Gospels.  See  a  specimen  of  it 
in  page  54. 

2.   Versions  in  the  Sanscrit  or  Sungskrit  Imigiiage,  and  its 
connate  dialects. 

(1.)  Sanscrit. — This,  though  the  parent  of  all  the  languages 
spoken  in  western  and  southern  India,  is,  at  present,  the  current 
language  of  no  country,  tliough  it  is  spoken  by  the  learned  nearly 
throughout  India.  The  New  Testament  was  published  in  Sanscrit 
at  Serampore,  in  1808;  the  Pentateuch  and  historical  books  in 
1811;  the  Hagiographa  in  1816;  and  the  tran.slalion  of  the  pro- 
phetic books  was  finished  in  1818.  The  Baptist  missionaries  are 
preparing  a  new  edition  of  this  version,  which  is  read  with  great 
interest  by  the  Brahmins.    A  si)ecimen  of  it  is  given  in  page  52. 

(2.)  In  Western  India  not  fewer  than  tv;enti/-?ii!tc  languages  are 
derived  from  the  Sanscrit,  and  info  EiGiiTEE.vof  these  the  sacred 
volume  has  been  wholly  or  in  part  translated,  viz. 

i.  Tiie  Sikh,  Sheeh,  or  Punjahee,  which  is  spoken  in  the  province 
of  Punjab,  or  the  country  of  the  five  rivers  {fmm  punj  five,  and  ah 
water) :  into  this  language  the  entire  Bible  has  been  translated  and 
printed  at  the  Serampore  press.  See  a  specimen  of  it  in  page 
53. 

ii.  Tlie  Giijiiraf  or  Gitzurattce,  which  is  spoken  in  the  peninsula 
of  Guzurat;  in  this  language  the  entire  Bible  has  also  been  printed. 

iii.  The  Assamese,  or  language  of  the  kingdom  of  Assam,  in 
which  Ihe  New  Tes'ament  was  completed  and  printed  in  1819. 
See  a  specimen  in  page  53. 

The  New  Testament  has  also  been  translated  and  printed  in 

iv.  The  Kashmiree  or  A'as/t;neer<^hich  is  spoken  in  the  exten- 
sive province  of  Kashmire,  in  the  North  of  Hindostan  : — See  a  spe- 
cimen of  it  ill  page  52. 

V.  The  Wutch  or  Mul'anee,  or  dialect  of  Wnch,  a  country  on  the 
eastern  bank  of  the  Indus,  which  reaches  from  the  Punjab  to  Auch  ; 

vi.  The  Bikaneer,  which  is  spoken  to  the  south  of  the  Punjab, 
and  extends  westward  to  the  country  where  the  Wucha  begins ; 
and  ill 

vii.  The  Kunkuna,  which  language  begins  where  the  Guzurat- 
tee  ceases  to  be  vernacular,  and  is  spoken  at  Bombay,  and  thence 
up  the  coast  as  fiir  as  Goa.  On  the  completion  of  the  Pentateuch 
in  this  language,  the  Serampore  brethren  transferred  the  transla- 
tion of  the  remaining  books  of  the  Old  Testament  to  the  Bombay 
Auxiliary  Bible  Society. 

viii.  The  Mdriiiuar  or  Marwar,  which  is  spoken  to  the  south-west 
of  the  Bikaneer  country ; 

ix.  The  Oojuviiiee,  or  language  of  the  province  of  Oujein  ; 

X.  Tiic  Bundelkhundee,  spoken  in  the  province  of  Bundelkh-und  ; 
and 

xi.  The  Nepalese,  or  language  of  the  kingdom  of  Nepal. 


«  Twenty-iliinl  Report  of  the  Bible  Socictv  p.  xxxii. 
»  Twenty-seventh  Report,  p.  xlvii. 

*  Twcnfy-ninfh  Report,  p.  Ivii. 
'  Twentieth  Kepoil,  p.  Iii. 


The  Four  Gospels  have  bren  printed  in 

xii.  xiii.  The  Kanouj  or  Kanh'ikoohja ,  and  Jiimhoo  languages. 

77(6  Gospels  of  Matthew  and  Mark  have  been  priyited  in 

xiv.  XV.  xvi.  The  Palpa  Kausulee  or  Koshul,  and  Bhtitaneer  lan- 
guages, and  also  in 

xvii.  The  Magudha  or  Pali  language,  which  is  spoken  in  South 
Bahar.  It  begins  where  the  Mahratta  language  ends,  and  extends 
nearly  to  the  banks  of  the  Ganges,  and  is  the  learned  language  of 
Ceylon,  and  of  the  Burman  empire.  This  version  vias  commenced 
by  Mr.  W.  Tolfrey,  at  Colombo,  in  1813 :  and  on  his  death  in  1817, 
the  task  of  finishing  and  editing  it  was  confided  by  the  Colombo 
Auxiliary  Bible  Society  to  the  Rev.  Messrs.  Chater  and  Clough. 
It  was  completed  in  1832.*' 

xviii.  In  the  Oordoo  language  the  New  Testament  has  been 
printed,  from  the  revision  of  the  late  Rev.  T.  T.  Thomason  and 
Mr.  Da  Costa.^ 

(3.)  In  Southern  India  twelve  dialects  are  spoken,  that  are 
either  derived  from  the  Sanscrit,  or  bear  an  affinity  to  if,  and  into 
which  the  Scriptures  have  been  wholly  or  in  part  translated,  viz. 

i.  In  the  Mahratta,  of  wliich  language  Dr.  Carey  is  professor  at 
Calcutta,  the  Pentateuch  and  New  Testament,  translated  by  the 
Baptist  missionaries,  have  long  been  in  circulation,  and  the  histo- 
rical books  were  printed  in  1820.  The  accuracy  of  this  version 
having  been  impugned  by  an  anonymous  writer  in  the  Asiatic 
Journal  for  1829,  Mr.  W.  Greenfield  ably  vindicated  it  in  a  "De- 
fence" of  Dr.  Carey's  version,  which  was  published  in  1830.  See 
a  specimen  of  it  in  page  52.  A  new  translation  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament in  the  Mahratta  language,  by  the  American  mis.«ionnries  at 
Bombay,  was  printed  at  the  mission  press  in  that  city  in  182'3. 

ii.  The  Hindce  or  Ilindoostanhee,  being  spoken  over  an  immense 
tract  of  countrj'  in  India,  varies  much  in  its  dialects;  and  not  fewer 
than  three  different  translations  of  the  sacred  volume  have  bern 
printed.  The  earliest  was  that  of  the  Four  Gospels,  by  William 
Hunter,  Esq. ;  which  was  executed  at  the  press  of  the  college  of 
Fort  William.  Another  translation  was  completed  by  the  late 
Rev.  Henry  Martyn,*  in  1808,  and  printed  at  the  expense  of  the 
Calcutta  Auxiliary  Bible  Society.  A  revised  edition  of  this  ver- 
sion, by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Bowley  (one  of  the  missionaries  of  the  Church 
Missionary  Society,  who  is  stationed  at  Chunar),  was  finished  af. 
Calcutta  in  1820,  at  the  expense  of  the  same  society ;  and  several 
separate  books  of  the  Old  Testament  have  been  added."  In  1820 
the  Calcutta  Society  printed  a  large  edition  of  Mr.  Martyn's  version 
of  St.  Matthew's  Gospel  in  Ilindoostanhee,  with  the  English  on 
the  opposite  page;  and  of  Mr.  Bowley 's  revision,  wliicb,  by  the 
disn.^o  of  Arabic  and  Persian  words,  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  the 
inhabitants  of  Benares  and  the  upper  provinces  :  the  first  three 
Gospels  were  printed  in  the  same  year;  and  in  1826  the  entire 
New  Testament  was  completed. 'O  A  specimen  of  the  Ilindooslan- 
bee  version  in  the  Persian  character  is  given  in  page  54. 

The  third  Ilindee  version  of  the  New  Testament  was  completed 
many  years  since  by  the  missionaries  at  Serampore,  who  published 
the  Old  Testament  in  1818.  A  new  edition  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment was  printed  in  1820,  at  their  press,  from  a  new  version,  exe- 
cuted by  the  Rev.  John  Chamberlain,  whose  long  residence  in  the 
western  provinces  of  India,  together  with  his  intimate  knowledge 
of  the  poptilar  dialects  of  the  Hindoos,  has  eminently  qualified  him 
for  the  undertaking.  A  specimen  of  this  version  is  given  in  page 
53. 

iii.  In  the  Bengalee,  or  language  of  the  province  of  Bengal,  the 
whole  of  the  Scriptures  is  published,  and  the  b)ok  of  Common 
Prayer  has  been  translated  by  the  Rev.  Deocar  Schmid.  Five 
editions  of  the  New  Testament  and  two  of  the  Psalms,  and  some 
other  parts  of  the  Old  Testament,  have  been  printed;  and  a  new 
edition  of  the  entire  Bible  is  preparing,  in  one  large  royal  8vo.  vo- 
lume, together  with  two  thousand  extra  copies  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment in  12mo.  This  edition  was  printed  on  paper  made  of  the  sk7i 
plant  (Crotalaria  jnncca),  which,  though  inferior  to  English  paper 
in  point  of  colour,  is  equally  impervious  to  the  worm,  and  far  more 
durable.  A  large  edition  of  the  Gospels  of  St.  Matthew  and  St 
John,  in  English  and  Bengalee,  on  opposite  pages,  was  printed  at 
Calcutta  in  1820,  chiefly  for  the  benefit  of  tlie  natives  who  are 
attached  to  public  offices  and  houses  of  agency.  See  a  specimen 
of  the  Bengalee  version  in  page  52. 

A  new  Bengalee  version  of  the  New  Testament,  completed  by 
the  late  Mr.  Ellerton,  was  printed  at  Calcutta  in  1820:"  and  the 
Rev.  Mr.  Yates,  a  learned  missionai-y,  has  been  appointed  to  pre- 
pare a  version  of  the  Psalms  in  Bengalee.'^ 

iv.  The  Ooriya  or  Orissa  language  is  spoken  in  the  province  of 
that  name;  it  has  a  very  close  affinity  to  the  Bengalee,  but  with 
different  terminations,  and  a  different  character.  In  this  language 
the  entire  Bible  was  translated  by  the  Baptist  missionaries  several 

6  Twenty  seventh  Report,  p.liv.    Twenty-ninth  Report,  p.  l.xiv. 

'  Twenty-seventh  Report,  p.  xlviii. 

e  To  tliis  eminently  learned  and  exemplary  divine,  the  native  Christians 
and  others,  who  speak  the  Ilindoostanhee  language,  ai-e  indebted  fur  a  com- 
pemlium  of  the  Lituray  of  the  Anglican  Church,  which  was  translated  jjy 
him,  and  printed  in  ISIS,  at  the  expense  of  the  Prayer  Book  and  Homily 
Society  of  London.  Mr.  Martyn  was  the  Jirst  clergyman  of  that  church  in 
India  who  introduced  her  service  to  our  native  subjects  in  Bengal.  His 
work,  having  received  frequent  revision  and  amendment,  is  esteemed  by 
competent  judges  to  be  a  perspicuous  and  faithful  version  of  the  sublime 
original. 

>  Memoirs  of  Martyn,  p.  202.  Sixteenth  Report  of  the  Bible  Society,  pp. 
Ixxi.  182,  183.    Twenty-third  Report,  p.  xxxvi. 

>«  Twenty-first  Report,  p.  xlii, 

»'  Spveiueenth  Report,  p.  Ivii. 

«•»  Twenty-third  Report,  p.  xx.xvi. 


50 


MODERN  VERSIONS  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


[PxBT  I.  Chap.  1 


years  since :  a  second  edition  of  the  New  Testament  is  nearly 
completed  at  Serampore.  A  specimen  of  this  version  is  given  in 
paee  53.  . 

V.  The  Brij-Bhassa  language,  which  is  spoken  in  the  upper  pro- 
vinces of  Hiiidoos:an,  contains  a  greater  mixture  of  the  Sanscrit 
than  most  of  the  other  dialects  of  the  Hindee.  The  four  Gospels 
have  been  translated;  and  the  Gospel  of  Sl  Matthew  was  printed 
in  1816.  See  a  specimen  of  it  in  page  53.  The  Brij-Bhussa  ver- 
sion is  likely  to  be  more  acceptable  to  the  inhabitants  ot  the  provmce 
of  Dooab  than  the  Hindoostanhee. 

vi.  The  Kurnala,  Canarese,  or  Karnatica  language  is  spoken  ni 
the  country  extending  northward  from  Tellicherry  to  Goa,  and 
eastward  from  the  coast  of  Malabar  to  the  country  where  the  Taniul 
is  spoken,  including  the  whole  of  the  Mysore.  fTi  this  language 
the  New  Testament  was  printed  in  1820,  from  the  translation  of 
the  Rev.  Mr.  Hands.  A  specimen  of  it  is  given  in  page  54.  Tiie 
Old  Testament  was  completed  in  1832,  and  the  New  Testament 
has  been  carefully  revised  preparatory  to  a  new  edition.' 

vii.  The  Tainul  lumjuase  is  spoken  in  the  south-eastern  part  of 
India,  from  Madras  to^Cape  Comorin.  Two  dillerent  translations 
have  been  made  in  this  language.  The  first  was  executed  by  the 
learned  German  missionaries,  who  were  educated  at  Halle,  and 
were  employed  in  the  last  century  by  the  Danish  government. 
The  New  Testament  was  commenced  by  Bartholomew  Ziegcnbalg, 
in  1708,  and  finished  in  1711.  A  printing  press  and  paper  having 
been  provided  ut  Trangucbar  by  the  assistance  of  the  venerable 
Society  for  promoting  Christian  Knowledge,  this  translation,  after 
having  been  revised  liy  Griindlcr,  another  missionary,  who  arrived 
after  Ziegenbalg,  was  put  to  press  in  1714,  and  finished  in  the  fol- 
lowing year.  This  Tamul  New  Testament  was  reprinted  at  Tran- 
quebar  in  1722,  and  again  in  1758,  and  also  at  Colombo  in  1743. 
In  the  year  1717,  Ziegenbalg  commenced  a  Tamul  version  of  the 
Old  Testament;  but  he  died  in  1719,  having  finished  only  the  Pen- 
tateuch with  the  books  of  Jo.shua  and  Judges.  The  translation  was 
continued  and  completed  bv  the  distinguished  missionary  Benjamin 
Schultz,  who  arrived  at  Tranquebar  in  1719:  it  was  printed  at 
Tranquebar,  in  four  volumes,  in  the  years  1723-26-27,  and  28. 
The  second  translation  of  the  New  Testament  into  Tamul  was 
made  by  Fabricius,  another  German  missionary^  at  Madras,  where 
it  was  printed  in  1777.-  In  1814  an  edition  of  the  Tamul  New 
Testament  was  completed  at  the  Serampore  press,  at  the  expense 
of  the  Calcutta  Auxiliary  Bible  Society;  and  as  the  lapse  of  years 
rendered  further  correction  of  it  necessary,  the  Rev.  T.  C.  E.  Rhe- 
nius  and  the  Rev.  Dr.  Rotiler*  at  Madras  were  employed  to  revise 
Fabricius's  version.  Their  labfjurs  having  been  highly  approved 
by  competent  judges,  the  Madras  Bible  Society  in  1823  printed  a 
revised  edition  of  the  Old  Testament.^  The  revised  version  of  the 
Gospel  of  Su  Matthew  has  been  primed  and  extensively  circulated ; 
ami  the  remainder  of  the  New  Testament  is  to  follow.*  See  a  spe- 
cimen of  tlio  Tamul  version  in  page  5.5. 

viii.  The  Telinga  language,  sometimes  called  the  Teloogoo,  is 
spoken  in  the  Northern  Circars.  In  this  language,  which  appears 
to  be  a  dialect  of  the  Tamul,  the  missionary  Schultz,  above  noticed, 
translated  the  Bible  :  but  it  was  never  printed."  A  Telinga  version 
of  the  New  Testament  was  executed  by  the  missionaries  at  Seram- 
pore, in  1818;  and  the  Pentateuch  was  subsequently  printed.  On 
the  completion  of  the  Pentateuch,  the  honour  of  finishing  this  ver- 
sion was  resigned  to  the  Madras  Auxiliary  Bible  Society :  a  re- 
vised edition  of  the  New  Testament  has  been  printed.  A  specimen 
of  the  Telinga  version  is  given  in  page  53. 

ix.  While  the  Dutch  had  settlements  in  the  island  of  Ceylon, 
they  were  not  inattentive  to  imparting  the  Scriptures  tosuchof  ihc 
natives  as  embraced  the  Christian  faith.  The  four  Gospels  were 
translated  into  Cingalese,  or  the  language  of  that  island,  and  were 
printed  at  Colombi)  in  1739,  and  again  in  1780;  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,  in  1771;  the  Psalms  in  1755,  and  again  in  1768;  and  the 
entire  IS'ew  Testament,  together  with  the  hooka  of  Genesis,  Exo- 
dus, and  Leviticus,  were  printed  at  the  same  place  in  1783.  After 
Ceylon  had  become  part  of  the  British  empire,  a  new  Cingalese 
version  of  the  New  Testament  was  undertaken  by  Mr.  W.  Tolfrey, 
aided  by  native  assistants,  under  tlie  patronage  and  at  the  expense 
of  tlie  (Colombo  Auxiliary  Society.  That  noihing  might  be  omiiled 
which  could  ensure  the  excellence  of  tliis  translation,  two  hundred 
copies  of  the  CJospels  of  Matthew  and  Mark  were  printed  o(i;  and 
cXculaied  among  the  Modeliars  (native  magistrates),  propononis, 
and  calcchists  at  Colombo,  who  were  the  best  skilled  in  Cingalese; 
several  were  also  sent  to  the  sctllemcnts  of  Point  de  Galle  and 
Matura,  where  that  Inngungo  is  siwhen  in  the  greatest  purity. 
Pains  were  taken  to  obtain  a  fair  and  candid  opinion  of  the  new 
work;  and  it  is  satisfactory  to  know,  from  the  decision  of  numerous 
and  competent  juilges,  that  tlic  language  and  style  of  this  cxlcn- 
sivc  specimen  of  the  new  version  were  not  only  pure,  and  suitable 
to  tlic  dignity  of  the  subject,  hut  also  plain  and  iiilelligil)lc.  Mr. 
Tolfrey  had  gone  through  repeated  revisions  of  the  whole  New 
Testament,  and  had  finally  corrected  to  the  end  of  the  second 

'  Twenty  fifth  Report  of  tlie  Bibl«  Society,  pp.  Iviil.  lix.  Twcnty-nlntli 
Report,  p.  Ixi. 

»  Blshon  Marsli's  Hislory  of  the  Translations  of  the  ScripturcB,  p,  37. 

»  The  Kcv.  Dr.  Rotllcr  also  translated  tlie  book  of  Cuiiiinoii  Prayer  into 
the  Tamul  langunftc :  It  was  printed  at  Madras  In  l^IO,  in  (pmrto. 

•  Sixteenth  Repoitofthc  Bible  Society,  p.  183.  Nineteenth  Report,  p.  lix. 

•  Twcniy-third  Report,  p.  xxxvii. 

•  hi  1820,  llic  Prayer  Book  and  Ilomily  Society  of  London  made  a  crant 
of  books  to  bo  Bold  at  Marlra^t,  tlie  proceeds  of  which  were  a|ijilied  in  ni<l 
of  the  printing  tho  book  of  Common  Prayer  In  the  Tamul  and  Malayalim 
languages. 


I  chapter  of  the  second  epistle  to  Timothy,  when  his  labours  were 
interrupted  by  a  sudden  death,  in  1817.  The  Cingalese  New  Tes- 
tament was  finished  and  printed  by  the  luiited  exertions  of  the 
Rev.  Messrs.  Chater  and  Clough  (the  former  a  Baptist,  and  the  lat- 
ter a  Wesleyan-Methodist  missionary),  and  of  Mr.  Armour,  an  in- 
telligent schoolmaster  of  the  latter  connection  ;  and  measures  were 
taken  for  adding  to  it  the  Old  Testament,  of  which  only  the  first 
three  books  of  Moses  had  been  hitherto  translated.  A  second  edi- 
tion of  the  Cingalese  translation  of  the  New  Testament  was  com- 
pleted in  1820;  and  the  Old  Testament  was  printed  in  1823,  in 
three  volumes,  4io.  Sec  a  specimen  of  the  Cingalese  Testament, 
in  p.  55.'  In  1826  an  Indo-Portuguese  version  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, executed  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Newstead,  was  printed  in  England.^ 
X.  A  translation  of  the  New  Testament  into  the  Maldivian  lan- 
guage (which  is  spoken  in  the  small  but  very  numerous  Maldivian 
islands,  that  lie  to  the  south-west  of  Ceylon)  has  been  commenced 
by  the  missionaries  at  Serampore.  Tlie  Gospel  of  Matthew  has 
been  completed. 

xi.  In  1612  (a  few  years  after  the  establishment  of  the  Dutch 
East  India  Company),  Albert  Cornelius  Ruyl  began  a  translation 
of  the  New  Testainent  into  the  Malay  language,  which  is  spoken 
not  only  in  Malacca,  but  in  Java  ami  many  other  islands  of  tho 
Indian  archipelago.  He  lived  only  to  finish  the  Gospels  of  Matthew 
and  Mark,  which  were  sent  to  Holland,  where  they  were  printed 
at  Enkhuysen  in  1629,  and  again,  at  Amsterdam,  in  1638.  In  1646 
the  Gospels  of  Luke  and  John,  translated  by  M.  van  Ilassel,  one 
of  the  East  India  directors,  was  printed  at  Amsterdam,  where  the 
four  Gospels  v^'ere  again  printed  in  1651,  accompanied  with  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles ;  and  in  1668,  the  whole  New  Testament  in 
the  Malay  language  was  printed  at  Amsterdam.  From  this  edition 
the  Gospels  and  Acts  were  printed  at  Oxford  in  1677,  and  again  in 
1704.  Of  the  Old  Testament  in  the  Malay  language,  some  portions 
were  printed  in  the  seventeenth  century;  but  the  first  edition  of 
the  entire  Malay  Bible  was  printed  in  1731  and  1733,  in  Roman 
characters.  Another  edition  of  the  whole  Malay  Bible  was  printed 
in  the  Arabic  character  at  Batavia,  in  1758.^  This  version  having 
become  extremely  scarce,  an  edition  of  the  Malay  Bible  in  Roman 
characters  was  printed  at  Calcutta,  in  1815-17,  under  the  direction 
of  the  Auxiliary  Bib'e  Society  there,  aided  by  a  munificent  grant 
of  10,000  sicca  rupees  from  the  Governor-general  in  council,  on  the 
part  of  the  honourable  East  India  Company.  Another  edition  of 
the  Malay  Bible,  in  Roman  characters,  has  been  completed  at  the 
expense  of  tlie  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society;  and  another  edi- 
tion, in  Arabic  characters,  revised  by  the  Rev.  R.  S.  Hutchiiigs, 
was  completed  at  Calcutta  in  1822,  under  the  direction  of  the 
Auxiliary  Bible  Society  there.  Specimens  of  the  Malay  version, 
both  in  Roman  and  in  Arabic  characters,  are  gi'  en  in  page  55.  As 
a  dialect  of  the  Malay  is  spoken  at  Batavia,  t}  e  Java  Bible  Society, 
in  1814,  engaged  the  Rev.  Mr.  Robinson  (a  Baptist  missionarj'),  and 
Mr.  Kool,  a  native  translator  to  the  government  of  that  island,  to 
undertake  a  version  of  the  New  Testament  in  that  dialect,  which 
lias  since  been  completed.  See  a  specimen  of  this  version,  com- 
prising the  Lord's  Prayer  in  Javanese,  translated  by  the  Rev.  Mr. 
Trovvt,  another  missionary  from  the  B.iptist  Society,  in  page  55. 

A  new  version  of  the  New  Testanv  nt  in  the  Javanese  language, 
by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Briickner,  was  printed  at  Seramixire  in  1831.'" 

xii.  The  Malayalim,  or  Malabar  language,  is  spoken  on  the  coast 
of  Malabar,  in  tlie  country  of  Travancore.  In  this  language  -the 
Scriptures  have  been  translated  by,  or  under  the  direction  of,  the 
Rev.  Benjamin  Bailey,  one  of  the  missionaries  sent  to  India  by  the 
Church  Missionary  Society ;  and  the  New  Testament  has  been 
printed."  The  Malayalim  sjHjken  by  the  Syrian  Christians  of  Tra- 
vancore differs  greatly,  both  in  words  and  idioms,  from  that  sjxiken 
in  the  northern  parts  of^  Malabar. '^  In  order  to  render  the  Malaya- 
lim version  of  the  Bible  as  correct  as  possible,  the  Calcutta  Bible 
Society  in  1820  sent  a  printing-press,  types,  and  paper,  to  Cotym 
where  a  new  college  has  been  founded  for  the  Syrian  Christians 
by  the  Rajah  of  Travancore  and  Colonel  Munro,  the  British  resi 
dent  at  his  court.  • 

3.   Versions  in  the  Cniyzsz  and  the  latig'ttagea  derived  from 
or  bearing-  affinity  to  it. 
Chinese  Versions. 
The  Chinese  langungr,  in  the  characters  peculiar  to  it,  is  read 
not  only  throughout  China,  but  al-'-'o  in  Cochinchina  and  Japan,  by 
a  [Kjpulation  of  more  than  three  hundred  millions  of  persons.  Two 
versions  of  the  entire  Bible  are  extant  in  this  language,  the  trans- 
lators of  which  have  been  aided  in  their  arduous  and  expensive 
undertakings  by  the  British  niid  Foreign  Bible  Society.  The  earliest 
of  these  was  commenced  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Marshman,  at  Sernmpore, 
by  whom  the  New  Testament  was  printed  in  1814.     Tiie  transla- 
tion of  the  Old  TestaitienI,  which  was  executed  many  years  since, 
has  been  printed  in  detached  portions,  and  at  different  times.     Tho 
Historical  Books,  which  finish  the  Bible,  wore  completed  in  1821 

'  Owen's  History  of  the  Bible  Society,  vol.  ill.  pp.  120. 32.1. -109.  Sixteenth 
Report  of  that  Society,  p.  Iht).  In  1H2(>,  the  Book  of  t'oiiiinoii  Pmycr  was 
translated  into  Ciiignlvsc,  under  the  direction  of  the  Hon.  and  Rev.  T.  J. 
Twisleton,  D.D.  Archdeacon  of  Colombo. 

•  Twenty  first  Ko|)ort,  p.  xlvil.    Twenty  second  Report,  p.  xlvl. 

•  Bishop  Marsh's  History  of  Translations,  p.  35. 
i»  Twenty-seventh  Report,  p.  xlix.  I. 
"  Iliid.  p.  11. 
•»  Missionary  Rcsister,  for  1820,  p  48.    The  Gospel  of  St.  Luke  was  the 

first  portion  printed.    Twenty-third  Report,  p.  xxjiviil.    Twenty  fifth  Bo- 
port,  p.  lix. 


Sect-  VI.  §  3.] 


ASIATIC  VERSIONS. 


51 


The  missionaries  at  Seramporc  arc  possessed  of  several  sets  of  Chi- 
nese characters,  both  in  wooden  blocks  and  also  in  metal  types:  a 
specimen  irom  the  latter  is  given  in  page  64.  The  other  version 
was  commenced  in  1812  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Morrison,  then  of  Canton," 
aided  by  the  (late)  Rev.  Dr.  Milne  at  Malacca  (both  in  the  employ 
of  llic  London  Missionary  Society),  and  was  finished  in  1823.2 
The  New  Testament  of  this  version  has  been  circulated  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  among  tlie  Chinese  inhabitants  of  Java,  and  of  the 
islarrds  in  the  Indian  seas,  and  with  llie  happiest  effects.^  An  edi- 
tion of  the  Mantchou  (Tartar)  Chinese  version  of  the  Gospel  of 
Matthew  was  printed  in  1822,  at  the  expense  of  the  British  and  Fo- 
reign Bible  Society.-* 

From  the  Chinese  language  are  derived  seven  others,  which  are 
jpoken  in  Eastern  India.  Into  three  of  these  the  New  Testament 
is  now  in  course  of  translation,  viz.  the  Khassee  or  Kassai,  the 
Munipoora,  and  the  Burman. 

i.  The  Khassee  or  Kassai  language  is  spoken  by  an  independent 
nation  of  mounlaincers,  lying  between  the  eastern  border  of  Ben- 
gal and  the  nortlicrn  border  of  the  Burman  empire.  In  this  lan- 
guage the  Baptist  missionaries  have  translated  and  printed  the  four 
Gospels. 

ii.  The  Munipoora  is  spoken  in  the  small  kingdom  of  that  name, 
which  lies  between  Assam  and  the  Burman  empire.  The  Gospel 
of  Matthew  has  been  printed  in  this  language. 

iii.  The  Burman  language,  which  is  spoken  in  the  empire  of  that 
name,  has  borrowed  the  Sanscrit  alphabet.  Into  this  language  the 
New  Testament  has  been  translated  by  Mr.  Felix  Carey,  son  of  the 
Rev.  Dr.  Carey  of  Serampore.  The  Gospel  of  Matthew  was  print- 
ed by  him  at  Rangoon,  in  the  Burman  empire,  in  royal  octavo,  in 
1817.  A  specimen  of  it  is  given  in  page  54.  The  Gospel  and 
three  Epistles  of  John,  together  with  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  and 
the  Epistle  of  Paul  to  the  Ephesians,  have  also  been  translated  into 
the  Burman  language  by  the  Rev.  Adoniram  Judson. 

In  concluding  the  preceding  notice  of  the  versions,  executed 
principally  by  the  learned  Baptist  missionaries,  and  at  their  press, 
it  is  impossible  not  to  recognise  the  hand  of  God,  who  has  raised 
up  and  qualified  them  for  the  arduous  task  to  which  they  have  de- 
voted their  time,  money,  and  labour:  for  though  they  have  been 
nobly  assisted  by  subscriptions  and  grants  from  Em-ope,  yet  it 
ought  not  to  be  forgotten  that  they  have  largely  conti'ibuled  to  de- 
fray the  expenses  of  translating  and  printing  out  of  those  profits 
which  their  extraordinary  acquirements  have  enabled  them  to 
realize.  They  have  translated  and  printed  the  whole  of  the  sacred 
Scriptures  mfwe  of  the  languages  of  India  ;  the  whole  of  the  New 
Testament  in  ffleen  others ;  in  six  other  languages  it  is  more  than 
half  printed,  and  in  ten  others  considerable  progress  has  been  made 
in  the  work  of  translation.  And  the.se  vast  undertakings  have  been 
accomplished  within  the  short  space  of  thirty  years,  since  the  com- 
mencement of  their  first  version  (the  New  Testament  in  Bengalee). 
When  we  consider  the  experience  which  they  have  gained, — the 
number  of  learned  natives  whom  they  have  trained  up  and  accus- 
tomed to  the  work  of  translation, — the  assistance  which  is  lo  be 
derived  from  our  countrymen  in  various  parts  of  India,  who  are 
acquainted  with  any  of  its  dialects, — and  the  advantages  now  en- 
joyed for  printing  at  a  moderate  expense, — we  may  reasonably 
indulge  the  hope  that,  in  the  course  of  a  few  years  more,  the  word 
of  lile  will  be  extant  in  all  the  diftbrent  languages  and  dialects  of 
[ndia. 


[jr.]    Other  Asiatic  Versions  of  the  Holy  Scriptures. 

1.  Formosan  Version. 

The  island  of  Formosa  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Dutch,  who 
expelled  the  Portuguese  thence,  in  1651.  During  their  eleven 
years'  possession  of  it,  Robert  Junius,  a  native  of  IJclft,  preached 
the  Gospel  to  the  inhabitants,  and,  it  is  said,  with  grpat  success. 
For  their  use  the  Gospels  of  Matthew  and  John  were  translated 
into  the  Formosan  language,  and  printed  at  Amsterdam,  with  the 
Dutch  translation,  in  1661,  in  quarto.  But  the  Dutch  being  ex- 
pelled from  that  island  by  the  Chinese  in  1662,  the  Formosan  ver- 
sion was  discontinued  •.  and  in  all  probability  the  Formosans  never 
received  any  benefit  from  the  work  just  noticed.^ 

2.  JVorthern  Asiatic  Versions.^ 

Russia  in  Asia  is  inhabited  by  numerous  races,  whom  Dr. 
Young  (after  the  Milhridates  of  Adelung)  refers  to  the  Tataric 

I  To  Dr.  Morrison  the  Christians  in  China  are  indebted  for  a  version  of 
the  Liturgy  and  Psalter  of  tlie  Anglican  Church.  Having  presented  the 
Chinese  with  the  Scriptures  in  ttieirnative  language,  this  distinguished  ori- 
ental scholar  (who,  to  his  honour  be  it  recorded,  is  a  conscientious  dissen- 
ter from  that  church)  was  desirous  of  giving  them  a  formulary  in  which 
tliey  might  offer  acceptable  devotions  to  the  throne  of  grace  :  and  as  he 
could  find  no  form  which  so  completely  met  his  views  as  the  Liturgy  of  the 
Church  of  England,  he  translated  it  into  the  Chinese  language.  This  ver- 
sion was  printed  in  1820,  at  the  expense  of  the  Prayer  Book  and  Homily 
Society. 

»  Owen's  Hist.  vol.  ii.  p.  467.  Sixteenth  Report,  p.  Ixxvi.  Nineteenth 
Report,  p.  Ixii. 

3  Many  authentic  particulars  were  communicated  to  the  Java  Bible  So- 
ciety by  their  late  secretary,  the  Rev.  Mr.  Supper:  some  of  these  arc  re- 
corded by  Mr.  Owen,  vol.  iii.  pp.  224, 225. 

*  Nineteenth  Repoi-t,  p.  Ii. 

'  Dr.  Clarke's  Bibliographical  Dictionary,  vol.  i.  p.  288. 

6  Towards  the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century,  a  translation  of  the  New 

Testament  and  of  the  Psalms  of  David  into  the  Tatar  language  was  made 

by  Johannes  a  Monte  Corvino,  in  order  to  accelerate  the  propagation  of  the 

Gospel  among  the  dark  and  idolatrous  nations  to  whom  he  had  been  sent 

Vol.  II.  3  Z 


class.''  Into  twelve  of  these  languages  it  may  be  sufficient  to  state 
(without  going  into  minuter  details)  that  translations  of  the  sacred 
volume  are  either  printed  or  preparing,  under  the  direction  and  at 
the  expense  of  the  Russian  Bible  Society ;  viz.  the  Nogai  Tatar,^ 
Mongolian,  Calmuck,  Orenburg-Tatar.^  Tschuwaschian,  Tschere- 
missian,  Tatar-Hebrew  (spoken  in  the  interior  of  Asia),  Mordwa- 
schian  or  Mordvinian,  Samoiedian,  Tschapoginian,  Zirian,  and  Os- 
satinian.  Of  these  various  translations,  the  Moravian  Missionaries  at 
Sarepta,  on  the  banks  of  the  Wolga,  in  Asiatic  Russia,  have  com- 
pleted the  four  Gospels  and  the  Acts  in  the  Calmuck  language  ;  and 
the  remainder  of  the  New  Testament  was  translated  t^y  M.  Schmidt. 
The  entire  New  Testament,  in  this  language,  was  printed  in  1823  ; 
as  also  were  the  Mongolian  (executed  by  two  converted  Mongolian 
chieftains,  under  the  superintendence  of  M.  Schmidt),  Tscheremis- 
sia?i,  and  Mordwachian  versions  of  the  four  Gospels.  The  Rev.  Mr. 
Dickson,  one  of  the  Edinburgh  Missionary  Society's  missionaries  at 
Karass,  has  completed  and  printed  a  Tatar-Turkish  version  of  the 
entire  New  Testament,  and  a  considerable  portion  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament; but  no  part  of  it  has  yet  been  published.  The  Tatar- 
Turkish  language  is  vernacular  among  the  Tatars  of  Astrachan. 
In  1816,  the  Rev.  Dr.  Pinkerton,  while  travelling  in  the  Crimea, 
discovered,  at  Dschoufout  Kale,  a  copy  of  a  pure  Tatar  translation 
of  the  Old  Testament  from  the  Hebrew,  which  was  made  several 
centuries  ago.  This  has  been  revised,  and  printed  at  St.  Petersburg.'" 


3.   The  Georgian  Version. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  whole  of  the 
New  Testament,  together  with  the  Psalms  and  the  Prophets,  w^as 
printed  in  the  Georgian  language,  at  Teflis,  in  Georgia,  by  order 
of  the  Prince  Vaktangh.  The  entire  Bible  was  printed  at  Moscow 
in  1743,  in  folio,  under  the  inspection  of  the  Princes  Arcil  and  Va- 
kuset,  but  at  the  expense  of  Prince  Bacchar.  From  this  edition  the 
Moscow  Bilile  Society  printed  an  impression  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment in  1816,  in  the  sacred  or  ecclesiastical  character,  and  another 
in  1818,  in  the  common  character."  According  to  the  tradition  of 
the  Greek  church,  the  Georgian  version  was  originally  made  in  the 
eighth  century,  by  Euphemius  the  Georgian,  the  founder  of  the 
Ibirian  or  Georgian  monastery  at  Mount  Athos,  where  his  actual 
autograph  was  discovered  in  the  year  1817,  and  is  preserved  to  this 
day.  As  the  greater  part  of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament  of  this 
ancient  version  was  lost  in  the  wars  in  which  the  Georgians  were  so 
frequently  involved  with  the  Persians  and  Turks,  the  editors  of  the 
Moscow  edition  were  obliged  to  translate  most  of  the  books  of  the 
Old  Testament  from  the  Sclavonian  version.  The  Moscow  Bible 
Society  are  taking  measures  to  obtain  a  correct  transcript  of  En- 
phemius's  manuscript,  from  which  to  print  a  faithful  edition  of  the 
Georgian  Bible. '2  Two  MSS.  of  the  Georgian  version  of  the  Gos- 
pels are  said  to  be  preserved  in  the  Vatican  Library  at  Rome. 


4.  JModern  Armenian  Version. 

A  translation  of  the  four  Gospels  into  the  modern  Armenian  lan- 
guage, from  the  ancient  Armenian  text,  has  been  completed  by  a 
learned  Armenian  resident  at  Paris  \  who  has  undertaken  a  version 
of  the  entire  New  Testament. '^  In  1830  the  missionaries  at  Shushi, 
connected  with  the  Basle  Missionary  Society,  completed  a  versioa 
of  the  four  Gospels  into  the  Ararat  or  Eastern  Armenian  dialect, 
which  was  printed  at  Moscow.'"* 

5.   Tahitan  Version. 

The  blessed  effects  with  which  the  labours  of  the  missionaries 
(sent  out  by  the  London  Missionary  Society  in  1796)  have  been 
crowned,  liave  already  been  noticed  in  the  first  volume  of  this 
work,  p.  175.  In  conseqtience  of  the  extraordinary  success  which 
attended  the  preaching  of  the  Gospel  in  Otaheite  (or  Tahiti,  as 
the  natives  term  that  island)  and  in  Huaheine,  Eimeo,  and  other 
neighbouring  islands,  openings  have  been  made  of  the  most  pro- 
mising nature  for  the  dissemination  of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  Aided 
by  grants  of  paper  from  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  the 
missionaries  in  1818  printed  3000  copies  of  the  Gospel  of  Luke'^  in 
the  Tahitan  language,  and  in  1820,  having  received  further  supplies, 
they  completed  five  thousand  copies  of  the  Gospel  of  Matthew, 
which  were  sought  with  avidity,  and  received  with  gratitude  by 
all.    "The  Gospels  of  Luke  and  John,  and  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles, 

as  a  missionary  in  1288  by  Pope  Nicholas  IV.  (Mosheim's  Eccl.  Hist.  vol. 
iii.  pp.  113.  299.)  No  vestiges  of  this  Tatar  version  are  known  to  be  in 
existence. 

1  See  the  Supplement  to  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  vol.  v.  part  ii.  pp. 
225—227. 

8  For  an  account  of  these  Tatar  versions,  see  Dr.  Henderson's  Biblical 
Researches,  pp.  424.  et  seq. 

1  Dr.  Henderson's  Biblical  Researches,  pp.  427,t428.  Report  of  the  Scotf 
tish  Missionary  Society  for  1S24,  p.  16. 

10  Owen's  History,  vol.  iii.  pp.  211—215.  Sixteenth  Report  of  the  Bible 
Society,  pp.  43,  44.  55.  07.     Nineteenlh  Report,  p.  h. 

"  Bishop  Marsh's  History  of  Translations,  p.  32.  Dr.  Henderson's  Bib- 
lical Researches  (pp.  513—522.)  contain  an  interesting  account  of  the  editions 
of  the  Georgian  versions. 

««  Sixteenth  Report  of  the  Bible  Society,  pp.  33—33. 

>3  Nineteenth  Report,  pp.  xxi. 

"  Twenty-seventh  Report,  p.  xlvii.  Twenty-eighth  Report,  p.  Ivi. 

'  s  An  interesting  account  of  the  introduction  of  printing  into  Tahita,  and 
of  the  printing  of  St.  Luke's  Gospel,  is  given  by  Mr.  Ellis  in  his  "Pclyi«- 
sian  Researches,"  vol.  i.  pp.  392—403.    8vo.  edition.  - 


52 


MODERN  VERSIONS  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


[Part  I.  Chap.  F. 


have  also  been  translated  and  printed  ;  and  a  Tahitan  version  has 
been  completed  of  the  Psalms,  and  several  other  Books  of  the  Old 
Testament.  Five  thousand  copies  of  the  books  of  Daniel,  Esther, 
and  Ruth  have  left  the  press.'  At  Borabora,  the  Epistles  have 
been  completed,  and  every  practicable  care  is  used  to  ensure 
fidelity .2  The  following  titles  and  specimens  of  the  Tahitan  version 
of  tlie  Gospels  of  Matthew  and  John  will  be  not  uninteresting  to 
the  reader. 

1.  Te  Evanelia  a  Mataio  ho  Iesu  Chuist  to  tatotj 
FATu;  Iuithia  EI  Parau  Tjtnm.  Cnljftl :  Phinted  at  the 
WiNDWAHD  Missios  Pkess.     1820,  12mo. 

(TAe  Lord's  Prayer.  Matt.  VI.  9—13.) 
9.  E  to  matou  Medua  i  te  ao  ra,  ia  raa  to  oe  ioa. 

10.  Ia  tae  to  oe  ra  hau  ;  ia  haapaohia  te  oe  hinaaro  i  te  fenua  nei, 
mai  tei  te  ao  atoa  na. 

11.  Ilomai  na  matou  i  teinei  raahana  tei  haapaohia  ra  o  te  mahana 
0  te  maa,  o  te  mahana  o  te  maa. 

12.  E  faaorc  mai  i  ta  matou  hapa,  mai  ta  matou  mau  amu  tarahu  i 
faaore  atoahia  e  matou  nei. 

«  Twenty  third  Report  of  the  Bible  Society,  p.  xlvi. 

»  Twentieth  Report,  p.  Ivi.    Twenty-second  Report,  p.  Uix. 


13.  E  eiaha  faarue  ia  matou  ia  roohia  e  te  ati  ra,  e  faaora  ra  ia 
matore,  no  oe  hoi  te  hau,  e  te  mana,  i  te  hanahana,  i  te  mau  ui 
atoa  e  ore  e  hope.    Amene. 

2.  Te    Etanelia    a    Ioaxe    no   Iesu    CnnisT    to   tatou 

FATOC  :  IHITHIA  EI  PjRJU  TAHITI.      STnijftl :    PniXTED    AT   THK 

WiNUWABD  Mission  PiiEss.    1821.  12mo. 
(Jolin  III.  11— 17.) 

14.  Ma  ia  Mose  i  faa  teitei  i  te  ophi  i  te  fenua  aihere  ra,  oia  loa  te 
Tamaidi  a  te  Taata  e  faa  teitei  atoa  hia  ia. 

15.  la  ore  ia  poe  te  faaroo  ia'na  ra,  ia  roaa  te  ora  mure  ore. 

16.  I  aroha  mai  te  Atua  i  to  te  ao,  e  ua  tae  roa  te  horoa  mai  i  fa'na 
Tamaidi  t'anau  tahi,  ia  ore  ia  pohe  te  iaaroo  ia'na  ra,  ia  roau  te 
ora  mure  ore. 

18.  Aore  hoi  te  Atua  i  tono  mai  i  ta'na  Tamaidi  i  te  ao  nei  e  faa 
hapa  i  to  te  ao,  ia  ora  ra  to  te  ao  ia'na. 

6.    Cvrdish  Versions, 

A  Translation  of  the  New  Testament  into  the  language  of  iho 
Curds,  or  Koords,  has  been  completed  ;  but  difficulties  have  hither 
to  retarded  the  printing  of  it.3 

3  Twenty-third  Report,  p.  xxviil.    Twenty-ninth  Report,  p.  Ivi. 


FAC-SIMILES  OF   SPECIMENS 


OF  THE 


VERSIONS  OF  THE  SACRED  SCRIPTURES  IN  THE  EASTERN  LANGUAGES, 
Chiefly  translated  by  the  Brethren  of  the  Serampore  Mission. 


Text.   "  The  people  that  sat  in  darkness  saw  great  light ;  and  to  them 
which  sat  in  the  region  and  shadow  of  death,  light  is  sprung  up." 

Matt.  iv.  16. 

SANSCRIT,  or  SUNGSKRIT, 
In  the  Dcva  Nagree  character,  which  is  used  throughout  India. 

BENGALEE. 

(^jh  ^5:ate:  ^1^1 3jOTr  <^^  -^^^ 

MAHR.\TTA. 

&K<%  oNo5  ^^  3i'^svr35i5i  qj^ I— .^ 

KASHMIREE,  or  KASHMEER. 

t^^m^^nfb  3raiT\  ftftj^^  ^^  few 


SicT.  VI.  §  4.]  SPECIMENS  OF  ORIENTAL  VERSIONS. 

OORIYA,  or  ORISSA. 


TELINGA,  or  TELOOGOO. 

• 


53 


BRIJ-BHASSA. 


^&  §K  ^gs  5:gS  Sit  ^i^ll^iRg-  %^ 

PUSHTOO,  or  AFFGHAN. 
SIKH,  SHEEK,  or  PUNJABEE. 
HINDOOSTANHEE 

^  ^cff  ^oj^ntS  Iff  w  ^^"^  ^<;>  -^rai^a  ^ 

UHUMIYA,  or  ASSAMESE. 


54  SPECIMENS  OF  ORIENTAL  VERSIONS.  [Part  I.  Chap.  I. 

BURMAN 

BULOCHA,  or  BULOSHEE. 


CHINESE  VERSION. 

HOTEABLE    METAL    TYPES. 


Text. — "  In  the  beginning  God  created  the  heavens  and  the  earth.  And 
the  earth  was  without  form,  and  void,  and  darkness  was  upon  the  face 
of  the  deep ;  and  the  Spirit  of  God  moved  upon  the  face  of  the  waters. 
And  God  said.  Let  there  be  light:  and  there  was  light." — Gen.  i.  1 — 3. 

K  URN  ATA,  or  CANARESE. 

TPO^coS  ^^,^0^  if^^cxSd    fi,8g'6/3 


FAC-SIMILES  OF  SPECIMENS 

OF 

VERSIONS  OF  THE  SACRED  SCRIPTURES  IN  THE  EASTERN  LANGUAGES, 

PRINTED   AT   THE   EXPENSE   OF 

The  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  and  of  the  Calcutta  Auxiliary  Society. 


Text. — "The  people  that  sat  in  darkness  saw  great  light:  and  to  them 
which  sat  in  the  region  and  shadow  of  death,  light  is  sprung  up." 

Matt.  iv.  16. 

IIINDOOSTANHEE  VERSION, 

IN     THE     PERSIAN     CHARACTER. 


SicT.  VI.  $  4.]  SPECIMENS  OF  ORIENTAL  VERSIONS.  , 

PERSIAN. 

TAMUL. 
CINGALESE. 

^(^d£  ^^  ^^^  ©to®  ago  ^ 

ARABIC. 

»  >U^  pgJU  *LST  8^3  tS^TgU  ^  oj***; 

MALAY  IN  ROMAN  CHARACTERS. 

EHa^^oii' Ita  ja^  dMoSi  pa3akalain,ftidaliiiie^- 
liat  ikwatu  tarkcg  ja^ng  l)esar:  dan  bagi  fegaJk 
'awia^  ja3^-  dudoHi  pada  t^nali  dan  l>ajai@g 
mawt  'itu,  tarai^  paisTi  sudah.  tefbit  Tbaginja. 

MALAY  IN  ARABIC  CHARACTERS. 

Text. — "  And  Cain  went  out  from  the  presence  of  the  Loni),  and  dwelt  in 
the  land  of  Nod,  on  the  east  of  Eden."  '  Ges.  iv.  16. 

JAVANESE. 
Text. — The  Lord's  Prayer.— Matt.  vi.  9 — 13. 

CA^moy^s  Ajfm<^^iuRM^^ii^M.i.m^  tiniRom  oat 


3d 


56 


MODERN  VERSIONS  IN  THE  AMERICAN  LANGUAGES. 


[Paiit  L  Chap.  I. 


§  5.  Modern  Versions  in  the  Languages  ok  Africa. 
1.  Amharic  and  Tigre,  or  the  vernacular  Languages  of 

^Ihyssinia. 

Evangclia  Sancta :  sub  Auspiciis  D.  Assclini,  Koruin  Gallica- 
rum  apud  .^gyptios  Procuratoris,  in  Linguam  Amharicam  vertit 
Abu-Rumi  Habessinus,  EJidit  Thomas  Pell  Platt,  A.M. 
Londiui,  1S24,  4to. 

The  version  in  the  ecclesiastical  or  ancient  language  of  Etliiopia, 
noticed  in  the  first  part  of  Volume  I.,  being  confined  to  the 
churches,  and  understood  by  few  comparatively  besides  the  clergy, 
M.  Assclin  de  Chcrville,  French  consul  at  Cairo,  was  induced  to 
undertake  a  version  of  the  entire  Bible  in  the  Amharic,^  the  royal 
dialect  sjwken  at  llie  court  of  Goiidar,  which  is  the  dialect  preva- 
lent in  the  eastern  parts  of  Africa  bordering  on  the  equator,  and 
through  which  a  considerable  intercourse  is  maintained  between 
the  natives  of  Abyssinia  and  the  Arabians  and  negroes  of  the  inte- 
rior. For  ten  years  M.  Asselin  employed  an  intelligent  Ethiopian, 
named  .\bu-It'unii  (who  had  been  the  interpreter  ol  Mr.  Bruce  in 
Abys^-inia,  and  the  teacher  of  Sir  William  Jones  in  India),  on  this 
important  work,  to  which  he  devoted  two  entire  days  in  every 
week.  In  order  to  ensure  correctness,  he  read  with  this  person 
slowly,  and  with  the  utmost  attention,  every  verse  of  the  sacred 
volume  in  the  Arabic  version,  which  they  w'ere  alx)Ut  to  trans- 
late. M.  Asselin  then  explained  to  him  all  those  words  which 
were  cither  abstruse,  difficult,  or  foreign  to  the  Arabic,  by  the 
help  of  the  Hebrew  original,  the  Syriac  version,  or  the  Septuagint, 
and  also  of  some  commentaries.  After  they  lini-shed  the  trnnslation 
of  one  book,  they  collated  it  once  more  bcibre  they  proceeded  fur- 
ther. This  version  was  purchased  for  the  British  and  Foreign 
Biide  Society  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Jowett;  who  undertook  a  voyage 
into  Eg>"pt  from  Malta,  for  the  express  purpose  of  completing  the 
purchase.  The  printing  of  the  lour  Gospels  in  Amharic  and  in 
Ethiopic,  in  two  separate  volumes,  was  commenced  in  1822,  under 
the  editorial  care  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Lee,  professor  of  Hebrew  in  the 
university  of  Cambridge,  and  completed  in  1824,  under  the  super- 
intendence of  T.  P.  Piatt,  Esq.  The  Acts  and  Epistles  were  com- 
pleted in  1828,  the  Bo<ik  of  Genesis  in  1831,  and  the  Psalms  in 
1832.2  During  Mr.  Joweti's  residence  in  Egypt,  in  1819,  he  em- 
ployed the  late  Mr.  Nathaniel  Pearce,  who  liad  lived  many  years 
in  Ethiopia;  and  who  commenced  a  translation  of  the  Gospels  into 
the  Tigr^,  the  vernacular  dialect  of  the  extensive  province  ofTigre. 
The  Gospels  of  Mark  and  John  have  been  completed,  together  with 
a  version  of  the  Gospel  of  Mark  in  Amharic,  which  is  now  super- 
seded by  the  more  accurate  entire  Amharic  version  of  M.  Asselin. 
These  three  versions  are  now  in  the  possession  of  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society.' 


the  Susoos  and  the  Bulloms,  by  the  revival  of  the  nefarious  slave- 
trade  on  those  coasts. 

5.  JtTalagass^  Version, 

A  translation  of  the  Scriptures  into  the  Malagasse,  or  language 
of  tiio  island  of  Mad;iga.scar,  was  made  by  the  missionaries  rcsuieiit 
on  that  island.  The  A'cw  Testament  was  printed  in  1830.  The 
printing  of  the  Old  Testament  was  completed  in  1833." 


6,  South  .African  Versions. 

The  Gospel  of  ■Saint  Luke  has  been  translated  into  the  Beehuana 
(or  Sichuana)  language  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Moffatt,  and  the  four  Gos- 
pels into  the  Ps'ainacqua  language  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Schmelin.  They 
have  been  printed  at  Cape  Town.^ 


2.  Berber  Version. 

A  translation  of  the  Gospel  of  Saint  Luke  into  the  Berber  lan- 
guage (which  is  spoken  by  a  very  numerous  tribe  in  North  Africa) 
was  made  by  Mr.  Hattcrsley;  and  copies  of  the  first  twelve  chap- 
ters have  been  printed,  and  sent  to  different  individuals  in  the  dis- 
tricts where  this  language  is  spoken,  with  a  view  of  ascertaining 
the  merits  of  the  version.'' 


3.  Bnllom  Version. 

Tlie  Bulloms  arc  a  numerous  people  on  the  western  coast  of 
Africa,  among  whom  the  missionaries  sent  out  l)y  the  Church  Mis- 
sionary Society  laboured  for  several  years.  Into  the  language  of 
this  people,  the  four  Gospels,  and  the  Acts  of  the  A|)osllos,  have 
been  translated  by  the  Rev.  (J.  R.  Nylander,'  a  distinguishod  la- 
bourer in  the  service  of  that  society.  The  Gospel  of  Saint  Matthew 
was  printed  at  the  expense  of  tlie  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society 
in  1816.6 


4.  Susoo  Version. 

The  Susoos  arc  also  a  numerous  tribe  on  the  western  coast  of 
Africa,  in  the  vicinity  of  Sierra  Leone;  among  whom  the  same 
society's  missionaries  lalwured  for  several  years.  Bv  these  mis- 
aionarie!),  the  four  GospelH,  Acts  of  the  A()osllcs,  nnJ  other  parts 
of  the  New  Testamfnt,  together  with  several  books  of  the  Old 
Test.-nnent,  have  been  traiiKJatcd  into  the  Suhoo  language.  But 
tlieir  liirlher  benevolent  and  pious  laljours  were  suspended  among 

•  In  Luilolph's  Orammatica  Lingua;  Ainhnrlcte  (pp.  M,  05.)  there  is  nn 
Aintiarle  tratislation,  l>y  Ablm  C'ri'sorlus,  of  tliirtecn  versos  of  tlic  eleventh 
cliaiiipr  of  rfairil  l.iikR'ii  GoHpel. 

«  I'weiiiy.oijjiiih  Uoport  of  tlic  Uiblo  Socicly,  p.  Ixxvl.  Twenly-nhilh 
Rcfwrt,  p.  Uii. 

»  Mixiconiti  Rpport,  p.  1C9.  Joweti's  Chrlsiian  Researches  la  the  Mct!i- 
Icrrancan,  pp.  J'j7— 213. 

«  Tweiiiy.cjchtli  ilrport,  P.  Uii.    Twenty-ninth  Report,  p.  Ixxiv. 

»  The  Kov.  Mr.  Nylaiidpr  lias  also  rcnd'-riv!  nn  nildiilunal  Hcrvico  to  such 
of  the  nuIliMiLs  as  have  embraced  Itie  <;hrl»linn  fiiilli,  by  traimlHliiiK  select 
portions  of  the  Liturgy  of  the  Aimlinin  cliunh  into  ihnr  vcriiiiciilnr  I»n- 
giiaj;!-.  TIh'sc  were  printed  in  ItMllciin,  ami  in  Konmn  cliaruclerK  (lliat 
)oo[iIc  having  no  characters  of  (!  r-ir  own),  in  ISIG,  at  the  exptMiso  of  tho 
"rnynr  I»r)ok  and  Homily  Society. 

•  Uwon's  Uiitl.  vol.  Ul.  p.  126. 


^ 


§  6.  Modern  Versions  in  the  Languages  of  America. 
[i.]  NouTU  Ametiican  Versions. 

Although  the  multiplicity  of  dialects  spoken  by  the  Indian 
tribes  of  North  America  seemed  to  interpose  an  insuperable  bar 
to  the  labours  of  those  benevolent  individuals  who  were  desirous 
of  communicating  the  Scriptures  to  them ;  yet  this  obstacle  has 
been  diminished  by  the  discovery,  that  so  close  an  affinity  sub- 
sists among  them,  that  a  young  unlettered  Indian  of  good  capa- 
city can  (it  is  said)  make  himself  master  of  them  all.  The 
following  are  the  dialects  into  which  the  whole  or  part  of  the 
Bible  has  been  translated. 

1.   Virginian  Indian  Version. 

The  Virginian  Bible  was  translated  by  the  Rev.  John  Eliot,  who 
has  justly  been  dcnominaied  the  apostle  to  the  Indians,  from  his 
unwearied  labours  to  dilfuse  the  blcs.sings  of  Christianity  among 
them.  Tiio  New  Testament  was  published  in  lOCl.  The  title- 
page  states  that  it  was  "  ordered  to  be  printed  by  the  commissioners 
of  the  united  colonies  in  New  England,  at  the  charge  and  with  the 
consent  of  the  corporation  in  England,  for  the  propagation  of  the 
Gospel  among  tlic  Indians  in  New  England."  The  Old  Testamei»t 
was  published  at  Cambridge  in  1663,  and  the  entire  Bible  w;is 
reprinted  at  tho  same  place  in  1685.  The  ibllowing  specimen 
exhibits  the  Lord's  Prayer.  (Matt.  vi.  9 — 13.) 

9.  Yowutche  yen  nuppenantamook :  Nooshun  kesukqut,  quttia- 
nataniim.Tch  knowesuonk. 

10.  Pcyaumooutch  kukketassootamoonk,  kuttenantamoonk  ne  n 
nach  ohkeit  neane  kesukqut. 

11.  Nummeetsuongash  asekcsukokish  assamaiinean  yeuyeu  kcsu- 
kod. 

12.  Kah  ahquonfamaiinnean  nummatcheseongash,  neane  match- 
eneukquoagig  rnitahquonianiounnonog. 

13.  .\hque  sngkompaijunaiiiinean  en  quichhuaonganit,  webe 
poluiuohwussinoan  wutch  maichitut.  Newutche  kutahtaun  ketiis- 
sootamoonk,  kah  menuhkcsiioiik,  kali  sohsumoonk  niicheme.  .\men. 

This  version  has  now  become  a  literary  curiosity,  there  being 
scarcely  any  persons  living  who  can  read  or  understand  a  .single 
verse  in  it.  'Phc  tribe  of  .\merican  Indians,  whom  the  venerable 
missionary  Eliot  instructed,  is  now  very  nearly  extinct.^ 

2.   The  Delaware  Indian  Version. 

Nek  Nechenneawachgissitschik  Bambilak  naga  Geschiechaucii- 
sit  panna  Johannessa  Elckhangup.  Gischitak  Eiienechsink 
untski  C.  F.  Dencke.  That  is,  the  Three  Epistles  of  the  .Apostle 
John,  translated  into  Delaware  Indian,  by  C.  F.  Dencke.  New 
York,  1818,  18mo. 

The  Delaware  language  is  spoken  through  a  vf^ry  considerable 
portion  of  Nitrth  ,\merica.  Into  this  language  part  of  tlie  Scrip- 
tures was  translated  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Fabricius,  one  of  tho  Moravian 
missionaries  to  the  Delaware  Indians,  but  it  does  not  appear  to 
have  boon  printed."*  In  1818,  the  three  Epistles  of  John  were 
translated  into  the  Delaware  language  by  tho  Rev.  ('.  F.  Denck<-. 
a  mi.ssionary  from  the  I'liited  Bretliren,  or  Moravians.  It  was 
printed  at  the  expense  of  the  .American  Bible  Society.  The  tnms- 
lation  is  printed  on  the  lefi-haud  page,  and  the  English  aiiiliori/cd 
versiim  on  the  riglil.  As  copies  of  ibis  Delaware  Indian  tninslntion 
are  nut  common,  the  fiillowinc  specimen  ol'  it,  from  1  John  lii.  1 — 4. 
may  be  not  unacceptable  to  the  reader. 

Nfrhilvrtrydchpirhink  aptomipan. 

Pennnmook!  elt{iqui  penundolukquonk  Wetochwink  wdaoalli> 
wongaii,  weiilschi  luwilchgussiaidf  CJetlanitlowit  wdameinen!"-- 
iiiiill.  (Juir.Hchi  nialln  wdui  hijiiKsiwuneen  uuisclii  pemhakamixi- 
tink,  eli  pemhakiiinixil  taku  wolioq'  Patamawossall. 

'  Twenty-seventh  Report  cf  the  Bible  foclety,  p.  Ix.  Twenty  cighlh  Ri; 
port,  p.  Ixxvl.    Twenl>niiith  Report,  p.  Ixx.  I\xi. 

«  i  weiilyciirlilh  Repi'Vl,  i>.  Ixxiv.     TwiMily  ninlliRcporl,  p.  Ixxni. 

•  Clirisii.in  <>l^.^ervel•  lor  1S30,  vi.l.  XXX.  p.  :n8. 

1"  Up.  MarHh'ri  History  of  Translniiona,  p.  99.,  where  It  Is  stctcd  Ihul 
niioiher  niiswionnry,  Schmlck,  translated  a  portion  of  tho  CJoapcla  ioto  the 
Mohican  langungc. 


8KCT.    VI.    §  6.] 


MODERN  VERSIONS  OF  THE  AMERICAN  LANGUAGES. 


57 


2.  Ehoalachgik!  juquo  m?tschi  ktclli  wundamemensineen  Gct- 
tauittovviiiiik,  schuknc.*(iuo  majawii  elsijanksloh.  Schuk  ktelli 
inajawelendamennecn  iiguttenlsch  woachquako,  ktcllitsch  linaxi- 
noeii,  eliiiaxit,  ktcUitscli  nevvoaneen  elinaxit. 

3.  ^Voak  wemi  auvvon  nechpauchsit  jun  nhakeaclisowoagan, 
kscliiechichgus.siletsch,  necama  Palaraawos  elgiqui  kschieclisid. 

4  Auvven  metauchsit,  necama  ne  endchi  mikindank  niatta  wel- 
toq',  vvoak  eli  machtauchsit  vvuntschi  mikindamen  matta  vveltoq'. 


3.  Massachusett  Version. 

The  Psalms  and  Gospel  of  Saint  John  were  translated  by  the 
exemplary  missionary,  Mr.  Experience  Mayhew,  into  the  Indian 
Massachusett  dialect.  They  were  printed  at  Boston  in  New  Eng- 
land in  the  year  1709.1 


JMohaivk  Version. 

The  Mohawk  language,  besides  the  tribe  from  whom  it  takes  its 
name,  is  intelligible  to  the  Five  Nations,  to  the  Tuscaroras,  and  to 
the  Wyandots  or  Ilurons.  In  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, a  translation  was  made  of  the  Gospel  of  Matthew,  and  also 
of  several  chapters  bolh  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  into  this 
language,  by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Freeman.  Some  portions  of  the  latter 
were  printed  at  New  York,  and  reprinted  at  London  with  the 
English  Liturgy,  and  the  Gospel  of  Mark  (translated  by  Captain 
Brant)  in  1787,  for  the  use  of  the  Mohawks,  who  have  a  chapel  at 
Kingston  in  Upper  Canada,  where  divine  service  is  performed  in 
their  native  tongue,  by  a  missionary  supported  by  the  venerable 
Society  for  promoting  Christian  Knowledge.  This  edition  was 
printed  at  the  expense  of  the  English  government.  To  these  por- 
tions of  tlie  Scriptures  were  added  the  Gospel  of  John,  tran.slated 
in  1804  by  Captain  John  Norton,^  a  chief  of  the  Six  Nation  Indians 
in  Upper  Canada.  This  version  was  printed  at  the  expense  of  the 
British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  and  its  accuracy  was,  shortly 
after,  attested  in  the  most  favourab.le  manner  by  the  interpreters  in 
the  Indian  villages.^ 


the  entire  New  Testament,  in  the  language  of  Greenland,  was 
printed  at  the  expense  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society. 


5.  jyiohegan  Version. 

The  New  Testament,  together  with  several  portions  of  the  Old 
restarnent,  vvas  translated,  towards  the  close  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  into  the  Mohegan  language,  by  the  Rev.  John  Serjeant, 
sen.,  a  missionary  at  Stockbridge.  No  part  of  this  version  appears 
to  have  been  printed '' 


6.  Esquimaux  Version. 

In  the  Esquimaux  language,  a  harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels  was 
made  by  the  missionaries  of  the  Moravian  brethren  many  years 
since.  From  this  version  the  Gospel  of  John  was  selected' by  the 
Rev.  Mr.  Kohlmeister,  and  printed  by  the  Bible  Society  in  1809. 
To  this  was  added  in  1813,  a  translation  of  the  other  three  Gospels, 
which  had  been  made  by  the  venerable  superintendent  of  the 
Labrador  mission,  the  Rev.  C.  F.  Burghardt,  who  possessed  an  in- 
timate knowledge  of  the  Esquimaux  dialect,  and  finished  his  revi- 
sion only  a  short  time  before  his  death,  in  1812.  In  the  year  1819 
the  Acts'  of  the  Apostles  and  the  Epistles  were  primed  in  the  same 
dialect,  by  the  Bible  Society,  and  received  (as  the  other  portions  of 
the  New  Testament  had  been)  with  the  deepest  sentiments  of  gra- 
titude. And  in  1826  the  New  Testament  vvas  completed  by  print- 
ing the  Apoealypse.5 


7.    Chippe-way   Version, 

The  Gospels  of  Saint  Matthew  and  Saint  John  have  been  trans- 
lated into  the  language  of  the  Chippeways,  a  numerous  tribe  resi- 
dent in  British  North  America,  by  Mr.  Peter  Jones,  a  Chippevvay 
chief,  and  his  brother,  to  the  fidelity  of  whose  version  competent 
judge.<!  have  borne  willing  testimony.  The  Gospel  of  Saint  John 
was  printed  at  York  Town,  Upper  Canada ;  and  the  translators 
have'commenced  the  Old  Testament,  in  consequence  of  the  Ame- 
rican Bible  Society  having  undertaken  to  complete  the  New." 


8.   Greenlandish  Version. 

In  1759  the  Greenlanders  received  from  the  Moravian  brethren 
a  translation  of  their  harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels  ;'  in  1799  the 
whole  of  the  New  Testament,  and  in  1822  a  new  translation  of 

'  Brown's  History  of  the  Propasation  of  Christianily,  vol.  ii.  pp.  57,  fiS. 
Second  Rpportof  the  British  and  Forelj,'n  Bible  Society,  Appendix,  p.  118. 

3  Capt.  Norton  was  adopted  by  the  Confederacy  of  tlie  Six  Nations  in 
1791,  and  in  ISOO  appointed  a  chief,  under  the  title  of  Teyoniuhokarawen. 
His  father  was  aClierokee,  and  served  in  the  British  army. 

'  Owen's  History,  vol.  i.  pp.  12<5— ISiJ. 

«  Brown's  History  of  the  Propagation  of  Christianity,  vol.  ii.  p.  G.30. 

i  Owen's  History,  vol.  i.  p.  460.  vol.  ii.  pp.  290.  359.  vol.  iii.  p.  4a3.  Six- 
teenth Report  of  the  Bible  Society,  pp.lxxxiii.  Ixxxiv.  Seventeenth  Report, 
n.  Ixxix.    Twenty-second  Report,  p.  Ixiv.    Twenty-third  Report,  p.  Iv. 

s  Twenty-piffhth  Report,  p.  Ixxxiv.    Twenty-ninth  Report,  p.  Ixxxv. 
(^tantz's  Hinforyof  Greenland,  vol.  ii.  p.  ^9. 


9.  Creole se  Version. 
The  New  Testament  was  translated  into  Creolesc  for  the  use 
of  the  Christian  negroes  in  the  Danisl^Vest  India  I.slands,  and 
was  published  at  Copenhagen,  1781,  at  wk  expense  of  the  king  of 
Denmark.  In  1818  the  Danish  Bible  Society  printed  an  edition  of 
1500  copies,  which  have  been  transmitted  to  tlie  Danish  West  la- 
dies.8 


10.  JVeg-ro-EiigUsh  Version. 

Da  Njoe  Testament  va  wi  Masba  ex  Helfimat.'  Jesus 
Christus.  Translated  into  the  Nebro  English  Lan- 
guage, BT  the  Missionaries  of  the  Unitas  Fuatrum,  or 
United  Brethren  :  Printed  for  the  use  of  the  Mission, 
BT  THE  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Societt.  London, 
1829,  8vo. 

At  Surinam  a  mission  of  the  United  Brethren  has  existed  since 
the  year  1738.  The  missionaries  have  two  thousand  negroes  under 
instruction.  These,  as  well  as  others,  speak  a  language  of  their 
own,  which  has  been  denominated  the  Negro-English ;  into  which 
a  translation  of  the  New  Testament  has  been  made.  This  version 
occupied  the  attention  of  the  missionaries  for  several  years ;  and 
after  it  had  undergone  every  necessary  revi-sion  from  persons  long 
resident  in  the  colony,  and  well  acquainted  with  the  language,  it 
was  printed  in  1829,  at  the  expense  of  the  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society.^  As  the  whole  impression,  with  the  exception  of  a 
small  number  of  copies,  vvas  sent  to  Surinam,  the  following  speci- 
men of  this  Negro-English  translation  will  not  be  without  interest 
to  the  reader. 

(matt.  VI.  7 — 13.) 

7.  En  effi  oene  begi,  oene  no  mcki  soso  takkitakki,  leki  dem 
Heiden,  bikasi  dem  membre,  effi  dem  meki  foeloe  takkitakki, 
Gado  sa  harki  dem. 

8.  Va  da  heddi  oene  no  moesse  djersi  dem ;  oene  Tatta  sabi, 
sanne  oene  habi  vandoe,  bevo  oene  begi  hem. 

9.  Va  da  heddi  oene  moesse  begi  so :  Wi  Tatta  ni  tapp«  !  Joe 
neem  moesse  santa. 

10.  Joe  kondre  moesse  Kom.  Dem  moesse  doe  Wanni  va 
Joe  na  grontappo,  so  leki  dem  doe  na  Hemel. 

1 1.  Gi  wi  tideh  da  janjam  va  wi. 

12.  Gi  wi  dasnotti  vo  alia  missiva  wi,  leki  wi  gi  dasnotti  na 
somma,  dissi  missi  na  wi. 

13.  No  tjarri  wi  na  inni  tesi.  Ma  loessoe  wi  vo  da  agriwan. 
Bikasi  joe  habi  alia  kondre,  nanga  tranga,  nanga  glori,  tehgo. 
Amen. 

At  the  end  of  the  volume  there  is  a  table  of  the  order  of  the 
books  of  the  New  Testament,  together  with  an  index  of  all  the 
passages  which  are  appointed  to  be  read  as  the  Epistles  and  Go.s- 
pels  for  every  Sunday  in  the  year.  This  version  was  conducted 
through  the  press  by  the  joint  labour  of  Mr.  C.  A.  Austen  (a  native 
of  Surinam)  and  the  Rev.  Mr.  Latrobe,  of  London.  It  vvas  received 
with  much  gratitude  by  the  poor  slaves  for  whom  it  was  printed."^ 

This  version  having  been  attacked  by  an  anonymous  critic  in 
the  Edinburgh  Christian  Instructor,  was  ably  vindicated  by  Mr. 
William  Greenfield,  in  "  A  Defence  of  the  Surinam  Negro-English 
Version  of  the  New  Testament,  founded  on  the  History  of  the 
Negro-English  Version,  a  View  of  the  Situation,  Population,  and 
History  of  Surinam,  a  Philosophical  Analysis  of  the  Language, 
and  a  Critical  E-xaminatioii  of  the  Version."     London,  1830,  Svo. 


[ii.]  South  American  Veksions. 

It  does  not  appear  that  the  Portuguese  ever  gave  any  translation 
of  the  Scriptures  to  the  natives  of  South  America  who  were  sub- 
jugated by  them  :  and  the  barbarous  cruelties  of  the  Spaniards  in 
Mexico  are  recorded  in  the  page  of  history.  Towards  the  close 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  however,  some  of  the  ecclesiastics  and 
missionaries  adopted  a  different  plan  from  that  pursued  by  their 
predecessors,  by  translating  some  parts  of  the  Scriptures  into  the 
language  of  the  country.  Benedict  Fernandez,  a  Spanish  Domi- 
nican friar,  vicar  of  Mixteca  in  New  Spain,  translated  the  Epistles 
and  Gospels  into  the  dialect  spoken  in  that  province.  Didacus  de 
S.  Maria,  another  Dominican,  and  vicar  of  the  province  of  IMexico 
(who  died  in  1579),  was  the  author  of  a  translation  of  the  Epistles 
and  Gospels  into  the  Mexican  tongue,  or  general  language  of  the 
country.    The  Proverbs  of  Solomon,  and  other  fragments  of  the 

8  Adler's  Bibliotheca  Biblica,  Part  IV.  p.  116.  Sixteenth  Report  of  the 
Bible  Society,  p.  127.  Besides  llie  particulars  recorded  in  the  prece<Jing 
sections,  there  are  many  interesting  circumstances  relative  to  the  history 
of  translations  and  translators,  wliich  the  limits  of  this  work  do  not  allow  tc 
be  detailed.  Fur  these,  and  indeed  for  every  thing  relative  to  the  literary 
history  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  we  refer  the  reader  to  the  Rev.  Dr.  Town. 
ley's  Illustrations  of  Biblical  Literature,  London,  1821,  in  3  volumes,  8fo. 

9  Twenty-fiflh  Report,  p.  Ixx.  Ixxi. 
»«  Twenty-sixth  Report,  p.  hxxx. 


58 


HARMONIES  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


[Paht  I.  Chap.  II 


Holy  Scriptnrrs,  were  franalatcJ  into  the  same  language  by  Louis 
Rodriguez,  a  Spanish  Franciscan  friar:  and  the  Epistles  and  Gos- 
pels, appointed  to  he  read  for  the  whole  year,  were  translated  into 
the  idiom  of  the  \Vcstirn  Indians  by  Arnold  a  Basaecio,  also  a 
Franciscan  friar :  but  the  dates  of  these  latter  versions  have  not 
been  ascertained.  A  translation  of  the  Gospel  of  Saint  Luke  into 
the  Alexican  language,  by  Dr.  Mora,  was  printed  in  1832,'  and 


another  of  the  Book  of  Psalms  info  the  Quichua  or  Peruvian  Ian 
giiage,  by  Dr.  Pazos  Kanki,  in  1830.2  The  entire  Bible  is  said  tc 
have  been  translated  into  the  lirazilian  language  by  an  JCnglish 
minister,  who  accompanied  the  Dutch  to  Ilecile,  when  tliey  ac- 
quired it  from  the  Portuguese.  This  vorKion  has  never  been 
printed.^  In  1825  a  translation  of  the  New  Testament  into  the 
Peruvian  language  was  completed.'' 


CHAPTER  11. 


HARMONIES    OF    THE    OLD    AND    NEW    TESTAMENTS. 


NicoLAi  AtAnni  Bibliothcca  Harmonico-Bibiica,  qusE,  pra;ter 
Historiam  Harmonicam,  tradit  Notitiam  Scriptorum  Harinonico- 
rum  cujuscunquc  a?tatis  et  religionis,  tarn  perpetuorum  quam  .';in- 
gularium  ;  nee  oniissis  il!i.s,  qui  vcl  specialius  quoddani  argumcii- 
tum  sacrum,  vcl  bina  Oracula  Spiritus  Sancti  ab  Antilogiarum 
calumnia  vindicarunt     Hamburgi,  1725,  8vo. 


SECTION  I. 

HARMONIES    OF    THE    OLD   TESTAMENT. 

1.  A  CiinoxicLE  of  the  Times  and  the  Order  of  the  Text  of 
the  Old  Testament,  wherein  the  books,  chapters,  psalms,  stories, 
prophecies,  &c.,  are  reduced  into  the  proper  order,  and  taken  up 
in  the  proper  places,  in  which  the  natural  method  and  genuine 
series  of  the  chronology  requircth  them  to  be  taken  in.  With 
reason  given  of  dislocations,  where  they  come.  And  many  re- 
markable notes  and  observations  given  all  along,  for  the  better  un- 
derstanding of  the  text ;  the  diiricultics  of  tiie  chronicle  declared  ; 
the  dilfercnces  occurring  in  the  relating  of  stories  reconciled ;  and 
exceeding  many  scruples  and  obscurities  in  the  Old  Testament 
explained.     By  John  Ligiitfoot,  D.D. 

Tliis  "  Chronicle"  is  to  be  found  in  the  first  volume  of  Dr.  Light- 
foot's  works,  published  at  London,  in  1G84,  in  two  volumes,  folio,  and 
in  the  second  volume  of  the  8vo.  London  edition,  printocl  in  1822- 
25.  Of  all  the  theologians  of  his  time,  this  celebrated  divine  (whose 
opinion  was  consulted  by  every  scholar  of  note,  both  British  and 
Foreign)  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  most  deeply  versed  in  the 
knowledge  of  the  Scriptures.  "  It  was  his  custom,  for  many  years, 
to  note  down,  as  opportunity  presented,  in  the  course  oi'  his  talmu- 
dical  and  rabbinical  studies,  the  order  and  time  of  the  several  p.is- 
snges  of  Scripture,  a.s  they  came  under  his  consideration."  By  pursu- 
ine  this  method  he  gradually  formed  the  invaluable  chronicle,  the 
title  of  which  has  just  been  given,  which  was  first  published  at 
London,  in  4to.,  and  in  the  year  1G47.  In  this  work.  Dr.  Lighlfoot 
has  briefly  stated  the  summary  or  substance  of  the  historical  parts 
of  the  Old  Testament,  and  has  indicated  the  order  in  which  the 
several  chapters,  psalms,  and  prophecies  are  to  be  filaced.  In  the 
margin  he  has  given  the  years  of  the  world,  and  of  the  judges  or 
sovereigns  under  whoso  administration  the  several  events  took  place. 
Notwithstanding  the  differences  in  opinion  entertained  by  the 
learned  concerning  the  chronology  of  particular  events,  the  general 
method  of  this  "  Chronicle"  has  oeen,  and  still  continues  to  bo,  held 
in  the  highest  estimation  by  all  who  are  competent  duly  to  appre- 
ciate its  merits. 

2.  A  Dcsignc  about  disposing  the  Bible  into  an  Harmony.  Or, 
an  Essay  concerning  the  transposing  the  order  of  books  and 
chapters  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  for  the  reducing  of  all  into  a 
continued  history. 

r"  Benefits. 
The^  Diiricultic. 
C_  IldpcH. 
By  Samuel  Tohsiiel.     London,  1747,  4to. 

Tliis  tract  was  published  nearly  at  the  same  time  with  Dr.  Light- 
foot's  Chronicle.  It  appears  from  the  preface  that  Mr.  Torshcl  w.is 
preceptor  of  the  children  of  King  Charles  I.  under  the  earl  of 
Northumberland;  and  his  tract  was  addressed  "To  the  Right 
Honounible  the  lyjrds  and  Commons  "aHsemblod  in  Parlianiont ;" 
whom  he  endeavoured  to  excite  to  patronize  the  iiiiclertnking,  by 
the  consideration  of  the  glory  which  hod  rrdoundod  to  Frani^e  by 
tlie  then  recent  pirhlication  of  the  Parisian  i'olyglott,  in  ton  folio 
volumes.  The  stale,  however,  paid  no  regard  to  this  addres.*!,  and 
the  design  which  Torshel  had  ably  sketched  was  never  accomplish- 
ed. He  proposed  "  to  lay  the  wnole  story  together  in  a  continued 
connection,  tne  lKX)ksor  parts  of  lKx)ks,  and  all  the  severall  parcels 
disposed  and  place<l  in  their  proper  onler,  as  the  continuance  and 
chronicall  method  of  the  Scniituro  history  requircH;  so  that  no 
trnlence  nor  tv'trd  in  the  whole  Bible  Iw  omitted,  nor  any  thing 
repealed,  or  any  word  interted  but  what  is  necessary  for  transition. 

>  Twenty-ninth  Report,  p.  Uxv. 


So  as  .some  whole  chapters  or  pieces  be  put  into  other  places,  yea, 
great  parts  of  some  books,  and  some  whole  books,  to  be  woven  into 
the  body  of  another  book."  (Torshel's  Designe,  p.  10.)  In  the 
prosecution  of  this  undertaking,  besides  reducing  all  the  historical 
books  of  the  Old  Testament  to  a  continued  series,  the  book  of 
Psalms,  and  the  sermons  of  the  Prophets,  were  to  be  inserted  in 
their  proper  pl.-ices,  and  the  writings  of  Solomon  incorporated 
according  to  those  periods  of  his  reign  when  they  are  supposed  to 
have  been  written ;  and  those  parts  of  the  book  of  Proverbs,  "  which 
the  men  of  Ilczekiah  copied  out,"  were  to  be  disposed  in  the  body 
of  the  books  of  Chronicles,  towards  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Ilcze- 
kiah, king  of  Judali.  In  harmonizing  the  Gospels,  Mr.  Torshel 
proposed  to  follow  the  plan  then  recently  adopted  in  the  Latin  Har- 
mony, commenced  by  Chemnitz,  continued  by  Lyser,  and  finished 
by  Gerhard  ;  and  the  apostolic  epistles  were  to  be  distributed  in  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles,  according  to  the  order  of  time  when  they 
were  written.  The  writings  of  St.  John  were  to  close  the  proposed 
undertaking.  The  perusal  of  this  modest  and  well-written  tract, 
several  years  since,  suggested  to  the  writer  of  these  pages  the  idea 
of  attempting  a  harmony  of  the  entire  Bible,  on  the  completion  of 
the  present  work.  This  laborious  undertaking,  however,  has  been 
happily  rendered  unnecessary  by  the  publication  of 

3.  The  Rev.  George  Townscnd's  Arrangement  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testament. 

[i.]  The  Old  Testament,  arranged  in  historical  and  chronologi. 
cal  order  (on  the  basis  of  Lightfoot's  Chronicle),  in  such  manner, 
that  the  books,  chapters,  psalms,  prophecies,  &c.  may  be  read  as 
one  connected  history,  in  the  very  words  of  tlie  authorized  trans- 
lation. By  the  Rev.  George  Towxsenh,  M.A.  London,  1821 ; 
Second  Edition,  1826.     In  two  very  large  volumes,  8vo. 

This  beaiilifiiUy  printed  and  carefully  execuleil  work  (as  its  title- 
page  anndtjnces)  is  arrange<l  on  the  basis  of  Dr.  Lightfoot's  Chro- 
nicle, alx)ve  noticed :  from  which,  however,  Mr.  Townsend  has 
deviated  for  the  better  in  one  very  rnaleriul  respect.  According  to 
Lightfoot's  plan,  the  Old  Testament  would  have  been  read  as  one 
unbroken  history,  without  any  division  into  chapters,  or  any  of  those 
breaks,  the  omission  of  wliich  causes  not  a  little  weariness  to  the 
reader.  In  order  to  obviate  this  difficulty,  and  also  with  the  view 
of  making  the  Scripture  narrative  more  atlraciive,  as  well  as  more 
e.xsily  remembered,  Mr.  T.  has  divided  his  harmony  into  eight  suit- 
able periods,  viz.  1.  From  the  creation  to  the  deluge: — 2.  Fmni  the 
confusion  of  tongues  to  the  death  of  Jacob  and  the  Patriarchs  ;— 
3.  From  the  birth  to  the  death  of  Moses  ; — ^4.  From  the  entrance  of 
the  Israelites  into  Canaan,  under  the  command  of  Joshua,  to  the 
death  of  David  ; — 5.  The  reign  of  Solomon  ; — Ij.  From  the  elevation 
of  Rehoboam  to  the  Babylonish  Captivity; — 7.  The  Babylonish  Vap- 
tivity,  seventy  years,  from  b.  c.  606  to  536; — 8.  From  the  terminnrion 
of  the  Bai)ylonish  Captivity  to  the  reformation  of  worship  by  Nche- 
miah,  and  the  comi)lei  ion  of  the  canon  of  the  Old  Testament,  by  Simon 
the  Just,  from  n.  c.  536  to  about  300.  These  eight  periods  ore  further 
subdivided  into  chanters  and  sections,  the  length  of  which  is  neces- 
sarily regulated  by  the  subjects  therein  discussed  ;  and  in  settling 
the  chronology  and  o«ler  ot'  some  particular  events  and  prophecies, 
the  arranger  has  availed  himself  of  the  labours  of  the  most  eminent 
modern  biblical  critics.  A  well-written  iiilroduction  developc!?  his 
plan  and  design,  and  points  out  its  advantages  to  various  classes  of 
readers,  especially  to  clergymen,  and  those  who  are  preparing  for 
the  sacred  oflicc,  to  whom  tliis  work  is  indispensably  neiressary. 
The  work  is  terminated  by  si.r  Indexes ; — the  /iV.i/  containing  an 
account  of  the  periods,  chapters,  and  nections  into  \'liich  the  work 
is  divided,  with  the  passages  of  Scripture  comprised  in  each ; — the 
second,  in  coliimnH,  enabling  the  reacler  to  discover  in  what  part  of 
the  arrangement  any  chapter  or  verse  of  the  Bible  may  be  tbimd  ; — 
the  third  ond  fi>urth  contain  tables  of  the  Psalms  and  Prophecies, 
showing  in  what  part  of  the  arrangement,  and  alter  what  pa>!Kago 
of  Scripture,  every  i>saliii  or  prophecy  is  inserted  ;  and  likewise  on 
what  occasion,  and  at  what  period,  they  were  jirobably  written, 
with  the  authority  for  their  jilace  in  the  arrangement; — \\\o  fifth, 
containing  the  dales  of  the  events  according  to  Dr.  Hales's  elaborate 
S^ystem  ol  Chronology  ;  nrnl  the  ttixlh,  a  general  index  to  the  notes, 
which,  though  not  numerous,  are  very  appropriate,  and  (xmsoss  the 
rare  merit  of  compressing  a  great  variety  of  valuable  information 

»  Twcutysovpnth  Rrport,  p.  Uiii. 

•  Tuwnlny'a  Illustralions,  vol.  ill.  pp.  40— ."533.  note. 

«  Twenty-first  Report  of  the  Bible  Society,  p.  Iv. 


Sect.  II.] 


HARMONIES  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


59 


into  a  small  compass.  The  Rev.  Mr.  Archdeacon  Nares  has  justly 
characterized  this  work,  as  being  '•  disgested  with  such  skill,  and 
illustrated  with  such  notes,  as  proves  the  author  to  have  studied  his 
task  with  deep  attention  and  distinguished  judgment."  (Visitation 
Sermon,  p.  24.  London,  182.3.)  The  second  edition  has  parallel  re- 
ierences  and  the  marginal  renderings. 

[ii.]  The  New  Testament  arranged  in  Chronological  and  His- 
torical Order,  in  such  manner  that  the  Gospels,  the  Epistles,  and 
the  Acts  may  be  read  as  one  connected  History.  The  Gospel  on 
the  basis  of  the  Harmonies  of  Lightfoot,  Doddridge,  Pilkington, 
Newcome,  and  Michaelis ;  the  Account  of  the  Resurrection,  on  the 
Authorities  of  West,  Townson,  and  Cranfield.  The  Epistles 
are  inserted  in  their  places,  and  divided  according  to  the  Apostle's 
Arguments.  With  copious  Notes  on  many  of  the  principal  Sub- 
jects of  Theology.  By  the  Rev.  George  Townsenu,  M.A.  1825 ; 
Second  Edition  corrected,  1827,  2  vols.  8vo. 

Though  a  distinct  work  in  itself,  this  elaborate  publication  forms 
the  second  part  of  Mr.  Townsend's  Harmony  of  the  Scriptures. 
The  remarks  on  the  preceding  portion  are  equally  applicable  to 
the  present  work.  The  notes,  indeed,  are  much  more  valuable, 
from  the  extent  and  variety  of  the  very  important  topics  they  dis- 
cuss. The  usefulness  of  this  portion  of  Mr.  T.'s  labours  is  mate- 
rially increased  by  the  numerous  and  important  elucidations  which 
he  has  derived  from  the  works  of  Lightfoot,  Schoettgen,  Meuschen, 
and  others,  which  are  not  within  the  reach  of  every  biblical  stu- 
dent. 

[iii.]  The  Holy  Bible  arranged  in  Historical  and  Chronologi- 
cal Order,  in  such  manner  that  the  whole  may  be  read  as  one 
connected  History,  in  the  words  of  the  authorized  translation. 
With  short  Notes ;  and  a  Table,  dividing  the  Sacred  Volume 
into  365  Portions  for  daily  reading  throughout  the  year.  By  the 
Rev.  George  Townsf.nd,  M.A.     London,  1834,  8vo. 

A  neat  reprint  of  the  preceding  work,  in  one  commodious  volume, 
illustrated  with  brief  notes. 

3.  A  Harmony  of  the  Kings  and  Prophets,  or  an  arrangement 
of  the  History  contained  in  the  Books  of  Kings  and  Chronicles, 
together  with  the  Writings  of  the  Prophets,  arranged  in  chrono- 
logical order  as  they  were  delivered,  commencing  with  the  Revolt 
of  the  Ten  Tribes,  and  closing  with  the  Prophecies  of  Malachi. 
By  Stephen  Merreli,  Kittery  (Alaine),  [North  America].  1832, 
8vo. 


SECTION  II. 

HARMONIES    OF   THE    ENTIRE    NEW    TESTAMENT,  AND    OF    THE 
FOUR    GOSPELS. 

1.  The  Harmony,  Chronicle,  and  Order  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. The  text  of  the  four  Evangelists  methodized.  Story 
of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  analyzed.  Order  of  the  Epistles 
manifested.  Times  of  the  Revelation  observed,  and  illustrated 
with  a  variety  of  observations  upon  the  cliiefest  difficulties.  Textual 
and  Talmudical,  for  clearing  of  their  sense  and  language.  By 
John  Lightfoot,  D.D.  London,  1654,  folio.  Also  in  the  first 
volume  of  his  works.     London,  1682,  folio. 

In  this  valuable  work  Dr.  Lightfoot  has  pursued  the  same  method 
which  he  had  adopted  in  his  Chronicle  of  the  Old  Testament.  He 
farther  published,  at  London,  in  1644  and  1650,  three  parts  of  The 
Harmony  of  the  Four  Evangelists,  among  themselves,  and  with  the 
Old  Testament.  The  fourth  and  fifth  parts,  which  were  to  have 
completed  his  design,  never  appeared.  This  harmony  is  enriched 
with  numerous  philological  and  explanatory  remarks,  of  which 
many  subsequent  critics  and  harmonists  have  availed  themselves. 

2.  Harmonia  Quatuor  Evangeliorum  juxta  Sectiones  Ammo- 
nianas  et  Eusebii  Canones.  Oxonii,  e  Typographco  Clarendo- 
niano,  1805,  4to. 

3.  Andres  Osiandri  Harmoniae  Evangelicae  Libri  Quatuor, 
Grace  et  Latine.  In  quibus  Evangelica  Historia  ex  quatuor 
Evangelistis  ita  in  unum  est  contexta,  ut  nullius  verbum  ullum 
omissum,  nihil  alienum  immixtum,  nullius  ordo  turbatus,  nihil 
non  suo  loco  positum.  Omnia  vero  litteris  et  notis  ita  distincta 
Bint,  ut  quid  cujusque  evangelistse  proprium,  quid  cum  aliis  et 
cum  quibus  commune  sit,  primo  statim  adspectu  deprehendere 
queas :  item  Elenchus  Harmonise :  Adnotationum  liber  unus. 
Basileae,  1537,  folio  ;  Grsece  et  Latine,  Basileae,  1567,  folio;  La- 
tine,  Lutetiaj  Parisiorum  ex  officina  Roberti  Stephani,  1545, 
12mo. 

Osiander's  Harmony  is  not  of  very  frequent  occurrence.  Tt  is 
highly  estimated  by  Walchius,  though  iVIichaelis  rather  harshly 
observes  that  he  undesignedly  renders  the  Gospel  history  not  only 
suspicious,  but  incredible,  by  adopting  the  principle  that  the  evan- 
gelists confitantly  wrote  in  chronological  order,  and  that  the  same 
transactions  and  discourses  took  place  twice  or  thrice  in  the  life  of 

Vol.  11.  i  A 


Christ.  He  acknowledges,  however,  that  Osiander  did  not  go  so 
far  as  his  successors,  and  that  he  sometimes  deviates  from  his  ge- 
neral principle. 

4.  Cornelii  Janses^ii,  Gandavensis,  Concordia  Evangelica, 
in  qua,  prteterquam  quod  suo  loco  ponitur,  quae  evangcUstoe  non 
servato  rocensent  ordine,  ctiam  nullius  verbum  aliquod  omittitur. 
Litteris  autem  omnia  sic  distinguuntur,  ut  quid  cujusque  pro- 
prium, quid  cum  aliis  et  cum  quibus  commune,  etiam  ad  singu- 
las  dictiones  mox  deprehendatur.  Lovanii,  1549,  8vo.  Ant- 
verpiae,  1558,  12mo. 

Jansenius /jart/aZZ?/ followed  Osiander.  He  subsequently  \%Tole 
a  Commentary  on  his  Harmony,  which  was  published  together 
with  it  at  Louvain,  in  1571.  The  number  of  editions  through 
which  this  work  passed  {thirteen  others  are  enumerated  by  Wal- 
chius, between  the  years  1577  and  1624)  sufficieiilly  attest  the  fa- 
vourable opinion  entertained  of  it.s  value.  V/alchius  extols  Janse- 
nius's  learning,  ingenuity,  and  modesty. 

5.  Martini  Chemxitii  Harmonia  Quatuor  Evangeliorum, 
quam  ab  eodem  feliciter  inchoatam  Polycarpus  Lyserus  et  Jo- 
hannes Gerhardus,  is  quidem  continuavit,  hie  pcrfccit.  Ham- 
burgi,  1704,  folio. 

Tlie  best  edition  of  a  most  valuable  Harmony.  Chemnitz  com- 
piled only  the  first  two  books,  and  part  of  a  third,  which  were 
published  after  his  death  at  Frankfort,  in  1593,  by  Polycarp  Lyser ; 
who  wrote  the  remainder  of  the  third  book,  and  added  the  fourth 
and  part  of  the  fifth  book.  These  were  published  at  different 
times  at  Leipsic  and  Frankfort,  between  the  years  1604  and  1611  : 
and,  on  Lyser's  death,  Gerhard  completed  the  undertaking,  with 
learning  and  industry  not  inferior  to  those  of  his  predecessors.  The 
entire  work,  Avith  Iho  several  continuations,  was  first  published  a^ 
Geneva,  in  1628.  This  elaborate  work  is  not  only  a  harmony,  but" 
a  learned  commentary  on  the  four  Gospels. 

6.  The  Harmony  of  the  Four  Evangelists,  and  their  text  me- 
thodized, according  to  the  order  and  series  of  times  in  which  the 
several  things  by  them  mentioned  were  transacted.  By  Samuel 
Chabock,  B.D.  London,  1668,  folio,  and  again  in  16S4  and 
1685. 

This  work  was  revised  by  the  learned  Dr.  Tillotson,  afterwards 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  by  whom  it  was  preserved  from  destruc- 
tion during  the  memorable  fire  of  London,  in  1666.  (Chalmers's 
Biog.  Diet.  vol.  X.  p.  447.)  In  the  seventeenth  century  it  was  . 
deservedly  held  in  the  highest  estimation ;  though  it  is  now  super- 
seded by  later  and  more  critical  works.  Mr.  Cradock  has  drawn 
up  the  Gospel  history  in  an  explanatory  paraphrase,  in  Englisli, 
which  is  followed  by  the  text  of  the  evangelists.  In  the  margin  he 
has  given  short  but  use/ul  notes  in  Latin,  which  are  very  judi- 
ciously extracted  from  Grotius,  Drs.  Lightfoot  and  Hammond,  and 
other  critics.  The  book  is  by  no  means  dear ;  which  to  students 
(who  may  not  be  able  to  procure  recent  and  more  expensive  har- 
monies) is  a  great  advantage.  This  harmonist  did  not  adopt  the 
principle  of  Osiander. 

7.  Bernardi  Lajit  Historia,  sive  Concordia  Evangelistarum. 
Parisiis,  1689,  12mo. — Commentarius  in  Hannoniam  sive  Con- 
cordiam  Quatuor  Evangelistarum.  Parisiis,  1699,  in  two  volumes, 
4to. 

Lamy's  Commentary  is  lield  in  much  higher  estimation  than  his 
Harmony.  It  is  justly  characterized  by  Michaelis  as  a  learned 
work.  The  chronological  and  geographical  apparatus  is  peculiarly 
valuable. 

8.  Joannis  Clerici  Harmonia  Evangelica,  cui  sabjecta  est 
historia  Christi  ex  quatuor  evangeliis  concinnata.  Acccsserunt 
tres  Dissertationes,  de  annis  Ciiristi,  deque  concordia  et  auctori- 
tate  evangeliorum.     Amstclodami,  1699,  folio. 

All  critics  unite  in  corrimendation  of  Le  Clerc's  Harmony.  He 
has  arranged  the  history  of  the  four  evangelists,  according  lo  chro- 
nological order,  in  columns  parallel  to  each  other,  in  Greek  arid 
Latin  ,•  and  under  the  text  he  has  given  a  Latin  paraphrase,  the 
design  of  which  is  to  remove  apparent  contradictions.  Le  Clerc 
promised  to  publish  Annotations  on  his  Harmony,  which  have 
never  appeared.  A  Latin  edition  of  it  was  printed  at  Altorf  in 
1700,  in  4to. ;  and  an  English  translation  of  it  is  said  by  Walchius 
to  have  been  published  at  London  in  the  same  year,  also  in  4to. 

9.  Nicolai  Toisakdi  Harmonia  Graeco-Latina.  Parisiis,  1707, 
folio. 

M.  Toinard  drew  up  this  Harmony  for  his  own  private  use,  of 
which  only  five  or  six  copies  were  taken  for  the  use  of  his  friends. 
After  his  decease  they  published  it  (as  he  had  desired  they  would) 
at  the  time  and  place  above  mentioned.  It  has  long  been  held  in 
the  highest  estimation,  for  the  care  and  diligence  which  its  author 
bestowed,  in  order  to  settle  the  several  circumstances  mentioned 
by  the  different  evangelist-s.  Bishop  Marsh  pronounces  it  to  be  of 
particular  use  to  those  who  w  ish  to  examine  the  verbal  agreement 
of  the  evangelists ;  as  M.  Toinard  has  not  only  placed  in  adjacent 
columns  the  parallel  passages,  but  has  also  parallelized  even  single 
words. 

10.  Jo.  Reinhardi  Res,  Harmonia  Evangelistarum,  ita  adomata, 
ut,  investigata  sedulo  textus  cohairentia,  nuUus  versus,  sive  traji- 


60 


MODERN  VERSIONS  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


[Part  I.  Chap.  II 


ciatur,  sive  prsetercatur  sine  brcvi  ac  succincta  cxplicatione,  qujE 
justi  commciitarii  loco  esse  queat.     Jcnse,   1727-1730,  4  vols. 

1  'Zaxo. 

AValchius  pronounces  this  to  be  an  elaborate  and  Icanieil  work. 
This  harmonist  ibllovvs  the  plan  of  those  who  vindii-ate  the  chro- 
nological order  of  the  history  related  by  each  evangelist.  The  te.\l 
of  the  sacred  writers  is  also  explained  in  the  copious  notes  of 
M.  Rus.     Walchii  Bibliothcca,  vol.  iv.  p.  881. 

11.  In  the  year  1739  and  1740,  Dr.  DonnninoE  published  the 
first  and  second  volumes  of  his  Family  Expositor,  of  which  an 
account  will  be  found  in  a  subsequent  part  of  this  Api)endi.x. 
'i'hey  are  noticed  here,  because  they  contain  a  harmony  of  the 
four  GosjK-ls,  wliich  is  acknowledged  to  be  executed  with  great 
judgment,  independently  of  the  very  valuable  exposition  and 
notes  that  accompany  it. 

12.  The  Evangelical  History  and  Harmony.  By  Matthew 
PiLKixGTOx,  LL.B.     London,  1747,  foho. 

This  harmonist  professes  not  to  adhere  to  any  of  the  schemes  laid 
down  by  his  preileccs-sors  for  arranging  the  evangelical  history. 
It  is  nut  dispo.-!ed  in  columns,  like  tliu  works  of  Lc  Clcrc,  Toinard, 
and  others;  but  the  te.\t  is  exhibited  in  such  a  manner  as  to  relate 
the  various  discourses  and  fiicls  recorded  by  the  sacred  writers  in 
llieir  identical  words,  and  in  the  fullest  manner  possible,  yet  so  as 
to  avoid  tautology.  The  history  is  divided  into  chapters,  and  these 
are  subdivided  into  sections  of  moderate  length.  Two  Chronological 
Dissertations  are  prefixed  :  1.  On  the  time  of  Herod's  death,  ol  the 
birth  of  Jesus  Christ,  the  duration  of  his  ministry,  and  the  year  of 
his  crucifixion,  &c.  &c.  2.  On  the  lime  and  place  of  the  ailoration 
of  the  wise  men.  Notes  are  subjoined  for  the  elucidation  of  par- 
ticular passages.  The  work  is  executed  with  great  care,  and  may 
ffcincntly  be  purchased  at  a  low  price. 

13.  The  Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels;  in  which  the  natural 
order  of  each  is  preserved,  with  a  paraphrase  and  notes.  By  J. 
M.vcKXicHT,  D.I).  4to.  2  vols.  1756  ;  2d  edit.  1763  ;  3d  edit.  8vo. 

2  vols.  Edinburgh,  1804. 

Dr.  Mackniglu  closely  adheres  to  the  principle  of  Osiander;  but 
his  paraphnase  and  commentary  contain  so  much  useful  information, 
lliat  his  harmony  has  long  been  regarded  as  a  stan;lanl  book  among 
divines;  it  is  in  the  lists  of  Bishops  Watson  and  Tomiine.  The 
preliminary  disquisitions  greatly  enhance  it;i  value.  Dr.  Macknight's 
work  was  translated  into  Latin  by  Professor  Ruckcrsfeldcr,  and 
published  in  3  vols.  8vo.  at  Bremen  and  Deventer,  1772.  Bishop 
Marsh  says,  that  whoever  makes  use  of  this  harmony  should  com- 

fiare  witli  it  Dr.  Lardner's  ob^!ervations  on  it,  which  were  first  piib- 
islied  in  1704,  and  are  rejjrinted  in  the  eleventh  volume  of  the 
octavo  edition,  and  in  the  fifth  volume  of  the  quarto  edition  of  his 
vorks. 

14.  An  Harmony  of  the  Gospels,  in  which  the  original  text 
is  disposed  after  Lc  Clerc's  general  manner,  with  such  various 
readings  at  the  foot  of  the  page  as  have  received  Wetstein's 
eanctioii  in  his  folio  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament.  Observa- 
tions are  suljoined  tending  to  settle  the  time  and  place  of  every 
transaction,  to  establish  the  series  of  facts,  and  to  reconcile  seem- 
ing inconsistencies.  By  William  Nkwcome,  D.D.  Bishop  of 
Oasory  (afterwards  Archbishop  of  Armagh).  London,  1778,  iblio. 

15.  An  Engli.sh  Harmony  of  the  Four  Evangelists,  generally 
disposed  after  the  manner  of  the  Greek  of  William  Newcoine, 
Archbishop  of  Armagh;  ^v^th  a  Map  of  Pulemiiie  divided  ac- 
cofditiff  to  the  twelve  tribes,  E  vpluiiatori/  JS'utes,  and  Indexes. 
London,  1802,  8vo. 

The  Greek  Harmony  of  Archbishop  Newcome  has  long  been  held 
in  the  highest  estimation;  but  its  bulk  and  price  necessarily  |)lace 
it  beyond  the  reach  of  many  iiiblical  students.  In  pulilii«hing  this 
harmony,  the  anonymous  compiler  (a  member  of  the  .Society  of 
F'riends)  has  rendered  to  Kn^lish  readers  the  same  service  which 
Ifiat  learned  prelate  had  conferred  on  biblical  scholars  by  his  larger 
(iroek  work.  "Several  trilling  alteratiouH  have  been  adopted  in 
the  text,  and,  it  is  hoped,  generally  to  advant.-ige."  (Prelace,  i).  v.) 
The  harmiiiiy  fills  four  hunilred  and  iliirty-iour  pages;  nnil  the 
'Notes  and  lllilstrations"  compri.so  liiirty-six  pages:  though  brief, 
they  are  judiciously  Hclected  from  the  critical  and  pliilolngical 
labours  of  BcauHobre  nnd  L'KiifanI,  (-almet,  Crotins,  the  IJev.  I)r>. 
namiiKind,  liarwood,  Shaw,  Dodilrid^c,  from  the  harmony  of  the 
late  eminent  physician.  Dr.  R')bcrt  WiUan,  and  various  other 
KKurces.  'I'ho  volume  concludes  with  an  index  |o  the  I'arable.t 
delivered  by  Jesus  Chriwr,  and  a  Table  (iir  finding  any  p.issimo  of 
tlie  Gospels  in  this  Ilaniiony.  Allogf!ther,  "  the  form  in  which  this 
work  is  iirinted  is  •■xtmncly  coiivciiieiil ;  so  much  xo,  that  ihcy, 
who  can  use  the  (Jreek,  may  be  i^lad  to  coiLMuIt  tin;  Knulixh  octavo 
r.ilhcr  than  the  unwiehly  (olio  ol  the  ttrclibi»h">p."  (iSriiisli  Critic 
;0.  S.),  vol.  xxii.  p.  437.) 

15*.  An  English  Harmony  of  the  Four  Evangelists,  <ti.posed 
after  tlic  manner  of  the  Greek  of  William  Newcome,  Archbishop 
of  .\rmagh  ;  wil/i  K.rplanritory  A'otes,  nnd  Indexes,  and  a  new 
,M<ip  of  J'a'.estine,  divided  into  Tetrmchies,  and  shoving  the 


Travels  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ.    London:  m.bccc.xxvii 
8vo. 

Though  apparently  a  new  work,  this  is  a  mere  reprint  of  tlio 
preceding  Karmouy,  with  the  omission  in  the  title-page  of  the  word 
"generally"  (which  the  original  com;)iler  had  properly  inserted, 
as  Archbishop  Newcomc's  method  was  only  generally  followed.), 
and  with  tlie  variation,  which  the  reader  will  be  able  to  distinguish, 
from  the  lines  above  printed  in  Italics.  The  date  of  the  original 
work  is  in  Arab.ic  figures ;  in  the  volume  under  consideration  it  is 
in  R<jman  small  ca|)ital  letters.  T\\c  few  errata  which  the  original 
compiler  had  noticed  are  here  corrected:  but  the  following  note, 
whicii  he  had  prefixed  to  his  table  of  contents,  viz.  "  77(6  title  pre- 
fixed  to  each  section  is  designed  to  mark  the  general  order  at  frst 
view,  and  not  fuilLfullij  to  exhibit  its  contents,"  is  omitted:  and  the 
taltic  of  contents,  which  in  the  original  work  fills  scveit  pages  in 
columns,  is  here  printed  in  long  lines,  in  four  pages.  The  thirty- 
six  i)ages  of  "  notes  and  illustrations"  are  here  compressed  into 
thirty-//ircc  ;  and  the  "  Table  lor  finding  any  passage  of  the  Gospels 
in  this  Harmony,"  which  fills  five  pages  in  the  original  edition,  is 
here  compressed  into  four  pages.  The  iMap  is  the  only  new  article  : 
it  exhibits  Palestine,  divided  into  Tetrarcliies,  and  by  means  of  a 
red  line  shows  the  travels  of  Jesus  Christ.  In  one  corner  of  it  is  J 
a  ground  plan  of  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem.  The  volume  is  very  I 
neatly  jwinted. 

IG.  A  Harmony  of  the  Evangelists  in  Greek;  to  which  are 
prefixed  Critical  Dissertations  in  English.  By  Joseph  Pbiest- 
LET,  LL.D.     London,  1778,  4to. 

17.  A  Harmony  of  the  Evangelists  in  English;  with  Critical 
Dissertations,  an  occa.sional  Paraphrase,  and  Notes  for  the  use 
of  the    unlearned.     By  Joseph    Puikstlky,   LL.D.     London, 

1780,  4to. 

The  same  method  of  arrangement  is  followed  in  both  these  Har« 
monies.  Dr.  Priestley  adopted  the  opinion  of  some  ancient  writers 
that  the  ministry  of  Jesus  Christ  lasted  only  one  year,  or  a  year  and 
a  few  montiis.  For  an  account  of  these  two  publications  sec  the 
Monthly  Review  (old  series),  vol.  Iviii.  pp.  8&— -94.,  and  vol.  Ixiv 
pp.  81— 'JO.  161—173. 

1 8.  Synopsis  Evangeliorum  Matthjei,  Marci,  ct  Lucje,  una  cum 
iis  Joannis  Pcricopis,  qute  historiam  passionis  et  resurrection  is 
hi.sloriain  complcctuntur.  Textum  recensuit,  et  sclectam  lectionis 
varietatem  adjecit  J.  J.  GKiKsnAcii.  Halse,  1776,  8vo.  Editio 
secunda,  emendatior  et  auctior.  Halx  Saxonuni,  1797,  8vo. 
Editio  quarta,  1822,  8vo. 

The  chief  purport  of  this  synopsis,  Bishop  Marsh  remarks,  is,  not 
to  give  a  chronological  series  of  events,  but  to  represent  in  parallel 
columns  all  those  sections  which  are  common  to  the  Gospels  of 
Matthew,  Mark,  and  Luke ;  the  Gospel  of  John  (except  the  last 
part)  being  omitted,  because  the  rest  of  it  has  so  very  little  matter 
in  common  with  the  other  three.  In  order  to  make  as  few  trans- 
positions as  possible,  Mark's  ordec  is  generally  retained,  becau.se  it 
is  the  same  with  that  of  Luke,  as  I'ar  as  relates  to  the  facts  which 
are  common  to  all  three.  Those  yiarts  which  each  evangelist  has 
peculiar  to  himself,  are  inserted  in  intermediate  sections.  The 
learned  translator  of  Michaelis  pronounces  the  disposition  of  the 
whole  work  to  be  very  commodious,  and  adds,  that  he  knows  of  no 
harmony,  which  affords  so  much  a.ssistance  in  the  investigation  of 
the  origin  of  the  first  CJospcls.  In  1812,  an  English  Si/no}>sis  of  the 
frst  three  Gospels,  including  the  last  four  chapters  of  St.  John's 
ilospii,  was  published  in  8vo.  on  the  plan  of  Griesbach's  work, 
with  some  variations,  by  the  Rev.  Charles  Dunster,  who  has  made 
the  narrative  of  St.  LuKe  the  standard  to  which  the  other  Gospels 
are  adapted.  V'alnable  as  Griesbach's  synopsis  confessedly  is,  some 
of  his  transjiosilions  have  been  deemed  arbitrary,  and  some  import- 
ant passages  were  omitted  by  him.  To  obviate  these  defects,  AIM 
De  Wetlo  and  Liicke  have  com])iled  a  new  synopsis  from  Gries- 
bach's third  edition,  so  as  to  exhibit  the  entire  passages  of  the 
(lospcls  \%ilh  their  jiarallels;  at  the  fool  of  each  page  they  have 
given  tlic  ))riniipal  various  lections  from  Griesbach's  critical  edition 
of  the  New  Testament;  and  they  have  supplied  brief  notices  of 
the  arguments  or  contents  of  eacn  section.  The  title  of  this  very 
Useful  publication  is, 

19.  Synopsis   Evangeliorum  Matlha;i,  Marci,  ct  Lucro,  cum 
Parallelis  Joannis  Pcricopis.     Ex    reccnsione  (irieshachii,  cum 
sclccta  Lectionum  varielate.     Concinnaverunt,  et  Breves  Argu- 
menlornm  Notationes  adjccerunt  (iuil.  Mart.  Leber.  Dc  Wettf^ 
et  Frid.  Lickk.     Berohni,  1818,  4to. 

20.  Diatessaron,  sivc  integrn  Ilistoria  Domini  nostri  Jesu 
Christi,  Ciiirce.  Ex  quatuor  Evangcliis  inter  se  collatis,  ipsisquc 
Evangclisfarum  verbis  apt^  el  ordinate  dispositis  confccta.  Sub- 
jungitur  Evangeliorum  brevis  Harmonia.  Edidil  J.  Wiiitk, 
S.'I'.P.  Ling.  Arab.  Prof.  Versionis  Syriacic  Philoxeniana;  Nov. 
Test.  Interpres.  Oxonii,  e  Typograjihco  Clarendoniano,  1799, 
small  8vo. 

A  PiatisMron  is  the  rcaiill  and  summary  of  a  Ifnnnoni/.  In  the 
bitter  the  whole  text  of  the  lour  evangelists  is  given,  only  so  ar- 
ranged in  columns  that  Iheir  parallelisms  and  dilforences  may  bo 
exactly  seen:  whereas,  in  a  diale.«saron,  one  continm^d  narrative  is 
selected  from  the  four,  avoiding  all  repetitions  of  the  same  orsimi- 


Sect.  III.] 


HARMONIES  OF  THE  FOUR  GOSPELS. 


61 


lar  words.  Professor  Wliito  founded  his  beautifully  and  correctly 
printed  volume  on  the  excellent  Harmony  of  Archbishop  New- 
come,  except  in  the  part  relating  to  tlie  resurrection  of  Jesus  Christ, 
in  which  he  has  followed  the  arrangement  of  facts  proposed  by 
Mr.  West  and  Dr.  Towjison,  in  their  works  on  this  subject,  which 
are  noticed  in  the  next  col.  The  time  and  place  in  wliich  each 
event  happened,  are  judiciously  noticed  in  the  margins:  a  map  of 
Palestine  is  prefixed;  and  a  very  useful,  though  concise,  Evangeli- 
orum  Harmonia,  which  is  added  at  the  end,  connects  the  whole 
with  peculiar  clearness.  In  1802,  Dr.  White's  work  was  translated 
into  Latin  by  the  Rev.  T.  Thirlwall,  who  retained  the  chief  part 
of  the  professor's  title,  and  adopted  principally  the  Latin  version 
Df  Castellio;  although,  where  the  editor  regarded  his  phrases  as 
forced  and  affected  (as  they  sometimes  are),  he  has  had  recourse  to 
the  versions  of  Beza,  Tremellius,  and  the  Vulgate.  This  publica- 
tion may  be  of  use  to  those,  who,  in  reading  the  Greek,  are  occa- 
sionally induced  to  consult  a  translation;  Mr.  Thirlwall  also  pub- 
lished, in  1803,  an  English  Dialessaron,  or  History  of  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ,  cnmpiled  from  the  four  Gospels  according  to  the  au- 
thorized version,  8vo.  and  12mo.  Some  brief  notes,  and  a  concise  but 
useful  introduction  are  annexed,  together  with  a  map  of  Palestine. 

2 1 .  Dialessaron  ;  or  the  Gospel  History,  from  the  Text  of  the 
Four  Evangelists,  in  a  connected  Series.  With  Notes  critical 
and  explanatory,  by  Robert  Thomson.  Edinburgh  and  London, 
1808,  8vo. 

22.  The  United  Gospel;  or,  Ministry  of  pur  Lord  and  Saviour 
Jesus  Christ,  combined  from  the  Narrations  of  the  Four  Evan- 
gelists.    By  R.  and  M.  Willan.     London,  1806,  8vo. 

This  is  the  third  edition  of  a  very  useful  Diatessaron,  for  such 
the  work  in  effect  is.  The  first  impression  appeared  in  1782,  and 
the  second  in  1786,  under  the  name  of  the  late  eminent  physician 
Dr.  Robert  Willan.  It  professes  to  exhibit  the  events  of  the  Gospel 
history  in  a  connected  chain  or  order  of  succession ;  and,  by  com- 
bining the  accounts  of  each  evangelist,  to  relate  in  their  own  words 
every  incident,  with  all  its  circumstances,  at  full  length.  The 
notes  which  accompany  the  work  are  judiciously  selected  ;  they 
relate  chiefly  to  the  manners,  customs,  opinions,  and  expressions, 
proverbial  or  allegorical,  among  the  eastern  nations,  with  which 
the  generality  of  readers  cannot  be  familiarly  acquainted. 

23.  A  Synopsis  of  the  Four  Evangelists ;  or,  a  regular  History 
of  the  conception,  birth,  doctrine,  miracles,  death,  resurrection, 
and  ascension  of  Jesus  Christ,  in  the  words  of  the  Evangelists. 
By  Charles  Thomson',  8vo.    Philadelphia,  1815. 

The  venerable  author  of  this  Harmony,  whose  translation  of  the 
Old  Testament  is  noticed  in  a  subsequent  page  of  this  Appendix, 
considering  the  Gospel  as  memoirs  of  remarkable  things  said  and 
done  by  Jesus  Christ,  has  here  arranged  them  according  to  the 
dates,  places,  and  circumstances,  which  he  found  expressly  men- 
tioned in  the  several  Gospels.  He  has  employed  a  literal  transla- 
tion of  the  very  words  of  the  evangelists,  without  any  omission  or 
addition,  excepting  that  he  has  inserted  explanations  of  peculiar 
phrases  and  technical  terms  between  brackets  [  ].  It  is  very 
respectalily  executed;  and  at  the  end  there  are  fifty  pages  of  notes, 
chiefly  explanatory  of  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  Jews. 

24.  An  Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels ;  or,  a  series  of  the  Nar- 
ratives of  the  Evangelists,  so  collected  and  disposed,  as  to  bring 
the  whole  into  one  regular  relation;  with  notes,  selected  from 
various  authors.     Bj'  John  Chambehs.     London,  1813,  8vo. 

25.  A  Chronological  History  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus 
Christ,  from  the  compounded  texts  of  the  Four  Holy  Evange- 
lists; or,  the  English  Diatessaron ;  with  a  map  of  the  Holy  Land, 
explanatory  notes,  and  illustrations,  from  late  oriental  travellers 
and  rabbinical  writers,  &c.  &c.  By  the  Rev.  R.  Waiiner.  Bath 
and  London,  1819,  8vo. 

26.  Concordance  de  Quatre  Evangelistes,  suivant  I'Ordre  de 
Michaelis.     Paris,  1828,  12mo. 

This,  it  is  believed,  is  the  only  detached  harmony  of  the  Gospels 
extant  in  the  French  language:  it  is  drawn  up  agreeably  to  the 
order  of  Michaelis  in  his  harmony  or  table  of  contents  to  the  four 
evangelists,  which  forms  part  of  his  introduction  to  the  New  Tes- 
tament. (Vol.  iii.  pp.  49 — 83.  of  Bishop  Marsh's  English  transla- 
tion; or  vol.  iii.  pp.  58 — 93  of  M.  Cheneviere's  French  translation.) 
The  total  absence  of  a  table  of  contents,  or  even  of  the  summaries 
of  the  contents  given  to  each  section  by  Michaelis,  greatly  lessens 
the  utility  of  this  volume  as  a  book  of  reference  to  the  French 
reader. 

27.  The  Monotessaron  ;  or,  the  Go.spel  History,  according  to 
the  Four  Evangelists,  harmonized  and  chronologically  arranged, 
in  a  new  Translation  from  the  Text  of  Griesbach.  By  the  Rev. 
John  S.  Thompson.     Baltimore,  1829,  8vo. 

28.  Synopsis  Evangeliorum  Matthoei,  Marci  et  Lucie,  cum 
Joannis  Pericopis  Parallelis.  Textum  ex  ordine  Griesbachii 
dispertitum,  cum  varia  Scriptura  selccta,  edidit  Mauritius  Roedi- 
OEH.     Halis  Saxonum,  1829,  8vo. 

A  commodious  synopsis  of  the  first  three  Gospels.  The  order 
of  Dr.  Griesbach  (see  No.  18.  p.  60.)  is  followed  in  the  disjwsition 


of  the  text:  but  the  synopsis  itself  is  divided  into  six  parts,  aflct 
the  plan  of  De  Wette  and  Luecke.  The  summaries  of  contents 
prefixed  to  each  section  are  principally  taken  from  Dr.  Knappe's 
critical  edition.  Great  pains  have  been  bestowed  on  the  punctua- 
tion of  this  work,  the  typographical  execution  of  which  is  very 
neat. 

29.  Quatuor  Evangeliorum  Tabula;  Synoptics.  Juxta  ra- 
tiones  temporis  quoad  fieri  potuit  composuifc,  annotationibusque 
ex  perpetua  scctionum  singiilarum  collatione  instruxit,  Henricus 
Nicolaus  Clausen.     Hauniffi,  1829,  8vo. 

No  part  of  the  Greek  text  is  printed  in  this  work,  in  which  the 
author  has  taken  singular  pains  in  adjusting  the  order  of  events, 
from  a  minute  and  laborious  collation  of  the  parallel  passages  in 
the  four  evangelists. 

30.  Harmonia  Evangclica ;  sive  Quatuor  Evangelia  Grsece, 
pro  temporis  et  rerum  serie  in  partes  quinque  distributa.  Edidit 
Edvardus  Gkesweli,  A.M.     Oxonii,  1830,  8vo. 

30*.  Dissertations  upon  the  Principles  and  Arrangement  of  a 
Harmony  of  the  Gospels.  By  the  Rev.  Edward  Gkesavell, 
M.A.     Oxford,  1830,  3  vols.  8vo. 

The  fundamental  principles  of  Mr.  Greswell's  Harmony  are,  1 
That  the  last  three  Gospels  are  regular  compositions ;  2.  That  St. 
Matthew's  Gospel  is  partly  regular  and  partly  irregular ;  3.  Tliat 
each  of  the  Gospels  was  written  hi  the  order  in  which  it  stands ; 
4.  That  the  Gospels  last  written,  in  every  instance,  were  supple- 
mental to  the  prior  Gospels.  "  His  harmony  forms  but  a  portion  of 
the  valuable  critical  apparatus,  which  he  has  constructed  for  the 
benefit  of  the  critical  student;  and,  taken  together  with  the  Disser- 
tations, it  will  enable  the  reader  to  make  himself  master  of  the 
whole  range  of  inquiry  relating  to  the  chronology  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament, and  the  structure  and  composition  of  the  Gospels."  (Eclec- 
tic Review  for  June,  1833,  vol.  ix.  Third  Series,  p.  313.) 

31.  A  Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels  in  the  English  Autho- 
rized version,  arranged  according  to  Greswell's  "  Harmonia 
Evangelica"  in  Greek,  with  references  to  his  Dissertations  on  the 
same.     By  R.  Mimpris.     London,  1833,  8vo. 

A  necessary  companion  to  Mr.  Greswell's  elaborate  works. 

32.  A  Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels,  founded  on  the  Arrange- 
ment of  the  Harmonia  Evangelica  by  the  Rev.  Edward  Greswell. 
With  the  Practical  Reflections  of  Dr.  Doddridge.  By  the  Rev, 
E.  BicKEiisTETii.     London,  1832,  8vo. 


SECTION  m. 

HARMONIES    OF    PARTICULAR    PARTS    OF    THE    FOUR    GOSPELS. 

1.  A  Harmony  and  Exposition  of  our  blessed  Lord's  last  Pro- 
phecy ;  in  which  the  Difficulties  that  have  hitherto  perplexed 
commentators  are  satisfactorily  explained.  By  John  Fannin, 
A.B.  Dublin,  1832,  8vo. 

The  principal  design  of  this  publication  is  to  prove  that  the  de- 
tails which  are  given  in  Matt.  xxiv.  15 — 22.,  Mark  xiii.  14 — 20., 
and  Luke  xxi.  20 — 24.,  refer  to  two  events,  diflferent,  distinct,  and 
distant  from  eacli  other;  the  one,  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by 
the  Romans — an  event  long  past ;  the  other  still  future,  and  likely 
to  occur  about  the  restoration  of  the  Jews.  Mr.  Fannin  consider.s 
that  Luke's  account  refers  to  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by 
Titus,  while  those  of  Matthew  and  Mark  refer  to  the  second  ad- 
vent of  Christ :  and  he  has  devoted  twenty-three  pages  to  prove 
that  the  abomination  of  desolation,  spoken  of  by  the  latter  two 
evangelists,  is  popery. 

2.  Observations  on  the  History  of  the  Evidences  of  the  Re- 
surrection of  Jesus  Christ.  By  Gilbert  West,  Esq.  London, 
1 747,  8vo. 

The  multiplied  editions  of  this  most  valuable  treatise,  which 
places  the  history  of  the  resurrection  on  impregnable  ground,  suffi- 
ciently attest  its  value,  and  the  high  estimation  in  which  it  is  de- 
servedly held.  Mr.  West  had  for  a  time  listened  to  the  blandi.sh- 
ments  of  infidelity  ;  and  the  treati.se  in  question  was  written  in 
consequence  of  the  inquiries  which  he  conscientiously  instituted 
into  the  evidences  of  Christianity,  of  which  he  lived  and  died  a 
bright  ornament.  His  work  is  noticed  here  on  account  of  the  lu- 
minous and  satisfactory  manner  in  which  he  has  harmonized  the 
several  accounts  of  the  evangelical  history  of  the  resurrection. 

3.  A  Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels,  so  far  as  relates  to  our 
Saviour's  Resurrection,  with  a  commentary  and  notes.  By 
Richard  Parry.     London,  1765,  4to. 

4.  A  Discourse  on  the  Evangelical  History,  from  the  Inter- 
ment to  the  Ascension  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ. 
By  the  late  Rev.  Thomas  Townson,  D.D.  Archdeacon  of  Rich- 
mond.    Oxford  and  London,  1793,  Bvo. 

In  this  very  judicious  work  (which  was  edited,  after  the  learned 
author's  deccise,  by  Dr.  John  Loveday)  the  harmony  of  the  four 
evangelical  accounts  of  the  resurrection  is  exhibited  in  four  parallel 


62 


HARMONIES  OF  THE  ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES, 


[Sect.  IV.  §  3, 


columns,  with  a  collateral  paraphrase,  the  order  of  wliich  is  il- 
lustrated and  confirmed  by  various  observations.  Dr.  Tovvnson 
professes  to  tread  nearly  in  the  footsteps  of  Mr.  West,  whose  rea- 
soning he  enforces  by  new  considerations;  and  he  has  illustrated 
his  accounts  by  a  new  arrangement,  and  by  the  introduction  of 
some  explanatory  particulars.  He  "  accura;^ly  discriminates  the 
respective  particulars  of  the  three  days  of  our  Saviour's  crucifix- 
ion and  resurrection,  minutely  considers  every  circumstance  in  the 
different  relations,  reconciles  apparent  inconsistencies,  accounts 
for  particular  omissions,  and  furnishes  a  clear  and  consistent  histo- 
ry, confirmed  by  considerations  and  representations,  in  which  much 
learning  is  displayed,  without  any  parade."  (Britisii  Critic,  O.  S., 
vol.  i.  p.  73.)  These  "  Oljservations"  of  Dr.  Townson  are  also  ex- 
tant in  tho  second  volume  of  the  collective  edition  of  his  works, 
published  at  London,  in  1810,  in  two  volumes,  8vo. 

5.  An  Harmony  of  the  Gospels,  from  the  Resurrection  to  the 
Ascension  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ ;  in  which  the 
English  Narrations  of  the  Four  Evangelists  are  ortlcrly  exhibited 
in  appropriate  columns.  Observations  arc  subjoined  tending  to 
investigate  tlie  true  evangelical  sense,  reconcile  seeming  discre- 
pancies, and  defend  the  order  of  the  facts  laid  down  in  the  Har- 
mony.    By  Thomas  Chanfield,  A.B,     Dublin,  1795,  folio. 

This  publication  was  originally  an  academical  exercise,  under- 
taken in  pursuance  of  a  theological  subject,  given  by  the  late  Rev. 
Dr.  Graves,  to  the  gentlemen  attending  his  divinity  class.  The 
iiuilior  professes  to  follow  Dr.  Tovvnson's  scheme,  with  some  few 
variations.  His  work  was  published  with  a  recommendatory  cha- 
racter given  by  the  Drs.  Graves  and  Barrett  (at  that  lime  the  divi- 
nity lecturers  in  the  University  of  Dublin) ;  who  state  that,  in  their 
opmion,  "  it  contains  much  accurate  research,  and  much  useful  in- 
Ibrmation  ;  and,  therefore,"  that  they  "shall  not  hesitate  to  recom- 
mend it  to  the  attention  of  the  students  in  divinity  attending  tlieir 
lectures." 

6.  The  Burial  and  Resurrection  of  Jesus  Christ,  according  to 
the  Four  Evangelists.  From  the  German  of  John  David  Mi- 
chaelis.  [By  Sir  George  Dcckett,  Bart.]  London,  1827,  12mo, 

"  If  any  person  should  be  desirous  of  seeing  all  that  the  very 
spirit  of  suDtlety  and  mischief  can  produce  against  the  fact  of  the 
resurrection,  we  should  recommend  them  by  all  means  to  peruse 
the  little  work  of  Michaelis  on  this  subject,  which  has  recciuly 
been  translated  into  English.  This  celebrated  critic  has  there  con- 
sidered almost  every  cavil  with  which  the,  wit  or  malice  of  the 
adversaries  has  been  able  to  assail  the  evidenceof  this  great  event. 
And  we  may  safely  venture  to  predict  that  «very  intelligent  and 
lionest  examiner  of  these  objections  will  pronounce,  with  Michaelis, 
that  tho  whole  is  "  a  contest  between  the  accuracy  of  the  Gospels 
and  the  imagination  of  the  unbeliever;''  and  that,  with  very  tew 
exceptions,  the  cavils  are  so  stupid  and  frivolous  as  to  make  their 
authors  worthy  of  sound  flagellation;  or  so  shamefully  disingenu- 
ous as  righteously  to  entitle  them  to  the  honours  of  the  pillory. 
In  referring  our  readers  to  this  treatise,  it  may  be  necessary  to  ap- 
prize them,  by  way  of  caution,  that,  on  the  subject  of  inspiration, 
the  laxity  of  the  author's  notions  is  somewhat  greater  than  would 
be  approved  by  the  Anglican  school  of  divinity.  So  far  as  relates 
to  mere  matters  of  fact,  he  is  much  disposed  to  place  the  evange- 
lists (or  at  all  events  those  two  of  them  who  were  not  apostlesi 
precisely  on  the  footing  of  so  many  ordinary  mortal  witnesses.  He 
contends,  however,  quite  irresistibly,  that  their  testimony,  even  so 
considered,  is  abundanily  sufTK-icnt  to  place  ilie  resurrection  of 
^^hrist  beyond  the  reach  of  doubt."  (British  Critic  and  Theologi- 
cal Review,  vol.  v.  pp.  331,  332.) 


SECTION  IV. 


HARMONIES   OK   THE    ACTS    OV  THE    APOSTLE.S,    AND   OF   THE 
APOSTOLIC    EPISTLES. 

1.  The  Apostolical  History,  containing  the  Acts,  Labours, 
Travels,  Sermons,  Discourses,  Miracles,  Successes,  anil  Suffer- 
ings of  the  Holy  Apostles,  from  Christ's  .Ascension  to  the  De- 
struction of  Jerusalem.  Also  a  Narration  of  the  particular 
times  and  occaaons  upon  which  the  Apostolical  Epistles  were 


wntten,  together  with  a  brief  analytical  Paraphrase  of  them 
By  Samuel  Ciiadocr,  B.D.     London,  1672,  folio. 

This  author,  an  eminent  non-conformist  divine,  also  wrote  "  A 
plain  and  brief  Exposition  of  the  Revelation,"  now  superseded  by 
later  and  better  works;  "The  Old  Testament  History  Method- 
ized," folio,  now  also  superseded  by  the  valuable  work  of  Mr. 
Townsend,  noticed  in  page  68.  supra ;  and  the  "  Harmony  of  the 
Four  Evangelists,"  likewise  noticed  in  page  59.  "  Cradock's  three 
volumes  are  very  valuable :  the  last  two,  on  the  New  Testament, 
are  much  better  than  the  first,  on  the  Old.  His  extracts  in  the 
margin  from  Hammond,  Lightfoot,  and  Grotius,  are  veri/  judicious; 
and  I  think,  on  the  whole,  I  never  read  any  one  author  that  assisted 
me  more  in  what  relates  to  the  New  Testament."  (Dr.  Doddridge.) 
The  book  is  by  no  means  dear,  which  to  students  Is  a  great  advan- 
tage. 

2.  A  History  of  the  First  Planting  of  Christianity,  taken  from 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  and  their  Epistles.  Together  with  the 
remarkable  Facts  of  the  Jewish  and  Roman  History,  within  this 
period.  By  George  Bkxsox,  D.D.,  4to.  London,  1735  ;  2J,  and 
best  edition,  1750,  3  vols,  usually  bound  in  one. 

Though  this  work  does  not  profess  to  be  a  harmony  of  the  Acta 
of  the  Apostles  and  of  their  Epistles,  it  may  justly  lie  considered 
as  one.  Besides  illustrating  tho  history  of  the  Acts  throughout, 
and  most  of  the  Epistles,  by  a  view  of  the  history  of  the  limes, 
the  occasions  of  the  several  Epistles,  and  the  state  of  the  churched 
to  which  they  were  addres.sed,  the  learned  author  has  incorporated 
a  parapiirastic  abstract  of  those  Epistles  in  the  order  of  time  when 
they  were  written;  and  has  also  established  the  truth  of  the  Chris- 
tian religion  on  a  number  of  facts,  the  most  public,  impwrtant,  and 
incontestable.  It  is  indeed  a  most  valuable  help  to  the  study  of  the 
Epistles ;  but  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  its  scarcity  renders  it  accessi- 
ble to  few. 

3.  The  Life  of  the  Apostle  Paul  as  related  in  Scripture  ;  but 
in  which  his  Epistles  are  in.serted  in  that  part  of  the  History  to 
which  they  arc  suppcsed  respectively  to  belong ;  with  select  Notes, 
critical  and  explanatory,  and  relating  to  persons  and  places,  and 
a  map  of  the  countries  in  which  the  apostle  travelled.  By  Jo- 
soph  Gurncy  Bevax.     London,  1807,  8vo. 

The  narrative  of  St.  Paul's  life  is  studiously  related  in  the  very 
words  of  Scripture,  having  only  such  additional  matter  as  is  neces- 
sary to  introyluce  or  connect  tho  several  parts.  .Attention,  however 
has  been  paid  to  the  task  of  selecting,  from  different  parts  of  the 
iN'ew  Testament,  such  passages  as  belong  to  the  regular  chain  of 
the  history.  The  notes  are  [)rincipally  selected  from  the  best  critics 
and  commentators,  and  those  which  are  geographical  are  liie  most 
conspicuous,  and  stamp  a  real  value  on  the  work  ;  which,  lliough 
designed  lor  young  persons  of  his  own  religious  communion  (The 
Society  of  Friends),  may  be  studied  with  advantage  by  those  of 
every  other  class  of  Cliristians,  especially  such  as  have  not  many 
commentators  within  their  reach,  "without  danger  of  finding  any 
thing  introduced  which  can  give  the  smallest  bias  towards  any 
principle  that  is  not  really  and  truly  Christian."  (British  Critic, 
O.  S.,  vol.  x.xxiii.  p.  477.) 

4.  A  Harmony  of  the  Epistles  of  the  Holy  Apostles,  to  which 
is  added,  a  Summary  of  the  Entire.  By  the  Rev.  Peter  Roberts, 
M.A.     Cambridge,  1800,  4to. 

This  Harmony  of  the  Apostolic  Epistles  differs,  in  its  form  and 
structure,  from  the  three  pul)lications  last  noticed.  It  "  consists  of 
two  columns,  in  the  first  of  which  a  kind  of  continued  Epistle  is 
formed,  principally,  but  not  entirely,  from  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans; 
which  tne  author  considers  ns  intended  more  particularly  for  a  de- 
lineation of  the  scheme  of  Christianity,  as  to  the  speculative  part." 
This  continued  text  or  clue  is  printed  in  a  narrow  column  and  a 
large  letter,  which  gives  room  for  the  introduction  of  all  the  parallel 
passages  in  the  second  column,  which  is  much  broader,  and  printed 
in  a  closer  form  and  smaller  type.  The  whole  is  digested  tiiider 
four  principal  divisions.  I.  InlrcKluctory  address.  2.  Doctrinal  in- 
struction. 3.  Practical  precepts.  4.  Conclusion.  In  this  way  the 
whole  sulwlance  of  the  A|)08tolical  Epistles  is  arranged  ;  and  any 
particular  passages  are  found  by  means  of  a  table  at  the  end  of  the 
Ixwk.  Subjoined  to  this  Harmony  is  the  "Summary  of  the  Epistles; 
in  which  tho  view  of  the  contents  is  designed  to  be  completely 
conveyed,  according  to  the  author's  system."  This  part  is  followed 
by  a  very  tiscful  seleciion  of  notes.  "Mr.  Roherl.i  deserves  tho 
highest  commendation  for  his  zeal  and  diligence  in  thus  illustrating 
the  Epirttles,  and  for  the  attention  and  nciileness  manifested  in  di- 
gesting their  very  various  contenls."  (British  Critic,  O.  S..  vol.  xx 
pp.  419-421.) 


SiCT.  I.] 


APOCRYPHAL  BOOKS  AND  WRITINGS, 


63 


CHAPTER  III. 

APOCRYPHAL    BOOKS     AND     WRITINGS. 


SECTION   I. 


APOCRYPHAL  BOOKS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMKXT. 


& 


The  Apocryphal  Books,  attached  to  the  Old  Testament,  arc 
to  be  found  in  the  various  Polyglott  Editions  of  the  Bible,  and 
also  in  most  of  the  larger  editions  of  the  Septuagint  Version. 
Dr.  Masch  (Bibl.  Sacr.  Part  i.  pp.  427 — 436.)  has  described  the 
various  editions  of  the  Apocryphal  Books,  as  well  collectively  as 
of  particular  Books.  The  following  are  the  principal  and  more 
easily  procurable  editions,  including  some  which  have  appeared 
subsequently  to  the  date  of  his  publication. 

1.  Libri  Veteris  Testamenti  Apocryphi  omnes,  Gra;ce,  ad  Ex- 
emplar Vaticanum  emendatissime  expressi.  [Cura  Ludolphi 
Lkusdenii]  Francofurti  ad  Moenum,  1694,  8vo. 

2.  Libri  Apocryphi,  Graece.  Introductionem  prsmisit  Georgius 
Johannes  Hekkius.     Halae,  1711,  8vo. 

The  introduction  was  subsequently  printed  in  a  separate  form, 
m  4to. 

3.  Libri  Veteris  Testamenti  Apocryphi.  Textum  Graecum 
recognovit,  et  Variarum  Lectionum  Delectum  adjecit,  Joannes 
Christianus  Gulielnius  Augusti.     Lipsiae,  1804,  8vo. 

4.  The  Books  of  the  Apocrypha,  with  Critical  and  Historical 
Observations  prefixed  to  each  Book :  also  two  Introductory  Dis- 
courses, the  first,  explaining  the  Distinctions  between  Canonical 
and  Apocryphal  Writings,  estimating  the  Value  of  the  latter, 
and  ascertaining  the  time  when  they  were  introduced  as  Eccle- 
siastical Books  into  the  Service  of  the  Church.  The  second, 
illustrating  the  intimate  connection  between  the  Old  and  New 
Testament  in  religious  and  moral  views,  in  matters  of  faith  and 
practice,  in  style,  composition,  and  allusion;  with  a  Sketch  of 
the  History  of  the  Jews  from  the  Cessation  of  Prophecy  in  Ma- 
lachi,  to  the  final  dissolution  of  their  State  under  the  Emperor 
Vespasian,  a.  d.  70.  By  Charles  Wilson,  D.D.  Edinburgh, 
1801,  8vo. 

5.  The  Five  Books  of  Maccabees  in  English.  With  Notes 
and  Illustrations.  By  Henry  Cottojt,  D.C.L.  Oxford,  1832,  8vo. 

Of  the  Apocrj'phal  Boolis  which  bear  the  name  of  the  Maccabees, 
some  account  will  be  found  in  Vol.  11.  pp.  292,  293.  Dr.  Cotton 
has  collected  them  together  in  this  beautifully  printed  volume,  and 
has  for  the  first  time  given  an  English  translation  of  what  are 
called  the  fourth  and  fifth  books  ;  and  he  has  successfully  adapted 
the  style  and  language  of  his  version  to  those  of  the  preceding 
books,  as  closely  as  was  consistent  with  a  careful  adherence  to  the 
original.  The  whole  is  illustrated  with  very  numerous  notes,  a 
valuable  critical  Introduction,  Genealogical  Tables  of  the  Families 
of  the  Maccabees  and  of  Herod,  together  with  a  Chronological 
Table,  and  a  copious  Index.  This  work  is  a  necessary  supplement 
to  every  edition  of  our  authorized  English  Version  of  the  Bible. 

6.  Sapientia  Jesu  filii  Sirachi,  Greece.  Textum  ad  fidem  Codd. 
et  Versionum  emendavit  et  illustravit  Joh.  Guil.  Linue.  Gedani, 
179.%  8vo. 

7.  Liber  Jesu  Siracidee  Gra;ce :  ad  fidem  Codicum  et  Version- 
um emendatus,  et  perpetua  adnotatione  illustratus,  a  Car.  Gottl. 
BaETSCHXEiDER.     Ratisbon,  1806,  8vo. 

"  This  work  is,  without  contradiction,  the  best  that  has  appeared 
on  the  Book  of  Ecclesiasticus  ;  and  the  Commentary  is  an  excellent 
critique."  (Classical  Journal,  vol.  v.  p.  4.)  It  "  deserves  to  be  in- 
troduced into  the  library  of  every  theological  scholar.    The  Greek 

text  has,  undoubtedly,  been  very  much   corrupted Dr.  Bret- 

schneider  has  spared  no  labour  in  his  valuable  collection  of  read- 
ings from  the  Vatican  and  Ale.xandrian  MSS.,  from  that  MS.  on 
which  the  text  of  the  Complutensian  Polyglott  was  founded,  and 
from  various  other  sources.  Much  interesting  matter  will  be  foimd 
m  his  elaborate  Prolegomena,  and  in  the  five  dissertations  at  the 
close  of  the  volume.  His  perpetual  annotations  on  the  text  afford 
evidence  of  great  critical  ability  and  theological  information,  but 
perhaps  exhibit  a  little  of  that  tedious  prolixity  which  is  not  un- 
common in  the  German  school."  (Christian  Remembrancer,  vol. 
ix.  p.  263.) 

8.  Liber  Ecclesiasticus.  The  Book  of  the  Church ;  or,  Eccle- 
siasticus :  translated  from  the  Latin  Vulgate.  By  Luke  Howahd. 
London,  1827,  royal  8vo. 

"It  is  a  miserable  attempt  at  an  English  version  of  Ecclesiasticus, 
from  the  Latin  translation  of  the  Vulgate."  ("Christ.  Reraem.  vol.  ix. 


p.  263.)  In  pp.  266 — 272.  there  is  an  analysis,  with  specimens 
of  this  publication. 

9  a.  The  Book  of  Jasher.  With  9  b.  The  Book  of  Jasher:  With 
Testimonies  and  Notes  ex-  Testimonies  and  Notes,  Cri- 
planatory  of  the  Text.  tical  and  Historical,  expla- 

natory of  the  Text. 
To  which  is  prefixed  Various     To  which  is  prefixed  Various 
Readings.  Readings,  and  a  Prelimina  ry 

Dissertation,    proving    the 

Authenticity  of  the  Work. 

Translated  into  Engli-sh   from     Translated  into  English   from 

the  Hebrew,    by  Alcuin,  of         the  Hebrew,  by  Flacciis  Ai- 

Britain,  who  went  a  Pilgrim-         bimis  Alcuin?^   of  Britain, 

age  into  the  Holy  Land.  Abbot  of  Canterbury.  Who 

went  a  Pilgrimage  into  the 
Holy  Land,  and  Persia, 
where  he  discovered  this  vo- 
lume, in  the  city  of  Gazna. 

This  Book  is  twice  mentioned  in     ''  Is  not  this  written  in  the  Book 
Holy  Scripture,  viz.  in  Josh.  x.         ^Jasher?"     Joshua  x.  13. 
13.  and  in  2  Sam.  i.  18.  in  both     "  Behold  it  is  wrillen  in  the  Book 
which  Places  it  is  appealed  to         of  Jasher."    2  Sam.  i.  18. 
as  a  Work  of  Credit  and  Re- 
putation, and  as  such  was  at 
that  Time  had  in  great  Esteem. 

Printed  in  the  year  MDCCLL  Bristol :  Printed  for  the  Editor, 
4to.  bv  Philip  Rose,  20,  Broad- 

mead,  MDCCCXXIX.4to. 

Of  the  literary  forgery  contamed  in  the  volume  or  rather  pamphlet 
printed  in  the  year  1751  (9  a.),  the  following  account  is  given  by 
Mr.  Rowe-Mores,  a  diligent  topographer  and  antiquary  of  the  eigh- 
teenth  century,  in  his  "Dissertation  upon  English  Typographical 
Founders  and  Founderies,"  published  in  1778.  '-In  the  year  1751, 
JMr.  Hive  published  a  pretended  translation  of  the  Book  of  Jasher, 
said  to  have  been  made  by  one  Alcuin  of  Britain.  The  account 
given  of  the  translation  is  full  of  glaring  absurditie.'S :  but  of  the 
publication  this  we  can  say  from  the  information  of  the  Only-One 
who  is  capable  of  informing  us,  because  the  business  was  a  secret 
between  the  Two :  Mr.  Hive  in  the  night-time  had  constantly  an 
Hebrew  Bible  before  him  (sed  qu.  de  hoc),  and  cases  in  his  closet. 
He  produced  the  copy  for  Jasher,  and  it  was  composed  in  private, 
and  the  forms  worked  off  in  the  night-time  in  a  private  press-room 
by  these  two,  after  the  men  of  the  Printing  House  had  left  theii 
work."    (Page  65.) 

Jacob  Hive,  the  person  here  mentioned,  was  a  type-founder  and 
printer,  who  carried  on  business  in  London  between  the  years  1733 
and  1763,  in  which  last  year  he  died.  "Being  not  perfectly  sound 
in  his  mind,  he  produced  some  strange  works.  In  1733,  he  pub- 
lished  an  Oration,  intended  to  prove  the  plurality  of  worlds,  and 
asserting  that  this  earth  is  hell,  that  the  souls  of  men  are  apostata 
angels,  and  that  the  fire  to  pimish  those  confined  to  this  world  al 

the  day  of  judgment  will  be  immaterial In  this  strange  per. 

formance  the  author  unveils  his  deistical  principles,  and  takes  na 
small  liberty  with  the  sacred  Scriptures,  and  especially  with  tha 
character  of  Moses.  Emboldened  by  this  first  adventure,  he  deter, 
mined  to  become  the  public  teacher  of  infidelity.  For  this  purpose 
he  hired  the  use  of  Carpenters'  Hall,  where  for  some  time  he  deli- 
vered his  orations,  which  consisted  chiefly  of  scraps  from  Tindal 
and  other  similar  writers."  (Chalmers's  Biographical  Dictionary, 
vol.  xix.  p.  228.) 

In  November,  1751,  he  published  "The  Bookof  Jasher,"  of  which 
the  following  account  was  given  in  the  Monthly  Review  for  De- 
cember in  the  same  j'ear  (vol.  v.  p.  250.) : — "The  publisher,  in  order 
to  give  a  sanction  to  this  pretended  Book  of  Jasher,  refers  to  the  men- 
tion made  to  such  a  book  in  Josh.  x.  13.  and  2  Sam.  i.  18.  In  both 
which  places,  says  he,  it  is  appealed  to  as  a  work  of  credit  and 
reputation,  and  as  such  was  at  that  time  had  in  great  esteem.  But 
the  work  now  published  does  not  in  the  least  appear  to  be  that 
book  referred  to  in  the  Scriptures ;  but  a  palpable  piece  of  contri- 
vance intended  to  impose  on  the  credulous  and  the  ignorant,  to  sap 
the  credit  of  the  books  of  Moses,  and  to  blacken  the  character  of 
Moses  himself  Hence  it  is  no  vionder  that  the  editor  or  author  has 
had  the  precaution  to  conceal  his  name.  He  has  trumped  up  an 
idle  story  of  the  means  by  which  the  MS.  fell  info  his  hands,  which 
he  relates  in  a  prefatory  epistle  to  a  nameless  earl.  He  has  also 
prefixed  a  history  of  Alcuin's  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land,  of  tha 
manner  of  his  procuring  a  sight  of  the  Book  of  Jasher,  and  the 


64 


APOCRYPHAL  BOOKS  AND  WRITINGS, 


means  by  which  he  obtained  permission  to  translate  it  into  English. 
But  ilie  whole  is  so  full  of  blunders,  inconsistencies,  and  absurdi- 
ties, that  we  think  it  beneath  any  further  notice." 

With  this  quotation  from  the  Monthly  Review,  in  addition  to  the 
contemporary  evidence  above  given,  the  author  would  have  dis- 
missed the  pretended  Book  of  Jasher,  had  it  not  come  to  his  know- 
ledge that  very  many  individuals  have  been  induced  to  purchase 
The  reprint  of  this  forgery,  executed  at  Bristol  in  1829'  (9  b.)  of 
which  an  account  is  given"  in  pages    f«.0,    66.     infra,  under  the  idea 
of  its  being  the  genuine  long  lost  Book  of  Jasher.     In  the  hope  of 
preventing  future  unwary  purchasers  from  being  similarly  misled, 
he  now  (subjoins  a  few  specimens  of  the  falsehoods,  anachronisms, 
and  contradiciions  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  which  characterize  this 
nocturnal  production  of  the  non-sane  inlidel  author,  Jacob  Hive. 
1.  The  assertion  in  the  title  page  that  Alcuin  of  Britain  "  went  a 
pilgrimage  into  the  Holy  Ljind  "  is  amtrary  to  historical  fart. 
Alcuin  neither  visited  the  Holy  Land  nor  travelled  into  Persia. 
He  was  born  in  Yorkshire  about  the  middle  of  the  eighth  century, 
and  was  educated  at  York,  where  probably  he  embraced  the 
monastic  profession.     It  is  nut  known  wliat  prefcrmenls  he  held 
before  he  left  England  ;  though  some  accounts  stale  that  he  was 
a  deacon  of  the  church  at  York,  and  others,  that  ho  was  abbot 
of  Canterbury-.     His  earlier  years  were  xvlioUq  spent  in  England  .; 
and  having  been  sent  on  an  embassy  from  Offa  king  of  Mereia 
to  the  eni|>eror  Chnrlemrigne  (who  formed  so  high  an  opinion  of 
his  ac(|uirenionts  and  cliunicier  as  to  become  his  pupil),  he  was 
induced,  by  the  emperor's  entreaties,  to  settle  in  France.    In  that 
country,  accordingly,  with   the  exception  of  one  short  visit  to 
England,  he  spent  the  remainder  (//le  chief  part)  of  his  life,  hav- 
ing rendered  essential  services  to  the  cause  of  religion  and  learn- 
ing, and  there  he  died,  a.  d.  804,  in  the  abbey  of  Saint  Martin  at 
Tours,  without  ever  aiiitliii^  Europe.     (Cave.  Scriptorum  Ecclesi- 
asticorum  Ilisloria  Literaria,  pp.  420,421.    Colonia;,  1720.    Chal- 
mers's Biographical  Dictionary,  article  Alcuin.) 
2-  -•Ml  the  genuine  writings  of  .-Vkuin  are  printed  in  Latin,  as  well 
as  some  doubtful  ar»d  spurious  pieces  which  have  been  ascribed 
to  him.-     If  he  had  composed  any  treatise  in  any  other  language, 
it  would  doubtless  have  been  written  in  the  then  vernacular 
language  of  England,  that  is,   the  Anglo-Saxon  ;   fras.'mcnls  of 
which  language  have  come  down  lo  our  time  in  some  iMirtions 
of  the  Anglo-Saxon  version  of  the  Scriptures,  executeii  in  the 
eighth  century.     Wiicreas  the  wiiolk  of  this  pretended  Book  of 
Jasher  is  in  modi:r.\  English,  and  not  a  few  passages  of  it  are 
verbatim  the  same  as  our  present  authorized  English  version  of 
the  Bible,  which  was  first  published  in  1011,  only  eight  hundred 
•     and  seven  i^ears  after  Alcuin  s  death  ;  and  what  is  not  copied 
friiin  our  English  Bil)le,  is  a  lame  and  studied  imiiatioti  of  it.s 
Flyle  and  diction,  both  to  conceal  the  fraud  and  to  allure  readers. 

3.  In  "  the  translator's  preface'  (p.  iv.)  Alcuin  is  made  to  say, — "I 
took  unto  me  two  companions,  who  learned  with  me  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Oxford  all  those  languages  which  the  people  of  the 
East  speak."  But  the  University  of  Oxford,  according  to  the 
earliest  date  which  has  been  stated  by  its  hislorians,  was  nut 
founded  by  king  Alfred  before  the  year  886,  that  is  to  say,  only 
eichly-two  years  aftf.ii  Alciiin's  decease  ! 

4.  "The  Words  of  Alcuin,  which  are   read  before  the  Book  of 
Jasher,"  arc  further  convicted  of  falsehood  by  the  anachronisms 

they  contain. 

[i.]  In  p.  V.  mention  is  made  of  "  rte  paper  on  which  it  is  wrote" 
only  three  hundred  years  before  the  art  of  making  cotton-paper 
was  intrinluced  into  Europe  (the  use  of  which  did  not  i)ccome 
general  until  the  thirteenth  century),  and  considerably  more 
than  three  hundred  years  before  paper  made  from  linen  rags 
was  in  upe. 

[ii.]  In  p.  vi.  he  mentions  stationers  upwards  of  four  centuries 
before  bookselling  was  known.  Stationers  were  not  heard  of 
in  Euro|>e,  before  the  middle  of  the  thirleenih  century.  (Du- 
cange,  (jlossarium,  voce  Slationarii,  vol.  vi.  col.  716.)  And  the 
Company  of  Stationers,  who  were  the  (irst  boolisellers  in  Lon- 
don, was  not  incorp(jratcd  until  May,  l.'i.'i?,  in  the  third  and 
fourth  year  of  the  reign  of  Fhilip  ami  Mary  ;  that  is,  only  seven 
hundred  and  fifty-three  years  aftkk  Alcuin's  death. 

5.  The  book  itself  is  replete  with  false-hoods,  and  with  contradic- 
tions of  the  rcntaicuch  iiiul  tin-  Book  of  Joshua.  The  restrictj-d 
limits  necessarily  alloted  to  this  article  will  only  allow  the  speci- 
fication of  a  lew  examples. 

The  Ixwks  of  Mo.sics  and  of  Joshua  »re  comniticied  by  Jafiiikr. 

CJe.n.  xxii.  2.  11 — 13.    And  He         Chat.  iii.  19 — 21.     And  vvlien 
((Jod]  said,  Take  now   thy  son,     Isaac  was  twenty  and  five  years 


thine  only  son  Isaac,  whom  thou 
lovest,  an<l  get  thee  into  the  laud 
of  Muriuh  ;  and  ofier  him  there 


old,  Abraham  heard  a  voice  say- 
ing. Tiikc!  thy  son  and  slay  hiui, 
and  olfcr  him  up  a  burnl-ofll'ring 


•  In  a  prospectus  for  a  second  edition  of  the  r«>print  above  Blluder]  (o, 
which  was  clrriilnlPd  In  I/)ii(](in  in  IKO,  it  Ih  slaffd  rli.it  "lli<-  first  rdili.m 
)iius  Ix-cn  huiuiiiroiJ  witli  llic  auloxraplis  of  NKAni.r  one  thousand  nf  ilio 
liici.tt  llteriiry  i-lianic:ti'rs  as  «iilmcribcrs  ;  aitinin  wliuiii  arn  vuiny  I'nKi.ATKs 
utui  other  Uionitaaies,  aa  teell  as  most  of  the  jnUilic  Kttaliliahiiicula  if 
th'  rnvtilrij," 

»  Tlir  bi>Ht  nml  most  complete  rollpctlon  of  Alrnin's  work*  wns  nuhliHiird 
at  lUllsbnn,  In  1777,  in  twd  Inrc  voliirneii,  folio:  it  ums  edited  \>y  M.  Fniho- 
niu.i(or  Froljcn),  ahlmt  of  Snim  Rinmcraii,  near  tlintrity,  whn  Inn  i-arefnlly 
•ILstmEulHlird  llio  doulplfiil  and  spurious  piprfu  from  Alrnin's  K'^niiiii'i' 
wrilina.s,  all  of  wlii.li  arc  in  l«ilin,  ft  is,  p<Tliapti,  sonrcely  ncrcusnry  to 
•latp,  that  llicre  in  not  n  single  word  or  allusion  to  the  Uoolt  of  Jasher,  as 
being  translated  by  him. 


for  a  buml-offering  upon  one  of 
the  mountains  which  I  will  tell 
thee  of  . . .  And  the  angel  of  the 
Lord  called  unto  him  [Abraham] 
out  of  heaven. . . .  And  he  said. 
Lay  not  thine  hand  tipon  the  lad, 
neither  do  thou  any  thing  unto 
him. . .  .  And  Abraham  lifted  up 
his  eyes,  and  looked,  and,  behold, 
behind  him  a  ram  caught  in  a 
thicket  by  his  horns :  and  Abra- 
ham went  and  tiKik  the  ram,  and 
offered  him  up  for  a  burnt-oirer- 
ing  in  the  stead  of  his  son. 

Exod.  ii.  I — 5.  relates  the  birth 
and  exj)osure  of  Moses  in  an  ark 
of  bulrushes  on  the  banks  of  the 
river  Nile,  and  the  discovery  of 
him  by  Pharaoh's  daughter. 

!> — 8.  And  when  ,slie  [Pharaoh's 
daughter]  saw  the  ark  among  the 
flags,  she  sent  her  maiil  to  i'etch 
it.  And  when  she  had  opened 
it,  she  s;\w  the  child :  and,  be- 
hold, the  babe  wept.  And  she 
had  compassion  on  him,  and  said. 
This  is  otic  of  the  Hebrew's  chil- 
<iren.  Then  said  his  sister  to 
Pharaoh's  daughter.  Shall  I  go 
and  call  to  thee  a  nurse  of  the 
Hebrew  women,  that  she  may 
nurse  the  child  for  thee  ?  And 
Pharoah's  daughter  said  unto  her, 
Go.  And  the  maid  went  and 
called  the  child's  mother.  And 
Pharaoh's  daughter  said.  Take 
this  child  away,  and  nurse  it  for 
me,  and  I  will  give  Ihce  thy 
wages.  And  the  woman  took 
the  child,  and  nursed  it. 

Exod.  i.  22.  And  Pharaoh 
charged  all  his  people,  saying. 
Every  son  that  is  born  ye  shall 
cast  into  the  river. 

Concerning  the  particular  sub- 
jects of  Moses'  education  the 
book  of  E.'iudus  is  silent. 

Num.  xxxii.  11,  12.  Surely 
none  of  the  men  that  came  up 
out  of  Egypt,  from  twenty  years 
old  and  upwards,  shall  see  the 
land  which  I  sware  unto  Abra- 
ham, unto  Isaac,  and  unto  Jacob, 
because  they  have  not  wholly 
followed  me ;  save  Caleb  the 
.son  of  Jephunneh  the  Kenezite, 
and  Joshua  the  son  of  Nun. 


Josh.  ii.  relates  the  mission  of 
the  two  men  whom  Joshua  sent 
to  explore  the  land  of  Canaan, 
and  who  "  went  and  came  into 
a  harlot's  house,  named  Kahah, 
and  lodged  there;"  together  wilii 
their  covenant  with  her,  who 
was  a  Canaanitess. 

Josh.  iii.  14 — 16.  It  came  to 
pass  ....  As  they  that  bare  the 
ark  were  <-onie  unto  Jordan,  and 
the  feed  of  the  priests  that  bare 
the  ark  were  dii)|ied  in  the  brim 
of  the  water,  (lor  Jordan  over- 
floweth  all  his  banks  all  the  time 
of  harvest),  that  the  waters  which 
came  down  from  above  fiUHnl.and 
rose  up  upon  a  heap,  very  fiir 
from  the  city  Adam,  that  is  be- 
side Zaretan  :  and  those  that 
came  down  towards  the  sea  of 
tli(>  plain,  even  the  salt  sea.  fail- 
ed, and  were  cut  off;  and  the 
people  pa.ssed  over  right  against 
Jericho. 

Josh.  vi.  17.20,21.  24,25.  And 
the  city  shall  bo  accursed,  even 
it,  and  all  thai  are  therein,  to  the 
Lord.  .  .  .  The  people  went  up 
into  the  city,  every  man  straight 
bcJore  him,  and  they  took  the 
city.  Ami  they  utterly  destroyed 
all  that  i/vi.i  in  the  city,  both  man 
and  woman,  young  and  old,  and 


[Part  L  Chap.  III. 

in  the  land  wherein  he  was  bom 
And  Sarah  spake  unto  Abraham 
and  said.  The  holy  voice  hath  not 
so  sjioken :  for  reinember  thou  Uio 
words  of  that  voice  which  said 
unto  thee,  I  will  make  of  thee  a 
great  nation.  And  Abraham  re- 
pented  him  of  the  evil  he  pur 
posed  to  do  unto  his  son:  hi» 
only  son  Isaac. 


V.  9 — 12.  And  Jochebed  the 
mother  of  Moses,  with  Miriam 
his  sister,  came  unto  Pharaoh'a 
daughter:  and  Jochebed  said, 
Behold  here  the  son  of  thy  hand- 
maid !  And  Pharaoh's  daughter 
said,  ^V^lat  wist  ye  f  And  they 
said.  Thy  father  hatR  command- 
ed that  this  infant  be  slain  :  yea, 
and  that  all  the  Hebrew  males 
as  soon  as  they  are  born  be  slain 
also.  And  Pharaoh's  daughter 
said.  Give  unto  me  the  child. 
And  they  did  so.  .\nd  she  said, 
This  shall  be  my  son. 


iii.  13.  And  it  came  to  pass, 
that  the  wrath  of  Pharaoh  was 
turned  away  from  slaying  the 
males  of  the  Hebrews. 

iii.  14.  And  the  child  Moses 
grew  and  increased  in  stature : 
and  was  learned  in  all  the  magic 
of  the  Egyptians. 

XXXV.  3,  4.  It  is  nflirmed  that, 
after  the  death  of  Moses,  Joshua, 
and  Caleb,  the  people  were  with- 
out a  leader,  and  that  Phinehaa 
and  the  elders  of  Israel  "  named 
Jasher  the  sim  of  Caleb  by  Azu- 
ba,  seeing  he  is  an  upright  man. 
And  moreover  this  we  know, 
that  ho  hath  seen  all  the  won- 
ders wrought  in  Egypt,  in  the 
wilderness  :  even  all  the  mighty 
works  that  have  been  done.' 

xxvii.  8.  Rahab  is  styled  "  one 
of  the  princesses  of  Jericho ;" 
and  in  v.  8.  she  is  represented  as 
saying,  "  I  also  am  the  daughter 
of  an  Israelite  by  a  woman  of  Mi- 
dian." 


xxviii.  10.  ,\nd  the  wood  where- 
on the  children  of  Israel  passed 
over  Jordan  stayed  upon  the  fuco 
of  the  waters  six  days  and  six 
nights. 


xxviii.  15, 16. 18.  Then  Rahob 
sent  unto  Joshua,  saying,  I^tmo 
eiilreal  with  thee  for  my  nation 
that  they  may  live.  And  Joshua 
answered  and  said.  As  many  at 
save  themselves  by  flight  may 
live :  but  whosoever  shall  be 
f((und  in  Jericho  shall  surely  die 
the  death. .  .  .  And  the  people  of 


Jericho  fled  from  the  city,  every 
one  to  llie  mountains. 


xxviii.  20 — 25.  Achan  is  re- 
presented as  charging  Joshua 
with  having  "  taken  from  the 
congregation  all  the  gold,  all  the 
silver,  and  all  the  brass:  even 
all  the  spoils  of  the  city  of  Jeri- 
cho, and  given  it  to  the  tribe  of 
Levi."  For  which  crime  he 
ALO.XE  was  stoned. 


SjECT.  I.] 

OX,  and  sheep,  and  ass,  with  the 
edge  of  the  sword.  .  .  .  And  they 
burnt  the  city  with  fire,  and  all 
that  was  therein. . .  .  And  Joshua 
saved  Rahab  the  harlot  alive, 
and  her  lather's  household,  and 
nil  that  she  had. 

Josh.  vil.  relates  the  circum- 
stances of  Achan's  secreting  a 
Babylonish  garment,  two  hun- 
dred shekels  of  silver,  and  a 
Wedge  of  gold  of  fifty  shekels' 
Weight,  contrary  to  the  divine 
command  :  for  which  crime  he 
and  all  he  had  were  destroyed  in 
the  valley  of  Achor. 

Hive's  forgery  was  published  in  1751  for  two  shillirigs  and  six- 
pence. For  the  publication  (9  b.)  printed  at  Bristol,  in  1829,  the 
modest  charge  of  ten  shilz.imgs  was  originally  made,  which  was 
subsequently  increased  to  one  pound  sterling.  Of  this  publication 
the  author  is  now  to  give  some  account. 

Though  published  apjtarenlly  for  the  first  time  in  1829,  there  is 
every  reason  for  concluding  that  this  is  an  unacknowledged  reprint 
of  Hive's  forgery,  with  some  unimportant  variations  (which  will  be 
pointed  out  in  the  course  of  the  present  article),  and  lor  the  follow- 
mg  reasons  : 

1.  The  Title-page,  with  the  exception  of  the  few  sentences  print- 
ed in  italics  in  page  63.,  is  the  same  as  in  Hive's  forgery. 
The  two  titles  are  there  printed  in  columns,  in  order  that  the  reader 
may  the  more  readily  compare  them  :  he  will  observe  that  the 
editor  of  the  Bristol  publication  in  1829  expressly  says  that  the 
pseudo-book  of  Jasher  is  "  Translated  into  English  from  the  He- 
brew." In  his  proposal  for  a  new  edition,  already  alluded  to, 
this  is  altered  into — "  Translated  into  Anglo-Sa.xon  from  the  He- 
brew I"  Query,  by  whom  was  this  pretended  Anglo-Saxon  ver- 
sion translated  into  modern  English  1 

2.  The  "AnvERTisEiMENT,"  if  not  colourably  altered,  is  evidently 
taken  from  Hive's  preliminary  letter  to  a  nameless  earl ;  as  will 
be  evident  to  any  one  who  compares  the  following  extracts. 

9  a.  The  Book  of  Jasher.  1751.    9  6.  The  Book  of  Jasiier.  1829. 

"To  the  Right  Honourable 
the  Earl  of*  *****. 
"  My  Lord,  The  following  trans- 
lation of  the  Book  of  Jasher  fell 
into  my  hands  thirty  years  ago" 
[that  is,  in  1721]  "  by  mere  acci- 
dent. I  was  travelling  in  the 
North  of  England,  to  see  the 
country."  Hive  then  proceeds 
to  give  a  false  account  of  his 
purchasing  the  manuscript  at  an 
auction  of  "  the  goods  and  books 
of  an  old  gentleman  lately  de- 
ceased, who  was  upwards  of 
one  hundred  years  of  age." 

"  Among  the  papers"  (Hive 
continues),  "  my  lord,  I  found  the 
following  translation  of  die  Book 
of  Jasher,  ivhich  I  last  summer 
communicated  to  your  lordship 
on  a  rumour  of  a  new  translation 
of  the  Bible.  I  own  that  till  then 
it  lay  by  me  quite  unregarded. 
Your  lordship,  upon  perusal,  was 
pleased  to  approve  of  it,  and  to 
advise  its  piMication  as  a  work 

OF  GREAT  SINCERITV,  PLAINNESS, 

AND  ";auTH.  Your  lordship's  re- 
mark I  must  not  omit,  '  That  it 
was  your  opinion  the  Book  of 
Jasher  ought  to  have  been  printed 
in  the  Bible  before  that  of  Jo- 
thua.'  " 

"  By. A  WRITING  ON  THE  OUT- 
SIDE OF  THE  MANUSCRIPT  IT 
SHOPLD  SEEM  THAT  THIS  TRANS- 
LATION WAS  LAID  BEFORE  OUR 
FIRST  REFORMERS,  BECAUSE  IT 
SAYS:    'I  HAVE    READ   THE  BoOK 

OF  Jasher  twice  over,  and  I 

MUCH  APPROVE  OF  IT,  AS  A  PIECE 
OF  GREAT  ANTIQUITY  AND  CU- 
RIOSITY, BUT  I  CANNOT  ASSEnT 
THAT  IT  SHOULD  BE  MADE  A 
PART  OF  THE  CANON  OF  SCRIP- 
TURE. 

"  Signed        '  Wickliffe.' 
"I  am  your   lordship's    most 
humble  and  obedient   ser- 
vant, the  Editor." 


THE  BOOK  OF  JASHER. 


63 


The  following  translation  of 
"  The  Book  of  Jasher"  ivas  dis- 
covered by  a  gentleinan  in  a  jour- 
ney through  the  North  of  Eng- 
land in  1721. 


"  It  lay  by  him  for  several  years, 
until,  in  1750,  there  was  a  ru- 
mour of  a  new  translation  of  the 
Bible,  when  he  laid  it  before  a  no- 
ble earl.  On.  perusal  he  highly 
approved  of  it,  as  a  work  of 

GREAT      SINCERITY,      PLAINNESS, 

AND  TRUTH.  His  lordship's  opi- 
nion was  that  it  should  have  been 
placed  in  the  Bible  before  the 
Book  of  Joshua." 

He  further  adds  : — 

"  By  a  WRITING  ON  THE  OUT- 
SIDE OF  THE  MANUSCRIPT  IT 
SHOULD  SEEM  THAT  THIS  TRANS- 
LATION WAS  LAID  BEFORE  OUR 
FIRST  REFORMERS,  BECAUSE  IT 
SAYS  :   '  I  HAVE  READ   THE  BoOK 

OF  Jasher  twice  over;  and  I 

MUCH  APPROVE  OF  IT,  AS  A  PIECE 
OF  GREAT  ANTIQUITY  AND  CU- 
RIOSITY, BUT  I  CANNOT  ASSErT, 
THAT  IT  SHOULD  BE  MADE  A, 
PART  OF  THE  CANON  OF  SCRIP- 
TURE. 

"  Signed    '  Wickliffe.'  " 


The  editor  of  1829  proceeds  to  state  that,  "  Since  1751"  [the  reader 
will  bear  in  mind  that  this  is  the  identical  date  of  Hive's  forgery] 
"  the  manuscript'  has  been  preserved  with  great  care  by  a  gentle- 
man, who  lived  to  a  very  advanced  age,  and  died  some  time  since. 
On  the  event  of  his  death,  a  friend  to  whom  he  had  presented  it 
gave  it  to  the  present  editor,  who,  conceiving  that  so  valuable  a 
piece  of  antiquity  .should  not  be  lost  to  men  of  literature,  and  bib- 
lical students,  has  committed  it  to  the  press,  not  doubting  but  that 
the  attention  of  the  learned  will  be  attracted  to  so  singular  a 
volume."  The  editor  of  1829  further  adds,  that "  he  cannot  assert 
any  thing  from  his  own  knowledge  beyond  Alcuin's  account,  but 
that  carries  with  it  such  an  air  of  probability  and  truth,  that  ho 
does  not  doubt  its  authenticity." — "Nothing"  (he  alliims  in  his 
"Preliminary  Dissertation  on  the  Antiquity  and  Authenticity  of 
the  Book  of  Jasher")  "  can  be  produced  to  mvalidate  this  authen- 
tic statement,  and  consequently  it  merits  our  credence."  ^p.  v.) 
Again,  "  As  a  book  of  record,  it  appears  to  have  truth,  without 
mixture  of  error,  for  its  peculiar  object  and  design."  (p.  vi.)  Ana 
in  the  concluding  paragraph  of  his  "Testimonies  and  Notes  con- 
cerning the  Book  of  Jasher"  (p.  9.  col.  2.),  he  expresses  himself  in 
the  following  terms: — "Thus,  then,  it  appears  that,  as  liir  as 
such  a  work  can  be  authenticated,  this  possesses  every  proof  of 
being  a  transcript  of  the  original  manuscript;  and,  consequently, 
that  it  is  worthy  to  be  preserved  as  a  collateral  evidence  of  the 
facts  detailed  more  fully  in  the  writings  of  Moses,  the  Book  of 
Joshua,  and  the  Book  of  Judges."  A  reference  to  the  positiia 
historical  evidence  of  Mr.  Rowe-Mores  above  given,  and  also  ro 
the  internal  evidence  furnished  by  the  anachronisms,  falsehoods, 
and  contradictions,  in  Hive's  forgery  (see  pages  C4,  Cb.),  all  which 
are  to  be  found,  verbatim,  literatim,  et  punctuatim,  in  the  edition  tf 
1829,  must  convince  the  reader  that  this  publication  is  neither 
"  authentic,"  nor  does  it  "  merit"  any  "  credence"  whatever ; 
and  that,  with  the  exception  of  such  passages  as  arc  copied  from 
our  authorized  translation  of  the  Bible,  it  is  a  worthless  tissue 
of  "  error"  and  falsehood,  without  the  slightest  "  mixture  of 
truth."  In  the  Dublin  Christian  Examiner,  or  Church  of  Ireland 
Magazine,  for  June,  1831  (vol.  xi.  pp.  426^429.),  there  is  an  able 
exposure  of  this  edition  of  1829,  containing  five  or  six  instances 
of  lalsehoods  and  contradictions,  different  from  those  above  given 
in  pages  64,  65.,  to  which  we  refer  the  reader  who  may  be  de- 
sirous of  further  evidence,  and  also  to  the  British  Critic  for  Ja- 
nuary, 1834,  pp.  127—153. 

"  Some  account  of  this  volume"  (says  the  editor  of  1829)  "  may  be 
found  in  Alcuin's  works,  published  in  one  volume,  fol.  in  the 
year  1600,  in  Paris."  Now,  what  is  the  fact  ?  The  first  edition 
of  Alcuin's  collected  works  was  published  at  Paris  by  Andre 
Duchesne  (Andreas  Quercetauii.s)  only  seventeen  years  after  the 
date  assigned  by  the  Bristol  editor,  viz.  in  1617,  in  tliree  parts, 
forming  one  volume,  folio ;  and  in  this  collection  of  Alcuin's 
works  NO  Book  of  Jasher  is  to  be  found.  As  Duchesne's  edi- 
tio  princeps  is  not  of  very  common  occurrence,  the  reader,  who 
may  be  desirous  of  seeing  a  list  of  the  pieces  actually  written 
by  Alcuin,  is  referred  to  Dupin's  Bibliotheque  des  Auteurs  Eccle- 
siastiques,  torn.  vi.  pp.  120—123.  4to.  1692,  and  to  Dr.  Cave's  His- 
toria  Literaria,  pp.  420,  421. ;  each  of  whom  has  given  a  catalogue 
of  Alcuin's  works  from  Duchesne's  edition,  and  they  are  both 
totally  silent  concerning  the  pretended  Book  of  Jasher. 

3.  Although  the  concluding  paragraph  of  "  the  Translator's  Preface" 
in  the  edition  of  1751  is  omitted  in  the  reprint  of  1829,  the  editor 
of  the  latter  must  have  been  acquainted  with  it,  as  the  subjoined 
verbal  coincidences  are  too  minute  and  specific  to  be  merely 
accidental. 


(9  a.)  Ilive's  Book  of  Jasher, 
1751.  (p.  vi.) 
"  Some  years  after  my  arrival 
I  related  this  adventure  to  seve- 
ral, and  showed  them  the  work, 
who  advised  me  not  to  suffer  a 
copy  of  it  to  fall  into  the  hands 
of  the  stationers,^  lest  I  should 
incur  the  displeasure  of  the  pur- 
ple. Being  now  grown  old  and 
infir*i,  I  have  left  it  among 
other  papers  to  a  clergyman 
IN  Yorkshire." 


(9  b.)  Book  of  Jasher,  1829. 

(p.  V.) 

"  It  appears  he"  [Jasher] "  never 
made  it  public,  beyond  the  circle 
of  his  friends,  and  when  grown 
old  he  LEFT  IT,  with  his  other 
manuscripts,  to  a  friend,  a  priest 

IN  Yorkshire." 

4.  The  "Various  Readings,"  which  follow  "the  words  of  Alcuin," 
are  verbatim  the  same  in  both  publications,  except  that,  in  the 
Bristol  edition  of  1829,  "  dcsart" — the  supposed  various  reading 
in  chap.  xii.  18. — is  printed  desert. 

5.  The  pseudo-book  of  Jasher  itself  is  next  in  order;  and  it  coin- 
cides with  Ilive's  fabrication  printed  in  1751,  with  most  marvel- 
lous exactness,  both  as  to  certain  grammatical  blunders,  and 
also  as  to  the  matter  which  the  two  publications  severally  contain 
[i.]  Grammatical  Blunders. 

In  the  title-pages  of  both  publications  we  have,  "  To  which  IS 
prefxed  Various  Readings,"  for  are  prefixed.  Compare  page 
63.    supra. 

»  In  the  prospectus  of  1833,  above  referred  to,  for  "manuscript"  the 
word  "copy"  is  substituleti — a  general  term,  which  is  equally  applicable 
to  printed  matter  as  to  manuscript.  The  editor  of  the  Bristol  reprint  never 
exhibited  his  pretended  manuscript  to  the  critical  examination  of  tha 
learned. 

*  On  the  anachronism  in  this  word,  see  the  remrak  4.  [ii.]  in  page  61. 
supra. 


03 


APOCRYPHAL  BOOKS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAAIEXT. 


[Part  L  Chap.  Ill 


In  Jashcr,  dinp.  vli.  7.  we  road,  "Thus  haTU  said  our  fa>hers," 
for  haw.  said ;  xiv.  11.  "Thou  judfrerii  the  peojile,"  for  thou 
jiidgesT,  xxvii.  15.  "Whom  thou  knou^-rn  not,"  for  knonrsT 
jjo/rand  in  the  margin, "  VV7ioffi  thou  darn  riot  worship,"  lor 
rfosT  not;  and  in  xxrvi.  11.  "ITiou  haia  spoken,"  for  Thou 
hasT  spokeju 
[ii.]  With  regard  to  the  Conte.vts. 
The  Book  of  Jashcr  in  Hive's  forijery  of  1751  fills  exactly  *ixfj/ 
pages;  in  the  Bristol  edition  of  1829  it  makes  su:/h-t\vo 
pages  and  a  half,  the  excess  being  caused  by  the  addition 
Detwern  brackets  of  seventeen  vcnies  from  Gen.  xxii.  3—20. 
in  ch.  lii.,  and  of  twcnty-eiKht  verses  in  ch.  xi.  Irom  Exod. 
xiv.  23 — 31.  and  xv.  1 — \'J.  of  our  authorized  version.  Except 
as  occasionally  aficrted  by  these  additions,  the  same  quantitij 
of  matter  is  comprised  I'n  each  column,  the  summaries  of 
chapters,  and  the  hfod  lints  or  summaries  at  the  top  of  each 
page,  the  preieiided  chronology,  marginal  readings,  and  punc- 
tuation are  all  PUKCisELy  the  same,  the  spelling  only  of  a 
very  few  words  bfiiig  modernized,  as  ether  for  ajther,  en- 
crease  and  encrcusi  d  Ibr  increase  and  incre.ised  ;  and  in  the 
"  Testimonies  and  Notes,"  Pliinehos  for  Phineaa. 

Tlie  following  are  the  only  additional  material  variations  between 
the  two  publications,  which,  after  a  careful  collation,  the  author 
has  been  able  to  detect. 

'9  a.)  Ilite's  Book  of  Jasher,  (9  6.)  Book  of  Jasher,  1829. 

1751. 

Ch.  i.  17.  Cain  conceived  and  bare  Ch.  i.  17.  Cain  begat  Enoch 
Enoch 

20.  Seth  conceived  and  bare  20.  Selh  begat  Enos 
Enos 

ii.  1.  Lamech conceived  ii.  1.  Lamech  begat  Noah 

and  bare  Noah 

V.  9.  ye  V.  9.  you. 

xxiii.  8.  doeril  xxiii.  8.  docsT. 

13.  nor  13.  or 

XTXV.2<S.  Dehorn  xxxv.  28.  Debora7t 

rxxvi.  11.  thou  commanded  xxxvi.  11.  thou  commandes^ 

TliC  variations  in  the  edition  of  1S39  are  such  as  might  be  made  by 
any  careful  comj^ositor,  and  cannot  (wo  conceive)  in  any  degree 
affect  the  identity  of  tlie  two  publications. 

C.  The  "Testimonies  and  Notes"  appendeil  to  both  publications  are 
for  the  ino.sl  part  the  same,  and  profe?s  to  bear  the  names  of  Hur, 
Phinehas,  Othiiiel,  Jazer,  Jezer,  Zadock,  and  Tobias.  On  the  mi- 
raculous pa.siiage  of  the  Israelites  over  the  Red  Sea,  the  editor  of 
the  Bristol  impression  of  the  Book  of  Jasher  has  inserted  a  note, 
chiefly  tal;en  from  Dr.  Hales's  .Analysis  of  Chronology,  vindi- 
cating that  miracle  against  the  skeptical  olijcctions  of  Michael  is. 
The  notes  on  ch.  i.  of  Hive's  edition  in  1751  arc  omitted  ;  as  also 
nre  the  two  cfjnduding  notes  on  ch.  xviii.,and  the  whole  of  those 
on  ch.  xix.  and  (iillovviiig  to  the  end :  in  which  "  chapters," 
says  the  editor  of  1829.  "  nothing  occurs  but  what  fullv  accords 
with  the  statements  of  jMoscs."  (Tcstimoiiies,  p.  9.)  If,  however, 
the  reader  will  turn  back  to  p.  64.,  he  will  find  only  five  pas- 
gigrs  which  DO  directly  C(..NTR.\D1CT  "  the  slalements  of  Moses," 
besides  f)iir  more  in  pages  64,  65.,  which  e<iually  contradict  the 
bijok  of  Joshua.  The  r.-suit,  then,  of  the  preceding  examination 
is,  thai  the  pretended  Book  of  Jashcr  is  a  gross  and  shameless 
LITERARY  forgery,  wlucli  lias  no  claim  whatever  to  "credence," 
and  which  is  utterly  destitute  of  authenticity. 

Respecting  the  Book  of  Jasher  mentioned  in  Josh.  x.  13.  and 
2  Sam.  i.  18.,  see  V(d.  I.  p.  .'J7.  and  Vol.  II.  p.  21G.  There  is  also 
extant  a  rabbinieal-Ilibrcw  Bt)ok  of  Jashcr  printed  at  Venice  in 
1625,  which  is  an  cxplanaMon  of  the  histories  comprised  in  the 
Pentateuch  and  Book  of  Jo.sliua.  Barlolocci,  in  his  Bibliothcca 
Rahbinica,  states  that  it  contains  some  curious  but  many  fabulous 
things;  and  particularly,  that  this  book  was  discovered  at  the  time 
of  the  destruction  of  ific  temple  at  Jerusalem  in  a  certain  place, 
in  which  an  old  man  was  shut  up,  in  wliose  jKisscssion  a  great 
number  of  Hebrew  books  were  found,  and  among  tlicni  the  Book 
of  Juxher  ;  which  was  first  carried  into  Spain,  and  preserved  at 
Seville,  whence  finally  it  was  taken  to  Naples,  where  it  was  (irst 
published.  (Vol.  iii.  p.  931.)  Bartolocci  also  mentions  (in  p.  808.) 
u  treatise  on  the  Jewish  l,aws,  coini>ose(l  by  rabbi  Tliaiu,  and  called 
Si'phrr  Jasher,  or  the  Book  of  Jashcr,  which  was  printed  at  (Cracow 
ill  1617. 

10.  CoJcx  Pscudepigraphus  Vcteris  Testament!,  collcctus,  cas- 
tigatus,  Tcstimoniisque,  CeiisuriH,  ct  Aniinadvcrsionibiis,  illus- 
tratus.  Accedit  Josephi  veteris  Cliristiani  scriptoris  Hypoin- 
neslicon :  cum  vcrsione  ac  iiotia  Johanni.s  Alberti  Fahhicii. 
Hamburgi  et  LijisLT,  1713-23,  2  voIm.  in  3  tomis,  Svo.  Edilio 
Bccunda,  ilainburgi,  1741,  2  toinisi,  8vo. 

Boflides  the  hooka  commonly  termed  njiocryphal,  which  have 
been  deservedly  rejected  from  the  canon  of  Scripture,  there  are 
numerous  sjiurions  iiroiluctions  extant,  the  earlicHt  of  which  (the 
nrelended  Flook  of  Enoch)  could  not  hove  been  written  till  shortly 
oefore  tln!  conunencemcnl  of  the  ("hrinliari  icra ;  but  by  far  the 
greatest  part  of  them  were  forged  between  the  Hccoiid  and  fourth 
centuries.  The  industrious  bibliographer,  John  Albert  Kabricius,  col- 
lected fragments  and  notices  of  all  (or  nearly  all)  these  prixluclions, 
which  ho  Ikiw  diHcusucd  in  the  two  hundred  and  forty  chaptcrH  of 


which  bis  Codex  Pscudepigraphus  Veteris  Testamcnti  consists.  The 
bare  enumeration  of  these  forgeries  would  extend  this  article  to  an 
undue  length :  but  there  are  three  a|>ocr)-phal  productions,  bearing 
the  names  of  Enoch,  Lsaiah,  and  Ezra,  which  have  been  rescued 
from  utter  oblivion  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Laurence  (now  Archbishop  of 
(.'ashel),  and  which  are  of  suflicicnt  importance  to  claim  a  distinct 
notice. 

II.  The  Book  of  Enoch  the  Prophet:  an  Apocryphal  Pro- 
duction supposed  to  have  been  lost  for  ages ;  but  discovered  at  Ihc 
close  of  the  last  century  in  Abyssinia,  now  first  translated  from 
an  Ethiopic  MS.  in  the  Bodleian  Library.  By  Richard  Lav- 
KExcE,  LL.D.  Archbishop  of  Cashcl.  Oxford,  1821.  Second 
edition,  corrected  and  enlarged,  1833.  Svo. 

The  Apocryphal  Book  of  Enocli,  in  the  last  and  preceding  cen- 
tury, proved  a  prolific  subject  l()r  critical  speculation  and  theologi- 
cal discussion.  The  circumstance  of  its  having  been  quoted  by  an 
inspired  writer  of  the  New  Testament,'  augmented  the  dcs]Kiir  of 
recovering  a  supposed  treasure  which  had  oeen  long  lost.  It  was 
known  until  the  eighth  century  of  the  Christian  u;ra,  after  which 
it  seems  lo  have  sunk  into  complete  oblivion.  A  considerable  frag- 
ment of  it,  however,  was  discovered  by  Julius  Ciesar  Scaliger,  in 
the  Chronographia  of  Georgius  Syncellus  ;  a  work  which  had  not 
then  been  printed.  He  extracted  the  whole  of  this  fragment,  which 
he  published  in  his  notes  to  the  Chronicle  of  Eusebius.'^  Still, 
however,  as  it  did  not  contain  the  passage  quoted  by  St.  Jude, 
doubts  were  entertained,  whether  the  apostle  really  referred  to  the 
same  production  as  was  cited  by  Syncellus,  or  derived  his  infor- 
mation respecting  the  prophecy  of  Enoch  from  some  other  source. 
Since  the  discovery  of  Scaliger,  much  has  been  written,  but  very  » 
little  if  any  additional  information  has  been  obtained  u{M>n  this 
subject.  The  fullest  account  of  the  opinions  entertained  by  tlie 
Fathers,  and  the  quotations  which  they  made  from  tliis  celebrated 
apocryplial  production,  before  it  was  lost,  as  well  ns  what  \ms  since 
been  conjectured  respecting  it  by  modern  critics,  are  to  be  found 
in  the  Codex  Pscudepigraphus  of  Fabricius,^  above  mentioned,  who 
hae  also  printed  at  length  the  CJreek  fragment  of  it  preserved  by 
Syncellus.  But  though  the  Greek  copy  of  this  book  (itself  perhaps 
nothing  more  than  a  mere  translation  from  so.iie  Hebrew  or  Chal- 
dce  original)  seems  to  have  been  irretrievably  lost,  yet  an  idea  pre-  | 
vailed,  so  early  as  the  commencement  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
that  an  Eihio|nc  version  ol'  it  sliil  existed  in  Abyssinia.  Finally, 
researches  were  made  for  it  by  the  distinguished  Ethiopic  scholar 
Ludolph  ;  and  cyery  idea  that  the  Ijook  was  extant  in  an  Ethiopia 
version  was  altogether  abandoned  from  that  time  until  towards  the 
close  of  the  last  centur)-,  when  our  ciilerprising  countryman,  Mr 
Bruce,  not  only  proved  its  existence,  but  brought  with  liim  from 
Aby.ssinia  three  manuscript  copies  of  it,  one  of  which  he  presented 
to  the  Library  at  Paris,  another  to  the  Bodleian  Library  at  Oxford, 
and  the  third  he  reserved  for  himself^  From  the  Bodleian  MS. 
Archbp.  Laurence  has  made  his  translation,  to  which  he  has  pre- 
fixed an  elaborate  preliminary  dissertation  on  tlie  history.  Arc.  of 
this  apocryphal  production,  to  which  we  are  principally  indebted 
for  the  present  outline  of  its  contents.  The  subject  of  the  a()ocr)'. 
phal  B<wk  of  Enoch  is,  a  scries  of  visions  respecting  the  fallen  an- 
gels, their  posterity,  the  giants  which  occasioned  the  deluge,  the 
mysteries  of  heaven,  the  jilace  of  the  final  judgment  of  men  and 
angels,  and  various  parts  of  the  universe  seen  by  Enodi.  The  lan- 
guage is  the  purest  Ethiopic,  and  it-s  style  is  evidently  copieil  aOer 
that  of  the  book  of  Daniel.  In  an  appendix.  Dr.  Laurence  has 
printed  a  Latin  version  of  many  chapters,  executed  by  the  learned 
Baron  Sylvcstre  de  Sacy  from  the  Paris  manuscript.  Dr.  L.  nl.so 
announces  that  Prol'es.sor  Gesenius  of  Halle  has  it  in  contempla- 
tion to  publish  a  transcript  of  the  Parisian  copy,  accompanied  with 
a  Latin  translation. 

Although  neither  the  Jewish  nor  the  Christian  church  ever  ad- 
mitted the  Book  of  Enoch  into  the  canon,  it  was  regarded  by  a 
learned  but  in  some  respects  fanciful  writer  of  the  second  century, 
Terlullian,''  both  as  an  inspired  com))osition,  and  also  as  the  genu- 
ine prodiictiou  of  him  whose  name  it  bears;  but  his  ojiinion  is  con- 
tradicted by  the  uniform  judgment  of  the  Jewish  and  of  the  (Chris- 
tian church  (the  Abyssinian  church  alone  excejited),  among  whoso 
canonical  Uioks  it  was  never  eiiiinier.iUHl.  Dr.  Laurence  has 
proved,  by  internal  evidence,  that  the  priwluction  in  (|uestion  was 
the  coiu|)osition  of  some  unknown  Jew,  under  the  lM)rroued  namOj 
of  Enoch;  that  it  must  have  originally  been  extant  in  Hebrew, 
though  such  original  is  now  lost  ;  anil  he  has  furlher  argued  that  it 
was  written  beliiro  the  rise  of  ciirisiianity,  by  o  Jew,  who  did  not 
reside  in  Palestine,  and  most  probably  at  an  early  period  of  Ik^rod's 
rei^'n,  alMuit  iiiiietv  six  (jurhniw  oiie  hundred)  years  before  the  | 
epistle  of  Jude  wa.s' written.  But  the  learned  prelate's  arguments 
have  been  controverted  at  greai  Icimth  in  a  critique  in  the  Chris- 
tian  Observer  (vol.  xxx.  pp.  417 — 126.  496 — 503.),  the  author  of 
which  has,  from  internal  evidence,  which  does  not  admit  of  abridg- 

«  Juilo,  vrr.  14,  15. 

«  I'l.  tot,  10.-..  iMlit.  Aiiist.  16:,'?. 

•  Vol  I.  pp.  \W--ii\.  In  pp.  'Jy2,  3  Fiibrirlus  mentions  twenty  different 
niilliors  will!  Iiiivp  iiiiin-  or  Iijhb  Hlliidcd  lotliis  book. 

«  A  sliort  Hiiiiiiiiarv  of  tin'  cnnlcrils  of  tlic  Apocryplml  Boolt  of  Enoch  il 
Riven  in  a  note  to  vnf.  ii.  pp.  I'M — ViJ.  of  tlie  sctavu  cdiliuu  of  Mr.  Drucc'a 
iravcls,  liy  llio  editor,  Mr.  Murray. 

»  TiTtiilli.iiii  Oi).Ta,  pp.  9.-1.  I.V),  l.ll.  The  passages  arc  given  ot  IcngtJi  by 
Dr.  Ldurcucc.    rrel.  Diss.  pp.  av.— xvii. 


I 


SiCT.  n.] 


APOCRYPHAL  BOOKS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


er 


ment,  showii  that  this  apocrj'phal  book  was  not  and  could  not  have 
been  written  earlier  than  the  middle  of  the  second  century  of  the 
Christian  sera.  The  additions  in  the  second  impression  consist, 
1.  of  Greek  Extracts  (accompanied  with  a  Latin  version)  from  the 
Book  of  Enoch  given  by  Syncellus  in  his  Chronographia,  and  2.  of 
a  Synopsis  of  the  contents  of  the  work. 

12.  Ascensio  Isaise  Vatis,  Opusculum  Pseudepigraphum, 
raultis  abhinc  seculis,  ut  videtur,  deperditum,  nunc  autem 
apud  .(Ethiopas  compertum,  et  cum  versione  Latina  Anglica- 
naquc  public!  juris  factum.  A  Ricardo  Lauresce,  LL.D. 
Hebraicse  Linguse  Professore  Regio,  &c.  Oxonii  et  Londini, 
1819,  8vo. 

This  volume  contains  a  pretended  history  of  the  prophet  Isaiah's 
ascension  through  the  firmament  and  six  heavens  into  the  seventh ; 
together  with  some  pseudo-prophecies,  and  a  relation  of  the  pro- 
pliet's  martyrdom.  With  a  view  to  ascertain  the  date  of  this  com- 
position, as  no  satisfactory  external  evidence  is  furnished  by  the 
early  WTiters  who  have  incidently  mentioned  it,  Dr.  Laurence  has 
instituted  a  minute  investigation  of  the  internal  testimony,  furnish- 
ed by  the  production  itself  The  result  of  this  examination,  which 
is  conducted  with  singular  acuteness  and  felicity,  is  that  the  ascen- 
sion of  Isaiah  must  have  been  composed  towards  the  close  of  the 
year  68  or  in  the  beginning  of  the  year  69.  From  tlie  circumstance 
of  an  anonymous  author  having  used  in  the  Elhiopic  the  unusual 
Greek  word  «tT«i/i»  for  the  roof  of  a  house,  while  in  the  Hebrew 
and  in  all  the  versions  the  word  signifies,  a  net  (that  is,  a  lattice 
placed  in  the  flat  roof  to  light  the  apartment  beneath,  see  2  Kings  i. 
2.) — the  learned  editor  concludes  that  this  production  must  have 
been  written  in  Greek.  It  appears,  however,  that  this  Greek  word 
was  in  use  in  Egypt  in  the  second  centurj',  whence  in  all  proba- 
bility it  crept  into  the  Ethiopic  language  about  that  period.  A  Jew 
writing  in  Greek  would  have  used  that  word  which  his  own  Scrip- 
tures and  the  Septuagint  had  previously  adopted  in  2  Kings  i.  2. 
A  traiislator  would  have  used  the  first  term  that  suggested  itself. 
From  the  prevalence  of  the  oriental  orthography  of  particular 
words,  as  well  as  from  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  being  quoted  instead 
of  the  Greek  version  in  a  passage  where  they  differ,  it  seems  more 
probable  that  the  Ascensio  Isaice  was  originally  written  ]i\  Hebrew, 
the  native  tongue  of  the  writer.    (See  Antijacobin  Review  for  July, 

1819,  vol.  Ivi.  pp.  430,  431.) 

13.  Primi  EzriE  Libri,  qui  apud  Vulgatam  appellatur  quartus, 
Versio  ^thiopici,  nunc  primum  in  medio  prolata,  et  Latine  An- 
gliceque  rcddita  a  Ricardo  Laukeitce,  LL.D.  «&c.  &c.    OxoniEB, 

1820,  Bvo. 

The  first  bix)k  of  Ezra  or  Esdras,  as  it  is  termed  in  the  Ethiopic 
Version,  forms  the  second  book  of  Esdras  in  the  Apocrypha  usually 
annexed  to  the  larger  editions  of  the  English  Bibles.  A  notice  of 
its  contents  will  be  found  in  Vol.  II.  Part  V.  pp.  289,  290.  Dr.  (now 
Archbishop)  Laurence  has  the  honour  of  being  the  first  editor  of 
the  Elhiopic  Version.  The  Latin  Version,  which  accompanies  it, 
is  partly  original,  and  in  part  taken  from  the  Latin  Vulgate,  vihere 
this  could  be  employed.  To  the  Ethiopic  Version  are  subjoined  a 
collation  of  it  with  the  Latin  Vulgate,  and  a  new  English  transla- 
tion: the  volume  terminates  with  an  elaborate  critical  disquisition 
on  the  author  of  this  book,  the  time  when  he  probably  lived,  the 
character  and  value  of  the  Ethiopic,  Arabic,  and  Latin  Versions, 
and  the  use  to  be  made  of  the  book  in  a  theological  point  of 
view. 


SECTION  IL 

APOCRYPHAL  BOOKS  OF  THE  NEW'  TESTAMENT. 

1.  ConEx  Apocryphus  Novi  Testament!,  collectus,  castigatus, 
testimoniisque,  censuris,  et  animadversionibus  illustratus,  a  Jo- 
anne Alberto  Fabkicio.  Partes  I.  et  II.  Hamburgi,  1703,  2 
vols.  8vo. ;  1719,  2  vols.  8vo.     Pars  IIL  Hamburgi,  1743,  8vo. 

A  curious  collection  of  Apocryphal  pieces,  which  is  not  very  often 
to  be  met  with  complete.  The  learned  Mr.  Jones  made  great  use 
of  if,  and,  in  fact,  translated  the  greater  part  of  it  in  his  elaborate 
work  on  the  Canons  of  the  New  Testament,  wliich  is  noticed  in 
page   68.  of  this  Appendix. 

2.  Auctarium  Codicis  Apocrj'phi  N.  T.  Fabriciani,  continent 
plura  inedita,  alia  ad  fidem  cod.  MSS,  emendatius  expressa. 
Congessit,  disposuit,  cdidit,  Andreas  Bikch.  Fasciculus  primus, 
Havnice,  1804.  8vo. 

3.  Acta  S.  Thomse  Apostoli.  Ex  Codd.  Paris,  primum  edidit, 
et  adnotationibus  illustravit  J.  C.  Thilo.     Lipsiaj,  1823,  8vo. 

4.  Codex  Apocryphus  Novi  Testamenti  e  Libris  editis  et  manu- 
scriptis.  maxime  Gallicanis,  Germanicis,  et  Italicis,  collectus,  re- 
censitus,  notisque  et  prolegomenis  illustratus,  opera  et  studio 
Joannis  Caroli  Thilo.     Tomus  I.     Lipsise,  1832,  8vo. 

This  work,  when  finished,  will  be  the  most  complete  collection 
of  the  Apocryphal  Books  of  the  New  Testament.  The  very  copioua 
prolegomena,  which  are  prefixed  to  the  first  volume,  treat  on  the; 
collections,  editions,  and  versions  of  the  Apocryphal  Gospels.  These 
are  succeeded  by  the  History  of  Joseph  the  Carpenter,  in  Arabic 
and  Latin,  the  Gospel  of  the  Saviour's  Infancy,  also  in  Arabic  and 
Latin  ;  the  Protevangelion  of  James,  and  the  Gospel  of  Thomas  the 
Israelite,  in  Greek  and  Latin ;  the  Gospel  of  the  nativity  of  Mary, 
and  the  History  of  the  nativity  of  Mary  and  of  the  Saviour  \n 
Latin;  the  Gospel  of  Marcion,  collected  by  Dr.  Augustus  Hahn, 
from  ancient  documents,  in  Greek ;  the  Gospel  of  Nicodemus,  in 
Greek  and  Latin ;  a  narrative  of  the  apprehension  and  death  of 
Pilate,  in  Greek ;  a  collation  of  the  manuscript  of  the  mutilated 
and  altered  Gospel  of  John  (which  is  preserved  in  the  archives  of 
the  Templars  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem  at  Paris),  with  Griesbach's 
Text.  So  numerous  are  the  alterations,  &c.  in  this  Gospel,  that 
Dr.  Thilo  considers  it  altogether  as  an  apocryphal  writing,  and  has 
therefore  given  it  a  place  in  his  collection  of  the  Apocryphal  Books 
of  the  New  Testament.  The  volume  closes  with  an  Apocryphal 
Book  of  the  Apostle  John,  in  Latin,  which  abounds  with  Gnostic 
notions ;  various  readings  and  notes  are  placed,  throughout,  at  the 
foot  of  each  page  :  and,  besides  the  general  prolegomena,  there  is 
much  curious  prefatory  matter  relative  to  several  of  the  pieces 
here  prmted.  Dr.  Thilo  has  discharged  his  arduous  duties  as  editor 
with  equal  industry  and  ability. 

5.  The  Apocryphal  New  Testament :  being  all  the  Gospels, 
Epistles,  and  other  pieces  now  extant,  attributed  in  the  first  four 
centuries  to  Jesus  Christ,  liis  Apostles,  and  their  Companions, 
and  not  included  in  the  New  Testament  by  its  Compilers.  Trans- 
lated and  collected  into  one  volume,  with  Prefaces  and  Tables, 
and  various  Notes  and  References.  [By  William  Hone.]  Lon- 
don, 1820,  8vo.  1821,  Second  Edition,  8vo. 

See  an  Analysis  of  this  publication,  with  remarks,  in  Vol.  I.  Ap 
pendix,  No.  I.  Sect.  U.  p.  437.  et  seq. 


Vol.  n. 


4B 


68 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Pabt  II. 


PART  II. 

SACRKD  PHILOLOGY; 

OR,  THE  CRITICISM  AND  LNTERPRETATION  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


CHAPTER  I. 


TREATISES    ON    THE     CANON    OF    SCRIPTURE,    AND    ON    APOCRYPHAL     EOOKS. 

1.   A  Scholastic  vL   Histoht   of  the   Canon   of  the   Holy  i  performance,  and  hath  rendered  the  most  essential  service  to  the 

'  cause  of  Christianity.    Whoever  peruses  this  work  will  find  it  re- 


Scripture  :  or  the  certain  and  indubitahle  Books  thereof,  as  they 
are  received  in  the  Church  of  England.  By  John  Cosix,  D.D. 
Bishop  of  Durham.  London,  1657,  4to.  Second  Edit.  1672,  4to. 

2.  Dissertation  Preliininaiic,  ou  Prok'gomcnes  sur  la  Bible. 
Par  Louis  EUies  vv  Pix.     Amsterdam,  1701,  2  tomes,  4to. 

2.*  A  Complete  History  of  the  Canon  and  Writers  of  the 
Books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament.  By  L.  E.  nu  Pix. 
Done  into  English  from  the  French  original.  London,  1699, 
1 700,  2  vols,  folio. 

3.  Aug.Herm.  Franckii  Manuductio  ad  Lectioncm  Scripturse 
t>acra.     Hala;,  1C93,  1701,  &c.  8vo. 

Thi.s  well-known  and  very  useful  Utile  work  was  translated  into 
Knilish  by  >Ir.  Jacques,  and  entitled  "  A  Guide  to  the  Reading  and 
.'^uiiiy  of  the  Holy  Scriptures."  London,  1813,  8vo.,  afterwards 
reprinted  in  12mo. 

4.  Traitc  Historique  du  Canon  dcs  Livres  de  la  Saint  Ecriture, 
l.'puis  leur  premier  publication  jusqu'au  Concilc  du  Trent.    Par 

Jean  Marti  ax  at.     Paris,  1703,  12ino. 

5.  Bibliotheca  Sacra:  sive  Diatribe  de  Librorum  Novi  Testa- 
nicnti  Canone.  Qua  primte  Sacrorum  N.  T.  Librorum  Collcc- 
tionis  Historiam  ex  antiquitatibus  ecclesiasticis  depromit,  atque 
<  'anonem  nunc  vulgo  receptum  continere  vetustissimam  et 
^eiiuinam  illorum  Reccnsionem  ostendit,  Johannes  Ens.  Ani- 
hUlffidami,  1710,  12mo. 

G.  Gerardi  van  Maestbicht  Conimcntatio  de  Canone  Scrip- 
turae  ecclesiastico,  secundum  scricm  sjBculorum  post  Christum 
natum.     Bremaj,  1722,  8vo.  Jense,  8vo. 

7.  A  New  and  Full  Method  of  settling  the  Canonical  Autho- 
rity of  the  New  Testament.  By  the  Rev.  Jeremiah  Joxes.  Ox- 
lord,  1798,  3  vols.  8vo. 

The  first  edition  of  this  elaborate  work  appeared  in  1726,  two 
vears  after  the  death  of  its  learned  aiilhor  (a  dissenting  minister), 
who  died  at  the  early  age  of  31.  He  had  previously  published 
'•  A  N'indication  of  the  former  part  of  St.  Matthew's  Gospel,  from 
Mr.  Whiston's  Charge  of  Dislocations ;"  in  which  he  successfully 
proved  that  our  present  Greek  copies  of  that  Gospel  are  in  the  same 
jrder  in  which  they  were  originally  written  by  the  evangelist.  "  In 
drawing  up  these  works  he  to<jk  care  to  consult  and  examine  the 
ririginals,  instead  of  satisfying  himself  with  the  quotations  of  other 
learned  men.  They  remain  as  monuments  of  his  learning,  inge- 
jiiiity,  and  indefatigable  industry,  and  would  have  done  credit  to 
the  assiduity  and  ability  of  a  literary  man  of  sixty.  'J'hey  were 
become  very  scarce,  niid  Iwre  .i  high  price,  when,  with  the  libera- 
lity and  zeal  which  reflects  honour  on  tlicin,  the  coiidiiclors  of  the 
riareiidon  Press  republished  them  at  OxI'dhI.  Mr.  Jones,  observes 
l)r.  Maltby,  has  l)rought  together,  wilh  uncommon  diligence;  the 
external  evidence  for  the  uutliculiciiy  and  Kenuinencss  of  the  ca- 
nonical books,  and  he  has,  willi  fi|u;LL ability  and  liiirnc's,  staled 
his  reasons  for  deciding  against  the  authority  of  ihe  ajiocryphal." 
((Chalmers's  Biographical  Dictionary,  vol.  xix.  p.  95.) 

8.  The  Credibility  of  the  Gospel  History;  or,  the  Facts  occa- 
sionally mentioned  in  the  NewTcstJiment,  confirmed  by  Pa.ssages 
of  .\ncicnt  .\uthors,  who  were  contemporary  with  our  Saviour, 
iiT  his  AiKwtles,  or  lived  near  their  time.  By  Nathaniel  Lahiinkh, 
D.D.  London,  Part  I.  1727,  2  vol.-*.  8vo.  Part  IF.  173.3—17.').'), 
12  vols.  8vo.  Also  in  the  8vo.  Edition  of  his  (Collective  Works, 
vols,  1  to  5  :  and  in  vols.  1  and  2  of  the  4 to.  Edition. 

The  publication  of  Dr.  Lardiier's  Credibility  was  received  wilh 
every  mark  of  rcK|>ect  nnd  graiitiide,  l)olh  by  riieiiibers  of  iho 
(Church  of  KiiKlaiid  and  dissentcm,  and  it«  reniitalinn  gradually 
rxtendcd  into  foreign  countries.  How  deeply  the  present  work  is 
indebtp<l  to  his  lai»riouH  nnd  accurate  invciitigntioiia  our  multi- 
plied references  will  amply  aUetl.    "it  ia  indeed  on  invaluab'- 


I'icte  wilh  admirable  instruction,  sound  learning,  and  just  and  can- 
did criticism."  (Dr.  Kippis's  Life  of  Dr.  Lardner,  Works,  vol.  v.  p. 
vi.  4to.  edit.)  The  Abbe  Labondcrie,  in  his  historical  notice  of 
father  Colonia  (see  below)  justly  proiiouisces  the  Credibility  to  be 
a  magnificent  apology  for  Christianity,  and  a  chef-d'oeuvre  of  learn- 
ing and  criticism. 

9.  A  Supplement  to  the  Second  Part  of  the  Credibility  of  the 
Gospel  History,  containing  a  History  of  the  Apostles  and  Evan- 
gelists, Writers  of  the  New  Testament,  with  Itemarks  and 
01)scrvations  upon  every  Book  of  the  New  Testament.  By 
Nathaniel  Laudxer,  D.D.     London,  175G,  1757,  3  vols.  8vo. 

This  history  forms  the  sixth  volume  of  the  8vo.  (the  third  volume 
of  the  4to.)  edition  of  Dr.  Lardner's  Works,  and  also  the  second 
volume  of  Bishop  Watson's  Collection  of  Tracts  ;  it  "  is  an  admira- 
ble introduction  to  the  i\ew  Testament," — and  "  a  storehouse  of 
literary  information,  collected  with  equal  industry  and  fidelity." 
(Bishop  Marsh.) 

1 0.  Horse  Paulinaj :  or,  the  Truth  of  the  Scripture  History  of 
St.  Paul  evinced  by  a  comparison  of  the  Epistles  which  bear  his 
name  with  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  By  William  Pai.ey,  D.D. 
London,  1790,  Svo.  and  numerous  subsequent  editions  in  8vo. 
12mo.  and  ISino. 

11.  The  Veracity  of  the  Five  Books  of  Moses  argued  from 
the  undesigned  coincidences  to  be  found  in  them  when  com- 
pared in  their  several  parts.  By  tlie  Rev.  J.  J.  Bllxt,  B.D. 
London,  1830,  Svo. 

12.  The  Veracity  of  the  Historical  Books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, from  the  conclusion  of  the  Pentateuch  to  the  ojiening  of 
the  Prophets,  argued  from  the  undesigned  coincidences  to  be 
found  in  them,  when  compared  in  their  several  parts :  being  a 
continuation  of  the  Argument  for  the  Veracity  of  the  Five  Books 
of  Moses.     By  the  Rev.  J.  J.  Bux  r,  B.D.     London,  1832,  Svo. 

13.  The  Veracity  of  the  Gospels  and  Acts  of  the  Apostles, 
argued  from  the  undesigned  coincidences  to  he  found  in  them, 
when  compared,  1.  with  each  other,  and,  2.  with  Josephus.  By 
the  Rev.  J.  J.  Blvxt,  B.D.     London,  1828.  8vo. 

In  each  of  these  three  works  Mr.  Blunt  has,  wilh  singular  abili 
ty,  newly  applied  and  illustrated  the  principle  laid  down  by  Dr. 
Paley,  in  his  masterly  treatise  entitled  "  Hora;  Paiilina\"  The  in- 
genuity of  many  of  Mr.  B.'s  sections  might  stand  in  competition 
with  any  of  his  predecessor's  master-piece;  and  the  clearness  and 
liveliness  of  the  language  are  such,  that  his  works  cannot  i)e  too 
earnestly  recommended  to  biblical  students. 

14.  La  Religion  Chrctienne,  antorisce  par  le  Tcnioignagc  dcs 
Ancicns  Auteurs  Paiens.  I'ar  le  pcre  Dominique  de  Coloxia, 
Lyon,  1718,  2  tomes,  12mo. — Seconde  Edition,  revue  et  prc- 
ccdcc  d'unc  Notice  Ilistorique  par  M.  I'Abbc  Laboudcric.  Paris, 
1826,  Svo. 

Tliis  treatise,  though  niiblislied  nine  years  before  Dr.  Lardner 
commenced  his  admirable  work  on  the  Credibiliiy  of  the  Gospel 
History,  does  not  appear  to  have  been  known  to  him.  The  sub- 
jects discussed  by  ('olonia  are  comprised  in  the  ihiitl  volume  of 
the  octavo  edition  of  Dr.  Ijirdiier's  works,  from  page  594  to  the 
end,  and  in  the  fourth  volume,  from  page  3  to  [Mige  430  of  the 
quarto  edition  published  at  Ixjiidon  in  1815.  Father  Colonia  has 
collected  together  numerous  inijiortant  facts,  which  he  has  illv.s- 
Irated  wilh  many  valuable  remarks,  though  he  has  not  always  fol- 
lowed strict  chronological  order  in  the  arrangement  of  his  mat»:- 
ri.ds.  His  chapter  on  Mohammed  is  full  of  errors  and  ridicnlo.is 
declamations.  Notwiihsiniiding  all  its  defects,  his  work  may  l>e 
read  with  pleasure,  even  after  a  perusal  of  Dr.  Lardner's  \olumpo 
or.  the  (Vetlibility  of  the  (iospel  History  ;  the  wholo  of  which  IliO 
Aobc  Labouderie  lioa  announced  hie  inirmtion  of  lra;;s!ating  luta 
trcncn. 


Sect.  I.] 


INTRODUCTIONS  TO  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


6«J 


15.  Historia  Canonis  Sacrique  Toxtus  Novi  Foederis,  a  Joanne 
Millio  in  Prolegomenis  ad  Novum  Tcstamentum  tradita,  cum 
Adnotationibus  Danielis  Salthe>ii.      liegiomonti,   1733,  8vo. 

16.  Ferdinandi  S rosea  Tractatus  Theologicus  de  Epistolis 
Apostolorum  Idiographis;  quo  Apostolis,  non  per  Amanuenses, 
sed  sua  manu  Epistolas  suas  scripsisse,  luculenter  demonstratur. 
Guelpherbyti,  1751,  8vo. 

17.  Ferdinandi  Stosch  An02T0ATK0N  OaOKAHPON;  hoc 
est,  Tractatus  Tlieologicus  de  Epistolis  Apostolorum  non  deper- 
ditis;  quo  nullam  ex  Epistolis  ab  Apostolis  Jcsu  Christi  exaratLs 
periisse  demonstratur.     GroningJB,  1753,  8vo. 

18.  Eberhardi  Hcnrici  Danielis  Stosch  Commentatio  Histo- 
rico-Critica  de  Librorum  Novi  Testamenti  Canone.  Praemissa 
est  Dissertatio  de  Cura  Vetcris  Ecclesiae  circa  Libros  Novi  Tes- 
tamenti.    Francofurti  ad  Viadrura,  1755,  8vo. 

19.  Christiani  Frederici  Schsiidii  Historia  Antiqua  et  Vin- 
dicatio  Veteris  Novique  Testamenti,  libris  duobus  comprehensi. 
Lipsise,  1775,  8vo. 

An  excellent  treatise,  in  which  the  Canon  of  Scripture  is  most 
satisfactorily  vindicated  from  the  rash  criticisms  and  assertions  of 
Oeder,  Semler,  and  other  modern  German  theologians. 

20.  Observationes  ad  lUustrationem  Doctrinae  de  Canone  Ve- 
teris Testamenti.  Auctore  Claudio  Frees  Hobxemanx.  Haunisn. 
1775,  8vo. 

21.  Lectures  on  the  Canon  of  the  Old  Testament;  compre- 
hending a  Dissertation  on  the  Septuagint  Version.  By  John 
Blair,  LL.D.     London,  1785,  4to. 

22.  The  Canon  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  ascertained ; 
or,  the  Bible  complete  without  the  Apocrypha  and  Unwritten 
Traditions.  By  Archibald  Alexander,  Professor  of  Didactic 
and  Polemical  Theology,  in  the  Theological  Seminary  at  Prince- 
ton, New  Jersey.     Princeton,  1826,  12mo.  London,  1828,  12mo. 

Professor  Alexander  published  this  very  useful  volume  on  the 
Canon  of  Scripture,  as  a  Supplement  to  a  Treatise  on  the  Evi- 
dences of  the  Christian  Religion,  which  has  been  very  favourably 
received  in  North  America.  His  Treatise  on  the  Canon  is  avow- 
edly compiled  from  the  previous  labours  of  the  most  eminent  critics, 
especially  Bishop  Cosins's  Scholaslical  History  of  the  Canon  of 
ihe  Old  Testament,  and  the  ample  collections  of  the  impartial 
and  indefatigable  Dr.  Lardner  and  the  learned  Jeremiah  Jones, 
whose  works  are  noticed  in  the  preceding  page.  The  first  part  of 
Dr.  Alexander's  Treatise  discusses  the  Canon  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment ;  in  the  second  part  are  considered  the  Canon  of  the  New 
Testament,  and  the  reasons  for  which  the  Apocryphal  books  are 
deservedly  rejected  from  the  Sacred  Canon.  To  divines  and  stu- 
dents (especially  in  North  America)  who  may  not  have  access  to 
numerous  and  more  costly  works,  this  treatise  is  a  very  useful  and 
acceptable  present.    The  London  reprint  is  very  neatly  executed. 

23.  Censura  Apocryphorum  V.  T.  adversum  Pontificios,  im- 
primis Robertum  B^larminum  :  qua,  turn  Divina  et  Canonica 
SacriE  Scripturae  Autoritas  asseritur,  solidissioiffi  turn  varise  Quses- 
tiones,  &c.  (imprimis  quae  est  de  Duratione  Monarchiae  Persicae, 
et  de  70  hebdomadis  Danielis),  expediuntur  accuratissime  ;  Prse- 
lectionibus  250  posthumis  in  Acidemia  Oxoniensi  tractata,  a 
Johanne  Raixoldo,  Anglo,  Academiae  Oxon.  Prof.  Theol.  Op- 
penhemii,  1611,  2  vols.  4to. 


This  elaborate  work  is  now  rare.  Dr.  Rainoldes  was  termed  by 
Anthony  a  Wood,  the  Oxford  antiquary  and  biographer,  "  a  living 
library  and  a  third  university."  He  was  one  of  the  greatest  He 
brew  scholars  of  his  age  (if  not  the  greatest) ;  and  it  was  at  his 
instance  that  King  James  1.  assented  to  the  proposal  of  a  new  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible.  In  the  Hampton  Court  Conference,  as  well  as 
in  this  work,  Dr.  R.  strenuously  opposed  the  reading  of  apocryphal 
lessons  in  the  public  service  of  the  church. 

24.  Wetstexii  (Joh.  Rod.)  Dissertatio  Philologico-Theolo- 
gica  de  Historia  Susannae.     Basiles,  1691,  4to. 

25.  Gottlieb  WEUNSDORrFii  Commentatio  de  Fide  Hiptorica 
Librorum  Maccabaeorum.     Wratislaviae,  1747,  4to. 

26.  De  secundo  Libro  Maccabaeorum  Dissertatio.  Scripsit 
C.  Bertheau,  Gottingae,  1829,  8vo. 

27.  An  Epistolarj'  Discourse  concerning  the  Books  of  Ezra, 
genuine  and  spurious  :  but  more  particularly  the  second  apocry- 
phal book  under  that  name,  and  the  Variations  of  the  Arabic 
copy  from  the  Latin.  Together  with  a  New  Version  of  the  Fifth 
Book  of  Esdras,  &c.    By  Francis  Lee,  M.D.  London,  1722,  8vo. 

28.  An  Essay  concerning  the  Books  commonly  called  Apo- 
crypha and  the  public  Reading  of  thetn  in  the  Church.  London, 
1740,  8vo. 

29.  A  Statement  submitted  to  the  Members  of  the  British  anu. 
I  Foreign  Bible  Society,  on   the  impropriety  of  circulating  the 

Apocryphal  Books  indiscriminately  intenningled  with  the  Inspired 
Writings,  By  George  Cornelius  Goruam,  B.D.  London,  1825, 
8vo. 

Though  this  tract  was  occasioned  by  a  local  controversv,  the  con- 
sideration of  which  does  not  fall  within  the  design  of  this  work,  it 
is  deserving  of  a  place  in  the  student's  librarv,  on  account  of  the 
various  and  interesting  information  which  it  contains  relative  to  the 
literary  History  of  the  Apocrypha.     The  second  edition  is  the  best. 

30.  Two  Letters  addressed  to  the  Rev.  G.  C.  Gorham  on  some 
points  of  his  Statement  on  the  Apocryphal  Books,  and  on  some 
of  the  alleged  Doctrines  of  the  Romish  Chureh.  By  Leander 
van  Ess,  D.D.  With  a  replv  by  G.  C.  Gorham,  B.D.  London, 
1826,  8vo. 

These  letters  of  Dr.  van  Ess  were  designed  as  a  reply  to  the  pre- 
ceding publication  :  and  his  objections  are  answered  by  Mr.  Gor- 
hani  with  singular  ability,  patience  of  research,  and  with  a  spirit  of 
Christian  candour,  of  which  there  unhappily  are  but  few  instances 
in  controversial  di.scu.ssions.  Mr.  G.  has  clearly  established  the 
Ihfee  following  lacts  ;  viz.  1.  That  in  the  ancient  form  of  the  Bible, 
from  the  fourth  cenlurj'  till  the  reformation,  the  Inspired  and  the 
Apocryphal  Writings,  though  intermingled,  were  invariably  distin- 
guished from  each  other  by  the  prefaces  or  notices  of  interpolation 
connected  with  each  book.  2.  That,  subsequently  to  the  Reforma- 
tion, a  new  form  was  introduced,  and  these  Scripture  barriers  were 
removed  :  at  first  cautiously  and  rarely  ;  then,  after  the  decree  of 
the  council  of  Trent,  more  freely  and  frequently  ;  and  at  last,  under 
papal  sanction,  boldly  and  almost  universally ;  and,  3.  That  this 
change  of  form  was  intended  to  advance  the  credit  of  the  ApocrV' 
phal  Books,  and  to  obtain  for  them  the  estimation  of  inspired  writ 
ings  by  removing  these  impediments  to  the  acknowledgment  of  theii 
canonicity. 

31.  An  Inquiry  into  the  Truth  and  Use  of  the  Book  of  Enoch 
as  to  its  Prophecies,  Visions,  and  .Aciounts  of  Fallen  Angels 
By  John  Overtox.     London,  1822,  Svo. 


CHAPTER  II. 

INTRODUCTIONS    TO    THE    STUDY    OP    THE    SCRIPTURES. 

SECTION  I. 


GENERAL    INTRODUCTIONS   TO   THE    ENTIRE    BIBLE. 


1.  Dissertations,  qui  peuvent  servir  de  ProlegomSnes  de 
I'Ecriture  Sainte,  revues,  corrig';es,  considerablement  augmen- 
tees,  et  mises  dans  un  ordre  methodique.  Par  Augustin  Cal- 
MET.     Paris,  1720,  3  tomes,  4to. 

This  publication  contains  the  various  Dissertations,  prefixed  by 
the  learned  father  Calmet  to  the  diflTerent  Iwoks  of  Scripture,  and 
published  in  his  commentary,  with  numerous  corrections  and  addi- 
tions. Eighteen  new  Dissertations  have  been  added  ;  and  the  whole 
has  been  arranged  in  a  new  and  commodious  order,  in  order  to  ren- 
der these  disquisitions  what  the  author  designed  they  should  be, — 
Prolegomena  to  the  Bible.  Many  important  topics  are  here  treated 
at  considerable  length.    Vol.  I.  contains  the  Dissertations  relating 


to  the  Scriptures  generally,  and  to  the  History,  Discipline,  Customs, 
and  Opinions  of  the  Jews.  Vol.  II.  comprises  Prefaces  to  the  seve- 
ral books  of  the  Old  Testament,  both  canonical  and  apocryphal. 
Vol.  III.  contains  similar  prefaces  to  the  different  books  of  the  New 
Testament,  and  thiriy-one  Dissertations  on  various  subjects 

2.  Antiquities,  Sacred  and  Profane :  or  a  Collection  of  Criti 
cal  Dissertations  on  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  translated 
from  the  French  of  Dom  Augustin  Calmet,  by  N.  Tixdal.  Vol 
I.     London,  1727,  4to. 

This  work  was  never  completed.    It  origimlly  appeared  in  num- 
bers, and  conTprises  select  dissertations  on  the  Poetry  and  Music  ol 


70 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  IL  Chap.  II. 


the  Hebrews,  their  Hisforj'  and  Chronologj',  Money  and  Coins,  &c.  ! 
(tc.,  tmnslnied  from  the  preceding  fVciich  work  of'Calmet.  ' 

3.  Introduzione  alia  Sacra  Scrittura,  che  comprende  le  Preno- 
jioni  juii  iniport.intc  relative  a'l  Testi  Original!  e  alle  lore  \'er- 
eioni,  del  Professore  G.  Bernardo  Dk-Kossi.     Parma,  1817,  Svo. 

4.  Prolegomena  in  Scripturam  Sacram.  Auctore  Car.  Frid. 
Horn  in  A  XT.     Parioiis,  17t6,  4to. 

5.  Schaldi  Rath  Excrcitationcs  Philologies  in  C.  F.  Hubi- 
ganlii  Prolegomena  in  Scripturam  Sacram.  Liigduni  Batavo- 
rum,  1765,  4to. 

"  The  prinoiples  of  Houbigant,  who  carried  his  conjectures  be- 
yond all  Ixjunds,  have  been  very  ably  combaited"  in  this  work. 
(Bp.  Marsii.) 

6.  Johannis  Hcnrici  Danielis  MotnEiTHAWEHi  Introductio  in 
omnes  Libros  Canonicos,  cum  Veteris,  turn  Novi  Foederis,  ut  et 
ooAqui  Apot^rjphi  dicuntur,  cum  Appcndice,  qua  tradit  Acta 
Apostoli  Pauli  chronologice  digesta,  Svo.     Regiomonti,  1744. 

Few  treatises,  professing  to  lie  In'rodiietions  to  the  Bible,  are 
mre  useful  than  this  work  of  Professor  Mo!<lonhawcr's.  Having 
brielly  shown  the  c.inonical  authority  of  ihe  Bible,  and  noticod  its 
various  ilivisions,  he  treaU  of  each  book  in  its  order,  shov^ing  its 
nulhor,  time  of  writing,  argument,  scope,  clironology,  and  division. 
He  carefully  points  out  those  passages  which  arc  more  particularly 
woniiy  of  consideration,  or  more  difficult;  and  under  each  book  of 
fiie  Old  Testament  he  specifies  the  types  and  prophecies  of  Jesus 
riirisl,  and  the  ciuiiions  from  each  book  in  the  j\ew  Testament. 
Tiie  author  has  derived  much  nssisiaucc  from  the  labours  of  Mol- 
donhawcr  in  the  present  volume  of  this  work. 

7.  A  Scripture  Help,  designed  to  assist  in  reading  the  Bible 
profitably,  by  the  Rev.  Edward  Bickehstf.th.  Loiuloii,  1806, 
12mo.,  and  numerous  subsequent  editions  in  12mo.  and  Svo. 

This  work  is  professedly  a  prnciital  introdiiciion  to  the  reading 
of  :he  Scriptures.  The  safe  of  30,()00  copies  of  the  large  editions, 
ai.d  of  more  than  130,000  copies  of  the  12mo.  and  15mo.  abridg- 
ments, sufficiently  ultCHls  the  high  esliinaliou  in  which  this  manual 
ii  deservedly  held.  It  has  been  translated  and  puiilished  in  the 
French  and  modern  Cireek  languages. 

8.  The  Sacred  Interpreter :  or  a  Practical  Introduction  towards 
8  beneficial  reading  and  thorough  understanding  of  ihc  Holy 
Bihle.  By  David  Co LLTKn.  Svo.  2  vol.-!.  London,  174 li.  Car- 
IL-le,  2  vols.  Svo.  1796.     Oxford,  1815,  2  vols.  Svo, 

"  The  author  of  this  work  lived  in  the  former  part  of  the  List  cen- 
t'lry  :  it  no!  only  went  through  several  editions  in  England,  but  in 
IT.W  was  translated  into  German.  It  is  calculated  for  readers  in 
E'^.'ieral,  and  it  is  a  tfood  popular  preparation  for  the  study  of  the 
lloly  Scriptures."     (Bishop  Marsh., 

9.  A  General  Introduction  to  th^  Study  of  the  Hebrew  Scrip- 
tures, with  a  Critical  Hi.-tory  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  Versions 
of  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch,  and  of  the  Chaldce  Paraphra.scs. 
By  the  Rev.  George  Hamilton-,  M.A.  8vo.     Dublin,  1814. 

The  origin  and  antiquity  of  the  Hebrew  language  and  charac- 
ter!*, vowel  {H)iniH,  varioiis  readings,  and  the  question  relative  to  the 
integrity  of  the  present  text,  loireiher  with  an  accoimt  of  the  ra!> 
biiiical  n<jtes  on  the  Old  Testament,  are  the  topics  princi^ially  dis- 
Cii-vied  in  this  small  volume  ;  n:id  to  these  succeeds  a  notice  of  Ihc 
c'itT'jrent  versions  and  paraphrases  mentioned  in  the  title.  "  Its 
general  execution  is  highly  creditable  to  the  author's  industry  and 
judgment  ;  and  we  cheerfully  recommend  it  to  that  class  of  stu- 
dents lor  whoso  use  it  was  chiefly  designed."  (Eclectic  Review 
(N.  S.),  vol.  i.  p.  503.) 

10.  A  Compendious  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Bible. 
By  Thomas  Ilartwell  Hoiink,  U.D.  Illustrated  with  Maps  and 
other  Engravings.  First  and  Second  Editions.  London,  1827, 
12rno.  Boston  (Maiisachusetts),  1827,  12ino.  Third  Edition, 
London,  1829.     Fourth  Edition,  1833,  12mo. 

This  little  manual  (which  has  been  introduced  into  King's  Col- 
lege, liOndoii)  is  an  analysis  or  abridgment  of  the  present  work, 
undertaken  by  the  author  in  consequence  of  re(]uests  long  since 
communicated  to  him,  and  frequently  repeated,  that  ho  woidd  pre- 
fnrc  such  an  epitome,  as  an  a.><sisiiiut  tr)  the  titudies  of  those  who 
riiy  already  pfwse.ss  the  present  larger  Introduction.  At  the  same 
time  this  abridgment  has  l)ecn  so  arranged  as  to  (iirm  a  comprehen- 
iiive  Guide  to  the  study  of  the  Bible  adapted  to  CiciicrnI  lii-aders. 
In  preparing  this  Manual  for  the  jiress,  the  order  of  the  present 
larger  Introduction  has  generally  ne(Mi.  followed.  Those  bihlio- 
gr.iphical,  critical,  and  other  dilJiilM  only  have  been  omitted,  which 
Cither  would  not  admit  of  abridgment,  or  which  wouhl  he  unin- 
teresting to  the  generality  of  English  readem.  The  repeated  and 
unprincipled  atteiiqiis  maclo  to  pirate  the  present  larger  intnuluc- 
Ik'U  to  the  f'rilicid  Study  and  Knowledge  of  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
Will  perhaps  justify  the  author  in  the  estimation  of  candid  readers 
ff>r  ihus  d*>«cribing  his  own  publication. 

Tiio  North  .Viaericaii  repruit  is  very  neatly  oxor.utcd. 

1 1.  Herm^neutiquc  Sacrce,  ou  Introduction  h.  I'Ecriturc  Sainte 
en  general,  et  on  particuUer  i  chacun  des  Livres  do  i'Anciea  ct 


du  Nouvcau  Testament,  a  I'Usage  des  Seminaircs;  par  J.  Her- 
mann Jassskks.  Traduit  du  Latin  par  J.  J.  Pacaud.  Paris, 
1828,  2  tomes,  Svo. 

This  is  a  translation  of  a  Latin  treatise,  published  by  Professor 
Janssens  at  Liege  in  1818.  It  consists  of  five  parts  or  chapters,  in 
the  first  of  which,  the  author  endeavours  to  establish  the  canonical 
authority  of  all  the  books  eiumierated  as  sacred  in  the  canon  of  the 
assembly  or  council  of  Trent.  The  second  chapter  treats  on  their 
divinity  and  inspiration;  the  third,  on  their  authenticity  ;  the  fourth, 
on  the  substantial  integrity  of  the  original  text,  its  authority,  and 
the  use  to  bo  made  of  it,  as  well  as  on  ancient  versions  of  the  Bible, 
and  particularly  on  the  \'ulgate.  The  fifth  and  last  chapter  contain* 
general  and  particular  rules  for  the  understanding  and  interjjrofa- 
tion  of  the  Scriptures:  and  in  a  short  appendix  there  is  given  an 
outline  of  the  Geography  of  Pale.'^tine,  and  the  divisions  of  time, 
festivals,  sacrifices,  weights  and  measures  of  the  Hebrews.  This 
work  is  intended  for  members  of  the  Romish  church,  to  who.se 
dogmas  the  author  bows  most  submissively.  The  original  Latin 
edition  called  forth  .some  very  severe  anonymous  strictures,  entitled 
"  Amandi  d  Su/icta  Cr>tce,  Dicec.  Leod.  Frvfliifteri,  AuirnadversioiitB 
Crilictr  in  Htrmenftiiicam  Sacram,  Mosaci,  1820 :"  in  this  publica- 
tion (which  is  said  to  have  been  written  by  M.  Waltrin,  a  curate 
in  the  diocese  of  Liege],  the  errors  of  M.  Janssens  on  some  topics, 
and  his  deficiencies  in  others,  are  )>oinled  oiu.  Although  the  French 
translator  professes  to  have  availed  himselfof  these  critical  remarks, 
in  order  to  explain  or  correct  the  original  work,  in  some  instances 
yet  he  has  left  others  unnoticed.  It  was  to  be  expected,  that  M 
Jau.ssens  would  maintain,  at  all  hazards,  the  genuineness  of  llie 
disputed  clause  in  1  John  v.  7. ;  but  it  will  scarcely  be  credited  that 
ho  should  rely  on  the  Codex  Ravianus  (which  has  been  demon- 
strated, by  actual  collation,  to  be  a  mere  transcript  of  the  Greek 
Testament  printed  in  the  Complutensian  Polyglott,and  of  Stephens's 
third  edition),  and  that  he  has  cited  the  English  manuscript  (Ma- 
nuscrit  d'Angletcrre,  the  Codex  Britannicus  cited  by  Erasmus),  and 
that  of  Dulilin,  as  two  separate  authorities  I  whereas  they  are  but 
ONE  and  the  same  manuscript,  now  generally  known  under  the 
appellation  of  ilie  Codex  Montfortianus,  which  was  not  written 
till  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century.  The  most  useful  part  is  the 
third  chapter,  in  which  the  objections  of  Deists,  and  of  the  modem 
(Jerman  neologian  critics,  Eck  and  Paulus,  are  examined  in  detail, 
and  refuted. 

12.  Apparatus  Biblicus:  or  an  Introduction  to  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures in  three  books.  1.  Of  the  original  and  antiquity  of  the 
Jews.  2.  Of  the  canon,  authors,  original  texts,  versions,  edition.'!, 
and  interpretations  of  Scripture.  3.  Of  the  false  gods,  &c.  men- 
tioned in  the  Scriptures.  From  the  French  of  Pere  Lamv. 
With  Engravings.     London,  1728,  2  vols.  Svo.  2d  edit. 

13.  Clavis  Bibliorum.  The  Key  of  the  Bible,  unlocking  the 
richest  Treasures  of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  Whereby  the  Order, 
Names,  Times,  Penmen,  Occasion,  Scope,  and  Principal  Part-s 
containing  the  Subject  Matter  of  the  Books  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testament,  are  familiarly  and  briefly  opened  :  for  the  help  of  the 
weakest  capacity  in  the  understanding  of  the  whole  Bible. 
Wherein  the  Scripture  Songs,  dispersed  here  and  there  in  the 
Old  and  New  Testament,  arc  metrically  translated  out  of  the 
Hebrew,  and  analytically  explained.  By  Francis  Robep-t-s,  D.D. 
Third  edition.     London,  1665,  folio. 

The  popularity  of  this  work,  which  contains  a  comprehensive 
digest  of  the  most  valuable  ol)servations  of  the  earlier  biblical 
critics,  caused  ii  lo  pa.ss  through  several  editions  between  the 
middle  and  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  principally  in 
iitiio ;  though  copies  are  sometimes  to  be  met  with  in  two  volumes, 
Svo.  The  present  volume  of  this  work  is  indebted  to  Dr.  Roberts's 
Clavis  Bibliorum  for  many  useful  remarks.  His  analyses  of  the 
different  bjoks  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament  are,  however,  some- 
times tediously  minute.  Tlie  third  edition  contains,  li>r  the  first 
time,  a  metrical  version  of  the  Psalms,  made  immediately  from  the 
Hebrew,  together  with  an  analytical  exjKisition  of  every  Psalm, 
and  a  general  preface  to  the  whole  book  of  Psalms. 


SECTION  H. 

INTROnunTIONS    TO    THE    STUDY    OF    THf:    OI,n    TESTAMENT,    I.N 
PAKTtCULAR,    INCLUDINO    THE    AHOCKVPHAL    BOOKS. 

1.  IsTnonrcTio  ad  Libros  Canonicos  Vcleris  Testamenti  om- 
nes, pra;cognita  Critica  et  llistorica  ac  Auctoritatis  vindicias  expo- 
ncns.  Adornata  studio  D.  J.  Gotllob  CAurzovii.  Lipsi®,  1731  i 
2d  edit.  1741,  4to. 

The  reader  will  here  find  very  learned  disquisitions  upon  every 
liook  of  the  Old  Testament,  and'a  catalogue  of  the  most  approvinJ 
writers  <>n  most  of  them.  "  (-'arpzov  was  a  man  of  proliuind  cnidi- 
tion  and  indeliuignble  industry.  His  work  contains  the  pnncqial 
nuiterials,  which  have  been  affonlcd  by  his  predecessors,  perspicu- 
ously arranged,  and  augmented  by  his  own  valuable  olwervations." 
(Bp.  Marsh.)    The  third  part  was  Itonslatcd  from  the  Irtlin  aUo 


Sect.  III.] 


INTRODUCTIONS  TO  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


71 


Knglish,  wiih  additional  notes,  by  Moses  Marcus,  a  converted  Jew, 
and  published  at  London  in  1729,  in  8vo. 

2.  J.  G.  EicHHonx  Einlcitung  ins  Alte  Testament. — Intro- 
duction to  the  Old  Testament,  by  J.  G.  Eichhorn.  Leipzig, 
1823-24,  4  vols.  8vo.     Best  edition. 

Professor  Eichhorn  succeeded  the  celebrated  Michaelis  in  the 
divinity  chair  at  Gotlingen.  Ills  works  are  considered  classical 
on  the  subject  of  biblical  criticism.  Proposals  were  issued,  many 
years  since,  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Lloyd,  at  that  time  Regius  Professor 
of  Hebrew  at  the  University  of  Cambridge,  for  publishing  by  sub- 
scription a  translation  from  the  German  of  Professor  Eichhorn's  In- 
troduction to  the  Study  of  the  Old  Testament.  But  the  translation 
never  appeared.  Of  this  work  the  reader  will  find  a  copious  ana- 
lysis in  the  Monthly  Review  (N.  S.),  vol.  xxiii.  pp.  481 — 497.  Eich- 
horn was  one  of  those  German  critics,  who  reject  the  inspiration 
of  Moses;  and  he  advocated  the  untenable  opinion  that  the  great 
Jewish  legislator  compiled  his  primeval  history  from  distinct  sag'as 
or  traditional  documents. 

3.  Introductio  iii  Libros  Sacros  Veteris  Foederis  in  compen- 
dium redacta  a.  Johanne  Jahn.     Vienna:,  1804,  8vo. 

A  most  valuable  treatise,  to  which  the  author  of  this  work  has 
been  largely  indebted,  as  his  frequent  reference  to  it  will  abun- 
danily  show.  By  a  decree  of  pope  Pius  VII.  dated  August  26,  1822, 
this  inlroduclion  of  Jahn  was  put  into  the  Index  Expurgatorius,  and 
prohibited  to  be  read  ;  as  also  were  his  Enchiridion  Hermeneuticse 
Generalis  Vet.  et  Nov.  Fcederis,  and  his  Archa-ologia  Biblica  ;  both 
which  treatises  are  noticed  in  a  subsequent  page  of  this  Appendix. 

4.  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testament,  translated  from  the 
Latin  and  German  Works  of  John  Jahn,  Doctor  of  Philosophy 
and  Theology  ;  and  Professor  of  Oriental  Languages,  &c.  in  the 
University  of  Vienna.  By  Samuel  H.  Turner,  D.D.  Professor 
of  Biblical  Learning  and  the  Interpretation  of  Scripture  in  the 
General  Theological  Seminary  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
in  the  United  States  of  America,  and  the  Rev.  William  R,  Whit- 
TixGHAM.     New  York,  1827,  8vo. 

This  truly  valuable  work  contains  an  entire  translation  of  the 
preceding  treati.se,  with  various  improvements  from  the  larger 
German  work  of  Jahn,  sometimes  translated  in  full,  and  sometimes 
abridged,  and  from  other  works  of  approved  character. 

5.  Introductio  in  Libros  Canonicos  Veteris  Foederis,  usibus 
academicis  accommodata  a  Fouerio  Ackermann.  Vienna?, 
1825,  8vo.     Price  9s. 

Though  published  ostensibly  as  a  new  work,  this  treatise  is  in 
fact  nothing  more  than  an  expurgated  edition  of  Jahn's  Introduction. 
Frofes.sor  Ackermann  states  that  he  has  changed  the  text  of  Jahn 
in  very  many  chapters,  but  has  retained  his  order  and  his  words 
wherever  he  could.  The  editor  introduces  this  work  to  the  notice 
ot  his  readers  by  a  profession  of  his  profound  submiision  to  the 
Romish  church. 

6.  A  Key  to  the  Old  Testament  and  the  Apocr3-pha :  or  an 
account  of  their  several  books,  their  contents  and  authors,  and 
of  the  times  when  they  were  respectively  written.  By  Robert 
Grat,  D.D.  [now  Bishop  of  Bristol.]  London,  1790,  8vo.  New 
edition,  1829,  8vo. 

The  very  numerous  editions  which  have  been  printed  of  this 
valuable  work,  attest  the  estimation  in  which  it  is  deservedly  held. 
It  was  undertaken  in  imitation  of  the  late  Bp.  Percy's  well-known 
and  often-printed  "  Key  to  the  New  Testament ;"'  but  it  is  a  much 
more  elaborate  performance.  Dr.  Gray  has  diligently  consulted, 
and  brought  together  a  great  mass  of  information  from  the  writings 
of  the  fathers,  the  ancient  ecclesiastical  historians,  and  other  origi- 
nal atithorities  which  are  not  accessible  to  the  generality  of  stu- 
dents. Bp.  Mant  and  Dr.  D'Oyly  have  liberally  availed  themselves 
of  Dr.  G.'s  researches  in  their  commentary  on  the  Holy  Scriptures. 
The  edition  of  1829  is  corrected  and  greatly  enlarged  and  im- 
proved. 

7.  Introduction  a  la  Lecture  des  Livres  Saints,  a  1' Usage  des 
Hommes  religieux  et  eclaires,  par  J.  E.  Cellerier,  fils.  Geneve, 
1832,  8 vo. 

The  first  sketch  of  this  work  was  a  small  essay  or  discourse,  ac- 
rompanied  with  notes  and  illustrations,  on  the  authenticity  and 
divine  origin  of  the  Old  Testament;  this  was  published  in  1826. 
The  substance  of  the  proofs  and  illustrations  in  that  publication 
are  retained  in  the  present  volume,  which  the  author  has  divided 
into  three  parts,  viz.  Part  I.  On  the  authenticity,  integrity,  credi- 
bility, and  divine  origin  of  the  Pentateuch;  Part  II.  On  the  books 
posterior  to  the  Pentateuch,  including  the  Prophets,  the  Hagiogra- 
plia,  and  the  Apocryphal  Books  ;  Part  III.  Observations  on  the  Old 
Testament  and  its  interpretation.  An  Appendix,  of  proofs  and 
illustrations,  terminates  this  work,  in  which  the  author  has  evinced 
much  diligence  and  research  ;  but  it  must  not  be  concealed,  that 
its  value  is  greatly  diminished  by  his  evident  leaning  towards  the 
bold  and  unhallowed  speculations  of  the  continental  neologian 
critics.  M.  Cellerier's  work  is  reviewed  at  considerable  length, 
and  with  great  severity,  in  the  first  number  of  M.M.  Haeverninck's 
and  Steiger's  Melanges  de  Theologie  Reforraee,  published  at 
Geiieva,  ^n  1833,  in  8vo 


8.  Joh.  Gottfr.  Eichhorn  Einlcitung  in  die  Apocryphischen 
Schriften  des  Alten  Testaments.     Leipzig,  1795,  8vo. 

9.  Geo.  Joannis  Henkii  Introductio  ad  Libros  Apocryphos 
Veteris  Testamenti.     Halce,  1718,  4to. 

10.  Notice  sur  les  Livres  Apocryphes  de  I'Ancien  Testament. 
Par  C.  E.  F.  Moulinie.     Geneve,  1828,  8vo. 


SECTION  III. 


INTRODUCTIOXS    TO    THE 


STUDY    OF    THE 
PARTICULAR. 


NEW    TESTAMENT,    IN 


1.  An  Introduction  to  the  Reading  of  the  New  Testament, 
by  M.M.  Beausobre  and  l'Enfant.  Cambridge,  1779,  1788, 
1806,  1816,  1819,  8vo. 

This  was  originally  a  preface  to  the  French  version  of  the  New 
Testament  published  by  M.M.  Beausobre  and  I'Enfant,  at  Amster- 
dam, in  1718.  It  has  been  several  times  printed,  and  is  also  to  bo 
Ibund  in  ike  third  volume  of  the  Theological  Tracts  collected  by 
Bishop  Watson. 

2.  Commentatio  Critica  ad  Libros  N.  T.  in  genere  ;  cum  pra;- 
fatione  J.  Gottlob  Carpzovii.  Accurante  J.  W.  Rumpao. 
Lipsiffi,  1757,  4to.  2d  edit. 

Critical  questions  of  great  variety  and  importance  are  here  briefly 
but  satisfactorily  discussed  by  a  reference  to  the  writers  of  the 
greatest  credit  who  have  treated  on  each  of  them. 

3.  Jo.  Gottfr,  Eichhorn  Einlcitung  ins  Ne«e  Testament. — 
Introduction  to  the  New  Testament.  Leipzig,  1804—15,  3  vols. 
8vo. 

The  first  volume  of  this  work  is  analyzed  in  the  Critical  Review, 
Series  III.  vol.  x.  for  1807,  pp.  449—465. 

4.  An  Introduction  to  the  Writings  of  the  New  Testament, 
by  Dr.  John  Leonard  Hug,  Professor  of  Theology  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Freyburgh,  in  Brisgau,  &c.  Translated  from  the  ori- 
ginal German,  by  the  Rev.  Daniel  Guildford  Wait,  LL.D. 
London,  1827,  2  vols.  8vo. 

Professor  Hug  (who  is  in  communion  with  the  church  of  Rome) 
may  be  considered  as  the  principal  and  most  learned  writer  of  that 
class  which  has  opposed  itself  to  the  skepticism  and  fanciful  theo- 
ries of  some  modern  German  divines.  Ilis  Introduction  has  long 
been  held  in  the  highest  estimation  on  the  continent,  for  the  variety 
and  importance  of  his  critical  researches  on  the  New  Testament. 
Dr.  Wait  has  added  numerous  notes,  chiefly  derived  from  Jewi.sli 
;uid  oriental  antiquities ;  and  he  has  occasionally  corrected  the 
erroneous  statements  of  Hug  relative  to  some  of  tlie  ancient  ver- 
sions. Some  parts  of  his  work,  however,  evidently  show  that  he 
was  not  sufficiently  acquainted  with  the  German  language.  To 
the  first  volume  he  has  prefixed  a  copious  preface,  containing  an 
epitome  of  Dr.  Bertholdi's  Introduction  to  the  New  Testament,  in 
which  many  important  topics  of  sacred  criticism  are  discussed. 

5.  An  Introduction  to  the  New  Testament,  by  John  David 
Michaelis,  late  Professor  in  the  University  of  Gottingen.  Trans- 
lated from  the  fourth  edition  of  the  German,  by  Herbert  Marsh, 
D.D.    8vo.  6  vols.     Cambridge,  1802,  3d  edit.' 1818. 

The  first  edition  of  Michaelis's  inestimable  work  was  published 
in  Germany,  in  1750,  and  translated  into  English  in  1761,  4to. ;  its 
value  is  very  materially  enhanced  by  the  notes  of  Bishop  Marsh 
(which  exteiid  to  part  of  the  work  only),  who  has  further  added  a 
Dissertation  on  the  Origin  and  Composition  of  the  first  three  Gos- 
pels. The  Rev.  Dr.  Randolph  (who  was  subsequently  bishop  of 
London),  in  1802,  publislied  anonymously  some  severe  "  Remarks" 
on  the  "  Dissertation,"  by  way  of  caution  to  students  in  divinity. 
To  these  remarks  Dr.  Marsh  replied  in  some  "Letters,"  which  wei« 
published  in  the  same  year,  in  8vo.  See  an  ample  critique  on 
Bishop  Marsh's  work  in  the  British  Critic  (O.  S.),  vol.  iii.  p.  601 — 608., 
and  vol.  iv.  pp.  46 — 54.  170 — 176. 

6.  Introduction  au  Nouveau  Testament,  par  J.  D.  Michaelis ; 
quatrieme  edition,  traduite  sur  la  troisicme  de  Herbert  Marsh, 
eve  que  de  Peterborough,  avec  une  partie  de  ses  notes,  et  des 
notes  nouvelles,  par  J.  J.  Cheneviere,  pasteur  et  professeur  en 
theologie  a  Geneve.     4  tomes,  8vo.     Geneve,  1822. 

7.  Essai  d'une  Introduction  Critique  au  Nouveau  Testament, 
par  J.  E.  Cellerier,  fils.     Geneve,  1823,  8vo. 

Partly  a  translation,  and  partly  an  analysis,  of  Professor  Hug's 
German  Introduction  to  the  writings  of  the  New  Testament. 

8.  Georgii  Pritii  Introductio  ad  Lectionem  Novi  Testa- 
menti, in  qua  qufe  ad  rem  criticam,  historiam,  chronologiam,  et 
geographiam  pertinent,  breviter  et  perspicue  exponuntur.  1st 
edit.  Lipsise,  1704,  12mo.  ;  4th  edit,  by  Hoffman,  in  1737,  8vo. 
and  reprinted,  with  corrections,  in  a  large  octavo  volume,  in  17G4. 

"  The  service  rendered  by  Carpzov  to  the  Old  Testament  was 
performed  by  Pritius  for  the  New.    The  improvements  of  his  editor. 


72 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  m.  Chap.  Ill 


IIofTman,  on  the  original,  are  so  considerable  that  whoever  pur- 
chases the  Introduction  of  Pritius  (and  it  deserves  to  be  purciiascd 
by  every  student  in  divinity)  must  be  careful  in  regard  to  the  date 
of  the  title-page."    (Bishop  Marsh.) 

9.  An  Introduction  to  the  Study  and  Knowledge  of  the  New 
Tesuiment.  By  Edward  HARWOOb,  D.D.  London,  17G7-1771, 
2  vols.  8vo. 

The  learned  author  designed  a  third  volume,  which  was  to  em- 
brace the  chief  critical  questions  respecting  the  New  Testament 
Tiiis  work  "contains  a  collet-lion  of  dissertations,  relative  partly  to 
the  characters  of  the  sacred  writers,  partly  to  the  Jewish  history 
«iul  customs,  and  to  sucli  part  of  heaiiien  antiquities  as  have  refer- 
r-iice  to  the  IS'ew  Testament.  As  these  dissertations  display  great 
eradilion,  and  contain  much  information  illustrative  of  the  New 
Tt'-t,impnt,  Dr.  Ilurwood's  Introduction  is  ccruiinly  to  be  recom- 
mended to  the  theological  student."  (Bishop  Marsh.)  Another 
experienced  divinity  tutor  (the  late  Rev.  Dr.  Williams)  has  also 
justly  remarked  that  this  work  may  be  read  willi  advantage,  making 
aliowan<e  lor  the  author's  theological  sentiments  (Christian  Preach- 
er, p.  117.;,  which  were  .\rian.    The  writer  of  these  pages  has  de- 


rived many  useful  illustrations  from  Dr.  Ilarwood's  labours,  in  the 
present  volume  of  this  work.  The  value  of  Dr.  II. 's  Introduction 
would  not  have  been  diminished  if  he  had  acknowledged  his  obli- 
gations to  the  preceding  work  of  Pritius,  to  which  he  has  been 
very  considerably  indebted. 

10.  A  Key  to  the  New  Testament,  giving  an  Account  of  the 
several  Books,  their  Contents,  their  Authors,  and  of  the  Times, 
Places,  and  Occasions,  on  which  they  were  respectively  written. 
[By  Thomas  Percy,  D.D.  Bishop  of  Dromore.]  Third  and  best 
edition.     London,  1779,  12ino. 

The  multiplied  editions  of  this  valuable  little  manual  attest  the 
high  esteem  in  which  it  is  deservedly  held,  as  a  guide  lor  y\  iiig 
students. 

11.  Isagoge  Historico-Critica  in  libros  Novi  Foederis  sacios, 
Scripsit  Henricus  Augustus  Schott.     Jenae,  1830,  8vo. 

12.  Antonii  Bloch  Chronotaxis  Scriptorum  Divi  Pauh. 
Flensburgi  et  Lipsia;,  1782,  8vo. 


CHAPTER  III. 

TREATISES    OX    THE    SACRED    TEXT,    ITS    STYLE,    IDIOM,    AND    VERSIONS, 

SECTION  L 


TREATISES    0.\    S.VCRED    CRITICIS."*!    GENERALLY,    AND    ON   THE    STVLE    AND    IDIO.M    OF   THE    SCRIPTURES. 


1.  Pevtateitui  HehrsBO-Samaritani  Prtestantia  in  illustrando 
et  cmendando  Textu  Masorethico  ostcnsa.  Auctore  .Mcxio  a  S. 
A«iuiLi>o.     Hcidelbcrgoe,  1781,  8vo. 

2.  The  Biblical  Cahixkt:  or  Hermeneutical,  Exegetical, 
and  Philological  Library.  Vols.  I. — V.  Edinburgh  and  London, 
1832-3,  small  8vo. 

This  work,  which  is  .still  in  progress,  promises  to  be  of  singular 
utility  to  biblical  stmientc  \'ol.s.  I.  aii.l  IV.  comprise  a  tran.slalion 
(if  Ernesti's  Iiistilutio  Inlcri)rclis  Novi  Testamenii,  with  Notes  by 
the  Rev.  Charles  II.  Tkrkot,  A.ISl.  Vol.  II.  contains  four  valua- 
ble philological  Tr.icts: — 1.  On  the  Language  of  Palestine  in  the 
Age  of  Christ  alid  the  Apo:stles.  2.  On  the  Greek  Diction  of  the 
New  TcsLamcnl.  3.  On  the  Importatice  of  the  Study  of  the  Old 
Testament:  and,  4.  On  the  Tropical  Language  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. These  disquisitions  are  translated  from  the  Latin  and  Ger- 
man of  Profes.sora  Pfannkuche,  Planck,  Tholuck,  and  Beckhaus. 
\'<i\.  Ilf.  contains  a  translation  from  the  Latin,  by  the  Rev.  Kdward 
Cniig.  A.M.,  of  the  first  portion  of  Professor  Tinman's  elaborate 
Treatise  on  the  Synonymes  of  the  New  Testament.  And  Vol.  V. 
contains  the  first  volume  of  Prof  Thohick's  Exposition  of  St.  Paul's 
Epistle  to  the  Romans,  translated  Irom  the  Gennan  by  the  Rev. 
liob.Tt  Merizies. 

3.  The  Sacred  Classics  Defended  and  Illustrated,  by  Anthony 
Blackwai.l.     London,  1727-31,  2  vols.  8vo. 

Blackwall  was  a  streniious  advocate  for  the  purify  of  the  Greek 
style  of  the  New  Testament,  which  he  vindicates  in  his  first 
volume.  The  second  volume,  which  is  the  most  valuable,  contains 
many  excellent  observations  on  the  division  of  the  New  Tcsiemciit 
into  chapters  and  verses,  ainl  also  on  various  readini^s.  This  work 
w;is  translated  into  Latin  by  Christopher  Woll,  and  published  at 
Leipsic,  in  173*'>,  4to. 

4.  Dc  Paronomasia,  finitimisquc  ei  Fignris  Paulo  Aposfolo 
frcqucntati.^,  Di.ssertaiio  Rhctorico-Exegetica.  Scrip.sit  Julius 
Frcdericus  B  .ttciikh.     Lipsia;,  1824,  8vo. 

.5.  Jo.  Theoi)h,  Bislav  Di.s.serlatio  Iliatorico-CriticoExege- 
tica  de  Lingua  Originali  Evaiigelii  secundum  Matthajum.  Vra- 
ti.sIaviR',  1820,  Svo. 

6.  Hortc  BiblicfR ;  being  a  connected  Series  of  Misci-llaneous 
Notes  on  the  Original  Text,  early  Versions,  and  jmntcd  Kditions 
of  the  Old  and  New  Testament.  By  Ciiarlca  Butler,  Esq. 
Oxford  and  London,  1799,  8vo. 

The  first  edition  of  this  judicioui  manual  of  biblieol  criticism 
was  privately  printed  in  1797,  for  the  author's  friend.i.  It  has  siiii'e 
bfcti  repealeilly  printed  in  royal  Hvo.  with  nil  ndditioniil  volume, 
treating  on  tin*  l>ooks  accountetl  sacred  by  the  Mohiimini'dari.H,  Hin- 
doos, ParHccN,  Chinese,  and  Scandiniivians.  In  IHlli  M.  Boiilard 
piihliNhed  a  French  translation  of  liiis  work  from  the  edition  printed 
Dl  Oxford,  in  IT'.ty. 

7.  Piipular  Lectures  on  Biblical  Criticism  and  Interpretation, 
By  William  Cakpe.'stek.     London,  1829,  8vo. 


8.  Joh.  Gottlob  CAnrzovii  Critica  Sacra  Vetcris  Testamcnti 
Lipsia),  1738,  4to. 

This  elaborate  work  consists  of  three  parts,  treating,  1.  On  the 
Divine  Origin,  Authenticity,  Divisions,  and  original  Language  of 
the  Old  Testament,  the  Masora,  Keri,  and  Ketib,  and  the  principal 
MSS.  and  Editions  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures; — 2.  On  the  different 
Versions  of  the  Old  Testament,  ancient  and  modern ;  and,  3.  A 
Vindication  of  the  Ilehrew  Scriptures  against  the  rude  attacks  of 
Mr.  Whiston,  in  his  E:«say  towards  restoring  the  true  Text  of  the 
Old  Testament.  Carpzov  adheres  to  the  high  notions  which  in  his 
time  continued  to  prevail  concerning  the  integrity  of  the  Hebrew 
text:  but  (Bp.  Marsh  remark.s)  "if  proper  allowance  bo  made  on 
this  account,  it  will  bo  found  to  be  a  very  useful  work,  and  replete 
with  information  on  the  subject  of  Hebrew  criticism."  (Lectures 
on  Divinity,  part  ii.  p.  133.) 

9.  An  Ihquiry  into  the  Books  of  the  New  Testament.  By 
John  Cook,  D.D.     London,  1821,  Svo, 

For  an  analysis  of  this  masterly  treatise  on  Sacred  Criticism,  see' 
the  Eclectic  Review  (N.  S.),  vol.'  xvii.  pp.  310—321. 

10.  J.  A.  Datiiii  Opuscula  ad  Interprctationem  et  Crisin  Vc- 
teris  Testamcnti.  Edidit  E.  F.  C.  Rosenm  iller.  Lipsise,  179C, 
Svo. 

11.  Compcndio  di  Critica  Sacra,  dci  Difctti  e  dclle  Emcnda- 
zioni  del  Sacro  Testo,  e  Piano  d'una  Nuova  Edizionc  del  Dottore 
G.  Bernardo  De  Rossi.     Parma,  1811. 

In  this  little  tract.  Professor  De  Rossi  has  given  n  very  concise 
but  interesting  sketch  of  the  state  <if  the  text  of  the  Hebrew  Scrii*- 
tiires,  from  the  earliest  period  to  our  own  time;  and  he  has  sun- 
joined  an  outline  of  his  plan  for  a  new  edition  of  the  Hebrew  Bihle, 
with  select  various  readings. 

12.  EnwAiiiis  (Thom.T)  Dute  Dissertationcs :  In  priore  qua- 
rum  probatur,  Variantes  Lcctioncs-ct  Menda,  qune  in  Sacraiii 
Scriiituratn  irrepscrunt,  non  labefactare  ejus  Aiictoritatcm,  in 
rebus  (jux-  ad  fulem  et  mores  jicrtincnt :  In  postcrioro  vcro,  Pra;- 
deslinationcin  I'aulinam  nd  Gentiliuin  vocationem  totam  spec- 
tare.     Cantabrigi.x',  17(i8,  8vo. 

13.  Fadhict  (Gabriel)  Dcs  Titrcs  Primilifsdo  la  Revelation  ; 
on  Considerations  Critiques  sur  la  Purete  ct  ['Integrity  du  Texte 
Original  des  Livres  Saints  de  I'.Vncien  Testament.  Rome,  1772, 
2  parts,  Svo. 

This  work  contains  much  curious  learning,  urged  with  n  cons' 
derablo  degree  of  ingenuity,  in  favour  of  the  Masoretic  system. 

14.  Nicolai  FiLLF.ni  Miscellanea  Sacra,  cum  Apologia  con- 
tra V.  CI.  Johannem  Drusium.  Lugd.  Bat.  1G22,  Svo.  edit.  opt. 
.\lso  in  the  lost  volume  of  the  Critici  Sacri. 

1.').  Institutes  of  Biblic.il  (.'liticism,  or  Heads  of  the  Course  of 
Lectures  on  that  subject,  read  in  the  University  and  King's  Col- 
lege of  Al)crdeen.  By  Alexander  GEUAni),  D.D.  Edinburgh, 
1808,  Svo, 


Sect. IL] 


TREATISES  ON  SACRED  CRITICISM,  &c. 


73 


"  Of  general  and  elementary  treatises"  on  sacred  criticism,  "  there 
IS  none  which  is  more  to  be  recommended,  either  for  perspicuity 
or  correctness,  than  the  institutes  of  Biblical  Criticism,  published 
by  Dr.  Gerard,  Professor  of  Divinity  at  Aberdeen."     (Bp.  Marsh.) 

16.  Gulielmi  Gesexii  do  Pentateuchi  Samaritani  Origine,  In- 
dole, et  Auctoritate,  Commentatio  Philologico-critica.  Halts, 
1815,  4to. 

In  the  North  American  Review,  vol.  xxii.  pp.  274 — 317.  there  is 
an  elaborate  digest  from  the  pen  of  the  Rev.  Professor  Stuart,  drawn 
lip  from  this  dissertation  and  from  other  i)hilological  works  of  Pro- 
fessor Gesenius,  of  almost  every  thing  that  is  known  concerning  the 
Samaritans  and  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch.  This  xery  valuable 
ilistjuisition  is  reprinted  in  the  Andover  Biblical  Repository  for 
1832,  pp.  681—724. 

17.  Gulielmi  Gesenii  Anecdota  Oxoniensia,  Tomus  Primus. 
Lipsiae,  1822, 4to. 

Tills  volume  comprises  two  fasciculi,  the  first  of  which  contains 
the  Samaritan  Psalms,  with  an  Arabic  version  and  notes :  in  the 
second  iasciculus,  there  is  a  dissertation  on  Syriac  Lexicons,  with 
specimens  of  the  hitherto  inedited  lexicons  of  Bar  Ali  and  Bar 
Bahluli. 

18.  Salomonis  Glassii  Philologia  Sacra ;  qua  lotius  S.  S.  Ve- 
teris  et  Novi  Testament!  Scripturfe  turn  Stylus  et  Litteratura,  turn 
Sensus  ct  Genuina;  Interpretationis  Ratio  et  Doctrina,  libris  quiii- 
'^tic  expenditur  ac  traditur.     Lipsia,  1725,  4to.     Best  edition. 

An  "  inestimable  and  immortal  work,  than  which  none  can  le 
more  useful  for  the  interpretation  of  Scripture,  as  it  throws  an  un- 
common degree  of  light  upon  the  language  and  phraseology  of  the 
inspired  writers."  (Mosheim's  Eccl.  Hist.  vol.  v.  p.  296.)  The  first 
edition  vk^as  printed  at  Jena  in  1623,  and  was  followed  by  several 
others  at  the  same  place,  in  1643,  1663,  and  1668;  at  Frankfort,  in 
1653;  at  Leipsic,  in  1691, 1705, 1713,  and  at  Amsterdam  in  1711,  all  in 
quarto.  The  Jirst  and  second  books  treat  on  the  style  and  meaning  of 
the  sacred  writers;  the  third  and  fourth  on  Sacred  Grammar,  and  the 
fifth  on  Sacred  Rhetoric.  To  the  edition  of  1705  and  the  subsequent 
impressions  is  annexed  a  treatise,  by  Glassius,  on  Sacred  Logic,  first 
published  by  Olearius  at  Jena,  in  1704.  A  new  edition  of  this 
work  was  published  in  8vo.  at  Leipsic,  in  1776,  1795,  1797,  by  the 
Professors  Dathe  and  Bauer,  entitled  Salomonis  Glassii  Philologia 
Sacra  his  Temporibus  accommodata.  T^he  first  volume,  in  two  (larts, 
edited  by  Dathe,  contains  the  treatises  de  Grammatica  et  Rhelorica 
Sacra,  which  are  materially  improved  without  debasing  Glassius's 
pious  and  learned  expositions  of  Scripture  by  his  own  speculations. 
The  second  volume,  edited  by  Prof  Bauer  of  Altorf,  contains  the 
Cri'ica  Sacra.  Glassius  had  adopted  Buxtorf's  high  notions  con- 
cerning the  integrity  of  the  Hebrew  text,  which  are  properly  modi- 
fied in  Bauer's  revision  of  the  work.  The  third  volume  contains 
Glassius's  second  book,  which  treats  on  the  interpretation  of  Scrip- 
ture :  as  it  is  frequently  to  be  met  with  in  a  detached  form,  it  is 
noticed  in  a  subsequent  page  of  this  Appendix,  among  the  works 
on  that  branch  of  sacred  philology. 

19.  These  Critique  sur  la  Langue  Originale  de  I'Evangile 
selon  Saint  Matthieu,  soutenu  devant  la  Faculte  Protestante  de 
Montauban.     Par  Charles  Ghawitz,  de  Paris,  1S27,  8vo. 

In  this  small  tract,  the  author  ingeniously  contends  for  the  He- 
brew original  of  St.  Matthew's  Gospel. 

20.  Humphredi  Honr  de  Bibliorum  Textibus  Originalibus, 
Versionibus  Grsecis,  et  Latina  Vulgata  Libri  Quatuor.  Oxonii, 
1704,  folio. 

"  This  is  the  classical  work  on  the  Septuagint."  (Bp.  Marsh.) 
The  first  book  contains  Dr.  Hody's  dissertation,  with  improvements, 
against  Arisleas's  History,  which  he  had  before  published,  in  1685, 
in  opposition  to  Isaac  V'ossius's  Dissertaliones  de  Septuaginta  Inter- 
prelihiis,  eorumqxie  Tralalionc  ct  Chronologia :  in  which  the  latter 
ascribed  more  authority  to  the  Greek  Version  than  to  the  original 
itself  In  the  second  book,  the  author  treats  of  the  true  authors  of 
the  Septuagint  Version, — of  the  time  when,  and  the  rea-sons  why, 
it  was  undertaken — and  of  tlie  manner  in  which  it  was  performed. 
The  third  book  contains  a  history  of  the  original  Hebrew  text  of 
the  Septuagint,  and  of  the  Vulgate  Latin  Version,  showing-  the 
authority  of  each  in  different  ages,  and  that  the  Hebrew  text  has 
always  been  most  esteemed  and  valued.  In  tlie  fourth  and  last 
book,  he  gives  an  account  of  the  Greek  Versions  of  Symmachus, 
Aquila,  and  Theodotion,  and  of  Origen's  Hexapla,  and  other  ancient 
editions  ;  to  which  are  subjoined,  lists  of  the  books  of  the  Bible  at 
different  times,  which  exhibit  a  concise,  but  full  and  clear  view 
of  the  canon  of  Scripture. 

21.  The  Connection  between  the  Sacred  Writings  and  the 
Literature  of  Jewish  and  Heathen  Authors,  particularly  that  of 
the  Classical  Ages,  illustrated ;  principally  with  a  view  to  evi- 
dence in  confirmation  of  the  truth  of  Revealed  Religion.  By 
Robert  Gray,  D.D.  [now  Bishop  of  Bristol.]  London,  1819,  in 
two  volumes,  8vo. 

The  first  edition  of  this  valuable  work,  which  is  indispensably 
necessary  to  the  biblical  student  who  cannot  command  access  to 
all  the  classic  authors,  appeared  in  one  volume,  8vo.  in  1817.  A 
multitude  of  passages  of  Scripture  is  illustrated,  and  their  truth 
Confirmed.    Classical  literature  is  here  shown  to  be  the  handmaid 


of  sacred  literature,  in  a  style  and  manner  which  cannot  fail  to 
instruct  and  gratify  the  reader.  Indeiiondently  of  the  main  object 
of  these  yolunics, — the  illustration  of  the  Scriptures, — Bp.  Gray's 
general  criticisms  on  the  classic  writers  are  such  as  must  commend 
them  to  the  student.  "The  remarks"  (it  is  truly  said  by  an  eminent 
critic  of  the  present  day)  "  are  every  where  just,  always  impressed 
with  a  candid  and  sincere  conviction  of  the  blessing  for  which  our 
gratitude  to  God  is  so  eminently  due,  for  his  revealed  word,  whose 
various  excellencies  rise  in  value  upon  every  view  which  the 
scholar  or  divine  can  take,  of  what  have  been  the  best  efforts  of 
the  human  mind,  in  the  best  days  which  preceded  the  publication 
of  the  Gospel.  There  is  no  one  portion  of  these  volumes  that  is 
not  highly  valuable  on  this  account.  The  praise  is  given  which  is 
due  to  the  happiest  fruits  of  human  genius ;  but  a  strict  eye  i.s 
evermore  preserved  for  the  balance  of  preponderation,  where  tlii? 
Word  of  Truth,  enhanced  by  divine  authority,  bears  the  scale  down, 
and  furnishes  the  great  thing  wanting  to  the  sage  and  the  teacher 
of  the  heathen  world.  Their  noblest  sentiments,  and  their  obliqui- 
ties and  deviations  into  error,  are  alike  brought  to  this  test,  and 
referred  to  this  sure  standard.  The  concurrent  lines  of  precept  or 
instruction,  on  this  comparative  survey,  are  such  as  establish  a 
sufficient  ground  of  evidence  that  all  moral  goodness,  and  all  sound 
wisdom,  are  derived  from  one  source  and  origin,  and  find  their 
sanction  in  the  will  of  Him,  of  whose  perfections  and  of  w'hose 
glory  they  are  the  manifest  transcripts."  British  Critic  (New  Series", 
vol.  xiii.  p.  316.,  in  which  journal  the  reader  will  find  a  copious 
and  just  analysis  of  Dr.  Gray's  volumes. 

21.*  Josiah  and  Cyrus,  the  two  great  objects  of  Divine  Notice 
in  the  Scheme  of  Revelation.  With  illustrations  and  confirma- 
tions of  the  truth  of  Sacred  History,  and  of  the  Accomplishmeni 
of  Prophecy  with  respect  to  those  Sovereigns,  drawn  from  thi' 
Accounts  of  a  Modern  Traveller.  By  the  Right  Rev.  Robert 
Gray,  D.D.  Bishop  of  Bristol.     London,  1833,  12mo. 

22.  Bibliotheca  Crilicse  Sacra?,  circa  omnes  fere  Sacrorum 
Librorum  difficultates,  ex  Patrum  Veterum  traditione  et  proba- 
tiorum  interpretum  collecta.  Ab  uno  ordinis  Carmelitarum  Dis- 
calceatorum  Religioso.  (F.  Cherubino  a  S.  Joseph.)  Lovanii, 
1704,  4  vols,  folio. 

In  this  very  prolix,  but  elaborate  work,  every  possible  question 
relative  to  Scripture  criticism  is  discussed  and  illustrated,  from  the 
writings  of  the  fathers  and  most  eminent  divines,  principally  of  the 
church  of  Rome.  The  last  volume  contains  prefaces  to  the  ditierent 
books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  exhibiting  the  time  when 
they  were  written,  their  language,  authors,  and  respective  auth"- 
rity,  together  with  copious  synopses  of  the  contents  of  each  booli. 

23.  Commentatio,  qua  Lingua;  Aramaicae  Usus  ad  judicanda 
et  interpretanda  Evangelia  Canonica  novis  exemplis  defenditur. 
Auctore  Chr.  Kaiseh.     Erlangje,  1823,  4to. 

24.  The  State  of  the  Printed  Hebrew  Text  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment considered.  By  Benjamin  Kf.hxicott,  M.A.  Oxford, 
1753-1759,  2  vols.  8vo. 

These  dissertations  preceded  Dr.  Kcnnicott's  celebrated  collation 
of  Hebrew  MSS.,  and  his  edition  of  the  Hebrew  Bible,  which  is 
noticed  in  pp.  7,8.  of  this  Appendix.  The  first  dissertation,  in  two 
parts,  contains  a  comparison  of  1  Chron.  xi.  with  2  Sam.  v.  and  xxiii.. 
and  observations  on  seventy  Hebrew  MSS.,  with  an  extract  of  mis- 
takes and  various  readings.  In  the  second,  the  Samaritan  copv  oi' 
the  Pentateuch  is  vindicated  ;  the  printed  copies  of  the  Chaldci^ 
Paraphrase  are  proved  to  be  corrupted  ;  the  sentiments  of  the  Jew.< 
on  the  Hebrew  text  are  ascertained  ;  an  account  is  given  of  all  th»' 
Hebrew  MSS.  known  to  be  extant;  and  also  a  particuh^.r  catalogu;* 
of  one  hundred  Hebrew  MSS.  preserved  in  the  public  libraries  at 
Oxford,  Cambridge,  and  the  British  Museum.  Dr.  Keniiicott's  fir-i 
dissertation  was  translated  into  Latin  by  M.  Teller,  in  2  vols.  8v(>. 
Lipsia;,  1756. 

25.  Benj.  Kenn^icotti  Dissertatio  Generalis  in  Vetus  Testa- 
mentum  Hebraicum.  Curavit  P.  J.  Bruns.  Brunsvici,  1783,  Svo. 

A  neat  reprint  of  Dr.  Kcnnicott's  Dissertatio  Generalis,  annexe^' 
to  vol.  ii.  of  his  edition  of  the  Hebrew  Bible,  noticed  in  pp.  7,8i  oi' 
this  Appendix. 

26.  Ignatii  Koeglek  Notitia  S.  S.  Bibliorum  Judseorum  in 
Imperio  Sinensi.  Editio  altera.  Edidit  C.  Th.  de  Murr.  Halae, 
1806,  Svo. 

27.  Joannis  Laitigax  S.  Th.  D.  et  in  Academia  Ticinensi 
Professoris,  Institutionum  Biblicarum  Pars  prima.  Pavia  (1794). 
Svo. 

The  second  part  of  this  work  has  never  appeared  ;  nor  has  the 
writer  of  these  pages  been  able  to  obtain  the  sight  even  of  a  copy 
of  the  first  portion.  He  has  been  informed,  that  it  was  suppressed 
in  Italy.  A  short  analysis  of  the  first  part  is  given  in  the  Monthly 
Review  (N.  S.),  vol.  xxii.  pp.  552 — 554.;  where  it  is  said  (p.  555.) 
that  "  this  volume  contains  a  large  portion  of  text  matter,  well 
arranged,  and  accompanied  with  many  learned  notes,  selected  from 
the  best  critics  of  the  present  age,  together  with  a  considerable 
number  of  just  remarks  from  the  author's  own  pen." 

28.  Joannis  LEusntvii  Philologus  Ebrseus,  contincns  Qass- 
tiones  Ebraicas   quae  circa  A'^etus  Testamentum  Ebrseum   fere 


71 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY, 
Amsteliedami, 


[Pabt  n.  Chap.  III. 


moveri  solent,    Ultrajecti,  1650,  1672,  1695,  4to, 
1088,  4to, 

29.  Joannis  Leushf.xii  Philologus  Ebrseo-Mixtus,  una  cum 
spicilcgio  philologico,  continentc  decern  quaestionum  cl  posiiion- 
um  prsecipue  Philologico-Ebraicarum  et  Judaicarum  centurias. 
Ultrajecti,  1663,  1682,  1699,  4to. 

Besides  discussing  critical  questions,  this  volume  of  the  laborious 
philologer  Leusden  treats  very  copiously  on  Jewish  rites  and 
antiquities. 

30.  Johannis  Lecsdf.mi  Philologus  Ebrffo-Gracus  generalis, 
contincns  qufesliones  Ebra;o-GriEcas,  quaj  circa  Novum  Tcsta- 
juentum  fere  moveri  solent.     Ultrajecti,  1670,  1685,  1695,  4to. 

Various  ques-iions  relative  to  the  original  language  of  the  New 
Testament,  it*  tditions,  versions,  divisions,  iJ^c.  are  coucii-cly  illus- 
trmed  in  this  \i.!inne.  All  the  three  preceding  volumes  of  Leusden 
ure  valuable,  and  may  frequently  be  obtained  at  a  low  price. 

31.  Johannis  Lecsdknii  de  Dialectis  N.  T.,  singulatim  do 
rjus  Hebraismis,  Libellus  singularis  itcrum  editus  ab  Joh.  Frider. 
J'ischero.  Acccssit  Joh.  Vorstii  Commentariolus  de  Adagiis  N.T. 
llL-braicis,     Lipsije,  1792,  Svo. 

This  publication  contains  a  reprint  of  Leusden's  critical  disqui- 
hilions  on  the  Hebraisms  of  the  New  Testament.  They  are  enriched 
with  very  numerous  philological  observations  of  the  learned  John 
KredericK  Fisher,  who  first  published  them  in  a  detached  form,  in 
Hvo.  in  1754. 

32.  Ant.  Aug.  Hen.  Lichtexsteis  Paralipomena  Critica  circa 
Textum  Yeteris  Testamenti  Codicura  Hcl)raicorum.  Helmstadii, 
1799,  4to. 

33.  MoLKEN-BUHR  (MarcclHui)  Problema  Criticum :  Sacra 
Scriptura  Novi  Testamenti  in  quo  idiomate  originaliter  ab  Apos- 
tolis  cdila  fuit  7     Padcrborna;,  1822,  Svo. 

34.  lii.vTF.iiiM  (A.  J.),  Propcmpticum  ad  problema  criticqm, 
Sacra  Scriptura  Novi  Testamenti  in  quo  idiomate  originaliter  ab 
apostolis  cdita  fuerit  ?  A  Doctore  Marco  Molkcnbuhr  nuper 
propositum.     .Moguntia,  1822,  Svo. 

Tho  o!  ject  of  iVIolkenbuhr's  tract  is,  to  revive  the  absurd  and 
long  since  exploded  hypoihesis,  announced  in  the  former  part  of 
I  ho  last  century  by  faihcr  Ilanlouin,  viz.  That  the  Greek  Testa- 
taent  was  a  translation  iram  the  Latin  Vulgate.  Molkenbuhr  has 
been  most  satisfactorily  refuted  by  Bjnierim,  and  with  equal  learn- 
ing and  ability. 

35.  Monixi  (Joannis)  Exercitationcs  Biblii.-!%  dc  Hebrsei 
Grjecique  Textus  Sinceritate,  gcrmana  LXXIl.  Interpretum 
Translatione  dignoscenda,  illius  cum  Vulgata  conciliatione,  et 
juxta  Jiida;os  divina  integritatc,  totiu.sque  Rabbinicse  Antiquitatis 
ct  opcris  Masorethici  a;ra,  cxplicationc  et  ccnsura.  Parisiis, 
163.3,  4  to. 

36.  Mori XI  (Joannis)  Exercitationcs  Ecclcsiasticc  hi  utram- 
que  Saniaritanorum  Pentateuchum.     Parisiis,  1631,  Ito. 

37.  Simconis  de  Miis  Asscrtio  Veritatis  Hebraica;  adversus 
Exercitationcs  Ecclesiasticas  in  utrurnquc  Samaritanorum  Pen- 
tateuchum Joannis  Morini.     Parisiis,  1631,  12mo. 

36.  HoTTiNCEni  (Joannis  Hrnrici)  Exercitationcs  Anti- 
Moriniana;,  de  Pentatcucho  iSamaritano,  ejusque  uudevrt-j..  Ti- 
guri,  1644. 

For  an  account  of  the  controversy  between  Morin  and  his  an- 
tagonists, on  the  integrity  of  the  Hebrew  text,  &c.,  .see  VVolfius's 
B.l)lioihcca  Hebraica,  Part  II.  pp.  25.  270.,  and  Part  IV.  p.  7. 

39.  Brevis  Expositio  Critices  Vcteris  Fcederis,  auctorc  Her- 
manno  Mljjtinohe.  Ediderunt  B.  Nicuwold  ct  C.  H.  van  Her- 
werdcn.     Groningse,  1827,  Svo. 

An  elegantly  written  compemlium  of  the  most  valuable  observa- 
tions of  the  mo.sl  distinguisheii  <ri!Ks  who  havr  treated  on  the  Old 
Testament.  Though  it  is  a  iK>.l!iinaous  publication,  the  editors 
ttaie  timt  the  author  coinf)ose<l  it  some  ye:irs  before  his  dealli.  It 
::or.sist8  of  four  cluipterH,  in  which  are  disc  iisscd  the  original  lan- 
guage of  the  Old  Testament,  the  History  of  iho  S.icred  Text,  the 
origin  of  various  readings,  together  with  the  srverni  classes  into 
which  they  mnfy  be  divided,  the  critical  aids  (or  delerinininR  various 
readings,  and  the  best  rules  to  be  employed  in  settling  them,  and 
■n  correcting  the  sacred  lc.\l. 

40.  The  Veracity  of  the  Evangelists  demonstrated  by  a  com- 
parative View  of  their  Histories.  By  the  Rev.  Uobcrt  Naues, 
A.M.  F.H.S.  <fcc.     Lmidon,  1815.    181H,  2d  edit.  12mo. 

41.  An  Impiiry  into  the  Integrity  of  the  fln-ek  Vul>rate,  or 
Kcrcived  Text  of  the  New  Testament ;  in  which  the  Greek 
Mnnutcrijits  arc  newly  classed  ;  the  Integrity  of  the  Authorized 
Text  vindic.itrd ;  and  the  Various  Readings  traced  to  their 
Origin.  By  the  Rev.  Frederick  Nolun,  LL.D.  London,  1815, 
eve. 

•'  We  trust  ihal  this  volume  will  command  tlie  attention  of  every 
Mholar  throughout  the  kingdom:  and  that  it  will  find  iUi  w.iy  into 


the  foreign  universities,  and  be  thoroughly  scrutinized  by  the 
learned  in  them.  To  the  biblical  imiuirer  it  will  present  not  only 
a  new  and  wide  field  of"  most  curious  and  happy  research,  but  a 
mine  of  the  most  valuable  inlbrmation :  to  the  classical  inquirer  It 
will  be  a  most  interesting  work,  as  it  involves  so  many  points,  both 
with  respect  to  manuscripts  and  editions,  which  to  him  must  be 
highly  important.  Of  a  volume  which  displays  so  much  lalwur  in' 
investigation,  so  much  originality  in  deduction,  and  so  much  sound 
principle  in  design,  we  can  in  common  Justice  say  no  less  than  that, 
whatever  be  the  issue  of  the  controversy  which  it  has,  we  think 
very  seasonably,  revived,  it  reflects  honour  on  the  age  and  nation 
in  which  it  was  produced."  (British  Critic,  N.  S.  Vol.  V.  p.  24.) 
See  an  outline  of  Dr.  Nolan's  classification  of  the  manuscripts  of 
the  New  Testament,  in  Part  I.  Chap.  HI.  Sect.  III.  ^  1.  pp.  206—208. 
of  the  first  volume. 

41*.  Supplement  to  an  Inquiry  into  the  Integrity  of  the  Greek 
Vulgate,  or  Received  Text  of  the  New  Testament ;  containing 
the  Vindication  of  the  Principles  employed  in  its  Defence.  By 
the  Rev.  Frederick  Nolan,  LL.D.     London,  18^0,  Svo. 

42.  Critica  Sacra ;  or  a  short  Introduction  to  Hebrew  Criti- 
cism.    [By  the  Rev.  Dr.  Henry  Owen.]     London,  1774,  8vo. 

This  little  tract  is  not  of  common  occurrence.  Dr.  Owen  was  a 
learned  and  sober  critic,  but  no  advocate  for  the  absolute  inerrancy 
and  integrity  of  the  Hebrew  text.  His  book  was  violently  attacked 
by  Mr.  Riiphuel  Baruh  in  his  Critica  Sacra  Examined.  (Loudon, 
1775,  8vo.)  Dr.  Owen  rejoined  in  a  learned  tract,  entitled  Supple- 
ment to  Critica  Sacra;  in  which  the  principles  of  that  treatise  are 
fully  confirmed,  and  the  objections  of  Mr.  Raphael  Baruh  are  clearly 
answered.    London,  1775,  Svo. 

43.  PAti'EOROMAicA,  Or  Historical  and  Philological  Disquisi- 
tions ;  inquiring  whether  the  Hellenistic  Style  is  not  Latin 
Greek  1  Whether  the  many  new  words  in  the  Elzevir  edition  of 
the  Greek  Testament  are  not  formed  from  the  Latin  ?  And 
whether  the  Hypothesis  that  the  Greek  Text  of  many  manu- 
scripts of  the  New  Testament  is  a  translation  or  rctranslation 
from  the  Latin,  seems  not  to  elucidate  numerous  passages,  to 
account  for  the  different  recensions,  and  to  ex[)lain  many  phe- 
nomena hitherto  inexplicable  to  the  Biblical  Critics  1  [By  John 
Black.]     London,  1823,  Svo. 

The  absurd  reasonings  and  mischievous  tendency  of  this  para- 
doxical publication  (which  is  noticed  here  to  put  the  unwary  stu- 
dent on  his  guard  against  it)  are  exposed  with  equal  learning  and 
ability  in  the  British  Critic  lor  January,  F'ebruary,  and  April,  1823, 
which  is  now  known  to  have  been  written  by  the  Rt.  Rev.  Ur.  C 
J.  Blomfield,  Bishop  of  London  ;  in  the  Rev.  J.  J.  Conybeare's 
"  Examination  of  certain  Arguments"  contained  in  it  (Oxford.  1823, 
Svo.) ;  in  the  Rev.  W.  G.  Broughton's  ■'  Examination  of  the  Hypo- 
thesis advanced  in  a  recent  i)ul)lication.  entitled  '  Pala?oromaii  n' '' 
(London,  1823,  Svo.) ;'  and  in  Bishop  Birgcss's  Postscript  to  il;e 
second  edition  of  his  "Vindication  of  1  John  v.  7.  from  the  objei 
tions  of  Mr.  Griesbacli."  (London,  1823.)  "  The  publication  entitled 
Palajoromaica"  (this  distinguished  prelate  has  most  justly  sai.j)  "  i.<  - 
a  work  of  very  extensive  reading  and  research  ;  and  abounds  with 
valuable  quotations.  But  the  materials  are  as  dcsiitutc  of  selec- 
tion as  his"  [the  anonymous  author's]  "strictures  aro  of  simplicity 
and  candour."  (Postscript,  p.  196.)  The  hyp<jthcsis  which  tJm 
author  of  Palteoromaica  endeavours  to  maintain  is  briefly  this:-^ 
That  the  received  text  of  the  Greek  Testaiuetit  is  a  servile  traiw- 
laiion  from  a  Latin  original  long  .«iiice  lost,  and  that  this  tranili- 
tion  was  made  by  a  writer  imperfectly  acquainted  with  one  or  (k>s- 
sibly  with  both  of  the  languages  in  question.  In  support  of  this 
hypoihesis  the  anonymous  writer  has  recourse  to  two  sorts  of  proof, 
direct  and  indirect. 

1.  The  direct  proof  he  finds  in  the  many  and  obvious  Latinisms 
which  he  asserts  to  exist  in  almost  every  page  of  the  Greek  text; 
but,  besides  these,  the  anonymous  writer  has  collected  many  others, 
which  ho  has  arranged  under  several  heads  or  classes,  which  the 
nature  of  the  subject  and  the  limits  of  the  present  notice  forbid  us 
todetail.  The  reader  is  therefore  necessarily  refbrred  to  pp.  29 — 51. 
of  Mr.  Conybeare's  Examiimtion,  in  which  the  anonymous  writera 
errors  are  completely  exj'oscd. 

2.  The  indirect  proofs  that  tho  New  Testament  is  a  servile  trans- 
lation of  a  lost  Latin  original  are  twofold  :  Jiriit,  the  existence  of 
cerinin  analogous  cases  of'  translation  from  the  Latin,  and  particu- 
larly the  Aldine  edition  of  the  Greek  Simplicius  ;  uih],  fecondlif, 
the'ccrlainty  that  the  Latin  rather  than  the  Greek  was  the  preva- 
lent language  of  Palestine,  and  its  neighlwurhoud,  in  the  age  of  tho 
evangelists  and  apostles. 

(l.fB;Khoi)  Burgess  (Post.scripl,  pp.  180.  el  .<trY.)  and  Mr.  Cony- 
beare  (Examination,  pp.  7 — 16.)  liave  demonstrated  that  the  cb!v  of 
tho  Aldine  Simplicius  is  utterly  inapplicable  to  tho  pnri>ose  for 
which  it  is  adduced:  and  to  their  learned  publications  ihc  reader 
is  iu'ces<»arily  referred,  it  must  siifiice  here  to  remark  that  the  case 
of  this  Simpliciua  ia  very  different  from  that  of  a  bo(;k,  like  the 


«  In  rrply  to  the  TlishopofSl.  Daviil'.s  anil  Messrs.  Conyliparc  nnd  Brouffh- 
Ion,  ilin  author  of  I'alnjotoinuica  in  1821  pulili.fliiMl  a  "  Hupplciiient,"  con- 
lainiiiu  many  ingenious  but  desultory  obscrvalions ;  wliicli,  however,  <lo 
nolhin2  liiwaril.H  suiiporlinj!  liis  untcimhlu  hypotliesis.  Tills  pntilicalion 
(lii;w  l<(rlli  an  ablo  "  reply"  from  Mr.  HroufElilnn,  to  whom  the  aultior  of 
Pa1a:iiriiuiuica  rrjoinrtl;  anil  liiu  rejoinder  was  sallsfaclurily  refuted  by 
.Mr.  II.  in  a  second  reply. 


Sbct.  I.] 


TREATISES  ON  SACRED  CRITICISM,  &c. 


75 


Jvevv  Testameiit,  which  was  in  the  custody  of  the  whole  Christian 
church — a  book  in  whi»  h  every  part  of  the  diurch  took  a  deep  in- 
terest, and  of  which  every  separate  congregation  liad  ils  copy  or 
copies.  When  the  Aldine  Greek  version  of  the  barbarous  Latin 
translation,  made  by  W.  de  Moorbeka  in  the  thirteenth  century, 
was  published,  the  Greek  original  was  unknown,  and  continued  to 
be  unknown  until  it  was  discovered  a  few  years  since  by  M.  Pey- 
ron  :  whereas  the  Greek  text  of  the  New  Testament  was  never 
lost  or  missing. 

(2.)  In  full  disproof  of  the  alleged  certainty  of  the  prevalence  of 
the  Latin  language  in  Palestine  and  its  vicinity,  during  the  apos- 
tolic age,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  refer  to  Pari  I.  Chap.  I.  Sect.  II.  of  the 
first  volume,  which  contains  some  evidences  of  the  general  pre- 
valence of  the  Greek  language  that  have  escaped  the  researches  of 
Bishop  Burgess  and  of  Mr.  Conybeare  :  and  also  lo  the  fact  that 
the  Old  Syriac  Version  of  the  New  Testament,  made  in  "the  close 
of  the  first,  or  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  century,  contains 
many  Greek  words  ujitranslaled ; — an  incontestable  proof,  this,  of 
the  previous  existence  of  a  Greek  original.  For  the  following  addi- 
tional evidences  of  the  existence  of  tiie  Greek  original  of  the  New 
Testament  we  are  indebted  to  that  learned  prelite.  "  If,"  says  he, 
"  from  the  prevalence  of  the  Greek  language  at  the  time  of  the 
apostles,  we  extend  our  view  to  the  state  of  the  Christian  church  in 
ils  earliest  period,  we  shall  find  increasing  probabilities  of  a  Greek 
original.  All  the  Gentile  churches  established  by  the  apostles  in 
the  East  were  Greek  churches;  namely,  those  of  Anlioch,  Ephe- 
sus,  Galatia,  Corinth,  Philippi,  Thessalonica,"  &c.  Again:  "The 
li'st  bishops  of  the  church  of  Rome  were  either  Greek  writers  or 
natives  of  Greece. — According  to  TcrtuUian,  Clemens,  the  fellow- 
labourer  of  St.  Paul,  was  the  first  bishop  of  Rome,  whose  Greek 
Epistle  to  the  Corinthians  is  still  extant.  But  whether  Clemens  or 
Linus  was  the  first  bishop  of  Rome,  they  were  both  Greek  wu-Jters, 
tiiough  probably  natives  of  Italy.  Anencletus  wns  a  Greek,  and  so 
were  the  greater  part  of  his  successors  to  the  middle  of  the  second 
century.  Tir.e  bishops  of  Jerusalem,  after  the  expulsion  of  the 
Jews  by  Adrian,  were  Greeks.  From  this  state  of  the  government 
of  the  primitive  church  by  Greek  ministers — Greeks  by  birlh  or  in 
their  writings — arises  a  high  probability  that  the  Christian  Scrip- 
tures were  in  Greek. 

"  The  works"  also  "  of  the  earliest  fathers  in  the  church,  the 
contemporaries  and  immediate  successors  of  the  apostles,  were 
written  in  Greek.  They  are  altogetlier  silent,  as  to  any  Lalin  ori- 
ginal of  the  New  Testament.  They  say  nothing,  indeed,  of  a  Greek 
original  by  name.  But  their  frequent  mention  of  7rj.xx.1-j.  avTir-jTrxj 
without  any  distinction  of  name,  can  mean  only  Greek  originals. 

"  But  if  we  have  in  the  Greek  fathers  no  mention  of  a  Greek 
original,  we  have  the  most  express  testimony  of  Jerome  and  Au- 
gustin,  that  the  New  Testament  (with  the  exception  of  the  Gospel 
of  Saint  Matthew,  w"hich  some  of  the  fathers  supposed  to  have 
been  written  by  its  author  in  Hebrew)  was  originally  composed  in 
Greek.  Jerome  said,  that  the  Greek  original  of  the  NewTestament 
'  was  a  thing  not  to  be  doubted.'  " 

"Of  all  the  [Latin]  MSS.  of  the  New  Testament,  which  had  been 
seen  b)'  Jerom.e  (and  they  must  have  been  very  numerous),  the 
author  of  Palaeoromaica  observes,  that  '  the  whole,  perhaps,  of  the 
Gospels  and  Epistles  might  be  versions  from  the  Greek.'  Surely 
this  is  no  immaterial  evidence  that  Greek  was  the  original  text ; 
and  this  will  be  more  evident,  if  we  retrace  the  history  of  the 
Greek  text  upwards  from  the  time  of  Jerome.  The  Greek  edition 
nearest  his  time  was  that  of  Athanasius.  Before  him,  and  early  in 
the  same  century,  Eusebiiis  jjublished  an  edition  by  the  command 
of  Constanline.  In  the  third  century,  there  were  not  less  than  three 
Greek  editions  by  Origen,  Hesychius,  and  Liicianus.  In  the  second 
century,  about  the  year  170,  appeared  the  Diatessaron  of  Tatian, 
containing  not  the  whole  of  the  New  Testament,  but  a  harmony 
of  the  ibur  Gospels.  And  in  the  same  century  we  have  an  express 
appeal  of  Tertullian  to  the  aulhenticum  Grcecum  of  St.  Paul,  W'hich, 
whether  it  means  the  autograph  of  the  apostle,  oran  authentic  copy 
of  it,  is,  of  itself,  a  decisive  proof  of  a  Greek  original.  Again,  in 
the  same  century,  before  either  Tertullian  or  Tatian,  we  have, 
A.  D.  127,  the  Apostolieon  of  Marcion,  which,  though  not  an  authen- 
ticum  Graecum,  was  Gnecum. 

"To  the  evidence  from  the  Greek  editions  of  the  New  Testament 
in  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  centuries,  and  Teriullian's  testi- 
mony, we  may  add  the  language  of  those  Greek  ecclesiastical 
writings  which  were  not  admitted  into  the  sacred  canon,  but  were, 
for  the  most  part,  of  primitive  antiquity;  —  I  mean  the  Apostles' 
Creed,  the  Letter  of  Abgarus  to  Christ,  and  the  Answer  to  it;  the 
Liturgies  of  St.  James,  St.  John,  and  St.  Peter ;  the  Epistle  of  St. 
Paul  to  the  Laodiceans;  the  Apostolical  Constitutions,  &c.  These 
would  never  have  been  written  in  Greek,  if  the  apostolical  writings 
had  not  been  published  in  the  same  language."  (Postscript  to  Vin- 
dication of  1  John  V.  7.  pp.  182 — 185.) 

Lastly,  the  language  and  style  of  the  New  Testament  are  such 
as  afford  indisputable  proof  of  its  authenticity  as  an  ancient  volume, 
and,  consequently,  that  it  was  originally  written  in  Greek.  On 
this  topic  compare  Volume  I.  pp.  221,  222. 

On  all  these  grounds,  we  conclude  with  the  learned  writers 
already  cited,  that  Greek  was  and  is  the  original  language  of  the 
New  Testament,  and,  consequently,  that  there  is  no  evidence  what- 
ever to  support  the  hypothesis  that  it  is  a  translation  from  a  lost 
Lalin  original. 

44.  August!  Pfeifferi  Critica  Sacra,  de  Sacri  Codicis  parti- 
tione,  editionibus  variis.  Unguis  originalibus  et  illibata  puritate 
Vol.  11,  4  C 


fontium  ;  necnon  ejusdcm  translatione  in  linguas  tothis  univcrs 
de  Masora  et  Kabbala,  Talmnde  et  Alcorano.     Dresda;,   167C. 
1688,  1702,  1721,  8vo.    Lipsis,  1712,  8vo.    Altorfii,  1751,  8vo 
Also  in  the  second  volume  of  the  collective  edition  of  his  Philo- 
logical Works,  published  at  Utrecht  in  1704,  4to. 

45.  Recherches  Critiq-ues  et  Historiques  sur  le  Texte  Grec  des 
Evangiles.     Par  Albert  Rixliet.     Geneve,  1832,  8vo. 

46.  La  Fionda  di  David ;  ossia,  I'Antichita  ed  Autorita  dei 
Punti  Vocali  nel  Testo  Ebreo,  dimostrata  e  difesa  per  Ippolito 
RosELLixi.  Bologna,  1823,  8vo.  Risposta  del  medesimo  al 
sign.  Abate  Luigi  Chiarini,  respctto  all'  Antichita  ed  autorita 
dei  Punti  Vocali.     Bologna,  1824,  8vo. 

These  two  publications  defend  the  antiquity  and  authority  of  the 
Masoretic  vowel-point.s,  against  the  objections  of  Masclef,  Houbi- 
gant,  and  other  Hebraists.     (Journal  des  Savans  pour  1825,  p.  384.) 

47.  De  la  Litterature  des  Hebreux,  ou  des  Livres  Saints  con- 
sideres  sous  le  Rapport  des  Beautes  Litteraires.  Par  J.  B.  Sal- 
GUES.     Paris,  1825,  Bvo. 

48.  Joannis  Nepomuceni  Sch.bfer  Institutioncs  Scripturisticra 
Usui  auditorum  suoru'm  accommodata.  Pars  prima,  Moguntije, 
1790.     Pars  secunda,  Moguntise,  1792,  8vo. 

49.  A.  B.  SpiTzxERi  Commentatio  Philologica  de  Parenthesi 
in  Libris  Sacris  Veteris  et  Novi  Testamenti.   Lipsise,  1773,  12mo. 

50.  A.  B.  Spitixehi  Vindiciae  Originis  et  Auctoritatcs  Divinae 
Punctorum  Vocalium  et  Accentutim  in  libris  sacris  Veteris  Tes 
tamenti.     Lipsiae,  1791,  Bvo. 

51.  Histoire  Critique  du  Vieux  Testament.  Par  le  Pere 
SiMOJf,  Paris,  1678,  4to.  Amsterdam,  1680.  Rotterdam,  1685, 
4to.  Best  edition. 

The  first  edition  was  suppressed  by  the  influence  of  the  Jesuit 
le  Tellier;  it  is  very  inferior  to  the  subsequent  impressions. 

52.  Histoire  Critique  du  Texte  du  Nouveaii  Testament ;  ou 
Ton  etablit  la  Verite  des  Actes,  sur  lesquels  la  Religion  Chre- 
tienne  est  fondce.     Par  le  Pere  Simo.v.     Rotterdam,  1689,  4to 

53.  Histoire  Critique  des  Versions  du  Nouveau  Testament, 
ou  Ton  fait  connoitre  quel  a  ete  I'usage  de  la  lecture  des  Livres 
Sacres  dans  les  principales  eglises  du  mondc.  Par  le  Pere 
SiMOX.     Rotterdam,  1690,  4to. 

54.  Nouvclles  Dissertations  sur  le  Texte  et  les  Versions  du 
Nouveau  Testament.  Par  le  Pere  Simon.    Rotterdam,  1695, 4 to. 

All  the  works  of  father  Simon  are  characterized  by  great  learn- 
ing and  research.  "  The  criticism  of  the  Bible  being  at  that  time 
less  understood  than  at  present,  the  researches  which  were  insti- 
tuted by  Simon  soon  involved  him  in  controversy,  as  well  with 
Protestant  as  with  Catholic  writers,  particularly' with  the  latter; 
to  whom  he  gave  great  offence  by  the  preference  which  he  shoVved 
to  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  texts  of  the  Bible  above  that  which  is 
regarded  as  the  oracle  of  the  church  of  Rome,— ilio  Latin  Vulgate 
"  Though  I  would  not  be  answerable  for  every  opinion  (says  Bp. 
Marsh)  advanced  by  Simon,  I  may  venture  to  assert  that  it  contains 
very  valuable  information  in  regard  to  the  criticism  both  of  the 
Hebrew  Bible  and  of  the  Greek  Testament."  (Lectures,  part  i. 
p.  52.)  Walchius  has  given  an  account  of  the  various  authors  who 
attacked  Simon,  in  his  Bibliotheca  Theologica  Selecta,  vol.  iv. 
pp.  250 — 259.  The  Ilistoiie  Critique  du  Vieux  Testament  was 
translated  into  English  "  by  a  person  of  quality,"  and  publisiied  at 
London  in  1682,  4to.  The  translation  abounds  with  gallicisms  in, 
every  page. 

55.  Johannis  Simokis  Analysis  ex  Explicatio  Lectionura 
Masorethicarum  Kethiban  et  Karjan  Vulgo  dictarum,  ea  forma, 
qua  illae  in  sacro  textu  extant,  ordine  alphabetico  digesta.  Editio 
tertia.     Hate,  1823,  8 vo. 

56.  VoRSTH  (Johannia)  De  Hebrai^mis  Novi  Testamenti 
Commentarius.  Edidit  notisque  instruxit  Johannes  Fridericus 
Fischerus.     Lipsite,  1778,  8vo. 

57.  Briani  V^^altoni  in  Biblia  Polyglotta  Prolegomena.  Prs- 
fatus  est  J.  A.  Dathe,  Prof.  Ling.  Heb.  Ord.     Lipsiic,  1777,  8vo. 

58.  Briani  Waltoni,  S.T.P.  in  Biblia  Polyglotta  Prolegomena 
Specialia  recognovit,  Dathianisque  et  variorum  Notis  suas  immis- 
cuit  Franciscus  Wraxgham,  A.M.  S.R.S.  Clevelandire  Archi- 
diaconus.  Cantabrigise,  typus  ac  sumptibus  academicis,  1828, 
2  tomis,  8vo. 

One  hundred  and  seventy  years  have  elapsed  since  the  publica- 
tion of  Bishop  Walton's  special  Prolegomena  to  his  Polyglolt  Bible  ; 
the  variety,  accuracy,  and  extent  of  the  information  contained  in 
which  have  concurred  to  give  it  a  high  place  among  standard  critical 
works  on  (he  sacred  text.  In  the  long  interval  that  has  elapsed 
since  the  first  appearance  of  that  work,  many  topics  have  been 
controverted,  and  much  additional  light  has  been  thrown  on  all  the 
subjects  discussed  in  Bishop  Walton's  Prolegomena  by  the  re- 
searches of  various  learned  men.     As  Professor  Dalhe's  octavo 


76 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  II.  Chap.  UT. 


edition  had- become  extremely  scarce,  Mr.  Archdeacon  Wrangham 
iiai  conferred  no  small  obligation  on  biblical  students  by  presenting 
to  them  a  new  edition  of  the  Prolegomena.  It  is  execnied  on  the 
following  plan: — Tlie  text  of  Walton  lias  been  accurately  printed, 
and  the  punctuation  amended  and  impn)ved,  and  errors  in  numbera 
have  been  carefully  corrected.  The  observations  which  Dathc 
had  collected  in  the  preface  to  his  edition,  not  in  the  best  possible 
order,  are  here  inserted  in  the  notes,  under  the  topics  to  which 
they  referred;  and  with  them  Mr.  Wrangham  has  inserted  very 
numerous  observations  of  his  own,  explainini^,  conlirming,  or  cor- 
recting the  text  of  Walton,  which  are  derived  irom  the  best  critical 
sources,  Ixjth  ancient  and  modern,  besides  references  to  the  best 
writers  who  have  treated  on  sacred  criticism.  Many  critical  canons 
of  Welstein,  lloiibigani,  and  oiher  editors  of  the  lloly  Scriptures, 
the  rarity  and  high  price  of  whose  works  place  them  beyond  the 
reach  of  ordinary  students,  are  here  inserted  ;  and  where  jiarticular 
subjects  required  a  more  copious  discussion,  Mr.  Wrangham  has 
treated  them  at  length  at  the  end  of  each  chapter,  in  excursus, 
after  the  plan  adopted  by  Ileyne  in  his  admirable  edition  of  Virgil. 
Among  the  subjects  thus  copiously  illustrated  we  may  enumerate 
the  dis^iuisitions  on  the  Spiare  Samaritan  Characters,  the  Antiquity 
of  the  Vowel  Points,  the  Mntres  Lectionis  'i.TN,  the  principal 
Manuscripts  of  the  New  Teslanient,  particularly  the  Codex  Alex- 
andrinus.  Various  Readings,  the  Septuagint  Version,  Ancient  .^lld 
Modern  Latin  Versions  of  the  Scriptures,  the  Samaritans  and  the 
Samaritan  Pentateufrh,  the  Chaldee  Paraphrases  and  their  Uses, 
Editions  of  the  Syriac  Version,  the  agreement  between  the  Hebrew 
and  Arabic  dialects,  and  the  Persic  Versions. 

Fac-similes  of  eight  of  the  MSS.  of  chicrnotc  are  prefixed  ;  and 
in  the  course  of  the  work  there  are  inserted  alphabets  of  the  princi- 

Cal  modern  languages  ;  viz.  Hebrew  and  Chaldee,  with  the  rab- 
inical  letters,  the  Samaritan,  Svriac,  with  the  Nestorian  and  an- 
cient Estrangelo  letters,  .\rabic,  Persic,  Kthiopic,  .\rinenian,  Coptic 
or  Egyptian,  lUyrian,  Dalmatian,  Georgian,  and  Gothic;  together 
with  a  specimen  of  Chinese  ciiaracters,  and  tables  of  the  dates  of 
the  principal  modern  versions  of  the  Scriptures. 

The  work  is  beautifully  executed  at  the  expense,  and  press,  of 
the  rniversity  of  Cambridge,  by  whose  munificence  Mr.  .4rclidea- 
con  Wrangham  is  enabled  to  oiler  to  critical  studenls  of  the  Scrip- 
tures the  results  of  his  learned  researches  at  a  price,  for  which 
they  could  not  otherwise  be  affjrded.  There  are  a  few  copies  on 
large  fwper,  which  are  a  chef-d'ceuvre  of  typographical  skill. 

59.  Wktstexii  (Johannis  Jacobi)  Prolegomena  ad  Testa- 
meiitt  Grxci  cdilionein  accurati-ssimam,  e  vctustissiinis  coJicibus 
denuo  procurandani :  in  quibus  agitur  de  codicibus  nianuscriptis 
Kovi  Testameiiti,  Scriptoribus  qui  Novo  Testameiito  usi  sunt, 
veraionibus  vetcribus,  editionibus  prioribus,  et  clans  interprcti- 
buii ;  ct  proponuntur  animadversioncs  et  cautione.s,  ad  exanien 
variorum  iectioncin  \ovi  Tcstamenti.     Amstelsdami,  1730,  4to. 

60.  Casparis  Wyssii  Dialeclologia  Sacra,  in  qua  per  univcr- 
8um  Novi  Tcstamenti  contextuin  in  apostolica  et  voce  et  phrasi, 
a  communi  linguse  ct  grammatica;  aualogi^x  discrepat,  methoJo 
congrua  disponitur,  accurate  definitur,  ct  omnium  Sacri  Conte.'C- 
tus  cxemplorum  inductione  illustralur.     Tiguri,  1650,  4to. 

"The  peculiarities  of  the  New  Testamonl  diction,  in  general, 
are  arranged  in  this  Ixiok  under  the  following  heads,  viz.  Dialectus, 
Attica,  lonica,  Dori(!a,  yEolica,  Bteotica,  Poctica,  et  Ilebraica.  This 
is  ver>'  inconvenient,;  inasmuch  as,  in  this  way,  many  things  of  a 
light  kind  will  be  sejiarated,  and  often  treated  of  in  l()ur  different 
places.  Moreover,  tfie  author  shows,  that  his  knowledge  of  Greek 
did  not  extend  beyond  what  was  common  at  his  time;  .as  the  men- 
tion of  a /)r.if'ic  dialect  evinces,  and  as  an  examination  of  what  he 
calls  the  .Attic  w-ill  render  still  more  evident.  But  as  a  collection 
of  examplcd,  which  in  many  parts  is  perfi-cily  complete,  the  l)ook 
is  very  useful.  In  reference,  also,  to  the  Hebraisms  of  the  New 
Testament,  the  author  showed  a  moderation  which  deserved  to  bo 
imitated  by  his  contemporaries."  (Winer's  Greek  Grammar  of  the 
New  Test.  p.  13.) 

61.  A  Vindication  of  the  .\uthenticity  of  the  Narratives  con- 
tained in  the  first  Two  (^hajitcrs  of  the  Gospels  of  St.  Matthew 
and  St.  Luke,  being  an  Investigation  of  Obj(!ctions  urged  by  the 
Unitarian  Editors  of  the  improved  V^ersion  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, with  an  Appendix  containing  Strictures  on  the  Variations 
between  the  first  an/1  fourth  Editions  of  that  Work.  By  a  Lay- 
man.   [John  Bevakh.]     London,  1822,  8vo. 

In  this  very  elalxirate  work,  the  nulheriticily  of  Matt.  i.  and  ii. 
and  Luke  i.  niid  li.  are  most  HatiNfactonly  viiidi>'al('<l  Iroin  the  objttc- 
lions  of  the  Editors  of  the  riiilariau  Version  of  the  New  Tisln- 
ment ;  whose  disingenuous  alterations  in  Nuc<'eNsivc-  editions  of  that 
Work  are  exposed  in  the  Api>cndix. 


2.  Dc  Sacra  Poesi  Hebrteoruni  Pra;Iectiones  Academicie.  Auc- 
tore  Roberto  Lowtu,  nuper  Episcopo  Londincnsi.  Oxonii, 
1821,  8vo. 

The  first  edition  of  Bishop  Lowth's  Lectures  appeared  in  1753. 
That  of  1821  may  be  considered  as  the  best,  as  it  includes,  besides 
the  additional  olwervations  of  Prof.  Michaelis,  the  further  remarks 
of  Rosenmiiller  (whose  edition  appeared  at  Leipsic  in  1815),  Rich- 
ter,  and  \Veiske.  Bp.  Lowth's  Lectures  are  reprinted  in  the  thirty- 
first  volume  of  Ugolini's  Thesaurus  Antiquitatum. 

3.  Lectures  on  the  Sacred  Poetry  of  the  Hebrews :  translated 
from  the  Latin  of  the  Rt.  Rev.  Robert  Lowth,  D.D.  Bishop  of 
London,  by  G,  Grecout.  To  which  are  added  the  principal 
Notes  of  Professor  Michaelis,  and  Notes  by  the  Translator  and 
others.  London,  1787,  2  vols.  8vo.  1816,  2  vols.  8va.  second 
edition. 

4.  Lectures  on  the  Sacred  Poetry  of  the  Hebrews,  by  Robert 
Lowth,  D.D.  Bishop  of  London.  Translated  from  the  original 
Latin,  with  Notes,  by  Calvin  E.  Stowe,  A.M.  Andover  [Mas- 
sachusetts], 1829,  8vo, 

"  In  1815  Rosenmiiller  prepared  a  new  edition  of  Lowih's  work 
to  which  he  added  many  notes  of  his  own,  and  corrected  the  error? 
into  which  Michaelis  h-id  liillen.  Bi^sides  these  writers.  Sir  Wil- 
liam Jones,  Eichhorn,  Gesenius,  De  Wette,  and  some  others,  since 
the  time  of  Michaelis,  contributed  not  a  little  to  the  elucidation  of 
this  subject.  From  all  these  autho."s,  the  American  Editor  of  thia 
work  has  enriched  it  with  valuable  selections.  He  has  also  added  a 
number  of  notes,  which  are  entirely  original.  He  has  displayed  in 
the  execution  of  his  task  much  sound  judgment  and  research.  All 
the  notes  he  has  selected  are  of  sterling  value  :  and  those  which 
are  the  result  of  his  own  investigation  exhibit  originality  and  re- 
search." (North  American  Review,  October,  1830,  vol.  xxxi.  p.  375.) 

5.  Sacred  Literature  ;  comprising  a  Review  of  the  Principles 
of  Composition  laid  down  by  the  late  Robert  Lowth,  D.D.  Lord 
Bishop  of  London,  in  his  Prelections  and  Isaiah,  and  an  appli- 
cation of  the  Principles  so  reviewed  to  the  illustration  of  the  New 
Testament ;  in  a  series  of  Critical  Observations  on  the  style 
and  structure  of  that  Sacred  Volume.  By  the  Rev.  John  Jehb, 
D  D.  Bishop  of  Limerick.  London,  1820,  8vo.  Second  Edi- 
tion, corrected,  1828,  8vo. 

An  analysis  of  the  system  developed  in  this  admirable  work  has 
already  been  given  in  Part  II.  Book  II.  Chap.  II.  <i^  HI. — V.  of  tlic 
first  volume. 

6.  Tactica  Sacra :  an  Attempt  to  developc,  and  to  exhibit  to 
the  eye,  by  Tabular  Arrangements,  a  general  Rule  of  Composi- 
tion prevailing  in  the  Holy  Scriptures.  By  Thomas  Bots,  A.M. 
London,  1824,  4to. 

An  ingenious  attempt  to  extend  to  the  epistolary  writings  of  the 
New  Testament  the  principles  of  composition  so  ablv  illustrated 
by  Bishop  Jebb.  The  work  consists  of  two  parts  :  the  first  contains 
the  necessary  explanations  ;  and  the  second  comprises  four  of  the 
epistles  arranged  at  length  in  Greek  and  English  examples.  For 
specimens  of  this  work,  with  appropriate  Observations,  see  the 
British  Review,  vol.  xxii.  pp.  17G--185. 

7.  J.  G.  Eichhorn  Comnientationcs  do  Prophetica  Poesi 
Lipstffl,  1823,  4to. 

8.  An  Essay  on  Hebrew  Poetry,  Ancient  and  Modern.  By 
Philip  Sauchi,  LL.D.     London,  1824.  8vo. 

9.  The  Spirit  of  Ilc'.rew  Poetry.  By  J.  G.  Herdkr,  Trans- 
lated  from  the  Gcrinan.  By  James  Marsh.  In  two  volumes. 
Vol.  L     Buriington  [New  Jersey],  1833,  12mo. 

The  second  volume  is  announced  to  anjiear  as  soon  as  the  pre.s- 
sure  of  other  duties  on  the  translator  will  permit  him  to  prepare  it 
ibr  tlie  ptLHi. 


sKCTioN  n. 

TREATISES    0.\    HEBREW    POETIIV. 

1.  Excrcitatio  in  Dialcctum  Pt>cticam  Divinorum  Carminum 
Veteris  Testamenti.  Auctorc  Geo.  Job.  Lud.  Voum..  Holm- 
•taJii,  1764,  4to. 


SECTION  IT  I. 

TREATISES   ON  THE    QUOTATIONS    FROM    THE    OLD   TESTAMENT 
IN    THE    NEW. 

1.  JoA!«Ms  Dncsii  Parallela  Sacra:  hoc  est, Locorum  Voteris 
Testamenti  cum  iis  quo;  in  Novo  citantur  conjuncta  Commemo- 
ratio,  Ebraice  et  Grasce,  cum  Notis.     FruneckeriD,  1616,  4to. 

2.  Bj/8a9c  K2eT«xxi>(fc,  in  quo  secundum  veterum  Theologorum 
Hebneorum  Formula.s  .\llegandi,  et  Modos  interpretandi,  concili- 
antur  Loca  ex  V.  in  N.  T.  allegata.     Auctore  Guilielmo  SuRr.rr 
HL'sio.     Amslelxilami,  1713.  4lo. 

This  elaborate  work  is  di\  ided  into  four  Books.  The  first  treal.l 
on  the  formiilie  of  citing  the  Old  Tesiament  in  the  New  ;  the  pecond 
on  Ilie  modes  of  quotation;  the  thinl,  on  tl>e  methods  of  iriterpro- 
lation  adopted  by  the  sacred  writers ;  and  the  Ibiirth  on  the  motle 
of  explaining  ond  reconciling  the  seeming  contradictions  occurrintf 
m  the  genealogies.  Many  very  dilTicult  {Hissagea  arc  hero  happily 
illustrated. 


Sect.  IV.] 


TREATISES  ON  MANUSCRIPTS. 


77 


3.  Immanuelis  HoFFMATixi  Demonstratio  Evangelica  par  ip- 
sum  Scripairarum  consensuni,  in  oraculis  ex  Vet.  Testamento 
in  Novo  Allegatis  dcclarata.  Edidit,  observationibus  illustravit, 
Vitaru  Auctoris,  et  Commentationetn  Historico-Theologicam  de 
recta  ratione  Allegata  ista  interpretandi,  prajmisit  Tob.  Godofre- 
dus  Hegelmaier.     Tubings,  1773-79-81,  in  three  volumes,  4to. 

In  this  very  elaborate  work,  every  quotation  from  the  Old  Testa- 
ment in  ihe  New  is  printed  at  lull  length,  first  as  ciied  by  tlie 
evangelists  and  apostles,  then  in  the  original  Hebrew,  and  thirdly 
in  the  words  of  the  Septuagint  Greek  Version.  The  learned  author 
then  examines  it  both  critically  and  hermeneutically,  and  sliows 
the  perfect  harmony  subsisting  between  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments. Hoffmann's  Demonstratio  Evangelica  is  extremely  scarce, 
and  very  little  known  in  this  country. 

4.  The  Prophecies  and  other  Texts  cited  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, compared  with  the  Hebrew  original,  and  with  the  Septua- 
gint version.  To  which  are  added  Notes  by  Thomas  Rakdolph, 
U.D.  Oxford,  1782,  4to. 

This  valuable  and  beautifully-printed  tract  is  now  rarely  to  be 
met  with,  and  only  to  be  procured  at  seven  or  eight  times  its  original 
price.  The  most  material  of  this  excellent  critic's  observations  are 
inserted  in  the  notes  to  our  chapter  on  the  Quotations  from  the  Old 
Testament  in  the  New,  in  the  first  Volume. 

5.  The  Modes  of  Quotation,  used  by  the  Evangelical  Writers, 
explained  and  vindicated  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Henry  Owex.  Lon- 
don, 1789,  4to. 

The  design  of  this  elaborate  work  is,  1.  To  compare  the  quota- 
tions of  the  Evangelists  with  each  other,  and  with  the  passages 
fpferred  to  in  the  Old  Testament,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  real 
differences: — 2.  To  account  for  such  differences  ;  and  to  reconcile 
the  Evangelist?;  with  the  Prophets,  and  with  each  other:  —  and, 
3.  To  show  the  just  application  of  such  quotations,  and  that  they 
fully  prove  the  points  which  they  were  brought  to  establish. 

6.  A  Collation  of  the  Quotations  from  the  Old  Testament  in 
the  New,  with  the  Septuagint.  [By  the  Rev.  Thomas  Scott.] 
8vo. 

This  important  Collation  is  inserted  in  the  ninth  and  tenth 
volumes  of  the  Christian  Observer  for  the  years  1810  and  1811; 
where  it  is  simply  designated  by  the  initials  of  the  late  venerable 
and  learned  author's  name.  Many  of  his  valuable  critical  Obser- 
vations will  be  found  in  the  notes  to  Part  I.  Chap.  IV.  Sect.  I.  of 
the  first  Volume. 

7.  Pas.sages  cited  from  the  Old  Testament  by  the  writers  of 
the  New  Testament,  compared  with  the  Original  Hebrew  and 
the  Septuagint  Version.  Arranged  by  the  Junior  Class  in  the 
Theological  Seminary,  Andover,  and  published  at  their  request 
under  the  superintendence  of  M.  Stuart,  Associate  Professor  of 
Sacred  Literature.     Andover,  Massachusetts,  1827,  4to. 

In  this  beautifully  printed  pamphlet  the  quotations  are  arranged 
m  a  different  order  from  that  adopted  in  Part  I.  Chap.  IV.  Sect.  I. 
of  the  first  Volume.  There,  we  have  printed  the  Hebrew,  Septua- 
gint, and  Greek  texts  of  the  New  Testament  in  three  parallel 
columns,  with  English  versions  of  each.  In  the  Anglo-American 
text,  the  quotations  are  given  in  three  columns,  thus :  Septuagint, 
Hebrew  text,  and  passages  from  the  New  Testament.  The  Hebrew 
texts  are  taken,  with  points,  from  Michaelis's  edition,  printed  in 
1720;  those  from  the  Septuagint  version  are  from  Mr.  Valpy's  edi- 
tion after  the  Vatican  exemplar;  and  those  from  the  New  Testament 
are  from  Dr.  Knappe's  second  edition.  The  formulse  of  quotation 
are  included  in  brackets,  in  order  that  the  eye  may  readily  seize 
them.  The  tract  concludes  with  "an  Index  of  Passages,  in  which 
the  writers  of  the  New  Testament  have  referred  to  the  Old,  with- 
out formally  quoting  it:"  this  is  stated  to  be  selected  from  Dr. 
Knappe's  Recensus  Locorum,  vi:c.  appended  to  his  edition  of  the 
New  Testament.  There  are  no  notes  to  account  for  seeming  di.s- 
crepancies  in  tlie  quotations,  nor  are  there  any  hints  of  suggestions 
to  enable  students  to  classify  them. 


SECTION  IV. 

tREA*riSES  ON  MANUSCRIPTS  AND  ON  VARIOUS  READINGS. COL- 
LATIONS OF  MANUSCRIPTS  AND  COLLECTIONS  OF  VARIOUS 
READINGS. 

§   1.    TREATISES    OX    MANCSCHIPTS. 

1.  De  Usu  Palffiograplliae  Hebraicce  ad  cxplicanda  Biblia  Sacra, 
Dissertatio.  Scripsit  Jo.  Joach.  Bellkhmanx.  Halse  et  Erfor- 
■Jiaj,  1804. 

2.  TxcHSEN  (0.  G.)  Tcntamen  de  variis  Codicum  Hebraico- 
fum  Veteris  Testamenti  manuscriptorum  generibus  a  Judteis  et 
non-Judffiis  descriptis,  eorumque  in  clar^ses  certas  distributione, 
?t  antiquitatis  et  bonitatis  charactcribus.     Rostochii,  1772,  8vo. 


3.  Caroli  Godofredi  Woidii  Notitia  Codicis  Alexandrini,  cum 
Variis  ejus  Lectionibus  omnibus.  Recudendum  curavit,  Notas- 
que  adjecit  Gottlieb  Leberccht  Spohn.     Lipsia;,  1790,  8vo. 

4.  J.  L.  Hug  de  Antiquitate  Vatican!  Codicis  Commentatio 
Friburg,  1810,  4to. 

5.  De  Antiquissimo  Turicensis  Bibliothecse  Graeco  Psalmorum 
Libro,  in  Membrana  Purpurea  titulis  aureis  ac  litteris  argenteis 
exarato,  Epistola :  ad  Angelum  Mariam  Card.  Quirinum  scripta 
a  Joanne  Jacobo  BnEiTiNGEno.     Turici,  1748,  4to, 

5,  H.  C.  HwiiD  Libeilus  Criticus  de  Indole  MS.  Groeci  Novi 
Testamenti  Vindobonensis  Lambecii  34.  Accessit  Textus  La- 
tinus  ante-Hieronymianus  e  Codice  Laudiano.  Havnise,  1785, 
8vo. 

Extracts  from  this  manuscript  are  given  in  Alter's  edition  of  the 
Greek  Testament,  vol.  ii.  pp.  415 — 458.  in  which  volume  Professor 
Alter  also  gave  extracts  from  various  MSS.  hi  the  imperial  library 
at  Vienna. 

7.  Henr.  Phil.  Conr.  Henke  Codicis  Uffenbachiani,  qui 
Epistolae  ad  Hebrajos  fragmenta  continet,  Recensus  Criticus. 
Helmstadii,  1800,  4 to. 

This  dis.sertation  is  also  reprinted  in  Pott's  and  Ruperti's  Sylloge 
Commentationum  Theologicarum,  vol.  ii.  p.  1 — .32. 

8.  Commentatio  Critica,  sistens  duorum  Codicum  MStorum 
Biblia  Hebr.iicu  continentium,  qui  Regiomonti  Borussorum  asscr- 
vantur,  prsestantissimorum  Notitiam ;  cum  prsecipuarum  Variaii- 
tium  Lectionum  ex  utroque  codice  excerptarum  Sylloge.  Auctore 
Theod.  Christ.  Lilienthai..     Regiomonti  et  Lipsia;,  1770,  8vo. 

9.  Friderici  Mijnteki,  Episcopi  Selandia;,  Notitia  Codicis 
Grajci  Evangelium  Johannis  variatum  continentis.  HaunifE, 
1828,  8vo. 

"  This  little  tract  of  Bishop  MiJnter  deserves  a  place  in  the  library 
of  every  critical  divine.  The  manuscript,  of  which  it  gives  an 
account,  cannot  however  be  of  any  importance  except  in  the  point 
of  view  under  which  the  bishop  has  brought  it  forward.  On  ques- 
tions of  minute  criticism  its  testimony  is  evidently  of  no  value. 
Every  one  knows,  that  certain  heretics  mangled  the  Gospel  ol  St 
Matthew,  while  Marcion  dismembered  St.  Luke's;  but  St.  Mark'.s 
.and  St.  John's  Gospels  were  supposed  hitherto  to  have  escaped  a 
mutilation  of  the  same  wilful  nature.  The  manuscript,  however, 
of  which  this  little  tract  contains  the  collation,  appears  lo  exhibit 
a  conception  deliberately  made,  to  bring  the  latter  down  to  a  stan- 
dard of  certain  opinions.  It  is  now  in  the  library  of  a  Johannite 
convent  '[the  templars  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem]'  at  Paris,  and 
appears  to  be  a  copy  of  some  more  ancient  MS.,  which  is  said  to 
exist  at  present  in  a  monastery  on  mount  Athos ;  although  its  very 
existence,  or  at  any  rate  its  present  abode,  is  rather  problematical. 
The  original  manuscript  is  assigned  to  the  latter  part  of  the  twelfth 
century :  but  bishop  Miinter  adjudges  both  it  and  the  Paris  copy 
of  it  to  the  end  of  the  thirteenth.  It  contains  all  the  writings  of 
the  evangelist  St.  John,  but  its  chief  variations  from  the  established 
copies  are  confined  to  the  gospel.  The  gospel  is  divided  into  sec- 
tions, each  of  which  is  called  an  su:<>>£>,.ov.  They  correspond 
nearly  with  our  chapters.  The  bishop's  first  notion  was,  that  i( 
might  be  a  corruption  of  some  of  the  Gnostic  sects.  On  closer  ex« 
amination,  however,  and  comparing  it  with  what  Clemens  Alexan- 
drinus,  Origen,  and  other  ecclesiastical  writers  have  related  of 
these  sects,  it  does  not  appear  to  agree  with  any  of  their  parliculal 
corruptions.  It  is  not,  however,  free  from  impure  Greek,  barba« 
risms,  and  Lalinisms.  It  is,  evidently,  also  accommodated  to  soma 
peculiar  opinion.  The  deductions  drawn  by  the  bishop,  as  to  tha 
doctrines  of  those  who  concocted  this  pervei-sion  of  St.  John,  ara 
the  following  : — that  they  acknowledged  the  Trinity  and  the  ortho- 
dox doctrine  as  lo  the  procession  of  the  Holy  Spirit ;  that  they  recog« 
nised  the  divine  mission  of  our  Saviour,  but  attributed  his  wisdom 
and  his  jiovver  to  his  instruction  in  some  Egyptian  temple ;  thai 
they  placed  all  our  Saviour's  merit  on  his  divine  doctrine,  and  by 
no  means  recognised  the  efficacy  of  his  death  as  a  sacrifice ;  that 
they  described  the  miracles,  with  the  omission  of  all  that  makei 
them  miraculous ;  that  they  eject  almost  all  actual  prophecies,  all 
that  relates  to  Jewish  customs,  and  almost  all  that  has  any  tendency 
to  magnify  St.  Peter,  and  they  have  a  curious  addendum  at  xvii.  2b. 
which  ascribes  a  kind  of  supremacy  to  St.  John."  (Foreign  Quar- 
terly Review,  vol.  iv.  pp.  312,  313.)  In  all  the  topics  here  enume- 
rated, Dr.  Miinter  has  adduced  numerous  proofs  in  his  collation  of 
the  manuscript  with  the  received  Greek  text  of  the  New  Testament. 
A  collation  of  this  manuscript  with  Griesbach's  edition  of  the  Greek 
Testament  is  given  by  Dr.  Thilo  in  the  fii-st  volume  of  his  Codex 
Apocryphus  Novi  Testamenti,  noticed  in  p.  67.  of  this  Appendix. 

10.  Codicis  Manuscripti  N.  T.  Graeci  Raviani  in  Bibliotheca 
Regia  Berolinensi  Publica  asseryati  Examen,  quo  ostenditur,  al- 
teram ejus  partem  majorem  ex  Editione  Complutensi,  alteram 
minorem  ex  Editione  Rob.  Stephani  tertia  esse  descriptam,  insti- 
tuit  Georgius  Gottlieb  Pappelbaum.  Appendix  exhibet,  I.  Ad- 
denda ad  Wetst^nii  Collectionem  Lectionum  Varr.  Editionia 
Complutensis.  II.  Epistolain  ad  Geo.  Travis  Rev.  Anglum  jaa; 
1785  scriptam,  at  nondum  editam.     Berolini,  1796,  8vo. 


78 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Paet  n.  Chip.  m. 


11.  Codicem  Manuscriptum  Novi  Tcstamenti  Grsecum,  Evan- 
geliorum  quatuor  partem  diinidiam  inajorcm  continentem,  in 
Bibliothcca  Regia  Berolinensi  publica  asservatum,  descripsit,  con- 
tulit,  animadversiones  adjecit  G.  Th.  PAPrtLBAUM.  Bcrolini, 
1824,  8vo. 

12.  A  Catalogue  of  the  Ethiopic  Biblical  ]\Iannscripts  in  the 
Royal  Library  of  Paris,  and  in  the  Library  of  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society ;  also  some  account  of  those  in  the  Vati- 
can Library  at  Rome,  with  Remarks  and  Extracts.  To  which 
are  added  Specimens  of  Versions  of  the  New  Testament  in  the 
modern  languages  of  Abyssinia,  and  a  Grammatical  Analysis 
of  a  chapter  in  the  Amharic  Dialect ;  with  fac-similcs  of  an  Ethi- 
opic and  an  Amharic  Manuscript.  By  Thomas  Pell  Piatt,  B.A. 
Fellow  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.     London,  1823,  4to. 

A  beautifully  executed  work,  which  is  of  considerable  interest 
to  Ethiopic  and  other  oriental  scholars. 

13.  Programma  Theologicum,  Notitiara  continens  de  antiquis- 
simo  Codice  Manuscrijjto  Latinam  quatuor  Evangeliorum  Vcr- 
sionem  complectente,  et  in  Bibliotheca  Academia;  Ingolstadiensis 
adservato.  Descripsit  Codicem,  Variantes  cjusdem  a  Vulgata 
Lectiones  inde  a  Marc.  xri.  21.  usque  ad  finem  hujus  Evangelii 
excerpsit,  et  critice  recensuit  Scbast.  Seemillek.  Ingolstadii, 
1784,4to. 

14.  Dissertatio  in  aureum  ac  pervetustum  SS.  Evangeliorum 
Codicem  MS.  Monasterii  S.  Emmerani,  Ratisbonte.  Auctore  P. 
Colomanno  Sanftl.     [Ratisbonfe],  1786,  4to. 

15.  Josephi  Friderici  Sciikt,likoii  Descriptio  Codicis  Manu- 
ficripti  HebraDO-Biblici,  qui  StutgardisE  in  Bibliotheca  Illustris 
Consistorii  Wirtembcrgici  asservatur,  cum  Variarum  Lcctionum 
ex  CO  notatarum  Collectionc.  Prsemissa  est  Dissertatio  de  justo 
hodicrni  Studii,  quod  in  cxcutiendis  Codicibus  Vet.  Tcstamenti 
MSS.  collocalur,  Pretio  et  Moderamine.     Stutgardife,  1775,  8vo. 

16.  Curse  Critica:  in  Historiam  Textus  Evangeliorum,  Com- 
mentationibus  duabus  Bibliothecaj  Regis;  Parisiensis  Codices 
X.  T.  complurcs,  speciatim  vcro^Cyprium,  dcscribentibus,  exhi- 
bits a  Job.  M.  Augustine  Scuolz,  Theologia;  Doctore.  Heidel- 
berg®, 1820,  4  to. 

This  publication  consists  of  two  Dissertations,  the  first  of  which 
i-oniains  the  results  of  Dr.  Scholz's  researches  (during  a  residenire 
of  two  years)  among  forty-eight  Manuscripts  in  the  Royal  Library 
at  Paris,  seventeen  of  which  were  entirely  collated  by  him,  with 
the  greatest  cnrt.  Ni'nc  of  them  bad  never  before  been  collated 
by  any  individud'..  Dr.  Scholz  further  announces  in  this  disserta- 
tion his  first  theory  of  recensions,  of  which  an  abstract  has  been 
already  iriven  in  Part  I.  f'hap.  III.  Sect.  III.  of  the  first  volume, 
p.  209.  note.  The  second  Dissertnrion  comprises  a  minute  account  of 
the  Codex  Cyprius,  a  mnnuscripl  of  the  four  Gospels,  of  which  he 
ha.s  for  the  first  time  givf  n  the  entire  colhition. 

17.  Bibiisclie  Critische  Rcise  in  Frankreich,  dcr  Schweitz, 
Italien,  Palastina,  und  im  Archipci,  in  den  .fahrcn  1818,  1819, 
1820,  1821,  nebst  einer  Gcschichte  des  Textes  des  N.  T.  von 
Dr.  Joh.  Mart.  Augustin  Scholz.  Leipzig  und  Sorau,  1823,  8vo. 

This  work  is  comparatively  little  known  in  England.  It  con- 
tains an  account  of  Dr.  Scholz's  "  Biblico-Crilical  Travels  in  Franco, 
Switzerland,  Italy,  Palcstme,  and  the  Archipelago,  between  the 
years  1818  and  l821."  He  has  briefly  described  ihc  manuscripts 
which  came  under  his  observation,  and  has  extracted  the  most  in- 
to.-psting  various  readings.  He  has  also  given  a  plate  of  fac-similes 
of  ten  of  the  most  remarkable  manuscripts.  Many  of  his  various 
readings  are  inserted  by  Dr.  Schulz  in  his  third  edition  of  Gries- 
bach's  Greek  Testament;  and  also  by  M.  Dcrmoul  in  the  first  part 
of  his  Collectanea  Critica  in  Novum  Tcstamentum.  The  most  im- 
portant part  of  Dr.  Srhol/.'s  treatise  is  his  Outlines  towards  a  His- 
tory of  the  Text  of  the  New  Testament,  containing  his  second  the- 
ory of  recensions  of  MSS.,  an  abstract  of  wliich  has  been  given  in 
Part  I.  Ciiap.  III.  Sect.  HI.  of  the  first  volume,  pp.  209—212. 

18.  Natalitia  Friderici  Guilielmi  IH.  Regis  [Borussia;] 

rile  celebranda  Academiaj  Viadriniu  Vralisiaviensis  nomine  indi- 
cit  D.  DavidcH  Scin'i.7,.  Disputalur  de  (^odicc  IV.  Evangelio- 
rum Bii)liothera3  Rhedigerian.T,  in  quo  Vetus  Latlna  Vcrsio  con- 
tinentur,     Vrati-slavia;,  1814,  4to. 

An  inaccurate  account  of  the  Codex  RhcdiKerianus  having  ap- 
peared in  the  year  ITCIl  from  the  pen  of  J.  E.  .'^clicibel,  Dr.  .Sclinlz 
was  induced  to  examine  the  maniiscri|it  with  minute  atttention  : 
he  has  investigated  its  external  appearance,  critical  value,  und  age, 
at  Considerable  length,  and  has  inserted  xin  most  vuluaitlc  various 
readings  in  his  third  edition  of  Gricsba«-h's  Gre<'k  Testament. 

19.  Descriptio  Codicis  Manuscript!,  qui  Versioncm  Penfa- 
teuchi  Arabic!  continet,  asscrvati  in  Bibliotheca  Univcrsitalis 
Vratislavicnsis  ac  nondum  editi,  cum  speciminibus  Versionis 
Arabico;.     Auctore  G.  A.  TuEisin.     Vralislavia-,  1823,  4to. 

The  manuscript  described  in  this  dissertation  formerly  belonged 
to  the  Convent  of  Augusimians  at  SSagan :  whence  it  waa  removed 


to  the  University  of  Bieslau,  together  with  some  other  oriental 
manuscri|>ts.  A  note  at  the  end  indicates  the  date  of  this  MS.  to 
be  the  year  1290.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  written  in  Egypt  by 
a  Christian  Copt.  (Journal  de  la  Litterature  Eirangere,  lo23,  p 
248.) 


§  2.    TREATISES    ON    VAHIOrS    HEADINGS. 

1.  Ludovici  Capelli  Critica  Sacra;  sivc  de  Variis,  qute  in 
Sacris  Veteris  Tcstamenti  libris  oceurrunt,  Lectionibus  Libri  sex. 
Parisiis,  1650,  foHo.     Halff,  1775-1786,  3  vols.  8vo. 

In  this  work  Cappcl  attacked  the  notion,  which  at  that  time  ob- 
tained generally  among  biblical  critics,  of  the  absolute  integrity  n; 
the  Hebrew  text.  So  much  were  the  French  Protestants  displease;! 
at  it,  that  they  prevented  it  from  being  printed  either  at  Sedan, 
Geneva,  or  Leydcn.  At  length  Father  Morinus,  and  some  otii<-r 
learned  men,  in  communion  witii  the  church  of  Rome,  obtained 
permission  for  its  publication  at  Paris.  It  is  now  admil'ed  that 
Cappel  has  fully  proved  his  )H)int.  He  was,  however,  severely  at- 
tacked by  Arnold  Boott,  in  his  Epistola  De  Ttxlns  Jkbraici  Veicris 
Testamcnli  CertUudine  el  Aulhoilia,  4to.  Parisiis,  1(J50,  and  espe- 
cially by  the  younger  Buxtorf,  who  in  1653  printed  his  Anli-Crilira, 
seu  ViitdicicB  Veritatis  Ebraica  adversus  Liudoviri  Capelli  Criticain, 
quam  vncat  Sacram,  ^c.  Basilefe,  4to. ;  in  which  Buxiorf  most  stre- 
nuously advocates  the  authority  and  absolute  integrity  of  the  He- 
brew text.  This  standard  work,  which  cost  its  learned  author 
thirty-six  years'  labour,  exhibits  in  six  books  the  various  readings 
which  result,  1.  From  a  juxta-position  of  different  parts  of  the  Old 
Testament ;  2.  From  a  collation  of  the  parallel  passages  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testament ;  3.  From  collations  of  the  Masora,  Samaritan 
version,  and  most  ancient  printed  editions  of  the  Hebrew  Scrip- 
tures ;  4.  From  a  collation  of  the  Sepluagint  with  the  Hebrew  text , 
5.  From  collations  of  the  Hebrew  text  with  theChaldoe  Paraphrase; 
and  the  Greek  versions  of  Aquila,  Symmachus,  and  Theodotion, 
with  the  Latin  Vulgate ;  and  with  the  Masorelic  and  Rabbinical 
commentators  ;  6.  The  sixth  and  concluding  book  treats  on  the 
errors  which  are  to  be  attributed  to  transcribers,  and  on  the  read- 
ings derived  from  conjectural  criticism.  The  best  edition  of  Cap- 
pel's  work  is  the  8vo.  one  above  noticed ;  it  contains  his  various 
defences  of  himself  against  his  bitter  antagonists,  and  was  superin- 
tended by  MM.  Vogcl  and  Scharlbnberg,  who  have  insorJcd  nu- 
merous valuable  notes,  in  which  the  arguments  and  statements  of 
Cappel  are  occasionally  examined,  corrected,  or  refuted. 

2.  Adami  RECHEXBEnoii  Dissertatio  Critica  de  Variantibus 
Novi  Testament!  Lectionibus  Grsecis.     Lipsi;e,  1690,  4to. 

3.  Joannis  Clerici  Ars  Critica.  8vo.  Loudini,  1698. 

The  first  two  sections  of  the  third  partof  thi.s  very  valuable  criti- 
cal work  treat  on  the  origin  and  correction  of  false  readings,  both  in 
profime,  and  particularly  in  the  sacred  writers. 

4.  Christoph.  Matt.  Pfatfii  Dissertatio  Critica  de  Genuinis 
Librorum  Novi  Testament!  Lectionibus.  Amstelodami,  1 709, 8vo, 

5.  J.  H.  ab  Elswich  Dissertatio  de  Rccentiorum  in  Novum 
Fcedus  Critice.     Vitebergse,  1711. 

6.  J.  W.  Baieui  Dissertatio  de  Variarum  Lectionum  Nov! 
Tcstamenti  usu  et  abusu.     Altdorf,  1712. 

7.  J.  L.  Fret  Commcntarius  de  Variis  Lectionibus  Novi 
Testament!.     Basil,  1713. 

8.  Chr.  LrDERi  Dissertatio  de  Causis  Variantium  Lectionum 
ScripturjB.     Lipsiae,  1730. 

9.  Antonii  DniEssKxii  Divina  Auctoritas  Codicis  Novi  Tcs- 
tamenti, vindicate  a  strepitu  Variantium  Lectionum.  Groeningtp, 
1733,  4to. 

10.  J.  A.  OsiANDRi  Oratio  de  Originibus  Variantium  Lec- 
tionum Novi  Testament!.     Tubingen,  1739,  4to. 

11.  J.  A,  0.siA>-nui  Dispulatio  de  Pra;c.!piu8  Lectionibus  Va- 
riis Novi  Testament!.     Tubingen,  1747,  4to. 

12.  J.  C.  Kr.KMM  Principia  Critica;  Sacne  Novi  Testament!. 
Tubingen,  1746,  4to. 

13.  Jo.  Geo.  RicHTER  Excrcilatio  de  Arte  Critica  Scripturaj 
Interpretc.     Ludg.  1750,  4lo. 

14.  C.  B.  MiciiAELis  Tractatio  Critica  de  Variis  Lectionibus 
Novi  Tcstamenti  cauto  colligcndis  et  dijudicandis,  in  qiiu  cum 
de  illarum  causis  turn  df  cantclis  agilur,  siinulque  de  codicibus, 
versionibus  antiiiuis,  et  Patribus,  partim  curiosa,  partim,  utiUa, 
asseruntur.     Halffi,  1749,  4to. 

This  treatise  was  the  foundation  on  which  J.  D.  Michaelis  bnilt 
his  "  admirable  chapter"  on  t)ie  various  readings  of  the  New  Tea 
tamont.  as  Bishoj)  Miirsh  most  truly  terms  it.  This  chapter  form» 
by  fur  the  largest  portion  of  the  first  volume  of  his  Introduction  !o 
the  New  Testament.  The  Latin  treatise  of  his  father  is  of  extreme 
rarity. 

1.5.  Jo.  J.ac.  Wetstf.mi   Libclli  ad    Crisin  atquf   Inlerprefa 
tionem   Novi  Testament!.     Adjccla   ci>t  Recensio  Introductionis 
Dengclii  ad  Crisin  Novi  Tcstamenti,  atque  Gloccstri!  Ridley  Dis- 


COLLATIONS  OF  MANUSCRIPTS. 


Sect.  IV.  §  3.] 

sertatio  de  Syriacarura  Novi  Foederis  Indole  atque  Usu.     lUustra- 
vit  Joh.  Salomo  Scmler.     Hate  Magdcburgicse,  1766,  8vo. 

The  fitst  109  pages  of  this  volume  contain  Wetstein's^  Anhnad- 
versiones  et  Cantiones  ad  Examen  Variarniii  Leclionum  Novi  Tis;a- 
menli  NcceKmricE,  vvliich  were  (ii-st  printed  in  the  second  volume 
of  his  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament,  pp.  851)— 874.  They  have 
been  consulted  for  our  ohsorv;<.tions  on  various  readings.  Welslein's 
rules  for  judging  of  various  readings  are  given  with  great  clear- 
ness and  precision  ;  and  the  whole  volume  is  "  a  publication  which 
should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  critic."  (Bishop  Marsh.) 


§    3.    COLLATIONS  OF  MANUSCRIPTS  AND    COLLECTIONS   OF  VARI- 
OUS READINGS. 

*»*  Of  (he  earlier  collections  of  Various  Readings,  an  account  of 
may  be  seen  in  Le  Long's  Sibliothcca  Sacra,  vol.  i.  pp.  460 — 472. 

1.  Collatio  Codicis  Cottoniana  Geneseos  cum  Editione  Ro- 
mana  a  viro  clarissimo  Joanne  Ernesto  Ghaue  olim  facta;  nunc 
demum  summa  cura  edita  ab  Henrico  Owen.  Londini,  1778, 
8vo. 

2.  A  Collation  of  an  Indian  copy  of  the  Pentateuch,  with 
preliminary  remarks,  containing  an  exact  description  of  the  ma- 
nuscript, and  a  notice  of  some  others,  Hebrew  and  Syriac,  col- 
lectt-d  by  the  Rev.  C.  Buchanan.  D.D.  in  the  year  1806,  and  now 
deposited  in  the  Public  Library,  Cambridge.  Also  a  collation  and 
description  of  a  manuscript  roll  of  the  book  of  Esther,  and  the 
Megillah  of  Ahasuerus,  from  the  Hebrew  copy,  originally  extant 
in  brazen  tablets  at  Goa ;  with  an  English  Translation.  By 
Thomas  Yf.atf.s.     Cambridge,  1812,  4to. 

.\n  account  of  the  manuscript,  which  Mr.  Yeates  has  collated  in 
his  learned  and  valuable  publication,  is  given  in  Fart  I.  Chap.  III. 
Sect.  I.  of  the  first  volume,  pp.  219 — 221.  For  an  analysis  of  his 
work,  see  the  Christian  Observer  for  the  year  1812,  pp.  172 — 174. 

3.  Variaj  Lectiones  Veteris  Testament!,  ex  immensa  MSS. 
Editorumque  Codicum  congerie  hausta,  et  ad  Samaritanum 
Tcxtum,  ad  vetustissimas  Versiones,  ad  accuratiores  Sacra  Criti- 
cae  Fontcs  ac  Leges  exaniinata; :  a  Jo.  Bern.  Dr  Rossi.  Parmae, 
1784-87,  4  tomis,  4to. — Ejusdem  Scholia  Critica  in  Vetus  Tcs- 
tamentum,  seu  Supplementum  ad  Varias  Sacri  Textus  Lectiones. 
Parmaj,  1799,  4to. 

This  collection  of  various  readings  to  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  may 
be  considered  as  an  indispensably  necessary  supplement  to  Dr.  Ken- 
nicotl's  critical  edition  described  in  pages  7,  8.  of  this  Appendix. 
Four  hundred  and  seventy-nine  manuscripts  were  collated  forM.  De 
Rossi's  elaborate  work,  besides  two  hundred  and  eighty-eight  printed 
editions,  some  of  which  were  totally  unknown  before,  and  others 
very  imperfectly  known.  lie  also  consulted  several  Chaldee,  Sy- 
riac, Arabic,  and  Latin  manuscripts,  together  with  a  considerable 
number  of  rabbinical  commentaries.  Vol.  I.  contains  the  Prolego- 
mena of  De  Rossi,  and  the  various  readings  of  the  books  of  Genesis, 
E.vodus,  and  Leviticus.  Vol.  II.  contains  those  of  the  books  of 
Numbers,  Deuteronomy,  Joshua,  Judges,  Samuel,  and  Kings.  Vol. 
III.  comprehends  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel  the  iv^-elve  minor  pro- 
phets, with  the  Song  of  Solomon,  Ruth,  Lamentations,  Ecclesiastes, 
and  Esther :  and  in  Vol.  IV.  are  the  various  readings  of  the  books 
of  Psalms,  Proverbs,  Job,  Daniel,  Ezra,  Nehemiah,  and  Chronicles. 
The  supplemental  volume  of  Scholia  Critica,  published  at  Parma 
in  1799,  contains  the  results  of  M.  De  Rossi's  further  collations. 
His  Prolegomena  are  a  treasure  of  biblical  criticism.  The  critical 
labours  of  this  eminent  philologer  ascertain  (as  Dr.  Kennicotl's 
valuable  and  judicious  labours  had  before  done),  instead  of  invali- 
dating the  integrity  of  the  sacred  text,  in  matters  of  the  greatest 
importance  ;  as  all  the  manuscripts,  notwithstanding  the  diversity 
of  their  dates,  and  of  the  places  where  they  were  transcribed,  agree 
with  respect  to  that  which  constitutes  the  proper  essence  and  sub- 
stance of  divine  revelation,  viz.  its  doctrines,  moral  precepts,  and 
historical  relations.  M.  De  Rossi  charges  the  variations  not  merely 
on  the  copyists,  but  on  the  ignorance  and  temerity  of  the  critics, 
who  have  in  all  ages  been  too  ambitious  of  dictatmg  to  their  au- 
thors :  and  who,  instead  of  correcting  the  pretended  errors  of  others, 
frequently  substitute  in  their  place  real  errors  of  their  own. 

4.  Codex  Criticus  of  the  Hebrew  Bible,  wherein  van  der 
Hooght's  Text  is  corrected  from  the  Hebrew  Manuscripts  collated 
by  Kennicott  and  De  Rossi,  and  from  the  Ancient  Versions ;  be- 
ing an  Attempt  to  form  a  Standard  Text  of  the  Old  Testament. 
To  which  is  prefixed  an  Essay  on  the  Nature  and  Necessity  of 
such  an  Undertaking.  By  the  Rev.  George  Hamiltox,  M.A. 
London,  1821,  8vo. 

Much  as  has  been  accomplished  by  the  learned  researches  of 
Dr.  Kennicott,  Professor  De  Rossi,  and  other  distinguished  biblical 
critics,  a  standard  text  of  the  Books  of  the  Old  Testament  is  still  a 
desideratum  in  .sacred  literature,  which  Mr.  Hamilton's  work  is 
on  able  and  successful  attempt  to  supply.  In  his  Codex  Criticus, 
"  theMext  of  van  der  Hooght  is  adopted  as  the  basis,  being  that  to 
which  both  Kennicott  and  De  Rossi  have  referred  their  collations. 
Everj'  deviation  from  this  text  is  marked  l)y  hollow  letters,  and  the 
word  or  words,  as  they  stand  in  van  der  Hooght,  are  exhibited  in 


79 


the  outer  margin,  so  that  the  entire  of  his  text  is  printed.  The  in- 
ferior margin  contains  such  various  readings  as  were  deemed 
worthy  of  notice,  though  not  entitled  to  a  place  in  the  text;  read- 
ings probably  true  being  marked  (t),  and  those  possibly  true  (}).  In 
the  text  each  variation  is  preceded  by  a  numerical  figure,  and  fol- 
lowed by  two  inverted  commas  (")  to  mark  how  far  it  extends :  the 
figure  refers  to  a  corresponding  one  in  the  outer  margin,  if  it  be 
prefixed  to  a  correction,  in  which  case  the  margin  exhibits  the 
rejected  reading,  or  to  one  in  the  irferior  margin,  if  it  be  but  a 
various  reading.  In  every  case  there  is  also  a  corresponding  num- 
ber in  the  notes,  which  expresses  the  authorities  by  which  the 
reading  is  supported,  or  on  which  the  various  reading  rests.  Thia 
plan  is  in  accordance  with  that  of  Griesbach's  revision."  (Eclectic 
Review,  N.  S.  vol.  xviii.  pp.  319,  320.)  "On  the  value  and  utility 
of  the  publication  before  us,  it  is  unnecessary  for  us  to  expatiate. 
The  purity  of  the  text  of  the  Bible  is  a  subject  which  possesses 
the  highest  importance.  This  Codex  Criticus  presents  in  a  con- 
densed and  commodious,  and,  what  is  of  no  small  consideration, 
cheap  form,  the  results  of  Kennicott's  and  De  Rossi's  labours  ift 
sacred  criticism."     (Ibid.  p.  324.) 

5.  C.  A.  Bonn  Pscudo-Critica  Millio-Bengcliana,  qua  allega- 
tiones  pro  Variis  Novi  Testamenti  Lectionibus  refutantur.  Halte, 
1767,  2  vols.  8vo. 

Dr.  Mill  ill  his  critical  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament,  not  being 
sufficiently  acquainted  with  the  Oriental  Versions,  had  recourse  to 
the  Latin  translations  of  them  in  Bishop  Walton's  Polyglott,  for  the 
various  readings  of  those  versions.  Consequently  he  erred  when- 
ever these  were  incorrect.  Similar  mistakes  were  committed  by 
Bengel  from  the  same  cause.  The  design  of  Professor  Bode  is  to 
correct  the  defects  and  mistakes  of  those  eminent  critics.  Bode  is 
considered  by  his  countrymen  as  a  man  of  most  extensive  learning, 
but  totally  destitute  of  elegance  as  a  writer. 

6.  Joannis  Alberti  Bengelii  Apparatus  Criticus  ad  Novum 
Testamentum,  criseos  sacrae  compendium,  limam,  supplementum, 
ac  fructum  exhibens.  Cura  Philippi  Davidis  Burkii.  Tubingae, 
1763,  4to. 

The  first  impre.ssion  of  this  work  appeared  in  Bengel's  edition 
of  the  Greek  "Testament,  published  at  Tubingen,  in  1734,  4to.  It 
was  materially  enlarged  and  corrected  by  Burkius.  Much  as  has 
been  done  by  later  critics,  the  researches  of  Bengel  and  his  collec- 
tion of  Various  Readings  are  not  superseded  by  their  learned 
labours. 

7.  Jo.  Jac.  GniESBACHii  Symbolae  Criticae,  ad  supplendas  et 
corrigcndas  Variarum  N.  T.  Lectionum  collectiones.  Acccdit 
multorum  N.  T.  Codicum  Grsacorum  Descriptio,  et  Examen. 
Hala;,  1785-93,  2  tomis,  8vo. 

8.  Criseos  Griesbachianae  in  Novum  Testamentum  Synopsis, 
Edidit  Josephus  White,  S.T.P.     Oxonii,  1811,  8vo. 

This  small  volume  is  exactly  conformable  in  its  design  to  the 
beautiful  edition  of  the  New  Testament  published  by  Dr.  White  in 
1808,  and  noticed  in  p.  16.  of  this  Appendix.  It  "  ccmtains  all  the 
variations  of  any  consequence,  which  can  be  considered  as  esta- 
blished, or  even  rendered  probable,  by  the  investigation  of  Griesbach. 
The  chief  part  of  these  readings  was  given  in  the  margin  of  that 
edition,  distinguished  by  the  Origenian  marks.  Here  the  value  of 
each  reading  or  proposed  alteration  is  stated  in  words  at  length 
and  therefore  cannot  be  misapprehended.  This  book  may  there- 
fore be  considered  as  a  kind  of  supplement  to  that  edition,  or  illus- 
tration of  it."     (British  Critic  (O.  S.),  vol.  xxxviii.  p.  395.) 

9.  Remarks  upon  the  Systematic  Classification  of  Manuscripts, 
adopted  by  Griesbach  in  his  edition  of  the  New  Testament.  By 
Richard  Laurence,  LL.D.     Oxford  and  London,  1814,  Svo. 

For  a  full  analysis  of  this  elaborate  Treatise  of  Dr.  (now  Arch- 
bishop) Laurence,  see  the  British  Critic  (N.  S.),  vol.  i.  pp.  173 — 192. 
296—315.  401—428.,  and  the  Eclectic  Review  (N.  S.),  vol.  iv.  pp. 
1—22.^73—189. 

10.  Sauberti  (Johannis)  Varise  Lectiones  Textus  Graeci 
Evangelii  S,  Matthaei,  ex  plurimis  impressis  ac  manuscriptis 
Codicibus  collectae;  et  cum  Versionibus  partim  antiquissimis, 
partim  praestantissimis,  nee  non  Patrum  veteris  Ecclesiae  Graeco- 
rum  Latinorumque  Commentariis  coUatse  ;  praemissa  Epicrisi  de 
Origine,  Auctoritate,  et  Usu  Variarum  Novi  Testamenti  Lec- 
tionum Grsecarum  in  genere.     Helmestadii,  1672,  4to. 

1 1 .  Qii;  iipitvipJ^^ii  iv  a-stfiKi.  Or,  a  Critical  Dissertation  upon 
1  Tim.  iii.  16.  wherein  Rules  are  laid  down  to  distinguish,  in 
various  readings,  which  is  genuine ;  an  account  is  given  of 
above  a  hundred  Greek  Manuscripts  of  St.  Paul's  Epistles  (many 
of  them  not  heretofore  collated) ;  the  writings  of  the  Greek  and 
Latin  Fathers,  and  the  ancient  Versions  are  examined ;  and  the 
common  reading  of  that  Text,  'Gon  -was  manifest  in  the  Flesh,' 
is  prov'd  to  be  the  true  One.  Being  the  substance  of  eight  Ser- 
mons preach'd  at  the  Lady  Meyer's  Lecture,  in  the  years  1737 
and  1738.     By  John  Berriman,  M.A.     London,  1741,  8vo. 

12.  Examen  Variarum  Lectionum  Joannis  Millii  S.T.P.  ia 
Novum  Testamentum.  Opera  et  studio  Danielis  Whitbt,  S.T.P. 


80 


SACRED  THILOLOGY. 


[Pakt  II.  CaAP.  III. 


In  vol.  ii.  of  Dr.  White's  Commentary  on  the  New  Testament, 
folio  and  quarto. 

This  vehement  attack  on  Dr.  Mill's  Collection  of  Various  Read- 
ings, in  his  critical  eJiiion  of  the  IVevv  Tef-tament,  was  first 
fiirblished  in  1710,  and  afterwards  annexed  lo  Ur.  Whitby's  Coin- 
montary.  "  Ilis  chief  object  was,  to  defend  the  readings  of  the 
printed  text,  and  to  show  that  Mill  was  mistaken  in  frequently 
preferring  other  readings.  But,  how  frequently  soever  Mill  has 
been  guilty  of  an  error  in  jmlgment,  in  the  choice  of  this  or  that 
particular  reading,  yet  the  value  of  the  collection  il.'icif  reinaiiw 
unaltered.  Whitby,  though  a  go<j<i  corhmcntator,  was  a  bad  criiif." 
(Michaelis's  Intro'd.  to  the  New  Test.  vol.  ii.  p.  4C0.)  In  the  follow- 
ing page  he  severely  censures  Whitby's  Examen. 

13.  Critical  Remarks  upon  the  Epistles,  as  they  were  publi.shed 
from  several  authentic  copies,  by  John  Bcbclius,  at  Basil,  in 
1531.     By  Benjamin  Dawxey,  York,  1735,  8vo. 

J'his  tract  is  not  of  very  common  occurrence.  The  common 
reading  is  placed  first,  to  which  is  subjoined  the  text  of  Bebelius, 
from  his  edition  of  the  New  Testament  printed  at  Basil,  in  1531, 
together  with  such  aulliorities  as  favour  it.  These  authorities 
I  which  are  nearly  forty  in  number)  consist  of  Manuscripts,  Quota- 
tions of  the  New  Testament  in  the  writings  of  the  Fathers,  and 
printed  copies;  and  are  taken  from  Dr.  Mill's  critical  edition  of  the 
Greek  Testament,  and  other  sources. 

14.  Jacohi  AMKiisFOORnr  Dissertatio  Philologica  de  Variis 
J.ectionihus  Holmesianis  locorum  quorumdam  Pentateuchi  Mo- 
saici.     Lugd.  Bat.  1815,  4to. 

15.  A  Collection  of  Various  Readings  for  the  New  Testament 
made  from  ancient  Greek  Manuscripts.  (In  the  third  volume 
of  Dr.  A.  Clarke's  Commentary  on  the  New  Testament.)  Lon- 
don, 1817,  4to. 

The  manuscript,  from  which  this  collection  of  various  readings 
i»  printed,  formerly  belonged  to  the  Rev.  Dr.  Mangey,  a  distin- 
guished divine  in  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century  :  but  it 
is  710^  in  his  handwriting.  Dr.  Clarke  has  minutely  described  the 
watermarks  of  the  paper  on  which  the  collection  is  written,  but  he 
is  ignorant  bv  whom  it  was  made;  nor  does  he  know  what  JIS8. 
have  thus  b.;en  collated,  since  no  description  of  them  appears  He 
states  that  the  collector  of  these  various  readings  was  great.y  at- 
tached to  the  Latin  version,  as  in  almost  every  case  he  has  preferred 
those  readings  which  agree  with  the  Vulgate.  Many  of  the  read- 
ings thus  preferred  are  those  which  were  adopted  by  Griesbach, 
and  received  into  the  Greek  text  of  his  edition  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. Dr.  Clarke  is  of  opinion  that  this  collection  of  various 
readings  might  have  been  made,  either  in  England  or  in  Holland, 
about  one  hundred  years  since,  in  the  reign  of  King  George  I.  It 
commences  with  Matt.  xxiv.  2.,  and  ends  with  Rev.  xxii.  7. 

10.  Collectanea  Critica  in  Novum  Testamentum.  Auctore 
.larobo  Deii.mout,  Thcol.  Doct.  Pars  Prior.  Lugduni  Batavo- 
rum,  1825,  8vo. 

This  volume  contains  a  collection  of  various  readings  (now  pub- 
lished for  the  first  time)  from  the  Codex  Gronovianus  131,  a  neatly 
written  MS.  of  the  lour  Gospels,  and  the  Codex  Meermanniantis, 
containing  the  four  Gospels,  Acts  and  Epistles,  with  some  chasms: 
both  these  MSS.  are  in  the  University  Library  at  Leyden.  He 
h.TB  also  collated  two  other  MS.S.  in  the  same  library,  the  readings 
of  which  had  been  imperfectly  given  by  Welstein,  viz.  the  Codex 
Petavii  1.,  containing  the  Acts  and  Epistles  entire,  and  the  Codex 
Scaligeri,  which  contains  various  passages  of  the  New  Testament. 
The.sc  four  MSS.  were  collated  with  the  Tortus  Receplns :  and  to 
the  readings  thus  obtained,  Dr.  Dermout  has  added  numerous  lec- 
tions from  Scholz's  Biblico-Critical  Travels,  and  from  the  Codex 
Berolinensis,  a  MS.  of  the  eleventh  century,  containing  frngmont« 
of  the  Gospels,  published  by  Pappclbaum.  All  these  readings  are 
disposed  in  the  order  of  the  several  biKi'-i?  and  chujiters  of  the 
New  Testament  by  Dr.  Dermout,  who  [>romised  two  oihcr  jxjrtioiis 
of  his  Collectanea  Critica.  which,  however,  have  not  yet  been 
published.  They  were  announced  to  contain  accurate  descrij^ions 
of  the  manuscripla  consulted  by  him,  together  witli  commenlarirs 
on  select  patutages  of  the  New  Testament,  whi<'h  have  been  or  still 
are  the  subject  of  discussion  among  the  learned. 

17.  An  Historical  .\ccount  of  two  notable  Corruption.s  of 
•Scripture,  in  a  Letter  lo  a  Friend,  by  Sir  Isaac  Nk  wrox.  Lon- 
don, 1830,  8vo. 

A  very  imperfect  copy  of  this  tract,  wanting  both  the  beginning 
and  the  end,  and  erroneous  in  many  places,  was  published  at  Lon- 
don in  the  year  1151.  under  the  title  of."  Two  Letters  from  Sir  Is.iac 
Newiim  to  M.  Lc  Clerc."  But  in  the  author's  manuscript,  which 
was  printed  for  the  first  time  entire  in  the  fifth  \oluino  of  Sirlsaac 
Newton's  Works,  the  whoh*  isono  continiieil  discourse.  The  texts 
in  question  are  the  disputed  clauses  in  1  Tim.  iii.  Ifi.  and  1  John 
V.  7. :  the  title  page  al)Ove  given  is  prefixed  to  "  Newton's  Leiler," 
l>y  its  modern  Socinian  editors.  Tin;  copy  in  the  ptjssession  of  the 
author  of  this  work  is  labelled  "  Sir  Isaac  Newton  on  two  (,'orriip- 
lions  of  Scripture."  Other  (opics  (it  ap()earg  from  Dr.  IlendersoirN 
leanie<l  tract  noticed  in  the  ensuing  article,  p.  3.)  were  e\[)osed  to 
«ale  at  the  modern  Socinian  l)ep<)Hitorv.  where  this  tract  was  pul>- 
lished,  and  labelled  "  SIR  ISAAC  NEWTON  on  Trinitarian  Cor- 
ruptions of  Scripture."    Thi.*  tondi.«  t  called  forth  the  following 


ju8t  but  severe  strictures  from  the  pen  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Henderson 
"  They"  [the  terms  of  the  label  in  question]  "are  obviously  designed 
to  answer  a  twofold  purpose.  First,  they  are  intended  to  imbue 
the  public  mind  with  the  belief  that  Trinitarians,  in  order  to  sup. 
port  their  system,  scruple  not  to  falsify  the  records  of  divine  truth; 
and  that  this  falsification  is  not  confined  to  a  fev.' solitary  instances, 
but  has  l>een  practised  to  some  considerable  extent.  Had  there 
been  no  such  design,  why  not  candidly  state  the  whole  head  and 
front  of  their  offending,  as  alleged  in  Sir  Isaac's  impeachment? 
Why,  instead  of  announcing  '  two  corruptions,'  or,  if  deemed  pre- 
lerable,  '  two  noluhle  corruption.s  of  Scripture,'  is  it  given  indefi- 
nitely, as  if  scores  or  even  hundreds  of  pa.ssages  had  suffered  from 
the  fraudulent  hand  of  Trinitarian  corruption  ?  Secondly,  the  cele- 
brated name  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton  is  put  forth  to  support  with  its 
high  sanction  the  cause  of  anli-Trinitarianism  ;  ana  superficial 
thinkers,  or  such  as  may  not  possess  the  means  of  determining  what 
were  the  real  sentiments  of  the  *  first  of  philosophers,'  will  natu- 
rally suppose  that  he  espoused  that  cause,  and  that  a  system  of 
opinions,  which  commanded  the  approval  of  so  mighty  a  mind,  can- 
not but  be  true."  (Ibid.) 

18.  The  Great  Mystery  of  Godliness  incontrovertible  :  or  Sir 
Isaac  Newton  and  the  Socinian  foiled  in  the  Attempt  to  prove  a 
Corruption  in  the  Text,  1  Tim.  iii.  1 6.  ©kc  e<;i*v^iad5i  tv  a-ajMu, 
containing  a  Review  of  the  Charges  brought  against  the  passage; 
an  Examination  of  the  Various  Readings;  and  a  Confirmation 
of  that  in  the  received  Text  on  Principles  of  General  and  Bibli- 
cal Criticism.     By  E.  Henderson,  [D.D.]  London,  1830,  8vo. 

The  genuineness  of  the  controverted  clause  in  1  Tim.  iii.  16.  is 
established  beyond  doubt  in  this  ably  executed  and  impartial  trea- 
tise ;  which  his  grace  the  present  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  (Dr. 
Howley)  is  stated  in  the  Aiulover  Biblical  Repository  (vol.  i.  p.  777.) 
to  have  characterized  as  "  a  valuable  specimen  of  critical  ability, 
successfully  exerted  in  the  investigation  and  discovery  of  truth." 
In  an  appendix.  Dr.  Henderson  has  given  a  list  of  works,  in  which 
the  genuineness  of  the  disputed  clause  is  discussed.  It  ought  to  be 
added,  that  his  treatise  was  not  originally  intended  for  publication 
but  was  printed  in  order  to  meet  the  exigency  occasioned  by  an  at 
tempt  on  the  part  of  the  modern  Socinians,  lo  persuiide  the  public 
that  Sir  Isaac  Newton  had  proved  a  corruption  of  the  passage  in 
1  Tim.  iii.  16.  Dr.  Henderson's  Treatise  is  reprinted  in  the  second 
volume  of  the  .Andover  Biblical  Repository,  with  some  additional 
observations  by  the  liev.  Professor  Stuart. 

19.  Lucubralio  Critica  in  Acta  Apostolorum,  Epistolas  Car 
tholicas,  et  Paulinas  :  in  qua  de  classibus  Librorum  manu  scrip- 
torum  Quajstio  instituitur,  Descriptio  et  Varia  Lectio  VII.  Codi- 
cum  Marcianonim  exhibetur,  atque  Observationes  ad  pluriina 
loca  cum  apostoli  tuin  evangeliorum  dijudicanda  et  emendanda 
proponuntur,  a  Guil.  Frid.  Rink.  BasilietE,  1830,  8vo. 


§  4.  TRE.\TISES  ON  THE  GENUIXENESS  OF  THE  DISPUTED  CL.VVSES 
I.\   1  JOHN  V.  7,  8. 

%*  Asa  copioua  slalemeiil  of  the  evidence  for  and  aqa'mst  the  genu- 
ineness of  the  disputed  clauses,  iii  this  memorable  passage  of 
the  A'eio  Testament,  is  given  in  Vol.  II.  pp.  366.  el  seq.  those 
publications  or  parts  of  publications  enumerated  in  the  follow- 
ing Bibliographical  Lift,  which  maintain  the  sri'Rioi'SNESS  ef 
the  clauses  in  question,  are  printed  in  Italics,  in  order  t/ut'  this 
section  ma  1/  not  be  un/iecessarili/  preitracted.  For  particutnrt 
respecting  the  line  of  argument  advocated  bif  their  respective 
authors,  the  reader  is  referred  lo  article  46.  p.  b2.  infra. 

1.  Adnotationes  Millii,  auctsE  et  corrcct.'e  ex  Prolegonieni.s  sul;:, 
Wetstcnii,  Bengelii,  et  Sabaterii  ad  1  Joann.  V.  7.  una  cum 
duabus  epistolis  Richardi  Bentleii,  et  Observationibus  Joannis 
Seldcni,  Christophori  Matthia;  Pfaffli,  Joannis  Francisci  Bud- 
dei,  et  Christiani  Friderici  Schmidii  de  codem  loco.  CoUecta  et 
edit:e  a  Thoma  BiiioEss,  S.T.P.  Episcopo  Menevenri  [hodie 
S.arisburiensi].  Mariduni  [Caermarthen],  1822,  8vo. 

With  the  exception  of  Welslein's  note  on  1  Jo/m  V.  7,  which  im- 
pugns the  genuineness  of  the  disputed  clause,  all  the  pieces  in  this 
volume  are  from  the  pens  of  the  most  strenuous  of  its  early  vindi- 
cators. An  a[)pendix  conlnins  the  shorter  ob.servalions  of  J.  G. 
Priiins,  Frederif  k  Lampe,  J.  F.  Biiddcus,  John  Laurence  Mosheim. 
Bishop  Fell,  I'ool's  Compendium  of  the  .Annotations  of  Gerhard 
and  ifammond,  Kiittncr's  iibridpmeiu  of  Ciriesbn(h's  Disipiisi 
lion  on  this  ilause;  and  liie  concluding  remarks  of  the  learned 
editor  on  Dr.  Mill's  opinion  concerning  the  old  italic  version,  nnil 
on  Bengel's  inlerprelalion  of  the  eighth  verse  and  his  transposition 
of  the  seventli  and  eighth  verses. 

2.  DisserUitio,  in  qua  Integritas  et  au^ivrii  istius  celeberrimi 
loco  1  Epist.  Joannis  cap.  V.  v.  7.  a  sui)positioiiis  nola  vindica- 
tor. Authore  Thoma  Smith,  S.T.P.  [In  his  Miscellanea,  pp. 
131  —  150.]   Londini,  I'i'JO,  8vo. 

3.  Critiejue  du  Pattage  de  I' Epistre  I  de  S.  Jean,  chap.  V. 
r.  7.  Par  Jtichuvd  Simon.  [In  his  Histoirc  Critique  du  Texte 
du  Nouveau  Testament,  Part  L  ch.  xviii.  pp.  203 — 218.]  Rot- 
terdam, 1689,  4to. 


GENUINENESS  OF  THE  DISPUTED  CLAUSES  IN  1  JOHN  V.  7,S. 


Sect.  IV.] 

4.  Defcnsio  supcrioris  Dissertationis  contra  exceptioncs  De  Si- 
monii.  Authore  Thoma  Smith.  [Miscellanea,  pp.  151 — 173.] 
liondoni,  1690,  Svo. 

.5.  Historia  Dicta  Johannei  <Ic  Sanctissima  Trinitate,  1  Joh. 
cap.  V.  vers.  7.  per  niulta  secula  oniissi,  seculo  V.  restituti,  et 
cxeunte  seculo  A'VI.  in  versiouem  vernaculam  [i.  e.  Germanicam 
t).  Luthcri]  rcccpti,  una  cum  Apologia  B.  Lutheri,  autore  Fride- 
rico  Ernesto  Kettseho.     Francofurti  et  Lipsite,  1713,  4to. 

This  puhiiration  was  caused  by  Simon's  attack  on  the  disputed 
clause,  in  brhalf"  of  which  the  weakest  assertions  and  conjectures 
are  here  brought  forward  as  irrefragable  arguments. 

6.  ^  Full  Enquiry  into  the  original  Authority  of  that  Text 
IJohn  V.  7.  containing-  an  Account  of  Dr.  Mill's  Evidences 
from  Antiquity  for  and  against  its  being  genuine.  With  an 
Examination  of  his  .Tudgment  thereupon.  [By  Thomas  Em- 
LTV.]     L'judon,  1715  ;  1719,  Svo. 

7.  A  Critical  Dissertation  upon  the  seventh  Verse  of  the  fifth 
(;hapter  of  St.  John's  First  Epistle.  Wherein  the  authenticness 
of  this  text  is  fully  proved  against  the  objections  of  Mr.  Simon 
and  the  modern  Arians.  By  David  Martix.  Translated  from 
the  French  [which  was  published  in  1717],  by  Samuel  Jebb, 
M.D.     London,  1719,  Svo, 

8.  An  Answer  to  Mr.  Martins  Critical  Dissertation  on 
1  John  V.  7.  showing  the  insJifficiency  of  his  proofs  and  the 
errors  of  his  suppositions  ;  by  which  he  attempts  'j  support  the 
authority  of  that  text  from  supposed  MS  S.  Hy  Thomas  Em- 
Li'X.     London,  1718,  Svo. 

9.  An  Examination  of  Mr.  Emlyn's  Answer  to  the  Disserta- 
tion. By  David  Martis.  Translated  from  the  French.  Lon- 
don, 1719,  Svo. 

10.  .i  lieply  to  Mr.  Martinis  Examination  of  the  Answer 
to  his  Dissertation.     By  Thomas 'EyiLTy.     Lojitlon,  1720,  Svo. 

11.  The  genuineness  of  1  John  V.  7.  demonstrated  by  Proofs 
which  are  beyond  all  exceptions.  By  David  Mahtix,  London, 
1722, Svo. 

12.  A  Vindication  of  that  celebrated  text,  1  John  V.  7.  from 
being  spurious ;  and  an  Explication  of  it  upon  the  supposition 
of  its  being  genuine.  In  four  Sermons,  by  Benjamin  Calamy, 
D.D.     London,  1722. 

13.  Dissertation  surle  Fameux  Passage  de  la  premiere  Epitre 
dc  Saint  Jean,  chapitre  V.  v.  7.  Par  Augustin  Calmet.  Com- 
mcntairc  Litttral,  tom.  ix. 'pp.  744 — 752.  Paris,  1726,  folio; 
also  in  torn,  xxiii.  pp.  536 — 551.  of  the  Bible  de  Vence.  Svo. 
Paris,  1824. 

14.  The  Doctrine  of  the  Trinity  as  it  is  contained  in  the 
Scriptures  explained  and  confirmed,  and  Objections  answered : 
....  in  eighteen  Sermons  preached  at  Nottingham.  By  the 
Rev.  James  Sloss,  A.M.  London,  1734.  Second  edition,  revised 
and  corrected,  London,  1815,  Svo. 

The  frsl  sermon  contains  a  vindication  of  the  disputed  clause. 
In  the  second  edition  some  few  obsolete  words  have  been  expunged, 
and  others  more  plain  and  intelligible  have  been  substituted. 

15.  Joannes  Salomonis  Semlkri  Vindicise  plurium  prajcipua- 
fum  Lectionum  Novi  Testament!,  adversus  Whistonum  atque  ab 
eo  latas  leges  critica-s.     Halse,  1751,  Svo. 

Michaelis  characterizes  this  treati.se  as  a  profoundly  learned  and 
moderate  vindication  of  the  disputed  clause.  Semler,  however, 
soon  afterwards  altered  his  opinion,  and  wrote  what  Michaelis  pro- 
nounces to  be  "  I  he  most  important  work  on  this  subject."  (Introd. 
to  New  Test.  vol.  iv.  p.  413.) 

16.  Two  Letters  of  Sir  Isaac  Newtox  to  Mr.  Le  Clerc, 
upon  the  reading  of  the  Greek  Text  1  John  V.  7.,  and  1  Tim. 
iii.  16.     London,  1754,  Svo. 

Sec  a  notice  of  this  publication,  p.  80.  supra. 

17.  Dissertation  concerning  the  genvineness  of  1  John  V. 
7,  8.  By  George  Bensox,  D.D.  [In  his  Paraphrase  and  Notes 
on  the  seven  Catholic  Epistles,  pp.  631 — 646.  second  edition.] 
London,  1?56,  4to. 

IS.  Letters  to  Edward  Gibbon,  Esq.  in  defence  of  the  Authen- 
ticity of  the  seventh  verse  of  the  first  Epistle  of  St.  John.  By 
George  Travis,  M.A.  Archdeaconof  Chester,  third  and  best  edi- 
tion.    London,  1794,  Svo.  * 

19.  Letters  to  Mr.  Archdeacon  Travis,  in  Answer  to  his 
Defence  of  the  Three  Heavenly  Witnesses,  1  John  V.  7.  By 
Jiichard  Porsox,  M.A.     I^ondon,  1790,  Svo. 

20.  Dissertation  on  1  John  V.  7.  By  John  David  Michaelis. 
[In  vol.  iv.  pp,  412 — 441.  of  his  Introduction  to  the  New  Testa- 
ment, translated  from  the  German,  by  Herbert  Marsh,  D.D.] 


81 


20.*  Letters  to  Mr.  Archdeacon  Travis,  in  Vindication  of 
one  of  his  JVotes  to  Michaelis's  Introduction  ,.,»...  JVith 
an  Appendix,  containing  a  Review  of  Jlr.  Travis's  Collection 
of  the  Greek  MSS.  which  he  examined  in  Paris  ;  an  Extract 
from  Mr.  Pappelbaum's  Treatise  on  the  Berlin  MS.  ;  and  an 
Essay  on  the  Origin  and  Object  of  the  Vele-tian  Readings, 
By  Herbert  Marsh  [now  D.D.  and  Bishop  of  Peterborough]. 
Leipzig,  1795,  Svo. 

A  volume  of  extreme  rarity. 

21.  Concerning  the  genuineness  of  1  John  V.  7.  By  John 
Hkt,  D.D.  [In  Vol.  II.  pp.  280—291.  of  his  Lectures  in  Divi- 
nity.]    Cambridge,  1796,  Svo. 

This  little  essay  will  amply  repay  the  trouble  of  perusal  from  the 
candid  spirit  in  which  it  is 'drawn  up.  Tlie  learned  author  ap- 
pears to  have  cherished  the  hope  that  future  MSS.  might  be  disco- 
vered, containing  the  disputed  passage.  Subsequent  researches  of 
other  critics  have  shown  that  such  a  hope  must  now  be  abandoned. 

22.  Diatribe  in  Locum  1  Joann.  V.  7,  8.  Auctore  Joanne  Ja- 
cobo  Griesbach.  [At  the  end  of  Vol.  II.  of  Dr.  Griesbach's 
Critical  Edition  of  the  New  Testament.]  Halx,  1806 ;  Londini, 
1810.     Editio  nova,  1818,  Svo. 

23.  A  short  Historical  Outline  of  the  Disputes  respecting  the 
Authenticity  of  the  verse  of  the  Three  Heavenly  Witnesses,  or' 
1  John,  Chap.  V.  ver.  7.     By  Charles  Bctleh,  Esq.     [Appendix 
II.  to  his  Horaj  Biblicse,  or  in  liis  Miscellaneous  Works,  vol.  i. 
pp.. 365 — 407].     London,  Svo. 

24.  Observations  on  the  Text  of  the  Three  Divine  Witnesses. 
By  Adam  Clarke,  LL.D.  [At  the  end  of  his  Commentary  on  the 
first  E[)istle  of  John,  and  also  in  his  Succession  of  Sacred  Lite- 
rature, published  at  London,  in  1807].   12mo.  ' 

25.  The  Question  concerning  the  Authenticity  of  I. John  V.  7, 
briefly  examined.  [By  the  Rev.  .Joseph  Jowett,  LL.D.  Pro- 
fessor of  Civil  Law  in  the  University  of  Cambridge]  In  the 
sixth  volume  of  the  Christian  Observer  for  the  year  1807.    Svo. 

A  masterly  and  temperate  discussion  of  the  whole  of  the  evi- 
dence which  had  been  adduced  for  and  against  the  genuineness  of 
the  disputed  clause,  previously  to  the  year  1807. 

26.  Note  on  1  John  V.  7.  By  T.  F.  Miduletox,  D.D.  [af- 
terwards Bishop  of  Calcutta.]  In  pp.  633 — 653.  of  his  Doctrine 
of  the  Greek  Article.     London,  1808,  Svo. 

27.  The  Critique  on  the  Eclectic  Review  [of  the  English  Ver- 
sion of  the  J^ew  Testament,  published  by  the  modern  Socinians] 
on  1  John  V.  7.  confuted  by  Martj-n's  Examination  of  Emlyn's 
Answer ;  to  which  is  added  an  Appendix,  containing  Remarks 
on  Mr,  Porson's  Letters  to  Archdeacon  Travis.  By  J.  Pharez. 
London,  1809,  Svo.        m 

28.  Observations  on  1  John  V.  7.  by  Frederick  Nolan,  LL.D. 
In  his  "  Inquiry  into  the  Integrity  of  the  Greek  Vulgate,  pp.  293 — 
305.  540—564.     London,  1815,  Svo. 

29.  Three  Letters  addressed  to  the  Rev.  Frederick  J\'blaiif 
071  Ids  erroneous  Criticisms  and  Mis-statements  in  the  Chris- 
tian Remembrancer,  relative  to  the  Text  of  the  Heavenly  JVit- 
nesses.  .  .  .  By  the  Rev  John  Oxlee.     Yoi'k,  1S25,  Srx). 

30.  Extensive  Controversy  about  the  celebrated  Text,  1  John 
V.7,  By  the  Rev,  William  Hales,  D.D,  In  vol.  ii.  pp.  133— 226, 
of  his  Treatise  on  "  Faith  in  the  Holy  Trinity."  London,  1818, 
Svo. 

31.  Annotatio  ad  1  Epistolam  Joannis  cap.  V.  ver.  7,  8.  .\uc- 
tore  Joanne  Nepomuceno  Alber.  In  vol.  iii.  p.  35,3-— 369,  of 
his  Institutiones  Hermeneuticae  Novi  Testamenti,  Pestini,  1818, 
Svo. 

32.  A  Vindication  of  1  John  V.  7,  from  the  Objections  of  M. 
Griesbach,  in  which  a  new  View  is  given  of  the  external  evi- 
dence, with  Greek  Authorities  for  the  Authenticity  of  the  Verse, 
not  hitherto  adduced  in  its  Defence.  By  Thomas  Burgess,  D.D., 
Bishop  of  St.  David's  [now  of  Salisbury].     London,  1821,  Svo. 

33.  Review  of  the  "  Vindication,"  &c.  in  the  Quarterly  Re- 
view for  March,  1822.  [Attributed  to  the  Rev.  Dr.  Turtox, 
Regius  Divinity  Professor  in  the  University  of  Cambridge.]  I^on- 
don,  1822,  Svo. 

34.  A  Vindication  of  1  John  V.  8.  &c.  Second  edition  :  to 
which  is  added  a  Preface  in  reply  to  the  Quarterly  Review,  and 
a  Postscript  in  answer  to  a  recent  publication  entitled  "  Pala;oro- 
maica,"  By  Thomas  Burgess,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  St.  David's. 
London,  1823,  Svo. 

35.  Observations  on  1  .John  V,  7,  by  Herbert  Marsh,  D.D., 
Bishop  of  Peterborough.  In  part  vi.  pp,  13—30,  of  his  Lec- 
tures in  Divinity,     Cambridge,  182 


5'>2,  8vo. 


82 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Paut  IL  Chap.  Ill 


3f5,  A  Selection  of  Tracts  and  Observations  on  1  John  V.  7. 
Part  the  First,  consisting  of  Bishop  Barlow's  Letter  to  Mr.  Hunt ; 
Bishop  Smallbrooke's  Letter  to  Dr.  Bentley ;  Two  anonymous 
Letters  to  Dr.  Bentley,  with  Dr.  Bentiey's  Answer;  an  Extract 
from  Martin's  Examination  of  Emlyn's  Answer  relative  to  that 
Letter  ;  together  with  Notes  of  Hammond  and  Whitl)y  on  the 
controverted  Verse ;  and  Dr.  Adam  Clarke's  Account  of  the 
Montfort  Manuscript.  [With  a  Preface  by  the  Editor,  Thomas 
BcnoESs,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  St.  David's.]     London,  1824,  8vo. 

37.  Three  Letters  addrcFscd  to  the  Editor  of  the  Quarterly 
Review,  in  which  is  demonstrated  the  Genuineness  of  the  Three 
Heavenly  Witnesses,  1  John  V.  7.  By  Ben  David  [John  Jokes, 
LL.D.].     London,  1S25,  8vo, 

33.  A  Letter  to  the  Clergy  of  the  Diocese  of  St.  David's  on  a 
Passage  of  the  Second  Synibolum  Antiochenum  of  the  Fourth 
Century,  as  an  evidence  of  the  authenticity  of  1  John  V.  7. 
by  Thomas  Bunctss,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  fc»t.  David's.  London, 
1825,  Svo. 

39.  Review  of  the  two  preceding  Articles  in  the  Quarterly 
Jievie-v  for  Ikceviber,  1825.  London,  8vo.  [Attributed  to  the 
Rev.  Dr.  Turlon.] 

40.  A  Vindication  of  the  Literary  Character  of  Professor 
Porson  from  the  Animadversions  of  the  lit.  Rev.  Thomas  Bur- 
gess, D.D.,  Lord  Bishop  of  Salisbury,  in  various  publications 
on  1  John  V.  7.  By  C'rito  Cantabrigiensis.  [The  Rev. 
Thomas  Turtos,  D.D.,  IJeun  of  Peterborough.]  Cambridge, 
1S27,  Svo. 

41.  A  Specimen  of  an  intended  publication,  which  was  to 
have  been  entitled  A  Vindication  of  them  that  have  the  rule 
over  us,  for  their  not  having  cut  out  the  disputed  Passage,  1  John 
V.  7,  8.  from  the  authorized  Version.  Being  an  Examination 
of  the  first  six  pages  of  Professor  Person's  IVth  Letter  to  Arch- 
deacon Travis,  of  the  MSS.  used  by  K.  Stephens.  By  Francis 
HuTSHE.     London,  1827,  Svo. 

This  "  Examination"  was  published  after  notice  had  been  given 
in  tiie  Literary  Journals  that  the  '  Vindication'  of  Professor  Porson's 
character  was  in  the  press,  and  before  that  work  actually  appeared. 
"  Crito  Cantabriu'lensis,"  therefore,  devoted  pp.  388 — 404.  to  a  refu- 
tation of  Mr.  H.'s  tract. 

42.  Two  Letters,  respectfully  addressed  to  the  I^ord  Bishop 
of  Salisbury,  in  Defence  of  certain  Positions  of  the  Antho'^, 
relative  to  1  John  V.  7.;  in  -which  also  the  recent  arguments 
of  his  Lordship  are  shown  to  be  groundless  Surmises  and  evi- 
dent Alistahes.    By  the  Rev.  Joh7i  Oxj.^E.    Lo7idon,  1828,  8vo. 

43.  A  Letter  to  the  Rev.  Thomas  Bcynon,  Archdeacon  of 
Cardigan,  in  Reply  to  a  Vindication  of  the  Literary  Character 
of  Professor  Por.son,  by  Crito  Cantabrigiensis:  and  in  further 
proof  of  the  Authenticity  of  1  John  V.  7.  By  Thomas  Blhgkss, 
D.D.,  Bishop  of  Salisbury.     Salisbury,  1S29,  Svo. 

41.  New  Criticisms  on  the  celebrated  Text,  1  John  V.  7.  A 
Synodical  Lecture,  by  Francis  Anthony  Knittel,  Counsellor  to 
the  Con.sistory,  and  General  Superintendent  of  the  Grand  Duchy 
of  Brunswick  liimenbourgh.  Published  at  Brunswick  in  1785. 
Translated  from  the  original  German,  by  William  AUeyn  Evax- 
80X,  M.A.     London,  1829,  Svo. 

The  original  German  work  of  Kniltel,  which  has  long  been 
scarce  upon  the  continent,  is  thus  characterized  by  Micliaclis  : — 
"This  ia  a  valuable  work,  and  much  useful  information  may  be 
derived  from  it:  but  in  the  proof  of  the  principal  point  the  author 
has  totally  fiiiled."  (Inlrod.  to  the  New  Testament,  vol.  iv.  p.  413.) 
This  opinion  ha-s  been  confirmed  in  the  following  term.s  by  a  mo- 
dern biblical  critic  : — 

"  Kniltol's  '  New  Criticifims'  arc  lalwurcd  and  ingenious,  written 
in  a  very  declamatory  style,  an<l  calculated  by  their  plausibility  to 
produce  on  the  minuH  of  novices  in  ihe  controversy  an  iin|)res8ion 
in  favour  of  the  pa-spago  which  lie  has  taken  under  his  protection. 
Thoy  are  always  wanlnig  in  the  simplicity  which  an  accomplished 
scholar  will  be  concerned  to  maintam  in  the  conduct  of  an  impor- 
tant argument,  and  are  not  less  deficient  in  the  substantial  proofs, 
and  clear  and  strong  presumptions  which  command  our  assent. 
With  the  appearance  and  pretension  of  a  meth'Mlieal  arrangement 
of  his  materials,  there  is  out  little  of  it  in  the  discussions  which 
follow  :  and  we  close  the  work  wilhoin  having  acquired  any  distinct 
approhen.iioriH  of  the  subject  on  which  we  have  been  engaged." 
(Kclectic  Review,  Third  Series,  vol.  iii.  p.  181.) 

45.  Remarks  upon  .Ifr.  Kvansoti's  Preface  to  his  Transla- 
tion of  Knittel's  J^'ew  Criticisms  on  1  John  V.  7.  By  Clemens 
Angiicanus  [The  Rev.  Thomas  TfHTON,  D.D.].  London,  1829, 
Svo. 

46.  Memoir  of  the  Controversy  respecting  the  Heavenly 
Witneuei,  1  John  V.  7.,  including  critical  JVotices  of  the  Prin- 


cipal Writers   on   both    sides  of  the  Question.      By    Criticvs 
[the  late  Rev.  William  OajiE,  M.A.].     London,  1830,  12mo. 

This  work  must  liave  cost  its  author  no  small  labour;  although 
it  does  not  pretend  to  exhibit  a  full  and  complete  history  of  the 
controversy,  yet  not  a  single  publication  of  anv  note  is  omitted. 
Numerous  smaller  notices  relative  to  various  otiicr  minor  ainbors, 
who  have  treated  directly  or  incidentally  on  the  subject,  are  inter- 
spersed ;  and  as  many  of  the  works  given  in  the  preceding  biblio 
graphical  list  are  now  become  rare  and  with  difficulty  to  be 
procured,  tlie  reader  who  is  desirous  of  investigating  the  history 
of  this  memorable  controversy,  will  be  gratified  witli  the  candid 
spirit  and  diligent  research  which  pervade  every  page  of  Mr 
Orme's  able  and  well-written  Memoir. 

47.  An  Introduction  to  the  Controversy  on  the  disputed  verse 
of  St.  John,  as  revived  by  Mr.  Gibbon.  By  Thomas  Burciss, 
D.D.,  Bishop  of  Salisbury.     Salisbury,  1833,  Svo. 

The  design  of  this  publication  is  "  to  recall  the  attention  of  the 
readers  to  that  state  of  the  inquiry  into  the  auihenticity  of  the  dis- 
puted verse  of  St.  John,  in  ivliich  it  was,  prior  to  the  publication 
of  Archdeacon  Travis's  and  Mr.  Porson's  Letters,  when  it  was 
revived  Ijiy  Mr.  Gibbon's  celebrated  note  to  the  thirty-seventh 
chapter  of^his  History."  The  following  are  the  subjects  discussed 
by  the  lenrned  prelate.  "Mr.  Giblwn,  an  enemy  to  Christianity, 
and  morally  incai>able  of  impartiality  on  any  question  relative  to 
its  scriptures  and  doctrines: — his  ialsification  of  authorities  re- 
specting the  great  doctrines  of  (-'hristianity  ; — incorrectness  of  his 
general  positions  respecting  the  controverted  verse; — incorrectness 
of  his  particular  objections  to  the  verse." 

48.  Dr.  W1SF.M.1.X  on  1  John  V.  7,  8.  By  the  Rev.  Francis 
HuTSHE.     London,  1834,  Svo. 

An  article  thus  intituled  appeared  in  the  British  Magazine  for 
June,  1834,  advocating  the  genuineness  of  the  disputed  clause  in 
1  John  V.  7,  8.  Mr.  Iluyshe,  the  writer  of  it,  is  the  author  of  nu- 
merous communications  bearing  upon  this  question,  which  are 
inserted  in  the  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  volumes  of  that  Journal  (to 
which  the  reader  is  necessarily  referred),  uitder  the  title  of  "A 
Vindication  of  the  Early  Parisian  Press." 


SECTION  V. 

TREATISES    ON    VERSIONS    OF    THE    SCRIPTURES. 
§    1.    TREATISES    OS    ANCIENT    TERSIOSS. 

1.  Novi  Testamenti  Versiones  Syriacse,  Simplex,  Philoxeniana 
et  Hierosolymitana,  denuo  examinatte,  et  ad  fidcm  Cotlicum 
Manuscriptorum  Bibliothccarum,  Vaticanaj,  Angelicas,  Assemani- 
anre  Medicea;,  Regia;  aliarumcpte ;  novis  Observationibus  atque 
Tabulis  aere  incisis  illustratffl  a  Jacobo  Georgio  Christiauo  Adler. 
Hafnice,  1789,  4to. 

2.  G.  H.  Bernstein  de  Versione  Novi  Testamenti  Syriaci 
Heraclccnsi  Commentatio.     Lipsia;,  1822,  4to. 

3.  Veteris  Interpretis  cum  Beza  aliisque  Recentioribus  Col- 
latio.     Auctore  Joanne  Bois.     Londini,  1655,  4to. 

In  this  work,  which  is  now  of  extreme  rarity,  the  author  has 
successfully  shown  that,  in  many  places,  the  modern  translators 
had  unduly  depreciated  the  Vulgate,  and  unnecessarily  departed 
from  it. 

4.  Dissertatio  Thcologico-Critica  de  Vi,  quam   antiquissimai 
Versiones  qua;  extant  Latinte  in  Crisin  Evangeliorum  IV  babe 
ant,  cxhibita  fl  M.  C.  A.  Biietther.     Merscburgi,  1824,  Svo. 

5.  De  Nomine,  Auctore,  Emendatoribus,  et  Authentia  Vulga 
tas  Dissertatio.     Auctore  JosephoBniNATi.  Vienna,  1827,  Svo. 

6.  De  Prophetarum  Minorum  Versionis  Syriacro,  quam  Pcs- 
chito  dicunt.  Indole,  Disscrtationes  Philogico-Criticw.  Dis.'ser- 
tatio  I.  Scripsit  Carolus  Augustus  Credner.  Gottingaj,  1827, 
Svo. 

7.  J.  A.  DouN  De  Psalteno  iflthiopico  Commentatio.  Lip- 
siiE,  1825,  4to. 

8.  J.  F.  FiBciiERi  Prolusioncs  de  Versionibus  Crfficis  Libro- 
rum  Veteris  Testamenti.     Lipsia;,  1772,  Svo. 

9.  Jo.  Ernest.  Grabii  Epi.^tola  ad clarissimum,  virum  Jo.  Mil- 
lium  ;  (jua  ostenditur,  Libri  Judicum  Genuinam  LXX.  Intcrpre- 
tum  Versioncm  cam  esse,  quam  MS.  Cod.  Alexandrinus  exhibct ; 
Romanam  autcm  Editionem,  quod  ad  dictum  librum,  ah  ill^ 
prorsusdiverpam,  atque  eandcin  cum  Hcsychiana  esse.  Subnexa 
sunt  tria  Novas  rZf  i  Editionis  Specimina.     Oxonii,  1705,  4to.    \ 

In  this  tract,  which  ia  not  of  common  occurrence,  Dr  Gra be  an- 
nounced and  also  gave  ."ipecimens  of  the  critical  edition  of  tlie  Sep- 
tuugini,  which  is  described  in  p.  21,  of  this  Appendix. 


Sect.  V.  §  1.] 


TREATISES  ON  VERSIONS  OF  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


83 


10.  Joh.  Ernst.  Grahii  Dissertatio  de  variis  Vitiis  Septua- 
ginta  Interpretum  Versioni  ante  B.  Origcnis  sBvum  illatis,  et  re- 
mediis  ab  ipso  in  Hexaplari  ejusdem  Versionis  Editione  adhibitis, 
deque  hujus  editionis  Reliquiis  tarn  manuscriptis  quam  praelo  ex- 
cusis.     Oxonii,  1710,  4to. 

A  rare  and  valuable  tract. 

11.  De  Pen tateuchi  Versionis  Syriacae,  quam  Pcschito  vocant, 
Indole,  Commentatio  Critico-Exegetica.  Scripsit  Ludovicus 
HiRZEi.     Lipsife,  1825,  8vo. 

12.  Bellum  Papale,  sive  Concordia  Discors  Sixti  Quinti,  et 
Clementis  Octavi,  circa  Hicronymianam  Editionem.  Auctore 
Thoma  Jamks.     Londini,  1606,  4to.  Londini,  1678. 

13.  Commentatio  Critica  de  Ephramo  Syro,  S.  S.  interprete  ; 
qua  simul  Versionis  Syriaca),  quam  Peschito  vocant,  Lectiones 
varise  ex  Ephraerai  commentariis  coUectje  exhibentur.  Scripsit 
Caesar  a  Lexgkrke.     Hala;,  1828,  4to. 

14.  Remarques  sur  la  Version  Italique  de  S.  Matthieu,  qu'on 
a  decouvert  dans  de  fort  anciens  Manuscrits.  Par  Jean  Mah- 
TiAXAT.     Paris,  1695,  8vo. 

1 5.  Joan.  Davidis  Miciiaelis  Curae  in  Versionem  Syriacam 
Actuum  Apostolicorum.  Cum  Consectariis  Criticis  de  indole, 
cognationibus,  et  usu  Versionis  Syriacae  Tabularum  Novi  Fcede- 
ris.     Gottingae,  1755,  4to. 

16.  De  Origine  Versionis  Septuaginta  Interpretum  :  Auctore 
S.  T.  MuECKE,  correctore  Lycei  Soraviensis.  Zullichovife, 
1788,  8vo. 

Bp.  Marsh  pronounces  this  to  be  "  a  very  useful  vv-ork,  as  it  re- 
presents both  concisely  and  perspicuously  the  several  topics  which 
suggest  themselves  for  consideration  on  the  origin  of  the  Septuagint 
version."     (Lectures,  part  iii.  p.  123.) 

17.  Friderici  Mijnter  Commentatio  de  Indole  Versionis  Novi 
Testamenti  Sahidicae.  Accedit  Fragmentum  Epistolae  Pauli  ad 
Timotheum,  ex  membraino  Sahidico  Manuscripto  Borgiano, 
Vclitris.     Hafniffl,  1789,  4to. 

18.  An  Enquiry  into  the  present  State  of  the  Septuagint  Ver- 
sion of  the  Old  Testament.  By  Henry  Owex,  D.D.  London, 
1 769, 8vo. 

All  Dr.  Henry  Owen's  works  are  characterized  by  sound  criticism 
and  laborious  research.  Bp.  Marsh,  who  says  that  he  is  an  excellent 
critic,  observes  that  his  Historical  and  Critical  Account  of  the  Sep- 
tuagint Version  "  should  be  read  by  every  man,  vsho  wishes  to  be 
acquainted  with  the  liistory  of  that  version." 

19.  A  Brief  Account,  Historical  and  Critical,  of  the  Septua- 
gint Version  6f  the  Old  Testament.  To  which  is  added  a  Dis- 
sertation on  the  comparative  Excellency  of  the  Hebrew  and 
Samaritan  Pentateuch.  By  Dr.  Henry  Owex,  F.R.S.,  &c. 
London,  1787,  8vo. 

"The  learned  author  of  this  piece  has  bestowed  very  laudable 
pains  upon  his  subject,  and  brought  into  a  very  small  compass  many 
just  remarks,  and  much  useful  information;  which  will  not  fail  to 
be  highly  acceptable  to  those  who  are  engaged  in  the  study  of  the 
JScriptures."     (Month.  Rev.  (O.  S.)  vol.  Ixxviii.  p.  266.) 

20.  F.  V,  REiTTHAnDi  Dissertatio  de  Versionis  Alexandrinae 
authoritate  et  usu  in  constituenda  Librorum  Hebraicorum  Lcc- 
tione  genuina.     Vitembergse,  1777,  4to. 

21.  De  Syriacarum  Novi  Foederis  Versionum  Indole  atque 
Usu  Dissertatio.  Philoxenianam  cum  Simplice,  e  duobus  per- 
vetustis  Codd.  MSS.  ab  Amida  transmissis,  conferente  Gloces- 
trio  Ridley.     Londini,  1761,  4to. 

This  very  scarce  tract  is  reprinted  at  the  end  of  Semler's  edition 
of  Wetstein's  Libelli  ad  Crisin  atque  Interpretationem  Novi  Testa- 
menti (8vo.  Halie,  1766),  pp.  247 — 339.  from  a  copy  then  in  the 
library  of  the  celebrated  Michaelis. 

22.  De  Origine  et  Indole  Arabicae  Librorem  Veteris  Testa- 
menti Historicorum  Interpretationis  Libri  II.  Scripsit  .^milius 
RoEDiGER.  Passim  adjecta  sunt  Scholia  Tanchumi  Arabici, 
aliaque  anecdota.     Halis  Saxonum,  1829,  4to- 

The  design  of  this  publication  is,  to  show  that  the  Arabic  Version 
was  not  made  from  the  Septuagint ;  but  that  the  greater  part  of  it 
was  executed  from  the  Syriac  Version  ;  viz.  the  books  of  Judges, 
Ruth,  Samuel,  1  Kings  i.  to  xi.  2  Kings  xii.  17. — xxv.  and  Nehemiah 
i.v.  28.  to  xiii. ;  that  1  Kings  xii.  to  2  Kings  xii.  16.  was  made  from 
tlie  Hebrew ;  that  Nehemiah  i.  to  ix.  27.,  though  made  from  the 
Hebrew,  has,  in  several  places,  been  interpolated  from  the  Syriac. 
M.  Roediger  is  of  opinion  that  the  author  of  the  Arabic  version  was 
a  Christian  who  lived  in  the  thirteenth  century. 

23.  Em.  Frid.  Car.  RosENMiJi.LER  de  Versione  Pentateuchi 
Persica  Commentatio.     Lipsiae,  1813,  4to. 

I  This  academical  disquisition  treats  on  the  author  and  editions  of 

f  the  Persic  version,  and  on  its  sources  and  character.    A  critical 

'■^  examination  of  varioiis  passages  is  annexed. 

i  Vol.  H.                          4D 


24.  Animadversiones,  quibus  Fragmenta  Versionum  Graeca 
rum  V.  T.  a  Bern.  Montefalconio  collecta,  illustrantur  a  Jo. 
Gottfr.  ScHARFENBERG.     Lipsiae,  1776,  8vo. 

25.  ScHLEusNERi  (Joh.  Frid.)  Opuscula  Critica  ad  Versiones 
Graecas  Veteris  Testamenti  pertinentia.     Lipsiae,  1812,  8vo. 

The  first  part  of  this  volume  contains  observations  on  the  autho- 
rity and  use  of  the  Greek  fathers  in  settling  the  genuine  reading 
of  the  Greek  versions  of  the  Old  Testament.  The  second  part 
comprises  observations  and  conjectural  emendations  on  those  ver- 
sions. 

26.  Th.  E.  ToEPLER  de  Pentateuchi  Interpretationis  Alexan- 
drinae Indole  Critica  atque  Hermeneutica  Commentatio.  Halis 
Saxonum,  1830. 

27.  UssERii  (Jacobi,  Armachensis  Archiepiscopi)  de  Graeca 
Septuaginta  Interpretum  Versione  Syntagma.  Londini,  1665, 
4to. 

"  It  is  divided  into  nine  chapters,  and  relates  to  the  origin  of  th« 
version  according  to  the  account  of  Aristeas  (then  supposed  to  be 
genuine),  to  the  time  when  and  the  place  where  it  was  written,  to 
the  alterations  which  were  gradually  made  in  its  text,  to  the  cor- 
rections of  Origen,  to  the  modem  editions,  and  other  subjects  with 
which  these  are  immediately  connected.  This  is  a  work  of  great 
merit :  it  displays  much  original  inquiry  ;  and  may  be  regarded  as 
the  ground-work  of  later  publications  on  the  Septuagint."  (Bp. 
JMarsh's  Lectures,  part  ii.  p.  121.) 

28.  G.  B.  Winer  de  Onkeloso  ejusque  Paraphrasi  Chaldaica 
Dissertatio.     Lipsiae,  1820,  4to. 

29.  WisE3iAx  (Nicolaus)  Horae  Syriacae,  seu  Commentationes 
et  Anecdota  Res  vel  Litterarias  Syriacas  spectantia.  Toraus  I. 
Romae,  1828,  8vo. 

This  profoundly  learned  volume  comprises  collections  for  the 
Literary  History  of  the  Syriac  versions  of  the  Old  Testament,  and 
particularly  of  the  Peschito  or  Old  Syriac  version,  drawn  for  the 
most  part  from  original  sources.  These  are  followed  by  details  of 
great  value  respecting  the  Karkaphensian  Recension  of  the  Syriac 
version,  which  is  here  for  the  first  time  described.  To  the  whole 
is  prefixed  an  elaborate  attempt  to  uphold  the  Romish  gloss  on  Matt, 
xxvi.  26.,  respecting  transubstantiation,  drawn  from  Syriac  sources, 
and  containing  a  collection  of  words  for  a  supplement  to  the  Syriac 
lexicons  extant.  Dr.  Wiseman's  Syriac  quotations  have  been  sub- 
jected to  a  minute  and  critical  examination  by  Professor  Lee  in  his 
prolegomena  to  Mr.  Bagster's  edition  of  the  Polyglott  Bible,  p.  29. 
of  the  folio  edition,  or  pp.  41,  42.  of  the  quarto  edition.  Among  the 
Syriac  writers  whom  Dr.  W.  has  quoted,  as  maintaining  transubstan- 
tiation, is  Dionysius  Barsalibreus  or  Barsalibi  (Hora;  Syriacas,  p.  57.) : 
hut  lie  wrote  the  treatise  cited  by  Dr.  W.  against  the  Franks  or  pa- 
pists towards  the  close  of  the  tvielfth  century.  (Assemanni's  Biblio- 
theca  Orientalis,  vol.  \i.  pp.  156,  "157,  &c.)  In  pp.  57.  and  58.  of  the 
Horae  Syriacre,  according  to  Barsalibi  and  Maruthas,  the  bread  and 
wine  are  called  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ;  but  the  bread  is 
NEVER  said  to  be  changed  into  iiiejlesh  of  Christ,  which,  Prof.  Lee 
remarks,  is  of  great  importance.  And  Barsalibi  himself  elsewhere 
teaches  that  these  expressions  are  taken  mystically ;  which  Dr. 
Wiseman  forgot  to  show.  In  p.  191.,  he  says  (as  Professor 
Lee  translates  him),  "  Fanem,  inquit,  oculo  animce  contcmplamur," 
et  (p.  159.)  "facitqiie  cum  corpus  divxno  et  mvstico  modo."  That 
is,  "  We  contemplate,  he  sai/s,  the  bread  with  the  eye  of  the  soul :"  and 
in  p.  159.,  "  and  he  makes  it  his  body  ni  a  divine  and  mystical, 
MANNER."  Dr.  Wiseman  having  quoted  (Hor.  Syr.  p.  59.)  a  passage 
from  an  Arabic  translation  from  the  Syriac  of  some  very  ancient 
canons  of  the  Syrian  church  (made  in  the  three  hundred  and  eighty- 
second  year  of  the  Mohammedan  aera  of  the  Hegira,  a.d.  1004),  in 
order  to  show  that  transubstantiation  was  held  by  that  church  : — 
Professor  Lee  charges  Dr.  Wiseman  with  having  mistranslated 
the  passage  in  question,  which  ought  to  be  rendered  thus,  "  ife" 
(that  is,  Jesus  Christ)  "  gave  it"  (his  body)  "  to  us  for  lite  remission 
of  sins,  after  that  he  had  assimilated  it  to  himself:  yea,  lie  said, '  This 
is  my  body :'  but  did  not  say,  '  This  is  like  to  my  body ' — "  lilud  nobis 

dedit in  remissionem  peccatorum,  postquam  id  sibimet 

assimilaverat :  imo  dixit,  '  Hoc  est  corpus  meum,'  at  non  dixit,  '  Si- 
mile est  corpori  meo.'  "  That  is,  that  the  sacrament  ought  to  be 
received  with  faith,  as  my  body  itself,  but  not  as  any  likeness  of  it, 
which  indeed  would  be  idolatry.  The  authorities,  therefore,  which 
Dr.  Wiseman  professes  to  quote  in  support  of  the  Romish  tenet  of 
transubstantiation,  do  not  afford  him  any  support  whatever.  Further 
as  Dr.  Wiseman  has  professed  a  wish  for  some  philological  illustra- 
tions in  behalf  of  the  Protestant  or  true  mode  of  interpreting  Matt, 
xxvi.  26.,  Dr.  Lee  proceeds  to  gratify  his  wish ;  and  accordingly 
cites  one  passage  from  the  Old  Syriae  version  of  1  Kings  xxii.  11. ; 
another  from  the  Arabic  poem,  Kamasa,  and  from  an  Arabic  scho- 
liast on  it ;  and  another  from  the  Persian  poet,  Saadi :  all  which 
abundantly  confirm  the  Protestant  mode  of  interpretation.  Pro- 
fessor Lee  has  given  the  original  passages  in  these  oriental  lan- 
guages, accompanied  with  a  Latin  translation ;  which  the  limits 
necessarily  prescribed  to  this  notice  compel  us  to  omit.  And,  final- 
ly, he  concludes  with  observing  that  there  are  not  wanting  Syriac 
authors,  of  consideralDle  repute,  who  testify  that  the  Lord's  supper  is 
a  mystical  and  rational  representation  of  the  unbloody  sacrifice.  For 
this  statement,  Dr.  Lee  refers  to  Assemanni's  Bibliotheca  Orienta 
tis,  torn.  j.  pp.  479—483.,  where  the  elemente  are  called  mysteries. 


84 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Patit  IL. 


§  2,  TREATISES    OV    MODZIIS^    TKRSIONS    OF    THE    SCim'TUHES. 

1.  A  History  of  the  Translations  which  have  been  made  of 
the  Scriptures  from  the  earliest  to  the  present  age,  throughout 
Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and  America.  By  Herbert  Maush,  D.D. 
[Bishop  of  Peterborough].     London,  1812,  8vo. 

2.  A  Historical  Sketch  of  the  Translation  and  Circulation  of 
the  Scriptures,  from  the  earUcst  period  to  the  present  time.  By 
the  Rev.  W.  A.  Tuomsox,  and  llic  Rev.  \V.  Oume.  Perth,  1815, 
8vo. 

1.  An  Historical  Account  of  the  several  English  Translations 
of  the  Bible,  and  the  Opposition  they  met  with  from  the  church 
of  Rome.  By  Anthony  Johnso.v.  London,  1730,  8vo.  Also 
in  the  third  volume  of  Bishop  Watson's  Collection  of  Theologi- 
cal Tracts. 

2.  A  Letter,  showing  why  our  English  Bibles  differ  so  much 
from  the  Septuagint ;  though  both  are  translated  from  the  He- 
brew Original.  [By  Thomas  BuKTT,  LL.D.]  London,  1743, 8vo. 

A  second  edition  wa.s  published  in  17C0,  entitled  a  Dissertation, 
instead  of  a  letter.  Ii  has  been  reprinted  by  Bishop  Watson,  Tracts, 
vol.  iii. 

3.  A  History  of  the  principal  Translations  of  the  Bible.  By 
John  Lewis,  M.A.     London,  1739. 8 vo. 

The  first  edition  of  Ibis  valuable  work,  to  whicli  all  succeeding 
writers  on  the  history  of  the  English  versions  of  the  .Scriptures  are 
indebted,  was  prefixed  to  Mr.  Lewis's  Iblio  edition  of  the  venerable 
John  Wicklille's  English  version  of  the  New  Tesiamcnt-  It  was 
reprinted  in  1818,  at  London,  with  some  unimportant  additions,  in 
one  volume,  8vo. 

4.  An  Historical  View  of  the  English  Biblical  Translations  ; 
the  expedience  of  revising  b\'  authority  our  present  Translation, 
and  the  means  of  executing  such  a  Revision.  By  William  New- 
come,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  Waterford.     DubUn,  17U2,  Svo. 

5.  A  List  of  Editions  of  the  Bible,  and  Parts  thereof  in  Eng- 
lish, from  the  years  .MD  V.  to  MDCCCXX.  With  an  Appendix, 
containing  Specimens  of  Translations  and  Bibliographical  Dc- 
Bcriptions.  By  the  Rev.  Henry  Cottos,  D.C.L.  Oxford,  at  the 
Clarendon  Press,  1821,  Svo. 

Though  the  author  of  this  unassuming  but  very  interesting  "  List" 
modestly  terms  it  "  an  Appendix"  to  the  latter  part  of  Lewis's  work, 
it  will  be  Ibund  a  verv  useful  publication  to  those  who  may  not  be 
possessed  of  Lewis's  llistory.  it  is  evidently  the  result  of  deep  re- 
■earch,  and  is  drawTi  up  with  great  care.  The  notes,  which  arc 
not  numerous,  are  strictly  bibliographical,  and  contain  much  valua- 
ble information  lor  the  collectors  of  rare  books  ;  while  considerable 
additional  interest  is  imparled  to  the  work  by  the  specimens  of 
early  translations  which  will  be  Ibund  in  the  appendix. 

6.  Dangerous  Errors  in  several  late  printed  Bibles,  to  the 
great  scandal  and  corruption  of  sacred  and  true  Religion.  Dis- 
covered by  William  Kilbc hn.  Printed  at  Finsbury,anno  1659. 
8vo. 

This  very  curious  tract  points  out  numerous  "  pernicious,  erro- 
neous, and  corrupt  Erratas,  ICstapes,  and  Faults  in  several  impres- 
sions of  the  II()ly  Bible  and  Testament,  within  these  late  years" 
[during  the  great  rebellion]  "commonly  vended  and  dispersed,  to 
the  great  scandal  of  religion,  but  more  particularly  in  tbe  iinjircs- 
sioris  of  Henry  Hills  and  John  Field,  I'rintcrs.  A  copy  is  in  the 
Library  of  the  British  Museum. 

7.  The  Existing  Monopoly  an  inadequate  protection  of  the 
Authorized  Version  of  the  Scriptures.  Pour  Letters  to  the  Right 
Hon.  and  Right  Rev.  the  Lonl  Bishop  of  London ;  with  Speci- 
mens of  the  intentional  and  other  departures  from  the  authorized 
standard.  To  which  is  added  a  Postscript,  containing  the  Com- 
jilaints  of  a  London  Committee  of  Ministers  on  the  subject ;  the 
Reply  of  the  Universities  ;  and  a  Report  on  the  importance  of 
the  Alterations  made.    By  Thomas  Crnris.    London,  1833,  Svo. 

8.  Mr.  Curtis's  Misrepresentations  Exposed.  By  Edward 
Cahiiwell,  D.D.     Oxford,  1833,  Svo. 

9.  The  Text  of  the  English  Bi!.le  Considered.  By  Thomas 
Ti'KTON,  D.D.,  Regius  Professor  of  Divinity  in  the  University  of 
Cambridge,  and  Dean  of  Peterborough.  Cambridge  and  Lon- 
don, 1833,  Svo.  Second  edition,  corrected  and  eidarged,  183'1,  8vo. 

The  reader  will  find  a  full  accoimt  of  Mr.  Curtix's  misrenre.sentn- 
lions,  and  an  nlwtract  of  the  refutation  of  Ihetn  by  the  licv.  Dm. 
('nrdwcll  and  Turton,  in  the  British  Critic  liir  July.  183:1,  pp.  1 — '2(). 
There  is  also  an  impartial  article  on  this  subject  in  the  Eclectic 
Review  for  June,  1833  (third  series,  vol.  ix.  pp.  .009— .'J33).  It  may 
sufiice  here  to  state,  generally,  that  Mr.  Curtis  bus  aliogeiher  fniled 
in  hin  attacks  upon  our  present  authuri/cd  version,  and  u|>f)ii  the  e.li- 
tiorLSof  it  [jrinled  by  the  UiiivernilieH  of  Oxliird  an<l  (.'nrnbrid;;e.  It 
is  proper  to  add  that  the  sub-committee  of  diwieuliug  miniBters,  who 
vycre  appointed  by  the  "London  Commillco,"  mentioned  in  Mr. 
Cuclis'a  title-page,  cau.-ted  an  advertisement  to  be  inserted  in  the 


Times  new.spaper,  of  March  26, 1833,  in  which  they  stated  that  Mr. 
Curiis  had  acted  without  their  concurrence,  and  that  they  did  not 
consider  themselves  responsible  for  any  statements  already  made 
by  him,  or  which  he  might  thereafter  make.  His  pamphlet  "  seemed 
to  announce  some  very  great,  serious,  alarming,  and  crying  evil, 
calling  for  immediate  and  decisive  remedy.  We  apprehend,  how- 
ever, that  everj'  unprejudiced  reader  will  feel  that  these  evils  have 
been  exceedingly  exaggerated  ;  and  that  710  case  whatever,  as  far 
at  least  as  afiecis  our  universities,  has  been  established."  (Christian 
Guardian,  March,  1833,  p.  107.) 

10.  Reasons  why  a  new  Translation  of  the  Bible  should  not 
be  published,  without  a  previous  statement  and  examination  of 
all  the  material  Passages  which  may  be  supposed  to  be  misinter- 
preted. [By  Thomas  Bchcess,  D.D.,  now  Bishop  of  Salisbury,] 
Durham,  1816,  Svo. 

11.  Reasons  in  favour  of  a  New  Translation  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures.  By  Sir  James  Bland  Buhces,  Bart.  London, 
1810,  Svo. 

12.  A  Vindication  of  our  authorized  Translation  and  Trans- 
lators of  the  Bible,  and  of  preceding  English  Versions  authori- 
tatively commended  to  the  Notice  of  those  Translators,  &c.  By 
the  Rev.  H.  J.  Tonn,  M.A.     liondon,  1819,  Svo. 

13.  An  Historical  and  Critical  Inquiry  into  the  Interpretation 
of  the  Hebrew  Scri))tures,  with  Remarks  on  Mr.  Bellamy's  new 
Translation.  By  J.  W.  Whittaker,  M.A.  London,  1819,  8to. 
Supplement,  1820,  Svo. 

14.  ViniUcia;  Hebraicje ;  or  a  Defence  of  the  Hebrew  Scrip- 
tures, occa.sioned  by  the  recent  strictures  and  innovations  of 
J.  Bellamy,  and  in  confutation  of  his  attacks  on  all  preceding 
Translations,  and  on  the  Established  Version  in  particular.  By 
Hyman  Hi'rwitz.     London,  1820,  Svo. 

This  author  is  a  learned  Jewish  teacher,  who,  while  he  has 
exposed  Mr.  Bellamy's  misinterpretations  with  great  learning,  has 
rendered  to  British  Christians  an  incalculable  service,  by  showing 
the  general  excellence  of  our  authorized  English  version;  and  has 
also,  perhaps  unwittingly,  silenced  the  Jewish  objector,  who  used 
to  deny  the  validity  of  the  Old  Testament  as  cited  from  that  ver- 
sion. 

15.  A  Letter  to  the  Rt.  Rev.  Herhcyt  [Marsh],  Lord  Bishop 

of  Peterborough,  on  the  Independence  of  the  authorized  Version 
of  the  Bible.     By  Henry  Walter,  B.D.     London,  1823,  Svo. 

16.  Hints  for  an  improved  Tran.slation  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. By  James  ScnoLEFiKLn,  M.A.  Regius  Professor  of 
Greek  in  the  University  of  Cambridge.  Cambridge  and  London, 
1832,  Svo,  , 

"  In  every  part  of  these  notes  we  observe  a  judicious  treatment 
of  the  subjects  brought  under  discussion  ;  and  there  is  scarcely  an 
emendation  proposed,  to  which  we  should  be  prepared  to  haznnl 
an  objection."  (Eclectic  Review,  lor  April,  1833.  Third  Scries, 
vol.  ix.  p.  317.) 

17.  Observations  upon  the  Expediency  of  revising  the  present 
Engli-sh  Version  of  the  four  Gospels,  and  of  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles.  By  John  SriwoNns,  LL.D.,  Professor  of  Modern 
History  in  the  University  of  Cambridge.    1789,  4to. 

17*.  Observations  on  the  Expediency  of  revising  the  prcsen. 
English  Version  of  the  Epistles  in  tne  New  Testament.  Bj 
John  SvMoxDs,  LL.D.     1791,  4to. 

The  same  method  of  cl.a.ssification  is  pursued  in  both  these  pub- 
lications. "  Of  the  observations  themselves  it  must  be  said,  that 
many  arc-just  and  useful ;  but  m.nny  also  are  minute  and  over- 
refined."    (British  Critic,  O.  S.  vol.  iii'.  p.  332.) 

18.  The  Errata  of  the  Protestant  Bible:  or  the  Truth  of  the 
Enp:li.sh  Translation  examined.  By  Thotnas  Ward.  Dublin, 
1807,  4  to. 

19.  An  Analysis  of  Ward's  Errata  of  the  Protestant  Bible. 
By  Richard  Rvax,  D.D.     Dubhn,  1808,  Svo. 

20.  An  Answer  to  Ward's  Errata  of  the  Protestant  Bible. 
By  Ri.hard  Grikr,  D.D.     Dublin,  1812,  4to. 

21.  Observation.s  on  the  present  State  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
English  Bible,  addressed  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Archbishop  of 
Dublin;  showing  that  it  has  never  been  edited  on  any  uniform 
plan  ;  that  the  principles  adopted  by  the  Rhcmi.sh  Translators 
have  been  ahandoneil ;  and  that  the  Censures  of  Ward's  Errata 
are  as  applicable  to  it,  as  to  the  Protestant  Bible.  By  the  Rev. 
George  H*.MtLTox,  A.M.     Dublin,  1826,  Svo. 

22.  A  Second  Letter  to  the  most  Rev.  Dr.  Murray,  on  tho 
present  State  of  the  English  Roman  Catholic  Bible,  contrasting 
the  Notes  recently  published  by  him,  with  tho.se  to  which  ho 
gave  his  sanction  before  the  Committee  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mon.s.  By  the  Rev.  George  Ha.milton,  A.M.  Dublin,  1826,  Svo. 


\ 


Ghap.  IV.] 


TREATISES  ON  THE  ORIGINAL  LANGUAGES  OF  SCRIPTURE. 


85 


Ward's  Errata  of  the  Protestant  Bible,  which  contain  a  vehement 
attack  upon  ouir  present  authorized  version,  were  first  published 
anonymously  in  the  reign  of  James  II.,  and  were  reprinted  in  the 
former  part  of  the  eighteenth  century.  This  book,  after  sleeping  in 
oblivion  for  many  years,  was  reprinted  at  Dublin  in  1807,  and  ex- 
tensively circulated  under  the  patronage  of  the  Romish  clergy  in 
Ireland.  This  called  forth  the  tw^o  very  able  and  satisfactory 
replies  of  tlie  Rev.  Drs.  Grier  and  Ryan. 

In  consequence  of  the  biblical  discussions  which  have  taken 

Elace  in  Ireland,  Mr.  Hamilton  was  induced  to  collate  five  editions, 
e.sides  the  New  Testament  printed  at  Rheims  in  1582,  which  have 
been  circulated  under  the  authority  of  the  Romish  archbishops  of 
Dublin.  The  result  is,  that  there  is  not  one  standard  copy  extant; 
what,  however,  is  most  gratifying  to  us  as  Protestants  is,  that  Dr. 
Murray's  edition,  printed  in  lB25,  coidainx  several  correclions  of  the 
Anglo-Romish  translalion  from  our  authorized  Protestant  Ver- 
sion, which  identical  passages  had  been  denounced  by  Ward  as 
heretical  mistranslations  !  Mr.  Hamilton's  second  pamphlet  exposes 
the  variations  which  occur  in  the  notes  of  five  several  editions, 
printed  between  the  years  1748  and  1826 ;  and  further  shows  that 
the  Irish  branch  of  the  self-styled  infallible  Church  has  no  fixed 
standard  whatever,  either  in  the  Bibles  printed  for  adults,  or  in  the 
elementary  Catechisms  prepared  for  the  use  of  children. 

23.  A  Brief  History  of  the  Versions  of  the  Bible  of  the  Anglo- 
Roman  Churches.     Dublin,  1830,  18mo. 

This  carefully  compiled  little  volume  pretends  to  no  originality 
of  information.  It  contains  the  substance  of  two  lectures  delivered 
by  a  clergyman  in  Ireland  to  his  parishioners  :  and  it  is  particularly 
valuable  as  presenting  in  a  small  compass  much  important  infor- 
mation respecting  the  alteralions,  additions,  omissions,  and  varia- 
tions, which  have  been  made  by  the  popish  bishops  in  the  Anglo- 
Romish  ve/sions  of  the  Bible. 


24.  An  Historical  Account  of  the  British  or  Welsh  Versions 
and  Editions  of  the  Bible.  By  Thomas  Llewellyx,  LL.D. 
London,  1768,  Svo. 

A  tract  not  of  very  frequent  occurrence.  In  an  Appendix,  the 
author  has  printed  the  dedication  which  the  translators  prefixed  to 
the  first  impressions  of  the  Welch  Bible. 

25.  A  Dissertation  on  Hans  Mikkelsen's  (or  the  first  Danish) 
Translation  of  the  New  Testament.  By  Ebenezer  Hexdersox, 
[D.D.]     Copenhagen,  IS13,  4to. 


26.  Biblical  Researches  and  Travels  in  Russia,  &c,  &c.  By 
Ebenezer  Hexdeksox,  [D.D.]     London,  1826,  Svo. 

This  very  interesting  volume  of  Travels  has  a  claim  to  be  noticed 
in  this  place,  on  account  of  the  numerous  and  important  details 
which  Dr.  Henderson  has  communicated  respecting  the  ancient 
and  modern  Russian  versions  and  editions  of  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
and  to  which  we  have  been  largely  indebted.  Dr.  H.  has,  in  the 
course  of  his  lengthened  tour  through  the  southern  provinces  of 
Rassia,  collected  many  verv'  valuable  elucidations  of  Scripture 
manners  and  customs.  Independently  of  these  circumstances, 
which  necessarily  arrest  the  attention  of  Bible  students,  his 
volume  contains  much  valuable  statistical  information  relative  to 
the  countries  through  which  he  travelled. 

27.  Christiani  Andr.  Teuberi  Tractatus  Philologico-Exege- 
ticus  de  Utilitate  Lingua;  Anglicanae  in  Explicatione  S.  Scrip- 
tursB,  ex  Pericopis  vulgo  Epistolicis  Vernaculae  Versionis  cum 
Anglicana  et  Fontibus  collatis  demonstrata.   Lipsia;,  1733,  12mo. 

The  design  of  this  publication  is  to  show  the  utility  of  the  Eng- 
lish Language,  and  also,  by  actual  collation,  the  importance  of  our 
authorized  English  version  of  the  Bible  for  correcting  the  German 
translation.  M.  Teuber  has  adduced  several  instances  in  which 
the  latter  may  be  improved  from  our  version. 

28.  Memoir  of  a  French  Tran.slation  of  the  New  Testament, 
in  which  the  Mass  and  Purgatory  are  fourtd  in  the  Sacred  Text ; 
together  with  Bishop  Kidder's  Reflections  on  the  same  :  accom- 
panied by  Notes.  By  Henry  Cotton,  LL.D.  London,  1827,  Svo. 

In  1690,  Dr.  Kidder,  afterwards  Bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells,  intro- 
duced to  the  notice  of  the  English  public  a  French  Translation  of 
the  New  Testament,  wliich  had  been  printed  at  Bourdeaux  in  168G  ; 
and  he  exposed  the  numerous  falsifications  of  the  sacred  original 
which  the  translators  had  made,  in  order  to  uphold  the  erroneous 
tenets  and  superstitious  practices  of  the  church  of  Rome.  Bp.  Kid- 
der's pamphlet  having  become  extremely  rare.  Dr.  Cotton  hxs  ren- 
dered a  valuable  service  to  the  Protestant  cause  by  reprinting  it 
with  some  corrective  notes ;  and  he  has  prefixed  an  interesting 
bibliographical  memoir  on  the  Bourdeaux  New  Testament. 

*  ^*  Many  interesting  details  relative  to  the  History  of  Modern 
Versions  of  the  Scriptures,  will  be  found  in  Dr.  Townley's 
'Illustrations  of  Biblical  Literature,'  and  'Introduction  to  the 
Literary  History  of  the  Bible,'  a  notice  of  which  will  be  found 
in  page  5.  of  this  Appendix. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

TREATISES    ON    THE    ORIGINAL    LANGUAGES    OF    SCRIPTURE,    AND    GRAMMARS    AND 

LEXICONS    THEREOF. 

SECTIOxN   1. 

TREATISES,    ETC.    ON    THE    HEBREW    LANGUAGE. 


§    1.    TREATISES    OX     THE    STUDY    OF    THE    HEBREW    lAXGUAGE,    AND    OX    THE    TOWEL    POIXTS. 


1.  LiXGu.«  Hebraica;  Studium  Juventuti  Academicse  com- 
mendatum,  Oratione  Oxonii  habita  in  schola  Linguarum,  a 
Georgio  Jcbb,  S.T.P.  Linguae  Hebraicse  Professore.  Oxonii, 
1781,  4to. 

2.  Dissertations  on  the  Importance  and  best  Method  of  Study- 
ing the  Original  Languages  of  the  Bible,  by  Jahn,  and  others ; 
translated  from  the  Originals,  and  accompanied  with  Notes,  by 
M.  Stuart,  Associate  Professor  of  Sacred  Literature  in  the 
Theological  Seminary  at  Andover.  Andover  (Massachusetts), 
1821, .Svo. 

These  dissertations  are  three  in  number,  and  are  translated  from 
the  Latin  of  Jahn  and  Wyltcnbach,  and  the  German  of  Gesenius  : 
they  comprise  many  important  observations  on  the  study  of  lan- 
guages, the  value  of  which  is  greatly  enhanced  by  the  original  and 
instructive  notes  of  the  translator. 

3.  Johannis  Buxtorfii  Tiberias,  sive  Commentarius  Maso- 
rethicus ;  quo  primum  explicatur  quid  Masora  sit ;  turn  Historia 
Masorctharum  ex  Hebraeorum  Annalibus  excutitur ;  secimdo 
clavis  Masorse  traditur ;  denique  Analy tica  Masorae  explicatio  in 
primum  caput  Geneseos  proponitur.  Basileae  Rauracorum, 
1620,  4to.  ^ 

4.  Ludovici  Capeili,  Filii,  Arcanum  Punctationis  revelatum, 
sive  de  Punctorum  Vocalinm  et  Accentuum  apud  Hebraeos  vera 
et  germana  anliquitatc  Diatriba,  in  luccm  edita  a  Thoma  Erpenio. 
Lugduni  Batavorum,  1624,  4to. 


These  two  works  almost  exhaust  the  controversy  respecting  tha 
vowel  points  of  the  Hebrew  language.  Buxtorl  maintains,  and 
Capellus  opposes  them,  both  with  equal  learning  and  ingenuity. 

5.  Jacobi  Altixgii  Fundamenta  Punctationis  Linguae  Sanctaej 
accedit  ejusdera  Synopsis  Institutionum  Chaldaearum  et  Syrarum, 
Francofurti  ad  Moenum,  1730,  Svo. 

This  is  usually  considered  as  the  best  edition-  the  treatise  first 
appeared  in  1692.  It  is  considered  by  critics  as  indispensable  to 
those  who  would  penetrate  the  arcana  of  the  Masoretic  punctuation. 

6.  Josephi  Dobhowsky  de  antiquis  Hebraeorum  Characteribu« 
Dissertatio.     Pragae,  1783,  Svo. 

"  This  tract  contains,  in  a  short  compass,  a  perspicuous  statement 
of  all  the  arguments  both  for  and  against  the  antiquity  of  the  He- 
brew letters;  and  the  conclusion,  which  the  author  deduces,  is, 
that  not  the  Hebrew  but  the  Samaritan  was  the  ancient  alphabet 
of  the  Jews."    (Bp.  Marsh's  Divinity  Lectures,  part  ii.  p.  135.) 

7.  A.  B.  Spitzxeri  Vindiciae  Originis  et  Auctoritatis  Divinae 
Punctorum  Vocalium  et  Accentuum  in  Ubris  sacris  Vcteris  Tes- 
tamenti.     Lipsia;,  1791,  Svo. 

In  this  treatise  the  author  strenuously  advocates  the  divine  origin 
and  authenticity  of  the  vowel  points. 

8.  An  Essay  on  the  Antiquity  and  Utility  of  the  Hebrew 
Vowel  Points.     By  John  Moxcbieff.    Glasgow,  1833,  Svo. 


86 
§2. 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  II.  Chap.  IV, 


UKBHEW    GRAMMARS,    AXD    OTHER    TREATISES    OS    THE 
HEBREW  LANGUAGE,  WITH  POINTS. 


[i.]  In  the  English  Langtiage. 


1.  An  Easy  Entrance  into  the  Sacred  Lanf^uage,  containing 
the  necessary  rules  of  Hebrew  Grammar  in  English;  witli  tiie 
Original  Text  of  several  chapters,  select  verses,  and  useful  histo- 
ries, translated  verbatim  and  analyzed.  Likewise  some  select 
pieces  of  Hebrew  Poetry.  By  the  Kev.  Cornelius  Batlet. 
London,  1782,  8vo. 

This  "Grammar  may  be  very  useful.  Its  rules,  though  concise, 
are  perspicuous ;  the  analysis  and  ihc  examples  illustrate  their 
principles,  and  tend  to  facilitate  the  study  of  the  Hebrew."  (Month- 
ly Review  (O.  S.),  vol.  Ixviii.  p.  190.)  This  Grammar  has  lately  been 
reprinted. 

2.  The  Scholar's  Instructor ;  an  Hebrew  Grammar,  by  Israel 
LyoN-s.  Cambridge,  1735  ;  1757,  2d  edition;  1810,  3d  edition; 
1829,  4th  edition,  8vo. 

3.  Hebrew  Grammar,  with  the  principal  rules  compiled  from 
some  of  the  most  considerable  Hebrew  Grammars.  By  Thomas 
Yeates.     London,  1812,  8vo.  and  various  subsequent  editions. 

Those  two  Grammars  have  long  been  in  use  in  different  acade- 
mies, as  well  as  in  the  universities;  and  are  recommenJcd  by  their 
brevity.  Mr.  Yeates's  Grammar  is  an  iiunrovenicnt  of  one  com- 
posed l)y  Dr.  Ashvvorth,  and  printed  at  Cambridge  in  1763. 

4.  A  Hebrew  Grammar  for  the  use  of  the  Students  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Dublin.  By  the  Rev.  Gerald  Fitzgeiiali),  D.D.,  He- 
brew Professor  in  [the]  said  University.     Dublin,  1799,  8vo. 

"  A  plain,  easy,  and  useful  introduction  to  the  Hebrew  longtie, 
jn  English,  for  the  use  of  students  in  our  universities,  and  particu- 
larly in  the  university  of  Dublin."  (Monthly  Review  (N.  S.),  vol. 
XXXIV.  p.  151.)  The  author  has  pursued  an  intermediate  method 
between  adopting  all  the  Masoretic  notes  and  rejecting  them  allo- 
gelher  :  viz.  oy  retaining  the  vowel  points  and  s'ui'h  of  tlie  accents 
OS  are  most  distinguishable  and  useful,  and  omitting  all  the  other 
adeems  (the  number  of  which  is  considerable)  which  he  deems 
wholly  unnecessary  in  the  present  state  of  the  Hebrew  language. 

5.  A  Hebrew  Grammar  in  the  English  Language,  by  Joseph 
Samuel  C.  F.  Fret.  London,  1813,  8vo.  A  new  edition,  with 
corrections  tind  additions,  by  George  Downes,  A.M.  London, 
1 823,  8vo. 

"The  directions  for  the  formation  of  verbs,  through  all  their 
voices,  modes,  and  tenses,  are  minutely  given;  and  this  part  of  the 
Grammar  manifests  the  author's  critical  acquaintance  with  the  lan- 
i;uage  which  he  professes  to  leach. — Though  wo  would  not  recom- 
mend this  as  superseding  the  use  of  other  Grammars,  especially  to 
the  cla.ssical  scholar,  but  would  rather  advise  it  to  be  compared 
with  the  best  of  those  which  are  written  in  Latin,  yet  we  must 
remark  that  Mr.  Frey's  mode  of  teaching  the  Hebrew  is  very 
masterly ;  that  it  is  singularly  calculated  to  facilitate  the  student's 
intimate  knowledge  of  that  language  ;  and  that  it  makes  us  ac- 
tjuainted  with  the  process  adopted  by  the  Knbbis  in  their  education 
of  Jewish  youth.  The  Hebrew  Psalter,  or  Book  of  Psalms,  is  sub- 
joined to  this  Grammar,  which  considerably  augments  its  value." 
(Monthly  Review  (N.  S.),  vol.  Iviii.  p.  55.)  The  edition  superin- 
tended by  Mr.  Downes  contains  a  glossary  of  the  first  six  p.sahns, 
a  compendium  of  Chaldcc  Grammar,  and  other  important  additions. 

'     6.  Elements  of  Hebrew  Grammar.     In  two  parts.     By  J.  F. 
Ctles,  M.A.     London,  1814,  8vo. 

The  difTiculties  which  opposed  his  own  progress  in  the  Hebrew 
language  originally  suggesfled  to  Mr.  Gyles  the  plan  of  the  present 
(Jrammar,  which  is  characterized  Ijy  simplicity  of  manner,  and 
clearness  of  illustration.  His  second  part,  which  treats  on  the  struc- 
lure  and  idioms  of  the  language,  contains  a  good  selection  of  rules 
and  examples,  principally  from  the  finst  volume  of  Dalhe's  edition 
of  Glassius's  I'hilologia  Sacra,  one  of  the  moHt  elaborate  systems  of 
Hebrew  Grammar  perhaps  that  is  extant,  and  which  is  indispensa- 
bly necessary  to  the  biblical  student,  who  is  desirous  of  fully  in- 
vestigating the  language. 

7.  A  Hebrew  Grammar,  with  a  copious  Syntax  and  Praxis. 
By  Moses  Stuart,  Professor  of  Sacred  Literature  in  the  Theo- 
logical Seminary  at  Andovcr.  Andovcr  (Massachusetts),  1821, 
8vo.  Second  edition,  1824,  8vo.  Third  edition,  1829.  Fourth 
edition,  1831.     Reprinted  at  Oxford,  1831,  Svo. 

•Professor  Stuart  has,  with  great  industry,  examined  the  copious 
Hebrew  Grammars  of  the  great  Oriental  scholars,  among  the  fJer- 
mans,  and  has  chiefly  followetl  the  latest  and  best,  viz.  that  of  Pro- 
fessor Gosenius  ;  whose  German  (Jrammar  of  the  Hebrew  tongue 
is  on  tho  continent  considered  as  iho  complilift  system  of  He- 
brew Grammar  extant.  In  regard  to  the  plan  of  the  work,  he 
does  not  profess  to  bo  n  mere  Ininslator  of  (icsenius,  whose  (Jram- 
mar is  loo  large  for  common  use  ;  but  he  has  adopted  tho  general 
method  of  this  writer  as  his  model,  deviating,  however,  from  that 
eminent  Hebraist,  where  Professor  Stuart  conceive."!  that  he  has 


upon  his  grammar.  (North  Americin  Review  (N.  S.y,  vol.  iv.  pp. 
473 — ^177.)  The  Oxford  edition,  which  was  undertaken  at  the  spa 
cial  recommendation  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Pusey,  Regius  Hebrew  Pro- 
lessor,  is  a  reju-int  of  Mr.  Stuart's  last  American  edition.  In  prepar 
ing  it  for  press,  Mr.  S.  rewrote  nearly  the  whole  work,  and  some 
parts  of  it  were  written  seven  or  eight  times  over.  It  has  been 
materially  compressed  ;  and  various  additions,  suggested  by  his  long 
experience  as  a  teacher  of  Hebrew  Language  and  Literature,  en- 
hance the  value  of  his  grammar. 

8.  A  Hebrew  Chrestomathy.  B3'  Moses  Stuart.  Andover, 
1829,  Svo.     Third  Edition,  Oxford  (reprinted),  1834,  Svo. 

This  volume  consists,  1.  Of  a  Selection  of  verbs  and  nouns  of  the 
various  classes ;  2.  Of  Easv  Sentences  for  becinners  ;  and  3.  Of 
large  select  portions  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  in  prose  and  jwetry. 
Copious  practical  notes  are  appended  to  the  several  parts,  with  cor- 
rect and  convenient  references  to  the  grammar. 

9.  A  Course  of  Hebrew  Study.  By  Moses  Stuart.  Ando- 
vcr, 1830,  2  vols.  Svo. 

10.  Observations  on  the  Idiom  of  the  Hebrew  Language  re- 
specting the  Powers  peculiar  to  the  different  Tenses  of  Verbs, 
and  the  Communication  of  Power  from  governing  Verbs  to  Sub- 
ordinates connected  with  them.  By  Philip  Gell,  M.A.  London, 
1821,  Svo. 

11.  An  Easy  Method  of  acquiring  Hebrew  with  the  points, 
according  to  the  Ancient  Practice.  By  an  experienced  Teacher. 
[Mr. Borrenstein.]     London,  1S22,  a  folio  sheet. 

"  This  'easy  method'  is  comprised  in  avei-y  neatly  and  distinctly 
printed  table,  including  three  lessons  ;  the  first,  containing  the 
alphabet,  with  the  collateral  addition  of  the  Rabbinical,  German, 
and  Hebrew  characters;  the  second,  the  vowel  points  with  a  few 
useful  rules;  the  third,  a  sort  of  Praxis  on  the  Letters  and  Points. 
A  useful  chart  is  thus  provided  for  constant  reference."  (Eclectic 
Review  (N.  S.),  vol.  xvii.  p.  463.) 

12.  Nugffi  Hebraicae :  or  an  Inquiry  into  the  Elementary 
Principles  of  the  Structure  of  the  Hebrew  Language.  By  a  Mem- 
ber of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy.     London,  1825,  4to. 

13.  A  Comprehensive  Hebrew  Grammar:  wherein  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  Language  are  simply  and  briefly  explained.  By 
George  Jo>fES,  A.M.     Dublin,  1826,  Svo. 

This  Grammar  has  been  especially  composed  for  the  use  of  the 
studints  at  the  University  of  Dublin.  It  has  been  the  author's  endea- 
vour to  imhody  in  clear  and  concise  rules  everv  thing  essential  to 
the  radical  understanding  of  the  language.  "In  this  design  Mr. 
Jones  has  ccrtaiidy  succeeded  ;  his  work  contains  a  summary  of  all 
thai  is  valuable  in  the  Thesaurus  Grammaticus  of  Buxiorf,  presented 
in  a  manner  well  calctdated  to  meet  the  difficulties  generally  fell 
by  beginners.  The  last  chapter,  which  is  tlevoted  to  Syntax,  con 
tains  a  cqjlection  of  useful  remarks  on  the  idioms  ot'the  language  ; 
the  conversive  van  is  explained  on  the  principles  of  Mr.  Gell" 
[see  Ko.  10,  above] ;  and  the  v\ork  concludes  with  a  brief  state- 
ment of  the  theory  of  Hebrew  poetrv',  as  laid  down  by  Bishops 

Lowth  and  Jebb "On  the  whole,  we  chcerfuUv  rc- 

conuuend  this  work,  as  calculated  to  teach  the  principles  of  the 
Hebrew  language."  (Christ.  Examiner,  or  Church  of  Ireland  ;Maga 
zinc,  February,  1827.) 

14.  A  Grammar  of  the  Hebrew  Language,  comprised  in  a 
series  of  I-ectures,  compiled  from  the  best  Authorities,  and  aug 
mentcd  with  much  original  matter,  drawn  principally  from  Ori 
ental  Sources ;  designed  for  the  use  of  Students  in  the  Universi- 
ties. By  the  Rev.  Samuel  Lee,  A.M.  [now  D.D.],  Professor  of 
Arabic  in  the  University  of  Cambridge.  London,  1827.  Second 
edition,  corrected,  1831,  Svo. 

The  following  are  the  principal  circumstances  in  which  tliis 
(jrammar  is  staicil  to  differ  from  every  preceding  work  of  the  same 
kind  ;  viz. — 1.  In  the  manner  in  which  the  system  of  vowel  iwinta 
is  developed  ;  ami  2.  In  the  mode  in  whieh  the  luuinsand  verrw  arc 
exhibited,  so  as  to  avoid  that  perplexity  whieh  is  presented  to 
learners  in  many  Hebrew  grammars.  In  the  syntax,  the  character 
of  the  language  is  investigated  according  to  the  analogy  discovera- 
ble within  it.<<ell';  and  the  eonelusioiis  to  which  the  author  arrives 
are  confirmed  by  appeals  to  the  Arabian  grammarians.  The  enal- 
lagcsof  gender  and  number,  which  have  caused  so  much  nerjilexity 
to  students  in  the  grammars  that  have  been  fiirmed  after  the  system 
of  the  celebrated  Buxtorf,  are  here  set  aside;  and  principles  are 
laid  down,  by  which  it  is  shown  that,  according  to  the  genius  of 
the  Schemitic  dialects,  those  rules  are  groundless,  which  make  it 
necessary  to  call  in  these  anomalies  to  our  aid.  To  the  synuix  is 
appended  a  short  essay  on  the  use  of  the  Hebrew  accents,  showing 
in  what  way  they  arc  to  be  understood  as  a  eonimenlary  on  the 
hearing  of  the  context.  Tho  whole  is  divided  into  twenty  lec- 
tures. 

15.  An  Analysis  of  the  History  of  Joseph,  upon  the  Princi- 
ples of  Professor  Lee's  Hebrew  Grammar.  By  Alfred  Olli- 
va3»t,  M.A.     London,  1828.     Second  edition,  1833,  Svo. 

16.  Essentials   of  Hebrew  Grammar,  with   points,  arrange  J 


good  reason  for  diflering  from  him  and  making  some  improvements  I  agreeably  to  the  plan  of  Gescnius,  for  the  use  of  Students.     Bjr 


>£CT, 


I.  §  2.] 


HEBREW  GRAMMARS,  &c. 


87 


ihe  Rev.  J.  CnocKER,  M.A.      Cambridge  and  London,  1829, 
8vo.     Also  on  a  folio  sheet. 

17.  A  Grammar  of  the  Hebrew  Language,  with  Points  ;  to- 
gether with  a  short  Sketch  of  the  Chald«e  Grammar.  By  Selig 
IS'ewman,  Professor  of  the  Hebrew  Language.  London,  1827, 
8vo. 

18.  The  Elements  of  Hebrew  Grammar,  with  a  Praxis  on  the 
Book  of  Jonah.  By  Wilham  Thomas  Phiupps,  B.D.  Bristol 
ind  London,  1830,  Svo. 

'^  This  is  a  very  well-printed  volume.  The  author  has  adopted 
in  tiiis  work  the  plan  of  a  grammar  published  many  years  ago  by 
Dr.  Bonnet.  Every  section  is  numbered,  and  a  praxis  upon  a  por- 
tion of  ilie  Bible  is  added,  from  which  continual  references  are 
made  to  the  preceding  rules.  The  advantage  to  be  derived  from 
this  meihod  is,  that  the  most  necessary  rules  are  the  most  frequently 
referred  to,  and  consequently  make  an  impression  on  the  memory 
in  proportion  to  their  importance  ;  and  as  the  learner  is  not  obliged, 
in  the  first  instance,  to  make  himself  master  of  all  the  rules,  there 
can  be  no  reason  for  limiting  their  number,  or  omitting  any  thing 
which  may  be  essential  to  his  future  progress.  The  first  part  of 
this  grammar  explains  the  elements  ;  the  second,  the  etymology ; 
the  third  contains  the  syntax."  (Journal  of  Education,  July,  1833, 
p.  97.) 

19.  A  Grammar  of  the  Hebrew  Language,  in  two  parts:  L 
Orthography,  &c. ;  H.  The  Etymology  and  Syntax.  By  Hy- 
man  Hunwixz.     London,  1831,  8vo. 

20.  An  Easy  Introduction  to  the  Hebrew  Language,  on  the 
Principles  of  Pestalozzi.  By  Parens  [Mr. Stngf..]  Lon- 
don, 1831. 

Tills  Grammar  is  divided  into  three  parts,  containing  I.  A 
Teacher's  Assistant  for  developing  the  elements  of  Hebrew,  with  a 
praxis;  II.  A  short  Hebrew  Grammar,  with  and  without  points; 
and.  III.  The  Hebrew  Roots,  arranged  in  twenty-four  tables.  "Mr. 
Svnge  does  not  intend,  in  this  excellent  elementary  work,  to  pro- 
vide ibr  every  possible  case,  and  thus  to  encumber  the  outset  with 
what  ought  to  belong  to  a  more  advanced  stage.  He  only  provides 
for  grammatical  facts  of  frequent  occurrence,  leaving  it  to  more  ela- 
borate works  to  furnish  the  explanation  of  insulated  cases."  (Jour- 
nal of  Education,  July,  1833,  p.  100.) 

21.  A  Grammar  of  the  Hebrew  Language.  By  Edward 
HiNCKS,  D.D.     Belfast,  18.S2, 8vo. 

This  Grammar  "  contains  less  learning  than  that  of  Stiiart,  but 
seems  more  intelligible  for  a  beginner."  (Journal  of  Education, 
July,  1833,  p.  94.) 

22.  A  Practical  Introduction  to  Hebrew :  with  an  Appendix, 
containing  Observations  on  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  Pro- 
nunciation of  the  Language.  By  S.  G.  Walked.  London, 
1833,  Svo. 

"  Mr.  Walker's  pamphlet  is  rather  a  strange  one.  The  preface 
contains  a  quantity  of  very  ill-judged  matter  about  Freemasonry. 
The  account  of  the  pronunciation  and  the  nouns  is  very  good  ;  but 
what  relates  to  the  verbs  is  so  meagre,  that  it  does  not  afibrd,  by 
any  means,  sufficient  direction  to  a  learner.  There  is  a  very 
fair  praxis  on  the  first  psalm."  (British  Magazine,  May,  1833, 
p.  586.) 

23.  A  Manual  Hebrew  Grammar  for  the  use  of  Beginners. 
By  J.  Seixas.     Andover  (Massachusetts),  1833,  Svo. 

This  Grammar  is  designed  so  exclusively  for  the  author's  pupils, 
or  for  such  persons  as  may  learn  Hebrew  li-om  them,  as  to  be  of  no 
use  to  any  student  out  of  the  American  Union.  The  author  ac- 
knowledges his  obligations  to  Professor  Stuart's  admirable  Hebrew 
Grammar. 

24.  Hebrew  Aids  :  being,  I.  A  Digest  of  the  Principles  of  the 
Hebrew  Grammar.  II.  Paradigms  of  Verbs.  In  two  Charts. 
London,  1833. 

These  charts  are  little  more  than  a  digest  from  Profe.ssor  Gesenius 
of  Halle,  Professor  Stuart  of  Andover,  and  other  modern  and  an- 
cient grammarians  and  Hebrew  scholars. 


[ii.]  In  the  Latin,  French,  arid  German  Languages. 

1.  Joannis  Buxtorffii  Thesaurus  Grammaticus  Linguae 
Sanctae  Hcbrsese.     Basils,  1615,  8vo. 

This  manual  is  chiefly  taken  from  the  Hebrew  Grammar  of  the 
Hebrew  Language  by  the  celebrated  rabbi  David  Kimchi,  and 
may  be  considered  as  the  standard  of  Rabbinical  Grammars. 

2.  Thomce  Bennet,  S.T.P.  Grammatica  Hebrtea  cum  uber- 
rima praxi  in  usum  tironum,  qui  linguam  Hebrseam  absque 
preceptoris  viva  voce  (idque  in  brevissimo  temporis  compendio) 
ediscere  cupiunt.     Londini,  1726,  Svo. 

3.  Alberti  Schultens,  Institutiones  ad  Fundamenta  Linguae 
Hebrseae.     Lugduni  Batavorum,  1731,  4to. 


4.  Institutiones  ad  Fundamenta  Linguae  Hebraeae,  edidit  Nich. 
GuiL  ScnnoEDER.  Editio  Tertia.  Groningae,  1810,  Svo.  Edit, 
nova.    Glasguae,  1824,  Svo. 

5.  Grammatica  Linguae  Hebra;ae ;  cum  notis,  et  variis  qusestioni- 
bus  philologicis,  in  quibus  praecipue  disseritur  de  natura  et  indole 
Linguae  Hebrreae.  Jacobo  Robehtsox,  A.M.  Ling.  Orient.  Pro- 
fessore  in  Academia  Edinburgena,  auctore.  Edinburgi,  1758, 
Svo. 

This  Hebrew  Grammar,  which  has  always  been  held  in  the 
highest  estimation,  contains  the  most  useful  and  necessary  of  those 
principles  and  rudiments,  which  are  laid  down  in  the  elaborate 
\\orks  of  Professor  Schultens  and  Schroeder.  It  is  therefore  more 
full  and  complete  than  either. 

6.  Grammatica  Hebrfeo-Harmonica  cum  Arabica  et  Aramaea, 
mcthodo  logico-mathematica,  etc,  ex  Altingio,  Buxtorfio,  Bevc- 
ridgio,  Buchero,  Chappelovvio,  Dantzio,  Erpenio,  Gerhordi, 
Hasseo,  Koolhasio,  Martini,  Michaelis,  Pfeificro,  Schickardo. 
Schultens,  Simonis,  Vriemotio,  contracta  et  emendata ;  Charta 
Lusoria,  analytice  delineata,  et  directorio  elucidata.  Auctore 
J.  G.  Kals.     Amstelaedami,  1758,  Svo. 

Mr.  John  William  Kals  was  for  many  years  scholar,  and  after- 
wards assistant  to  the  celebrated  professor  Albert  Schultens ;  and 
for  some  time  taught  Hebrew  at  Oxford.  His  work  consists  of  three 
parts.  1.  A  Hebrew  Grammar,  compiled  from  the  labours  of  pre- 
ceding writers  on  this  branch  of  sacred  philology;  2.  A  HaTinonic 
Grammar  of  the  Arabic  and  Syriac  Languages;  3.  An  Analysis  of 
the  chief  prophecies  and  promises  concerning  the  Messiah. 

7.  Gottlob  Christiani  STonu  Observationes  ad  Analogiam  et 
Syntaxin  Hebraicam  pertinentes.     Tubingte,  1779,  12mo. 

A  very  acute  and  accurate  work :  though  defective  in  arrange- 
ment, it  contains  a  mass  of  important  observations  on  the  genius 
and  idiom  of  the  sacred  language.  Much  as  it  has  been  resorted 
to  by  modern  Grammarians,  it  may  still  be  considered  as  a  valuable 
and  almost  indispensable  help  to  the  student  who  is  desirous  of  be- 
coming thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  Hebrew  language. 

8.  Christ.  Theo.  Waltheri  Ellipses  Hebraicae,  sive  de  Voci- 
bus  quae  in  Codice  Hebraico  per  Ellipsin  supprimuntur. . . . 
Denuo  edidit  et  Observationes  Novas  adjccit  Joh.  Christ.  Frid. 
Schulz.     Halae,  1782,  12mo. 

This  work  is  on  the  plan  of  Lambert  Bos's  well-known  and  justly 
esteemed  treatise  entitled  "  Ellipses  Graecffi :"  it  renders  to  the  stu- 
dent the  same  valuable  help  for  the  Hebrew  language  which  Bus 
has  afforded  to  students  of  the  Greek  language. 

9.  Janua  Hebra^aj  Lingu£C  Veteris  Testament!,  auctore  Chris- 
tiano  Reineccio,  Ex  recensione  I.  F.  Rehkopf.  Lipsiae,  1788, 
8vo. 

10.  Grammatica  Linguae  Hebraicae.  Auctore  Joanne  JAnw. 
Viennte,  1809,  Svo. 

The  manner  in  which  the  verbs  are  treated  is  said  not  to  be  so 
perspicuous  as  in  some  other  grammars ;  but  a  learned  friend  in- 
forms the  author  of  the  preseut  work,  that  every  other  part  is 
excellent;  the  syntax,  in  particular,  is  admirable;  and  upon  the 
whole  this  Graminar  of  Jahn  is  among  the  best  which  can  be  con- 
sulted by  those  who  have  made  some  progress  in  the  study  of  the 
Hebrew  language. 

11.  De  Radicum  Linguae  Hebraicaj  Natura  nominali  Com- 
mentatio  Grammatica ;  quam  Lectionibus  suis  prasmisit  J.  Th. 
Pluschke,  Phil.  D.  Theologiae  Prof,  Extr.     Lipsiae,  1817,  Svo, 

The  design  of  this  tract  is,  to  prove  that  many  of  the  words, 
hitherto  considered  in  the  dictionaries  as  radical  verbs,  are  in  fact 
only  words  derived  from  nouns;  and,  2.  That  even  verbs  to  which 
no  root  can  be  assigned,  are  rather  to  be  regarded  as  nouns  than  as 
verbs.  (Melanges  de  Religion  et  de  Critique  Sacree,  publiees  a 
Nismes,  torn.  i.  Gazette  Litteraire,  p.  24.) 

12.  Elemens  de  la  Grammaire  Hcbra^'que,  par  J.  E.  Celi.i;- 
RiEu,  fils,  Pasteur  et  Professeur  de  Langues  Orientales,  Critique, 
et  Antiquite  Sacree,  a  I'Academie  de  Geneve.  Suivis  des  Prin- 
cipes  de  la  Syntaxe  Hebraique,  traduits  librcment  de  I'Allemand 
de  Wilhelm  Gesenius.     Geneve,  1S20,  Svo. 

To  those  who  wish  to  study  Hebrew  with  points,  through  the 
medium  of  the  French  language,  this  beautifully-printed  volume 
will  be  peculiarly  acceptable.  That  part  of  it  which  relates  to  the 
syntax  is  particularly  valuable,  as  it  presents  in  a  small  compass 
the  results  of  the  researches  made  by  Professor  Gesenius  (noticed 
in  page  86  No.  7.),  whose  prolixities  he  has  abridged,  while  he 
has  rendered  clear  what  was  left  obscure,  and  has  explained  what 
the  professor  had  stated  with  too  much  brevity. 

13.  Institutiones  Linguie  Hebraea;,  concinnatae  per  Joanncm 
Nep.  Albeh,  S.  ScripturiE  Vet.  Test,  et  Linguae  Hebraeae  Pro- 
fessorum.     Budae,  1826,  Svo. 

It  appears  from  the  author's  preface,  that  this  is  a  new  edition  of 
a  Hebrew  Grammar,  published  by  him  in  1800.  It  is  composed 
entirely  after  the  system  of  the  Masoriles.  At  the  end  there  is  a 
very  useful  grammatical  praxia  of  ninety-five  pages  upon  several 


88 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Paut  n.  Chap.  IV 


chapters  taken  from  various  parts  of  the  Old  Testament,  to  which 
is  annexed  a  concise  Lexicon  of"  the  Hebrew  Roots. 

14.  Narratio  de  Josepho  e  Sacro  Codicc  desumpta.  Texlum 
Hcbraicum,  punctis  appositis  Masorcticis,  ad  Analysin  rcvocavit, 
notisque  phiiologicis  instruxit  Stcphanus  Reat.  Oxonii,  e  Ty- 
pographeo  Clarcndoniano,  1822,  8vo. 

15.  LingusE  HebraicsB  Literaj,  Acccntus,  Pronomina,  Conjuga- 
tiones,  Dcclinatiojies,  Nomina  numcralia,  ct  Particulaj.  Jenae, 
1822,  folio. 

16.  Jac.  Chr.  Lisdbehr,  Chrestomathia  Hcbruica  historici 
argumenti,  e  libris  Exodo,  Numeris,  et  Dcuteronoinio,  deceri)ta; 
prffifatiuncula  de  acccntibus  Hobraicis  ct  de  nominibus  derivatis 
prsemissa.     Havnia;,  1822,  8vo. 

17.  Nouvelle  Grammaire  Hebraiquc  Raisonn(^e  et  Comparee. 
Par  M.  Sarchi.     Paris,  1828,  8vo. 

This  grammar,  the  most  copious  which  is  extant  in  the  Frendi 
language,  consists  of  six  chapters,  the  first  of  which  "  treats  ol' pro- 
nunciation: the  rules  of  this  part  of  the  grammar  are  given  with 
clearness  and  precision;  and  the  author  has  omitted  nothing  that 
is  necessary,  nor  has  he  mentioned  any  thing  superfluous.  The 
second  chapter  is  very  large,  containing  one  hundred  and  ninety 
pages,  treating  of  lexicology  :  the  matter  L-ontained  in  this  chapter 
18  developed  with  great  superiority  of  talent.  The  third  cliapter 
t.'eats  of  syntax,  and  contains  many  new  and  luminous  ideas,  which 
mark  a  consummate  Hebraist.  The  fourth  chapter  treats  of  pro- 
sody: in  this  chapter  the  author  has  banished  fiom  his  work  a 
fantastical  vocabulary  imagined  in  the  fifteenth  century,  which  no 
one  will  regrei  but  the  lovers  of  routine,  I'uU  of  a  blind  respect  to 
superannuated  doctrines.  The  fifili  chapter  contains  rules  on 
orthography,  letters,  and  vowel-points,  &i'. :  this  chapter  contains 
new  ideas  on  the  point  denominated  doffucsck  (dagosh)  which  cor 
responds  in  general  with  the  teskdid  of  the  Arabs.  Thematology 
forms  t)>e  subject  of  the  sixth  chapter,  which  contains  some  excel- 
lent observations  on  servile  and  radical  letters.  The  volimie  is 
terminated  by  an  appendix  on  the  Hebrew  name  of  the  Divinity, 
railed  incflfhble  by  ihe  Israelites,  which  they  dare  not  pronounce. 
This  di.sserlatioji  proves  the  Breat  erudition  of  the  author."  (Clas- 
sical Journal,  December,  1828,  p.  332.) 

18.  Compendium  Grammaticaj  Hebraicse.  Oeniponti,  1829, 
8vo. 

19.  Principes  de  Grammaij-e  Hcbra'que  et  Chaldaique.  Par 
J.  B.  Glaire.     Paris,  1832,  8vo. 

This  grammar  is  divided  into  three  parts,  which  treat,  1.  On  the 
Elements  of  Hebrew  Writing;  2.  On  the  different  pans  of  speech, 
the  conjugation  of  verbs,  &c. ;  and,  3.  On  the  syntax  of  the  Hebrew 
language.  As  the  syntax  of  the  Chaldee  language  is  nearly  the 
same  as  that  of  the  Hebrew,  M.  Glaire  has  confined  his  observa- 
tions on  it  to  the  two  first  parts,  or  the  elements  and  grammar  of 
the  Chiddee  language.  As  this  Grammar  is  strictly  elementary,  the 
author  has  studiously  avoided  all  those  si-.ientific  and  controverted 
questions,  which  belong  to  literary  criticism,  and  which  would  only 
perplex  beginners.  This  work  is  clearly  and  me'.hodically  written  ; 
the  principles  are  perspicuou.HJy  and  concisely  stated,  and  in  an 
order  which  is  calcidaied  to  assist  the  memory.  At  the  end  of  this 
grammar  is  a  supplement,  in  which  M.  Glaire  has  exi)lained  the 
principal  critical  signs  used  in  manuscripts  and  editions  of  the 
Ilebrevv  Bible.    (Journal  des  Savans,  Juin,  1832,  p.  379.) 

20.  Grammalica  Hebraja:  auctore  Tacone  Roohda.  Lugduni 
Satavorum,  1831,  2  vols.  8vo. 

The  first  volume  treats  on  the  elements  and  simple  words  of  the 
Hebrew  language.  The  synUix  is  copiously  discussed  in  the 
second  volume.  Those  observations,  which,  on  a  first  perus;il  of 
this  grammar,  may  be  passed  over  by  the  student,  are  printed  in 
smaller  type. 

21.  Grammatik  der  Hehraischen  Sprache  des  A.  T.  in  vidl- 
Btandigcr  Kiirze,  neu  bearbeitet  von  Georg  Heinrich  August 
EwALD.     Leipzig,  1832,  8vo. 

This  is  an  abridgment,  or  rather  a  condensation  (with  considera- 
ble improvements),  of  Professor  Kwald's  larger  Hebrew  grammar. 
"An  ingenious  novelty  oc<iir.s  in  every  page.  In  scienlitic  ar- 
rangement and  the  explanation  of  anomalies,  he  i.t  jierhaps  unri- 
VHlfed.  Many  facta,  which  are  fiiithfully  and  clearly  slated 
singulatim  by  flesenius,  are  exhibite<l  by  Kwiild  in  a  chain  of 
philological  relations,  which  at  once  removes  the  ap|iearaiice  of 
rapricioiisncKs  from  each,  and  Jieli>s  l!ie  memory  to  retain  them 
all."  (Philudtlphia  Biblical  Repertory  for  183'3,  vol.  iv.  N.  i^. 
p.  575.) 

22.  Josephi  Milleii  Hcbraica;  Linguas  Elcmcnta.  Wratis- 
lavia;,  183.3,  8vo. 

*,*  Many  important  observations  on  Hebrew  Grr.mmnr  will  be 
found  in  Gla.saius's  Phiiologin  .Sacra,  noticed  in  p.  73.  nupm :  from 
which,  as  well  as  frf>m  other  sources,  Dr.  Gerard  has  <ligestcd 
much  valuable  inlonnation  in  his  Institutes  of  Biblical  Criticism, 
pp.  40—51.  2'JO— 377. 


§  3.    HE  SHEW  GRAMMARS  without  FOISTS. 

1.  FrancisCi  Masclef  Grammatica  Hebraica  a  punctis  aliisque 
inventis  Masorcthicis  .libera.  Accesseriint  Ires  Grammatics, 
Chaldaica,  Syriaca,  ct  Csamaritana  ejusdem  instituti.  Parisiis, 
1731,  2  vols.  8vo. 

Of  all  the  writers  of  Hebrew  Grammar  without  points,  Masclef 
has  enjoyed  the  highest  reputation.  A  late  eminent  divine  and 
professor  of  the  university  of  Cambridge  has  said  of  his  work,  "I 
know  none  more  to  be  recommended ;  as  it  gives  rules  for  the 
Chaldee,  Syriac,  and  Samaritan,  as  well  as  for  what  is  commonly 
called  Hebrew."  (Dr.  Hey's  Norrisian  Lectures  in  Divinity,  vol.  i. 
p.  23.) — As  Masclef 's  work  is  now  extremely  scarce  and  dear,  Pro- 
fessor Hey  recommends, 

2.  Elements  of  Hebrew  Grammar;  to  which  is  prefixed  a 
Dissertation  on  the  two  modes  of  reading,  with  or  without 
points.  By  Charles  Wilsox,  Professor  of  Hebrew  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Saint  Andrew's.  London,  1782.  Fourth  edition, 
1810,  8vo. 

See  an  analysis  of  this  work  in  the  Monthly  Review  (O.  S.), 
vol.  Ixviii.  pp.  422—427. 

3.  The  Hebrew  Guide,  or  an  English  Hebrew  Grammar 
without  points ;  to  which  is  added,  a  view  of  the  Chaldaic,  and, 
for  the  further  satisfaction  of  the  inquisitive,  a  brief  Introduction 
to  the  Knowledge  of  Hebrew  Punctuation.  By  Peter  Petit, 
M.A.     London,  1752,  4to. 

Though  this  Grammar  contains  nothing  very  extraordinary,  b(V 
sides  what  may  be  found  in  other  productions  of  the  same  naturp, 
yet  it  may  be  of  considerable  and  peculiar  use  to  learners.  The 
author  follows  the  plan  of  Masclef  s  Grammar,  above  noticed  :  bat 
has  reduced  his  work  into  a  narrower  compass,  and  has  added  a 
small  praxis,  consisting  of  short  sentences,  lo  illustrate  the  use  of 
I  the  several  conjugations.  For  the  s;ikc  of  the  more  inquisitive 
!  scholar,  who  has  acquired  a  competent  knowledge  of  the  llebrew 
language,  without  joints,  Mr.  Petit  has  subjoined  a  brief  Introduc- 
tion to  the  Knowledge  of  Hebrew  Punctuatiim;  which  he  does  not 
give  as  a  complete  system,  but  as  a  collection  of  as  many  substan- 
tials  of  the  doctrine,  as  are  generally  retained  even  by  iliose  who 
would  be  thought  adepts  in  that  part  of  learning.  (Monthly  lie- 
view  (O.  S.),  vol.  vii.  p.  234.) 

4.  A  Methodical  Hebrew  Grammar  without  points:  adapted 
to  the  use  of  learners,  and  even  of  those  who  have  not  the  bciicllt 
of  a  master.  To  which  is  subjoined  the  Hebrew  Grammar  at 
one  view.     By  John  Pakkuurst,  M.A.  8vo. 

This  is  admitted  by  all  competent  judges  to  he  the  shortest  and 
most  compendious  Hebrew  Grammar  extant  in  the  English  lan- 
guage. It  is  prefixed  to  the  learned  author's  Hebrew  and  English 
Lexicon,  which  is  noticed  in  p.  'Jl.  infra. 

.5.  A  New  and  Easy  Introduction  to  the  Hebrew  Language, 
upon  the  plan  of  Grammar  in  general,  designed  to  encourage  and 
promote  the  study  of  that  language,  by  facilitating  the  acquire- 
ment of  its  principles  upon  a  plan,  which  in  no  work  of  tho 
kind  has  been  hitherto  adopted.  By  the  Rev,  James  William 
Ni:wTox,  M.A.     London,  ISOG,  12mo. 

"  The  study  of  the  Hebrew  language  has  been  attended  with 
considerable  flifTicullics,  from  the  circumstance  of  there  being  no 
Grammar  of  that  language  constructed  ujion  the  model  of  grammar 
in  general.  In  the  present  work  this  impediment  has  been  re- 
moved, and  Ihe  learner  will  find  that,  in  ac(iuiring  a  new  language, 
he  has  to  contend  with  none  of  those  embarra.ssments  that  proceed 
from  encountering  a  system  of  grammar  entirely  new  toliiin  ;  which 
to  those  who  have  been  at  the  trouble  of  learning  the  grammar  of 
several  languages,  is  an  obstacle  which  is  not  freqiif^nlly  lo  be  sur- 
mounted  The  work  is  conducted  with  a  simplicity  and  [H-r^pi- 

ciiity  which  aflijrd  every  assistance  to  those  who  may  be  disposed 
to  become  acquainted  with  the  rudiments  of  the  Hebrew  tongue." 
British  Critic  (0.  S.),  vol.  xxvii.  p.  441. 

C.  A  Hebrew  Primer.  To  which  are  prefixed  tho  opinions  of 
Mclancthon,  Luther,  and  others,  on  the  Utility,  Necessity,  and 
Easiness  of  the  Study  of  the  Hebrew  Ltknguage.  Durham  and 
London,  1808,  12mo. 

7.  Hebrew  Elemcnt.s :  or  a  Practical  Introduction  to  the  Read- 
ing of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures.     London,  1807,  8vo. 

Both  these  publications  are  by  the  Rt.  Rev.  Dr.  BrRcrss,  tl.o  pre- 
sent learned  Bishop  of  Salisbury;  and  together  with  his  engrnved 
copies  of  Hebrew  letters  and  words,  Ibrm  the  simi>h'st  anil clearesi 
introduction  to  tho  reading  of  Hebrew  wilfwut  points,  which  per- 
haps has  ever  been  [iulili:,lied. 

A  new  edition  of  the  two  preceding  articles,  neatly  printed  in  one 
volume,  12ino.  issued  from  the  university  press,  Glasgow,  in  1833. 

8.  Extracts  from  the  Books  of  the  Old  Testament;  to  which 
arc  prefixed  Sketches  of  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  Grammar,  for  tho 
Use  of  Stndeutr.  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh.  [By  the  Rev. 
Dr.  Bru.ntox.]     Edinburgh,  1814,  8vo. 


Sbct.  n.  §  1. 


HEBREW  AND  CHALDEE  LEXICONS. 


89 


9.  An  Easy  Introduction  to  the  knowledge  of  the  Hebrew  Lan- 
guage without  the  points.  By  James  P.  Wilson,  D.D.  1818, 
8vo. 

This  Grammar  appeared  in  North  America  in  1818.  We  have 
not  been  able  lo  obtain  a  sight  of  it,  or  to  ascertain  the  place  where 
it  was  printed. 

10.  An  Introduction  to  Hebrew  Grammar;  in  which  the  Ge- 
nius of  the  Language  is  explained  by  a  new  and  simple  princi- 
ple of  Analysis,  applied  to  the  Improvements  of  the  latest  and 
most  impraved  Grammarians  ;  and  particularly  intended  to  re- 
duce the  Irregularities  of  the  inflected  parts  of  speech  to  the  com- 
mon analogy  of  the  Language,  and  to  explain  the  pecuUarities 
of  the  construction  by  assimilating  it  to  the  Idiom  of  the  English. 
By  the  Rev.  Frederick  Nolan,  LL.D.     London,  1821,  12mo. 

11.  A  Hebrew  Dictionary  and  Grammar,  without  points;  to- 
gether with  a  complete  List  of  such  Chaldee  Words  as  occur  in 
the  Old  Testament,  and  a  brief  Sketch  of  Chaldee  Grammar.  By 
James  Andrew,  LL.D.     London,  1823,  8vo. 

12.  Three  Tracts  on  the  Syntax  and  Pronunciation  of  the 
Hebrew  Tongue,  with  an  Appendix,  addressed  to  the  Hebrew 
Nation.     By  Granville  Sharp.     London,  1804,  8vo. 

-  Many  very  important  rules  and  observations  are  comprised  in 
these  vahiable  trac's ;  cf  which  a  copious  analysis  appeared  in  the 
("hristian  Observer  for  the  year  1804,  p.  415. 

§   4.     HEBIIEW    GIlAJtMARS  ivilh  AND    ivithout    POINTS. 

1.  A  Plain  and  Complete  Grammar  of  the  Hebrew  Language, 
« ith  and  without  points.  By  Ansehn  Bayly,  LL.D.  London, 
1774,  8vo. 

2.  Principia  Hebraica;  comprising  a  Grammatical  Analysis 
of  .564  verses,  selected  from  the  Hebrew  Psalms,  in  which  are 
found  nearly  all  the  radical  words  in  common  use  occurring  in 
the  Hebrew  Scriptures.  To  which  is  prefixed  a  concise  Hebrew 
Grammar,  adapted  to  the  Analysis,  and  so  arranged  as  to  illus- 
trate the  principles  of  the  language,  both  with  and  without  points. 
By  T[homas]  K[f,yworth],  and  D[avid]  J[ones].  London, 
1817,  8vo. 

In  this  very  useful  work,  the  Serviles  are  printed  in  hollow  cha- 
racters— the  root  and  radical  sense  are  pointed  out — those  rules  of 
grammar  are  referred  to,  which  account  for  the  form  of  each  word — 
and  a  literal  version  in  English  is  interlined  witli  the  Hebrew  text. 

"The  authors  have  unitedly  produced  an  introduction  to  the 
readmg  of  the  Hebrew  Bible,  of  distinguished  excellence  and  utili- 
ty. Nothing  so  complete  of  the  kind  was  ever  before  put  into  tlie 
hands  of  the  English  scholar,  who  is  here  provided  with  a  guide  to 
Hebrew  reading  worthy  of  his  confidence.  In  awarding  the  high 
praise  to  which  the  authors  have  an  unquestionable  claim,  we  can- 
not omit  the  commendation  due  to  their  unassuming  manner  :  their 
learning  i?  never  used  lor  tiie  purpose  of  display,  but  is  invariably 
.employed  to  promote  the  solid  improvement  of  those  per.sons  who 
may  choose  to  avail  tliemselves  of  the  means  here  provided  for 
their  correct  instruction  in  the  knowledge  of  Hebrew.  They  have 
furnished  the  student  with  every  admissible  facility  for  his  initia- 
tion and  progress  in  the  Hebrew  langtiage.  The  work  is  very  ju- 
diciously constructed  for  the  use  of  tlie  two  different  classes  of  He- 
brew readers,  the  Punctists  and  the  Anti-punctists  ;  it  is,  however, 
particularly  adapted  for  the  latter."     (Eclectic  Review,  Nov.  1818.) 

3.  The  Analytical  Part  of  Principia  Hebraica.  By  Thomas 
Kf.Vworth.     London,  1825,  8vo. 

This  publication  is  a  much  improved  impression  of  part  of  the 
preceding  work,  separate  from  the  grammar  which  originally  ac- 
companied it.  "  In  this  new  edition,  which  contains  a  compendium 
and  a  key,  the  entire  Hebrew  text,  of  which  the  Analysis  is  ex- 
planatory, is  printed  by  itself  without  remark,  and  is  distributed 
into  lessons,  comprising  examples  of  nouns  and  verbs,  the  usage  of 
servile  letters  and  points,  which  are  explained  in  the  corresponding 
portions  of  the  Analytical  Part.  These  short  lessons  are  followed 
by  a  selection  of  upwards  of  two  lumdred  words;  intended  to  fa- 
miliarize the  learner  with  the  pronunciation  and  forms  of  words ; 
and  the  remaining  part  of  the  compendium  includes  three  hundred 
verses  from  the  Psalms,  arranged  in  classes,  and  forming  a  series 
of  connected  subjects.  The  second  or  analytical  part  of  the  work 
is  a  complete  and  very  minute  explanation  of  the  words,  vowels, 
and  various  forms  and  modifications  contained  in  the  compendium; 
the  whole  of  the  text  is  here  reprinted,  the  serviles  in  hollow  cha- 
racters, and  the  places  of  the  dropped  radicals  supplied  by  small 
letters,  accompanied  by  a  literal  interlineary  version.  The  whole 
work  may  be  used  with  any  grammar,  and  will  be  found  a  most 
valuable  assistant  to  every  student  of  the  Hebrew  language,  who 
will  find  in  its  pages  the  means  of  satisfying  himself  in  respect  to 
almost  every  difllculty  which  may  occur  to  a  learner."  (Eclectic 
Review  (N.  S.),  vol.  xxv.  p.  439.) 

4.  Rudiments  of  the  Hebrew  Language,  with  and  without 
points.     By  James  Noble,  A.M.     Glasgow,  1832,  8vo. 

For  an  analysis  of  this  Grammar  see  the  Journal  of  Education  for 
July,  1833,  pp.  75—80. 


»   * 

« 


So  great  a  number  of  Hebrew  Grammars  (considerably 
more  than  six  hundred,  we  believe)  has  been  pubHshed  by  dis- 
tinguished Hebraists,  at  different  times,  that  it  is  difficult  to  de- 
termine which  is  preferably  to  be  adopted.  An  experienced  tutor 
will  be  the  best  guide,  in  this  case,  to  the  Hebrew  student.  In 
the  preceding  pages,  therefore,  those  only  have  been  specified 
which  have  some  pretensions  to  notice  for  their  utility  and  sim- 
plicity of  method. 

§   5.    CUALDEE    GHAMMABS. 

1.  A  short  Chaldee  Grammar,  without  points,  designed  for  the 
use  of  those  who  already  understand  Hebrew.  [By  the  Rev.  J. 
Parkhurst,  M.A.] 

This  is  subjoined  to  Mr.  P.'s  Grammar,  which  is  prefixed  to  his 
Hebrew  Lexicon.  A  Compendium  of  Chaldee  Grammar  is  given 
in  the  second  volume  of  Masclef's  Graramatica  Hebraica. 

2.  J.  D.  MicHAELis  Grammatica  Chaldaica.  Gotting®,  1771, 
8vo. 

3.  An  Introduction  to  Chaldee  Grammar ;  in  which  the  Ge- 
nius of  the  language  is  explained  by  a  new  and  simple  Principle 
of  Analysis.  By  the  Rev.  Frederick  Nolan.  London,  1 821, 12mo. 

4.  Elements  of  the  Chaldee  Language  ;  intended  as  a  Supple- 
ment to  the  Hebrew  Grammar,  and  as  a  General  Introduction 
to  the  Aramsean  Dialects.  By  the  Rev.  W.  Harris,  LL.D.  Lon- 
don, 1822,  8vo. 

5.  De  Chaldaismi  Biblici  Origine  et  Auctoritate  Critica  Com- 
mentatio.     ScripsitLudovicus  Hirgelics.     Lipsiae,  1830,  4to. 

6.  A  Manual  of  the  Chaldee  Language ;  containing  a  Chaldee 
Grammar,  chiefly  from  the  German  of  Professor  G.  B.  Winer;  a 
Chrestomathy,  consisting  of  selections  from  the  Targums,  and 
including  the  whole  of  the  Biblical  Chaldee,  with  Notes ;  and  a 
Vocabulary,  adapted  to  the  Chrestomathy.  With  an  Appendix 
on  the  Rabbinical  character  and  style.  By' Ellas  Riggs,  M.A. 
Boston  [Massachusetts],  1832,  Svo. 

This  beautifully  printed  volume  leaves  nothing  to  be  desired  by 
the  student  of  Chaldeo  literature.  The  plan  and  execution  of  the 
work  throughout  has  received  the  high  commendation  of  Professor 
Stuart,  of  Andover,  who  further  says : — "  The  Grammar  is  brief, 
but  quite  copious  enough  for  the  student  who  is  well  versed  in 
Hebrew.  In  the  text,  notes,  and  lexicon  of  the  Chrestomathy,  will 
be  found  all  that  is  needful  in  an  introduction  to  the  Chaldee  Lan- 
guage."    (Pref.  p.  V.) 


SECTION  II. 

HEBREW    AND  CHALDEE   LEXICONS. 
§   1.     HEBREW    LEXICONS   loith    POINTS. 

1.  JoANNis  Buxtorffii  Lexlcon  Hebraicum  et  Chaldaicum. 
BasiletB,  1634,  1645,  1675,  1720,  or  1735,  8vo.  Glasgua,  1824, 
Svo. 

2.  Joannis  Buxtorffii  Lexicon  Chaldaicum,  Talmudicum  et 
Rabbinicum.     Basilese,  1639,  folio. 

3.  Petri  Guarini  Lexicon  Hebraicum  et  Chaldseo-Biblicum 
Parisiis,  1746,  2  vols.  4to. 

4.  Christian!  Stockii  Clavis  Linguas  Sanctas  Veteris  Testa- 
menti.     Jenae,  1739,  1743,  1753  (best  edit),  8vo. 

5.  Lexicon  et  Commentarius  Sermonis  Hebraici  et  Chaldaici, 
post  J.  Cocceium  et  J.  H.  Maium,  longe  quam  antehac  correc- 
tius  et  emendatius  edidit  Joh.  Ch.  Fried.  Schulz.  Lipsise,  1777, 
2  vols.  Svo. 

Cocceius's  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  Dictionary  w-as  very  highly 
esteemed  in  the  former  part  of  the  last  century.  M.  Schulz,  in 
preparing  his  edition  for  tue  press,  omitted  all  the  superfluous 
Dutch  and  German  words ;  and,  in  determining  the  signification 
of  each  Hebrew  word,  previously  consulted  the  equivalent  term 
in  the  Arabic  and  other  Oriental  languages.  He  also  restored  to 
their  true  places  several  scattered  roots,  together  with  their  deri- 
vatives. The  work  is  neatly  and  correctly  printed  ;  and  may  fre- 
quently be  obtained  at  a  reasonable  price. 

6.  Lexicon  Hebraicum  et  Chaldmo-Biblicum,  ordine  alpha- 
betico  tam  primigenia  quam  derivata  Veteris  Testament!  Hebraica 
et  Chaldaica,  et  Latinas  eorumdem  Interpretationes  ex  Johannis 
Buxtorfii  aliorumque  eruditissimorum  Virorum  operibus  excerp- 
tas,  exhibens.  Digessit,  multisque  auxit  atque  ilkistravit  Jose- 
phus  MoNTALDi,  Roma3  in  Collegio  Germanico  Controversiarura 
Fidel  et  Hebrsse  Linguce  Professor.     Romse,  1789,  4  tomis,  Svo. 


90 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  IL  Chap.  IV 


7.  J-ohannis  SiMoyis  Lexicon  Manuale  Hebraicum  et  Chaldai- ! 
cum  ordine  etymologico  digestura:  post  J.  Gothofr.  Eichhornii 
curas  denuo  rccensuit,  emcndavit,  auxit  Dr,  Geo.  Ben.  Wixer. 
Editio  quarta.     Lipsise,  1826,  8vo. 

Dr.  Winer  has  so  greatly  altered,  corrected,  and  improved  thi.s 
Lexicon  that  it  may  he  regarded  as  a  new  work,  ratlier  than  a  new 
edition  of  Simonis's  Hebrew  Lexicon. 

8.  The  Smaller  Hebrew  and  Chaldce  Lexicon  of  Professor 
Simonis,  translated  and  improved  from  his  second  edition  (pub- 
lished at  Hallo  in  1766).  By  Charles  Skackk,  M.A.  London, 
1832,  12mo. 

9.  Philipp.  Ulric.  Moseh  Lexicon  Manuale  Hebraicum  et 
Chaldaicum,  in  quo  omnium  Textus  Sacri  Vet.  Test.  Vocabu- 
lorum  Hebraicorum  et  Chaldaicorura  significatio  cxplicatur,  cum 
Indice  Latino  copiosissimo.  Pricfatus  est  D.  Goltlob  Christian 
Storr.     Ulms,  1795,  8vo. 

10.  Joannis  DisnoRrii  Novum  Lexicon  Lingua;  Hcbraico- 
Chaldaicffi.     Lipsis,  1802,  2  vols.  Svo. 

11.  Lexicon  Hebraicum  et  Chaldaicum  Manuale,  in  Codic^m 
sacrum  Vcteris  Testament!,  cura  Everardi  Scnr.inTi  et  Joannis 
GnoENEWOEi),     Lugduni  Batavorum,  1805-10,  2  vols.  Svo. 

12.  A  Hebrew,  Latin,  and  English  Dictionarj-;   containing, 

1.  All  the  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  words  used  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, including  the  proper  names,  arranged  under  one  alphabet, 
with  the  derivatives  referred  to  their  proper  roots,  and  the  signi- 
fication in  Latin*  and  English,  according  to  the  best  authorities. 

2.  The  principal  words  in  the  Latin  and  English  languages, 
with  those  which  correspond  to  them  in  Hebrew.  By  Joseph 
Samuel  C.  F.  Fhey.     London,  1816,  2  vols.  8vo. 

A  book  of  more  promise  than  performance,  and  now  entirely  j 
S'inerseded  by  the  valuable  Lexicons  of  Gesenius,  which  arc  noticed  i 
below. 

13.  E.  F.  C.  RosEjrMULLEni  Vocabularium  Vcteris  Testa- 
mcnti  Hebraeo-Chaldaicum.  Hate  (Libraria.  Orphanotrophei), 
1922,  Svo. 

14.  A  Hebrew  Lexicon  to  the  BooLs  of  the  Old  Testament; 
including  the  Geographical  Names  and  Chaldaic  VV'ords  in 
Daniel,  Ezra,  &c.  By  D.  Wilhelm  Gesenius,  Doctor  and  Pro- 
fessor of  Theology  at  the  University  of  Halle.  Translated  from 
the  German  by  Christopher  Li:o,  Teacher  of  Hebrew  and  Ger- 
man in  the  University  of  Cambridge,  and  late  Professor  of 
German  at  the  Royal  Military  (College,  Sandhurst.  Cambridge, 
at  the  University  Press,  1825-28.     In  two  vols,  royal  4to. 

This  very  beautifully  printed  work  is  a  valuable  translation  of 
the  first  edition  of  Profo»iM)r  tiesenius's  Hebrew  and  German  Lexi- 
con which  was  published  at  Leipzig  in  18U)-r2,  in  two  thick  ocLavo 
volumes,  alphabetically  (iirnnged.     "The  inirins-ic  value  of  a  criti- 
cal lexicon  consists  chiefly  in  the  views  of  lexicography  held  by  the 
author.   The  leading  trait  of  Gesenius,  in  this  respect,  is  judgment. 
He  makes  a  sober  and  tenijierate  use  of  the  various  means  lor  de- 
temuning  the  significaliou  of  a  Hebrew  word,    llis  reasoning  from 
grammatical   analogy,  from   the  usage  of  the   Hebrew   language, 
from  the  context,  from  ilie  kindred  dialects,  and  from  the  ancient 
versions,  s[H»nlaneoiisIy  coinineiids  itself  to  the  underslimding.     It 
is  not  sufTicient  to  say  ihal  ho  has  rejected  all  mystical  derivations. 
lie  has  also  avoided  tiic  error,  nearly  as  dangerous,  into  whieh  some 
modern  lftxicogra))hers  have  run,  in  their  extra vaganl  use  of  Arabic 
derivations,  in  disregard  of  the  fact,  that  the  Helirevv  is  a  distinct 
dialect,  and  as  such  has  its  peculiarities.     But  allhough  Gesenius 
lixs  restricted  himself  in  this  particular;  yet  his  accurate  know- 
ledge of  the  oriental  languages,  especially  of  ihcir  constructions  and 
inflections,  sheds  a  constant  and  jiowerful  light  on  Hebrew  criticism. 
Much,  too,  depends  on  the  arrangement  of  the  various  sigiiilicalions. 
Here  Gesenius  has  been  very  sncces<<ful  in  seizing  hold  of  the  pri- 
mary physical  acceptation  of  a  word.      This  he  has  jilaeed  first ; 
and  llie  other  significations  in  the  order  in  which  they  might  be 
ftupp<jsed  to  be  derived  from  the  primary.     Each  signiticalion  and 
each  consiruction  is  supported  ly  ]>iTlinenl  citations;  which,  when 
attended  with  any  peculiar  ditfieuliy,  are  written  out  and  accom- 
panied with  a  literal  translation."      The  diirerenl  shades  of  mean- 
ing, it  is  truly  olwerved  in  the  prefaep,  ean  never  bo  set  in  a  clearer 
light  than  by  citing  the  passage  whieh  presenls  the  word  in  its  most 
distinguished  situation,  with  relation  lo  other  words.    *•  Such  a  \  iew 
of  the  dilFerenl  meanings  of  a  woril  is  iIk^  best  eoiiinienlary  on  all 
the  passages  cited.    VVliero  the  difli'rent  sinnifieations  of  a  root  ap- 
pear lo  have  no  logical  connection,  llu^v  are  distinguished  by  Uoinaii 
numerals;  in  other  cases  only  by  Arabic  numerals,     (iesenius  h.as 
introduced  into  his  lexicf)n  many  things  whi(  li  other  lexicinjraphers 
either  wholly  or  ()artially  nrnit;  as  (1.)  A  full  nccoiintof  llu'  con- 
struction of  verlis  with  dilferent  prejiosilionH  and  particles.     Tins 
is  the  more  necessary,  as  the  Hebrews  have  no  composite  verbs, 
but  vary  the  signification  of  the  verb  by  nicms  of  the  preposition 
fnllowinp,  as  in  other  languat'os  by  the  |>re|K)silion  in  com|M)sition. 
(2.)  A  full  expl.'malion  of  phrases  and   idioms, — a  vt^ry  im|Kirl;inl 
part  of  a  good  lexicon.     (3.)  A  notice  of  |K)elicnl  words  and  infiec- 
Uoiu,  with  the  corrcsfionding  prosaic  cxprcamon.    (4.)  A  notice  of 


the  peculiarities  of  the  more  modem  Hebrew,  in  distinc'.on  fi-oni 
the  more  ancient.  (5.)  An  account  of  those  words  which  are  defec- 
tive in  some  of  their  forms,  which  are  therefore  borrowed  from 
some  other  word,  like  the  anomalous  verbs  in  Greek.  Gesenius 
first  attended  to  this  cla.ss  of  words  in  the  Hebrew."  In  preparine 
his  translation  for  the  press.  Professor  Leo  has  not  confined  himself 
to  merely  rendering  the  Hebrew  and  German  into  the  English  Ian-  ■ 
guage,  but  has  made  various  improvements,  which  render  this 
Lexicon  preferable  to  every  other.  First,  he  h.as  retained  the  origi- 
nal preface  of  Gesenius,  in  which  reasons  are  assigned  for  retaining 
an  old  expression,  or  adopting  a  new  one.  Further,  in  order  to 
afford  beginners  an  opportunity  of  Ijecoming  more  readily  acquainted 
with  the  various  forms  of  the  conjugations  of  the  verlis,  he  has 
added  to  each  root  of  them  the  numoer  of  conjugations  in  whieh  it 
occurs  in  the  Bible.  He  has  also  verified  all  the  citations  of  the 
Hebrew  Scriptures  with  Van  dor  Hooght's  edition,  and  has  thus 
tacitly  corrected  many  errors  which  had  escaped  the  critical  eye 
ot'Gesenius.  In  this  respect  the  translation  has  an  advantage  uver 
the  original.  I,asl!v,  Mr.  Leo,  having  compared  Gescnius's  Ger- 
man abridgment  o(  his  >3j(!Con  with  his  own  translation,  and  dis- 
covered several  additions  and  improvements,  he  has  interwoven 
them  in  his  work;  and  has  subjoined  an  appendix,  containing 
an  alphabet  of  such  anomalous  words  as  present  more  than  ordinary 
difKcully  to  students. 

15.  Guiliclmi  Gesexii  Thesaurus  Philolocrico-Criticusliinguae 
HcbrxjB  et  Chaldsece  Veteris  Testamenti.  Editio  altera  secundum 
radices  digesta,  priore  Gennanica  longe  auctior  et  emendatior. 
PaTS  1.     L-ipsiae,  1827,  4to. ;  also  on  large  paper  in  folio. 

Professor  Gesenius,  after  making  preparations,  for  several  years, 
for  a  full  and  complete  Thesaurus  of  the  Hebrew  language,  in  He- 
brew and  Latin,  printed  the  first  portion  of  it  so  long  since  as  the 
year  1827;  but  proceeded  no  further  with  this  work.  But  in  the 
mean  time  he  has  brought  out  two  manuaj  editions  in  Gerrarwi  and 
Hebrew,  which  are  the  basis  of  Mr.  Gibbs's  Hebrew  and  EnglisV 
Lexicon,  noticed  in  the  next  paragraph.  The  following  arc  the 
leading  characteristics  of  this  Thesaurus  : — (1.)  Being  intended  for 
scholais,  and  not  for  beginners,  the  work  is  arranged  in  etymolagi- 
cal  order,  while  the  Manuals  are  in  al[)habetical  order.  (2)  All  the 
proper  names  are  included  and  illustrated.  (3.)  In  quoting  a  pas- 
sage in  which  a  word  is  found,  in  general  all  such  passages  are 
given,  unless  where  the  niunbcr  is  tr*.''at,  and  the  citation  of  them 
would  bo  imimportant.  (-1.)  When  the  autlior  difli>i-s  from  the  re- 
ceiveil  opinions  or  sometimes  from  himself,  the  reasons  are  given  at 
length,  in  order  to  avoid  the  charge  of  rashness.  (5  )  In  the  citation 
of  authorities,  reference  is  more  ficquently  had  to  the  older  inior- 
preters,  and  every  where,  as  much  as  possible,  to  the  ultimate 
sources.  (Andover  Biblical  Repository,  vol.  i.  p.  188.)  The  portion 
already  published  comprises  the  first  three  lettere  of  the  alphabet  ; 
the  work  is  to  be  completed  in  three  more  parts  or  numbers.  There  _. 
are  copies  on  thick  folio  paper,  the  typographical  execution  of  ^ 
which  is  truly  beautiful. 

IC.  A  Hebrew  and  English  Lexicon  to  the  Old  Testament, 
Including  the  Biblical  Chaldee,  from  the  German  Works  of  Pro£ 
W.  Gesenius.  By  Josiah  W.  Gi  n  as,  A.M.  Andover  (North 
America),  1824,  royal  Svo.  London,  1827,  Svo.  Second  edi- 
tion, 188t:,  Svo. 

This  is,  strictly  speaking,  a  new  Hebrew  and  English  Lexicon. 
Its  basis  is  the  (iorman  abridgment  or  smaller  Lexicon  of  Prof 
C;esonius,  which  was  published  at  Leipsic,  in  1815,  in  Svo. ;  hut 
Mr.  Gibhs  has  throughout  consulted  the  Thesaurus  or  larger  Lexi- 
con, and  has  also  made  some  conrclions  from  Gesenius's  later  phi- 
lological Avorks,  esiiecially  his  (German)  Commentary  on  the  Pro- 
l-hecy  of  Isaiah,  which  was  pnhlished  in  1820-21.  Still  further 
to  improve  his  Lexicon,  Mr.  Gibbs  has  not  only  corrected  many 
errors  and  oversights  which  had  crept  into  the  original  works  of 
(Jesenius,  hut  has  also  eommodiously  broken  the  articles  into  para- 
grajjlis  ;  making  each  signification  of  a  word  to  commence  a  new 
paragraj)h  ;  and  he  has,  in  addition,  mentioned  under  each  noun, 
which  is  found  inllecled  in  the  Old  Testament,  the  declension  to. 
which  it  belongs,  as  given  in  Prof  Stuart's  Hebrew  Grammar, 
which  is  noticed  in  p.  8C. 

The  first  London  reprint  was  edited  by  the  Rev.  Lancelot 
Shari>e,  M.A..  who  omitted  the  references  to  Prof.  Stuari's  Gram- 
mar, in  order  to  render  it  more  generally  useful.  Kuriher,  to 
insure  greater  correctness,  the  Hebrew  words  were  piintetl  frfun 
the  second  e(iili<;n  oftJesenius's  •'  Meiies  Hebraisches  Haiulworlor- 
biieh,"  which  ajipeared  at  Leipsic,  in  1825.  Tiic  second  Ixuidon, 
edition  was  Buperintonde<l  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Henderson.  Both  re- 
prints are  very  neally  oxet^uled. 

17.  Lexicon  Manuale  Hebraicum  ct  Chaldaicum  in  Veteris 
Testamenti  lihros.  Latinc  claboravit,  mnltisqne  modis  retracta- 
vit  et  auxit  Guil.  GESF.Nir.s.     Lipsi.v,  1833,  Svo. 

The  third  edition  of  (iesenius's  Hebrew  and  German  Lexicon  i.^* 
iho  basis  of  this  work,  which  has  been  grenily  eiilargo<l  and  iin- 
)roved.     It  is  formed  upon  the  plan  of  the  Thesaurus  described  in 
ci.  l.").  supra. 

18.  A  Manual  Hebrew  and  English  Lexicon,  includinir  the 
Biblical  (Mialdee,  abridged  with  the  latest  Improvements  from 
the  Works  of  Professor  W.  GcHcnius,  and  designed  particularly 
for  the  Use  of  Students.     By  Josiah  W.  Gibbs,  A.M.     Ando- 


Nr 


Sect.  III.  §  1.] 


GRAMMARS  AND  LEXICONS  FOR  THE  GREEK  TESTAMENT. 


91 


ver  [Massachusetts],  1828,  8vo. 
enlarged,  New  Haven,  1832,  8vo. 
8vo. 


Second  edition,  revised   and 
Reprinted  at  London,  1833, 


SECTION  IIL 


Tliis  manual  Lexicon  is  intended  to  embrace,  in  a  condensed 
form,  all  tlie  Tcsults  of  the  preceding  larger  Hebrew  and  English 
Lexicon.  It  is  specially  designed  for  the  use  of  students  in  llie 
higher  schools  and  colleges,  and  for  all  in  the  first  stages  of  their 
study.  All  su)iposititious  meanings,  resting  only  on  interence  and 
analogy,  are  excluded,  as  well  as  the  quoting  and  comtnenting  on 
passages  of  the  Bible.  Phrases  and  idioms  are  introduced  only 
sparingly  ;  and  the  more  difllcult  and  anomalous  forms  are  omitted. 
Professor  Gibbs  has  announced  his  intention  of  supplying  this  last 
defect  by  an  alphabetical  vocabulary  of  difficult  and  anomalous 
forms,  accompanied  with  a  full  analysis.  The  second  edition  was 
very  carefully  revised  and  corrected  throughout,  and  the  defini- 
tions of  many  words  were  improved.  This  JVIanual  is  quite  suffi- 
cient i'oT  all  common  purposes  of  the  Hebrew  student.  The  study 
of  the  Hebrew  language  is  much  facilitated  by  this  work.  "So 
cheap  and  manageable  a  Lexicon  will  be  reckoned  a  great  acqui- 
sition by  all  students,  and  especially  by  those  who  have  used  Gese- 
nius's  or  Stuart's  grammar,  as  it  contains  references  to  them  in  the 
declension  of  nouns."  (British  Magazine,  May,  1833,  p.  586.)  The 
London  reprint  is  very  neatly  executed. 

19.  Lexicon  HebrsEo-Chaldaicum,  in  quo  omnes  voces  He- 
braeae  et  Chaldjea;  Linguae,  qufe  in  Veteris  Testament!  libris 
occurrunt,  exhibentur,  adjectis  ubique  genuinis  significationibus 
Latinis.  Accurante  Chr.  Reinkccio.  Iterum  editum,  emenda- 
tum,  auctum  per  J.  Fr.  Rehkopf,  dcnuo  edidit,  emendavit,  auxit, 
atque  in  ordinem  redegit  alphabeticum,  A.  Ph.  L.  SAtJERWiujf, 
Hannoveraj,  1828,  8vo. 

20.  Lexicon  Manuale  Hebraico-Latinumwet  Chaldffio-Biblictun: 
auctore  J.  E.  Staulek.     Landishuti,  1831,  8vo. 

2 1 .  Lexicon  Manuale  Hebraicum  et  Chaldaicum  :  auctore 
J.  B.  Glaiue.     Paris,  1831,  8vo. 

22.  Lexicon  Hebraicum  et  Chaldaicum  in  Libros  Veteris 
Testamenti,  ordine  etymologico  compositum.  Edidit  Ernostus 
Fridericus  Leopold.     Lipsiie,  1832,  12mo. 

TJiis  manual  Lexicon  is  compiled  expressly  for  the  use  of  schools, 
and  those  who  are  commencing  their  studies  in  Hebrew  literature. 
It  is  concise,  yet  comprehensive :  it  is  very  neatly  printed,  and  is 
the  cheapest  Hebrew  Lexicon  which  has  issued  from  the  press. 

23.  Thesauri  Linguae  Hebraicse,  e  Mischna  augendi,  Parti- 
citla  I.  II.  III.  Auctore  Ant.  Theod.  Hartmann.  Rostochii, 
1825-26,  4to. 

%*  Those  who  are  commencing  their  Hebrew  studies  with  the 
book  of  Genesis,  will  find  Leusden's  Clavis  Hehraica  Vtleris  Testa- 
menti (Utrecht,  1683,  4to.),  and  Robertson's  Clavis  Pentaleuchi 
(Edinburgh,  1770,  Norvici,  1824,  Bvo.),  to  be  very  useful  manuals, 
as  Bylhner's  Lyra  Prophetica,  noticed  in  page  9,  of  this  Appendix, 
and  Messi^s.  Keyvvorlh  and  Jones's  Principia  Hebraica  (noticed  in 
p.  89.),  are  to  those  who  begin  with  the  book  of  Psalms.  Of  J.  H. 
MeiS-XEr's  Nova  Veteris  T'estamenti  Clavis,  only  two  volumes  have 
appeared  (Lipsias,  1809,  8vo.) :  it  is  executed  on  the  plan  of  Leus- 
den's or  Robertson's  works,  but  does  not  go  through  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. Its  value  is  enhanced  by  the  addition  of  the  significations 
of  Hebrew  words  from  the  Scptuagint  version;  the  differences  of 
wliich  from  the  Hebrew  are  often  examined  ajid  accounted  for 
with  much  critical  acumen. 


§  2.  Hebrew  Lexicost  without  Points. 

An  Hebrew  and  English  Lexicon  without  Points ;  in  which 
the  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  Words  of  the  Old  Testament  are  ex- 
plained in  their  leading  and  derived  Senses ;  the  Derivative 
Words  are  ranged  under  their  respective  Primitives,  and  the 
Meanings  assigned  to  each,  authorized  by  References  to  Pas- 
sages of  Scripture,  and  frequently  illustrated  and  confirmed  by 
Citations  from  various  Authors.  By  John  Parkhurst,  M.A. 
London,  1792,  4to.     Other  editions  in  royal  8vo. 

The  first  edition  of  this  work  (the  value  of  which  is  sufficiently 
attested  by  the  repeated  impressions  it  has  undergone)  appeared  in 
1762 ;  the  second  in  1778  ;  and  the  third  in  1792 ;  all  in  quarto. 
The  tJiird  is  reputed  to  be  the  best  edition,  as  being  the  last  which 
was  corrected  by  the  learned  author  himself,  who  closed  a  long  life 
of  study  and  of  piety  in  1797.  But  the  later  genuine  London  edi- 
tions, in  royal  8vo.,  being  printed  under  the  critical  eye  of  Mr. 
Parkhurst's  accomplished  daughter,  are  more  easy  of  purchase,  and 
iuslly  claim  a  place  in  the  library  of  every  student.  The  Hebrew 
and  Chaldee  Grammars  above  noticed  are  prefixed  to  this  Lexi- 
con. 

Vol.  II,  4  E 


GRAMMARS    AND    LEXICONS    FOR    THE    GREEK    TESTAMENT,    AND 
FOR    THE    SEPTUAGINT    VERSION. 

§    1.  GRAMMARS    AND    OTHER    TREATISES   ON    THE    LANGITACE  OP 
THE    NEW    TESTAMENT, 

A  Plain  and  Easy  Greek  Grammar,  adapted  to  the  use  of 
Learners,  and  of  those  who  understand  no  other  Language  than 
English.     By  John  Parkhuhst,  M.A,     4to.  and  8vo. 

This  Grammar  is  prefixed  to  the  learned  author's  Greek  and 
English  Lexicon ;  which  is  noticed  in  p.   93.  infra. 

2.  De  Vera  Natura  atque  Indole  Orationis  Gra>cae  Novi  Tes- 
tamenti. Auctore  Henrico  Planck.  Gottinga;,  1810,  [Also 
in  the  first  volume  of  Rosenmuller's  Commentationes  Theolo- 
gies.] 

"  The  little  tract  of  Professor  Planck  first  opened  the  way  fully  to 
a  correct  estimate  of  the  character  of  the  style  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment; and  unfolded  those  philological  principles  of  which  the 
works  of  Wahl  and  Winer  were  inleiided  to  exhibit  the  practical 
application.  Though  of  small  dimensions,  it  is  full  of  large  views: 
and  has  exerted  a  wider  influence  in  the  critical  world  than  all  the 
ponderous  tomes  produced  during  the  centuries  of  the  Attic  Con- 
troversy" respecting  the  style  of  the  New  Testament.  (North  Ame- 
rican Keview,  for  July,  1826,  vol.  xxiii.  p.  106.)  Two  English 
translations  of  this  treatise  have  appeared  ;  one,  in  the  first  volume 
of  the  Andover  Biblical  Repository,  the  other,  in  the  second  volume 
of  the  Edinburgh  Biblical  Cabinet. 

3.  Graromatik  des  Neutestamentlichen  Sprachidioms,  als  sic- 
here  Grundlage  der  Neutestamentlichen  Exegese,  bearbeitet  von 
Dr,  Gcorg.  Benedict  Winer.     Dritte  Auflage.     Leipzig,  1830. 

The  first  edition  of  this  most  valuable  Grammar  appeared  at  Leip- 
sic  in  1822,  and  was  translated  into  English  at  Andover  (Massa- 
chusetts) in  1825.  [See  the  next  article.]  In  1826  the  author  pub- 
lished a  second  edition,  which  was  soon  followed  by  a  second  vo- 
lume of  excursus  on  some  of  the  more  important  topics  of  the  work. 
In  1830  the  present  (or  third)  edition  was  published,  in  which  the 
former  volumes  are  united,  and  the  subjects  are  reduced  lo  their 
proper  urilur.  Upon  the  elementary  materials  collected  by  Planck, 
and  augmented  by  his  own  long-continued  researches,  Dr.  Winer 
has  erected  a  grammatical  system  of  the  later  Greek  as  exhibited 
in  the  New  Testament,  including  the  deviations  as  to  form  and 
flexions  of  words,  but  having  regard  chiefly  to  the  syntax,  or  at 
least  to  the  use  of  words  in  connection,  as  well  as  to  the  structure  of 
sentences.  "In  this,"  third  edition,  "  the  author  has  also  given  the 
further  results  of  his  continued  studies;  and  especially  those  flow, 
ing  from  an  attentive  and  systematic  perusal  of  all  the  later  Greek 
writers.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say,  that  the  labours  of  Planck  and 
Winer  have  produced  an  entire  revolution  of  opinion  in  regard  to 
the  language  of  the  New  Testament ;  and  have  placed  the  charac- 
ter of  it  in  a  light  so  strong  and  definite,  that  its  general  features  can 
be  no  longer  mistaken  or  perverted."  (Andover  Biblical  Reposi- 
toi-y,  vol.  i.  p.  640.) 

4.  A  Greek  Grammar  of  the  New  Testament  translated  from 
the  German  of  George  Benedict  Winer,  Professor  of  Theology 
at  Erlangen.  By  Moses  Stuart,  Professor  of  Sacred  Literature 
in  the  Theol.  Seminary,  Andover,  and  Edward  Robinson,  Assis- 
tant Instructor  in  the  same  Department.  Andover,  1825.  Large 
8vo. 

This  is  a  translation  of  the  first  edition  of  the  preceding  work. 
The  Anglo-American  translators  have  greatly  increased  the  value 
of  this  Grammar  by  verifying  all  the  references  to  the  New  Testa- 
ment, and  by  the  addition  of  numerous  learned  notes,  which  are 
designated  by  the  initials  of  their  respective  names. 

5.  Grammatica  Linguae  Graecae  qua  N.  T.  Scriptures  usi  sunt, 
composita  a  Joanne  Carolo  Guilelmo  Alt,  Halis  Saxonum, 
1829,  8vo. 

A  valuable  grammar  of  the  Greek  Language  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. The  author  professes  to  have  availed  himself  of  the  labours 
of  Winer,  so  far  as  they  had  been  published. 

6.  De  Modorum  Usu  in  Novo  Testamento :  Qusstionis  Gram- 
matic83  Pars  prima,  Indicativi  Usum  explicans.  Scripsit  Carolus 
Henricus  Adelbert  LiPSiLs.     Lipsise,  1827,  8vo, 

7.  Remarks  on  the  Uses  of  the  Definitive  Article  in  the  Greek 
Text  of  the  New  Testament :  containing  many  new  Proofs  of 
the  Divinity  of  Christ,  from  Passages  which  are  wrongly  trans- 
lated in  the  common  EngUsh  Version.  By  Granville  Sharp. 
Second  edition.     Durham  and  London,  1803,  12mo. 

8.  Six  Letters  to  Granville  Sharp,  Esq.  respecting  his  Re- 
marks on  the  Uses  of  the  Definitive  Article  in  the  Greek  Text  of 
the  New  Testament.  By  Christopher  Wordsworth  [now  D.D,] 
London,  1802,  8vo. 


92 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


9.  The  Doctrine  of  the  Greek  Article  applied  to  the  Criticism 
and  Illustration  of  the  New  Testament.  By  T.  F.  Midbletox, 
D.D.  [late  Bishop  of  Calcutta.]  London,  1808.  Second  Edi- 
tion, Cambridge  and  London,  1828.  Third  Edition,  London, 
18.33,  8vo. 

The  value  of  B-sliop  Middleton's  treatise  has  been  too  long  arid 
too  well  known,  to  require  any  additional  testimony  to  its  m-jrils  in 
this  {ilace.  The  opposers  of  the  doctrine  of  our  Saviour's  supreme 
divinity  cavilled  at,  but  could  not  fairly  refute,  the  convincing  phi- 
lological proofs  accumulated  by  Dp.  M.  The  second  impression 
was  very  carefully  edited  by  the  Rev.  James  Scnoi.EFiELD,  A.M. 
Regius  Proies.sor  of  Greek  in  the  University  of  Cambridge,  and  the 
third  by  the  Rev.  Hugh  Jnmcs  Rosk,  B.D.,  who  added  many  valu- 
able remarks  and  illustrations.  An  Abstract  of  the  Doctrine  of  the 
Greek  Article,  chiefly  derived  from  Bishop  Middleton's  treatise,  is 
prefixed  to  llie  lirst  volume  of  Mr.  Valpys  edition  of  the  Greek 
Testament  with  English  notes,  printed  in  1831. 

10.  Joannis  vax  Voorst  Animadversiones  de  Usu  Verhorum 
cum  Prajpositionibus  conipositorum.  Pars  I.  Lugduni  Batavo- 
rum,  1818.     Pars  II.  1822,  8vo. 

It  is  an  import.ant  philological  question,  whether  the  prepositions, 
which  the  sacred  \sritcrs  of  the  New  Testament  have  prefixed  to 
the  verbs  employed  by  them,  are  useless  (as  Prof  Fischer  asserted), 
or  are  designed  to  determine,  strengthen,  or  restrain  the  sense  of  a 
word,  and  whether  in  consequence  they  ought  to  be  taken  specially 
into  consideration.  M.  van  Voorst  establishes  this  last  opinion; 
and  in  the  second  part  of  his  disquisition  he  has  happily  illustrated 
the  force  and  meaning  of  .several  words  #ccurring  in  the  Ne\v  Tes- 
tament. (Melanges  do  Religion,  tom.  vi.  pp.  212,  243.  Nismes, 
1822.) 

11.  Christiani  Abrahami  Waul  Commcntatio  de  Particulx  F.i 
ct  Praepositionis  En  apud  N.  T.  Scriptores  Usu  et  Potestate. 
Lipsiae,  1827,  8vo. 

12.  Joh.  Aug.  Henr.  Tittman.ni  de  Synonymis  in  NovoTes- 
tamenfo  Liber  Primus.  Adjecta  sunt  alia  ejusdem  argumenti, 
Lipeix,  1829. — Ejustlem,  Liber  secundus.  Post  mortem  auctoris 
edidit,  alia  opuscula  exegetici  argumenti  adjecit,  Guilielmus  Be- 
cher,  A..M.  Lipsiaj,  1832,  8vo. 

12*.  Remarks  on  the  Synonyms  of  the  New  Testament  by 
John  Henry  Tittmann,  D.D.  Translated  by  the  Rev.  Edward 
Craig,  MA.     Edinburgh,  1833-31,  2  vols,  small  8vo. 

The  object  of  Dr.  Tittmann  was,  to  investigate  the  comparative 
force  of  those  words  in  the  New  Testament,  which  appear  to  be 
synonymous,  that  is,  which  range  under  a  common  genus,  as  hav- 
ing one  generic  idea  in  common;  but  each  of  which  have,  in  adUi- 
tifln,  a  specific  dilli^rence  of  meaning.  Of  these  he  has  given  an 
extensive  list,  which  will  be  of  great  service  to  future  lexicogra- 
i.hers  of  the  New  Testament ;  and  the  present  work  consists  of  en- 
larged observations  upon  some  of  these  synonyms.  They  exhibit 
the  result  of  deep  erudition.  The  work  is  well  translated,  and  is 
enriched  with  some  valuable  notes  by  the  author  of  the  transla- 
tion, which  forms  part  of  the  Edinburgh  Biblical  Cabinet. 


§    2.    CLOSSAniES  ASM  LEXICONS  TO  THE  GHEEK  TESTAMENT. 

Numerous  Lexicons  to  the  Greek  Tei^tamcnt  have  been  pub- 
lished at  dillercnt  times,  a  list  of  which  is  given  by  Sthleusner, 
at  the  end  of  the  preface  to  his  Lexicon  ;  and  the  defects  of  which 
are  con.sidered  by  J.  F.  Fischer  in  his  "  Prolusioncs  de  vitiis 
Lexicorum  Novi  Testamcnti,  Lipsias,  1791,"  8vo.  The  causes 
why  the  lexicography  of  the  New  Testament,  until  of  late  years, 
has  not  been  studied  in  proportion  to  its  importance,  together 
with  a  statement  of  the  requisites  of  a  good  Lexicon,  are  speci- 
fied by  J.  Brdchnf.r  in  his  "  Idea  Lexicograpliia;  Novi  Testa- 
mcnti. Haunix,  1833,"  8vo.  The  following  are  those  most 
deserving  of  attention  : — 

1.  Glossarium  Graecum  in  Sacros  Novi  Ftederis  Libros,  ex 
MSS.  primu.s  edidit,  notisque  inlustravit  Joannes  Alueuti. 
Ludg.  Bat.  1735,  8vo. 

2.  Glossa;  SacrtD  HESTCiiri,  Graicc.  Ex  universo  illius  Opore 
in  Uaum  Interjiretalionis  Libr.  Sacr.  cxccrpsit,  emendavit,  notis- 
que illuHtravif  Jo.  Chr.  Gottlieb  Ernesti.  Acccsserunt  Glossa; 
Grfficte  in  Psalmos,  ex  Catalogo  Manuscriptorum  Bibliotheca; 
Taurinensis  denuo  cditse.     Lipsia;,  178-^,  8vo. 

3.  Si'iD.v,  et  Phatohixi  Glossrc  Sa^ric  GnBcc,cum  spicilegio 
Gloss.  SS.  Hcsyrhii  ct  Etymologic!  Magni  :  congessit,  emenda- 
vit, ct  notis  illustravit,  J.  C.  G.  Ernesti.     Lipsiie,  1786,  8vo. 

Schletiwner  has  eximcted  the  most  valuable  matter  fnim  these 
works,  and  inserted  it  in  his  well-known  and  excellent  Greek  Lex- 
icon to  the  New  Testament. 

4.  ('ritica  Sacra :  containing  Observations  on  all  the  Radices 
of  the  Hebrew  Words  of  the  Old,  and  the  Greek  of  the  New  Tes- 


[Part  IL  Chap.  IV 
London,  1662,  folio,  with 


tament     By  Edward  Leigh,  Esq. 
Supplement. 

This  work  was  first  published  in  1639  and  1C46,  in  4to.  The 
folio  impression  of  1GG2  is  the  best  English  edition.  The  Critica 
Sacra  was  translated  into  Latin  and  printed  at  Amsterdam,  with 
additional  observations  by  John  lleescr,  1G96,  in  folio.  Mr.  Leigh 
was  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his  time,  and  enjoyed  the' 
friendship  of  Archbishop  Usher.  Ilis  work  is  a  very  valuable  help 
to  the  understanding  of  the  original  languages  of  tlie  sacred  writ- 
ings; and  as  it  may  frequently  be  obtained  at  a  low  price,  it  may 
be  substituted  for  either  of  the  fidlowing  works,  which  a  student 
may  not  perhaps  be  able  to  purchase.  The  Criiica  Sacra  not  only 
gives  the  literal  sense  of  every  word  in  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments, but  enriches  almost  every  definition  with  jihilological  and 
theological  notes,  drawn  from  the  publications  of  the  best  gramma- 
rians and  critics  then  extant.  To  this  work  most  succeeding  lexi- 
cographers on  the  Old  and  New  Testament  have  been  greatly  in- 
debted. 

5.  Joannis  Kxollii  Vocabularium  Blblicum  Novi  Testamcnti, 
ita  secundum  seriem  capitum  atque  versuum  adornatum,  ut  in 
lectione  sacrorum  Novi  Tcstamenti  Grajci  Librorum  usum  pra;- 
bere  possit  extemporalem.  Editio  nova,  auctior  et  emcndatior, 
additis  subindc  pra;ter  Analysin  Grammaticum  Vocuinque  Tho- 
mata  Locorum  dilTicilioruin  explicationibus.     Lipsiae,  1777,  8vo. 

6.  Novum  Lexicon  Grseco-Latinum  in  Novum  Testamentum 
congcssit  ct  variis  obscrvationibus  philologicis  illustravit  Johannes 
Fricdericus  Sculkusner.  Lipsise,  1819.  4  parts  in  2  vols.  8vo. 
Glasguse,  1824.     4to.  and  also  in  2  vols.  8vo. 

This  is  the  fourth  and  best  edition  of  an  invaluable  work  ;  the 
first  appeared  at  Leipsic  in  1791  ;  the  second  in  1801 ;  and  the  third 
in  1808.  An  elegant  reprint  of  this  Lexicon  was  executed  at  the 
University  press,  Edifiburgh,in  1814,  in  two  vols.  8vo. :  the  German 
quotations  introduced  by  Schlcusner  are  in  tins  edition  translated 
into  English  by  the  editors,  Messrs.  Smith,  Strauchon,  and  Dicken- 
son. Another  reprint  of  this  Lexicon  issued  from  the  Glasgow 
press  in  1817,  also  in  two  volumes,  8vo.  The  fourth  Leipsic  edi- 
tion contains  many  additional  words,  and  new  observations,  which 
are  interspersed  through  the  work.  The  Preface  contains  a  severe 
piiilippic  ugaiiist  the  two  reprints  just  noticed.  The  Glasgow  edi- 
tions of  1824  are  elegantly  printed  both  in  one  volume,  4io.  and  in 
two  vols.  8vo.' 

7.  Lexicon  Grajco-Latinum  in  Novum  Testamentum.     Con 
gessit  Joh.  Frieder.  Schlcusner  ;  in  compendium  redcgit  Joannes 
Carey,  LL.D.     London,  1826,  8vo. 

"The  main  principle  of  this  volume  is  that  it  contains  all  Si-lileus 
ner's  Lexicograjihical  interpretations,  together  with  his  Scripture 
references,  and  this  without  abridgment;  while  nothing  is  sacri 
ficed  but  what,  in  a  majority  of  instances,  may  be  advantageously 

dispensed  with Dr.  Carey's  name  is  a  guarantee  lor  correct 

impressions."      (Eclectic  Review,  vol.  .xxvi.  N.  S.  p.  180.)     This 
manual  Lexicon  is  very  neatly  printed. 

8.  Christiani  Schoetgexii  Novum  Lexicon  Grajco-Latinum 
in  Novum  Testamentum  :  post  J.  T.  Krebsium  recensuit,  et  variis 
obscrvationibus,  philologicis  et  criticis,  locupletavit  G.  L.  Sroax. 
Lipsise,  1790,  8vo.' 

The  first  edition  of  Schoetgeniiis's  Lexicon  was  published  at 
Leipsic,  in  1746:  Kreb's  corrected  and  enlarged  edition  appeared 
also  at  Leipsic,  in  1765,  both  in  8vo.  Previously  to  the  appearance 
of  Schleusner's  work,  Spohn's  third  edition  w:»s  justly  considered 
as  the  best  Greek  and  Latin  Lexicon  to  the  New  Testament,  for 
which  it  may  be  substituted  by  those  who  cannot  afford  to  purchase 
Schleusner's  volumes. 

9.  A  Greek  and  English  Manual  Lexicon  to  the  New  Testa 
ment,  with  Examples  of  all  l!ie  irregular  and  more  diflicult  In 
(lections.     By  J.  H.  Bass.    London,  1820  ;  second  edition,  1829, 
18mo. 

This  little  volume  is  confessedly  n  mnnual  Lexicon  for  young 
students  of  the  Greek  Testament.  Its  author  has  carefully  abridged 
the  more  diffuse  explanations  of  other  Lexicons  ;  but  it  is  noticed 
here  principally  because  it  contains  nearly  /f/Vy  articles  comuionly 
omitted  in  other  IjOxicons  of  the  New  Tesianient,  and  vvhich  are 
supplied  from  iho  fourth  edition  of  Sthleusner  above  noticed.  The 
second  edition  is  much  enlarged,  and  so  materially  improved,  that 
it  may  almost  be  regarded  as  a  new  work.    The  definition*  have 

«  ln<lisp<>nHaMf  as  the  Loxicoiisof  SchlL-usner  anJ  i^pohn  arc  tn  biblical 
students,  the  author  cannot  omit  the  following  salntiiry  advice  of  Hlshop 
j,.|,|,  :_"I  xvouM,"  hpsiiys,  "i-urncslly  exhort  those  hililical  sliidonls  who 
niiiy  happen  to  use  (as  irilh  jnujier  cuutiun,  nil  ailvnncnl  students  will  find 
it  their  adviinta«e  to  use)  the  I.exieons  of  8|)ohn  and  Schleu.sner  for  the  ■ 
New  Tesianient.  and  Ihosc  of  Schli'Hsner  and  Uret.schneider  for  the  rfep- 
liia;:intand  Aporrypha,  to  lie  particuliirly  on  Ihejr  (juar.l  against  alleged 
identity  of  meaniiu%  in  words  whoiic  ordinary  bi).'niticalion  i.s  any  ihiilK  but 
fynonynions.  In  such  rases  lot  the  riled  passatics  be  carefully  examined  : 
aiid  I  venture  t.)  nlTirm  that,  insteail  of  synonymous,  there  will  almost  uni- 
versally be  found  an  important  variation  of  moaning  between  the  rclnteJ 

ays  such  a  varLition, 


lly  be  found  an  important  variation  of  nioaninit 
I)er9  r  commonly  a  nrrjgress  in  the  sense,  hut  alw 


mi'mhers  r  coimnonly  a  prrjgress  in  the  sense,  hut  always  such  a  varLitlon, 
as  will  quite  Kiiper.seilo  the  necessity  of  resorting  to  an  unusual,  much  less 
an  unprecrdeulnd,  ac:cptaliun  of  the  Icruis  employed."  Up.  Jcbb'B  Sacred 
Liti:rature,  p.  Dl. 


Sect.  EI.  §  3.] 


LEXICONS  TO  THE  SEPTUAGINT  VERSION. 


93 


been  amplified  ;  references  are  made  to  passages  in  which  words 
are  used  in  peculiar  acceptations ;  and  examples  are  quoted  of 
unusual  combinations  of  language.  While  every  thing  has  been 
rpiained  which  adapted  this  Lexicon  to  the  wants  of  the  mere 
learner,  the  author  has  aimed  to  accommodate  it  also  (as  far  as  its 
limits  would  permit)  to  the  use  of  those  whose  perusal  of  the  sacred 
volume  is  more  critical  and  discriminating. 

10.  A  New  Greek  and  English  Lexicon  to  the  New  Testa- 
ment ;  in  which  the  quantity  of  all  the  doubtful  Vowels  is  care- 
fully marked,  and  Genealogical  Tables  connected  with  the  Sa- 
cred History  are  annexed.  By  the  Rev.  Henry  Laikg,  LL.D. 
London,  1821,  8vo. 

"  It  is  a  convenient  work  for  all  who  wish  to  read  the  New  Tes- 
tament in  the  Original,  without  making  any  further  progress  in  the 
language."    (British  Review,  vol.  xxii.  pp.  409,  410.) 

11.  Clavis  Philologica  Non  Tcstamenti,  auctore  Christophoro 
Abrahamo  Wahl.  Lipsiae,  1822,  2  tomis,  8vo.  Editio  secunda, 
auclior  et  emendation     Lipsiae,  1829,  2  tomis,  8vo. 

This  truly  valuable  Greek  and  Latin  Lexicon  to  the  New  Testa- 
ment is  expressly  designed  for  those  who  cannot  aflbrd  to  purchase 
Schleusner's  Lexicon.  It  is  founded  on  the  philological  principles 
first  developed  by  Professor  Planck,  in  his  elaborate  dissertation 
'  De  Vera  Nalura  afqtte  Indole  Orationis  Grceca  Novi  Tesiamenti," 
noticed  in  page  91.  supra.  "It  was  the  object  of  the  author  to 
bring  into  a  modefate  compass  the  results  of  the  latest  and  most 
extended  investigations  into  both  the  philology  and  interpretation 
of  the  sacred  volume  ;  so  that  they  might  be  made  universally  ac- 
cessible, and  be  adapted  to  the  daily  convenience,  and  habitual 
use,  of  every  student.  The  work  was  intended  to  embrace  simply 
the  results,  without  the  ;);-ocessfiS,  of  investigation  ;  with  references 
to  authorities  sufficient  to  verity  those  results,  should  the  student 
wish  to  prosecute  his  inquiries  further.  That  such  is  the  plan  best 
suited  to  the  purpose  which  the  author  liad  in  view,  there  can  be 
little  doubt;  nor  can  we  hesitate  to  say  that  he  has  successfully 
accomplished  that  purpose.  The  object  of  a  lexicon  is  not  a  com- 
meiitary — not  the  exhibition  of  a  system  of  theology:  it  is  designed 
simply  as  an  instrument  in  the  hands  of  the  student,  by  which  he 
is  to  aid  himself  in  ascertaining  the  sense  of  a  writer,  and  making 
out  practically,  if  not  formally,  a  commentary  for  himself  To  do 
this  fully  he  must  of  course  go  back  to  the  same  sources  of  informa- 
tion from  which  the  lexicon  itself  was  drawn.  In  a  work  of  this 
kind,  moreover,  a  great  deal  of  the  merit  must  necessarily  depend 
on  the  power  which  the  writer  may  possess  of  condensing  liis 
thoughts,  and  expressing  them  in  terms  at  once  concise  and  per- 
spicuous. In  this  respect  we  think  that  a  high  rank  must  be  as- 
signed to  AVahl ;  and  that  he  is  far  removed  both  from  the  diffuse- 
ness  of  Parkhurst,  and  from  that  prolixity  and  unnecessary  copious- 
ness lor  which  Schleusner  is  distinguished."  (North  American 
Review  for  July,  1826,  vol.  xxiii.  pp.  106, 107.)  In  the  first  volume 
of  the  Andover  Biblical  Repository  (pp.  554 — 558.)  there  is  an  elabo- 
rate comparative  criticism,  by  Professor  Tholuck,  of  Halle,  on  the 
respective  merits  of  VVahl's  Lexicon  and  of  that  by  Dr.  Bretschnei- 
der,  No.  14.  infra. 

12.  Clavis  Novi  Testamenti  Philologica  usibus  Scholarum  et 
Juvenum  Theologia;  studiosorum  accommodata.  Auctore  Chris- 
tophoro Abrahamo  Waul.     Editio  minor.     Lipsiae,  1831,  4to. 

This  abridgment  of  Dr.  Wahl's  second  edition  of  his  larger  Lexi- 
con fdls  343  closely  printed  pages  in  large  4to.  Professor  Tholuck, 
of  Halle,  states  that  it  "  is  very  well  done,  although,  viewed  in  the 
light  of  a  truly  Christian  theology,  it  leaves  much  lo  be  desired. 
The  Spirit  of  God  moves  not  upon  the  waters."  (Andover  Biblical 
Repository  for  1832,  vol.  ii.  p.  208.) 

13.  Greek  and  EngUsh  Lexicon  to  the  New  Testament,  from 
the  Clavis  Philologica  of  Christ.  Abraham  Wahl.  By  Edward 
RoBixsox,  A.M.,  Assistant  Instructor  in  the  Department  of  Sa- 
cred Literature,  Theol.  Sem.  Andover.  Andover  [Massachusetts], 
1825,  royal  8vo. 

Thougli  modestly  announced  as  a  translation  from  Wahl's  Clavis, 
this  beaetifully  and  correctly  printed  work  is,  in  fact,  a  new  Lexi- 
con to  the  New  Testament,  composed  with  great  care  and  accuracy. 
The  texts  cited  by  Wahl  have  all  been  verified  and  corrected ;  and 
not  a  few  of  the  references  to  classic  authors  have  been  corrected, 
where  Mr.  Robinson  could  have  access  to  the  editions  consulted  by 
Wahl.  Many  of  the  definitions  have  been  framed  de  novo  from  the 
New  Testament,  rather  than  from  the  very  general  Latin  defini- 
tions either  of  Wahl  or  Schleusner;  and  where  any  important  re- 
mark or  illustration  could  be  derived  from  Schleusner  or  from  other 
sources,  Mr.  R.  has  carefully  introduced  it.  But,  besides  the  labour 
of  a  general  revision,  he  has  introduced  various  improvements, 
which  greatly  enhance  the  value  of  his  Lexicon.  Wahl  had  par- 
tially given  the  various  constructions  of  verbs  and  adjectives  with 
their  cases:  Mr.  Robinson  has  done  this  in  every  instance  through- 
out :  he  has  further  endeavoured  to  make  each  article,  as  far  as  was 
possible,  include  a  reference  to  every  pas.sage  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment where  the  word  is  found :  the  result  is,  that  his  Lexicon  is, 
to  a  very  considerable  extent,  a  concordance  of  the  Greek  Testa- 
ment. The  last  improvement  which  deserves  to  be  noticed  relates 
to  the  mode  of  printing.  In  the  original  Clavis  of  Wahl,  the  arti- 
cles are  printed  in  a  solid  form,  without  any  divisions  whatever, 
and  on  all  inferior  paper,  which  renders  the  book  by  no  means 


pleasant  to  read.  Mr.  Robinson  has  caused  them  to  be  printed  in 
double  columns,  and  has  broken  them  into  convenient  paragraphs 
The  student  who  can  afibrd  to  purchase  this  Lexicon,  in  addition 
to  Mr.  Parkhurst's  valuable  work  (which  contains  a  greater  num- 
ber, at  length,  of  illustrations  from  classic  authors  as  well  as  from 
modern  writers),  will  possess  a  rich  treasure  of  sacred  philology. 

14,  Lexicon  Manuale  Grseco-Latinum  in  Libros  Novi  Testa- 
menti, auctore  Carolo  Gottlieb  Bhetschxeider.  Lip.siaj,  1824; 
Editio  secunda,  auctior  et  emendatior,  Lipsiae,  1829,  2  tomis, 
8vo.i 

This  manual  Lexicon  exhibits  a  less  strict  adherence  to  the  philo- 
logical principles  developed  by  Planck  and  AVahl,  above  noticed. 
The  illustrations  are  drawn  more  frequently  from  the  Septuaginl 
and  the  apocryphal  books,  and  also  from  the  apocryphal  gospels 
published  by  Fabricius,  with  which  he  is  intimately  acquainted  : 
and  it  is  this  circumstance  which  imparls  the  chief  value  lo  Dr. 
Bretschneider's  work. 

-  15.  A  Greek  and  English  Lexicon  to  the  New  Testament : 
in  which  the  Words  and  Phrases  occurring  in  those  Sacred 
Books  are  distinctly  explained,  and  the  meanings  assigned  to 
each,  authorized  by  References  to  Passages  of  Scripture,  and  fre- 
quently illu-strated  and  confirmed  by  Citations  from  the  Old  Tes- 
tament and  from  the  Greek  Writers.  To  this  Work  is  prefixed 
a  plain  and  easy  Greek  Grammar,  adapted  to  the  Use  of  Learn- 
ers, and  those  who  understand  no  other  Language  than  English. 
By  John  Parichdrst,  M.A.  A  new  Edition,  comprising  the 
more  valuable  Parts  of  the  Works  of  some  later  Writers.  By 
Hugh  James  Rose,  B.D.     London,  1829,  royal  8vo. 

The  first  edition  of  this  well-known  and  admirable  Lexicon  to 
the  Greek  Testament  appeared  in  1769,  the  second  in  1794,  both  in 
quarto ;  the  third  in  royal  octavo,  with  the  learned  author's  last 
corrections,  and  with  large  additions,  in  1798.  These  have  been 
retained  in  the  numerous  impressions  which  have  subsequently 
appeared.  In  the  course  of  the  thirty  years  which  have  elapsed 
since  tlie  publication  of  Mr.  Parkhurst's  third  and  last  edition, 
sacred  philology  has  received  great  accessions ;  and,  a  new  edition 
being  required,  the  proprietors  of  this  work  confided  it  to  the  Rev. 
Hugh  James  Rose,  B.D.,  who  has  conferred  a  high  obligation  on 
biblical  students  by  the  manner  in  which  he  has  revised  and 
edited  the  work.     The  following  is  the  plan  adopted  by  him: — 

1.  As  Mr.  Patkhurst  was  at  least  a  great  admirer  of  the  peculiar 
cosmological  opinions  of  Mr.  Hutchinson,  and  had  introduced  many 
etymologies  which  were  in  the  highest  degree  fanciful  and  uncer-  ■ 
tain,    these   etymologies,   and    the    philosophical  opinions  of  the 
Hutchinsonian  school,  have  been  omitted. 

2.  Valuable  as  Mr.  Parkhurst's  work  confessedly  was,  it  was 
defective  in  accurate  discrimination  between  the  various  senses 
of  the  same  word.  Great  inconvenience  had  also  arisen  from  the 
paucity  of  instanco<feiven  under  each  head,  and  the  loo.seness  of 
the  references  to  profane  authors.  These  defects  had  altogether 
banished  Mr.  P.'s  Lexicon  from  the  shelves  of  the  critical  reader, 
who  had  supplied  its  place  by  the  labours  of  recent  German  lexi- 
cographers, especially  those  of  Schleusner,  Bretschneider,  and 
Wahl.  Mr.  Rose  has  supplied  both  these  defects,  partly  from  his 
own  researches,  but  principally  from  the  valuable  works  of  the 
scholars  just  named. 

3.  Various  important  additions  have  been  made  to  Mr.  Park- 
hurst's comprehensive  Greek  Grammar  to  the  New  Testament 
from  the  general  Greek  Grammars  of  the  Professors  Buttman  and 
Matthite. 

4.  For  the  convenience  of  those  students  who  are  attending  to  the 
style  of  the  New  Testament,  he  has  distinguished,  by  a  convenient 
mark,  those  words  which  do  not  occur  in  the  Septuagint  version 
of  the  Old  :  and  he  has  added  in  such  cases  examples  from  the 
apocryphal  writings  where  such  instances  are  found. 

Mr.  Rose's  additions  to  the  present  edition  are  enclosed  within 
square  brackets  [  ] ;  and,  by  enlarging  the  pages  (which  exceed  the 
number  in  the  former  editions  by  more  than  two  hundred),  by 
omitting  altogether  the  most  fanciful  etymologies  of  Parkhurst,  ai 
well  as  by  throwing  much  less  impoTlant  matter  into  notes,  and 
entirely  rewriting  many  articles,  Mr.  Rose  has  added  at  least  one 
third  of  new  matter  to  this  work ;  which,  in  its  present  greatly 
improved  state,  is  indispensably  necessary  to  every  one  who  it 
desirous  of  acquiring  a  critical  and  correct  knowledge  of  the  New 
Testament. 

16.  A  Greek-English  Lexicon  to  the  New  Testament,  trans- 
lated from  the  Greek-Latin  Lexicon  of  John  Dawson,  A.B.,  and 
considerably  enlarged  :  to  which  is  prefixed  an  Outline  of  Greek 
Grammar,  for  the  Use  of  Biblical  Students  who  have  not  re- 
ceived a  Classical  Education.  By  W.  C.  Tatloh,  A.M.  Lon- 
don, 1831,  8vo. 

§  3.  Lexico^ts  to  the  Septuagixt  Veiisiox. 

1.  Jo.  Christiani  Biel  Novus  Thesaurus  Philologicus ;  sive 
Lexicon  in  LXX.  et  alios  Interpretes  et  Scriptores  Apocryphos 
Veteris  Testamenti.  Ex  Autoris  MScto  edidit  ac  praefatus  est 
E.  H.  Mutzenbecher.     Hagae  Comitum,  1779-80,  3  tomis,  8vo 

>  See  the  note  in  p.  92. 


94 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  IL  Cuap.  IV. 


Le.xici  in  Interpretcs  Ghecos  V,  T.  maxime  Scriptores 
Apocrjphos  Spicilfcgiura  I.  et  II.  Post  Bielium  congessit  et 
editlit  Jo.  Fried.  Sculeusneh.     Lipsiae,  1784-8G. 

Lexici  in  Interprctes  Graecos  V.  T.  maxime  Scriptores 
Apocryphos  Spicilegia.  Post  Bielium  et  Schleusnerum  con- 
gessit  et  eJiJlt  C.  G.  Buktschnkideh.     LipsiiE,  1805,  8vo. 

2.  Novus  Thesaurus  Philologico-Criticus,  sive  Lexicon  in 
liXX.  et  reliquos  Interpretcs  Graecos,  ac  Scriptores  Apocryphos 
Veteris  Testamenti ;  post  Bielium  et  alios  viros  doctos  congcssit 
et  edidit  Johannes Friedericus  Slhleusjjf.ii.  Lipsise,  1820,  1821 ; 
in  5  parts  or  vols.  8vo.  Giasgute  et  Londini,  1832.  In  three 
thick  volumes,  8vo. 

On  the  basis  of  Bid's  Lexicon  and  his  continuators,  Schleusner 
has  produced  a  Lexicon  for  the  Scptuagint  Greek  version,  which, 
for  philological  research,  is  surpassed  only  by  his  Lexicon  ibr  the 
rs'cw  Ti'siamcnt. 

The  edition  which  in  1822  issued  from  the  University  Press  at 
Glasgow,  reflects  great  credit  on  the  printers,  Messrs.  A.  and  J.  M. 
Duncan,  as  well  as  on  the  publisher  (Mr.  R.  Priestley),  at  whose 
expense  it  was  undertaken ;  it  is  very  beautifully  executed.  In 
this  edition,  many  typographical  errors,  particularly  in  the  Greek 
and  Hebrew  cjuolations,  have  been  corrected  ;  and  the  references 
to  the  chapters  and  verses,  which  in  the  Ibreign  edition  are  said 
to  be  very  inaccurate,  have  been  carefully  amended.  Professor 
Schleusner's  German  explanations  of  particular  words  unilbrrnly 
have  English  tramlatioiis  attached  to  them ;  and  to  the  third 
volume  there  is  appended  an  index  of  all  the  Hebrew  words  occur- 
ring in  the  work,  together  with  a  collation  of  verses  and  chapters, 
as  set  out  respectively  in  the  editions  of  the  Greek  Septuagint 
superintended  by  VVechel  and  Bos.  The  former  of  these  will  in  a 
great  measure  supply  the  want  of  a  Hebrew  Lexicon.  This  Ap- 
pendix, which  fills  nearly  three  hundred  pages,  is  not  to  be  found 
in  the  Leipsic  edition. 

3.  E.  G.  A.  BocKEL  Novje  Ciavis  in  Grscos  Interpretcs  Vete- 
ris Testamenti,  Scriptorcsque  Apocryphos,  ita  adornatae  ut  etiam 
L'cxici  in  Novi  Foederis  Libros  usum  prajbere  possit,  atque  Edi- 
tionis  LXX.  Interpretum  Hexaplaris,  Specimina,  4to.  Lipsiae, 
1820. 

This  work  was  never  completed.  In  the  fourth  volume  of  the 
Commenlatinnea  Theologicre  (pp.  195 — 263.),  edited  by  MM.  Vel- 
thtisen,  Kuintiel,  and  Ruperti,  there  is  a  specimen  of  a  Ciavis  Reli- 
<juiarnm  Versionum  Gracarum  V.  T.  by  John  Frederick  Fischer: 
It  contains  only  the  letter  A.  Both  these  intended  publications  are 
superseded  by  Schleusner's  elaborate  Lexicon  to  the  Septuagint 
just  noticed. 

4.  A  Greek  and  English  Lexicon,  originally  a  Scripture  T.nxi- 
con,  and  now  adapted  to  the  Classics,  wuk  a  Greek  Grammar 
prefixed.    By  Greville  Ewi.no.    Glasgow  aiw  London,  1827,  8vo. 

The  third  edition,  greatly  improved, of  a  truly  valuable  Lexicon; 
the  first  edition  appeared  at  Glasgow  in  1801,  and  the  second  in 
1812.  "  From  its  size,  cheapness,  and  laudable  brevity  (in  most 
respects),  this  lx)ok  is  capable  of  becoming  generally  useful."  (Bri- 
tish Critic  and  Theological  Review,  vol.  iii.  p.  32G.)  The  Gram- 
mar is  sold  separately :  besides  being  a  general  introduction  to  liie 
Study  of  the  Greek  language,  it  contains  many  valuable  observa- 
tions on  the  style  of  the  Septuagint  and  New  Testament. 


SECTION  IV. 

GRAMMARS    AND    LEXICONS    OF    THE    COGNATE    OR    KINDRED 
LANGUAGES. 

%    1.    0E5E11AL    TUEATIS    H    AND    POLTOLOTT    GRAMMARS  OF  THE 
COGNATE   I,ANflUAf;K3. 

I.  I.vTnonucTio  ad  Lectionem  Linguarum  Orientalium: 

Hchraictc.  Syriacae.  Ethiopicte. 

Chaldaicac.  Arahicx.  Armono'. 

SamaritantB.  Persica;.  Coptaj. 

Consilium  de  oarum  studio  fccliciter  instituendo,  et  do  Lihris 

quos   in  hunc  fincm  sibt  comi)arare  dcbcnt  sludiosi Per 

Brianuni  Waltos,  S.T.D.     Londini,  IG.'j.'i,  12mo. 

"  This  little  tract,"  says  Dr.  Adnm  Clarke,  "  is  really  well  writ- 
ten, and  nitigt  have  been  very  useful  at  the  time  it  wuk  published. 
It  do(!M  not  contjiiu  ;^ra/7(ni«r.«  of  the  difii'reiit  langiiagex  nieiuioiu^d 
in  the  title,  but  only  the  difli-ront  aljilmbcls,  nud  direciionR  how  to 
road  them.  At  the  end  of  hi.s  exfKJsilion  of  the  uhihiibcl  of  each 
language  is  a  specimen  in  the  proper  chara<'lcr,  eai4i  line  of  which 
ia  included  bctwcrn  two  others  ;  the  first  of  which  is  :i  literal  I.alni 
version  of  the  original,  and  the  second,  the  leUers  of  the  original 
expressed  by  italics.  ,Sliort  as  these  examples  are,  ihey  arc  of  great 
utility  to  a  loanior."  (Bibliocr.  Diet.  vol.  ii.  p.  II.)  As  the  copy  in 
the  Library  of  II.  K.  II.  the  Duke  of  Sussex  is  designated  as  idilio 


secumla,  priori  cmendalior,  16.55,  it  should  seem  that  two  edition!' 
of  this  treatise  were  printed  in  the  same  year.  (Bibl.  Sussex,  vol.  i. 
part  ii.  p.  74.) 

2.  Briani  Waltoni  Dissertatio,  in  qua  de  Linguis  Oricntali- 
bus,  Hebraica,  Chaldaica,  Samaritana,  Syriaca,  Arabica,  Persica, 
Armena,  et  Copta  :  ct  dc  Textuum  et  Versionum,  quae  in  Complu* 
tensibus,  Regiis,  Parisicnsibus,  et  Anglicanis  Polyglottis  Bibliis, 
habentur,  antiquitate,  authoritatc,  et  usu,  brevitcr  disseritur.  Ac- 
cessit  Johannts  Wouweri  Syntagma  de  Graeca  et  Latina  Biblio- 
rum  Interpretatione.     Daventriae,  1658,  12mo. 

This  dissertation  is  sometimes,  erroneously,  confounded  with  the 
preceding  work,  but  it  "  is  entirely  of  a  different  character.  It 
displays,  like  all  the  other  productions  of  the  learned  author,  much 
sound  knowledge  and  learning."    (Bibl.  Su.sscx.  vol.  i.  part  ii.  p.  74.) 

3.  Joh.  Henrici  Hotting ehi  Grainmatica  quatuor  Lingua- 
rum,  Hebraicae,  Chaldaicae,  Syriaca;,  et  Arabicae.  Acccdit  Tech- 
nologia  Lingua;  Arabics  Theologico-historica.  Heidelbergx, 
1659,  4to. 

4.  Stephani  Morini  Oratio  Inauguralis  de  Linguarum  Orien- 
talium ad  intelligentiara  Sacrae  Scripturae  utiUtate.  Lugduni 
Batavorum,  1686,  8vo, 

5.  SimonisOcKLEii  Introductio  ad  Linguas  Orientales.  Can- 
tabrigiffi,  1706,  12mo. 

6.  Gulielmi  Gkbexii  et  J.  A.  Hoffmanni  Rudinienta  Orien- 
talia  :  seu  Tabulae  Verborum,  Nominum,  ct  Pronominum,  Hebr. 
et  Chald.  Syr.  Samar.  Rabbin,  ^ilthiop.  cum  brcvi  Institutione 
Grainmatica.  Pars  I.  Dialcctos  Aramaeas  cum  Hebraia  com- 
plectens.     Lipsia;,  1825,  4to. 


§  2.  poltglott  lexicons  of  the  kindred  languages. 

1.  Lexicon  Hcptaglotton,  Hehraicum,  Chaldaicum,  Syriacum, 
Samaritanum,  Ethiopicum,  Arabicuin,  conjunctim  ;  et  Pcrsicum 
separatim.  In  quo  omnes  voces  Hebraeffi,  Chaldaise,  Syrac,  Sama- 
ritana, Ethiopicac,  Arabicae,  et  Pcrsicae,  tarn  Mannscriptis,  quam 
impressis  lihris,  cum  primis  autem  in  Bibliis  Polyglottis,  adjectis 
hinc  inde  Armenis,  'J'urcicis,  Indis,  Japonicis,  &c.  ordine  Alpha- 
betico,  sub  singulis  Kadicibus  dige';t.T,  continentur,  &c.  Cui 
acccssit  brevis  et  harmonica  (quantum  fieri  potuit)  Grammaticae 
omnium  prjEcedcntium  Linguarum  Delineatio.  Authore  Ed- 
mundo  Castello,  S.T.D.  RegiaR  M.  a  sacris  :  Lingute  Arahic« 
apud  Cantabrigicnses  Professore,  <S:c.  Londini,  imprimebat 
Thomas  Roycroft,  LL.  Orientalium  Typographus  Regius,  1669, 
2  vols,  folio. 

This  work,  which  forms  the  companion  to  Bp.  Walton's  Polyglott 
Bible  noticed  in  pages  20,  21  of  this  Appendix,  is  jierhnps  the 
greatest  and  most  perfect  undertaking  of  the  kind  hitherto  per- 
formed by  human  industry  and  learning.  "  Dr.  Cnstell  expended 
both  his  fortune  and  his  life  in  this  immense  undertaking.  It  is 
true  he  had  helj)  from  several  learned  men.  Dr.  Murray  lent  him 
assistance  in  the  Arabic  ;  Mr.  (afh-^rwards  Bishop)  Bevoridgo,  in  the 
Syriac  ;  and  Dr.  Wansleb,  in  the  .^Ethiopic.  But  the  person  to  whom 
he  was  most  indebted  was  the  celebrated  Dr.  Lightfoot,  a  man  w  ho, 
for  the  amiableness  of  his  disjwsition,  the  purity  of  his  manners, 
and  the  extent  aiid  depth  of  his  literary  knowledge,  had,  even  in 
that  age  of  prolbund  learning,  no  superior,  and  since  no  eijiial.  So 
implicitly  did  Dr.  Castell  depend  on  his  judgment,  that  when  he 
began  that  work,  in  1657,  ho  wrote  to  him  for  direction  and  advice, 
jiromising  either  to  proceed  in  or  suppress  it,  as  he  should  tielermine. 
Dr.  Lightfoot  not  only  helped  on  this  immortal  work  by  his  coun- 
sels, corrections,  A'c,  but  he  also  contributed  money,  and  jtrocured 
sub.scripti(ms,  so  that  Dr.  (.'aslell  acknowledged  that  there  was  no 
man  in  the  three  kingdoms  to  whom  he  owed  so  much.  When  Dr. 
Castell  sent  him  his  Lexicon,  he  acknowledged  that  it  owed  a  great 
part  of  its  pcrfi'ciiou  to  his  learning  and  industry,  and  thought  his 
name  should  occupy  a  distinguished  place  in  the  lille-page.  The 
Persic  Lexicon  is  the  fruit  of  the  joint  labour  of  himself  jmd  (Jolius. 
This  part  of  Dr.  Cnstell's  work  has  been  undervalued  by  such  as 
either  did  not  or  could  not  consult  it;  but  it  is  an  excellent  work; 
and  to  it  even  Meninski  and  Richardson  are  indebted  <br  a  multi- 
tude of  articles.  Its  chief  fault  is  want  of  disiincl  arrun^enient ; 
the  words  ure  sadly  intermixed,  and  many  I'ci-sinn  words  are  print- 
(m1  with  Hebrew  types,  prol)al>ly  because  they  had  but  few  Persian 
characters.  Dr.  Castell  Ial)()nrcd  at  this  work  for  seventeen  years, 
din'ing  which  time  he  maintaiued  in  his  oun  house,  at  his  own 
cost,  seven  F.nglishmen  anci  seven  li)reigners,Bs  wriiere,  ail  of  whom 
died  belijre  the  work  was  finished.  The  names  ol  thohe  respectable 
literary  <lrudgeM  1  have  not  been^ble  to  find.  Bi'sides  the  12,(MKW.of 
iiis  own  property,  which  this  great  man  expended  on  this  work,  he 
was  obligcrd  to  Injrrow  ISlHJ/.  more  ;  and  not  being  able  to  make  up 
this  money,  he  was  consirained  to  nuikc  application  to  King  Charles 
II.  and  entreat  him,  nc  career  iukcI  jirfniiiiim  lot  Uihnrum  et  sumptiium 
— that  a  prinon  nnt{hl  not  bo  the  reward  of  so  many  labours  and  so 
much  ex|iense.  This  produced  a  letter  from  the  king,  in  IfiOO,  to 
all  tlio  archbisho])s,  bishops,  dukos,  lords,  and  nobles  of  the  realm 


8ect.  IV.  §  2.] 


SYRIAC  A^D  ARABIC  GRAMMARS  AND  LEXICONS. 


95 


recommending  the  work,  and  earnestly  soliciting  pecuniary  assist- 
ance in  behalf  of  its  distressed  and  embarrassed  author ;  which 
was  followed,  three  years  afler,  by  one  from  the  Archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  directed  to  all  the  clergy,  on  the  same  behalf;  and, 
afterwards,  by  another  from  twenty-nine  English  and  Irish  prelates, 
earnestly  entreating  the  public  not  to  permit  this  great  man  to  sink 
under  his  labours,  and  the  pecuniary  embarrassments,  brought  on 
him  by  a  work,  whicli  he  had  undertaken  for  the  honour  of  God, 
the  promotion  of  religion  and  learning,  and  consequently  the  good 
of  mankind.  Is  it  not  strange,  that  when  the  king  and  the  clergy 
laid  this  so  much  to  heart,  and  recommended  it  so  warmly,  the  au- 
thor's embarrassments  should  still  continue  ?  The  reason  seems  to 
have  been  this — the  nation  was  impoverished,  and  the  exchequer 
itself  emptied,  by  the  late  civil  wars. 

"  At  the  end  of  the  third  page  of  his  preface,  he  makes  the  fol- 
lowing complaint,  which  no  scliolar  can  read  without  pain  of  heart: 
— '  Socios  quidem  habui  in  hoc  opere,  sed  perexiguo  tempore  me- 
cum  in  illo  commorantes,  ncscio  an  dicam,  immensitate  laboris  plane 
exterritos.  Per  plures  annos,  jam  setate  provectus,  et  una  cum 
patrimonio  satis  competenti,  cxhaustis  etiam  animi  viribus,  oculis 
caliganiibus,  corporis  variis  in  hoc  opere  confractis,  et  dislocatis 
membris,  relictus  sum  solus,  sine  amanuensi,  aut  vel  correctore 
ullc'  He  died  in  IC85.  Some  copies  of  this  Lexicon  have  in  the 
title,  '  Loudini,  Scott,  1686;'  but  this  proves  nothing  m.ore  than  a 
re-impression  of  the  title  ;  for  there  never  v^-as  a  second  edition  of 
the  work."  (Clarke's  Bibliographical  Dictionary,  vol.  i.  pp.  268 — 
270.)  For  other  interesting  particulars  concerning  this  distiriguish- 
ed  but  ill-requited  scholar,  see  Chalmers's  Biographical  Dictionary, 
vol.  viii.  pp.  398—400.) 

2.  y.  ScHiNDLEui  Lexicon  Pentaglotton,  Hebraicum,  Chal- 
daicum,  Syriacum,  Talmudico-Rabbinicum,  et  Arabicum.  Hano- 
vioe,  1612,  folio. 


§  3.  stuiac  grammars  as^d  lixicoxs. 

%*  Professor  Hoffman  has  given  a  Catalogue  of  all  the  Syriac 
Grammars  and  Lcxico7is  extant,  up  to  the  year  1823,  loth  ancient  and 
modern,  interspersed  with  hihliographical  and  critical  remarhs.  The 
modern  grammarians  are  fifty  four  in  numher  ;  and  the  lexicogra- 
phers, sixteen.  (Grammat.  Syriac.  pp.  36 — 59.)  Those  only  are  here 
noticed  which  are  rnosl  easily  procurable,  and,  in  his  judgment,  most 
deserving  of  ailenlion. 

1.  Theophili  Philippi  Christiani  Kaisf.h  Commentarius,  quo 
Linguas  Aramaicae  Usus  adjudicanda  et  interpretanda  plura  Novi 
Testamenti  loca,  ca  maxime  qua;  parallela  sunt,  novis  cxemplis 
defenditur.     NorimbergtB,  1831,  Bvo. 

2.  Caroli  ScHAAF  Opus  Aramteum,  complcctcnsGrammaticam 
Chalddicam  et  Syriacani,  Selecta  ex  Targumim,  cum  versione 
Latiua,  necnon  Lexicon  Chaldaicum,  «&c.  Lugduni  Batavorum, 
1686,  12mo. 

The  Syriac  letters  are  expressed  in  Hebrew  characters,  and  the 
work  affords  more  assistance  to  the  Chaldee  than  to  the  Syriac 
student.     (HofTmanni  Gram.  Syr.  p.  52.) 

3.  Christ.  Benedicti  Michaelis  Syriasmus  ;  id  est,  Gramma- 
tica  Linguffi  Syriaca,  cum  fundamentis  necessariis,  turn  paradig- 
matibus  penioribus,  turn  denique  ubere  syntaxi,  et  idiomatibus 
lingusB,  instructa.     Halae  Magdeburgicae,  1741,  4to. 

This  Grammar,  Prof  Hoffman  states,  was  compiled  by  the  elder 
Michaelis  with  singular  industry  and  learning  from  the  Syriac  Ver- 
sion of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments ;  and  is  better  arranged,  as  well 
as  better  furnished  with  examples,  than  any  other  previous  gram- 
mar of  the  Syriac  language.     (HofTmanni  Gram.  Syr.  p.  53.) 

4.  J,  D.  Michaelis  Grammatica  Syriaca.     Halse,  1784,  4to. 

This  is  nearly  a  reprint  of  the  preceding  work,  with  a  few  addi- 
tions and  alterations. 

5.  Joannis  Jahn  Elementa  Arama'caj,  seu  Chaldseo-Syriacje 
liinguffi.  Latine  reddita,  et  nonnullis  accessionibus  aucta,  ab 
Andr.  Fr.  Oberleitxer.     Vienna,  1820,  8vo. 

Professor  Jahn's  Grammar  of  the  Aramaean  Language  was  first 
published,  in  German,  in  the  year  1793.  An  imperial  edict  having 
enacted  that  the  Latin  language  should  exclusively  be  used  in  all 
schools  and  academies  within  the  Austrian  dominions.  Dr.  Ober- 
leitner  translated  Jahn's  treatise  into  Latin,  and  made  various  im- 
portant additions.  This  grammar  is  perspicuously  written,  and 
very  neatly  printed. 

6.  A  Syriac  Grammar,  principally  adapted  to  the  New  Testa- 
ment in  that  Language.  By  Thomas  Yeates.  London,  1821, 
8vo. 

7.  An  Introduction  to  the  Sj;j;iac  Language ;  in  which  the 
Genius  of  the  Language  is  explained  by  a  new  and  simple  Prin- 
ciple of  Analysis.  By  the  Rev.  Frederick  Nolan,  LL.D.  Lon- 
don, 1821,  12mo. 

8.  Andrese  Theophili  Hoffmaxni  Grammaticse  Syriacas  Libri 
III.  cum  tribus  Tabulis  varia  Scripturse  Aramaics  genera  exhi- 
bentibus.     4to.  Hate,  1827. 


This  is  the  most  copious  as  well  as  the  most  elaborate  treatise  on 
Syriac  Grammar  which  is  extant.  Prof  Hoffimann  has  availed  him- 
self of  every  previous  accessible  help.  The  prolegomena  contain 
a  history  of  the  Syrians,  as  well  as  of  their  language,  together  with 
a  review  of  the  labours  of  his  predecessors  in  this  department  of 
sacred  literature,  and  the  history  and  mode  of  writing  which  has 
obtained  at  different  times.  The  first  of  the  three  books  into  which 
this  Grammar  is  divided  treats  on  the  elements  or  characters  of  the 
Syriac  language;  in  the  second  are  discussed  the  different  parts  of 
speech  ;  and  the  third  is  appropriated  to  the  syntax,  v^hich  is  illus- 
trated with  a  great  number  of  examples.  The  notes,  which  are 
very  numerous,  refer  to  the  best  authorities  ancient  and  modem, 
on  every  topic  of  Syriac  Grammar ;  and  the  work  concludes  with  a 
copious  Index. 

9.  Martini  Trostii  Lexicon  Syriacum  ex  inductione  omnium 
exemplorum  N.  T.  Syriaci  adornatum  ;  adjecta  siiigulorum  vo- 
cabulorum  significatione  Latina  et  Germanica  cum  Indice  tri- 
plici.     Cothenis  Anhaltinorum,  1623,  4to. 

Although  the  pronouns  and  particles  are  wanting  in  this  Lexicon 
(as  they  are  in  all  the  older  Lexicons  which  preceded  it),  yet  Tros- 
tius  has  done  much  in  accurately  investigating  the  genuine  mean 
ing  of  every  word.     (HofTmanni  Gramm.  Syr.  p.  57.) 

10.  -Egidii  GuTBiRii  Lexicon  Syriacum,  continens  omncs 
N.  T.  Syriaci  dictiones  et  particulas.     Hamburgi,  1667,  12mo. 

11.  Caroli  Schaaf  Lexicon  Syriacum  Concordantiale,  omnes 
Novi  Testamenti  Syriaci  voces,  et  ad  harum  illustrationem  mul- 
tas  alias  Syriacas,  et  linguarum  affinium  dictiones  complectens, 
cum  necessariis  indicibus,  Syriaco  et  Latino,  ut  et  catalogo  nomi- 
num  propriorum  et  Gentilium  N.  T.  Syr.  Lugduni  Batavwum, 
1709,  4to. 

This  Lexicon  fully  answers  the  profession  made  in  the  title-page  , 
and  the  reader  of  the  Syriac  New  Testament,  who  may  ccmsult  it, 
will  rarely  be  disappointed.  (HofTmanni  Gram.  Syr.  p.  59.)  The  work 
was  published  as  a  companion  to  the  beautiful  edition  of  the  Syriac 
Testament  printed  at  Leyden  in  the  same  year.  In  his  preface. 
Schaafmal5.es  honourable  mention  of  the  previous  labours  of  Tros 
tius,  Gutbirius,  and  especially  of  the  Syriac  Lexicon  contained  in 
the  Heptaglott  Lexicon  of  our  learned  countryman  Edmund  Cas- 
tell.i 

12.  Lexicon  Syriacum  ab  Antonio  Zaxolini  collectum,  voces 
omnes  qure  in  N.  T.  translatione  Syriaci  inveniuntur  complec- 
tens. Accedit  ejusdem  auctoris  Disputatio  de  Lingua  Syriaca, 
Versionibus  Syriacis  et  de  Maronitis,  quibus  prsecipue  nunc  Lin- 
gua Syriaca  in  usu  est.     Patavii,  1742,  4to. 

This  work  was  composed  liy  Dr.  Zanolini  for  the  use  of  the  stu- 
dents in  the  seminary  at  Padua,  where  he  was  Professor  of  Orien- 
tal languages.  Dr.  Z.  has  not  specified  what  authorities  he  con- 
sulted. Prof.  Hoffinann  states  that  he  does  not  appear 
made  any  use  of  Schaaf 's  Lexicon.     (Gramm.  Syr.  p.  59.) 


to  have 


§  4. 
Philippi 


ARABIC  GRAMMARS  AXD  LEXICOITS. 

GuADAGNOn  Breves  Arabicae  Linguae   In.stitu 


1. 

tiones.     Romae,  1642,  4to. 

2.  Thomae  E RPEJf II  Grammatica  Arabica.  Cum  fabulis  Lok- 
mani,  et  excerptis  anthologiae  veterum  Arabia  poetarum,  Ara- 
bice  et  Latine.  Interprete  Alberto  Schultens.  Lugduni  Bata- 
vorum, 1748,  1767,  4to. 

The  first  edition  of  Erpenius's  Arabic  Grammar  appeared  in  1636, 
in  4to.     Those  of  1748  and  1767  are  considered  the  best. 

3.  Thomae  Erpexii  Rudimenta  Lingua;  Arabicae.  Florile- 
giura  sententiarum  et  Clavem  dialectorum  adjecit  Albertus  Schul- 
tens.    Lugduni  Batovorum,  1770,  4to.     Best  edition. 

4.  A  Grammar  of  the  Arabic  Language,  in  which  the  Rules 
are  illustrated  by  Authorities  from  the  best  Writers.  By  John 
Richardson-.     London,  1776,  4to. 

5.  Grammaire  Arabe,  par  Silvestre  de  Sact.  Paris,  1810, 
2  tomes,  8vo.  Seconde  Edition,  corrigee  et  augmentee.  Paris, 
1831,  2  tomes,  8vo. 

"  An  immortal  work,  which  consigns  to  obscurity,  by  its  superior 
lustre,  all  previous  works  of  the  same  nature  :  and  which  has  thrown 
more  light  upon  the  forms  of  words,  the  idiom,  and  the  syntax  of 
the  Shemitish  languages,  than  has  been  cast  before  for  many  cen 
turies.  By  this  work,  which  contains  462  pages  of  syntax,  Ge-senius 
has  been  substantially  aided  in  the  compilation  of  his  Hebrew 
Grammar ;  and  a  multitude  of  things  pertaining  to  the  grammar 
and  idiom  of  the  Hebrew  (though  they  may  be  learned  by  the  dili- 
gent student  without  the  aid  of  this  work,  so  as  to  be  useful  to  him), 
are  seen,  without  a  knowledge  of  De  Sacy's  Arabic  Syntax,  only 
as  through  a  glass,  darkly.  De  Sacy  has  placed  them  in  the  meri- 
dian sun.  That  a  work,  which  was  not  designed  to  have  the  most 
remote  ij^aring  upon  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  should  be  thus  made 
to  contribute  in  a  signal  manner  to  their  illustration,  ought  surely 
to  be  a  matter  of  gratitude  to  the  Great  Disposer  of  events,  who 

«  Castell's  Syriac  Lexicon  was  reprinted  atGottin  en  in  1788,  in  two 
parte,  forming  one  volume,  small  4to. 


98 


SACKED  PHILOLOGY. 


[PahtD  Chap,  IV. 


can  ovarrule  the  designs  of  men  to  the  accomplisliment  of  liis  own 
purposes."  (Stuart's  Dissertations  on  stiidying  the  original  Lan- 
guages of  the  Bible,  p.  84.)  The  second  volume  of  the  si'cond  edi- 
tion is  enlarged  by  the  addition  of  nearly  fifty  pages,  on  the  subject 
of  the  Prosody  and  Versificatio.n  of  the  Arabs.  This  dissertation 
was  announced  lor  sale,  apart  from  the  work,  for  the  accommoda- 
tion of  purchasers  of  the  first  edition. 

6.  Institutioncs  Grammatics  Arabicee,  auctorc  Antonio  Ahtda. 
Vindobonse,  1813,  4to. 

7.  Inslitutiones  ad  Fundamenta  Lingure  Arabicte ;  acccdunt 
Sententise  et  Narrationes  Arabics,  una  cum  Glossario  Arabico- 
Laiino.  Auctore  Em.  Frid.  Car.  UosKKMt'LLEno,  Theol.  Doct. 
et  in  Acadcmia  Lipsiensi  Prof,  ordinario.     Lipsise,  1818,  4  to. 

Of  the  very  numerous  grammars  of  the  Arabic  language  which 
have  becfi  published  in  the  Latin  language,  this  of  Professor  Ro- 
senn-viillcr  is  considered  the  best.  The  author  has  made  great  use 
of  Sacy'.s  Grammaire  .\rabe ;  and  llie  Chrcslomathy,  or  selection 
of  passages  from  Arabic  writers,  enhances  the  value  of  his  publi- 
cation. 

8.  J.  A.  VcLLER.s  Grammatics;  Arabics  Elementa  et  Forma- 
rum  Doctrina,  per  Tabulas  descripta.  Li  usum  prajlcctionum. 
Bonnx^  1832,  4to. 

9.  Antonii  Giggeii  Thesaurus  Lingua;  Arabicse ;  seu  Lexi- 
con Arabicum  Latinum.     Mediolani,  1632,  4  vols,  folio. 

This  is  a  very  valuable  work,  though  greatly  inferior  in  point 
of  correctness  to  the  Ibllowing  Lexicon  of  Golius. 

10?  Jacobi  GoLii  Lexicon  Aiabico-Latinum,  contextum  ex 
probatioribus  orientcs  LexicographfS.  Accedit  Index  Latinus 
copiosissimus,  qui  Lexici  Latino-Arabici  vicem  explore  possit. 
Lugduni  Batavorum,  1653,  folio. 

*'  This  is  an  mvaluable  work,  and  the  best  on  the  subject  ever 
published.  It  is  in  every  respect  W'Cll  edited.  The  arrangement 
of  the  words,  the  dcfmiiions  given,  the  paper,  types,  and  typogra- 
phical e.\c<'Ution — are  all  in  the  first  style  of  accuracy  and  elegance." 
.Bibliog.  Diet.  vol.  iv.  p.  7.)  A  new  edition  of  this  Lexicon  lias 
been  announced,  with  very  important  additions  and  corrections,  by 
Prole.ssor  Freytag,  of  Bonn,  whose  edition  is  expected  to  form  two 
large  volumes  in  quarto. 

11.  Jacobi  SciiEiDH  Giossarium  Arabico-Latinum  Manualc. 
Lugduni  Batavorum,  1769,  4to. 

12.  JohannisJAHN  Lexicon  Arabico-Latinum,  Chrcstomathite 
.\rabicje  accommodatum,  et  Chrestomathia  Arabica.  Vindobonee, 
1802,  2  vols.  8vo. 

For  a  full  account  of  Arabic  Grammars  and  Lexicons,  the  reader 
is  referred  to  Schnurrer's  Bibliotheca  Arabica,  in  which  their  dates, 
&c.  are  particularly  specified. 


§  5.    ECYPTIAH    ORAMMAHS    AND    LEXICONS. 

1.  Lexicon  .^Egyptiaco-Latinum,  ex  veteribus  iilius  Linguae 
monunicntis  summo  studio  coUectum  ^  Maturino  Veyssierc  La 
Ctoze.  Edcnlibus  Christiano  Scholtz  et  Carolo  Godofredo  Woide. 
Oxonii  c  Typographeo  Clarendoniano,  1775,  4to. 

2.  Christiani  Scholtz  Grammatica  .^Egyptiaca  utrlusque  dia- 
lect!:  quain  breviavit,  illustravit,  cdidit  Carolus  Godofrcdus 
WoiDE.     Oxonii  c  Typographeo  Clarendoniano,  1778,  4to. 

These  publications  are  not  of  common  occurrence,  and  have 
acquired  additional  value  since  various  fragments  of  the  ancient 
Coptic  and  Sahidic  versions  of  the  New  Testament  have  been  pub- 
lished. Previously  to  the  seventeenth  century,  ligypiian  literature 
was  but  slightly  rejjarded  in  Europe,  and  might  i)<j.ssibly  have  been 
still  disregarded,  if  the  celebmted  oriental  traveller  Barlolomeo  De 
la  Valle  had  not  brought  to  llome,  from  Fgypt,  among  other  curi- 
osities, some  Coptic  or  Kgyptian  manuscripts,  of  which  he  pave  the 
perusal  to  Athanasius  Kircher,  a  voluminous  but  very  indiili-rent 
writer  in  regard  to  solidity  and  fidelity.  Kircher,  however,  has  the 
merit  of  being  the  first  who  publi.sheu  a  book  relating  to  the  Egyp- 
tian language,  under  the  title  Lingua  A^'si/plinca  Kestituta  (RoniT, 
1643,  4lo.),  which  was,  in  fact,  nothing  but  the  manuscript  dic- 
tionary or  vocabulary  of  De  la  Valle.  Theodore  Petneus,  who  had 
been  m  F.gyj)!  in  ihc  same  century,  enriched  Europe  with  several 
valuable  manuscripts;  ami  he,  well  understanding  the  Egyjjlian 
tongue,  would  have  proved  a  restorer  of  Egyptian  litcmliiro,  had 
he  mot  with  proper  encouragement ;  but  ho  could  nowhere  find  it, 
not  even  in  I»naon,  where  lie  printed  the  first  psalm  as  u  specimen 
of  the  Egyptian  languace.  Happily  his  rnaniiscrijtis  were  sold  to 
the  elector  of  Brandonbiirir,  an<l  placed  in  his  library  at  Berlin. 
Dr.  Wilkins,  a  German,  and  La  Ooze,  a  Frenchman,  disiingirished 
themselves,  in  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenih  ccntiir)',  Jiy  their 
cultivation  of  the  Ri?v-ptlan  tongue.  The  former  met  wifn  encou- 
ragement  and  preferment  in  England,  and  printed  at  Oxfonl,  in 
1716,  the  Egyptian  New  Testament  in  the  Coptic  or  Lower  Fjpyp- 
'ian  dinlccL  He  also  printed  the  Pentateuch,  at  London,  in  17:il. 
But  being  unacquainted  witli  the  Sahidic  or  Upper  Egyptian  d  a- 


lect,  he  mistook  the  Sahidic  or  Thebaidic  manuscripts,  ni  the  Bod- 
leian library,  for  iaultj'  Coptic  ones.  La  Croze,  being  librarian  to 
the  king  of  Pru.ssia  at  Berlin,  and  having  free  access  to  the  Egyp- 
tian manuscripts  of  Petrajus  in  that  library,  compiled  from  these 
and  some  other  manuscripts  a  valuable  dictionary,  which  he 
finished  in  1722.  He  was  much  assisted  in  this  undertaking  by 
Dr.  Jahlonski,  a  learned  professor  at  Frank(i)rt,  who  collected  seve- 
ral materials  for  him  in  the  Bodleian  library,  and  that  of  Ihc  king 
of«France,  at  Paris.  Dr.  Jablonski  gave  La  Croze  the  first  hint  that, 
besides  the  Coptic  dialect,  there  was  another  of  Up|)er  Egypt,  which 
is  now  commonly  called  the  Sahidic  or  Thebaidic  dialect.  He  sent 
him  likewise  a  transcript  of  a  manuscript  of  this  ki)id  (No.  393. 
Huntington  in  the  Bodleian  library),  De  Mysteriis  Litcrarum  Gra- 
carum,  from  which  La  Crozo  took  Colleclionem  vociim  (fuarundam 
Safiiclicanim,  which  is  annexed  to  his  Dictionary.  Jablonski,  who 
on  his  travels  had  copied  several  Egyptian  manuscripis,  communi- 
cated them  to  his  brother-in-law,  Mr.  Scholtz,  chaplain  in  ordinary 
to  the  king  of  Prussia;  who  being  furnished  with  the  manuscripts 
at  Berlin,  and  the  Dictionary  of  La  Croze,  wrote,  in  1750,  an  Egyp- 
tian Grammar  of  both  dialects,  in  two  vols.  4:o.  Several  learned 
men  wished  that  both  the  Dictionary  and  the  Grammar  might  be 
published,  but  they  could  not  find  a  printer  furnished  with  Egyp- 
tian types,  or  who  would  hazard  tlie  undertaking  ;  till,  at  last,  the 
university  of  Oxford,  on  a  noble  principle  of  public  spirit,  deter- 
mined to  take  the  business  in  hand.  When  the  Dictionary  was 
printing,  Dr.  Woide  was  desired  to  make  some  additions  to  it ;  but 
this  not  being  proposed  to  him  till  more  than  half  the  work  was 
printed  off',  he  could  extend  his  remarks  to  three  loiters  only;  and, 
to  render  the  undertaking  more  useful,  he  added  an  index. 

It  was  intended  to  print  the  Grammar  of  Mr.  Scholtz,  in  two  4to. 
vols,  inmiodiately  after  the  Dictionary,  but  it  being  (bund  too  volu- 
minous. Dr.  Woide  very  properly  abridged  it;  and  the  work,  so  fur 
ii-om  losing  by  its  abridgment,  has  gained  very  considerably;  for 
Dr.  W.  has  carefully  examined,  corrected,  and  improved  the  Gram- 
mar by  means  of  manuscripts  unknown  to  Mr.  Scholtz,  of  which  he 
gives  an  account  in  the  preface  prefixed  to  the  Grammar.  The 
Sahidic  part,  which  is  now  to  be  ibund  in  this  Grammar,  was  en- 
tirely supplied  by  Dr.  Woide. 

Two  (circumstances  must  particularly  recommend  this  Grammar; 
first,  that  the  rules  laid  down  are  illustrated  and  supported  by  ex- 
am])! cs,  quoted  from  the  above-mentioned  manuscripts;  secondly, 
that  it  exhibits  both  dialects,  to  one  of  which  we  have  hitherto 
been  entire  strangers.  (Monthly  Review  (0.  S.),  vol.  Ix.  p.  1. 
Nichols's  Anecdotes  of  Bowyer,  vol.  ix.  pp.  9—11.) 

3.  Pauli  Ernest!  Jablonskii  Collectio  et  Explicatio  Vocum 
.i^ilgypiiacarum,  quarum  mentio  apud  Scriptorcs  Vetercs  occuriit. 
Apud  Jablonskii  Opuscula,  Tom.  I.  Lugduni  Batavorum,  1804, 
8vo. 

Jablonski  was  one  of  the  most  eminent  scholars  in  Egyptian  lite- 
rature, in  the  eighteenth  centurv'.  Besides  various  disquisitions 
wdiich  are  collected  in  his  Opuscula  (of  which  an  account  will  be 
found  in  a  subsequent  part  of  this  Appendix),  he  lalroured  for  many 
years  at  an  Egyptian  Glossarv',  in  which  he  collected  in  alphabeti- 
cal order,  and  explained,  by  the  aid  of  the  Coptic  Dialect,  all  the 
Egyptian  words  dispersed  in  the  writings  of  Greek  and  Latin  au- 
thors, and  also  in  the  Hebrew  text  of  the  Old  Testament.  (The 
latter  are  about  fifty  in  number.)  On  his  death,  corrected  copies 
of  many  of  his  dissertations  and  some  of  his  MSS.  were  sent  to  the 
celebrated  critic  Ruhnkenius,  at  Leyden ;  where,  after  various 
impediments,  they  were  at  length  published  by  Prof.  Te  Water,  in 
four  volumes,  8vo.  between  the  years  1804  and  1813. 

This  Egyptian  Glossary,  which  forms  the  entire  fii-st  volume  of 
Jablonski's  Ojiuscula,  is  pronounced  by  M.  Quatremere  (the  most 
competent  judge  in  Europe  of  such  subjects)  to  be  the  completest 
work  in  this  department  of  literature,  and  to  evince  the  most  pro- 
found erudition;  though,  in  some  instances,  he  seems  to  have  been 
rather  too  desirous  of  displaying  his  Coptic  learning,  and  has 
hazarded  many  improbable  etymologies.  Important  as  this  Glos- 
sary ii)  in  itself,  its  value  is  greatly  enhanced  by  the  editorial 
labours  of  Prof.  T«  Water;  who,  in  addition  to  a  preface  contain- 
ing many  interesting  details  respecting  Jablonski's  lil'e  and  writing!?, 
and  especially  contcrning  the  Cilossary,  has  contributed  numerous 
very  learned  notes,  together  with  a  supplement  (containing  such 
Egy[)tian  words  as  had  escaped  the  researches  of  Jablonski.  (Qua- 
tremere, Recherches  sur  la  Langue  et  LittiSrature  do  I'Egypie, 
l)p.  87,  88.) 

Mr.  Tattam  has  also  announced  a  new  edition  of  the  Egyptian 
Lexicon  by  La  Croze,  Scholtz,  and  \\'oide  alrove  noticed,  whi<h  had 
become  extremely  ntre  ;  incorporating  tho  results  of  all  the  most 
recent  discoveries  in  Egyptian  Literature. 

4.  Fr.  A.  Guil.  Spohn  do  Lingua  et  Literis  Vetcrum  .Egypli- 
tirum.  Acccdunt  Grammatica  atquc  Glos.sarium  jEgyptiacum. 
Ediditct  aksolvit  G.  ScylTarth.     Lipsiaj,  1825,  4to. 

5.  A  compendious  Grammar  of  the  Ei?j'ptian  Language,  as 
contained  in  the  Coptic  and  Sahidic  Dialects  ;  with  Observationa 
on  the  IJashmuric  :  together  with  Alphabets  and  Numerals  in 
the  Hieroglyphic  and  Enchorial  Characters;  and  a  few  cxplana^ 
tory  Observations.  By  the  Rev.  Henry  Tattam,  M.A.  With 
an  Appendix  consisting  of  the  Rudiments  of  a  Dictionary  of  the 
ancient  Ei^yptian  Language,  in  the  Enchorial  Character.  By 
Tlioma3  Vou.Mj,  M.D.     London,  1830,  8vo. 


Sect.  I.  §  1.] 


TREATISES  ON  THE  INTERPRETATION  OF  SCRIPTURE. 


97 


§  6.  ETiiropic  ghaxmaii  Axn  lexicons. 

1.  Jobi  LuDOLPHi  Grammalica  Lingute  AmharicsB  (vel  JDthio- 
picae),  quae  vernacula  est  Hebessinorum.  Francofurti  ad  Moe- 
num,  1698,  folio  ;  1702,  folio.     Best  edition. 

2.  Jobi  LuuoLPiii  Lexicon  Amharico-Latinum.  Francofurti 
ad  Mocnum,  1698,  folio. 

Tliis  is  commonly  bound  up  with  the  first  edition  of  Ludolph's 
Amharic  Grammar. 

3.  Jobi  LuDOLPHi  Lexicon  .^thiopico-Latinum.  Franco- 
furti ad  ?(Icenum,  1698,  folio. 

§    7.    PERSIAN  GRAMMARS  AND  LEXICONS. 

1.  Ludovici  DE  DiEU  Rudimenta  Linguse  Persicae :  accedunt 
duo  priora  capita  Geneseos  e;c  Persica  translatione  Jacobi  Tawusi. 
Lugduni  Batavorum,  1639,  4to. 

2.  Angeli  a  S.  Joseph  Gazophylacium  Linguae  Persarum. 
Amstclodami,  1684,  folio. 

3.  A  Grammar  of  the  Persian  Language.  By  Sir  William 
Jones.     London,  1809, 4to.     Seventh  edition. 

The  first  edition  of  this  Grammar  appeared  in  1775,  in  4lo. :  in 
that  of  1809  the  orthography  is  adapted  to  the  mode  of  spelling 
adopted  by  Dr.  Wilkins  in  his  improved  edition  of  Richardson's 
Persian  Cictionary.  Sir  W.  Jones's  Grammar  forms  the  fifth  vo- 
lume of  the  octavo  edition  of  his  works. 

4.  Francisci  de  Dombat  Grammatica  Linguse  Persies;  acce- 
dunt dialogi,  historite,  sententia3,  et  narrationes  Persicas.  Viennac, 
1804,  4to. 

5.  A  Grammar  of  the  Persian  Language.  By  M.  Lumsden, 
LL.D.     London,  1811,  2  vols.  Small  folio. 


6.  Francisci  Wiekeit  Institutiones  ad  Fundamenta  Lingua» 
Persarum,  cum  Chrcstomatliia  et  Auctario  ad  Chrestomathiam 
Lipsiae,  1805  ;  two  parts,  forming  1vol.  8vo. 

7.  A  Dictionary,  Persian,  Arabic,  and  Englisii ;  with  a  Dis- 
sertation on  the  Ijanguages,  Literature,  and  Manners  of  Eastern 
Nations.  By  John  Richardson,  Esq.  F.S.A.  A  new  Edition, 
with  numerous  Additions  and  Improvements,  by  Charles  Wilkins, 
LL.D.  F.R.S.     London,  1806-1810,  2  vols,  royal  4to. 

The  first  edition  of  this  great  and  elaborate  work  appeared  atOx- 
ford  and  London  in  1777,  in  one  large  folio  volume.  Dr.  Wilkins 
has  revised  it  throughout,  corrected  the  orthography  of  every  word, 
and  enlarged  it  to  a  great  extent,  with  very  numerous  additions, 
which  his  long  residence  in  India  and  profound  knowledge  of  the 
Persian  language  pecidiarly  qualified  him  to  make.  As  the  bulk 
and  price  of  this  work  rendered  it  accessible  to  comparatively  few 
students  of  Persian,  Mr.  Hopkins  compiled  from  it  an  abridgment, 
entitled  a  Vocahulanj,  Persian,  Arabic,  and  English,  which  was 
primed  at  London  in  1810,  in  8vo. 

8.  Outlines  of  Persian  Grammar,  with  Extracts.  Edinburgh, 
1823,  8vo. 

These  outlines  were  originally  published  for  the  use  of  sttidents  in 
the  University  of  Edinburgh.  The  author's  "  view  has  evidently 
been,  to  simplify,  as  much  as  possible,  the  elemefhs  of  the  language. 
No  extraneous  matter  has  been  introduced  for  a  show  merely  of  eru- 
dition ;  when,  in  reality,  it  can  be  of  use  for  nothing,  but  to  distract 
and  impede  the  learner."  (Edinburgh  Christian  Instructor  for  Mav, 
1822,  p.  329.) 

The  reader,  who  is  desirous  of  further  information  respecting 
elementary  works  on  Oriental  Literature,  is  referred  to  Profes- 
sor Lee's  Sylloge  Librorum  Orientalmm,  quibus  Lingxiarum 
•  Biblicarxim  Studiosi  maximo  cum  frtictu  utiqxieant.  (Cantabri- 
giae,  1821, 8vo.)  In  this  manual,  Prof.  Lee  has  particularly  specified 
those  treatises  which  are  most  worthy  of  the  student's  attention. 


CHAPTER  V. 


COMMENTATORS,    INTERPRETERS,    AND    PARAPHRASTS    ON    THE    SCRIPTURES. 


A  COMPXETE  History  of  Commentators  would  require  a  vo- 
lume of  no  ordinary  dimensions.  The  present  list  is  therefore 
necessarily  restricted  to  an  account  of  the  Princihal  Commenta- 
ries and  Critical  JVorks  illustrating  the  Holy  Scriptures.  The 
reader,  who  may  be  desirous  of  prosecuting  this  subject  more  at 
length,  will  find  much  interesting  information  in  the  elaborate 
works  of  Rosenm  Her,  Dorscheus,  and  Simon,  noticed  below. 
Father  Simon's  Histoire  Critique  du  Vieux  Testament  (pp.  41 6 
— 466,  4to.  1 680)  also  contains  many  valuable  strictures  on  the 
Expositors  of  the  Old  Testament.  The  merits  and  demerits  of 
commentators  are  likewise  discussed  in  Walchius's  Bibliotheca 
Theologica  Selecta,  vol.  iv.  pp.  369 — 931.;  in  Ernesti's  Institu- 
tio  Interpretis  Novi  Testamenti,  part  iii.  cap.  ix.  pp.  278 — 31 1. ; 
in  Morus's  Acroases  Academicte,  vol.  ii.  pp.  204 — 340. ;  by  Mr. 
Orme  in  his  Bibliotheca  Biblica  (Edinburgh,  1824,  8vo.)  ;  by 
Rambach,  in  his  Institutiones  Hermeneuticse,  pp.  663 — 726.;  by 
Professor  Keil,  in  his  Elementa  Hermeneutices  Novi  Testamenti 
(8vo.  Leipsic,  1811),  p.  159.  et  seq. ;  and  by  Professor  Beck,  in 
his  Monogrammata  Hermeneutices  Librorum  Novi  Fcedcris  (8vo. 
Lipsiaj,  1803),  part  i.  p.  168.  et  seq. 

1.  Jo.  Georg.  Rosenmijeleri  Historialnterpretationis  Libro- 
rum Sacrorum  in  Ecclesia  Christiana;  ah  Apostolorum  aetate  ad 
Literarum  Instaurationem.  Hildburghusae  et  Lipsiae,  1795-1814, 
5  parts,  8vo. 

2.  Joh.  Georg.  Dorsckei  Biblia  Numerata,  sen  Index  Speci- 
alis  in  Vctus  Testamentum  ad  .singula  omnium  Librorum  Capi- 
ta, et  Commata.     Francofurti,  1674,  2  vols,  folio. 

This  work  contains  a  list  of  commentators  (four  hundred  and 
ninety-one  in  number),  with  references  to  their  several  books,  chap- 
ters, and  pages,  in  which  they  have  illustrated  any  book,  chapter, 
or  verse,  and  even  every  word,  which  has  been  the  subject  of  con- 
troversy. The  word  "  Elohim,"  for  instance,  has  not  fewer  than 
sixty  references.  An  edition  of  the  Biblia  Enumerala  was  pub- 
lished at  Frankfort,  in  1694,  with  numerous  additions,  by  J.  Gramm, 
son-in-law  of  the  original  author.  (Biogr.  Universelle,  torn.  xi. 
p.  593.) 

3.  Histoire  Critique  des  Principaux  Commentateurs  du  Nou- 
veau  Testament,  depuis  le  Commencement  du  Christianisme 
jusques  a  notre  Tcms.  Parle  Pe re  Simon.  Rotterdam,  1693, 
4to. 


§  1. 


SECTION  L 

ON  THE    INTERPRETATION    OF    SCRIPTURE. 

GENERAL    TREATISES     ON    THE    INTERPRETATION    OF 
SCRIPTURE. 


1.  Abichtii  (Jo.  Georg.)  Ars  distincte  Lcgendi  et  Interpre- 
tandi  Scripturam  Sacram  Veteris Testamenti.    Lipsiaj,  1710,  8vo. 

2.  Hermeneutica  Biblica  Generalis,  Usibus  Academicis  accom- 
modata  ab  Antonio  Arigler.     Viennae,  1813,  8vo. 

A  learned  epitome  of  the  general  principles  of  interpretation. 
This  author,  as  well  as  Jahn,  was  a  Romanist  professor,  at  Vienna  ; 
and  the  works  of  both  have  been  prohibited  within  the  dominions 
of  the  emperor  of  Austria. 

3.  Benner  (Joh.  Herm.)  Sylloge  Thesiura,  Hermeneuticae 
Sacrae  inservientium.     Francofurti  et  Giessae,  1753,  12mo. 

4.  Joh.  Benedicti  Carpzot  Primae  Linese  Hermeneuticae  et 
Philologia;  Sacrae  cum  Veteris,  turn  Novi  Testamenti,  brevibus 
aphorismis  comprehensae.     Helmstadii,  1790,  8vo. 

5.  Chladenii  (Martini)  Institutiones  Exegeticae.  Witte- 
bergae,  1725,  8vo. 

6.  DANHArERi  (Joh.  Conradi)  Hermeneutics  Sacra,  sive 
Mcthodus  exponendarum  Sacrarum  Literarum.  Argentorati, 
1684,  8vo. 

7.  Sinopsi  della  Ermeneutica  Sacra,  o  dell'  Arte  di  ben  inter- 
pretare  la  Sacra  Scrittura,  del  Professore  G.  Bernardo  De  Rossi. 
Parma,  1819,  8vo. 

8.  Ernesti  (Jo.  Aug.)  Institutio  Interpretis  Novi  Testamenti, 
8vo.     Lipsiae,  1761,  1809,  8vo. 

The  edition  of  1809  is  generally  considered  as  the  best  of  Er- 
nesti's admirable  little  manual ;  but  the  prefatory  remarks  and 
some  of  the  notes  of  Dr.  Amnion  must  be  read  with  great  caution, 
as  they  are  too  frequently  destitute  of  those  primary  and  indispen- 
sable characteristics  of  a  good  interpreter,  sobriety  and  discretion 
Two  volumes  of  Supplementary  Remarks,  by  Professor  Morns,  en- 
titled "Acroases  super  Hermeneutica  Novi  Testamenti,"  were  pub- 
lished at  Leipsic  between  1795  and  1797,  in  8vo. ;  they  relate  only 
to  part  of  Ernesti's  volume,  and  they  contain  much  valuable  matter 
respecting  the  criticism  and  interpretation  of  the  New  Testament 


r 


98 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY 


[Paet  IL  Chap.  V. 


An  accurate  English  translation  of  the  whole  of  Emesti's  Institutio, 
with  valuable  corrective  notes,  by  the  Rev.  C.  II.  Tekhot,  M.A., 
was  published  at  Edinburgh  in  1832-33,  in  two  volumes,  small  8vo. 
forming  part  of  the  Edinburgh  "  Biblical  Cabinet." 

9.  Elements  of  Interpretation,  translated  from  the  Latin  of  J 
A.  Ernesti,  accompanied  with  Notes,     By  Moses  STUAnr,  Pro- 
fessor  of   Sacred   Literature    in    the  Theological    Seminary   at 
Andover.     12mo.    Andovcr   (Massachusetts),    1832.      London, 
1827,  12ino. 

A  translation  of  pari  of  the  preceding  treatise.  The  work  of 
Ernesti,  in  passing  tlirough  the  hands  of  its  translator,  has  under- 
gone some  alleralions.  Some  things  have  been  omitted  ;  notes  iiave 
been  added  where  the  subject  appeared  to  require  further  elucida- 
tion ;  and  copious  extracts  are  translated  from  Morus's  Acroases, 
as  well  as  Ihuu  Bcciv's^Monogrammata  llcrincncuticcs  IVovi  Tcsta- 
menti,  and  Ivcil's  Eleim-uta  llermeneutices  Novi  Testamenti,  no- 
ticed below.  The  London  reprint  was  edited  by  the  Kev.  Dr. 
Henderson,  who  has  increased  the  utility  of  this  little  manual  by 
adding  some  valuable  observations,  the  result  of  his  own  reading. 

10.  MatthisB  Flacii  lUyrici  Clavis  Scripturae  Sacra,  seu  de 
Sennone  Sacrarum  Literarum.     Jena,  1674,  folio. 

This  work  wa^gpne  of  the  best  of  the  early  Protestant  treatises 
on  the  Interpreiation  of  Scripture.  Various  editions  of  it  were 
printed  at  Busle  between  the  years  1567  and  1029:  it  was  also 
printed  at  Leipsic,  in  1C95,  and  at  Erfurt,  in  1719;  but  VValchius 
stales  the  Jena  edition  of  1674  to  be  the  best.  The  "Clavis"  of 
Flacius  consists  ol'  two  parts.  The  first  is  in  the  form  of  a  Dic- 
tionary, in  which  all  the  words  and  forms  of  expression,  occurring 
in  the  Bible,  are  explained.  The  second  contains  numerous  rules 
of  interpretation,  and  a  series  of  tracts  on  the  style  of  Scripture 
difficulties,  and  mode  of  surmounting  them,  &.c. 

11.  FiiAxcKii  (Aug.  Herm.)  Praelectiones  Hermcncuticae  ad 
viam  dextrc  indagandi  et  exponendi  Sensum  Scriptura;  Sacrte. . .  . 
Adjecta  est  in  fine  Brevis  et  Luculenta  Scripturam  Sacram  cum 
fruclu  legend!  Institutio.     Halfc,  1717,  Bvo. 

12.  Fkaxckii  (Aug.  Herm.)  Commcntatio  de  Scopo  Libro- 
rum  Veteris  et  Novi  Testamenti.     Plalse,  1724,  8vo. 

13.  FnAMKii  (Aug.  Herm.)  Christus  S.  Scriptura;  Nucleus. 
Acccdunt  trcs  Meditationes  cognati  Argumenti.  Ex  Germanico 
in  Latinum  Semionem  vertit  Hcnricus  Grischovius.  Hala:,  1724, 
8vo. 

14.  Fhanzii  (Wolfgang!)  Tractatus  Theologlcus  novus  et 
pcrspicuus  de  Interpretatione  Sacrarum  Literarum.  Witteberga}, 
1619,  4to.  1708,  8vo.  (best  edition.) 

15.  Glassii  (Salonionis)  Philologia  Sacra,  his  temporibus 
accommodata.  ,  Post  primum  volumen  Dathii  in  luccm  emissum, 
nunc  continuata,  et  in  novi  plane  opcris  forniam  redacta  a  Georg. 
Laurent.  Baucro.  Tomi  secundi,  sectio  posterior. — Hermencu- 
lica  Sacra.     Lijjsia;,  1797,  8vo. 

This  volume,  as  already  noticed  in  page  73-  is  a  corrected  edi- 
tion of  that  part  of  (Jlass's  Philologia  Sacra  which  relates  to  the 
interpretation  of  the  Scriptures.  It  is  sometimes  to  be  met  with  as 
a  distinct  work,  with  a  separate  title-page  :  and  such  in  effect  it  is, 
the  alterations  and  additions  being  so  numerous  as  to  render  it  a 
new  publication.  It  is  unquestionably  of  great  value,  and  has  fiir- 
nishcd  the  writer  of  these  pages  with  many  important  observations 
and  explanations  of  Scripture  ;  but  it  is  at  the  same  time  so  strongly 
characterized  by  that  licentiousness  of  interpretation  which  so 
eminently  marks  many  of  the  modern  divines  of  Germany,  that  the 
student  cannot  be  put  too  much  on  his  guard  with  respect  to  Pro- 
lessor  Bauer's  volume. 

16.  Enchiridion  Hermcncutica;  Gencralis  Tabularum  Veteris 
et  Novi  Fcederis.    Authore  Johannc  Jaiin.    Vienna;,  1812,  8vo. 

17.  Appendix  Hermencutietc,  seu  Excrcitationcs  Exegcticsc. 
Auctore  Johanne  J.vhn.  Fasciculi  II.  Vaticinia  do  MessiA. 
Vienna,  1813-15,  8vo. 

18.  Institutiones  Hcrmencutica;  Scriptursc  Sacrte  Veteris  Tes- 
tamenti, (juas  Joannes  Nepomucenus  Aliikii,  juxta  Systema 
Thcologia;  novissiine  pra;scriptuni  concinnatas,  lertium  cdidit. 
PcHtini  [Pest,  in  Hungary],  1827,  3  tomis,  8vo. 

The  first  edition  of  this  work  was  publiHhed  in  1807.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  system  of  theology  which  is  taugiil  in  the  I,'ni\ersity 
of  Vienna  having  been  inlrodu<:cd  inlothat  of  I'csl,  l'rofoK.sor  Alber 
rc-modelled  and  revised  his  work,  in  order  to  render  it  conformable 
to  that  system.  Tlio  first  volume  contains  a  snmniary  of  Hililical 
Archwology  ;  the  set-ond,  an  intrcKJucIion  to  the  Kovcrnl  l)ook.s  of 
the  Old  'le.slament;  and  the  third,  the  principles  of  interpretation, 
and  an  exegetical  elucidation  of  various  dimcult  passages  of  the 
Old  Testament 

19.  Inctitntiones  HcrmcncuticiE  Scriptune  SacrjE  Novi  Testa- 
menti, qua*)  Joannes  Nep.  Albf.r,  juxta  Systema  'J'heologio; 
novissime  prascriptum  concinnatas,  cdidit.  Pcstini,  1818,  3 
tomis,  8vo. 


The  first  volume  contains  general  rules  of  interpretation,  a  gcn^ 
ral  introduction  to  the  writings  of  the  A'ew  Testament,  and  an 
apology  Icr  them  ;  the  second  and  third  volumes  comprise  a.  special 
introduction  to  the  various  books,  and  an  excgetical  exposition  of 
the  most  difficult  and  imporlant  passages. 

Throughcjut  both  this  and  the  preceding  work.  Professor  Alber 
evinces  himself  to  be  an  able  and  vehement  adversary  of  the  mo-, 
dern  school  of  German  neologi-sts. 

20.  Thomse  Hcnt  de  Usu  Dialcctorum,  ac  prfecipue  Arabico, 
in  Hebraico  Codice  intcrpretando,  Oratio.     Oxonii,  1748,  4to. 

21.  Monogrammata  Hermcneuticcs  Librorum  Novi  Fcederis, 
Scripsit  Christianus  Daniel  Bkckius.  Pars  Prima.  Hermeueu- 
tice  N.  T.  uni versa.     Lipsise,  1803,  8vo. 

This  work  was  never  completed.  An  English  translation  of  it, 
so  far  as  it  has  been  published,  is  given  in  the  first  volume  of  Dr. 
Hodge's  "  Biblical  Repertory,"  Princeton  (New  Jersey),  1825,  8vo, 

22.  Ki:iLii  (Gar.  Aug.  Thcoph.)  Elemcnta  Hermeneutices 
Novi  Testamenti,  Latine  rcddita  a  Christ.  Aug.  Godefr.  Emmer- 
ling.     Lipsia;,  1811,  8vo. 

23.  Hierolexicon,  sive  Sacrum  Dictionarium  Variorum  Sanrae 
ScripturiE  Sensuum,  cum  Locorum,  in  quibus  hos  patiuntur, 
Annotatione.     Opera  et  studio  Francisci  Philippi  L'Alouettb. 

Lutctite  Parisiorum,  1694,  8vo. 

A  book  not  of  common  occurrence.  It  consists,  in  fact,  of  three 
parts.  In  the  first  are  delivered  rules  lor  interpreting  the  Bible; 
the  second  contains  a  summary  of  the  contents  of  the  several  books 
of  Scripture,  in  Ijatin  hexameter  verses;  and  the  last  pan  of  the 
volume  contains  an  alphabetical  index  of  the  various  senses  of 
Scripture,  with  references  to  passages  which,  in  the  author's  judg- 
ment, admit  of  those  senses.  Some  of  his  interpretations  are  rather 
fanciful. 

24.  Langii  (Joachimi)  Hcrmeneutica  Sacra,  cxhibcns  pri- 
mum Genuinae  Interpretationis  Leges  de  Sensu  Litterali  et  Em- 
phatico  investigando ;  delude  Idiomata  Sermonis  Mosaici,  Da- 
vidici,  et  Prophetic!,  necnon  Apostolic!  et  Apocalyptici ;  cum 
uberiori  ipsius  Praxeos  Excgeticie  appendice.     Halaj,  1733,  8 vo. 

25.  Six  Sermons  on  the  Study  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  their 
Nature,  Interi)retation,  and  some  of  their  most  Important  Doc- 
trines, preached  before  the  University  of  Cambridge  in  the  years 
1827-8.  To  which  are  annexed  two  Dissertations;  the  first  on 
the  Reasonableness  of  the  Orthodox  Views  of  Christianity  as 
opposed  to  the  Rationalism  of  Germany  ;  the  second  on  the  In- 
terpretation of  Prophecy  generally,  with  an  Original  Exposition 
of  the  Book  of  Revelation,  showing  that  the  whole  of  that  re- 
markable Prophecy  has  long  ago  been  fulfilled.  By  the  llcv, 
Samuel  Lee,  B.D.  [now  D.D.],  Regius  Professor  of  Hebrew  in 
the  University  of  Cambridge.     London,  1830,  8vo. 

26.  LoESCHKR  (Val.  Em.)  Breviarium  Thcologisc  Excgetics, 
Legitimam  Scriptutaj  Sacrce  Interprctationem  tradems.  Witte- 
berga;,  1719,  8vo. 

27.  MoNSPKUGEii  (Joseph!  Julian!,  iii  Un!ver.=itatc  Vindobo- 
nens!  P.  0.)  Institutiones  HenncneutiaE  V.  T.  Pra;lect!onibu8 
Academicis  accommodata3.     Lovanii,  1787,  2  vols.  8vo. 

28.  Institutio  Interpretis  Veteris  Testamenti,  auctore  Joanne 
Henrico  Pahf.au,  Litterarum  Orientalium  Professore  in  Acade- 
inia  Rheno-Trajectina.     Trajecti  ad  Rhenum,  1822,  8vo. 

A  very  valuable  compendium  of  the  principles  of  Sacred  Her- 
meneutics. 

29.  Disputatio  de  Mythica  Sacri  Codicis  Interpretatione.  Auc- 
tore Joanne  Henrico  Paheau.  Editio  altera,  additamento  et 
indicibus  aucta.     Trajecti  ad  Rhcnuin,  1824,  Bvo. 

This  treatise  conlains  a  masterly  investigation  and  refutation  of 
the  notion  advocated  by  the  modern  school  of  tJerman  neologists. 
It  was  originally  a  prize  essay,  published  in  181 1  in  the  trnnsac- 
tions  of  the  Teylerian  Sf)ciety,  with  a  Dutch  translation.  In  this 
new  edition  the  learned  aulhor  has  revised  and  corrected  his  trea- 
tise, and  bus  enlarged  it  wiih  valuable  additions  at  the  end,  and 
with  a  copious  index. 

30.  Pfeiffehi  (August!)  Hcrmeneutica  Sacra,  sive  Tractatio 
luculenta  de  Interpretatione  Sacrarum  Literarum.  Dresd.-c,  1C84, 
8vo.  Lipsifc,  1090,  4to. ;  also  in  the  second  volume  of  the  col- 
lective edition  of  his  j)h!lological  works. 

31.  Pfeiffehi  (Joach.  Ehrenfrid.)  Institutiones  Hermencu- 
tietc Sacra;,  vclerum  atque  recentiorum  et  propria  quoidam  prtc- 
cepta  complexa.     Erianga;,  1771,  8vo.  ^ 

32.  De  Usu  Philonis  in  Interpretatione  Novi  Testamenti. 
Scripsit  Gulielmus  SciiEFFEn.     .Marburgi,  1831,  8vo. 

33.  The  Ijiteral  Interpretation  of  Scripture  exposed.  By  T. 
Pell  Platt,  Esq.     London,  1831,  8vo. 

'•  This  pamphlet  is  little  more  than  an  nttnrk  on  some  expositioni 
contained  in  the  exccllcjit  volume  of  Sermoiu  on  iho  Divine  Au- 


Sect.  I.  §  2.] 


TREATISES  ON  THE  FIGURATIVE  LANGUAGE  OF  SCRIPTURE. 


99 


thority  and  Perpetuity  of  the  Lord's  Day,  published  by  the  Rev. 
Daniel  Wilson  [D.D>,  now  Bishop  of  Calcutta],  and  an  Encomium 
on  the  Modes  of  Interpretation  adopted  by  certain  divines,  and  a 
recommendation  of  the  soi-disant  Students  of  Prophecy,  as  those 
who  have  called  men  back  to  the  literal  Interpretation  of  Scrip- 
ture."— Congregational  Magazine,  May,  1831,  vol.  xiv.  p.  314.) 

34.  Rambachu  (Johannis  Jacobi)  Inslttutiones  Hermeneu- 
ticaj  Sacrre,  variis  observationibus  copiosissimisque  exemplis  bibli- 
cis  iliustratse.  Cum  prsefatione  Jo.  Francisci  Buddei.  Jens,  1723, 
8vo. 

35.  SEEMittERi  (SebastianiJ  Institutiones  ad  Intcrpretationem 
Sanctffl  Scripturae,  seu  Hermieneutica  Sacra.  Augsburgi,  1771, 
8vo. 

35*.  Sacred  Hermeneutics,  or  the  Art  of  Biblical  Interpreta- 
tion :  containing  Principles  and  Rules  for  expounding  the  Scrip- 
tures of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  translated  from  the  Ger- 
man of  George  Frederick  Seiler,  by  the  Rev.  William  Wright, 
LL.D.,  with  the  comments  of  the  Dutch  Professor  .Todocus  He- 
ringa,  and  additional  notes  by  the  Translator.  London,  1834,  8vo. 

36.  Semleri  (Jo.  Sal.)  A'pparatus  ad  Liberalem  Veteris  Tes- 
tament! Intcrpretationem.     Halse  Magdeburgicje,  1773,  8vo. 

37.  Semleri  (Jo.  Sal.)  Apparatus  ad  Liberalem  Novi  Testa- 
menti  Interpretationem.  lUustrationis  exempla  multa  ex  epistola 
ad  Romanos  petita  sunt.     Haire  Magdeburgicse,  1767,  Bvo. 

"  Liberal,  indeed,  with  a  vengeance  ;  if  it  be  deemed  liberality 
to  give  up  all  material  points  to  those  who  impugn  the  authenticity 
of  the  sacred  books." — Such  is  the  severe  but  just  censure  of  Bishop 
Blomfield  f.Diss.  on  the  Tradit.  Knovvl.  of  a  Promised  Redeemer, 
p.  123.)  on  the  first  of  these  works  of  Semler,  which  is  equally  appli- 
cable to  the  second.  On  the  value  of  this  heterodox  German 
critic's  labours,  see  Conybeare's  Bampton  Lectures  for  1825,  pp. 
277—279. 

38.  TuRHETixi  (Joan.  Alphonsi)  De  Sacrse  Scripturae  Inter- 
pretandas  methodo,  Tractatus  bipartitus.  Trajecti  Thuriorum, 
1728,  small  8vo.  Francofurti  ad  Viadrum,  1776,  8vo.  Also  in 
Vol.  II.  of  the  quarto  edition  of  his  collective  works,  with  the 
author's  last  corrections.  . 

The  edition  of  1776  is  considered  the  best;  it  professes  to  be 
"  restitutus  et  auctus,"  by  William  Abraham  Teller,  some  of  whose 
remarks  are  certainly  valuable  ;  but  others  convey  doctrinal  inter- 
pretations which  Turretini  (or  Turretin  as  he  is  most  usually  termed) 
held  in  utter  abhorrence.  The  edition  of  1728  is  therefore  to  be 
preferred,  when  his  collective  works  cannot  be  consulted. 

39.  Hermcneutica  Biblica  Generalis  juxta  Formam  Studii 
Theologici  in  Imperio  Austriaco  prsescriptam,  edita  a  Casparo 
Unterkircher.     CEniponti,  1831,  8vo. 

The  basis  of  this  work  is  Arigler's  Hermcneutica  Biblica,  No.  2. 
p.  97..  supra,  with  w^hich  the  editor  has  made  very  free,  altering 
some  things,  omitting  others,  and  adding  many  more,  in  order  to 
adapt  it  to  the  modern  standard  of  Romish  orthodoxy  established  in 
the  Austrian  dominions. 

40.  An  Inquiry  into  the  General  Principles  of  Scripture  Inter- 
pretation, in  Eight  Sermons  preached  before  the  University  -61 
Oxford  in  the  year  1814,  as  the  Lecture  founded  by  the  late 
Rev.  John  Bampton,  M.A.  By  the  Rev.  William  VAsrjni.DERT, 
D.D.  [now  Bishop  of  Durham].     Oxford,  1815,  8vo. 

41.  Dis.sertatio  de  SS.  Scripturarum  Interpretatione,  secundum 
Pairum  commentarios.  Auctore  Danieic  Whitby.  Londini, 
1714,  8 vo. 

42.  G.  B.  Winer  Oratio  de  Emcndanda  Interpretatione  Novi 
Testamenti.     Lipsiae,  1823,  8vo. 


§  2.     treatises     ok     the    IXTF.RPRETATIOX    of    the    riGURA- 

tive    language,    and    on    the    spiritual    and    tipical 
interpretation  of  scripture. 

1.  Rambachii  (Johannis  Jacobi)  Commentatio  Hermcneutica 
de  Sensus  Mystici  Criteriis,  ex  genuinis  principiis  deducta,  ne- 
cessariisque  cautelis  circumscripta.     Jenje,  1728  ;  1731,  8vo. 

2.  The  Bampton  Lectures ~for  the  year  1824.  Being  ai\  At- 
tempt to  trace  the  History,  and  to  ascertain  the  Limits  of  the 
Secondary  and  Spiritual  Interpretation  of  Scripture.  Bp.  J.  J. 
CoNYBEARE,  M.A.     Oxford,  1824,  8vo.     Price  10s.  6J. 

3.  A  Course  of  Lectures  on  the  Figurative  Language  of  Holy 
Scripture,  and  the  Interpretation  of  it  from  the  Scripture  itself. 
To  which  are  added,  four  Lectures  on  the  Relation  between  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments,  as  it  is  set  forth  in  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews.  By  the  Rev.  William  Jones,  M.A.  London,  1786, 
8vo.  and  various  subsequent  editions. 

These  valuable  and  pious  lectures  were  delivered  in  the  learned 
author's  parish  church  of  Naidand,  in  Suffolk  :  they  are  also  to  be 
Vol.  11.  4  F 


found  in  the  fourth  volume  of  Mr.  Joftes's  Theological,  Philosophi- 
cal, and  Miscellaneous  Works. 

4.  On  the  Historical  Types  contained  in  the  Old  Testament. 
Twenty  Discourses  preached  before  the  University  of  Cambridge 
in  the  year  1826,  at  the  Lecture  founded  by  the  Rev.  John 
Hulse.     By  the  Rev.  Temple  Chevalher,  M.A.     Cambridge, 

1826,  8vo. 

The  subject  chosen  is  important  and  interesting,  and  has  been 
illustrated  with  ability  and  judgment.      (British  Critic,  October, 

1827,  p.  442.) 

5.  The  Nature  and  Use  of  a  Type.  By  George  Lavingtok 
[D.D.  and  afterwards  Bishop  of  Exeter].     London,  1724,  8vo.    , 

6.  A  Brief  View  of  the  Figures,  and  Exphcation  of  the  Meta- 
phors contained  in  Scripture.  By  the  late  Rev.  John  Brown. 
Edinburgh,  1803,  12mo.  Also  in  the  first  volume  of  the  au- 
thor's collected  smaller  works. 

7.  A  Key  to  open  the  Scripture  Metaphors  and  Types ;  to 
which  are  prefixed  Arguments  to  prove  the  Divine  Authority  of 
the  Holy  Scriptures.  By  Benjamin  Keach.  London,  1779, 
folio. 

This  is  usually  considered  as  the  best  edition  :  the  work  was  first 
published  towards  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century.  Many  of 
the  Metaphors  and  Types  are  spiritualized  almost  to  absurdity  :  still 
the  work  contains  good  materials,  which  personsof  sober  judfgmenl 
may  employ  to  advantage.  The  Introduction  was  translated  from 
Glassius's  Treatise  de  Typis  et  Metaphoris,  in  his  Philologia  Sacra. 

8.  A  Treatise  on  the  Nature  and  Use  of  the  Tropes  of  the 
Holy  Scripture.     By  J.  Wood.     Bristol,  1831,  12mo. 

This  little  volume  is  extracted  principally  from  the  introduction 
to  the  preceding  work  of  Keach. 

9.  Moyse  Devoile,  ou  I'Explication  des  Types  et  Figures  du 
Vieux  Testament.     Par  Jacob  Gibard.     Geneve,  1670,  8vo. 

10.  Moses  and  Aaron ;  or,  the  Types  and  Shadows  of  our 
Saviour  in  the  Old  Testament  opened  and  explained.  By  T. 
Taylor,  D.D.     London,  165.3,  4to. 

This  book  was  repeatedly  printed  in  the  course  of  the  seventeenth 
centuiy  ;  a  circumstance  that  marks  the  estimation  in  which  it  was 
held.  It  was  also  translated  into  Latin,  and  several  times  printed 
in  Germany.  It  contains  many  fanciful  analogies  ;  a  remark  which 
is  applicable  to  the  two  following  works. 

11.  The  Figures  or  Types  of  the  Old  Testament,  by  which 
Christ  and  the  Heavenly  Things  of  the  Gospel  were  preached 
and  shadowed  to  the  People  of  God  of  old ;  explained  and  im- 
proved in  sundry  Sermons.  By  Samuel  Mather.  Dublin, 
1673,  4to.  * 

11*.  The  Gospel  of  the  Old  Testament :  an  Explanation  of 
the  Types  and  Figures,  by  which  Christ  was  exhibited  under 
the  Legal  Dispensation.  Re-written  from  the  work  of  Samuel 
Mather.  By  [Mrs.  Caroline  Wilson  (late  Fry)]  the  Author  of 
the  "Listener,"  &c.     London,  1833,  2  vols.  12mo. 

12.  Grace  and  Truth;  or,  the  Glory  and  Fulness  of  the  Re- 
deemer displayed  in  an  Attempt  to  explain  the  most  Remarkable 
of  the  Types,  Figures,  and  Allegories  of  the  Old  Testament. 
By  William  Mac  Ewen.  Edinburgh,  1763,  12mo.  and  various 
subsequent  editions. 

13.  A  Popular  Inquiry  into  the  Doctrine  of  Scripture  Types. 
By  John  Wilson.     Edinburgh,  1823,  8vo. 

14.  De  Symbolis  ac  Typis  Scripturse  Sacra  Dissertatio.  Auc- 
tore S.  Rudeluach.     HauniiB,  1824,  8vo. 

The  author  does  not  stop  to  copy  his  predeces.sors ;  he  endeavours 
to  give  a  solid  foundation  to  his  discussion.  After  fixing  the  general 
nature  of  a  Symbol  and  Type,  and  determining  the  meaning  of  the 
figurative  diction  of  the  Scriptures,  and  the  relation  subsisting  in 
this  respect  between  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  he  proceeds  to 
apply  it  to  the  interpretation  of  the  Symbols  and  Types.  He  allows 
those  prophetic  images  only  to  be  real  Types,  which  have  been 
fulfilled  in  the  life,  passion,  and  death  of  Christ,  and  in  the  ulterior 
state  of  the  Church  ;  and  requires  that  such  fulfilment  be  indicate*! 
in  express  terms  in  the  New  Testament.  (Revue  Ency eloped ique, 
Novembre,  1826,  p.  410.) 

15.  The  Character  and  Offices  of  Christ  illustrated  by  a 
Comparison  with  the  Typical  Characters  of  the  Old  Testament 
In  a  Series  of  Discourses  by  John  Crombie,  A.M.  London, 
1827,  8vo. 

16.  Typical  Instruction  considered  and  illustrated,  and  shown 
to  be  suited  to  all,  but  particularly  to  the  early  ages  of  the  church. 
By  John  Peers,  A.M.     London,  1828,  8vo. 


100 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  IL  Chap.    V. 


§  3,    TREATISES    OX    THE    IVTERPRETATIOX    (T    SCRIPTURE 
PARABLES,    PROVERBS,    AXD    PROMISES. 

1.  G.  A.  Van  Limburg  Brouwer  de  Parabolis  Jesu  Chrisli. 
Lugduni  Batavorum,  1825,  8vo. 

2.  Wesselii  Scholtex  Diatribe  de  Parabolis  Jcsu  Christi. 
Delphis  Batavorum.  1827,  Bvo. 

The  order  pursued  in  each  of  ihose  treatises  is  similar,  but  the 
mode  of  discussing  the  particular  topics  is  somewhat  different. 
Each  consists  of  two  parts,  in  the  first  of  whidi  are  considered  the 
nature  of  a  parable,  and  the  difTcrent  classes  into  which  the  pa- 
rables of  Jesus  Christ  may  be  divided.  The  second  part  discus,«es 
the  interpretation  of  parables;  and  each  treatise  contains  many 
ingenious  remarks  peculiar  to  it.self. 

3.  De  Parabolis  Jesu  Christi  Indole  Poeticfi  Commcntatio. 
Auctore  A.  H.  A.  Schultze.     Gottinga;,  1827,  4to. 

4.  De  Parabolarum  Natur.i,  Interpretatione,  Usu.  Juvenibus 
])otissimum  Thcologije  cultoribus  aperuit  Augustus  Fridcricus 
r.vcER.     Lipsiae,  1828,  8vo. 

.5.  Martini  Delrii  Adagialia  Veteris  ac  Novi  Testamcnti. 
Lugduni,  1614-18,  2  tomes,  4io. 

6.  Joannis  Drusii  Adagia  Hebraica.  Apud  Crit.  Sacr.  torn. 
\iii.  folio. 

7.  Andreas  Schotti  Adagialia  Sacra  Xovi  Testamcnti  Grsco- 
Latina,  selecta  atque  exposita.     Antverpis,  1629,  4to. 

8.  Joannis  Vorstii  Diatribe  dc  Adagiis  Novi  Te.stamcnti. 
In  Crenii  Opusculorum  Fascicule  III.  Rotcrodami,  18nio.  Also 
in  Fischer's  second  edition  of  Leusden,  de  Dialectis  Nov.  Test, 
pp.  1 08— 252. 

9.  The  Wells  of  Salvation  opened  ;  or,  a  Treatise  discovering 
the  Nature,  Prcciousness,  and  Usefulness  of  Gospel  Promises, 
and  Rules  for  the  Application  of  them.  By  William  Spunsi  owe. 
London,  1655,  8vo.     Reprinted  at  London,  1814,  12mo. 


§  4.   TREATISES   OX    THE    I XTEHPRETATIOV   OF    SCRIPTURE 
PROPHECIES. 

1.  The  Use  and  Intent  of  Prophecy,  in  the  several  Ages  of 
the  World.  To  which  arc  added  four  Dissertations.  1.  The 
Authority  of  the  Second  Epistle  of  Peter ;  2.  The  Sense  of  the 
Ancients  before  Christ,  upon  the  Circumstances  and  Conse- 
quences of  the  Fall;  3.  The  Blessing  of  Judah,  Gen.  xlix.;  4. 
Chri.st's  Entry  into  Jerusalem.  By  Thomas  Sherlock,  D.D., 
Bishop  of  London.     Fourth  edition.     London,  1744,  8vo. 

2.  Campegii  Vitringje  Typus  Doctrinee  Propheticsc.  Fra- 
ncckera;,  17§8,  8vo. 

3.  Aug.  Herm.  Frajjckii  Intro<]uctio  ad  Lectioncm  Prophe- 
tarum,  I.  Generalis,  II.  Specialis^ad  Lectioncm  Jonae,  qua;  in  re- 
liquis  excmpio  esse  possit  :  Utraque  directu  ad  comparaiidam  c 
l)ropheti8  agnitionem  Jesu  Chrisli.     Hala;,  1724,  8vo. 

4.  Christian!  Augusti  Crush  Ilypomncmata  ad  Theologiam 
Propheticam.     Lipsioj,  17G4-71-78,  3  parts,  8vo. 

A  work  vor}'  little  known  in  this  country.  The  first  part  or  vo- 
lume comprises  a  general  inlrodiictiim  to  the  study  of  Prophecy  : 
ihe  other  two  volumes  contain  illuKtrations  of  tlie  princi|>al  pre- 
dictions in  the  Old  Testament,  from  the  B<Kik  of  Genesis  to  the  Pro- 
phecies of  l.saiah,  iiu-luHive.  A  copy  of  this  work  is  in  the  library 
of  ihe  University  of  Cambridge. 

5.  Hertnanni  Venema  Prxlectiones  dc  Methotlo  Prophetica, 
sen  de  Argumento  Prophetiarum  Veteris  et  Novi  Testujuonti  ac 
iitriusque  pcriodis.  Quibus  accedunt  Sermones  Academici  qua- 
tuor.     LeovardiiE,  1775,  4to. 

6.  The  Divine  Origin  of  Prophecy  illustrated  .md  defended,  in 
a  Course  of  Eight  Sermons,  preached  before  the  University  of 
Oxford,  at  the  Lecture  founded  by  the  Rev.  John  Banipton,  Sl.A. 
By  George  RicHARns,  [D.D.]     Oxford,  1800,  8vo. 

7.  A  Key  to  the  Language  of  Prophecy,  with  References  to 
'J'extrf  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  By  the  Rev.  William 
JoxEs,  M..\.  In  Vol.  XI.  of  his  'i'heological,  Philoso[ihical,  and 
Miscellaneous  Works. 

8.  The  Fulfilling  of  the  Scriptures.  By  Robert  Fle.mi.no. 
London,  1726,  folio. 

9.  Dissertations  on  the  Prophecies  which  have  been  reniark- 

^bly  fulfilled,  and  at  this  time  arc  fulfilling  in  the  World.      By 

Thomaa  Newto?»,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  Bristol.     London,  I'/ 59  or 

1766,  3  vols.  8vo.     Various  subsequent  editions  in  2  vols.  8vo. 

»iid  12ino. ;  also  in  one  volume,  8vo. 

)0.  History  the  Interpreter  of  Prophecy.     By  the  Rev.  Henry 


Kett,  B.D.  Oxford,  1799,  3  vols.  12mo.  and  various  subse- 
quent editions  in  2  vols.  8vo. 

1 1 .  A  Key  to  the  Prophecies  :  or,  a  Concise  View  of  the  Pre- 
dictions conUined  in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  By  the 
Rev.  David  Simpso.v,  M.A.  Macclesfield,  1795  ;  and  numerous 
subsequent  editions. 

A  valuable  compendium  of  the  fulfilment  of  prophecy,  worthy 
the  attention  of  students  who  may  not  be  able  to  procure  larger  or 
more  expensive  works  on  tiiis  subject. 

13.  Lectures  on  Scripture  Prophecy.  By  William  Bcngo 
Collteh,  D.D.     I-ondon,  1811,  Bvo. 

li  A  Manual  of  Prophecy  ;  or,  a  Short  Comparative  View  of 
Prophecies  contained  in  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  the  Events  by 
which  they  were  fulfilled.  In  which  are  introduced  several  new 
Observations  on  several  of  them,  and  particularly  on  difficult 
Passages  in  Isaiah  and  Daniel.  By  the  Rev.  Peter  Roberts, 
A.M.     London,  1818. 

14.  A  Dissertation  on  the  Prophecies  that  have  been  fullfiled> 
are  now  fulfilUng,  or  will  hereafter  be  fulfilled,  relative  to  the 
great  Period  of  1260  Years  ;  the  Papal  and  Mohammedan  Apos- 
tacies  ;  the  Reign  of  Antichrist ;  and  the  Restoration  of  the  Jews. 
By  George  Stanley  Faber,  I5.D.  Fifth  edition.  London, 
IS  14-1 8,  3  vols.  8vo. 

15.  The  Sacred  Calendar  of  Prophecy.  By  George  Stanley 
Farer,  B.D.     London,  1830,  3  vols.  8vo. 

This  work  (the  learned  author  has  announced)  is  designed  to 
supersede  entirely  the  preceding  treatise.  Mr.  F'aber  has  endea- 
voured to  combine  together  the  various  prophecies  both  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testament,  which  treat  of  the  grand  double  period  of 
seven  times;  a  period  coinciding  with  those  times  of  the  Gentiles, 
wliich  arc  styled  by  Mr.  Mode  "  the  Sacred  Calendar  of  Prophecy." 
In  the  present  more  extensive  work,  the  author  has  rectified  vari- 
ous errors  in  his  preceding  publications  on  Prophecy.  For  an 
analysis  of  it,  see  the  British  Critic  for  Ajiril,  1833,  vol.  vii.  pp.  328 
—343. 

16.  Evidence  of  the  Truth  of  the  Christian  Religion,  derived 
from  the  literal  fulfilment  of  Prophecy  ;  particularly  as  illustrated 
by  the  History  of  the  Jews,  and  by  the  Discoveries  of  recent  Tra- 
vellers. By  the  Rev.  Alexander  Keith.  Sixth  edition,  enlarged. 
Edinburgh,  1832,  12mo.     Also  a  handsome  edition,  in  8vo. 

The  design  of  this  treatise  is  to  give  a  general  and  concise  sketch 
of  such  of  the  prophecies  as  have  been  distinctly  foretold  and  clearly 
fulfdled,  and  as  may  be  deemed  sufficient  to  illustrate  the  truth  of 
Christianity.  Very  many  illustrations  are  derived  from  the  disco- 
veries of  recent  voyagers  and  travellers.  The  subjects  discussed 
are,  Prophecies  concerning  Jesus  Christ  and  the  Christian  Reli- 
gion,— the  Destruction  of  Jerusalem, — the  Jews, — the  land  of  J u- 
dtea  and  the  circumjacent  countries, — and  predictions  relative  to 
the  Macedonian,  Tyrian,  Egyptian,  and  Roman  Empires,  the  sub- 
version of  the  Jewish  Slate,  &c., — long  continued  spiritual  tyranny 
of  the  papacy,  and  the  Turkish  empire.  This  beautifully  printed 
volume  contains  a  large  mass  of  valuable  information,  condensed 
into  a  comparatively  small  compass,  and  at  a  modenite  price.  The 
mulli|ilied  editions,  which  have  been  required  within  a  very  few 
years,  sufTiciently  attest  the  high  estimation  in  which  Mr.  Keith's 
work  is  deservedly  held. 

17.  The  Signs  of  the  Times,  as  denoted  by  the  Fulfilment  of 
Historical  Predictions,  traced  down  from  the  Babylonish  Capti- 
vity to  the  present  Time.  By  Alexander  Keith,  D.D.  Edin- 
burgh, 1832,  2  vols.  12ino.,  and  various  subsequent  editions. 

The  portions  of  propliecy  illustrated  in  this  work  are,  Daniel's 
Visions  of  the  great  Images  and  of  the  Four  Beasts,  interpreted 
kingdoms,  nnd  of  the  Ram  and  He-C;oat,  and  his  literal  |>rnpliecy  of 
the  thinj^s  noted  in  the  Scripture  of  Triilh.  These  are  followed  by 
an  original  exjKisition  of  the  prophecies  conliiined  in  the  AiK>ea- 
ly|<se.  In  many  parts  of  his  work.  Dr.  Keith  has  with  great  felicity 
applied  the  history  of  the  inlidel  Gilibon  to  the  fulfilment  oi'  pro- 
jihccy.  "  Among  the  exjwundcrs  of  projjhecy,  we  are  inclined  to 
as.sign  Mr.  [Dr.]  Keith  a  high  |>!aco.  It  is  ))crfccilv  true  that  in 
some  of  his  views  we  are  unable  to  go  along  with  hi'in,  and  dissent 
from  some  of  liis  conclusions.  But  it  is  refreshing  to  meet  with  a 
writer,  who  treats  such  a  subject  in  a  cautious  nnd  reverent  mnn- 
nier.  There  is  no  presumjituouH  attempting  to|)cnetrate  into  what 
is  hidden,  no  rash  anlicipatinnof  fiiture  history,  no  arnigant  assump- 
tion of  the  prophetic  charncler,  nnd  no  impious  denunciation  of  ven- 
geance on  those  who  acquiesce  not  in  his  views,  or  deny  his  divine 
mission.  Ho  writes  every  where  in  the  very  best  spirit,  and  if  he 
does  not  always  command  our  convictions,  he  iiniibrmly  swnires 
our  respect"     (Edinburgh  Christian  Instructor,  Sept.  1832,  p.  638.) 

18.  The  Scheme  and  Completion  of  Prophecy,  wherein  it« 
Design  and  Use,  together  with  its  Sense  and  Apjilication  as  the 
(;rand  fundamental  Proof  of  Religion,  specially  adapted  to  all 
Periods  of  the  World,  and  all  Stages  of  the  Church,  are  consi- 
dered and  explained  ;  together  with  an  Inquiry  into  the  Shekinab 


Sect.  II.  §  1.] 


JEWISH  WRITERS  AND  COMMENTATORS. 


101 


and  Cherubim  in  the  Holy  of  Holies,  and  the  Visions  of  the  Pro- 
phets.    By  the  Rev.  John  Whitley,  D.D.     London,  1830,  8vo. 

19.  Les  Caracteres  du  Messie  verifies  en  Jesus  de  JVazareth. 
[Par  M.  Clkmence.]     Rouen,  1776,  2  tomes,  8vo. 

••  The  author  determines  the  characteristical  marks  of  the  Mes- 
siah with  precision  and  accuracy ;  points  out  in  consequence  of 
these  characters  (which  are  drawn  from  the  clearest  predictions) 
the  prophecies  that,  taken  in  a  literal  sense,  regard  the  Messiah ; 
and,  by  a  comparison  of  these  prophecies  with  the  events,  sets  the 
divine  mission  of  Christ  in  the  most  striking  light.  There  is  a  great 
deal  of  good  erudition  and  sourtQ  judgment  in  this  work"  (Monthly 
Review,  O.  S.  vol.  Ivi.  p.  218.),  which  is  now  both  scarce  and  dear. 

20.  Propheties  concernant  Jesus  Christ  et  I'Eglise,  e'parses 
dans  les  Livres  Saints,  avec  des  Explicationes  et  Notes.  [Par 
M.  le  President  Agiek.]     Paris,  1819,  8vo. 

A  concise  and  valuable  little  manual  of  Scripture  Prophecies 
relative  to  Jesus  Christ. 

Warbiirtonian  Lectures  on  Prophecy. 

*,*  These  Lectures  were  founded  by  Dr.  William  Warbur- 
ton.  Bishop  of  Gloucester  (each  course  consisting  of  twelve  Ser- 
mons, to  be  preached  in  Lincoln's  Inn  chapel),  for  the  purpose 
of  proving  "  the  truth  of  Revealed  Religion  in  general,  and  of  the 
(christian  in  particular,  from  the  completion  of  the  Prophecies 
of  the  Old  and  J\''e-w  Testament,  which  relate  to  the  Cliristian 
Church,  and  especially  to  the  apostacy  of  Papal  Rome."  The 
following  portions  of  these  Lectures  are  all  that  have  been  pub- 
lished. 

Besides  illustrating  the  completion  of  the  prophecies,  in  con- 
formity with  the  founder's  design,  most  of  the  lecturers  have 
treated,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  upon  the  Symbolical  Lan- 
guage of  Scripture  Prophecy. 

1.  An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Prophecies  concerning 
the  Christian  Church,  and  in  particular  concerning  the  Church 
of  Papal  Rome.  By  Richard  Hcnn,  D.D.  [afterwards  Bishop 
of  Worcester].     London,  1772,  8vo. 

This  elegantly  vi-riiten  and  learned  volume  has  long  been  known 
and  duly  appreciated  by  the  public.  Tiie  subject  of  Prophecy  is 
here  opened  in  the  most  masterly  and  instructive  maimer  by  Bishop 
Hurd  ;  who  "  discussed,  in  the  first  place,  the  true  idea  of  prophecy, 
and  the  general  argument  deducible  from  it;  then  specified  some 
prophecies  of  primary  importance,  and  more  particularly  those 
which  relate  to  the  rise  of  Antichrist.  In  relation  to  this  subject, 
he  combated  tiie  prejudices  most  generally  entertained  against  the 
doctrine;  he  considered  and  explained  the  prophetic  style;  and 
after  opening  the  style  and  method  of  the  Apocalypse,  and  the  pro- 
phetic characters  of  Antichrist,  he  concluded  by  pointing  out  dis- 
tinctly the  uses  of  the  whole  inquiry."  (British  Critic,  O.  S.  vol. 
xxvii.  pp.  652,  653.) 

2.  Twelve  Sermons  on  the  Prophecies  concerning  the  Chris- 
tian Church  :  and,  in  particular,  concerning  the  Church  of  Papal 
Rome.  By  Samuel  Halifax,  D.D.  [afterwards  Bishop  of 
Gloucester].     London,  1776,  8vo. 

•'  Bishop  Halifax  paid  his  primary  attention  to  the  Prophecies  of 
Daniel,  and  next  to  those  of  Saint  Paul  concerning  the  man  of  sin; 
and  he  concluded  by  establishing  the  canon  and  authority  of  the 
Apocalypse,  and  by  giving  a  clear  and  able  view  of  its  visions. 
His  two  concluding  dLscourses  contain  a  history  of  the  corruptions 
of  Poperj-,  and  a  just  and  luminous  vindication  of  the  Reformation." 
(British  Critic,  O.  S.  vol.  xxvii.  p.  653.) 

3.  Twelve  Discourses  on  the  Prophecies,  concerning  the  first 
E.itablishment  and  subsequent  History  of  Christianity.  By  Lewis 
Bagot,  LL.D.  [afterwards  Bishop  of  Norwich].  London,  1780, 
8vo. 

"  Bishop  Bagot  opened  his  Lectures  by  prelimirwry  observations 
on  the  nature  and  value  of  the  evidences  drawn  from  prophecies; 
including  some  pointed  remarks  on  Lord  Monboddo  and  Mr.  Gib- 
bon. The  subjects  of  his  subsequent  discourses  were,  the  promise 
of  a  second  dispensation  imder  the  first;  the  progressive  nature  of 
tlie  kingdom  of  God  ;  the  distinctive  characters  of  the  Messiah,  and 
the  nature  of  his  kingdom;  the  time  limited  by  the  prophets,  and 
the  proofs  of  its  fulfilment ;  the  confonnity  of  the  life  of  Christ  and 
of  his  kingdom  to  the  predictions ;  the  prophecies  concerning  the 
latter  times ;  and  the  general  recapitulation  of  the  whole  subject" 
(British  Critic,  vol.  xxvii.  p.  653.) 

4.  Discourses  on  Prophecy.  By  East  Apthorp,  D.D.  Lon- 
don, 1786,  2  vols.  8vo. 

"  Dr.  Apthorp  began  by  giving  the  history  of  Prophecy.  He  then 
carefully  laid  down  the  canons  of  interpretation  :  after  which  he 
proceeded  to  the  prophecies  relating  to  the  birth,  time,  and  theolo- 
rical  characters  of  the  Messiah.  The  prophecies  of  the  death  of 
Christ  are  next  distinctly  handled,  and  those  which  relate  to  his 
earthly  kingdom.  Finally,  he  traces  the  characters  of  Antichrist, 
gives  a  view  of  the  mystic  Tyre,  and  concludes  by  the  prophecies 


whi<:h  he  considers  as  announcing  the  Reformation.  Though  somn 
of  this  author's  applications  will  to  most  readers  appear  harsh,  and 
some  questionable,  yet  his  books  display  aUogelher  much  know- 
ledge of  the  subject,  much  learning,  and  no  small  share  of  inge- 
nuity."    (British  Critic,  O.  S.  vol.  xxvii.  p.  653.) 

5.  A  Connected  and  Chronological  View  of  the  Prophecies 
relating  to  the  Christian  Church.  By  Robert  Narls,  A.M., 
Archdeacon  of  Stnftbrd.     London,  1806,  8vo. 

These  Lectures  are  divided  into  two  parts,  viz.  I.  The  Prophe- 
cies which  relate  to  our  Saviour  as  the  Author  and  perpetual  Heaa 
of  the  Christian  Church ;  and,  II.  Those  which  foretell  the  fate  of 
his  disciples,  whether  adverse  or  prosperous,  from  the  time  of  his 
departure  from  them  to  that  of  his  last  most  solemn  advent. 

6.  Twelve  Lectures  on  the  subject  of  the  Prophecies  relating 
to  the  Christian  Church.  By  Edward  Pearsos,  D.D.  London, 
1811,8vo. 

The  design  of  Prophecy, — the  progress  of  Christianity  as  pre- 
dicted in  the  Scriptures, — the  state  of  the  Christian  Church  as  sup- 
posed to  be  predicted  in  the  apostolic  epistles, — the  corruptions  of 
the  Christian  faith  as  predicted  by  Daniel,  and  the  various  fortunes 
of  the  Christian  Church,  from  her  first  foundation  to  the  end  of  the 
world,  as  Ibretold  in  the  Apocalypse, — are  the  subjects  discussed 
in  these  lectures  :  a  copious  analysis  of  which  is  given  in  the  Bri 
tish  Critic,  O.  S.  vol.  xl.  pp.  238—248.  467—479. 

7.  Twelve  Lectures  on  the  Prophecies  relating  to  the  Cliris 
tian  Church,  and  especially  to  the  Apostacy  of  Papal  Rome.  By 
Philip  Allwood,  B.D.     London,  1815,  2  vols.  8vo. 

The  first  six  of  these  Lectures  discuss  the  predictions  relative  lo 
Jesus  Christ ;  and  the  remaining  Lectures  are  devoted  to  an  expo- 
sition of  the  Apocalypse,  particularly  with  reference  to  the  apos- 
tacy of  the  Romish  Church.  See  an  analysis  of  them  in  the  British 
Critic,  N.  S.  vol.  ix.  pp.  44 — 65. 

8.  Discourses  on  Prophecy,  in  which  are  considered  its  Struc- 
ture, Use,  and  Inspiration  :  being  the  Substance  of  Twelve  Ser- 
mons preached  by  John  Davidson,  B.D.     London,  1824,  8vo. 

The  firslof  these  Discourses  is  employed  in  treating  of  the  Chris- 
tian Evidences  in  general,  and  the  connection  of  Prophecy  with  the 
rest ;  and  the  second,  in  considering  the  contents  of  the  prophetic 
volume  as  distinguished  from  its  predictions.  The  next  four  dis- 
cuss the  stnicture  of  prophecy  and  the  cause  of  its  dispensation  : 
and  in  the  last  six,  its  inspiration  and  divine  prescience  are  exa- 
mined. "  The  subject  of  the  work  is  one  of  very  general  import- 
ance, and  which  will  excite  an  interest  with  every  reader  of 
Scripture.  More  especially  must  value  attach  to  every  part  of  the 
inquiry,  from  the  admirable  practical  tendency  which  is  every 
where  given  to  it ;  so  that,  while  the  student  is  carried  forward  by 
the  interest  of  critical  research,  and  his  understanding  enlightened 
by  the  wide  and  clear  views  opened  to  him,  his  piety  will  not  fail 
to  be  warmed,  his  faith  strengthened,  and  his  best  affections  exalted 
and  improved."     (British  Critic,  N.  S.  vol.  xxii.  p.  389.) 

Besides  the  preceding  valuable  Lectures,  the  subject  of  Prophecy 
is  discussed  at  considerable  length  in  the  great  Collection  of  tha 
Boyle  Lectures,  published  in  1739,  in  three  vols,  folio. 


f: 


SECTION  II. 

JEWISH  WRITERS    AND   COMMENTATORS,  AND   ILLUSTRATIONS  OP 
THE    SCRIPTURES    DERIVED    FROM    JEWISH    SOURCES. 

§   1.    JEWISH    WRITERS    ANU    COMMENTATORS. 

1.  Philonis  JuD2Bi,  quae  reperiri  potuerunt,  omnia.  Textum 
cum  MSS,  contulit ;  quaniplurima  e  codd.  Vaticano,  Mediceo,  ct 
Bodleiano,  scriptoribus  item  vetustis,  necnon  catenis  Graecis  in< 
editis,  adjecit;  interpretationemque  cmendavit;  universa  notis  el 
observationibus  illustravit  Thomas  Maxget,  S.T.P,  Canonicm 
Dunelmensis.     Londini,  1742,  2  toniis,  folio. 

This  is  a  noble  edition,  equally  creditable  lo  the  editor,  th« 
Rev.  Dr.  Mangey,  and  to  the  printer,  the  celebrated  \yilliani 
Bowyer.  Dr.  M.  revised  the  works  of  Philo.  which  he  collated 
with  thirteen  manuscripts,  and  corrected  the  Latin  version  of  them, 
which  had  been  made  by  Sigismiuid  Cesenius,  Moreli,  and  others. 
The  different  treatises  are  arranged  in  a  much  better  order  than  that 
which  appears  in  preceding  edilions,  and  many  obscure  and  diffi- 
cult passages  are  excellently  corrected  and  illustrated. 

2.  PiiiLoyis  JuD.Bi  Opera  omnia,  Grsece  et  Latine,  ad  edi- 
tionem  Th.  Mangey,  coUatis  aliquot  MSS.  Edenda  curavit  Aug. 
Frider.  Pfeiffer.     8vo.  Vols,  I.— V.     Erlangae,  1785-1792. 

The  text  of  Dr.  Mangey  is  adopted  in  this  valuable  edition,  which 
has  never  been  completed,  in  consequence  of  the  death  of  the 
learned  editor,  whose  critical  materials  for  the  sixth  and  concluding 
volume  are  reported  to  be  still  preserved.  Pfeiffer  collated  three 
Bavarian  manuscripts,  and  retained  only  such  of  Mangey 's  notes  as 
contain  either  some  new  information,  or  some  emendation  of  the 
text ;  to  which  he  added  observations  of  his  own,  chiefly  settling 
the  various  lections. 


02 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


3.  Philoxis  JcDa:i  Opera  omnia,  Grssce.  Textum  ad  fidem 
optimanim  cditionum  cdidit  Carolus  Ernestus  Ricuteh.  LipsisE, 
1828-29,  8  toniis,  12mo. 

Tlie  most  complete  edition  of  the  works  of  Philo.  In  preparing 
it  for  the  press,  the  editor  followed  the  text  of  Dr.  Mangey's  edition 
(No.  1.),  with  which  he  collated  Pfeitler's  edition  (No.  2.),  and  ano- 
ll'.er,  printed  at  Paris  in  1640.  To  tlie  previously  puljlished  trea- 
tises of  Philo,  M.  Richter  has  added  two  others,  viz.  1.  De  Fcsto 
Cophini,  and  2.  De  Vartntibus  colendis,  w  hieh  were  discovered  by 
Signor  Mai  in  the  Medieean  Library  at  Florence,  and  publi.shcd  lor 
the  first  time  at  Milan,  in  1818,  vvith  a  Latin  version  and  notes. 
The  last  volume  contains  copious  inde.ves  of  matters,  and  of  the 
te.tts  of  Scripture  explained  by  Philo. 

3*.  Quaistioncs  Philonfce.  L  De  Fontibus  ct  Auctoritate  The- 
ologiffi  Philonis.  Quaistionis  prinise  Parlieula  prima.  IL  De 
A'Jja  Philonis.  Quaestio  altera.  Scripsit  C.  G.  L.  Giioss.manx. 
Lipsise,  1829,  4to. 

4.  Flavil  JosEPHi  Opera,  qu?e  reperiri  potuernnt,  omnia.  Ad 
codices  fere  omncs,  cum  irnprcssos  turn  manu.scripl;'S,  dilic:enter 
reconsuit,  nova  versione  donavit,  et  notis  illustr.wit  Johannes 
Hudsonus.     Oxonii,  e  ThcJitro  Sheldoniano,  1 720,  3  vols,  folio. 

Those  distinguished  bibliographers,  Fabricius,  Ilarvvood,  llarles, 
and  Oberthiir,  are  unanimous  in  their  commendation.?  of  this  elegant 
and  most  valuable  edition.  The  learned  editor.  Dr.  Hud.son,  died 
the  year  before  its  publication,  but,  fortunately,  not  till  he  had  ac- 
quired almost  every  thing  requisite  for  a  perfect  edition  of  his 
author.  "  lie  seems  to  have  consulted  every  kno'vn  manuscript 
and  edition.  The  correctness  of  the  Greek  text,  the  judgment  dis- 
played in  the  annotations,  the  utility  of  the  indexes,  and  the  con- 
summate knowledge  which  is  evinced  of  the  history  and  antiqui- 
ties of  tlio  time,  render  this  work  deserving  of  every  thing  said  in 
commendation  of  it.  Copies  on  large  paper  are  very  rare  and  dear, 
as  well  as  magnificent."     DibJin  on  the  Classics,  vol.  ii.  p.  11. 

5.  Flavil  JosF.rni,  quffi  rcpiriri  potucrunt,  Opera  omnia,  GnBce 
et  Latinc,  ex  nova  versione,  cl  cum  notis  Joannis  Hudsoni. 
Acccdunt  Notx  Edwardi  Bernardi,  Jacobi  Gronovii,  Fr.  Combe- 
fisii,  Ezechielis  Spanhemii,  Adriani  Kelandi,  ct  aliorum,  tarn 
edilK  quam  incdita;.  Pest  recensioncm  Joannis  Hudsoni  denuo 
rccognita,  et  notis  ac  indicihus  ilhistrata,  studio  et  labore  Sigeberti 
Havercampi.     .\nistelodami,  1726,  2  vols,  folio. 

This  is  usually  wusidcred  the  editio  opfima,  because  it  contains 
much  more  than  Dr.  Hudson's  edition.  The  Greek  text  is  very 
carelessly  printed,  especially  that  of  Josophus's  seven  books  on  tlie 
wars  of  the  Jews  with  the  Romans.  Havercamp  collated  two  ma- 
nuscripts in  the  library  of  the  university  at  Leyden  ;  and,  besides 
tlic  annotniions  mentioned  in  the  title,  he  added  some  observations 
by  Voi'siiis  and  Cocceius,  which  he  found  in  the  margin  of  thecc/f- 
lio  prinreps,  printed  at  Basil,  in  1644,  folio.  The  typographical 
execution  of  Havercamp's  edition  is  very  beautiful. 

6.  Flavii  Josephi  Opera,  Grajce  ct  Latino,  excusa  ad  editio- 
ricm  Lugduno-Batavam  Sigeberti  Havercampi  cum  Oxoniensi 
Joannis  Hudsoni  collatam.  Curavit  Franciscus  Oberthir.  Lip- 
sii,  1782-1785.     Vols.  I.— in.  8vo. 

This  very  valuable  edition,  which  has  never  been  completed, 
comprises  ((Illy  the  Greek  text  of  Josephus.  The  succeeding  volumes 
were  to  contain  the  critical  and  jihilological  observations  of  the 
editor,  who  has  prefixed  to  the  first  volume  an  excellent  critical 
notice  of  all  the  preceding  editions  of  Josephus.  ••  The  venerable 
Oberthiir  is  allowed  to  have  taken  more  jjains  in  ascertaining  the 
correct  text  of  his  author,  in  collating  every  known  MS.,  in  examin- 
ing every  previous  edition,  and  in  availing  himself  of  the  labours 
of  his  predecessors,  than  hiivc  yet  been  shown  by  any  editor  of  Jo- 
sephus." It  is  therelbre  deeply  to  be  regretted  that  such  a  valua- 
ble edition  a-s  the  present  should  have  been  discontinued  by  an 
editor  bo  fully  com|>etcnt  to  finish  the  arduous  task  which  he  has 
begun.    (Dibdin  on  the  Classics,  vol.  ii.  p.  13.  3d  edition.) 

7.  Flavii  Joskpiu  Jiidiei  Opera  omnia  [Grjece].  Textum  edi- 
dit  Carol.  Einest.  Rii  ii jku.     Lipsias,  1826,  6  tomis,  12ino. 

A  very  neatly  printed  edition  :  it  forms  the  first  portion,  ns  the 
works  of  Philo  f()rm  the  second  part,  of  a  Ribliolheca  Patrum, 
whicff  is  to  be  edited  by  M.  Richter. 

Several  F.nglish  translations  of  Josephus  have  been  published  by 
Court,  L'Kstrange,  and  others;  but  the  best  is  ilKitolMr.  Whislon, 
f»lio,  Ljiulon,  1737,  after  llavercumjj's  edition;  to  which  arc  pre- 
fixed a  gixjd  map  of  Palestine,  and  seven  dissertations  by  the  trans- 
lator, who  hna  also  added  many  valuable  notes,  correcting  and 
illustrating  the  Jewish  historian.  VVhiston's  translation  has  been 
re|)catedly  printed  in  various  sizes. 

8.  Mischna :  sive  Totius  Hebrasorum  Juris,  Rituum,  Anti- 
quitatum  ac  Legum  Oralium,  Systcma :  cum  clarissimorum 
Rabbinorum  Mainionidis  ct  Bartenorse  Commcnlariis  integris 
Hebraicc  ct  Latino.  Notis  illustravitGul.  Suhkjchusius.  Am- 
etclodami,  1698,  6  tomis,  folio. 

"This  is  a  very  beautiful  and  correct  work,  noressnry  lo  the  li- 
brary of  every  biblical  critic  anil  divine.  lie  who  has  if,  need  be 
sMiciioiis  for  iioihing  more  on  this  subject."  (Dr.  A.  Clarke's  Suc- 
ccwion  of  Sacred  Literature,  p.  56.) 


[Fait  IL  Chap.  V 
Berolini  el 


9.  Talmud    Babylonicum   Integrum   Hcbraice. 
Francofurti,  1715, 12  tomis,  folio. 

10.   Talmud   Hierosolymitanum.    Hebraicc.       Amstelodami, 
1710,  folio. 


A  few  only  of  the  Jewish  Rabbins  have  illustrated  every  indi- 
vidual book  of  the  Old  Testament :  those  only  are  specified 
which  are  held  in  the  highest  estimation  by  the  Jews.' 

10*.  Rabbi  Solomox  Jaiichi,  Ben  Isaac,  usually  cited  as 
Raschi  from  the  contraction  of  his  names,  was  a  native  of  Troyes 
in  Champagne  ;  he  wrote  commentaries  on  the  entire  Bible,  as 
well  as  the  chief  part  of  the  Talmud,  and  from  his  extensive 
learning  is  accounted  one  of  the  most  eminent  Jewish  expositors. 
His  style,  however,  is  so  exceedingly  obscure  as  to  require  an 
ample  comment  to  make  it  intelligible.  He  died  a.d.  II 80.  Many 
of  his  commentaries  have  been  printed  in  Hebrew,  and  some 
have  been  translated  into  J>atin  by  Christians;  as  that  on  Esther 
by  Philip  Daquin,  that  on  Joel  by  Genebrard,  and  those  on  Oba- 
diah,  Jonah,  and  Zephaniah,  by  Pontac. 

1 1.  Rabbi  AnHAtiA?r  Abex  Ezra  was  a  native  of  Spain,  and 
flourished  in  the  twelfth  century  ;  his  Commentaries  on  the 
Scnptures,  written  in  an  elegant  st}'le,  arc  much  esteemed  both 
by  Jews  and  Christians. 

12.  Rabbi  David  Kurcni  was  also  a  native  of  Spain,  and 
flourished  towards  the  close  of  the  twelfth  century ;  he  wrote 
Commentaries  on  the  Old  Testament,  which  are  highly  valued, 
particularly  that  on  the  prophet  Isaiah. 

13.  Rabbi  Levi  Bex  GF,nsHo:tf,  a  Spanish  Jew,  was  contem- 
porary with  Kimchi :  his  Commentaries  on  the  Scripture,  espe- 
cially on  the  Pentateuch,  are  much  esteemed.  He  accounted  for 
the  miracles  from  natural  causes. 

14.  Rabbi  Aahon  Bex  Elihu  was  an  eminent  Jewish  teacher, 
who  flourished  in  the  fourteenth  century.  He  left  a  Commen- 
tary on  the  Pentateuch. 

15.  Rabbi  Isaac  Abahhexei.,  or  Abhavaxel  (as he  is  some- 
times called),  a  Portuguese  Jew,  flourished  in  the  fifteentli  cen- 
tury, and  wrote  Commentaries  on  the  Pentateuch,  the  whole  of 
the  Proplicts,  and  some  other  books  of  Scripture :  notwithstand- 
ing his  inveterate  Enmity  against  Christianity,  his  writings  are 
much  valued  by  Christians,  and  are  highly  extolled  by  the  Jews. 

16.  Rabbi  Solomox  Abex.melech,  a  native  of  Spain,  flourish- 
ed in  the  sixteenth  century,  and  wrote  Scholia  on  the  whole  of 
the  Old  Testament,  in  which  he  has  interspersed  the  best  of 
Kimchi's  Grammatical  Observations. 

The  Commentaries  of  these  Rabbins  are  inserted  in  the  Biblia 
Ral/bii{ica,  published  by  Pomberg  at  Venice,  in  4  vols,  folio,  1518, 
and  again  in  1525  and  1526,  and  in  Buxtorf 's  edition,  printed  at 
Bask',  1618,  in  4  vols,  folio. 

17.  Rabbi  Moses  Bex  Haimox,  usually  called  Maimonides, 
though  not  a  commentator  on  the  whole  of  the  Old  Testament, 
ought  not  to  be  omitted,  on  account  of  his  JVIureh  JK'evochim,  or 
Teacher  of  the  Perplexed,  a  valuable  work,  that  explains  difficult 
phrases,  passages,  parables,  and  allegories.  The  best  edition  of 
thi.s  work  is  that  of  Basil,  1629,  4to.  An  English  translation  of 
this  treatise  was  published  in  1827  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Townley, 
cntitlett  "  The  lieasons  of  the  Laws  of  Moses."  Dr.  T.  has  en- 
riched his  translation  with  a  life  of  Maimonides,  and  with  nume- 
rous valuable  notes  and  dissertations.  The  Porta  J\fosis  of 
Maimonides  was  edited  by  Pocockc  (in  Arabic  and  Latin)  at 
Oxford,  1645,  4to.,  and  his  treatises  JJe  Jure  Pciupevii,  &c, 
(Heb.  and  Lat.)  by  Pridcaux,  Oxford,  1679;  and  De  Sacrijl- 
ciin,  4to.  London,  1683. 

Several  parts  of  the  works  of  the  above-mentioned  Rabbins 
have  been  printed  in  a  separate  form  ;  viz. : — 

1.  A\HON  the  Karaite. — Libri  Coron.-E  Legis,  id  est,  Commcn- 
tarii  Karaitici  inedili,  ab  Aaronc  ben  Elihu  .seculo  deciino  quarto 
conscript!,  Particulam  ex  duobus  codicibus  manuscriptis,  altcro 
Jenensi,  altcro  Lugdunensi,  edidit,  in  Lalinum  transtulit,  atque 
illustravit  J.  G.  L.  Koscgarten.     Jcnse,  1823,  4to. 

t.  AnARHKNEL. — Coinmcntarius  in  Pentateuchum,  cura Heu- 
rici  Van  Bashuiscn.     Hanovera;,  1710,  folio. 

'  In  this  account  of  the  Jewisb  Expositors  wc  have  cliicfly  followed 
Carpzov,  in  his  Inlroductiu  ad  LUima  Vannnicos  Vetrria  Trslamcnti,  p.  35. 
cl  fcq.,  and  I)e  UoDsi's  scarce  work,  rnlillcd  liihiiolheca  Judiaca  Anti- 
rhrisliiina,  qui/ iililil  h  i>ifditi  Jiit/aornm  Lihri  rrrevurlur.  Itoynl  8vo. 
I'arriia,  ISIJO.  VVolfiiis  has  also  ircnted  on  tlio  Jewisli  Coinincntalors  m 
liiu  liilitiuthrca  Jlfbraa,  loin.  II.  p.  .'itiS.  «-l  passim.  For  an  account  of  the 
CliaMoo  Parapliroses,  kco  Part  1.  Cliap.  11.  Suet.  1.  pp.  li«S— '^03.  of  the  fira 
Volume. 


Sect.  III.  §  1.] 


CHRISTIAN  COMMENTATORS,  &c. 


103 


Ejusdem,  Commcntarius  in  Prophetas  priorcs,  cura  August! 
Plciffer.     Lipsise,  1686,  folio. 

Ejusdem,  Commentarius  in  Hoseam,  Latine,  cum  notis  Fr.  ab 
Husen.     Lugd.  Bat.  1686. 

Ejusdem,  Commentarius  in  Nahum,  cura  J.  D.  Sprecheri. 
Helnistadii,  1703,  4to. 

3.  Abenmel>:ch. — ^Ex  Michlal  Jophi  scu  Commentario  R. 
Salom.  Abenmelecli  in  Veteris  Testamenti  Libros,  una  cum 
spicilegio  R.  Jac.  Abendanas,  Particula,  complectens  prophetiam 
Jonse.  Heb.  et  Lat.  edente  Ernest.  Clirist.  Fabricio.  Gottingen, 
1792,  8vo. 

4.  Jarcui. — R.  Sal.  Jarchii  Commentarius  in  omnes  Veteris 
Testamentj  liibros,  versus  et  illustratus  a  Jo.  Frid.  Breithaupto, 
3  vols.  4rto.     Gotha3,  1713, 

5.  KiJicHi. — R.  D.  Kimchii  Commentarius  in  Jesaiam,  Latine 
vor.sos  a  Caesare  Malamineo.     Florentiae,  1774,  4to. 

6.  Malachias,  cum  Commentarlis  Aben  Ezra?,  Jarchii  et 
Kimchii  disputationibus.    Cura  Sam.  Bohl.    Rostochii,  1637,  4to. 

7.  HosEAs,  illustratus  Chaldaica  Versione  et  philologicis  cele- 
brium  Rabbinorum  Raschi,  Aben  Ezrae,  et  Kimchii  Commentariis. 
Helmstadii,  1702,  4to.     Reprinted  at  Gottingen,  1780. 

8.  JoEi.  et  Obadiah,  cum  Paraphrasi  Chaldaica,  Masora,  et 
Commentariis  trium  Rabbinorum.  Heb.  et  Lat.  cura  Jo.  Leus- 
DEjf.     Utrecht,  1657,  4to. 

9.  Johannis  Mehceri  Commentarii  in  Vates  quinque  priores, 
quibus  adjuncti  sunt  R.  Sal.  Jarchii,  Aben  Ezrse,  et  Dav.  Kimchii 
Commentarii,  ab  ipso  Latinitate  donati.  Editio  altera,  cura  G. 
C.  Biirklini.     Gissae,  1695. 

10.  J.  B.  CAnpzovii  Collegium  Rabbinico-Biblicum  in  libel- 
lum  Ruth.  Heb.  et  Jjat.     Lipsiffi,  1703,  4to. 

This  work  contains  the  Hebrew  text  of  the  book  of  Ruth,  the 
Targum,  the  great  and  little  Masora,  and  four  Rabbinical  Comnien- 
tarif?.  logether  with  Latin  versions,  and  cojiious  notes  bj'  the  editor, 
J.  B.  Carpzov.  Calmet  states,  that  this  book  will  be  found  of  great 
service  to  those  who  are  learning  Hebrew,  and  will  also  serve  .is 
an  introduction  to  the  reading  of  the  rabbinical  writers. 


§  2.  II,LUSTRATI02fS  OF  THE  HOLT  SCRIPTUHE3;  DERIVED  FROM 
JEWISH  SOURCES. 

1.  Georgii  Johannis  Henkii  Dissertatio  de  Usu  Librorum 
Apocryphorum  Veteris  Testamenti  in  Novo  Testaniento.  Halaj, 
1711,  4to. 

2.  Christ.  Theophili  Kuinoel  Observationcs  ad  Novum  Tes- 
tamentum  ex  Libris  Apocrypliis  Veteris  Testatnenti.  Lipsiae, 
1794,  Svo. 

3.  Joh.  Benedict!  Carpzovii  Exercitaliones  in  S.  Pauli  Epis- 
tolam  ad  Hebrteos  ex  Philone  Alexandrine.  Praefixa  sunt  Philo- 
niana  Prolegomena,  in  quibus  de  non  adeo  contemnenda  Philonis 
eruditione  Hebraica,  de  convenientia  stili  Philonis  cum  illo  D. 
Pauli  in  Epistola  ad  Hebrseos,  et  de  aliis  nonnulUs  varii  argu- 
ment! exponitur.     Helmstadii,  1750,  Svo. 

4.  J.  B.  Carpzovii  Stricture  Theologicse  in  Epistolam  Paul! 
ad  Romanos.  Adspersi  subinde  sunt  Flores  Philoniani.  Helm- 
stadii, 1758,  Svo. 

This  is  the  second  and  best  edition  of  Carpzov's  Observations 
on  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Romans ;  they  originally  appeared  in 
detached  portions,  at  Ilelmstadt,  in  quarto,  between  the  years  1752 
and  1756. 

5.  Christophor!  Frederic!  Loesseri  Observationes  ad  Novum 
Testamentum  e  Philone  Alexandrine.     Svo.  Lipsiae,  1777. 

This  work  was  preceded  by  a  quarto  tract  of  Loesner's,  entitled 
Lectionum  Philonianarum  Sj'ecimen,  published  at  Leipsic,  in  1758. 
Tlie  force  and  meaning  of  words  are  particularly  illustrated,  to- 
gether with  points  of  antiquity  and  the  readings  of  Philo's  text. 
The  light  thrown  upon  the  New  Testament,  by  the  writings  of 
Philo,  is  admirably  elucidated  by  Loesner;  to  complete  whose 
work  there  should  be  added  Adami  Frid.  Kuhnii  Spicilegium  Loes- 
neri  Ohservalionam  ad  N.  T.  e  Philone  Alexandrino.  Sorau,  1783, 
4to. ;  2d  ed.  Pfortaa,  1785,  Svo.    The  second  is  the  best  edition. 

6.  Jo.  Baptists  Ottii  Spicilegium,  sive  Excerpta  e  Flavio 
Josepho  ad  Nov!  Testament!  lilustrationem.  Cura  Sigeberti 
Havercampi.     Lug.  Bat.  1741,  Svo. 

7.  Jo.  Tobiae  Krebsii  Observationes  in  Novum  Testamentum 
r  Flavio  Josepho.     Lipsiae,  1755,  Svo. 

Both  these  works  are  necessary  to  the  Biblical  Student,  as  Krebs 


has  illustrated  a  great  number  of  passages  in  the  New  Testament, 
from  Josephus,  which  are  not  noticed  in  Oti's  Spicilegium.  In  pp. 
527 — 612.  of  the  latter  publication,  there  is  a  curious  collection  of 
sixly-eight  articles,  omitted  by  Josephus,  of  which  he  could  not 
have  been  ignorant ;  and  to  this  is  annexed  an  interesting  disserta- 
tion of  C.  Bos,  on  the  genuineness  of  the  celebrated  passage  con- 
cerning Jesus  Christ. 

S.  Mellificium  Hebraicum,  sive  Observationes  ex  Hebraeorum 
Antiquiorum  monumentis  desumptte,  unde  plurima  cum  Veteris, 
turn  Nov!  Testamenti,  loca  explicantur  vel  illastrantur.  Autore 
Christophoro  Cartwrighto.  In  the  eighth  volume  of  the 
Critic!  Sacri,  pp.  1271—1426. 

To  our  learned  countryman  Carfwright  belongs  the  honour  of 
being  the  first  who  applied  the  more  ancient  writings  of  the  Jews 
to  the  illustration  of  the  Bible.  He  was  followed  in  the  same  path 
of  literature  by  Drusius,  whose  Pre'erita  sive  Annotuliones  in  To- 
lum  Jesu  Ckrisli  Testamentum  (4to.  Franequerae,  1612)  contain  many 
valuable  illustrations  of  the  New  Testament.  Some  additions  were 
subsequently  made  to  his  work  by  Balthasar  Scheidius,  whose  Pra- 
terita  Prceterilorum  are  included  in  the  publication  of  Meuschen, 
noticed  in  No.  11.  below. 

9.  The  Works  of  the  Rev.  John  LiouTFOor,  D.D.,  Master  of 
Catharine  Hall,  Cambridge.  Edited  by  the  Kcv.  J.  R.  Pitnam, 
A.M.     London,  1822-25,  13  vols.  Svo. 

The  writings  of  Dr.  Lightfoot  are  an  invaluable  treasure  to  the 
Biblical  Student.  By  his  deep  researches  into  the  Rabbinical  writ- 
ings, he  has  done  more  to  illustrate  the  phraseology  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  and  to  explain  the  various  customs,  &c.  therein  alluded 
to,  particularly  in  the  New  Testament,  than  any  other  author  be- 
fore or  since.  Two  editions  of  this  learned  Divine's  works  were 
published  previously  to  that  now  under  consideration,  viz.  1.  The 
English  edition  of  Dr.  G.  Bright,  in  two  folio  volumes,  London, 
1684 ;  and,  2.  A  Latin  edition,  published  at  Rotterdam,  in  2  vols, 
folio,  1686,  entitled  Joannis  Lighlfcoti  Opera  Omnia,  and  again  at 
Franeker  in  three  folio  volumes,  which  were  superintended  by  the 
celebrated  critic,  Leusden.  These  foreign  editions  are  taken  from 
the  English  one,  the  English  parts  being  translated  into  Latin  :  the 
third  volume  in  Leusden's  edition  is  composed  chiefly  of  several 
pieces,  which  Lightfoot  had  left  unfinished,  but  which  w-ere  too 
valuable  to  be  altogether  omitted.  They  were  communicated  by 
Mr.  Strype,  who  in  1700  published  "Some  genuine  Remains  of  the 
late  2}ious  and  learned  John  Ligh/foof,  D.D."  in  Svo.  la  preparing 
his  edition,  Mr.  Pitman  has  adopted  for  his  basis  the  London  edition 
of  1684,  and  Strype's  supplemental  volume,  incorporating  the  addi- 
tional matter  in  Leusden's  edition ;  and,  by  indefatigable  researches 
he  has  succeeded  in  recovering  some  pieces  of  Lightfoot's  which 
were  never  belbre  published.  New  Indexes  and  orher  facilities 
of  reference,  are  given  in  the  concluding  volume  of  this  edition. 
It  is  but  justice  to  add  that  they  are  neatly  and  correctly  printed, 
and  from  their  reasonable  price,  demand  a  place  in  every  biblical 
library.  In  order  to  complete  Dr.  Lightfoot's  Horce  Hebraicte  et 
Talmudica,  or  Hebrew  and  IWmudical  Exercilalions  on  the  New 
Testament,  which  proceed  no  further  than  the  first  Epistle  to  the 
Corinthians,  Christian  Schoetge.njus  published 

10.  Horae  Hebraicae  et  Talmudicae  in  Universum  Novum  Tes- 
tamentum, quibus  Horae  Jo.  Lightfoot!  in  libris  historicis  sup- 
plentur,  epistolae  et  apocalypsis  eodem  modo  illustrantur.  Dres- 
dae,  1733,  2  tomis,  4to. 

In  this  elaborate  work,  Sohoefgenius  passes  over  the  same  books 
on  which  Dr.  Lightfoot  has  treated,  as  a  supplement,  without 
touching  the  topics  already  produced  in  the  English  work;  and 
then  continues  the  latter  to  the  end  of  the  New  Testament.  Copies 
in  good  condition  generally  sell  at  from  two  to  three  guineas. 

11.  Novum  Testamentum  ex  Talmude  et  Antiquitatibus  He- 
braeorum illustratum,  a  Johanne  Gerhardo  Meuschenio.  Lipsiae, 
1736,  4to. 

In  this  work  are  inserted  various  treatises  by  Danzius,  Rhenford, 
Scheidius,  and  others,  who  have  applied  themselves  to  the  illustra- 
tion of  the  New  Testament  from  the  Jewish  writings. 


SECTION  III. 

CHRISTIAN    commentators,  INTERr-RETERS,  AND   PARAPHRASTS 
ON    THE    SCRIPTURES. 

§  1.  C0:MME?TTARIES  by  the  fathers,  AM)  OTHER  niVIXES 
OF  THE  CHRISTIAN  CHURCH,  PREVIOUSLX  TO  THE  REFOR- 
MATION. 

The  following  are  the  principal  commentators  on  the  sacred 
wrritings,  who  are  to  be  found  among  the  Primitive  Fathers 
OF  THE  Christian  Church:  but,  in  consulting  their  writings, 
the  best  editions  only  should  be  referred  to,  especially  those  by 
Protestants;   as  the  editions  superintended  by  divines  of  the 


104 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  IL  Chap.  V. 


Romish  Church  arc  not  only  frequently  corrupted,  but  spurious 
writings  are  also  often  ascribed  to  the  fathers,  in  order  to  suj>port 
the  anti-scriptural  dogmas  of  that  church.' 

[i.]    Greek  Fathers. 

OnicESis  in  Scripturas  Sacras  Commentaria,  qujecunque 
Grsece  reperiri  potuerunt.  EdiJit,  partial  Latinc  vertit,  et  uni- 
versa  notis  et  observationibus  illustravit  Petrus  Daniel  Huetius. 
Rothomaji,  1668,  2  tomis,  folio. 

Origkn  flourished  in  the  latter  part  of  llic  second  and  through 
the  first  halfof  ihe  third  century;  and  was  disiinguished  not  more 
by  his  learning  llian  by  liis  piety  mid  eloquence,  lie  wrote  Corn- 
vientaries  on  the  Old  and  IN'ew  Testaments,  the  greater  part  of 
which  is  now  lost :  the  best  separate  edition  of  what  has  been  pre- 
served is  this  of  Huel.  He  also  wrote  Scholia  or  short  notes  ex- 
planatory of  dirticiilt  passages  of  Scripture,  in  which  he  chiefly 
attended  to  the  literal  sense.  Ol'  these  Scholia  some  extracts  only 
ore  preserved  in  the  collection  made  by  Gregory  Nazianzen  and 
Basil  the  Great,  entitled  Philocalia,  and  published  at  Paris,  in  1618, 
4to.  His  Homilies,  in  which  he  addressed  himself  to  the  capacities 
of  the  people,  as  well  as  his  numerous  other  works,  both  practical 
and  controversial,  our  limits  permit  us  not  to  detail ;  and  his  cri- 
tical laljours  on  the  sacred  writings  are  noticed  in  another  part  of 
this  work.-  In  the  Commentaries  above  mentioned,  Origen  gave 
fall  scope  to  his  learning  and  imagination,  in  what  appeared  to  him 
to  be  the  historical,  literal,  mvsiical,  and  moral  sense  of  the  Bible.^ 
Origen's  gr.md  fault  is  that  ol'allegoriziiig  the  Scriptures  loo  much  ; 
and  this  method  of  interpretation  he  adojited  from  the  Alexandrian 
philo.^ophers,  in  the  hopeof  establishing  an  union  between  heathen 
philosophy  and  (Christian  doctrine.  His  fundamental  canon  of 
criticism  was,  that,  wtierover  the  literal  sense  of  Scripture  was  not 
obvious,  or  no!  clearly  consi.stent  with  his  peculiar  tenets,  the  words 
were  to  be  imderstoi)d  in  a  spiritual  and  mystical  sense;  a  rule  by 
which  he  could  eisily  incorpori'.le  any  fancies,  whether  original  or 
borrowed,  with  Ihe  Cliristiaii  creed.  Mosheim  has  justly  charac- 
terized this  father  as  one  oi' the  most  eminent  of  the  writers  of  the 
third  centur)',  who  distiiiguishe<l  themselves  by  their  learned  and 
pious  productions;  and  as  "a  man  of  vast  and  uncommon  abilities, 
the  greatest  luminary  of  Ihe  Christian  world  that  this  age  exhibited 
to  view.  Had  the  justness  of  his  judgment  been  equal  to  the  im- 
mensity of  his  genius,  the  lervour  of  his  piely,  his  indelitligable 
patience,  his  extensive  erudition,  and  his  oiher  eminent  and  sui)e- 
rior  talenis,  all  encomiums  must  have  fallen  short  of  his  merit. 
Yet,  such  as  he  was,  his  virtues  and  his  labours  deserve  the  admi- 
ration of  all  ages;  and  his  name  will  be  transmitted  with  honour 
tlirough  ihe  annals  of  time,  as  long  as  learning  and  genius  shall  be 
esteemed  among  men."'' — The  expository  writings  of  Origen  are  to 
be  found  in  the  ''olleciive  editions  of  his  works:  the  most  complete 
is  the  edition  publi.-ilicd  by  M.  de  la  Kue,  in  four  vols,  folio,  Paris, 
1733-59;  rejirinted  by  M.  Oberihiir  at  Wurceburg,  in  15  vols.  8vo. 
17S0  and  following  years. 

2.  JoannisCiiHvsosTOMi  Scrmones tres in Gcnesim ; — Quatuor 
Honiiliaj  in  Psalmos ; — Expo.sitio  pcrpetua  in  Novum  Jcsu 
(Jhristi  Testamentum ;  folio.  In  the  various  editions  of  his 
collective  works. 

John  Ciirysostom,  who  flourished  in  the  fourth  century,  was  a 
pupil  of  Diodorus  of  Tarsus,  who  had  himself  been  a  disciple  of 
Origen's.  He  wrote  homilies  on  the  greater  part  of  tlie  Old  Tcsta- 
rnent,  and  on  the  wliole  of  Ihe  New  Testament,  with  the  exception 
of  the  Catholic  epistles.  His  homilies  on  the  iS'ew  Testament  are 
every  way  preferable  to  those  on  tiieOld.  Ernesti  is  of  opinion  that 
none  of  the  producli<jns  of  ihe  fathers  are  equal  to  those  of  C'hrysos- 
tom  on  St.  Paul's  Epistles  ;  and  that  all  subse«pieiU  Greek  cominen- 
lalors  on  them  have  exclusively  followed  him.  On  the  historical 
bixiks,  his  commentary  on  St.  Matthew  is  incomparably  llic  best  and 
moat  copious,  and  is  particularly  worthy  oi  being  perused.  Chrv-- 
sostom's  manner  of  expounding  is  this:  ho  first  lakes  a  verse  of 
Scripture,  whiih  he  explains;  ami  then  investigates  and  elucidates 
the  meaning  of  particular  words,  pointing  out  ihc  scope  of  ilie 
•."jcred  author,  whose  style  and  genius  he  examines,  and  rendering 
all  Hebmisins  by  eipnv:>lent  inlelligil>le  (Jreck  expressions.  Ho 
throughout  adheres  to  the  literal  sense,  which  he  mainlained  to  lie 
the  true  one.  The  homilies  are  found  in  the  beautiful  lOditio  I'rin- 
ceps  of  his  works  published  by  Sir  Henry  Saville,  in  8  vols.  l<>lio, 
Eton,  1612;  and  in  Monlfaiicon's  edition,  which  is  the  best,  pub- 
lished at  Paris,  in  13  vols,  folio,  171H-1738.  An  admiralde  French 
translation  of  a  selection  from  Chrysostom's  Homilies,  and  other 
works,  was  printed  by  Auger,  at  Paris,  1785,  in  4  vols.  Svo.     In 

•  SffP  nuincrnns  proof*  of  lliiii  reinnrk  In  .Tamcs'sTrnalisp  of  the  Currtip- 
lion  of  Hrripnirr  (.'iiiiiicils  and  Riltiers  by  Ihcprelatps.  Ac.  of  llio  cliurcli 
of  Rome,  for  iimiiitcnnnce  of  i)opcry,  pp.  1 — '■il\.    Lumloii,  ItiiJi,  Svo. 

»  8.-.;  Vol.  I  I'ari  I.  pp  207,  m 

•  J.ihn'n  niirhirirliuii  IIeniien''uticie  fJeniriilis,  pp.  Iftl,  VA.  A  fiirttier 
ai*>*oiinl  of  Drigni'H  PxpoKitory  lalioufM  riiny  he  hpi-ii  in  KmrHii'ii  lni<lilui|<> 
Intrrpri'lJK  Novl  TosLninonli,  pp  '^>,  287.  iiiul  in  Morns  h  ArronHcp  niiprr 
Ilfrini-nciiiicii  Novi  Fieili;ri.>i,  Iomi.  ii.  pp.  'J!M—'£Va.  ;  In  Ilo-ii'niMull.T'H  IIIh. 
t'.ria  Inlerprct.itloiii.i  l.ihroruni.^'acrorum,  loin.  III.  pp.  Vl—VJi.  and  Siinuirs 
llmt.  Crii.  >lii  Vjoiix  T.iit.  Uv.  iii.  ch.  Ix.  pp.  439— 44'J. 

«  Moihelin's  Ercl.  Hist.  vol.  1,  p.  270.  eiijl.  1*)0  On  the  merits  of  Orlgi-n 
d«,  m  Iniprprcipr  of  Uoly  Writ,  see  Coiiybeare's  Uamplon  Lectures  for 
l-wt,  pp.  131-113. 


1807,  Matthiee  published  fifty-two  of  his  homilies  at  Moscow,  in 
8vo.  with  various  readings,  a  commentary  and  index.^ 

3.  Tukodoheti,  Episcopi  Cyrcnsis,  Explanationes  in  Pauli 
Epistolas  omncs.  Inter  Opera,  Parisiis,  1608,  2  tomis,  folio. 
Parisiis,  1642,  4  tomis,  folio.     Halte,  1769-74,  5  tomis,  Svo. 

TiiEouoRET,  Bishop  of  Cyrus,  or  Cyropolis,  in  Syria,  wrote  in  the 
fifth  century  :  though  he  chiefly  follows  Chrysoslom  in  his  com- 
mentary on  St.  Paul's  Epistles,  he  has  oilded  many  new  and  striking 
observations  of  his  own,  and  has  successfully  vindicated  many 
passages  against  the  Arians  and  other  sectaries  of  his  time.  The 
critical  merits  of  Thoodoret  as  an  exixj.sitor  of  Scripture,  were 
investigated  by  M.  Kichter  in  a  treatise  entitled  De  Theodorelo 
Epislolarum  Paiilinarum  Interprele  Commentarius  Historico-Exe- 
geticus.     Lipsis,  1822,  8vo. 

4.  Noxxi  Panopolitjc  Metaphrasis  Evangelii  Joannei.  Reccii- 
suit,  Lcctionuinque  varietate  instruxit  Franciscus  Passovius. 
Accessit  Evangclium  Joannis.  Defuncto  Passovio  editionem 
curavit  Nicolaus  Bachius.     Lipsise,  1833,  Svo. 

No.vNUS,  of  Panopolis  in  Egypt,  lived  in  the  early  part  of  the 
fifteenth  century.  His  paraphrase  on  Si.  John's  Gospel,  which  is 
written  in  Greek  verse,  contains  some  various  readings  which  have 
been  noticed  by  Mill,  Bengel,  Wetsiein,  Griesbach,  and  Scliolz,  in 
their  several  critical  editions  of  Ihe  Greek  Testament.  I'assow's 
edition  of  TS'onnus  is  the  best  that  has  ever  been  published. 


[ii.]   Latin  Fu titers. 

1.  HiERoxTMi  Quaestiones  Hebraicae  in  Gcncsin  ; — Ejusdcm 
Commentarii  in  Ecclesiastcn  ;  dua;  in  Canticum  Canticorum 
Homiliaj,  ex  Gricco  Origenis  ; — Commentarii  in  Icsaiam  ; — Ho- 
milise  novcm  in  Visiones  Isaia;,  e.t  Grteco  Origenis; — Commen- 
tarius in  Jeremiam; — Commentarii  in  Ezcchiclem  LibriXIV. ; 
— Commentarius  in  Danielem.  Hoiniliae  Origenis  XXVIII., 
Explanationes  in  Jeremiam  et  Ezochiolem  continentes; — Com- 
mentarii in  XIl  Prophetas  Minores;  Commentarii  in  Matthteum 
LibrilV.; — Commentarii  in  Pauli  Epistolas  ad  Galatas,  Ephe- 
sios,  Titum,  et  Philemonem,  folio.  In  the  diifeient  editions  of  his 
works. 

Jkuo.mf,  of  all  the  Lniin  fathers,  has  rendered  the  most  impor- 
tant services  to  the  Christian  world,  by  his  elalwrate  C'ommentary 
on  the  Scriptures,  and  his  prefaces  to  the  dilferent  books.  His 
commentary  on  the  Prophets  is  reckoned  the  best  part  of  his  works  ; 
lii.^  valuable  Latin  version  of  the  Scrij)lurcs  has  been  noticed  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  first  volume.  The  principal  editions  of  this  emi- 
nently learned  father's  works  are  those  of  Paris,  1693 — 1706,  in  five 
vols.  IblioJ  and  of  Verona,  173-1-1742,  in  eleven  vols,  folio. 

2.  HiLARii  Commentarius  in  Psalmos  et  in  Evangclium 
Mattha;i,  folio,  in  the  various  editions  of  liis  works. 

HiLARV,  Bishop  of  Poitiers,  in  the  (i)urth  century,  wrote  Com- 
mentaries on  the  Psalms,  and  on  the  (jospel  of  St.  Matthew,  which 
consist  more  of  what  he  borrowed  fi"om  Origen  than  of  the  results 
of  his  own  studies:  and  on  this  account  Morns  is  of  opinion,  that 
little  a.ssislance  can  be  derived  from  consulting  them.  This  au- 
thor must  not  be  confounded  with  Hilary,  surnnmed  the  Deacon, 
from  the  ofllce  which  he  filled  in  the  Church  at  Rome  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  fourth  century  :  and  who  wrote  a  Commentary  on  St 
Paul's  Epistles,  which  is  printed  in  thcswond  volume  of  the  Bene- 
dictine edition  of  .Vmbrose's  works  (I'aris,  1686-1690,  2  vols,  fuliu}, 
to  whom  they  are  erroneously  ascribed. 

3.  Aurelii  Aubustini  Commentarii  tarn  in  Vetus  quam  in 
Novum  Testamentum,  ex  omnibus  ejusdcm  lucubralionibus  col- 
lecti.  Studio  et  labore  Joannis  Gastii.  Venetiis,  1543,  2  vols.  4to. 

Augustine,  the  celebrated  Bishop  of  Hip)x>  in  Africa,  in  the 
fourth  century,  wrote  several  Treatises  on  the  Scriptures,  and  par- 
ticularly Comment. -iries  on  the  J'salms,  neither  of  which  are  now 
held  in  much  estimation,  notwithstanding  ihp  high  rank  he  hold^ 
in  ecclesiastical  history.  His  piety,  indel'atigable  application,  buIk 
linn-  genius,  unwearied  pursuit  of  truth,  and  the  acuteness  of  his 
wit,  are  umversally  allowed.  "It  is  however  certain,"  says  Mo- 
sheim, "  that  the  accuracy  and  solidity  of  his  judgment  were  by  no 
means  proportionable  to  the  eminent  talents  now  mentioned  ;  ond 
that  upon  many  occasions,  he  was  more  guided  by  the  violent  im- 
pulse of  a  warm  imagination,  than  by  the  cool  dictates  of  rea.^on  ami 
prudence.  Hence  that  ambiguity  which  appears  in  his  writings, 
and  which  has  .sometimes  rendered  the  ino.-ir  nlientive  readers  un- 
ce.-t;iin  with  res|)ecl  to  his  real  seiiliments  ;  and  Iience  olso  the  jiml 
complaints  which  many  have  made  of  the  coiitrailictions  that  are  so 
freipient  in  his  work,  anil  of  the  levity  and  jirecipitaliou  with  which 
he  set  himself  to  write  upon  a  variety  of  subjects,  before  he  had 
examined  them  with  o  sufTii-ienl  degree  of  attention  nnd  diligence.  "" 
Jnhn  has  remarked  that  the  genius  of  .•\upiiBline  resembled  thiit  of 
Origen  rather  than  that  of  Jerome,  to  ImiIi  of  whom  he  was  greatly 

•  Severn!  editions  of  Clirypostnni's  Iliiinilies  are  enuinerntcd  by  llarl«-.'<. 
in  hU  Urcvior  Nniiiin  l.itenilura:  Oraicip,  pp.  7.'W— 7'11.;  to  whicli  work,  us 
well  nH  to  those  of  KriicKii  and  Moras,  alinvi;  ref«rrcMl  to,  wc  are  chietljr 
indehird  for  the  following  nr)l ices  of  the  Coiiiinenlaries  of  l!iot»rcek  'ather* 

*  Moslieiia's  Ecclesiastical  History,  vol.  1.  p.  3U). 


Sf.ct.  III.  §  1.] 


CHRISTIAN  COMMENTATORS,  &c. 


105 


inferior  in  learning,  being  totally  ignorant  of  Hebrew,  and  but  mo- 
derately versed  in  Greek.'  His  T rentisea  on  the  Scriptures  form 
the  third,  and  his  Commentaries  on  the  Psalms  the  fourth  volume 
of  the  Benedictine  edition  of  his  works.  He  accommodates  the 
Scriptures  more  frequently  to  his  own  ideas  than  he  accommodates 
these  to  the  former,  and  is  perpetually  huntiiig  out  mysteries,  espe- 
cially in  numbers.2  Such  was  the  authority  in  which  the  writings 
of  Augustine  were  held,  that  his  expositions  continued  to  be  fol- 
lowed by  all  Latin  interpreters  from  his  time  until  the  Reforma- 
tion ;  who  have  selected  expositions  not  only  from  his  professedly 
biblical  labours,  but  also  from  his  other  practical  and  controversial 
writings.  Among  the  principal  compilations  of  this  kind  is  the 
Gloss,  or  short  interpretation  of  Strabo,  which  is  mentioned  in  the 
next  column,  No.  1. 


[iii.]   Later  Divines  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches. 

Of  the  Doctors,  or  Divines  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  Churches, 
who  flourished  between  the  sixth  and  fourteenth  centuries,  the 
following  are  reputed  to  be  the  most  judicious  commentators, 

Greek  JVriters. 

1.  TiiEOPHTLACTi  Archiepiscopi  Bulgari.-e  Enarrationes,  sive 
Commentarii  in  IV.  Evangelia,  Graece,  Romae,  1.5t2,  folio; 
Graece  et  Latine,  Parisiis,  1631,  folio. — Ejusdem  Explicationes 
in  Acta  Apostolorum,  Graece  et  Latine,  Coloniae,  1567,  folio. — 
Ejusdem  Commehtarii  in  D.  Pauli  Epistolas,  Grjece  ct  Latine, 
Londini,  1636,  folio. — Ejusdem  Commentarii  in  Epistolas  et  in 
aliquot  Prophetas  Minores,  Latine,  Parisiis,  1542,  folio. 

Theophylact,  metropolitan  of  Bulgaria,  flourished  in  the  llrh 
century  :  his  Scholia  on  the  principal  books  of  Scripture  are  chiefly 
abridged  from  Chrysostora.  Those  on  the  Gospels,  Acts,  and  St. 
Paul's  Epistles,  are  particularly  valuable.  Professor  Stuart,  cha- 
racterizing the  Greek  Commentators  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews, 
observes  that  "  Theophylact  is  by  far  the  most  agreeable,  especially 
for  beginners  in  the  study  of  Greek  Commentary.  He  comprises  all 
that  is  valuable  in  Chrysostom,  and,  for  the  most  part,  nearly  in 
Chrj-sosiom's  words;  while  at  the  same  time  he  has  given  to  the 
whole  more  ease,  simplicity,  and  compactness.  Seldom  does  he 
venture  upon  any  new  opinion  of  his  own;  and  when  he  does,  it  is 
with  great  deference  to  his  predecessors."  (Commentary  on  the 
Hebrews,  vol.  i.  p.  34.5.)  The  best  edition  of  his  works  is  that  pub- 
lished at  Venice,  1754-1763,  in  4  vols,  folio. 

2.  CEcTJMEXii  Commentaria  in  Acta  Apostolorum,  in  omnes 
Pauli  Epistolas,  et  in  Epistolas  Catholicas  omnes.  Accesserunt 
Arethae,  Cappadociae  Episcopi,  Explanationcs  in  Apocalypsin. 
Graece  et  Latine,  cura  Fred.  Morelli.  Parisiis,  1631,  2  tomis, 
folio. 

(EcuMEMUS,  Bishop  of  Tricca  in  Thessaly,  towards  the  close  of 
the  tenth  century,  wrote  Commentaries  on  the  Acts  of  the  Apos- 
tles, and  the  whole  of  the  Epistles.  His  work  is  a  judicious  com- 
pilation from  Origen,  Chrysostom,  Eusebius,  and  others.  It  is  wor- 
thy of  observation,  Ihat  the  controverted  clause  in  St.  John's  First 
Epistle  (1  John  v.  7!)  was  not  known  to  this  writer.  The  best  edi- 
tion is  that  of  Paris,  1631,  in  2  vols,  fotip. 

3.  Very  similar  to  the  works  of  Theophylact  and  CEcumenius 
above  noticed,  are  the  Catenae,  or  Commentaries  on  the  Scrip- 
tures, consisting  of  several  passages  or  interpretations  of  the 
fatliers,  reduced  to  the  order  of  chapters  and  verses  of  the  books  ; 
thej'  arc  denominated  Catenae,  because  as  a  chain  is  composed  of 
several  links  connected  together,  so  these  compilations  consist  of 
numerous  different  passages,  or  the  sentences  and  expositions  of 
different  writers,  so  connected  together  as  to  form  one  continued 
work. 

The  earliest  compiler  of  a  Catena  was  Procopius  of  Gaza, 
whose  entire  work  on  the  Scriptures  has  never  been  printed  ; 
though  particular  portions  have  been  published,  as  his  Catena  on 
the  Octateuch,  or  eight  first  books,  in  Latin,  Tiguri  (Zurich),  1555, 
folio  :  on  the  two  books  of  Kings  and  Chronicles,  Gr.  Lat.  4lo.  Lug. 
Bjt.  1620;  a  specimen  of  his  Catena  on  the  Heptateuch,  or  seven 
fir^t  books,  and  on  the  Song  of  Solomon,  edited  by  Emesti,  Leipsic, 
1785,  4to. ;  on  Isaiah,  edited  by  Courtier,  folio,  Paris,  1580.  Pro- 
copius was  followed  by  Olympiodorus,  who  is  supposed  to  have 
flourished  in  the  seventh  century  ;  his  Catena  on  the  book  of  Job 
was  published  at  Venice  in  1587,  4to.  A  Catena  on  Job,  Psalms, 
Matthew,  and  John,  was  printed  by  Plantin  at  Antwerp,  in  Greek 
and  Latin,  in  seven  vols,  folio,  1630,  and  following  years.  One  of 
the  most  valuable  works  of  this  kind  is  the  Catena  of  Nicephorus 
on  the  Octateuch,  the  two  books  of  Samuel,  and  the  two  books  of 
Kings  ;  it  is  a  compilation  from  fifty-one  writers,  and  was  published 
in  Greek,  in  2  vols,  folio,  at  Leipsic,  1792.  Possin  and  Corderius 
published  a  Catena  in  Greek  and  Latin,  orr  the  four  Evangelists,  in 
1628,  1630,  1646,  and  1647,  at  Antwerp  and  Thoulouse,  in  four 
large  folio  volumes ;  and  u  Greek  Catena  of  Victor,  a  presbyter  of 

■«  Jahn,  Enchiridion  Hermeneuticee  Generalis,  p.  167. 
•  Rambachii  Instlt.  Harm.  p.  679. 


Antioch,  and  other  fiithers,  on  the  Gospel  of  St.  Mark,  was  edited 
by  Matthosi,  at  Moscow,  1775,  in  2  vols.  8vo.' 

4.  EuTHTMii  Zigabeni  Monachi  Commentarii  in  Psalmos, 
Graece  et  Latine ;  apud  Theophylacti  Operum  Tom.  IV.  Vene 
tiis,  1763,  folio. 

Euthymii  Zigabeni  Commcntarius  in  quatuor  Evjuigelia, 
Greece  et  Latine.  Textum  Graecum  nunquam  antea  editum  ad 
iidem  duorum  Codicum  Membranaceorum  Bibliothecarum  S.  S. 
Synodi  Mosquensis  auctoris  aetatc  scriptorum,  diligentur  recen- 
suit,  et  rcpetita  Versione  Latina  Joannis  Hentenii  suisque  ad- 
jectis  aniniadversionibus  edidit  Christianus  Frider.  Matthaei. 
Lipsiae,  1792,  3  tomis,  8vo. 

EuTHYMius  ZiGABENUs,  a  monk  of  Constantinople,  in  the  early 
part  of  the  twelfth  century,  wrote  commentaries  on  different  parts 
of  the  Bible,  the  whole  of  which  have  not  been  printed.  His  prin- 
cipal work  is  a  commentary  on  the  four  Gospels,  published  by 
Matthtei  at  Leipsic,  in  1792,  in  3  vols.  8vo.  The  hitherto  inedited 
Greek  text  is  diligently  revised  from  two  MSS.  in  the  library  of  the 
Holy  Synod  at  Moscow,  written  in  the  time  of  the  author.  Vol.  I. 
contains  the  prefaces  and  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew ;  Vol.  II.  the  Gos- 
pels of  St.  Mark  and  St.  Luke  ;  Vol.  III.  the  Gospel  of  St.  John, 
with  Hentenius's  Latin  version  of  the  whole  of  Euthymius's  Com- 
mentary, his  Critical  KemarlvS,  and  those  of  the  learned  editu.-. 
Euthyniius's  Commentary'  on  the  Psalms  was  published  with  th* 
works  of  Theophylact. 


Latin  Writers. 
1.  Biblia  Sacra  cum  Glossa  Ordinaria  a  Walafrido  Strabo; 
et  Postilla  Nicolai  Ltraxi,  necnon  additionibus  Pauli  Burgeu- 
sis  Episcopi,  et  Matthiae  Doringi  replicis.     Duaii,  1617,  6  tomis, 
folio.  ^ 

Wolafridus  Strabo  or  Strabus,  who  flourished  in  the  ninth 
century,  composed  a  work  on  the  whole  Bible,  which  wa.s  called 
Glossa  Ordinaria  or  margivalis ;  because  the  entire  margin,  at  the 
top  and  bottom,  as  well  as  on  each  side  of  the  page,  was  flUed  with 
annotations.  Ilis  work  is,  in  fact,  a  catena  or  collection  of  com- 
ments from  all  the  Latin  fathers  who  preceded  him,  and  particu- 
larly from  Augustine  and  Rabanus  Maurus,  whose  pupil  Strabo 
was,  and  who  wrote  a  voluminous  catena  on  the  Gospel  of  St.  Mat- 
thew, and  St.  Paul's  Epistles,  besides  an  entire  comment  on  the 
Bible,  which  is  still  in  manuscript.  Strabo  endeavours  to  show 
the  literal,  historical,  and  moral  sense  of  the  Scriptures,  but  Kot 
always  with  success.  For  many  years  the  labours  of  Strabo  con' 
tinned  to  be  received  as  the  sole  authorized  interpretation  of  the 
Bible.  The  best  edition  of  his  work  is  that  of  Anlwerp,  1631, 
folio.-* 

Nicholas  de  Lyra  or  Lyraxus,  so  called  from  the  place  of  his 
nativity.  Lire,  arsmall  town  in  Normandy,  is  reputed  to  have  been 
a  Jew  by  descent,  but  having  embraced  Christianity,  he  entered 
into  the  religious  society  of  Friars  Minors  at  Verneuil.  He  flourish- 
ed towards  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century  ;  and  deserv- 
edly holds  a  distinguished  rank  among  commentators,  his  explana- 
tions of  the  Scriptures  being  far  superior  to  the  m.anner  and  spirit 
of  the  age  in  which  he  flourished.  His  compendious  expositions 
of  the  Bible  were  called  postills,  from  his  manner  of  placing  them, 
viz.  first  exhibiting  the  sacred  text,  and  post  ilia  (after  the  words 
of  the  text)  offering  his  own  explication.  They  were  repeatedly 
printed  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  and  in  the  early  part  of 
the  sixteenth  century ;  and  (as  in  the  edition  above  noticed)  were 
sometimes  printed  in  conjunction  with  the  gloss  of  Strabo.  In  his 
postils,  Lyra  shows  a  greater  acquaintance  with  the  literal  sense  of 
Scripture  than  any  preceding  commentator,  and  has  availed  him- 
self of  his  intimate  knowledge  of  Hebrew  to  select  the  best  com- 
ments of  the  most  learned  Rabbins,  particularly  Jarchi.  Being, 
however,  less  intimately  acquainted  with  the  Greek  than  with  the 
Hebrew,  he  is  less  happy  in  his  expositions  of  the  New  Testament 
than  in  those  of  the  Old.  His  notes  are  allowed  to  be  very  judi- 
cious, and  he  principally  attends  to  the  literal  sense,  with  which, 
however,  he  occasionally  intermingles  the  subtilties  of  the  school- 
men. "  It  is  no  inconsiderable  praise  that,  by  the  general  sound- 
ness and  justness  of  his  expositions,  he  attracted  the  admiration, 
and  contributed  probably  in  some  measure  to  the  instruction  of 
Luther  and  of  his  great  coadjutors  in  the  work  of  reformation." 
The  best  edition  of  Lyra's  commentary  is  that  of  Antwerp,  1634, 
in  6  vols,  folio  ;  it  is  also  found  in  the  Biblica  Maxima,  edited  by 
Father  de  la  Haye,  in  19  vols,  folio.  Lyra  was  also  the  author  of 
Moralia,  or  Moral  Commentaries  upon  the  Scriptures.^ 

»  Morus  (torn.  ii.  p.  253.)  has  enumerated  several  catenae  on  particular 
parts  of  the  New  Testament.  The  best  acconnt  of  these  compilations  is  to 
be  found  in  Ittigius's  Tractatus  de  Catenas  Patrum,  Leipsic,  1707,  8vo.  : 
and  in  Noesselt's  Observationes  de  Catenis  Patrum  Grcbcortim  in  Novum 
Testamentum,  Halas,  1762,  4to.  See  also  VValchii  Bibliotheca  Theologica, 
vol.  iv.  pp.  388—391. 

«  Much  curious  information  relative  to  the  Biblia  Glossata,  or  Glosses 
on  the  Scriptures,  is  contained  in  Masch's  edition  of  Le  Long's  Bibliotheoa 
Sacra,  part  ii.  vol.  iii.  cap.  ii.  sect.  iii.  p.  353.  et  seq. 

'  Masch's  edition  of  Le  Long's  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  part  ii.  vol.  iii.  pp.  357^ 
362.  Conybeare's  Banipton  Lectures  for  1821,  pp.  210—215.  Lyra's  Com 
inentaries  were  attacked  by  Paul,  Bishop  of  Burgos  (Paulus  Burgensis), 
a  converted  Jew,  and  were  defended  by  Matthias  Doring.  Ibid.  pp.  363, 
264.    WalchJi  Bibliotheca  Theologica,  vol.  iv.  pp.  396,  397. 


106 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  IL  Chap.  IV 


2.  Thomae  Aai'i^'A'ris,  Doctoris  Angelici,  Commentaria  in 
qiiosJam  libros  Vetcris  ct  Novi  Tostamenti ;  scilicet,  in  Job  ; 
Prima  Quiiiquagena  Davidis  ;  Canticam  Canticorum  ;  Esaiam  : 
Jeremiain,  ct  Lamenlationes;  in  Evangelia  secundum  Mattha;um 
et  Joannem  ;  Catena  Aurea  in  quatuor  EvangcUa;  ex  dictis  Pa- 
trum  connexa  ;  Commentaria  in  onmes  D.  Pauli  Apostoli  Epis- 
tolas ;  folio,  inter  operum  Tomes  xiii-xvi.  Veniiiis,  1593-4, 
nesides  numerous  editions  of  detached  portions  in  various  sizes, 

Tno.MAS  AciUlNAS,  a  celebrated  scholastic  doctor  of  the  thir- 
.centh  century,  compiled  a  Catena  on  the  four  Gospels,  i'rora  up- 
wards of  eighty  Greek  and  Latin  fathers,  wliose  words  he  chielly 
gives,  rather  than  their  meaning,  and  quo:es  the  Greek  fathers  from 
Latin  verswna  of  their  works.  His  comment  long  held  a  distin- 
guished place  ill  the  Western  Church. 

There  were  however  a  few,  though  hut  few,  interpreters  of 
better  note,  who  flourished  during  the  period  now  under  con- 
Fideration,  and  who  followed  a  better  mode  of  interpretation. 
We  shall  briclly  enumerate  them. 

3.  Beuje  Expositio  in  Libros  Historicos  Veteris  Testamenti, 
in  libruin  Tobi;e,  Jobum,  Parabolas  fealomonis,  et  Cantica  Can- 
ticorum :  Expositio  in  Novum  Testaincntura,  Retractatioiies  et 
QuiEstiones  in  Acta  Apostoloruni,  folio.     In  his  works. 

The  venerable  Bi:nK,  who  lived  in  the  eighth  century,  composed 
a  Catena  on  nearly  the  whole  of  the  JVew  Testament,  from  the 
writings  of  die  fathers,  in  which  lie  interspersed  but  few  remarks 
of  his  own.  Deeply  versed  in  Greek  literature,  he  has  the  pecu- 
liar praise  of  drawing  from  original  sources. 

4.  Alcvix,  the  countryman  and  contemporary  of  Bede,  com- 
piled a  commentary  on  some  parts  of  the  Scriptures,  in  which  he 
made  selections  from  Jerome,  Chrysostoin,  Augustine,  Bcde, 
and  other  writers ;  not  always  with  the  best  judgment.  His 
biblical  labours  are  contained  in  the  editions  of  his  collected 
works,  printed  at  Paris  in  1617,  and  at  Ratisbon  in  1777,  in  2 
volumes,  foiio. 

%  2.    SCHOLIA    OS    THE    ENTIUE  BIBLE,  OR    TiiT.  GREATER    PAKT 

THEREOF. 

1.  Joannis  Marians  Scholia  in  Vetus  et  Novum  Testamcn- 
tum.     Paris,  IfiSO,  folio. 

2.  HcGOxis  GnoTH  Annotationes  ad  Vetus  et  Novum  Testa- 
mentum. 

The  Scholia  on  the  Old  Testament  were  first  published  at  Paris, 
m  1G44  :  and  those  on  the  New  Testament  at  the  s;tine  jilace,  in 
llirce  volumes,  in  IGll,  IG4G,  and  IdaO.  Tliey  are  also  to  be  found 
m  the  fourth  volume  of  his  Opera  Thcnlogira  (Uasil,  1732,  folio),  as 
well  as  in  the  Crilici  Sacri,  and  in  Calovius's  liihUa  Illustrala. 
They  were  rcpublisiied  in  4to.,  with  numerous  corrections  by  Vo- 
cel,  vol.  i.  Ilalw,  1775  ;  vol.  ii.  and  vol.  iii.  were  published  in  177t3 
by  Doedcrlein,  who,  in  1779,  published  an  Auclarium,  also  in  4lo., 
which  was  separately  sold  under  the  title  of  Scholia  in  Libros  I'o- 
ttiros  Veleris  Tislamenli.  An  edition  of  them  was  published  by 
Mr.  MiKxIy,  in  two  vols.  4to.,  London,  1727;  and  his  Scholia  on  the 
New  Testament  were  reprinted  at  Lrlang  in  1755  and  following 
years,  in  4to.  In  1830  a  very  neat  edition  of  the  Sciiolia  on  the 
IVcw  Teslaincnl  appeared  at  (ironingen,  in  8  vols.  8vo.,  the  anony- 
mous editor  of  which  professes  that  he  carefully  corrected  the  nu- 
merous errors  which  had  crept  into  preceding  impressions.  We 
have  been  thus  minute  in  staling  the  editions  of  Grotius's  Scholia, 
on  account  of  their  intrinsic  vahie.  Father  Calinet  has  criticised 
many  parts  of  them  with  great  severity,  particularly  his  preface  to 
ond  explanation  of  the  Canticles.  "  Grotius,"  says  Dr.  Doddridge, 
"  has  done  more  to  illustrate  the  Scriptiircs,  by  what  is  generally 
called  profane  learning,  than  perhaps  almost  all  the  other  conimon- 
tators  put  together;  ncverlludess  he  loo  often  gives  up  jirophecies 
which,  in  their  original  sense,  relate  to  the  Messiah,  liis  notes  on 
some  texts  are  largo  and  learned  disscrlalions,  which  might  have 
profitably  been  pjiblished  by  themselves."  "  His  learning,"  says 
nn  eminent  biblical  critic  of  the  present  day,  "  was  very  extensive : 
his  erudition  profound;  and  his  nioderalion  on  subjects  of  contro- 
versy highly  praiseworthy.  No  man  possessed  a  more  cxlcnsive 
ami  accurate  knowledge  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  writers;  and  no 
man  more  successfully  applied  them  to  the  illustialion  of  the  sacred 
writings.  He  is,  perhaps  justly,  siispcricd  of  .Socinian  sentiments  ; 
and  is,  in  general,  so  intent  u[M)n  the  UtfraL  meaning  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, as  Uj  lose  sight  of  the  spiritual."  (iJr.  A.  (Jlarkc).'  On  the 
New  Test.aiiient  (irolius  is  particularly  valuable  for  iinderslanding 
the  history  and  Hebraisms.  The  charaQler  of  (Jrotius,  as  a  com- 
mentator, is  Ixjth  fairly  and  ably  CHlimated  by  Mr.  Conybearc  in 
his  Bamptou  Lectures  fiir  lB2't,  pp.  25'J-2(>3. 

3.  DioiiATi  (John)  Annotations  on  the  Bible,  translated  from 
the  Italian.     London,  1CG4,  folio. 

«  The  references  above,  as  well  as  in  the  following  paics,  to  Dri".  Pod- 
tIridKi'  and  A'luin  tJlorko,  arc  to  the  "  Lectures  on  Prpacliins"  of  i\\oJurmrr, 
jiisprted  ill  llic  fiftli  volume  of  fiis  dotacliP'l  Works,  iiriiiled  at  l.erds,  IHOI, 
p.  471.  ct  SCO.,  and  to  lliu  "  Gcnentl  Prn/ace'*  of  tne  laltrr,  (irr'Axed  to 
vol.  i.  of  liis  L'oiuiiientary  on  the  lilblc,  wliich  U  noticed  in  n  subsequent 
(Mge. 


Diodati  was  an  eminent  Italian  divine  and  reformer  in  the  early 
part  of  the  17lh  century;  his  annotations'  are  properly  Sc/iolia, 
rather  practical  than  critical,  but  containing  man)'  useful  hints ;  a 
considerable  portion  of  tliem  was  introduced  into  the  "  Assembly's 
Annotations,"  noticed  in  p.  109.  No.  4. 

4.  Jo.  Christ.  Frid.  Schulzii  et  Geo.  Laur.  Baceri  Scholia 
in  Vetus  Testamentum.  Norimbergse,  1783 — 1797,  10  vols.  8vo 

Tlie  three  first  volumes  only  of  these  learned -Scholia  were 
os!cngilili/  written  by  Professor  Schulze,-  wlio  stales  in  his  preface, 
that,  in  imitation  of  RosenmiiUer's  Scholia  on  the  New  Testament, 
he  undertook  similar  short  notes  on  t)ie  Old  Testament.  For  this 
purpose,  he  has  made  extracts  from  the  best  philological  and  criti- 
cal Scholia,  chiefly  from  German  works  which  are  not  readily  ac- 
cessible or  intelligible  by  foreigners;  this  is  no  small  advantage; 
and,  independently  of  it,  Sfhulze  has  added  numerous  critical  notes 
of  his  own,  besides  the  contributions  of  iiis  learned  friends.  (Maty"" 
Review,  vol.  v.  pp.  40G — 412.)  On  the  death  of  Schulze,  Professor 
Bauer  continued  the  work,  and  published  the  remaining  seven 
volumes  on  liie  same  plan. 

5.  Ernest.  Frid.  Car.  RosexmOllehi  Scholia  in  Vetus  Testa- 
mentum.    LipsioB,  1795—1826,  18  vols.  8vo.  1823-34. 

The  Scholia  of  the  younger  Rosenmiiller  have  long  enjoyed  a 
high  reputation  on  the  Continent.  When  he  began  to  publish  the 
first  edition  of  his  work,  he  was  a  neologian  of  the  lowest  ela.ss. 
In  the  new  edition,  he  has  given  up  many  of  these  offensive  teneJs. 
He  now  admits  the  Pcnialouch  to  be  the  composition  of  Moses,  ■ 
and  finds  predictions  concerning  the  Messiah  almost  as  often  as 
one  could  desire ;  although  some  few  of  the  psalms  he  still  con- 
siders as  not  referring  to  the  Messiah.  But  now  and  then  the  wary 
reader  will  jilaiiily  see  that,  as  to  anj'  belief  in  inspiration,  he  is 
still  as  much  a  rationalist  as  ever  he  was.  The  student  will  find  in 
most  of  his  works  very  important  treasures,  if  he  knows  how  to 
make  a  right  use  of  them.  (Andover  Biblical  Repository  for  Jan. 
1832,  pp.213 — 215)  The  new  edition  of  RosenmiiUer's  larger 
Scholia  appeared  at  Leipzic  in  the  iTillowing  order: — 

Parts  I.  and  II.  comprising  the  Pentateuch.  Vol.  I.  Genesis, 
1821  ;  Vol.  II.  Exodus,  1822;  Vol.  III.  Leviticus,  Numbers, 
Deuteronomy. 

Part  III.  Isaiah,  3  vols.  8vo.  1818—1829—1833. 

Part  IV.  The  book  of  Psalms,  3  vols.  1821—1823. 

Fart  V.  The  book  of  Job,  1824. 

Part  VI.  Ezekiel.  2  vols.  8vo.  1826. 

Part  VII.  The  Minor  Prophets;  Vol.  I.  Ilosea  and  Joel.  1827; 
Vol.  II.  Amos,  Obadiah,  and  Jonah,  1827;  Vol.  HI.  Nahum 
Micah,  and  Ilabakkuk ;  Vol.  IV.  Zephaniah,  Haggai,  Zecha 
riah,  and  Malachi. 

Part  VHl.  Jer.iniah,  2  vols.  1826-27. 

Part  IX.  The  Writings  of  Solomon,  Vols.  I.  and  II.,  1829.    • 

Part  X.  Daniel,  1S33. 

Part  XI.  Tiie  Historical  Books.     Vol.  I.  Joshua,  1832. 

6.  Em.  Frid.  Car.  RosKVMiJLLERT  Scholia  in  V.  T.  in  Com- 
pendium redacta.     Vols.  I.  III.     Lipsiaj,  1828 — 1833,  8vo. 

"In  a  brief  preface  to  the  first  volume,  the  author  states  that  he 
had  frequently  been  solicited  to  puhlijih  an  abridged  edition  of  his 
copious  original  work,  which  amounts  to  [upwards  of]  twenty 
volumes;  and  several  others  are  yet  to  be  added,  in  order  to  com- 
jtlele  his  design.  Tiie  price  of  this  is  so  higl*  even  in  Germany, 
that  many  who  wish  for  the  work  are  unable  to  jjurchase  it.  Prin- 
cipally with  a  view  to  accflnmodatc  persons  of  this  class,  the  au- 
thor has  undertaken  to  publish  a  compendium  of  his  original  work 
'JMiis  labour  he  performs  in  the  main  by  proxy.  The  gcnllrmtn, 
who  aciually  executes  the  task,  is  named  John  Christopher  Sigi» 
mund  Lkchver,  and  is  evening  preacher  at  St.  Paul's  church  in 
Leipzic.  The  professor  speaks  of  him  as  '  vir  clarissimus,  in  sacra- 
rum  litcrari'.m  dexire  versato.'  His  commission  is,  to  select  fwm 
the  larger  commentary  whatever  pertains  to  the  ex|ilanati(m  of  the 
moaning  and  forms  of  words  in  which  there  is  any  diniculiy  ;  also, 
whatever  is  reeiuisite  in  order  to  give  a  correct  understanding  of 
ta<ls  and  events,  ancient  rites,  the  names  of  persons  and  places 
mid  other  things  of  a  similar  nature.  In  passages  of  special  difli 
cully,  some  account  of  iho  views  of  other  critics  is  given.  Various 
rea(iirigs  that  are  important,  are  also  noticed.  The  commission  be- 
ing executed,  llie  whole  is  rcvieweil  by  Roscnniiiller  himself;  cor- 
rections air  made  of  his  former  oiiinions  where  ho  deems  them 
necessary;  now  and  then  new  matter  is  added  ;  and  a  reference  is 
made  to  important  works  on  various  subjects  periaining  to  sjiercd 
criticism,  which  have  been  published  since  the  last  edition  of  the 
larger  Commentary.  Such  is  tlie  plan  of  the  (Compendium  ;  a  work 
whicli,  in  many  respects,  will  be  welcome  to  all  the  friends  of  sacred 
literature.     Mr.  Lechner  ajipears  to  have  executed  his  task  with 

»  J.ihn  ntBrms  that  Ihry  were  not  written  by  Schulze  himself,  bn!  bjr 
Schoidir  iiiidiT  liisiirtmo  :  ,in(l  lie  fuilhor  adds,  tliat,  In  concral,  on  difliruit 

IiasHai!)'.",  an  ancli-nt  niid  a  niodorn  iiili  rpretalion  is  );ivon,  nndlhr  decision 
letWL'iii  ttiein  is  left  lo  the  readrr's  jiidjioiciil.  (.hUiu,  Kncliiridlon  Her- 
luiTHUlira"  (icniralis,  p.  173.)  Wlu'llmr  SoliiiodiT  or  .Srliiilzc  wrote  the 
llrsl  three  voIiiiiipb,  is  not  mali-rl.'d  now  lo  know:  iisr-fiil  as  ilic  work  un- 
qii-slionahly  I.-;,  tin'  reader  ^lioulil  ho  inforuied  lli.-it  the  aiillior  has  adopted 
u\a  fivihiiiniihle  liypolhesis  of  many  fJcrniaii  divinos,  tliat  Mosca  was  a 
cli-ver  m^thnloew,  wlio  compiled  liia  liisiory  from  corlnin  niylld  or  tradi- 
tional narratives  I  This  liynolliesis  is  al.so  iidoplrd  by  Dathe  ;  and  it  wan 
cinl)raced  hy  the  late  Pr.  (•eddrs  in  his  version  of  tiin  Itilde.  Sec  It  ex- 
aiiiiiieil,  and  (wc  trust  satisfactorily)  refuted,  supra,  Vol.  II.  I'art  V.  Chap.  I 
Sect.  U. 


Sect.  HI.  §  3.] 


FOREIGN  COMMENTATORS  ON  TiiE  WHOLE  BIBLE. 


107 


great  dilisrence  and  care.  He  remains  true  to  his  original  through- 
oiil,  so  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  make  the  comparison.  The 
slight  dilJerenccs,  that  now  and  then  occur  between  liie  abridgment 
and  the  original,  I  presume,  are  to  be  attributed  to  the  author  him- 
self, and  not  to  the  writer  of  the  Compend."  (Professor  Stuart,  in 
the  Andover  Biblical  Commentary  for  1832,  vol  ii.  p.  211.) 

The  volumes  hitherto  published  contain  the  following  Books  of 
the  Old  Testament,  viz.  Vol.  I.  the  Pentateuch  ;  [Vol.  II.  will  con- 
lain  Isaiali];  Vol.  III.  the  Psalms;  Vol.  IV.  the  book  of  Job;  Vol. 
V.  the  book  of  Ezekiel.  Besides  the  abridgment  of  Rosenmiiller's 
Scholia,  this  volume  comprises  a  literal  Latin  translation  of  the 
ibriielh,  ibriy-Iirst,  and  ibrly-second  chapters  of  Ezekiel's  Prophe- 
cies (illustrated  by  three  engravings  representing  the  plan  of  the 
temple  as  described  by  Ezekiel),  executed  by  Julius  Frederick 
Boeltcher,  wlio  has  endeavoured  to  elucidate  that  very  difficult 
portion  of  the  prophet's  writings. 

7.  J.  G.  RosE>f:'ii;LLEiii  Scholia  in  Novum  Testamentum. 
Edit.  Nova,  Norimbergs,  1801—1808.  Editio  sexta,  1827  et 
annis  sequentibus.  5  vols.  8vo. 

These  Sciiolia  on  the  New  Testament  are  written  by  the  father 
of  the  author  of  the  preceding  Scholia.     His  work  is  characterized 
Uy  Professor  Stuart  as  "  a  very  neat  specimen  oi'  the  second  order 
of  coinmentary,  that  is,  an  explanation  of  words  and  phrases.     He 
is  almost  every  where  a  local  investigator;  and  scarcely  ever  does 
he  take  a  stand,  from  which  he  looks  out  and  surveys  the  whole 
field  in  w  hich  he  is  labouring.      His  philology,  in  the  main,  is  safe, 
and  worthy  of  credit :  but  he  is  one  of  those  commentators  who 
are  more  successful  in  explaining  easy  than  difficult  things.    Where 
you  most  need  aid,  you  find  yourself  often  deserted The  stu- 
dent must  not  expect  to  find  in  Kosenmiiller  those  high  and  com- 
manding views,  v\  hich  such  a  man  as  Calvin  was  capable  of  taking. 
The  development  of  ratiocination,  design,  and  great  object,  are  not 
his  province.     A  secondary,  but  a  pleasant,  and  generally  accuraie 
annotator  on  the  philology  of  particular  passages  and  expressions,  he 
will  find  in  him.. ..  ..Much  of  Rosenmiiller's  commentary  is  like 

llie  production  of  the  poet,  whom  Horace  introduces: — Trecentos 

in  hora  versus slayis  pede  in  uno.     It  might  be  written,  and 

doubtless  was  written,  off-hand.  It  is  none  the  worse  for  this,  so 
far  as  it  respects  the  beginner  in  the  study  of  exegesis.  But  he  must 
not  expect  to  obtain  from  it  the  higher  and  ultimate  ends  of  com- 
mentary of  the  first  order;  to  meet  and  to  solve  formidable  difficul- 
ties ;  to  throw  strong  light  on  the  general  cause  of  thought  and 
reasoning;  to  compare  with  other  writers,  and  educe  a  harmonious 
sentiment  from  the  whole  ;  to  render  prominent  the  great  doctrines 

which  are  urged His  book  was  designed,  as  it  seems  to  me, 

lor  tyros  ;  and,  as  such,  it  remains,  for  philological  tyros,  still  a  very 
valuable  booli.'  (Andover  Biblical  Repository  for  January,  1833, 
vol.  iii.  p.  153.)  The  sixth  edition  was  revised  and  edited  by  John 
Christopher  Sigismund  Leciiker. 

8.  Rkevks. — The  Holy  Bible,  containing  the  Old  Testament 
and  the  New,  translated  out  of  the  Original  Tongues,  and  with 
tii8  former  translations  diligently  compared  and  revised.  London, 
printed  for  John  R£evi:s,  Esq.,  one  of  the  Patentees  of  the  office 
of  King's  Printer,  9  vols,  royal  4to.  9  vols,  royal  8vo.  9  or  10 
vols,  crown  8vo. 

Although  the  beautiful  editions  of  the  Bible  here  noticed  do  not 
profess  to  be  commentaries,  yet,  as  they  are  accompanied  by  short 
explanatory  and  philological  Scholia,  it  would  be  injustice  towards 
Mr.  Reeves's  splendid  and  public-spirited  efibrls  to  render  the 
Scriptures  attractive  to  the  higher  classes,  were  we  to  pass  them 
in  silence.  On  this  account  Mr.  Reeves's  editions  may  justly  claim 
a  place  in  the  present  list  of  Scholia  on  the  Bible.  His  Scholia  are 
selected  from  the  labours  of  Bishop  Patrick,  Lowth,  Whitby,  and 
otliers ;  and  his  mode  of  printing  the  text  is  admirable.  The  his- 
torical parts,  which  are  in  prose,  are  printed  in  continuous  para- 
graphs :  and  the  poetical  parts  are  divided  into  verses.  Each  book 
is  divided  into  sections,  conformable  to  the  natural  divisions  of  the 
several  subjects ;  and,  to  facilitate  reference,  the  chapters  and 
verses  are  distinctly  pointed  out  in  the  margin.  There  is  a  learned 
preface  to  all  the  editions.  In  our  analysis  of  the  different  books 
of  Scripture,  particularly  of  the  Old  Testament,  we  have  frequently 
adopted  Mr.  Reeves's  sectional  divisions,  which  are  for  the  most 
part  very  judiciously  made.  It  may  be  proper  to  add,  that  the 
printing  of  Mr.  Reeves's  editions  was  executed  by  Messrs.  Bulmer 
&  Co.,  and  by  Mr.  Bensley,  and  may  safely  challenge  competition 
with  the  most  bea\itiful  specimens  of  British  typography.  There 
ore  some' copies  extant  in  four  volumes,  8vo.,  without  the  Scholia. 


§  3.    THE    PRlSrCIPAI.    COlWMESTATOns    OIT    THE    SCRIPTUIlJiS 
GENERALLY    SINCE    THE    REFORMATtOX. 

[i.]  Foreign  Commentators  on  the  -whole  Bible. 

1.  The  illustrious  reformer,  Martin  Luther,  wrote  Com- 
mentaries on  most  of  the  books  of  Scripture.  A  collection  of 
them  was  published  at  Wittenberg,  in  four  volumes,  folio,  1549  ; 
and  an  octavo  edition  of  them  appeared  at  Eriang  in  1829  and 
following  years.  All  the  writings  of  this  great  man  are  deserv- 
edly held  in  the  highest  estimation  in  Germany,  especially  his 

Vol.  II.  4  G 


Commentaries  on  Genesis  and  on  St.  Paul's  Epistles  to  the  Ro- 
mans and  Galatians.  His  Commentary  on  the  Galatians  is  best 
known  in  this  country  by  a  translation,  which  was  first  printed 
in  1580,  in  4to.  and  subsequently  in  folio,  8vo.  and  in  two  vols. 
12mo.  In  1821,  was  pubhshed,  in  8vo.  a  translation  of  Luther's 
"  Commentary  on  the  Psalms  called  Psalms  of  Degrees ;  in 
which,  among  many  other  valuable  Discourses  on  Individual, 
Household,  and  Civil  Affairs,  the  Scriptural  Doctrine  respecting 
the  divinely  instituted  and  honourable  Estate  of  Matrimony  is 
explained  and  defended  against  the  Popish  Perversion  of  en- 
forced Celibacy,  Monastic  Vows,  Orders,  &c.  &c.  To  v^hich  is 
prefixed,  An  Historical  Account  of  the  Monastic  Life,  particu- 
larly of  the  Monasteries  of  England." 

2.  The  biblical  writings  of  John  Calvin  another  illustrious 
reformer,  consi-sts  of  Commentaries,  Homilies,  and  Lectures  on 
almost  the  whole  of  the  Scriptures :  they  are  to  be  found  in  the 
folio  edition  of  his  works,  printed  at  Amsterdam,  in  1671,  in 
nine  volumes.  His  Harmony  of  the  last  four  Books  of  the  Pen- 
tateuch has  been  much  and  deservedly  admired  for  its  ingenuity. 
The  history  contained  in  them  forms  a  distinct  part.  The  rest 
is  comprised  under  the  following  divisions  : — 1.  Those  passage." 
which  assert  the  excellence  of  the  laav,  by  way  oi  preface ; — 
2.  The  Ten  Commandments,  under  each  of  which  are  compre- 
hended aH  those  parts  of  the  law  which  relate  to  the  same  sid)- 
ject,  and  this  forms  the  great  body  of  the  harmony; — 3.  The 

Slim  of  the  Law,  containing  those  passages  which  enjoin  love  to 
God,  and  love  to  our  neighbour ; — 1.  The  Use  of  the  Law  ; 
and,  lastly,  its  Sanctio?is  of  promises  and  threats.  The  Com- 
mentaries and  other  expository  writings  of  this  great  man  have 
always  been  deservedly  celebrated  and  admired ;  though  it  has 
been  the  fashion  with  some  modern  divines  to  depreciate  them, 
on  account  of  those  peculiar  dogmas  which  Calvin  deduced  from 
the  Sacred  Writings.  "  Calvin's  Commentaries,"  says  the  learned 
Matthew  Poole,  in  the  preface  to  the  "  Synopsis  Criticorum 
Sacrorum,"  noticed  below,  "  abound  in  solid  discussions  of  theo- 
logical subjects,  and  in  practical  improvements  of  them.  Sub- 
sequent writers  have  borrowed  most  of  their  materials  from  Cal- 
vin ;  and  his  interpretations  adorn  the  books  even  of  those  who 
repay  their  obligation  by  reproaching  their  master."  The  great 
critic  Scaliger  said  that  no  commentator  had  better  hit  the  sense 
of  the  prophets  than  Calvin ;  and  another  eminent  critic  of  our 
own  time  (Rosenmuller)  has  remarked,  that  although  Calvin 
was  not  deeply  versed  in  Hebrew,  yet  as  he  possessed  an  acute 
and  subtle  genius,  his  interpretations  of  Isaiah  in  particular  con- 
tain many  things  which  are  exceedingl}'  useful  for  understanding 
the  prophet's  meaning.  Nothing,  indeed,  can  more  satisfactorily 
evince  the  high  estimation  to  which  the  commentaries  of  Calvin 
are  still  entitled  from  the  biblical  student,  than  the  following 
eulogium  of  one  of  the  most  learned  prelates  that  ever  adorned 
the  Anglican  church — Bishop  Horslet.  "I  hold,"  says  he, 
"  the  memory  of  Calvin  in  high  veneration ;  his  works  have  a 
place  in  my  library  ;  and  in  the  study  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  he 
is  one  of  the  Commentators  whom  I  most  frequently  consult." 
To  this  testimony  may  be  added  that  of  another  accomplished 
scholar  lately  deceased,  the  Rev.  J.  J.  Contbeare.  The  Com- 
mentaries of  Calvin,  he  says,  "  though  in  the  exercise  of  our 
Christian  liberty  we  may  freely  question  and  dissent  from  many 
points,  both  of  doctrine  and  discipline,  maintained  by  their  illus- 
trious author,  are  yet  never  to  be  perused  without  admiration  or 
instruction."'  The  wiitsr  of  these  pages  has  not  often  had  occa- 
sion to  refer  to  the  writings  of  Calvin  in  the  prosecution  of  tliis 
work ;  yet  he  has  never  consulted  them  but  with  advantage  and 
with  pleasure. 

3.  VicToniNus  Strigelics  was  nearly  contemporary  with 
Luther  and  Calvin,  and  wrote  arguments  and  notes  to  the  whole 
of  the  Bible,  which  were  published  at  different  times  between  the 
years  1565  and  1586,  and  in  various  sizes.2  They  are  much 
admired  for  their  exactness,  particularly  his  'r^c/zfjiz-taT*  on  the 
New  Testament,  which  are  noticed  in  a  subsequent  page. 

4.  LuDOvici  De  Dieu  Critica  Sacra,  sive  Animadversiones 
in  Loca  quaedam  difficiliora  Veteris  et  Novi  Testamenti.  Am- 
stelodami,  1693,  folio. 

«  Conybeare's  Hampton  Lectures  for  1824,  p.  2-37.  In  the  Andover  Bibli- 
cal Repository  for  18.32  (vol  ii.  pp.  &11— 568.),  there  is  an  elaborate  essay 
on  the  merits  of  Calvin  as  an  interpreter,  translated  from  the  German  of 
Professor  Tliohick,  of  Halle  ;  under  whose  auspices  (aided  by  funds  fur- 
nished by  some  friends  to  sacred  literature  in  England)  a  new,  very  neat, 
and  cheap  edition  of  Calvin's  Coinmentary  on  the  New  Testament  was 
published  in  small  Svo.  volumes,  between  the  years  1831  and  1S34. 

a  Masch  has  given  the  titles  and  dates  of  their  respective  publications; 
vol.  iii.  pp.  424-427. 


lOS 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  IL  Chap.  V. 


A  work  of  acknowledged  character:  "  Perhaps  no  man  ever  pos- 
sessed a  more  consummate  knowledge  of  the  Oriental  languages 
than  de  Dieu,  nor  employed  his  knowledge  to  more  useful  pur- 
poses."    (Bibliog.  Diet.  vol.  ill.  p.  123.) 

5.  Skbastiasi  Schmidii  Commentarii  in  Gcnesin,  Josuam, 
Rath,  Reges,  Samuelem,  Jobum,  Psalmos,  Ecclesiastcn,  lesaiam, 
Jeremiam,  Hoseam,  Evangclium  Johannis,  et  Epistolas  Pauli  ad 
Romanos,  Galatas,  et  Hcbneos.  Argcntorati,  1687,  et  annis 
sequentibus.  4to. 

Sebastian  Schmidt  was  at  least  the  most  lalwrious  and  volumi- 
nous commentator  of  his  age  (the  seventeenth  century).  Mosheim's 
Eccles.  Hist.  vol.  v.  p.  233. 

6.  Chitici  SAcni :  sive  Annotata  doctissimorum  Virorum  in 
Vetus  ac  Novum  Testamentum  ;  quibus  acccdunt  Traclatus  varii, 
Theologico-Philologici,  9  tomis  in  12  voluminibus.  Anistelo- 
dami,  1698,  folio. 

This  great  work,  first  publi.shed  at  London  in  IGfiO,  in  9  vols, 
folio,  under  the  direction  of  Bishop  Pearson,  John  Pearson,  Antiiuny 
Scattergood,  and  Francis  Gouldman,  is  considerably  augineiiied  in 
the  above  second  and  best  edition.  The  notes  of  Grotiu.s,  Vatiblus, 
and  Drusius,  Monster,  Caslalio,  Clarius,  Junius,  and  Tremellius, 
are  to  be  found  in  tliis  collection,  besides  a  multitude  of  commen- 
tators on  particular  books,  and  numeroiis  valuable  disquisitions  on 
particular  subjects,  which  are  enumerated  by  Dr.  A.  Clarke  in  the 
general  preface  to  his  Commentary,  vol.  i.  p.  xiii.  To  complete  this 
great  work,  there  were  published  at  Amsierdam,  in  1701,  Thesau- 
rus Theologico-Philologicus,  in  2  vols.  Iblio,  and  in  1732,  in  two 
folio  volumes  also,  Thesaurus  Novus  Theologico-Philologicus, — 
two  valuable  collections  of  critical  and  philological  dissertations 
by  the  most  eminent  biblical  critics  of  that  day.  These  are  neces- 
sary to  complete  the  Crilici  Sacri ;  of  which  great  work  an  admi- 
rulile  abridgment  has  been  published  under  tlie  title  of, 

7.  Matth.t5I  Poli  Synopsis  criticorum  aliorumque  SS.  Intcr- 
pretum.  London,  1669  — 1671,  5  vols,  folio.  Utrecht,  5  vols, 
folia,  1684  ;  also  Frankfort,  1712,  5  vols,  folio,  and  1694,  5  vols, 
large  4to. 

On  this  most  elaborate  work  the  learned  author  spent  teti  years ; 
it  consolidates  with  great  skill  and  conciseness  all  the  Critici  Sacri 
of  the  lAjndon  edition  into  one  continued  comment,  besides  many 
valuable  addition.s  frtjm  other  authors  of  note,  Hammond,  &c.  and 
his  own  corrections  and  decisions  in  several  places.  It  has  many 
'advantages  over  the  Crilici  Sacri,  not  only  in  jx)int  of  size,  but  also 
in  Its  admirable  arrangement  and  concentration  of  evidence,  and 
in  the  author's  remarks  ;  and  it  furnishes  a  most  complete  material 
index  to  the  Critici  Sacri.  (Dr.  Ilales's  Analysis  of  Chronology, 
vol.  ii.  preface,  p.  xviii.)  Of  the  various  editions  above  noticed, 
that  edited  at  Utrecht  by  Professor  Leusden,  is  by  far  tlio  best  and 
most  correct.  The  it>lio  Frankfort  edition  is  not  worth  purchasing, 
on  account  of  its  incorrectness.  The  4to.  edition,  which  is  some- 
whxit  better,  is  nevertheless  very  inaccurate  :  it  is  badly  printed, 
and  sells  at  a  very  low  price. 

8.  Biblia  Sacra  Vulgata  Editionis,  Sixti  V.  ct  Clementis  VIIT. 
Pont.  Max.  auctoritatc  recognila,  una  cum  sclcctis  Annotationi- 
bus  ex  oplimi.s  quibusque  Interpretibus  excerptis,  Prolcgomcnis, 
novis  Tabulis  Chronologicis,  Historicis,  el  Geographicis  illustrata, 
Indiceque  Epistolarum  et  Evangeliorum'aucta.  Auctore  J.  B. 
t)V  Ha.mel.     Pari.siis,  1706,  2  tomis,  folio. 

The  Prolegomena  treat  briefly  on  the  canon  nnd  inspiration  of 
the  Holy  Scrfptures,  nv.A  on  thnir  transmission  to  our  times,  incor- 
rupt; on  the  authority  and  various  editions  of  the  Hebrew  text  and 
ancient  Versions;  and  oii  the  exposition  of  the  Bible,  including  its 
style,  figurative  language,  and  spiritual  sense.  A  short  Chronolo- 
gic;il  and  Geographical  Appendix  is  subjoined,  in  which  the  weights, 
in'^asures,  and  money  of  the  Hebrews  are>liscussed. 

9.  Lv  Sai>-tk  Bible,  cxpliqucc  par  David  Mautin.  Am- 
.•.fcrdain,  1707,  2  vols,  folio. 

M.  Martin  revised  the  Geneva  version  of  the  French  Bible,  and 
i,orrected  it  so  materially,  that  it  is  frequently  considered  us  a  new 
translation.  The  short  notes,  which  he  has  annexed,  contain  much 
good  sense,  learning,  and  piety. 

10.  JoA\?(i8  Cleiiici  Translalio  Librorum  Veleris  Testamcnti, 
cum  ejusdem  Paraphrasi  perpetua,  Commentario  Philologico, 
Dissertationibus  Criticis,  Tabulisquc  Chronologicis  et  Geographi- 
cis, folio,  4  vols.  Amstelodanii,  1708,  1710,  171.'). — Ejuwlem, 
Translalio  ex  Anglica  Lingui  Henrici  Hammondi  Paraphrasis 
et  Ailnolalionum  in  Novum  Testamentum,  Animadvcrsionibus 
suis  illustrata.     Francofurti,  1714,  2  vols,  folio. 

Le  ('lercN  Translation  and  Commentary  are  liiglily  fommcndeil 
by  Bishop  \V'aI»on  :  of  Dr.  Hammoiid's  Piiraphrnso  and  Nolen  on 
the  New  Tcstnnn'iit,  t^omo  account  is  given  bclnw.  Many  of  Le 
Clorc's  observations  throw  srent  light  on  the  Scriptures;  in  others 
he  has  indulce<l  his  own  fancy,  and,  what  is  niosl  lo  bo  regretted, 
haa  completely  frittered  away  the  meaning  of  the  Prophecies  con- 
cerning our  Saviour.  He  considers  miracles  as  etfect.M  of  nature. 
Hin  commentaries  on  tho  Prophets  aixl  on  the  Hiiglographa  arc 
greatly  inferior  lo  those  on  the  Pentateuch.    John  Justus  vonEinera 


published  a  volume  of  Animarlversiones  ad  Joannis  Clerici  Com- 
mentarios,  at  Magdeburg,  1735,  8vo. 

11-  OsTERVALD  (Jean-Frederic)  La  Sainte  Bible,  avec  le« 
Argumens  el  Reflexions.     Neufchatel,  1772.  folio. 

M.  Ostervald  was  an  eminent  divine  of  the  French  Protestant 
church.  The  French  text  of  the  Bible  is  that  of  the  Geneva  ver- 
sion, revised  and  corrected  by  himself;  whence  it  is  often  considered 
as  a  new  version.  Ostervald's  arguments  and  reflections  are  very 
valuable,  and  have  been  liberally  consulted  by  later  commentators 
A  detaclied  translation  of  them,  in  three  vols.  8vo.,  was  published 
by  Mr.  Chamberlayne  in  the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century 
at  the  request  and  under  the  patronage  of  the  Society  for  promoting 
Christian  Knowledge:  the  latter  editions  of  this  translation  are  in 
two  volumes,  8vo. 

12.  JoAxxis  CoccEii  Commentarii  in  Sacras  Scripturas,  in 
ejus  Operibus.     Amslelodami,  10  vols,  folio. 

The  Commentaries  of  Cocceius  are  al.so  extant  in  quarto  and  (olio, 
under  difiereiit  dates  as  they  were  published.  It  is  the  fault  of  iliis 
learned  man,  iSiat  he  has  in  the  Old  Testament  spiritualizid  every 
thing  to  the  utmost ;  his  commentaries,  however,  particularly  on 
the  JVeiv  Testament,  aboimd  with  valuable  illustrations,  and  will 
amply  repay  the  trouble  of  perusal.  He  is  "  a  commentator  Irom 
whom  a  judicious  expositor  may  derive  much  assistance.  Often 
fanciful,  and  even  Itinatical,  he  is  learned,  pious,  and  far  more  dis- 
cerning in  the  true  scope  of  prophecy  than  many  who  succeeded 
him."     (Dr.  Apthorpe's  Disc,  on  Prophecy,  vol.  i.  p.  106.) 

13.  Cai-Met. — Commentaire  Littcral  sur  tons  les  Livrcs  do 
I'Ancien  et  du  Nouveau  Testament,  par  Augustin  Calmet. 
Paris,  1719—1726,  8  tomis,  in  9  vols,  folio. 

It  contain.-;  the  Latin  text  of  the  Vulgate,  and  a  French  version 
in  collateral  columns,  with  the  notes  at  the  bottom  of  each  pa;?»>. 
It  has  a  vast  apparatus  of  prefaces  and  dissertations,  in  which  im- 
mense learning,  good  sense,  sound  judgment,  and  deep  piety  are 
invariably  displayed.  "  This  is  without  exception  the  best  comment 
on  the  Sacred  Writings  ever  published,  either  by  Catholics  or  Pro- 
testants." (Dr.  A.  Clarke.)  Wulchius  (Bibl.  Theol.  vol.  iv.  p.  433.) 
has  pronounced  an  equally  strong  but  well-deserved  eulogfum  on 
this  valuable  work,  to  which  we  have  been  largely  indebted  in  the 
course  of  these  volumes. 

14.  La  Sainte  Bible  de  Vence,  en  Latin  ct  en  Frangais,  avcC 
des  Notes  Litteraires,  Critiques  ct  Hisloriques,  des  Prefaces,  et 
Dissertations,  tirces  du  Commentaire  de  Dom  Calmet,  Abbi5  de 
Scnones,  de  I'Abbc  de  Vence,  et  des  autres  auteurs  les  plus  cele- 
brcs,  pour  facilitcr  rintelligcnce  de  I'Ecriturc  Sainte;  enrichic 
d'un  Atlas  ct  de  Cartes  G^ographiqucs.  Cinquieine  edition, 
soigneuscment  rtivue  et  augmentee  d'un  grand  nombrc  de  Notes 
par  M.  Dracii,  Rabbin  convcrti,  et  enrichie  de  nouvelles  Disser- 
tations.    Paris,  1827 — 1834,  27  tomes,  8vo.  Avec  Atlas. 

This  was,  originally,  a  reprint  of  the  Bible  published  in  Latin  and 
French  by  L.  E.  Ro.ndet,  first  in  1743  in  fourteen  volumes,  quarto, 
and,  a  second  time,  between  the  years  1707  and  1774.  The  date 
of  the  third  edition  we  have  not  been  able  to  ascertain.  The 
French  translation,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  corrections,  is  that 
of  father  Carriercs.  Besides  the  Latin  Vulgate  and  French  version, 
this  work  contains  prefaces  to  the  several  books,  notes,  and  disser- 
tations, chiefly  taken  from  Calmet,  but  abridged  in  some  places,  and 
in  others  altered  or  enlarged  :  most  of  the  alterations  are  pointed 
out.  There  are  also  notes,  and  several  dissertations  from  the  Abba 
UK  Ve.nck,  and  the  fathers  Houhigant  and  Carricres,  with  many 
additions  by  Rondel  ;  though  these  last  are  not  very  distinctly 
specified.  The  critical  and  historical  dissertations,  which  are  one 
hundred  and  seventy  in  number,  treat  on  various  passages  of  Scrip- 
ture and  biblical  subjects.  There  are  seven  large  indexes  relative 
to  Scripture  chronology  and  geography,  to  the  Hebrew,  Chaldee, 
Syriac,  and  Greek  names,  and  in  general  to  the  contents  of  the  text, 
prefaces,  di.ssertalions,  notes,  &.c.  The  Atlas  contains  thirty-eight 
maps  and  engravings.  There  is  an  edition  of  this  Bible  primed  at 
Mismes,  in  seventeen  volumes. 8 vo.  (I'eignot  Manuel  du  Bibliophile, 
tom.  ii.  p.  134.  Month.  Rev.  O.  S.  vol.  lii.  p.  341.)  The  fourth  cdi- 
tion  was  published  at  Paris  in  1820 — 1824,  in  twenty-fivo  volumes, 
8vo. 

The  fluperiniendenco  of  the  fifth  edition  was  confided  to  M. 
Dracii,  formerly  a  Jewish  rabbi,  who  embraced  Christianity  in  the 
form  professed  oy  the  Romish  church.  This  edition  was  intended, 
at  first,  to  be  a  mere  reprint  of  the  Bible  de  Vence,  revised  and 
accompanied  with  additional  notes.  But,  with  the  seventh  volume, 
the  editor  entirely  changed  the  plan  which  he  had  adoplcil  at  tho 
C(immenccment  of  the  undertaking,  and  instead  of  revising  the 
French  version  of  father  Carriiires,  he  has  so  altered  the  latter  in 
tiie  seventh,  and  following  volumes,  as  lo  render  it  a  new  translation. 
M.  Brunei  states  that  these  alterations,  which  were  made  in  order 
lo  plea-oo  the  then  dominant  party  in  the  llomish  Church  in  France, 
were  by  no  means  satisfuclorv  to  divines.  (Supplement  au  Manuel 
du  Libraire,  tom.  i.  p.  152.)  Besides  the  correction  of  typographi- 
cal errors,  this  edition  contains  the  following  among  other  improve- 
menis  :  vi/.  1.  New  Dissertalions  relative  lo  alleged  difTicullies 
drawn  from  geology,  astronomy,  chronology,  the  zodiac  of  Dcndera, 
Arc.  A:c.  by  varuiic*  distinguished  scholars,  c.oppcially  tho  AblK- Htil- 
ma  ; — 2.  Itefercnces  to  the  best  authors  who  have  refuted,  in  detail, 
tho  objtclions  of  modern  infidels;  —  3.   Numerous  notes  by  M. 


Sect.  III.  §  3.] 


BRITISH  COMMENTATORS  ON  THE  WHOLE  BIBLE. 


109 


Drach; — 4.  A  new  and  corrected  Alias,  on  thirty-seven  plates,  con- 
sisting of  maps  and  other  engravings,  to  illustrate  the  Scripture 
History ; — and,  5.  A  notice  of  the  best  works  treating  on  the  Bible 
generally,  and  on  each  book  in  particular.  And  as  M.  Drach  in  his 
notes  often  refers  tohis  "Letters  d'un  Rabbin  Convert!  aux  Israelites 
Bes  Freres"  (Paris,  1825 — 1827,  Svo.),  it  will  be  desirable  to  add 
these  letters  to  the  work  itself.  An  Italian  translation  of  M.  Drach's 
edition  of  the  Bible  de  Vence  was  published  at  Milan  in  1830  and 
following  years. 

15.  Chais. — La  Sainte  Bible,  avee  un  Commentaire  liitteral, 
et  des  Notes  choisies,  tirees  dc  divers  Auteurs  Anglois,  Sec,  par 
Charles  Chais.     Hague,  1743—1790,  7  vols.  4to. 

Besides  a  French  translation,  which  in  general  is  judicious,  this 
learned  and  elaborate  work  contains  a  valuable  comment  on  the 
Old  Testament  as  far  as  the  end  of  the  historical  books.  The 
seventh  volume  was  posthumous,  and  was  edited  by  the  late  Rev. 
Dr.  Maclaine.  "  It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  the  learned  and 
pious  author  did  not  complete  the  whole.  What  he  has  published 
imwever,  at  long  intervals,  is  excellent.  His  notes  are  chiefly 
taken,  as  he  professes,  from  the  best  English  commentators,  to  whom 
lie  gives  a  decided  preference  above  the  foreign,  Houbigant,  Cal- 
met,  &c. ;  all  of  whom  he  appears  to  have  carefully  studied.  It  may 
therefore  be  justly  considered  as  a  considerable  and  valuable  im- 
provement upon  his  predecessor.s,  of  every  description,  as  far  as  it 
goes."     (Dr.  Hales.) 

16.  HouBiGAVT. — Caroli  Francisci  Houbioantii  Notse  Cri- 
tics in  Universos  A^eteris  Testamniiti  Libros,  cum  Hebriace,  turn 
Greece  scriiitos.  Cum  integris  ejnsdem  Prolegomenis.  Franco- 
furti  ad  Moenum,  1777,  2tomis,  4to. 

A  neat  reprint  of  the  Prolegomena  and  notes  annexed  by  Houbi- 
gant to  his  Critical  F.dition  and  Version  of  the  Old  Testament, 
which  has  already  been  noticed  in  p.  36.  of  this  Appendix. 

17.  Jo.  Aug.  Dathii  Libri  Veteris  Testament!,  ex  Recensione 
Textiis  Hebra;i  et  Versionum  Antiquarum,  Latine  ver.si,  notis  phi- 
lologicis  et  criticis  illustrati.     Halae,  1773 — 1789,  6  vols.  Svo. 

This  work  is  in  high  repute  on  the  Continent :  see  a  notice  of 
Dathe's  Latin  version  in  p.  32.  of  this  Appendix.  The  diflicultand 
obscure  passages  are  illustrated  by  noles  placed  at  the  bottom  of 
the  page.  After  M.  Dathe's  decease,  Rosenmiiller  edited  a  collec- 
tion of  his  Opusrula  ad  Crisin  et  Inlcrjnetalionem  Ve/cris  Tesfa- 
menti  spectantia,  8\o.  Lipsifc,  1795.  These  should  be  added  to  the 
al)ove  work,  as  ikey  contain  critical  disquisitions  on  some  ancient 
versions,  &c. 

IS.  Interpretatio  Sacrae  Scripturs  per  omnes  Veteris  et  Novi 
Tistamenti  Libros,  ab  Joanne  Ncp.  Ai.bku,  Clerico  Regular!  e 
JScholis  Piis,  S.  Theologis  Doctore,  Linguarum  Orientalium  et 
Sacrae  Scripturae  in  Archiepiscopali  Lyceo  Professore.  Pesthini 
[Pesth,  in  Hungary],  1801 — 1804,  16  large  vols.  Svo. 

Though  published  upwards  of  thirty  years  since,  this  exposition 
was  unknown. in  England  until  the  year  1827,  wlien  a  few  copies 
were  imported.  Professor  Alber  dedicated  it  to  the  clergy  of  the 
Romish  church  in  Hungary,  for  whose  use  he  undertook  its  compi- 
lation. There  are  three  maps,  and  to  each  volume  there  is  a  list 
of  numerous  errata,  besides  a  copious  supplementary  list  in  the  last 
volume,  all  of  which  ought  to  be  corrected  before  the  work  can  be 
consulted.  To  the  first  volume  are  prefixed  about  fifty  pages  of 
preliminary  observations  on  the  various  aids  for  the  interpretation 
of  Scripture,  which  are  not  characterized  either  by  novelty  or  depth 
of  information.  The  following  is  the  method  pursued  by  the  au- 
thor. At  the  beginning  of  each  book  are  placed  a  short  preface, 
treating  on  its  author,  and  a  synopsis  of  its  contents.  The  te.xt  of 
the  Latin  Vulgate  is  then  inserted  :  and  when  any  passage  occurs 
which  appears  to  be  either  difficult  or  ob.scure,  he  endeavours  to 
elucidate  it, — more  in  the  way  of  exposition  than  of  concise  critical 
annotations.  Dr.  Alber  professes  to  have  consulted  the  various  exe- 
gelical  labours,  both  of  Protestants  and  Romanists  ;  and  that  he  has 
endeavoured  to  state  the  various  points  of  difference  between  them 
without  asperity  and  with  Christian  candour.  In  this  endeavour, 
truth  requires  it  to  be  stated,  that  the  author  has  succeeded.  Wher- 
ever an  occasion  presents  itself,  he  fails  not  to  impugn  and  to  refute 
the  notions  of  the  antisupernaturalist  divines  of  Germany,  as  well 
OS  of  the  enemies  of  divine  revelation.  The  profoundest  reverence 
Id  the  opinions  of  the  fathers  of  the  Christian  church,  and  to  the 
doctrinal  decisions  and  decrees  of  the  Romish  church,  pervades 
this  exposition. 

19.  Libri  Sacri  Antiqui  Foederis  ex  Sermone  Hcbraeo  in  Lati- 
num  translati ;  notatione  brevi  pra;cipu£e  Lectionum  et  Interpre- 
tationum  diversitatis  addita.  Auctoribus  D.  Henrico  August© 
ScHOTT  et  Julio  Friederico  Wixzer.  Volumen  primum.  Al- 
tonsB  et  Lipsiae,  1816,  Svo. 

This  volume  comprises  the  Pentateuch  only.  With  a  few  ex- 
ceptions, the  version  is  said  to  be  close  ;  and  the  annotations,  which 
are  very  brief,  are  strictly  confined  to  the  indication  of  the  princi- 
pal various  lections,  and  of  the  different  interpretations  proposed 
by  eminent  biblical  critics.  The  three  first  books  were  translated 
by  Dr.  Schott,  and  the  la;^l  two  by  M.  Winzer.  This  work  has  not 
been  continued. 


20.  Commentarius  Grammaticus,  in  Vetus  Testamentum  in 
usum  maximc  Gymnasioruin  ct  Academiarum  adornatus.  Scrip- 
sit  Franc.  Jos.  Valent.  Dominicus  Maureh.  3  Fasciculi  form- 
ing one  volume.     Lipsiae,  1832-1834,  Svo. 

This  is  strictly  a  grammatical  commentary,  the  author  of  which 
has  a  strong  leaning  in  favour  of  those  neologian  interpretations 
which  explain  the  Messianic  Prophecies  of  any  one  rather  than  the 
Messiah  himself.  Dr.  Maurer  has  so  perpetually  referred  his  rea- 
ders to  the  valuable  Hebrew  Grammars  of  Gesenius  and  Ewald 
(expressly  in  order  that  they  may  familiarize  themselves  with  them), 
that  his  work  is  of  comparatively  little  use,  except  to  those  who 
may  happen  to  possess  those  Grammars. 

21.  La  Sainte  Bible,  en  Latin  et  en  Francois,  suivie  d'un  Dic- 
tionnaire  Etymologique,  Geographique,  et  Archeologique.  Paris, 
182S-1834,  13  tomes,  Svo. 

The  principal  recommendation  of  this  beautifully  printed  but 
costly  edition  of  the  French  Version  of  the  Scriptures,  is  the  Etymo- 
logical, Geographical,  and  Archajological  Dictionary,  which  was 
announced  as  being  compiled  by  M.  Barbier  du  Socage,  under 
whose  direction  an  Atlas,  possessing  more  than  ordinary  claims  to 
attention  on  account  of  its  accuracy,  w^as  to  be  designed  and  en- 
graved. The  version  is  that  of  De  Sacy,  which  is  printed  in 
columns,  and  below  it  is  given  in  smaller  charactere  the  Latin  Vul- 
gate. The  first  volume  contains  a  Dissertation  on  the  Authenticity 
of  the  Books  of  the  Old  Testament;  and  to  each  book  of  Scripture 
is  prefixed  a  short  preface  explanatory  of  its  contents.  The  work 
is  adorned  with  sixty-four  engravings,  executed  by  the  most  distin- 
guished French  artists,  after  the  designs  of  Deveria.  Tlie  thirteenth 
volume  contains  the  Chronology  of  the  Bible,  together  with  an  in- 
dex of  the  matters  contained  in  the  Scriptures,  an  explanatory  Dic- 
tionary of  the  Hebrew,  Chaldee,  Syriac,  and  Greek  names  occur- 
ring therein,  and  an  archteological  and  philological  Dictionary  of  the 
Bible.  This  last  is  far  the  most  part  derived  from  Calmet's  well- 
known  Dictionary  :  those  articles,  which  are  not  designated  by  his 
name,  have  been  compiled  from  the  most  recent  authorities. 


[ii.]   British  Commentators  on  the  whole  Bible. 

1.  The  Refohmf.r's  Bible. — The  Holy  Bible,  containing 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  according  to  the  Authorized  Ver- 
sion ;  with  short  Notes  by  several  learned  and  pious  Reformers, 
as  printed  by  Royal  Authority  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation, 
with  additional  Notes  and  Dissertations.     London,  1810,  4to. 

The  notes  on  the  Old  Testament  in  this  edition  are  reprinted 
from  those  appended  to  the  English  version  of  the  Bible,  published 
at  Geneva  by  Coverdale,  Sampson,  and  other  reformers,  who  fled 
to  that  city  (luring  the  reign  of  Queen  Mary  :  whence  their  trans- 
lation is  generally  known  by  the  appellation  of  the  Geneva  Bible. 
An  account  of  this  is  given  in  p.  36.  of  this  Appendix.  The  anno- 
tations on  the  New  Testament  are  translated  from  the  Latin  of 
Theodore  Beza.  Although  in  this  edition  the  orthography  is  mo- 
dernized, and  the  style  has  in  some  few  instances  been  iwiproved, 
the  editor  (the  Rev.  Thomas  Webster,  B.D.)  states  that  the  utmost 
caution  has  been  observed,  that  no  alteration  should  be  made  in  the 
senliments  of  the  reformers,  whose  "  notes  and  illustrations"  the 
late  eminent  Bishop  Horsley  (no  mean  judge  of  biblical  literature) 
has  pronounced  to  be  "  very  edifying,  except  that  in  many  points 
they  savour  too  much  of  Calvinism."  The  notes  on  the  Apoca- 
lypse are  selected  by  the  editor  from  various  commentators  :  he  has 
also  occasionally  supplied  arguments  to  the  diflJerent  books  of  the 
Old  and  NewTestaments:  hisdissertationson  which, though  concise, 
are  sufficiently  comprehensive  for  those  readers  who  have  not  lei. 
sure  to  consult  more  expensive  commentaries.  A  few  useful  mapi 
and  tables  accompany  the  work,  which  is  further  ornamented  with 
some  neatly  executed  vignette  engravings. 

2.  Hall  (Bishop). — Contemplations  on  the  Old  and  Ne-.f 
Testaments.     London,  ISOS,  2  vols.  Svo. 

These  have  been  reprinted  at  various  times  and  in  different 
forms ;  the  edition  now  noticed  was  published  by  the  Rev.  Josiaii 
Pratt,  B.D.,  and  is  very  correctly  printed.  Bishop  Hall's  Contein. 
plations  "  are  incomparably  valuable  for  language,  criticism,  and 
devotion."  (Dr.  Doddridge.)  The  Bishop  also  wrote  a  "Paraphras* 
tic  Exposition  of  hard  Texts,"  which  forms  the  3d  and  4th  vols,  of 
Mr.  Pratt's  edition  of  his  whole  works.  These  expository  notes  Dr. 
D.  pronounces  to  be  "  very  valuable,  especially  for  showing  the 
spirit  and  force  of  many  expressions  that  occur."  They  do  not, 
however,  contain  much  learned  criticism.  Most  of  them,  if  not  all, 
are  inserted  in  the  valuable  Commentary  of  Bp.  Mant  and  Dr 
D'Oyly,  noticed  below. 

3.  Mater. — A  Commentary  upon  the  Bible;  wherein  the 
Divers  Translations  and  Expositions,  Literall  and  Mysticall,  of 
the  most  famous  Commentators,  both  ancient  and  modern,  are 
propounded  and  examined,  by  John  Mater.  London,  1653, 
5  vols,  folio. 

4.  Annotations  upon  all  the  Books  of  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 
tament: this  third,  above  the  first  and  second  editions,  so  enlarged, 
as  they  make  aa  entire  Commentary  on  the  Sacred  Scripture; 


110 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Paut  n.  Chap.  V 


the  like  never  before  published  in  English.  Wherein  the  text 
is  explained,  doubts  resolved,  Scriptures  paralleled,  and  various 
readings  observed  ;  by  the  labour  of  certain  learned  divines  there- 
unto appointed,  and  therein  employed,  as  is  expressed  in  the 
preface.     London,  1657,  2  vols,  folio. 

This  valuable  work  (for  valuable  and  learned  it  is,  considering 
the  lime  when  it  was  composed),  is  usually  called  the  "  Assembly's 
Annotations;"  from  the  circr.msiance  of  its  having  been  composed 
by  members  of  the  Assembly  of  Divines  who  sat  at  Westminster 
durintr  the  great  rebellion.  The  remler  will  find  an  account  of  its 
authors  in  Dr.  Calamy's  Life  of  Mr.  Baxter,  p.  80.  et  seq. 

5.  Poole. — Annotations  upon  the  Holy  Bible,  wherein  tlie 
sacred  text  is  inserted,  and  various  readings  annexed  ;  together 
with  the  parallel  Scriptures.  The  more  difficult  terms  are  ex- 
plained ;  seeming  contradictions  reconciled  ;  doubts  resolved,  and 
the  whole  text  opened.  By  the  Rev.  Matthew  Poole.  London, 
1683,  2  vols,  folio.     Edinburgh,  1803,  4  vols.  4to. 

The  Annotations  are  mingled  with  the  text,  and  are  allowed  to 
be  very  judicious;  the  author  (who  was  an  eminent  non-conformist 
divine)  wrote  them  only  as  far  as  the  58ih  chapter  of  Isaiah  ;  the 
remainder  of  the  notes  was  compiled  after  the  same  manner,  by 
several  eminent  dissenting  ministers. 

6.  Clarke. — The  Old  and  New  Testament,  with  Annota- 
tions and  parallel  Scriptures.  By  Samuel  Claiike,  A.M.  Lon- 
don, 1690,  folio. 

The  selection  of  parallel  texts  is  admirable ;  and  the  notes,  though 
very  brief,  are  v\ritten  with  great  judgment.  The  work  was  com- 
mended in  very  high  terms  by  Drs.  Owen  and  Bates,  as  well  as  by 
Mr.  Baxter  and  Mr.  Howe.  "  It  has  been  an  excel.'ent  fund  for 
some  modern  commentators,  who  have  republished  a  great  part  of 
it  with  very  little  alteration."  (Chalmers's  Biog.  Diet.  vol.  ix. 
p.  403.)  This  work,  notwithstanding  the  learned  author  was  a 
non-conformist,  is  inserted  in  the  list  of  books  reconnnended  by 
Bishop  Cleaver  lo  the  attention  of  the  younger  clergy.  It  is  unfor- 
tunately very  scarce  and  dear.  The  purchaser  must  be  careful 
that  he  be  not  misled  by  another  Bible  published  also  in  one  vol. 
Ibiio,  in  1811,  in  the  name  of  S.Clarke,  in  numbers;  and  which  is 
u  very  indifferent  compilation  by  some  anonymous  editor  from 
various  commcntiitorj,  all  of  whom  lived  long  after  the  time  of 
Mr.  Clarke. 

7.  The  Rev.  Dr.  Edward  Wells  publi-shed  a  Help  for  the 
Right  Understanding  of  the  Scripture,  in  various  parts,  between 
the  years  1709  and  1728.  As  this  useful  work  is  not  often  to  be 
met  with  complete,  the  following  bibliographical  notice  of  it  is 
copied  from  the  Rev.  Dr.  Cotton's  List  of  Editions  of  the  Bible 
and  of  parts  thereof.     (Appendix,  pp.  163 — 165.) 

Wells' 8  Paraphrase  of  the  Old  Testament. 

Part  L  The  Title,  "  An  Help  for  the  more  easy  and  dear 
understanding  of  the  Holy  Scriptures :  being  the  book  of  Gene- 
sis explained  after  the  following  method :  viz.  The  common 
English  Translation  rendered  more  agreeable  to  the  original.  A 
paraphrase.  Annotations."  Oxford,  printed  at  the  Theatre, 
1724.  "A  preface  to  the  reader,"  5  pages.  "The  general  pre- 
face," XV  pages.  "  A  discourse  of  the  year,  &c.  in  use  among 
the  Jews,"  p.  1 — 91.  "A  Chronological  Account,"  &c.  23  pages, 
not  numbered.  Additional  notes,  6  pages,  not  numbered.  'I'hc 
text,  p.  1 — 277.     A  synopsi.s  to  the  Pentateuch,  2  pages. 

Part  II.  Title,  "An  Help,"  &c.  as  before:  containing  Exodus, 
Leviticus,  Numbers,  and  Deuteronomy,  printed  1725.  "A  pre- 
face to  the  reader,"  p.  i — xi.  Errata,  1  leaf,  not  numbered. 
Exodu.H,  p.  1  — 149.  Leviticus,  p.  1 — 86.  Numbers  and  Deu- 
teronomy, p.  1 — 236. 

I'art  111.  Title,  "An  Help,"  <Scc.  containing  Joshua,  Judges, 
and  Ruth:  printed  172.5.  A  preface  to  the  reader,  11  pages. 
Joshua,  p.  1 — 84.  Synopsis,  1  leaf,  not  numbered.  Judges  and 
Ruth,  p.  1—102. 

Part  IV.  "  An  Help,"  &c.  containing  two  books  of  Samuel, 
and  two  of  Kings  :  printed  1726.  Preface,  p.  i — vi.  Samuel  to 
1  Kings,  chapter  i.  p.  1 — 182.     Errata,   1   leaf,  not  numbered. 

1  Kings,  chapter  ii.  (fee  p.  1 — 148. 

I'arl  V.  "  An  Hel[>,"  &c.  containing  Chronicles,  Ezra,  Nehe- 
miah,  and  Esther:  printed  1727.  Preface  to  the  reader,  p.  i — v. 
<"hroniclc8,  p.  1  — 136.  Ezra,  Nchemiah,  and  Estlier,  p.  I — 80. 
a  continuation  of  Jewish  history,  p.  81  — 109.  Chronological 
tables,  2  jmgeH. 

Part  VI.  "An  Help,"  &c.  containing  Psalms,  Proverbs,  Ec- 
clcsiastcs,  and  Canticles:  printeil  1727.     Preface  to  the  reader, 

2  pages.  Job  to  Psalm  Ix.  p.  1—160.  P*ilrn  hi— il.  p.  1  —  115. 
Preface  to  Proverbs,  &c.  4  pages,  unnumbered.  I'roverbs,  Ac. 
p.  l-'llfi. 

Part  VII.  "  An  Help,"  &c.  containing  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  and 


Lamentations:   printed   1728.     A  general  discourse,  p.  i — xvi 
Isaiah,  p.  1 — 162.     Jercmiali  and  Lamentations,  p.  1 — 168. 

Part  VIII.  "  An  Help,"  &c.  containing  Ezechiel :  printeu 
1728.     The  text  of  Ezechiel,  p.  1—178. 

Part  IX.  "An  Help,"  &c.  containing  Daniel:  printed  171ft 
Dedication,  4  pages,  not  numbered.     General  preface,   with  tti 
table,  p.  1 — 10.    Discourse,  with  four  tables,  p.  11 — 44.    DanielJ 
p.  1 — 134.     Synopsis,   1  leaf.     Various  reailings,  p.  137 — 170.1 
N.  B.  This  edition  of  Daniel  was  published  with  the  New  Tes- 
tament: a  second  was  printed  1728. 

Part  X.  "An   Help,"  &c.  containing  the  twelve  Minor  Pro-l 
phets:    printed    1723.     General   preface,  p.  i — v.     Preface   tol 
Hosea,    p.  i — vi.     Hosea   to   Obadiah,   p.    1 — 121.     Jonah   to 
Zephaniah,  p.  1—88.     Haggai  to  the  end,  p.  1—77.     N.  B.  A 
second  edition  was  published  in   1729,  containing  a  preface, 
2  pages.     Text,  p.  1 — 244. 

Paraphrase  of  the  JWw  Testament. 

Part  I.  "  An  Help,"  &c.  containing  the  Gospels  and  Acts 
Oxford,  at  the  Theatre,  1718.  General  preface,  p.  i — iv.  Two 
discourses,  p.  v — xx.  Chronological  tables,  p.  xxi — xxxv.  The 
contents  of  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Mark,  5  pages,  not  numbered. 
Then  follows  a  second  title,  "  ^n  Help,"  &c.  containing  the 
Gospels  of  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Mark,  dated  1717.  The  text, 
p.  3—411. 

Part  II.  "An  Help,"  &c.  containing  St.  Luke  and  the  Acts: 
dated  1719.  Advertisement,  &c.  6  pages.  St.  Luke,  p.  1 — 225. 
Acts,  p.  1—209. 

Part  III.  "  An  Help,"  &c.  containing  St.  John's  Gospel :  dated 
1719.     Advertisement,  <fcc.  4  pages.     Text,  p.  1 — 195. 

Part  IV.  A  treatise  on  the  harmony  of  the  four  Gospels,  with 
a  table.     Preface,  2  pages.     The  treatise,  p.  1 — 83. 

Part  V.  "  The  second  part  of  an  Help,"  &c.  containing  the 
Epistle  to  the  Romans:  dated  1711.  Preface,  2  pages.  Prurw 
mial  discourse,  p.  1 — 24.  Text,  p.  1 — 125.  A  second  edition 
was  published  in  1715,  with  a  title  profes.sing  the  part  to  contain 
all  St.  Paul's  Epistles.  General  preface,  synopsis,  and  lists 
books  written  by  Dr.  E.  Wells,  6  pages,  not  numbered.  Adve 
tisement,  &c.  2  pages.  Procemial  discourse,  p.  1 — 20.  Tea 
p.  21—145. 

Part  VI.  "  An  Help,"  &c.  containing  the  Epistles  to  \\\i 
Corinthians:   printed  1714.     Errata,  1  leaf.     Text,  p.  1 — 171. 

Part  VII.  "An  Help,"  &c.  containing  the  Epistles  to  the  Ephc-J 
sians,  Philippians,  Colossians,  Timothy,  Titus,  and  Philemon; 
printed  1715.     The  text,  p.  1  —  173. 

Part  VIII.  "  A  specimen  of  an  Help,"  &c.  being  the  Epistles 
to  the  Thessalonians  and  Galatians :  printed  1709.  Dedication, 
2  pages.  Preface,  5  pages.  Text,  p.  1 — 76.  N.  B.  In  1716 
was  published  a  second  edition ;  the  contents  and  pages  tlie  same. 

Part  IX.  "  An  Help,"  &c.  containing  the  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brews:  printed  1713.     Preface,  2  pages.     Text,  p.  1 — 95. 

Part  X.  "  An  Help,"  &c.  being  the  Catholic  Epistles  :  printed 
1715.     Advertisement,  &c.  2  pages.     Text,  p.  1 — 149. 

Part  XI.  "  An  Help,"  &c.  being  the  Revelation  of  St.  John  : 
printed  1717.  Dedication,  2  pages.  Preface,  3  pages.  Table 
and  Explanation.     Text,  p.  1 — 184. 

8.  Patiiick,  Lowtii,  Wiiitut,  and  Arvald's  Commentary 
on  the  Bible.  London,  1727-1760,  7  vols,  folio.  London,  1809, 
8  vols.  4to.    1821,  7  vols.  4to. 

Bishop  Patrick  wrote  the  comraentar)-  on  the  historical  and  poe- 
tical txMjks  of  the  Old  TestumenI,  irt  2  vols. ;  Mr.  W.  Lowni  (father 
of  Bishoj)  Lowlh)  that  on  llio  Prophets,  in  one  vol.;  Dr.  Wiiitbv 
that  on  the  iVew  Teslanicni,  in  2  vols.  ;  and  Mr.*AR.\Ai.D  the  com- 
mentary on  the  Apc)cryiili;il  books.  The  four  volumes  of  Patrick, 
Lowlh,  .ind  Arnuld,  are  justly  valued,  as  containing  one  of  the  best 
commentaries  on  the  Old  TestJimcnt  and  .Apocrypha  which  we  have 
in  the  Knglish  language.  As  Dr.  Whitby's  work  on  the  New  Tes- 
Linienl  is  very  freiiuently  iiiinid  sei)araie  from  ilic  alK)ve  commen- 
tators, the  reader  will  liiid  si>mo  account  of  it,  infra,  in  the  list  of 
commentators  on  the  New  Testament. 

9.  Henrt. — An  Exposition  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament, 
by  the  Rev.  Matthew  Hknry,  folio,  5  vols.  4to.  6  vols,  various 
Editions;  also  in  6  vols.  4 to.  London,  1827,  3  vols,  imperial 
8vo.     London,  1828. 

More  than  a  century  has  elapsed  since  this  F.xposition  was  first 
publitihed.  Il  is  chiclly  prai-lical ;  yet,  without  nnv  jmradc  of  learn- 
mg,  it  frequently  contains  c'>od  explanations  ol'  diflicult  pn.ssaccs. 
Tlic  numerous  editions  llrroiigh  which  it  has  jmssed  sulJicienlly 
attest  the  groat  estimation  in  wliich  il  has  been  held.  Il  is  porhaji' 
the  only  commenlnry,  "  so  large,  that  deserves  to  be  entirely  nim 
ailenlively  read  through.  The  remarkable  pa.ssages  shi>uld  bo 
marked  :  Uierc  is  much  to  be  learned  in  litis  v^'ork  in  a  speculaiivo 


Sect.  IO.  §  3.] 


BRITISH  COMMENTATORS  ON  THE  WHOLE  BIBLE. 


Ill 


and  still  more  in  a  practical  way."  (Dr.  Doddridge.)  The  London 
quarto  edition  of  1811  was  supcrinlended  by  the  Rev.  Messrs.  Bur- 
der  and  Hughes,  and  is  very  correct.  The  text  of  this  impression 
has  been  followed  in  the'  beautifully  printed  edition  of  1827,  to 
vvhicli  is  prefixed  an  Introuuciory  Essay  by  ihc  Rev.  Edward  Bick- 
ersteth.  The  imperial  octavo  edition  is  also  beautifully  printed  : 
to  the  first  volume  is  prefixed  a  Liie  of  the  Author,  by  Mr.  J.  B. 
U'illiams. 

10.  Gill. — An  Exposition  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament, 
in  which  the  sense  of  the  sacred  text  is  given  ;  doctrinal  and 
practical  truths  are  set  in  a  plain  and  easy  light ;  dillicult  pas- 
sages explained  ;  seeming  contradictions  reconciled  ;  and  what- 
ever is  material  in  the  various  readings,  and  the  several  Oriental 
versions,  is  observed.  The  whole  illustrated  by  notes  from  the 
most  ancient  Jewish  writings.  By  John  Gill,  D.D.  London, 
1748—1763,  9  vols,  folio.     London,  1809,  9  vols.  4to. 

In  rabbinical  literature  Dr.  Gill  had  no  equal,  and  he  has  hence 
been  enabled  to  illustrate  many  important  passages  of  Scripture. 
But  he  has  often  spiritualized  his  text  to  absurdity.  "The  massy 
volumes  of  Dr.  Gill  might  almost  form  a  cla.«s  of  their  own,  as  they 
comprehend  every  me'.hod  of  interpretation  ;  and  sometimes,  by 
giving  to  the  same  passage  too  great  a  variety  of  meanings,  they 
leave  the  weak  reader  to  doubt  whether  that  book  can  have  any 
certain  meaning,  which  an  ingenious  expositor  can  interpret,  or 
rather  torture  in  so  many  different  ways."  An  occasional  reference 
to  this  learned  work  is  all,  perhaps,  that  can  be  recommended. 

11.  Purveh, — A  New  and  Literal  Translation  of  all  the 
Books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  with  Notes  critical 
and  explanatory.  By  Antony  Purveii.  London,  1764,  2  vols, 
folio. 

The  author  of  this  translation  was  a  member  of  the  Society  of 
Friends  or  Quakers;  who,  under  very  considerable  disadvantages, 
acquired  a  competent  knowledge  of  the  Hebrew  and  other  Oriental 
languages,  and  also  of  the  Greek.  His  work  was  published  at  the 
expense  of  Dr.  J.  Fothergill.  Although  it  contains  many  improved 
renderings  and  useful  notes,  it  "  has  never  been  highly  valued,  and 
is  much  less  literal  and  much  less  simple  than  the  habits  of  the 
man,  and  those  of  the  religious  community  to  which  he  belonged, 
might  authorize  one  to  expect."  (Dr.  A.  Clarke.)  See  a  further 
account  in  the  Monthly  Review  (O.  S.),  vol.  xxxii.  pp.  19-1 — 205. 

12.  Wesley. — Notes  on  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  by  the 
Rev.  J.  Weslet,  M.A.     Bristol,  1764,  4  vols.  4to. 

In  consequence  of  the  author  being  obliged  to  retrench  his 
notes,  in  order  to  comprise  the  work  within  the  prescribed  limits 
of  four  volumes,  "  the  notes  on  the  Old  Testament  are  allowed  on 
nil  hands  to  be  meagre  and  unsatisfactory.  The  notes  on  the  New 
Testament,  which  have  gone  through  several  editions,  are  of  a 
widely  ditTerent  description ;  though  short,  they  are  always  judi- 
cious, accurate,  spiritual,  terse,  and  impressive,  and  possess  the 
happy  and  rare  quality  of  leading  the  reader  immediately  to  God  and 
his  own  heart."  (Dr.  A.  Clarke.)  The  Rev.  Dr.  Hales  pronounces 
these  notes  to  be  "  commendable  for  their  conciseness,  and  acutely 
pointed  to  the  hearts  and  consciences  of  his  readers  ;"  and  he  men- 
tions the  notes  on  the  Apocalypse,  which  are  chiefly  abridged  from 
the  critical  and  expository  writings  of  Bengel,  as  being  the  most 
valuable  part  of  Mr.  Wesley's  work.  (Analysis  of  Chronology,  vol. 
ii.  pp.  1287,  1288.)  The  text  is  inserted  in  continuous  paragraphs, 
the  verses  being  thrown  into  the  margin,  and  it  contains  several 
happy  corrections  of  the  received  version,  which  are  frequently 
cited  by  Mr.  Granville  Sharp  and  Dr.  Hales. 

13.  The  Holy  Bible,  containing  the  Old  and  New  Testaments, 
according  to  the  present  authorized  English  Version,  with  Notes, 
critical,  explanatory,  and  practical ;  all  the  marginal  readings  of 
the  most  approved  printed  copies  of  the  Scriptures,  with  such 
others  as  appear  to  be  countenanced  b^  the  Hebrew  and  Greek 
originals;  a  copious  collection  of  references  to  parallel  texts; 
summaries  of  the  contents  of  each  book  and  chapter,  and  the  date 
of  every  transaction  and  event  recorded  in  the  Sacred  Oracles, 
agreeably  to  the  calculation  of  the  most  coiTcct  chronologers. 
By  the  Rev,  Joseph  Bensox.  London,  1811 — 1818,  5  vols.  4to. 
Various  subsequent  editions,  also  in  five  volumes,  quarto. 

An  elaborate  and  very  useful  commentary  on  the  Sacred  Scrip- 
lures,  which  (independently  of  its  practical  tendency)  possesses  the 
merit  of  compressing  into  a  comparatively  small  compass  the  sub- 
stance of  what  the  piety  and  learning  of  former  ages  have  advanced, 
in  order  to  facilitate  the  study  of  the  Bible.  Its  late  learned  author 
was  particularly  distinguished  for  his  critical  and  exact  acquaint- 
ance with  the  Greek  Testament. 

14.  CiiuDEx. — The  Complete  Family  Bible :  or  a  Spiritual 
Exposition  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament ;  wherein  each  chap- 
ter is  summed  up  in  its  context,  and  the  sacred  text  inserted  at 
large,  with  Notes,  spiritual,  practical,  and  explanatory.  By  the 
Rev.  Mr.  Cruden.     London,  1770,  2  vols,  folio. 

The  compiler  of  this  indifferently  executed  commentary  is  not 
to  be  confounded  with  Mr.  Alexander  Cruden,  author  of  the  well- 
known  Concordance  to  the  Holy  Scriptures.    It  appears  to  have 


been  originally  publi.shed  in  numbers,  which  circumstance  may 
account  lor  the  paucity  of  copies  now  to  be  met  with. 

15.  DoDi).^ — .\  Commentary  on  the  Books  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments,  in  which  arc  inserted  the  Notes  and  Collections  of 
John  Locke,  Esq.,  Daniel  Waterland,  D.D.,  and  the  Right  Hon. 
Edward  Earl  of  Clarendon,  and  other  learned  persons,  with 
practical  improvements.  By  W.  Dodd,  LL.D.  London,  1770, 
3  vols,  folio. 

In  the  compilation  of  this  work.  Dr.  Dodd  availed  himself  libe- 
rally of  the  labours  of  Calmet,  Chais,  and  Houbigant,  besides  the 
most  eminent  commentators  of  our  own  country,  and  the  manuscript 
collections  mentioned  above.  The  purchaser  should  see  that  vol.  i. 
contains  a  Dissertation  on  the  Pentateuch,  and  vol.  iii.  another  on 
the  Inspiration  of  the  New  Testament ;  which  are  not  unfrequently 
wanting,  especially  the  first,  probably  from  the  work  being  origi- 
nally published  in  numbers.  Dr.  Dodd's  Commentary  was  reprinted 
a  few  years  since  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Coke,  with  several  retrenchments 
and  some  unimportant  additions,  in  six  handsome  volumes,  quarto. 

16.  GoADBT. — An  Illustration  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  by  Notes 
and  Explications  on  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  3  vols,  folio. 

The  publication  of  this  work  commenced  in  the  year  1759,  and 
it  has  been  frequently  reprinted.  It  was  edited  by  Mr.  Go.\dbv  of 
Sherborne;  "it  contains  many  judicious  notes:"  but  "while  it 
seems  to  be  orthodox,  is  written  entirely  on  the  Avian  hypothesis." 
(Dr.  A.  Clarke.)  The  false  and  erroneous  interpretations  contained 
in  this  work  were  forcibly  and  ably  exposed  by  the  Rev.  Walter 
Selion,  in  his  "  Remarks  tlpon  certain  passages  in  a  work  entitled 
an  Illustration  of  the  Holy  Scriptures."     London,  1765,  12mo. 

17.  Haaveis. — The  Evangelical  Expositor;  or  a  Commentary 
on  the  Holy  Bible  wherein  the  Sacred  Text  is  inserted  at  large, 
the  sense  explained,  and  different  passages  elucidated,  with  prac- 
tical observations,  &c.  By  T.  Haweis,  LL.B.  M.D.  London, 
1765,  2  vols,  folio. 

18.  Wilson  (Bishop). — The  Holy  Bible;  contaixing  the 
Books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  carefully  printed  from 
the  first  edition  (compared  with  others)  of  the  present  transla- 
tion :  with  notes  by  Thomas  Wilson,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  Sodor 
and  Man,  and  various  renderings,  collected  from  other  transla- 
tions, by  the  Rev.  Clement  Crutwell,  editor.  London,  1785,  3 
vols.  4to. 

This  edition  contains  a  translation  of  the  apocryphal  third  book 
of  Maccabees,  which  has  not  appeared  in  any  English  Bibles  since 
Beeke's  edition  of  1551.  The  text  and  marginal  references  are 
printed  with  equal  beauty  and  correctness.  "  The  editor  has 
greatly  increased  the  value  of  this  edition  by  inserting  in  the  mar- 
gin different  renderings  of  the  same  passage,  from  all  the  transla- 
tions he  could  procure.  He  also  prefixed  a  particular  account  of 
the  several  English  translations  of  the  Bible,  and  of  their  authors. 
The  bishop's  notes  are  only  to  be  considered  as  brief  hints  either 
for  the  explanation  or  the  practical  improvement  of  particular  pas- 
sages. As  illustrations  of  the  text,  their  value  is  inconsiderable. 
(Monthly  Review,  O.  S.  vol.  Ixxiv.  p.  297.) 

19.  YoNGE. — A  Practical  and  Explanatory  Commentary  on 
the  Holy  Bible,  taking  the  whole  in  one  point  of  view,  from  the 
Creation  to  the  End  of  the  World.  By  I.  Yonge.  London, 
1787,  4to. 

"The  point  of  view  in  which  the  Scriptures  are  here  considered, 
is  their  reference  to  the  redemption  of  the  world  by  Jesus  Christ , 
which  great  event  is  traced  through  the  historical  and  prophetical 
writings  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  the  narrative  and  epistolary 
records  of  the  New,  to  show  that  the  whole  has  one  leading  object 
and  design.  This  work  is  rather  intended  as  a  practical  help  to  the 
meditations  of  the  pious  Christian,  than  as  a  critical  elucidation  of 
the  sacred  writings."     (Monthly  Review,  O.  S.  vol.  Ixxviii.  p.  173.) 

20.  Scott. — The  Holy  Bible,  containing'  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments ;  with  original  notes,  practical  observations,  and  co- 
pious marginal  references.  By  Thomas  Scott,  Rector  of  Aston 
Sandford.  London,  1822,  6  vols.  4to.  Fifth  and  best  edition, 
with  the  author's  last  corrections.  Also  in  1830,  in  3  vols,  im- 
perial 8vo. 

The  first  edition  of  this  work  (the  constant  and  increasing  sale  of 
which  proves  the  high  estimation  in  vdiich  it  is  deservedly  held), 
begun  in  1788,  and  published  in  numbers,  consisted  of  five  thousand 
copies ;  the  second,  in  1805,  of  two  thousand  ;  the  third,  in  1810, 
of  two  thousand  ;  the  fourth,  in  1812,  of  three  thousand  ;  and  the 
fifth  and  latest  edition,  completed  and  published  in  1822,  is  stereu- 
typed — the  largest  work  ever  submitted  to  that  process.  Besides 
these,  eight  other  editions,  consisting  altogether  of  twenty-five 
thousand  two  hundred  and  fifty  copies,  were  printed  in  the  United 
States  of  America  from  1808  to  1819;  where  the  local  and  tempo- 
rary prejudices,  from  which  the  writer  could  not  escape  in  his  own 
countiy,  having  less  force,  its  value  seems  to  have  been  at  once 
acknowledged.  On  the  last  edition  of  this  Commentary  its  learned 
author  was  engaged  at  the  time  of  his  death,  and  bestowed  the  ut- 
most pains  upon  its  revision,  so  as  to  render  it  as  accurate  as  possi- 
ble.   More  particularly,  1.  As  sundry  small  variations  have,  during 


112 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  IL  Chap.  V, 


ihe  l.ipsc  of  two  centuries,  crept  into  onr  romraon  Bibles,  consider- 
able pains  have  been  laken,  bv  the  cn'Uiion  of  ilitfercnt  ediiiorts, 
to  exhibit  an  accurate  copy  of  the  saircil  lex!  sctordin^  to  liie 
liuthorized  version. — 2.  .Not  only  have  the  marginal  rel'erences 
throughoal  been  revised  with  the  utmost  care,  but  it  will  be  found 
that  the  author  has  inserted,  in  the  notes,  and  practical  observa- 
tions, i'reqnent  refereiiciis  to  other  parts  of  his  Commentary.  To 
this  improvement  he  attached  considerable  imp<jrtance :  and  its 
value  will,  no  doubt,  be  felt  by  those  readers  who  may  bestow  suf- 
ficient pains  u\x>n  the  su'yect  lo  enter  into  his  design.  The  student 
may  be  advantageously  .-eferred  to  the  book  of  Proverbs  for  a  spc- 
•  inien  of  this  addition  to  the  work. — 3.  But  the  mo.'t  inriiwrtaiil  im- 
provement which  it  has  received,  consists  in  the  copious  critical 
remarks  whi<li  have  been  introduced.  Many  of  these  occur  in 
the  Old  Testament,  in  all  which  the  original  words  in  Hebrew 
characters,  pointed,  have  been  suljstituied  for  the  English  letters, 
by  which  they  had  been  before  expressed,  wherever  any  thing  of 
the  kind  occurred.  In  the  New  Testament  these  remarks  are  nu- 
merous. Here  also  new  authorities  are  adduced  in  support  of  the 
criticisms  which  had  been  previously  made,  particularly  from 
Schleiisner,  to  whose  valuable  Lexicon  of  the  Greek  Testament 
the  author  was  indelHed  for  much  assistance.  The  critical  re- 
marks, it  is  also  to  be  observed,  are  now  uniformly  carried  to  the 
end  of  the  note,  instead  of  being  interspersed  in  the  body  of  it. — 
4.  Mr.  Scott  had  finished  the  actual  revision  of  this  great  vsork 
nearly  to  the  end  of  the  Second  Epistle  to  Timothy.  The  last  pas- 
sage to  which  he  put  his  hand  was  that  striking  declaration  of  St. 
Paul  (2  Tim.  iii.  1,  2.)  so  applicable  lo  the  present  limes.  Although 
several  alterations  (and  some  of  them  of  considerable  importance)  | 
have  l)een  made  in  the  fifth  edition,  subsequent  to  the  verse  just 
named  ;  yet  these  have  not  been  introduced  without  authority,  but  | 
are  taken,  according  to  the  author's  directions,  from  a  copy  of  the  | 
fourth  edition,  which  he  read  over  soon  after  its  publication,  mak-  | 
inp  such  corrections  as  occurred.  The  critical  remarks  also,  con-  i 
(amed  in  the  former  edition,  have  been,  to  the  close,  arranged,  as 
nearly  as  possible,  according  to  the  plan  adopted  in  the  preceding 
parte  of  the  work. 

••  Tiie  capital  excellency  of  this  valuable  and  immense  under- 
taking, perhaps,  consists  in  following,  more  closely  than  any  other, 
the  fair  and  adequate  meaning  of  every  part  of  Scripture,  without 
regard  lo  the  niceties  of  human  systems  :  it  is,  in  every  sense  of  the 
cxpre.<«sion,  a  scriptural  comment.     It  has  likewise  a  further  and  a 
strong   recommendation   in    its   originality.      Every    part  of  it  is 
thought  out  by  the  author  for  himself,  not  Iwrrowed  from  others. 
The  later  editions,  indeed,  are  enriched  with  brief  and  valuable 
quotations  from  several  writers  of  credit — but  the  substance  of  the 
work  is  entirely  his  owti.     It  is  not  a  compilation,  it  is  an  original 
production,  in  which  you  have  the  deliberate  judgment  of  a  mas- 
culine and  independent  mind  on  all  the  parts  of  Holy  Scripture. 
Every  student  will  understand  the  value  oi'such  a  work.     I'urther, 
it  is  the  comment  of  our  age,  presenting  many  of  the  last  lights 
which  history  casts  on  the  interpretation  of  prophecy,  giving  seve- 
ral of  the  remarlcs  which  sound  criticism  has  accumulated  from  the 
difTerent  branches  of  sacred  literature,  obviating  the  chief  objec- 
tioiwi  which  modern  annolators  have  advanced  against  somCof  the 
distinguishing  doctrines  of  the  CJospel,  and  adajHinij  the   instruc- 
tions of  Scripture  to  the   peculiar  circumstances  of  the  times  in 
which  we  live.    I  may  observe,  also,  that  the  faults  of  method  and 
style,  which  considerably  detract  from  the  merit  of  some  of  his 
other  writings,  are  less  apparent  here,  where  he  had  only  to  follow 
the  order  of  thought  in  the  sacred  book  itself;  whilst  all  his  pow- 
ers and  attainments  had  their  full  scope.     It  was  iho  very  under- 
inkin?  which  required,  less  than  any  other,  the  qualifications  whicli 
lie  did  not  possess,  and  demanded,  more  than  any  other,  those  in 
which  he  excelled.     It  rcquireil  matured  know  Icdgo  of  Scripture, 
iikill  as  a  tcxtuary,  sterling  honesty,  a  firm  grasp  ol'  truth,  unfenrned 
submission  of  mind  lo  every  part  of  the  msiiircd  rt  cords,  a  holy 
temper  of  heart,   unparalleled   diligence   and    perseverance  :  and 
these  were  the  very  characteristics  of  the  man.     When  lo  these 
particulars  it  is  ailded  that  he  lived  to  Biiperintrnd  four  editions, 
each  enriched  with  much  new  and  inifwrtaiil  mailer,  and  had  been 
engagfd  al>ove  three  years  in  a  new  one.  in  which  for  the  fifth 
time  he   had   nearly  completed  a  most  laborious  revision  of  Ihe 
«vhole  work,  we  must  at  least  allow  the  extent  and  iin|Mirlance  of 
tlie  author's  exertions.     Accordingly  the  succf^ss  of  the  work  li:>s 
been  rapidly  and  steadily  increiLsiiiK  from  the  first,  iiol  only  in  our 
own  country,  but  wherever  the  English  language  is  known.     It 
will  soon    be   in    ihe  hand.s  of  most   careful   sludcnls  of  the  holy 
volume,  whether,  in  the  first  instniu  c.  ihry  agree  with  the  author's 
chief  seiilimciits  or  not.     JVor  is  the  lime  disliint  when,  the  passing 
conlroversies   of  the   day  having   been    forjrolleii,  this   prodigious 
uork   will  generally  be  confi'ssed,  in  the   i'roteNtnnt  Chun-hes,  to 
be  one  of  the  most  nound  and   instructive  cominenlarics  produi'cd 
III  our  own  or  any  fMhernge." — (The  irishop  of  Calcutta's  Sermons, 
occasioned  by  the  death  of"  the  Rev.  Thomas  Scoii,  pn.  33 — 3.").  9M. 
."W  ediiion.)     To  the  preceding  just  character  of  this  elaliorntc  com- 
m<'nlnrv,  the  writer  of  these  j>age«  (who  does  not  view  all   topics 
precisely  in  the  same   point  of  view  with   its   Inle  learned  author) 
deems  ii  an  act  of  hnro  justice  lo  slate  that  he  has  never  consulted 
It  in  vain  on  dillicult  passagen  of  the  Scriptures.     While  occupie<l 
in  consirlcring  the  various  olijeclions  of  m'Hlern  infiihds,  he  for  his  i 
uwn  satisfac  lion  Ihimnht  oiil  every  answer  (if  he  may  be  allowed 
the    expression)   for   himself;  referring   only  lo  commcntarieH   in 
questions  of  more  than  orilinary  dilliciilty.     And  in  every  instance — 
««<t)ecially  on  the  Pentateuch — ho  found,  in  Mr.  Scott's  Commcn- 


larj-,  brief  but  solid  refutations  of  al!ege<l  contradictions,  which  he 
could  t1nd  in  no  other  similar  work  extant  in  the  English  language 
The  edition  in  imperial  8vo.  was  sujierintended  by  ihe  Rev.  Messrs 
Josiah  Pratt  (sen.  and  jun.),  upon  tlic  following  plan  : — the  Practi- 
cal Observations,  as  Ibuiid   in   Ihe  stereotyped  quarto  editions,  ore j 
divided  ace-)rdnig  to  the  portions  of  the  text  lo  which  they  belong;] 
and  are  printed,  not  as  in  those   editions,  at  the  foot  of  the   page,] 
but  immediately  after  their  respective  portions  of  the  text.     Head- 
lines of  Contents  are   prefixed  to  the   respective  columns.     The 
Marginal  References  and  Renderings  are  omit  led  ;  such  excepted 
as  appear  lo  be  ol'  considerable   importance,  and    these  are  inter- 
woven with  the  notes;  various  passages  more  strictly  philologico!, 
and   involving  Hebrew  or  Greek  criticism,  are  likewise  omitred. 
Some  remarks  in  the  notes,  of  a  more  practical  nature,  have  been 
removed,  and  introduced,  in  their  proper  places,  into  the  Practical 
Observations.    The  high  estimation  in  which  this  commentary  is 
held  in  France,  caused  it  to  be  translated  into  French.     Three  por- 
tions have  appeared,  comprising  the  (Jospel  of  St.   Matthew,  the 
Acts  of  the  AfKislles,  and  the  Episile  of  St.  Paul  lo  the  Romans. 


21.  Maciiaf.. — A  revised  Translation  and  Interpretation  of 
the  Sacred  Scriptures,  after  the  Eastern  manner,  from  concur- 
j  rent  authorities  of  critics,  interpreters,  and  coinmentator.«,  copies, 
i  and  versions;  showing  that  the  inspired  writings  contain  the 
I  seeds  of  the  valuable  sciences,  being  the  source  whence  the  an- 
;  cienl  philosophers  derived  them,  also  the  most  ancient  histories 
\  and  greatest  antiquities,  and  are  the  most  entertaining  as  well 
:  f»s  instructing  to  both  the  curious  and  serious.  [By  David  Mi- 
CKAE.]  Glasgow,  1799,  8vo.  Second  edition,  1815,  4to. ;  alas 
I  in  3  vols.  8vo. 

We  have  transcribed  the  long  title  of  this  work,  in  which  the 
j  author  has  certainly  succei'ded  in  introducing  very  many  approved 
renderings;  but  in  which  he  has  also  marred  exceedingly  that  ve- 
nerable simplicity  and  dignity  which  are  so  eminently  conspicuous 
in  the  authorized  version.  His  explanations  of  different  passages 
are  included  in  short  paraphrases,  comprehended  between  paren- 
theses. IVo  sober  sludent  or  critic,  however,  can  approve  of  the 
manner  in  which  the  author  has  attempted  lo  elucidate  •'  Solomon's 
Allegoric  Song"  (as  he  terms  it)  "  on  the  niiiiual  love  of  Chrisl 
and  the  church,  written  twenty  years  after  his  Egyptian  nuptials." 
As  ihis  work  is  very  little  known,  we  transcribe  the  first  seven 
verses  of  tlie  twclfih  chajiier  of  Ecclcsiastes,  containing  Solomon's 
admirable  portraiture  of  old  age,  by  way  of  specimen  : — 

"  1.  Remember  lliy  Creator  in  the  days  of  youth,  before  the  days  of 
affliction  come,  and  the  years  uf  old  uec  approach,  when  thou  shall 
say,  I  b.ave  no  pleasure  in  ihem.  2.  Before  the  sun,  and  Ihe  light, 
and  the  moon,  and  the  s;ars,  become  dark  to  thtc,  and  the  cUiuds 
return  after  rain,  or  one  trouble  come  vpon  another.  3.  When  (the 
arms)  the  keepers  of  the  (corporeal)  house  shall  shake,  and  the 
strong  ones  (the  limbs)  be  feeble,  and  (the  teeth)  the  grinders  shall 
cease,  as  being  few  (and  unfit  lor  use) ;  and  ihey  that  look  out  at  the 
windows  (Ihe  optic  nerves  of  the  eyes)  become  dim  ;  4.  And  the 
doors  be  shut  in  the  streets  (ilie  lips  fall  in,  the  leelh  being  gone), 
and  the  sounding  of  the  grinding  (in  eating)  be  low;  and  they  shall 
rise  up  at  the  sound  of  the  bird  [sleep  being  diminished,  and  easily 
broken)  ;  and  all  the  daughters  of  music  (the  accents  of  the  voice, 
and  acuteness  of  the  ear)  fail.  5.  They  shall  ul.so  be  afraid  of  (as- 
cending) the  place  which  is  high  (being  weak  and  breathless) ; 
and  fears  (of  stumbling)  shall  be  in  the  way  ;  and  (grey  hairs  like) 
the  almond  tree's  leaves  shall  fiiuirish;  and  the  gr.asshopper  shall 
be  a  burden  (small  matters  being  iroublcsome.  as  Iwing  crooked 
and  fretful) ;  and  the  desire  of  enjoyment  shall  >iiil  ;  for  man  coeih 
to  his  long  home,  and  the  tuocrners  go  about  the  streets.  6.  Bciore 
the  silver  cord  (the  marrow  of  the  backbone,  with  its  root  and 
branches)  be  contracted  ;  or  the  golden  vial  (the  brain's  membranes) 
be  cracked,  or  the  pitcher  bo  broken  at  the  fbuntain  (the  cavities 
anil  conveyers  of  the  blood  frtmi  lh<!  heart),  or  the  wheel  be  broken 
at  the  cistern  (the  returiiurs  of  it  from  the  lungs,  liver,  head,  hands, 
and  feel);  the  double,  yi*.  quadruple,  circulation  (galal  and  ruis), 
being  repeated,  be  interrupted  and  ceiise.  7.  Then  shall  the  dust 
return  lo  the  earth  us  it  was;  and  the  spirit  shall  return  to  God 
who  gave  it." 

22,  Bllklkt. — Xotcs  on  the  Bible,  by  the  late  Rev.  Charles 
BuLKLET,  ]iulilished  from  the  author's  maiuiscript  by  Joshua 
Tori.Mix,  D.D.     London,  1802,  3  vols.  8vo. 

■•  These  notes  are  not  ko  much  of  a  philological  as  of  an  explana- 
tory naliire.  They  are  tilled  willi  what  the  author  considers  paral- 
lei  |iassages  in  ibc  tireek  and  Rninan  classics,  in  which  the  same 
moral  precepts  and  senliments  oc<ur.  Sonieiimes  the  loincidenco 
appears  to  be  sinking  ;  at  other  limes,  ihe  correspondence  is  far 
from  marked.  There  is  a  great  mass  of  (|iioinlion,  which  would 
seem  lo  answer  no  valiinblo  pur(M)»e,  unless  lo  produ«e  the  belief, 
that  a  IxMik  nearly  as  good  as  the  Bible  miplil  be  conijiiled  from  the 
writings  of  the  [vieis  and  philoso{)hers  ol'  Greece  and  Rome." 
(Oriiie's  Bibliotheco  Bililica.  p.  Ol.; 

23.  Prikstlkt  (Dr.) — Notes  on  all  the  Books  of  Hcripture,  for 
the  uiM'  of  the  Pulpit  ami  of  Private  Families,  by  Joseph  Phiest- 
LKT,  LL.D.  F.H.s.  A'orthumbcrland  (N.  Am.),  1803,  4  vol". 
8vo. 

These  notes  are  well  worthy  of  being  consulted  by  the  advanced 
biblical  j'tudcni;   for,  though  the  iiuili;>r  "  Kee^*  hii  own  creed' 


Sect.  III.  §  3.] 


BRITISH  COMMENTATORS  ON  THE  WHOLE  BIBLE, 


113 


[modern  socinianism]  "  continually  in  view,  especially  when  con- 
sidering those  texts  which  other  religious  people  adduce  in  favour 
of  theirs,  yet  his  work  contains  many  invaluable  notes  and  obser- 
vations, particularly  on  the  philosophy,  natural  liistory,  geography, 
and  chronology  of  the  Scriptures  :  and  to  these  subjects  few  men 
in  Europe  w-ere  better  qualified  to  do  justice."  (Dr.  A.  Clarke, 
Commentary  on  the  Bible,  vol.  i.  p.  xi.) 

24.  TniMJtEn  (Mrs.) — A  Help  to  the  Unlearned  in  the  Study 
of  the  Holy  Scriptures ;  being  an  attempt  to  explain  the  Bible  in 
a  familiar  way,  adapted  to  common  apprehensions,  and  accord- 
ing to  the  opinions  of  approved  Commentators.  By  Mrs.  Tbim- 
mi:h.     London,  1805,  8vo.     Also  in  2  vols.  12mo. 

The  benevolent  authoress  of  this  work  was  well  known  by  her 
nnwcaried  assiduity  in  promoting  the  welfare  of  the  rising  genera- 
tion. Novelty  of  information  she  did  not  pretend  to  offer;  but  with 
out  approving  ot'every  sentiment  asserted  in  her  work,  it  is  but  just 
Jo  say,  that  it  is  a  most  useful  help  to  the  unlearned,  and  that  the 
object  announced  in  her  preface  has  been  fully  accomplished;  viz. 
— To  render  "  the  study  of  the  Bible  easy  and  profitable  to  those 
who  have  but  little  leisure,  or  who  may  not  be  able  to  understand 
expositions  of  Scripture,  in  which  more  learning  is  displayed.  The 
endeavour  of  the  compiler  has  been  to  explain  what  is  difficult,  as 
far  as  is  necessary  for  Christians  in  general  to  understand  it ;  and  to 
direct  the  attention  of  the  Bible  student  to  such  passages  and  texts 
as  require  particular  consideration,  in  order  to  produce  a  rational 
faith,  and  a  right  practice,  founded  immediately  upon  the  word  of 
God." 

25.  BciiDEa. — The  Scripture  E.Kpositor ;  a  new  Commentary, 
Critical  and  Practical,  on  the  Holy  Bible.  By  the  Rev.  Samuel 
BuRDEii,  A.M.     London,  1809,  2  vols,  in  4  parts,  4to, 

One  prominent  object  of  this  work,  which  is  both  critical  and 
practical,  is,  to  illustrate  the  Scriptures  by  the  assistance  of 
Eastern  customs.  The  author  is  advantageously  known  by  his 
Oriejital  Ctistoinx  and  Oriental  Literature,  which  publications  are 
noticed  in  the  subsequent  part  of  this  Appendix. 

26.  Fawcett. — The  Devotional  Family  Bible ;  containing  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments,  with  copious  notes  and  illustrations, 
partly  original,  and  partly  selected  from  the  most  approved  Com- 
mentators, both  ancient  and  modern.  With  a  devotional  exer- 
cise or  aspiration  at  the  close  of  every  chapter,  by  way  of  improve-^ 
nient.  By  John  Fawcett,  D.D.  London,  1811.  2  vols,  royal 
4to. 

This  work  is  wholly  designed  for  family  use ;  but  the  marginal 
renderings  and  parallel  texts  have  been  entirely  omitted.  The  ab- 
sence of  these  is  inexcusable  in  any  edition  of  the  Bible  above  the 
size  of  a  duodecimo  volume. 

27.  Hewlett. — The  Holy  Bible,  containing  the  Old  and 
New  Testament,  with  the  Apocrypha,  with  critical,  philological, 
and  Explanatory  Notes.  By  the  Rev.  Jolin  Hewlett,  B.D. 
London,  1812,  3\(ols.  4to. 

The  typographical  execution  of  this  varioruvi  edition  of  the  Scrip- 
tures is  singularly  correct  and  beautiful ;  the  parallel  texts  and 
marginal  renderings  are  put  at  the  foot  of  the  text,  and  above  the 
notes,  which  are  selected  with  great  industry.  To  the  first  volume 
are  prefixed  very  copious  prolegomena,  containing  every  requisite 
information  relative  to  the  authenticity  and  inspiration  of  the  Scrip- 
tures ;  the  formation  of  the  sacred  Canon,  MSS.  and  editions  of  the 
Bible,  sects,  &c.,  with  a  variety  of  useful  tables;  and  to  the  third 
volume  is  prefixed  a  compendious  history  of  the  Jews,  from  their 
restoration  to  Judaea,  to  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  by  the 
Komans  ;  the  whole  forming  a  connection  between  the  hi.^tory  of 
the  Old  and  New  Testament ;  and  the  work  is  terminated  by  three 
uselul  indexes.  There  are,  however,  some  discrepancies  in  the 
notes,  which  are  stated  and  animadverted  upon  in  an  ably  con- 
ducted critical  journal.  (See  British  Critic,  New  Senes,  vol.  ii.  pp. 
331).  et  secj.)  Several  of  Mr.  Hewlett's  notes  are  elaborate  critical 
disquisitions  on  important  topics.  Copies  of  this  work  may  be  pur- 
chased with  maps,  and  numerous  well  executed  engravings,  after 
pictures  by  the  most  celel)rated  painters.  In  1816,  an  edition  of 
the  notes,  &c.  was  published  without  the  text,  entitled  "  Commen- 
taries and  Disquisitions  on  the  Holy  Scriptures,"  in  5  vols.  Svo., 
which  may  frequently  be  obtained  at  a  very  low  price. 

28.  D'Otlt  and  Maxt. — The  Holy  Bible  according  to  the 
Authorized  Version,  with  Notes  explanatory  and  practical ;  taken 
principally  from  the  most  eminent  writers  of  the  United  Church 
of  England  and  Ireland  ;  together  with  appropriate  introductions, 
tables,  indexes,  maps,  and  plan.s,  prepared  and  arranged  by  the 
Rev.  G.  D'OrLY,  B.D.  (now  D.D.),  and  the  Rev.  Richard  Mant, 
D.D.  (now  Bishop  of  Down  and  Connor).  Oxford  and  London, 
1814,  3  vols.  4to.,  and  various  subsequent  editions  printed  at 
Cambridge  and  Oxford.     New  York,  1818-20,  2  vols.  4to. 

This  work,  which  is  published  under  the  sanction  of  the  vene- 
rable Society  for  promoting  Christian  Knowledge,  professes  to 
communicate  only  the  result  of  the  critical  inquiries  of  learned 
men,  without  giving  a  detailed  exposition  of  the  inquiries  them- 
selves. These  results,  however,  are  selected  with  great  judgment, 
BO  that  the  reader  who  may  consult  them  on  difficult  passages  will 


rarely  be  disappointed.  Of  the  labour  attending  this  publication 
some  idea  may  be  formed,  when  it  is  slated  that  the  works  of 
upwards  of  one  hundred  and  sixty  authors  have  been  consulted  for 
it,  amounting  to  several  hundred  volumes.  On  the  fundamental 
articles  of  Christian  verily, — the  Deity  and  atonement  of  Jesus 
Christ,  and  the  personality  and  offices  of  the  Holy  Spirit, — this 
work  may  be  pronounced  to  be  a  libraiy  of  divinity.  The  maps 
and  engravings,  though  only  outlines,  are  executed  with  much 
spirit.  An  index  of  matters  is  subjoined.  There  is  a  useful  con- 
cordance in  4to.,  edited  by  the  Rev.  T.  VV.  Bellamy,  B.D.,  which  is 
usually  bound  up  with  this  commentary  :  and  in  ttie  year  1818,  the 
Rev.  Dr.  Wil-son  published  another  index,  which  is  much  more 
complete  than  that  annexed  to  the  work;  and  the  student  who  can 
meet  with  it  will  do  well  to  purchase  it.  The  reprint  at  New 
York,  which  is  very  neatly  executed  in  two  large  quarto  volumes, 
was  edited  by  the  Rt.  Rev.  John  Henry  Hobart,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the  State  of  New  York ;  who  has 
greatly  enhanced  the  value  of  this  work  by  numerous  additional 
notes,  selected  from  the  w'ritings  of  upwards  of  thirty  of  the  most 
eminent  divines  (not  noticed  by  the  Drs.  Mant  and  D'Oyly),  whose 
names  are  a  sufficient  pledge  for  the  orthodoxy  of  the  annotations 
taken  from  their  writings.  Among  the  authors  thus  consulted  are 
Bishops  Brown,  Law,  Leng,  Mant,  Middleton,  and  Yan  Mildert,  of 
the  Anglican  Church ;  Bp.  Gleig,  of  the  Scottish  Episcopal  Church  ; 
and  Bps.  Seabury  and  AVhite,  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
in  the  United  States  of  America ;  Archdeacons  Pott  and  Daubeny, 
Rev.  Drs.  Nott,  Rennel,  William  Sherlock,  Spry,  Wordsworth, 
A.  Clarke,  Scott,  Allestree  and  Bisse,  &c.  &c.  Many  other  notes 
are  likewise  selected  from  several  of  the  authors  cited  by  Bp.  Mant 
and  Dr.  D'Oyly-  Bp.  Hobart's  additional  notes  are  twofold  ;  1.  Cri- 
tical and  Explanatory ;  and,  2.  Practical.  The  latter  are  most 
numerous,  and  are  calculated  greatly  to  increase  the  value  of  this 
Commentary  as  a  Family  Bible. 

28*.  The  Plain  Reader's  Help  in  the  Study  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures ;  consisting  of  Notes,  explanatory  and  illustrative,  chietly 
selected  or  abridged  from  the  Family  Bible  published  by  the 
Society  for  promoting  Chri-stian  Knowledge.  By  the  Rev, 
William  Thomas  Bhee,  M.A.  Coventry,  1821-23,  In  two 
parts,  forming  one  volume  in  small  quarto. 

Although  the  greater  part  of  the  present  volume  is  extracted  or 
abridged  from  the  preceding  work,  the  editor  has  not  confined  him- 
self exclusively  to  it.  He  has  given  some  notes,  which,  though  they 
do  not  occur  in  the  Family  Bible,  are  yet  extracted  from  the  same 
authors  to  w"hom  Bp.  Mant  and  Dr.  D'Oyly  had  recourse  in  their 
compilation.  Besides  these,  the  editor  has  occasionally  added  a 
few  notes  of  his  own ;  and  he  hafe  further  availed  himself  of  such 
notes  in  Sir  John  Bailey's  edition  of  the  book  of  Common  Prayer, 
as  suited  his  purpose.  The  editor's  aim  has  been,  to  comprise 
within  the  space  of  a  cheap  and  moderately  sized  volume  a  collec- 
tion of  notes  on  the  Holy  Scriptures,  adapted  to  the  capacity  of 
ordinary  readers,  and  designed  for  the  benefit  of  such  as  have  it 
not  in  their  power  to  procure  or  consult  larger  works.  This  cheap 
and  unpretending  work,  which  is  very  little  known,  is  neatly 
printed  on  two  sorts  of  paper,  in  order  to  accommodate  every  class 
of  purchasers. 

29.  Clarke  (Dr.  A.)— The  Holy  Bible,  containing  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments :  the  Text  carefully  printed  from  the  most 
correct  copies  of  the  present  authorized  translation,  including  the 
marginal  readings  and  parallel  texts ;  with  a  Commentary  and 
Critical  Notes,  designed  as  a  help  to  a  better  understanding  of 
the  Sacred  Writings.  By  Adam  Clarke,  LL.D.  F.A.S.  Lon- 
don, 1810-1826,  8  vols.  4to.  A  new  edition,  revised  and  im- 
proved, 1833-34,  in  live  volumes,  royal  Svo.  qjso  in  quarto. 

The  commentary  on  the  New  Testament  fills  three  volumes  of 
this  elaborate  work :  the  remainder  is  devoted  to  the  elucidation 
of  the  Old  Testament.  In  this  commentary,  Dr.  Clarke  states,  that 
the  whole  of  the  text  has  been  collated  with  the  Hebrew  and  Greek 
originals,  and  all  the  ancient  versions :  "  the  most  difficult  words 
are  analyzed  and  explained  ;  the  most  important  readings  in  the  col- 
lections of  Kennicott  and  De  Rossi  on  the  Old  Testament,  and  in  those 
of  Mill,  Wetstein,  and  Griesbach,  on  the  New,  are  noticed ;  the  date 
of  every  transaction,  as  far  as  it  has  been  ascertained  by  the  best 
chronologers,  is  marked;  the  peculiar  customs  of  the  Jews  and 
neighbouring  nations,  so  frequently  alluded  to  by  the  prophets, 
evangelists,  and  apostles,  are  explained  from  the  best  Asiatic  au- 
thorities ;  tlie  great  doctrines  of  the  Law  and  Gospel  of  God  are 
define<l,  illustrated, and  defended;  and  the  whole  is  applied  to  the 
important  purposes  of  practical  Christianity."  The  work  concludes 
with  a  copious  index,  and  a  selection  of  important  various  Readings 
of  the  New  Testament,  from  ten  ancient  MSS.  The  literary  world 
in  general,  and  biblical  students  in  particular,  are  greatly  indebted 
to  Dr.  Clarke  for  the  light  he  has  thrown  on  many  very  difficult 
passages.  The  royal  Svo.  edition  was  revised  throughout,  and  pre- 
pared by  the  learned  author  for  the  press,  before  his  decease.  It  is 
a  cheap  and  very  beautifully  printed  work. 

30.  Thomsox. — The  Old  Covenant,  commonly  called  the  Old 
Testament,  translated  from  the  Septuagint. — The  New  Cove- 
nant, commonly  called  the  New  Testament,  translated  from  the 
Greek,  By  Charles  Thomson,  late  Secretary  to  the  Congress 
of  the  United  States.     Philadelphia,  1808,  4  vols.  Svo 


114 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Paht  n.  Chap.  V. 


This  translation  is,  upon  the  whole,  faithfully  executed,  though 
that  ot'lhe  Old  Testament,  being  a  version  of  a  version,  can  hardly 
alibrd  much  assistance  to  the  biblical  student.  The  transialion  ol 
the  New  Testament  is  mucli  improved  in  the  punctuation,  and  also 
in  tlie  arrangement  oi  the  objections  and  replies  that  occasion  such 
frequent  transitions  in  St.  I'aul's  Kjjistles.  The  notes  which  accom- 
pany this  work  are  very  brief,  biii  satisfactory  as  far  as  tiiey  go. 
Very  Jew  cojiies  of  Mr.  Tiiomson's  work  have  readied  England; 
and  even  in  America  it  has  become  very  scarce  and  dear. 

31.  BntLAMY, — The  Holy  Bible,  newly  translated  from  the 
original  Hebrew,  with  Notes,  critical  and  explanatory.  By  John 
B>;.LLAMr.     London,  1818-21,  4to. 

Three  parts  oidy  of  this  new  translation  have  been  published. 
The  arrogant  claims  of  the  author  and  his  exlravagancicb  of  intcr- 
pretationhave  been  exposed  in  the  Quarterly  Review,  vols.  xix. 
pp.  250—280.  and  xxiii.  pp.  2'.K)— 325. ;  in  the  Eclectic  Uovievv, 
vol.  X.  N.  S.  pp.  1—20.  130— li')0.  280— 2'jy.;  in  the  Anti-jacobin 
Review,  vol.  Iiv.  pp.  97— lo;3.  l'J3— 207.  305— 31G. ;  in  Mr.  VVhitta- 
ker's  Hisloriciil  and  Critical  Iiuiuiiy  into  the  Intcrprelalion  ot  the 
Hebrew  ycriptures,  and  Supplement  to  it,  8vo.,  Cambridge,  1819, 
1820;  in  Professor  Lee's  Letter  to  Mr.  Bellamy,  Cambridge,  1821 ; 
and  last,  though  not  least  in  value,  in  Mr.  Hyman  Hurwitz's  "  Vin- 
dicja;  Hcbraic;e, "  London,  1821,  8vo. 

32.  BooTHiioTi). — A  new  Family  Bible,  and  improved  Ver- 
sion, from  corrected  Texts  of  the  Originals,  with  Notes,  critical 
and  explanatory  ;  and  short  Practical  Kcflcctions  on  each  Chap- 
ter. By  the  Rev.  B.  Booth  no  rn,  LL.D.  Pontefract  and  Lon- 
don, 1818,  1821,  la23,   3  vols.  4to. 

The  Rev.  Dr.  Boothroyd  has  long  been  advantageously  known  as 
the  editor  of  the  critical  edition  of  the  Hebrew  Bible  with  philo- 
logical notes,  of  which  we  have  given  an  account  in  page  8.  of 
this  A[>pendix.  llis  improved  English  Version  of  ihe  Bible  will  be 
found  a  valuable  help  lo  the  critical  undei-slanding  of  the  Sacred 
Scriptures.  Where  any  reading  in  the  original  is  supported  by  the 
authority  of  ancient  MSS  and  Versions,  Dr.  B.  has  availed  himself 
of  it,  and  has  iiLserted  it  in  the  text;  always  apprizing  his  readers 
of  Hiich  changes,  which  (as  we  have  had  occasion  to  remark  in  our 
chapter  on  various  readings)  are  not  unfrequenlly  real  improve- 
ments. The  Historical  Books  are  printed  in  continuous  paragraphs, 
the  Poetical  Books  being  printed  in  single  lines.  The  first  two 
volumes  contain  Ihe  Old  Testament;  the  third,  the  New  Testa- 
ment. The  numbers  of  the  different  verses  are  judiciously  thrown 
into  the  margin  ;  and  the  notes,  which  are  placed  at  the  foot  of  each 
page,  |x>ssess  the  rare  merit  of  condensing  much  important  critical 
and  explanatory  matter  in  comparatively  a  small  comi)ass.  To  Ihe 
whole.  Dr.  B.  has  prefixed  a  well-executed  abridgment  of  Michae- 
lis's  Commentaries  on  the  Law  of  Moses. 

33.  Williams. — The  Cottage  Bible  and  Family  Expositor ; 
containing  the  Authorized  Translation  of  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 
taments, with  Practical  Reflections  and  short  Explanatory  Notes, 
calculated  to  elucidate  ditTicult  and  obscure  Passages.  By  Tho- 
mas Williams.     London,  1825-27,  3  vols.  8vo. 

This  unassuming  but  cheap  and  useful  commentary  on  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  though  pro.fessedly  designed  for  persons  and  families  in 
the  humbler  walks  of  life,  is  not  unworthy  the  attention  of  students 
of  a  higher  cla.ss,  who  may  not  be  able  to  purchase  more  bulky  or 
more  expensive  commentaries;  and  on  this  account  it  is  here 
noticed.  The  work  is  dedicated  by  permission  to  the  learned  and 
venerable  Bishop  of  Salisbury.  The  first  volume  contains  the 
whole  of  the  Historical  Books,  and  also  the  Book  of  Job:  the 
second  volume  comprises  the  rest  of  the  Old  Testament.  The 
New  Testament  forms  ihc  third  volume.  The  following  is  (he 
plan  of  jiublicalion :  The  authorized  Version  is  neatly  and  clearly 

firinled.  Long  chai)tor.s  are  broken  into  paragraphs  of  a  suitable 
engtii,  regulated  by  the  subject-malter  of  them ;  and  ihn  Genealo- 
gies, Knumeralions  of  the  Tribes,  and  certain  Ceremonial  Laws  of 
the  Jews,  which  are  not  Huilable  for  reading  in  families  or  schools, 
are  printed  in  a  sinall'-r  type,  and  are  so  distinguished  that  they 
may  ifc  omitted  in  rcadinir,  witlwut  dilFiculty  or  confusion.  A  few 
words,  winch  are  not  in  btri<:t  accordance  with  modern  European 
ideas  of  propriety,  arc  exchanged  lor  others ;  and  lo  each  chapter 
is  given  a  concise  practical  exjiosition,  compiled  from  various 
'aources,  together  with  brief  critical  notes  (in  which  are  interwoven 
the  principal  marginal  readings  and  relercnceK)  on  difliciilt  and 
olwicure  passages,  especially  such  as  liave  been  alleged  to  bo  con- 
tradiclory.  The  editor  hnn  carefully  indicated  the  sources  whence 
he  has  ilrawii  his  annotations; — a  practice  which,  it  were  to  bo 
wished,  had  been  followed  by  the  nrionymoiis  compilers  of  some 
coinmenlaries  now  circulating  in  numbers,  ns  mIko  in  volumes,  who 
have  contrived  lo  comprehend  the  nuwl  valuable  remarks  of  others 
without  any  acknowledgment  of  the  autliors  lo  wIkihc  lalxmrH  they 
are  ind<!bie(l.  Mr.  Williams  has  also  paid  a  laudable  attention  to 
those  passages  against  which  objeetioiiH  have  been  taken  by  modern 
Bkeptics;  fijr  which  ixirlion  of  his  work  ho  was  well  (|iialilipd  by 
his  former  very  useful  publications  in  reply  to  the  cavils  and  objec- 
tions of  Paine  and  other  mfidels  of  the  last  century.  A  concise 
Introduction  is  prefixed,  vindicating  Ihe  divine  authority  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures,  and  the  learning  and  fidelity  of  the  Iranslalors  of 
our  nuthorizod  Knglish  Version,  and  also  jiointing  out  the  sources 
of  Scripture  diflic  iillics,  together  with  the  means  of  ihoir  removal. 
I'lic  fino  pa{)er  copies  ure  handsome  library  books. 


34.  Devotional  Comments :  being  a  Series  of  Scriptural  Ex 
positions,  with  a  Prayer  annexed  to  each  subject.    By  Mrs.  Ste- 
vens.    Knaresborough  and  London,  1823-31,  20  vols.  8vo. 

35.  The  Comprehensive  Bible ;  containing  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments,  according  to  the  authorized  Version,  with  the  various 
readings  and  marginal  notes  usually  printed  therewith  :  a  gene- 
ral introduction,  containing  disquisitions  on  the  genuineness, 
authenli  ity,  and  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Scriptures, — various 
divisions  and  marks  of  distinction  in  the  sacred  writings, — 
ancient  versions, — coins,  weights,  and  measures, — various  sects 
among  the  Jews:  introductions  and  concluding  remarks  to  each 
book:  the  parallel  passages  contained  in  the  Rev.  J.  Scott's 
Commentary,  Canne's  Bible,  Rev.  J.  Brown's  Self-Interpreting 
Bible,  Dr.  A.  Clarke's  Commentary,  and  the  English  Version  of 
the  Polyglott  Bible  [noticed  in  p.  21.  of  this  Appendix],  sys- 
tematically arranged  ;  philological  and  explanatory  notes.  With 
chronological  and  other  indexes.  [By  William  GnKENFiELi).] 
London,  1827,  crown  4to.  demy  4to.  and  royal  4to. 

36.  A  Commentary  on  the  Holy  Bible,  from  Henry  and  Scott, 
With  occasional  observations  and  notes  from  other  writers.  Vols. 
I. — III. — V.  [comprising  Genesis  to  Solomon's  Songs,  and  the 
Gospel  of  Matthew  to  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  By  George 
Stokes.]     1831-34,  royal  12mo.  or  crown  8vo. 

The  object  of  this  work  is,  to  provide  a  commentary  on  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  compact  in  size  and  moderate  in  price,  which  may  be 
useful  to  those  whose  opportunities  for  reading,  or  whose  means  of 
purchasing,  render  such  a  publication  desirable ;  while  the  con- 
tents are  suited  for  Christians  of  every  station,  rank,  and  denomina- 
tion. The  valuable  Commentaries  of  Henry  and  Scott  have  prin- 
cipally supplieil  the  materials  for  the  present  publication.  Their 
most  important  observations  are  condensed  and  blended  logelher, 
60  as  to  Ibrm  a  continuous  exposition.  The  editions  used,  are  Hen- 
ry's Exposition,  edited  by  the  Rev.  Messi-s.  Biirder  and  Hughes  ; 
and  the  first  edition  of  Scott's  Commentary.  Numerous  extracts 
fi'om  other  authors  (one  hundred  in  number)  have  been  inscrlcd, 
where  they  appeared  needful,  and  explanatory  noles  upon  some 
passages  have  been  added,  most  of  which  are  designed  to  meet  the 
misre])resentations  of  infidels.  Duo  acknowledgment  is  made  lo 
the  authors  from  whom  the  additional  paragraphs  are  taken.  This 
commentary,  which  is  published  at  the  expense  of  the  Religious 
Tract  Society,  is  beautifully  and  correctly  jirinled  w  ith  a  new  type. 
As  the  text  is  not  inserted,  it  may  he  used  with  any  edition  of  the 
authorized  English  version  of  the  Bible  :  but,  in  size,  it  is  princi- 
pally adapted  to  the  beautifully  printed  Oxford  ruby  Bible  in  small 
8vo.  published  in  1827. 

37.  The  Christian  Expositor ;  or.  Practical  Guide  to  the  Study 
of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  intended  for  the  use  of  General  Readers. 
By  the  Rev.  George  Holuen,  A.M.  London,  1824-30,  3  vols. 
12mo. 

Although  many  expositions  of  the  Bible,  of  freat  and  deserved 
celebrity,  are  happily  extant  in  our,  language,  a  commentary  siifli- 
cienlly  short  to  be  read  by  those  who  liavc  not  leisure  to  consult 
learneil  and  extensive  works,  yet  sulTicienily  comprehensive  to 
serve  as  a  guide  to  the  study  of  the  Holy  .Scriptures,  lor  general 
readei-s,  is  a  desideratum.  To  supply  this  deficiency  is  the  object 
of  the  present  beautifully  printed,  cheap,  and  truly  valuable  work  ; 
which,  though  '  intended  for  the  use  ol  general  readers,'  comprises 
so  much  and  such  various  infbrmalion  in  a  condensed  form,  expre.«:8- 
ed  in  neat  and  perspicuous  language,  that  not  only  general  readers, 
but  also  critical  students,  may  gladly,  profitably,  and  sal'ely  avail 
themselves  of  Mr.  llolden's  laboui-s,  without  any  apprehension  of 
having  imposed  U|x)n  them  the  neologian  interpn.-lations  of  mi>dem 
(Jerman  critics  and  commenlalors.  i-'.very  page  indicates  Mr.  Hol- 
dcn's  intimate  acciuainlanco  with  all  the  best  exegelical  works  on 
the  Holy  Scriptures,  Ixjtii  British  and  Foreign.  Vols.  I.  and  II.  a)>- 
peared  in  1831,  Vol.  111.,  containing  the  New  Testament,  was 
published  as  a  separate  work  in  1830.  Sec  a  notice  of  it  in  $  6. 
No.  40.  J).  130.  infra. 


rniNCirAL  commentators  o\  the  old  testament  akd 
on  detachgu  books  tiieueof. 


[i.]    Commentators  on  the  Old  Testament. 

1.  RiciiAiiDsoN  (Bishop). — Choice  Observations  and  Exjila- 
nations  upon  the  Old  Testament,  containing  in  them  many 
remarkable  matters,  either  not  taken  notice  of,  or  mistaken  by 
most :  which  arc  addilionals  to  the  large  annotations  made  by 
some  of  the  Assembly  of  Divines  :  to  which  arc  added  some 
further  and  larger  Olwervalions  on  the  whole  book  of  Genesis. 
By  John  liiciiAiiDBox,  Bishop  of  Ardagh.     London,  1(565,  folio. 

Bishop  Kichardson  has  been  characterized  by  his  contemporaries 
as  a  mall  of  profound  learning,  well  versed  in  Ihe  Scriptures,  and 
of  exact  knowledge  in  sacred  chronology.  His  Harmony  of  the 
Four  Gospels,  in  w  Inch  ho  led  the  way  to  a  more  exact  arranjf^niciU 


Sect.  III.  §  4.]         COMMENTATORS  ON  DETACHED  BOOKS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


115 


of  the  narratives  of  the  four  evangelists,  is  printed  in  Archbishop 
Usher's  Annals.  Bishop  Richardson's  Annotations  were  published 
after  his  death  :  as  they  sell  at  a  low  price,  they  are  not  unworthy 
of  the  student's  attention. 

2.  Pyle.-  A  Paraphrase  with  short  and  Useful  Notes  on  the 
Books  of  the  Old  Testament.  Bv  the  Rev.  Thomas  Ptlk,  M.A. 
London,  1717—1725,  4  vols.  8vo. 

These  volumes  extend  to  all  the  historical  books  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament. Dr.  Doddridge  calls  it  "  an  elegant  and  judicious  contrac- 
tion" of  Bishop  Patrick's  work,  noticed  m  p  110-  supra  ;  and  adds, 
that  it  is  "  vastly  to  be  preferred  to  his  Paraphrase  on  the  Epistles," 
which  is  mentioned  in  p.  131.  infra. 

3.  Mauchant. — An  Exposition  of  the  Books  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, extracted  from  the  Writings  of  the  best  Authors,  ancient 
and  modern.     By  John  Marchant.     London,  1745,  folio. 

4.  Orton. — A  short  and  plain  Exposition  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, with  devotional  and  practical  Reflections  for  the  use  of 
families,  subjoined  to  each  chapter,  somewhat  in  the  manner  of 
Dr.  Doddridge's  Family  Expositor.  By  the  late  Rev.  Job  Ortost. 
6  vols.  8vo.  1788 — 1791 ;  second  edition.  London,  1822,  6  vols. 
8vo. 

The  work  was  published  after  the  author's  death  by  Mr.  Gentle- 
man of  Kidderminster  :  it  contains  notes  chiefly  collected  from 
modern  expositors,  of  which  "  it  cannot  be  said  that  they  are  emi- 
nently critical ;  but  they  often  convey  valuable  instruction,  and 
the  reflections  are  admirably  adapted  to  promote  the  purposes  of 
serious  religion."  (Biographia  Brilannica,  2d  edit.  vol.  v.  p.  311. 
See  also  Month.  Rev.  O.  S.  voL  Ixxix.  p.  329.)  To  form  a  complete 
comment  on  the  Scriptures,  Mr.  Orton's  paraphrase  may  be  joined 
with  Mr.  Palmer's  abridgment  of  Dr.  Doddridge,  noticed  in  page 
129.  vifra. 

5.  Geddes. — The  Holy  Bible,  or  the  Books  accounted  sacred, 
other\vise  called  the  Books  of  the  Old  and  New  Covenants, 
faithfully  translated  from  the  corrected  Texts  of  the  Originals, 
with  various  readings,  explanatory  notes,  and  critical  remarks. 
By  Alexander  Geddes,  LL.D.  4to.  London,  vol.  i.  1792,  vol.  ii. 
1797.  Critical  Remarks  on  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  4to.  London, 
1800,  vol.  i.  on  the  Pentateuch. 

The  two  volumes  of  Dr.  Geddes's  version  include  the  historical 
books  from  Genesis  to  Chronicles,  and  the  book  of  Ruth.  Of  the 
doctor's  heterodox  commentaries  and  versions,  the  reader  may  see 
an  ample  examination  and  refutation  in  the  4th,  14th,  19th,  and  20th 
volumes  of  the  British  Critic,  old  series.  The  learned  doctor's 
work  is  here  noficed,  lest  the  author  should  be  charged  with 
designedly  omitting  it. 


[ii.]  Commentators  on  detached  Books  of  the  Old  Testavie7it. 

ox  THE  PEHTATEUCH. 

1.  Horse  Mosaicse ;  or  a  Dissertation  on  the  Credibility  and 
Theology  of  the  Pentateuch.  By  George  Stanley  Faber,  B.D. 
Second  Edition.     London,  1818,  2  vols.  8vo. 

This  elaborate  Treatise  contains  the  substance  of  the  eight  Bamp- 
ton  Lectures  delivered  by  Mr.  Faber  before  the  University  of  Ox- 
ford, and  publi.shed  in  1801.  "  Those  who  have  not  the  means  or 
leisure  to  consult  the  very  valuable  works  of  Mr.  Bryant,  Mr.  Mau- 
rice, and  Sir  \\^  Jones,  in  thi^line,  will  find  in  these  volumes  many 
of  the  most  striking  facts  brought  together,  and  so  arranged  as 
jointly  to  corroborate  and  confirm  the  events  recorded  in  the  Pen- 
tateuch. Tlie  references  to  other  authors  are  numerous  ;  nor  are 
these  connned  solely  to  the  ancients.  Additional  notes  and  illustra- 
tions are  to  be  found  at  the  end  of  each  volume."  (Brit.  Crit.  vol. 
xix.  O.  S.  pp.  382.  388.)  The  second  edition,  published  in  1818,  is 
very  materially  enlarged  and  greatly  improved  by  its  learned 
aut  hor. 

l*.  Principles  for  the  Proper  Understanding  of  the  Mosaic 
Writings  stated  and  applied.  By  the  Rev.  J.  J.  Blunt,  B.D. 
London,  1833,  8vo. 

2.  The  Character  of  Moses  established  for  Veracity  as  an 
Historian,  recording  Events  from  the  Creation  to  the  Deluge. 
By  the  Rev.  Joseph  Townsend,  M.A.  Vol.  L  London,  1813  ; 
Vol.  n.  Bath,  1815,  4to. 

For  an  analysis  of  this  work,  see  the  Quarterly  Review,  vol.  xiv. 
pp.  96 — 112.  and  the  Eclectic  Review,  O.  S.  vol.  x.  pp.  32—49. 

3.  Annotations  upon  the  Five  Books  of  Moses,  the  Book  of 
Psalms,  and  the  Song  of  Songs  or  Canticles.  By  Henry  Ains- 
WORTH.     London,  1639,  folio. 

This  work  "  is  a  good  book,  full  of  very  valuable  Jewish  learn- 
ing ;  and  his  translation  is  in  many  places  to  be  preferred  to  our 
own,  especially  on  the  Psalms."  (Dr.  Doddridge.)  It  was  trans- 
lated into  Dutch  in  1690,  and  is  highly  esteemed  on  the  continent. 

4.  A  Commentary  on  the  Five  Books  of  Moses,  with  a  Dis- 
scrtalion  concerning  the  Author  or  Writer  of  the  said  Books, 

Vol.  n.  4  H 


and  a  general  argument  to  each  of  therh.     By  Richard  Kiddeh, 
Bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells.     London,  1 694,  2  vols.  8vo. 

A  learned  and  valuable  work,  though  now  not  often  to  be  met 

with. 

5.  Johannis  Marckii  in  prajcipuas  quasdam  partes  Penta- 
teuchi  Commentarius  :  seu  ultimorum  Jacobi,  reliquorum  Bilha- 
mi,  et  novissimorum  Mosis,  quce  leguntur  Genes.  xWii.  9.  Numer. 
xxii. — xxiv.  et  Deut.  xxix. — xxxiii.  Analysis  Exegetica.  Lugd. 
Bat.  1713,  4to.  ^ 

6.  A  Critical  and  Practical  Exposition  of  the  Pentateuch; 
with  Notes,  theological,  moral,  critical,  philosophical  and  histo- 
rical. To  which  are  subjoined  two  Dissertations  : — 1.  On  the 
Mosaic  history  of  the  creation,  and  2.  On  the  destruction  of  the 
seven  nations  of  Canaan.     London,  1748,  folio. 

This  Exposition  is  compiled  with  considerable  industry  from  the 
labours  of  the  best  interpreters  ancient  and  modern.  It  was  origi- 
nally published  in  numbers,  and  was  designed  to  have  been  a  com- 
plete commentary  on  the  entire  Bible:  but  not  meeting  viith  sufTi- 
cient  encouragement,  the  author  (a  Mr.  Jameson)  proceeded  no 
further  than  the  Pentateuch.    It  is  not  of  common  occurrence. 

7.  A  New  and  Literal  Translation,  from  the  original  Hebrew, 
of  the  Pentateuch  of  Moses,  and  of  the  Historical  Books  of  the 
Old  Testament  to  the  end  of  the  second  book  of  Kings ;  with 
Notes,  critical  and  explanatory.  By  the  late  Rev.  Julius  Bati;. 
London,  1773,  4to. 

"  It  is  most  certainly  a  new  translation,  and  so  very  literal  as  to 
be  really  unintelligible  to  a  plain  English  reader."  (Monthly  Re- 
view, O.  S.  vol.  1.  p.  106.) 

8.  The  Pentateuch,  or  the  Five  Books  of  Moses  illustrated 
being   an  Explication  of  the  Phraseology  incorporated  with  the 
text,  for  the  use  of  Families  and  Schools.     By  the  Rev.  S.  Clap- 
ham.     London,  1818,  12mo. 

"  As  a  substitute  for  expensive  commentaries  on  the  Bible,  and 
as  the  means  of  providing  in  many  interesting  respects  for  the  in- 
struction and  edification  of  those  persons  who  may  not  have  leisure 
to  procure  more  copious  volumes,  the  present  work  will  be  accepta- 
ble. The  plan  of  it  is  judicious,  and  the  execution  is  on  the  whole 
respectable,  and  must  have  cost  the  editor  no  inconsiderable  ex- 
pense of  labour."     (Eclectic  Review,  N.  S.  vol.  xiii.  p.  74.) 

9.  An  Analytical  Exposition  of  the  whole  First  Book  of 
Moses,  called  Genesis,  and  of  xxiii.  chapters  of  his  Second  Book, 
called  ^Exodus.  Wherein  the  various  readings  are  observed  ; 
the  original  text  explained  ;  doubts  resolved ;  Scriptures  paral- 
leled ;  the  Scripture  Chronology  from  the  Creation  of  the  World 
to  the  giving  of  the  Law  at  Mount  Sinai  cleared ;  and  the 
whole  illustrated  by  doctrines  collected  from  the  text.  Delivered 
in  a  Morning  Exercise  on  the  Lord's  Day.  By  George  Hughes, 
B.D.,  late  Minister  of  the  Gospel  in  Plymouth.  (Plymouth), 
1672,  folio. 

A  very  elaborate  and  curious  work ;  it  is  not  of  common  occur- 
rence. 

10.  The  Hebrew  Text  of  the  Parallel  Prophecies  of  Jacob 
and  Moses,  relative  io  the  Twelve  Tribes,  with  a  translation  and 
notes,  and  the  various  lections  of  near  forty  MSS.,  &c.  «&c.  By 
D.  DuRELL,  D.D.,  Principal  of  Hertford  College.  Oxford,  1764, 
4to. 

GENESIS. 

11.  Joannis  Merceri  Commentarius  in  Genesin.  Genevae, 
1598,  folio. 

12.  Hcxapla  in  Genesin  :  that  is,  a  Sixfold  Commentary  upon 
Genesis,  wherein  six  several  translations  are  compared,  where 
they  differ,  with  the  Originall  Hebrew,  and  Pagnine  and  Monta- 
nus'  Interlinearic  Interpretation.  Together  with  a  sixfold  use 
of  every  chapter,  showing  1.  The  Method  or  Argument ;  2,  The 
Divers  Readings ;  3.  The  Explanation  of  Difficult  Questions, 
and  Doubtfull  Places;  4.  The  Places  of  Doctrine ;  5.  Places. of 
Confutation ;  6.  Morall  Observations.  By  Andrew  Willet. 
London,  1608,  folio. 

13.  A  Few  and  New  Observations  upon  the  Book  of  Genesis; 
also  a  Handful  of  Gleanings  out  of  the  Book  of  Exodus.  By 
John  LiGHTFOOT,  D.D.  Works,  vol.  i.  p.  698.  London,  1684, 
folio. 

14.  A  Specimen  of  an  Universal  View  of  all  the  Eminent 
Writers  on  the  Holy  Scriptures  :  being  a  Collection  of  the  Dis- 
sertations, Explications,  and  Opinions  of  the  learned  Men,  in  all 
ages,  concerning  the  Difficult  Passages  and  Obscure  Texts  of 
the  Bible ;  and  of  whatever  is  to  be  met  with  in  profane  authors 
which  may  contribute  to  the  better  understanding  of  them.  By 
the  Rev.  Jonathan  Smedlet,  Dean  of  Clogher.     1728,  folio. 

This  Specimen  contains  only  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis ;  the 
work  which  it  announcea  never  having  been  published.     The 


il6 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  IL  Chap.    V. 


author  propospfl,  1.  To  exhibit  at  longth  iho  words  of  the  inspired 
autliors  ;  2.  To  quote  the  chief  commentators  in  Pool's  Synopsis,  on 
every  subject,  as  they  are  ranged  by  him ;  3.  To  set  down  ilie  judg- 
ment of  ancient  liist«rians,  philosophers,  poets,  &(■■;  and  to  reserve 
liic  last  place  ibr  moderns,  especially  English  and  French  Divines. 
A  copy  of  ihis  specimen  is  in  the  library  of  the  Briii-iii  Museum. 

15.  A  New  English  Translation,  from  the  original  Hebrew, 
of  the  First  Three  Chapters  of  Genesis,  with  marginal  illustra- 
tions, and  notes,  critical  and  explanatory.  By  Abraham  Daw- 
son, M.A.#  London,  1763,  4to. 

16.  A  Fourth  and  Fifth  Chapter  of  Genesis,  translated  from 
the  original  Hebrew.  By  Abraham  Dawso.v,  M.A.  London, 
1772,  4to. 

17.  The  Skth,  and  Eleven  following  Chapters  of  Genesis, 
translated  from  the  original  -Hebrew,  &c.  &c.  By  Abraham 
Dawsox,  M.A.     London,  1786,  4lo. 

For  an  account  of  these  publications  see  the  Monthly  Review, 
Old  Series,  vol.  xxix.  pp.  293—299.;  vol.  xlvii.  pp.  1—7.;  and  vol. 
Ixxvii.  pp.  140 — 147. 

18.  Annotations  upon  Genesis,  with  Observations,  doctrinal 
and  practical.  By  the  Rov. Thomas  Hauwoou.  London,  1789, 
8vo. 

This  is  a  compilation  from  various  authors,  "  which,  if  not  a 
brilliant,  may  in  some  degree  be  considered  as  a  useful  perlbrni- 
ance."    (Month.  Rev.  New  Series,  vol.  iv.  p.  106.) 

19.  Sacred  Literature,  or  Remarks  on  the  Book  of  Genesis, 
corrected  and  arranged  to  promote  the  knowledge  and  evince  the 
excellency  of  the  Scriptures.  By  James  Fuaxks,  A.M.  Lon- 
don, 1802,  8vo. 

This  work  is  nearly  similar  in  design  and  execution  to  the  pre- 
ceding; it  consists  principally  of  extracts  from  other  books.  The 
author  "has  contented  himself  with  forming  the  arrangement, 
which  is  clear  and  good,  and  inserting  short  passages  to  serve  for 
connection  and  elucidation.  The  volume  begins  with  general  re- 
-  marks  on  the  Scriptures,  and  then  proceeds  through  the  book  of 
Genesis  in  the  order  of  the  chai)ters ;  containing  in  the  whole 
three  hundred  and  fifteen  remarks  upon  that  book,  illustrative  of 
the  matter  contained  in  it,  and  collected  from  llie  best  authors  of 
all  descriptions."     (Brit.  Crit.  O.  S.  vol.  xxi.  pp.  080,  081.) 

20.  Hermanni   Venema    Dissertationes  Selectae  ad  Sacram 
Scripturam  Veteris  ct  Novi  Testamenti :  qa?.rum  Tom.  L   Pars 
L  continet  Dissertationes  quinque  ad  Librum  G^neseos :  Pars  H 
continet  Commentarium  ad  Gen.  xlix.  1 — 27 
50,  4to. 

21.  Critical  and  Explanatory  Notes  on  Genesis,  Exodus, 
Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  Daniel,  and  the  Minor  Prophets ;  to- 
gether with  some  Dissertations  on  several  difficult  Passages  of 
Scripture,  &c.  &c.  By  the  Rev.  Henry  JDi.mock.  Gloucester, 
1804,  4to. 

22.  A  Dissertation  on  the  Fall  of  Man ;  in  which  the  Literal 
Sense  of  the  Mosaic  Account  of  that  Event  is  asserted  and 
vindicated.  By  the  Rev.  George  Holdex,  M,A.  London,  1S23, 
8vo. 

The  Scripture  History  of  the  Fall  of  Man  has  met  with  many 
strenuous  adversaries,  who  have  endeavoured  to  explain  it  away 
in  various  ways;  while  it  is  utterly  rejected  by  many  of  those  w'lo 
have  rejected  the  do'^trine  of  the  atonement.  In  the  second  volume 
of  this  work  (Chap.  I.  Sec.  II.  pp.  20.'>,  206.),  the  literal  sense  of 
the  first  three  chapters  of  Genesis  is  briefly  vindicated  ;  but  it  has 
been  reserved  for  Mr.  Ilolden  to  consider  the  suhjocl  viosl  fvllij 
and  distinctly.  All  the  eflijris  of  perverted  criticihui  to  reduce  the 
.Mosaic  History  of  tlie  Fall  of  Man  to  allegory,  fable,  or  mythos,  are 
here  examined  in  detail ;  and  the  objections  of  its  adversaries  to 
the  irteral  sense  of  that  history  are  minutely  and  satisfactorily 
refuted. 

23.  Two  Dirsertitions : — 1.  On  the  Tree  of  Life  in  Paradise, 
with  some  Obscnations  on  the  Full  of  Man.  2.  On  the  Obla- 
tions of  Cain  and  Abel.  By  Benjamin  Kennicott,  M.A. 
Oxford,  1747,  8vo. 

24.  An  Essay  towards  a  Vindication  of  the  vulgar  Exposition 
of  the  Mosaic  History  of  the  Full  of  Man.  By  John  Wittt. 
London,  HO.'),  8vo. 

25.  The  Historical  Sense  of  the  Mosaic  Account  of  the  Fall, 
proved  and  vindicated.  By  William  Wobtiiinoton.  London, 
1751,  8vo. 

26.  The  Defence  of  the  Veracity  of  Moses,  in  his  Records  of 
the  Creation  and  General  Deluge  ;  illustrated  by  ()l)scrvation8 
in  the  Caverns  of  the  Peak  of  Derby.  By  Philobiblo.^  [Thomas 
RoDi)].     London,  1820,  8vo. 

27.  Staiiei.ix  (J.  J.)  Animadvcrsioncs  quaidem  in  Jacobi 
Valicinium,  Genes,  cap.  xlix.     Basileffi,  1827,  4to. 


28.  Brief  Observations  upon  some  of  the  first  Chapters  of  the 
Book  of  Genesis.     London,  1827,  8vo. 

29.  Libri  Gcneseos  secundum  Fontes  rite  dignoscendos  Adum- 
bratio  nova.  In  usum  Praslectionum  scripsit  Dr.  C.  P.  W. 
GiiAMiiEKG,  Lipsia;,  1828,  8vo. 

This  writer  adopts  thohypotliesisof  some  modern  German  critics, 
that  the  book  of  Genesis  is  a  compilation  by  a  third  person  from  two 
primary  dofumenis,  which  he  designates  by  the  terms  "  Jchovista" 
and  "Elohista,"  from  the  appellation  of  Jehovah  and  Elohim  given 
to  the  Al.Tiighly.  He  adopts  the  untenable  notion  that  the  history 
of  the  creation  and  Fall  of  Man  is  a  philosophical  and  poetical 
mt/'hos,  or  fable. 

30.  T.  P.  C.  Kaiseti  Commcntarius  in  priora  Genescos  Ca- 
pita, quatcnus  universal  populorum  mythologia;  cluves  exhibent. 
Norimbergae,  1829,  8vo. 

31.  An  Efsay  on  the  Book  of  Genesis  ;  being  an  attempt  to 
reconcile  the  Incongruities  in  the  Mosaical  Account  of  the  Crea- 
tion of  the  World.     Dublin,  1830,  12mo. 

31*.  The  Worship  of  the  Serpent  traced  throughout  the  world, 
and  its  Traditions  referred  to  the  Events  in  Paradise;  proving 
the  Temptation  and  Fall  of  Man  by  the  Instrumentality  of  a 
Serpent  Tempter.  By  the  Rov.  John  Bathur.st  DEA!f£,  M.A. 
London,  1830,  8vo.     Second  Edition,  1833,  8vo. 


Though  not  a  commentary  on  the  book  of  Genesis,  "The  Mosaic 
History  of  the  Creation  of  the  World,  illustrated  by  Discoveries 
and  Experiments  derived  irom  the  present  State  of  Science,  by 
Tliomas  Wood'  (8vo.  London,  1818),  deserves  a  notice  in  this  place, 
as  a  very  elaborate  illustration  of  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis. 
Science  is  here  rendered  the  handmaid  of  Revelation.  To  the 
work  is  prefixed  a  view  of  the  cosmogony  of  the  ancients,  which 
exhibits  very  considerable  research.  The  religious  improvements 
are  both  natural  and  scriptural :  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  is  here 
scripiurally  dcicnded,  and  its  authorities  are  clearly  adduced.  A 
philosophical  exposition  of  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis  is  attempted 
in  "The  .Ancient  Principles  of  the  True  and  Sacred  Philosophy,  as 
lately  explained  by  John  Hutchinson,  Esq.  Originally  published 
in  Latin  by  A.  S.  Catcott.  Translated  with  Notes,  and  a  Prelimi- 
nary Dissertation  on  the  Character  and  Writings  of  Moses.  By 
Alexander  Maxwell."    London,  1822,  tivo. 


EX  OB  IS. 

32.  Hexapla  in  Exodum  :  that  is,  a  sixfold  Commentary  upon 
Leovardiaj,  1747-  |  the  Book  of  Exodus,   according  to  the  Method  j,)ropounded  in 

Hexapla  upon  Genesis.  By  Andrew  Willet.  London,  1008, 
foho. 

33.  Exodus ;  a  corrected  Translation,  with  notes,  critical  and 
explanatory.     By  William  Hopkins,  B.A.     London,  1784,  4to. 

.  The  translator  has,  in  general,  executed  his  task  with  fidelity; 
and,  "where  it  could  be  done  with  propriety  (or  where  the  read- 
ings of  the  Samaritan  ropy  would  permit  it)  '  he  has  adopted,' 
he  says,  'the  English  vulgar  translation,  in  order  to  prevent  any 
prejudices  that  might  be  infused  into  the  minds  of  the  common 
people  by  uncharitable  bigot.';.'  In  the  notes  we  meet  with  little 
that  can  gratify  the  taste  of  curious  and  critical  readers  ;  and  his 
severe  rcilections  on  the  articles  and  liturgy  of  the  Church  of 
Englund  might  well  have  been  spared  in  a  work  of  this  nature." 
(Monthly  Rov.  O.  S.  vol.  Ixxii.  p.  412.) 

JOSHUA  AND  THE  OTHEn  HISTORICAL  BOOKS. 

34.  Josu;b  Impcratoris  Historia,  illustrata  atquc  explicata  at 
Andrea  Masio.  Antwerp,  1574,  folio;  and  also  in  the  Crilici 
Sacri. 

A  work  of  very  considerable  value,  on  account  of  its  containing 
the  readings  of  the  Syriac  Ilexaplar  version,  the  manuscript  of 
which  Masius  possessed.  This  manuscript  is  said  to  have  been 
written  in  the  year  606,  and  is  the  only  one  that  preserves  tho 
readings  of  Jo.shtia,  as  given  by  Origcn. 

35.  C.  H.  van  IlEuwEniiEN  Dispufatio  de  Libro  Josuic,  sive 
de  diversis  ex  quibus  constat  Josuto  Liber  inonumentis,  deque 
a;tate  qud  eorum  vixerunt  auctorcs.     Groningaj,  1828,  8vo. 

36.  Historia  Ruth,  ex  Ebr^ro  Laline  conversa  ct  Commcnfa- 
rio  explicata.  Ejusdem  Historiic  Translatio  (Jra;ca  ad  Exemplar 
Complutcnsc,  et  Nota3  in  eandem.  Opera  ac  Studio  Juannis 
Duusii.     Amsterdami,  1032,  4to. 

37.  A  Comment  on  Ruth  by  T[homa8]  F[uLLEn],  B.D. 
London,  1651,  8vo. 

38.  John  Henr.  Michaelis,  Chr.  Ben.  Michaelis,  ct  Job. 
Jac.  RAMnAcnii,  Notse  Ubcriores  in  Haoioguapha.  Halse, 
17;].5 — 17.51,  3  vols.  4fo. 

Of  this  work,  Iho  elder  Michaelis  wrote  the  annotations  on  tho 
first  book  of  ('hniniclrs,  the  I's.ilmB,  book  of  Job,  and  Song  (A 
Solomon ;  C.  B  Michaelis  was  the  author  of  those  on  Proverbs 


Sect.  III.  §  4.]  COMMENT ATOES  ON  DETACHED  BOOKS  OF  THE  OLD  TESFAMENT. 


117 


the  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah,  and  the  Prophet  Daniel ;  and  the 
notes  on  the  Feco;id  book  of  Chronicles,  Ruth,  Esther,  Nehemiah, 
and  Ecclesiastes,  were  written  by  Rambach. 

39.  J.  D.  Dahler,  de  Librorum  PARALipoMEsoRrji  auctori- 
tate  atque  fide  historica.  8vo.  Lipsise,  1819. 

40.  GnET  (Richard)  The  Last  Words  of  David,  divided  ac- 
cording to  the  Metre,  with  Notes  critical  and  explanatory.  Lon- 
don, 1749,  4to. 

41.  Commentatio  adElegiamDavidisiifSauIumet  Jonathancm. 
Auctore*  Antonio  Henrico  Pareau.     Groningae,  1829,  4to. 

This  dissertation  consists  of  three  parts.  In  the  first  is  given  a 
critical  examination  of  David's  exquisitely  beautiful  elegy  on  the 
death  of  Saul  and  of  Jonathan;  in  the  second  we  have  an  exegeti- 
cal  interpretation  of  it ;  and  the  third  contains  an  ingenious  com- 
parison of  it  with  the  other  elegiac  productions  of  the  Hebrew 
Sacred  Poets,  and  with  those  of  other  Oriental  poets  and  of  the 
Greeks.  The  result  of  this  collation  eslablishes  more  satisfactorily 
the  infinite  superiority  of  David's  elegy  over  every  similar  compo- 
sition, sacred  or  profane. 

42.  A.  G.  F.  ScRiiiMEn,  Observationes  Exegetico-Criticae  in 
Librum  Esdr^.     V^ratisiaviae,  1820,  4to. 

ON    THE    POETICAL    BOOKS    GENERALLY. 

43.  The  Annotations  of  Michaelis  above  noticed,  in  No.  38. 

44.  A  Paraphrase  on  the  Books  of  Job,  Psalms,  Proverbs,  and 
Ecclesiastes,  with  notes,  critical,  historical,  and  practical.  By 
Lawrence  Holden,  1764,  4  vols.  8vo. 

"To  what  class  of  readers  this  performance  will  be  useful  or 
agreeable,  we  really  know  not;  but  this  we  verily  believe,  that 
persons  of  taste,  learning,  or  judgment,  will  find  vei7  little  in  it  to 
engage  their  attention."  (Monthly  Review,  O.  S.  vol.  xxxi.  p.  73.) 
Tlie  public  opinion  seems  to  have  been  in  unison  with  that  of  the 
Monthly  Reviewers;  the  booli  has  never  been  popular, and  it  is  to 
be  purchased  at  a  very  low  price  ;  on  which  account,  this  notice 
is  inserted  as  a  caution  to  the  student  who  may  be  inexperienced 
in  the  real  value  of  books. 

4.5.  Critical  Remarks  on  the  Books  of  Job,  Proverbs,  Psalms, 
Ecclesiastes,  and  Canticles.  By  D.  Durell,  D.D.  London, 
1772,  4to. 

See  an  analysis  of  this  work  in  the  Monthly  Review,  O.  S.  vol. 
xlvii.  pp.  119—1^. 

46.  Joh.  Chr.  Doederlein  Scholia  in  Libros  Veteris  Testa- 
menti  Poeticos.     Halae,  1779,  4to. 

47.  The  Poetical  Parts  of  the  Old  Testament  newl}'  translated 
from  the  Hebrew,  with  notes  critical  and  explanatory.  By 
William  Green,  M.A.     London,  1781,  4to. 

For  an  account  of  this  work,  see  the  Monthly  Review.  O.  S, 
vol.  Ixviii.  pp.  1 — 3. 

JOE. 

48.  Friderici  SpANHE:(rii  Filii  Historia  Jobi.  Genevae,  1670, 
4 to.  Also  in  the  second  volume  of  the  folio  edition  of  his  col- 
lective works  published  at  Ley  den,  in  1701-3,  in  3  volumes, 
folio. 

49.  A  Translation  of  the  Book  of  Job,  with  annotations,  argu- 
ments, and  dialogues  on  each  chapter,  is  given  in  the  second 
tome  or  part  of  the  celebrated  Hugh  Buoughton's  works, 
pp.  246—294. 

50.  An  llxposition,  with  Practical  Observations  on  the  Book 
of  Job.     By  Joseph  Caryl.     London,  1676,  2  vols,  folio. 

This  work  was  originally  published  in  six  volumes,  4to.  at  dif- 
fierent  times.  I  have  never  had  an  opportunity  of  examining  it ; 
but  Wachi  eulogizes  it  in  very  high  terms.  (Biblioth.  Theol.  vol.  iv. 

L487.)    It  is  now  very  little  read  or  even  consulted,  few  readers 
ing  able  to  wade  through  two  large  folio  volumes. 

51.  Francisci  Vav  assorts  Jobus,  brevi  Commentario  etTileta- 
phrasi  Poetica  illustratus.     Paris,  1 679,  8vo. 

52.  Dissertationes  in  Librum  Jobi.  Autore  Samuele  Wesley. 
Jjondini,  1736,  folio. 

This  volume  contains  fifty-three  elaborate  Dissertations,  which 
embrace  almost  every  critical  question  or  difficulty  that  is  to  bo 
found  in  the  book  of  Job.  The  learned  author  collated  all  the 
copies  which  he  could  procure,  both  of  the  original  Hebrew,  and 
also  of  the  Greek  and  other  versions. 

53.  Liber  Jobi,  cum  nova  versione  et  commentario  perpetuo. 
Edidit  Albertus  Schultens.     Lug.  Bat.  1737,  2  vols.  4to. 

Of  this  learned  and  elaborate  work,  an  abridgment  was  printed 
at  Halle,  in  1773,  by  Prof  Vogel,  entitled  Alberti  Schultensii  Com- 
mentarius  in  Jobum,  in  compendium  redactus,  cum  observationibus 
critjcis  et  exegeticis.    2  vols.  8vo. 


54.  Liber  Jobi  in  versiculos  metrice  divisus,  cum  Versione 
Latin.H  Alberti  Schultens,  Notisque  ex  ejus  Commentario  ex- 
cerpsit  atque  adnotationes  suas  adjecit  Ricardus  Grey.  Lqji- 
dini,  1742. 

A  learned  and  valuable  work.  Mr.  [afterwards  Bp.]  Warburton 
having  attacked  Dr.  Grey,  the  latter  defended  himself  in  "  An 
Answer  to  Mr.  Warburton's  Remarks  so  far  as  they  concern  the 
Preface  to  a  late  edition  of  the  Book  of  Job."     London,  1744,  8vo. 

55.  Some  Observations  tending  to  illustrate  the  Book  of  Job, 
and  particularly  Job  xix.  25.  By  the  Rev.  Charles  Costard,  M.A. 
London,  1747,  8vo. 

56.  A  Dissertation  on  the  Book  of  Job,  its  Nature,  Argument, 
Age,  and  Author.  Wherein  the  celebrated  Text,  ch.  xix.  25.  is 
occasionally  considered  and  discussed.  To  which  is  prefixed  an 
Introductory  Discourse,  with  a  short  Analysis  of  the  whole  Book. 
Ry  John  Garnett,  B.D.  [afterwards  Bishop  of  Clogher].  Lon- 
don, 1751.     Second  edition,  1754,  4to. 

57.  Observationes  Miscellanese  in  Librum  Jobi.  [Auctore 
D.  R.  Boullier.]     Amsterdami,  1758,  8 vo. 

This  work  is  an  attack  on  the  labours  of  Professor  Schultens, 
whose  system  of  explaining  Hebrew  words  and  idioms,  chiefly 
by  the  aid  of  the  Arabic,  is  here  severely  criticised. 

58.  Elihu,  or  an  Inquiry  into  the  principal  Scope  and  Design 
of  the  Book  of  Job.  By  Walter  Hodges,  D.D.  London,  1750, 
4to. 

This  work  is  written  on  the  Hutchinsonian  system,  and  is  de- 
siarned  to  show  that  Elihu  was  no  other  personage  than  the  Son  of 
God  himself!  See  Monthly  Review,  (O.  S.),  vol.  ii.  pp.  219—225. 
347—352. 

59.  A  Commentary  on  the  Book  of  Job,  in  which  are  inserted 
the  Hebrew  text  and  English  translation,  &c.  By  Leonard 
Chappelow,  B.D.,  Arabic  Professor  in  the  University  of  Cam- 
bridge.    1752,  2  vols.  4to. 

See  an  account  of  this  work  in  the  Monthly  Review  (O.  S.), 
vol.  vii.  pp.  197—205. 

60.  An  Essay  towards  a  New  English  Version  of  the  Book 
of  Job,  from  the  original  Hebrew,  with  a  Commentary,  and  some 
account  of  his  Life.  By  Edward  Heath,  Esq.  London,  1756, 
4  to. 

"  It  is  but  justice  to  this  new  Essay  upon  Job,  to  observe,  that  the 
translation  is  in  many  places  very  diflferent  from  that  in  common 
use ;  and  that,  in  the  notes,  there  are  many  observations  entirely 
new — all  of  them  ingenious,  and  many  of  them  true."  (Month. 
Rev.  O.  S.  vol.  xiv.  p.  150.) 

61.  A  Critical  Dissertation  on  the  Book  of  Job.  By  Charles 
Peters,  A.M.     Second  edition.     London,  1757,  8vo. 

The  first  edition  of  this  work  appeared  in  1751.  (See  Month. 
Rev.  O.  S.  vol.  iv.  pp.  401 — 409.)  In-  it,  the  author  particularly 
considers  Bishop  Warburton's  account  of  the  Book  of  Job,  vindi« 
catcs  its  antiquity,  and  shows  that  the  ancient  Jews  did  believe  iu 
a  future  state. 

62.  The  Book  of  Job  in  English  verse,  translated  from  tha 
original  Hebrew  ;  with  remarks,  historical,  critical,  and  explana- 
tory.    By  T.  Scott.     London,  1773,  8vo. 

A  close  and  exact  translation,  as  far  as  a  metrical  version  can  be. 
The  notes  display  much  research  and  good  sense. 

63.  An  Improved  Version  attempted  of  the  Book  of  Job,  with 
a  preliminary  Dissertation  and  Notes,  critical,  historical,  and 
explanatory      By  Charles  Garden,  D.D.     London,  1796,  8vo. 

A  book  of  great  pretensions,  but  indifferent  execution.  ^See  aii 
analysis  of  it  in  the  British  Critic,  O.  S.  vol.  ix.  pp.  168 — 175. 

64.  Jo.  Jac.  Reiske  Coiijecturse  in  Jobum  et  Proverbia,  cum 
cjusdcm  oratione  de  studio  Arabicae  Linguas.    Lipsis,  1779,  8vo. 

65.  Jobi  antiquissimi  Carminis  Hebraici  Natura  atque  Virtu* 
tes.     Scripsit  Carolus  David  Ilgen.     Lipsiae,  17S9,  8vo. 

66.  Animadversiones  in  Librum  Job ;  scripsit  Jac.  Christ.  Rud. 
EcKERMANN.     Lubccaj,  1779,  8vo. 

67.  Joannis  Henrici  Pareau  Commentatio  de  Immortal! tatis 
ac  Vitfe  Futurje  Notitiis  ab  antiquissimo  Jobi  scriptore  in  suos 
usus  adhibitis.  Accedit  Sermo  Jobi  de  Sapientia  mortuis  magis 
cognita  quam  vivis  ;  sive  Jobeidis  caput  xxviii.  philologies  et 
critice  illustratum.     Daventrim,  1807,  8vo. 

68.  THe  Book  of  Job,  metrically  arranged  according  to  the 
Masora,  and  newly  translated  into  English ;  with  Notes,  critical 
and  explanatory,  accompanied,  on  the  opposite  page,  by  the  au- 
thorized English  version.  By  the  Right  Rev.  Joseph  Stock, 
D.D.,  Bishop  of  Killala.     Bath,  1805,  4to. 

This  translation  was  executed  in  the  short  apace  of  six  weeks 
Many  of  the  author's  opinions  and  conjectural  emendations  were 


118 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  U.  Chap.  V 


severely  criticised  by  Archbishop  Magec,  who  has  shown  that  his 
objections  to  tlie  antiquity  of  the  Book  of  Job  were  unfounded. 
(On  the  Atonement,  vol.  i.  pp.  354 — 42'2.) 

69.  The  Book  of  Job,  tran.slated  from  the  Hebrew,  by  the 
.ate  Miss  EUzabeth  Smitu  :  with  a  preface  and  annotations,  by 
the  Rev.  T.  Randolph,  D.D.     London,  1810,  8vo. 

This  was  a  posthuraoua  publication  of  an  amiable  and  accom- 
plished young  lady. — "Considering  tiie  age  of  Miss  Smith,  and  the 
circumstances  under  which  she  studied  the  Hebrew  language,  her 
translation  of  the  Book  of  Job  may  certainly  be  deemed  a  very  sur- 
prising work  ;  and  had  it  not  been  cliaraeterized  in  the  extrava- 
gant terras  of  commendation  with  which  Dr.  Randolpli  lias  intro- 
duced it  to  the  public,  it  might  have  borne  generally  a  more 
favourable  report  than  it  will  gain  from  tliat  scrutiny  which  his 
eulogium  seems  to  challenge.  It  was  evidently  left  in  an  un(in:sh- 
ed  state;  and  the  editor  felt  himself  bound  in  honour  not  to  make 
the  smallest  correction.  We  have  it,  tliercfore,  just  as  Mi.ss  Smith 
wrote  it;  and  we  receive  it  as  a  monument  of  her  industry  and 
genius,  lliough  we  cannot  regard  it  as  h-.iving  elforlcd  much  to- 
wards the  elucidation  of  the  Book  of  Job."  (Month.  Rev.  N.  S. 
%ol.  ii V.  p.  152.)  See  also  a  similar  critique  in  the  Eclectic  Review, 
vol.  vi.  part  ii.  p.  780. 

70.  The  Book  of  Job,  literally  translated  from  the  original 
Hebrew,  and  restored  to  its  natural  arrangement,  with  Notes, 
critical  and  illu.strative,  and  an  Introductory  Dissertation  on  its 
scene,  scope,  language,  author,  and  object.  By  John  Mason 
Good,  M.D.  F.R.S.  &c.     London,  1812,  Svo, 

"  On  the  whole,  we  regard  this  work  as  a  valuable  accession 
to  our  stock  of  sacred  literature;  and  we  can  recommend  it  with 
confidence  to  the  biblical  student,  as  containing  a  great  mass  of 
useful  information  and  valuable  criticism."  (Christian  Observer, 
vol.  lii.  p.  30G.) 

71.  Henr.  MinnELnoHFF  Curaj  Hexaplaros  in  Jobum,  e  Co- 
dice  Syriaco-Hcxaplari  Ambrosiano  Mcdiolanensi.  4to.  Vratisla- 
vi3,  1817. 

72.  Lc  Livrc  de  Job,  nouvellemcnt  traduit  d'apres  Ic  texte 
original  non  ponctue  ct  Ics  anciennes  versions,  nolaminent 
I'Arabe  etla  Syriaque  ;  par  J.  Louis  Biudel,  Professeurde  Lan- 
gues  Orientales,  et  de  I'interprctation  de.s  Livrcs  Saints,  dans 
1' Academic  de  Lausanne,     Paris,  1818,  Svo. 

73.  The  Book  of  Job,  translated  from  the  Hebrew  by  George 
Hunt.     Bath,  lb2.5,  Svo. 

74.  TiC  Livrc  de  Job,  traduit  en  Vers  Franjais,  avec  le  Texte 
de  la  Vulgate  en  regard ;  suivi  de  Notes  Explicatives,  ainsi  que 
de  Variantc's,  tirties  de  plus  cclcbres  Inlcrpretes  do  la  Bible. 
Par  B.  .M.  F.  Lkvavasselr.     Paris,  1826,  Svo. 

75.  A  New  Translation  and  Exposition  of  the  very  ancient 
Book  of  Job  ;  with  Notes,  explanatory  and  philological.  By  the 
Rev.  John  Fiiv,  B.A.     London,  1827,  Svo. 

76.  An  Amended  Version  of  the  Book  of  Job,  with  an  Intro- 
duction, and  Notes,  chiefly  explanatory.  By  George  R.  Noyes. 
Cambridge  [North  America],  1827,  Svo. 

"  Mr.  Noyes,  in  the  present  translation,  ha.i  aimed  at  combining 
the  fruits  of  the  laboui-s  of  the  learned  in  sacred  literature,  as  far 
SIS  they  relate  or  can  be  applied  to  tho  book  of  Job.  Ho  fas  pre- 
sented the  public  with  a  version  of  this  iiighly  inicresliiir;  jiortion 
nf  .S<;ripture,  the  basis  of  which  is  laid  in  the  former  rrt  oived" 
[our  authorized]  "  tran.slation  ;  but  into  which  have  been  incorpo- 
rated, with  a  judicious  selection,  the  most  important  suggestions 
of  the  critics,  lexicographers,  and  divines,  which  have  been  made 

Bincc  the  received  version  of  the  Bible  was  promnlgatff! To 

the  general  ability,  fidelity,  good  sense,  and  good  tasio,  w  ith  which 
he  has  executed  nis  task,  we  bear  willing  and  ample  testimony." 
(United  States'  Review  and  Literary  Gazette,  vol.  ii.  p.  3^13.) 

77.  The  Book  of  Job,  in  the  words  of  the  Authorized  Ver- 
sion, arranged  and  pointed  in  general  confortnity  with  the  Maso- 
retical  Text.     Dublin,  1828,  Svo. 

"  The  principal  feature  in  this  work  is  the  adoption  of  what  the 
editor  calls  a  Imlf-jmuse  in  each  line  of  every  verse,  which  he  has 
marked  by  a  dot,  j)laced,  like  the  Oreek  colon,  at  the  top  of  the 
last  letter  of  the  word  to  which  it  is  aflixcd.  In  the  delorrnination 
of  this  pause  he  has  been  directed  by  the  Masorclical  piuirtuation, 
which  not  only  divides  the  resoeciivo  verses  into  couplets  or  tri- 

{iletK,  but  every  lino  into  two  distinct  jviris.  The  editor  has  not 
bllowed  Bi.Hhop  Lowth  and  olhent  in  prniting  each  line  se[jaralcly, 
but  has  retained  the  usual  form  ol"  the  verse,  its  in  the  authorized 
version,  and  as  esinblishec)  by  the  MasoroiK.  The  words  also  ol" 
the  English  translation  have  been  retained  tbrfjuchout,  except 
where  a  slight  alteration  was  rendered  necessary  by  the  chnnge  ni 
their  collocation,  in  which  the  order  of  iho  Hebrew  is  fnllowcd 
as  closely  as  the  ilitferonce  of  langua'^e  will  permit.  By  ibis 
means  the  majestic  simplicity  of  the  oricinal  is  materially  preserv- 
ed ;  and,  in  riiiiny  inslnnces,  the  sen.«o  ol  a  pti'sage  more  accurately 
developed."     (('Iiristian  Remembrancer,  vol.  x.  pp.  4'J2,  4y3.) 

78.  Conjectures  concerning  the  Identity  of  l:ie  Patriarch  Job, 
hi*  Family,  llio  Time  when  ho  livcfl,  and  tlu  Locality  of  the 


Land  of  Uz.     By  the  Rev.  Samuel  Lrsoxs,  B.A.     Oxford  and 
London,  1832,  Svo. 

79.  J.  G.  Stickec  Commentatio  Ilistorico-philologico-critica 
in  Jobi  locum  cclebcrrimum,  cap.  XIX.  25 — 27.  de  G  elc.  Jens, 
1832,  Svo 

PSALMS. 

SO.  GnECiOiui  BAniiEnn.T:!  Scholia  in  Psalmum  quintum  et 
dccimum  octavum,  e  CWidicis  Bibliothecie  Bodleianaj  Apographo 
Bernsteniano  ediiiit,  interpretatus  est,  ct  annotationibus  -prolego- 
menisque  instruxlt  Joannes  Theophilus  Guiliclmus  Hcnricus 
Rhode.     Vratislavis,  1832,  Svo. 

81.  Annotations  upon  the  Book  of  Psalms.  By  Henry  Ains- 
woRTH.     See  p.  115,   No.  3.  snpra. 

82.  Marci  Marim,  Brixiani,  Annotationes  Literales  in  Psal- 
mos.  Nova  Vcrsione  ab  ipsomet  illustratos.  Edita;  opera  et 
studio  Joannis  Aloysii  Mingarelli.   Bononia;,  1748-50, 2  vols.  4to. 

A  learned  and  useful  work,  the  author  of  which  died  in  1.594. 
To  his  profound  knowledge  of  Hebrew  literature  the  younger  Bux- 
torf,  Lc  Long,  Turretini,  and  other  eminent  philologists  of  the  se- 
venteenth century,  have  borne  ample  testimony.  These  Annota- 
tions are  strictly  literal ;  and  to  ihcm  is  prclixcd  the  original  Hebrew 
text  of  the  P^ialms,  together  witli  the  Vulgate  Latin  version,  and  a 
new  translation  of  them  by  Marco  Marini. 

83.  A  brief  Explication  of  the  Psalms.  By  David  Dicksox, 
Professor  of  Divinity  in  the  College  of  Edinburgh.  London, 
1653-54,  3  vols.  Svo.  Glasgow  and  London,  1834,  12  vols. 
12mo. 

This  work  was  very  popular  during  the  latter  part  of  the  seven- 
teenth century.  The  Glasgow  reprint  is  very  neatly  executed,  and 
is  enlarged  with  a  memoir  of  the  author,  by  the  Rev.  Robert  Wod- 
row. 

84.  Paraphrases  and  Annotations  upon  the  Book  of  Psalms 
By  Henry  Ham.mosd,  D.D.     London,  1659,  folio. 

Dr.  IIamnio)id's  notes  are  exceedingly  valuable,  and  contain 
many  learned  observations  tliat  had  escajicd  preceding  commenta- 
tors on  the  Book  of  Psalms.  They  are  also  to  be  found  in  the  fourth 
volume  of  his  collected  works,  published  at  London  in  1C84,  in  folio, 

85.  David's  Harp  Stning  and  Tuned ;  or  an  Easie  Analysis 
of  the  whole  Book  of  Psalms,  cast  into  such  a  method  that  the 
Summe  of  every  Psalm  may  be  quickly  collected  and  remem- 
bered. With  a  Devout  Meditation  or  Prayer  at  the  end  of  every 
Psalm,  framed  for  the  most  part  out  of  the  words  of  the  Psalm,  and 
fitted  for  several  Occasions.  By  William  [Nicholson],  Bishop 
of  Gloucester.     London,  1662,  folio. 

In  this  work  every  verse  of  the  Psalms  is  divided  and  subdivided 
with  great  minuteness;  it  is  wholly  practical  and  explanatory.  In 
his  explications,  the  Rt.  Rev.  Author  steers  between  the  two  ex- 
tremes of  literal  and  spiritual  interpretation.  The  prayers  at  the 
end  of  each  Psalm  arc  expressed  nearly  in  the  very  words  of  the 
inspired  authnrs.  Though  the  quaint  and  scholastic  mode  wliich 
obtains  in  this  work  is  somewhat  repulsive,  it  may  neverthele.'is  be 
consulted  with  advantage  by  those  who  cannot  command  other 
and  more  critical  commentaries ;  especially  as  the  book  may  be 
occasionally  met  with  at  a  low  price.  Dr.  A.  Clarke  has  inserte<l 
Bishop  Nicholson's  Analysis  in  his  commentary  on  the  Psalms, 
omitting  his  prayers. 

86.  Martini  Geieri  Commentarius  in  Psalmos  Davidis,  fon- 
tiimi  Ebrffiorum  mentem,  et  vim  vocum  phrasiumipie  sacrarum 
scnsumquo  adeo  genuinum,  adductis  copiose  locis  paralleUs,  col- 
lalis  etiam  (ubi  ojjus)  vcrsionibus  intcrpretunique  sentcntiis,  et 
cnodatis  dithcultatibus,  cutn  cura  eruens.  Lipsia>,  1681 ;  1697; 
Amstelodami,  1685;  Drcsdo;,  170'J,  folio. 

Geier  was  an  eminently  learned  divine  of  the  Lutheran  church, 
and  Professor  of  Hebrew  at  Leiiwic,  where  the  substance  of  his 
commentary  on  the  Psalms  was  delivered  in  lectures  to  the  Ktudonts. 
It  is  very  litlle  known  in  this  country  ;  but  on  the  continent  it  is 
very  highly  cstccinod  for  its  erudition  and  piety.  (Walchius,  vol. 
iv.  p.  495.) 

87.  The  Book  of  Psalms,  with  the  argument  of  each  pealm, 
and  a  preface  giving  some  general  rules  for  the  interpretation  of 
this  sacred  book.  By  a  Divine  of  the  Church  of  England.  [Peter 
Allix,  D.D.]     London,  1701,  Svo. 

88.  An  Essay  towards  a  New  Engli.sh  Version  of  the  Book 
of  Psalms,  from  the  original  Hebrew.  By  Z.  Mluok.  London, 
1744,  4to. 

The  learned  author  of  this  work,  which  is  now  of  mre  occurrence, 
professes  to  give  a  plain  literal  version,  without  offcping  to  deviate 
into  any  afTccled  ornaments.  The  transitions  of  persons  and  scenes 
which  are  frefjiient  in  itie  P.^alins,  ore  carefully  indicated;  and 
the  numerous,  though  brief,  noii>s  are  designed  partly  to  point 
out  the  critical  meaning  of  ca<h  psalm,  and  partly  to  account  to 
the  ren<ler  for  the  changes  mide  in  the  version.  Some  of  thesio 
notes,  Iwwovcr,  are  more  ingenious  than  solid.    How  highly  Mr 


Sect.  III.  §  4.]  COMMENTATORS  ON  DETACHED  BOOKS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


119 


Mudge  was  esteemed  by  Dr.  Johnson,  may  be  seen,  in  the  charac- 
ter of  him  drawn  by  llie  latter,  in  Boswell's  Life  of  Dr.  Johnson, 
vol.  iv.  pp.  80—84. 

89.  A  new  English  Translation  of  the  Psalms,  from  the  origi- 
nal Hebrew,  reduced  to  Metre  by  the  late  Bishop  Hare;  with 
Notes  critical  and  explanatory  ;  Illustrations  of  many  passages 
drawn  from  the  classics  ;  and  a  preliminary  Dissertation,  in  which 
the  truth  and  certainty  of  that  learned  prelate's  happy  discovery 
is  stated  and  proved  at  large.  By  Thomas  Edwards,  A.M. 
London,  1755,  8vo. 

The  design  of  this  learned  work  was  "  to  make  Bishop  Hare's 
discovery  of  the  Hebrew  metre  better  known;  to  show  its  truth 
and  certainly;  and  to  prove  that,  by  a  judicious  application  of  it, 
great  light  may  be  tlirown  upon  the  poetical  parts  of  ilie  Holy 
Scriptures."  (Monthly  Review,  O.  S.  vol.  xii.  pp.  485 — 487.)  Mr. 
Edwards  was  of  opinion  that  Dr.  Hare's  hypothesis  was  rejected 
by  many  persons,  partly  from  an  overhasty  determination,  and  partly 
from  100  scrupulous  a  veneration  for  the  Hebrew  text.  Of  Dr.  Hare's 
systQjn,  a  short  account  is  given. 

90.  The  Psalter,  in  its  original  form ;  or  the  Book  of  Psalms 
reduced  to  lines,  in  an  easy  and  familiar  style,  nnd  a  kind  of 
blank  verse  of  unequal  measures,  answering  for  the  most  part  to 
the  original  lines,  with  arguments  pointing  out  the  general  de- 
sign of  each  Psalm,  and  notes,  accounting  for  some  passages  in 
the  translation  ;  opening  and  explaining  also,  in  some  places,  the 
prophetical  views,  &c.  [By  the  Rev.  George  Fenwick,  B.D.] 
London,  1759,  8vo. 

The  object  of  this  publication  is,  to  show  that  the  Psalms  were 
written  in  the  spirit  of  prophecy,  with  a  special  and  direct  reference 
to  Clirist  and  his  church,  in  the  different  ages  and  periods  of  the 
Christian  dispensation.  Writing  on  this  hypothesis,  Mr.  Fenwick 
is  often  fanciful  in  his  interpretations.  He  has,  however,  many 
happy  renderings. 

91.  Phil.  Davidis  Bukkh  Gnomon  Psalmorum.  StutgardisE, 
17C0,  2  vols.  4  to. 

This  work  "  is  written  in  a  pure  strain  of  piety,  but  rather  too 
much  in  a  technical  form."    (Dr.  Clarke.) 

92.  A  New  Translation  of  the  Psalms  from  the  Hebrew 
Original,  with  Notes  critical  and  explanatory  ;  to  which  is  added 
a  Dissertation  on  the  last  prophetic  words  of  Noah.  By  William 
Grekn,  M.A.     1762,  8vo. 

This  work  contains  "  some  judicious  alterations  in  the  version, 
and  valuable  crilicisnis  in  the  notes ;  which  throw  considerable 
light  on  many  obscure  passages  in  the  Psalms,  and  will  cause  those 
excellent  compositions,  wliich  have  been  the  admiration  and  delight 
of  pious  minds  through  so  many  ages,  to  be  read  with  still  more 
pleasure  and  advantage."  But  "  the  language  of  the  trnnslation, 
ihough  correct,  has  neitlier  that  force  nor  harmony  which  we  find 
in  the  common  version  in  our  Bibles."  (Monthly  Review,  O.  S.  vol. 
XXV iii.  p.  2o7.) 

93.  Hermanni  Vexf.ma  Commentarius  ad  Psalmos  :  quo  sin- 
gulorum  Argumentum, Tempus  et  Hypothesis  explicandi  stwdiose 
inquiritur,  eorumque  Partes  continua  Paraphrase  et  selectis  Ob- 
servationibus  illustrantur.     Leovardioe,  1762-67,  6  tomis,  4to. 

"  Tlirough  its  great  scarcity,  the  work  is  little  known  in  Great 
Britain.  What  was  said  by  David  of  Goliath's  sword,  may  be  justly 
said  of  Venema's  Commentary  on  the  Book  of  Psalms  —  There  is 
none  like  it."  (Dr.  Clarke.)  It  is  held  in  the  highest  esteem  abroad, 
particularly  in  Holland. 

94.  Francisci  Vataiu.i  Annotationes  in  Psalmos,  subjunctis 
Hugonis  Grotii  Notis,  quibus  Observationes  suas  adspersil  G,  J. 
L.  Vogel.     Halae,  1767,  8vo. 

95.  Annotations  on  the  Psalms.  By  James  Merrick,  M.A. 
Reading,  17G8,  4to. 

This  volume  is  adapted  to  Mr.  Merrick's  Poetical  Version  of  the 
Psalms,  published  in  1765,  in  4to.  and  justly  considered  as  the  best 
J  j:glish  poetical  translation  extant.  In  the  compilation  of  these 
notes  he  was  assisted  by  Bishop  Lowth  (then  Bishop  of  Oxford)  and 
Archbishop  Seeker.  "  A  large  part  of  them  relate  to  the  read- 
ings of  the  ancient  versions,  and  propose  the  conjectural  emenda- 
tions of  various  writers.  Many  of  them  abound  with  passages, 
principally  from  the  Greek  authors,  which  justify  the  modes  of 
expression  used  by  the  Psalmist ;  and  for  this  part  of  his  design 
Air.  Merrick  was  admirably  qualified,  by  his  extensive  and  uncom- 
mon acquaintance  with  Grecian  literature.  Some  of  the  notes, 
which  are  the  most  curious  and  entertaining,  are  those  which  treat 
upon  the  plants,  trees,  and  animals  mentioned  in  the  Psalms." 
(Monthly  Review,  O.  S.  vol.  xl.  p.  374.) 

96.  Mosis  Amtraldi  Paraphrasis  in  Psalmos  Davidis,  una 
cum  Annotationibus  et  Argumentis.  Editio  altera,  eraendatior 
et  auctior,  nova  Praefationc  Jac.  Cremeri.  Traj.  ad  Rhenum, 
1672, 4to.  • 

97.  A  Commentary  on  the  Book  of  Psalms ;  in  which  the 
literal  or  historical  sense,  as  they  relate  to  King  David  and  the 


People  of  Israel,  is  illustrated  ;  and  their  application  to  the  Mes- 
siah, to  the  church,  and  to  individuals  as  members  thereof,  is 
pointed  out.  By  George  Hurne,  D.D.  [late  Bishop  of  Norwich], 
4to.  2  vols.  Oxford,  1771 ;  also  in  one  and  two  volumes,  8vo. ; 
ISrao.  3  vols. ;  arid  ISmo.  2  vols.  They  also  form  vols.  ii.  and 
iii.  of  the  collective  edition  of  his  works  in  6  vols.  8vo. 

The  variety  and  number  of  the  editions  of  this  learned  and  pious 
work  sufficiently  attest  the  very  high  estimation  in  which  it  is  held  : 
the  critics  of  the  day,  however,  when  it  first  appeared,  were  of 
opinion  that  Bishop  Home  applied  loo  many  of  the  Psalms  to  the 
Messiah.  A  judicious  "  Selection"  from  this  work  was  published 
by  Mr.  Lindley  Murray,  in  12mo.  1812,  comprising  the  most  strik- 
ing, pathetic,  and  instructive  parts  of  the  commentary. 

98.  Davidis  aliorumque  Poetarum  Hebreeorum  Carminum  Li- 
bri  quinque,  e  Codd.  MSS.  et  Antiquis  Ver.sionibus  recensuit  et 
Commentariis  illustravit  Jo.  Aug.  Stark,  8vo.  vol,  i.  pars  1.  et  2, 
Regioraonti,  1776. 

These  two  parts  contain  only  an  introduction  to  the  Psalms  ;  the 
work  was  never  continued. 

99.  A  new  Literal  Version  of  the  Book  of  Psalms,  with  a 
Preface  and  Notes.  By  the  Rev.  Stephen  Street,  M.A.  Lon- 
don, 1790,  2  vols.  8vo. 

The  author's  object  in  this  work  is  to  give  a  close  literal  transla- 
tion of  the  Psalms.  In  several  instances,  the  Monthly  Reviewers 
state  that  this  version  "  is  an  improvement  of  those  which  have 
preceded  it ;  that  in  some  the  alterations  are  doubtful,  and  that  in 
many  others  they  are  unnecessar3',  if  not  mistaken ;  yet  that  all 
are  worthy  of  attention,  and  may  open  the  way  to  further  amend- 
ments. We  consider  this  work  as  a  useful  addition  to  this  branch 
of  learning.  The  author  may,  perhaps,  be  too  ready  in  advancing 
conjectures ;  but  he  alwaj'S  gives  notice  when  he  does  it,  and  ha 
never  dogmatically  affirms."  (Monthly  Review,  N.  S.  vol.  viii. 
p.  60.) 

100.  Notes  on  the  Books  of  Psalms  and  Proverbs.  By  the 
Rev.  H.  DiMocK.     Gloucester,  1791,  4to. 

101.  J.  F.  Stance  Anticritica  in  Locos  Psalmorum  varies. 
Lipsiae  et  Halae,  1791  —  1795,  2  vols.  8vo. 

102.  A  New  and  Liberal  Version  of  the  Psalms  into  Modem 
Language,  according  to  tlie  Liturgy  Translation,  with  copious 
Notes  and  Illustrations,  partly  original,  and  partly  selected  from 
the  be.st  Commentators,  calculated  to  render  the  Book  of  Psalms 
intelligible  to  every  capacity.  By  the  Rev.  W.  W^ake.  Bath, 
1793,^2  vols.  8vo. 

The  alterations  in  this  version  are  by  no  means  such  as  to  render 
it  intelligible  to  every  capacity.  "  Tliis  fault  pervades  the  book, 
which  in  other  respects  is  well  executed.  The  arguments  in  gene- 
ral arc  well  drawn  up,  and  the  notes  appear  to  be  judicious.  The 
translation  of  the  Psalms  contained  in  the  liturgy  is  by  many  con- 
sidered to  be  the  best,  though  the  most  ancient.  At  all  events,  as 
it  is  used  so  much,  it  ought  to  be  duly  explained.  This  book  will, 
we  doubt  not,  be  well  received  among  persons  of  some  education." 
(British  Critic,  O.  S.  vol.  iv.  p.  311.) 

103.  An  Attempt  to  render  the  Daily  Reading  of  the  Psalms 
more  intelligible  to  the  Unlearned,  with  a  Paraphrase  selected 
from  the  best  Commentators,  and  illustrated  with  occasional 
Notes.     By  F.  T.  Travell,  A.M.     Oxford,  1794,  8vo. 

The  design  of  the  work  is  "  to  make  the  daily  reading  of  the 
Psalms  more  easy  and  pleasant  to  those  serious  and  unlearned 
Christians  who  malse  it  a  point  of  conscience  to  attend  the  public 
worship  of  God,  and  are  desirous  of  joining  in  Jds  praises  with  un- 
derstanding." (Preface,  p.  xi.)  "  Mr.Travell  appears  to  have  studied 
carefully,  and  explained  judiciously,  the  scope  of  the  several  psaims, 
and  the  sense  of  their  distinct  parts.  A  piam  Christian,  who  takes 
up  this  book  with  the  best  of  all  purposes,  that  of  being  made  better 
by  it,  can  hardly  fail  of  success."  (British  Critic,  O.  S.  vol.  vi.  pp. 
625.  627,  628.) 

104.  Psalmi,  ex  recensione  Textus  Hebrffii  et  Versionum  An- 
tiquarum  Latine  versi,  notisque  criticis  et  philologicis  illustrati 
[a  N.  M.  Berlin].     UpsaliiE,  1805,  8vo. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  useful  Latin  versions  of  the  Psalms  that 
has  appeared  in  modern  times;  it  is  faithfully  executed,  without 
being  servilely  literal.  The  notes,  though  brief,  are  sufficiently 
explicit,  and  are  designed  to  explain  obscure  passages ;  to  elucidate, 
by  a  short  paraphrase,  peculiar  expressions  that  could  not  be  ren- 
dered in  the  text  by  a  single  word ;  to  point  out  the  principal 
various  readings  worthy  of  note  ;  to  state  briefly  those  arguments 
for  the  renderingsofparticularwords, concerning  which  interpreters 
are  by  no  means  agreed,  with  references  to  philological  works  in 
which  those  arguments  are  more  copiously  discussed  ;  and  to  sug- 
gest probable  meanings  to  words  of  doubtful  interpretation,  which 
are  submitted  to  the  reader's  judgment. 

105.  A  New  Translation  of  the  Book  of  Psalms  from  the 
Original  Hebrew,  with  various  Readings  and  Notes.  By  the 
late  Alexander  Geddes,  LL.D.     London,  1807,  8vo. 


120 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  IL  Chap.  V. 


This  is  n  posthumous  publication  of  Dr.  Geddes,  edited  by  Dr. 
Di.sney  and  Charles  Butler,  Esq.  TJie  doctor's  version  extends 
only  to  the  eleventh  verse  of  Ps.Tim  cxviii. ;  the  rest  is  added  from 
nn  interleaved  copy  of  Bishop  Wilson's  Bible,  corrected  by  Dr.  G., 
wiio  professes  to  have  confined  himself  to  tlie  direct  and  literal 
meaning  of  the  inripired  autliors,  leaving  secondary  applications  to 
professed  commentators.  "  Though  many  things  have  dis[)leased 
us  in  the  perusal  of  this  work,  we  are  not  jirepared  to  say  tliat  the 
learned  editors  should  have  altogether  withheld  this  new  version 
from  the  public.  Dr.  Geddes  was  undoubtedly  a  considerable 
scholar,  and  his  lucubrations  maybe  turned  by  other  scholars  to 
good  account,  though  they  cannot  be  implicitly  adopted. "  ;Bntish 
Critic,  O.  S.  vol.  xxxiii.  p.  358.) 

106.  Psaumes  nouvcllement  tradaits  sur  THtbrcu,  et  mis  en 
Icur  ordre  nalurul,  avec  des  Explications  et  Notes  Critiques. 
[Par  le  President  Agieh.]     Paris,  1809,  2  tomes,  8vo. 

106*.  An  entire  New  Version  of  the  Book  of  Psalms;  in 
which  an  attempt  is  made  to  accommodate  them  to  the  worship 
of  the  Christian  Church,  with  original  Prefaces,  and  Notes  criti- 
cal and  explanatory.  By  the  Rev.  Win.  Goode,  M.A.  London, 
1811,  2  vols.  8vo, 

A  useful  help  to  the  devotional  understanding  of  tlie  Psalms, 
which  are  here  translated  into  English  verse,  and  in  various  metres. 

107.  The  Book  of  Psalms,  tran.slatcd  from  the  Hebrew,  with 
Notes  exj)lanatory  and  critical.  By  Samuel  Honsi.EY,  LL.D., 
late  Lord  Bishop  of  St.  Asaph.     London,  1815,  2  vols.  Svo. 

This  was  n  posthumous  work  of  Bishop  Horsley,  mr.ny  of  whose 
applications  of  tlic  psalms  to  the  Messiah  are  fanciful.  For  a 
copious  critique  on  it,  see  the  British  Review,  vol.  xf.  pp.  1 — 23. 

108.  Lyra  Davidis;  or,  a  New  Tran.sIation  and  Exposition  of 
the  Psalms.    By  the  Rev.  John  Fky,  B.A.    London,  1819,  Svo. 

This  work  is  avowedly  grounded  on  the  principles  adopted  in  the 
posihum'>us  work  of  the  late  Bishop  Horsley  ;  viz.  that  these  sacred 
oracles  have  for  the  most  part  an  immediate  reference  to  Christ, 
and  to  the  events  of  his  first  and  second  advent.  Of  couree  it  is 
subject  to  the  same  defects  which  characterize  all  those  inicrprelcrs 
of  the  Book  of  Psalms  who  exjwund  them  wholly  of  the  RIessiah. 

109.  Practical  Reflections  on  the  Psalms.  To  which  i.s  added 
a  Prayer  adapted  to  each  Psalm.  By  Mrs.  Shehiffk.  London, 
1821,  2  vols.  12nio. 

110.  The  Book  of  Psalms  in  an  Eni^Iish  Metric.d  Version 
foi'.nded  on  the  Basis  of  the  English  Bible  Translation,  and 
compared  with  the  original  Hebrew  ;  with  Notes  critical  and 
illustrative.  By  Richard  Mant,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  Down  and  Con- 
nor.    London,  1824,  Svo. 

The  notes  of  Bishop  Mant  are  always  interesting,  and  are  particu- 
larly valuable  for  pointing  out  the  |)oetical  beauties  uf  the  psalms. 
Ilis  wo-A  is  much  less  known  than  it  deserves. 

111.  A  Key  to  the  Book  of  Psalms.  By  the  Rev.  Thomas 
Bom,  M.A.     London,  182.5,  Svo. 

An  ingenious  application  of  Bp.  Jebb's  .system  of  Poetical  Paral- 
lelisms to  the  Interpretation  of  the  Book  of  Psalms.  "If  we  have 
not  fell  ourselves  at  liberty  to  award  to  Mr.  Boys's  labours  the  full 
measure  of  value  which  he  claims  for  them,  still  we  cannot  but 
consider  tlicm  as  well  employed  ;  and  ive  may  safely  recommend 
the  present  work  to  the  attention  of  every  bililical  student,  ns  de- 
Berviiig  of  a  careful  examination,  and  as  ciiiiiliiig  the  author  to  his 
honks  for  the  curious  and  interesting  discui-sions  which  it  com- 
prises."   (Eclectic  Review,  N.  S.  vol.  xxvi.  p.  2a.) 

112.  A  Literal  'I'ranslation  of  the  Psalms  of  David,  solely 
upon  the  Authority  of  the  Rev.  J.  Paukihust,  M. A.  London, 
1825,  8ro. 

113.  A  Practical  Illustration  of  the  Book  of  PKalnj.«.  By  the 
Author  of  the  Family  Commentary  on  the  New  Testament. 
(Mrs. TiioMso.v.]     York,  182G,  2  vols.  12ino. 

111.  Psalms  according  to  the  Authorized  Version  ;  with  Pre- 
fatory Titles,  and  Tabular  Index  of  Scriptural  References,  from 
the  Port  Royal  Aiitiiors,  marking  the  (Jircuiustances  and  Chrono- 
logic Order  of  their  Composition.  To  which  is  added  an  Essay 
upon  the  Psalms,  and  their  S|)iritual  Application.  By  Mary 
Ann  Scrii.MMtLPE.v.MNCK.     London,  1H25,  12mo. 

115.  The  Psalter;  or  Psalms  of  David  according  to  the  Ver- 
Bion  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer  :  illustrated,  explained,  and 
adnptrd  to  general  use,  in  public  and  priviilc  worship  :  with  Pre- 
liminary Dissertations  and  accompanying  Notes.  By  the  Rev. 
Richard  W All >K II.     London,  1828,  Svo. 

110.  A  New  Tninslation  of  the  Book  of  Psalms  from  riie 
Ori'^inal  Hebrew,  with  explanatory  Notes.  By  William  Fkencii, 
D.l).  and  George  Sklnseu,  M.A.  Cambridge  and  Jiondon, 
1h:J0,  Svo. 

The  text,  taken  for  their  standard  by  the  Irnnslalors  f whoso 
'utAiurs  Lavo  nut  been  aj'preciutcd  according  to  their  value)  ia  that 


of  Vander  Hooght;  from  which,  utterly  disregarding  all  conjectural 
emendations,  they  have  rarely  departed  v\-iihoiit  the  authority  of 
manuscripts.  Their  aim  has  been  to  produce  an  accurate  and  laiih- 
lul  version:  and  in  no  case  have  they  inientionallv  departed  from 
the  literal  meaning  of  the  text,  further  than  the  difference  between 
the  English  and  the  Hebrew  idioms  seemed  absolutely  to  require. 
The  notes,  though  concise,  are  judicious,  and  strictly  explanatory 
of  tlie  Psalms  of  David. 

117.  A  New  Translation  of  the  Book  of  Psalms,  with  an  In- 
troduction. By  George  R.  Noies.  Boston  [Massachusetts], 
1S31,  12mo. 

In  this  publication  "  Mr.  Noyes  has  admitted  no  unnecessary 
ciian;^es.  The  language  of  our  authorized  version,  which  in  many 
of  the  best  psalms  has  become,  by  its  beauty  and  expressiveness, 
the  favourite  langiiage  of  devotion,  is  retained,  whenever  a  true 
interpretation  will  admit.  The  translator  has  been  loo  faithful  lo 
his  work,  lo  multiply  corrections  merely  for  the  sake  of  correction." 
(Christian  Register,  Boston,  18131.)  The  Introdiiciion  is  chiefly  de- 
rived from  RosenniiiUer's  elaborate  preface  lo  his  Commentary  on 
the  Book  of  Psalms. 

118.  An  Explanation  of  the  Psalms  as  read  in  the  Liturgy  of 
the  Church.  By  the  Rev.  James  Slaue,  M.A.  London,  1833, 
12ino. 

119.  A  Plain  and  Familiar  Explanation  of  the  most  difficult 
Passages  in  the  Book  of  Psalms,  interwoven  with  the  Text.  By 
the  Rev.  J.  A.  Gower.     London,  1831,  12mo. 

120.  A  Commentary  on  the  Second  Psahn.  By  John  Hii.- 
DROP,  M.A.     London,  1742,  Svo. 

121.  Specimen  Acadcmicum  inaugurale,  exhibens  Commenta- 

rium  in  Psalmum  XVI.      Quam publico  examini  submittit 

Marius  Antouius  Gisbertus  Voustmax.  Hagae  Comitum,  1829, 
4U>.  ^ 

122.  Hasslf.r  (C.  D.)  Commentatio  Critica  de  Psalmis  Mac- 
cabaicis  quos  ferunt.     Particula  I.     Ulma;,  1827,  4to. 

123.  P.talmi  Quindecem  Hainmaalotli,  philologice  ct  critice 
illustrati ;  a  Theodore  Adriaiio  Claiiissk,  Theol.  Doct.  Lug- 
duni  Batavoruin,  1819,  Svo. 

An  ingenious  and  useful  commentary  on  Psalins  cxx. — cvxxv. 
which  are  usually  called  Psalms  of  Degrees. 

121.  C.  G.  Friediuchii  Symbolaj  Philologico-criticae, et  Lec- 
t^onis  Varietatem  continentes,  ad  intcrprctationem  Psalmi  Ccn- 
tcsimi.     Lipsiffi,  1814,  4  to. 

125.  The  Hundred  and  Ninth,  commonly  called  the  Impre- 
cating Psalm,  considered  on  a  Princi})le  by  which  the  Psalm  ex- 
plains itself.  [A  Sermon.]  By  the  Rev.  William  Ke ate,  M.A. 
London,  1794,  4to. 

125.  The  Hundred  and  Ninth  Psalm  explained  and  vindi- 
cated, in  a  Sermon,  by   Samuel   PAHTniucE,  J\I.A.     London, 

1798,  Svo. 

The  principle  established  by  Mr.  Keate  is,  that  the  imprecations 
introduced  in  the  hundred  and  ninih  p.salm  are  not  the  impreca- 
tions of  David  against  his  enemies,  but  those  of  his  enemies  against 
him,  which  he  recites  in  <'rder  to  stiow  their  malice.  This  princi- 
ple is  adopleil  by  Mr.  Par'i  ridck,  who  has  suc<!essfullv  obviated 
.•-onie  little  dillicullies  which  remained  af"ier  ihe  researches  of  Mr. 
Keate.  (See  the  Analysis  of  llicse  two  publications  in  the  British 
Critic.  O.  S.  vol.  v.  pp.  157— 1.5'J.  and  vol.  xii.  p.  429.) 

126.  Commentatio  in  Psalmum  Centesinuim  Decimum.  Auc- 
tore  Johanne  'J'heodoro  Bk.rgmax.     Lug.  Bat.  1819,  4to. 

Many  valuable  critical  illustrations  of  ihe  Psalms  will  be  found 
in  Dr.  Kennicoll's  '•  Remarks  on  several  Passages  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment."    London,  1777,  Svo. 

THE  wniTiscs  of  bolomox  collectitf.lt. 

127.  Salotnonis  Regis  ct  Sapientis,  quae  supersunt  cjusque 
esse  perhibentur,  Omnia  ex  Ehra?o  Latine  verlii.  Nota.s(iue,  ubi 
opus  esse  visum  est,  adjecit  Jost-phus  Frideiicus  Scucllixo. 
Stuttgardio!,  1806,  Svo. 

PnoVEUDS. 

128.  Cartwrkmiti  (Thomat)  Commentarii  succincti  et  di- 
lucidi  in  Proverbia  Salomonid.     Amstelodami,  lf>38,  4to. 

129.  Proverbia  J^egum  et  sapienti.ssimi  Salotnonis,  cum  curi 
enucleata  i  Martino  Gkikro.     Lipsitc,  1069,  1725,  4to. 

This  work  is  executed  on  the  same  plan,  and  with  the  same 
aliilily,  as  (Jeier's  Commeiilary  on  the  P.salms,  already  noiieed  in 
p.  lis. 

130.  Proverbia  Salomonis  :  Versionem  integram,  ad  llebncum 
fontem  exprcKsit,  atcpie  ('ommenlorium  adjecit,  .Albertus  Sciit'L- 
TKVS.     Lugd.  Bat.  1048,  large  Svo.  (soraelimeK  called  4to.) 

An  nbridgnu-nt  of  this  rbibnraie  wiirk  was  printed  at  Ibilir  in 
Svo.  17G9,  by  Profeseor  V'ogcl,  who  added  some  critical  reniarkj 


SscT.  III.  §  4.] 


COMMENTARIES  ON  DETACHED  BOOKS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT 


121 


The  preface  was  wrillen  by  Semler,  and  anauctarium  was  furnislied 
by  Teller. 

131.  Cornelii  Db  Witt  Trias  Dissertationura  ad  Clariorem 
Proverbioriim  Salomonis  Elucidationem.  Amstelodami,  1702. — 
Ejusdem  Pentas  Dissertationura  ad  Proverbiorum  Salomonis  Elu- 
cidationem. Amstelodami,  1766. — Ejus3cm  Dissertationum  Trias 
altera,  qua  Proverbiorum  Divinitas,  ca3teraquc  eorum  Atlributa 
asseruntur.     Amstelodami,  1770,  8vo. 

132.  Observations  on  several  Passages  in  the  Book  of  Pro- 
verbs :  with  Two  Sermons.  By  Thomas  Hust,  D.D.,  Kegius 
Professor  of  Hebrew,  &c.     Oxford,  1 775,  4to. 

These  observations  are  twenty-six  in  number.  "  They  display 
in  a  very  advantageous  liglit  the  critical  acumen  of  thcaullior,  and 
his  extensive  acquaintance  with  the  eastern  languages."  (Monthly 
Review,  O.  S.  vol.  liii.  p.  302.,  where  the  result  of  Dr.  Hunt's  da- 
boraie  criticisms  is  given,  first  in  the  words  of  ilie  authorized  trans- 
lation, and  then  in  the  version  proposed  by  him.)  As  the  book  is 
neither  very  scarce  nor  very  dear,  it  will  be  worth  the  student's 
while  to  procure  it. 

133.  Joannis  Jacobi  RiUSKE  Conjecturae  in  Jobum  et  Prover- 
bia  Salomonis.     Lipsiae,  1/79,  8vo. 

134.  The  Proverbs  of  Solomon  ;  translated  from  the  Hebrew, 
with  Notes.  By  the  Rev.  Bern.  Hodgsox,  LL.D.,  Principal  of 
Hertford  College.     Oxford,  1788,  4to. 

"  The  notes  are  not  numerous,  and,  we  must  say,  not  very  im- 
portant. They  are  intended  cliiefly  to  ex[:lain,  or  to  justify,  the 
version,  where  it  departs  from  the  usual  mode  of  translating.  On 
the  whole,  though  we  do  not  think  that  Dr.  H.  has  been  singularly 
happy  as  a  translator,  yet  we  cannot  frequently  charge  him  with 
wanton  deviations  from  the  common  version :  he  has  not  often 
changed  merely  for  the  sake  of  changing."  (Monthly  Review, 
N.  S.  vol.  V.  p.  294.) 

135.  Observations  in  Proverbiorum  Salomonis  Versionem 
Alexandrinam,  scripsit  Jo.  Gottliebb  jAEcr.n.  Meldorpi  et  Lip- 
siffi,  1788,  8vo. 

136.  Comtnentarii  Novi  Critici  in  Versiones  Veteres  Prover- 
biorum Salomonis,  a  J.  F.  Sculecsneho.     Goettingae,  1794,  8vo. 

137.  An  Attempt  towards  an  improved  Translation  of  the  Pro- 
verbs of  Solomon,  from  the  original  Hebrew ;  with  Notes,  criti- 
cal and  explanatory,  and  a  Preliminary  Di.^sertation.  By  the 
Rev.  George  Holden,  M-*^.     Londoii,  1819,  8vo. 

This  is  the  most  valuable  help  to  the  critical  imderstanding  of 
the  Book  of  Proverbs  extant  in  our  language.  The  translation  is, 
in  substance,  the  same  as  that  in  general  use,  with  such  alterations 
only  as  appear  to  be  warranted  by  a  critical  interpretation  of  ihe 
original  Hebrew,  and  to  be  demanded  by  evident  necessiiy.  In 
those  passages  where  I'ue  author  has  deemed  it  right  to  desert  the 
authorized  translation,  he  has  laudablv  endeavoured  to  assimilate 
his  version  to  its  style  and  manner  of  expression.  The  notes  ac- 
companying Mr.  Holdeii'»i  version,  and  which  are  in  no  case  unne- 
cessarily prolix,  are  partly  critical,  and  partly  explanatory.  The 
former  are  designed  to  ascertain  the  full  meaning  of  the  sacred 
text,  by  a  philological  inquiry  into  the  signification  of  words  and 
phrases.  In  the  latter  the  author  has- explained  the  allusions  to 
ancient  fnc'.s  and  customs ;  has  introduced  such  observations  as 
may  serve  to  illustrate  the  original ;  and  has  occasionally  presented, 
in  a  short  paraphrase,  an  exposition  of  the  meaning  intended  by  the 
ins;iired  aullior  of  tlie  Book  of  Proverbs.  The  notes  on  the  eighth 
chapter  will  be  read  with  p'Bculiar  interest  by  the  Christian  stu- 
dent. Mr.  Ilolden  expounds  the  attributes  there  given  lo  Heavenly 
Wisdom,  of  the  second  Person  in  the  Holy  Trinity :  and  he  has 
supported  this  exposition  by  proofs  and  arguments  not  easily  to  be 
refuted,  which  he  has  drawn  from  Scripture,  and  from  the  fathers 
of  the  churcli  during  the  first  three  centuries,  as  well  as  from  the 
ancient  Jewish  wriiers. 

139.  A  New  Translatioi;  of  the  Proverbs  of  Solomon,  from 
ihe  original  Hebrew,  with  explanatory  Notes.  By  William 
French,  D.D.  and  George  SKiifWER,  M.A.  Cambridge  and 
London,  1831,  8vo. 

This  translation  is  executed  on  the  same  principles  as  the  version 
of  the  Paalms  noticed  in  No.  116.  p.  120.  xupra. 

140.  A  Commentary  on  the  Proverbs  of  Solomon.  By  R.  J. 
Case.     London,  1822,  12mo. 

« 

ECCLESIASTF.S. 

141.  Martini  Geieri  Commentarius  in  Salomonis  Ecclesias- 
ten.     Lipsiae,  1711,  best  edition,  8vo. 

142.  A  Philosophical  and  Critical  Essay  on  Ecclesiastcs, 
wherein  the  author's  design  is  stated  ;  his  doctrine  vindicated  ; 
his  method  explained  in  an  analytical  Paraphrase  annexed  to  a 
new  version  of  the  Text  from  the  Hel^rew ;  and  the  differences 
between  that  new  translation  and  the  received  version  accounted 
for,  in  philological  Observations.  By  A.  V.  Destcecx.  London, 
1762,  4to. 


In  this  work  "  the  author  has  shown  verj'  considerable  abilitiea 
as  a  critic,  and  appears  in  the  character  of  a  candid  and  judicious 
writer.  lie  has  taken  infinite  painx  lo  render  his  work  as  perfect 
as  possible;  and  those  who  are  acquainted  with  the  Hebrew  lan- 
guage will  find  in  his  philological  observations  many  new,  and 
some  pertinent  remarks."  (Monthly  Review,  O.  S.  vol.  xxvii.  p.  485.) 
Mr.  Desvoeux's  elaborate  essay  was  translated  into  German,  and 
published  at  Halle,  in  1764,  4to. 

143.  Ecclcsiastes  translated,  with  a  Paraphrase  and  Notes. 
By  Stephen  Gkeesawat,  A.B.     Leicester,  1781,  8vo. 

This  singularly  executed  volume  consists  of  three  parts,  the  two 
former  of  whioh  (originally  sold  for  one  penny  and  three-pence) 
are  rarely  to  be  met  with.  Besides  Ecclcsiastes,  it  contains  trans- 
lations of  2  Samuel  xxiii.  ver.  1.  to  7.  Isaiah  vii.  20,  21,  22.  and  ix. 
1.  to  5. ;  also  Psal.  xxvii.  in  prose  and  verse.  (Dr.  Cotton's  List  of 
Editions  of  the  Bible,  p.  46.) 

144.  Ecclcsiastes  :  a  New  Translation  from  the  original  He- 
brew, by  Bernard  Houcsox,  LL.D.,  Principal  of  Hertford  Col- 
lege, Oxford.     London,  1791,  4to. 

The  same  remarks  which  have  been  offered  on  this  author's  ver- 
sion of  the  Book  of  Proverbs,  are  nearly  applicable  to  his  troiis- 
lalion  of  Ecclesiasies.     See  Monthly  Review,  N.  S.  vol.  ix.  p.  59. 

146.  An  Expo.sition  of  the  Book  of  Ecclcsiastes.    By  Edward 
Rkynolus,  D.D.  Bishop  of  Norwich.     Revised  and  corrected  ^ 
by  the  Rev.  Daniel  Washbourne,     London,  1811,  8vo. 

This  work  originally  formed  part  of  the  collection  of  notes  on. 
the  Bible,  usually  called  the  Assembly's  Annotations,  noticed  in 
p.  109.  supra.  The  editor  of  this  impression  states  that  the  whole 
of  the  commentary  has  been  carefully  transcribed  ;  and  that  the 
author's  ideas  are  strictly  and  fully  retained ;  he  has  however 
"deemed  it  necessary  to  alter  the  construction  of  most  of  the  sen- 
tences, frequeptly  to  exchange  obsolete  words  for  those  now  in  use, 
and  in  a  few  instances  to  omit  redundant  paragraphs."  Bishop 
Reynolds's  work  concludes  with  important  practical  reflections. 

147.  An  attempt  to  illustrate  the  Book  of  Ecclesiastcs.  By 
the  Rev.  George  Holdex,  M.A.     London,  1822,  8vo. 

Of  the  various  publications  which  have  been  issued  from  the 
press  relative  to  this,  in  many  respects,  dHiicult  book,  this  "  At- 
tempt" (<is  its  author  modestly  terms  it)  is  the  best  that  has  fallen 
under  the  notice  of  the  writer  of  the  present  work.  It  is  a  kind  of 
Paraphrase  (similar  to  that  in  Dr.  Doddridge's  Family  Expositor); 
in  which  the  expressions  of  the  Hebrew  author  are  interwoven 
with  a  commenlary.  Mr.  Holden  has  taken  the  aulhorizcd  version 
as  his  basis,  from  which  he  has  departed  only  where  a  departure 
appeared  to  him  absolutely  necessary,  and  supported  upon  the 
soundest  principles  of  criticism.  The  reasons  of  these  deviations 
are  staled  in  distinct  notes.  The  work  is  further  accompanied  by 
useful  notes,  establishing  the  scope  and  design  of  the  Book  of  Ec- 
clcsiastes, and  imbodying  such  observations  as  seem  proper  to 
enlbrce  and  elucidate  the  whole.  We  are  indebted  to  Mr.  Holden's 
labours  for  the  excellent  view  of  the  Scope  and  Synopsis  of  the 
Book  of  Ecclcsiastes,  given  in  the  second  volume  of  this  worlc 

SOIfG    OF    SOIOMON. 

148.  Caroli  Maria  de  Veil  Explicatio  Littcralis  Cantici  Can- 
ticorum,  ex  ipsis  Scripturarum  fontibus,  Ebrajorum  ritibus  et 
idiomatis,  veterum  et  recentiorum  monimentis  erutji.  London, 
1679,  8vo. 

A  rare  and  valuable  work:  the  author  confines  himself  to  the 
explication  of  the  literal  sense. 

149.  Joannis  Marckii  in  Canticum  Schelomonis  CoriRnenta- 
rius,  sive  Analysis  Exegetica.     Amsterdam,  1703,  4to. 

150.  Cantici  Salomonis  Paraphrasis  Gemina,  Notis  Criticis  et 
Philologicis  illustrata.  Auctore  Joanne  Ker.  Edinburgh,  1727, 
12ino. 

This  illustration  of  Solomon's  Song  is  not  of  common  occurrence. 
Mr.  Orme  says  that  it  "  is  a  very  beautiful  little  work.  It  is  dedi- 
cated, in  a  jMctical  epistle,  to  the  marquis  of  Bowmont,  son  of  the 
duke  of  Roxburgh,  the  head  of  the  family  of  Ker.  There  is  then 
a  long  preiiice,  giving  some  account  of  the  opinions  entertained  of 
the  Song,  of  the  attempts  which  had  been  made  to  translate  and 
explain  it,  and  of  the  origin  of  Mr.  Ker's  translation.  Then  fol- 
low the  two  versions:  the  first,  a  kind  of  irregular  verse;  the 
second,  in  sapphic  numbers.  The  noies,  which  are  partly  philo- 
logical and  partly  explanatory,  are  inserted  at  the  foot  ol'  the  page 
of  both  versions.  The  poem  is  dramatically  divided  and  arranged." 
(Orme's  Biblioth.  Biblica,  pp.  271,  272.) 

151.  An  Exposition  of  the  Book  of  Solomon's  Song,  com- 
monly called  Canticles ;  wherein  the  divine  authority  of  it  J3 
established ;  several  versions  compared  with  the  original  Text ; 
the  different  senses  both  of  Jewish  and  Christian  interpreters 
considered ;  and  the  whole  opened  and  explained.  By  John 
Gill,  D.D.  1728,  1761,  folio,  4to.;  and  again  in  1767.  la 
2  vols.  8vo.   1805. 

This  work  is  frequently  mistaken  for  an  extract  from  Dr.  Gill's 
commentary  on  the  Bible,  noticed  in  p.  111.  supra,  whereas  it  pre- 


122 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY 
It  is  highly  allegori- 


ceded  the  latter  by  more  than  twenty  years, 
cal  in  its  interpretation. 

1 52.  A  Dissertation  concerning  the  Song  of  Solotnon ;  with 
the  original  Text  divided  according  to  the  metre,  and  a  Poetical 
Version.     [By  Mr.  Gifforu.]     London,  1751,  8vo. 

15,3.  The  Song  of  Solomon,  newly  translated  from  the  ori- 
ginal Hebrew;  with  a  Commentary  and  Annotations.  [By 
Thomas  Pehct,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  Dromore.]  London,  17G4,  12mo. 

The  elegnnce  of  this  version,  and  of  its  accompanying  criticisms, 
has  caused  it  to  be  held  in  the  highest  esteem  ;  and  all  subsequent 
commentators  have  diligently  availed  themselves  of  it.  It  is  now 
exceedingly  scarce,  and  extravagantly  dear. 

154.  Outlines  of  a  new  Commentary  on  Solomon's  Song, 
-drawn  by  the  Help  of  Instmctions  from  the  East:  containing, 

1.  Remarks  on  its  general  nature;  2.  Observations  on  detached 
places  of  it ;  3.  Queries  concerning  the  rest  of  the  Poem.  By 
the  author  of  Observations  on  divers  Passages  of  Scripture. 
liOndon,  1768;  second  edition,  1775,  Svo. 

For  this  vnluable  work,  Bible  students  are  indebted  to  the  Rev- 
Thomas  Harmer,  whose  Observations  on  divers  Passages  of  Scrip- 
ture are  noticed  in  a  subsequent  page  of  this  appendix:  in  it  very 
many  diflicidt  iiassagcs  of  .Solomon's  Song  are  happily  elucidated, 
and  hints  are  olfercd,  of  which  subsequent  commentators  have  not 
Tailed  to  avail  themselves.    It  bears  a  high  price. 

155.  A  Poetical  Translation  of  the  Song  of  Solomon  from  the 
Original  Hebrew ;  with  a  Preliminary  Discourse,  and  Notes, 
historical,  critical,  and  explanatory.  By  Anne  Francis,  Lon- 
don, 1781,  4to. 

The  translatress  has  chiefly  followed  tlie  plan  and  illustrations 
of  Mr.  Harmer.     Her  version  is  elegantly  executed. 

156.  Solomon's  Song,  translated  from  the  Hebrew.  By  the 
Rev.  Bernard  Hodgso.v,  LL.D.     Oxford,  17S5,  4to. 

In^lhis  work  the  literal  meaning  only  of  Solomon's  Song  is  illus- 
trated, there  being  not  the  slightest  allusion  to  its  mysliral  meaning. 
.\n  account  of  it,  witli  cxtracL<i,  may  be  seen  in  the  Monthly  Re- 
view (O.  S.),  vol.  Ixxvi.  pp.  20—29. 

1.54*.  The  Song  of  Songs,  which  is  Solomon's.  A  new  Trans- 
lation, with  a  Commentary  and  Notes.  By  Thomas  Williams. 
London,  1801,  8vo. 

This  version  is  as  literal  as  our  language  will  admit,  and  is  ren- 
dered in  conformity  with  the  authorized  translation  whenever  it 
was  practicable.  The  notes  are  for  the  most  part  judiciously 
Bclectcd  from  tlie  labours  of  all  preceding  commonlators,  and  give 
a  sober  but  practical  and  evangelical  exposition  of  the  allegory. 
Two  dissertations  are  prefixed:  1.  On  the  origin  of  language,  par- 
ticularly figurative  and  allegorical  language,  and  on  Hebrew  poetrj' 
and  music:  and,  2.  On  the  nature,  design,  and  authority  of  Solo- 
mon's Song.  In  pp.  100 — lO'J.  is  given  an  interesting  account  of 
nearly  40  expositors  and  commcniaiors  on  this  book.  See  a  further 
account  of  this  work  in  the  Monthly  Review  (N.  S.),  vol.  xlvii. 
pp.  302—310. 

155*.  Song  of  Songs,  or  Sacred  Idyls.  Translated  from  the 
original  Hebrew,  with  Notes  critical  and  explanatory.  By  John 
Mason  Goon,     London,  1803,  8vo. 

"The  present  work  offijrs  two  versions  of  the  original;  the  one 
in  pro.se,  marked  with  the  divisions  of  the  Kible  version;  llie  other 
in  couplet  veries,  of  no  inferior  construction  Each  idyl  is  illus- 
trated U'ith  notes,  in  which  very  various  learning  is  displayed,  witii 
much  ffiite  in  the  selection  of  beautiful  parallelisms  from  a  great 
variety  of  authors. — So  much  elegant  learning  and  successful  illus- 
tration we  have  seldom  seen  within  so  small  a  comp.^ss  as  the  pre- 
Bcnt  volume."  (British  Critic,  O.  S.  vol.  xxvi.  pp.  454,  455.)  See 
also  Monthly  Review,  N.  S.  vol.  xlvii.  pp.  302—312. 

156*,  Canticles,  or  Song  of  Solomon :  a  new  Translation,  with 
Notes,  and  an  attempt  to  interpret  the  Sacred  Allegories  contained 
in  that  book.  To  which  is  added  an  Essay  on  the  name  and 
character  of  the  Redeemer,  By  the  Rev,  Johi'i  Fur,  A,B,  Lon- 
don, 1811,  8vo.  2d  edit.  182.5,  8vo, 

In  this  publi<ation  the  author's  plan  is,  first  to  give  an  accurate 
translation  of  the  Song  of  Solomon,  and  to  show  the  nature  and 
desjirn  of  llio  Ixwk.  He  has  availe<l  himself  of  the  labours  of  pre- 
vi')\i8  translators,  especially  Bishoj)  I'crcy  and  Dr.  J.  M.  (iood  ;  after 
the  latter  of  whom  be  considerH  the  Song  of  Silomon  as  a  collection 
of  idyls  or  little  |K)ems,  which  are  designed  fiir  insiruciion  and  edi- 
fication in  the  mysteries  of  our  holy  religion.  Thou};h  tho  translator 
has  tnkcn  much  pains  in  conHiilling  other  writers,  his  work  bears 
ample  testiinonv  that  ho  has  not  servilely  fiilloucd  thctn,  but  has 
evidently  thought  for  him.self. 

157.  Cnnlieum  f'anticorum  illustratum  ex  Hierographia  Oricn- 
talium,  a  J.  H.  Kistkmakku.     Munster,  1818,  Svo. 

158.  A  Brief  Outline  of  an  Examination  of  the  Song  of  Solo- 
mon; in  which  many  beautiful  Prophecies  contained  in  that 
inspired  Book  of  Holy  Scripture  are  considered  and  explained, 


[Part  H,  Chap.  V. 
By  "William  Datidson. 


with  Remarks  critical  and  expository. 
London,  1817,  Svo. 

The  author  of  this  work  considers  the  Canticles  as  an  inspired 
song  wholly  referring  to  the  spiritual  Solomon,  or  Christ  and  his 
true  spiritual  church,  and  particularly  to  their  espousals;  and  as 
giving  a  general  prophetic  outline  of  her  history,  Irom  the  preach- 
ing of  John  the  Baptist,  the  baptism  of  our  Lord,  to  the  conversion 
of  the  Jews,  and  that  of  the  wild  Arabians,  and  their  union  with 
the  Christian  church.  And  wliileher  particular,  often  invisible, 
progressive  state  here  on  earth  is  mentioned,  and  her  duties  are 
pointed  out,  her  outward  state,  trials,  and  persecutions  do  not  pass 
unnoticed.  Mr.  Davidson  has  consulted  the  previous  labours  of 
most  of  the  commentators  on  this  poem;  and  at  the  end  of  his 
volume  he  has  divided  it  into  hemistichs  according  to  Dr.  Kenni- 
colt's  mode  of  printing  the  poetical  parts  of  the  Old  Testament. 

J  59.  Canticum  Canticorum.  Prafatione,  Versions  Latiua,  et 
Commentario  exegetico-critico,  instruxit  M.  F,  Uulemaxn,  Lip- 
sis,  1821,  Svo. 

ON   THE  PnOPHF.TS,  CENXHALLT. 

160.  Henrici  Arentii  Hamaker  Commentatio  in  Libellum  de 
Vita  et  Morte  Prophetarum,  qui  Grajce  circumfertur :  sive  Dis- 
putalio  Historico-Chorographica  dc  Locis,  ubi  Prophetic  Hebra;- 
orum  nati  et  scpulti  esse  dicuntur.     Amstelodami,  1833,  4to. 

161.  A  Summary  View  and  Explanation  of  the  Writings  ol 
the  Prophets,  By  John  S.mitii,  D.D,  ,  Edinburgh  and  London, 
1787,  12mo, 

This  work  is  a  judicious  abstract  of  all  that  is  valuable  in  the 
writings  of  Bishop  Lovvth,  Archbishop  Newcome,  Bishop  Newton, 
and  Drs.  Kennicott  and  Blayney  :  it  was  originally  comjiiled  to  ac- 
company a  Gaelic  version  of  the  Prophets,  and  was  subsequently 
translated  into  English  by  the  author  himself  The  writer  of  this 
account  was  informed  many  years  since  by  one  of  the  original  Lon- 
don publishers  (Mr.  Kay,  of  the  firm  of  Elliott  and  Kay,  in  the 
Strand),  that  Dr.  Moore,  at  that  time  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
held  this  little  work  in  great  estimation,  and  was  in  the  habit  of 
purchasing  copies  for  gratuitous  distribution  among  students  and 
others  who  could  not  ailbrd  to  buy  many  books. 

162.  Les  Prophetes,  nouvcUement  traduits  sur  I'Hebrcu,  avcc 
des  Explications  et  Notes  Critiques,  [Par  le  President  A«ieii.] 
viz, 

Isa'e,     Paris,  1820,  2  tomes,  Svo. 

Jeremic,  avec  une  Appendice.     Paris,  1821,  2  parties,  8vo, 

The  appendix  to  this  Version  of  the  Predictions  of  Jeremiah 
contains  the  Lamentations,  and  the  Apocryphal  book  of 
Baruch. 

Ezechiel.     Paris,  1821,  2  tomes,  Svo. 

Daniel.     Paris,  1822,  2  tomes,  Svo. 

Petits  Prophetes.     Paris,  1822,  2  tomes,  Svo. 

163.  A  Commentary  on  the  Prophecies  and  the  New  Testa- 
ment ;  with  an  Epitome  of  Ancient  History,  Sacred  and  Profane, 
by  wa}'  of  Prelude.  Printed  with  the  Text.  By  John  Webb 
Cole.     London,  1826,  2  vols.  Svo.     » 

164.  A  New  Translation  of  the  Hebrew  Prophets,  arranged 
in  Chronological  Order,  By  George  R.  Notes.  Vol.  I.  con- 
taining Joel,  Amos,  Hosea,  Isaiah,  and  Micah.  Boston  [Massa- 
chusetts], 1833,  Svo. 

Mr.  Noyes  has  here  followed  the  same  judicious  plan  which  he 
adopted  in  his  new  Tran.slation  of  the  Psalms  (see  iVo.  117.  p.  120. 
ijf  this  Ajipendix).  He  has  diligently  availed  himself  of  all  the 
best  critical  aids.  The  volume  is  terminated  by  thirty-six  pages 
of  concise  but  useful  ex|)lanatory  notes.  Mr.  M.  expects  to  coiniilcte 
his  undertaking  in  two  more  volumes. 

ISAIAH. 

165.  A  Commentary  on  the  Prophet  Isaiah,  wherein  the 
Literal  Sense  of  his  Prophecies  is  briefly  explained.  By  Samuel 
White,     London,  1709,  4 to. 

166.  Campegii  Vituivo.v,  Commentarius  in  Librum  Prophe- 
liarura  Jesaia;.     Leovardia;,  1714,  and  1720,  2  vols,  folio. 

In  this  most  elaborate  Commentary  on  the  "  Evangelical  Prophet," 
to  which  all  subse(|uont  expositors  have  been  deeply  indebted,  the 
literal  sense  is  carefully  investifialed  ;  tho  (lifFcreni  interpretations 
of  tiie  prophetic  visions  arc  examined  ;  and  the  interprelalidU  which 
Vitrinpa  has  deduced  from  them  is  coutirmed  and  illiislraled  by 
historical  documents.  C'opious  prolegomena  are  prefixed,  treating 
of  the  prophet's  personal  history,  the  arf;tinietil  of  his  prophecy,  his 
style,  time  of  writing,  and  canonical  authority.  The  value  of  the 
work  is  further  augmented  by  the  geof;rnphi<"al  and  historical 
notices  interspersed  throughoni,  concerninij  the  Babyloninns,  Phi- 
listine <.  Moabites,  Syrians  of  Dnmiiscit'),  F.gvptians,  'I'y rians,  and 
other  (Jentije  nations;  by  which  not  only  Isaiah,  but  also  very 
many  otiier  passaue*  of  Scripture,  are  admirably  elucidated. 

167.  Isaiah:  a  New  Translation  with  a  preliminary  Dioscrta- 
lion,  and   Notes  critical,   philological.,    ar  d   cxplanaton,'.      By 


Sect.  III.  ^4.]  COMMENTATORS  ON  DETACHED  BOOKS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


Robert  Lowth,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  London,  4to.     London,  1778, 
2  vols.  8vo. 

Of  this  sublime  and  admirably  executed  version,  a  German  trans- 
lation was  published  by  M.  Koppe,  at  Gottingen,  1779 — 1781,  in  4 
vols.  8vo.  Tlie  preliminary  dissertation  is  invaluable  for  the  light 
it  throws  on  ilie  genius  and  structure  of  prophetic  poesy.  The 
merits  of  this  work  are  ably  appreciated  in  the  British  Critic,  O.  S. 
vol.  xxix.  pp.  144 — 146.,  and  the  integrity  of  the  Hebrew  text  was 
asserted  against  some  of  the  bishop's  corrections  in  a  tract  that  is 
now  of  rare  occurrence,  by  Koechcr  in  his  Vindicice  Sacri  Textus 
Hehrcri  Esaim  adversus  LowtJiii  Crilkam,  8vo.  Bern,  1786,  reprinted 
at  Tubingen  in  1790.  The  rarity  of  Koecher's  book,  hovyever,  is 
no  great  loss  to  the  student ;  (or  the  late  eminent  learned  orientalist, 
the  professor  Henry  Albert  Schultens  (of  Leyden),  speaking  of  his 
book,  says: — "It  violates  the  bounds  of  moderation  and  decency  by 
the  assertion  that  the  text  of  Isaiah  would  not  gain  any  thing  by 
Dr.  Lowlii's  conjectures.  I  am  of  a  very  different  opinion.  When 
i.n  Oxlbrd  and  London,  I  was  ivthnately  acquainted  tcilh  Bishop 
Lowth,  and  had  an  opportunity  of  knowing  his  excellent  disposi- 
tion ;  and  am  therefore  much  vexed  that  Koecherus,  from  his  fiery 
zeal  against  innovations,  should  have  been  induced  to  treat  him 
with  severity,  as  if  the  bishop  had  been  a  rash  and  petulant  critic." 
(Letter  of  Professor  Schultens  to  the  late  Dr.  Finlay  of  Glasgow, 
cited  in  the  Monthly  Review,  N.  S.  vol.  xv.  p.  504.)  Bishop  Lowth's 
version  was  attacked  by  the  late  Mr.  Dodson,  in  his  supplementary 
notes  to  his  "New  Translation  of  Isaiah"  (8vo.  London,  179(J),  with 
considerable  asperity.  The  bisliop  was  ably  vindicated  by  the 
Rev.  Dr.  Sturges,  in  "  Short  Remarks  on  a  New  Translation  of 
Isaiah"  (8vo.  London,  1790) :  to  these  Mr.  Dodson  replied  in  1791, 
in  a  "  Letter  to  the  Rev.  Dr.  Sturges,"  in  W'hich  he  justifies  the 
freedom  with  which  he  had  censured  Bishop  Lowth's  mistakes 
and  defect.-'.  Mr.  D.'s  version  and  notes  were  framed  in  support  of 
modern  Socinian  tenets,  and  were  publi-shed  by  the  (Socinian) 
"  Society  for  promoting  the  Knowledge  of  the  Scriptures."  Some 
further  "  Remarks  on  the  Principles  adopted  by  Bishop  Lowth  in 
correcting  the  Text  of  the  Hebrew  Bible"  were  published  by  the 
Rev.  J.  Rogers,  M.A.  at  Oxford,  in  1832,  12mo. 

168.  Esaias  ex  Recensioiie  Textus  Hcbrsei,  ad  fidem  quorun- 
dam  Codd.  MSS.  et  Veiss.  Laline,  vertit,  Notasque  varii  argu- 
menti  subjecit,  J.  C.  Doedeuleix,  Norimbergse,  1789,  3d  edi- 
tion, 8vo. 

The  first  edition  was  published  at  Altdorf,  in  8vo.  1780 ;  the 
critical  Notes  are  excellent. 

169.  The  Book  of  the  Prophet  Isaiah,  in  Hebrew  and  Eng- 
lish. The  Hebrew  Text  metrically  arranged  ;  the  Translation 
altered  from  that  of  Bishop  Lowth.  By  the  Right  Rev.  Joseph 
Stock,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  Killala.     1804,  4to. 

"  The  right  reverend  translator  had  conceived  a  wish  to  see  the 
original  language  of  Isaiah  reduced  to  a  metrical  arrangement,  and 
to  have  this  accompanied  w"ilh  the  version  of  Bishop  Low'th,  re- 
serving to  himself  the  liberty  of  adding  such  corrections  as  later 
critics,  or  his  ow^n  investigations,  might  supply.  These  corrections 
multiplied  to  such  a  degree  as  to  assume  almost  the  form  of  a  new 
version.  Tl'^re  is  also  a  variety  of  notes,  critical  and  explanatory, 
supplied  partly  by  the  translator,  and  partly  by  others.  Many  of 
these  are  very  valuable  for  their  uncommon  depth  and  acutencss, 
and  tend  to  elucidate,  in  a  high  degree,  tlie  subject  matter  of  these 
prophecies."  (British  Critic,  vol.  xxviii.O.  S.  p.  466.)  "  Bishop  Stock's 
version  is  by  no  means  to  be  considered_as  an  attempt  to  rival  or 
to  supersede  that  of  Dr.  Lowth.  Both  versions  exhibit  a  close,  ner- 
vous, and  manly  style.  That  of  Dr.  Lowth  may  by  every  class  of 
readers  be  perused  with  profit.  Superadded  to  this.  Dr.  Stock  in- 
vites the  Hebrew  scholar  to  investigate  and  to  comjiare,  by  the 
Hebrew  and  the  English  meeting  the  eye  in  the  same  page  ;  and 
may  tempt  even  the  careless  to  know  something  of  that  language 
in  which  the  oracles  of  God  were  originally  conveyed."  (British 
Critic,  O.  S.  vol.  xxix.  p.  146.  See  also  the  Monthly  Review,  N.  S. 
vol.  xlix.  p.  253—265.) 

170.  The  Book  of  the  Prophet  Isaiah.  Translated  from  the 
Hebrew  Text  of  V.inder  Hooght.  By  the  Rev.  John  Joxes, 
M.A.     Oxford  and  London,  1830,  12mo. 

This  version  is  made  from  the  Hebrew  text  of  Vander  Hooght's 
edition  of  the  Bible,  which  may  now  be  regarded  as  the  received 
Hebrew  text,  in  the  elucidation  of  obscurities,  the  translator  has 
diligently  compared  the  versions  and  illustrations  of  Schmidt,  De 
Dieu,  Vitringa,  Bishops  Lowth  and  Stock,  Dathe,  Rosenmiiller, 
Gescnius,  and  others  ;  and  he  states  that  he  is  indebted  to  the  late 
distinguished  orientalist,  the  Rev.  Dr.  NicoU,  for  his  kind  and  able 
a.ssisiance.  ]\'o  notes  or  criticisms  accompany  this  translation.  "  On 
the  whole,  we  consider  it  to  be  a  valuable  specimen  of  translation. 
The  language  of  our  authorized  version  is  retained,  w'here  no 
change  was  absolutely  required  ;  the  style  is  spirited  and  fluent 
throughout,  and  numerous  passages,  which  have  either  been  mis- 
conceived, or  badly  expressed,  by  former  translations,  are  here  pre- 
sented to  the  view  in  harmony  with  the  circumstances  of  the  con- 
nection in  which  they  occur,  and  adapted  to  easy  and  general 
comprehension.  Comparing  the  two  versions  together"  [the  pre- 
sent and  that  of  Mr.  Jenour]  "  w-e  consider  that  of  Mr.  Jones  to  be 
decidedly  the  better  on  the  whole  ;  but  are  nevertheless  of  opinion 
that  Mr.  Jenour  generally  gives  the  meaning  of  the  original  with 
fidelity  and  success."  (Congregational  Magazine,  vol.  xiv.  p.  357.) 
Vol.  11.  4  I 


123 

171.  The  Book  of  the  Prophet  Isaiah,  translated  from  the 
Hebrew,  with  Critical  and  Practical  Remarks  :  to  which  is  pre- 
fixed a  Preliminary  Dissertation  on  the  Nature  and  Use  of  Pro- 
phecy.    By  the  Rev.  Alfred  Jenour.    London,  1831,  2  vols.  Svo. 

The  object  of  Mr.  Jenour  is  to  render  the  predictions  of  Isaiah 
more  generally  interesting  than  they  ordinarily  prove  to  the  Eng- 
lish reader.  \Vith  this  view  he  has  endeavoured  to  combine  the 
advantages  of  a  critical  and  devotional  commentary  together  with 
a  new  version  and  a  metrical  arrangement.  His  work  is  divided 
into  sections,  to  each  of  which  is  prefixed  a  summary  of  its  con- 
tents ;  then  follow  the  veteion  and  explanatory  note.?,  ilie  practical 
remarks  and  the  critical  notes.  Occasionally  the  sections  are  di- 
vided into  interlocutory  parts.  "What  constitutes  the  most  valua- 
ble part  of  the  work,  are  the  explanatory  and  practical  remarks 

with  which  each  section  is  accompanied Wliile  the  author 

throws  light  on  numerous  passages  of  this  ancient  book,  which  re- 
late to  people  and  places  that  have  long  since  vanished  from  the 
theatre  of  human  affairs,  he  brings  forward  much  important  matter, 
calculated  to  rouse  the  conscience,  and  to  purify,  console,  and 
strengthen  the  heart."  (Congregational  Magazine,  June,  1831,  vol 
xiv.  p.  355.)  "  We  cordially  recommend  the  work  to  all  of  our  read 
ers  who  may  wish  to  possess  the  inspired  productions  of  the  great- 
est of  the  ancient  prophets,  excellently  translated,  and  accompanied 
with  a  judicious  and  instructive  commentary."  (Eclectic  Review, 
November,  1831,  p.  421.) 

172.  Propheties  d'lsa^e,  traduites  en  Francais,  avec  des  Notes, 
[Par  M.  Pruxelle  de  Likue.]     Paris,  1823,  Svo, 

173.  Caroli  Ludovici  Hoheiselii  Observationes  Philologico- 
Exegeticae :  quibus  nonnulla  Ju-tvoitu.  Esaiae  loca,  ex  indole  lin- 
guae sanctae,  ex  acccntuatione  Ehrceorum,  et  antiquitatibus,  illus- 
trantur  et  exponuntur,  aliorumque  versioties  et  interpretationes 
modeste  examinantur.     Gedani,  1729,  Svo. 

174.  A  Commentary  on  the  Fifty-third  Chapter  of  Isaiah, 
By  S.  Harhis,  D.D.     London,  1739,  4to. 

175.  Animadversiones  Philologico-Criticae  in  Loca  difficiliora 
Jesaise  ;  quibus  praestantissimorum  Interpretum  Sententias  expo- 
nit,  suam  novamque  proponit  Josephus  Fridericus  Sciiellisg. 
Lipsfa;  [1797],  Svo. 

176.  Critical  Disquisitions  on  the  Eighteenth  Chapter  of 
Isaiah,  in  a  Letter  to  Edward  King,  Esq.,  F.R.S,  A.S.  By  Sa- 
muel [Horsley],  Lord  Bishop  of  Rochester,  F.R.S.  A.S,  Lon- 
don, 1801,  4to. 

177.  N.  G.  ScHHOEDERi  Commcntarius  Philologico-Criticus 
de  Vestitu  Mulierum  Hebraearum,  ad  Jesai.  III.  v.  16 — 24.,  quo 
vocabulorura  abstrusiorum  tenebras,  ad  facem  dialectorum,  dis- 
cutere  conatus  est.     Lug.  Bat.l  745,  4to. 

178.  Everhardi  ScHEiDii  Disserfatio  Philologico-Exegetica  ad 
Canticum  Hiskiae,  Jes.  xxxvii.  9 — 20.     Lug.  Bat.  1769,  Svo. 

JEKE5IIAH,  AND    LAMENTATIONS. 

179.  A  Translation  of  the  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah,  accom- 
panied bj'  short  notes,  is  given  in  the  second  tome  or  part  of  the 
works  of  Mr.  Hugh  Broughton,  pp.  317 — 323,  folio. 

180.  Hermanni  Vene?ia  Commenfarius  ad  Librum  Propheti- 
arum  Jeremias.  Quo  Conciones  rite  distinguuntur ;  Scopus, 
Nexus,  et  Series  Sermonis  accurate  investigatur ;  perpetua  Para- 
phrasi  exponitur;  et  selectis  Observatis  Voces  ac  Phrases  illus- 
trantur,  ac  Implementi  demonstratione,  ubi  opus  fuerit,  confirm- 
antur.     Leovardiae,  1765,  2  parts,  4to. 

181.  Jeremiah,  and  Lamentations:  a  new  translation,  with 
Notes,  critical,  philological,  and  explaiiatory.  By  Benjamin 
BiAYXET,  D.D.     Oxford,  1784,  4to.     Edinburgh,  1810,  Svo, 

This  work  is  executed  on  the  same  plan  as  Bishop  Low'th's  ver-  / 
sion  of  Isaiah  ;  "  and,  though  not  with  equal  success,  yet  with  much 
credit  to  the  author,  both  as  a  translator  and  a  critic.  His  subject 
is  not  of  equal  eminence  with  that  whicii  was  undertaken  by  the 
bishop.  It  has  less  variety  in  the  matter,  and  contains  a  less  fund 
for  curious  inquiry  and  critical  illustration.  The  translation  is 
vejy  exact,  and  preserves  the  tone  and  majesty  of  sacred  writing. 
The  notes  are  very  copious.  Many  of  them  are  very  useful,  and 
some  discover  much  critical  knowledge  in  the  Hebrew  language 
and  a  good  acquaintance  with  ancient  history.  The  various  read 
ings  are  noticed  with  the  most  scrupulous  exactness :  conjectural 
emendation  is  sometimes  hazarded,  but  not  rashly  or  injudiciously." 
(Monthly  Review,  O.  S.  vol.  Ixxi.  pp.  162, 163.)  Besides  a  valuable 
preliminary  discourse,  there  is  an  appendix,  comprising  a  selection 
from  Archbishop  Seeker's  manuscript  notes  (now  deposited  in  the 
archiepiscopal  library  at  Lambeth),  relative  to  the  prophecy  and 
lamentations  of  Jeremiah. 

182.  J,  D.  MicHAELis  Observationes  Philologies  et  CriticT 
in  Jeremiae  Vaticinia  et  Threnos.  Edidit,  multisque  animadvcr- 
sionibus  auxit,  Joh.  Frid.  ScuLEusNEa.-  Gottingen,  1793.  4to. 

These  observations  were  collected  from  the  loose  papers  of  that 
late  eminent  scholar,  J.  D.  Michaelis,  by  Professor  Schleusner 


124 


SACRED  PHILULOGY. 


[Paiit  II.  Chap.  IV 


with  many  additional  remarks  by  the  latter.  M.  Schleusner,  in  the 
same  year  piiblislied,  at  Tubingen,  in  4lo.  Dissertationcs  Tres,  quoe 
continent  Observaliones  ad  Vaticinia  Jeremia-. 

183.  Jercmias  Vates,  e  Vcrsione  Juda;orum  Alexandrinorum, 
ac  reliquorum  Interi)retum  Graecorum  emendatus,  Noiisquc 
criticis  illustratus  a  G.  L.  Spohx.  Vol.  I.  Lipsise,  1794.  Vol.  II. 
LipsiiE,  1823.  8vo. 

A  continuation  of  the  first  volume  of  these  illustrations  of  Jere- 
miah is  given  in  Potts  and  Rupcrti's  Sylloge  Commentationum 
Theologicarum.  These  are  enlarged  and  completed  in  tlie  second 
volume,  which  was  published,  after  the  author's  death,  by  his  son, 
F.  A.  W.  Spohn. 

184.  Jeremie,  traduit  sur  le  Texte  Original,  accompagne  des 
Notes  explicativcs,  historiqucs,  et  critiques.  Par  Jean-George 
Dauleu.     Strasbourgh,  18^5.  8vo. 

Professor  Dahler  has  conferred  a  considerable  service  on  bibli- 
cal literature  by  this  translation  of  the  predictions  of  Jeremiah. 
The  historical  parts  are  printed  as  prose ;  the  poetical  pans  arc  in 
hemistichs,  as  in  the  original  Hebrew.  Tlie  iniroduciion  and  notes 
arc  very  judicious.  Dr.  D.  announces  a  second  volume  (in  the 
event  of  this  first  volume  being  favourably  received),  which  v,  ill 
be  particularly  designed  for  ministers  of  the  Gospel,  and  those  who 
are  studying  for  the  sacred  olHce. 

185.  Commentarii  in  aliquot  Jercmiaj  Loca.  Auctore  T. 
RooHDA.     Groningaj,  1825,  8vo. 

186.  Threni  Jercmias  philologice  et  critice  illustrati  a  Job. 
Henr.  Paueau.    Lugd.  But.  1793,  Svo. 

187.  Threnos  Jereniiae  et  Vaticinium  Nahumi  metrice  red- 
didit, Notisqiie  Philologicis  illustravit,  C.  A.  Biorn.  Haunia;, 
1814,  8vo. 

187*.  Curie  Exegetico-Criticse  in  Jercmiae  Threnos ;  auctore 
Fr.  EitaMAXx.     Rostochii,  1819.  Svo. 

EZEKIEL. 

188.  Hicronymi  Pradi  et  Jo.  Bapti.<^tffi  Villalpandi  in 
Ezechiclem  Explanatione.s,  et  Apparatus  Urbis  ac  Templi  Hie- 
rosoiymit.  Commcntariis  illustratus.  Roma;,  1596 — 1603,  3 
vols,  folio. 

This  is  a  work  of  extreme  rarity,  and  the  best  commentary  on 
the  prophet  Ezekicl  tliat  e\  cr  was  written.  An  extract  of  ViUal- 
panJi's  comment  on  Kzckiel,  c.  xlii.  xli.xl.  and  xlvi.,  illustrating  llie 
prophetic  vision  of  the  temple,  is  to  be  found  in  the  first  volume 
of  Bishop  Wallon's  edition  of  the  Polyglott  Bible.  Mr.  Lowfh 
made  great  use  of  this  work  in  his  learned  commcniary  on 
Ezekicl. 

189.  An  Exposition  of  the  Prophecy  of  Ezekiel.  By  George 
GazExniLi..    London,  1645,  and  following  .years,  5  vols.  4to. 

This  work  is  seldom  to  be  found  complete;  the  fifth  volume  is 
parlicularly  scarce.  A  second  edition  of  vol.  i.  ajipeared  in  1649. 
The  author  was  one  of  the  Westminster  Assembly  of  Divines; 
and  his  exjKjsilion  was  originally  delivered  in  lectures  to  his  con- 
gregation. "  Like  all  the  productions  of  the  Puritans,  it  is  evan- 
gelical, and  slored  with  the  knowledge  of  the  Scriptures;  but, 
like  most  of  them,  it  is  distinguished  by  its  sound  doi^trinal  and 
practical  views,  rather  than  by  the  elegance  of  ihe  composition, 
or  the  critical  acurncii  of  the  reasionings  and  illustrations."  (Orme's 
Bibliodi.  Bibl.  p.  217.) 

190.  Schola;  Prophetica;,  ex  Praelectionibus  Georgii  Calixti 
in  Jcsaiam,  Jercmiam,  et  Ezechielcm,  coUectaj.  Qucdlinburgi, 
1715,  4to. 

191.  J.  Fr.  Staiickii  Commentarii  in  Ezechielcm.  Franco- 
furti  ad  Mtenum,  1731,  4to. 

192.  Hcrmanni  Vexkma  Lectioncs  Acadcmicre  ad  Ezechie- 
lcm. Edidit  et  prrefatus  est  Johannes  Ilcnricus  Vcrschuir. 
Leovardia;,  1790,  2  parts,  4to. 

193.  An  Attempt  towards  an  Improved  Version,  a  Metrical 
Arrangement,  and  an  Explanation  of  the  Prophet  Ezekicl.  By 
William  Nkwcome,  D.D.  (Hishop  of  Watcrford,  afterwards 
Archbishop  of  Armagh).     Dublin,  1788,  4to. 

This  work  is  executed  on  the  same  plan  as  the  version  of  the 
minor  prophels  noticed  in  p.  12.5.  "The  iiumi'rr>ii8  admirers  of  that 
valuahle  produr-tioii  w  ill  find  not  less  tf>  cominiind  in  the  present 
work.  They  will  observe  wilh  nh-asiire,  ihal  Ihe  rii,'ht  reverend 
author  not  only  pursues  the  paid  which  hr-  had  Ixilorc  so  wisely 
chosen,  but  ihal,  instead  of  treading  only  the  HiiKKjihest  and  most 
flowery  jnrl.f  of  ii,  he  surmounts,  wiih  a  firm,  though  caulioiis 
Btop,  difliciillies  which  ihe  UildeHt  traveller  mij;!it  shun  without 
disgrace.  Instead  of  lavishing  most  explaiiiiiion  nu  what  is  most 
intelligible,  and  betraying  the  pride  of  erudition  whore  erudition 
is  least  necessary,  he  succcKsfullv  employs  his  solid  jmlginciil  and 
effectual  learning  in  the  elucidalion  of  a  writer  who  has  been 
called  the  yEschylus  of  Hebrew  iH»eiry."  (Monthly  Jieview,  N.  H. 
vol   iv.  p.  I.) 


SAiriEL. 


194.  RoLi-oci  (Roberti)  Commcntarius  in  Librum  Danieli 
Propheta;.     Edinburgi,  1591,  4to. 

1 95.  Hexapla,  or  a  Sixfold  Commentary  on  Daniel.    By  Ar 
drew  WiLLET.     Cambridge,  1610,  folio. 

This  "is  a  work  of  much  information,  as  it  contains  the  opinions 
of  many  authors  on  each  point  of  difficulty."  The  same  '•author 
has  written  comments  on  Genesis,  Exodus,  Leviticus,  Samuel, 
Romans,  Jude,  and  some  detached  parts  of  books;  but  in  none 
does  he  discover  more  skill  and  judgment  than  in  the  present 
work."    (Dr.  William's  Christian  Preacher,  p.  431.) 

196.  A  Truiislation  of  the  Book  of  Daniel,  with  a  Commen- 
tary in  English  and  in  Latin,  is  in  the  first  tome  or  part  of  the 
learned  but  eccentric  Hugh  Bkocohton's  Works,  pp.  164 — 337 

197.  Martini  Gf.ikhi  Praelectiones  Academicae  in  Danielem 
Prophctam.     Lcipsic,  1702,  4to,  best  edition. 

One  of  the  most  valuable  of  all  Geier's  expository  works. 

198.  Prodromus  Danielicus,  sive  Novi  Conatus  Historic!, 
Critici,  in  cclcberrimas  diflicultatcs  Historiae  Veteris  Tcstamenti, 
Monarchiarum  Asia;,  &c.  ac  prjccipue  in  Danielem  Prophctam. 
Auctore  Gerardo  KKiiKiiEniiEUE.     Lovanii,  1710,  8vo. 

199.  Observations  upon  the  Prophecies  of  Daniel,  and  the 
Apocalypse  of  St.  John.  By  Sir  Isaac  Newton.  London, 
1733,  4to. 

A  Latin  version  of  this  well-known  and  elaborate  work  was 
published  by  M.  Sudemann,  in  4lo.,  at  Amsterdam,  1737.  All  sub- 
sequent commentators  are  largely  indebted  to  the  labours  of  Sir 
Isaac  Newton. 

200.  Hermann!  Venem.'e  Dissertationcs  ad  Vaticinia  Danielis 
Cap.  II.  VII.  et  viiT.  Leovardia;,  1745,  4to. — Ejusdem,  Com- 
mentarius  ad  Danielis  Cap.  xi.  4. — xii.  3.  Leovardiae,  1752, 4to. 

201.  Daniel:  an  Improved  Version  attemi)tcd:  with  Notes, 
critical,  historical,  and  explanatory.  By  Thomas  Wintie,  B.D. 
London,  1807,  4to. 

A  very  valuable  translation,  executed  on  the  same  plan  as 
Bishop  Lowlh's  version  of  Isaiah,  and  Dr.  Blayney's  of  Jeremiah. 
In  the  Iburth  sermon  of  his  Hampton  Lectures  (8vo.  Oxford,  17'J5.), 
Mr.  W.  has  some  excellent  remarks  on  the  predictions  of  Ilassrai, 
Malachi,  and  Daniel.  See  an  analysis  of  this  work  in  the  Monthly 
Review,  N.  S.  vol.  x.  pp.  245—250. 

202.  An  Essay  towards  an  Interpretation  of  the  Prophecies 
of  Daniel,  with  occasional  reinark.s  upon  some  of  the  most  cele- 
brated Commentators  on  them.  By  Richard  Amner.  London, 
1776,  8 vo. 

The  author  adopts  the  exploded  and  untenable  hyi  olhesis  of 
Grotius  (who  has  been  followed  by  Le  Clerc  and  others),  that  all 
the  prophecies  of  Daniel  terminated  in  the  persecuticn  of  the  Jews 
by  Antiochus  Epiphanes.  This  work  (which  is  noticed  only  to  put 
the  unwary  reader  on  his  guard  against  it)  was  reprinted  in  IT'.'S, 
with  some  other  tracts,  tending  to  show  that  certain  pa.s.sagcs  of 
Scripture,  which  clearly  aniioaiice  a  future  resurrection,  relate  to 
nothing  more  than  a  mere  tein|«)ral  deliverance !  An  exposure  of 
some  of  this  author's  erroneous  notions  may  be  seen  in  the  Britibli 
Critic,  O.  S.  vol.  xiii.  pp.  290—295. 

203.  Ob.scrvations  on  the  Visions  of  Daniel,  and  on  part  of 
the  Book  of  the  Revelation  of  St.  John.  With  an  appendix  [on 
the  Twenty-fourth  Chapter  of  St.  Matthew,  «&c.]  By  the  Rev. 
William  GinnLEsroNE,  A.B.     Oxford,  1820,  8vo. 

204.  HorfD  Prophetica; ;  or  Dissertations  on  the  Book  of  the 
Prophet  Daniel.    By  Joseph  Wilson,  A..M.    Oundle,  1824,  Svo. 

Numerous  disquisitions  relative  to  particular  prophecies  of 
Daniel  have  been  published,  particularly  concerning  the  seventy 
weeks:  the  following  are  the  inosfworthy  of  note. 

205.  Adriana  Kluit  Vaticinium  dc  Messia  Ducc  Primarium, 
sive  ExplicatioLXX.Hebdoniadum  Danielis.  Mcdioburgi,  1744, 
8vo. 

206.  Joannis  Davidis  Michaelis  Epistolaj  de  LXX.  Ilcbdo- 
inadibus  Danielis  ad  D.  Joannein  Pringle,  Baronetum.  London 
177.3,  Svo. 

For  an  account  of  these  highly  curious  letters,  sec  the  Monthly 
Review,  O.  S.  vol.  xlix.  pp.  263— 2o7. 

207.  A  Dissertation,  by  way  of  Inquiry,  into  the  true  Import 
and  Application  of  the  Vision  related  Dan.  ix.  20.  to  Ihe  end, 
usually  called  Daniel's  Prophecy  of  Seventy  Weeks,  &c.  By 
Benjamin  Blatnet,  B.D.     Oxford,  1775,  4to. 

Dr.  Blavney  conlroverts  some  jioiiits  of  Professor  Michaelis'a 
opinion,  wliich  our  limits  pemiit  us  not  lo  notice.  The  reader  will 
find  an  account  of  tins  learned  tract  in  the  Monthly  Review,  O.  S. 
vul.  lii.  pp.  487—491. 

208.  XX.  HcbdomaJum,  quas  Gabriel  ad  Danielem  detulerat, 


SiCT.  III.  §  4.]         COMMENTATORS  ON  DETACHED  BOOKS  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT. 


125 


Inferpretatio,  Paraphrasis,  Computatio,  cum  Vocabulorum  Diffi- 
ciliorum  Explicatione,  &c.  Auctore  Johanne  Uri.  Oxonii, 
1788,  8vo. 

209.  A  Dissertation  on  Daniel's  Prophecy  of  the  Seventy 
Weeks.     By  George  Stanley  Fab  eh,  B.D.     London,  1811,  Bvo. 

210.  A  Dissertation  on  the  Seventy  Weeks  of  Daniel  the 
Prophet.    By  the  Rev.  John  Stonard,  D.D.    London,  1826,  Svo. 

"  The  Dissertation  is  exceedingly  elaborate,  and  for  the  distribu- 
tion of  tlie  materials  of  which  it  is  comi>osed,  and  the  order  and 
fitness  of  the  discussion  which  it  includes,  is  entitled  to  high  praise 

as  the  work  of  a  scholar." "On  the  whole,  we  feel  bound, 

both  on  account  of  the  interest,  importance,  and  difficulties  of  the 
subject  to  which  it  relates,  and  of  the  manner  in  which  it  is  exe- 
cuted, to  recommend  it  to  our  theological  readers,  as  highly  deserv- 
ing of  their  attention."  (Eclectic  Review,  N.  S.  vol.  xxvi.  pp.  244. 
257.) 

211.  A  Dissertation  concerning  the  Chronological  Numbers 
recorded  in  the  Prophecies  of  Daniel,  as  compared  with  those  in 
the  Revelation  of  St.  John.  By  the  Rev.  Pliilip  Alwood,  B.D. 
Loudon,  1833,  Svo. 

COMMESTAIdES  OX  ALL  OR  MOST  OF  THE  JflXOR  PROPHETS. 

212.  Victorini  Strigelii  Argumenta  et  Scholia  in  Duodecim 
Prophetas  Minores.     Lipsiae,  1561,  Svo. 

"  213^oannis  Merceri  Commentarii  Locupletissimi  in  Pro- 
Iphetas  Qninque  Minores,  inter  eos  qui  Minores  vocantur.  Qui- 
bus  adjuncti  sunt  aUorum,  etiam  et  veterum  (in  quibus  sunt 
Hebrsei)  et  recentium  Commentarii.     Sine  anno  et  loco. 

214.  Laraberti  Dan^i  Commentarius  in  Joelem,  Amos,  Mi- 
cham,  Habacuc,  Sophoniam,  Haggneum,  Zachariam,  et  Malachiam. 

]  Genevse,  1578,  Svo.     Also  with  commentaries  on  the  other  four 
f  minor  prophets,  in  Svo.     Geneva,  1586,  1594. 

215.  A  Fruitfull  Commentarie  upon  the  Twelve  Small  Pro- 
phets, briefe,  plaine,  and  easie,  going  over  the  same,  verse  by 
verse With  very  necessarie  fore-notes  for  the  under- 
standing both  of  these  and  also  all  the  other  Prophets.  Written 
in  Latin  by  Lambertus  Dajt^us,  and  newly  turned  into  English 
by  John  Stockwood.     London,  1594,  4to. 

216.  Johannis  Darsii  Commentarius  in  Prophetas  Minores. 
Amstelodami,  1627,  4to. 

These  commentaries  were  originally  published  at  different  times, 
between  tlie  years  1595  and  1627.  They  are  also  to  be  found  in 
the  third  volume  of  the  Critici  Sacri. 

217.  As  Fatidicus,  sive  Duodecim  Prophetse  Minores,  Latina 
Metaphnisi  Poetica  expositi,  partiin  a  Jacobo  Augusto  Thuano, 
partim  a  Cunrado  Rittershcsio.     Amberga;,  1604,  Svo. 

This  is  a  work  of  rare  occurrence.  The  younger  Rosenmiiller 
pronounces  the  paraphrases  of  the  celebrated  president  De  Thou, 
and  Ins  coadjutor  Rittershusius,  to  be  executed  with  great  elegance. 
Besides  the  arguments  to  the  prophecies,  and  the  summaries  trans- 
lated into  Latin  by  Rittershusius  from  the  Greek  of  Hesychius,  a 
presbyter  of  the  church  of  Jerusalem,  this  volume  contains,  1.  Three 
Latin  paraphrases  of  the  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah,  by  De  Thou, 
Joachim  Camerarius,  and  Adam  Siberus  ; — 2.  A  poetical  paraphrase 
of  the  first  chapter  of  Isaiah,  by  an  anonymous  French  author ; — 
3.  A  paraphrase  of  the  third  chapter  of  the  same  prophet,  by  Henry 
Meibomius; — 4.  A  poetical  paraphrase  of  chapters  xxxvi. — xxxviii. 
of  Isaiah,  by  John  Conrad  Rumellius; — 5.  Daniel  preserved  among 
the  lions,  by  Rittershusius; — and,  6.  Nine  of  the  Psalms  of  David 
translated  into  Greek  hexameters,  also  by  Rittershusius.  Rosen- 
miiller has  frequently  cited  this  work  in  nis  Scholia  on  the  Minor 
Prophets. 

218.  A  Paraphrastical  Explication  of  the  Twelve  Minor  Pro- 
phets.    By  David  Stokes.     London,  1659,  Svo. 

219.  Caroli  Mariae  de  Veil  Expositio  Litteralis  Duodecim 
Prophetarum  Minorum,  ex  ipsis  Scriplurarum  fontibus,  Ebrao- 
rum  ritibus  et  idiomatis,  veterum  et  recentiorum  monimentis. 
Londini,  1680,  Svo. 

220.  Joannis  Tahn-ovii  in  Prophetas  Minores  Commentarius, 
in  quo  Textus  Analysi  perspicua  illustrator,  ex  fonte  Hebrteo  ex- 
plicatur,  locis  SS.  parallelis  confirmatur,  a  pravis  expositionibus 
vindicator  ;  usus  vero  in  locis  communibus  ex  ipsa  Scriptura 
natis  et  probatis  indicatur,  cum  Preefatione  Jo.  Benedicti  Carp- 
zovii.     Francofurti  et  Lipsise,  1688,  1706,  4to. 

Tarnovins  was  justly  considered  as  one  of  the  most  learned  and 
eminent  divines  of  his  day.  His  commentaries  on  the  several  pro- 
phets were  published  at  diflferent  times  in  a  detached  form,  and 
were  first  collected  together  by  the  elder  Carpzov. 

221.  Commentaries  on  the  Prophecies  of  Hosea,  Joel,  Micah, 
and  Malachi.     By  Edward  Pococke,  D.D. 

These  learned  commentaries  were  published  at  several  times 
between  the  years  1667  and  1691.    They  are  also  extant  in  the 
collective  edition  of  his  "  Theological  Works,"  published  by  Dr. 
T' wells,  in  2  vols,  folio.    London,  1740. 


222.  Joannis  Marckii  Commentarius  in  Prophetas  Minores, 
seu  Analysis  Exegetica,  qua  Hebrasus  Textus  cum  Versionibus 
veteribus  confertur,  vocum  et  phrasium  vis  indagatur,  rerura 
nexus  monstratur  ;  et  in  sensum  genuinum,  cum  examine  varia- 
rum  interpretationum,  inquuitur.  Amstelodami,  1696 — 1701 
4  vols.  4to. 

These  commentaries  are  much  esteemed :  they  were,  reprinted 
in  1734,  at  Tubingen,  in  two  folio  volumes,  under  the  care  of  Pro- 
fessor Pfafi;  who  prefixed  an  account  of  the  life  and  writings  of 

Marckius. 

223.  Phil.  Davidis  Burkii  Gnomon  in  Duodecim  Prophetas 
Minores,  in  quo,  ex  nativa  verborum  vi,  simplicitas,  profunditas, 
concinnitas,  salubritas  sensuum  coelestium  indicatur.  Heilbron, 
1753,  4to. 

The  remark  already  offered  on  Burkius's  Gnomon  Psalmorum 
(p.  120.  supra)  is  equally  applicable  to  his  work  on  the  minor 
prophets. 

224.  Vaticinia  Chabacuci  et  Nachumi,  itemque  nonnulla  Jesaise, 
MichetE,  et  Ezechielis  Oracula,  observationibus  historico-philolo- 
gicis  ex  historia  Diodori  Siculi  circa  res  Sardanapali  illustrata. 
Auctore  R.  T.  Gottlieb  Kalixskt.     Vratislavias,  1748,  4to. 

A  work  of  rare  occurrence  in  this  country :  it  is  in  the  list  of 
biblical  treatises  recommended  to  students  by  the  late  Bishop  of 
LlandaffCDr.  Watson). 

225.  An  Attempt  towards  an  Improved  Version,  a  Metrical 
Arrangement,  and  an  Explanation  of  the  Twelve  Minor  Pro- 
phets. By  W.  Newcojie,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  Waterford.  Lon- 
don, 1785,  4ito.     Pontefract,  1809,  Svo. 

"  The  notes  are  copious  and  pertinent,  untainted  by  an  ostenta- 
tious display  of  erudition,  and  abounding  with  such  illustrations  of 
eastern  manners  and  customs  as  are  best  collected  from  modern 
travellers.  As  a  commentator,  the  learned  prelate  has  shown  an 
intimate  acquaintance  with  the  best  critics,  ancient  and  modern.' 
His  own  observations  are  learned  and  ingenious.  It  is,  moreover 
not  the  least  merit  of  his  criticisms,  that  they  are  continually  en- 
livened by  the  introduction  of  classical  quotations — an  expedient 
by  which  the  tadium  of  grammatical  disquisition  is  happily  reliev- 
ed, the  taste  of  the  commentator  displayed,  and  the  text,  in  some 
instances,  more  successfully  explained,  than  in  difTose  and  laborious 
modes  of  instruction."  (Monthly  Review,  O.  S.  vol.  Ixxvi.  p.  58.) — 
The  Svo.  edition  above  noticed  is  a  reprint  of  tlie  4to.  edition,  en- 
riched with  the  addition  of  the  most  important  of  Bishop  Horsley'a 
criticisms  on  Hosea,  and  those  of  Dr.  Blayney  on  Zechariah.  It  is 
neatly  printed,  and  of  easy  purchase,  but  there  are  numerous  errata 
in  the  Hebrew  vi  ords. 

226.  ProphetiE  Minores  perpetua  annotatione  illustrati  a  D""®. 
Petro  Fouerio  Ackermanx.     Vienna,  1830,  Svo. 

A  valuable  commentary  on  the  Minor  Prophets.  The  author,  who 
does  not  lay  claim  to  much  originality,  ofiers  it  as  a  compilation 
irom  the  works  of  preceding  commentators,  vvhich  are  not  accessible 
to  eveiy  one :  and  he  especially  cites  the  more  ancient  expo.sitors, 
for  the  purpose  of  showing  that  they  were  not  quite  so  ignorant  of 
the  principles  of  Hermeneuiics  as  some  modern  critics  affect  to 
suppose.  Dr.  Ackermann  ha.-  made  considerable  use  of  the  cog« 
nate  dialects,  for  the  more  difficult  forms  of  Hebrew  words,  as 
v,'ell  as  of  the  Septuagint  Greek,  and  the  Latin  Vulgate  versions, 
and  the  best  modern  commentators.  He  lias  further  added  his  own 
philological  observations,  where  they  appeared  to  be  necessary. 
Critical  discussions  respecting  the  authors,  genuineness,  and  cano- 
nical authority,  of  the  several  books  are  designedly  omitted  ;  as 
Dr.  Ackermann  refers,  for  these  topics,  to  his  "Introductio  ad  Libroa 
Canonicos  Veteris  Foederis,"  of  which  a  notice  has  been  given  in 
p.  171.  supra. 

227.  A  Literal  Translation  from  the  Hebrew  of  the  Twelve 
]\Iinor  Prophets  ;  with  some  Notes  from  Jonathan's  Paraphrase 
in  the  Chaldee,  and  Critical  Remarks  from  R.  S.  Yarchi,  Aben* 
ezra,  D.  Kimchi,  and  Abarbenel.  By  A.  Pick.  London,  1833, 
Svo. 

The  author  of  this  version  is  a  Jew,  who,  many  years  since,  em« 
braced  the  faith  of  the  Gospel,  from  the  full 'conviction  that  th« 
Lord  Jesus  is  indeed  "  the  Messiah,  the  Son  of  the  living  God.'* 
The  design  of  his  version  is,  not  to  supersede  our  venerable  autho- 
rized translation,  but  to  act  as  an  assistant  to  it,  by  directing  the 
reader  to  the  plain  grammatical  sense  of  the  original ;  in  order  that 
he  may  be  enabled  to  enter  more  simply  into  the  mind  of  the  Spirit, 
unshackled  by  the  views  of  men.  The  notes  are  strictly  gram- 
matical and  explanatory. 

228.  Observationes  Philologicae  atque  Criticae  ad  qusedam 
Prophetarum  Minorum  Loca,  subjuncta  vernacula  Chabacuci 
Interpretatione.  Auctore  J.  Ch.  Dahl.  Neo-Strelitiie  (New 
Strelitz),  1798,  8vo. 

hosea.  ^ 

229.  An  Exposition,  with  practical  ObservatMis,  on  the  Pro- 
phecy-of  Hosea;  first  delivered  in  several  Lectures  at  St. 
Michael's,  Cornhill,  By  Jeremiah  Bcrroi-ghes.  London,  1643 
—1650,  Svo. 


136 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Pabt  n.  Chap.  ? 


230.  The  Prophecies  of  Hosea,  translated,  with  a  Commen- 
tary and  Notes.    By  James  Neale,  A.M.    London,  1771,  8va 

"231.  Samuelis  Henrici  Manckhi  Commentarius  in  Librum 
Propheticuin  HosesE.     Campis,  1782, 4to. 

232.  HosejE  Oracula,  Hebraicc  et  Latine,  pcrpctua  annotatione 
iilustravit  Ch.  Fr.  Kuixoel.     Lipsite,  1792,  8vo. 

Prof.  Kiiiiioel  has  applied  Heyne's  mode  of  illustraling  Virgil  to 
the  elucidation  of  the  prophecy  of  Ilosea.  The  text  rarely  varies 
Irom  the  Masora. 

233.  Hosea:  translated  from  the  Hebrew,  with  Notes  explana- 
tory and  critical.  By  Samuel  Houslet,  Bishop  of  Saint  Asaph. 
2d  edition.     London,  1804,  4to. 

This  edition  contains  additional  notes  and  corrections:  the  first 
edition  appeared  in  1801  ;  the  preface  contains  a  treasure  of  bibli- 
cal criticism.  "  Tliis  translation,  with  its  notes,  forms  a  most  valu- 
able accession  to  sacred  learning ;  and  evinces  at  once  the  best 
qualities  of  the  scholar  and  the  divine,  supported  by  sagacjty  and 
a  powerfid  judgment."  (British  Critic,  O.  S.  vol.  xix.  p.  176.)  A 
new  edition  of  this  valuable  work,  with  the  learned  author's  last 
corrections  and  alterations,  forms  part  of  the  third  and  fourth 
volumes  of  his  "  Biblical  Criticism,"  which  is  noticed  infra. 

234.  Hoscas  Propheta.  Introductionem  pramisit,  vertit,  com- 
mcntatus  est  Joannes  Christianas  Stuck.     Lipsiae,  1828,  8vo. 

A  valuable  help  to  the  study  of  the  writings  of  Ilosea.  The  In- 
troduction contams  a  history  of  the  prophet,  and  of  the  time  when 
he  livod  \  dis(piisitions  on  the  genius  and  argument  of  his  prophecy, 
and  on  some  particular  portions  of  it ;  philological  observations  on 
the  prophet's  style,  and  the  history  of  his  predictions,  which  are 
divided  by  Dr.  Stuck  into  nineteen  sections.  He  professes  to  have 
consulted  the  labours  of  preceding  commentators  and  critics,  espe- 
cially Eichhorn,  Kuinoel,  Boeckliel,  Rosenmiiller,  Gesenius,  and 
Dr.  W'ette. 

JOEI.. 

235.  A  Paraphrase  and  Commentary  on  the  Prophecy  of  Joel. 
By  Samuel  Chandlek.     London,  1735,  4to. 

23(i,  Joel,  Latine  versus,  et  notis  philologicis  illustratus,  ah 
A.  SvANuoiio,  Lingg.  00.  Professoris  in  Academia  Upsaliensi. 
Upsal.  1806,  4lo. 

AMOS. 

237.  Amos  Propheta,  expositus,  interpretatione  nova  Latlna 
inslructus,  ainplissiino  commentario  ex  theologia  Ebra;a  ac  Isra- 
elitica  illustr.itus,  cum  quatuor  appendicibus.  Cura  ct  studio  J. 
Ch.  Haiienbehoii.     Lugd.  Bat.  1763,  4to. 

238.  Oracula  Amosi.  Textum,  et  Hebraicum,  ct  Grajcum 
Vcrsionis  Alexandrinae,  notis  criticis  ct  exegeticis  instruxit,  ad- 
junctaque  versione  vcrnacula  [i.  e.  Germanica]  edidit  Joannes 
Severinus  Vater.     Hals,  1810,  4to. 

239.  Disputatio  Acadcmica  de  Amoso.     Quam publico 

examini  submitlit  Theodorus  Gulichnus  Johannes  Jcynboll. 
Lugduni  Batavoruin,  1828,  4to. 

JOTTAH. 

240.  Aug.  PFEiFFEni  Priclectiones  in  Prophctiam  Jonae,  rc- 
cognita:  et  in  justum  commentarium  redacta;,  quibus  emphases 
vocum  eruuntur,  verus  sacra;  Scripturse  sensus  exponitur,  sen- 
lentia;  varix  ct  Judaiorum  et  Christianoruni  adducuntur,  falsa; 
refelluntur,  ct  qua;stiones  dubia;  resolvuntur.  Witteberga;,  1671, 
170G  ;  LipsisE,  1686,  4to. 

Tills  commentary  is  also  extant  in  the  collective  edition  of  Pfcif- 
fer's  works,  printeil  at  Utrecht,  in  two  volumes,  4to.  in  1704.  Sec 
torn.  ii.  pp.  1131— 116.^ 

241.  Jonah:  a  faithful  translation  from  the  original,  with 
philological  and  explanatory  Notes;  to  which  is  prefixed  a  pre- 
liminary discourse,  proving  the"  genuineness,  the  authenticity, 
and  the  intcjp-ity  of  the  present  text.  By  George  Benjoix. 
Cambridge,  1790,  4to. 

Literally  good  for  nothing.  —  In  proof  of  this  remark,  see  the 
British  Critic,  vol.  x.  O.  S.  pp.  493—506.  622— C36. 

MICAir. 

242.  Johannis  TAnxovii  in  Prophetam  Micham  Commenta- 
rius.    Rostochii,  1632,  4  to. 


>AHCM    Alfn    HAnAKKVK. 


243. 
Nahum. 


Adami    Wii.nii    McditationcB    Sacrc   in    Proi)hetam 
Francofurti,  1712,  4to. 


A  lenmed  ;irid  d-iboralo  work,  which  cimtributcs  greatly  lo  tlio 
elucidation  »f  ^  prophet  Aahum.     (VVahliius.) 

264.  Symbolic  CriticiB  ad  Interpretationem  Valicinionun  Ila- 
hacuci,  etc.  Auctoro  Henr.  Car.  Alex.  Haoleiit.  Erlang, 
IT95,  8vo. 


I 


f 


245.  Chabacuci  Vatieinium  Commentario  Critico  atque  Exe- 
gctico  illustratum.     Edidit  B.  P.  Kofod.     Gottingae,  1792,  8vo. 

246.  Prolusio  ad  Interpretationem   tertii   capitis   HabaciDa,! 
Auctore  Joanne  Gustavo  Stickel.     Neostadii,  1828,  Bvo. 

UAGGAI. 

247.  Haggeus,  the  Prophet ;  whereunto  is  added  a  most  pi'  n- 
tiful  Commentary,  gathered  out  of  the  Publique  Lectures  of  Dr. 
J.  J.  Gryneus,  faithfully  translated  by  Cliristopher  Featii.'.r- 
STOXE.     London,  1586,  12mo. 

248.  An  Exposition  upon  the  Prophet  Aggeus.  By  James 
PiLKiXGTo.v,  Master  of  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge.  Lon- 
don, 1560,  8vo. 

ZEFHAXIAH. 

219.  Spicilegium  Observationum  Exegetico-criticarum  ad  Zo 
phaniaj  Vatichiia.    Auctore  Dan.  a  Coejux.    Breslau,  1818, 4 

250.  Hermanni  Vex  em  a    Scrmones   Academic!,  vice   Co: 
mcntarii  ad  Librum  Prophcliarum  Zachariae.     Leovardia;,  17 
4  to. 

ZECIIARIAH. 

251.  Zechariah:  a  New  Translation,  with  Notes,  critical,  phi- 
lological, and  explanatory,  etc.  By  Benjamin  Blatxet,  D.D., 
Regius  Professor  of  Hebrew.     London,  1797,  4to.  ^ 

This  work  is  executed  on  the  same  plan  as  the  author's  version  of 
Jeremiah,  already  noticed  in  p.  123.  supra.  "  We  think  it  our  duty  to  , 
say  that  Dr.  Blayney  has  produced  a  valuable  illustration  of  Zecha- 
riah, and  afforded  great  assistance  to  the  biblical  student."  (British 
Critic,  O.S.  vol.  xiii.  p.  655.)  Sec  also  the  Monthly  Review,  N.  S. 
vol.  xxviii.  pp.  26 — 28.  ■ 

252.  F.  B.  KoESTEtt  Meletemata  Critica  et  Exegetica  in  Zm  " 
chaiiffi  Propheta?  partem  posteriorem,  cap.  ix. — xiv.  pro  tucnda 
ejus  authcnlia.     Gottingae,  1818,  &vo. 

253.  A  Commentary  on  the  Vision  of  Zacbariah  the  Prophel^ 
with  a  corrected  Translation,  and  Critical  Notes.     By  John  Sxaja  ^ 
XARu,  D.D.     London,  1824,  8vo.  f^H 

"  The  specimens  we  have  gi\en  will  snfllciently  recommend  the 
volume  lo  the  perusal  of  our  readers,  as  highly  deserving  of  tlieir 
most  carefiil  perusal,  and  as  entitling  the  learned  author  lo  the  cor- 
dial thanks  of  every  biblical  student."  (Eclectic  Review,  JN-,B^ 
vol.  xxiii.  p.  416.  See  also  the  Quarterly  Theological  Review,  vf^ 
i.  pp.  329—347.) 

254.  An  Amicable  Controversy  with  a  Jewish  Rabbi  on  til 
Messiah's  Coming.     With  a  New  Exposition  of  Zechariah  o| 
the  Messiah's  Kingdom.  By  J.R.Pakk.,  M.D.  London,  lS32,8vo 

MALACHI. 

255.  A  Commentary  upon  the  whole  Prophcsye  of  Malachy. 
By  Richard  Stock.     London,  1641,  folio. 

This  work  was  recommended  by  Bishop  Wilkins  as  the  best  ex 

tant  in  his  day  on  the  i)rophet  Malachi. 

256.  A  Brief  and  Plain  Commentary,  with  Notes  not  more 
useful  than  seasonable,  upon  the  whole  Prophocic  of  Malachy  ; 
delivered  scrmonwise  divers  years  since  at  Pitminster  in  Sum- 
merset.    By  William  Sclateu,  D.D.     London,  1650,  4to. 

257.  Salomonis  Vax  Til  Malachias  Illustratus.  Lugd.  Bat. 
1701,  4to. 

258.  Hermanni  Vex  em  a  Commentarius  ad  Librum  Elench-  ■ 
tico-Propheticum   Malachia; ;    quo  variis   simul    aliis   Scripturaj 
Sacrae  locis  nova  lux  infunditur.     Leovardia;,  1759,  4to. 

259.  C.  F.  BAiiunT  Commentarius  in   Malachiam,  cum  Ex 
amine    Critico    Vcrsionum    Veterum,    et  Lectionum    Variaruiu 
Houbigantii.    Accedil  Specimen  Bibliorum  Polyglollorujn.    Lip- 
sia;,  1768,  Bvo. 


§  5.    COMMENTATOnS    ON    THE    APOCnTFUAL  BOOKS  OF    THE  OLD 

TESTAMENT. 

1.  A  Critical  Commentary  on  such  Books  of  the  Apocrypha 
as  are  appointed  to  be  read  in  Churches  :  viz.  Wisdom,  Eccle- 
siasticus,  Tobit,  Judith,  Barucii,  History  of  Susannah,  and  Bel 
and  the  Dragon.  With  two  Dissertations  on  the  Books  of  Mao 
cabecs  and  Esdras.  By  Richard  Ailvald,  B.D.  Second  edition, 
corrected.     London,  17G0,  folio;  also  various  editions  in  4to. 

This  valuable  Commentary  on  the  Apocrj'phal  Books  originally 
appeared  at  <lifrerent  limes:  it  is  freournily  Ixiund  up  \Mlh  llio 
Conunenlnries  of  Patrick.  Lowth.  and  W'liiiby  on  the  (Canonical 
Books  of  Scripture,  and  is  deservedly  held  in  high  estimation. 

2.  Jo.  Phil.  BArr.HMEisTF.ni  Commentarius  in  Sapientiam 
Salomonis,  Librum  Vctcris  Testamenti  .\pocryphum.  GotUngx, 
1828,  8vo. 

*,*  Some  Commentaries,  nniiexed  to  critical  editions  of  particular 
Ajiocryphal  Books,  will  be  fomnl  ni  p.  163.  of  this  Appendix. 


Sect.  III.  §  G.] 


C0MMENTAT0K3  OK  THE  ENTIRE  NEW  TESTAMENT 


127 


§  6.  rniJfcirAL  commextatohs  on  tue  new  testament, 

AXO  ON  DETACHED  BOOKS  THEKEOF. 

[i.]    Commentators  on  the  entire  JVVw  Testament. 

1.  Laurciitii  Vall^t;  Annotationes  in  Novum  Testamentum, 
ex  diversorum  utriusque  linguoe,  Graecae  et  Latinae,  codicum  col- 
latione.     Parisiis,  1505,  8vo. 

Valla  held  a  distinguished  rank  among  the  revivers  of  literature, 
and  was  one  of  the  first  \\\\o  considered  the  sense  of  the  New^  Tes- 
tament as  a  critic  rather  than  as  a  divine  ;  whence  he  was  led  to 
make  many  corrections  in  the-  Latin  Vulgate  translation.  His 
annotations  were  fi^rst  edited  by  Erasmus :  they  are  also  to  be  found 
in  the  Critici  Sacri. 

2.  Dcsiderii  ERAsaii  Paraphrasis  in  Novum  Testamentum. 
Basilece,  1524,  folio. 

"  Not  inferior  to  any  of  the  old  commentators  in  sensible  and  in- 
genious remarks."  (Dr.  Harwood.)  An  edition  of  Erasmus's  Para- 
rihrase  was  printed  at  Berlin,  1777-1780,  in  3  vols.  8vo.  Erasmus 
t\as  also  author  of  a  Latin  version  of  the  New  Testament,  which, 
together  with  his  annotations,  is  printed  in  the  sixth  volume  of  Le 
Clorc's  edition  of  his  works,  in  10  vols,  folio.  Leyden,  1703.  The 
notes  are  cliiefly  grammatical,  and  designed  to  excite  his  contem- 
poraries to  the  study  of  the  New  Testament  in  the  original  Greek. 

3.  Augustini  Marlohati  Novi  Testamenti  Catholica  Expo- 
sitio  Ecclesiastica :  sive  Bibliotheca  Expositionum  Novi  Testa- 
menti, id  est,  Expositio  ex  probatis  omnibus  Theologis  collecta, 
et  in  unum  corpus  singular!  artificio  conflata,  quae  instar  biblio- 
theca; multis  expositoribus  referts  esse  posset.  Apud  Henricum 
STErHANi-M,  1561,  1564,  1570.  Geneva,  1583,  1585,  1593, 
1596,  1620.     Heidelbcrgffi,  1604,  folio. 

The  multiplicity  of  editions,  through  which  this  work  passed, 
attests  the  high  and  deserved  estimation  in  which  it  was  formerly 
held,  though  it  is  now  but  little  known.  It  contains  Erasmus's 
Latin  version  of  the  New  Testament,  together  with  various  expo- 
sitions, collected  from  the  writings  of  the  fathers  of  the  church  as 
well  as  from  later  interpreters,  whether  of  the  reformed  or  Lu- 
theran Communions,  with  which  tiie  author  has  intermixed  his 
own  observations. 

4.  'X7r^fjo:>\y.'X'vj.  in  omnes  Libros  Novi  Testamenti,  in  quibus 
et  genus  sermonis  explicatur,  et  series  concionum  monstratur, 
et  nativa  sententia  festimoniis  piae  antiquitatis  confirmata.  Edita 
a  Victorino  Strigeeio.     Lipsise,  1565,  2  vols.  8vo. 

"  This  is  another  of  the  most  valuable  boolvs  of  sacred  criticism. 
The  observatiorls  are  neat,  and  the  critical  judgment  of  Victorinus 
Strigelius  is  excellent."     (Dr.  Harwood.) 

5.  Jesu  Christi  Domini  Nostri  Novum  Testamentum,  cujus 
Graeco  contextui  respondent  interpretationes  duae ;  una,  vetus ; 
altera  Theodori  Bez^e;  cum  ejusdem  Theod.  Bez.e  annota- 
tionibus.  Accessit  etiam  Joachimi  Camerarii  in  Novum  Fcsdus 
Commentarius,  in  quo  et  Figurae  Sermonis,  et  Vcrborum  Signi- 
ficatio,  et  Ofationis  Sententia,  ad  illius  Foederis  intelligentiam 
certiorem,  tractantur.     CantabrigisB,  1642,  folio. 

The  best  edition  of  a  most  valuable  work.  "  Bcza  is  undoubtedly 
the  best  critic  on  the  Greek  language  of  any  commentator  w-e 
have.  There  is  no  translation  that  I  know  of  equal  to  his :  and 
his  remarks  on  Erasmus  and  the  vulgar  Latin  are  wrought  up  to 
the  utmost  degree  of  exactness.  On  the  whole,  it  is  an  invaluable 
treasure,  and  deserves  to  be  read  with  the  utmost  attention." 
(Dr.  Doddridge.)  The  Commentaries  of  Joachim  Camerarius, 
which  form  a  part  of  this  work,  are  very  useful :  in  them,  the 
learned  author  expounds  the  text  in  a  grammatical  and  critical 
manner  only,  according  to  the  genius  of  the  original  languages, 
and  without  entering  into  any  disputed  points  of  doctrine.  They 
are  a  reprint  of  Camerarius's  Notalio  Jig ur arum  sermonis  in  lihris 
quatiior  evangeliorum,  ct  indlcata  vertiorum  signijicalio  et  orationis 
sententia,  ad  illontm  scriptorum  intelligentiam  certiorem.  Lipsiae, 
1572,  2  vols.  4to.  x-  o  t      , 

6.  Lucre  Brcgensis  Commentanus  in  Quatuor  Jesu  Christi 
Evangelia.     Antwerp,  1606,  3  vols,  folio. 

"  A  beautifully  printed  book,  very  scarce  and  valuable."  (Dr. 
Harwood.) 

7.  Joannis  Maldonati  Commentarii  in  Quatuor  Evangelia. 
Paris,  1617,  folio. 

"A  very  ingenious  commentator,  distinguished  for  his  elegant 
and  neat  Latinity."    (Dr.  Harwood.) 

8.  Martini  Chemnitii  Harmonia  Quatuor  Evangelistarum. 
Hamburg.  1704,  best  edition,  folio. 

See  a  notice  of  this  work  in  p.  159.  of  this  Appendix. 

9.  Joannis  Phic;ei  Commentarii  in  varios  Novi  Testamenti 
Libros.     Londini,  1660,  folio. 

These  notes  are  inserted  in  the  fifth  volume  of  the  Critici 
Sacri :  they  are  greatly  valued  as  containing  "  many  valuable 
observations,  particularly  illustrating  the  modes  of  diction  which 
occur  m  the  sacred  classics,  lirom  profane  writers."  (Dr.  Har- 
wood.) 


10.  Joh.  Christoph.  Wolfii  Cura;  Philologicae  in  Novum 
Testamentum.     Basil,  1741 ;  the  best  edition,  5  vols.  4to. 

This  is  a  very  valuable  compilation ;  as  "  Wolfius  does  not 
simply  relate  the  senlimeiits  of  others,  but  frequently  animadverts 
upon  them  with  great  critical  discernment."  (Dr.  Williams.)  A 
continuation  of  this  work  was  published  by  John  Cln-istopher 
Koecher,  entitled  "  Analecta  PhiloJogica  et  Exegetica  in  Quatuor 
Evangelia."     Altenburg,  1766,  4to. 

11.  Le  Nouveau  Testament  de  N.  S.  Jesus  Christ,  traduit  en 
Francois,  sur  I'Original  Grec,  avec  des  notes  litterales,  pour 
eclaircir  le  texte :  par  Messieurs  de  BEArsoBUE  et  l'Enfant. 
Amst.  1741,  best  edition,  4to. 

To  complete  this  excellent  work,  there  should  be  added,  ■'  Re- 
marques  historiques,  critiques,  ct  philologiques  sur  le  Nouveau  Tes- 
tament, par  M.  Beausohre,  4;o.  a  la  Haye,  1742."  Though  a  post- 
humous work,  it  is  very  valuable,  and  contains  many  judicious 
observations  briefly  expressed,  but  which  nevertheless  comprise 
the  substance  of  remarks  offered  by  the  best  interpreters.  An 
English  translation  of  St.  Matthew's  Gospel  from  this  French 
version,  was  printed  in  4to.  several  years  since,  which  was  repub- 
lished in  8vo.  London,  1816. 

12.  Novum  Testamentum  Grfficum  editionis  receptae  cum 
Lectionibus  variantibus  Codicum  manuscriptorum,  Editionum 
aliarum,  Versionum,  et  Patrum,  necnon  commentario  pleniore 
ex  Scriptoribus  veteribus  Hebrajis,  Grsecis,  et  Lalinis,  historiam 
et  vim  verborum  illustrante.  Opera  et  studio  Joan.  Jacobi 
Wetstenii.  Amstelaedami,  1751,  1752,  2  vols,  folio.  Editio 
altera,  aucta  et  emendata,  curante  J.  A.  Lotze.  Tom.  i.  Quatuor 
Evangelia  complectens.     Roterodami,  1832,  large  quarto. 

The  critical  merits  of  these  editions  of  the  New  Testament  are 
considered  in  p.  12.  of  this  Appendix.  As  a.  merely  critical  comment, 
this  of  Wetstein  is  unquestionably  one  of  the  most  valuable : 
"  almost  every  peculiar  form  of  speech  in  the  sacred  text  he  has 
illustrated  by  quotations  from  Jewish,  Greek,  and  Roman  writers." 
(Dr.  A.  Clarke.)  Almost  every  modern  commentator  of  note  has 
largely  availed  himself  of  the  previous  labours  of  Wetstein. 

13.  Joannis  Bengeeii  Gn.  mon  Novi  Testamenti,  in  quo,  ex 
nativa  Verborum  Vi,  Simphcitas,  Profunditas,  Concinnitas,  et 
Salubritas  sensuum  coelestium,  indicatur.  Ulmae,  1763,  4to.  best 
edition. 

"  This  work  contains  an  instructive  preface,  a  perspicuous 
analysis  of  each  book,  with  short  notes,  in  the  true  taste  of  judi- 
cious criticism.  His  plan  is  a  perfect  contrast  to  that  of  Wolfius. 
Simplicem  fere  veritatem,  sine  sylva  multarum  opinionum,  propono." 
(Dr.  Williams.)  Bengel's  Gnomon  is  a  very  valuable  substitute 
for  the  more  expensive  critical  commentaries  on  the  New  Testa- 
ment ;  he  excels  in  showing  the  connection  and  harmony  of  Scrip- 
ture, and  how  Scripture  is  to  be  interpreted  by  Scripture.  The 
generally  cheap  price  of  this  book  greatly  enhances  its  value. 

14.  'H  KAINH  A1A0HKH.  Novum  Testamentum  Domini 
nostri  Jesu  Christi,  cum  Scholiis  theologicis  et  philologicis.  Svo. 
2  vols.     Londini,  1768:  2d  edit.  1776;  3d  edit.  1820. 

The  editor  of  this  work  was  the  Rev.  Mr.  Hardv.  "  It  was  a 
very  useful  companion  to  every  biblical  student,  and  has  gone 
through  two  editions  (the  second  in  1776),  the  first  of  which  is  the 
best ;  but  it  must  be  acknowledged  that  the  Greek  text  in  both  is 
inexcusably  incorrect."  (Dr.  Clarke.)  The  third  edition  of  this 
work  is  the  most  correct;  it  is  beautifully  printed.  The  notes  are 
chiefly  extracted  from  Poole's  Synopsis. 

15.  Christ.  Gottfr.  Kijttneri  Hypomnemata  in  Novum  Tes« 
tamentum,  quibus  GraBcitas  ejus  explicatur,  et  'Scholiis,  quae  ex 
Scriptis  recentiorum  quorundam  magni  nominis  philologorum 
excerpta  sunt,  illustratur.     Lipsiae,  1780,  Svo. 

16.  Novum  Testamentum  Graece,  perpetua  Annotatione  illus- 
tratum.  Editio  Koppiana.  Vols.  III. — X.  Gottingae,  1778 — 
1826,  Svo. 

G.  B.  KoppE  (from  whom  this  edition  derives  its  distinctive 
appellation),  a  man  of  extensive  learning  and  uncommon  critical 
acumen,  in  the  year  1778,  published  a  plan  of  a  new  edition  of 
the  New  Testament,  with  a  corrected  text,  short  critical  notes,  and 
some  excursus,  or  somewhat  more  extended  philological  ones  on 
particular  passages ;  and  at  the  same  time  gave  a  specimen  in  the 
epistles  of  Paul  to  the  Galatians,  Ephesians,  and  Thessalonians. 
A  second  edition  of  this  specimen  appeared  in  1791,  and  a  third 
in  1823,  corrected  and  enlarged  by  Professor  T.  C.  Tychsen,  which 
in  the  title-page  is  called  Vol.  VI.  of  the  projected  work.  Koppe 
lived  only  to  add  another  volume,  numbered  IV.,  on  the  epistle  to 
the  Romans,  which  was  published  in  1783.  A  third  edition  of 
this  volume,  with  additional  notes  and  philological  excursus,  by 
Dr.  C.  F.  Ammon,  appeared  in  1825.  Since  the  year  1783,  at  very 
irregular  intervals,  L.  H.  Heinrichs  has  published  Vol.  III.  in  two 
parts,  containing  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  (which  is  more  particu- 
larly noticed  in  p.  134.  infra),  in  1809:  Vol.  VII.  in  two  parts, 
1792,  containing  the  epistles  to  the  Colossians,  Philippians,  Timo- 
thy, Titus,  and  Philemon ;  Vol.  VIII.,  containing  the  epistle  to  the 
Hebrews,  by  Heinrichs,  who  published  a  second  edition  of  it  in 
1823,  and  the  Apocalypse  in  two  parts,  forming  Vol.  X.,  1821.  Of 
the  Catholic  Epistles,  which  we  to  form  WS..  IX.,  D.  J.  Pott  ha. 


128 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Paiit  1L  Chap,  V 


published  two  fasciculi,  ihe  first  containing  the  episilo  of  James, 
and  the  second  containing  the  two  epistles  of  Peier.  The  lliird 
fasciculus,  which  is  to  cojitnin  4I10  epistles  of  John  and  Jiulc,  has 
not  yet  appeared.  In  182G,  Pott  published  ilie  lirsi  part  of  Vol.  V., 
which  is  to  comprise  the  two  epistles  to  the  Coriniixians.  Vols.  I. 
and  II.,  containing  the  four  Go.spels,  are  undertaken  by  persons, 
wh'>m  lleinriclis  declares  to  be  every  way  coiapcient  to  the  ta.sk. 
The  ])lan  of  this  work  appears  tobt-  e.vccllent.  There  is,  first 
of  all,  at  the  head  of  the  pa?e,  a  corrected  text,  agreeing  for  the 
most  part  with  that  of  Gric.<ibach's  edition,  with  a  punctuation  en- 
tirely new,  and  divided  into  paragraphs  according  to  the  sense, 
while  the  ordinary  notation  of  i  haptens  and  verses  is  given  in  the 
margin.  Then  i'Mow  brief  notes,  strictly  critical,  assigning  the 
reasons  for  tiic  variations  from  tlie  lextuf  rccejitus ;  an<l  below  these, 
at  the  boliom  of  the  page,  tliere  are  notes  ol  a  pliilological  nature, 
of  consiilerable  extent.  These  notes  are  precisely  of  the  kind  vvliich 
are  to  be.found  in  the  best  critical  editions  of  the  classics.  Their 
sole  object  is  to  cnrible  the  reader  distinctly  and  accurately  to  ap- 
prehend the  meaning  of  the  original  writers.  To  illustrate  a  phrase 
of  doubtful  meaning,  fiiv-it  of  all  are  brought  forward  the  passages 
where  the  writer  uses  the  same  or  a  similar  mode  of  expression ;  then 
other  IVew  Testament  writers  are  appealed  to ;  then  the  Greek  trans- 
lators of  the  Old  Tesianunt  are  cited  ;  then  the  Apocryphal  writers; 
and  also  Josephus  and  Pliilo  ;  and,  last  of  all,  the  classical  aulliors 
are  referred  to.  All  doctrinal  discussions  are  carefully  avoided. 
To  each  book  are  prefixed  prolegomena,  in  which  questions  relat- 
ing to  their  author's  authenticity,  <tc.  are  discussed  :  and  to  each 
book  also  arc  subjoined  short  excursus,  or  disquisitions,  on  passages 
of  extraordinary  obscurity,  or  on  phrases  of  frequent  occurrence,  or 
which  are  iisecl  in  a  particular  sense  by  llie  sacrod  writers.  With 
regard  to  the  execution  of  the  plan  thus  det;iiled  : — Koppc's  two 
volumes  are  by  far  the  best  of  the  series  :  he  is  a  remarkably  cau- 
tious critic  and  judicious  intcr|)rcler.  But  the  second  edition  of  his 
commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  tlwe  Romans  contains  .some  very  ex- 
ceptionable notes  by  Pr()fes.sor  Ammon:  they  are,  howc^-er,  care- 
fully distinguished  from  tliose  of  Koppe.  Both  Heinrichs  and  Polls 
are,  unhappily,  tainted  with  that  lax  system  of  interpretation  and 
excess  of  philological  speculation  which  are  the  characteristics  of 
the  modern  theologians  and  biblical  critics  of  Germany."  (Chris- 
tian Monitor,  vol.  ii.  pp.  642 — G-Il.    Edinburgh,  1822,  8vo.) 

17.  G.  F.  Hkzel  Novi  Foederis  Volumina  Sacra,  Virorum 
Clarissiniorum  opera  ac  studio,  e  Scriptoribus  Grtecis,  illustiata. 
Halae,  1788,  Svo. 

This  work,  which  ha.s  never  been  completed,  contains  the  Gos- 
pels of  Matthew  and  Mark,  cum  iVotis  Varionnn,  and  imbodies  the 
labours  of  Wetstein,  llaphelius,  Palairet,  Kypke,  Alberti,  Bos,  and 
'iihers. 

18.  Conjectures,  with  short  Comment.s  and  Illustrations  of 
various  Passages  in  the  New  Testament,  particularly  in  the  Gos- 
pel of  St.  Matthew.  To  which  is  added  a  Specimen  of  Notes 
on  the  Old  Testament.  By  Stephen  Weston,  B.D.  London, 
1795,  4to. 

19.  Selccta  e  Scholis  Lud.  Casp.  VALCKEXAnii  in  Libros 
quosdam  Novi  Testanienti,  Editore  Di-scipulo  E.  Van  Was.sen- 
bergh,  qui  Disscrtatiouem  prffiiuisit  do  Glossis  Novi  Teslamenti. 
Am.st.  1815-17,  2  vols.  Svo. 

Valclcenaer  was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  critics  of  the  last 
century.  T'^^ese  extracts  from  his  Scholia  are  wholly  philoK)gical. 
To  the  fir».  volume  M.  Wnsicnberg  has  prefixed  a  dissertation  on 
those  pas-sages  which  he  thinks  were  originally  glosses,  written  in 
the  margin  of  manuscripts,  but  which  in  the  lapse  of  ages  have 
become  incorporated  with  the  text.  To  the  second  volume  he  has 
also  prefixed  a  Dissertation  respecting  the  Trajeclions  often  neces- 
sary in  Ihe  New  Testament.  Some  of  these  Trajeclions  or  trans- 
positions are  arbitrary  enough.  Bi.shop  Jebb  has  given  a  specimen 
of  them,  wiili  Rouie  just  canligalory  remarks,  in  his  Sacred  Litera- 
ture, pp.  128—130. 

20.  'H  KAINH  A1A0HKH.  Novum  Testamcntum,  cum  No- 
tifi  Thcologicis  et  Philologicis.  Londini,  in  tedibus  typographicis 
A.  J.  Valpy,  1816,  3  vols.  Svo. 

A  work  executed  with  equal  correctness  and  elegance :  there 
are  a  few  copies  on  large  paper,  which  are  truly  beautiful.  The 
Greek  is  that  of  the  received  text,  wiih  the  exception  of  some  few 
poHsaces,  in  which  the  cdiinr  ackiiowlrdgcs  that  lie  has  f()llowed 
Griesbach  ;  and  the  (Scholia  are  arranged  in  a  similar  order  with 
those  of  Hardy's  edition,  noticed  in  p.  278.  They  arc  chiefly  se- 
lected from  GroliuH,  f-'isner,  Raphclins,  Bo.m,  Pnhiiret,  Kypke,  and 
liosenmiiller.  To  each  IxMik  is  prefixed  a  shorl  account  of  its  au- 
thor, occasion,  and  object,  drawn  up  in  pure  and  elegant  Laiinily. 
For  iIiiH  valuable  auxiliary  lo  sacred  studies,  the  biblical  Htiidcnl  is 
indebted  u»  the  Upv.  K(fward  Vai.pv,  B.D.  It  is  no  mean  (om- 
mendation  of  this  commodious  and  valuable  edition  of  the  New 
TcHtament,  that  a  late  eminent  prelate  of  the  .Anglican  Church 
(Bishop  Ilunlingfurd),  who  examined  if,  signified  his  approbation 
of  every  pa.ssage  on  which  any  controversy  wiw  likely  ici  bo  occa- 
Moned  ;  and  stated  thai,  had  he  edited  il,  it  would  have  been  simi- 
larly edited. 

21.  'fi  KATNH  AIAOHKH.     The  New  Testament  with  Eng- 
i»h  Notes,  critical,  philological,  and  explanatory.     [By  the  Kev. 


Edward  Valpy,  B.D.]     A  new  edition.     London,  1826,  3  vols. 
Svo. 

A  new  and  greatly  improved  edition  of  the  preceding  work  :  at 
it  is  now  accompanied  with  various  readings,  the  reader  will  nii^, 
a  more  particular  account  of  it,  as  well  as  of  the  editions  of  thftl 
New  Testament,  with  various  readings  and  philological  notes,  by  ' 
the  Rev.  Dis.  Bi;rton  and  Blomfiki-d,  among  the  critical  editions! 
of  the  New  Testament,  in  p.  19     of  tliis  A|)pendix. 

22.  Testamcntum  Novum  Grsece.  CumanimadversionibusC-i 
ticis,  &c.  a  Joanne  Scverino  Vateu.     Halaj  Saxonum,  1824,  8v  j,  I 

See  the  title  at  length,  and  an  account  of  the  Notes,  &c.  of  thisi 
edition  of  the  New  Testament,  in  p.   16.  of  this  Appendix. 

23.  A  Commentary  or  Exposition  on  the  New  Testament  A 
with  a  Decad  of  Common  Places.  By  John  Tuapp.  London/ 
1647,  2  vols.  4to. 

A  work  containing  many  judicious  observations,  collected  from' 
various  sources,  but  for  the  most  part  expressed   in  uncouth  lan- 
guage.    It  is  both  scarce  and  dear. 

24.  A  Paraphrase  and  Annotations  on  the  New  Testament, 
by  Henry  Hammond,  D.D.     London,  1702,  folio,  best  edition. 

The  first  edition  of  this  valuable  work  appeared  in  1G53:  it  is 
in  great  and  growing  reputation.  There  are  many  good  critici.ema, 
but  many  that  are  much  mistaken.  Dr.  Hammond  "  finds  the 
Gnostics  every  where,  wliich  is  his  principal  fault :  many  of  Le 
Clerc's  animadversions  ujion  tlio.se  places  are  very  good  ;  and  his 
edition  of  his  book  in  Latin  I  think  mucii  preferable  to  the  origi- 
nal."    (Dr.  Doddridge.) 

25.  A  Paraphrase  on  the  New  Testament,  with  Notes,  doc- 
trinal and  practical.  By  the  Rev.  Richard  Baxteh.  London, 
1695,  Svo. — Reprinted  at  London,  1810,  Svo. 

The  paraphrase  is  inserted  between  the  verses  of  the  text,  and 
in  a  smaller  type.  The  annotations  are  at  the  end  of  the  chapters, 
They  arc  for  the  most  part  very  short,  and  contain  much  sound 
.sense  and  piety.  Mr.  Baxter's  "practical  writings,"  said  Dr.  Bar- 
row, "were  never  mended,  and  his  controversial  ones  seldom  re- 
futed." 

20.  A  Paraphrase  and  Commentary  on  the  New  Testament ; 
to  which  is  added  a  Chronology  of  the  New  Testament,  and  an 
Alphabetical  Tabic  of  Places  mentioned  in  the  New  Testament. 
By  Daniel  Whituy,  D.D.  London,  17C1,  2  vols,  folio:  also 
1833,  in  2  vols.  Svo. 

This  is  considered  as  the  best  edition :  the  work  was  fi.'st  pub- 
lished in  1703 :  and  the  lOlh  edition,  in  4to.  appeared  in  1807. 
Divines  of  every  denomination  concur  in  pronouncing  Dr.  Whil- 
hy's  commentary  to  be,  ujMin  the  whole,  the  best  upon  the  New 
Testament  that  is  extant  in  the  English  language.  It  is  inserted 
in  almost  every  list  of  books  that  we  have  seen  recommended  to 
students. 

27.  Expository  Notes,  with  Practical  Observations  on  the 
New  Testament  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ ;  wherein 
the  Sacred  Text  is  at  large  recited,  the  Sense  explained,  &c.  «Scc. 
By  William  Buukitt,  M.A.  London,  1814, 4to.;  also  1833, 
in  2  voIf.  Svo. 

The  first  edition  of  this  deservedly  popular  work  was  printed 
early  in  tlie  last  century  ;  and  its  practical  utility  has  caused  it  to 
be  several  times  reprinted  in  (olio,  besides  the  al)ove-noticed  edi- 
tion in  4lo.  It  does  not  profess  to  discuss  critical  questions,  but  is 
very  useful  lor  the  inferences  it  deduces  from  the  .sacred  text. 
Burkitt  (says  Dr.  Doddridge)  "  has  many  schemes  of  old  sermons  : 
his  seiitinieiil.s  vary  in  dilJerenl  parts  of  the  work,  as  the  authors 
from  whom  he  look  his  niaterials  were  orthodox  or  not."  The  Re- 
verenil  JJr.  Glasso  published  an  edition  of  this  work,  a  few  years 
since,  in  2  vols.  4to. ;  which  was  .soon  afterwards  followed  by  an 
abridgment,  i}\  one  thick  volume,  8vo.  for  the  use  of  the  poor. 

28.  The  Practical  Expositor;  or,  an  Exposition  of  the  New 
Testament  in  the  Form  of  a  Paraphra.se,  with  occasioiml  Notes, 
and  serious  Recollections  at  the  end  of  each  Chapter.  By  John 
GcifsK,  D.D.  London,  1739-53,  3  vols.  4to.  Various  editions 
arc  extant,  in  0  vols.  Svo. 

Dr.  Guyse  was  an  eminent  dissenting  divine  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  and  in  his  religious  principles  Calvinistic.  His  paraplira.so 
has  never  been  very  j)0|)ular,  though  it  "  is  said  to  display  a  wiund 
jiidgiiicnl,  intiinato  acquaintaiire  with  the  original,  aiiil  considera- 
ble critical  jjowors."  (Chalmern'8  Biographical  Dictionary,  vol. 
xvi.  p.  190.) 

29.  An  Exposition  on  the  Books  of  the  New  Testament, 
extracted  from  the  Writings  of  the  best  Authors,  ancient  and 
modern.     By  John  Maucuant.     London,  1743,  folio. 

30.  The  Primitive  New  Testament.     Part  I.  containing  fho 
Four  (fospels,  with  the  Acts  of  the  .\postle8.    Part  II.  containing 
.\IV.  Epistles  of  Paul.     Part  III.  containing  the  seven  Catholic 
E[iisllcs.     Part  IV.  containing  the  Revelation  of  John  [translated 
with  a  few  Notes,  by  William  Wuiston],  8vo.   Stamford,  1745. 


Kect.  ITI.  §  6.] 


COMMENTARIES  ON  THE  ENTIRE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


129 


A  book  not  of  very  common  occurrence :  to  render  it  complete, 
there  slioiild  be  prcrixcd  a  harmony  "  of  tlie  Kestirrectio?i  of  Jesus 
Christ,  according  to  Beza's  double  copy  of  the  Four  Gospels  and 
Acts  of  the  Apostles." 

The  first  part  is  translated  "according  to  the  Greek  part  of  the 
MS.  of  Bezn,  the  imperfections  of  which  are  supplied  from  the  Vul- 
gar Latin;"  the  second  part  is  "according  to  the  Greek  of  the 
Pio-inont   in..nii=rri.it  •"  jhc  thirfl  and  fourth  parts  are  said  to  be 


Clermont  manuscript ;' 

"all  according  to  the  Greek  Alexandrian  MS.,  acco.-ding  to  the 
collation  in  Dr.  Mills,  corrected."  The  modern  distinctions  of 
chapters  and  verses  are  retained. 

31.  The  Family  Expositor:  or  a  Paraphrase  and  Version  of 
the  New  Testament,  with  Critical  Notes,  and  a  Practical  Im- 
provement of  each  Section.  By  Philip  Dodbridbe,  D.D.  Lon- 
don, 1700-02,  6  vols.  4to.  Also  in  4  vob.  4to.  London,  1808  ; 
and  various  editions  in  6  vols.  8vo. :  also  in  one  volume,  super- 
royal  8vo.     London,  182.5. 

The  late  Bishop  of  Durham  (Dr.  Harrington),  in  addressing  his 
clergy  on  the  choice  of  books,  characterizes  this  masterly  work  in 
the  lollowing  terms  : — "  In  reading  the  New  Testament,  I  recom- 
mend Doddridge's  Family  Expositor,  as  an  impartial  interpreter  and 
faithful  monitor.  Other  expositions  and  commentaries  might  be 
mentioned,  greatly  to  tlie  honour  of  their  respective  authors,  for 
their  several  excellencies  ;  such  as,  elegance  of  exposition,  acute- 
nflss  of  illustration,  and  copiousness  of  erudition :  but  I  know  of 
no  expositor  who  unites  so  many  advantages  as  Doddridge ;  whether 
you  regard  the  fidelity  of  his  version,  the  fulness  and  perspicuity 
of  his  composition,  the  utility  of  his  general  and  historical  infor- 
mation, the  impartiality  of  his  doctrinal  comments,  or,  lastly,  the 
piety  and  pastoral  earnestness  of  his  moral  and  religious  applica- 
tions. He  has  made,  as  he  professes  to  have  done,  ample  use  of 
the  commentators  that  preceded  him ;  and  in  the  explanation  of 
grammatical  difficulties,  he  has  profited  much  more  from  the  philo- 
logical writers  on  the  Greek  Testament  than  could  almost  have 
been  expected  in  so  multifarious  an  undertaking  as  the  Family  Ex- 
positor. Indeed,  for  all  the  most  valuable  purposes  of  a  Commen- 
tary on  the  New  Testament,  the  Family  Expositor  cannot  fall  too 
early  into  the  hands  of  those  intended  ibr  holy  orders."  (Sermons 
and  Tracts,  p.  150.)  This  admirable  commentary  is  in  the  lists  of 
books  recommended  by  Bishops  Watson  and  Tomline,  and  almost 
every  other  theological  tutor. 

An  abridgment  of  the  Family  Expositor,  upon  a  plan  suggested 
by  Dr.  Doddridge  himself,  was  published  a  few  years  since  by  the 
Rev. S.  Palmer,  entitled  "The  Family  Expositor  abridged,  according 
to  the  plan  of  its  author ;  containing  his  version,  and  the  most  use- 
ful explana-.ory  notes,  with  practical  reflections  at  the  end  of  each 
section  entire."  2  vols.  Bvo.  It  forms  a  convenient  companion  to 
Mr.  Orton's  Exposition  of  the  Old  Testament,  noticed  in  p.  115.  of 
this  Appendix. 

32.  The  New  Testament,  carefully  collated  with  the  Greek, 
and  corrected ;  divided  and  pointed  according  to  the  various  sub- 
jects treated  of  by  the  Inspired  Writers,  with  the  common  divi- 
sion into  chapters  and  verses  in  the  margin  ;  and  illustrated  with 
Notes  critical  and  explanatory.  By  Richard  Wysne,  A.M. 
London,  1764,  2  vols,  8vo. 

"  Mr.  Wynne  seems  to  have  made  his  divisions  into  chapters  and 
verses,  with  a  good  deal  of  attention  and  judgment.  As  to  the 
translation  and  many  of  the  notes,  they  are  so  much  taken  from 
the  Family  Expositor  of  the  late  Reverend  Dr.  Doddridge,  that  the 
duty  we  owe  the  public  obliges  us  to  say,  they  are  more  the  pro- 
perty of  that  learned  critic  than  of  our  editor."  (Monthly  Review, 
O.  $.  vol.  xxxi.  pp.  406,  407.)  The  book,  however,  is  useful,  and 
not  dear. 

33.  The  New  Testament  or  New  Covenant  of  our  Lord  and 
Saviour  Jesus  Christ,  translated  from  the  Greek,  according  to  the 
present  idiom  of  the  English  tongue.  With  Notes  and  Refer- 
ences.    By  John  Wouslet.     London,  1770,  8vo. 

The  design  of  this  version  is  to  depart  as  little  as  possible  from 
the  authorized  translation,  while  the  author  has  endeavoured  (and 
with  some  degree  of  success)  to  bring  it  nearer  to  the  original,  and 
lo  make  the  form  of  expression  more  suited  to  our  present  language, 
fle  professes  to  have  paid  especial  attention  to  the  correct  render- 
ing of  the  particles,  many  of  which,  it  is  well  known,  are  omitted 
in  the  authorized  version.  The  notes  are  very  brief,  and  princi- 
pally intended  to  confirm  and  illustrate  the  more  literal  or  various 
renderings  at  the  bottom  of  each  page.  "  This  work  may  be  very 
usefully  consulted ;  and  persons  who  are  imacquainted  with  the 
original,  may  be  able  from  hence  to  form  their  judgment  concern- 
ing the  translation  in  common  use  among  us,  and  to  improve  their 
knowledge  of  the  Scriptures."     (Mouth.  Rev.,  O.  S.  vol.  xliii.  p.  12.) 

34.  The  Christian  Expositor :  being  a  brief  Explanation  of 
the  New  Testament,  whereby  the  Holy  Scriptures  are  rendered 
easy  to  be  understood  by  the  meanest  capacities.  By  the  Rev, 
James  Asuton.     London,  1774,  8vo. 

"  We  think  Mr.  Ashton  seems  to  have  assumed  rather  too  much 
in  his  title-page.  We  have  looked  over  the  volume,  and  find  several 
pertinent  illustrations ;  but  we  apprehend  that  this  well-intended 
work  will  admit  of  a  great  deal  of  improvement."  (Monthly  Re- 
view, O.  S.  vol.  lii.  p.  365.) 


35.  An  Exposition  of  the  New  Testament,  intended  as  an 
Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Scriptures,  by  pointing  out  the 
leading  sense  and  connexion  of  the  Sacred  Writers.  By  Wm. 
Gii-rix,  M.A.     2  vols.  8vo. 

This  justly-admired  and  ably-executed  work  has  gone  through 
several  editions  :  it  first  appeared  in  one  volume,  4to."l790.  "  The 
plan  of  the  author  is,  to  give  the  whole  substance  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament, verse  by  verse,  in  such  a  kind  of  paraphrase  as  may  ftiake 
the  historical  parts  run  on  in  a  pleasing  style  of  narrative,  and  con- 
vey the  doctrinal  parts  with  such  connection  of  the  argument  and 
illustration  of  the  sense,  as  may  induce  even  the  idle  to  rend  the 
whole  with  pleasure.  Sentences  are  occasionally  thrown  in  for 
sake  of  explanation  ;  but  of  this  and  eveiy  deviation  from  the  ap- 
parent literal  sense  of  the  context,  due  notice  is  given  in  the  notes; 
which  are  numerous,  learned,  and  satifactory.  We  have  not  seen 
any  plan  more  likely  to  attract  all  kinds  of  readers  to  this  best  of 
studies  ;  and  we  are  happy  to  bear  testimony  that  the  plan  is  exe- 
cuted with  good  sense  and  without  aflTectation."  (British  Critic, 
O.  S.  vol.  iv.  p.  122.) 

36.  A  Translation  of  the  New  Testament.  By  Gilbert  Wake- 
FIELD,   B.A.      Second   edition,  with  improvements.      London, 

1795,  2  vols.  8vo. 

The  first  edition  of  this  work  was  published  in  three  volumes, 
8vo.  1792.  For  an  account  of  the  merits  and  defects  of  this  ver- 
sion, see  the  Monthly  Review,  New  Series,  vol.  viii.  pp.  241 — 247. 
and  vol.  xx.  p.  225.  It  was  preceded,  first,  by  A  New  Trandalion 
of  the  Gospel  of  Saint  Matthew,  with  Notes  critical,  philological,  and 
explanatory.  Alo.  London,  1782,  of  which  a  severe  account  is  given 
in  the  same  journal,  vol.  Ixix.  Old  Series,  pp.  48 — 59. ;  and,  secondly, 
by  A  New  Translation  of  those  Parts  only  of  the  New  Testament 
uhich  are  turongly  translated  in  our  common  version,  8vo.  London, 
1789.  This  is  a  small  volume,  but  more  valuable  for  reference 
than  the  work  above  noticed  ;  as  it  consists  simply  of  corrections 
of  passages  mistranslated,  without  any  comment  or  observations. 

37.  A  Translation  of  the  New  Testament,  from  the  original 
Greek.  Humbly  attempted  by  Nathaniel  Scarlett,  assisted  by 
men  of  piety  and  literature.    With  Notes.    London,  1798,  8vo. 

This  traijslation  is  executed  in  conformity  with  the  tenets  of  the 
Universalists.  "  It  is  with  sincere  regret  that  we  see  so  much  piety 
and  good  intention  so  very  expensively  misemployed  as  in  the  pre- 
sent volume.  Nothing  can  be  more  injudicious  than  the  whole  jalan 
and  form  of  the  work.  What  advantage  can  possibly  be  exp^ted 
from  printing  the  historical  parts  of  the  Testament  like  a  play  ? . . . . 
"It  will  hardly  be  credible  to  those  who  do  not  see  the  book,  that 
this  strange  method  is  employed  throughout,  whenever  it  is  practi- 
cable."    (British  Critic,  O.  S.  vol.  xiii.  p.  435.) 

38.  An  Attempt  towards  revising  our  English  Translation  of 
the  Greek  Scriptures,  or  the  New  Covenant  of  Jesus  Christ,  and 
towards  illustrating  the  Sense  by  philological  and  explanatory 
Notes.     By  William  Newcome,  D.D.,  Archbishop  of  Armagh. 

1796,  2  vols,  royal  8vo. 

This  work,  though  printed  so  long  ago  as  1796,  was  not  published 
till  some  time  after  the  right  reverend  author's  decease  in  1800. 
In  his  preface  it  is  stated  that  his  original  intention  extended  no 
further  than  Jo  improve  our  authorized  translation  of  the  Greek 
Scriptures,  following  the  text  of  Griesbach's  critical  edition,  except 
in  a  few  instances.  Finding,  however,  that  his  plan  would  be  de- 
fective without  a  comment  on  the  text  of  such  a  difficult  book,  he 
proceeded  to  add  a  selection  of  annotations  from  a  body  of  notes 
which  he  had  formed  or  compiled,  with  occasional  additions  sup- 
plied by  able  commentators,  or  by  his  own  study  of  the  sacred 
writmgs.  This  version  was  (much  to  the  mortification  of  some 
of  the  archbishop's  relatives)  made  the  basis  of  the  following 
work,  which  is  here  noticed,  merely  lest  the  author  of  these  pages 
should  be  charged  with  designedly  omitting  it. 

39.  The  New  Testament  in  an  I.mpeoted  Vehsiox,  upon 
the  basis  of  Archbishop  Newcome's  New  Translation :  with  a 
corrected  Text,  and  Notes  critical  and  explanatory,  &c.  &c.  &c. 
London,  1808,  8vo. 

This  version  is  avowedly  made  to  support  the  Unitarian  scheme ; 
for  though  the  late  learned  Archbishop  Newcome's  name  is  speci- 
fied in  the  title-page,  as  a  kind  of  model,  his  authority  is  disre- 
garded whenever  it  militates  against  the  creed  of  the  anonymous 
editors.  The  errors  and  perversions  of  this  translation  have  been 
most  ably  exposed  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Nares,  in  his  "  Remarks  on  the 
Version  of  the  New  Testament,  lately  edited  by  the  Unitarians," 
&c.  &c.  8vo.  London,  1808  (2d  edit.  1814) ;  by  the  Rev.  T.  Ren- 
nell,  in  his  "  Animadversions  on  the  Unitarian  Translation  by  a 
iftudent  in  Divinity,"  8vo.  London,  1811 ;  and  by  the  Rev.  i)r. 
Laurence  (now  Archbishop  of  CasheD,  in  his  "  Critical  Reflections 
on  some  important  Misrepresentations  contained  in  the  Unitarian 
Version  of  the  New  Testament,"  8vo.  Oxford  and  London,  1811 ; 
and  especially  in  the  "Vindication  of  the  Authenticity  of  the 
Narratives  contained  in  the  first  two  chapters  of  the  Gospels  of  St. 
Matthew  and  St.  Luke,"  by  a  Layman.  London,  1822,  8vo.  The 
three  last-mentioned  treatises  discuss  various  topics,  which  it  did 
not  fall  within  Dr.  Nares's  plan  to  notice.  Two  short  but  very  able 
critiques  on  the  Unitarian  Version  may  also  be  seen  in  the  Quar- 
terly Review,  vol.  i.  pp.  315 — 336.,  and  the  Eclectic  Review  foi 
1809,  vol.  V.  pp.  24—39.,  236—251. 


130 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Paht  IL  Ciap.  IV 


40.  Tlio  New  Testament,  translated  from  tlic  Greek ;  anJ  i 
the  Four  Go.sjjcls  arranged  in  Harmony,  where  the  parU  of  each 
are  introduced  according  to  the  Natural  Order  of  the  Narrative, 
and  the  Exact  Order  of  Time.  With  some  Preliminary  Obscr- 
vatiofts,  and  Notes  critical  and  explanatory.  By  William 
Thompson,  A.M.    Kilmarnock,  1816,  3  vols.  8vo 

This  work  tt»e  writer  of  these  pages  has  never  been  able  to  pro- 
cure: it  is  thus  characterized  by  Mr.  Orme :— "  Mr.  Thompson  is 
entiiled  to  respect,  for  his  aitempl  to  translate  the  New  Testament, 
whatever  ojjinion  may  be  Ibrmed  of  his  success.  If  a  profound 
acquaintance  with  classical  and  biblical  Greek,  solidity  of  judg- 
ment, great  nicety  of  taste,  and  acutencss  of  di.sccrnment,  together 
with  a  command  of  pure  and  easy  phraseology  in  our  native 
tongue,  be  essential  to  a  goml  irauslation  of  the  Bible,  this  work 
will  not  stand  the  test.  The  author's  attainments  in  all  these 
respects  were  very  moderate.  The  version  is  '  studiously  made  as 
literal  a.s  possible.  Tlie  Knglish  idiom  is  continually  sacrificed  to 
the  tireck,  so  that  grammaiical  propriety  is  ofion  violated  ;  and 
the  desire  to  render  the  translation  very  faithful,  and  very  clear, 
has  often  made  it  olwcure  and  incorrect.  He  never  departs  from 
the  received  text  in  a  single  instance;  so  that,  for  him.  Mill  and 
VV'etsiom  and  Griesbach  have  all  laboured  in  vain.  The  prelimi- 
nary observations  contain  some  feeble  criticism  on  Dr.  Campbell's 
Dissertations.  The  notes  to  the  work  are  numerous,  and  sometimes 
Ion';  but  they  rarely  discover  much  ability.  The  piety  of  the 
Qulfior,  and  his  attachment  to  the  leading  doctrines  of  the  Gospel, 
nro  very  apparent;  and,  with  all  its  defects,  some  of  the  ren- 
derings are  good,  and  many  remarks  occur  which  arc  wortliy  of 
attention. '    (Orme's  Bibliolh.  Biblica,  p.  430.) 

41.  Reccnsio  Synoptica  Annotationis  Sacra;,  being  a  Critical 
Digest  and  Synoptical  Arrangement  of  the  most  important  An- 
notations on  the  New  Testament,  exegetical,  philological,  and 
doctrinal ;  carefully  collected  and  condensed  from  the  best  Com- 
mentators, both  Ancient  and  Modern,  and  so  digested  as  to  form 
one  consistent  l>ody  of  AnnoUtion,  in  which  each  portion  is  sys- 
tematically attributed  to  it.s  respective  author,  and  the  foreign 
matter  tran.slated  into  English.  The  whole  interspersed  with  a 
copious  body  of  original  Annotations.  By  the  Rev.  S.  T. 
Bloomfielu,  M.A.  [now  D.D.]  London,  1827,  8  very  large 
volumes,  8vo. 

Copious  as  is  the  title-page  of  this  elaborate  work,  it  barely  ex- 
presses the  natirre  of  its  various  conteuls.  Puriwsely  avoiding  to 
treat  on  thfjse  subjects  which  are  discussed  in  the  Commentaries 
of  Bp  Maiit  and  Dr.  D'Oyly,  of  Dr.  A.  Clarke  and  of  Mr.  Hewlett, 
the  annotations  of  Messrs.  lllsley  and  Slade,  the  treatises  of  Bps. 
Tomline  and  Marsh,  Michaelis's  Introduction,  and  also  in  this 
work,  Dr.  BloomfieM  has  derived  his  exegetical  and  doctrinal  an- 
notations from  the  Scholiasts  and  Glossographers,  as  well  as  from 
Theopl.ylact,  Theodoret,  Kuthymius,  and  other  ancient  fathers  of 
tlie  church,  especially  the  eloquent  and  erudite  Chrysostom ; 
while  Klsner,  Ilaphehus,  Kypke,  Wetstein,  Koppe,  Rosenmiiller, 
Titimann,  Kuinoel,  Whitby,  Macknight,  Doddridge,  and  numerous 
Other  critics  and  commentators,  both  British  and  foreign,  have 
largely  contributed  to  his  philological  illustrations.  Nor  has  he 
omitted  to  avail  himself  of  the  valuable  aids  for  the  elucidation  of 
the  Scriptures  which  are  contained  in  the  worlis  of  Cartwright, 
Buxtorf,  Lighlfo(Jt,  Pococke,  Surenhusius,Schoettgenius,  Meuschen, 
and  others.  Those  only  who  have  been  engaged  in  similar  studies 
can  appreciate  the  laljour  of  Dr  Bloomfield's  undertaking,  to 
which  he  has  devoted  many  years  of  patient  research,  amid  the 
conflitaing  opinions  of  critics  and  theologians.  There  is  scarcely 
a  single  diflicult  passage  which  is  not  elucidated ;  while  the 
cenuineness  of  some  important  texts,  which  had  been  impugned, 
1*  ably  vindicated  and  established.  Avoiding  minor  topics,  on 
which  real  Christians  may  agree  to  ditler  in  opinion,  Dr.  B.  has 
laudably  applied  his  learning  to  the  defence  of  these  cardinal 
doctrines  ot  the  New  ToHtamenl, — the  Deity  and  vicarious  Atone- 
ment of  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  Deity  ami  Personality  of  the  Holy 
Spirit.  To  those  who  have  not  the  means  of  procuring  the  costly 
and  voluminous  publications  of  foreign  commentators,  these 
volumes  will  be  most  acceptable;  while  such  as  may  fx)sses»  them 
will  here  find  a  convenient  manual  of  reference  for  their  o[»inioiis 
on  various  topic8.  The  value  of  Dr.  Bloomfield's  work  is  enliancrd 
by  the  numerous  glossarial  notes  which  he  has  introduced  on 
ditriciilt  words  of  rare  or  infrequent  occurrence.  The  first  jiart, 
which  nonsists  of  three  volumci,  is  appropriated  to  the  elucidation 
of  the  four  GJMnels ;  the  nccond,  which  is  in  five  volumes,  treats 
on  the  ActH  and  Epistles.  Altogether,  this  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
pijrtant  works  in  sacred  literature  which  has  been  offered  to  the 
attention  of  Bible  HtiulcntH  for  many  years. 

42.  The  New  Testament  of  Our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus 
Christ;  translated  out  of  the  original  Greek,  and  with  the 
former  Translations  diligently  compared  and  revised.  Arranged 
in  Paragraphs,  such  a.s  the  w-nso  reipiires;  the  divisions  of 
Chapters  and  Verses  being  noted  in  the  margin  ;  with  various 
tables,  &c.     By  James  Nouns  e.     New  York,  1827,  8vo. 

The  common  (or  authorized)  translation  remains  iiiiallerod  ;  the 
panigraphs  ore  generally  copied  from  those  in  Knapp's  critical 
edition  of  the  (ireek  Testament,  noticed  in  p.  If),  of  this  .Appendix  ; 
though  aomcliiue«  the  paragrapiis  of  Bcngol'i  ctlitionuro  preferred. 


A  critical  analysis  of  the  contents  is  placed  at  the  head  of  each 
page.  A  few  notes  are  given  on  tlie  punctuation  of  several 
passages,  together  with  a  short  Introduction,  on  the  origin  and 
proper  use  of  the  Divisions  into  Chapters  and  Verses  ;  an  outline 
of  a  Harmonv  of  the  Gospels,  arranged  from  Archbishop  New- 
come's  ;  a  Table  of  the  Order  and  Date  of  ihe  Books  of  the  New 
Testament,  and  an  Index  of  Quotations  from  the  Old  Testament. 

43.  The  New  Testament  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus 
Christ.  With  an  Introduction  and  Notes.  By  J.  A.  Cut.imings. 
Second  edition,  revised  and  improved.     Boston,  1S27,  12mo. 

44.  The  New  Testament :  with  a  Plain  Exposition  for  the 
use  of  Families.  By  the  Rev.  Thomas  Bors,  M.A.  London, 
1827,  4to. 

45.  Analccta  Theologica.  A  digested  and  arranged  Com- 
pendium of  the  most  approved  Commentaries  upon  the  New 
Testament.  By  the  Rev.  William  Tuollope,  M.A.  London, 
1829-34,  2  large  vols.  8vo. 

The  object  of  this  laborious  and  comprehensive  work  is,  to  com- 
press into  as  condensed  a  form  as  is  consistent  wit\\  perspicuity, 
the  opinions,  illustrations,  and  expositions  of  the  principal  theolo- 
gians and  biblical  critics.  The  several  arguments  are  digested  and 
arranged  in  such  a  mJiiuier  that  the  merits  of  any  question  may  be 
seen  at  one  view,  without  reference  to  the  authors  themselves; 
the  bulk  and  high  price  of  many  of  whose  works  place  them 
beyond  the  roach  of  junior  hiUical  students,  for  whose  use  Mr 
Trollopc's  publication  is  especially  designed.  Those  writers,  who 
have  taken  diflcrent  sides  in  certain  questions,  are  distinctly 
marked ;  and  the  student  is  directed  to  that  interpretation  of  the 
several  disputed  texts  which  seems  to  be  best  supported,  and  most 
generally  ajiproved.  It  is  a  primary  and  very  important  feature  of 
this  work,  that  it  gives  the  whole  of  the  arguments  on  any  con- 
tested topic  in  a  conspicuous  and  connected  form :  whereas  in 
some  of  those  collections  of  notes  which  are  much  in  use  amon.; 
junior  students,  the  heads  of  such  arguments  only  arc  given, 
leaving  the  inexperienced  reader  in  a  maze  of  conflicting  opinions 
and  unable  to  form  his  own  judgment  without  consulting  the 
writers  themselves ;  whose  works  in  many  cases  he  may  not  have 
the  opportunity  or  the  means  of  procuring. 

46.  The  Christian  Expositor,  or  Practical  Guide  to  the  Study 
of  the  New  Testament,  intended  for  the  Use  of  General  Readers. 
By  the  Rev,  George  HoLDEx,  M.A.  London,  1830,  12mo.  Price 
10s.  6  J. 

This  volume  also  forms  a  part  of  Mr.  Holdcn's  commentary  '>ii 
the  entire  Bible,  the  plan  of  which  is  stated  in  page  114.  No.  57 
supra.  "  In  the  prosecution  of  his  undertaking  the  author  has 
given  an  explanation  of  every  verse,  and  even  of  every  phrase  it 
the  New  Testament,  which  appeared  liable  to  be  misunderstood 
first,  by  a  critical  examination  of  Ihe  sacred  text  itself,  and  then 
by  consulting  the  most  eminent  commentators  and  biblical  critics, 
both  British  and  foreign.  Without  any  parade  of  sacred  philology, 
he  has  concisely  given  the  results  of  his  investigation ;  and  the 
reader,  who  has  recourse  to  his  pages  for  the  interpretation  of 
really  difTuult  passages,  will  rarely,  if  ever,  be  disapjwinted." 
(Christian  Remembrancer,  August,  1830,  p.  480.)  "As  a  practical 
expo.silor  of  the  Now  Testament,  convenient  for  ready,  and,  we 
may  add,  satisfactory  reference,  this  is  one  of  the  most  useful 
works  that  h.as  fir  some  time  appeared,  connected  with  biblical 
literature.  Mr.  Holden  gives  us,  instead  of  philology,  the  results 
of  philologj',  two  extremely  difTercnt  tilings;  and  such  words  and 
passages  only,  as  admit  of  ambiguity,  are  selected  for  explanation. 
The  task  is  accomplished  with  great  intelligence  and  learning." 
(Monthly  Review,  July,  1830,  pp.  4CH,  46'J.)  " 

47.  The  Devotional  Testament,  containing   Reflections  and 
Meditations  on  the  dilferent  Paragraphs  of  the  New  Testament 
of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ ;  intended  as  a  Help  fo 
the  Closet  and  for  domestic  Worship.     By  the   Rev.  Richard 
Marks.     London,  1830.  4to. 

48.  Explanatory  Notes  upon  the  New  Testament,  with  occa- 
sional Remarks,  critical  and  practical.  By  the  Rev.  G.  Bliss. 
London,  1832,  12mo. 

49.  A  New  and  Corrected  Version  of  the  New  Testament ;  or. 
a  Minute  Revision  atid  professed  Translation  of  the  original 
Histories,  Memoirs,  Letters,  Prophecies,  and  other  productions 
of  the  Evangelists  and  Apostles.  To  which  are  subjoined  a 
few  generally  brief,  critical,  explanatory,  and  practical  Notes. 
By  Rodolphus  Dickinsu.v.  Boston  [Massachusetts],  1833,  royal 
8vo. 

"  Mr.  Dickinson  ha«  rrformed  the  titles  of  the  sevcra]  books  of 
the  Now  Testament,  substituting  for  thoeo  gonenilly  receiveu  Burh 
as  the  following.  Uiitlori/ In/  MuKhitii ;  Luke's  llistori/  of  Aposl(dic 
and  Eii-li:iiasliral  'JVansarllons  ;  John's  (irntral  AdJrrss  to  ('hrif- 
litins  ;  John's  letter  to  an  eminent  ('hristian  Woman  ;  John's  littlers 
Visions,  and  I'rnphrrirs.  Whether  there  is  not  n  ridiculous  affec- 
tation \n  all  this,  let  our  readers  judge.  This  work  is  announced 
on  the  titlc-]uigo  as  a  pro/essrd  translation.  By  this  w^arc,  it  i< 
presumed,  to  understand,  that  it  is  not  an  actwif  translation,  hut  a 
concoction  of  mnterials  in  the  vernacular  tonpiie,  designed  to  pasj 
as  a  new  inmslation.    And  wo  arc  vcr)  willing  to  bolicvo  it  a  pro- 


I 


W 


Sect.  III.  §  6.]  COMMENTATORS  ON  DETACHED  BOOKS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


131 


fessed  translation  ;  for  a  pretty  thorough  examination  has  failed  to 
siiow  us  the  faintest  traces  of  a  critic's  hand.  Where  ill-chosen- 
and  ill-arranged  phraseology  has  not  made  the  work  utterly  unin- 
telligible, the  sense  is  generally  the  same  with  that  of  the  received 
version,  witli  here  and  there  a  modification  borrowed  from  Campbell 

or  Macknight Apart  from  its  literary  execution,  this  7>rq/esse<i 

translation  has  no  distinctive  character:  and,  as  the  author  (in  his 
preface)  places  his  chief  reliance  on  the  rhetorical  embellishments 
with  which  he  has  adorned  the  sacred  text,  we  are  constrained  to 
award  a  verdict  of  unqualified  condemnation. 

"Tlie  notes  which  form  tlie  Appendix  to  this  volume  are  prfnci- 
pally  selected  from  English  and  American  writers.     Tliey  are 

excerpted  indifferently  from  writers  of  widely  varying  creeds 

He  has  introduced  many  annotations  from  works  not  professedly 
critical.  He  has  elevated  some  men  to  the  rank  of  commentators 
on  Scripture,  wlio  surely  never  anticipated  that  honour.  He  gives 
us  on  the  Logos  a  note  from  Jefferson,  and  several  of  the  largest 
notes  are  credited  to  such  men  as  J.  Q.  Adams,  Chancellor  Kent, 
and  Wirt.  The  Free  Enquirer,  an  inf  del  paper  published  at  New 
York,  furnishes  several  short  remarks.  And  there  are  some 
original  notes,  tinged  with  the  translator's  usual  grandiloquence." 
(American  Monthly  Review  for  March,  1833,  vol.  iii  pp.  221,  222. 
223.) 

50.  The  Village  Testament,  iaccording  to  the  authorized  ver- 
sion, with  Notes,  Original  and  Selected :  likewise  Introductions 
and  concluding  Remarks  to  each  book,  Polyglott  References, 
and  Marginal  Readings,  Geographical  Index,  Chronological  and 
other  Tables  [and  two  Maps].  By  the  Rev.  William  Patton. 
New  York,  1833,  second  edition,  1834,  18mo. 

A  commodious  edition  of  the  New  Testament,  and  neatly  printed, 
with  a  minute  bul  very  distinct  type;  The  notes  have  been  com- 
piled with  much  industry  :  a  considerable  portion  of  them  is 
original. 

51.  The  Pocket  Commentary,  consisting  of  Critical  Notes  on 
the  New  Testament ;  original  and  selected  from  the  most  cele- 
brated Biblical  Critics  and  Commentators.  By  David  Davidson. 
Second  Edition.     Edinburgh,  1834,  18mo. 

52.  A  Pocket  Expositor  of  the  New  Testament.  By  Thomas 
Keiwohth.     London,  1834,  18mo. 


[ii.]    Commentators  on  detached  Books  of  the  JVew  Testament. 

COMMEITTATOnS  Olf  THE  HISTOHICAL  BOOKS. 

1.  Novi  Testament!  Libri  Historici,  Grseci  et  Latini,  perpetuo 
Commentario  illustrati,  a  Baldvino  Wal;eo.  Lugd.  Bat.  1653  ; 
ct  Amstel.  1662,  4to. 

This  may,  with  great  propriety,  be  termed  an  edition  of  the  four 
Gospels  and  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  cum  notis  variortnn.  The  notes 
of  Beza,  Grotius,  Drusins,  Heinsius,  and  others,  are  here  inserted  in 
regular  order,  the  reader  being  left  to  decide  for  himself,  which 
interpretation  he  will  prefer.  As  the  book  sells  at  an  easy  price, 
it  may  be  advantageously  substituted  for  the  larger  editions  of 
those  eminent  critics,  where  they  cannot  be  conveniently  referred 
to,  or  procured. 

2.  A  Paraphrase  on  the  Four  Evangelists.  By  Samuel 
Clarke,  D.D.     London,  2  vols.  8vo. 

To  form  a  complete  paraphrase  on  the  New  Testament,  there  are 
usually  associated  with  this  valuable  work  of  Dr.  Clarke,  a  "  Para- 
phrase on  the  Acts  and  Epistles,"  2  vols.  8vo.  and  a  "  Paraphrase 
on  the  Revelations,"  in  one  volume,  8vo.  by  T.  Pyle,  M.A.  Their 
deserved  popularity  has  caused  them  to  pass  through  repeated  edi- 
tions. "  Dr.  Clarke's  paraphrase  on  the  Evangelists  deserves  an 
attentive  reading  ;  he  narrates  a  story  in  handsome  language,  and 
connects  the  parts  well  together ;  but  fails  much  in  emphasis,  and 
seems  to  mistake  the  order  of  the  histories."  (Dr.  Doddridge.) 
Pylc's  Paraphrase  on  the  Epistles  Dr.  D.  considered  to  be  inferior 
in  ability  to  that  on  the  Old  Testament  already  noticed. 

3.  Samuelis  Friderici  Bccheri  Antiquitates  Biblicae  ex  Novo 
Testamento  selectae,  consuetudines,  ritus,  formulas  veterum  ex- 
aminantes.     Vitembergse  et  Lipsiae,  1729,  4to. 

A  collection  of  notes — some  of  which  are  sufficiently  prolix — on 
the  four  Gospels,  elucidating  them  principally  from  the  rabbinical 
writers. 

4.  Explanatory  Notes  upon  the  Four  Gospels  in  a  new  method, 
for  the  use  of  all,  but  especially  the  unlearned  English  reader ; 
in  two  parts ;  to  which  are  prefixed  three  Discourses.  By  Joseph 
Thapp,  D.D.     London,  1748.     Oxford,  1805,  8vo. 

The  design  of  this  very  useful  work  is  to  take  notice  only  of 
difficult  texts,  to  correct  the  authorized  version,  and  explain  the 
diction  of  the  sacred  writings,  but  chiefly  to  reconcile  apparently 
contradictory  pgj^sages.  The  three  discourses  prefixed  explain  with 
much  perspicuity  many  prophecies  of  the  Old  Testament  that  are 
'cited  in  the  New.  The  rmmerous  impressions  which  this  work  has 
undergone  sufficiently  attest  the  high  estimation  in  which  it  is 
deservedly  held. 

Vol.  H.  4  K 


5.  A  Commentary,  with  Notes,  on  the  Four  Evangelists  and 
the  Acts  of  the  Apostles ;  together  with  a  New  Translation  of 
Saint  Paul's  First  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  with  a  Paraphrase 
and  Notes,  to  which  are  added  other  Theological  Pieces.  By 
Zachary  Peauce,  D.D.,  late  Bishop  of  Rochester.  London,  1777, 
2  vols.  4to. 

"On  the  whole.  Dr.  Pearce  deserves  to  be  ranked  with  other 
writers  of  eminence  who  have  employed  their  philological  learning 
in  illustrating  the  sacred  writings."  (Monthly  Review,  O.  S.  vol- 
Ivi.  p.  20.5.)  "  To  Dr.  Z.  Pearce,  Bishop  of  Rochester,  we  are  in- 
debted for  an  invaluable  commentary  and  notes  on  the  four  Gos- 
pels," &c.  "  The  deep  learning  and  judgment  displayed  in  these 
notes  are  really  beyond  all  praise."     (Dr.  A.  Clarke.) 

6.  PericopaeEvangelica).  Illustravit Christ.  Theoph.  Kuinoei. 
Lipsise,  1796,  1797,  2  vols.  8vo. 

This  work  contains  critical  and  expository  annotations  on  the 
Gospels  for  every  Sunday  in  the  year,  according  to  the  ritual  of 
the  Lutheran  church,  in  which  these  portions  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment usually  form  the  subjects  of  the  preacher's  discourse.  The 
passages  selected  are  nearly  the  same  as  those  used  in  the  Liturgy 
of  the  Anglican  church.  The  notes  in  this  work  are  much  enlarged 
and  corrected  in  the  ensuing  article. 

7.  D.  Christiani  Theophili  KuinOel  Commentarius  in  Libros 
Novi  Testamenti  Historicos,  Vols.  I. — IIL  Lipsi.-e,  1808 — 1812; 
Vol.  IV.  Lipsise,  1818,  and  various  subsequent  editions,  all  in 
8vo.     Londini,  1828,  3  tomis,  8vo. 

This  is  one  of  the  best  philological  commentaries  on  the  histori- 
cal books  of  the  New  Testament.  "  As  a  philologist,  Kuinoei  has 
exhibited  a  great  deal  of  labour  and  care  in  the  investigation  of 

words  and  phrases In  general,  he  is  a  sober,  judicious  critic, 

as  to  idiom,  &c.  Oftentimes  he  makes  remarks  with  respect  to  the 
connection  and  scope  of  discourse  that  are  valuable  and  important. 
In  all  these  points  of  view  he  may  be  strongly  commended  to  the 
student,  who  still  should  not  be  ready  to  give  implicit  credit  to 
every  thing  which  is  said.  By  long  and  patient  labour  he  has 
attained  to  making  a  summary  of  much  important  knowledge  in 
his  work."  (Professor  Stuart,  m  the  Andover  Biblical  Repository 
for  January,  1833,  vol.  iii.  p.  133.)  But  there  are  some  points  on 
which  the  student  cannot  be  too  much  upon  his  guard.  Although 
now  and  then  Kuinijel  has  successfully  vindicated  some  important 
controverted  passage  from  a  neological  interpretation  ;  yet,  in  some 
cases,  where  there  is  apparently  something  of  a  miraculous  nature 
which  lies  on  the  surface  of  the  evangelical  narration,  he  makes  a 
shift,  but  with  no  great  dexterity,  to  steer  between  the  neologians 
and  the  orthodox,  in  order,  as  it  would  seem,  to  avoid  giving  of- 
fence to  either.  Professor  Stuart  (ibid.  pp.  155 — 159.)  has  given 
several  examples  of  these  trimming  interpretations,  which  we  have 
not  room  to  insert ;  and,  with  regard  to  the  trinilarian  controversy, 
he  has  shown  that  KuiniJel  is  what  has  been  termed  a  high  Arian. 
The  Greek  test  is  not  inserted  in  the  Leipzig  edition  of  this  com- 
mentary. Vol.  i.  contains  the  commentary  on  Saint  Matthew's  Gos- 
pel ;  vol.  ii.  those  on  the  Gospels  of  Saint  Mark  and  Saint  Luke ; 
vol.  iii.  that  on  Saint  John  ;  and  vol.  iv.  that  on  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles.  To  each  book  are  prefixed  well-compiled  prolegomena, 
in  which  the  author's  life,  the  authenticity  of  his  narrative,  the 
time,  place,  and  the  language  in  which  he  wrote,  as  w-ell  as  hi!< 
style  and  manner  of  writing,  are  fully  discussed.  The  London 
reprint,  from  the  press  of  Mr.  Richard  Watts,  is  preferable  to  the 
editions  printed  in  Germany,  not  only  for  the  beauty  of  the  typo- 
graphy, but  also  for  the  rea.sonableness  of  its  price.  The  various 
readings  of  Griesbach  are  subjoined  to  the  textus  receptus  of  the 
historical  books  of  the  New  Testament. 

8.  The  Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels.  By  J.  MACKiriGnT, 
D.D.  4to.  2  vols.  1756;  2d  edit.  1763;  3d  edit.  8vo.  2  vols 
Edinburgh,  1804. 

See  a  notice  of  this  excellent  work  in  p.  16.  No.  13.  of  this 
Appendix. 

9.  The  Four  Gospels  translated  from  the  Greek;  with  Preli- 
minary Dissertations  and  Notes.  By  George  Campbell,  D.D. 
F.R.S.  Edinburgh ;  Principal  of  Marischal  College,  Aberdeen. 
4to.  2  vols.  London,  1790;  2  vols.  8vo.  Edinburgh,  1807 :  3d 
edit.  London,  in  3  vols.  8vo. 

The  extensive  circulation  of  this  valuable  work,  vi-hich  has  placed 
the  author  high  in  the  rank  of  biblical  critics,  sufficiently  attest.s 
the  esteem  in  which  it  is  held.  Although  his  version  has  not  alto- 
gether answered  the  expectations  entertained  of  it,  yet  the  notes 
which  accompany  it  form  an  excellent  philological  commentary  on 
the  four  Evangelists ;  and  the  dissertations  are  a  treasure  of  sacred 
criticism.  The  narratives  of  the  sacred  writers  are  arranged  in 
sections,  regulated  by  the  subject  matter,  and  the  divisions  of  chap- 
ters and  verses  are  retained  in  the  margin.  Professor  Campbell's 
work  is  in  Bishop  Tomline's  list  of  books  for  students. 

10.  Annotations  on  the  Four  Gospels  and  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles.  Compiled  and  abridged  for  the  use  of  Students.  2d 
edit.  London,  1812,  3  vols.  8vo. 

Though  published  anonymously,  this  work  \i  known  to  be  the 
production  of  the  Rev.  Mr.  Elslev,  vicar  of  Burenston  near  Be 
dale  ;  by  whom  the  annotations  on  the  Gospels  only  were  first  pub 


132 


iSACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Paht  n.  Chap.  V 


lished  in  2  vols.  8vo.  1799.  "  Altogpther,  ^ve  say,  %\  ithout  tiie  small- 
est reserve,  we  never  saw  a  book  more  admirably  adaptcJ  for  tbe 
use  of  students,  more  creditable  lo  an  author's  sagacity,  diligence, 
and  erudition,  or  more  likely  lo  make  the  investigation  of  the  New 
Testament  easy  and  agreeable."  (British  Critic,  O.  S.  vol.  xvi.  ]). 
236.  See  also  Monthly  Review,  N.  S.  vol.  xxx.  p.  441.,  and  vol. 
Ixxvi.  p.  381.) 

11.  Quatuor  Novi  Tcstaincnti,  Evangclia  reccnsuit  ct  cum 
Commentariis  pcrpetuis  edidit  Car.  Frcder.  Augustus  Fkitscue. 
Toinus  I.  Evangelium  Matthaji  complectcns.  Lipsiaj,  1825,  Svo. 
Tom.  IL  Evangclia  Marci  et  Lucse.     LipsiiE,  1830,  8vo. 

The  grammatical  meaning  of  words  is  admirably  investigated  in 
this  work;  but  the  theological  interpretations  are  in  the  very  woret 
Btyle  of  the  neologian  school  of  Germany. 

12.  Annotations  on  the  Historical  Books  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. By  M.  Blaxii,  D.D.  Vols.  1.  and  K.  [comprising  the 
Gospels  of  St.  Matthew  and  St,  Mark.]  Cambridge  and  Lon- 
don, 1828-29,  8vo. 

These  annotations  are  designed  for  the  use  of  students  at  the 
university,  and  of  candidates  for  holy  orders :  and  by  them  these 
volumes  may  be  profitably  consulted.  Dr.  Bland  has  drawn  his 
materials  from  the  stores  of  our  best  old  li^nglish  divines,  and  has 
o<-casionally  illustrated  and  confirmed  his  interpretations  of  particu- 
lar pas.^ages  by  apposite  quotations  from  the  fathers  of  the  Christian 
church,  and  other  ecclesiastical  writers. 

12*.  An  Exposition  of  the  Go.spels  of  St.  Matthew  and  St. 
Mark,  and  of  some  other  detached  parts  of  Holy  Scripture.  By 
the  Rev.  Richard  Watsox.     London,  1833,  royal  Svo. 

The  sole  object  of  this  learned  and  original  work  is  the  elucida- 
tion of  the  Scriptures  ;  and  by  this  means  to  lay  the  foundation, 
rather  than  suggest  those  practical  and  pious  u.ses  to  which  they 
must  be  applied,  if  they  make  us  "  wise  unto  salvation."  The 
author  has  aimed  to  aflford  help  to  the  attentive  general  reader, 
whenever  he  should  come  to  a  term,  phrase,  or  a  whole  passage, 
the  meaning  of  which  is  not  obvious,  and  to  exhibit  the  true  theo- 
logy of  the  sacred  volume.  The  notes,  iherelbre,  are  brief  upon 
the  j)lainer  passages,  and  most  copious  where  explication  appeared 
necessary.  A'o  rtal  dijficully  has  been  evaded.  The  author  had 
contemplated  the  writing  of  expository  notes  on  the  entire  New 
Testament;  but  lived  onlv  to  complete  his  commenlar)'-  on  the 
Gospels  of  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Mark,  and  on  Luke  i. — xiii.  15.  and 
Rom.  i. — iii.  21.* 

SAINT    MATTHEW    AND    SAINT    MARK. 

13.  Caroli  Marije  de  Veil  Explicatio  Litteralis  Evangelii  se- 
cundum Mattha;um  ct  Marcum,  ex  ipsis  Scripturarum  fontibus, 
£bra;oruin  ritibus  et  idiomatis,  veterum  ct  reccntiorum  monu- 
mentLs,  eruta.     Londini,  1G78,  Svo. 

14.  Jacobi  Elsxeri  Commentarius  in  Evangclia  Mattha;i  ct 
Marci.     Zwollse,  1767,  et  annis  scquentibus.     3  vols.  4to. 

SAINT    MATTHEW. 

15.  A  New  Version  of  Saint  Matthew's  Gospel,  with  Select 
Notes ;  wherein  the  version  is  vindicated,  and  the  sense  and 
purity  of  several  words  and  expressions  in  the  Original  (ireek 
are  settled  and  illustrated.  By  Daniel  Scott,  J.U.D.  London, 
1741,  4to. 

IG.  Gottfridi  Olearii  Observationcs  ad  Evangelium  Matthaei. 
Lipsia;,  1743,  4to. 

Professor  J.  B.  Carpzov  mentions  this  as  an  excellent  comraenla- 
jy  on  St.  Matthew's  Gospel. 

17.  J.  C.  Ponr.s  Commentarius  in  Sanctum  Jesu  Christi 
Evangelium  secundum  Matlhxuni,  etiam  collatum  cum  evange- 
lic Marci,  Luca;,  et  Joannis,  in  iis  qua;  habcnt  communia,  nccnon 
in  sanctum  Jesu  Christi  Evangelium  secundum  Marcum,  Lucani. 
et  Joannem.     Mcchlinia;,  1823,  12mo. 

18.  Eccar'.i  Leiciivkhi  do  tempore  Magorum,  hoc  est,  quo 
Magi  ex  oricntc  recens  natum  Cliristum  Bctlilchemi  adorarint, 
Commentatio  Analytica.     Arnstcti.  1055,  12mo. 

19.  Commentatio  dc  Vi  et  Momcnto  Infanticidii  Herodiani 
in  Historia  Je.su  Christi.    Auclore  T.  L.  Danz.    Jena;,  1823, 4to. 

20.  H.  P.  T.  VRnHOEVEir  Disputatio  Thcologica  do  Prcca- 
tionc  Dominica.     Lngduni  Batuvorum,  1829,  4to. 

21.  ConunenU'ilio  de  Solenni  Jesii  Christi  in  Urbem  Hieroso- 
lymitaram  Introitu.  Auctoro  T.  P.  C.  Hi'TuxcoreR.  Trajecti 
ad  Rhenum,  1829,  Svo. 

22.  F.  G.  Nicolai  Surinoar  Commentatio  dc  Scnsu  Loci 
Matt.  xxi.  37—40.     Lugduni  Balavorum,  1822,  4to. 

23.  De  Consilio  ct  Causis  Proditionis  Judtc  Dissertatio.  Auc- 
torc  Joscpho  Ferenczy.     Trajecti  ad  Rhenum,  1829,  8vo. 

SAINT  mark. 

24.  Gcorgii  Fridcrici  Heupelii  Commentarius  in  Evangelium 
Marci.     Argentorati  (Slrasburg),  1716,  Svo. 


Carpzov  has  indicated  this  Commentary  as  being  an  excellent 
x)ne  ;  we  have  never  seen  it. 

SAINT  LUKE. 

25.  A  Critical  Essay  on  the  Gospel  of  St.  Luke,  by  Dr. 
Frederick  Schlkikrmacher.  With  an  Introduction  by  the 
Translator  [the  Rev.  Connop  Thirlwall,  M.A.],  containing  an 
account  of  the  Controversy  respecting  the  Origin  of  the  Threo 
first  Gospels  since  Bishop  Marsh's  Dissertation.  London,  1825, 
Svo. 

Dr.  Sclileiermachcr  is  justly  considered  as  one  of  the  most  distin- 
guished Greek  scholars  in  Germany;  of  tiiis  work  the  reader  will 
find  a  copious  account,  together  with  a  refutation  of  Dr.  S.'s  hypo- 
thesis respecting  the  Gospel  of  St.  Luke,  in  the  British  Critic  and 
Theological  Review  for  Octolier,  1827,  pp.  342 — 398.  The  transla- 
tor's Introduction  is  an  admirable  disquisition  for  the  variety  of 
important  informalion  wliich  it  condenses  into  a  small  compass. 

26.  Sam.  Frid.Nath.  Mori  Prailectioncs  in  Lucae  Evangelium, 
edidit  C.  A.  Donat.     Lipsia;,  1795,  Svo. 

27.  The  Gospel  of  St.  Luke,  with  English  Notes.  By  the 
Rev.  J.  R.  Major,  A.M.     London,  182G,  Svo. 

This  work  is  avowedly  designed  for  students,  who  may  not  have 
access  to  more  bulky  or  more  expensive  publications.  Mr.  Major 
lias  availed  himself  of  every  accessible  source  for  the  elucidation 
of  the  evangelist ;  and  has  succeeded  in  comprising  within  the 
compass  of  a  single  volume  that  information,  which  the  inexperi- 
enced student  could  not  otherwise  obtain  without  great  research 
and  expense.  Tlie  notes  have  been  compiled  principally  with  a 
view  to  the  divinity  examinations  in  the  university  of  Cambridge. 
The  volume  is  beautifully  printed. 

28.  Scholia  in  Luca;  Evangelium,  ad  supplcndos  roliquorum 
Intcrpretum  Commcntarios,  scripsit  Fridericus  Augustus  Borne- 
MANN.  Accesserunt  curae  secunda;  ad  Actorum  cap.  XIX.  sqq. 
et  de  Glossematis  Novi  Testament!  caute  dijudicandis  Dissertatio. 
Lipsis.  1830,  Svo. 

These  annotations  on  the  Gospel  of  St.  Luke  are  strictly  philolo- 
gical, and  illustrate  numerous  passages  which  preceding  commen- 
tators had  passed  by.  The  dissertation  on  the  Gospels,  which  some 
criiics  imagine  to  have  crept  into  the  text  of  the  New  Testament, 
is  parliculiirly  valuable. 

29.  Adrian!  Leonard!  Vander  Boon  Mesch  Intcrprctatio 
Hymni  Zacharise,  quam  Lucas  servavit,  Evang.  I.  67 — 79.  Lug'- 
duni  Balavorum,  1817,  4to. 

30.  Dissertatio    Theologica   inauguralis    de   Hymno  MariiP, 

quam publico  examini  submittit  Nicolaus  Henricus  Tatuin 

ZfBti.     Lugduni  Batavorum,  1829,  Svo. 

The  first  part  of  this  dissertation  contains  a  grammatical  inter- 
pretation of  the  Hymn  of  Mary  (Luke  i.  46 — 55);  and  the  second 
part  investigates  its  sources,  poetical  structure,  and  the  doctrine 
which  it  teaches,  viz.,  the  acknowledgment  and  celebration  of  the 
providence  of  God,  and  the  advent  of  the  Messiah  who  was  pro- 
mised to  the  patriarclis. 

31.  Dc  Procuratore,  Parabola  Jesu  Christi  ex  Re  Provincial! 
Romanoruin  illustrata,  Commentatio  Historico-Excgctica  ad  Luc. 
XVI.  1 — 9.    Auctore  C.  G.  L.  Grossmann.    Lipsiaj,  1824,  4to. 

32.  Chr.  God.  KuNCKHARnr,  super  Parabola  Jesu  Christi  de 
Homine  Divite  et  Lazaro  in  Evangelio  Luca;,  cap.XVI.  19 — 3J. 
consignati,  Commentatio.     Lipsia;,  1831,  4to. 

SAINT  JOUN. 

33.  Caroli  Wilhelmi  Sthonck  Specimen  Hermcncutico-Theo- 
logicum  de  Doctrina  ct  Diclionc  Johannis  Apostoli.  Trajecti  ad 
Rhenum,  1797. 

34.  Joannis  Clarirse,  Pro  Evangelii  Joannei  ATGENTEIA' 
Dissertatio  Critico-Thcologica.     Harderovici,  1806,  Svo. 

35.  Caroli  Gottlieb  BaErscHNEinER  Probabilia  de  Evangelii 
ct  Epistolaruin  Joannis  Apostoli  Indole  ct  Origlno.  Lipsiie^ 
1R20,  Svo. 

30.  Caroli  (luliclmiSpEiN,  Authcntia  Evangelii  Joannis  con- 
tra Bretschneidcri  Objectiones  dcfensa.  Additur  Specimen  Novi 
Lexici  Joannei.     Brandcnburgi,  1821,  Svo. 

This  publication  contains  a  satisfactory  vindication  of  the  genu* 
ineness  of  the  writings  of  Saint  John,  against  tho  ohjeclions  of  Dr. 
nretachnoider ;  who,  in  his  'Probabilia,'  had  asserted,  contrary  10 
all  evidence,  that  the  writings  which  liear  that  apostle's  name  were 
compiled  after  liin  decease  by  some  (Jentile  Christian  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  second  century,  who  passed  himself  for  the  apostle." 

>  In  the  Jrim  Literary  Gazette  for  January,  1827  (Supplt.  Nn.  1.),  it  is 
stated  tlial  Dr.  UrflsrIineltlBr,  in  tho  preface  lo  (he  'M  cdilion  of  liiH  Hand- 
liiii'li  ilrr  l><i){iimtilc  (Mnntml  of  Dojziiialic  Tlic<>Iu):y)i  <leclari-s,  tliut  In  liiit 
Ijibllral  rrltirisiiis  he  lia'',  without  any  ho-sitallon,  used  as((Oniiinc  source* 
the  wrilliigs  of  St.  .John  ;  beciiiiso  the  douhls  reHperlinu  the  Reiiuiiicness 
r,(  ilio>-e  writincR,  whlrli  he  sonie  lime  siiire  l.-iid  lieforf  tlio  piiblit?,  were 
regarded  by  him  merely  as  BUg{cstions  whicli  might  give  occasion  to  a 


Si:cT.  III.  §  6.]        COMMENTATORS  ON  DETACHED  BOOKS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


The  six  following  publications  were  also  occasioned  by  Dr.  Bret- 
schneider's  Probabilia. 

37.  H.  A.  SciioTT  Programma,  quo  cxaminantur  dubitationes 
«jusedam  do  authentia  Evangolii  Joannis  nuperrime  ex  prioribus 
(juatuor  capitibus  a  Bretschneidero  excitaUe.     Jenee,  1820,  4to. 

38.  Th.  Ph.  Ch.  Kaiseu  Commentaliones  HI.  de  apologeticis 
Evangelii  Joannei  consiliis  aulhentiam  ejus  commonstrantibus. 
Erlanga3,  1821-24-25,  4to. 

39.  A.  F.  G.  M.  Glaseh  Dissertatio  Exegetico-Historica  de 
Johanne  apostolo,  Evangelii,  quod  ejus  nomen  pvse  se  fert,  vero 
auctore,  respcctu  recentiorum  quarundam  dubitationumi  atque 
criminationum.     Helmstadii,  1 823,  4to. 

40.  A.  Th.  Calmbkhb,  De  antiquissimis  Patrum  pro  Evan- 
gelii Joannei  At/6s»Ts/a  Testimoniis.  LipsijB  et  Hamburgi,  1823, 
*b]io. 

41.  Michaelis  Webkki  Authentia  Capitis  Ultimi  Evangelii 
Johannis,  hujusque  Evangelii  totius,  et  Primse  Johannis  Epistote, 
Argumentorum  Intemorura  Usu  vindicata.     Halis,  1823,  8vo. 

42.  Leonardi  Ustebii  Commentatio  Critica,  in  qua  Johannis 
Evangelium  genuinam  esse,  ex  comparatis  IV.  Evangeliorum  de 
coena  ultima  et  de  passione  Jesu  Christi  narrationibus,  ostenditur. 
Turici,  1823,  8vo. 

43.  De  Authentia  Capitis  XX^I.  Evangelii  Joannei,  e  sola 
orationis  indole  judicanda.  Scripsit  J.  C.  L.  Handscke.  Lip- 
sis,  1818,  Svo. 

44.  An  Exposition  of  the  Gospel  of  Jesus  Christ  according 
to  John.  By  George  Hdtciii;sox,  Minister  of  the  Gospel  at 
Kdinburgh.     London,  1657,  folio. 

A  book  not  of  common  occurrence  :  it  contains  many  valuable 
observations. 

45.  Commentarius  Analytico-Exegeticus,  tam  literalis  quani 
realis,  Evangelii  secundum  Johannem.  Authore  Fred.  Adol. 
Lampe.     Amstelsedami,  1724 — 1726,  3  vols.  4to. 

This  is  unquestionably  the  mosl  valuable  work  on  Saint  John's 
Gospel  that  was  ever  published  ;  every  thing  which  the  learned 
author  could  possibly  collect,  in  order  to  illustrate  Ihe  evangelist, 
being  here  concentrated.  It  is,  however,  a  work  better  adapted  to 
the  viatiire  scholar  than  to  the  student  in  divinity,  who  may  not 
•ilways  be  able  to  select  with  judgment  from  these  ample  tomes. 
Lampe  also  composed  two  quarto  volumes  of  Dissertationes  Philo- 
Iogico-Theologica3,  on  Saint  John's  Gospel,  which  were  published 
in  1737,  by  Dr.  Gerdcs.    They  are  replete  with  solid  erudition. 

45*.  Paraphrasis  Evangelii  Johannis,  cum  Notis  et  Canta- 
brigiensis  Codicis  Latino  Textu,  a  Joanne  Salomone  Semleiio. 
Halffi,  1771,  8vo. 

Semler  was  one  of  the  most  celebrated  biblical  critics  of  Ger- 
many, during  the  last  century:  his  writings,  which  illustrate  with 
great  ability  many  philological  difficulties.'bear  a  high  price;  but 
he  espoused  such  rational  dogmas,  in  certain  points  of  doctrine, 
which  are  of  fundamental  importance,  that  the  student  cannot  be 
loo  much  on  his  guard  against  them. 

46.  Sam.  Frid.  Nathan.  Mom  Recitationes  in  Evangelium 
Joannis  ;  animadversiones  subjecit  Tho.  Imm.  Dindorf.  Pragse, 
1795,  Svo.     Lipsiffi,  1808,  Svo. 

47.  Notes,  Critical  and  Dissertatory,  on  the  Gospel  and 
Epistles  of  Saint  Joiin.  By  the  Rev.  R.  Shepherd,  D.D.  F.R.S. 
London,  1796,  4to. 

Though  bearing  the  date  of  1796,  this  volume  was  not  published 
until  the  year  1801.  See  an  analysis  of  it  in  the  Monthly  Review, 
N.  S.  vol.  xxxviii.  pp.  145 — 150. 

48.  Caroli  Tittmanni  Meletcmata  Sacra,  sive  Commentarius 
Excgetico-Critico-Dogmaticus  in  Evangelium  Joannis.  Lipsiee, 
1816,  Svo. 

The  author  of  this  work  was  superintendent  of  the  Diocese  of 
Dresden.  Without  vouching  for  every  opinion  Dr.  Tittmann  has 
offered,  we  have  no  hesitation  in  saying  that  his  work  is,  upon  the 
whole,  the  most  valuable  commentary  on  Shint  John's  Gospel 
extant  in  the  compass  of  a  single  8vo.  volume ;  and  though  it  does 
not  render  Lampe's  expensive  work  unnecessary,  it  may  be 
advantageously  substituted  for  this,  where  the  student  cannot 
obtain  access  to  it. 

49.  Symbols)  ad  Interpretationem  Evangelii  Johannis  ex  Mar- 
moribus  et  Numis,  maxime  Grsecis.  Auctore  Fr.  Muntem. 
Hauniae,  1826,  4to. 

50.  Disputatio  Theologica  inauguralis  de  Pretio,  statuendo 
Precationi  Jesu,  quae  continetur  Cap.  XVII.  Evangelio  Johannis, 

miyrc  minute  and  fundamental  invosligation  of  the  proofs  of  snoh  genuine- 
ness, which  proofs  at  that  time  hati  appeared  to  hiin  to  be  still  incomplete ; 
and  also  because  he  trusted  that  this  inquiry  would  be  fully  accomplished 
by  the  publications  respecting  it  that  have  already  appeared,  as  well  as  by 
those  which  were  annoimced  as  preparing  for  publication. 


133 

Jacobus 


quam  publico    examini    submittit    Nicolaus 

Aari,a>-d.     Lugduni  Batavorum,  1829,  Svo. 

An  academical  dissertation  for  a  doctor's  degree  in  Theology, 
in  the  university  of  Leyden.  After  treating  on  the  author  of  Ihe 
sublime  prayer,  contained  in  the  seventeenth  Chapter  of  St.  John's 
Gospel,  Dr.  Aarland  proceeds  to  give  an  exposition  of  it,  and  con- 
cludes with  a  practical  view  of  the  example  which  it  affords  to 
Christians,  with  regard  to  the  things  for  which  they  ought  to  pray, 
as  well  as  the  words  and  temper  with  which  they  ought  to  offer 
their  supplications. 

THE  ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES. 

51.  Dissertatio  de  Lucse  u^ioma-riit.  in  conscribendo  Actuum 
Apostolorum  Libro.  Scripsit  Adrianus  Cornelius  de  Meijieh. 
HagoB  Comitum,  1827,  Svo. 

52.  An  Attempt  to  ascertain  the  Chronology  of  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles  and  of  St.  Paul's  Epistles.  By  the  Rev.  Edward 
Burton,  D.D.     London,  1830,  Svo. 

53.  The  Apostolical  History  of  Mr.  Cradock,  Dr.  Benson's 
History  of  the  first  planting  of  Christianity,  and  Mr.  Bevan's 
Life  of  Paul,  all  of  which  have  been  mentioned  in  p.  C2* 
of  this  Appendix,  deserve  to  be  noticed  in  this  place,  among 
those  writers  who  have  materially  illustrated  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles. 

54.  Casparis  Stresonis  Commentarius  Practicus  in  Acto- 
rum  Apostolorum,  per  Lucam  Evangelistam  descriptorum,  capita 
priora  sedecim.  Amstelodami,  1658,  4to.  Ejusdem,  Commen- 
tarius in  capita  duodecim  posteriora.  Amstelodami,  1659,  4to. 
Hafniffi,  1717,  4to. 

This  work  originated  in  the  author's  sermons  (in  Dutch)  on  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles:  they  were  afterwards  translated  into  Latin, 
and  so  arranged  as  to  Ibrm  a  commentary  on  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles.  Streso's  work  is  commended  by  Walclvius  for  its  learn- 
ing and  piety. 

55.  Caroli  Mariae  de  Veil  Acta  Sanctorum  Apostolorum  ad 
littcram  explicata.     Londini,  1684,  Svo. 

This  is  one  of  the  scarcest  of  Dr.  de  Veil's  expository  publi- 
cations :  it  was  translated  into  English,  and  entitled  A  Literal  Ex- 
planntion  of  the  Acts  of  the  Holy  Apostles.  Wrifleii  in  Latine,  by 
C.  M.  du  Veil,  D.D.,  nom  traiislated  into  English  out  of  a  copy 
carefully  reviewed  and  corrected  by  the  Author.  To  which  is  added 
a  learned  Dissertaiiou  about  Baptism  for  the  Dead.  1  Cor.  xv.  29. 
Written  in  Latine,  by  the  famous  Fredericus  Spanhemius,  Filius, 
London,  1685,  Svo. 

56.  Joannis  Pearsoxii  S.T.P.  Cestriensis  nuper  Episcopi 
Lectiones  in  Acta  Apostolorum.     Londini,  1688,  4to. 

These  lectures  are  prefixed  to  Bishop  Pearson's  Opera  Chrono- 
logica  edited  by  Mr.  Dodwell,  Londini,  1688,  4to.  They  extend 
from  the  first  to  the  ninth  chapter  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles; 
and  (as  may  be  expected)  contain  many  valuable  critical  and 
chronological  observations  for  the  elucidation  of  St.  Luke's  nar- 
rative. 

57.  The  History  of  the  Acts  of  the  Holy  Apostles  confirmed 
from  other  authors,  and  considered  as  full  evidence  of  the  Truth 
of  Christianity.  By  Richard  Biscoe,  D.D.  London,  1742,  2 
vols.  Svo.     Oxford,  1S29,  in  one  volume,  Svo. 

This  learned  and  elaborate  work  contains  the  pubstance  of  Dr. 
Biscoe's  sermons  preached  at  Mr.  Boyle's  lecture  between  the 
years  1736  and  1738.  Dr.  Doddridge  frequently  n^fers  to  it  as  a 
work  of  great  utility,  and  as  showing,  in  tlie  most  convincing 
manner,  how  incontestably  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  demonstrate 
the  truth  of  Christianity.  The  Oxford  reprint  is  beautifully  exe. 
cuted. 

58.  Acta  Apostolorum  Grsece,  perpctua  annotationc  illlustrat* 
a  Car.  Hen.  Heixricus.     Gottingse,  1809,  2  parts  or  vols.  8vo. 

This  forms  a  part  of  Kopjie's  edition  of  the  New  Testament, 
with  notes,  mentioned  in  pp.  127, 123.  of  this  Appendix.  Some  of 
the  expo.sitions  in  this  work  are  characterized  by  that  lax  system 
of  interpretation  which  is  adopted  by  some  modern  expositors  and 
critics  in  Germany,  and  against  which  the  student  cannot  be  too 
much  upon  his  guard. 

59.  Actions  of  the  Apostles,  translated  from  the  original 
Greek,  by  the  Rev.  John  Wiitis,  B.D.     London,  1789,  Svo. 

This  work  "  is  divided  info  several  sections,  to  which  are  added 
notes,  styled  Proofs  and  Illustrations.  Some  of  the  author's  altera- 
tions, we  think,  are  real  improvements;  others,  the  contrary; 
some  are  very  fanciful ;  and  there  are  others  for  which  we  cannot 
at  all  account."    (Monthly  Review,  N.  S.  vol.  iii.  p.  154.) 

60.  Sam.  Frid.  Nathan.  Mori  Versio  et  Explicatio  Actuum 
Apostolicorum.  Edidit,  animadversiones  recentiorum  suasque 
adjecit,  Gottlob  Immanuel  Dindorf.     Lipsia;,  1794,  2  vols.  Svo. 

61.  nPAHElS  T-ON  AnoSTOAnN.  Acta  Apostolorum.  Va- 
riorum Notis  turn  Dictionem  tum  Mat.eriam  illustrantibus  suas 
adjecit  Hastings  RoBisso2f,  M.A.     Cantabrigis,  1824,  Svo. 


134 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  H.  Chap.  V 


This  hcautifally  executed  edition  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles 
contains  the  text  of  Griesbach,  from  which  the  editor  has  very 
rarely  deviated;  and  beneath  it  are  placed  critical  and  philological 
Scholia.  "This  edition  is  well  calculated  to  illii:<tratc  the  peculiar 
expressions  and  grammatical  construction  of  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,  and  the  author"  [editor]  "  has  judiciously  added  to  his 
own  remarks  those  of  the  best  critics  and  theologians.  Within  a 
hinall  compa.ss  much  is  ctmtained .. ..  We  .should  imagine  it  well 
adapted  to  the  purpose.s  of  college-lectures  and  of  |>ublic  schools, 
as  intended  by  the  writer; — and  it  is  a  Iwok  which  the  more 
advanced  critic  may  add  with  advantage  to  his"  library."  (Universal 
Review,  vol.  ii.  p.  173.) 

62.  D.  Paulus  Apostolu.s  in  Mari,  quod  nunc  Venetus  Sinus 
dicitur,  Naufragus,  ct  Molita;  Dalmaten.sis  Insula;  post  naufra- 
giuin  Hospcs;  sive  de  Gcnuino  Signilicntu  duorum  Locorum  in 
Actibiis  Aposlolicis,  cap.  XXVII.  27.  cap.  XXVIIL  1.  In- 
specliones  Anticriticae.  Auctore  Ignatio  Geobgio.  Venetiis, 
1730,  4to. 

The  author  of  this  learned  treatise  sup|virts  the  notion,  which 
was  afterwards  maintained  by  Mr.  Brv'ant,  that  the  island  on  which 
St.  Paul  was  wrecked  was  not  Mulia,  but  Melita  in  the  Adriatic 
Sea,  on  the  coast  of  Dalmatia. 

63.  M.  C.  G.  KucHLER  de  anno,  quo  Paulus  Apostolus  ad 
Sacra  Christiana  conversus  est,  Commentatio.   Lipsia;,  1828,  8vo. 

64.  Arnoldi  Gulielmi  Hasklaati  Pissertatio  Exegetica  de 
nonnullis  Actuuin  Apostolorum  ct  Epistolarum  Paulinarum  ad 
Liatoriam  Pauli  pcrtineiitibus  locis.  Lugduui  Batavorum,  1800, 
8vo. 

6.5.  Specimen    Acadeniicum    Inauguraic   de    Orationc   Pauli 

Apostoli   Athenis    habita,   quod pid)lico    exaniini   submittit 

Janus  Adolphus  Asspach.     Lugduni  Batavorum,  1829,  4to. 

*,*  Many  valuable  philological  and  historical  illustrations  of  the 
Acts  of  the  Aposih's  are  likewise  to  be  found  in  Johannis  Erncsli 
Ininianuelis  Walchii  Dissertaiioncs  in  Acta  Apostolorum.  Jena, 
1756-59,  3  vols.  4to. 


COMMOTATORS    OX 


THE    WHOLE    OR 
EPISTLES.' 


GREATEH    PART    OF    THE 


66.  Joachimi  Laxcii  Commentatio  Hi.-;torico-Hcrmcncutica 
de  Vita  ct  Epistolis  apostoli  Pauli,  ita  aJornatii,  ut  i.sagogcn 
generalcm  et  specialem  historico-excgcticam  prjebeat  in  Acta 
Apostolorum  et  Pauli  Epistolas,  nccnon  in  ipsam  Hermeneuti- 
cain  Sacrani.     Hala;,  1718,  4to. 

A  most  valuable  work,  which  is  not  of  common  occurrence ; 
Ixjlh  Walchius  and  Michaelis  concur  in  stating  that  it  throws  great 
nirht  on  St.  Paul's  Epistles,  of  which  it  presents  very  copious  analy- 
»es.  The  Appendix  contains  similar  analyses  of  the  epistles  of 
Peter,  James,  and  Jude;  and  also  numerous  aphorisms  on  the  In- 
terpretation of  Scripture,  and  particularly  of  the  phraseology  of 
St.  Paul's  Epistles.  The  latter  were  corrected,  enlarged,  and  re- 
printed at  Halle,  in  1733,  in  a  separate  volume,  the  title  of  which 
is  given  at  length  in  p.  9'^.    No.  24.  supra. 

67.  Jo.  Francisci  BunnEi  Ecclcsia  Apostolica,  sive  de  Statu 
Ecclcsia;  Christiana;  sub  Apostolis  Commentatio  llistorico-Dog- 
maticj;  qua;  ct  iiitroductionis  loco  in  Epistolas  Pauli  catero- 
rumque  apostolorum  esse  queat.     8vo.  Jense,  1729. 

Buddeus  has  hnrdy  treated  on  the  state  of  the  Christian  Church 
during  the  a]xnt(>\ic  aije.  with  great  judgment,  and  has  referred  to 
a  great  variety  of  useful  writers. 

68.  Gulielmi  Estii  in  omnes  Pauli  ct  aliorum  Apostolorum 
Epistolas  (■oinincntarius.     Pari.s,  1679,  folio. 

The  best  edition  of  a  most  valuable  work,  which  Romanists  and 
ProtctitaiiLs  alike  concur  to  recommend  as  an  excellent  critical  hclji 
to  the  ex(><jHition  of  the  apostolic  Epistles.  The  Prefaces  of  Estius 
arc  particularly  valuable.  .\  very  useful  abridgment  of  this  work, 
a«  well  as  of  the  Commentary  of  Cornelius  a  I,apide,  so  far  as  con- 
cerns Si.  Paul's  Epistles,  was  published  by  John  \'an  Gorciim,  at 
Antwerp),  in  1620,  8vo.  The  best  «dition  is  that  of  I/iuvain,  enti- 
tled—  J-.pilomr  tommrnlariorum  Ciulitlmi  KkIH  S.  'i'h.  Duiinris,  et 
Corn.  d.  L/ipidr.,  e.  Six-.  Ji.ih  'J'hioloi;!,  in  ottmrs  J).  I'liuli  Kpislolns, 
per  Johnnmm  i  Cor<t.m,  I'risl>i/li  rum,  colkvln.  E'illln  uwi,  D. 
I'auli  leTlu  el  G.  Eslii  fra-fectioniljut  aucla.     lAivtuxii,  1751,  8vo. 


'  Tliouuli  not  a  eotnmenlnnj,  In  Itio  mrict  HrnHc  of  tlip  term,  tlip  au- 
thor caniiul  pass  In  silence  UisilOP  Ut'ROBns's  In'lia  t'liutinn,  sirr  Intro- 
dvctid  ltd  Lrrliitnevi  Pauli  Epistolarum.   lA<ii(llni,  ISOl,  liiiiio.     This  lilllc 
Pauli  Kpiftolniii  ml  PliilipiicimcH  (Jrn'cn  ct  Anjtlirc, 


voluinr  coiiiainH,  I. 


cum   lirevihiis   notis  Kutlnp'ri  :   2.  Tlirn|iliyliirii   I'rixuinia   KiiiNtolarum ; 
3.  KjuH'li-ra  Inlerprclationr-in   Kpistnltr  ml  riiilippi-niirii ;  1    UoKuniaOllori 
Hi'tiiiliu  ail  i-aiKloiii.     Utiilius  prii  iiml  KultiiiTi  O.n-.oivnl.i  dn  Mi(iiii:iIiI>un 
fJovi  Tf/ttani'-nli.     Tlionnli  not  sinclfied  in  tin-  till<'|mgc,  llipn-  me  ail'lrd 
two  valiialiic  cxlractn  (roiii  Henry  Hlei>tif>ng"»  nnil  ourli'arnci!  ruuiilryiiinii 
Catalc?r'»ni»«r.rl«lltin«s  ilo  ?i|vln  Novi  Tcnlaun.-nli :  "tliun  roll.Hlinu  "'"•le 
oftb'"!"'  ■       ■  Hivir  of  ft   PniirH  Kpijilrs  irmt  can 

I"-*  i'!T.  1  „t.'     (IlriliHli  (Vilir,  O,  n.  %„i.  xxv. 

p  113.)    .  ,  .....  ..iv.f,  „.,,,. .    ui  j      -.■  i.i'jul  wf  iirii.t,  and  cxlrcuicly  »carcc 

tad  (leir. 


69.  Explication  des  Epitrcs  de  Saint  Paul.  Par  Bemardin 
de  PicaviGNT.  Paris,  1706,  3  tomes,  12ino.  1714,  4  tomes, 
8vo.     Troyes,  1826,  4  tomes,  12mo. 

This  is  an  abridgment  of  a  larger  work,  by  the  same  author, 
intituled  Epistolarum  Pauli  Apostoli  Triplex  Fjtpositio.  Parisiis, 
1703,  folio.  The  exposition  consists  of  three  parts,  viz.  1.  An  analy- 
sis, exhibiting  the  order  and  connection  of  ilie  text;  2.  A  paraphrase 
expressing  in  few  words  the  sentiment  of  the  apostle  ;  and,  3.  A 
commentary,  with  notes  on  obscure  or  diflicult  i)assages.  (Walchii 
Biblioiheca  Theologicn,  vol.  iv.  p.  678.)  To  each  epistle  is  prelixed 
a  prefatory  account  of  its  occasion,  scope,  and  argument;  and  each 
chapter  concludes  with  devotional  ami  practical  inferences.  The 
rejirini  at  Troyes,  in  1826,  is  very  neatly  executed. 

70.  A  New  Literal  Translation,  from  the  Original  Greek,  of 
all  the  Apostolical  Epistles ;  with  a  Commentary  and  Notes, 
philological,  critical,  explanatory,  and  yiractical.  To  which  is 
added,  a  History  of  the  Life  of  the  Apostle  Paul.  By  James 
Macksicht,  D.D.  Edinburgh,  1795,  4to.  4  vols.  London, 
1806,  8vo.  -witli  the  Greek  Text,  6  vols.  2d  edition,  with  the 
Life  of  the  Author.  Jlitliout  the  Greek  Text,  in  3  vols.  4to.  and 
4  vols.  8vo. 

This  work,  together  w'ith  the  harmony  noticed  in  p.  60.  of  this 
Appendix,  is  in  Bishop 'J'omline's  list  of  books  for  clergymen.  A 
specimen  of  it,  containing  the  Epistles  to  the  Thessalonians,  was 
published  in  4!o.  in  1787 ;  and  the  work  itself,  we  arc  informed  in 
Dr.  M."s  Life  (vol.  i.  8vo.  p.  xv.),  was  the  unremitting  labour  of 
nearly  thirty  years,  during  which  period  seldom  less  uian  eleven 
hours  a  day  were  employed  on  it.  "  We  apprehend  that  few  per- 
sons who  shall  peruse  this  work  with  competent  judgment  and  due 
respect  for  tlie  sacred  writings,  will  hesitate  to  acknowledge  that 
Dr.  M.  is  also  entitled  to  approbation  and  applause,  as  a  laithful 
translator,  a  learned  and  able  commentator,  and  a  pious  divine." 
(Monthly  Review,  N.  S.  vol.  xviii.  p.  411.)  "  It  is  a  work  of  theo- 
logical labour  not  often  paralleled,  and  an  amule  storehouse  of 
observations  to  exercise  not  only  the  student,  but  the  adept  of 
divinity.  If  we  do  not  ahvays  implicitly  coincide  with  the  author 
in  opinion  (which,  in  such  various  matter,  cannot  reasonably  be 
expected),  we  can  always  praise  his  diligence,  his  learning,  and  his 
piel)-;  qualities  which  confer  no  trifling  rank  on  any  scriptural 
interpreter  or  commentator."  (British  Critic,  O.  S.  vol.  vii.  Preface 
p.  ii.) 

71.  A  Paraphrase  and  Annotations  upon  all  St.  Paul's  Epis- 
tles. Done  by  several  eminent  men  at  Oxford.  Corrected  and 
improved  by  the  late  Right  Rev.  and  learned  Dr.  Fell,  Bishop 
of  Oxford.     London,  1703,  3d  edition,  8vo. 

"  Fell  on  the  Epistles  is  very  short ;  but  most  of  his  notes  are 
worthy  of  remark.  The  collection  of  parallel  Scriptures  is  judi- 
cious, and  the  translation  in  some  places  altered  for  the  better." 
(Dr.  Doddridge.) 

72.  A  Paraphrase  and  Notes  on  the  Epistles  of  Saint  Paul  to 
the  Galatians,  1  and  2  Corinthians,  Romans,  Ephesians.  To 
which  is  prefixed.  An  Essay  fot^he  understanding  of  Saint 
Paul's  Epistles,  by  consulting  St.  Paul  hiin.sclf.  By  John  Locke. 
London,  1783,  4to.  (Works,  vol.  iii.)  :  also  various  editions  in 
4to.  and  8vo. 

73.  A  Paraphrase  and  Notes  on  the  Epistles  of  Saint  Paul  to 
the  Colo.ssians,  Philipj'ians,  and  Hebrews,  after  the  manner  of 
Mr.  Locke.  To  which  are  annexed,  several  Critical  Dis.serta- 
tions  on  Particular  Parts  of  Scripture,  <Stc.  &c.  By  tiie  late 
reverend  and  learned  Mr.  Janicij  Pierce,  of  Exon.  London, 
1 773,  second  edition,  4to. 

74.  A  Paraj)hrase  and  Notes  on  tlie  Epistles  of  Saint  Paul  to 
the  Thessalonians,  Timothy,  Philemon,  and  Titus;  and  the 
Seven  Catholic  Epistles  by  James,  Peter,  Jude,  and  John,  &c. 
&c.  By  George  Benson,  D.D.  London,  1752,  1756,  best  edi- 
tions, 2  vols.  4to. 

"  Locke,  Pierce,  and  Benson  make  up  a  complete  commentarj- 
on  the  Epistles;  and  are  indeed  all  in  the  number  of  the  most 
ingenious  ciunmentators  I  have  ever  read.  They  plainly  thought 
very  closely,  and  attended  much  to  connection,  wliich  they  have 
often  set  in  a  most  clear  view.  But  they  all  err  in  too  great  a 
(iindness  for  new  interpretations,  and  in  sup|iosing  the  design  of 
the  a|)ostleK  less  general  than  it  seems  to  have  been.  It  must  be 
allowed  that  Benson  illustrales  the  spirit  of  Paul  sometimes  in  nn 
admirable  manner,  even  beyond  any  liirincr  writer.  Soo  especially 
his  Epistle  to  Philemon."     (Dr.  Doddridge.) 

75.  A  Practical  Paraphrase  on  the  Epistles  of  Saint  Paul  to 
the  Romatis,  (lalatians,  and  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  after  the 
manner  of  Dr.  ('larke's  Paraphrase  on  the  Four  Evangelists. 
London,  1744,  8vo. 

70.  The  Epistles  of  Paul  the  Apostle  tran.slated,  with  an  Ex- 
position and  Notes.     By  the  Rev.  Thomas  Belsua.m.     London, 
I  1822,  2  vols.  4to.  al«o  in  4  vols.  8vo. 


Sect  III.  §.  6.]  COMMENTATORS  ON  DETACHED  BOOKS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 

Mr.  Belsliam  is  one  of  the  reputed  editors  of  the  "  Improved 
Version"  of  the  New  Tcslameut,  noticed  in  p  129.  supra.  This 
exposition  of  St.  Paul's  Epistles  (which  is  noticed  here  only  that 
the  author  may  not  be  charged  with  designedly  omitting  it)  is  exe- 
cuted on  the  same  principles.  Able  critiques  on  it  may  be  seen  in 
the  Eclectic  Review  for  May  and  June,  1823,  in  the  fourtli  volume 
of  the  New  Edinburgh  Review,  in  the  thirteenth  volume  of  the 
Quarterly  Review  (in  reply  to  which  Mr.  Belsham  published  "  A 
Vindication,"  in  1825),  and,  lastly,  in  the  twenty-second  volume  of 
the  British  Review.  Some  very  acute  and  learned  observations, 
exposing  Mr.  Bclsham's  erroneous  interpretations,  will  be  found  in 
the  Christian  Remembrancer  for  the  year  1827. 

77.  Gottlob  Christiani  Stohu,  Interpretatio  Epistolarum 
Pauli  ad  Philippenses,  ad  Colossenses,  et  ad  Philemonem,  ac 
etiam  in  Epistolam  Jacobi.    8vo. 

These  valuable  philological  commentaries  on  the  above-mentioned 
Epistles  are  inserted  in  the  first  and  second  volumes  of  Dr.  Storr's 
Opuscula  Academica  ad  Inlerpretalionejn  Lihrorum  Sacrorum  perti- 
nentia,  Svo.  Tubingen,  1796,  1797.  Vol.  ii.  of  the  same  collection  also 
contains  some  valuable  historical  notices,  which  materially  contri- 
bute to  elucidate  Saint  Paul's  Epistles  to  the  Corinthians.  We  are 
further  indebted  to  the  same  learned  author  for  a  similar  philologi- 
cal commentan^  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  in  vol.  ii.  of  Vel- 
thusen's  and  Kuiniiel's  collection  of  Commcntationes  TheologiceB. 

78.  Versio  Latina  Epistolarum  Novi  Testamenti,  perpetua 
Annotatione  illustrata  a  Godofr.  Sigism.  Iaspis.  Lipsiaa,  vol.  i. 
1793  ;  vol.  ii.  1797,  Svo. 

A  new  edition  of  this  work,  very  materially  enlarged  and  cor- 
rected, was  published  at  Leipsic,  in  1821. 

78*.  Commenlarius  Pcrpetuu.s  in  decern  Apostoli  Pauli  quas 
vulgo  dicunt  Epistolas  Minores.  EJidit  Joannes  Fridericus 
Weingaut.     Gothic,  1816,  Svo. 

A  useful  and  unpretending  little  volume,  expressly  designed  for 
those  who  may  not  have  the  means  of  procuring  larger  and  more 
expensive  commentaries.  The  author  professes  to  have  selected 
his  materials  from  the  best  commentators,  both  ancient  and  modern, 
with  whose  annotations  he  has  interwoven  his  own  remarks.  He 
acknowledges  his  obligations  to  the  previous  labours  of  Koppe  and 
Rosenmiiller :  and  references  are  introduced  lo  those  authors  who 
have  particularly  illustrated  texts  of  more  than  ordinary  difliculty. 

79.  Annotations  on  the  Epistles,  being  a  continuation  of  Mr. 
Elsley's  Annotations  on  the  Gospels  and  Acts,  and  principally 
designed  for  the  use  of  Candidates  for  Holy  Orders.  By  the 
Rev.  James  Sladi,  M.A.     London,  1816,  2  vols.  Svo. 

80.  A  Paraphrastic  Translation  of  the  Apostolic  Epistles,  with 
Notes.  By  Philip  Nicholas  SiiuTTJCEwoRTH,  D.D.  Oxford  and 
London,  1829,  Svo. 

This  admirably  executed  work  is  offered  by  its  learned  author 
expressly  lor  the  use  of  inexperienced  biblical  students  and  of  ge- 
neral readers.  He  states  his  design  to  be  to  "  give  breadth  and 
prominence  to  those  minute  but  necessary  links  of  reasoning,  which 
are  often  so  cursorily  glanced  at  by  the  writers  as  to  escape  the 
observation  of  persons  not  in  the  habit  of  pursuing  an  elaborate 
argument  through  its  finest  details  ;  to  fill  up  those  lacunse  of  in- 
ference, the  implied  purport  of  which,  though  necessarily  suggested 
by  the  context  to  the  experienced  dialectician,  does  not  always 
present  itself  to  others  less  exercised  in  this  species  of  elliptical 
composition  ;  and  to  supply  that  fluency  of  context,  by  which  even 
the  languid  and  desultory  reader,  when  indisposed  to  the  labour  of 
intense  thought,  may  be  enabled  to  take  a  comprehensive  view  of 
the  whole  chain  of  the  argument  and  of  the  object  of  the  writer." 
Pref.  pp.  xvii.  xviii.  The  divisions  of  chapter  and  vei-se  arc  very 
properly  thrown  into  the  margin  ;  and  numerous  notes  are  inserted, 
illustrating  the  scope  and  bearing  of  the  apostles'  reasoning;  which 
exhibit  in  a  comparatively  small  compass  the  substance  of  much 
learned  and  laborious  research. 

81.  H.  A.  SciioTT  et  J.  F.  WijrzEn  Commentarii  in  Libros 
Epistolicos  No^^  Testamenti.  Vol.  L  Epis>tolos  ad  Galatas  et 
Thessalonicenses  continens.     Lipsise,  1834,  Svo. 

This  work  is  executed  upon  the  same  plan  as  Kuinoel's  Com- 
mentary on  the  historical  books  of  the  New  Testament,  which  is 
noticed  in  p  131.  of  this  Appendix.  The  Greek  text  is  inserted  in 
the  commentary.  Vol.  I.,  which  is  all  that  has  hitherto  appeared, 
contains  the  commentary  on  the  Epistles  to  the  Galatians  and  Thes- 
ualonians,  which  is  written  by  Dr.  Scholt- 

82.  A  Harmony  of  the  Epistles  of  the  Holy  Apostles,  to  which 
is  added  a  Summary  of  the  Entire.  By  the  Rev.  Peter  Roberts, 
M.A.     Cambridge,  1800,  4to. 

Though  not  a  commentary  in  the  strictest  sense  of  the  word, 
this  work  aflbrds  so  valualile  a  help  towards  ascertaining  the  doc- 
trinal agreement  of  the  Epistles,  that  it  deserves  special  notice  in 
this  place.  See  a  farther  account  of  its  plan  and  execution  in  page 
C2.   of  this  Appendix. 

83.  Essays  on  some  of  the  Difficulties  in  the  Writings  of  St. 
Paul.      By  Richard  WhatelYj  D.D.  [now  Archbishop  of  Dub- 

m.]     London,  1828,  Svo. 


135 


84.  Apostolical  Preaching  considered  in  an  examination  of 
St.  Paul's  Epistles.  By  John  Bird  Scmneh,  M.A.  [now  D.D. 
and  Bishop  of  Chester.]  London,  1815,  Svo.  and  numerous 
subsequent  editions. 

85.  The  Life  of  Paul  the  Apostle,  with  Critical  and  Practical 
Remarks  on  his  Discourses  and  Writings.  By  Stephen  Adding- 
ton,  D.D.     London,  1784,  Svo. 

8G.  General  Observations  on  the  Writings  of  St.  Paul.  By 
John  Hex,  D.D.     Buckingham,  1811,  Svo. 

This  volume  was  not  printed  for  sale  :  it  contains  many  pleasing 
remarks  on  the  style  and  writings  of  the  Apostle  Paul. 

ROMAXS. 

87.  Jo.  Jac.  RAMBAciifT  Introductio  Historico-Theologica  in 
Epistolam  Pauli  ad  Romanos.  Adjecta  est  Martini  Lutheri  aurea 
praefatio,  variis  observationibus  exegeticis  atque  apologeticis  illus- 
trata.    Halae,  1727,  Svo. 

Though  not  a  commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  this 
introduction  may  very  advantageously  be  substituted  for  one.  Pro- 
fessor Tholuck  has  justly  characterized  it  as  being  "  written  with 
a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  subject."  (Introd.  to  his  Exposition 
of  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  vol.  i.  p.  34.  Edinburgh,  1833.)  Not 
a  single  point  is  omitted  that  can  throw  any  light  on  the  author, 
time  and  place  of  writing,  the  external  and  internal  state  of  the 
Christian  church  at  Rome,  the  scope  and  style  and  the  canonical 
authority  of  tliis  admirable  epistle.  The  pretace  of  Luther  truly 
deserves  the  epithet  oi golden:  it  illu.-trates  ihe  peculiar  phraseo- 
logy of  the  apostle,  and  his  arguments  of  the  chapters  are  singular- 
ly perspicuous.  In  our  analysis,  &c.  of  Saint  Paul's  Epistle  to  the 
Romans,  we  have  been  largely  indebted  to  Rambach's publication. 

87*.  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans.  By  John 
Calvin.  To  which  is  prefixed  his  Life  by  Theodore  Beza. 
Translated  by  Francis  Sibson,  A.B.     London,  1834,  small  8vo. 

88.  A  Paraphrase  and  Notes  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans, 
to  which  is  prefixed  a  Key  to  the  Apostolic  Writings,  or  an 
Essay  to  explain  the  Gospel  Scheme  and  the  principal  Words 
and  Phrases  the  Apostles  have  used  in  describing  it.  By  J.  Tay- 
lor, D.D.     Second  and  best  edition,  1747,  4to. 

The  first  edition  of  this  celebrated  and  learned  work  appeared  in 
1745:  two  others  were  printed  in  the  years  1754  and  17G9.  Arch- 
bishop Magee  pronounces  the  system  developed  in  this  key  to 
be  "  nothing  more  than  an  artificial  accominodation  of  Scripture 
phrases  to  notions  utterly  repugnant  to  Christian  doctrine."  Dr 
Taylor's  scheme  (whicli  was  Arian)  is  examined  by  Archbp.  Ma- 
gee in  the  first  volume  of  his  Discourses  on  the  Atonement,  pp. 
181—188.  199—201.  322—333.  Db.  Taylor's  work  contains,  how- 
ever, several  valuable  philological  illustrations  of  the  Epi.?tle  to 
the  Romans,  of  which  we  have  availed  ourselves  in  tlie  course  of 
this  Introduction. 

89.  Clavis  Apostolica :  or  a  Key  to  the  Apostolic  Writings , 
being  an  Attempt  to  explain  the  Scheme  of  the  Gospel,  and  the 
principal  Words  and  Phrases  used  by  the  Apostles  in  describing 
it.     By  the  Rev.  Joseph  Mendham,  A.M.     London,  1821, 12mo. 

This  small  volume  is  a  republication  of  a  series  of  papers  which 
originally  appeared  in  the  sixth  volume  of  the  Christian  Observer, 
in  opposition  to  the  principles  of  Dr.  Taylor's  Key  to  the  Epistle  to 
the  Romans,  and  which  the  late  Archbp.  Magee  justly  pronounced 
to  be  "  a  series  of  valuable  letters."  (On  the  Atonement,  vol.  ii. 
p.  344.)  "  Mr.  Mendham's  work  is  well  entitled  to  our  approbation, 
not  less  for  the  temperate  and  judicious  manner  in  which  it  is  writ- 
ten, than  for  the  importance  of  the  subject  to  which  its  discussions 
relate."    (Eclectic  Review,  N.  S.  Vol.  xxi.  p.  527.) 

90.  A  Paraphrase,  with  Critical  Annotations,  on  the  Epistles 
of  Saint  Paul  to  the  Romans  and  Galatians.  By  Timothy  Ed- 
wards, A.M.     London,  1752,  4to. 

We  notice  this  work,w-hich  is  judiciously  compiled  from  the  best 
previous  commentaries  on  these  two  Epistles,  because  it  is  occa- 
sionally to  be  purchased  at  a  cheap  rate.  "  The  author  appears  to 
us  to  have  been  a  person  of  learning,  judgment,  and  candour,  and 
well  acquainted  with  the  sacred  writings.  He  endeavours,  in  the 
first  place,  to  give  his  readers  a  distinct  view  of  the  whole  Epistle, 
to  discover  the  true  occasion  of  the  apostle's  writing  it,  the  main 
subject  of  it,  the  principal  branches  of  which  it  consists,  and  the 
subdivision  of  them  into  their  proper  sections,  paragraphs,  and 
periods ;  and  then  to  clear  up  the  connection  of  these  several  par- 
ticulars, the  seeming  perplexity  of  the  arguments,  and  the  hidden 
force  of  the  reasonings,  in  order  to  set  forth  the  true  meaning  and 
coherence  of  the  whole  discourse  in  a  clear  light."  (Monthly  Re- 
view, O.  S.  vol.  vii.  p.  412.) 

91.  Jacobi  Welle ri  Adnotationes  in  Epistolam  Pauli  ad 
Romanos,     Brunswick,  1754,  4to. 

92.  Jo.  Sal.  Semleri  Paraphrasis  Epistolje  ad  Romanos,  cum 
Noti.s,  translatione  vetusta,  et  dissertatione  de  duplici  Appendice 
hujus  Epistolae,  in  cap.  xv.  xvi.     Halse,  1769,  small  8va 


136 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


Part  IL  Cuj 


Semler  also  published  similar  pnraphrasps  on  the  following  Epis- 
tles :  viz.  1  <k  2  Corinthians,  Ilnte,  1770,  1776 ;  Galulians,  ibid.  1779 ; 
James,  ibid.  1781 ;  1  Peter,  ibid.  1783  ;  2  Peter  and  Jude,  ibid.  1784 ; 
Revelation,  Neustadt,  1785,  and  1  John,  to  which  is  added  by  Pro- 
fessor Nocssell  a  Disquisition,  entitled  Narralio  dc  Semkro  ejnsque 
meritig  in  interpretalione  IS.  S.  Svo.  Riga,  17'J2.  8emler  totally  re- 
jects those  doctrines  concerning  original  sin,  <fcc.  which  are  received 
ns  orthodox  by  the  ProtesUiit  churches.  His  works  are  all  scarce 
and  dear  in  this  co'iutry,— so  that  tiic  student  will  not  sustain  any 
loss  who  may  not  be  able  to  procure  them. 

93.  AParaphra.sc  on  the  Eleven  First  Chapters  of  Saint  Paul's 
Epistle  to  the  Romans.  By  the  Rev.  Thomas  Auam.  L6iidon, 
1771,  Svo. 

"  This  appears  to  be  the  performance  of  a  sensible  man,  who  de- 
sires to  deliver  the  true  sense  of  Scripture  as  (iir  as  he  can  attain 
it.  and  to  advance  tlie  cause  of  piety  among  men.  His  method  is, 
to  lay  a  small  number  of  ven-es  belbre  the  reader  at  one  view,  in 
which  are  inserted  a  few  words  to  illustrate  and  explain  them,  and 
then  lie  adds  several  observations  njHm  the  sense  of  the  passage, 
with  some  pmctical  remarks.  On  the  whole,  this  parapliraso,  not 
abounding  in  crilici.»m,  as  .some  might  expect,  appears  however  to  be 
a  candid,  well-meant,  practical,  and  useful  performance."  (Monthly 
Review.  O.  S.  vol.  xlv.  pp.  4«X),  401.)  What  further  recommends 
lliis  useful  work  is,  the  low  price  at  which  it  may  frequently  be 
procured,  it  having  been  j'requenlly  reprinted. 

94.  Chr.  Frid.  Schmihii  Annotalioncs  in  Epistolam  Pauli  ad 
Romanos.     Lipsia;,  1777,  Bvo. 

95.  Sam.  PVid.  Nath.  Mori  Praelectiones  in  Epistolani  Pauli  ad 
Romanos,  cum  ejusdcm  versione  Lalini,  liKorumquc  <iuorundani 
IS'ovi  Testamcnli  difficiliorum  interpretatione.  Edidit  J.  'W  T. 
Holt/apfel.     Lip-sise,  1794,  8vo. 

90.  Epistola  Pauli  ad  Romanos,  Grjccc,  ex  rcccnsione  novissi- 
ma  (iricsbachii,  cum  commcntario  perpetuo.  Edidit  Chr.  Fr. 
BoEHME.     LipsiaJ,  1806,  8vo. 

97.  Pauli  Epi.stola  ad  Romanos.  Intcrprete  Em.  Godofr.  Adol- 
{iho  B'^cKEL.     Gryphiffi,  1821,  8vo. 

98.  HoriB  Romanaj ;  or  an  Attempt  to  elucidate  St.  Paul's 
Epistle  to  the  Romans,  by  an  original  Translation,  E.\planatory 
Notes,  and  New  Division.-*.  By  Robert  Cox,  M..V.  Ijondon, 
1824,  8vo. 

"  >Vhile  posseRsing  merit  of  a  high  order,  it  is  entirely  free  from 
display.  The  simplicity  of  the  author's  plan,  and  the  extremely 
jiidi(  I'ous  manner  in  which  he  has  executed  it.  eniitle  him  to  a 
measure  of  our  praise  whioh  we  have  not  often  an  occasion  of 
awarding."  (Eclectic  Review.  N-  S.  vol.  xxiii.  p.  Tl.)  Sec  also  the 
Quarterly  Theological  Reviews  vol.  ii.  pp.  72 — 76. 

99.  Notes  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  intciidcJ  to  assist 
Students  in  Theology,  and  others,  who  read  the  Scriptures  in 
the  Originals.  By  Samuel  H.  TunxEn,  D.D.  New  York, 
1824,  Svo. 

These  "  Notes"  are  strictly  exegetical,  not  polemical ;  and  are 
designed  to  explain  the  force  and  connection  of  St.  Pnul's  argu- 
ments. This  oliject  is  completely  attained  by  Professor  Turner, 
who  has  made  consiileral>le  use  of  the  lalwurs  of  the  German 
biblical  critics,  against  whose  extrava<;aiit  interpretations  and  cri- 
tiques he  has,  very  proii^riy,  cautioned  his  renders.  Ji  translation 
ol  Koppe's  Ijitiii  introouction  to  the  Kpislle  to  the  Roiiiuns  is  pre- 
fixed ;  and  the  work  concludes  wiih  a  wcU-vvritlcn  "Essay  (or  the 
consideration  of  Theological  Students." 

100.  The  Epistle  of  Paul  the  Apostle  to  the  Romans  ;  with  an 
Introduction,  Paraphrase,  and  Notes.  By  C.  H.  Tkuiiot,  A.M. 
Ivondon,  1828,  Svo. 

The  design  of  this  publication  is,  to  bring  together  such  iiiformn- 
tioii  as  may  assist  young  sludenls  of  divinity  in  oblaiiiing  a  rii;lit 
underMtanding  of  Si.  Paul's  Kpisile  lo  llie  Koiuan.s.     By  way  of  a|>- 
paraiMs  towards  an  examiiiiitioii  of  the  Kpisile,  the  author  has  pre- 
fixed, 1.  A  (Chronological  Table  of  the  Acts  of  that  Apostle,  abridged 
from  Bishop  PoarBon's  Annales  I'aulini  ;  2.  .\  brief  l''x|iosition  of 
the  (X'ciiHion,  date,  and  genuineiieK8  of  the  F.pistle  ;  3.  An  .\nn1ysis 
of  its  contents;  4.  A  Critical  liirpiiry  into  the  mcaiiini'  of  the  the- 
ological terms,  which  in  our  auiliori/fd  version  are  ren<lcred  ^/kk///"^ 
aw\  juHltfiration,  fiiilh,  law,  and  iiM/rks  of  Ihr  l/iin.Jli-afi,  and  impute; 
and,  b.  A  List  oi'  all  the  Passatrcs  of  the  Old  Tc.%iaiiieni  (juoted  in 
the  F.pisllc  lo  the  Romans.     The  Crock  IcxI  follows,  according  lo 
Dr.  Knnppe's  third  edition  (llnlai.  1821),  and  on  the  opp<isilc  page 
is  given  the  author's  parnplirasc.     The  volume  concludes  with  a 
coll<'<'iion  of  notes,  in   the  com|M)siii'on  of  wliiih   Mr.  Terrot  has 
availed  hiiiiHrdf  of  the   previous  works  of  the  nio-tt  disliri'^uished 
BritiHh   coininenlators   aiirl   divines,  and  nlno  of  the   philulogicul 
I'lUiurH  of  tiie  mrjst  eminent  continental  critics.     "  Tins  work  de- 
rives Its  chief  coiiimendalion,  not  so  much  for  what  it  hai  accoiii- 
plinhcd,  ns   for   the   plan  of  Htudy  which   it  »)peiin  u|>  lo  the;  young 
divine;  filiowing,  by  a  very  siicc«fs.'(ful  example,  the  aiil  \\lii(  fi  may 
be  brought  to  theological  investigation  from  the  stores  of  general 
lileratuM!,  nn<l  es(M<cially  from  those  oilier  sources  where  the  fruit 
i<f  the  tree  of  knowledge  is   not  altogether  unmixed."     (British 
Critic,  Anril,  1829,  vol.  v.  p.  346.) 


101.  A  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  with  a 
Translation  and  various  Excursus.  By  Moses  Sttaut,  Profes- 
sor of  Sacred  Literature  in  the  Theological  Seminary  at  AnJover. 
Andover  [Massachuaetts],  1832.     London,  1833,  Svo. 

"If  candour,  integrity  of  purpose,  and  apostolic  piety,  united  to 
deep  research,  persevering  industry,  and  varied  erudition,  could 
qualify  any  man  for  the  task  of  translating  and  expounding  critically 
the  most  Jiliicult  of  the  Pauline  Epistles,  we  believe  that  Profes.sor 
Stuart  possesses  these  endowments.  Whatever  be  the  errors  in  his 
work— and  our  author  is  the  last  man  lo  claim  infallibility — they 
arise  from  the  general  infirmiiy  of  human  nature;  they  are  not  in- 
troduce! either  to  supjiorl  the  views  of  a  polemical  |iariisaii,  or  to 
maintain  the  hypothesis  of  an  obstinate  disputant.  The  publica- 
tion before  us  is  eminently  distinguished  both  lor  repealed  acknow- 
ledgment of  all  the  difticultics  utiendant  upon  the  respective  inter- 
pretations of  the  '  vcxati  loci,'  and  for  unwearied  patience  in 
disentangling  the  web  in  which  controversialists  have  loved  to 
involve  this  sublime  epistle."..  .."Mr.  Stuart  is  original  both  in 
his  translation  and  his  comments.  He  at  one  time  objects  to  Calvin, 
at  another  to  Arniinius:  and  we  do  not  think  that  any  partisan  will 
have  rea.son  to  quarrel  with  the  Professor  (or  a  blind  adherence  to 
any  '  set  of  opinions.' "  (British  Critic,  for  October,  1833,  pp.  43l>, 
431.) 

"The  Transhition  is  couched  in  elegant  language,  and  divide<l 
with  great  care  into  sections,  each  of  which  has  an  appropriate,  if 
not  i)crfectly  <'orreei.  title,  and  is  sulKiivided  into  paragraphs  as  the 
sense  requires.  A  great  deal  of  iho  obscurity  of  tiic  epistle,  as  it 
stands  in  the  common  version,  is  removed  by  the  hypothesis  that 
in  chapter  iii.,  and  in  several  oilier  ])laces.  Saint  Paul  quotes  and 
answers  a  supposed  objector.  The  queries  and  objections  thus 
quoted  and  answered,  ]\Ir.  Stuart  has  distinguished  by  quotitioii 
marks,  which  render  the  epistle  at  once  more  intert^sting  and  more 
intelligible.  Mr.  Stuart  has  also  rendered  the  particles  so  skilfiillv,  as 
lo  give  the  whole  epistle  the  appearance,  not  of  a  parcel  of  disjecta 
membra,  accidenily  thrown  together,  but  of  a  connected  and  orderly 
treatise.  He  has  also  given  a  fiiitliful  re()resentation  of  the  origi- 
nal, as  regards  the  use  of  the  article.  The  Commnitari/  is  a  work 
of  great  labour.  The  author  seems  seldom  to  have  contenied  him- 
seli With  second-hand  otwervalions,  but  to  have  consulted  lor  him- 
self all  orixfinal  authorities,  and  lo  have  faithfully  prepared  himself 
to  meet  any  probable  or  jiossible  objection  to  his  own  views." 
(American  Monthly  Review,  Nov.  1832,  vol.  ii.  p.  393.) 

This  Commeniury  and  Excursus  are  filled  with  interesting  and 
valuable  information.  The  work  is  intended  lor  young  students  m 
divinity,  and  therefore  we  meet  often  with  minute  criticisms,  which 
to  the  matured  scholar  and  theologian  may  appear  unnecessary,  but 
which  will  be  foumi  highly  useful  to  the  beginner,  as  iliey  will 
draw  his  attention  to  nice  points  of  theology,  and  so  tend  lo  give 
him  ac<:uracy  as  well  as  extent  of  knowledge. 

The  London  impression  of  1833  is  handsomelv  and  very  correctly 
printed  under  the  editorial  care  of  the  Rev.  f)rs.  J.  P.  Smith  and 
E.  Henderson. 

102.  Exposition  of  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Romans;  with 
Extracts  frjin  the  Exegetical  Works  of  the  Fathers  and  Re- 
formers. Translated  from  the  original  Gcrinan  of  Dr.  Fred. 
Aug.  Gottreu  Tholuck,  Profe.ssor  of  Theology  in  the  Royal 
University  of  Halle.  By  the  Rev.  Robert  Menzies.  VoL  I. 
Edinburgh,  1833,  12ino. 

This  work  forms  part  of  the  Edinburgh  Biblical  Cabinet,  noticed 
in  p.  72.  No.  2.  /nipra.  The  learned  author.  Professor  Thidiick, 
has  had  the  distinguished  honour  of  standing  foremost  among  the 
defenders  of  ancient  orthodoxy  against  the  modern  neolosiians  of 
(iermany :  and  "  ihe  Commentary  on  the  F.pistle  to  the  Komnns  is 
the  most  im|M>rlaiit  work  which  has  hitherto  proceeiled  from  his 
]>eii.  The  iinlvci'sal  approbation  it  has  received  from  llie  friends 
of  evangelical  Iriilli,  and  lli(>  llcrce  hostility  with  which  it  has 
been  .issailed  by  the  rationalist  party  in  ti'erminy"  (where,  not- 
w  ittistanding  it  has  passed  lliroii(;h  many  editions),  "  a(r>ril  liie  most 
satisfactory  evidence  of  its  distinifuished  worth."  (Translator's 
preliice,  p.  xii.)  Profes.sor  Stuart,  in  the  preface  to  his  admirable 
work  on  the  epistle  lo  the  Hoiiians  (p.  vii.),  has  expressed  the 
highest  approbation  of  Dr.  Tholiick's  lalyiiirs,  lo  wlii<h  he  ac- 
knowledges himself  "  moMt  of  all  imlcbted."  The  purcha.ser  of 
Profes.sor  Stuart's  work  wiih  liiid  it  desirable  to  Riiidy  Dr.  T.'n 
Exjiosition  in  connection  with  it.  The  triinslalor  has  ably  |H>r- 
forined  Ins  difhciili  task,  and  has  enriched  the  volume  with  an 
instructive  preface. 

103.  '  A  Critic.ll  Exposition  of  the  Ninth 
Epistle  to  the  Romans,  as  far  as  is  Kup|x>sed 
Doctrine  of  Predestination.  Hy  J.  Fawckit. 
Svo. 

104.  St.  Paul's  Wish  to  be  accursed  from  C'hrisl  illustrated. 
and  vindicated  from  Misconstructions.  With  an  Appendix, 
conlnining  n  Collection  of  the  most  material  Oliservalioiis  upon 
the  'i'ext  by  ancient  and  modern  Writers.  By  JJartholuniew 
Kkelino.     Oxford,  1700,  Svo. 


Chapter  of  the 

to  relate  to  the 

London,  17.'i2, 


lO.'i.  De  Conseculione  Senlentiarum  in  Pauli  nd  Roinanoa 
E()ihtola  Conimentatio.  Auctorc  Ernesto  Friderico  HoErrxKRO 
LipsiiB,  1828,  Svo. 


Sect.  in.  §  6.]         COMMENTATORS  ON  DETACHED  BOOKS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


137 


&* 


1   AXn   2  CORIXTHIAXS. 

106.  Pauli  ad  Corinthios  Epistolse,  Grsece,  perpetua  anno- 
tafionc  illustrate,  a  Fr.  Aug.  Guil.  Khause,  vol.  i.  complectens 
Epistolam  priorem.     Francofurti,  1792,  8vo. 

107.  A  Paraphrase  of  Saint  Paul's  First  Epistle  to  the  Co- 
rinthians, with  Explanatory  Notes.  By  the  Rev.  J.  G.  Tolley, 
M.A.     London,  1825,  Svo. 

108.  Commentarius  in  priorem  Divi  Pauli  ad  Corinthios 
Epistolam.  Auctore  Aug.  Ludov.  Christ.  Hetdexiieicu.  Mar- 
burgi,  1827-28,  2  vols.  Svo. 

The  first  volume  contains  the  first  eight  chapters  of  St.  Paul's 
First  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians.  The  remaining  chapters  are  illus- 
trated in  the  second  volume.  In  the  prolegomena  the  author  has 
iven  a  concise  account  of  the  city  of  Corinth,  the  introduction  of 

hristianity,  and  the  slate  of  the  Christian  church,  together  with 
the  occasion  and  argument  of  the  epistle,  its  canonical  authority 
and  authenticity  ;  and  a  list  of  the  best  commentators  on  this  par- 
ticular cpisile.  '  The  commentary  is  princii)ally  philological. 

109.  Animadversiones  ad  Cap.  HI.  et  XHI.  Epistolse  Pauli 
1.  ad  Corinthios.  Scripsit  Dr.  Ant.  Georg.  Holm  an  x.  Lipsiae, 
1819,  Svo. 

This  tract  elucidates  certain  words  and  difllcult  passages  in  the 
third  and  thirteenth  chapters  of  St.  Paul's  first  Epistle  to  the  Co- 
rinthians. 

110.  Observationes  ad  Versus  postremos  Capitis  XHI.  prioris 
Pauli  ad  Corinthios  Epistola;  recte  intelligendos.  Auctore  A. 
ScuoTT.    Jcnae,  1823,  4to. 

111.  Commentatio  Critica  et  Exegetica  in  Paulinae  Epistolse 
ad  Corinthios  caput  XHI.  Scripsit  Dr.  L.  G.  Paueau.  Trajecti 
ad  Rhcnum,  1828,  Svo. 

112.  A  Paraphrase  on  the  Fifteenth  Chapter  of  the  First 
Epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  with  Critical  Notes  and  Observations, 
and  a  preliminary  Dissertation ;  a  Commentary,  with  Critical 
Remarks,  on  the  Sixth,  Seventh,  and  part  of  the  Eighth  Chapters 
of  the  Romans,  &c.    By  John  Alexander.  London,  1766,  4to. 

See  an  account  of  this  tract,  in  the  iSIonthly  Review,  O.  S.  vol. 
xxxiv.  pp.  443 — 451. 

113.  Pauli  ad  Corinthios  Epistola  secunda,  perpetua  annota- 
tione  illustrata,  a  So.  Georg.  Frid.  Leun.  Lemgovise,  1804,  Svo. 

114.  Epistola  Pauli  ad  Corintluos  posterior,  Greece.  Perpetuo 
Commcntario  illustravit  A.  G.  Eimmehlinb.    Lipsiae,  1823,  Svo. 

115.  Disputatio  de  altera  Pauli  ad  Corinthios  Epistola,  et 
observauda  in  ilia  Apostoli  indole  et  oratione,  quam  pro  summis 
in  thcologia  honoribus  in  Academia  Rheno-Traject.,  publico 
examini  submittit  Herm.  Jo.  Rotaauds.  Trajecti  ad  Rhenum, 
1818,  Svo. 

This  well  compiled  academical  dissertation  consists  of  three 
parts,  in  which  the  author  examines,  1.  The  second  Epistle  to  the 
Corinthians ;  2.  The  character  of  Saint  Paul ;  and,  3.  The  language 
and  style  of  the  apostle.  The  second  division  is  particularly 
valuable. 

116.  C.  F.  A.  FniTSCHE,  De  nonnulUs  Posterioris  Pauli 
ad  Corinthios  Epistolse  Locis  Dissertationes  Duse.  Lipsise, 
1824,  Svo. 

117.  Alberti  Gerhardi  Beckeh,  Conjectanca  in  Locum  Pauli- 
num  2  Corinth.  XII.  7-9.     Magdeburgi,  1822,  Svo. 

GALATIAXS   ANB   EPHESIAXS. 

118.  Sam.  Frid.  Nath.  Mom  Acroases  irt  Epistolas  Paulinas 
ad  Galatas  et  Ephcsios.     Lipsise,  1795,  Svo. 

119.  A  Commentary  on  Saint  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Galatians, 
transLitcd  from  the  Latin  of  Martin  Litueh.  Svo.  and  2 
vols.  12mo. 

There  are  also  editions  extant  in  folio  and  4to.  of  this  valuable 
work,  which  completely  expose  the  doctrine  of  justification  by 
works  alone.  We  may  applv  to  it  in  particular  what  Erasmus  is 
recorded  to  have  said  of  Luther's  commentaries  in  general: — 
"There  is  more  solid  divinity  contained  in  one  page  than  could  be 
found  in  many  prolix  treatises  of  schoolmen  and  such  kind  of 
authors."  (Middleton's  Biographia  Evangelica,  vol.  i.  p.  230.) 
Walchius  states  that  Protestants  and  Catholics  have  both  concurred 
in  their  commendations  of  Luther's  work.  (Biblioth.  Theolog.  vol. 
iv.  p.  607.) 

120.  A  Paraphrase  and  Notes  on  the  Ei)istles  of  Saint  Paul 
to  the  Galatians  and  Ephesians,  with  Doctrinal  and  Practical 
Observations,  together  with  a  Critical  and  Practical  Commentary 
on  the  Two  Epistles  of  Saint  Paul  to  the  Thessalonians.  By 
the  late  learned  Samuel  Chandler,  D.D.   London,  1777, 4to. 

"  The  paraphrase  clearly  and  fully  expresses  the  meaning  of  the 
sacred  writer;  the  notes  are  enriched  by  original  quotations  from 
Greek  and  Latin  authors,  in  order  to  illustrate  and  confirm  the 


learned  commentator's  own  criticisms,  and  many  doctrinal  and 
practical  observations  are  interspersed,  with  a  view  of  farther 
explaining]  the  tendency  of  the  apostle's  reasoning,  and  improving 
the  moral  temper  and  conduct  of  the  reader."  "The  commentary 
on  the  two  Epistles  to  the  Thessalonians  is  more  diffuse :  the 
author  has  every  where  iniroduced  references  to  original  writers, 
with  whom  none  were  more  conversant,  and  omitted  no  oppor- 
tunity of  subjoining  practical  reileciions,  adapted  to  the  various 
passages  which  he  had  previously  explained  by  learned  .and  liberal 
criticism."     (Monthly  Review,  O.  S.  vol.  Ivi.  pp.  161,  162.) 

121.  Interpretatio  Epistolse  Pauli  ad  Galatas,  auctore  E.  A. 
BoRGEB.     Lugd.  Bat.  1807,  Svo. 

122.  Pauli  ad  Galatas  Epistola.  Latine  vejtit,  et  Commen- 
tario  Perpetuo  illustravit  Doctor  et  Professoi  G.  B.  Wineh. 
Lipsia;,  1821  ;  Editio  secunda,  aucta  et  emendata,  1827;  Editio 
tertia,  aucta  et  emendala,  1829,  Svo. 

While  this  sheet  was  passing  through  the  press,  a  translation  of 
this  valuable  work  by  the  Rev.  W.  Cunningham  was  announced 
ns  lormiug  part  of  the  Edinburgh  Biblical  Cabinet.  Copious  illus- 
trations were  to  be  added  from  the  previous  commentaries  of 
Koppe,  Borger,  and  others. 

123.  Gottlob  Frid.  Gcde  de  Ei-clesise  Ephcsinre  Statu  impri- 
mis a;vo  apostolico,  Commentatio  Historico-Exegelico-Critica. 
Acccdit  Vita  S.  Apostoli  Pauli  per  Georgium  Majorem  descriptii. 
Lipsiffi,  1732,  Svo. 

124.  Joannis  Tarxovii  Commentarius  in  Epistolas  Pauli  ad 
Ephesios,  ad  Philippenses,  ad  Colossenses,  et  ad  Thessalonicen- 
scs.  4to.     Rostochii,  1636. 

FUILIPPIANS. 

125.  The  Church  at  Philippi,  or  the  Doctrines  and  Conduct 
of  the  early  Christians  illustrated  :  Intended  to  serve  as  an  His- 
torical Commentary  upon  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Phihppians. 
By  Henry  Samuel  Batxes.     London,  1834,  12mo. 

126.  Meinardi  Henrici  ScnoTAJfi  Analysis  et  Commentarius 
in  Epistolam  PauUi  ad  Philippenses.     Francckerje,  1737,  4to. 

127.  Antonii  Friderici  Buschingii  Introductio  Historico- 
Theologica  in  Epistolam  Paulli  ad  Philippenses.  Halse,  1746, 
4to. 

128.  Pauli  Apostoli  Epistola  ad  Philippenses,  Grsece  ex  Re- 
ccnsione  Griesbachiana  nova.  Versione  Latina  et  Annotatione 
perpetua  illustrata,  a  J.  G.  Am-Ende.    Svo.     Vitebergae,  1798. 

129.  Specimen  Academicum  Inaugurate  de  Ccetus  Christiano- 
rum  Philippensis  Conditione  primajva,  ex  Epistola  iis  ab  Apos 
tolo  Paulo  scripta  pnecipue  dijudicanda  a  Johanne  Hoog.    Lug- 
duni  Batavorum,  1825,  Svo. 

The  origin  and  state  of  the  church  at  Philippi,  the  date,  place 
where  written,  scope  and  argument  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Philippi- 
ans,  are  discussed  in  this  academical  dissertation,  which  happily 
elucidates  many  passages  of  that  epistle. 

C0L0SSIAN3. 

130.  Expositio  Epistolse  D.  Pauli  ad  Colossenses,  per  reveren- 
dum  in  Christo  Patrem,  Joannem  [Datexant]  Episcopum 
Sarisburiensem  jam  piimum  edita:  olim  ab  eodem,  DominjB 
Margarets  in  Academia  Cantabrigiensi  Professore  Theologico, 
dictata.     Cantabrigise,  1627,  foho. 

131.  An  Exposition  of  the  Epistle  of  St.  Paul  to  the  Colo.^- 
sians,  by  the  Right  Rev.  John  Davenant,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  Salis 
bury.     Translated  from  the  Original  Latin,  with  a  Life  of  tlio 
Author,  and  Notes.     By  the  Rev.  Josiah  Allpout.     London, 
1831-32,  2  vols.  Svo. 

As  Bishop  Davenant's  valuable  exposition  of  St.  Paul's  epistle  to 
the  Colossians  had  long  become  extremely  scarce,  Mr.  Allport  has 
conferred  no  small  favour  on  biblical  students,  by  rendering  his 
work  accessible  to  English  readers.  "  The  translation  not  only 
possesses  the  more  ordinary  and  absolutely  indispensable  prerequi- 
sites of  general  accuracy  and  fidelity,  but  the  more  rare  recom- 
mendations of  considerable  care,  propriety,  and  oven  elegance."  .. . . 
"  A  very  valuable  feature  of  the  present  work  is,  that  the  Editor 
has  appended  (in  the  form  of  notes),  biographical  sketches  of  the 
Fathers  and  Schoolmen  whose  names  so  profusely  adorn  the  pages 
of  Davenant." ..."  His  notes  contain  a  great  deal  of  curious  and 
valuable  information.  The  Sketch  of  the  Life  of  Davenant  de- 
serves the  highest  praise  :  it  is  the  onh/  attempt  that  has  ever  been 
made  to  give  any  thing  like  a  detailed  account  of  the  history  and 
writinEfs  of  that  great  and  good  man."  (Eclectic  Review,  Febru- 
ary, 1833.) 

132.  An  Exposition  upon  the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians. 
Wherein  not  only  the  text  is  methodically  analyzed,  but  the 
sense  of  the  words,  by  the  help  of  writers,  both  ancient  and 
modem,  is  explained.     By  N.  Byfield.     London,  1615,  folio. 


138 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Paet  n.  CuAP.  V. 


133.  The  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  to  the  Colossians,  to  the  Thcs- 
salonians,  to  Timothy,  and  to  Titij:5,  and  the  General  Epistle  of 
St.  James :  a  new  Version  from  the  Greek,  and  chiefly  from  the 
Text  of  Griesbach.  By  Philalethes.  [John  Jones,  LL.D.]  Lou- 
don, 1820,  12mo. 

Of  this  translation,  which  in  many  instances  is  made  to  support 
the  scheme  of  the  modern  Socinians,  the  reader  will  find  an  account 
in  the  Kclectic  Review  (N.  S.),  vol.  xiv.  pp.  277 — 283. 

134.  Isagoge  iji  Epistolam  a  Paulo  Apostolo  ad  Colossenses 
datam  Theologica,  Historica,  Critica,  accesserunt  Enarratio  cap.  L 
Coloss.  V.  1  — 14.  et  Excursus  epistolam  spectantes  tres.  Con- 
fecit  Gulielmus  Boehmervs.     Berolini,  1829,  8vo. 

135.  GuUelmi  Boehmcri  Symbolaj  Bihlica;  ad  Dogmaticam 
Christianam  sive  Obscrvationes  in  Sectionem  x\postolicam 
Coloss.  L  V.  18—23.     Wratislaviae,  1833,  8vo. 

1   ATtB  2  THESSALOMAXS. 

136.  An  Exposition  upon  the  two  Epistles  of  the  Apostle 
Saint  Paul  to  the  Thessalonians.  By  the  Rev.  Father  John 
Jkwel,  late  Bishop  of  Sarisburie.  London,  1583,  12mo.  Re- 
printed in  1811,  Svo. 

This  valuable  Commentary  on  the  Epistles  to  the  Thessalonians 
is  printed  in  the  folio  edition  of  Bp.  Jewel's  works  (London,  1G09), 
and  also  in  the  seventh  volume  of  the  compilation,  entitled  the 
"  Fathers  of  the  English  Church." 

137.  Joannis  Alphonsi  Tuhretixi  Commcntarius Theoretico- 
praclicus  in  Epistolas  Divi  Pauli  ad  Thessalonicenses.  Basilcne, 
1739,  Svo.  also  in  the  second  volume  of  the  collective  edition  of 
Turretin's  Works,  in  4to. 

138.  The  Greek  of  the  Epistle  of  Saint  Paul  to  the  Thessalo- 
nians explained.     By  John  Phillips.     London,  1751,  4to. 

"This  work  contains  the  Greek  Text,  but  no  translation.  The 
notes  are  very  considerable.  They  are  philological,  critical,  and 
(heological.  It  was  designed  as  a  specimen  of  a  work  upon  all  the 
Kpistles,  but  which  was  never  completed.  It  is  exceedingly  scarce." 
(Orme's  Bihlioth.  Bibl.  p.  31'J.) 

139.  Pauli  Epistolaj  ad  Thessalonicenses.  Recensuit,  vctc- 
rum  recentiorumtjue  notas  sclectas  congessit,  suasque  adjecit,  et 
tamquam  specimen  nov.-e  editionis  Epistolarum  Pauli  cdidit  F. 
ScHLEiEHMACuEU.     BeroHui,  1823,  Svo. 

140.  Specimen  Academicum  Inauguralc  dc  Ccetus  Christi- 
anorum  'i'hessalonicen.sis  Ortu  Fatisque,  et  prions  Pauli  iis 
scriptx  Epistola;  Consilio  atque  Argumento.  Auctore  Joanne 
Jacobo  BiRGERUof DT.     Lugduni  Batavoruni,  1825,  Svo. 

This  Dissertation  may  be  considered  as  a  valuable  introduction 
to  the  first  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians :  every  topic  which  is 
necessary  to  the  correct  understanding  of  it,  is  satisfactorily  dis- 
cussed. 

141.  Epistolas  Pauli  ad  Thessalonicenses  commentario  ct 
dclectis  Patrum  Ecdesiasticorum  expositionibns,  margini  sub- 
jectis,  illustravit  Ludovicus  Pki.t.     Gryphiswaldise,  1830,  Svo. 

142.  J.  G.  Rf.iciie  Authentia;  posterioris  ad  Thessalonicenses 
Epistola;  V'indiciiB.     Gottingse,  1830,  4to. 

1   AND  2  TIMOTUT,  TITPS,  A!TD  PHILEJtOX. 

143.  D.  Pauli  Epistola;  ad  Timotheum,  Titum  et  Philemonem, 
Observationibus  grammaticis,  historicis,  logicis,  thcologicis  illus- 
trata:  ab  Abrahaino  Sculteto.     Francofurti,  1624,  4to. 

144.  S.  Pauli  Apostoli  Epistola  utraque  ad  Timotheum,  cum 
Commentario  Joannis  Cocc  EI  I.    Lugduni  Batavorum,  1C67,  4to. 

145.  BccKiiAus  (Joach.  Frid.)  Specimen  Obscrvalionum 
Critico-Exegeticarum  de  Vocabulis  uTa|  >.t}'./Anoi;  ct  rarioribus 
dicendi  Forinulis  in  prima  ad  Timotheum  Epistola  Paulina 
obviis,  AuthentiaD  ejus  nihil  detrahcnlibus.     Lingtc,  1810,  Svo. 

146.  A.  CuRTii  de  Epistola;  prioris  ad  Timotheum  authentia, 
cum  aliquo  vitffi  Paulinte  tempore  concilianda  Commentatio. 
Berolini,  1828,  Svo. 

147.  Commcntationes  de  Epistola  po.steriori  Pauli  ad  Timo- 
theum.    Scripsit  Johannes  Buiichmer.     Hafnia;,  1829,  Svo. 

148.  Petri  vo.v  Haven  Comment^Uo  Analylica  in  Epi.stohun 
Paulli  ad  Titum.     Hala;,  1742,  4to. 

149.  A  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  of  Sjiint  Paul  written  to 
Titus.    By  Thomas  Taylor.    Cambridge,  1012,  4to.   1058,  folio. 

Walchius  siieaks  very  highly  of  this  commentary,  both  in  a  phi- 
lological and  in  a  practical  point  of  view.  (Bilil.  Tlieol.  Select, 
vol.  iv.  n.  723.)  The  learned  author  was  a  frequent  preacher  before 
tincen  tlizaheth  nnd  Kinir  James  I. 

150.  Htnrici  Himmelii  Explanatio  Epistolte  Apostoli  Pauli 
ftd  Philemonem.     Tiguri,  1670,  folio. 


151.  Pauli  ad  Philemonem  Epistola,  Graece  et  Latine,  illus 
trata  a  Lebr.  Gottl.  Schmidio.     Lipsiae,  1786,  Svo. 

HEBREWS. 

152.  An  Exposition  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  with  pre- 
liminary Exercitations.  By  John  Owen,  D.D.  Folio,  4  vols. 
London,  1668-74,  Svo.  7  vols. 

This  work  is  particularly  valuable  for  its  illustration  of  the  Epis- 
tle to  the  Hebrews  by  the  aid  of  Rabbinical  learning:  it  is  replete 
with  doctrinal  and  experimental  remarks.  A  well  executed  abridg- 
ment of  it  was  published  in  4  vols.  Svo.  1790,  by  the  lale  Dr.  Ed- 
ward Williams,  of  which  a  new  edition  was  primed  in  1815,  4  vols. 
Svo. 

153.  Joannis  Braunii  Commcntarius  in  Epistolam  ad  He- 
bra;os,  cum  indicibus  locupletissimis  et  quibusdam  tabulis  oencis 
elegantissimis.     Anistel.  1705,  4to. 

Professor  Braun  or  Braunius  is  well  known  for  several  valuable 
pieces  elucidating  sacred  antiquities.  His  commentary  on  the  Epis- 
tle to  the  Hebrews,  in  the  opinion  of  J.  B.  Carpzov,  is  one  of  the 
best  ever  edited.  It  is  indeed  truly  valuable  for  its  illustrations 
by  the  aid  of  Rabbinical  learning :  and  the  author  is  particularly 
able  in  refuting  the  perverse  interpretations  of  the  celebrated  So- 
cinian  teacher,  Schlichtingius. 

154.  An  Exposition  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  by  Mr. 
Robert  Duncan,  minister  of  the  Gospel.     Edinburgh,  1731,  Svo. 

A  useful  and  cheap  exposition  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 

155.  Joannis  Benedict!  Carpzovii  Exercitationes  in  Pauli 
Epistolam  ad  Hebrjeos  ex  Philone  Alexandrino.  Helmstadt, 
1750,  Svo. 

A  work  of  singular  utility  in  explaining  the  phraseology  of  St. 
Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 

156.  A  Pafuphrase  and  Notes  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews. 
By  the  late  Rev.  James  Peirce.  With  a  Paraphrase  and  Notes 
on  the  last  three  chapters  of  the  Hebrews  left  unfinished  by  Mr. 
Peirce,  and  an  Essay  to  discover  the  author  of  the  Epistle  and 
Language  in  which  it  was  originally  written.  By  Joseph  Hal- 
let,  jun.     London,  1733,  4to. 

This  forms  part  of  the  work  noticed  in  p.  134.  No.  72.  of  this  Ap- 
pendix. "Some  of  the  sentiments,"  says  Professor  Stuart,  "diflfer 
widely  from  those  of  Owen,  and  are  such  as  ought  to  be  examined 
with  great  caution  ;  but  the  work,  as  a  whole,  exceeds  any  Eng- 
lish commentary  which  I  have  read.  The  author  has  a  great  deal 
of  acuteness,  and  is  by  no  moans  wanting  in  regard  to  a  tact  for 
criticism."  (Stuart  on  the  Epi.stle  to  the  Hebrews,  vol.  i.  p.  286. 
American  edition,  or  p.  34G.  London  edition.) 

157.  A  Paraphrase  and  Notes  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
To  which  is  prefixed  an  Inquiry  into : — the  Author  of  this  Epis- 
tle ;  when  it  was  written  ;  the  manner  of  citing  the  Old  Testa- 
ment ;  and  the  method  of  reasoning  in  it,  &c.  By  Arthur  Ash- 
ley Sykes,  D.D.     London,  1755,  4to. 

158.  Joannis  Augusti  Ernesti  Lectiones  Academicffi  in  Epis- 
tolam ad  Hebrteos  ab  ipso  revisje,  cum  pjusdem  excursibus  theo- 
logicis  edidit ;  Commentarium,  in  quo  multa  ad  recentissimorura 
imprimis  interpretum  scntentias  pcrtinentia  uberius  illustrantur, 
adjecit  Gotlib  Immanuel  Dindorf.     Lip.si»,  1815,  royal  8vo. 

These  Academic  Lectures  of  Ernesti  were  delivered  by  that  emi- 
nent scholar  and  divine  while  he  was  jn-ofessor  of  divinity  at  Lei|)- 
sic.  They  have  been  edited  from  his  corrected  copy,  with  various 
J  important  additions  by  Professor  Dindorf,  who  succeeded  him  in 
the  Hel)ri  w  chair  at  Leipsic.  These  are  included  between  brack- 
ets, with  the  initial  letter  D.,  and  require  to  be  read  with  caution 
Prof.  Diudorf's  sentiments  on  the  person  of  Christ  not  !)eing  the 
most  correct.  On  some  of  the  earlier  ciiaplers  there  are  also  somo 
marginal  observations  of  an  nnofiymous  pui)il  of  Ernesti's,  which 
arc  distinctly  marked.  Prolcssor  Stuart  characterizes  it  as  "  a  book 
of  real  worth  lu  a  critical  respect,  although  not  executetl  with 
much  taste  as  to  form  and  matter."  (On  the  Epistle  to  the  IIo- 
brev\s,  vol.  i.  p.  287.  American  edition  ;  or  j).  347.  Loniion  edition.) 

159.  A  Paraphrase  and  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the 
Hebrews.     By  Archibald  Maclean.    London,  1819,  2  vols.  Svo. 

100.  Epistola  ad  Hebrfpos,  Latin<i  versa  et  largo  explicata 
commentario,  a  Chr.  Frid.  Boeiime.     Lipsia;,  1823,  Svo. 

101.  Epitre  aux  Ilibreux,  divisee  d'nprcs  Ics  malicres,  avcc 
dea  sommaircH  indiquant  Ic  contenu  et  I'objet  de  cha<|ue  division 
ct  sous-division,  des  notes,  el  des  intercalations  explicativcs  en- 
tremcl(:8  au  tcxtc.     Geneve,  1824,  Svo. 

161*.  A  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews.  By 
Moses  SrrART,  Associate  Professor  of  Sarred  Literature  in  the 
Theological  Seminary  at  Andovcr,  United  States.  Andovcr, 
1827,  2  vols.  Svo.  Second  edition,  revised  and  enlarged,  1833, 
in  1  volume,  Pvo. 

This  masterly  work  originated  in  the  arduous  duties  incident  to 
the  office  which  Profe.ssor  Stuart  has  for  some  years  filled,  with 


Sect.  III.  §  6.]         COMMENTATORS  ON  DETACHED  BOOKS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


13d 


equal  credit  to  himself,  and  benefit  to  the  Theological  Seminary 
at  Andover.  To  borrow  the  just  character  given  of  his  labours  by 
the  English  editor  (the  Rev.  Dr.  Henderson) : — "  It  was  impossible 
for  any  person  who  had  perused  the  former  works  of  our  author 
not  to  hail  with  high  anticipations  the  present  production  as  a  most 
valuable  accession  to  biblical  literature.  Intimately  acquainted 
with  ihe  minutiae  of  Hebrew  grammar  ;  familiar  with  the  diversi- 
fied style  of  the  sacred  writers;  trained  by  long  study  of  the  laws 
of  biblical  exejresis  to  a  refined  and  matured  tact  in  seizing  the 
point,  the  bearing,  the  various  shades  and  ramifications  of  meaning 
couched  under  the  sacred  phraseology  ;  imbued  with  a  sincere 
Jove  of  divine  truth,  and  a  profound  reverence  for  its  dictates ;  and, 
withal,  endowed  with  a  manly  and  richly  cultivated  intellect,  he 
possesses  qualifications  peculiarly  fitting  him  for  the  performance 
of  a  work  replete  with  so  many  difficulties  as  that  of  a  Translation 
and  Critical  Commentary  on  the  Episile  to  the  Hebrews.  The 
ordeal  to  which  this  important  portion  of  Scripture  has  been  sub- 
jected by  the  wild  and  extravagant  hypotheses  of  some  of  the 
master-spirits  of  German  tiieology,  rendered  it  a  matter  of  impe- 
rious necessity  that  some  champion,  completely  accoutred  and  dis- 
ciplined to  the  battle,  should  step  forward  and  take  up  the  gauntlet 
which  they  have  so  fearlessly  and  vauntingly  thrown  down.  If 
we  mistake  not,  such  a  champion  has  here  entered  the  field,  and 
won  the  day.  Questions  respecting  style,  authorship,  and  interpre- 
tation, which  men  of  such  celebrity  as  Eichhorn,  Bertholdt,  De 
Wettc,  and  others,  were  considered  to  have  completely  set  at  rest, 
have  been  submitted  to  a  fresh  and  rigid  investigation;  and  in  most 
instances  triumphantly,  in  all  more  or  less  satisfactorily,  the  very 
reverse  of  their  conclusions  has  been  shown  to  be  in  accordance 
with  the  real  facts  of  the  case."     (Preface  to  the  English  edition, 

p.  V.) 

Tlie  topics  discussed  in  the  first  volume,  in  forty  sections, 
are — the  form  of  the  epistle ;  to  what  church  or  churches  it  was 
addressed  ;  its  antiquity  and  canonical  authority  ;  the  external  and 
internal  evidence  that  it  was  written  by  the  apostle  Paul,  who  is 
Bkost  decisively  .shown  to  have  been  it.s  author.  The  various  ob- 
jections of  Bertholdt,  Schulz,  Seyffarth,  De  Wette,  and  Boehrae, 
nrc  discussed,  and  satisfactorily  refuted  :  to  them  succeeds  a  con- 
sideration of  the  style  of  the  epistle  and  of  the  hypotheses  advo- 
cated by  some  learned  men,  who  have  severally  ascribed  it  to  Bar- 
nabas, Luke,  Clement  of  Rome,  and  to  Apollos.  These  hypotheses 
are  shown  to  be  destitute  of  foundation.  The  volume  concludes 
with  a  brief  notice  of  the  "  Critical  and  Exegetical  Helps"  to  the 
study  of  this  epistle.  The  second  volume  commences  with  a  new 
tran.slation  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  the  object  of  which  is 
ID  give  a  more  exact  view  of  the  features  of  the  original  Greek 
than  is  presented  by  the  authorized  English  version.  This  transla- 
tion is  followed  by  an  admirable  continuous  commentary  upon  the 
whole  epistle.  When  difficulties  demanded  special  and  extended 
investigation,  he  has  thrown  the  result  of  such  investigation  into 
excursus  at  the  end,  after  the  method  pursued  by  Heinrichs,  Koppe, 
Dindori,  and  other  German  philologers  and  critics  ;  because  diffi- 
cult subjects  can  there  be  treated  and  studied  witli  more  conve- 
nience, and  also  more  fully,  than  if  intermixed  with  the  usual 
series  of  exegetical  notes.  The  London  reprint  has  been  edited 
with  great  care  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Henderso.v. 

iG2.  A  literal  Translation  of  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brews, from  the  original  Greek,  with  copious  explanatory  notes. 
By  the  late  Rev.  George  Vaughan  Sampsox,  M.A.  Edited  by 
his  son,  the  Rev.  G.  V.  Sampson,     London,  1828,  8vo. 

1 63.  Christiani  Theophili  Kuixoel  Commentarius  in  Epis- 
tolam  ad  Hebrceos.     Lipsice,  1831,  8vo. 

"With  the  idiom  and  spirit  of  Paul's  writings,  I  cannot  help 
thinking  him  to  be  but  very  moderately  acquainted.  On  questions 
of  higher  criticism  he  details  with  a  good  deal  of  brevity  and 
accuracy  what  others  have  said  ;  but  he  adds  nothing  to  the  stock 
of  thought  already  before  the  world."  (Prof  Stuart,  in  the  An- 
dover Biblical  Repository,  January,  1833,  vol.  iii.  p.  160.) 

164.  G.  M.  Amthor  Commentatio  Exegctico-Dogmatica  in 
tres  priores  versus  capitis  primi  Epistolse  ad  Hebraeos  scriptae. 
Coburgi,  1828,  8vo. 

165.  De  Epistolaj,  qua  dicitur  ad  Hebrseos,  Indole  maxime 
pcculiari  Librum  composuit  Traugott  Augustus  Setffarth. 
Lipsiae,  1821,  8vo. 

An  elaborate  investigation  of  the  style,  scope,  &c.  of  the  Epistle 
to  the  Hebrews ;  the  main  object  of  which  is,  to  disprove  the 
Pauline  origin  of  this  epistle.  Dr.  Seyffarth's  hypothesis  is  com- 
pletely refuted  by  Professor  Stuart  in  his  Commentary  on  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  vol.  i.  $  28. 

le.'i*.  Petri  HofTstedc  deGnooT  Disputatio  qua  Epistola  ad 
Hcbraeos  cum  Paulinis  Epistolis  comparatur.  Trajecti  ad  Rhe- 
num,  1826,  8vo. 

The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  is  here  collated  with  the  other 
writings  of  St.  Paul :  at  the  end  there  is  an  index,  showing  under 
various  heads  the  coincidence  between  them.  It  is  a  very  valuable 
tract. 

166.  Essai  Critique  sur  I'Authenticite  de  I'Epitre  aux  H^- 
breux.     Par  Henry-Louis  Laharpe.     Toulouse,  1832,  8vo. 

Vol.  II.  4  L 


This  academical  disquisition,  which  was  publicly  defended 
before  the  Theological  Faculty  at  Montauban  for  the  degree  of 
Bachelor  in  Divinity,  is  partly  translated  and  partly  abridged  with 
much  judgment  from  the  first  Volume  of  Professor  Stuart's  Com- 
mentary on  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrevis. 

167.  Vindicia;  Originis  Paulinffi  ad  Hebrseos  Epistola,  nova 
ratione  tentataj  a  Frid.  Christ.  Gelpke.  Lugduni  Batavorum, 
1S32,  8vo. 

The  object  of  this  disquisition  is  to  prove  the  Pauline  origin  of 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  from  the  coincidence  of  sentiments 
and  expressions  which  the  author  conceives  he  has  feund  between 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  and  some  of  Seneca's  writings;  which 
coincidence,  he  is  of  opinion,  cannot  be  fortuitous,  but  is  solely  to 
be  derived  from  Paul's  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  Roman 
Philosopher.  He  further  argues  in  favor  of  the  historical  tradition 
respecting  Paul's  intimacy  with  Seneca,  and  endeavours  to  show, 
from  internal  criteria  of  time,  that  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  was 
written  during  the  continuance  of  that  intimacy.  The  hypothesis 
is  maintainfed  with  great  ingenuity,  though  it  will  not  (we  appre- 
hend) carry  conviction  to  the  minds  of  its  readers. 

THE  SEVEN  CATHOLIC  EPISTLES.' 

168.  Gottlob  Christiani  Storr  opusculum  de  Catholicarum 
Epistolarum  occasione  et  scopo.  (In  the  second  volume  of  his 
collected  Opuscula,  pp.  367—415.) 

169.  A  Practical  Paraphrase  on  the  Seven  Catholic  Epistles, 
after  the  manner  of  Dr.  Clarke's  Paraphrase  on  the  Four  Evan- 
gelists.    By  Samuel  Collet.     London,  1734,  8vo. 

170.  Epistolarum  Catholicarum  Soptenarius,  Graece,  cum  nova 
ver.'sione  Latina,  ac  scholiis  grammaticis  atque  criticis,  opera  Joh. 
Benedicti  Cahpzovii.     Hate,  1790,  8vo. 

In  this  work,  the  received  Greek  text  of  the  Seven  Catholic 
Epistles  is  retained,  and  the  punctuation  is  corrected  where  the 
editor  deemed  correction  necessary.  The  new  Latin  version, 
which  is  printed  with  the  Greek  text,  is  very  close :  and  in  his 
scholia  or  notes  Professor  Carpzov  has  vindicated  his  rendering  of 
particular  passages,  or  discussed  various  readings  of  importance; 
and  has  also  illustrated  the  peculiar  idioms  occurring  in  these 
epistles,  especially  those  of  St.  John. 

SAINT  JAMES,  AND    1   AND   2  PETER. 

171.  Annotatio  ad  Epistolam  Jacobi  perpetua  cum  brevi  Trac- 
talione  Isagogica.  Scripsit  Matth.  Schreckenburgeu.  Stutt- 
gardias,  1832,  8vo. 

172.  Commentarius  in  Epistolam  Jacobi.  Conscripsit  Car. 
Godofr.  Guil.  Tueile.     Lipsiss,  1833,  8vo. 

173.  A  Practical  Commentary,  or  an  Exposition  with  Notes 
on  the  Epistle  of  James.  By  Thomas  Manton.  London, 
1653,  4to. 

173*.  Sam.  Frid.  Nathan.  Mori  Prailectiones  in  Jacobi  et 
Petri  Epistolas.     Edidit  C.  A.  Donat.     Lipsiae,  1794,  8vo. 

174.  A  Commentary  on  the  First  Epistle  of  Peter,  by  Robert 
Leighton,  D.D.  Archbishop  of  Glasgow.  2  vols.  8vo.  Various 
editions. 

This  admirable  commentary,  which  fills  the  first  two  volumes 
of  Archbishop  Leighton's  works,  is  wholly  practical,  and  has  long 
been  admired  for  its  piety.  Dr.  Doddridge,  in  his  paraphrase  on 
this  Epistle,  has  acknowledged  himself  deeply  indebted  to  Arch- 
bishop Leighton  for  many  important  hints. 

175.  Huberti  Philippi  de  Kanter  Commentatio  in  locum 
1  Petri  V.  1 — 4.     Lugduni  Batavorum,  1823,  4to. 

1 76.  In  secundam  S.  Petri  Apostoli  Epistolam  Commentarius. 
Auctore  Thoma  Smith,  S.T.P.  In  pp.  177—372.  of  his  Mis- 
cellanea.    Londifli,  1690,  8vo. 

177.  A  Dissertation  on  2  Pet.  i.  16 — 21.  in  which  the  Force 
of  the  Apostle's  reasoning  is  shown,  and  the  connection  of  the 
whole  passage  is  explained.  By  William  Primatt.  London, 
1751,  8vo. 

178.  A  Dissertation  upon  the  controverted  passages  in  St. 
Peter  and  St.  Jude  concerning  the  Angels  that  sinned,  and  who 
kept  not  their  first  estate.  By  Samuel  Henlet.  London. 
1778,  8vo. 

1,  2,  AND   3   JOHN. 

179.  Epistolae  tres  Cathohcae  S.  Joannis  Grace,  notis  illustratje 
a  Leonhardo  Christophoro  Rdhlio.    Amstelodami,  1739,  12mo. 

180.  Sam.  Frid.  Nath.  Mori  Prajlectiones  Exegetica  in  tres 
Johannis  Epistolas,  cum  nova  earundem  paraphrasi  Latina. 
Cura  C,  A.  Hempel.     Lipsiae,  1797,  8vo. 

This  work  contains  a  free  Latin  version  of  St.  John's  three 
Epistles,  as  it  was  dictated  by  the  late  celebrated  Professor  Morus 

»The  Paraphrases  of  Dr.  Benson  on  these  Epistles  have  already  been 
noticed  in  No.  74,  p.l31.  of  this  Appendix. 


140 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  IL  Chap.  V, 


in  his  Divinity  Lectures,  together  with  his  observations  on  it,  and 
two  critical  Excursus,  one  of  which  relates  to  the  disputed  pas- 
sage in  1  John  v.  7,  8. 

181.  A  Commentary  upon  the  First,  Second,  and  Third 
Epistles  of  Saint  John.  By  Thomas  Hawkins.  London, 
1808,  8vo. 

182.  Joh.  Jac.  Rambosvf.t,  Specimen  Acadcmicum  de  Sc- 
cunda  Epistola  Johannea.     Trajecti  ad  Klicnum,  1819,  8vo. 

183.  Versio  Latina  Epistolarura  et  Libri  Visorum  Joannis 
Novi  Testamenti,  pcrpetua  adnotalionc  illustrata  a  M.  Godofr. 
Sigismund.  Iaspis.  Edilio  altera,  novis  curis  emendata  et  aucta. 
Lipsis,  1821,  8vo. 

JCDE. 

184.  An  Exposition  of  the  Epistle  of  Judo.  By  William 
Jekktn.     London,  1 052-54,  2  vols.  4to. 

185.  A  Practical  Commentary,  or  an  Exposition,  with  Notes, 
on  the  Epistle  of  Judc.  By  Thomas  Mantox,  B.D.  London, 
1658,  4to. 

186.  Hermann!  Witsii  Commentarius  in  Epistolam  Judse. 
Lug.  Bat.  1703,  4to. 

A  learned,  elegant,  and  perspicuous  illustration  of  the  Epistle  of 
Jude. 

187.  Epistola  Juda;,  Grsccc,  commentario  critico  et  annotatione 
perpctua  illustrata,  a  Henr.  Carl.  Alex.  Haenleix.  Erlangx, 
1799,  8vo. 

188.  Collectanea,  sive  Not®  Criticae  et  Commentarius  in 
Epistolam  Jud;c.  Accedunt  de  fonte  Doctrina;,  et  Dictionis 
Judaj  genere  et  colere,  Dissertationcs  huae.  Auctore  M.  T. 
LAcnMAKK.     Groningac,  1818,  8vo. 

189.  A.  Jessiex,  do  Auianux  Epistolte  Judae  Commentatio 
Critica-     Lipsiie,  1820,  Svo. 

THE  HEVELATION  OF  SAIST  JORK. 

190.  Li  the  second  tome  or  part  of  Mr.  Hugh  BnoucnTox's 
works  (pp.  408 — 522.),  there  is  an  expiisition  or  interpretation 
of  the  iicvelation  of  Saint  John,  entitled  "  A  Revelation  of  the 
Holy  Apocalypse."  The  learned  writer  expounds  it  chiefly  of 
the  corruptions  of  the  Church  of  Rome. 

191.  Clavis  Apocalyptica  ex  iiinatis  et  insitis  Visionum 
Characteribus  eruta  et  dcmonstrata  a  Jo.sepho  Mede. — Ejusdem 
Coniriicntarius  in  Apocalypsin,  et  Appendix  ad  Clavem  Apoca- 
lypticam. 

These  excellent  treatises  "of  the  pious  and  profoundly  learned" 
Joseph  Mede  (as  he  is  justly  styled  in  the  liile-page  to  tlxe  collec- 
tive edition  of  his  works)  were  originally  published  in  4lo.,  but  now 
form,  together  with  some  olherdisquisilions  on  prophecy,  the  second 
volume  of  the  folio  edition  of  his  works.  Mede  is  universally  al- 
lowed to  have  led  the  way  to  a  correct  and  rational  intcrprolalion 
of  the  Apocalypse.  The  examination  of  his  Clavis  occupies  the 
thief  part  of  Bi.shop  Hurd's  tenth  sermon  on  the  study  of  the  pro- 
phecies ;  and  that  eminent  prelate,  after  adverting  to  the  tiumerous 
and  abortive  altempls  to  explain  this  mysterious  book,  which  were 
made  soon  after  the  Kflbrmation,  has  the  following  striking  remark 
concerning  Mede:  —  "The  issue  of  much  elaborate  inquiry  was, 
that  tlie  Ivxik  itself  was  disgraced  by  the  fruitless  efforts  of  its  coin- 
menyitors,  and  on  the  |«)int  of  being  given  up  ns  utterly  impene- 
trable, when  a  suhlnne  ijeiiius  arose  in  the  beginning  of  the  last 
century,  and  surprised  the  learned  world  with  that  great  desidera- 
tum— a  key  to  the  Kcvelalious."  (Works,  vol.  v.  p.  270.)  The  tenth 
of  Bishop  Hurd's  sermons  on  the  prophecies  discu.sscs,  after  Mede, 
the  iuler|)rclation  of  the  Apocalyj)se. 

192.  Clavis  Apocalyptica,  or  the  Key  to  the  Apocalypse, 
educed  and  demonstrated  from  the  natural  and  internal  Charac- 
ters of  the  Visions ;  for  the  use  of  those  to  whom  God  hath 
impartial  the  love  and  desire  of  searching  into,  and  understanding 
that  wonderful  Pro[ihery,  By  Joseph  Mkdk,  B.D.  'i'ranslated 
by  a  Clergyman  of  the  Established  Church.  London,  1831, 
12mo. 

193.  A  Translation  of  Me<le'B  Clavis  Apocalyptica.  By  R. 
Brausby  Cooi'KK,  Esq.     Londr)n,  18.33,  8 vo. 

193*.  A  Commentary  on  the  Revelation  of  St.  John.  By  R. 
Bransby  Coopkk,  E.sq.     London,  1833,  8vo. 

"  The  first  of  these  pul)lications  will  be  a  very  ncceplnblo  present 
to  the  F.iiKli!^h  MliidcMl  of  lb«f  Bible;  an,  in  having  MimN^'h  views 
•et  before  him,  ho  will  fertninly  have  those  of  the  nuiiiuI)  .st  writer 
on  pnji.hcry  unfulfillol.  The  hccoiiiI  work  is  also  vnluublo,  as  the 
conunentary  is  ni^irly  founded  u|H)n  Mede's  viewH,  and  Mr.  C<Ki|)er 

faints  out  where  he  has  gone  beyond  them."     (British  Magazine, 
line,  1833,  p.  C92.) 

194.  Anacrisis  Aporalypseos  Joannis  Apostoli,  cpia  in  vrrnw 
intcprctandiB  ejus  bypolhcscs  diligentcr  in^uiritur,  ct  ex  iisdcni 


interpretatio  facta,  certis  historiarum  monumentis  confirmatur  et 
illustratur,  tum  quoque  qute  Meldensis  Prjcsul  Bossuetus  hujus 
libri  commentario  sujjposuit,  et  exegetico  Protestantium  syste- 
mati  in  visis  de  Bestia  ac  Babylone  Myslica  objocit,  sedulo 
examinantur.  Auctore  Campegio  Vithixga.  Amstelajdami, 
1719,  4to.  ,       - 

1 95.  A  Perpetual   Commentary  on  the  Revelation  of  Saint      I 
John,  with  a  Preliminary  Discourse  concerning  the  Principles      ' 
upon  which  the  said  Revelation  is  to  be  understood.    By  Charles 
Daiulz    M.A.     New  modelled,  abridged,  and  rendered  plain  to 
the  meanest  capacity,  by  Peter  Lancaster,  A.M.     London,  1730, 

4  to. 

The  best  edition  of  an  elaborate  and  very  useful  work,  of  which 
later  writers  have  not  failed  to  avail  themselves.  Daubuz's  work 
was  first  printed  in  folio,  1780. 

196.  The  Scrij)ture  Preservative  against  Popery;  being  a 
Paraphrase  with  Notes  on  the  Revelation  of  St..  John.  By 
Thomas  Ptle,  M.A.     London,  1735,  8vo.  1795,  2d  edition. 

This  volume  completes  the  Paraphrase  on  the  New  Testament, 
after  the  manner  of  Dr.  Clarke.  Mr.  Pyle's  Paraphrase  on  the  Acta 
and  Epistles  is  noticed  in  p.  131.  No.  2.  supra. 

197.  A  Paraphrase  and  Notes  on  the  Revelation  of  Saint 
John.  By  Moses  Lowman.  2d  edit.  London,  1745,  4to.  Lon- 
don, 18U7,  Svo.  4th  edition.- 

Bishop  Tomline  includes  this  work  in  his  list  of  Iwolcs  for  clergy- 
men and  biblical  students.  Dr.  Doddridge  has  said  of  it,  that  he 
"  has  received  more  satifaction  from  it,  with  respect  to  many  diffi- 
culties" in  the  book  of  Revelation,  than  he  "ever  found  elsewhere, 
or  expected  to  have  found  at  all."  (Works,  vol.  ii.  Leeds  t-dil.  p.  37.) 
He  has  given  an  abstract  of  Mr  Lowman's  scheme  of  interpretation 
in  his  229th  lecture.  (Works,  vol.  v.  pp.  410 — 414.)  Lowman's 
scheme  of  the  seven  seals  is  also  approved  by  the  late  Rev.  David 
Simpson,  in  his  "  Key  to  the  Prophecies"  (p.  582.),  as  more  consistent 
with  history  than  that  of  Bishop  Newton,  printed  in  the  second 
volume  of  his  dissertations  on  the  projihecies. 

198.  Bexgelius's  Introduction  to  his  Exposition  of  the  Apo- 
calypse; with  his  preface,  and  the  greatest  part  of  the  conclusion 
of  it ;  and  also  his  marginal  Notes  on  the  text,  which  are  a 
summary  of  the  whole  exposition.  Translated  from  the  high 
Dutch,  by  John  Rohertsox,  M.D.     London,  1757,  8vo, 

See  an  account  of  this  work  in  the  Monthly  Review,  O.  S.  vol. 
xviii.  pp  25 — 28.  The  substance  of  Bcngel's  exjwsi lory  w  filings 
on  the  Apocalypse  is  giveri  in  the  Kev.  John  Wesley's  notes  men- 
tioned in  p  131   No.  12.  of  this  Appendix. 

199.  The  Revelations  translated,  and  explained  throughout; 
with  keys,  illustrations,  notes,  and  comments ;  a  copious  intro- 
duction, argument,  and  conclusion.  By  VV.  Couke,  Greek  Pro- 
fessor at  Cambridge,  &c.      1789,  Svo. 

"A  writer  who  can  discover"  (as  Mr.  Cooke  has  done)  "  the  Jewish 
church  in  the  Iliad,  and  ("hristianily  in  the  Odys.sey,  may  certainly 
find  whatever  he  pleases  in  the  Book  of  Revelation ;  but  it  is  not 
ctjually  certain  that  he  is  qualified  to  detect  the  fallacies  of  Joseph 
Mede,  and  to  prove  him  mistaken,  ihlse,  and  erroneous.  Thou^'h 
the  author  professes  to  '  have  lighted  the  taper  of  God's  truth  from 
the  kindled  incense  of  prayers,'  and  though  he  may  expect  that  it 
will  'flume  like  a  fire-brand,  fling  and  bounce,  and  run,  singeing 
and  scorching  wherever  it  touches,'  we  have  been  so  unfortunnlc 
as  not  to  receive  from  this  flaming  t.ipcr  a  single  ray  to  guide  u< 
throiich  this  region  of  darkness."  (^lonthlv  Review,  N.  S.  vol.  iii. 
p.  148.) 

200.  Commentarius  in  Apocalypsin  Joannis.  Scripsit  Jo. 
Gothofr.  EicHHOux.     Gotting»,  1792,  2  vols,  small  Svo. 

The  hypothesis  of  the  cclc!)rated  Profes.sor  Eiclihorn  is,  that  the 
Revelation  of  Saint  John  is  a  prophetic  drama,  the  true  subject  of 
which  is  the  spiritual  victory  of  Christianity  over  Judaism  and 
Paganism.  As  this  Commentary  on  lim  .Aporalyi'se  is  not  of  wry 
frequent  nccurronci!  in  this  country,  the  following  aljstract  of  his 
sciieme  may  be  not  unac«'e|)tahlp  to  the  reader.  lie  divides  the 
Apor:alypse  into  four  parts,  viz.  1.  The  Title; — 2.  The  Prologue  • 
itself; — 3.  The  Drama  itself; — and  4.  The  Epilogue. 

1.  The  Title,  (i.  1—3.) 

2.  The  Prologue  (i.  4. — iii.  22.),  in  winch  it  is  slated  that  the  nrgu- 
nieni  of  the  drama  belongs  to  the  Christians;  Epistles  lo  the 
churches  being  added,  wliich  in  the  Hymbolic  style  of  the  poem 
ore  renreseuted  bv  the  number  seven. 

3.  'J'lie  l>rnma  itself  (iv.  1. — xxii.  5.)  which  consists  of  a  prelude 
and  three  acts  ! ! ! 

In   the  Prelude  (iv.  1. — viii.  5.),  the  scenery   is   preptirud  and 

adorned. 
Acr  1.  Jerusalem   i.s  taken,  i.  o.  Judaism  is  conquered  by  the 

(,'hrisiian  Keligioii.  (vii.  f). — xii.  17.) 
Act  II.  Kome  is  captured;  i.e.  Paganism  is  subdued  by  the 

Chrisliiin  Religion,  (xi.  18. — xx.  10.) 
Act  III.    The  New  Jeriibulem  descends  from  heaven;  or  the 

happiness  of  the  life  to  come,  which  is  to  endure  fur  ever,  is 

described.  (XX.  11. — xxii.  6.) 
4   The  Epilogue,  (xxu  0—21.; 


Sect.  III.  §  6.]  COMMENTATORS  ON  DETACHED  BOOKS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 


141 


a.  Of  the  Angel,  (xxii.  6.) 

b.  Of  Jesus  Christ,  (xxii.  7 — 16.) 

c.  Of  Saint  John,  who  denounces  a  curse  against  those  who  shall 
add  to  or  diminish  the  predictions  contained  in  this  book  (xxii. 
16 — 20.),  and  concludes  with  an  apostolical  benediction.  (21.) 

The  hypotiiesis  of  Eichhorn  (we  understand)  was  attacked  and 
refuted  by  M.  Lange,  in  his  German  translation  of  the  Apocalypse. 

201.  A  Commentary  on  the  Revelations.  By  Bryce  Joiin- 
STONi:,  D.D.     Edinburgh,  1794,  2  vols.  8vo. 

This  work  we  have  not  had  an  opportunity  of  seeing:  it  is  stated 
by  Dr.  E.  Williams  to  be  "  well  calculated  for  general  use,  being 
written  with  great  perspicuity,  and  in  a  popular  practical  strain." 
(Christian  Preacher,  Appendix,  p.  437.) 

202.  Reflections  sur  i'Apocalypse.  Par  E.  Gibert,  Minister 
»lc  la  Chapelle  Royale,  et  Rccteur  de  St.  Andre  dans  I'lsle  de 
(iuemscy.     Guernsey,  1790,  8vo. 

Plain,  pious,  and  practical.  The  learned  author  has  chiefly  fijl- 
lowed  the  exposition  given  by  Bisliop  Newton  in  the  second  volume 
of  his  Dissertations  on  the  Prophecies. 

203.  Practical  Observations  on  the  Revelation  of  Saint  John, 
written  in  the  year  1775.  By  the  late  Mrs.  Bowdleh.  2d  edit. 
Bath,  1800,  12mo. 

This  work  is  expre.s.sly  designed  for  those  who  have  not  leisure 
or  inclination  to  examine  the  prophetical  meaning  of  the  Apocalypse. 
"Many  such  readers  will  doubtless  be  found  ;  and  whoever  takes 
up  the  book  with  a  serious  mind,  will  be  e<lified  by  the  good  sense, 
piety,  and  modesty  of  the  writer."  (British  Critic,  O.  S.  vol.  xvi. 
p.  561.) 

204.  A  Commentary  on  the  Revelation  of  Saint  John,  accom- 
panied with  Historical  Testimony  of  its  accomplishment  to  the 
present  day.  By  the  Rev.  E.  W.  Whitakek.  London,  1802, 
Svo. 

The  present  work  is  an  enlarged  edition  of  a  small  work  on  the 
prophecies,  originally  printed  in  1795.  The  autl^or  "has  the  pecu- 
liar merit  of  compelling  the  historian  Gibbon  to  give  testimony,  in 
almost  every  instance  that  falls  within  the  limits  of  his  chronology, 
10  the  fulfilment  of  the  prophecies."  The  points  insisted  on  by 
Mr.  Whitaker,  he  "  has  succinctly  handled,  and  reasoned  upon  each 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  render  his  work,  if  not  decisive  upon  the 
subject,  yet  loo  important  not  to  become  a  book  of  reference  and 
authority  to  future  commentators."  (British  Critic,  vol.  xxiii.  O.  S. 
Pref.  p.  iv.  and  p.  252.) 

205.  Brief  Commentaries  upon  such  parts  of  the  Revelation 
and  other  Prophecies  as  immediately  refer  to  the  present  times. 
By  Joseph  Gallowat,  Esq.     London,  1802,  Svo. 

206.  The  Apocalypse,  or  Revelation  of  Saint  John,  translated, 
with  Notes  critical  and  explanatory.  To  which  is  prefixed  a 
Dissertation  on  the  divine  origin  of  the  book,  in  answer  to  the 
objections  of  the  late  Professor  Michaelis ;  with  a  biographical 
chart  of  writers  in  the  early  Christ iai;  church  who  appear  to 
have  afforded  evidence  in  favour  of  the  Apocalypse.  By  John 
Chappel  WooDHOusE,  D.D.     London,  1806,  royal  Svo. 

"  This,"  said  the  late  Bishop  Kurd,  "  is  the  best  book  of  the  kind 
I  have  seen.  It  owes  its  superiority  to  two  things,  —  the  author's 
understanding,  for  the  most  part,  the  apocalyptic  symbols  in  a  spi- 
ritual, not  a  literal  sense  :  secondly,  to  the  care  he  has  taken  to  fix 
the  precise  import  of  those  symbols,  from  the  use  made  of  them  by 
the  old  prophetical  and  other  writers  of  the  Old  and  ?>few  Testa- 
ment. Still  many  difficulties  remain,  and  will  remain  to  the  time 
of  the  end."  (Mann script  note  of  (he  lale  Bishop  Hiird,  on  a  blank 
leaf  of  a  presentation  copy  of  this  worJi,  in  the  library  of  Hartlebury. 
See  Gentleman's  Magazine,,  vol.  Ixxviii.  part  ii.  p.  702.)  After  such 
commendation,  any  furtlier  observation  is  unnecessaiy.  The  text 
of  the  Apocalypse  is  liandsomely  printed  in  three  columns,  contain- 
ing the  Greek  text  of  Griesbach's  second  edition  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, Dr.  W.'s  own  translation  from  it,  and  the  authorized  version, 
from  which  he  never  departs  but  when  the  sense  requires  it.  The 
reader  who  is  desirous  of  seeing  analyses  of  this  most  excellent 
work,  may  consult  the  British  Critic,  O.  S.  vol.  xxix.  pp.  190 — 200. ; 
and  the  Eclectic  Review,  O.  S,  vol.  ii.  part  ii.  pp.  214-— 222. 

207.  Annotations  on  the  Apocalypse,  intended  as  a  sequel  to 
those  of  Mr.  Elsley  on  the  Gospels,  aud  Mr.  Slade  on  the 
Epistles.  For  the  Use  of  Students  in  Prophetical  Scripture. 
By  John  Chappel  Woodhouse,  D.D.,  Dean  of  Litchfield.  Lon- 
don, 1828,  Svo. 

The  commendations  bestowed  by  the  late  Bishop  Hurd  upon  Dr. 
Woodhouse's  larger  publication  (just  noticed)  are  equally  applicable 
to  his  present  work,  in  which  piety  and  philology  are  happily  united. 
Tfhe  notes  are  partly  abridged  from  his  former  translation  of  the 
Apocalypse,  and  are  partly  new  :  the  Greek  text  of  the  original, 
and  the  improved  version  of  Dr.  W.,  are  here  omitted  ;  and  the 
text  of  St.  John,  according  to  the  authorized  English  version,  is 
divided  into  parts  and  sections,  w-ith  a  view  to  a  more  complete 
arrangement  and  illustration  of  this  prophetic  book,  the  genuine- 
ness and  divine  inspiration  of  which  are  most  satisfactorily  vindi- 
cated from  the  objections  of  the  late  learned  Professor,  Sir  J.  D. 
Michaelis,  in  a  preliminary  disquisition.    Although  Dr.  Woodhouse 


offers  his  volume  "  as  a  sequel"  to  the  compilations  of  Messrs.  Els- 
ley and  Slade  (noticed  in  p.  131.  No.  10.  and  p.  135.  No.  79.  supra). 
it  may  be  most  advaniageously  consulted  and  studied  as  a  distinct 
work ;  being  sufficiently  critical  for  the  use  of  the  scholar,  at  the 
same  time  that  its  perspicuity  renders  it  highly  valuable  to  ordinary 
readers. 

208.  England  Safe  and  Triumphant :  or  Researches  into  the 
Apocalyptic  Little  Book,  and  Prophecies,  connected  and  synchro- 
nical.  By  the  Rev.  Francis  Turustox,  M.A.  Coventry  and 
London,  1812,  2  vols.  Svo. 

"  Among  many  interpretations  of  the  Divine  Book  of  the  Reve- 
lation, here  is  one  which  expressly  views  in  it  the  permanency  of 
the  church  of  England,  and  its  prevalence  over  all  othet|[ienomina- 
tions  of  the  Christian  world !  Much  as  we  are  inclinecTto  believe 
that  there  is  a  strong  foundation  of  truth  in  what  this  author  urges, 
in  conformity  with  other  sound  interpreters,  or  built  on  their  posi- 
tions, we  cannot  but  thmk  in  many  places,  particularly  towards  the 
latter  end  of  his  work,  he  is  rather  too  rapid  in  forming  his  deduc- 
tions and  conclusions;  in  some  of  which  we  confess  ourselves 
unable  to  follow  him."  (British Critic,  O.S.  vol.xxxiii.  pp.593.  595. > 

209.  A  Dissertation  on  the  Dragon,  Beast,  and  False  Prophet 
of  the  Apocalypse;  in  which  the  number  ^66  is  satisfactorily 
explained  :  and  also  a  full  illustration  of  Daniel's  Vision  of  the 
Ram  and  He-Goat.  By  James  Edward  Clarke-.  London,  1814, 
Svo. 

"  We  cannot  agree  with  the  author  in  many  of  his  explanations ; 
yet  we  have  read  his  work  with  some  degree  of  satisfaction,  and 
think  he  has  succeeded  in  throwing  additional  light  on  some  of 
the  obscure  subjects  which  he  undertakes  to  illustrate."  (Eclectic 
Review,  N.  S.  vol.  iv.  p.  289.) 

210.  A  Dissertation  on  the  Seals  and  Trumpets  of  the  Apo- 
calypse, and  the  Prophetical  Period  of  twelve  hundred  and  sixty 
years.  By  William  Cuninghabie,  Esq.  London,  1813.  Third 
Edition,  1833,  Svo. 

For  a  copious  analysis  of  this  soberly  written  and  truly  valuable 
work  (now  very  materially  improved),  see  the  Christian  Observer, 
for  1814,  vol.  xiii.  pp.  16^}— 180.) 

210*.  On  the  Jubilean  Chronology  of  the  Seventh  Tnampet 
of  the  Apocalypse,  and  the  Judgment  of  the  Ancient  of  Days, 
Dan.  vii.  9. ;  with  a  brief  account  of  the  Discoveries  of  Mons.  de 
Chesaux  as  to  the  great  Astronomical  Cycles  of  2300  and  1260 
years,  and  their  difference,  1040  years.  By  William  Cuxing- 
HA5IE,  Esq.     London  and  Edinburgh,  18.34,  Svo. 

211.  The  Prophetic  History  of  the  Christian  Revelation  Ex- 
plained; or  a  Brief  Exposition  of  the  Revelation  of  Saint  John. 
By  the  Rev.  George  Schmucker,  Pastor  of  the  Evangelical 
Lutheran  Church,  York  Town,  Pennsylvania.  Vol.  L  Baltimore, 
1817,  Svo.     [This  work  has  not  been  completed.] 

211*.  Apocalypsis  Greece.  Perpetua  Annotatione  illustrata 
a.  Joanne  Henrico  Heinrichs.  Gottingse,  1821.  3  parts  oi 
vols.  Svo. 

Though  published  as  a  detached  work,  this  commentary  on  tha 
Apocalypse  forms  part  m  the  Novum  Testamentum  Koppianum 
(noticed  in  p.  127.  No.  16.  of  this  Appendix),  of  which  it  consti- 
tutes the  tenth  volume.  After  Eichhorn,  Grotius,  Hug,  and  othe? 
modern  continental  critics,  Dr.  Heinrichs  considers  the  Apocalypse 
as  a  sacred  poem  representing,  in  a  dramatic  form  (the  scenery  of 
which  is  chiefly  borrowed  from  the  ancient  prophets),  the  final 
triumph  of  Christianity  over  Judaism  and  Paganism;  the  threa 
cities  of  Sodom,  Babylon,  and  Jerusalem, — or  the  Matron,  tha 
Harlot,  and  the  Bride, — being  intended  to  represent  those  thre« 
systems.  Heinrichs  does  not  adhere  to  the  artificial  divisions  of 
Eichhorn,  of  which  we  have  given  an  abstract  in  page  140. 

212.  M.  T.  Laurmann  Prailectio  de  imaginum  sive  figura» 
rum  poeticarum  in  Apocalypsi  Joannea,  indole  atque  pretia, 
Groninga;,  1822,  Svo. 

213.  The  Chronology  of  the  Apocalypse,  investigated  and 
defended.     By  John  Overtox.     London,  1822,  Svo. 

214.  A  concise  Exposition  of  the  Apocalypse,  so  far  as  th« 
Prophecies  are  fulfilled;  several  of  which  are  interpreted  in  a 
different  way  from  that  adopted  by  other  Commentators.  By  J. 
R.  Park,  M.D.     London,  1823,  Svo. 

The  author  of  this  work  regards  the  Apocalypse  as  being  alto- 
gether a  spiritual  and  not  a  political  prophecy;  that  is,  as  relating 
exclusively  to  the  progress  of  true  religion,  and  not  to  the  history 
of  the  Roiiian  Empire.  This  general  principle  is  derived  from  the 
excellent  work  of  Dean  Woodhouse,  noticed  in  the  preceding 
column,  to  which  Dr.  Park  acknowledges  his  obligations,  and 
which  he  has  for  the  most  part  taken  as  his  guide.  ""This  concise 
exposition  deserves  to  be  recommended  as  a  useful  outline  ot  the 
Apocalyptic  Predictions  and  their  fulfilment."  (Eclectic  Review 
N.  S.  vol.  xxii.  p.  341.) 

215.  Dissertations  introductory  to  the  Study  and  Right  Un 
derstanding  of  the  Language,  Structure,  and  Contents  of  tlw 


142 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  IL  Cbap.  V. 


By  Alexander  Tiirocii,  LL.D.    London,  1823, 


Apocalypse 
8vo. 

These  dissertations  are  seven  in  number.  In  the  first  two  Dr. 
Tilloch  has  very  ingeniously,  but  we  think  not  satisfactorily, 
endeavoured  to  show  that  the  ApKJcalypse  was  one  of  the  earliest- 
written  books  of  the  New  Testament;  but  tlie  weiglit  of  historical 
evidence  we  have  siiown  in  the  present  volume  of  this  work  (see 
pp.  381,  382.)  is  decidedly  in  favour  of  the  late  date  of  the  Apoca- 
lypse. The  remainuig  five  dissertations  contain  many  ingenious 
observations  on  the  language  and  style  of  this  prophetic  book. 
"There  is  much  ingenuity  displayed  in  these  pages,  and  many 
remarks  occur  in  them  tiiat  are  deserving  of  consideration  ;  but 
we  regret  to  be  obliged  to  add,  that  the  learned  author  has  fre- 
quently Ifcntured  assertions  wholly  gratuitous,  in  order  to  support 
a  favourite  hypothesis,  to  which  he  had  obviously  determined  that 
every  fact  should  be  made  to  bend ;  and  that  he  has  conducted 
many  of  the  discussions  in  the  volume  before  us  in  a  manner  that 
must  be  pronounced,  by  every  impartial  reader,  not  only  unfair, 
but  in  some  instances  disingenuous."  The  author  "  may  fairly  be 
represented  as  having  brought  under  the  notice  of  biblical  students 
some  very  interesting  topics,  and  he  has  furnished  many  ingenious 
and  curious  remarks  on  the  several  subjects  of  his  Dissertations, 
although,  in  but  too  many  cases,  he  has  exhibited  them  in  a  crude 
and  unsubstantial  form.  (Eclectic  Review,  N.  S.  vol.  xxiii.  pp. 
343.  3G0.) 

210.  An  E.xplanation  of  the  Apocalypse  or  Revelation  of  St. 
John.     By  Alexander  S.mtth.     Washington  City,  1825,  12mo. 

The  ainhor  of  this  publication  (who  is  a  general  in  the  army  of 
the  United  States  of  America)  announced  it  in  a  p<jmpous  adver- 
tisement, in  which  he  "certified  on  honour  that  he  had  discovered 
the  meaning  of  tlie  Apocalypse,  which,  with  the  exce})tion  of  a 
few  passages  in  the  second  and  third  chapters,  has  never  been  ap- 
proached by  any  expositor."  The  pamphlet  (for  it  contains  only 
fifty-seven  loosely-printed  pages,  exclusive  of  the  title-page)  is 
pnblif-hed  as  the  result  of  twenty  years'  study  ;  and,  as  it  is  utterly 
unknown  in  this  country,  the  following  concise  outline  of  its  con- 
tents may  perhaps  gratify  llie  curiosity  of  the  reader.  Contrary  to 
all  historical  evidence,  he  affirms  that  the  Apocalypse  is  not  men- 
tioned by  any  of  the  Fathers  until  about  the  close  of  the  second 
centun,'— that  the  several  passages  which  are  common  to  their 
writings  and  this  Iwok,  are  quotations  from  the  former  by  the  author 
of  the  latter,  and  not  vice  versa,  as  is  commoidy  supposed,  because 
the  Book  of  Revelation  is  a  much  more  masterly  and  perl"ec;t  pro- 
duction than  the  others,  and  the  world  is  in  a  state  of  progressive 
imjirovement,  as  the  rude  hut  precedes  the  splendid  palace  ;  (Gene- 
ral Smyth's  book  is  therefore  superior  to  all  the  produ'.tions  of  an- 
tiquity I !) — that  "  the  fall  of  the  mystical  Babylon  is,  i'.\auESTi0.\- 
ABi.v,  the  destruction  of  Byzantium  by  the  forces  of  Severus,  in 
the  year  I'Jo;  and  this  event  is  the  beacon  which  we  must  keep 
in  view,  while  searching  for  the  other  events,  enigmatically  related 
in  this  book," — that  Irenajus,  bishop  of  I-yons,  must  have  been  the 
author  of  the  Ajwcalypse,  because  lie  wrote  several  books,  in  one 
of  which  he  mentioned  the  ancient  copies  of  the  Apocalypse,  and 
was  also  acquainted  with  several  persons  who  figured  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  destruction  of  Byzantium — that  it  is  a  compilation  from 
the  prophets,  the  theology  of  the  Rabbins,  the  Pastor  of  Hernias, 
and  the  more  ancient  Apocalypses,  applied  by  tlie  writer  to  the 
history  of  his  own  time — and  that  it  ia^pious  forgery,  written  in 
the  spirit  of  insatiable  revenge!  ThWnystical  number  6G6  he 
finds  in  the  name  of  Decimus  Clodius  Albintis,  although  the  Latin 
numerals  contained  in  that  name  amount  only  to  2318!  Such  is 
the  outline  of  this  author's  plan,  whoso  fallacy,  ignorance,  and 
presumption  have  been  v«ry  severely  and  deservedly  exposed  in 
the  Literary  Journals  of  North  America. 

217.  An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Apocalypse;  being 
.HI  Attempt  to  make  that  portion  of  God's  Word  profitable  to 
the  Generality  of  Readers.  To  which  is  added  a  Brief  Outline 
of  Prophetic  History,  from  the  Babylonian  Captivity  to  the  com- 
mencement of  the  Nineteenth  Century,  selected  chiefly  from  the 
best  and  most  approved  Writers  on  the  Subject.  By  the  Rev. 
Richard  MuniiAr.     Dublin,  1826,  8vo. 

218.  The  Apocalyj)sc  of  St.  John,  or  Prophecy  of  the  Rise, 
Progrcs.i,  and  Fall  of  the  Church  of  Rome ;  the  Inquisition  ; 
the  Revolution  of  France;  the  Universal  War;  and  the  Final 
Triumph  of  Christianity.  Being  a  new  Interpretation  by  the 
Rev.  George  Ckolt,  A.M.     London,  1827,  8vo. 

ThiB  original  and  iK)werfully  written  volume  is  prefaced  by  a 
view  of  tlif  iiijuriotis  elFeclH  ol  l'i)|>«'ry,  and  the  benefits  conferred 
by  I'mtCHtantism  mvin  the  British  empire,  in  the  successive  rcigiiH 
irom  the  time  of  (iiieen  KlizalK>lh.  ■  The  interpretation  of  the 
Apocnlypse,  which  (iillows,  adopts  a  plan  (iitllTciit  from  that  of  all 
iUi  prcdcrosHors.  Tho  author  considcrM  the  whole  a.s  a  liisciculiis 
of  prophetic  visions  seen  at  intervals,  and  relating  to  diHlinct  [lor- 
tionn  of  tiroviilcntial  history.  'I'he  first  three  chapters  are  exclu- 
sively arldreHsed  io  the  Church  in  the  lime  of  Snint  John.  The 
remainder  of  the  AmH-nlypse  contains  a  general  view  of  ('hrisii.'iii 
History  from  the  reign  of  Conalantine  to  the  Millennium  (chaplcrH 
vi. — vii.);  n  detailed  prediction  of  ilic  peimliieH  inllicKd  Ujion 
F.uropc  for  her  perseruiion  of  tho  Reformed  C^hurch  to  the  .Millen- 
nium (chapters  viii. — xi.,  xv.,  xvi.) ;  a  view  of  the  progrcns  iif  ilm 


Romish  Church  from  power  to  persecution,  under  different  aspects 
(chapters  xii. — xiy.) ;  a  prediction  of  the  fall  of  the  papacy,  the  uni- 
versal war,  the  Millennium,  the  subsequent  brief  apostasy,  the  final 
judgment,  and  the  close  of  the  providential  history  of  llie  world. 
The  ninth  cliapter  of  the  Apocalypse,  which  has  hitherto  been 
conceived  to  be  a  view  of  Mohammedism,  Dr.  Croly  interprets  as 
a  prediction  of  the  fall  of  monarchy  in  France,  and  of  the  atheistic 
war,  in  1793.  A  general  sketch  of  the  leading  events  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  Christian  Church,  from  Constantino  to  the  present 
time,  completes  the  volume,  which  is  evidently  the  result  of  great  j 
labour  and  research,  and  which  abounds  with  most  important  his- ' 
torical  information. 

219.  Alberti  Christ.  Van  Eldik  Thieme  Commentatio  de 
Scptem  Epistolis  Apocalypticis.  Lugduni  Batavoruni,  1827,  4to. 

220.  Initiuni  Disputationis  de  Libri  Apocalypseos  Argumento, 

Sententia,  et  Auctore Publico  examini  submittit  Henricus 

Engelinus  Weteus.     Lugduni  Batavorum,  182S,  4to. 

The  first  part  only  of  an  academical  Dissertation  on  the  Apoca- 
lypse :  it  discusses  the  hypotheses  of  Grotius,  Herder,  Eichhorn, 
and  Heinrichs,  respecting  the  author  and  argument  of  this  book. 

221.  Lectures,  Expository  and  Practical,  on  the  Book  of 
Revelation.    By  the  Rev.  Robert  Culbehtson.    London,  1828,  i 
8vo. 

222.  Commentarius  in  Apocalypsin  Johannis,  Excgeticvis  et 
Criticus.     Auctore  Georgio  Henrico  Augusto  Ewald      Lipsise, 

1828,  8vo. 

222*.  A  Key  to  the  Revelation  of  St.  John  the  Divine; 
being  an  Analysis  of  those  parts  of  that  wonderful  Book,  which 
relate  to  the  General  State  of  the  Christian  Church,  through  all 
the  times  since  it  was  written,  and  to  tJie  peculiar  Signs  of  those 
Times.     By  the  Rev.  Philip  Aelwood,  B.D.     London,  1829, 

2  vols.  8vo. 

223.  The  Apocalypse  of  Jesus  Christ,  commonly  called  the 
Revelation  of  St.  John  the  Divine,  brieflj',  yet  minutely,  Ex- 
plained and  Interpreted,  to  the  xixth  Chapter  inclusive ;  being 
the  History  of  the  Christian  Church,  until  the  Destruction  of 
the  Roman  Empire  at  the  Coming  of  our  Lord  with  all  his 
Saints.  Consisting  of  a  select  Compilation  from  the  most  ap- 
proved and  learned  Commentators,  both  ancient  and  modern. 
London,  1832,  8vo. 

224.  A  Treatise  on  the  Millennium ;  in  which  the  prevailing 
Theories  on  that  subject  are  carefully  examined,  and  the  true 
Scriptural  Doctrine  attempted  to  be  elicited  and  established. 
By  George  Bush,  A.M.     New  York,  1832,  12mo. 

The  opinion  advocated  by  the  author  of  this  treatise  is,  that  the 
Millennium  is  past ;  the  predictions  in  the  Apocalypse  having  been 
fulfilled  by  the  triumph  of  Christianity  over  Paganism,  in  the  con- 
version of  Constanline  to  the  Christian  faith. 

225.  An  Exposition  of  the  Apocalypse,  by  the  Rev,  Alexan- 
der KEtTii,  D.D.,  forms  the  chief  part  of  his  "Signs  of  the 
Times,"  noticed  in  No.  17.  p.  100.  supra,  and  another  Original 
Exposition  of  this  Book  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Lee  in  his  "  Six  Ser- 
mons on  the  Study  of  the  Holy  Scriptures."  No.  25.  p.  98. 
supra. 

226.  Explication  Raisonnde  de  r.\pocalypse,  d'aprcs  les  prin- 
cipes  dc  sa  Composition.    Par  Philippe  Basset.    Paris,  1832-33, 

3  tomes,  8vo. 

227.  The  Book  of  the  Unveiling.     London,  1833,  12mo. 


§7. 


EXPOsiTonr  lectuiiks  and  sehmoxs  ox  the  scnip- 

TLHES,    ANU    ox    UETACIIEn     POKTIOXS    TIIEIIKOF. 


1.  Horffi  HomilcticiE,  or  Discourses  (in  the  form  of  Skeletons) 
upon  the  Whole  Si  uiptiiier.  By  the  Rev.  Charles  Sjmeow, 
M.A.     London,  1833,  21  vols.  8vo. 

2.  A  Popular  Commentary  on  the  Bible,  in  a  Series  of  Ser- 
mons, following,  in  the  Old  Testament,  the  CJoursc  of  the  first 
Lessons  at  Morning  and  Evening  Service  on  Sundays.  Designed 
for  Parish  Churches,  or  for  reading  in  Private  Families.  By  tho 
Rev.  James  Pumthe,  B.D.  London,  1827,  2  vols.  8vo.  [com- 
prising the  Oi.li  Test.v.mext.    This  work  was  never  completed.] 

3.  Practical  Lectures  on  the  Historical  Books  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament. By  the  Rev.  Henry  Lixusat,  M.A.  London,  1828, 
8vo. 

4.  Sacred  Biography  ;  or,  the  History  of  the  Patriarchs  [and 
part  of  the  History  of  jesua  Christ]:  being  a  Course  of  Lectures 
delivered  at  the  Scots  Church,  London  Wall.  By  Henry  Huxtbh, 
D.l).  London,  17H3,  &c.  7vol8.  8vo.;  seventh  edition,  1814, 
.O  vols.  8vo.;  al.so  1826,  2  vols.  8vo. 


Sect.  III.  fj  7.] 


EXPOSITORY  LECTURES  AND  SERMONS  ON  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


143 


5.  f-ectures  on  the  Four  last  Books  of  the  PEPfTATEucii,  de- 
signed to  show  the  Divine  Origin  of  the  Jewish  Religion,  chiefly 
from  Internal  Evidence ;  in  three  parts.  By  the  Rev.  Richard 
GuATF.s,  D.D.,  Dean  of  Ardagh.  London,  1815,  2  vols.  8vo. 
Third  edition,  Dublin  and  London,  1829,  1  vol.  8vo. 

The  first  edition  of  this  valuable  work  appeared  in  1807:  in  this 
impression  it  is  very  materially  improved,  and  is  indispensably 
necessary  to  the  biblical  student. 

6.  Lectures  on  the  Pentateuch.  By  the  Rev.  William  Mahsu, 
M.A.     London,  1822,  Svo. 

7.  Expository  Discourses  on  the  Book  of  Genesis,  inter- 
spersed with  Practical  Reflections,  by  Andrew  Fulleh.  2  vols. 
Svo.     London,  1806. 

The  late  respected  author  of  this  work  has  long  been  known  by 
his  able  publications  on  the  absurdity  of  deism,  and  the  immoral 
tendency  of  Socinian  tenets.  These  "  Lxpository  Discourses,"  which 
are  short,  and  fifty-eight  in  number,  were  originally  delivered  as 
lectures  to  Mr.  Fuller's  congregation  at  Kettering.  "  The  author 
selects  a  paragraph  of  convenient  length,  and  furnishes  a  concise 
exposition  of  its  leading  circumstances,  accompanied  with  a  few 
practical  reflections,  and  occasionally  with  a  useful  criticism.  The 
paragraphs  are  not  inserted  at  length,  but  referred  to  by  the  initial 
and  final  verses.  Much  originality  of  critical  remark  must  not  be 
expected,  nor  must  the  reader  be  surprised  if  he  often  meet  with  a 
trite  and  obvious  reflection:  but  we  will  venture  to  promise  him, 
much  more  frequently,  a  manly,  judicious,  and  useful  train  of 
observation,  expressed  in  simple  and  vigorous  language."  (Eclectic 
Review,  O.  S.  vol.  ii.  part  ii-  p.  896.) 

8.  Lectures  on  the  Book  of  Genesis.  By  J.  Rudge,  D.D. 
London,  1823,  2  vols.  Svo. 

9.  Lectures  upon  some  Important  Passages  in  the  Book  of 
Genesis.  By  Henry  Thomas  Austen,  M.A,  London,  1820, 
Svo. 

10.  A  Series  of  Sermons  illustrating  the  History  contained  in 
the  Book  of  Genesis.  By  the  Rev.  William  Bassett,  M.A. 
London,  1822,  2  vols.  12mo. 

11.  Ten  Lectures  on  the  Philosophy  of  the  Mosaic  Records 
of  the  Creation,  delivered  in  the  Chapel  of  Trinity  College, 
Dublin.  By  James  Kennedy,  B.D.,  Donellan  Lecturer  for  the 
Year  1824.     London  and  Dublin,  1827,  2  vols,  Svo. 

The  design  of  these  elaborate  lectures  is,  "  to  connect  the  biblical 
records  of  the  creation,  as  closely  as  their  language  and  arrange- 
ment admit,  with  physical  science  ;  and  to  estimate  the  degree  of 
evidence  which  arises  out  of  the  comparison,  of  the  inspiration  of 
their  author."  Many  important  geological  fiicts  are  adduced,  which 
concur  to  the  confirmation  and  illustration  of  the  Mosaic  history. 

12.  Eight  Lectures  on  the  History  of  Jacob.  By  the  Rev. 
Henry  Blunt,  A.M.     London,  1828,  12mo. 

13.  Lectures  on  the  History  of  Joseph.  By  John  Daties, 
Bath,  1823,  12mo, 

14.  The  Book  of  Genesis  considered  and  illustrated  in  a 
Series  of  Historical  Discourses,  By  the  Rev,  Francis  Close, 
A.M.     London,  1826,  Svo, 

15.  The  Christian  Exodus:  or  the  Deliverance  of  the  Israel- 
ites from  Egypt  practically  considered,  in  a  Series  of  Discourses. 
By  the  Rev,  R.  P,  Buddicom,  M.A.   London,  1826,  2  vols,  Svo. 

16.  Davidica,  Twelve  Practical  Sermons  on  the  Life  and 
Character  of  David,  King  of  Israel.  By  Henry  Thompson, 
M.A,     London,  1827,  Svo, 

17.  Lectures  on  the  History  of  Joseph,  By  George  Lawson, 
D,D.     Edinburgh  and  London,  1812,  2  vols.  12mo. 

18.  Lectures  on  the  Book  of  Ruth.  By  G,  Lawson,  D.D. 
Edinburgh  and  London,  1805,  12mo. 

19.  Lectures  on  the  Book  of  Esther.  By  G.  Lawson,  D.D. 
Edinburgh  and  London,  1S09,  12mo. 

20.  An  Exposition  of  the  Book  of  Proverbs.  By  the  late 
George  Lawson,  D,D.     Edinburgh,  1821,  2  vols.  12mo. 

"These  works  were  chiefly  intended  for  the  instruction  of  Chris- 
tians in  the  ordinary  walks  of  life.  They  are  pious  and  sensible, 
full  of  sound  doctrine,  and  salutary  admonition  and  instruction. 
There  is  rarely  any  thing  of  a  critical  nature  to  be  found  in  them, 
which  indeed  was  not  the  writer's  object;  but  they  every  where 
discover  a  minute  acquaintance  with  the  Bible  and  the  human 
heart,  and  a  deep  concern  to  profit  the  reader.  The  style  is  plain, 
and  the  illustrations  [are]  generally  very  brief."  (Orme's  Bibliotli. 
Biblica,  p.  287.) 

21.  Lectures  on  the  Book  of  Psalhis.  By  the  Rev.  John 
Ewaht,  M.A,     Londdn,  1822-26,  3  vols.  Svo, 

23.  An  Exposition  of  the  Book  of  Psalms,  Explanatory,  Cri- 
tical, and  Devotional,  intended  chiefly  to  aid  private  Christians 


in  the  enlightened  perusal  of  Compositions,  in  which  the  national 
history  of  the  Jews  and  the  personal  experience  of  David  are 
often  blended  with  the  Spirit  of  Prophecy,  By  the  Rev.  John 
MoHisoN,  D.D,     London,  1832,  3  vols.  Svo. 

As  Bishop  Ilorsley's  posthumous  work  on  the  Book  of  Psalms 
(which  has  been  noticed  in  page  120.  of  ihis  Appendix)  is  chiefly 
adapted  to  the  use  of  the  scholar  and  biblical  critic,  while  the 
well-known  and  splendid  commenlary  of  Bishop  Home  has  been 
thought  by  many  to  partake  loo  much  of  the  systematically  pro- 
phetic and  mystical  interpretation ;  Dr.  Morison  has  perlbrmed  a 
very  acceptable  service  to  private  Christians,  as  well  as  to  critical 
students  of  the  sacred  volume,  in  his  exposition  of  the  Book  of 
Psalms.  The  plan  which  he  has  adopted  is  in  every  respect  de- 
serving of  commendation.  Adhering  strictly  to  the  literal  meaning 
of  the  text,  he  is  careful  at  the  same  time  not  to  overlook  either  iis 
proplietical  or  typical  character.  Tlie  authorized  version  is  pro- 
perly retained,  and  the  exposition  follows  each  successive  verse; 
while  the  critical  notes,  often  very  instructive,  are  commodiously 
placed  at  the  foot  of  the  page.  Dr.  Morison  is  advantageously 
known  as  the  author  of  a  volume  of  Lectures  on  the  Reciprocal 
Obligations  of  Life  ;  in  which  some  important  topics  of  Christian 
£thics,  not  commonly  discussed  from  the  pulpit,  are  concisely  ex- 
plained and  earnestly  enforced  on  Christian  principles  and  motives. 

23.  The  Portraiture  of  the  Christian  Penitent :  a  Course  of 
Sermons  on  the  Fifty-first  Psalm.  By  the  Rev.  C.  E,  De  Coet. 
LOGAN,  M.A.     London,  1776,  2  vols.  Svo. 

24.  Sermons  on  the  Fifty-first  Psalm,     By  the  Rev,  J,  Bun 

London,  1824,  Svo. 

25.  Sermons  on  the  Ninety-first  Psalm.     London,  1826,  8vo« 

26.  A  Practical  Exposition  of  the  Hundred  and  Nineteentii 
Psalm.     By  Thomas  Manton,  D.D.     London,  1681,  folio. 

27.  An  Exposition  of  Psalm  CXIX.  By  the  Rev.  Charles 
Bridges.     London,  1827,  12mo. 

28.  A  Practical  Exposition  of  the  Hundred  and  Thirtieth 
Psalm.  By  John  Owen,  D.D.  London,  1669,  4to.  and  various 
subsequent  editions. 

29.  Six  Lectures  on  the  Penitential  Psalms,  By  Edward 
Berens,  M.A.     Oxford,  1823,  12mo. 

30.  Jjcctures  on  the  Book  of  Ecclesiastes.  By  Ralph 
Wardlaw,  D.D.     Glassgow  and  London,  1821,  2  vols.  Svo. 

"  This  is  a  very  elegant  Commentary  on  an  exceedingly  difficult 
portion  of  Scripture."     (Orme's  Biblioth.  Biblica,  p.  459.) 

31.  Lectures  on  the  Prophecies  of  Isaiah,  By  Robert  Mac- 
cuLLOcH,  D.D,     London,  1791-1805,  4  vols.  Svo. 

These  lectures  were  delivered  in  the  ordinary  course  of  his  pas- 
toral labours  by  Dr.  M.,  who  was  a  minister  in  the  church  of  Scot- 
land. "  They  contain  many  ingenious  elucidations  of  the  text, 
and  many  judicious  and  u-seful  reflections.  The  author  appears  to 
have  taken  much  pains  to  understand  the  phraseology  of  the  pro- 
phet, and  to  investigate  his  original  design  ;  he  marks  distinctly 
the  leading  divisions  of  the  prophecies,  and  explains,  at  the  begin- 
ning of  each  division,  its  peculiar  object."  (Monthly  Review,  N.  S 
vol.  XX.  p.  226.)  Dr.  Macculloch  has  made  great  use  of  Vitringa's 
elaborate  commentary  on  Isaiah. 

32.  Outhnes  of  Lectures  on  the  Book  of  Daniel.  By  F,  A. 
Cox,  LL.D.    London,  1833,  12mo.    Second  edition,  1834,  12mo, 

33.  An  Exposition  of  the  Prophet  Jonah,  in  Sermons.  By 
George  Abbot,  D.D.     London,  1613,  4to, 

34.  Lectures  upon  Jonas.  By  John  King,  D.D.,  Bishop  of 
London.     London,  1618,  4to, 

35.  Theological  Lectures  to  the  King's  Scholars  at  Westmin- 
ster Abbey,  with  an  Interpretation  of  the  New  Testament,  &c. 
&c.     By  John  Hetlin,  D.D.     London,  1749.  1761.  2  vols.  4to. 

The  first  part  of  this  work  contains  the  interpretation  of  the  four 
Gospels,  the  second  part  comprises  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  and 
the  several  Epistles.  "  This  interpretation,  though  far  from  being 
elegant,  appears  to  us,  in  general,  to  be  accurate  and  judicious, 
and  shows  that  the  author  had  carefully  studied  the  original.  The 
whole  contains  evident  marks  of  solid  judgment,  critical  skill,  and 
considerable  learning.  In  several  parts  of  the  work,  indeed,  the 
reader  will  perceive  a  small  tincture  of  mysticism  ;  and  according- 
ly we  are  told,  in  the  preface  to  the  second  part,  that  the  author 
was  deeply  read  in  the  writings  of  the  mystic  divines,  and  was 
styled  by  some  the  mystic  doctor."  (Monthly  Review,  O.  S.  vol. 
XXV.  p.  33.) 

36.  Explanatory  Notes  and  Practical  Comments,  being  a 
Series  of  Short  Lectures  on  the  New  Testament.  By  a  Clergy- 
man,    Dublin  and  London,  1829-33,  2  vols,  Svo. 

37,  Lectures  on  the  History  of  Jesus  Christ.      By  James 
Bennett.     London,  1825,  3  vols,  Svo.     Another  edition  in 
vol?.  Svo. 


144 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Paut  n.  CiiAP.  V. 


38.  A  Practical  Exposition  of  the  Gospels  of  St.  Matthv.vv, 
St.  Maiir,  and  St.  I^ukk,  in  the  form  of  Lectures,  iiit(?ndcd  to 
assist  the  Practice  of  Domnstic  Instruction  and  Devotion.  By 
lohn  Bird  Scmnkii,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  Chester.  London,  1831-32, 
2  vols.  8vo. ;  also  in  4  vols.  ISmo. 

"The  inlcntion  of  the  present  work  is  lo  promote  and  to  assist 
family  reading  of  the  Scriptures,  by  furnishini;  a  Ixjok  containing 
such  explanations  and  rcfleclioiis  as  might  naturally  occur  lo  one 
well  acijuainied  with  ilie  sacred  writings  and  the  practical  exposi- 
tors. Many  Bibles  and  Testaments  have  been  published  with  the 
same  object  in  view  as  that  proposed  by  the  Bisiiop  of  Chester. 
Most  of  these,  however,  from  ihe  length  of  the  re/loclions  have  in 
a  great  degree,  on  that  account,  become  unfit  lor  reading  to  a  fa- 

milv,  where  brevity  must,  t"  a  certain  extent,  be  considered 

Tiie  plan  of  Dr.  Sumner  is  free  from  this  blemish.  Great  skill  has 
been  shown  in  the  division  of  the  chapters,  which  are  of  so  conve- 
nient a  lengtli  that  one  or  more  may  be  taken  at  a  reading,  accord- 
ing to  circumstances  ;  while  the  pauses  are  such  as  seem  natural 
to  the  reader's  train  of  thought."  (British  Critic,  April,  1832,  vol. 
xi.  pp.  366,  367.)  '•  It  is  impossible  seriously  to  read  these  leciures 
w  ithout  becoming  acquainted  both  with  the  way  of  salvation,  and 
the  duties  and  priviiegcsof  the  Christian  life."  (Christian  Observer, 
lune,  1831,  vol.  xxxi.  p.  352.) 

39.  The  New  Testament  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus 
Christ ;  with  a  Commentary  consisting  of  Short  Lectures  for 
the  daily  Use  of  Families.  By  the  Rev.  Charles  Girdlkstoxe, 
.M.A.  Vol.  L  [containing  the  Four  Gospels.]    London,  1833,  8vo. 

"  The  Gospels  are  divided  into  sections,  forming  with  the  com- 
mentary a  lesson  of  a  convenient  length  for  a  single  service.  The 
explanatory  matter  is  so  digested  as  to  complete,  together  with  tlie 
text,  exactly  two  pages ;  such  topics  being  selected  as  may  best 
tJcrve  the  pur()ose  ol  tlevolional  edification  at  the  hour  of  iiimiiv 
worship.  All  controversial  doctrines,  all  abstruse  theories,  and  all 
learned  discussions  are  carefully  avoided  ;  while  the  capacities 
and  wants  of  an  ordinary  domestic  circle,  comprising  tor  the  most 
part  the  relations  of  parent  and  child,  of  master  and  servant,  are 
kepi  steadily  in  view."  (.Christian  Remembrancer,  May,  1832,  vol. 
xiv.  p.  280.) 

40.  Lectures  on  the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew,  delivered  in  the 
parish  church  of  Saint  Jaincs,  \Vestminsler,  in  the  years  1798, 
1799,  I'^OO,  and  1801.  By  the  Right  Rev.  Beilby  Poutkus, 
IJishop  of  London.  London,  1802,  2  vols.  8vo. ;  1823,  in  1  vol. 
8vo. 

The  multiplied  editions  of  these  admirable  lectures  sulTiciently 
attest  how  highly  they  are  esteemed.  "They  are"  indeed  '•  calcu- 
lated alike  to  do' good  to  the  learned  and  the  unlearned  ;  the  aged 
as  well  as  tiie  inexperienced,  the  grave  and  the  reflecting,  the  gay 
and  the  thoughtless.  They  are  learned  without  ostentation,  pious 
withoiu  any  tincture  of  enthusiasm,  argumentative  without  pedan- 
try, and  perspicuous  without  losing  sight  of  the  graces  of  style  and 
diction."     (British  Critic,  O.  S.  vol.  xx.  p.  306.) 

41.  Sermons  extracted  from  the  Lectures  of  Bishop  Porteu.s. 
By  Thomas  Bakxii,  M.A.     oondon,  1817,  8vo. 

42.  An  Exposition  of  St.  Matthew's  Gospel,  with  suitable 
Lectures  and  Prayers.  By  the  Rev.  Thomas  Adam.  London, 
1803,  2  vols.  12mo.  ;   1822,  in  1  volume,  8vo. 

43.  Explanatory  Lectures  on  the  Gospel  according  to  St.  Mat- 
thew.    By  the  Rev.  John  Pf-vrose,  M.A.     London,  1S32, 12mo. 

44.  Expositions  and  Sermons  upon  the  first  ten  Chapters  of 
the  Gospel  of  Jesus  Christ  according  to  St.  Matthew.  By  Chris- 
topher BLACKWoon.     London,  1659,  4to. 

45.  The  Catcchist's  Manual,  and  Family  Lecturer :  being  an 
Arrangement  and  Explanation  of  St.  Mark's  Gospel,  for  pur- 
poses of  Missionary  and  Domestic  Instruction.  By  the  Rev. 
Samuel  Hi.-^ns,  M.A.  [now  D.D.],  Oxford,  1829,  8vo. 

46.  Lectures  on  the  Gospel  of  St.  John,  as  bearing  Testimony 
to  the  Divinity  of  our  Saviour.  By  C.  J.  BLO.MiiKLn,  D.D. 
[now  Bishop  of  London.]     London,  1823,  12mo. 

47.  Practical  Lectures  upon  the  ten  first  Chapters  of  the 
Gospel  of  St.  JoHK.  By  the  Rev.  J.  R.  Pitmann,  M.A.  Lon- 
don, 1822,  8vo. 

48.  Eighteen  Ijccturcs  on  the  Gospel  according  to  St.  John. 
By  Charles  .\bcl  Motsky,  D.D.   Oxford  and  Lcmdon,  1823,  8vo. 

49.  Contemplations  on  the  last  Discourses  of  our  Blessed 
Saviour  with  his  Discijilcs,  as  recorded  by  St.  John.  By  John 
BnEWsrr.K.     London,  1822,  8vo. 

50.  The  Last  Days  of  our  Lord's  Ministry  ;  a  course  of 
Lectures.  By  the  Rev.  Walter  Farquhar  Hook,  M.A.  London, 
1832,  8vo. 

51.  Nine  Lectures  on  the  History  of  Peter.  By  the  Rev. 
Henry  Blujit,  A.M.     London,  1829,  12mo. 

52.  Lectures  on  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  explanatory  and 


practical.    By  Richard  Stack,  D.D.  2d  edition.   London,  1805 
8vo. 

53.  Lectures  on  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  delivered  in  the 
Pari.^h  Church  of  Stockton-upon-Tccs,  during  Lent,  in  the 
Years  1803,  1804,  1805,  and  1S06.  Illustrated  with  maps.  By 
John  BitKwsTEn,  M..-\.  London,  1807,  2  vols,  8vo.  Second 
edition.     London,  1831,  in  one  volume,  8vo. 

"  Both  these  authors  profess  to  imitate  the  Bishop  of  London's 
(Porteus)  excellrnl  Lectures  on  St.  Matthew's  Gospel.  By  a  mere 
comparison  of  bulk,  it  is  evident  that  Dr.  Stack's  lectures  must  be 
more  slifflit  and  cursory  than  those  ot"  Mr.  Brewster;  the  one  being 
twice  tlie  extent  of  the  other."  Dr.  Stack's  lectures  "  contain 
little  more  than  a  recai)itulation  of  the  subjects  of  the  chapters  in 
other  words.  Nor  have  we  been  able  to  discover  any  remarks  in 
his  book  but  wliat  are  so  extremely  plain  and  obvious,  that  they 
seem  to  be  hardly  worth  committing  to  paper,  much  less  to  the 
press.  Mr.  Brevvsier  proceeds  in  a  very  diflerent  style.  He  is  full 
of  illustrations  from  the  fathers  and  divines  of  various  ages;  and 
his  own  remarks  are  not  trite,  but  lively  as  well  as  just.  Mr.  B  's 
lectures  m.ay  be  justly  recommended,  as  approaching  much  more 
nearly  to  the  model  which  both  undertook  to  imitate,  and  as  not 
only  instructive,  but  pleasing  and  attractive."  (British  Critic,  O.  S 
vol.  XXX.  pp.  133,  134.  136.  See  also  Eclectic  Review,  O.  S.  vol.  ii 
p.  408.) 

54.  Lectures  on  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  By  John  Dick, 
D.D.     Glasgow,  2d  edition,  1822,  8vo. 

The  first  edition  of  these  Lectures  was  in  two  volumes,  which 
were  published  at  dilferent  limes.  Dr.  Dick  is  advantageously 
known  as  the  author  of  a  sensible  and  well-written  essay  on  Ihe 
inspiration  of  the  Scrij)turcs.  Speaking  of  the  first  volume  of  the 
first  edition,  some  critics  have  remarked,  that  his  discussion  of  the 
principal  topics  related  in  the  .A.cts  of  the  Apostles  "is  fully  cal- 
culated 10  establish  the  faith  of  Christians  in  their  holy  religion, 
and  furnishes  them  with  some  excellent  practical  rules  for  the 
regulation  of  their  moral  conduct.  Upon  the  whole,  we  cheerfully 
recommend  the  present  volume  to  the  attention  of  the  public. 
^Eclectic  Review,  O.  S.  vol.  ii.  pp.  438.  440.)  The  same  critics 
(vol.  v.  part  ii.  p.  834.),  sjieaking  of  the  (wo  volumes  collectively, 
observe,  that  the}'  contain  altogether  a  useful  illustration  of  many 
important  passages  of  the  Acts ;  they  are  full  of  good  sense  and 
orthodox  divinity,  conveyed  in  a  pei-spicuous  and  easy  style.  The 
second  edition  of  th^se  Lectures  has  been  carefully  revised. 

53.  Twelve  Lectures  on  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  By 
Charles  James  Blomfield,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  Chester  [now  of 
London].     London,  1829,  8vo. 

To  these  very  valuable  lectures  is  annexed  a  new  edition  of 
the  five  lectures  on  tlie  Gospel  of  St.  John  (Ko.  46.);  and  in  an 
appendix  is  subjoined  Dr.  Tucker's  "Brief  and  Dispassionate  \'ie\v 
of  the  difficulties  attending  the  Trinitarian,  Arian,  and  Socinian 
Systems." 

56.  Discourses  on  Passages  selected  from  the  Book  of  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles.  By  Henry  Thompso.v,  D.D.  London, 
1822,  8vo. 

Th^olijcct  of  these  expository  discourses  is,  from  select  passages 
in  the  first  seven  chajiters  of  the  book  of  Acts,  to  mark  the  fulfil- 
ment of  prophecy  in  the  qualifications,  labours,  and  success  of  the 
first  propagators  of  Christianity:  and  this  design  the  author  has 
successfully  accomplished.  For  an  analysis  of  the  volume,  with  a 
well-merited  commendation  of  its  execution,  the  reader  is  referred 
to  the  Edinburgh  Christian  Instructor,  for  June,  1823,  pp.  404 — 409. 

57.  Jo.  Alphonsi  Tihhetjni  in  Paulli  Apostoli  ad  Roma'tos 
Epistola;  caj<ita  priora  undccim  Pra?lcctiones  critica?,  theologicte, 
et  concionatoriae.     Lausannw,  1741,  4to. 

These  lectures,  which  were  first  published  after  the  author's 
death,  are  also  to  be  fi)und  in  the  second  volume  of  Tiirrctin's 
collective  works,  printed  at  Leuwartlen,  in  1775,  in  quarto.  They 
are  truly  excellent.  The  prolegomena  iliscuss.  with  great  ability, 
the  date  of  t!ic  F.pistlo  Ui  the  Romans,  the  i)hce  wfionco  it  waa 
written,  the  slnte  of  the  Christiana  at  Rome,  the  causes  of  the  dif- 
ficulty of  St.  Tnul's  epistles  generally,  and  of  that  to  the  Roinans 
in  particular;  the  controversies  ngilatod  at  that  time,  Bn<l  various 
other  topics  which  are  necessary  to  the  right  understanding  of  thai 
epistle. 

58.  Lectures  on  the  Epistle  of  St.  Paul  to  the  Romans,  ex- 
planatory and  practical.  By  Richard  Stack,  D.D.  Dublin, 
1806,  8vo. 

59.  Lectures,  explanatory  and  practical,  on  the  Epistle  of  St. 
Paul  to  the  Romans.  By  the  Rev.  John  Fht,  A.B.  London, 
1816,  8vo. 

CO.  Paulus  Parochialis ;  or,  a  Plain  and  Practical  View  of 
the  Object,  Arguments,  and  Connection  of  St.  Paul's  Episllo  to 
the  Romans :  in  a  Scries  of  Sermons,  adapted  to  Country  Con- 
gregations.   By  the  Rev.  Wm.  Lisle  Bowles.    Bath,  1826,  8vo. 

61.  Lectures  on  Si.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Romani.  By  the 
Rev.  C.  A.  .MoisET,  D.D.     [Balh,""  1630,  8vo. 


?ECT.  III.  §  7.] 


EXPOSITORY  LECTURES  AND  SERMONS  ON  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


145 


6?..  Lectures,  Explanatory  and  Practical,  on  the  doctrinal  part 
of  the  Epistle  of  Paul  the  Apostle  to  the  Romans.  By  David 
Ritchie,  D.D.     Edinburgh  and  London,  1831.     2  vols.  8vo. 

63.  A  Practical  Exposition  of  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Ro- 
mans, in  a  series  of  Lectures.  By  the  Rev.  Thomas  Parry, 
M.A.,  Archdeacon  of  Antigua.     London,  1832,  12rao. 

"The  object  of  this  volume  is,  to  facilitate  the  understanding 
of  the  Epistle   to  ilie   Romans,  by  tracing  the  connection  of  iis 

various  parts  in  an  easy  and  lamiliar  exposition But  lliough 

tlie  author  has  mainly  endeavoured  to  render  his  work  useful  and 
attractive  to  general  readers,  who  have  little  opportunity  for  con- 
sulting more  elaborate  expositions,  he  has  not  alioget|^r  neglected 
the  wants  of  the  student  or  the  candidate  for  holy  orders.  Readers 
of  this  class  will  find  considerable  information  in  the  notes  attached 
to  each  successive  lecture;  and  the  analysis  of  the  epistle,  and 
remarks  on  certain  leading  terms,  contained  in  the  appendix,  aflbrd 
ample  matter  to  the  more  advanced  theologian."  (Christian  Re- 
membrancer, May,  1832,  vol.  xiv.  p.  280.) 

64.  An  Exposition  of  the  Eighth  Chapter  of  the  Epistle  to 
the  Romans.  Also,  five  Lectures  on  the  Tenth  Chapter  of  the 
same.  By  the  Rev.  C.  D.  Maitlaxd,  B.A.  London,  1831,  8vo. 

65.  A  Practical  Exposition  of  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Ro- 
mans.    By  the  Rev.  Robert  Axdersox.     London,  1833,  12mo. 

"  We  must  now  take  leave  of  Mr.  Anderson,  which  we  do  with 
the  conviction  that  we  have  been  c-onversing  with  one,  all  whose 
faculties  are  intensely  devoted  to  the  holy  work  of  the  ministry. 
It  is  perhaps  too  much  to  expect  that  this  or  any  exposition  of  the 
Epistle  to   the  Romans   should    meet  with   the  unqualified   and 

unanimous  assent  of  the  critical  or  theological  world Of 

the  work  before  us,  however,  we  can  honestly  say,  that  it  exem- 
plifies, in  almost  every  page,  that  holy  earnestness,  that  ardent 
desire  for  the  salvation  of  human  souls,  which  is  the  crown  and 
glory  of  all  pastoral  teaching  and  ministration."  (British  Critic  for 
January,  1834,  vol.  xv.  p.  96.) 

66.  Discourses,  Explanatory  and  Practical,  on  the  Ninth 
Chapter  of  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Romans.  By  J.  Jarrom. 
Wisbech,  1827,  12ino. 

66*.  Lectures  on  St.  Paul's  Epistles  to  the  Corixthiaks. 
By  the  Rev.  William  Lothiak.     London,  1827,  8vo. 

67.  Lectures  upon  the  whole  Epistle  of  St.  Paul  to  the 
PaiLippiAxs.  By  Henry  Airt,  D.D.,  Provost  of  Queen's 
College,  Oxford.     London,  1618,  4to. 

68.  Expository  Lectures  on  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Philip- 
pians.     By  tlie  Rev.  John  Acaster.     London,  1827,  8vo. 

68*.  Lectures,  Explanatory  and  Practical,  on  the  Epistle  of 
Saint  Paul  to  the  Philippians.  By  Manton  Eastburn,  M.A. 
New  York,  1833,  8vo. 

69.  A  Familiar  Exposition  and  Application  of  the  Epistle  of 
Saint  Paul  to  the  Colossians,  in  a  course  of  Eight  Sermons; 
including  an  Examination  of  the  Genera!  Nature  and  Use  of  the 
Epistles  of  the  New  Testament.  By  Thomas  Gisbor3:e,  M.A. 
London,  1816,  Svo. 

For  an  analysis  of  this  very  useful  little  work  see  the  Christian 
Observer  for  1816,  vol.  xv.  pp.  524 — 534. 

70.  Discourses,  Practical  and  Experimental,  on  the  Epistle  to 
the  Colossians.     By  Thomas  Watson.     London,  1834,  8vo, 

7  0*.  Four  Lectures  on  the  Epistle  of  Saint  Paul  to  the  He- 
brews ;  shewing  the  Harmony  between  the  Mysteries,  Doctrines, 
and  Morality  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament.  By  the  Rev. 
William  Joxes,  M.A.     Svo. 

These  valuable  lectures  form  part  of  the  fourth  volume  of  "The 
Theological,  Philosophical,  and  liliscellaneous  Works"  of  the  learn- 
ed and  venerable  Mr.  Jones,  of  Nayland. 

71.  Discourses  Explanatoiy  and  Practical,  on  the  Epistle  of 
St.  JcDE.     By  William  Muir,  D.D.     Glasgow,  1822,  Svo. 

72.  Expository  Discourses  on  the  Apocaltpse,  interspersed 
with  Practical  Reflectiops.  By  the  late  Rev.  Andrew  Fuller. 
London,  1815,  Svo. 

This  posthumous  publication,  consisting  of  thirty-one  discourses 
delivered  in  the  years  1809  and  1810,  after  undergoing  several  re- 
visions, was  finished  by  the  learned  author,  a  short  time  only  before 
his  decease.  "There  is  however  but  little  novelty  in  the  work, 
but  little  to  gratify  the  an.vious  curiosity  of  the  age,  or  to  elucidate 
the  unfulfilled  and  more  difficult  parts  of  the  Revelation.  The 
general  outline  of  the  prophetic  scheme  is  boldly  sketched,  and  its 
various  ramifications  are  marked  with  that  precision  which  was 
common  to  the  writer ;  but  in  general  there  is  an  extreme  of  modesty 
and  diffidence,  with  scarcely  any  attempts  to  pass  the  usual  bounda- 
ries of  thought  on  these  subjects,  or  any  adventurous  flight  of  specu- 
lation." (Morris's  Memoirs  of  Mr.  Fuller,  p.  249.)  An  abstract  of 
Mr.  F.'s  scheme  of  the  Apocalypse  is  given  in  the  same  work.  (pp. 
250—260.) 


73.  An  Exposition  of  the  Book  of  Revelation.  Being  the 
substance  of  forty-four  Discourse.s  preached  in  the  parish  church 
of  Olney,  Bucks.     By  the  Rev.  Henry  Gacntlett.     London, 

1821,  Svo. 

This  work  "  aflbrds  ample  proofs  of  his"  [the  author's]  "  piety, 
good  sense,  and  industry.  His  iuterjiretaiions  of  tlic  prophecies, 
whether  fulfilled  or  expected  to  be  so,  are  mostly  supported  by 
venerable  authorities:  and  where  he  difTcrs  from  them,  it  is  with 
due  modesty  and  candour."     (British  Review,  vol.  xviii.  p.  398.) 

74.  A  Paraphrase  and  [Expository]  Comment  upon  the  Epis- 
tles and  Gospels  appointed  to  be  used  in  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, on  all  Sundays  and  Holidays,  throughout  the  year.     By 
George  Stanhope,  D.D.,  Dean  of  Canterbury.    London,  1705— 
1708,  4  vols.  Svo.  and  numerous  subsequent  editions. 

75.  Expository  Discourses  on  the  Gospels  for  every  Sunday 
in  the  year,  and  the  Principal  Festiv^als  of  the  United  Church 
of  England  and  Ireland.  By  John  Hall,  B.D.  London,  1832, 
2  vols.  Svo. 

76.  Practical  Discourses  upon  our  Saviour's  Sermon  on  the 
Mount.  By  Oflspring  Blackall,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  Exeter. 
London,  1717,  8  vols.  Svo. 

77.  Several  Sermons  upon  the  Fifth  of  St.  Matthew ;  being 
Part  of  Christ's  Sermon  on  the  Mount.  By  Anthony  Hohneck, 
D.D.     Third  Edition.     London,  1717,  2  vols.  Svo. 

These  discourses  were  published  after  the  author's  death  by  Dr. 
Kidder,  Bishop  of  Bath  and  Wells,  who  prefixed  a  Memoir  of  Dr. 
Horneck.  The  bishop's  character  of  the  writings  published  by 
himself,  is  equally  applicable  to  his  Sermons  on  Matt.  V.  "There 
is  a  great  vein  of  piety  and  devotion  which  runs  through  them: 
they  savour  of  the  primitive  simplicity  and  zeal,  and  are  well 
fitted  to  make  men  better."     (Life,  p.  xxxix.) 

78.  Christian  Blessedness  ;  or,  Discourses  upon  the  Beatitudes 
of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ.  By  John  Nokris.  Lon- 
don, 1690,  Svo. 

"Norris  is  a  fine  writer  for  style  and  thought,  and  commonly 
just."     (Dr.  Waterland's  Advice  to  Students,  Works,  vol.  vi.  p.  320.) 

79.  Our  Saviour's  Divine  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  contained  in 
the  Vth,  Vlth,  and  Vllth  chapters  of  St.  Matthew's  Gospel,  ex- 
plained :  and  the  Practice  of  it  recommended  in  diverse  Sermons 
and  Discourses.  To  which  is  prefixed  a  paraphrase  on  the  whole 
Sermon  on  the  Mount.  By  James  Blair,  M.A.  London,  1722, 
5  vols.  Svo. :  also  in  4  vols.  Svo.  London,  1740,  with  a  recom- 
mendatory Preface  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Waterlancl. 

"  His  Commentary  on  Matt.  v. — viii.  is  the  best  extant. — He  ap- 
pears to  have  been  a  person  of  the  utmost  candour,  and  has  soli- 
citously avoided  all  unkind  and  contemptuous  reflections  on  his 
brethren. — He  has  an  excellent  way  of  bringing  down  criticisms 
to  common  capacities,  and  has  discovered  a  vast  knowledge  of 
Scripture  in  the  application  of  them."  (Doddridge's  Works,  vol.  v. 
p.  438.) 

80.  Sermons  sur  le  Discours  de  notre  Seignair  Jesus  Christ 
sur  la  Montagne.  Par  feu  M.  Jean  Scipion  Vernede.  Amster- 
dam, 1779,  4  tomes,  8vo. 

"  His  Sermons  on  the  Mount  are  recommended,  as  containing  an 
accurate  description  of  the  extent,  the  beauty,  and  sublimity  of 
evangelical  morals,  and  the  force  of  the  motives  by  which  they  are 
produced.  They  contain  many  useful  and  pious  observations." 
(Ct)bbin's  French  Preacher,  p.  560.) 

81.  Lectures  upon  our  Lord's  Sermon  on  the  Mount.  By 
James  Brewster.     Edinburgh  and  London,  1809,  Svo. 

This  volume  "  contains  a  statement  of  Christian  morality,  always 
clear,  generally  judicious,  and  sometimes  discriminating,  ti-aced  up 
to  Christian  principles,  and  followed  up  by  an  appeal  to  the  con- 
science, at  once  calculated  to  convict  the  reader  of  his  deficiencies, 
and  to  persuade  iiim  to  adopt  and  act  upon  the  author's  statement." 
(Christian  Observer  for  1809,  vol.  viii.  p.  780.) 

82.  Fortj'-fiye  Expository  and  Practical  Lectures  on  the  whole 
of  our  Lord's  Sermon  on  the  Mount.  By  the  Rev.  E.  Goon. 
London,  1829,  Svo. 

83.  The  Resurrection  of  Lazarus.  A  Course  of  Sermons 
on  the  Eleventh  Chapter  of  the  Gospel  according  to  St.  John. 
From  the  French  of  Beausobre.  By  Henry  Cotes.  London, 
1822,  Svo. 

"  These  Discourses  are  a  paraphrase  rather  than  a  translation  of 
the  third  and  fourth  volumes  of  the  Sermons  of  M.  de  Beausobre. 
They  are  intended  for  the  use  of  those  Who  have  leisure  and  oppor- 
tunity to  compare  the  leading  evidences  of  Christianity  in  a  con- 
nected series  of  discourses  upon  one  of  the  most  remarkable  of 
our  Saviour's  miracles,^-lhe  resurrection  of  Lazarus."  (Author's 
Preface ) 

84.  Practical  Discourses  on  the  Nature,  Properties,  and  Ex- 
cellencies of  CuARiTY,  above  all  the  gifts  and  graces  of  the  Holy 
Spirit ;  as  they  are  described  in  the  thirteenth  chapter  of  the  first 


146 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  1L  Chap.  Y. 


Epistle  of  St.  Paul  to  the  C cirinthians.    By  Matthew  Hole,  D.D. 
Oxford,  1725,  8vo. 

Besides  this  volume,  Dr. Hole  also  wrote  .six  volumes  of  Discourses 
on  the  Liturgy  of  the  Churcli  of  England  (whicli  are  very  rarely 
to  be  obtained  complete),  and  two  volumes  on  the  Catechism.  They 
are  all  characterized  by  good  sense  and  sober  piety., 

85.  A  Discourse  concerning  the  great  Duty  of  Charity  [an 
Exposition  of  1  Cor.  xiii.].  By  Richard  Ciiossinge,  B.D.  Lon- 
don, 1732,  8vo. 

86.  Explication  de's  Caracteres  dc  la  Charite  scion  St.  Paul 
dans  sa  premiere  Epitre  aux  Corinthicns,  ch.  XHI.  [Par 
Jacques  Joseph  Dlt.uet.]     Geneve,  1824,  8vo. 

A  new  edition,  with  a  few  trilling  verbal  corrections,  of  an  ad- 
mirable exposition  of  1  Cor.  XIII.  which  lirst  appeared  in  the  former 
part  of  the  eighieonlh  century,  and  which  is  sometimes  erroneously 
ascribed  to  Fenclon,  .\rchbishop  of  Cnmbrav'.  An  English  transla- 
tion was  published  at  London,  inlitukil  " '1  he  Characters  and  Pro- 
phets of  True  Charity  displayed."    By  J.  B.  de  Trevals. 

87.  Practical  Discourses  upon  the  Parables  of  our  Blessed 
Saviour.  With  Prayers,  annexed  to  each  Discourse.  By  Francis 
BiiAUOK,  B.D.     London,  1702-4,  2  vol.s.  8vo. 

88.  Practical  Observations  upon  the  MinACLEs  of  our  Blessed 
Saviour.  By  Francis  Buagge,  B.D.  London,  1^02-6,  2  vols. 
8vo. 

89.  Discourses  on  the  Miracles  and  Parables  of  our  Blessed 
Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ.  By  William  Donn,  LL.D. 
London,  1757,  4  vols.  8vo.      Second  edition,  1809,  4  vols.  8vo. 

90.  Discourses  on  the  Parables  of  our  Blessed  Saviour,  and 
the  Miracles  of  his  Holy  Gospel.  With  occasional  Illustrations. 
By  Charles  Bulklet.     London,  1771,  4  vols.  8vo. 

91.  A  Delineation  of  the  Parables  of  our  Blessed  Saviour, 
To  which  is  prefixed  a  Dis:5ortation  on  Parables  and  Allegorical 
Writings  in  general.  By  Andrew  Ghat,  D.D.  London,  1777, 
8vo.     Second  edition,  1814,  8vo. 

This  "  Delineation  will  be  of  great  use  to  the  reader  in  the  study 
of  the  parables  of  Jesus,  and  will  enable  him  to  comprehend  their 
full  force  and  meaning.  The  author  has  explained  and  illustrated 
them  with  perspicuity,  and  iX)intod  out  the  several  iniporlanl  in- 
structions that  may  lairly  be  deduced  from  them."  tiVIonthly  Re- 
view, O.  S.  vol.  Ivii.  p.  19G.) 

92.  Lectures  on  Scripture  Miracles.  By  William  BengoCoLL- 
Ytn,  D.D,     London,  1812,  8vo. 

9.3.  liCctures  on  Scripture  Parables.  By  William  Bengo  CoLt- 
TEii,  D.D.     London,  1815,  8vo. 

94.  Sermons  on  the  Parables.  By  John  Fahheii,  M.A.  Lon- 
don, 1809,  8vo. 

9-5.  Sermons  on  the  Parables  and  Miracles  of  Jesus  Christ. 
By  Edward  Grinfield,  M.A.     London,  1819,  8vo. 

9G.  Lectures  on  Parables  selected  from  the  New  Testament. 
[By  Mary  Jane  M'Kexzie.]  Vol.  L  London,  1822,  8vo,,  and 
numerous  subsequent  editions.     Vol,  II,  London,  1823,  8vo, 

97,  Lectures  on  Miracles  selected  from  the  New  Testament. 
[By  Mary  Jane  M'Kenzie.]     London,  1823,  8vo. 

98.  An  Exposition  of  the  Parables  of  our  Lord,  showing  their 
Connection  with  his  Ministry,  their  Prophetic  Character,  and 
their  Gradual  Dcvelopement  of  the  Gospel  Dispensation,  With 
a.  Preliminary  Dissertation  on  the  Parables.  By  the  Rev.  R. 
Bailev,  M.A.     London,  1829,  8vo. 

99.  Discourses  on  the  Parables.  By  the  Rev.  James  Knight, 
M.A.     London,  1829,  8vo. 

100,  Discourses  on  the  principal  Miracles  of  our  Lord.  By 
ihc  Rev.  James  Ksioht,  M.A.     London,  1831,  8vo. 


§  7.    TREATISES    OV    REC0XriLl>0    THE    CONTRAniCTIOSS 
ALLEGED    TO    EXIST    I  !f    THE    SCRIPTURES. 

1.  Michaelis  Waltheri  Harmonia  Biblica ;  sivc  brcvis  et 
plana  Conciliatio  locorum  Vcteris  et  Novi  Testamenti,  adparrn- 
tcr  sibi  contradiccntium.     Noribergic,  lf)54,  4to. ;   KiUfi,  folio. 

This  work  first  appeared  at  Strasburgh  (.Argontorati)  in  1020, 
and  has  boon  repeatedly  printed  in  Germany:  the  edition  of  10% 
is  reputed  lo  be  the  best  and  most  rorrect.  Wallher'H  Iliirmouia 
Biblica  IS  a  work  of  conniderablo  learning  niid  industry,  which 
illuilratcH  many  dilliMilt  pn«Brigr8  with  great  ability.  He  has, 
however,  unnerosNarily  aiigmonlod  the  number  of  Hoemingly  con- 
tradictory na.soagcH;  a  defect  which  is  common  to  nioHl  of  the 
uritom  uf  tliiH  claHs. 

2,  Christiani  Matthiw  Antilogis  Biblictc ;  sivc  Concilia- 
tione«  Dictorum  Scripturas  Sacnc,  in  spccicm  inter  §o  pugnan- 


tium,  secundum  seriem  locorum  theologicorum  in  ordinem  re 
dactae,     Hamburgi,  1500,  4to, 

3.  Symphonia  Prophetarum  et  Apostolorum  ;  in  qua,  ordinc 
chronologico.  Loci  Sacra;  Scriptura;  specie  lenus  contradic*ntcs 
conciliantur,  ut  et  ad  quajstiones  difficiliores  chronologicas  et  alias 
Vetoris  Testamcnti  respondetur,  in  duas  partes  divisa,  Auctore 
D.  M.  Johannes  Sihaupio,  Scoto-Britanno,  Andreapolitano,  pas- 
tore.     Genevje,  1525,  4to. 

4.  The  Iveconcilor  of  the  Bible  :  wherein  above  two  thousana 
seeming  Contradictions  throughout  the  Old  and  New  Testamon 
are  fully  and  plainly  reconciled.     By  J.  T.     London,  1G56,  Svo 

5.  The  Reconciler  of  the  Bible  enlarged,  wherein  above  three 
thousand  seeming  Contradictions  throughout  the  Old  and  New 
Testament  are  fully  and  plainly  reconciled.  By  J.  P.  and  T[ho- 
mas]  M[an].     London,  1G02,  folio. 

6.  Johannis  TiiAnn.'Ei  Conciliatorum  Biblicum.  Amstcloda- 
mi,  1648,  12mo.     Londini,  1G62,  folio. 

The  last  is  reputed  lo  be  the  best  edition,  and  professes  to  be 
considerably  enlarged.  This  work  follows  the  order  of  the  several 
books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testamenis.  The  remark  before  made, 
on  W:ilthcr's  Harmonia  Uiblica,  is  equally  applicable  to  Mr.  Man's 
work,  to  the  Coiidlialiornm  Biblicum  of  Thaddajus,  and  also  to 

7.  The  Dividing  of  the  Hnofl":  or  Seeming  Contradictions 
throughout  Sacred  Scriptures  distinguish'd,  resolv'd,  and  apply *d, 
for  the  strengthening  of  the  faith  of  the  feeble,  doubtfull,  and 
wcakc,  in  wavering  times.  Also  to  bring  the  soul  (by  prayer 
and  spiritual!  application)  into  more  familiar  acquaintance  with 
the  Lord  Jesus,  the  onely  David's-Key  to  unlock  the  cabinet  of 
Jacob's  God,  to  fetch  out  that  secret  why  he  should  lay  his  hands 
thus  crosse  when  he  gave  his  children  this  blessing.  Helpfull  to 
every  household  of  faith.  By  William  Stheat,  M.A.  London, 
lC54,4to. 

This  work  is  occasionally  found  in  booksellers'  catalogues,  where 
it  is  marked  as  both  rare  and  curious.  Ii  is  noticed  here  merely 
to  put  the  student  on  his  guard  not  to  purchase  it.  The  critical 
information  it  contains  is  venj  meagre  ;  and  the  quaint  title-page, 
which  we  have  copied,  suflicicntly  indicates  the  enthusiastic  spirit 
of  the  author. 

8.  Joannis  Poxtasii  Sacra  Scriptura  ubiquo,  sibi  constans : 
seu  Difficiliores  Sacras  Scriptura!  Loci,  in  Speciem  secuin  pug- 
nantes,  juxta  sanctorum  ccclesia;  sancta;  patrum  ccleberrimorum- 
que  theologorum  sentcntiam  conciliati.     Parisiis,  1698,  4to. 

M.  Pontas  was  distinguished  for  his  knowledge  of  casuistical 
theology.  His  design  in  this  publication  was  to  have  reeonrilei' 
all  the  seeming  contradictious  of  the  Scriptures;  but  he  prccceded 
no  farther  than  through  the  Pentateuch.  It  is  a  work  of  consider- 
able learning  and  research. 

9.  The  Harmony  of  Scripture  ;  or  an  attempt  to  reconcilo 
various  passages  apparently  contradictory.  By  the  late  Rev, 
Andrew  Fuller.     London,  1817,  8vo. 

This  posthumous  tract  contains  fifty-five  judicious  observations 
on  so  many  apparently  contradictory  texts  of  Scripture.  They  were 
originally  wriiten  for  the  satisfaction  of  a  private  individual. 

10.  Lectures  on  the  Harmony  of  the  Scriptures,  designed  to 
reconcile  apparently  contradictory  Passages.  By  James  Hayler 
Cox.     London,  1823,  Svo. 


§  8.    PRirvciPAL   collections  or   tarious  essats  and  tO-M- 

MENTARIES  on  rKTACUEU  portions  or  the  SCUIPTURV.i, 
AND  0HSKHVATI0X8  O.N  THE  SCRIPTURES,  CRITICAL,  PHILO- 
LOGICAL, AND    miscellaneous. 

[i.]    Collections  of  various  Essays  and  Commentaries  on  de- 
tached portions  of  the  Scriptures. 

1.    Bibliotheca   Historico-Philologico-Theologica.       Brcmx, 
1719-2G.     Cla8.ses  VIII,  in  IG  tomis,  Svo, 

2,  Museum  Histtfrico-Philologico-'J'hcoIogicum,  Brome,  1728 
-29,  2  tomis,  8vo, 

3,  Bibliotheca  Brcmcnsis  Nova,  Historico-Philologico-Theolo- 
gica,     Brema;,  I7G0-66,  0  tomis,  Svo, 

4,  Bibliotheca,  Hagana,  Historico-Philologico-Theologicd,  od 
continuationein  Bibliotheca!  Bremensis  Nov.t,  constructa  :»  Nico- 
lao  Baukey.     Hagir,  17G8-74,  5  tomis,  Svo. 

5,  Museum  Haganuin.  Historico-Philologico-Theolofpcum, 
a  Nicolao  Bahket  editum.  Hags  Comitum,  1774-80,  4  4omis, 
Svo, 

fi.  Symboloj  Litcrariie  Haganaj,  ^  Nicolao  Barkrt.  Hagae, 
Comitum,  1777-81.     Classes  II.  in  6  fasciculis,  Svo. 


Sect.  III.  §  8.] 


COLLECTIONS  OF  OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


147 


7.  Bibliotheca  Historico-Philologica-Theologica  [a  Theodore 
Hasseo  etFrederico  Adolpho  Lampe,  edita].  Amstelodami,  1724- 
25,  8  tomis,  8vo. 

8.  Miscellanea  Duisburgensia,  ad  incremcntum  Rei  Literarise, 
priecipue  vero  Eruditionis  Theologicaj  publicata  [cura  Danielk 
Gekuesh],     Amstelodami  et  Duisburgi,  1735-36,  2  tomis,  8vo. 

9.  Miscellanea  Groningana  in  Miscellaneorum  Duisburgen- 
lium  Continualionem,  publicata  a  Danicle  Gerdesio.  Amstelo- 
'lami,  Duisburgi,  et  Groningae,  1736-45,  4  tomis,  8vo. 

'0.  SymboliB  Literarise,  ex  Haganis  facts  Duisburgenses 
curante  Joanne  Petro  Bebg.  Hagse  Comitum,  1783-86,  2  tomis, 
8vo. 

1 1 .  Tempe  Helvetica,  Dissertationes  atque  Observationes  The- 
ologicas,  Philologicas,  Criticas,  Historicas,  exhibens.  Tiguri, 
1735-46,  6  tomis,  8vo. 

12.  Museum  Helveticum,  ad  juvandas  Lileras  in  publicos 
usus  apertum,  Tiguri,  1746-52.  ParticuliE  XXIV.  in  7  tomis, 
8vo. 

13.  Commentationes  Theologicse,  editae  a  Jo.  Casp.  Velthu- 
SBX,  C.  Theoph.  Kuinoel,  et  Geo.  Alex.  Rdperti.  Lipsise, 
1794-99,  6  tomis,  8vo. 

The  first  volume  of  this  capital  collection  of  critical  tracts  (in 
which  various  passages  of  the  Old  Testament  are  particularly  illus- 
trated) is  now  exceedingly  scarce  on  the  continent.  A  supplement 
to  it  was  published  by  Messieurs  Pott  and  Ruperti,  at  Helmstadt, 
entitled,  Sylloge  Commentationum  Theologicarum,  in  8  vols.  8vo. 
1800—1807. 

14.  Commentationes  Theologicse.  Ediderunt,  E.  F.  C.  Rosen- 
mUller,  G.  L.  H.  Fcldiser,  et  F.  V.  D.  Mauber.  Lipsiae, 
1825-32,  2  tomis,  8vO. 

15.  The  Classical  Journal,  8vo.  London,  1810-29,  40  vols. 
8vo.  with  Indexes. 

Though  principally  devoted  to  classical  literature,  biblical  criti- 
cism forms  an  important  article  in  its  journal ;  and  many  valuable 
elucidations  of  the  Scriptures  will  be  found  in  its  pages. 

16.  The  Biblical  Repertory  ;  or  a  Collection  of  Tracts  in  Bibli- 
cal Literature.  By  Charles  Hodge,  Professor  of  Oriental  and 
Biblical  Literature  in  the  Theological  Seminary  at  Princeton, 
New  Jersey.     Princeton  and  New  York,  1825-28,  4  vols.  8vo. 

This  work  consists  of  selections  from  the  writings  of  the  most 
distinguished  Biblical  and  Oriental  scholars,  both  British  and  con- 
linenlal.  The  subjects  discussed  are — the  Criticism  of  the  Sacred 
Text,  Ancient  Versions,  Critical  Editions,  the  Interpretation  and 
Literary  History  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  Biblical  Antiquities,  Exe- 
getical  Treatises  on  important  passages  of  Scripture,  Biographical 
Notices  of  Biblical  Writers,  Accounts  of  the  most  important  Bibli- 
cal Works,  &c. 

17.  The  Biblical  Repertory  and  Theological  Review,  edited 
by  an  Association  of  Gentlemen  in  Princeton  and  its  vicinity. 
Philadelphia,  1830-33,  Vols.  I.— V.  8vo.  [This  work  is  still  in 
progress.] 

18.  The  Biblical  Repertory,  conducted  by  Edward  Robinson, 
D.D.,  Professor  Extraordinary  in  the  Theological  Seminary  at 
Andover.     Andover,  1831-34,  Vols.  I.— IV.  8vo. 

This  truly  valuable  "  Biblical  RepertoryV  is  also  in  progress.  As 
Its  name  imports,  it  is  a  collection  of  Essays  and  Tracts  of  perma- 
nent value,  original  and  translated  (especially  from  the  writings 
of  the  most  distinguished  German  critics);  which  relate  principally 
to  the  literature  of  the  Bible. 

19.  Essays  and  Dissertations  on  Biblical  Literature.  By  a 
Society  of  Clergymen  [of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in 
the  United  States  of  North  America].  Vol.  I.  New  York,  1829, 
8vo. 

This  work,  which  has  not  been  continued,  consists  chicfJy  of 
translations  from  the  writings  of  German  critics ;  against  the  neolo- 
gian  tenets  published  by  some  of  whom  the  translators  have  sup- 
plied their  readers  with  satisfactory  antidotes.  G.  Michaelis,  Storr 
the  elder,  Tiitmann,  Eichhorn,  and  Gesenius,  are  the  authors  from 
whom  the  materials  of  this  volume  have  been  derived. 


[ii.]   Observations  on  the  Scriptures,  Critical,  Philological, 
and  Miscellaneous. 

1,  Fr.  Lud.  Abbesch,  Animadversiones  ad  .^schylum  ;  acce- 
dunt  Adnotationes  ad  qusedam  Loca  Novi  Testamenti.  Medio- 
burgi,  1743,  2  vols.  8vo. 

2.  Cornelii  Adami  Observationes  Theologico-Philologicse : 
quibus  plurima  Sacri  Codicis  Novi  Testamenti  praesertim,  Loca 
ex  moribus  et  ritibus  diversarum  gentium  illustrantur.  Gron- 
ingae,  1710,  4to. 

Vol.  n.  4  M 


3.  Cornelii  Adami  Exercitationes  Exegcticse  de  Israelis  in 
-lEgypto  Itfultiplicatione  et  Oppressione;  Nativitate  et  Institu- 
tione  Mosis  in  Sapientia  ^gyptiorum:  Conversione  sancti  Pauli 
aliorumque  magnorum  peccatorum;  malisque  Roma)  paganae  et 
hodiernae  Moribus.  Accedunt  Scholia  ad  decern  loca  ex  Actis 
Apostolorum.     Groninge,  4to. 

Walchius  speaks  in  very  high  terms  of  the  erudition  of  both  these 
publications.    (Bibl.  Theol.  Select,  vol.  iv.  p.  336.) 

4.  Joannis  Albebti  Observationes  Philologicae  in  SacrosNovi 
Foederis  Libros.     Lugd.  Bat.  1725,  8vo. 

5.  Joannis  Alberti  Periculum  Criticum  :  in  quo  loca  quae- 
dam  cum  Veteris  ac  Novi  Foederis,  tum  Hesychii  et  aliorum, 
illustrantur,  vindicantur,  emendantur.  Lugduni  Batavorum, 
1737,  8vo. 

6.  Caroli  Aubivillii  Dissertationes  ad  Sacras  Literas  et 
Philologiam  Orientalem  Pentinentes.     Gottingen,  1790,  8vo. 

7.  Miscellanea  Sacra ;  containing  an  Abstract  of  the  Scripture 
History  of  the  Apostles  in  a  new  method.  With  Four  Critical 
Essays — 1.  On  the  Witness  of  the  Holy  Spirit :  2.  On  the  Dis 
tinction  between  Apostles,  Elders,  and  Brethren  :  3.  On  the  Time 
when  Paul  and  Barnabas  became  Apostles :  4.  On  the  Apostoli 
cal  Decree,  &c.  &c.  [By  John  Shute,  Viscount  BAiuiiirGTOx.] 
A  new  edition,  with  large  additions  and  corrections.  London, 
1770,  3  vols.  8vo.  Also  in  the  Rev.  G.  Townsend's  edition  of 
Viscount  Barrington's  Collective  Works.  London,  1828,  in  3 
vols.  8vo. 

The  merit  of  this  work  is  generally  allowed.  Dr.  Benson^  ac- 
knowledged himself  much  indebted  to  it  in  his  history  of  the 
first  planting  of  Christianity,  and  in  some  other  of  his  works. 

8.  Jo.  Hermanni  Benker  Otia  Sacra,  de  Divinis  quibusdam 
Oraculis  occupata.     Gissee,  1736,  8vo. 

9.  The  Sacred  Classics  defended  and  illustrated,  by  Anthony 
Blackwall.     London,  1737,  2  vols.  8vo. 

This  work  "  gives  many  well-chosen  instances  of  passages  in  the 
classics,  which  may  justify  many  of  those  in  Scripture  that  have 
been  accounted  solecisms.  They  illustrate  the  beauty  of  many 
others,  and  contain  good  observations  on  the  divisions  of  chapters 
and  verses,  by  which  the  sense  of  Scripture  is  often  obscured." 
(Dr.  Doddridge.) 

10.  Zacharife  Booan  Homerus  'E0pui^ci>v ;  sive  Comparatio 
Homeri  cum  Scriptoribus  Sacris,  quoad  normam  loquendi. 
Oxonii,  1658,  8vo. 

In  the  preface  to  this  learned  work  the  author  states  that  it  is  not 
his  intention  to  institute  any  comparison  between  the  sacred  writera 
and  their  opinions  and  Homer,  but  simply  between  their  idioms  and 
ways  of  speaking.  The  author  added  tohisbookHesiodius"E/3p»i^o.. ; 
in  which  he  shows  how  Hesiod  expresses  himself  nearly  after  the 
same  manner  as  Homer. 

11.  De  Constant!  et  .iEquabili  Jesu  Christi  Indole,  Doctrina, 
ac  Docendi  Ratione,  sive  Commentationes  de  Evangelio  Joannis 
cum  Matthsei,  Marci,  et  Lucse  Evangeliis  comparato.  Scripsit 
E.  A.  BoRGEB.     Lugd.  Bat.  1816,  8vo. 

A  work  of  deep  research.  Its  design  is  to  demonstrate  the  credi- 
bility of  the  four  evangeiisis  by  internal  arguments,  deduced  from 
the  mutual  comparison  of  their  writings. 

12.  Lamberti  Bos  Exercitationes  Philologicae  in  quibus  Novi 
Foederis  loca  nonnulla  ex  auctoribusGrsecis  illustrantur,aliorumque 
versiones  et  interpretationes  examinantur.  Franeq.  1710,  8vo. ; 
edit.  2.  1713,  8vo. 

1 3.  Lamberti  Bos  Observationes  Miscellaneae  ad  loca  quaedam 
cum  Novi  Foederis,  tum  exterorum  Scriptorum  Graecorum. 
Fianequerse,  1707,  8vo. 

14.  Lamberti  Bos  Ellipses  GrffiCJE,  editae  a  Schaefer.  Lipsiae, 
1808,  or  Glasgow,  1813,  8to. 

15.  Critical  Conjectures  and  Observations  on  the  New  Testa- 
ment, collected  from  various  Authors,  as  well  in  regard  to  Word.s 
as  Pointing,  with  tha  reasons  on  which  both  are  founded.  By 
William  Bowter,  F.S.A.,  Bishop  Barrington,  Mr.  Markland. 
Professor  Schultz,  Professor  Michaelis,  Dr.  Owen,  Dr.  Woide, 
Dr.  Gosset,  and  Mr.  W^eston.  A  Series  of  Conjectures  from 
Michaelis,  and  a  Specimen  of  Notes  on  the  Old  Testament,  by 
Mr.  Weston,  are  added  in  an  Appendix.  4th  edit.  London, 
1812,  4to. 

For  an  account  of  the  former  impressions  of  this  valuable  work, 
see  Monthly  Review,  O.  S.  vols.  xlvi.  p.  655.  and  Ixvii.  p.  1 13. ;  and 
for  an  account  of  the  present  edition,  see  the  British  Critic,  O.  S. 
vol.  xl.  p.  507.  et  seq.  In  the  preface  to  which  journal  (p.  vi.)  it  is 
truly  observed  that  Mr.  Bowyer's  work  "  is  for  the  learned  only 
and  for  those  among  the  learned  who  can  discriminate  and  judge 


148 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  II.  Cuap.  V 


for  themselves.  Conjectures  on  the  sacred  !ext  are  at  best  ex- 
tremely hazardous;  hence  it  is  that  the  work,  though  valuable, can 
deserve  only  a  partial  recommendation." 

16.  Observations  upon  the  Plagues  inflicted  upon  the  Egyp- 
tians; in  which  is  shown  the  peculiarity  of  those  judgment.",  and 
their  correspondence  with  the  rites  and  idolatry  of  that  people, 
&c.  &c.  By  Jacob  BRrAXT.  London,  1794  ;  2d  edition,  1810, 
8vo. 

"  The  same  depth  of  thought,  the  same  brillinncy  of  fancy,  and 
the  same  extent  of  erudition,  are  proporlionnhly  conspicuous  ni  this 
Eiiialler  production,  as  in  the  larger  work  of  the  Analysis"  of  An- 
cient Mythology.     (British  Critic,  O.  S.  vol.  iv.  p.  35.) 

17.  Observations  upon  some  Pa.ssagcs  of  Scripture  which  the 
Enemies  to  Religion  have  thought  most  obnoxious,  and  attended 
with  difficulties  not  to  be  surmounted.  By  Jacob  Buvant.  Lon- 
don, 1803,  4  to. 

'•  On  the  whole,  we  have  discovered  in  this  work  much  learning, 
much  ingenuity,  and  an  uniform  good  intention  ;  but  trutli  compel.'? 
us  to  add,  liial  it  displays  a  delect  in  judgment,  and  a  too  evident 
j>ropcnsity  to  support  a  favourite  hypoihc-jis."  (linlish  Critic,  O.  S. 
vol.  XXV.  p.  58.) 

18.  Dav.  Renaldi  Bullerii  Dissertationum  Sacrarum  Sylloge. 
Amstelodami,  1750,  8vo. 

19.  Responses  Critiques  a  plusieurs  DifTicultcs  propos<;es  par 
les  Nouveaux  Incrcdules  sur  divers  Endroits  dcs  Livres  Saint?. 
Par  M.  Bullet.     Bcsancon,  1819,  4  vols.  8vo.  and  12mo. 

These  volumes  were  published  at  different  limes,  many  years 
since :  the  author  of  the  fourth  volume  is  not  known.  Many  pas- 
sages of  Scripture  which  were  the  subject  of  cavil  to  Voltaire  and 
the  infidels  of  tlie  last  century  are  here  elucidated  ;  and  their  skep- 
tical objections  are  shown  to  be  utterly  destitute  of  ibundalion. 

20.  Joannis  Buxtohfii  Disserlalioncs  Philologico-Theolo- 
gics,  ct  Abarbanelis  aliquot  Disscitationes,     Basil,  1662,  4to. 

31.  An  Examination  of  Scripture  Difficulties.  By  William 
Caupenteb.     London,  1S28,  8vo. 

22.  Coramentatio  dc  Felice,  Juda;a!  Procurator.  Auctore 
Joanne  Daniele  Clauuio.     Jche,  1737,  4to. 

23.  Pauli  CoLOMESii  Obscrvalioncs  Sacra;.  Londini,  1688, 
12mo. 

24.  Four  Hundred  Texts  of  Holy  Scripture,  with  their  cor- 
responding Passages,  explained  to  the  understanding  of  common 
people,  and  arranged  under  the  following  head.s  : — 1.  Texts 
which  appear  contradictory.  2.  Not  to  be  understood  literally. 
3.  Improperly  translated.  4.  Belter  Iran.slated  otherwise.  5.  Re- 
quiring explanation.  6.  Wrested  or  perverted.  7.  The  Para- 
bles.— The  whole  compiled  with  a  view  to  promote  religious 
knowledge,  and  facilitate  the  reading  of  the  Divine  Writings. 
By  Oliver  St.  John  Cooper,  A.AL     London,  1791,  small  8vo. 

25.  The  Practi'  al  Expo.sitor  of  the  more  difficult  Texts  that 
arc  contained  in  the  Holy  Bible  :  wherein  the  dreams  in  Daniel, 
and  the  visions  of  all  the  Prophets,  and  the  two  mystical  Books 
of  the  Canticles  and  the  Revelation  are  all  clearly  opened.  By 
Richard  Coore,  D.D.     London,  1683,  8vo. 

26.  Salomonis  Detlinoii  Ohsorvationes  Sacra;.  Lipsia;, 
lljiH,  5  vols.  4to, 

27.  Amhrosii  DonnouT,  Animadvcrsiones  in  Loca  Sclccta 
Veteris  Testamcnti.     Leovardi.-c,  1766,  2  vols.  8vo. 

28.  Joannis  Doroi!T;Ki  .\nalccta  Sacra,  ct  Norton!  Kxatcii- 
TiuLLii  Animadvcrsiones  in  Libros  Novi  Teslamenli.  Amste- 
lodami, 1694,  8vo. 

29.  Drcsii  (Joannis)  Animadvcrsionum  Libri  Duo.  Amste- 
lodami, 1634,  4to. 

:<0.  Tobias  E'riiaroi  Obscrvalioncs  Philologicrc  ex  Ari.-^to- 
l)liani«  Pluto.  Diction!  Novi  Fcdcris  illustrnnda;  inscrvientcs. 
Accedit  ejtisdem  gcncria  Dissertatio,  ex  Homeri  Illiade.  Quedlin- 
burgi,  1733,  4to. 

31.  An  Inquiry  into  four  remarkable  ^cxts  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament, which  contain  some  difficulty  in  them,  with  a  i)rob;d)lp 
resolution  of  them.  By  John  Euwahor,  D.D.  Cand)ridge, 
1692,  8vo. 

32.  Exercitation.'!,  Critical,  Philo.sophical,  Historical,  Theo- 
logical, on  several  Important  Places  in  the  Writings  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testament.  By  John  EnwARDs,  D.D.  London, 
1702,  8vo. 

33.  H.  F.  Ei.iwKn  Paulus  Apostolus  et  Jcsoias  Prophcta  inter 
BC  comparati.     Vratislaviic,  1821,  4to. 

34.  Jacobi  Elbxeh  Observationes  Sacrffl  in  Novi  Frndcris 
Libros,  quibus  plura  illorum  Librorum  ex  auctoribua  iMJlissiraum 


Gra;cis,  et  Antiquitate,  exponuntur,  et  illustrantur.    Trajecti  ad 
Rhenum,  1720.  1723.     In  two  volumes,  8vo. 

35.  Jo.  Aug.  Ehxestii  Opuscula  Theolngica.  Svo.  2d  edit 
Lipsiaj,  1792. 

36.  Synopsis  Stlcctiorum  e  Philologia  Sacra  Qujcstionum. 
Disputatio  I. — III.  quam  praes.  M.  Augusto  Pfeifl'cro  public® 
n^mncru  sistit  Samuel  Fiscuek  (in  opp.  PfeifTeri).  Ultrajecti, 
1704,  4to. 

37.  Fleck  (F.  F.)  De  Regno  Chrisli  Liber,  Quatuor  Evan- 
gelistarum  Doctrinam  coniplectens.  Cum  excursibus  argumenti 
crjtici,  exegetici,  atque  historici.     Lipsijc,  1827,  8vo. 

38.  Critical  Essays  on  Genesis,  Chap.  -VX.,  and  on  Saint 
Matthew,  Chap.  II.  17,  18.:  with  Notes.  By  the  Rev.  Charleii 
FousTEH,  B.D.     Dublin  and  London,  1827,  8vo, 

The  profes.sed  aim  of  Mr.  Forster,  in  the  publication  of  these 
essays,  is  to  lower  the  modern  continental  system  of  biblical  inter- 
pretation. With  this  view,  in  the  first  essay,  he  examines,  and 
most  satisfactorily  refutes,  the  hypothesis  of  Father  Simon,  on  the 
supi»<:scd  tninslocalioii  of  the  twentieth  chapter  of  Genesis.  In  the 
second  essay,  the  learned  author  considers  the  connection  between 
the  prophecy  of  Jeremiah  (xxxi.  15.)  with  respect  to  the  voice  of 
weepin^'  heard  in  iiamah,  and  the  account  given  by  Saint  Maiihe  a- 
(ii.)  of  the  slauchlcr  of  tiie  innocents  at  Beildcliem.  His  hypo- 
thesis is,  "  that  Jeremiah  diverted  from  its  proper  object  to  his  im- 
mediate purpose  the  prophetic  type,  Gen.  xxxv.  16 — 19.,  in  the  way 
of  accommodation;  and  that  ihe  evangelist,  by  referring  the  pre- 
diction in  Jer.  xxxi.  15.  to  the  massacre  at  Bethlehem  lor  its  true 
fuWilnieiit,  has  accomplished  the  final  design  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in 
permitting  the  temporary  diversion  of  the  foregoing  place  of 
Genesis  by  the  prophet;  viz.  the  authoritative  reunion  of  this  pro- 
phetic type  with  its  real  aiiiily|ic,  through  the  medium  of  a 
prophecy,  couched  in,  terms  sufficiently  affecting  to  do  justice  to 
the  deeply  tragical  event,  to  which  it  was  meant  ultimately  to  be 
applied." — "The  view,  taken  by  Mr.  Forster,"  of  the  connection 
between  Jer.  xxxi.  15.  and  Malt,  ii.,  "  is,  we  believe,  original;  and 
even  those,  who  find  difficulty  in  subscribing  to  this  interprefatior 
of  Saint  Maiihew's  allusion,  will  have  none  (we  think),  in  ad- 
mitting its  ingenuity,  or  the  ability  with  which  every  suggestion 
in  its  favour  is  brought  forward."  (British  Critic  and  Theological 
Review,  vol.  i.  p.  345.) 

39.  C.  F.  A.  FniTscHE  Conjectanea  in  Novum  Testamentum. 
Specimen  I.     Lipsia;,  1825,  8vo. 

40.  Nicolai  Fclleri  Miscellaneorum  Sacrorum  Libri  Duo, 
Lugduni,  1625,  8vo. 

41.  D.  G.  GoETzir  Variso  Celebriorum  Medicoruni,  Obscr- 
vationes,  quibus  multa  loca  Novi  Testamenti  docte  illustrantur 
Altdorf,  1740,  8vo. 

Questions  of  considerable  difficulty  are  in  this  work  briefly  but 
judiciously  illustrated. 

42.  Jo.  Jacobi  Griesbaciiii  Opuscula  Acadeniica.  Edidit 
Jo.  Philippus  Gablcr.     Jcuje,  1824-25.     2  vols.  8vo. 

43.  Biblical  Notes  and  Dissertations,  chiefly  intended  to  con- 
firm and  illustrate  the  Doctrine  of  the  Deity  of  Christ :  with 
some  Remarks  on  the  Practical  Importance  of  that  Doctrine. 
By  Joseph  John  Gurnet.     London,  1830,  8vo. 

44.  Theodorii  Hackspanii  Nota;  Philologico-Theologica;  in 
varia  et  difficilia  Veteris  Testamcnti.   Altdorf,  1664,  3  vols.  8vo. 

45.  A  free  and  impartial  Study  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  re- 
commended ;  being  notes  on  some  particular  texts,  with  dis- 
courses and  ob.servations  on  various  subjects.  By  Jos.  Hallkt, 
junior.     London,  1729.  1732.  1736.     3  vols.  8vo. 

Many  important  topics  of  Scripture  criticism  and  interpretation 
are  discussed  in  these  volumes.  If  the  reader  is  not  always  con- 
vinced by  the  arguments  of  the  learnc<l  author,  he  cr.miot  fail  of 
being  pleased  with  the  iii;;eniiity  and  spirit  of  candour  ami  piety 
which  pcrvii'do  them.  TliOst- discourses  which  treat  on  the  e\i 
deuces  of  Clirislianiiy  arc  peculiarly  valuable,  for  the  lucid  and 
forcible  reasoning  displaved  in  them.  The  nature  of  jjorsonnl 
identily,  in  particular,  with  its  np|>li(-alion  to  the  resurrection  of 
Jesus  Christ,  is  admirably  illustrated  in  two  discourses  contained 
in  tlio  second  volume. 

46.  Jo.  f'hri.'^t.  IlAnKNiiKno  Otia  Gandcrnhcmensia  Sacra, 
exponendis  Sacris  Litteris  ct  Historio;  Ecclcsiastica;  dicata;.  Trnj. 
ad  Rhcn.  1740,  8vo. 

47.  Danielis  Heixsii  Exercitationcs  Sacnc  ad  Novum  Testa- 
mentum.    Cantubrigiffi,  1640,  4to. 

48.  Annotata  in  Loca  nonulla  Now  Tcstampnti.  Edidit 
Wcssel  Albcrtus  van  Hkmiel.     Amsteladaiiii,  1824,  8vo. 

The  ntithor  of  this  orudito  voliimo  is  n  pastor  of  the  Dutch  Rr- 
fonned  Church,  and  also  n  professor  at  Amslenlnni.  The  pnwinircs 
which  arc  tho  subject  of  his  researches  are  seventeen  in  nunil'rr, 
and  niiiong  the  numt  diir-.iilt  which  ocrur  in  the  Now  Teslnnioiit. 
M.   van  llengol'a   method  of  interpretation  is  very  severe  and 


\ 


Sect.  III.  §  8.] 


COLLECTIONS  OF  OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


149 


rigorous.  He  first  examines  each  word  in  every  verse;  he  then 
traces  it  in  classical  auihors'and  parallel  passages;  discusses  its 
various  meanings;  and  states  ihc  grounds  of"  the  signification 
which  he  adopis;  and,  after  having  thus  drawn  up  a  dictionary  of 
the  verse,  he  re-construes  it  with  scrupulous  fidelity.  The  result 
of  all  these  laborious  inquiries  is,  the  elicitingof  a  clear  and  simple 
meaning  to  every  passage  which  he  has  undertaken  to  elucidate. 
(Revue  Protestante,  tom.  i.  p.  254.) 

49.  A.  Th.  HoFFMixjf  Observationes 'in  DifBciliora  Veteris 
Testamcnti  Loca,  Particula  prima.     Jense,  1823,  4to. 

50.  Scripture  Testimonies  to  the  Divinity  of  our  Lord  and 
Saviour  Jesus  Christ,  collected  and  illustrated  by  the  Rev. 
George  Holden,  M.A.     London,  1820,  8vo. 

51.  The  Scripture  Testimony  to  the  Messiah:  an  Inquiry, 
with  a  view  to  a  satisfactory  Determination  of  the  Doctrine 
taught  in  the  Holy  Scriptures  concerning  the  Person  of  Christ. 
By  John  Pye  Smith,  D.D.  London,  1818-21.  2  vols,  in  3 
parts,  8vo.  Second  Edition,  much  improved  and  enlarged,  1829, 
3  vols.  8vo. 

52.  Discourses  and  Dissertations  on  the  Scriptural  Doctrines 
of  Atonement  and  Sacrifice.  By  William  Magek,  D.D.,  [late] 
Archbishop  of  Dublin.  A  new  edition.  London,  1832,  3  vols. 
8vo. 

50-52. — Each  of  these  truly  valuable  works  was  published  in 
defence  of  that  cardinal  doctrine  of  the  Christian  Rfevelation, — the 
supreme  Deity  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ;  but  they 
claim  a  distinct  notice  in  this  place,  on  account  of  the  very  nume- 
rous philological  and  critical  explanations  of  important  passages 
of  Scripture  which  they  contain.  From  frequently  consulting 
them,  the  writer  of  these  pages  can  with  confidence  stale,  that 
they  are  works  of  which  the  student  will  never  regret  the  pur- 
chase: each  contains  most  valuable  matter  peculiar  to  itself;  and, 
together,  they  form  the  most  elaborate  defence  and  proof  of  the 
Deity  of  Jesus  Christ  extant  in  our  language.  The  value  of  Arch- 
bishop Magee's  and  Dr.  Smith's  works  is  enhanced  by  their  learned 
vindications  of  many  important  passages  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures 
from  the  erroneous  interpretations  of  tlie  modern  Socinians,  as  well 
as  the  recent  neologian  commentators  of  Germany. 

53.  Job.  Friderici  Hombeiigk  Parerga  Sacra;  sive  Observa- 
tiones qua2(^m  ad  Novum  Testamentum.  Trajecti  ad  Rhenum, 
1712,  4to. 

54.  Specimen  Exercitationum  Criticarum  in  Versionem  LXX. 
Interpretiun,  ex  Philone.  Auctore  Claudio  Frees  Horxe- 
MASif. — Specimen  primum,  Gottinga;,  1773.  Specimen  secun- 
dum, Haunise,  1776.     Specimen  tertium,  Hauniae,  1778,  8vo. 

55.  Gerardi  Hourei  Animadversiones  Sacrae-Profanse  ad 
selecta  Novi  Foederis,  Scriptorumque  exterorum  Graecorura, 
Loca.     Harlingae,  1749,  8vo. 

56.  Petri  Hobrei  Miscellaneorum  Criticorum  Libri  duo: 
quorum  alter  ex  variis  Graecis,  Latinis,  varia  Sacrorum,  extero- 
rum Scriptorum  complectitur :  alter  vocabuli  <})aTv»  Originem, 
Usum,  apud  seniorcs  et  reliquos,  ubi  loci  plures  LXX.  &c.  illus- 
trantur,  eniendantur,  vindicantur,  tractat.  Leovardise  et  Har- 
lingae, 1738,  8vo. 

57.  Biblical  Criticism  on  the  first  fourteen  Historical  Books 
of  the  Old  Testament ;  also  on  the  first  nine  Prophetical  Books. 
By  Samuel  Horslet,  LL.D.,  Bishop  of  St.  Asaph.  London, 
1820,  4  vols.  8v|^. 

Besides  the  critical  pieces  mentioned  in  the  title-page,  the.se 
volumes  (which  are  edited  by  the  author's  son,  the  Rev.  Heneage 
Ilorsley)  contain  three  valuable  disquisitions,  published  in  the 
bishop's  lifetime,  viz.  1.  A  general  view  of  the  first  three  chap- 
ters of  Genesis,  together  with  an  inquiry  into  the  etymology  and 
import  of  the  Divine  Names  of  Eloah,  Elohim,  El,  Jehovah,  and 
Jah ;  which  originally  appeared  in  the  British  Critic,  for  1802,  in 
■d  review  of  the  late  Dr.  Geddes's  remarks  on  the  Hebrew  Scrip- 
lures.  2.  A  Critical  Disquisition  on  the  Eighteenth  Chapter  of 
Isaiah ;  and,  3.  The  Translation  of  the  Prophecy  of  Hosea  (no- 
ticed p.  142.  supra').  These  are  inserted  as  revised  by  their  author. 
At  the  end  of  the  fourth  volume  are  translations  of  several  Sacred 
Songs,  with  Critical  Notes  on  them,  and  on  a  few  other  Sacred 
Pieces,  of  which  the  bishop  has  not  given  versions. 

58.  Jo.  Jac.  HoTTixGEnr,  Opuscula,  philologica,  critica,  atque 
hermeneutica.     Lipsise,  1817,  8vo. 

59.  Conradi  Ikexii  Dissertationes  Philologico-Theologicae  in 
diversa  Sacri  Codicis  utriusque  Testamenti  loca.  Lugd.  Bat. 
1749,  1750,  2  vols.  4to. 

60.  Pauli  Ernestii  Jabloxskii  Opuscula,  quibus  Lingua  et 
Antiquitas  Egyptiorum,  difficiUa  Librorum  Sacrorum  Loca,  et 
Historiac  Ecclesiasticae  capita  illustrantur.  Edidit  atque  Animad- 
versiones adjecit  Jona  Guilielmus  Te  Water.  Lugduni  Batavo- 
rum,  1804-6-9-13,  4  tomis,  8vo. 

Besides  his  Pantheon  ./Egyptiacum,  M.  Jablonski  WTOte  numerous 
iBsertations  on  various  topics  of  sacred  and  oriental  literature. 


After  his  death  corrected  copies  of  these  (many  of  which  had  be- 
come extremely  scarce),  together  with  numerous  inedited  dissquisi- 
tions,  vfiere  sent  to  prof.  Ruhnkenius  at  Leyden ;  and  finally  were 
edited  by  prof.  Te  Water,  with  numerous  valuable  notes  and  in- 
dexes. The  first  volume  contains  the  Egyptian  Glossary,  already 
noticed  in  p.  112.  The  second  volume  comprises  six  disquisitions 
on  Egyptian  Antiquities,  one  on  the  import  of  the  word  AiaSumi, 
and  three  illustrations  of  Job  xix.  25.,  Malt.  xii.  36.,  and  Mark  ix.  49. 
The  third  volume  contains  several  dissertations  elucidating  difficult 
passages  of  Scripture  ;  and  six,  on  subjects  of  ecclesiastical  anti- 
quity. The  fourth  volume  is  w-hoUy  filled  with  dissertations  relating 
to  ecclesiastical  history  and  antiquity.  All  these  pieces  are  replete 
with  profound  learning.  This  collection  of  Jablonski's  Opuscula 
is  not  of  common  occurrence. 

61.  Car.  Aug.  Theoph.  Keilh  Opuscula  Academica  adN.  T. 
Interpretationem  Grammatico-historicam,  etTheologiae  Christianaj 
Origines,  pertinentia.    Edidit  J.  D.  Goldhorn.    Lipsiae,  1821,8vo, 

62.  Remarks  on  Select  Passages  in  the  Old  Testament ;  to 
which  are  added  eight  sermons.  By  the  late  Benjamin  Kexni- 
coTT,  D.D.     London,  1777,  8vo. 

Fur  an  account  of  this  work,  see  Monthly  Review,  O.  S.  Vol. 

Ixxviii.  pp.  477—489. 

63.  Petri  Keuchexii  Annotata  in  Novum  Testamentum,  cum 
Prajfatione  Joannis  Alberti.     Lugd.  Bat.  1775,  8vo.  best  edition. 

64.  Morsels  of  Criticism,  tending  to  illustrate  some  few  Pas- 
sages in  the  Holy  Scripture  upon  Philosophical  Principles,  and 
an  enlarged  View  of  Things.  By  Edward  King,  Esq.  F.R.S. 
and  F.S.A.  4to.  London,  part  i.  1784,  part  ii.  1800;  also  a 
second  edition,  8vo.  in  3  vols.  London,  1800. 

"  Air.  King's  particular  aim  is,  to  provide  answers  to  the  more 
subtile  opponents  of  Christianity,  and  to  trace  the  completion  of 
the  sacred  oracles."  "  We  cannot  take  our  leave  of  this  valuable 
work  without  expressing  our  admiration  of  the  singular  union  of 
ingenuity  and  piety  which  appears  in  every  page.  Few  readers 
perhaps  will  follow  the  author's  steps  with  the  same  alacrity  with 
which  he  proceeds  through  the  most  curious  and  subtile  inquiries , 
but  all  must  readily  grant,  that  such  an  application  of  ingenuity, 
diligence,  learning,  and  philosophical  knowledge,  is  in  a  high 
degree  praiseworthy."  (British  Critic,  O.  S.  vol.  xvi.  prelace,  p.  iv. 
and  p.  667.) 

65.  Geo.  Chr.  Knapph  Scripta  varii  Argumenti,  maximara 
partem  exegeticam.  Halae,  1805,  2  vols.  8vo.  Editio  altera, 
Halae,  1823,  2  vols.  8vo. 

66.  Jo.  Bern.  Koehiehi  Observationes  philologicae  in  loca 
selecta  codicis  sacri.     Lugd.  Bat.  1766,  8vo. 

67.  Wilhelmi  Koolhaas  Observationes  Philologico-Exegetiwe 
in  quinque  Mosis  Libros,  aliosque  Libros  Historicos  Veteris 
Testamenti.     Amstelodami,  1751,  8vo. 

68.  Joannis  Guilielmi  Krafftii  Observationes  Sacrae:  quibus 
varia  Scripturae  Loca  illustrantur.  Marpurgi,  1753-55,  2  parts, 
8vo. 

69.  Jo.  Tob.  Krebsii  de  Usu  et  PrsEstantia  Romanae  Historiai 
in  Novi  Testamenti  Interpretatione  Libellus.    Lipsiae,  1745,  8vo. 

70.  Car.  Frid.  Krumbholzii  Opers  Subsecivae;  seu  Animad- 
versiones Sacrae  in  Loca  quaedam  Novi  Foederis  Selecta.  Norim- 
bergae,  1737,  8vo. 

71.  G.  C.  KicHLEK  De  Simplicitate  Scriptorum  Sacrorum  in 
commentariis  de  Vita  Jesu  Christi.     Lipsiae,  1821,  8vo. 

72.  Christiani  Theophili  Kuinoel  Observationes  ad  Novum 
Testamentum  ex  Libris  Apocryphis  V.  Lipsiae,  1794,  8vo.  * 

73.  C.  G.  KiJTTifiRi  Hypomnemata  in  Novum  Testamentum. 
Lipsiae,  1780,  8vo. 

74.  Geo.  Dav.  Ktpke  Observationes  Sacrae  in  Novi  Foedeti< 
Libros.     Vratislaviae,  1755,  2  vols.  8vo. 

75.  Jo.  Gothofr.  Lakemacueri  Observationes  Philologicae; 
quibus  Varia  Antiquitatis  Hebraics  atque  Graeca;  capita  et  non« 
nulla  S.  Codicis  Loca  nova  luce  coUustrantur.  Helmstadii,  1729 
-33,  10  parts,  forming  three  volumes,  8vo. 

76.  Friderici  Adolphi  Lasipe  Dissertationum  Philologico- 
Theologicarum,  turn  carum  quse  ad  ulteriorum  cvangelii  Johan- 
nis  illustrationem  pertinent,  turn  reliquarum  varii  generis  et 
eruditionis  multifariae.  Syntagma  :  cum  Danielis  Gerdesii  praefa- 
tione.     Amstelodami,  1737,  4to. 

77.  Caroli  Henrici  Langii  Observationes  Sacr©,  quibus  varia 
N.  Test.  Loca,  ex  antiquitatibus  et  Philologia  Sacra  illustrantur. 
Lubecae,  1737,  8vo. 

78.  The  Complete  Works  of  Dr.  Lardxeh.  London,  1V89, 
II  vols.  8vo.  London,  1817,  5  vols.  4to.  London,  1827,  10 
vols.  8vo. 

In  the  applause  of  Dr.  Lardner  all  parties  of  Christians  are  united, 
regarding  him  as  the  champion  of  their  common  and  holy  faith 


150 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


Paht  n.  CnAr.  V 


Archbishop  Seeker,  Bishons  Porleus,  Wa<son,  anu  Tomline,  and 
Doctors  Jortin,  Hey,  and  Palcy,  of  the  Anglican  church:.  Doctors 
Doddridge,  Kippis,  and  Priestley,  amongst  the  Dissenters;  and  all 
foreign  Protestant  biblical  critics,  have  rendered  public  homage  to 
his  learning,  his  fairness,  and  his  great  merits  as  a  Christian  apolo- 
gist The  candid  of  the  literati  of  the  Romish  communion  have 
extolled  his  labours :  and  even  Morgan  and  Giblwn,  professed  un- 
believers, have  awarded  to  him  the  meed  of  faithfulness  and  impar- 
tiality. With  his  name  is  associated  the  praise  of  deep  erudition, 
accurate  research, sound  and  imjiartial  judgment,  and  unblemished 
candour.  The  publication  of  his  works  constituted  a  new  Kra  in 
the  annals  of  Christianity :  for,  by  collecting  a  mass  of  scattered 
evidences  in  favour  of  the  authenticity  of  the  evangelical  history, 
he  established  a  bulwark  on  the  side  of  truth  which  infidelity  has 
never  presumed  to  attack.  His  "  Credibility,"  and  his  "  Collection 
of  Jewish  and  Heathen  Testimonies,"  may  be  said  to  have  given 
the  deistical  controversy  a  new  turn,  and  to  have  driven  the  assail- 
ants of  the  Gospel  from  the  field  of  Christian  anli(juity,  in  which 
they  esteemed  themselves  securely  intrenched,  into  the  by-j)ailis 
of  sarca.sm  and  irony.  How  amply  we  are  indebted  to  the  elabo- 
rate researches  of  the  learned  and  accurate  Dr.  Lardner,  the  nu- 
m&rons  references  to  his  writings  in  tlie  course  of  the  present  work 
will  siifTiciently  attest.  The  quarto  edition  has  corrected  indexes. 
The  octavo  edition  of  1827  is  sold  at  a  very  reai-onable  price,  and 
Its  typographical  execution  is  truly  beautiful.  Our  references  to 
Dr.  Lardner's  works  are  made  to  the  quarto  edition,  and  also  to  the 
octavo  edition  of  178'J. 

79.  A  Common-Place-Book ;  or  Companion  to  the  New  Tes- 
tament ;  consisting  of  Illustrations  of  dillicult  passages ;  apparent 
(^'ontradictions  and  Inconsistencies  reconciled ;  and  the  Confor- 
mity of  sonic  Important  facts  mentioned  in  Scripture,  with  the 
Statements  of  Profane  Authors.  By  the  Rev.  S.  Longhuhst, 
B.A,     Richmond  and  London,  1833,  8vo. 

This  compilation  contains  most  of  the  passages  in  the  New  Tes- 
tiiment,  which  have  arrested  the  attention  of  the  captious  opposcr 
or  the  ingenuous  critic.  The  compiler  has  undertaken  it  "  for  tiie 
r.nglish  reader,  and  for  those  who  may  have  but  little  acquaintance 
with  the  technicality  and  intricacies  of  biblical  criticism."  This 
Introduction  to  the  critical  Study  and  Knowledge  of  the  Holy  Scrij)- 
turcs  has  been  laid  under  a  large  contribution.  The  remainder  of 
,the  compiler's  materials  are  derived  from  Mr.  Uurder's  Oriental 
Customs,  tlic  Commentaries  of  Ostervald,  Doddridge,  &c.  Mr.  Val- 
pv's  very  valuable  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament,  and  the  works 
of  Josephus ;  and  lor  those  passages  which  are  quoted  in  the  New 
Testament  from  the  Old,  the  compiler  states  that  the  Greek  Septu- 
agint  and  the  Hebrew  te.xt  have  been  carefully  compared. 

80.  Joanni«  Henrici  Maii  (filii)  Observationes  Sacra ;  quibus 
divcrsa  utriusque  Testamenti  Loca  ex  linguarum  Indole,  et  Anti- 
quitatibus  potissimum  illustrantur.  Francofurti,  1713-15,  in  4 
books  or  parts,  Svo. 

81.  Critical  Notes  on  some  Passages  of  Scripture,  comparing 
thern  with  the  most  ancient  Versions,  and  restoring  them  to  their 
original  reading  or  true  Sense.  [By  Nicholas  Mann.]  Loiadon, 
1747,  Svo. 

Thc«e  "  Notes"  are  not  numerous,  but  they  contain  some  good 
illustrations  of  confessedly  dilllcull  passages  of  Scripture:  they 
were  published  anonymously. 

82.  C.  B.  Mf.isxeh  Dc  N:^»  Paulino  Comment.ttioExegctico- 
Dogmalica.     Gratz,  1830,  Svo. 

83.  Jo.  Dav.  MrciiAELis  Commentationcs  in  Societatc  Rcgia 
Scicntiarum  Goettingensi  per  annos  1758 — 1702,  prtelecta;. 
Edilio  Secunda.     Brema;,  1774,  4to. 

84.  Johannis  Gcorgii  Miciiaelis  Observationes  Sacrsc,  in 
quibus  diversis  Sacrse  Scripturm  utriusquc  Fcedcris  Locis  sclccto- 
rJbu.s,  ex  Lingua;  Ebraea;  aliarumque  Oricntalium  indole,  priscornm 
item  popiilorum  ritibus  et  institutis,  lux  adfuiidilur :  nonnulla 
eliam  Antiquilatuni  Jud.Ticarum  capita  ex  Lege  Mosaica  et 
Magistrorum  placitis  cxcutiuntur,  adcjue  Scnsuni  Spiritualcm 
traducuntur.  Trajecti  nd  Khenuin,  1738,  Svo. '.Jda  edilio.  Arn- 
hcniii,  1752,  Svo. 

85.  Jo.  Gcor;^.  Micwaelis  Excrcitationes  theologico-philolo- 
gicjB.     Lugd.  Uat.  1757,  Svo. 

86.  De  iis,  qujB  ad  cognosccndam,  Judteorcm  Pala;Htincnsium, 
qui  Jesu  tempore  vivcbant,  Chri.slologiam  Evangclia  nobis  cxhi- 
bnnt,  deque  Locis  Mc3nianis  in  illis  allcgatis,  scriptiit  Adamus 
MouAiiT.     Gottingtc,  1828,  Svo. 

87.  Olwervationes  Sclectie  in  varia  locnNovi  Testamenti :  sive 
Laur.  Rarnircsii  dc  Phado  Pcntecoiilarchus,  .Mi-xandti  Mom  in 
Novum  Fu'duri  Not»,  et  I'ctii  Possisi  Sucielulis  Jcsu  S|(icile- 
giuin  Evangelicum  :  cum  prmfatione  Jo.  .Mbcrii  Fabricii  et  tab. 
tun.     Hamburgi,  1712,  Svo. 

One  of  the  rarest  little  books  of  sacred  Lriiiiism.  Dr.  Ilarivood 
mils  this  a  very  useful  <  olleciinn,  containing  many  excellent  notes 
on  particular  pobnagus  t>f  the  New  Testament. 


88.  Sam.  Frid.  Nathan  Mom  Dissertationes  Thcologicae  rt 
PhilologicjB,  vol.  i.  LipsijD,  1787;  vol.  ii.  ibid.  1794;  2d  edition, 
ibid.  1798,  Svo. 

89.  Miscellanea  Hafniensia  Theologici  et  Philologici  Argu- 
menti.  Edidit FridericusMuxTEii.  Tum.I.IL  Hafnia;,  1816-S4. 

90.  Ca.sp.  Frid.  Minthii  Observationes  philologies  in  Sacros 
Novi  Testamenti  Libros,  ex  Diodoro  Siculo  collectse.  Hafniae  ct 
Lipsia;,  1755,  Svo. 

91.  H.  Muntinghe  Sylloge  Opusculorum  ad  doctrinem  sacram 
pertincntium.     Lugd.  Bat.  1791,  1794,  2  vols.  Svo. 

92.  Augusti  Hcrmanni  Niemeteui  de  Evangelistarum  in 
narranda  J'csu  Christi  in  vitam  reditu  Dissensione,  variisque 
Veterum  Ecclesite  Doctorum  in  ca  dijudicanda  et  componenda 
Studiis,  Prolusio.     Halte,  1824,  Svo. 

93.  Jo.  Aug.  NoEssELTi  Opusculorum  ad  intcrpretatio- 
ncm  sacrarum  Scripturarum,  Fasciculus  I.  Svo.  Halse,  1785; 
Fasciculus  II.  il)id.  17S7. — Ejusdem,  Excrcitationes  ad  Sacra; 
Scripturse  interprctationcm.     Hala;,  1808,  Svo. 

94.  Geo.  Lud.  CEdehi  Obscrvationum  Sacrarum  Syntagma, 
Svo.  Weisscnberg,  1729. — Ejustlem,  Conjecturarum  de  diffici- 
lioribus  SS.  locis  centuria,  Svo.  Lipsiae,  1738. — Ejusdem,  Ani- 
madvcrsiones  sacra;.     Brunswigse,  1747,  Svo. 

95.  Elise  Palairet  Observationes  Philologico-critica;  in  sacros 
Novi  Fcsdcris  Iiibros.  Lugd.  Bat.  1752,  Svo. — Ejusdem  Speci- 
men Exercitationum  Philologico-criticarum  in  Sacros  Novi  Fce- 
dcris Libros,  1775,  Svo. 

96.  Augusti  Pfeifferi  Opera  Omnia.  Amstelodami,  1704, 
2  vols.  Svo. 

The  first  volume  contains  his  Duh'ia  Vexeta  Scriptura,  400  notes 
on  difficult  passages  of  Scripture,  Ehraica  atqiie  Exotica  Novi  Tes- 
tamenti c  suis  fuvtibua  derivata,  an  explanation  of  Hebrew  and  other 
foreign  words  occurring  in  the  New  Testament,  and  ten  disserta- 
tions on  passages  of  peculiar  difTiculty  in  the  sacred  writings  The 
second  volume  consists  of  treatises  on  (he  criticism,  interpretation, 
antiquities,  &c.  of  the  Bible. 

97.  Remarks  on  several  Passages  of  Scripture,  rectifying  some 
errors  in  the  printed  Hebrew  Text,  pointing  out  scvxral  mistakes 
in  the  versions,  &c.  By  Matthew  Pxlkixgtox,  LL.B.  Can* 
bridge  and  London,  1759,  4to. 

98.  Extracts  from  the  Pentateuch  compared  with  siinjlar 
passages  from  Greek  and  Latin  authors,  with  notes.  By  Edwaru 
PopiiAM,D.D.     Oxford,  1802,  Svo. 

Of  this  work  the  reader  will  find  an  analysis  in  the  British  Critic, 
O.  S.  vol.  XX.  pp.  289—294. 

99.  PonscHBEKGEn  (Christiani)  Theocritus  Scripturam  illus- 
trans  ;  sive  Sentcntiae  ac  Phrases  e  Poetis  Grjccis  ad  illustranda 
Sacri  Codicis  Oracula.     Dresdce  ct  Lipsiae,  1744,  Svo. 

^  100.  Georgii  Raphaelii,  Ecclesiarum  Lunenburgensium  Su- 
perintendentis,  Annotationes  in  Sacram  Scripturam ;  Historicse 
in  Vetus,  Philological  in  Novum  Testanicntum,  cx  Xenophontc, 
Polybio,  Arriano,  ct  Hcrodoto  collectse.  Lugduni  Batavoruni, 
1747.     In  two  volumes,  Svo. 

101.  ReixeV;kk  (C.  F.  C.)  Dc  Constanti  ct -f^quabili  Jesu 
Christi  Indole  et  LT^enio,  Doctrina  et  DoccUdi  Ratione  :  sivi! 
Commentutio  de  Evangelio  Johannis  cum  Matlha;i,  Marci,  ct 
Luc^  Evangeliis  conciliato.     Hannoveric,  1827,  Svo. 

102.  Fr.  V.  REiNiCAnui  Opuscula  Acadcmica.  Lipsise,  1808 
-9,  2  vols.  Svo. 

103.  An  Joannes  in  Qxhibcnda  Jcsu  Natura  rcliquis  Canonicis 
libris  rcpugnct,  cxaminarc  conatus  est  F.  W.  Rettbkuo.  Gi't- 
tiiigrc,  1826,  Svo. 

The  writer  states  the  doctrine  of  St.  John  relative  to  the  divine 
and  humnn  nuturos  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  llion  compares  them  with 
the  writings  of  the  first  three  evangelists,  and  the  remaining  lK>ok.s 
of  the  New  Testament.  The  conclusion  to  which  the  author  ar- 
rives is,  that  the  evangelist  is  not  an  impostor,  and  consequently 
that  iho  writings  bearing  his  name  arc  his  genuine  productions. 

104.  Corrections  of  various  passages  in  the  English  Version 
of  the  Old  Testament,  upon  the  authority  of  ancient  mainiscripts, 
and  ancient  versions,  by  the  late  VV.  II.  Roiieiits,  D.D.,  Provost 
of  Eton  College.  Published  by  his  son  W.  Roberts,  M.A.  Lon- 
don, 1794,  Svo. 

"  The  biblical  scholar  will  infallibly  receive  w  ith  pleasure  them 
remarks,  from  a  man  of  undoubted  learning  and  ingenuity.  The  ' 
chief  intention  of  Dr.  Roberts  seems  to  have  been  that  of  lessening 
the  number  of  words  supplied  in  Italic  in  our  public  version,  as  not 
answering  literally  to  any  words  in  the  Hebrew,  by  showing  that 
in  Kome  cases  they  are  unnecosHarv,  and  that  in  some,  the  ;?pnse 
may  be  filled  up  by  other  means.    There  arc  also  many  remarks 


Sect.  Ill,  §  8.] 


COLLECTIONS  OF  OBSERVATIONS  ON  THE  SCRIPTURES. 


of  a  more  general  kinil."  In  these  observalions,  "  candour,  modesty, 
and  ingenuity  will  be  found  adorning  learning."  British  Critic, 
O.  S.  vol.  iv.  p.  G48.,  and  pref.  p.  vi. 

10-5.  Discours  Historiques,  Critiques,  Th^plogiques,  et  Moraux, 
sur  les  Eveneniens  les  plus  memorables  du  Vieux  et  du  Nouveau 
Testament,  Par  M,  Saurin.  Avec  des  planches.  A  la  Haye, 
1735—1739,  6  vols,  folio, 

Mr.  van  der  Marck  formed  a  design  of  representing  on  copper- 
plates the  most  memorable  events  in  sacred  history ;  and  he  en- 
gaged Mr.  Saurin  to  write  an  explanation  of  the  plates ;  this  gave 
rise  to  the  discourses  here  published.  There  is  an  edition  of  them 
in  11  vols.  Svo.     They  are  deservedly  held  in  the  highest  esteem. 

•  106,  Dissertations,  Historical,  Critical,  Theological,  and  Moral, 
on  the  most  memorable  events  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament. 
Translated  from  the  French  of  M.  Saurin  by  John  Chamberlayne, 
Vol.  L  [all  published]  London,  1732,  folio. 

107.  Dissertationes  Philologico-Exegeticffi  Everardi  Scheidii, 
Harderovici,  1769,  1770,  Svo. 

108.  Biblical  Fragments,  By  M,  A.  Schimmelpknninck, 
London,  1821,  1822,  2  vols.  Svo.     . 

These  fragments  are  not  critical  elucidations  of  particular  texts ; 
but  they  are  written  with  much  elegance,  and  the  authoress  has 
introduced  some  of  the  finest  practical  and  devotional  thoughts  of 
the  Jansenist  writers,  particularly  the  accomplished  and  much  tra- 
duced recluses  of  Port  Royal.  But  her  critical  remarks  on  the 
authorized  English  version  are  not  always  correct. 

109.  Joannis  FridericiScHLEusxEiii  Opuscula  Critica  ad  Ver- 
siones  Groecas  Veteris  Testamenti  pertinentia,    Lipsise,  1812,  Svo. 

The  Tracts  contained  in  this  volume  are,  1.  Ohservaliones  non- 
riullcB  de  Palrum  Graconun  Aucforitale  in  conslituenda  Versionum 
(irxcarum  Yeteris  Testamenti  Ltclionc  genuina :  the  object  of  which 
disquisition  is  to  prove  that,  in  citing  the  words  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, the  Fathers  were  in  many  respects  inaccurate,  partly  from 
their  using  faulty  MSS.,  and  partly  from  a  failure  of  memorJ^  which 
led  them  sometimes  to  substitute  not  only  one  word  for  another, 
f)Ut  even  to  change  whole  members  of  a  sentence  :  and,  2.  Sylloge 
Observalionum  et  Emendationum  Conject.  in  Verss.  Gr.  Veteris  Testa- 
menti. 

110.  Dissertationes  Philologico-Criticae,  Singulas  primum, 
nunc  cunclas,  edidit  Christianus  Friedericus  Scunukreii, 
Gothffi,  1790,  Svo, 

The  dissertations  collected  in  this  volume  were,  for  the  most 
part,  published  separately  between  the  years  1772,  1775,  1781,  are 
lifieen  in  number,  and  are  highly  valued  on  the  continent.  They 
comprise  philologico-critical  observations  on  the  hymn  of  Deborah 
(Judg.  v.),  on  various  passages  of  the  Books  of  Psalms  and  Job,  on 
Isaiah  xxvii.,  Ezekiel  xxi.,  llabakkuk  iii.,  and  the  prophecy  of  Oha- 
diah  ;  besides  two  valuable  dissertations,  on  the  difliculty  of  deter- 
mining the  age  of  Hebrew  Manuscripts,  and  on  the  Arabic  Penta- 
teuch in  Bishop  Walton's  edition  of  the  Polyglott  Bible. 

111.  Opuscula  Exegetica,  Critica,  Dogmatica  Scripsit,  re- 
cognovit,  variisque  additamentis  locupletavit  H.  A,  Schott, 
Theol,  Doctor  et  Prof.  Ordin,  Academiae  Jenensis.  Jenae,  1817, 
1818,  2  vols,  Svo. 

111*.  Alberti  Schultexs  Animadversiones  Philologicaj  et 
Criticae  ad  varia  loca  Veteris  Testamenti :  in  quibus,  ope  prffici- 
pue  Linguae  Arabicas,  multa  ab  interpretibus  nondum  satis  intel- 
lecta  illustrantur,  quamplurima  etiam  nova  explicanda  modeste 
propoauntur.     Amstelodami,  1709,  Svo. 

This  treatise  was  reprinted,  together  with  other  pieces  of  Prof. 
Schulten's,  under  the  title  of  Opera  Minora,  Lugduni  Batavorum 
et  Leovardiae,  1769,  4to.  In  this  work  Schultens  has  made  great 
use  of  the  Arabic  language  to  illustrate  Hebrew  words  and  phrases, 
although  he  generally  adduces  passages  from  the  grammarians  and 
prose  writers.  The  philological  interpretations  which  he  thus  de- 
duces he  places  in  contradistinction  to  those  whicli  the  traditions  of 
the  rabbins  had  preserved. 

112.  Jo.  ScHULTHEssi,  Dc  Charismalibus  Spiritiis  Sancti. 
Pars  prima  De  vi  et  natura,  ratione  et  utilitate  Dotis  Linguarum, 
in  primes  Discipulos  Christi  collalae,  atque  in  posteros  omnes 
deinceps  ad  fmem  usque  sec.  peren,     Lipsia;,  1818,  8vo, 

113.  C.  Segaar  Observationes  Philologicae  et  Theologicas  in 
Lucae  XI,  Capita  priora,     Trajecti,  1766,  Svo. 

114.  Johannis  Henrici  a  Seelen  Meditationes  Exegeticte, 
quibus  varia  utriusque  Testamenti  loca  expcnduntur  et  illustran- 
tur.    Lubecae,  1730-32-37,  3  parts,  Svo, 

115.  Gottlob  Christian!  Storr  Dissertationes  in  librorum 
Novi  Testamenti  Historicorum  aliquot  locos,  parts  i, — iii,  Tu- 
bingen, 1790-91-94,  4to, 

1 16.  Gottlob  Christiani  Storr  Opuscula  Academica  ad  inter- 
pretationeni  Librorum  Sacrorum  pertinentia.  Tubingen,  1796, 
1799,  1803,  3  vols.  Svo, 

Besides  various  critical  disquisitions  of  great  merit,  this  vs-ork 
contains  several  commentaries  on  detached  books  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament. 


151 

Lipsiae 


117,  Car.  Chr.  TixTMANNi  Opuscula  Theologica. 
1803,  Svo. 

Various  questions  of  sacred  criticism  are  illustrated  in  this  work 
with  singular  ability. 

118,  Di^ertations  on  some  Parts  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments, which  have  been  supposed  unsuitable  to  the  Divine  At- 
tributes.    By  Richard  Twopexnt,  M.A.     London,  1824,  Svo. 

119,  Dissertatio  Theologica  Judaeo-Christianismo,  ejusque  V 
et  Efficacitaie  quam  exseruit  in  Rem  Christianum  saeculo  prime 
Quam. ..  .publico  examinisubmiltit.  David  Van  Hetst.  Lug 
duni  Batavorum,  1828,  4to. 

120,  Joannis  Verpooktexii  Fasciculus  Dissertationum  ad 
Theologiam,  maxime  exegeticam,  et  Philologiam  Sacram,  Cc- 
burgi,  1739,  Svo, 

121,  Verschuirii  (J.  H.)  Opuscula,  in  quibus  de  variis  S. 
Litt.  locis,  et  argumentis  exinde  desumptis  critice  et  libere  dis- 
seritur.  Edidit  atque  animadversiones  adjecit  J.  A,  Lotze,  Tra- 
jecti, 1810,  Svo. 

122,  Campegii  Vithing.ib,  patris,  Observalionum  Sacrarum 
Libri  iv,  Franequerae,  1700.     Libri  v.  et  vi.  170S,  4to, 

123,  Campegii  Vitrij^ge,  Jilii,  Dissertationes  Sacrae,  cum 
animadversionibus  Hermanni  Venemae,     Franequerae,  1731,  4vo. 

124,  Emonis  Lucii  Vriejioet  Observationum  Miscellanca- 
rum,  argumenti  prcecipue  philologici  et  theologici,  quibus  multis 
locis  S.  Codicis  aut  nova  aut  uberior  lux  adfunditur,  Liber.  Leo- 
vardia;,  1740,  4vo. 

125,  Silva  Critica,  sive  in  Auctores  Sacros  Profanosque  Com- 
mentarius  Philologtis.  Concinnavit  Gilbertus  Wakefield,  A.B. 
Cantabrigiae,  1739-1795,  5  parts,  Svo. 

The  design  of  Mr.  Wakefield,  in  the  plan  of  this  work,  was  the 
union  of  theological  and  classical  learning — the  illustration  of  the 
Scriptures  by  light  borrowed  from  the  philology  of  Greece  and 
Rome,  as  a  probable  method  of  recommending  the  books  of  revela- 
tion to  scholars.  How  ably  this  design  was  executed  the  reader 
may  see  in  the  dilferent  critical  journals  of  that  time,  where  Mr. 
W.'s  peculiar  notions  on  some  points  are  considered.  (See  particu- 
larly the  Monthly  Review,  N.  S.  vol.  v.  p.  54.  et  seq.,  vol.  viii.  p. 
571.,  and  vol.  xvi.  p.  235.)  An  Examen  of  his  work  was  published 
by  H.  C.  A.  Haenlein,  in  four  small  tracts,  printed  at  Erlang,  in  4to, 
1798-1801. 

126,  W^ALCiiii  (Jo.  Geo.)  Observationes  in  Novi  Foederis 
Libros,  quarum  prima  pars  ca  continet  loca,  quae  ex  historia  phi- 
losophica  illustrantur.     Jenae,  1727,  Svo, 

127,  Vindiciae  Biblicae  :  a  Scries  of  Notices  and  Elucidations 
of  Passages  in  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  which  have  been 
the  subject  of  attack  and  misrepresentation  by  deistical  writers, 
[By  David  Walther.]     London,  1832,  Svo. 

128,  Scripture  Vindicated',  in  answer  to  a  Book  entitled 
"  Christianity  as  old  as  the  Creation,"  By  Daniel  Wateheaxd, 
D.D.  London,  1730-1734,  Svo.  also  in  the  sixth  voluine  of  Bp. 
Vanmildert's  edition  of  his  works.     Oxford,  1S23,  Svo, 

Though  published  in  reply  to  Tindal's  declamatory  libel  against 
revealed  religion,  this  publication  claims  a  distinct  notice  on  ac- 
count of  its  satisfactory  elucidation  and  vindication  of  many,  and 
some  of  them  difficult,  passages  in  the  Old  Testament.  They  are 
arranged,  not  in  the  desultory  way  in  which  Tindal  introduced 
them,  to  give  point  to  his  jests  and  sarcasms,  but  as  the  texts  stand 
in  holy  writ;  so  as  to  form  a  regular  series  of  expository  illustra- 
tions. Part  I.  comprises  the  book  of  Genesis ;  Part  II.  carries  on 
the  examination  of  texts  from  the  book  of  Exodus  to  the  second 
book  of  Kings  ;  and  Part  III.  extends  through  the  remaining  books 
of  the  Old  Testament.  Various  passages  in  the  book  of  Job,  the 
Psalms,  and  the  Prophpi!>,  charged  by  infidel  writers  with  incon- 
sistency, injustice,  or  absurdity,  are  here  examined  ;  and,  occa 
sionally,  some  collateral  topics  are  entered  into,  tending  to  their 
further  elucidation.  Bp.  Mant  and  Dr.  D'Oyly  have  made  considera- 
ble use  of  Waterland's  labours.  For  an  account  of  the  controver- 
sies into  which  the  publication  of  "  Scripture  Vindicated"  com- 
pelled him  to  enter,  the  reader  is  referred  to  pp.  153 — 173.  of  his 
Life  by  Bp.  Vanmildert,  forming  vol  i.  part  i.  of  his  edition  of  Dr. 
Waterland's  Works.  ' 

129,  Biblical  Gleanings;  or  a  Collection  of  Passages  of 
Scripture,  that  have  generally  been  considered  to  be  mistrans- 
lated in  the  received  English  Version,  with  proposed  corrections ; 
also  the  important  various  readings  in  both  Testaments,  and 
occasional  notes,  interspersed  with  a  view  to  the  illustration  of 
obscure  and  ambiguous  texts,  with  several  other  matters  tending 
to  the  general  elucidation  of  the  Sacred  Writings.  By  Thomas 
Wemxss.     York,  8vo. 

The  ample  title-page  of  this  work  sutliciently  indicates  the  de- 
sign of  the  industrious  compiler:  in  the  compass  of  little  more 
than  250  pages,  it  presents  a  variety  of  important  corrections  of  a 
multitude  of  obscure  or  ambiguous  passaged  in  the  sacred  writings. 


15-i 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  IL  Chap.  YI. 


compiled  from  llie  biblical  labour?  of  upwards  of  fifi)-  of  the  most 
distinguished  critics,  both  British  and  tbreign.  In  Ihe  event  of  a 
new  translation  or  revision  of  our  authorized  version  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  this  little  book  cannot  fail  of  being  eminently  useful. 
Its  value  would  have  been  enhanced  if  the  compiler  kad  specified 
Ihe  sources  or  authors  of  each  emendation. 

130.  An  Illustration  of  the  Method  of  explaining  the  New 
Testament  by  the  early  opinions  of  Jews  and  Christians  con- 
cerninij  Christ.  By  W.  VVilsox,  B.D.  Cambridge,  at  the 
University  Press,  1797,  8vo. 

"Though  not  cxprcs.<ly  presented  to  the  public  as  a  refutation 
of  Dr.  Priestley's  '  History  of  Karly  Opinions,'  and  other  works 
concerning  the  person  of  Christ,  this  performance  is  unquestionably 
to  be  received  in  this  light.  Tae  author  constantly  keeps  in  view 
the  arguments  of  this  work  jn.«>t  mentioned,  and  nearly  passes  over 
the  same  ground,  in  order  to  (irove  that  the  historical  facl,  relating 
to  the  opinions  of  the  fir^t  Christians,  is  the  reverse  of  that  which 
the  doctor  haa  represented,  and  consequently  that  the  inference 
resj)ecting  the  true  inclining  ol  the  iS'ew  Testament  i.s  directly 
contrary  to  that  of  ilic  uniluri.-ui  hy[>othesis. — It  would  be  injustice 
to  tlie  ingenious  writer  of  this  reply,"  to  Dr.  Priestley,  "  not  to 
allow  him,  uncqiiivocally,  the  praise  of  having  written,  in  a  per- 
spicuous and  correct  style,  a  learned  and  well-digested  tract,  and 
of  having  londucled  his  part  of  the  controversy  with  urbanity 
and  candour."     (.\nalylical  Review,  vol.  xxvi.  pp.  368.  372.) 

131.  Joh.  Lictcrici  Wixckleri  Disquisitiones  Philologicae, 
Bcriptunc  Sacrtc  quadam  loca,  ct  antiquitati.s  tarn  ccclesiasticai 
quam  profanx  momenta,  illustrantes.  Hamburgi,  1741,  8vo. — 
Ejusdern,  Hypomncinata  philologica  ct  critica  in  diversa  Scri})- 
turse  Sacra;,  tarn  Vctcris  quam  IS'ovi  Testamcnti,  illustrantes. 
Hamburgi,  1745,  8vo. — Ejusdom,  Animadversioncs  Philologica; 
et  Critic«  ad  varia  Sacjri  Codicis  utriusque  Foederis  loca.  Hilde- 
sisB,  1750-53-53,  3  part.s,  8vo. 

All  the  publications  of  Winckler  are  both  scarce  and  valuable: 
they  are  said,  by  Walchius,  to  illustrate  many  difficult  passages  of 
Holy  Writ  with  great  learning  and  industry."  (Bibl.  Theol.  ydect. 
vol.  iv.  p.  812.) 

132.  Hermanni  Wnsii  MisccUaneorum  Sacrorum  Libri 
Quatuor.     I.ugd.  Bat.  1736,  2  vols.  4to. 

133.  Hermanni  Witsii  Meletemata  Lciden.sia;  quibus  con- 
tinentur  Prtelcctioncs  dc  Vita  et  Rebus  Gestis  Pauli  Apostoli, 
necnon  Dis.sertationum  Excgeticarum  Uuodecas  ;  dcniijue  Com- 
mcntarius  in  Epistolam  Juda;  Apostoli.     Basilca;,  1739,  4to. 


134.  Hermanni  Witsii  .^gyptiaca  et  Auat<pti\c> :  sive  de 
JEgj'ptiacorum  Sacrorum  comparalione  cum  Hebraicis  Libri 
tres,  et  de  decem  tribubus  Israelis  Liber  singularis.  Accesit 
Diatribe  dc  Lcgione  Fulininatricc  Christianorum  sub  imperatore 
Marco  Aurelio  Antonio.     Basileze,  1739,  4to. 

135.  Martini  Caspari  WpLFDriiBi  Observationcs  Sacrnj  in 
Novum  Testamentum ;  seu  Adnotationcs  Thcologico-Critica)  in 
voces  plera.sque  Novi  Testameiiti,  ordine  alphabetic©,  et  Dicta 


Flensburgi,  1717, 


prtecipua  tarn  Vetcris  quam  Novi  Foederis. 
4to.     HafiiiK,  1738,  4to. 

136.  An  Impartial  Enquiry  into  the  case  of  the  Gospel  Dc- 
moniacks.  By  William  Wohthingtox,  D.U.  London,  1777, 
8vo. 

137.  Petri  Zonxir  Opuscula  sacra;  hoc  est,  Programmata, 
Dissertaliciies,  Orationes,  Epistolte,  et  Schediasmata,  in  quibus 
prsEler  selectissima  Historite  Ecclesia.sticx  et  Litcrarite  capit.n, 
etiam  plusquam  sexcenta  Scripturte  loca,  partiin  ex  utriusque 
lingua;  sanctions  genio,  parlim  ex  Antiquitatum  Hebraiearuni 
Grajcarum  ct  Roinanarum  ajiparatu,  illustrantur  ac  vindicantur. 
AltonavioB,  1731,  2  vols.  8vo. 

138.  The  Truth  of  Revelation,  demonstrated  by  an  Appeal 
to  existing  Monuments,  Sculptures,  Gems,  Coins,  and  Medals. 
London,  1832,  12ino. 

"This  interesting  book  is  clearly  the  production  of  a  mind  pioua 
and  cultivated,  enriched  by  science  and  enlarged  by  various  infor- 
mation ;  adapted  especially  to  guard  the  young  against  the  t«x> 
welcome  theories  of  skepticism :  it  will  also  nlford  to  the  general 
reader  both  gratification  and  improvement.  It  chicll;?  consists  of 
striking  facts  deduced  from  the  labours  of  modern  inquiry,  of  allu- 
sions gleaned  from  literature,  of  memorials  of  past  events  scattered 
over  the  relics  of  by-gone  times,  in  sculptures,  gems,  and  medals; 
and  its  object  is,  to  a])ply  these  various  materials  to  the  illuslmlioii 
and  establishment  of  the  sacred  records  ;  as  well  as  to  express  the 
conviction,  that  the  foundations  of  a  scriptural  hojio  are  not  to  be 
shaken  by  advancing  knowledge,  nor  ultimately  injured  by  the 
rash  assaults  of  a  class  of  men,  who,  aspiring  to  be  deeme<]  the 
Notaries  of  philosophy,  give  too  much  reason  r'>r  the  suspicion, 
that  the  stimulus  by  which  their  industry  is  excited  is  the  vain 
exjicctatioii  of  some  discovery  adverse  to  the  Christian  religion, 
rather  than  zeal  for  the  prouKJiion  of  science."  (Eclectic  Review, 
July,  1832,  vol.  viii.  N.  S.  p.  14.) 


CHAPTER  VI. 

CONCORDANCES  AND  DICTIONARIES,  COMMON-PLACE  BOOKS,  INDE.VES,  AND  ANALYSES  C?  THE  BIBLE 

SECTION  L 

CONCORDANCES  TO  THE  SCRIPTLBES. 
§  1.  COWCOnDASCES  TO  THE  HEBREW  BIBLE. 


1.  Marlk  dcCALASio  Concordantia;  Bibliorum  Hcbraicorum 
ct  Latinorum.  Romsc,  1621,  folio,  in  four  volumes. — Londini, 
1747,  ct  ann.  scqq.  Edcnte  Guliclino  Romaiiie,  folio,  in  four 
volumes. 

The  original  of  thin  work  was  a  Ilelirew  concordance  of  Rabbi 
Nathan,  n  learned  Jew,  piibliKhed  at  Venice  in  1.'>'J3,  in  folio,  with 
great  fiiults  and  defei-tH.  A  Beconil  and  much  more  correct  c.li:-on 
of  Nalhan'.i  work  was  printed  at  Basil  by  Frobon.  The  tliird  edi- 
tion is  the  first  impres.sion  of  (?nl.'i.sKj'8  Concordance,  who  ha."  ox- 
tended  Nathan's  work  into  four  large  volumes,  by  aiiding,  1.  A 
Luiin  Translation  of  the  Rabbi'H  explanation  of  the  several  roots, 
with  addition."!  of  his  own  ;  2.  The  RnbbinirnI,  Ctialdee,  Syrinc, 
and  Arabic  words  derived  from,  or  agreeing  with,  the  Hchrcw 
r<KJt  in  nitrnifi<Titif)n  ;  3.  A  literal  v^-rsion  of  the  Ilebrew  text; 
4.  The  variations  between  Ihe  Vulgate  and  S(>|)iungint  vemions  ; 
and,  5.  The  proper  names  of  men,  rivers,  mouiilains,  A'c. — Biixlorf 's 
Coiirordanco  fnoticod  below)  was  projjerly  the  fourth  eililion  <if 
Naihiin'K  work,  u.s  Mr.  Romainc's  edition  la  the  fiAh.  The  last  is 
a  splondiil  ami  useful  book. 

2.  Joannis  BirxTORrii  CohcordantiiD  Hebraica;  ct  Chaldoictc. 
Baniloic,  1632,  folio. 

ThiH  is  n  work  of  great  labour:  it  was  abridged  by  Christian 
Kiiviuu,  nnilnr  the  liijc  of  t'onx  Xtonm,  niv  ('oncordanliarum  //»•- 
hrairarum,  rt  ChnUlaicuntm,  Jo.  liiutorjfii  Epitome.  Berolini,  1C77, 
Hvo. 

3.  ChriHtiani  Noinii  Concordantia;  Particularum  Ebrtco- 
Cbaldaicarum,  in  quibus  partium  indcclinabilium,  qua-  occurrunt 


in  fontibus  ct  hactcnus  non  exposita;  sunt  in  Lcxicis  aut  Con- 
cordantiis,  natura  et  snnsuum  varietas  ostenditur.  Cum  anno- 
lationibus  J.  G.  Tymjiii  et  aliorum.  Jma;,  1734,  4to.  editio 
sccunda.  < 

The  particles  of  all  languages,  and  especially  those  of  ih"  He- 
brew, are  not  only  of  groat  imi)oriance,  but  very  dillicull  to  l>e  fully 
undersluoil.  The  Hebrew  particles,  indeed,  were  very  im|)erfectly 
known,  even  by  the  best  critics,  before  the  publication  of  Noldnis's 
work.  His  Concordance  of  them  is  so  complete,  that  it  has  left 
scarcely  any  thing  unfinished  ;  and  il  is  of  the  greatest  im|>ortance 
to  every  biblical  student  and  critic.  The  first  impression  appeared 
in  IGiX).  Th(^  second  is  the  best  edition:  and,  besides  the  valiinble 
miles,  and  oilier  nddilions  of  J.  (J.  and  S.  B.  'i'ynipiiiH,  il  contains, 
by  way  of  Aiipendix,  a  lAxicon  of  the  Hebrew  Particles,  compile>l 
by  John  Michaelis  and  Christi/i>her  Koerbcr.  (Bibliographical  Dic- 
tionary, vol.  iii.  p.  45.)      ^ 

4.  The  Hebrew  Concordance  adapted  to  the  English  Bible; 
disjio.scd  after  the  methoil  of  Buxtorf  By  John  Taylor  [D.D.] 
of  Norwich.     London,  1764-57.     In  two  volumes,  folio. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  laborious  and  most  useful  works  ever  pub- 
lished for  the  advaiicemeiit  of  Hebrew  knowledge,  and  the  umlcr- 
slanding  of  the  Old  Testament  in  itM  original  laiii;unge.  h  is.  in 
fact,  a  Grammar,  Lexicon,  and  {'onrordaii'-e,  founded  on  the  Con- 
cordance of  Buxtorf,  all  whosi-  errors  Dr.  Taylor  has  corr«cled.  He 
has  also  in«erled  the  wonl  or  vtords  by  which  any  Hebrew  word  \s 
trniislnted  in  the  F.nclihh  Bible:  anil  v\here  the  Helvew  is  not 
literally  rendered,  a  literal  translation  is  added.     In  general,  all 


:CT 


I.  §  5.] 


CONCORDANCES  TO  THE  GREEK,  LATIN,  AND  ENGLISH  BIBLES. 


153 


change  or  difference  in  the  two  texts  is  diligently  remarked  :  and 
Dr.  T.  has  added  all  the  words  (about  one  hundred  and  twenty-one 
in  number)  which  Boxlorf  had  omitted  ;  together  with  the  particles 
out  of  Noldius.  This  invaluable  work  w'as  published  under  the 
patronage  of  all  llie  English  and  Irish  bishops,  and  is  a  monument 
to  their  honour,  as  well  as  to  the  learning  and  industry  of  its  author. 
The  price  of  this  Concordance  varies  from  nine  to  twelve  guineas, 
according  to  its  condition. 


§  2.    CONCORDANCES    TO    THE    SEPTUAGINT    GHEEK    AVERSION. 

1.  Conradi  Kircheri  Concordantise  Veteris  Testament!  GriE- 
KB,  Ebra;is  vocibis  respondentcs,  7rcAi/;^w3"To<.  Simul  enim  et 
Lexicon  Ebraico-Latinum.     Francofurti,  1607,  2  tomis,  4to. 

This  laborious  work,  which  is  a  Hebrew  Dictionary  and  Con- 
cordance, is  strongly  recommended  by  father  Simon,  when  treating 
on  the  best  metijods  to  be  adopted  in  undertaking  any  new  trans- 
lation of  llie  Scriptures.  It  contains  all  the  Hebrew  words  in  the 
Old  Testament,  introduced  in  an  alphabetical  order, aYid  underneath 
J8  the  Greek  version  of  them  from  the  Septuagint,  followed  by  a 
collection  of  the  passages  of  Scripture  in  which  those  words  are 
diflercnily  interpreted  Considered  as  a  first  essay,  Kircher's  Con- 
cordance possesses  considerable  merit.  It  is,  however,  now  super- 
seded by 

2.  Abrahami  Trojimh  Concordantise  Gra;cae  Versionis  vulgo 
diclae  lxx.  Interpretum.  Amstelajdaini  et  Trajecti  ad  Rhenuni, 
1718,  2  vols,  folio. 

In  this  elaborate  and  valuable  work,  the  order  of  the  Greek 
Alphabet  is  followed  ;  the  Greek  word  being  first  given,  to  which 
are  subjoined  its  different  acceptations  in  Latin.  Then  follow..the 
ditferent  Hebrew  words,  w-hich  are  explained  by  the  Greek  word 
in  the  Septuagint  version.  These  different  Hebrew  words  are 
arranged  under  the  Greek  in  their  alphabetical  order,  with  the 
passages  of  Scripture  where  they  occur.  If  the  word  in  question 
"bccurs  in  Aqiiila,  Symmachas,  Thcodotion,  or  any  of  the  other 
ancient  Greek  interpreters  of  the  Old  Testament,  the  places  where 
it  is  found  are  referred  to  at  the  conclusion  of  the  quotations  from 
the  Scriptures  ;  and  immediately  after  these  all  the  passages  in  the 
Apocrypha  are  specified,  where  the  word  occurs.  The  work  is 
terminated  by  a  useful  Index,  a  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  Lexicon,  a 
Greek  Lexicon  to  Origcn's  Hexapla  (by  Montfaucon),  and  a  suc- 
cinct collation  (by  Lambert  Bos)  of  the  Frankfort  and  Roman  edi- 
tions of  the  Septuagint.  This  work  is  beautifully  printed.  (Biblio- 
graphical Dictionary,  vol.  iii.  p.  42.) 


§  3.    COSCORDAKCES    TO    THE    GREEK    TESTAMENT. 

1.  ConcordantisB  Grsecse  Novi  Testamenti,  ab  Henrico  Ste- 
PHAxo.  Geneva,  1594,  folio.  Et  cum  Supplemento,  Genesev, 
1600,  folio. 

This  Concordance  is  notioed  here,  to  put  the  student  an  his 
guard,  as  it  may  generally  be  purchased  at  a  low  price.  It  is  so 
carelessly  executed,  that  some  critics  suppose  Henry  Stephens  not 
to  have  been  the  editor  of  it:  and  that  he  lent  his  name  lo  the 
work  for  pecuniary  considerations. 

2.  Novi  Testamenti  Grsci  Jesu  Christi  Tameion,  aliis  Con- 
cordantise ;  ita  concinnatum,  ut  et  loca  reperiendi,  et  vocura  veras 
significationes,  et  significationum  diversitates  per  collationem 
investigandi,  ducis  instar  esse  possit.  Opera  Erasmi  Schmidii, 
Gfjec.  Lat.  et  Mathem.  Prof.  Accedit  nova  prsefatio  Ernesti  Salo- 
monis  Cypriani.  Lipsiae,  1717,  folio.  Glasguae  etLondini,  1819, 
2  vols.  Svo.     Londini,  1830,  48nio. 

The  best  Greek  Concordance  to  the  New  Testament.  The  Glas- 
gow reprint  of  1819  is  beautifully  executed.  The  London  edition 
of  1830  was  printed  under  the  superintendence  of  the  late  Mr. 
William  Greenfield.  "  By  omitting  the  unimportant  proper  names, 
the  indeclinable  particles,  the  pronouns,  and  the  verb  substantive  ; 
— by  substituting  simple  references  for  citation  when  the  word 
occurs  only  four  or  five  times,  or  w'lien  there  are  two  or  more  pas- 
sages strictly  parallel,  in  which  case  one  only  is  given  and  the  others, 
are  referred  to;  alterations  which  detract  nothing  from  the  usefulness 
of  the  edition;  the  ponderous  labours  of  Stephens  and  Schmidt  are 
here  screwed  into  something  less  than  a  pocket  volume  ;  and,  what 
is  more,  for  six  shillings  the  biblical  student  may  possess  himself  of 
a  work  at  one  time  scarce  and  dear,  in  a  form  that  will  take  up  no 
room  on  his  table,  and  which  ought  scarcely  ever  to  be  off  of  it." 
(Eclectic  Review,  February,  1832,  vol.  vii.  N.  S.  p.  159.)  This  edi- 
tion is  very  neatly  printed. 

3.  A  Concordance  lo  the  Greek  Testament,  with  the  English 
version  to  each  word ;  the  principal  Hebrew  roots,  corresponding 
to  the  Greek  words  of  the  Septuagint ;  with  short  critical  Notes, 
and  an  Index.    By  John  Williams,  LL.D.  4to.    London,  1767. 

"The  lovers  of  sacred  literature  will  find  this  work  very  useful 
in  many  respects:  it  is  compiled  with  great  pains  and  accuracy." 
(Monthly  Rev.  O.  S.  vol.  ixxvi,  p.  400.) 


§  4.    CONCORDANCE    TO    THE    LATIN    VULGATE. 


Sacrorum  Bibliorum  Vulgatae  editionis  Concordantise,  Huoonk 
Cardinali  auctore,  ad  recognitionem  jussu  Sixti  V.  Pont.  Max. 
adhibitam,  recensitaj  atque  emendatae  opera  et  studio  Francisci 
LucsB  Brugensis.  Antverpice,  1606,  folio;  1612,  1617,  4to. 
Venetiis,  1612,  4  to.  Lugduni,  1615,  4to.  Genevae  et  Franco, 
fin-ti,  1625,  4to.  Parisiis,  1635,  1638,  1646,  4to.  Colonis 
Agrippinae,  1684,  Svo.     Avignon,  1786,  2  tomis,  4to. 

The  first  attempt  towards  a  concordance  to  the  Latin  Bible  was 
made  in  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century  by  Cardinal  Hugo  de 
Sancto  Caro,  of  whose  invention  of  the  division  of  chapters  an 
account  is  given  in  Vol.  I.  Part  I.  Chap.  IV.  p.  213.  He  is  said  to 
have  employed  jive  hundred  monks  of  the  Dominican  order  in 
selecting,  and  arranging  in  alphabetical  order,  all  the  declinable 
words  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments ;  but  the  fact  of  so  many 
monks  being  employed  is  questionable.  It  is  supposed  that  the 
work  was  at  first  less  voluminous  than  it  afterwards  became,  and 
that  it  increased  by  frequent  revisions  and  improvements.  (Town- 
ley's  Biblical  Illustrations,  vol.  i.  p.  483.)  Le  Long  has  given  a  list 
of  several  Latin  Concordances  (Bibl.  Sacra,  torn.  i.  pp.  457, 458.  folio 
edit.) ;  but  the  revision  of  Cardinal  Hugo's  work  by  Lucas  Brugen- 
sis is  considered  to  be  the  best  of  the  numerous  editions  through 
which  it  has  passed.  That  printed  at  Cologne  is  reputed  to  be  the 
most  beautiful ;  but  the  Avignon  edition  is  the  most  complete. 


§  5.    CONCORDANCES    TO    THE    ENGLISH    BIBLE. 

1.  A  Concordace,  that  k  to  sale,  a  Worke  wherein  by  the 
ordre  of  the  letters  of  the  A.  B.  C.  ye  maie  redely  finde  any 
worde  conteigned  in  the  whole  Bible,  so  often  as  it  is  there  ex- 
pressed or  mencioned.  By  Jhon  Marbeck.  London,  imprynted 
by  Richard  Grafton,  m.  ll.  I.  folio. 

The  first  Concordance  to  the  English  Bible :  an  account  of  it 
may  be  seen  in  Dr.  TouTiley's  Biblical  Illustrations,  vol.  iii.  pp. 
118 — 120.  It  was  preceded  by  a  Concordance  to  the  New  Testa- 
ment, compiled  and  printed  by  Thomas  Gibson,  about  the  year 
1536. 

2.  A  Complete  Concordance  to  the  Holy  Scriptures  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testament,  or  a  Dictionary  and  Alphabetical 
Index  to  the  Bible.  In  two  parts.  By  Alexander  Crcuen, 
M.A.  London,  1763;  1810;  1824;  4to.  Also  various  edi- 
tions in  royal  Svo.     Philadelphia,  1830,  imperial  Svo. 

The  first  edition  of  this  well-known  and  most  useful  Con- 
cordance appeared  at  London  in  1737.  The  edition  of  1763  is  the 
third  and  last  of  those  corrected  by  tlie  author,  and  is  usually  con- 
sidered as  the  best,  from  his  known  diligence  and  accuracy  in  cor- 
recting the  press.  The  value  of  Cruden's  Concordance  has  caused 
it  to  be  repeatedly  printed,  but  not  always  with  due  regard  to  ac- 
curacy. The  London  edition  of  1810,  however,  is  an  honorable 
exception ;  every  word,  with  its  references,  having  been  most 
carefully  examined  by  Mr.  Deodatus  Bye  (formerly  a  respectable 
printer),  who  voluntarily  employed  some  years  in  this  arduous 
task  ;  for  which  he  is  justly  entitled  to  the  thanks  of  every  reader 
of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  The  London  edition  of  1824  is  a  reprint 
of  that  published  in  1810.  Another  very  accurate  edition  was 
printed  a  lew  years  since  at  the  press  of  Messrs.  Nuttall  and  Co 
of  Liverpool,  who  employed  a  person  to  collate  and  verify  every 
word  and  reference.  The  typography  of  the  reprint  at  Philadel- 
phia is  very  neatly  executed ;  and  its  editor  professes  to  have  cor- 
rected more  than  ten  thousand  errors  in  the  references,  which  had 
escaped  the  eye  of  the  London  editors. 

3.  A  New  Concordance  to  the  Holy  Scriptures  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testament ;  or  a  Dictionary  and  Alphabetical  Index 
to  the  Bible,  together  with  the  various  significations  of  the  prin- 
cipal words,  by  which  the  true  meaning  of  many  passages  is 
shewn.  By  the  Rev.  John  Bcttebwobth.  London,  1767; 
1785;   1816;  Svo. 

This  is  in  a  great  measure  a  judicious  and  valuable  abridgmen 
of  Mr.  Cruden's  Concordance.  Singular  pains  were  bestowed  by 
its  compiler,  in  order  to  insure  correctness,  by  collating  every 
word  and  reference  in  the  proof  sheets  with  the  several  texts  of 
the  Bible.  The  second  edition  of  1785  is  considerably  improved. 
The  third  impression  of  1816  has  some  alterations  in  the  defini- 
tions, made  by  Dr.  A.  Clarke;  who  has  reprinted  the  original  of 
the  passages  so  altered.  Those  who  cannot  afford  to  purchase 
Cruden's  work  will  find  this, of  Mr.  Butterworlh  extremely  valu- 
able. 

4.  A  Concordance  of  Parallels  collected  from  Bibles  and 
Commentaries,  which  have  been  published  in  the  Hebrew,  Latin, 
French,  Spanish,  and  other  Languages,  with  the  Authorities  of 
each.     By  the  Rev.  C.  Crutwell.  4to.     London,  1790. 

Tliis  is  a  very  elaborate  work,  and  will  amply  repay  the  labour 
of  consulting;  though  the  parallelisms  are  not  always  to  be  traced, 
and  are  sometimes  very  fanciful.  But  for  this  the  industrious 
author  is  not  to  be  censured,  as  he  every  where  cites  his  authori- 
ties, which  are  very  numerous. 


154 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  IL  Chap.  VL 


5.  A  Concordance  to  the  Holy  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testament.  By  the  Rev.  John  Bkowx,  of  Haddington. 
London,  1808,  18mo.    Glasgow,  1825,  18rao. 

There  are  Beveral  editions  of  this  Concordance  extant,  whicli 
being  printed  with  diamond  (or  tlie  smallest)  type,  it  is  from  this 
circumstance  commonly  termed  the  diamond  concordance.  Its 
portability  is  its  principal  recommendation;  as  its  very  minute 
type  requires  no  common  strength  ol'  sight  lo  read  with  pleasure. 
The  edition  of  1825  was  revised  by  the  llev.  Wm.  ^rnhh,  of  Glas- 
gow; and  is  very  neatly  stereotyped  on  a  clear  and  legible  type  at 
the  Glasgow  university  press. 

6.  The  Scripture  Harmony ;  or  Concordance  of  Parallel  Pas- 
sages, being  a  Commentary  on  the  Bible  from  its  own  Re- 
sources ;  consisting  of  an  extensive  Collection  of  Rcforenccs 
from  all  the  most  esteemed  Commentators,  &c.  &c.  4to.  royal 
8vo.  and  18mo.     London,  1818. 

The  contents  of  this  compilation  are  comprised  in  three  particu- 
lars :  viz.  1.  The  chronology,  in  which  Dr.  Biayney  is  follovycd, 
his  being  deemed  the  best  fitted  for  general  utility.  2.  The  various 
Readings,  in  the  giving  of  which  great  care  has  been  bestowed. 
These  various  readings  are  stated  to  be  "  printed  on  a  plan,  which 
lo  the  unlearned  reader  will  be  more  clear  than  the  usual  methoil, 
and  which  the  narrow  limits  of  the  margin  of  a  Bible  could  not 
admit:  in  this  the  very  words  of  the  te.\t  are  printed  at  length,  and 
the  various  readings  arc  presented  in  a  dinerent  type;  so  that 
while  both  are  at  one  view  before  the  reader  tor  his  choice,  as  the 
connection  and  analogy  of  faith  may  direct,  the  usefulness  of  the 
work  is  increased,  because  it  becomes  thereby  adapted  to  every 
edition  of  the  Bible;"  and,  3.  The  Scripture  References;  a  labo- 
rious compilation  of  half  a  million  of  Scripture  references,  chielly 
from  the  Latin  Vulgate,  Dr.  Biayney,  Canne,  Brown,  Scott,  and 
other  valuable  writers,  who  have  devoted  their  services  to  this 
useful  mode  of  illustrating  the  Scriptures.  It  is  proper  to  remark, 
that  in  this  compilation  of  references  the  pui>lislier  professes  only 
to  have  collected  a  mass  of  texts  from  various  authors  of  the 
highest  character  for  success  in  this  useful  and  pious  labour,  and 
llien  to  have  arranged  their  varied  cjnlributions  into  regular 
order;  the  verse  of  the  chapter  under  illustration  is  first  marked ; 
then  lollow  ihe  parallel  passages  in  the  book  itself  in  which  the 
chapter  stands ;  afterwards  tlie  references  are  placed  regularly  in 
the  order  of  the  books  of  Scripture.  The  remark  on  Mr.  Crutwell's 
Concordance  of  Parallels  may  be  extended  to  the  present  work. 


§  6.    C0:TC0HDAN'CE  to  the  TREyClI  BIBLE. 

Concordance,  en  forme  de  Rcgistre,  pour  trouver  facilemcnt 
chaque  passage  du  Nouveau  Testament.  Premiere  Partie  ;  con- 
t«nant  les  quatre  Evangiles  et  les  Actes  des  Apotres.  St.  Pe- 
tersburg, 1824,  8vo. 

This  concordance  was  announced  to  be  in  two  parts  or  volumes. 
The  first  part  only  has  been  published :  it  is  a  coiicord.ance  lo  the 
four  Gospels  and  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  according  to  \he  Fren-ch 
version  of  De  Saey.  The  second  part  is  to  comprise  a  concordance 
to  the  Epistles  of  Saint  Paul  and  lo  the  Catholic  Epistles. 


SECTION  n. 


DICTION.\RIES  OF  THE  BIBLE. 


I 


1.  DiCTio^fNunE  Historique  Chronologiqne,  Gcographique, 
ct  Litteral  de  la  Bible.  Par  Augustin  Calmet.  Paris,  1730, 
4  tomes,  folio. 

A  translation  of  this  truly  valuable  work  (wliich  is  the  basis  of 
all  other  modern  dictionaries  of  the  Bible),  with  otcasioual  re- 
marks, was  published  in  1732,  in  three  folio  volumes;  which 
h;iving  become  extremely  scarce,  an  edition  was  publislicd  in 
1801,  in  two  thick  4to.  volumes,  by  Mr.  Taylor,  with  n  volume  of 
nddiiions  from  hooks  of  voyages  and  travels,  A:c.  under  llie  title 
of  '•  FraementB."  .\  new  edition,  enlarged  and  greatly  improved, 
was  published  in  1H23,  entitled, 

2.  Calmet's  Dictionary  of  the  Holy  Bihic,  Historical,  Critical, 
Geographical,  and  Etymological :  wherein  arc  explained  the 
Proper  Names  in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments;  the  Natural 
Productions,  Animals,  Vegetables,  Minerals,  Stones,  fJems,  «Stc.  ; 
the  Antiquities,  Habits,  Buildings,  and  other  Curiosities  of  the 
Jews;  with  a  Chronological  History  of  the  Bible,  Jewish  f'a- 
Icndar,  Tables  of  the  Hebrew  Coins,  Weights,  Measures,  <S:c. 
&C  fourth  edition,  revised,  corrected,  and  augmented  with  an 
Mtcnsivo  wrics  of  plates,  explanatory,  illustrative,  and  orna- 
mental, under  the  direction  of  iy.  Tatlou.  London,  1823. 
Filth  edition,  1H28-29,  .5  vols.  4to. 

This  w.»rk  is  beautifully  printed.  Vols.  I.  and  II.  comprise  the 
Dictionary,  in  an  al|)liabelieal  Heries,  the  stippli-menls  of  fiunier 
editions  being  incorporat«'d  ;  Vols.  III.  uiid  IV.  contain  7.')()  I'rng- 
mcnis,  with  tlio  Natural   History  of  the  Bible.    The  addilioiu, 


made  under  the  title  of  "Fragments,"  are  extracted  from  the  most 
rare  and  authentic  Voyages  and  Travels  (ancient  and  modern)  into 
Judea  and  other  oriental  countries;  and  they  comprehend  an  ns- 
semblageof  the  most  curious  and  illustrative  descriptions,  exnlam. 
lory  of  Scripture  incidents,  customs,  and  manners,  that  could  not 
possibly  be  explained  by  any  other  medium.  It  must  not,  however, 
be  concealed  that  some  of  the  editor's  discussions  in  the  Fragments 
are  prolix,  and  that  his  mythological  elucidations  are  sometimefj 
more  ingenious  than  solid.  Bp.  Mant  and  the  Rev.  Dr.  D'Oyly 
have  made  great  use  of  Cal.mkt  in  the  Notes  to  the  Bible,  pub- 
lished by  tlie  venerable  Society  for  ))roinoting  Christian  Know- 
ledge; and  in  their  list  of  books,  to  which  the;'  acknowledge  their 
obligations,  they  particularly  specify  the  "Fragjie.nts"  annexed 
to  this  Edition  of  Calmet. — Vol.  V.  contains  an  Atlas  of  Plates  and 
Maps,  with  their  corresponding  explanations,  in  alphabetical  order. 
These  engravings  are  very  neatly  executed,  and  many  of  them 
throw  great  light  upon  oriental  customs.  In  addition  to  the  various 
improvements  in  the  fourth  edition,  the  references  and  quotations 
in  the  fifth  edition  were  verified  and  corrected  ;  the  explanation 
of  the  plates,  which  had  hitherto  been  detached  from  the  l>ody  of 
the  work,  were  incorporated  with  the  articles  of  which  they  iorm 
a  part ;  the  whole  of  the  text  was  revised :  and  several  new 
articles,  besides  oroasional  additions,  were  introtluccd.  In  its 
present  improved  state,  Mr.  Taylor's  edition  of  Calmet's  Dictionary 
IS  indispensably  necessary  lo  every  biblical  student  who  can  afford  * 
to  purchase  it.  An  Index  of  Matters  and  of  Texts  cited  and  illus- 
trated in  the  fourth  edition  was  published  separately,  in  1827. 

3.  Calmet's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible  by  the  late  Mr.  Charles 
Taylor,  with  the  Fragments  incorporated.  The  whole  condensed 
and  arranged  in  alphabetical  order,  with  numerous  additions. 
[By  Josiah  Condeh.]  London,  1831;  second  edition,  1832, 
royal  8vo. 

This  abridgment  comprises  under  one  alphabet  whatever  is  im- 
portant or  intrinsically  valuable  either  in  Calmet's  Dictionary  of 
the  Bible,  or  in  the  Fragments  collected  by  Mr.  Taylor.  The  editor 
of  the  abridgment  has  judiciously  omitted  all  those  articles  (nni^ 
those  only)  which  were  not  directly  illustrative  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures, and  also  many  of  the  prolix  and  trivial  discussions  of  the 
Frnginents.  The  value  of  the  work  is  enhanceti  l)y  the  insertion 
of  numerous  well  executed  wood-cuts  ;  so  that  each  article  includes 
its  appropriate  illustration  ;  an  improvement  which  cannot  b'.it 
greatly  facilitate  the  perusal  of  this  cheap  and  beautifully  executed 
volume. 

3*.  Calmet's  Dictionary  of  the  Bible American  Edition, 

revised,  with  large  additions,  by  Edward  Robixsojt,  D.D.,  Pro- 
fessor Extraordinary  of  Sacred  Literature  in  the  Theological 
Seminary,  Andover.  Illustrated  with  Maps  and  Engravings  on 
wood.    Boston  [Massachusetts]  and  New  York,  1832,  royal  8vo. 

n  preparing  this  work  for  publication  in  North  America,  Profes- 
pRobinson  has  made  numerous  retrenchments  of  those  mytholo- 
gical and  etymological  discussions,  which  tiie  English  editor  ( ould 
not  omit,  without  taking  greater  liberties  with  ihe  labours  of  his 
predecessor  than  might  have  been  justifiable.  In  place  t>{'  iliese 
retrenchments.  Dr.  Robinson  has  matle  verj'  numerous  and  import- 
ant additions,  condensed  with  singular  perspicuity  from  the  works 
of  modern  travellers  in  iho  East,  an<I  especially  from  the  labours 
of  the  most  distinguished  German  critics  and  commcniators,  which 
are  comi)aratively  Utile  known  to  American  readers.  The  volume 
is  beautifully  printed. 

3**.  A  Dictionary  of  the  Holy  Bible,  for  the  Use  of  Schools 
and  Young  Persons.  By  Edward  RouiJisoN,  D.D.  Illustrated 
witJi  .Maps  and  Engraving  on  wood.  Boston  and  New  York, 
1833,  l?.mo. 

Though  avowedly  designed  for  schools  and  young  persons,  this 
neatly  executed  ptililicatiou  may  he  very  advantiigcously  used  by 
all  who  may  be  unable  lo  procure  larger  wurks.  To  a  considerable 
extent  it  is  an  abridumeiil  of  the  jireceding  American  edition  of 
Cahnet's  Dictionary  :  but  not  a  few  articles  are  original,  and  c-oii;- 
jioscd  from  the  best  accessible  sources.  In  the  Ilislorical.  Bi'ij^.c 
pbical,  and  Geographical  Index,  annexed  to  the  sei-ond  volume  of 
this  work,  we  have  derived  many  valuable  hints  and  illustrations 
from  both  Dr.  Robinson's  Dictionaries  of  the  Bible.   • 

4.  A  Dictionary  of  the  Holy  Bible  ;  containing  an  Historical 
Account  of  the  I'crsons,  a  Geographical  .\ccoiint  of  the  Places, 
and  Literiil,  Critical,  and  Systematical  Descriptions  of  other  Ob- 
jects, mentioned  in  the  Writings  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament, 
or  in  those  called  Apocrypha.     London,  I ?.')'.>,  3  vols.  8vo. 

This  useful  compilation  is  principally  abridged  from  Calmet's 
great  Dictionary  of  the  Bible.  In  chronology,  Ihe  ammynious  edi- 
tor professes  to  have  l()llowed  ArclibiNlinp  IJhhcr ;  in  geography. 
Kuseiiius,  Jerome,  Roland,  Miiiiiidrell,  Whitby,  and  \Vells,  have 
been  consulted  ;  and  on  the  sacred  nnii<iuilies  of  the  Jews,  recourse 
has  been  bad  to  Josephiis,  the  Kabliitis,  and  the  Fathers.  This 
work  mny  sometimes  be  mot  with  nt  a  low  price. 

f).  A  Dictionary  of  the  Holy  Bible,  on  the  plan  of  Calmet, 
but  jirincipally  adapted  to  common  readers:  containing  an  His- 
torical .\ccount  of  the  Persons;  a  Geographical  and  Historical 
Account  of  the  Places;  a   Literal,  Critical,  and  Systematical 


Skct.  III.] 


COMMON-PLACE  BOOKS  TO  THE  BIBLE. 


155 


Description  of  other  Objects,  whether  natural,  artificial,  civil, 
religious,  or  military  ;  and  the  application  of  the  Appellative 
Terms,  mentioned  in  the  Old  and  New  Testament.  By  the 
Rev.  John  Bnowx,  of  Haddington,  2  vols.  8vo.  various  editions. 
Also,  in  one  volume,  8vo. 

The  author  was  a  minister  in  the  Secession-church  of  Scotland  ; 
and  in  liis  doctrinal  views  Calvinistic.  Allowance  being  made  for 
some  of  his  sentiments,  his  work  may  be  advantageously  substituted 
for  the  preceding,  the  price  of  which  necessarily  places  it  above 
the  roach  of  many  persons.  The  first  edition  of  this  work  appeared 
in  17G9:  the  host  edition  of  Mr.  Brown's  dictionary  is  said  to  be  the 
fflh,  which  costs  about  eighteen  shillings.  A  professed  abridgment 
ot"  this  work  was  published  in  1815,  in  two  small  volumes,  IBmo. 
The  "Compendious  Diclionary  of  the  Holy  Bible"  first  published  by 
Mr.  William  Button,  in  1796,  and  since  reprinted  with  additions  and 
corrections,  in  l'2mo.,  is  a  judicious  abridgment  of  Brown's  Dic- 
tionary. "  By  means  of  a  very  small  but  clear  type,  a  vast  quantity 
of  matter  is  comprised  within  tho  compass  oi  this  little  volume. 
The  book,  without  doubt,  may  be -serviceable  to  many."  (British 
Critic,  Old  Series,  vol.  x.  p.  201.) 

6.  Dicttonnairc  Gcnealogique,  Historique,  et  Critique  do  I'Ecri- 
turc  Sainte,  ou.  sont  refutees  plusieurs  fausses  assertions  de  Vol- 
taire, et  autres  Philosophes  du  dix-huitieme  siecle ;  par  I'Abbe 
***[Antoine  Skiueys],  revue,  corrige,  et  public  par  M.  I'Abbe 
Sicard.     Paris,  1804,  8vo. 

'  Sacred  geography  and  antiquitie-?  form  no  part  of  liiis  work, 
which  is  specially  devoted  to  a  refutation  of  the  sophistries  and 
falsehoods  of  Voltaire  and  the  infidel  pseudo-philosophers  of  France, 
during  the  eighteenth  century.  The  author,  Anloine  Serieys  (ac- 
cording to  M.  Sicard),  was  one  of  tlie  victims  of  the  French  Revo- 
lution in  the  beginning  of  September,  1792.  This  is  not  true. 
Serieys  was  a  voluminous  compiler  and  editor  of  various  works, 
principally  historical :  at  an  early  period  of  iiis  life  he  had  rendered 
Bomc  services  to  the  Abbe  Sicard,  who,  being  unable  to  remunerate 
'him,  allowed  him  to  make  use  of  his  name.  Serieys  lived  seven- 
teen years  after  the  publication  of  this  dictionary,  and  died  at  Paris 
in  1819.     (Biographic  Universelle,  torn.  .xlii.  pp.  69,  70.) 

7.  Dictionnaire  Abrege  de  la  Bible  de  [Pierre]  CHOMPm!. 
Nouvelle  Edition,  revue  et  considerable ment  augment^e  par  M. 
Petitot.     Paris,  1806,  12mo. 

M.  Chompre  was  a  distinguished  cl.^ssical  teacher  of  youth,  in 
the  former  part  of  the  eighteenth  ceniury,  at  Paris  ;  where  he  first 
published  his  abridged  Diclionary  of  tlie  Bible,  in  12mo.  The  new 
edition  by  M.  Pelitot  is  considerably  enlarged  and  improved  by  the 
addition  of  numerous  articles,  particularly  those  relating  to  the 
manners,  legislation,  and  sects  of  the  Hebrews,  and  a  Chronological 
Table. 

8.  A  Dictionary  of  the  Bible ;  Historical  and  Geographical, 
Theological,  Moral,  and  Ritunl,  Philoscphicid,  and  Philological. 
By  Alexander  Maceeak,  A.M.     London,  17'79,  8vo, 

A  useful  book  in  its  day,  but  now  completely  superseded  by  later 
works :  it  may  frequently  be  procured  for  a  trifling  price. 

9.  A  Theological,  Biblical,  and  Ecclesiastical  Dictionary; 
serving  as  a  general  note-book  to  illustrate  the  Old  and  New 
Testament,  as  a  guide  to  the  Practices  and  Opinions  of  all  Sects 
and  Religions,  and  as  a  Cyclopfedia  of  Religious  Knowledge. 
By  John  Robinsojt,  D.D.     London,  1815,  8vo. 

This  work  is  very  closely  printed,  and  presents  a  digest,  with 
references  to  authorities  at  the  end  of  each  article,  of  almost  all 
that  had  been  written  on  biblical  literature  previously  to  the  dale 
of  its  publication.  "  It  is  clearly  the  work  of  a  man  of  much  in- 
dustry in  collecting,  and  of  much  judgment  in  arranging  his  matter. 
To  every  theological  student,  who  has  not  access  to  an  extensive 
library,  this  volume  will  prove  a  very  useful  subsidiary;  to  many, 
indeed,  who  have  neither  attainment  nor  abilities  for  research,  it 
will  become  necessary."  (Brit.  Crif.  N.  S.  vol.  vii.  p.  305.)  We 
cannot  however  help  expressing  our  regret  that,  on  some  topics, 
Dr.  11.  should  have  referred  to  writers  whose  publications  (ihough 
useful  in  some  respect.s)  are  calculated  to  subvert  the  fundamental 
doctrines  of  the  Gospel.  His  work  is  illustrated  by  several  neatly- 
tngraved  maps.  It  may  be  proper  to  add  that  it  is  noticed  with 
merited  commendation  in  the  Evangelical  Magazine  for  1817,  vol. 
XXV.  p.  486.,  and  in  the  Antijacobin  Review,  vol.  xlix.  pp.  1 — 15. 

10.  The  Biblical  Cyclopasdia ;  or,  Dictionary  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  intended  to  facilitate  an  acquaintance  with  the  in- 
spired writings.     By  William  Jones.     1816,  2  vols.  8vo. 

The  plan  of  this  Biblical  Cyclopmdia  is  less  extensive  than  that 
of  Dr.  Robinson's  Dictionary,  if/ore  which  some  parts  of  it  appear- 
ed, though  it  bears  date  one  year  later  than  the  latter  work. 

11.  A  Dictionary  of  the  Holy  Bible.  Extracted  chiefly  from 
Brown,  Calmet,  &c.,  collated  with  oth'^r  works  of  the  like  kind, 
with  numerous  additions  from  various  Authors,  and  a  considerable 
quantity  of  original  matter.  By  the  Rev.  James  Wood.  Seventh 
Edition,  London  [1822],  2  vols.  8vo. 

Vou  II.  4  N 


12.  The  Pocket  Dictionary  of  the  Holy  Bible  ;  selected  and 
arranged  from  Calmet,  Brown,  Newton,  Hurd,  and  other  Writers. 
By  W.  GuKXET,  A.M.     London,  1826,  18mo. 

13.  The  Scripture  Lexicon:  or  a  Dictionary  of  above  four 
thousand  Proper  Names  of  Persons  and  Places  mentioned  in  the 
Old  and  New  Testament;  divided  into  syllables,  with  their  pro- 
per accents.     By  Peter  Oliver.     Oxford,  1810,  8vo. 

14.  A  Pocket  Dictionary  of  the  Holy  Bible  ;  containing  an 
Historical  and  Geographical  Account  of  the  Persons  and  Places 
mentioned  in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  By  Archibald 
Alexander,  D.D.     Philadelphia,  1830,  18mo. 

15.  A  Biblical  and  Theological  Dictionary,  explanatory  of 
the  History,  Manners,  and  Customs  of  the  Jews,  and  neighbour- 
ing nations :  with  an  account  of  the  most  remarkable  places  and 
persons  mentioned  in  Sacred  Scripture,  «Scc.  By  the  Rev.  Ri- 
chard Watson.     London,  1831,  royal  8vo. 

16.  Thesaurus  Ecclesiasticus,  e  Patribus  Graecis,  ordinc  al- 
phabetico  exhibens  quaecunque  Phrases,  Ritus,  Dogmata,  Haereses, 
et  hujusniodi  alia  hue  spectant,  a.  Johanne  Casparo  Suicero. 
Amstelodami,  1728,  2  vols,  folio. 

This  is  the  best  edition  of  a  most  valuable  work  ;  which,  though 
indispensably  necessary  for  understanding  the  writings  of  the 
Greek  fathers,  incidentally  contains  many  illustrations  of  Scripture. 
It  is  said  to  have  cost  the  learned  author  twenty  years'  labour :  the 
first  edition  appeared  at  Amsterdam  in  1682,  in  2  volumes,  folio. 


SECTION  III. 

COMMON-PLACK    BOOKS   TO    THE    BIBLE. 

1.  Christian  Institutes,  or  the  Sincere  Word  of  God  collected 
out  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  digested  under  proper 
heads,  and  delivered  in  the  very  words  of  Scripture.  By  Francis 
Gastrell,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  Chester.  12mo. 

This  valuable  little  work,  which  may  perhaps  be  considered  as 
a  Concordance  of  parallel  passages  at  full  length,  was  first  published 
in  1707,  and  has  since  been  repeatedly  printed  in  12mo.  It  may  be 
very  advantageously  substituted  for  any  of  the  subsequent  larger 
and  more  expensive  works.  The  "  Economy  of  a  Christian  Life,' 
published  by  the  Rev.  W.  Bingley  in  1808,  in  2  vols.  12mo.  is  sim. 
iar  in  design,  but  upon  the  whole  better  arranged  than  Bp.  Gas- 
trell's  little  manual. 

2.  A  Common-Place  Book  to  the  Holy  Bible,  or  the  Scrip- 
tures' Sufficiency  practically  demonstrated :  wherein  the  sub- 
stance of  Scripture  respecting  doctrine,  worship,  and  manners 
is  reduced  to  its  proper  heads.  By  John  Locke,  Esq.  A  new 
edition,  revised  and  improved  by  tho  Rev.  William  Dodd,LL.D. 
4to.  London,  1805;  8vo.  London,  1824. 

Though  this  work  is  ascribed  to  the  celebrated  philosopher,  Mr. 
Locke,  we  have  not  been  able  to  ascertain  whether  it  was  really 
compiled  by  him.  The  second  edition  of  it  bears  the  dale  of  1097: 
an  edition  was  published  by  the  unfortunate  Dr.  Dodd,  from  which 
the  present  impression  was  made.  It  certainly  is  a  very  useful 
book. 

3.  A  System  of  Revealed  Religion,  digested  under  proper 
heads,  and  composed  in  the  express  words  of  Scripture ;  con- 
taining all  that  the  Sacred  Records  reveal  witli  respect  to  Doc- 
trine and  Duty.  By  John  Warden,  M.A.  London,  1769, 4to. 
1819,  2  vols.  8vo. 

This  work  is  exceedingly  valuable  as  a  common-place  book,  or 
harmony  of  passages  of  Scripture.  It  was  recommended  by  Dr. 
Robertson  the  historian,  and  other  eminent  divines  of  the  Scottish 
church.  In  this  work  the  author  has  collected  all  that  the  Scrip- 
tures contain  relating  to  any  one  article  of  faith  or  practice  under 
each  resjjective  head,  in  the  very  words  of  the  sacred  writers,  with 
the  occasional  insertion  of  a  brief  note  at  the  loot  of  a  page,  and  a 
remark  or  two  at  the  end  of  some  few  chapters.  The  texts  are  so 
arranged  as  to  add  to  their  perspicuity,  and  at  the  same  time  to 
illustrate  the  subject ;  and  the  chapters  are  so  constructed  and  dis- 
posed that  each  may  form  a  regular  and  continued  discourse.*  The 
work  is  executed  with  singular  ability  and  fidelity,  and  the  reprint 
of  it  is  truly  an  acquisition  to  biblical  students. 

4.  An  Analysis  of  the  Holy  Bible ;  containing  the  whole  of 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  collected  and  arranged  systemati- 
cally.    By  Matthew  Tal}iot.     Leeds  and  London,  1800,  4to. 

This  work  has  been  justly  characterized  as  "a  book  of  good  ar- 
rangelnent  and  convenient  reference,  and  calculated  to  augment, 
by  very  easy  application,  our  stores  of  sacred  knowledge."  (British 
Critic,  O.  S.  vol.  xviii.  pp.  iii.  88,  89.)  It  is  divided  into  thirty  books, 
which  are  subdivided  inlo  285  chapters,  and  4144  sections.  This 
"Analysis"  is  of  grea't  rarity  and  high  price.  * 


156 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Paet  II.  UuAi'.  YII. 


5.  Common-Place  Book  ;  or  Companion  to  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments ;  being  a  Scripture  Account  of  the  Faith  and  Prac- 
tice of  Christians ;  consisting  of  an  ample  Collection  of  per- 
tinent Texts  on  the  sundry  Articles  of  Revealed  Religion. 
[By  the  Rev.  Hugh  Gastox.]  A  new  edition,  corrected,  com- 
pared, and  enlarged,  by  Joseph  Stbutt.  London,  1813  ;  1824, 
8vo. 

The  edition  of  1813  is  a  reprint,  with  numerous  corrections  and 
additions,  of  a  work  originally  printed  at  Dublin  in  the  year  1763. 
The  arrangement,  lltoii-^h  not  equally  good  with  that  of  some  of 
the  works  above  noticed,  is  clear;  the  selection  of  texts  is  sufli- 
ciently  ample :  and  a  useful  index  enables  the  reader  to  find  pas- 
sagos  of  Scripture  arranged  on  almost  every  topic  he  can  desire. 
The  book  is  neatly  iirinted  :  and  as  it  is  of  easy  purchase,  it  may 
bo  sulwtituted  for  any  of  the  larger  common-place  books  already 
noticed.    The  edition  of  1821  is  considerably  improved. 


SECTION  IV. 

INDEXES   AND   ANALYSES   OF   THE    BIBLE. 

1.  Ax  Index  to  the  Bible  :  in  which  the  various  subjects 
which  occur  in  the  Scriptures  are  alphabetically  arranged  ;  with 
Accurate  References  to  all  the  Books  of  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 
tament. Designed  to  facilitate  the  Study  of  these  invaluable 
Records.     Stereotype  edition.     London,  1811. 

This  useful  index  is  printed  in  various  sizes  to  bind  up  with 
Bibles ;  it  is  said  (but  on  what  authority  we  know  not)  to  have 
been  drawn  up  by  the  late  Dr.  Priestley. 


2.  The  Analysis  of  all  the  Epistles  of  the  New  Testament, 
wherein  the  chiefe  things  of  every  particular  (Chapter  are  re- 
duced to  heads,  for  helpe  of  the  Memory  ;  !>nd  many  hard  places 
are  explained  for  the  helpe  of  the  understanding.  By  John 
D.II.K,  M.A.     Oxford,  1652,  8vo. 

3.  The  Scripture  Student's  Assistant ;  being  a  Complete  In- 
dex and  concise  Dictionary  to  the  Holy  Bible:  in  which  the 
various  Persons,  Places,  and  Subjects  mentioned  in  it,  are  accu- 
rately referred  to  ;  and  every  difficult  word  completely  explained. 
By  the  Rev.  John  Bauk.  Glasgow  and  London,  1829,  12mo 
or  demy  4to. 

4.  Mosis  P.  FtAcuETii  Analysis  Typica  omnium  cum  Veteris 
turn  Novi  Testamenti  Librorum  Hi.storicorum,  ad  intelligcndam 
rerum  seriem  et  memoriam  juvandam  accominodata.  Ba.silea;. 
1587,  folio;  1021,  4to.     Londini,  1597,  4to. 

5.  Jacobi  BuAXi)MTLi.Eni  Analysis  Typica  Librorum  Veteris 
Testamenti  Poeticorum  et  Propheticarura.     BasiliiE,  1622,  4to. 

G.  Salomonis  Vax  Til  Opus  Analyticum,  comprehendcns 
Introductionem  in  Sacram  Scripturam,  ad  Joh.  Henrici  Heidcg- 
geri  Enchiridion  Biblicum  lEPOMNHMONlKQN  concinnatum. 
Trajecti  ad  Rhenum,  1720,  2  vols.  4to. 

A  most  minute  Analysis  of  every  Book  and  almost  of  every  Cha))- 
ter  in  the  Scriptures.  Heidegger's  Encliiridion  liihlicum,  on  which 
Van  Til's  work  is  a  commentary,  was  first  published  at  Zurich 
(Tigura)  in  1681,  and  was  frequently  reprinted  in  Germany  in  the 
course  of  the  last  century.  It  contains  prefaces  to  the  dilTerent 
books  of  the  Old  and  iNew  Testament,  together  with  very  minute 
analyses  of  the  different  books.  Where  Heidegger's  statements 
were  correct.  Van  Til  has  corroborated  them  ;  where  he  was  in 
error,  the  latter  has  corrected  his  mistakes,  and  supplied  his  omis- 
sions. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

TREATISES  ON    BIBLICAL   ANTIQUITIES,  AND    ON    OTHER    HISTORICAL    CIRCUMSTANCES   OF   THE    BIBLK. 

SECTION  L 


GENERAL   TREATISES   ON   BIBLICAL   ANTIQUITIES 


1.  TirESAcnu3  Antiquitatnin  Sacrarum,  coniplectens  sclectis- 
sima  clarissimorum  viroruni  Opuscula,  in  quibus  veterum  Hebrsc- 
orum  Mores,  Leges,  Instituta,  Ritus  sacri  et  civiles,  illustrantur ; 
auctore  Blasio  Ugolino.    Venetiis,  1744 — 1769,  34  tomis,  folio. 

An  Analysis  of  the  contents  of  this  great  Collection  of  Jewish 
Antiquities  is  given  in  Mr.  Harris's  Catalogue  of  the  Library  of  the 
Royal  InHtitution,  pp.  1 1 — 20.  2<1  edition.  "  Many  other  books  treat- 
ing of  Jf  with  antiquities  have  bcon  published  ;  but  those  who  have 
ii  taitte  for  such  sort  of  reading,  will  find  this  collection  far  more 
useful  to  them  than  any  other  of  the  kind."    (Bishop  Watson.) 

2.  Modem  Judaism :  or,  a  Brief  Account  of  the  Opinions, 
'I'raditions,  Rites,  and  (Ceremonies  of  the  Jews  in  modern  times. 
By  John  Allejt.  London,  1816.  Second  edition,  revised  and 
corrected.   1830,  8vo. 

The  various  traditions,  &c.  received  and  adopted  by  the  modern 
Jews  (that  is,  by  lho.se  who  lived  during  and  Bul>se<pienllv  to  the 
time  ol'  Jesus  Chri.il),  are  fully  and  pfTspiruously  treated  in  this 
well-executed  volume,  which  illustrates  various  passages  in  (he 
New  Testament  with  great  felicity. 

3:  The  AntiquiticH  of  the  Jews,  carefully  compiled  from  au- 
thentic sources,  and  their  customs  illustrated  by  modern  Travels. 
By  W.  Bkow.t,  D.D.     London,  1820,  2  vols.  8vo.     . 

4.  Christ.  Bni'MiKJS  Compendium  Antiquitatum  Hehroiorum. 
8vo.  Francofurti,  176G. 

5.  ^Jompendium  Antiquitatum  Gra;carum  c  profanis  sacrarum, 
collegit,  naturali  ordine  disposuit,  ad  sacrarum  literarum  illustra- 
tioiiem  passim  accornmodavit  Christianus  Biii.M.vns.  Franco- 
furti, 1759,  8vo. 

6.  Petri  Crs«i  de  Republica  Hcbncorum  LilAi  ires;  cdila  k 
Jo.  Nicolai.  4to.     liUgd.  Bat.  1703. 

Tlie  l)e»t  edition  of  n  very  Inamnd  work,  which  till  lately  con- 
tinued !o  be  a  text-lK)ok  wlifucr  ilu'  i-oiiiiiifniMl  iirofcHHors  of  He- 
brew antiquities  lectured. 

7.  The  Manners  of  the  Ancient  Israelite!,  containing  an 
•ccount  of  their  jH-'culiar  Customs,  Ceremonies,  Laws,  Polity, 


Religion,  Sects,  Arts,  and  Trades,  &c.  &c.    By  Claude  Fleurt. 
London,  1809,  8vo. 

For  this  third  and  best  edition,  the  public  are  indebted  to  Dr. 
Adam  Clarke,  who  has  enlarged  the  original  work  with  miKJi 
valuable  inliirmation  from  the  principal  writers  on  Jewish  antiqui- 
ties. The  Abbe  Flcurv's  work  was  translated  many  years  since  by 
Mr.  Farnworth.  The  late  excellent  Bishop  of  Norwich  (Dr.  Home) 
has  recommended  it  in  the  following  terms:  "This  little  book  con- 
tains a  concise,  pleasing,  and  just  account  of  the  manners,  customs, 
laws,  policy,  and  religion  of  the  Israelites.  It  is  an  excellent  intro- 
duction to  the  reading  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  should  be  put 
into  the  hands  of  every  young  person." 

8.  Moses  and  Aarr)n  :  or,  the  Civil  and  Ecclesiastical  Rites 
used  by  the  Ancient  Hebrews.  By  Thomas  Gon  win.  London, 
16'34;  1641,  4to. 

This  compendium  of  Hebrew  antiquities  is  now  rather  scarce. 
It  was  formerly  in  great  r('()uest  as  a  lexl-bt>ok,  and  passed  throu"h 
many  odilions.  A  1/itin  translntiun  of  it  was  published  at  I'lreelit 
in  1090,  and  again  at  Franeker  in  1710,  in  12ino. 

9.  Ajiparatus  Historico-ctiticus  Anliijuilatum  sacri  codicis  et 
gentLs  Hebrieai.  Uberrimis  annotationibus  in  Thoina;  Godwin! 
Mosen  et  ,\aronem  subministravit  Johannes  Gottlob  Cabpzo- 
VMS.  4to.     Francofurti,  1748. 

The  most  elal>oraIe  system  of  Jewish  antiquities,  perhaps,  that  is 
extant  besides  the  annotations  of  Carpzov,  it  contains  a  Latin 
traiiHiation  of  Godwin's  treatise. 

10.  Jewish  Antiquities,  or  a  Course  of  Lectures  on  the  Three 
first  books  of  Godwin's  Moses  and  Aaron.  To  wliich  is  annexed 
a  Dis.sertation  on  the  Hebrew  Language.  By  David  Jknxinos, 
D.I).  8vo.  2  vol.^.  London,  1706;  Perth,  1808;  and  London, 
1823,  in  one  volume,  8vo. 

This  work  has  long  held  a  distinguished  character  for  its  accu- 
racy and  learning,  and  has  been  often  reprinted.  "The  treatises  of 
Mr.  Lowmnn  on  the  Rilital  (Hvo.  I/indon,  1718),  and  on  the  Civil 
Giivrrnmitit  of  Ihr  Jltlinim  (8vo.  London,  1740),  may  properly  ac- 
company this  Murk."     (Uishop  Waisoii.) 

11.  Antiquitates  Hebraic.T  secundum  Iripliccm  Judrcoruin 
slatuni,  cccksiasticum,  politicum,  et  ojconomicum,  breviier  deli 


Sect.  II.  §  1.]  TREATISES  ON  PARTICULAR  SUBJECTS  IN  BIBLICAL  ANTIQUITIES, 

12mo.     Bremffi,  1741,  editio  tertia; 


157 


neatae  a  Conrado  Ikenio 
1764,  editio  quarts. 

Tiicre  is  no  difference  between  these  two  editions, excepting  that 
the  errors  of  the  press  in  the  third  edition  are  corrected  in  the 
iourth.  The  first  edition  appeared  in  1737.  This  book  of  Ikenius 
IS  vahiable  for  its  brevity,  method,  and  perspicuity.  It  continues 
to  be  a  text-book  in  some  of  the  universities  of  Holland  (and  per- 
liaps  of  Germany).  In  1810  there  was  published  at  Utrecht  a  thick 
Svo.  volume  of  Professor  Schacht's  observations  on  this  work,  under 
the  title  of  Jo.  Herm.  Schacfitii  Theol.  el  Plulolol.  Harderov.  Ani- 
madversiones  ad  Antiquilales  Hehrasas  olim  delirieatas  a  Conrado 
Ikenio  Theol.  Bremens.  Patie  mortuo,  edidit  Godfr.  Jo.  Sciiacht. 
This  volume  only  discusses  the  first  of  Ikenius's  sections,  on  the 
ecclesiastical  state  of  the  Hebrews ;  it  contains  many  valuable 
additions  and  corrections,  with  references  to  other  writers.  Inde- 
pendently of  it3  being  an  imperfect  work,  this  volume  is  too  bulky 
to  be  of  use  to  students  generally,  but  would  prove  valuable  in 
the  hands  of  any  one  who  should  compose  a  new  treatise  on  biblical 
antiquities. 

12.  Archoeologia  Biblica  in  Epitomen  redacta  a  Johannc  Jahn. 
Editio  secunda  emendata,  Svo.     Viennce,  1814. 

An  elaborate  compendium  of  biblical  antiquities,  abridged  from 
tJie  author's  larger  work  on  the  same  subject  in  the  German  lan- 
guage (in  five  large  Svo.  volumes),  and  arranged  under  the  three 
divisions  of  domestic,  political,  and  ecclesiastical  antiquities.  "  Al- 
though it  comes  short,  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  of  the  excellence 
of  the  original  (German)  work,  for  extent  and  variety  of  learning, 
and  vividness  and  conciseness  of  statement,  it  is  a  book  which  is 
very  rarely  surpassed."  (North  Am.  Review,  N.  S.  vol.  viii.  p.  136.) 
At  the  end  of  the  volume  are  upwards  of  sixty  pages  of  questions, 
framed  upon  the  preceding  part  of  the  work  ;  the  answers  to  which 
are  to  be  given  by  students.  A  faithful  English  translation  of 
"  Jahn's  Biblical  Archeology"  was  published  at  Andover  (Massa- 
chusetts), in  1823,  and  again  in  1832,  by  Thomas  C.  Upham  (assist- 
ant teacher  of  Hebrew  and  Greek  in  the  Theological  Seminary  at 
that  place),  with  valuable  additions  and  corrections,  partly  the 
result  of  a  collation  of  Jahn's  Latin  work  with  the  original  German 
treatise,  and  partly  derived  from  other  sources.  The  former  part 
of  the  present  volume  of  this  Introduction  (as  our  references  will 
show)  is  much  indebted  to  Jahn's  Archfcologia  Biblica. 

13.  Archaeologia  Biblica  breviter  exposita  a  Four.  Acker- 
MANx.     Viennae,  1S26. 

This  is  an  expurgated  edition  of  the  preceding  work,  executed  on 
the  same  principle  as  Professor  Ackermann's  edition  of  Jahn's  In- 
troductio  ad  LibrosVeteris  Foederis,  noticed  in  p.  87.  of  this  Appen- 
dix, and  with  renewed  declarations  of  the  editor's  profound  sub- 
mission to  the  Romish  church.  To  render  the  work  more  complete. 
Dr.  A.  has  subjoined  a  concise  sketch  of  the  History  of  the  Jewish 
Nation,  from  the  time  of  Abraham  to  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem 
by  the  Romans.  In  revising  the  former  part  of  this  volume  for  the 
press,  constant  reference  was  had  to  this  work. 

14.  Origines  Hebraae:  or,  the  Antiquities  of  the  Hebrew  Re- 
public.   By  Thomas  Lewis,  M.A.    London,  1724-5,  4  vols.  Svo. 

This  is  a  laborious  compilation  from  the  most  distinguished 
writers,  whether  Jews  or  Christians,  on  the  manners  and  laws  of 
the  Hebrews. 

15.  Mclchioris  Letdekkebi  do  Republica  Hebrseorum  Libri 
xii.     Amstel.  1704—1710,  2  vols,  folio. 

16.  Johannis  Pareatj  Antiquitas  Hebraica  breviter  delineata. 
Trajecti  ad  Rhenum,  1817.     Edit,  secunda,  1824,  Svo. 

An  Appendix  and  Index  to  this  summary  of  Hebrew  Antiquities 
was  published  at  Utrecht  in  1825,  Svo. 

17.  Hadriani  Relandi  Antiquitates  Sacra  veterum  Hebrseo- 
rum  recensuit,  et  animadver.sionibus  Ugolinianis-Ravianis  auxit, 
Georgius  Joannes  Ludovicus  Vogcl.     Svo.  Hala;,  1769. 

The  best  edition  of  a  valuable  little  summary,  which  for  many 
years  continued  to  be  the  text-book  of  professors. 

1 8.  The  History  and  Philosophy  of  Judaism  ;  or  a  Critical 
and  Philo.sophical  Analysis  of  the  Jewish  Religion.  By  Duncan 
Shaw,  D.D,     Edinburgh  and  London,  1788,  Svo. 

An  ingenious  treatise,  which  is  divided  info  four  parts :  1.  On  the 
Divine  origin  of  the  Law;  2.  Of  the  duration  of  the  Mosaic  eco- 
nomy ;  3.  That  the  Gospel  is  the  last  dispensation  of  God's  grace 
to  mankind  in  the  way  of  religious  discovery  ;  4.  Corollaries  arising 
from  the  siibject  of  the  work  :  in  the  course  of  which  the  author 
takes  occasion  to  vindicate  the  genius,  divine  origin,  and  authority 
of  the  Jewish  religion,  .ind  its  connection  with  the  Christian, 
against  the  objections  and  misrepresentations  of  modem  infidels. 

19.  Caroli  Sicoxii  de  Republica  Hebrseorum  Libri  vii. ;  editi 
a  Jo.  Nicolai.     Lug.  Bat.  1701,  4to.  % 

20.  Emesti  Augusti  Schulzii  Theologiae  Doctoris,  et  Profes- 
soris  quondam  in  Academia  Viadrina  celeberrimi,  Compendium 
Archseologiae  Hebraicae.  Cum  figuris  aeri  incisis,  edidit,  emen- 
davit,  addenda  adjecit,  notisque  iocupletavit  Abr.  Phil.  Godefr. 
Schickedanz.     Bresdae,  1793,  Svo. 


This  is,  perhaps,  the  lest  summary  of  Hebrew  antiquities  extant 
m  the  Latin  language ;  but,  unfortunately,  it  is  incomplete,  the  au- 
thor havmg  executed  only  two  books,  which  treat  of  the  political 
and  ecclesiastical  antiquities  of  the  Hebrews.  Professor  Schulze 
and  his  editor  have  diligently  availed  themselves  of  the  labours  of 
all  previous  writers  on  this  topic,  and  have  arranged  their  materials 
in  a  manner  equally  concise  and  valuable. 

21.  Ferdinandi  Stosch  Compendium  Archteologije  GEcono- 
micae  Novi  Testamenti,  ducentis  thesibus  comprehensum,  et  aliia 
aliisve  notis  illustratum.     Svo.  Lipsiae,  1769. 

A  small  volume,  of  considerable  rarity  in  this  country  ;  it  treats 
of  the  private  life  and  manners  of  the  Jews,  as  mentioned  in  the 
New  Testament,  and  may  serve  as  a  supplement  to  the  imperfect 
work  of  Schulze,  last  noticed. 

22.  Lectures  on  Jewish  Antiquities :  delivered  at  Harvard 
University  in  Cambridge,  A.D.  1802  and  1803.  By  David 
Tappajt,  D.D.,  late  Hollis  Professor  of  Divinity  in  that  Seminary. 
Boston  [Massachusetts],  1807,  Svo. 

The  nature  and  design  of  the  Jewish  Consitution,  political  and 
religious,  are  discussed  in  these  lectures,  which  were  published 
after  the  author's  decease.  The  tendency  of  the  Hebrew  Ritual 
to  promote  the  glory  of  God  and  the  happiness  of  man  is  frequently 
illustrated  in  a  pleasing  and  devout  manner. 

23.  A.  G.  Waehneri  Antiquitates  Hebrffiorum  et  Israelitics 
Gentis.     Gottingen,  1741,  2  tomis,  Svo. 

This  work  is  incomplete,  the  author  having  died  before  its  pub- 
lication ;  it  contains  much  valuable  information  relative  to  the 
literature  of  the  Jews. 


SECTION  II. 

IfBEATISES  ON  PARTICULAR  SUBJECTS  IN  BIBLICAL  ANTIQUITIES. 
§   ].    SCRIPTURE  GEOGRAFHT. 

1.  OuoiMASTicoif  Urbium  et  Locorum  Sacrae  Scripture;  seu 
Liber  de  Locis  Hebraicis,  Grsece  primum  ab  Ecsebio  Caesari- 
ensi,  deinde  Latine  scriptus  ab  Hicronymo,  in  commodiorem 
vero  ordinem  redactus,  variis  additamentis  auctus,  Notisque  et 
Tabula  Geographica  Judaeae  illustratus,  opera  Jacohi  Bonfrerii, 
recensuit  et  animadversionibus  suis  auxit  Joannes  CLEKir.v>. 
Accessit  Brocardi  Descriptio  Terras  Sanctae.  Amstelodami,  1707, 
folio. 

2.  Samuelis  Bocharti  Geographia  Sacra ;  cujus  Pars  prior, 
Phaleg,  de  Dispersione  Gentium,  et  Terrarum  Divisione '  facta, 
in  aedificatione  Turris  Babel ;  Pars  posterior,  Chanaan,  de  Colo- 
niis  et  Sermone  Phocnicum,  agit.  Cadomi  (Caen),  1646,  folio. 
Francofurti  ad  Mosnum,  1674,  1681,  4to.  Also  in  the  third 
volume  of  the  folio  edition  of  Bochart's  Collective  Works. 

3.  Johannes  Davidis  Michaelis  Spicilegium  Geographiae  He« 
brsBorum  exterae  post  Bochartum.  Partes  i.ii.  Gottingen,  1760, 
17S0,  4to. 

Some  observations  on  the  first  part  of  this  learned  work,  which  is 
not  always  to  be  procured  complete,  were  published  by  John  Rein- 
hold  Forster,  entitled  Epistola  ad  J.  D.  Michaelis,  hujus  spicilegium 
Geogr.  Hebr.jam  conftrmanies,  jam  casligantes.  Gottingae,  1772,  4to 
It  is  desirable  to  unite  this  with  the  work  of  Michaelis;  but  unfor- 
tunately both  works  are  extremely  rare  and  dear. 

4.  Friderici  Spanuemii  Introductio  ad  Geographiam  Sacrani, 
Patriarchalem,  Israeliticam,  et  Christianom.  Lugduni  Batavo« 
rum,  1679,  Svo.  Also  in  the  first  volume  of  Spanhciin's  Col« 
lected  Works.  ' 

5.  Hadriani  REtA>"Di  Palaestina  ex  monumentis  veteribus  ei 
tabulis  adcuratis  illustrata.     Traject.  Batav.  1714,  2  tomis,  4to. 

This  elaborate  w-ork  is  also  to  be  found  in  the  sixth  volume  of 
Ugolini's  Thesaurus  Antiquitatum  Sacrarum. 

6.  An  Historical  Geography  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments. 
By  Edward  Wells,  D.D.     4  vols.  Svo.  2  vols.  Svo. 

This  learned  work  was  originally  published  in  four  detached 
parts  or  volumes  :  it  has  frequently  been  printed  at  the  Oxford 
press,  and  is  too  well  known  to  require  commendation;  a  new  edi- 
tion, revised  and  corrected  from  the  discoveries  of  Sir  William  Jones 
and  other  eminent  scholars,  was  published  by  the  English  editor  of 
Calmet's  Dictionary  in  4to.,  in  the  year  1804.  There  are  also  copies 
in  two  or  three  vols,  crown  Svo.  Dr.  Well's  Geography  of  the  New 
Testament  was  translated  into  German  by  M.  Panzer,  with  nume- 
rous additions  and  corrections,  in  two  vols.  Svo.    Nuremberg,  1764. 

7.  Sacred  Geography :  or,  a  Gazetteer  of  the  Bible,  containing, 
in  alphabetical  order,  a  Geographical  Description  of  all  the 
Countries,  Kingdoms,  Nations,  and  Tribes  of  Men,  with  all  the 
Villages,  Towns,  Cities,    Provinces,  Hills,    Mountams,  Rivers, 


158 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


Lakes,  Seas,  and  Islands,  mentioned  in  the  Sacred  Scriptures  or 
Apocrypha.  Dy  Elijah  Pauisii,  D.D.  Boston  [Massachusetts], 
1813,  8vo, 

Tliis  geographical  dictionary  of  the  Scriptures  is  chiefly  compiled 
from  the  Oiiomasiieon  of"  Eiisebius  ancf  Jerome,  the  Historical  Geo- 
grapliy  of  Wells,  the  great  dictionary  of  Fuihtr  Calmet,  and  the 
publicaiions  of  various  modern  iravelhns.  Tlic  book  is  very  neatly 
printed,  and  has  furnished  many  articles  to  our  Geographical  and 
iliatorical  Index,  in  the  present  volume  of  this  work. 

S.  A  Scripture  Gazetteer  and  Geographical  and  Historical 
Dictionary.     By  J.  S.  Mansfohu.     London,  1829,  8vo. 

9.  Jo.  Matlh.  H  vsn  Uegni  Davidici  et  Saloniontei  Descriptio 
Geograpliica  el  llistorica;  una  cum  Dcscriptione  Syria)  ct 
^gypti.     iSorimhcrgae,  1739,  folio. 

10.  Car.  Christ.  Sigism.  BEBNHAnni  Commentatio  dc  Caussis, 
quibus  effectum  sit,  ut  Kegnum  Jud»  diutius  persisterel,  quam 
Regnum  Israel.    Cum  Tabulii  Geographica.    Lovanii,  1825,  4to. 

This  was  a  prize  dissertation,  composed  (as  the  anthor  stales  in 
his  procmiumj  under  considerable  disadvantages,  and  with  no  other 
literary  aid  than  the  Scripinres  and  Havercanip"s  edition  of  Jose- 
^h>is.  It  is  a  very  interesting'  publication,  to  which  the  first  chapter 
of  the  present  volume  is  indebted  for  some  valuable  observations. 

11.  Observationcs  Philologica;  et  Gcographiese :  sivc  Geogra- 
phia;  Sacrre  Specimen  primuni.  Quo  Urhes  ac  Rcgionc;,  quarum 
in  SacrisLitteris  fit  nientio,  breviter  descrihuntur,  iisdemquc  verus 
titus,  juslaque  noniina  rcdduntur.     Amstelodaini,  1747,  8vo. 

The  deficiencies  of  Calmet  and  some  other  writers  on  Geography, 
are  supplied  in  this  little  work,  which  treats  on  the  city  of  Jeru- 
salem, the  country  of  Elijah,  the  city  of  Hebron,  the  region  of 
Ophir,  the  country  of  Abraham,  the  city  of  Eglain,  and  a  few  other 
places. 

12.  The  Hi.story  of  the  Destruction  of  Jerusalem,  as  con- 
nected with  the  Scrijiture  Prophecies.  By  the  Rev.  George 
WiLKixs,  A.M.     Second  edition.     jSottingham,  181C,  8vo. 

13.  Hadriani  Relandi  de  Spoliis  Templi  Hierosolymitani 
Liber  singularis.  Trajecti  ad  Rhenum,  1716,  8vo.  edit,  sccunda, 
1775.  \\'ith  a  preliminary  Disquisition  and  Notes  by  Prof. 
Schulze. 

14.  FerJinandi  Stosch  Syntagma  Disscrtationum  Septem  dc 
Nominihus  totidem  Urbium  Asite  ;  ad  quas  D.  Joannes  in  Apo- 
calypsi  Filii  Dei  Epistolas  dircxit.     Guclpherbyti,  1757,  8vo. 

1.5.  An  HisTOiiicAL  Map  of  Palestine  or  the  Holy  Land, 
exhibiting  the  peculiar  features  of  the  country,  and  of  all  places 
therein,  connected  with  Scripture  History  ;  interspersed  with 
ninety-six  vignettes  illustrative  of  the  most  important  circum- 
Ftanccs  recorded  in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments. 

The  size  of  this  beautifully-executed  map  is  40  inches  by  271- 
Tlie  vignettes  will  bo  li>iind  very  amusing  to  young  persons,  while 
they  serve  to  inijircss  on  the  mind  the  lending  points  of  sacred  his- 
tory and  geogrsipliv-  The  map  is  accompanied  by  a  folio  sheet  of 
letter-press,  containing  explanatory  references  to  Iho  vignettes. 
The  design  of  the  latter  is  to  imlwdy  and  connect  vviih  the  names 
of  places  marked  ujion  the  map,  ihe  principal  incidenl.s  in  Jewish 
histor}' — by  placing  the  texts  of'  Scripiure  in  which  such  iniidenls 
are  mentioned  dose  to  the  name  of  the  place  where  ihc  trnnsnciiim 
wccurred.  The  sheet  of  letter-press  also  comprises  a  brief  outline 
of  the  history  of  Paifsline  from  the  earliest  periitd — the  stations  of 
the  tribes — am!  Buhle's  oecimomical  calorular  of  the  country,  ex- 
bibilinn  the  s^ale  of  Ihe  wenlher  in  ili''  Holy  I.nnd  ihroii^^bout  tlm 
ditlerent  months  of  the  year,  and  containing  useful  remarks  on  the 
xunous  productions  of  the  soil. 

16.  A  New  Map  of  PalcPlinc  and  the  Adjacent  C'onntries ; 
constructed  from  Original  AuthoriticH,  showing  their  Ancient 
and  Modern  (Jeography,  with  the  Routes  of  various  Travellers. 
By  Richard  Palmi.,i.  London,  1(^28:  on  a  large  sheet,  24 
inches  by  28. 

17.  A  Map,  illuslrating  the  Mini^Jterial  Journeys  of  our  Lord 
and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ,  constructed  from  the  design  of  the 
Rev.  J.  C.  CaosTHWArrE,  A.M.,  by  A.  Arrowsmilh.  London, 
1830. 

18.  A  Map,  illustrating  the  Travels  of  St.  Paul,  constnicted 
from  the  design  of  the  Rev.  J.  C;  CnosTHWAiTE,  A.M.,  by  A. 
Arrowsmitli.     London,  1830. 

"Tl»»c  two  maps  form  a  imcfMl  Hiipplemcnt  to  the  At- 
lases to  the  Bible,  hitherto  published  ;  for  nlihough  almost  all  of 
liiciii  have  Majw  of  Jiidiea  ndapteil  to  the  evaiigrlieal  hiKtory,  yet 
ill  no  one  of  these  do  we  recollect  to  have  seen  the  several  inuleii 
of  our  Saviour  and  of  the  preat  a|iostlo  of  the  Gcniiles  go  chmrly 
laid  down  ax  in  Mr.  Crontliwnite's  ma|)f<.  The  addition  of  rofer- 
rnces  to  the  various  passngcH  of  the  (lospeln  in  whicli  ihe  niiniNte- 
rinl  journeys  of  ChriHi  are  narrated,  and  to  those  pnrls  of  ihe  AcIr 
and  Epistles,  in  which  the  routes  of  St.  Paul  arc  oilhcr  moniioiicd 


[Part  H.  Ch.vp.  VH 

(Ciiris. 


or  described,  greatly  enhances  the  value  of  these  maps." 
tian  Remembrancer,  February,  1830,  vol.  xii.  p.  100.) 

19.  A  Map  of  Palestine  in  the  Time  of  our  Saviour,  illus- 
trative of  the  Books  of  the  Evangelists.  Designed  and  en- 
graved by  Thomas  Stahlixg.  London,  1832.  Twenty-seven 
inches  in  length  by  twenty  in  width. 

20.  An  Historical  Map  of  Palestine,  or  the  Holy  Land  de- 
lineated. By  John  Hunt.  [Twenty-eight  inches  in  length  by 
twenty-two  in  width.]  With  a  Companion  to  the  same,  con- 
sisting of  Historical  and  Geographical  Notices  of  the  Principal 
Towns,  &c.  of  that  Country.     London,  1832. 

21.  A  Pictorial,  Geographical,  Chronological,  and  Historical 
Chart,  being  a  Delineation  of  the  Rise  and  Progress  of  the 
Evangelical  or  Christian  Dispensation,  from  the  Commencement 
of  the  Gospel  Narrative  to  the  Ascension  of  our  Lord.  Ar- 
ranged, according  to  the  "  Harmonia  Evangclica"  of  the  Rev. 
Edward  Greswell,  B.D.,  by  R.  Mivphiss,  and  accompanied  by 
a  Key.     London,  1832.     Sixty-eight  inches  by  thirty-six. 

This  admirably  contrived  as  well  as  bcaiitiliilly  and  correctly 
executed  map  is  adapted  to  the  divisions  existing  at  the  time  of 
our  Saviour's  appcarincr  on  the  earth ;  showing  the  situation  of 
every  place  mcniioned  in  the  Gospels,  with  representations  of  th«} 
journeys  of  our  L<jrd,  and  of  the  princi()al  circumstances  of  the 
Gospel  history,  drawn  upon  the  places  where  the  events  occurred, 
from  designs  of  ihe  old  masters;  with  the  view  of  showing  ihe 
benevolent  tendency  of  our  Saviour's  miracles.  It  contains 
170  vignettes,  and  al'out  600  references  in  the  body  of  the  map, 
besides  50  large  subjects  in  outline,  in  the  margin;  all  of  which 
are  exquisitely  engraved.  The  reference  being  subjoined  to  ihe 
depicted  events,  it  forms  a  most  valuable  auxiliary  in  the  lecture 
room,  and  a  useful  assistant  in  the  study  of  divinity. 

While  this  sheet  was  passing  ihrough  the  press,  Mr.  Mimpriss 
announced  a  similar  Chart,  designed  to  illiistrnte  the  Acts  of  the 
Api>stles,  in  which  ihe  travels  of^  the  difTerenl  apostles  will  be  dis- 
tinctly marked,  and  the  sites  of  the  several  phues  will  be  accu- 
rately laid  down,  from  the  geographical  researches  of  the  most 
learned  modern  travellers. 


Most  of  the  general  treatises  on  sacred  geography  arc  illustrated 
with  maps.  There  is  also  im  excellent  map  of  Palestine  in  D'.\n- 
ville's  Ancient  Alias ;  it  has  been  consul  led  for 'the  maps  accom- 
panying this  work,  which  have  been  drawn  with  great  care,  and 
corrected  from  the  researches  of  modern  geographers.  The  quarto 
-A-tlas,  published  by  the  late  Uev.  'I'hoinas  Scott,  as  an  accompani- 
ment to  his  commentary  on  the  Bible,  possesses  the  double  merit 
of  being  correct  as  well  as  ciieap.  The  Scripture  Atlas.  puMished 
by  Mr.  Leigh,  is  executed  in  a  superior  style,  and  has  had  a  very 
extensive  sale.  Mr.  Wyld's  Scripture  Atlas  is  a  neat  publication. 
Several  small  or  |K)cket  Atlases  of  ihe  Bible  have  been  publisheil, 
which  indcerl  can  only  bo  unci  by  those  who  have  young  eye.". 
Of  these,  Mr.  Thomas  "Starling's  "Biblical  Cabinet  Atlas"  claims 
especially  to  be  noticed  for  tJie  beautiful  execution  of  the  maps, 
and  the  valuable  tabular  (Jeographical  Index  which  accompanies 
them.  "  The  Pocket  Bible  Alias,"  containing  eight  neally-executed 
maps,  which  was  published  at  Edinburgh  in  1832,  (as  ils  name  im- 
plies) is  expressly  designed  to  be  bound  up  with  a  fiockel  Bible. 

Various  Treatises  on  Sacred  Geography  will    be  found   in  tho 
fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh  volumes  of  Ugolini's  Thesaurus  Antiqui 
tatiim  Sacrarum. 

It  may  DC  proper  to  add,  that  most  of  the  questions  relative  to 
the  hisiorv,  geography,  A:c.  of  the  Bible  are  noticed  in  Schleiisner'i 
valuable  Lexicon  to  the  Sepluagint  version,  and  also  in  his  (Jreek 
and  Latin,  and  in  Messrs.  Parkhiirsi's  and  Robinson's  Greek  niwl 
English  Lexicons  to  the  IS'ow  Testament;  where  they  are  illus- 
trated with  equal  learning  and  accuracy 


§   2.    NATUnAI.  HI8T0RT  OF  THE  IlinLB. 

1.  Physica  Sacra:  hoc  est  llistoria  Natnralis  Bibli.r  a  Joanne 
Jacobo  Sciii.iTcn7,i:uo  edita,  et  innuirieris  inconibus  leneiP  ele- 
gantissimis  adornata.  August.  Vindel.  1731  — 1735,  4  vols,  folio. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  beaiiiiliil  anil  useful  works  \>hich  has 
appeared  on  the  natural  history  of  the  Bible  :  the  engravings,  7f>t» 
in  niimher,  were  executed  by  ihe  most  eminent  artif;l.s  of  lliat  day 
A  Gennan  translation  apficared  at  Augsburg,  at  ihe  same  tinn 
Willi  the  Latin  eilition,  to  which  it  ia  preferred,  on  nceoiint  of  iis 
having  proof  impressions  of  thi'  plates.  The  French  trnnslulioii. 
piililiKlied  at  .Amsterdiim,  in  1732 — 1738,  in  4  voU.  folio,  is  inferior 
to  both  the  preieding  editions  as  it  n'spects  the  plates,  though  tin' 
t«'Xt  and  typographical  execution  are  e(|iially  valuable.  From  tin 
cosily  price  of  this  work,  it  la  chiefly  lo  be  found  in  great  piiblii 
librariqii. 

2.  The  Natural  History  of  the  Bible :  or  a  Description  of  all 
the  Quadrupeds,  Binls,  Fi.-^hes,  Reptiles,  and  Insects,  Tree*, 
Pluntrt,  Flowers,  Gums,  and  Precious  Stones,  inenliinied  in  the 
Sacred  Scriptures.  Collected  fritm  the  l)est  Authoritici*,  and 
alphabetically   arranged   by   Tha<ldious   Mason    Haruis,    D.D 


[  Sect.  II.  §  3.] 


POLITICAL  ANTIQUITIES  OF  THE  JEWS. 


159 


I  Boston  [Massachusetts],  1820,  8vo.     London,  1824,  8vo.    New 
I  edition,  greatly  improved  and  corrected.   1833,  crown  8vo. 

!  The  Natural  History  of  foreign  countries  was  very  little  known 
nt  the  time  when  the  authorized  version  of  the  English  Bible  was 

i  executed  :  it  is  no  wonder,  therefore,  that  we  find  in  it  the  names 
of  animals,  &c.  which  are  unknown  in  the  East.  Our  venerable 
translators,  indeed,  frankly  acknowledge  in  tiieir  preface  the  ob- 
scurity experienced  by  them  in  Hebrew  words  occurring  but 
once,  and  also  in  the  names  of  certain  birds,  beasts,  precious 
stones,  &c.  These  difficulties  have  been  materially  diminished 
since  their  time,  and  especially  within  the  last  hundred  and  twenty 
years ;  not  only  by  ilie  successful  researches  of  eminent  orien- 
talists, wlio  have  applied  their  knowledge  of  the  eastern  dialects 
to  the  elucidation  of  Scripture,  but  also  by  the  successful  labours 
of  Bochart,  Celsius,  Forskiil,  Sclieuchzer,  and  other  naturalists, 
historians  of  the  Bible,  as  well  as  those  of  Shaw,  Hasselquist, 
Russell,  Bruce,  and  other  distinguished  travellers.  To  all  these 
sources,  togellier  with  many  others  which  it  is  not  necessary  to 
enumerate,  Dr.  Harris  acknowledges  his  obligations.  ^Though  he 
claims  no  praise  but  that  of  having  brought  into  a  regular  form 
such  information  as  he  could  collect  from  the  best  and  most  un- 
exceptionable authorities  ;  yet  he  is  not  a  mere  compiler.  He  has 
enlivened  his  general  illustrations  with  many  instructive  and  use- 
ful facts,  observations,  and  reasonings:  and  in  the  course  of  his 
work  he  has  introduced  new  translations  of  a  great  many  detached 
pas.sagcs  and  of  some  entire  chapters  of  Scripture.  Of  these,  future 
••nrniuentators  will  doubtless  avail  themselves,  especially  as  Dr.  H. 
has  accompanied  such  translations  with  remarks  and  illustrations, 
correcting  the  errors  which  were  the  consequence  of  their  being 
misunderatood,  and  pointing  out  the  precision  and  force,  the  em- 
phasis and  beauty,  which  they  derive  from  an  accurate  knowledge 
of  the  object  in  natural  histoiy  to  which  they  originally  referred. 
A  Catalogue  is  subjoined  of  the  principal  authorities  quoted  in  his 
work,  which  is  accompanied  with  useful  indexes  of  matters  and 
of  texts  illustrated,  and  particularly  with  an  Index  or  List  of  the 
sevensl  articles,  according  to  the  English  Translation,  followed  by 
the  original  Hebrew  names,  to  which  are  subjoined  the  Linnasan 
or  other  modern  scientific  appellations.  In  a  work  embracing  such 
a  variety  of  particulars,  some  articles  must  necessarily  be  found 
defective :  these,  however,  are  not  very  numerous.  In  conclusion, 
the  writer  of  these  pages  cheerfully  adopts  the  following  jusf. 
critique  of  a  transatlantic  reviewer: — "Dr.  Harris  is  entitled  to 
the  thanks  of  the  public,  for  having  brought  within  a  rea.sonable 
compass  the  most  valuable  materials  on  the  subjects  of  which  he 
treats;  for  having  arranged  them  in  a  convenient  method,  and  in 
general  for  having  arrived  at  his  own  conclusions  on  the  best  evi- 
dence which  the  subjects  admit." "On  the  whole,  we 

cheerfully  recommend  the  work  both  to  the  learned  and  the  un- 
learned reader,  as  containing  all  that  can  be  known  on  the  subjects 
which  successively  occur.  Many  of  the  articles  will  be  read  with 
great  interest :  and  in  those  in  which  curiosity  is  most  concerned 
tlie  author,  in  a  form  as  much  abridged  as  their  nature  would 
admit,  has  exhausted  all  tiie  learning  of  naturalists  and  travel- 
lers :  and,  as  we  believe,  has  generally  come  to  the  right  re- 
sults." (North  American  Review,  vol.  x.  New  Series,  pp.  91,  92.) 
The  London  reprints  are  beautifully  executed,  especially  the  edi- 
tion published  in  1833,  which  is  ornamented  with  neat  engravings 
on  wood.  A  German  translation  of  this  work  was  published  at 
Leipzig,  in  1825,  in  8vo. 

3.  Samuelis  Bocharti  Hierozoicon,  sive  de  Animalibus  Sa- 
crse  Scripturse.  4th  edit,  folio,  Lug.  Bat.  1714 ;  also  in  3  vols. 
4to      Lipsise,  1793,  and  following  years. 

This  last  IS  unquestionably  the  best  edition ;  it  was  published 
by  Professor  Rosenmiiller,  to  whose  rescarches-'biblical  students 
are  so  largely  indebted  ;  and  who  has  corrected  it  throughout,  as 
well  as  enlarged  it  with  numerous  facts  from  the  writings  of  mo- 
dern travellers,  &c. 

4.  Hierozoici  ex  Samuele  Bocharto,  Itinerariis  variis  aliisque 
Doctiosimorum  Virorum  Commentariis  ac  Scriptiunculis,  ad  plu- 
rimorum  usus  compositi,  Speciraina  tria.  Auctore  Frid.  Jacobo 
ScuoDzn,  Tubingae,  178'l:-6,  8vo. 

5.  Jo.  Henr.  Ursini  Arboretum  Biblicum,  in  quo  Arbores  et 
Frutices,  passim  in  S.  Literis  occurrentes,  ut  et  Plants;,  HerbfE, 
et  Aromata,  notis  philologicis,  philosophicis,  theologicis,  expo- 
nuntur  et  illustrantur.     Norimbcrgse,  1 699,  2  tomis,  8vo. 

6.  Olavi  Celsii  Hierobotanicon,  sive  de  Plantis  Sacrae  Scrip- 
turse  Dissertationes  Breves.  Upsalae,  1745-47  ;  Amstelffidami, 
1748,  2  tomis,  8vo. 

7.  Hierophyticon,  sive  Commentarius  in  Loca  Scripturse  Sa- 
crae, quaj  Plantarum  faciunt  mcntionem.  Auctore  Matthieo 
HiLLERo.     Trajecti  ad  Rhenum,  1725,  4to. 

8.  Petri  Forskal  Descriptiones  Animalium,  Amphibiorum, 
Pisciura,  Insectorum,  Vermium,  quae  in  Itinere  Orientali  observa- 
vit.  4to.  Hauniffi  (Copenhagen),  1775. — Ejusdem  Flora  ^gyp- 
lio-Arabica.  4to.  Hauniae,  1775.  Ejusdem  Icones  Rerum  Natu- 
ralium,  quas  Itinere  Orientali  depingi  curavit.  4to.  Haunite, 
1776 

M.  Forskiil  was  a  learned  Swedish  naturalist,  who  was  sent  in 
1T61,  at  the  expense  of  his  Danish  majesty,  to  investigate  the  na- 


tural productions  of  the  East,  in  company  with  the  celebrated  tra- 
veller Niebuhr.  He  died  at  Jerim  in  Arabia,  in  1763,  and  his 
unfinished  notes,  valuable  even  in  their  imperfect  slate,  were  pub- 
lished by  his  colleague  in  the  three  works  just  noticed. 

9.  Scripture  illustrated  by  Engravings,  referring  to  Natural 
Science,  Customs,  Manners,  &c.  By  the  Editor  of  Calmet's 
Dictionary  of  the  Bible.    4to.  1802. 

Many  otherwise  obscure  passages  of  the  Bible  are  in  this  work 
happily  elucidated  from  natural  science,  &:c.  Though  it  does  not 
profess  to  be  a  complete  natural  history  of  the  Scriptures,  yet  it 
illustrates  that  interesting  subject  in  very  many  instances.  It  has 
been  incorporated  in  Mr.  Taylor's  editions  of  Calmet's  Dictionary, 
noticed  in  p.  340. 

10.  Scripture  Natural  History:  or  a  Descriptive  Account  of 
the  Zoology,  Botany,  and  Geology  of  the  Bible,  illustrated  by 
Engravings.     By  William  Carpester.     London,  1828,  8vo. 

"  Without  that  pretence  to  originality  which,  in  the  present  day, 
is  as  much  distinguished  by  personal  vanity  as  it  is  at  variance 
with  truth,  Mr.  Carpenter  has,  we  think,  presented  to  the  public 
an  interesting  and  useful  work."  (Christian  Remembrancer,  April, 
1827,  p.  261.) 

11.  Remarks  on  the  Mustard  Tree  mentioned  in  the  New 
Testament.     By  John  Frost.     London,  1827,  8vo. 

12.  Remarks  on  the  Phytolacca  Dodecandra,  or  Mustard  Tree 
of  the  Scriptures.  By  the  Rev,  P.  W.  Buckham.  London, 
1827,  8vo. 

As  the  common  mustard  tree  {Sinapis  nigra  of  Linnaeus)  is  an 
annual  plant,  which,  in  consequence  of  its  herbaceous  stem,  rarely 
attains  a  greater  height  than  three  feet,  cannot  with  propriety  be 
termed  a  tree,  commentators  have  been  much  perplexed  in  their 
attempts  to  explain  our  Lord's  Parable  of  the  mustard  tree.  The 
object  of  Mr.  Frost's  pamphlet  (which  is  an  enlargement  of  a  paper 
in  the  Journal  of  Science  and  the  Arts,  vol.  xx.  pp.  57 — 59.)  is  to 
show  that  the  plant  in  question  is  a  species  of  Phytolacca — proba- 
bly the  Phytolacca  dodecandra  of  Linnsus,  which,  though  it  has 
the  smallest  seed  of  any  tree  growing  in  Palestine,  yet  attains  as 
great  an  altitude  as  any  tree  which  flourishes  in  that  country,  and 
possesses  properties  analogous  to  those  of  the  sinapis  nigra.  Mr. 
Frost's  hypothesis  is  controverted  with  much  learning  and  inge- 
nuity by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Buckham,  who  argues  that  the  tree  intended 
is  the  common  mustard  tree,  and  who  has  collected  numerous  pas- 
sages from  ancient  botanical  writers,  and  from  modern  travellers 
and  botanical  authors,  in  support  of  his  argument. 

13.  Joh.  Gottlieb  Buhle  Calendarium  Palaestinse  CEconomi- 
cum.     Goettingae,  1785,  4to. 

14.  Georgii  Friederici  Walchii  Calendarium  Paiaestinas  CRco- 
nomicum.     Praefatus  est  J.  D.  Michaelis.     Goettingae,  1785,  4to. 

In  the  year  1785  the  directors  of  the  University  of  Gottingen 
proposed,  as  a  prize-subject,  the  compilation  of  an  CEconomic  Ca- 
lendar of  Palestine,  from  Itineraries,  with  a  view  to  the  better 
elucidation  of  the  Sacred  Writings.  The  prize  was  adjudged  ta 
the  composition  of  M.  Buhle  ;  to  which,  in  Michaelis's  judgment, 
the  Calendar  of  Walch  was  next  in  point  of  merit.  Each  of  ihesd 
publications  contains  much  valuable  matter  peculiar  to  itself;  and 
both  together  throw  much  light  on  the  physical  geography  of  Pa- 
lestine. 

A  translation  of  Buhle's  Calendar  is  inserted  in  the  Fragments 
annexed  to  Mr.  Taylor's  edition  of  Calmet's  Dictionary  of  the 
Bible,  Nos.  455—468. 

15.  Henrici  Ehrenfridi  Warnekros  Commentarius  de  Pa« 
laestinae  Fertilitate,  praecipuisquae  illius  dotibus  cum  ^13gypta 
comparatis. — In  the  Hj^and  15th  volumes  of  the  Repertorium 
fiir  Biblische  und  Morgenlaendische  Litteratiir.  8vo. 

An  English  translation  of  this  valuable  disquisition  is  printed  in 
the  first  volume  of  Dr.  Hodge's  Biblical  Repertory,  published  at 
Princeton  (New  Jersey)  in  1825. 

16.  A  Comparative  Estimate  of  the  Mineral  and  Mosaical 
Geologies,  revised  and  enlarged  with  relation  to  the  latest  Publi* 
cations  on  Geology.  By  Granville  Pkhx,  Esq.  Second  editiouj 
London,  1825,  2  vols.  8vo. 

The  first  edition  of  the  "  Comparative  Estimate"  was  published 
in  1822,  and  a  "  Supplement"  to  it  In  its  present  improved  state 
Mr.  Penn's  work  forms  a  most  powerful  proof  and  vindication  of  the 
harmony  subsisting  between  geological  discoveries  and  the  Mosaic 
History. 

17.  Scriptural  Geology,  or  Geological  Phenomena,  consistent 
only  with  the  Literal  Interpretation  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures, 
upon  the  subjects  of  the  C'reation  and  Deluge.  [By  the  Rev, 
George  Bogg,  B.A.]     London,  1827,  3  vols.  8vo. 


§  3.    rOLITICAt  AXTiaCITlES  OF  THE  JEWS. 

Treatises  on  the  Laws,  Government,  Coins,  &c.  of  the  Jevis, 

1.    Rabbi  Mosis  Maimojtidis  More  Nebochim;  seu  Doctor 
Perplexorum,  ad  dubia  et  obscuriora  Scripturae  loca  rectius  in 


iOO 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


(Part  IL  C'HAr.  Vll 


telUgcnJa,  vcluti  Clavem  conlinens.    Latino  conversus  a  Joanne 
Buxtorfio,  filio.     Basiles,  1629,  4 to, 

2.  The  Reasons  of  the  Laws  of  Moses,  from  the  "  More 
Nevochiin"  of  MaimouiJes.  With  Notes,  Dissertations,  anil  a 
Life  of  the  Author.  By  James  Towxley,  D.D.  London, 
1827,  8vo. 

The  More  Nevocliim,  or  "Instructor  of  the  Perplexed,"  is  con- 
sidered ns  one  of  ilie  most  valuable  productions  of  the  learned 
Jewish  Rabbi,  Moses  ben  Maimon,  better  known  l)v  the  name  of 
Maimonides.  "It  is  a  eriiical,  philosophical,  and  theological  work, 
in  which  he  endeavours  to  explain  tiie  diflicult  passages,  phrases, 
parables,  allegories,  and  ceremonies  of  the  Old  Testament;  and 
IS  rendered  particularly  important  by  'an  excellent  Exposition  of 
the  (Jroimds  and  Reasons  of  the  Mosaic  Laws,'  lo  which  many  of 
our  most  cmiiienl  biblical  critics  and  commentators  have  been 
deeply  indebted."  It  was  originally  written  in  Arabic,  and  trans- 
lated into  Hebrew  by  liabbi  .Samuel  Aben  Tybbon.  The  Rev. 
Dr.  Townley  (lo  whose  life  of  Maimonides,  p.  17.,  we  are  indebted 
for  the  preceding  particulars)  has  given  an  account  of  the  various 
editions  of  tlio  original  work  of  Maimonides ;  among  which  that 
of  1629  i<  usually  reputed  to  be  the  best. 

Dr.  T.  has  conferred  no  small  obligation  on  biblical  students  in 
presentintr  this  treatise  of  Maimonides  to  them  in  an  English 
dress;  and  in  addition  to  a  memoir  of  the  original  Jewish  author, 
he  has  enriched  his  translation  w^ilh  upwards  of  one  hundred 
pages  of  valuable  notes,  together  with  nine  dissertations  on  the 
Ttnmudical  Writings,  and  on  various  other  tojjics  tending  to  elu- 
cidate tlic  "  Reasons  of  the  Laws  of  Moses." 

3.  Wilhelmi  Zepi'f.mi  Legum  Mosaicarum  Forcnsium  Ex- 
planatio.     Herbornac  Nassoviorum,  1G04,  8vo. 

4.  Lex  Dei,  sive  Mosaicarum  et  Romanarum  Legum  CoUatio. 
E  Codicibus  Manuscriptis  Vindobonensi  et  VerccHcnsi  nupcr 
repertis  auctam  atque  emendatam  edidil,  notisque  et  indicibus 
illustravit  Fridericus  Blume.     Bonnac,  1833,  8vo. 

From  the  first  chapter  of  the  elalwrate  prolegomena  prefixed  by 
the  editor  to  this  curious  and  valuable  work,  we  learn  that  its 
anonymous  author  was  in  all  probability  a  clergyman  of  the  Latin 
or  W'eslern  Church,  who  lived  in  the  former  half  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury, and  who  compiled  this  work  with  the  express  design  of  ex- 
hibiting the  resemblances  between  the  Jewish  and  Roman  Laws, 
which  last  were  derived  from  the  Jewish  Laws,  and  further  to 
show  that  Christians  both  may  and  ought  to  make  useof  io^A  laws. 
The  second  and  third  chapters  of  the  prolegomena  contain  an 
account  of  the  MSS.  and  printed  editions  of  this  collection.  A 
copious  collection  of  various  readings,  from  MSS.  and  printed  edi- 
tions, is  placed  at  the  foot  of  each  page  of  the  collation,  which 
follows  the  prolegomena.  The  volume  concludes  with  indexes  of 
matters,  persons,  and  places  occurring  in  the  work,  and  of  the 
authors  who  are  cited  in  the  notes. 

5.  Joannis  SpF.xcEni  do  Legibus  Hebrceorum  Ritualibus  et 
earum  Rationibus  Libri  IV.  Accessit  Dissertatio  de  Phyhictcriis 
Judffiorum.  Recensuit,  et  indices  adjccit  Leonardus  Chappelow, 
8.T.P.     Cantabrigice,  1727,  2  vols,  folio,  best  edition. 

6.  Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of  Moses.  By  the  late  Sir 
John  DavM  MmiAELts,  K.P.S.  F.R.S.,  Professor  of  Philoso- 
phy in  the  University  of  G.ttingcn;  translated  from  the  Ger- 
man by  Alexander  Smith,  D.D.     London,  1814,  4  vols.  8vo. 

The  spirit  of  the  political  and  ceremonial  law,  contained  in  the 
writings  of  Moses,  is  copiously  investigated  in  this  work.  Valuable 
UK  these  "Commentaries"  of  Michnelis  are  in  mnny  respects,  it  is 
much  to  be  regretted  that  they  are  not  free  from  that  licentious- 
ness of  conjecture  and  of  language,  as  w^Il  as  tendency  to  skepti- 
cism, which  are  the  too  frequent  characteristics  of  some  disiin- 
guished  modern  biblical  critics  in  Germany.  Great  caution,  there- 
fore, will  be  necessary  in  consulting  this  work. 

7  Legislation  des  H<;breux.  Par  M.  Lc  Comte  de  PAfixo- 
nv.T  Forming  Volumes  III.  and  IV.  of  his  Histoirc  de  la 
Lc)00*lation.     Pari.",  1817,  8vo. 

8.  Histoire  dcs  Institutions  de  Moisc  ct  da  Pcuple  Hubrcu. 
Par  J.  SALVAUon.     Paris,  1928,  3  tome.s,  8vo. 

Tlio  avowed  desigJi  of  tliis  work,  which  is  characterized  by  no 
small  degree  of  levity  on  the  part  of  its  JcwiRli  author,  is,  lo  re- 
present Moses  as  an  enlightened  and  liberal  legislator:  at  the  same 
lime  its  whole  tendency  is,  lo  discredit  Christianity.  M.  Salvador 
devoted  a  porlmn  of  his  work  lo  show  that  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ 
W.1S  legally  condemned,  according  to  the  slulemcnis  of  the  evan- 
geli«ls  themselves.  This  tinblunhing  attack  f)f  the  Jew  called 
forili  M.  Duiiin  the  elder,  one  of  iho  most  eminent  advocates  at 
the  F'ronch  oar,  who  Iriumphantly  ropolle<l  the  profane  nssertidns 
of  Salvador  in  a  masterly  refutation,  intituled,  "Jesus  dcvantCaiphe 
ot  Pilate."     I'aris,  1828,  8vo. 

9.  A  Dissertation  on  the  Civil  Government  of  the  HchrcwR : 
in  which  the  true  Design  and  Nature  of  their  f5overnm<'nt  are 
explained.  By  Moses  Lowmait.  T^ondon,  1740  ;  2d  edition, 
1745;  3d  edition,  1816,  8vo. 

10.  A  Short  Account  of  the  Laws  and  Institutions  of  Moses; 


.showing  that  they  were  worthy  of  their  Divine  .Author,  l>cin 
lilted  for  the  accompli.shment  of  the  most  important  purposei 
By  Henry  Feuols.     Dunfermline  and  London  [iSll],  8vo. 

This  essay  is  detached  from  a  Ifisiory  of  the  Hebrews,  on  whie 
the  atnhor  was  employed;  but  which  has  not  yet  been  publishec 
"  In  the  short  account  before  us,  Mr.  Fergus  has  given  evidenci 
of  his  having  studied  the  subject:  and  his  pamphlet  displays  in 
concise  yet  luminous  manner  the  several  topics  which  the  civ 
and  ecclesiastical  government  of  the  Hebrews  includes."  (Monthl 
Review,  JN.  S.,  vol.  Ixvi.  p.  37.) 

11.  Lkvtssoiin  (Davidis  Henrici)  Disputatio  de  Judoeoru 
sub  Cffisaribus  Conditione,  et  de  Legibus  eos  spectantibus.   Lug' 
duni  Batavorum,  1828,  4to. 

12.  Joannis  Selueni  De  Synedriis  et  Prtefecturis  Juridicu 
Veteruin  Ebra;orum  Libri  III.      Amstelodami,  1679,  4to. 

13.  Petri  Wesselixgii  Diatribe  de  Judceorum  Archontibus 
ad    Inscriptionem    Bercniccnsem ;    et  Dissertatio  de  Evangeliis 
jussu  Imp.  Anastasii  non  cmendatis  in  Victoretn  Tununensenu  t 
Trajceti  ad  Rhcnum,  1738,  Svo. 

14.  Thomffi  BAiiTHoiiNr  de  Cruce  Christi  Hypomnemat*  i 
IV.     Hafnia;,  1651,  Svo.     Amstelodami,  1670,  8vo. 

15.  Dissertatio  Philologica  de  Ritu  dimittendi  Reum  in  feslo 
Pa.schatis  Judajorum ;  conscripta  a  Joh.  Conrado  Hottingeko. 
Tiguri,  1718,  Svo. 

16.  Jacobi  Ltuii  Syntagma  Sacrum  de  Re  Militari.  Dor- 
draci,  1693,  4to. 

17.  Edwardi  Biiehewood  Liber  de  Ponderibus  et  Pretiis 
Vetcrum  Nummorum,  eorumque  cum  rccentioribus  Collafione. 
Londini,  1614,  4to. :  also  in  the  first  Volume  of  Bp.  Walton's 
Polyglott.  -• 

18.  Adriani  RELAxni  De  Nummis  Veterum  Hebraiorum,  qui 
ab  inscriptarum  literarum  forma  Samaritanorum  appellantur, 
Dissertationes  V.    Trajceti  ad  Rhenum,  1709,  Svo. 

19.  Casparis  Waseri  Dc  Antiquis  Numis  Hebrteorum  ct 
Syrorum,  quorum  S.  Bibiia  ct  Rabbinorum  Scripta  memincrunt, 
Libri  II.     Tiguri,  1605,  4to. 

20.  Casparis  Waseui  de  Antiquis  Mensuris  Hebracorum, 
quarum  S.  I3iblia  mciuinerunt,  Libri  III.  HeidclbergiB,  1610,  4to. 

21.  An  Essay  towards  the  Recovery  of  the  Jewish  Measures 
and  Weights,  comprehending  their  Moneys ;  by  help  of  ancient 
standards  compared  with  ours  of  England.  By  Richard  Cum- 
iiERLAXD,  D.D.  [afterwards  Bishop  of  Peterborough.]  London, 
1686,  Svo. 

22.  Observationes  ex  Numis  Antiquis  Sacrae.  Auctore  Gotllob 
Sebastiano  MAiicnAAF.     Vitcinbergte,  1745,  4to. 

23.  Petri  Zormi  Historia  Fisci  Judaici  sub  Imperio  Veterum 
Romanorum.     Altonte,  1734,  Svo. 

24.  Scripture  Weights,  Measures,  and  Money,  reduced  to  the 
Imperial  Standard  of  the  Weights  and  Measures,  and  the  Ster- 
ling Money  of  England.  By  Edmund  Vialls.  London,  1826, 
Svo.     [A  Pamphlet  of  19  pages.] 


( 


§  4.    SACRED    AXTiaUITIES    OF    THE    JEWS. 

[i.]  Treatises  on  the  Jiitual  and  Sacred  Ceremomes  of  the 

Jews. 

1.  A  Rationale  of  the  Ritual  of  the  Hebrew  Worship.  In 
which  the  wise  Designs  und  Usefulness  of  that  Ritual  are  cx- 
I)laincd.     By  Moses  Lowman.     London,  1748,  Svo. 

2.  Jacobi  Gkoxovii  Decreta  Romana  ct  Asiatica  pro  Judffis, 
ad  cultum  divinum  per  Asia;  Minoris  urbcs  secure  obcunduiu,  ab 
Joscpho  collecta  in  Libro  XIV.  Arcljffiologia;.  Lugduni  Batavo- 
rum, 1712,  Svo. 

3.  Bernardi  Lamt  dc  Tabernaculo  FoEdcris,  de  Sancta  Civitato 
Jerusalem  ct  dc  Templo  ejus,  Libri  Septem.    Parisiia,  1720,  folio. 

4.  Saiomonis  Van  Tii.  Commentarius  dc  Tabernaculo  Mosis 
ct  Zoologia  Sacra.     Dordraci,  1714,  4to. 

.5.  Johannis  Buxtohfii  palris,  Synagoga  Judaica:  hoc  est 
Schola  Judfl?orum,  in  qua  Nalivitas,  In.'-titutio,  Kcligio,  Vita, 
Mors,  Sepulturaque  ipsorum  grnphiec  descripta  est.  Htuiovis, 
1604,  12ino.  ;  Ba.silcffi,  1680,  Svo. 

6,  Campegii  ViTuiNfjA  dc  Synagoga  Vetere  Libri  tres :  qui- 
bus  turn  de  Nominibus,  Structur;\,  Origino,  Prfcfectis,  Miniftri^, 
rt  Sacris  Synagogarum  ngifur :  tutn  pra'cipue  Formam  Regiiiii- 
nis  ct  Ministerii  earum  in  Ecclesiain  Chrislianam  translatarn  e^su 
demonstratur :  cum  Prolegoincnis.     Francquerte,  1696,  4to. 


Sect.  II.  §  5.] 


DOMESTIC  ANTIQUITIES  AND  SCIENCES  OF  THE  JEWS. 


161 


7.  M-jiiani  Kasereh  AlArPA*H  Studii  Scripturistici  in  Syna- 
goga.     Pars  Prima,     Salisburgi,  1774,  4to. 

A  compilation  from  various  German  and  other  authors  who  have 
treated  on  Sacred  Antiquities:  it  discusses  the  Canon  of  the  Bible 
received  by  the  Hebrews,  the  Talmud,  Targums,  Masoretic  Books, 
and  the  Cabbala ;  the  Schools  and  Sects  of  the  Jews,  and  their 
Teachers  or  Doctors  and  Pupils. 

8.  The  Temple  Service  as  it  stood  in  the  Days  of  our  Saviour. 
By  John  Ligutfoot,  D.D.  London,  1649,  4to. ;  also  in  the 
folio  and  octavo  editions  of  Dr.  Lightfoot's  Works. 

9.  The  Temple  Musick ;  or,  an  Essay  concerning  the  method 
of  singing  the  Psalms  of  David  in  the  Temple,  before  the  Baby- 
lonish Captivity.     By  Arthur  Beufohd.     London    170G,  8vo. 


[ii,]  Treatises  on  the  Religiotis  JVotio7is  of  the  Jews,  on  the 
CorruJitio7is  of  Heligion  among  them,  and  on  the  Sects  into 
■which  they  were  divided. 

1.  The  Main  Principles  of  the  Creed  and  Ethics  of  the  Jews, 
exhibited  in  Selections  from  the  Yad  Hachazakah  of  Maimonides, 
with  a  literal  English  Translation,  copious  Illustrations  from  the 
j^'almud,  &c.  By  Hermann  Hedwig  Bernakd.  Cambridge, 
1832,  Svo. 

The  Yad  Hachazakah  of  Maimonides  is  a  compenduim  of  the 
decisions  of  the  Jewish  Doctors  taken  from  the  Talmud,  and  founded 
-on  Scripture  interpreted  according  to  his  preconceived  notions.  The 
subjects  selected  by  Mr.  Bernard  treat  on  the  Deity,  on  angels,  pro- 
phecy, idolatry,  repentance,  sin,  free  will,  predestination,  the  life 
hereafter,  rcvvards  and  punishments,  and  the  love  of  God.  The  He- 
brew text  is  beautifully  printed  without  points  ;  this  is  followed  by  a 
faithful  English  version  and  notes,  and  by  a  glossary  of  the  rabbini- 
cal Hebrew  words  occurring  in  the  text,  to  which  are  prefixed  a  well- 
written  sketch  of  the  life  of  Maimonides,  and  a  collection  of  the 
abbreviations  commonly  used  in  rabbinical  writings.  Besides  com- 
municating to  the  English  reader  the  sentiments,  traditions,  and 
sayings  of  the  ancient  rabbins  quoted  by  Maimonides,  this  volume 
will  materially  contribute  to  supply  the  biblical  student  with  the 
means,  at  present  scarcely  within  his  reach,  of  acquiring  an  accu- 
rate knowledge  of  rabbinical  Hebrew.  For  a  more  minute  analy- 
sis of  this  truly  valuable  work,  the  reader  is  necessarily  referred  to 
the  British  Critic  for  April,  1833,  vol.  xiii.  pp.282 — 292.,  and  to  the 
Christian  Remembrancer  for  September,  October,  and  November, 
1832,  vol.  xiv.  pp.  517—525.  581—594.  655—664. 

2.  A  Dissertation  on  the  Religious  Knowledge  of  the  Ancient 
Jews  and  Patriarchs  concerning  a  Future  State.  [By  Stephen 
Addingtox,  D.D.]     London,  1757,  4to. 

3.  Christologia  Judaorum  Jesu  Apostolorumque  JEtate,  in 
Compendium  redacta,  Observationibusque  illustrata  a  D.  Leon- 
hardo  Bertholdt.     Erlangae,  1811,  Svo. 

4.  A  Dissertation  upon  the  Traditional  Knowledge  of  a  Pro- 
mised Redeemer,  which  subsisted  before  the  Advent  of  our  Saviour. 
By  Charles  James  Blomfiei.d,  B.D.  [now  D.D.  and  Bishop  of 
London.]     Cambridge,  1819,  Svo.  , 

5.  Capita  Theologice  Judseorum  Dogmaticse  e  Flavii  Josephi 
Scriptis  collecta.  Accessit  vafupyov  super  Josephi  de  Jesu  Christo 
testimonio.  Auctore  Carolo  Gottlieb  Bretschneider.  LipsiaB, 
1812,  Svo. 

6.  Joannis  Jacobi  Crameht  Goel  Israel,  sive  Theologia  Israe- 
lis :  qua  Go.'lis  Officium  ac  Mysterium,  ad  confirmandam  Jesu 
Christi  Deitatem  et  Officium,  ex  Hebraicis  potissimura  Scriptis 
proponitur,  et  varia  alia  Philologica  ac  Theologica  pertractantur. 
Franequerffi  et  Lipsiae,  2  tomis,  4to. 

7.  The  Traditions  of  the  Jews,  or  the  Doctrines  and  Exposi- 
tions contained  in  the  Talmud  and  other  Rabbinical  Writings : 
with  a  preliminary  Preface,  or  an  Inquiry  into  the  Origin,  Pro- 
gress, Authority,  and  Usefulness  of  those  Traditions ;  "wherein 
the  mystical  Sense  of  the  Allegories  in  the  Talmud,  &c.  is  ex- 
plained. [By  the  Rev.  Peter  Stehelin,  r.R.S,]  London,  1742. 
In  two  volumes,  Svo. 

This  is  a  work  of  extreme  rarity  and  curiosity ;  it  bears  a  very 
high  price,  which  necessarily  places  it  beyond  the  reach  of  biblical 
students.  But  most  of  the,  information  which  it  contains  will  be 
found  in 

8.  Miscellaneous  Discourses  relating  to  the  Traditions  and 
Usages  of  the  Scribes  and  Pharisees  in  our  Saviour  Jesus  Christ's 
time.  By  W.  WoTTOif,  D.D.  London,  1718.  In  two  volumes, 
8vo. 

This  IS  a  very  curious  work.  Volume  I.  contains  a  discourse 
concerning  the  nature,  authority,  and  usefulness  of  the  Misna ;  a 
table  of  all  its  titles,  with  summaries  of  their  contents  ;  a  discourse 
on  the  recital  of  the  Skema  (t^at  is,  of  Deut.  vi.  4 — 9.,  so  called  from 
the  first  word,  i.  e.  hear),  on  the  Phylacteries  and  on  the  Mezuzolh 


or  Schedules  fixed  on  gates  and  door-posts ;  together  with  a  collec- 
tion of  texts  relative  to  the  observance  of  the  Sabbath,  taken  out 
of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  and  Apocryphal  Books,  with  anno 
tatioiis  thereon.  Volume  11.  contains  two  treatises  from  the  Misna, 
in  Hebrew  and  English ;  one  on  the  Sabbath,  entitled  Sliabbalh  , 
and  anotiier,  entitled  Eruvin,  concerning  the  mixtures  practised  by 
the  Jews  in  the  time  of  Jesus  Chri.st  to  strengthen  the  observation 
of  the  Sabbath.  Dr.  Wolton  has  given  copious  notes  to  both  these 
treatises,  which  illustrate  many  passages  of  Holy  Writ. 

9.  Joannis  Seldeni  de  Diis  Syris  Syntagmata  II.  cum  Addita- 
mentis  Andrea  Beyeri.     Amstclodami,  1680,  Svo. 

The  best  edition  of  a  learned  treatise,  in  which  the  Syrian  idols 
mentioned  in  the  Bible  are  particularly  discussed.  This  work  is 
inserted  in  the  twenty-third  volume  of  Ugolini's  Thesaurus  Anti- 
quitatum  Sacrarum,  which  contains  nearly  thirty  other  treatises  on 
the  idols  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures. 

10.  Trium  Scriptorum  illustrium  Syntagma  de  tribus  Judaeo- 
rum  Sectis :  in  quo  Nic.  Serarii,  Joannis  Drusii,  Jos,  ScaJigeri, 
Opu.scula,  quae  eo  pertinent,  cum^liis  junctira  exhibentur.  Ac- 
cedit  Jac.  Triglandii  Diatribede  Secta  Karaeorutn.  Delphis, 
1703,  2  tomis,  4to. 

11.  Epistolje  Samaritanae  Sicliemitarum  ad  Jobum  Ludolphum, 
cum  ejusdem  Latina  Versione  et  Annotationibus.  Accedit  Ver- 
sio  Latina  persimilium  Literarum  a  Sichemitis  ad  Anglos  datarum 
[a  Christophoro  Cellario].     Cizae,  1688,  4to. 

Both  the  preceding  publications  are  inserted  in  the  twenty-second 
volume  of  Ugolini's  Thesaurus,  in  whicli  are  printed  several  trea- 
tises on  the  Jewish  sects. 

12,  Memoire  sur  I'Etat  Actuel  des  Samaritains.  Par  M. 
Silvestre  de  Sact.     Paris,  1812,  Svo. 

13,  Jo,  Christ.  Friedrich  Discussionum  de  Christologia  Sa- 
maritanorum  Liber.  Accedit  Appendicula  de  Coluniba,  Dea 
Samaritanarum.     Lipsiae,  1821,  Svo. 

14,  Guilieimi  Gesexii  Commentatio  de  Samaritanorum  The« 
ologia,  ex  fontibus  ineditis.     Hate,  1823,  4to. 


§  5.    DOMESTIC  ANTiaXJITIES,  LlTERATtJRE,  AND    SCIENCES 
OF  THE  JEWS. 

1.  Johannis  Braunii  de  Vestitu  Sacerdotum  Hebraeorum, 
Libri  II.     Lugduni  Batavorum,  1680,  4to. 

2.  Commentarius  Philologico-Criticus  de  Vestitu  Mulierura 
Hebraearum  ad  Jesai.  III.  vs,  16 — 24,  Quo  vocabulorum  abstru- 
sissimorum  tenebras  ad  facem  dialectorum  discutere  conatus  est 
Nicol.  Guil.  ScHROEDERus,  Praemissa  est  praefatio  Alberti  Scaci,- 
TENS,     Lugduni  Batavorum,  173-5,  4to, 

3.  Antonii  Btn.^i  de  Calceis  Hebraeorum  Libri  II,  Dordraci, 
1682,  12mo. ;  1695,  4to. 

4.  Joannis  NicoLAi  Disquisitio  de  Substratione  et  Pignoratione 
Vestium,     Giesste,  1701,  12mo, 

5.  Joannis  Nicolai  Libri  IV.  de  Sepulchris  Hebraeorum,  Lug- 
duni Batavorum,  1706, 4to. 

6.  J.  G.  PuRMANN  Archaiologiae  Georgiwe  Specimen :  d-i  Re 
Rustica  Hebraeorum,     Francofurti  ad  Mcenum,  1786-87,  4to. 

7.  Jo.  Francisci  Buddei  Introductio  ad  Historiam  Philosophise 
Ebraeorum.  Accedit  Dissertatio  de  Haeresi  Valentiniana,  Halae 
Sax.  1702,  Svo. 

8.  De  Excellentia  Musicae  Antiquae  HebrtBorum,  et  eorum 
Musicis  Instrumentis,  Tractatus,  [Auctore  F.  P.  de  Bretagne.] 
Monachii,  1718,  Svo. 

9.  Guilieimi  Ader  Enarrationes  de  iEgrotis  et  Morbis  in 
Evangelio.  Tolosae,  1620,  Svo.  Also  in  the  6th  volume  of  the 
Criticj  Sacri. 

10.  An  Historical  Essay  on  the  State  of  Physic  in  the  Old  and 
New  Testament,  and  the  Apocryphal  Interval,  With  a  particular 
Account  of  the  Cases  mentioned  in  Scripture,  and  Observation3 
upon  them.     By  Jonathan  Harle,     London,  1739,  Svo, 

11.  Ricardi  Mead  Medica  Sacra ;  sive  de  Morbis  insignioribus, 
qui  in  Bibliis  memorantur,  Commentarius.     Londini,  1749,  Svo. 

12.  Medica  Sacra :  or,  a  Commentary  on  the  most  remarkable 
Diseases  mentioned  in  the  Holy  Scriptures.  By  Richard  Mead. 
Translated  from  the  Latin  by  Thomas  Stack,  M.D.  London, 
1755,  Svo. 

13.  A,  J,  Waxruch  Disquisitio  Medica  Cholerse,  cujus  mentio 
in  Sacris  Bibliis  occurrit.  (Num.  cap.  XI.)  Vindobonae,  1833, 
4lo. 


182 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Part  IL  Cuap.  VIL 


§  6,  MISCtLlANXOV.>  ILLUSTnATIOXS  OF  niBLICAt  AXTiai-'I- 
TltS,  THOU  VOrAOES  AXD  TRAT£I.!>  IK  THS  EAST,  AJ(D  FROM 
OTMEU    SOURCES. 

1 .  Observations  on  Divers  Passages  of  Scripture,  placing  many 

of  them  in  a  light  altogether  new, by  means  of  circum- 

stu.'K-cs  mentioned  in  books  of  voyages  and  travels  into  the  East. 
By  the  Rev.  Thomas  IIaumer.  London,  18 1 6,  4  vols.  8vo.  best 
edition. 

As  books  of  voyages  and  travels  are  for  the  most  part  voluminous, 
the  late  reverend  and  learned  Thomas  llarraer  formod  the  design, 
which  he  happily  executed,  of  jK-ruhing  liio  worl;^  of  Orienlal  tra- 
vellers, with  the  view  of  extruding  Irom  thcin  whatever  might 
illustrate  the  rites  and  customs  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures.  His 
researches  form  four  volumes  in  Svo.,  and  were  published  at  differ- 
ent times,  towards  the  close  of  the  last  ccnltirv.  Tiie  best  edition 
is  that  ab-ive  noticed,  and  is  edited  by  Dr.  Adam  Clarke,  who  has 
newly  nrrangeil  the  whole,  and  made  many  imjwrlant  additions  and 
corrections,  "in  this  work  numerous  passages  ol  Scripture  are  idaccd 
in  a  light  altogether  new ;  the  mcanines  of  others,  which  are  not 
discoverable  by  ilio  methods  connuonly  used  by  interi)reiers,  are 
sati^factorlly  ascertained  ;  and  many  probable  conjectures  are  oller- 
ed  lo  iho  biblical  student.  Tiie  mode  of  illustrating  Scripture  from 
Oriental  voyages  and  travels,  lirst  applied  byMr.  Harmer,  has  been 
successl'uUy  followed  by  the  laburi(jus  editor  of  the  "  Fragmcnis" 
anneicd  to'  the  quarto  edition  of  Calmel's  Dictionary  ol'  the  Hible, 
and  also  by  Mr.  Vniisittart  in  his  "Observations  on  Select  I'laces 
of  the  Old  Testament,  founded  on  a  Perusal  of  Parson's  Travels 
from  Aleppo  to  Bagdad."    Oxford  and  London,  1812,  Svo. 

2.  Oriental  Customs ;  or  an  Illustration  of  the  Sacred  Scrip- 
tures, by  an  Explanatory  Aiiplication  of  the  Customs  and  Man- 
ners of  the  Eastern  Nations.  By  the  Rev.  S.  Burdek,  A.M. 
6th  edition,  1822,  2  vols.  Svo. 

This  is  a  useful  abridgment  of  Ilarmer's  Observations,  with 
many  valuable  additions  from  recent  voyagers  and  travellers,  ar- 
ranged in  the  order  of  the  Books,  Chapters,  and  Verses  of  the  Bible. 
It  was  translated  into  German,  by  Dr.  K.  F.  C.  Rosenmiiller  (4  vols. 
8vo.  Leipzig,  181'J),  with  material  corrections  and  much  new  matter. 
.Such  of  these  as  were  additions  to  the  articles  contained  in  the 
'•  Oriental  Custom.'","  have  been  tran.slated,  and  inserted,  in  the  sixth 
edition  above  noticed.  But  those  articles  which  are  entirely  new, 
beiiig  founded  on  texts  not  before  brought  under  Mr.  Burder's  con- 
sideration, are  translated  and  inserted  in 

3.  Oriental  Literature,  applied  to  the  illustration  of  the  Sacred 
Scriptures;  especially  with  reference  to  Antiquities,  Traditions, 
and  .Manner.-;,  collected  from  the  most  celebrated  writers  and 
tnivellers,  both  ancient  and  modern,  designed  as  a  Sequel  to 
Oriental  Customs.  Ey  the  Rev.  Samuel  Burdeh,  A.M.  Lon- 
don, 1822,  2  vols.  Svo. 

4.  Oriental  Customs :  applied  to  the  Illustration  of  the  Sacred 
Scriptures.     By  Samuel  BuimEit,  M.A.     London,  1831,  12mo. 

Tlii-s  volume  is  designed  for  general  readers  and  for  young  per- 
sons, as  well  as  those  of  studious  habits.  It  consists,  partly  oi'such 
selections  from  the  two  preceding  works  as  are  adapted  f(>r  general 
perusal,  and  partly  of  original  illustrations  of  the  sacred  Scriptures, 
derived  from  recent  publications.  'ITiese  illustrations  are  methodi- 
cally arranged  under  heads,  but  they  follow  the  order  of  the  books 
and  chapters  under  each  head. 

5.  The  Eastern  Mirror ;  an  Illustration  of  the  Sacred  Scrip- 
tures, in  which  the  Custotns  of  Oriental  Nations  arc  clearly 
developed  by  the  writings  of  the  most  celebrated  travellers.  By 
the  Rev.  W.  Fowler.     Svo.  Exeter,  1814. 

An  abridgment  of  Ilarmer's  Observations,  and  the  earlier  editions 
of  Border's  Orienlal  Customs,  with  a  few  unimportant  a<lditions. 

6.  Oriental  Ob-tervations,  and  occasional  ('riticisms,  more  or 
less  illustrating  several  hundred  Passages  of  Scripture.  By  John 
Callaway.     London,  1827,  12mo. 

The  niilhor  of  this  volume  resided  about  ten  years  as  a  missionary 
at  Cevlon.  As  the  usages  of  the  Ceyh'neso  frequently  bear  a  re- 
semblance to  tho/ie  of  the  Jews,  he  has  an|ilicd  them  to  the  expla- 
nation of  the  Sacred  Writings.  He  has  also  introduced  many  hints 
from  the  li)urth  edition  of  (Tnlmot,  niul  from  the  illustrations  of 
Scripture  contained  in  Mr.  Wanl's  History,  Arc.  of  the  Hiniloos. 
"The  Notes  are  for  the  mo.«it  part  brief;  and,  when  siiRpested  by 
the  author's  personal  observotion,  interesting  and  lo  the  purjxise.'' 
(F.clectic  Review,  N.  S.  vol.  xxix.  p.  2Gj.) 

7.  Oriental  Fragmcnla.  By  Maria  Hack.  London,  1828, 
12mo. 

8.  Illustrations  of  the  Holy  Scripture,  in  three  Parts.  By 
the  Rev.  t»eor(»e  Paxtoit.  Edinburgh,  1819,  2  vols.  8vo. ;  re- 
printed at  Philadelphia,  1821,  2  vols.  Svo.  Edinburgh,  1825, 
aecond  edition,  3  vols.  8vo. 

The  copioiiH  volumes  of  Profeiwor  Paxton  differ  in  their  plan  from 
those  of  Harmer  and  Burder,  and  exhibit  a  more  nnijile  ranee  of 
■iibjeels.  Not  confming  his  details  and  remarks  to  the  several 
cloMOs  of  objecl«  lo  which  thoLr  reacarche*  wore  dirocted,  he  hat 


aimed  to  make  his  work  a  general  depository  of  knowledge,  illus- 
trative of 'the  text  of  the  Bible  in  the  several  particulars  of  Geogra- 
phy, Natural  History,  Customs,  and  Manners.. .."  These  copious 
volumes  comprise  a  very  ample  collection  of  materials  for  the 
illustration  of  the  Scriptures,  and  are  well  adapted  ibr  the  use  of 
those  who  are  engaged  in  the  work  of  public  religious  instruction  ; 
for  whose  benefit  they  are  chiefly  intended  by  the  author,  having 
been  originally  prepared  for  the  students  under  his  care.  It  is, 
indeed,  a  work  which  must  interest  and  gratify  every  reader  who 
makes  the  intelligent  perusal  of  the  Scriptures  an  object  of  hia 
attention."     (Eclectic  Review,  N.  S.  vol.  xvi.  pp.  515.  521.) 

9.  The  Truth  of  Revelation  demonstrated  by  an  Appeal  to 
existing  Monuments,  Sculptures,  Gems,  Coins,  and  Medals.  By 
a  Fellow  of  several  Learned  Societies.     London,  1832,  Svo. 

"  Tliis  interesting  book  is  clearly  the  production  of  a  mind  pious 
and  cultivated,  enriched  by  science,  and  enlarged  by  various  in- 
formation. Adapted  especially  to  guard  the  young  against  the  too 
welcome  theories  of  skepticism,  it  will  also  afford  to  the  general 
reader  both  gratification  and  improvement.  It  chiedy  consists  of 
striking  fticts  deduced  from  the  labours  of  modern  inquiry,  of  allu 
sions  gleaned  from  literature,  of  memorials  of  past  events,  scattered 
over  the  relics  of  by-gone  times,  in  sculptures,  gems,  and  medals  ; 
and  its  object  is  to  apply  these  various  materials  to  the  illustration 
and  establishment  of  the  sacred  records  ; — as  well  as  to  inijircss  the 
conviction  that  the  foundations  of  a  scriptural  hope  are  not  to  be 
shaken  by  advancing  knowledge,  nor  ultimately  injured  by  t)^ 
rash  assaults  of  a  class  of  men  who,  aspiring  to  be  deemed  the 
votaries  of  philosophy,  give  too  much  reason  lor  the  suspicion  that 
the  stimulus  by  which  their  industry  is  excited  is  the  vain  expecta- 
tion of  some  discovery  adverse  to  the  Christian  religion,  rather  than. 

zeal  for  the  promotion  of  science." "It  is  full  of  int/eresting 

facts  and  observations  ;  and  one  which  we  can  cordially  recom- 
mend, as  adapted  not  less  to  please  than  to  convince."  (Eclectic 
Review,  third  series,  vol.  viii.  pp.  11.  32.) 

10.  Scripture  Costume  exhibited  in  a  Scries  of  Engravings, 
re])rcsenting  the  principal  Personages  mentioned  in  the  Sacred 
Writings.  Drawn  under  the  Superintendence  of  the  late  Ben- 
jamin West,  Esq.  P.R.A.,  by  R.  Salchwcll,  with  Biographical 
Sketches,  and  Historical  Remarks  on  the  Manners  and  Customs 
of  Eastern  Nations.     London,  1819,  elephant  4to. 

11.  Jewish,  Oriental,  and  Classical  Antiquities ;  containing 
Illustrations  of  the  Scriptures,  and  Classical  Records,  from  Orien- 
tal Sources.  By  the  Rev,  Daniel  Guilford  Wait,  LL.B.  [now 
LL.D.]     Cambridge,  1823,  Svo. 

The  object  of  this  work  is  to  illustrate  Biblical  and  Classical 
Antiquities  from  Oriental  writings.  This  volume  is  exclusively 
devoted  to  a  demonstration  of  the  coincidence  which  subsists  be- 
tween these  different  departments  of  study  .-  and  that  coincidence 
the  author  has  .>iiitisfactorily  shown  by  various  examples. 

12.  Lettrc  a  M.  Ch.  Coquercl  sur  le  Systeme  Hicroglyphique 
do  M.  Champollion,  considcre  dans  scs.  Rapports  avec  TEcriture 
Sainte.     Par  A.  L.  C.  CoauEREL.     Amsterdam,  1825,  Svo. 

13.  Essai  sur  le  Systeme  Hicroglyphique  dc  M.  Champollion 
Ic  Jcune,  ct  sur  les  Avantages,  qu'il  offre  a  la  Critique  Sacrce. 
Par  J.  G.  H.  Greppo,  vicairc-general  dc  Bellay.  Paris,  1829, 
Svo. 

Many  of  the  recent  discoveries  in  Egyptian  Ilieroglypliics  «he 
clue  to  which  was  first  struck  out  by  our  late  learned  arcnwologisf, 
Dr.  Young)  are  here  happily  applied  to  the  elucidation  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures.  In  our  first  volume,  pp.  9S,  89.  we  have  given  a 
few  instances  which  corroborate  the  credibility  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. M.  Greppo  acknowledges  his  obligations  to  the  previous 
publication  of  M.  ('ixjuere! ;  which  has,  in  liict,  fiirnishnd  him  with 
some  of  his  best  ilhi«.l rations.  In  the  first  pari  of  his  volume  Mr. 
G.  gives  an  outline  of  Chainpollion's  hieroglyphic  system  ;  and  in 
the  second  part  he  applies  it  lo  the  elucidation  of  various  passages 
ol"  the  Old  Testament,  historical,  chronological,  and  geograjiliical. 
\n  English  translation  of  M.  Greppo 's  Essay,  bv  Mr.  Isaoc  Stuart, 
was  ptiblished  at  Boston  [iMa.ssiichuseits],  in  1(^30,  in  Svo.  Some 
valuable  notes  are  added  by  his  liithor,  the  Rev.  Professor  Stuart 
of  Andover. 

14.  Illustrations  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  collected  from  tho 
Customs,  Manners,  Rites,  Superstitions,  Traditions,  Parabolical 
and  Proverbial  Forms  of  Speech,  Climate,  Works  of  Art,  and 
Literature  of  the  Hindoos,  during  a  Residence  in  the  East  of 
nearly  fourteen  years.  By  the  Rev.  Joseph  Roiikrts,  Corres- 
ponding Member  of  the  Royal  Asia(^c  Society  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland.     London,  183'1,  Svo. 

This  work  was  onnounccd  for  publicotion  while  tho  pro«eiit 
sheet  was  passing  through  the  press.  I'rum  the  specimens  coin- 
municaled  lo  ihe  writer  of  these  pages,  he  feels  justified  in  recom- 
mending Mr.  Hcberts's  "  lllii.strutions,"  as  supplying  an  im|)orlant 
desideratum  in  biblical  literature.  They  are  arran!,'ed  in  the  order 
of  the  iMioks.  cliapters,  and  verwcsof  the  Bible,  and  furnish  to  very 
many  iliflicult  or  obscure  passages  satisfactory  explanations,  which 
are  not  more  original  ihon  they  are  entertaininc  and  instructive 
The  work  is  bioLiuhl  oi:l  under  the  high  auspiees  of  the  Royal 
Aaintii  iMCioty  of  Ureal  Britain  and  Ireland 


Sect.  III.  §  8.] 


TREATISES   ON   THE 


TREATISES  ON  SACRED  CHRONOLOGY. 


]63 


SECTION  III. 


GENEALOGIES 
TUBES. 


MENTIONED  IN  THE    SCRIP- 


1 .  The  Genealogies  recorded  in  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  accord- 
ing to  every  Family  and  Tribe.  With  the  line  of  our  Saviour 
Christ  observed,  from  Adam  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  Mary.  By 
J[ohn]  S[peed].     London,  1615,  4to. 

These  Genealogical  Tables  were  first  published  anonymously  in 
1611,  when  they  were  prefixed  to  the  first  editionof  our  authorized 
version  of  the  English  Bible.  They  are  here  ascribed  to  the  indus- 
trious antiquary  John  Speed,  on  the  authority  of  the  Biographia 
Britannica  (Art.  Speed). 

2.  Scripture  Genealogy  from  Adam  to  Christ ;  exhibiting,  in 
a  Scries  of  thirty-six  engraved  Tables,  a  distinct  View  of  the 
Nation,  Tribe,  Family,  Lineal  Descent  and  Posterity  of  every 
person  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  so  far  as  they  can  be  traced  from 
Sacred  or  Profane  History.     London,  1817,  royal  4to. 

The  Tables  contained  in  this  elegantly  executed  volume  are  an 
improvement  upon  those  of  Speed.  To  the  name  of  each  person 
mentioned  in  every  table  chronological  dates  are  affixed,  on  the 
very  respectable  authorities  of  Usher  and  Blair  ;  and  likewise  re- 
ferences to  passages  of  Scripture  where  the  respective  names  are 
to  be  found.  Altogether,  this  is  a  very  useful  and  agreeable  com- 
panion to  the  biblical  student. 

3.  Genealogia  Sacra  :  or  Scripture  Tables,  compiled  from  the 
Holy  Bible.     By  William  Beriit.     London,  1819,  4to. 

These  Tables  are  neatly  stereotyped,  and  are  chiefly  confined  to 
the  patriarchs  and  descendants  of  our  first  parents,  with  references 
to  the  chapters  and  verses  of  the  several  books  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testament  where  the  names  are  mentioned.  The  chronological 
dales  are  taken  from  Blair,  Usher,  and  others.  An  alphabetical 
index  is  subjoined,  which  facilitates  reference  to  this  unassuming 
publication. 

4.  Jo.  Michaelis  Lakgii  Dissertationes  Theologicse  de  Genea- 
logia Christi  ex  patribus  secundum  carnem.  Noribergae,  1 703, 
4to. 

5.  The  Genealogies  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ,  as 
recorded  by  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Luke,  critically  examined,  ex- 
plained, defended,  and  reconciled  to  each  other,  and  to  the  Scrip- 
tures of  the  Old  Testament.  By  Edward  Yardiet,  B.D.  Lon- 
don, 1739,  8vo. 

6.  The  Genealogies  of  Jesus  Christ  in  Matthew  and  Luke 
explained,  and  the  Jewish  Objections  removed.  London,  1771, 
8vo. 

7.  A  newly-invented  Table  for  exhibiting  to  the  View,  and 
impressing  clearly  on  the  Memory,  the  Genealogy  of  our  Lord 
and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ,  as  given  by  St.  Matthew  and  St.  Luke  : 
also  the  Difference  of  their  Accounts  explained :  with  Notes  on 
tRe  most  illustrious  persons  from  whom  our  Lord  descended,  and 
the  Objections  to  Matt.  i.  11,  12.  answered,  from  all  the  best 
Commentators.  By  Robert  Berkley  Greene.  Jjondon,  1822, 
8vo. 

This  Table  is  ingeniously  constructed ;  the  notes  exhibit,  in  a 
small  compass,  the  result  of  much  laljorious  research. 

8.  The  Genealogy  of  Jesus  Christ,  recorded  by  Saint  Matthew 
and  Saint  Luke,  harmonized,  and  the  apparent  contradictions  re- 
conciled. By  Gervas  Watson.  Retford  and  London,  1833, 12mo. 


SECTION  IV. 

TREATISES  ON  SACRED  CHRONOLOGY. 

1.  LuDOTico  Cappelli  Chronologia  Sacra  ab  orbe  condito 
ad  Christum.     4to.  Paris,  1655. 

This  work  is  reprinted  by  Bishop  Walton,  in  the  prolegomena  to 
his  edition  of  the  Polyglott  Bible. 

2.  Gerhardi  Johannis  Vossii  Chronologia;  Sacr®  Isagoge. 
Hag.  Com.  1659,  4to. 

3.  Annales  Veteris  et  Novi  Testament!,  a  prima  mundi  origine 
deducta  ad  extremum  Reipublicse  Judaicse  excidium,  a  Jacobo 
UssERio,  Archiepiscopo  Armachano.     Genevae,  1722,  folio. 

The  best  edition  of  a  most  valuable  work.  The  chronology  of 
Archbishop  U.sher  is  followed  in  the  margins  of  all  our  large  Bibles. 
lU.H  Annales  first  appeared  at  London,  in  1C50-54,  in  two  vols,  folio ; 
and  an  English  translation  of  them  was  published  in  1658,  in  one 
volume,  folio. 

4.  Joannis  Peahsoxii  S.T.P.  Cestriensis  nuper  Episcopi 
Op<^ra  Posthuma  Chronologica,  &c.  viz.  De  Serie  et  Succcssione 

Vol.  II,  4  0 


Primorum  Roma;  Episcoporum  Dissertationes  Duse :  Quibua 
praifiguntur  An.vales  Paxjlini,  et  Lectioncs  in  Acta  Apostolo- 
rum.  Singula  Pra;!o  tradidit,  edenda  curavit,  et  Dissertationes 
novis  Additionibus  auxit  H.  Dodwellus,  A.M.  Londini,  1688, 4to. 

5.  A  Translation  of  Bishop  Pearson's  Annals  of  Saint  Paul ; 
to  which  are  added  Geographical  and  Critical  Notes,  illustrative 
of  the  Life  and  Labours  of  that  Apostle,  taken  from  the  most 
approved  Annotations.  By  J.  M.  Williams.  Cambridge,  182C, 
12mo. 

Bp.  Pearson's  Annales  Paidini  have  long  been  held  in  high  esti- 
mation on  account  of  the  varied  and  profound  learning  of  their 
Author.  The  Englisli  translation  is  enriched  with  a  great  number 
of  annotations  selected  from  the  best  sources :  and  among  them  the 
translator  has  largely  borrowed  from  the  present  work. 

6.  The  Scripture  Chronology  demonstrated  by  Astronomical 
Calculations.     By  Arthur  Bedford.     London,  1730,  folio. 

7.  Chronologic  de  I'Histoire  Sainte.  Par  Alphonse  de  Vir- 
NOLLEs.     Berlin,  173S,  2  vols.  4to. 

8.  Chronological  Antiquities  ;  or  the  Antiquities  and  Chrono- 
logy of  the  most  ancient  kingdoms  from  the  creation  of  the  world. 
By  the  Rev.  John  Jackson.     London,  1752,  3  vols.  4to. 

9.  A  New  Analysis  of  Chronology,  in  which  an  attempt  is 
made  to  explain  the  History  and  Antiquities  of  the  primitive 
Nations  of  the  World,  and  the  prophecies  relating  to  them,  on 
principles  tending  to  remove  the  imperfection  and  discordance 
of  preceding  systems.  By  the  Rev.  William  Hales,  D.D.  Lon- 
don, 1809 — 1812,  3  vols,  in  four  parts,  4to.  Second  Edition, 
revised  and  corrected,  1830,  in  4  vols.  8vo. 

The  title  of  this  w"ork  very  inadequately  describee  its  multifarious 
contents.  Not  only  is  it  the  most  elaborate  syv'em  of  chronology 
extant  in  our  language ;  but  there  is  scarcely  a  diflicult  text  in  the 
sacred  writings  which  is  not  illustrated.  Dr.  Hales  follows  the 
chronology  of  Josephus,  wliose  genuine  numbers  he  conceives  that 
he  has  restored  ;  and  that,  by  a  comparison  with  the  Septuagint  and 
the  other  texts,  he  has  ascertained  the  true  series  of  primeval  times. 
The  longer  chronology,  established  by  Dr.  H.  with  great  success,  is 
unquestionably  preferable  to  that  founded  on  the  Masoretic  text,  as 
it  removes  many  of  those  difficulties  with  which  the  Scripture  his- 
tory is  encumbered  in  that  text.  His  "  New  Analysis"  ought  to 
have  a  place  in  the  library  of  every  biblical  student  who  can  pro- 
cure it. 

10.  A  Key  to  Scripture  Chronology,  made  by  comparing  Sa- 
cred History  with  Prophecy,  and  rendering  the  Bible  consistent 
with  itself;  illustrated  with  new  Tables  of  Chronology,  and 
various  notes.    By  James  Andrew,  LL.D.    London,  1822,  8vo. 

11.  The  Chronology  of  our  Saviour's  Life;  or  an  Inquiry 
into  the  True  Time  of  the  Birth,  Baptism,  and  Crucifixion  of 
Jesus  Christ.  By  C[hristopher]  Benson,  M.A.  Cambridge, 
1819,  8vo. 

12.  Select  Discourses,  I.  Of  tlie'CoiTespondence  of  the  He- 
brew Months  with  the  Julian,  from  the  Latin  of  J.  David  Micha- 
elis, Royal  Professor  of  Goettingen.  II.  Of  the  Sabbatical  Year. 
From  the  same.  III.  Of  the  Years  of  Jubilee,  from  an  Anony- 
mous Writer,  in  M.  Masson's  Histoire  Critique  de  la  R^publique 
des  Lettres,  vol.  v.  Art.  II.  p.  Ix.  &c.     London,  1773,  12mo. 

These  discourses  were  translated  by  the  celebrated  printer, 
William  Bowver.  (Nichol's  Lit.  Anecd.  of  the  18th  Centtiry,  vol. 
jii.  p.  146.)  The  first  discourse  contains  an  ingenious  attempt,  by 
Professor  Michaelis,  to  reconcile  the  discrepancies  between  the 
Mosaic  Institutions  and  the  Jewish  Calendar;  the  writer  of  these 
pages  has  not  been  able  to  ascertain  where  it  first  appeared.  This 
discourse  has  been  reprinted  in  the  Calendarium  Palestinaa  (see  the 
next  article).  The  second  discourse,  which  treats  on  the  Sabbatical 
Year  (it  appears  from  Michaelis's  Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of 
Moses,  vol.  i.  p.  391.),  is  a  translation  of  the  ninth  of  his  Commen- 
taliones  Societaii  RegicB  Goettingensi,  per  annos  17.58 — 1765,  oblatce. 
The  substance  of  this  discourse  is  inserted  in  his  Commentaries, 
vol.  i.  pp.  387 — 416.,  with  some  additional  observations.  The  de- 
sign of  the  third  discourse,  on  the  years  of  Jubilee,  is  to  show  that 
the  year  of  Jubilee  was  every  forty-ninth  year,  being  included  in 
the  seventh  Sabbatical  year;  and  that  it  probably  began  in  the 
time  of  Seleucus  Nicator.  Mr.  Bovvyer's  little  volume  is  uncom- 
monly scarce  :  a  copy  of  it  is  in  the  very  valuable  library  belonging 
to  the  President  and  Fellows  of  Queen's  College,  in  the  University 
of  Cambridge,  which  has  been  examined  for  the  present  article. 

13.  Calendarium  Palestinae:  exhibiting  a  Tabular  View  of 
the  principal  Events  in  Scripture  History ;  the  Jewish  Festivals 
and  Fasts,  with  the  Service  of  the  Synagogue  ;  the  Outlines  of 
a  Natural  History  of  Syria To  which  are  added  an  Ac- 
count of  the  different  modes  of  computing  time,  adopted  by  tho 
Hebrews,  and  a  Dissertation  on  the  Hebrew  Months,  from  tho 
Latin  of  J.  D.  Michaelis.  By  William  Carpenter.  Lonc'on 
1825,  8vo. 


i64 


SACRED  PHILOLOGY. 


[Paht  II.  Chap.  VII. 


This  publication  consisrs  of  two  parte:  —  1.  The  Calendar  of 
Palestine,  which  presents  in  a  concise  form,  various  inrorniaiKHi  re- 
lative to  the  Jewish  year ;  and  2.  "  A  Dissertation  on  the  Hebrew 
Months  [fnini  the  Latin  of  J.  D.  Miciiaems],"  which  is  repriuicd 
from  the  preceding  smiill  volume  of  Mr.  Uowyer.  The  Calciidar 
of  Palestine  is  niso  neatly  printed  on  a  large  sheet,  to  be  hung  up 
in  the  study  for  perpetual  reference. 

14.  Historiaj  Universaj  Tabute  Ethnograjihico-Pcriodico-Syn- 
chronisticJB,  ab  rcrum  pritnordiis  ad  nostiani  diem,  post  doctissimo- 
rum  viroruni  curas  iisijuc  ducibus  ad  prxstantissima  tcmporis 
putandi  exenipla  juxta  jeram  vulgarein  disposilx- ;  adjcctis  claris- 
eimaruna  gentium  genealogiis  copiosoijue  rcrum  quarumlibct 
indice  :  prsumissa  etiam  srarum  inter  sc  comparata  dcliiicationc, 
item  totius  historias  adtiniumquc  doctrinarum  iiolilia  litcraria,  in 
usum  hLstoria;  amiconim  adornata;  studio  Francisci  Jobcphi  Dcm- 
BKCKii.     Borolini,  1821,  folio. 

These  chronological  tables  claim  a  place  in  the  student's  library, 
not  only  for  tlieir  cheapness,  but  also  Ibr  their  utility.  They  are 
noticed  here  on  account  of  the  clear  exhibition  which  they  con- 
lain  of  sacred  chronology  and  the  allairs  of  those  nations  with 
whom  the  Jews  had  any  intercourse.  The  modern  events  are 
brought  down  to  the  year  1820. 

1.5.  Les  Pastes  Universels,  ou  Tableaux  Historiques,  Chrono- 
logiquc!?,  et  G6ographiqucs,  contcnant,  sic  do  par  siecle,  et  dans 
des  colonnes  distinctes,  depuis  les  tcins  ics  plus  recules  jusqu'a 
nos  jours  : — 

1.  L'origine,  les  progres,  la  gloire,  et  la  decaJcnco  de  tons  les 
pcuplcs,  leurs  migrations,  leurs  colonics,  I'ordrc  dc  la  succession 
ues  princes,  &e. 

2.  Lc  precis  des  cpoques  et  des  evenemens  politiques; 

3.  L'histoire  gr'ncrale  des  religions  el  do  leurs  diflcTcnies  sectcs  ; 

4.  Celle  de  la  philosophic  et  dc  la  legislation  chez  tons  les  peuples 
anciens  ct  modernes ; 

5.  Les  ddcouvcrtcs  ct  les  progres  dans  les  sciences  et  dans  les 
ana; 

6.  Unc  notice  sur  tons  les  hommcs  cclcbrcs,  rappelant  leurs 
oeuvrages  ou  leurs  actions. 

Par  M.  Buret  de  Lonuchajips.     Paris,  1821,  atlas  4to. 

This  work  contains  the  moi-'i  copious  .set  of  Clironological  Tables 
that  is  extant  in  any  langnace.  That  |)art  of  it  which  includes 
sacred  chronology  is  displayed  with  great  perspicuity. 


SECTION  V. 

CO.NNECTIONS    OF   SACRED   AND    PROFANE    HISTORY. — HISTORIES 
OF    THE    BIBLE,    A.ND    SCRIPTURE    BIOGRAPHY. 

•,*  Much  valuable  information  relative  to  the  history  of  the 
Moabites,  Philintines,  Babylonians,  and  other  nations  mentioned  in 
ihe  Scriptures,  is  exhibited  by  V'llringa,  in  his  Commentary  on 
Isaiah:  tiy  Bisliop  Newton,  in  his  Dissertations  on  tiie  Pro|)hels; 
and  by  Ri-land,  in  his  Pnlfi:stina ;  to  whom,  perliap.s,  may  be  added 
Hollin,  ill  liis  Ancient  History  of  the  (Jreclw,  Assyrians,  ic.  8  \ol3. 
bvo. 


1.  The  Sacred  and  Profjine  History  of  the  World  connected, 
from  the  Creation  of  thn  World  to  the  Dissolution  of  the  A.ssy- 
rian  Empire.  By  S.  Si.tcKFoan,  M.A.  8vo.  4  vols.  London, 
1743,  best  edition.  Tiiis  well-known  and  valuable  work  has 
been  several  times  reprinted. 

2.  T!ie  Old  and  New  Testament  connected,  in  the  History 
of  the  Jews  and  neighbouring  Nations,  from  the  Declension  of 
the  Kingdoms  of  Israel  and  Judah  to  tlic  time  of  Christ.  By 
Humphrey  Piudkaix,  D.D.  8vo.  4  vols.  London,  1749,  10th 
edit,  reprinted  in  4  vol.s.  8vo,  18()H. 

:i.  The  Connection  of  iSurrcd  and  Profane  History,  from  the 
Death  of  Joshua  until  the  Decline  of  the  Kingdoms  of  Israel 
and  Judah.  Intended  to  complete  the  works  of  Khuckfonl  an<l 
Pridcaux.  By  the  Hcv.  M.  litcsKLL,  LL.D.  London,  1827, 
VoU.  L  and  H.  8vo. 

4.  Histoirc  des  Juifx  depuis  Jesus  (>hrist.  Par  Jaqucs  Bas- 
JiAor..     A  la  Hayc,  1716,  15  tomes,  8vo.  best  edition. 

5.  The  History  of  the  Jews  dincc  the  time  of  Jcfi^k  Christ, 
ti«n»lated  from  the  French  of  M.  Ba.«nogc.  London,  ITUS,  folio. 

"  The  learning  ond  research  manifested  in  this  work  arc  amazing; 
and  on  the  subject,  nothing  better,  nothing  more  accurate  ond  satis- 
fottfjry,  can  well  bo  expected."     (Dr.  A.  Clarke.) 

6.  The  Hif.tory  of  the  Old  TcKtament  Mctluxlizod  :  to  \Nhich 
«  annexed  a  short  Hit<tory  of  the  Jowinh  .Mfairn,  from  the  end 

of  the  Old  Testament  to  the  birth  of  our  Saviour.     By  Samuel 
Cradoce      London,  IG63-   169.%  folio. 


This  work  was  translated  mto  Latin,  and  published  at  Leyden, 
in  1(^85,  in  8vo.  Though  now  superseded  by.  the  improved  edition 
of  Stackhouso's  Historj-  of  the  Bible,  which  is  noiiced  in  ihe  pre- 
sent page,  it  may  yet  be  consulted  wiih  advantage  by  the  student 
who  may  not  have  access  to  that  work.  Mr.  Cradock's  volume 
may  frequently  be  procured  for  u  flew  shillings. 

7.  A  Complcat  History  of  the  Holy  Bible,  in  which  are  in- 
.scrtcd  the  Occurrences  that  happened  during  the  space  of  about 
four  hundred  years,  from  the  days  of  the  Prophet  Malachi  to  the 
birth  of  our  Blessed  Saviour.  The  whole  illustrated  with  Noto*. 
By  Laurence  IIowel,  .MA.  London,  17'."i.  3  vols.  8vo.  A 
new  edition,  London,  1806,  3  vols.  12mo. 

The  new  impression  of  this  compendious  History  of  the  Bible 
was  coriected  and  edited  by  the  Hev.  George  Border,  M.A.,  by 
whom  it  has  been  so  maicrially  corrected  and  improved  as  almost 
to  form  a  new  work. 

8.  A  New  History  of  the  Holy  Bible,  from  the  Beginning  of 
the  World  to  the  Establishment  of  Christianity,  with  answers 
to  most  of  the  controverted  questions,  dissertations  upon  the 
most  remarkable  pa.'isage.s,  and  a  Connection  of  Profane  History 
all  along.  By  'rhonias  Stackhouse,  >.M.  London,  1752, 
2  vols,  folio. 

This  work  has  al^nays  been  highly  €<".kemed  for  its  utility  and 
the  variety  of  valuable  illustration  which  the  auliior  has  brought 
together  Irom  every  accessible  source.  A  new  edition  of  it  was 
published  in  1817,  in  three  vol'.imes,  4:o.,  v;\\\\  im,')oriant  cor- 
rections and  additions,  by  the  Kev.  Dr.  Gleig,  one  of  the  bishops 
of  the  Scottish  episcopal  church. 

9.  The  History  of  the  Hebrew  Commonwealth,  from  the 
earliest  times  to  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  A.D.  72  ;  trans- 
lated from  the  German  of  John  Jaii.v,  D.D.  With  a  continua- 
tion to  the  time  of  Adrian.    London,  1829,  2  vols.  8vo.  1/.  4». 

Though  not  so  stated  in  the  title-page,  this  is  a  reprint  of  the 
original  work  of  the  learned  Professor  Jahn,  translated  by  M. 
("alvin  K.  Siowo,  of  .Aridover  [Mas.«:ichusetts],  and  published  at 
New  York  in  182H,  in  one  large  volume,  containing  6'.t2  pages.  In 
a  note,  however,  at  the  end  of  Prnfes.sor  Stuart's  Preface,  it  is 
Ftnted  that  the  whole  has  been  thoroughly  revised ;  and  such  alter- 
ations made  as  seemed  requisite  to  render  the  author's  meaning 
clear  and  intelligible.  Tiiis  work  of  the  late  learned  Professor 
Jahn  contains  the  most  succinct  and  critically  arranged  history  of 
the  Jews  which  is  extant :  it  exhibits  throughout  manifest  impres- 
sions of  the  same  care,  diligence,  deep  research,  and  sound  judg- 
ment, which  characterizes  his  other  treatises.  The  continuation  is 
neatly  translated  from  Basnage's  History  of  the  Jews,  in  French, 
and  fills  up  a  chasm  in  the  history  of  that  people,  which  it  is  de 
siruble  to  have  supplied.  Professor  Smart,  of  Andover,  recora 
mends  every  theological  student  to  make  himself  familiar  with 
this  work  throughout.  "  It  is  impossible  that  he  should  not  reap 
the  benefit  of  such  an  accpiisition."     (Vol.  i.  Pref.  p.  ix.) 

10.  Christ.  NoLnii  Historia  Idumrca,  seu  de  Viti  et  Gestis 
Herodura  Diatribe.     Francqucrx,  1600,  I2mo. 

This  volume  contains  notices  of  eighty-three  persons  of  llie 
Family  of  the  Herods;  and  the  learned  author  has  introduced 
many  valuable  notes  illustrating  the  works  of  the  Jewish  historian, 
and  occasionally  vindicating  hiin  from  the  censure.-?  of  Baronius, 
Serrarius,  and  other  critics.  This  book  is  not  ol'  very  common 
occurrence. 

11.  Commentaries  on  the  Affairs  of  Christians  before  the 
time  of  Constantino  the  Great :  or  an  enlarged  View  of  tlie 
Ecclesiastical  History  of  the  first  three  centuries.  Translated 
from  the  Latin  of  Dr.  Mosueim,  by  R.  S.  Vidal,  Esij.  London, 
1813,  2  vols.  Svo. 

12.  Jo.  Franci.sci  BunnF.i  Historia  Ecclceiastica  Vcteris  Te8- 
tanienti.     Ediiio  tertia.     llalte,  1720-29,  2  vols.  4to. 

13.  Jo.  Georgii  VValchit  Historia  Ecclesiaslica  Novi  Tcsta- 
mcnti  variis  obscrvationibus  illustrata.     Jcnie,  1734,  4to. 

14.  Ecclesiastical  Annals  from  the  Commencement  of  the 
Scripture  History  to  the  Sixteenth  Century  :  being  a  compressed 
Translation  (with  notes)  of  the  Introductio  ad  Historiam  et 
.lutif/uitatcs  S<irvas  of  Professor  Spanhcim,  of  Leyden  ;  and 
containing  a  succinct  notice  of  the  principal  events,  and  the 
state  of  the  Church  in  each  ceiil'.iry.  To  which  are  jircfixed 
the  Elements  of  Chronology,  Chronological  Tables,  and  the 
Geography  of  Palestine.  By  tlie  Rev.  George  Wniour.  Lon- 
don, 1828,  8vo. 

Numerous  ecclesiastical  hisloriea  of  the  Old  nnd  New  Tenta- 
ment  were  piibliHhcd  on  the  Continent  in  the  course  of  the  sevcn- 
tcenth  and  eighlecnth  centurieg;  an  account  of  which  may  lie 
seen  in  Walchii  Bihlii)theca  Theologira  Sclecta,  vol.  iii.  pp.  115 — 
IHO.  Among  ihese,  Pntfessor  Spanheim's  "  Introductio  nil  Hislo- 
rinm  Sacrnm"  enjoyed  a  high  repiitniion.  The  most  complete  edi- 
litin  iu  to  be  foimil  in  the  collection  of  his  work^.  As  the«e,  from 
their  iiize  and  price,  are  not  acccs.sihie  to  ordinary  studenlJt,  Mr. 
Wright  hoH  conferred  n  favour  on  them  by  preseniiiiij  to  them  the 
aubtlancc  of  Spanheim'ii  learned  Ircntise  in  an  Knglish  dress 


Sect.  V.] 


CONNECTIONS  OF  SACRED  AND  PROFANE  HISTORY,  &c. 


15.  Scripture  Characters:  or,  a  Practical  Improvement  of  the 
Principal  Histories  in  the  Old  and  New  Testament.  By  Thomas 
RoBixsox,  M.A.  London,  4  vols.  8vo.  and  12mo.  various  edi- 
tions. 

An  abridgment  of  this  well-known  and  deservedly-esteemed 
Work  was  published  in  1817,  in  12mo. 

16.  Female  Scripture  Characters,  exemplifying  Female  A'^ir- 
tues.     By  Mrs.  King.     Tenth  edition.     London,  1826,  12mo. 

The  pious  and  accomplished  authoress  of  this  excellent  work, 
which  was  first  publislied  in  1811,  composed  it  expressly  for  the 
use  of  females,  in  order  to  supply  the  absence  of  Female  Scripture 
Characters  in  Mr.  Robinson's  volumes,  in  which  two  women  only 
are  introduced.  Mrs.  King's  work  is  much  and  deservedly  used  in 
schools  as  well  as  in  private  families. 

17.  Female  Scripture  Biography ;  including  an  Essay  on  what 
Christianity  has  done  for  Women.  By  Francis  Augustus  Cox, 
M.A.     London,  1817,  2  vols.  8vo. 

18.  Scripture  Biography ;  or,  Lives  and  Characters  of  the 
Principal  Personages  recorded  in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments. 
By  John  WATicijfs,  LL.D.     London,  1809,  12mo. 

19.  Scripture  Portraits:  or,  Biographical  Memoirs  of  the  most 
Distinguished  Characters  recorded  in  the  Old  Testament  and  in 
the  Evangelists.  By  Robert  Stkvenson.  London,  1817-20, 
4  vols.  12mo. 

20.  Biographic  Sacree,  par  A.  L.  C.  Coa^EHEi..  Amsterdam, 
1825-26,  4  tomes,  8vo. 

These  volumes,  which  are  neither  scientific  nor  elementarj',  are 
designed  for  well-informed  but  not  learned  readers :  each  article, 
in  alphabetical  order,  contains  a  narrative  of  facts  drawn  from  the 
Bible,  an  explanation  of  difliculties,  a  sketch  of  the  character,  and 
finally  a  short  summary  of  the  principal  texts  of  Scripture,  in  which 
the  person  is  mentioned,  besides  those  which  immediately  relate  to 
his  history.  The  work  is,  upon  the  whole,  executed  with  ability: 
the  objections  of  infidels  are  fairly  met,  and  satisfactorily  answered, 
and  many  judicious  reflections  are  interspersed. 

21.  A  Critical  History  of  the  Life  of  David,  in  which  the 
principal  events  are  ranged  in  order  of  time :  the  chief  objections 
of  Mr.  Bayle  and  others  against  the  character  of  this  prince,  and 
the  Scripture  account  of  him,  and  the  occurrences  of  his  reign, 
are  examined  and  refuted  ;  and  the  Psalms  which  refer  to  him 
are  explained.  By  the  late  Rev.  Samuel  CuANDLEn,  D.D.  Lon- 
don, 1766,  2  vols.  8vo. 

A  book  above  all  praise ;  it  was  occasioned  by  the  publication, 
in  1762,  of  a  vile  and  blasphemous  tract,  entitled  "The  History  of 
the  Man  after  God's  own  heart."  Dr.  Chandler  has  illustrated 
many  of  the  Psalms  in  an  admirable  manner. 

22.  An  Historical  Account  of  the  Life  and  Reign  of  David 
King  of  Israel :  interspersed  with  various  Conjectures,  Digres- 
sions, and  Disquisitions.  In  which,  among  other  things,  Mr. 
Bayle's  criticisms  upon  the  conduct  and  character  of  that  Prince 
are  fully  considered.  [By  Patrick  Delaxt,  D.D.]  London,  1741- 
42,  3  vols.  8vo. 

A  respectable  and  useful  work,  but  greatly  inferior  to  Dr.  Chand- 
ler's masterly  "  Critical  History  of  the  Life  of  David :"  it  was 
published  anonymously,  and  has  been  repeatedly  printed ;  and 
may  frequently  be  obtained  at  a  low  price. 

23.  The  Great  Exemplar  of  Sanctity  and  Holy  Life  according 
to  the  Christian  Institution  ;  described  in  the  History  of  the  Life 


165 

and  Death  of  Jesus  Christ.  With  Considerations  and  Discourses 
upon  the  several  parts  of  the  story,  and  Prayers  fitted  to  the 
several  mysteries.  By  Jeremy  Tati.oii,  D.D.,  Bishop  of  Down 
and  Connor,  folio :  also  in  2  vols.  8vo.  various  editions. 

This  work  is  also  to  be  found  in  the  second  and  third  volumes  oi 
the  Collective  Works  of  Bishop  Taylor,  edited  by  the  Rev.  J.  R. 
Pitman,  with  a  memoir  of  the  bishop's  life  and  writings  by  the  late 
Bishop  Heber;  who  has  given  an  able  and  interesting  analysis  of 
the  '  Great  F.xemplar,'  and  has  pointed  out  Eome  important  particu- 
lars, "  in  which  this  great  and  good  man  has  departed  from  the  usual 
sense  of  the  church,  and  the  general  analogy  of  Scripture."  (Bishop 
Taylor's  Works,  vol.  i.  pp.  cxxix. — cxxxix.)  An  abridgment  of  the 
'  Great  Exemplar'  was  published  by  the  Rev.  W.  Darnell,  London, 
1818,  8vo. 

24.  The  History  of  the  Life  of  Jesus  Christ,  taken  from  the 
New  Testament,  with  Observations  and  Reflections,  proper  to 
illustrate  the  Excellency  of  his  Character  and  the  Divinity  of 
his  Mission  and  Religion.  By  George  BENSoif,  D.D.  London, 
1764,  4to. 

25.  Observations  on  the  History  of  Jesus  Christ,  serving  to 
illustrate  the  Propriety  of  his  Conduct  and  the  Beauty  of  his 
Character.  By  David  Hu:\teh,  D.D.  Edinburgh,  1770,  2  vols. 
8vo. 

26.  The  Private  Character  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  con- 
sidered as  an  Example  to  all  his  Disciples,  and  a  Demonstration 
of  his  Mission.     By  Thomas  Williams.     London,  1833,  12mo. 

Both  these  works  contain  many  ingenious  and  instructive  remarks 
on  the  character  and  conduct  of  Jesus  Christ,  which  are  either  not 
at  all  noticed,  or  but  imperfectly  considered  by  preceding  writers 
who  have  discussed  the  evidences  of  the  Christian  Religion. 


*^*  In  the  present  as  well  as  in  the  preceding  sections  of  this 
Appendix,  the  Author  has  endeavoured  to  bring  ibrward  ilie prin- 
cipal Commentators  and  Biblical  Critics,  both  British  and  foreign. 
Many  of  them,  indeed,  are  too  costly  to  be  purchased  by  the  gene- 
rality of  biblical  students ;  but  a  considerable  portion,  if  not  the 
whole  of  ihera,  is  to  be  found  in  our  public  libraries,  and  it  is  de- 
sirable to  know  in  what  v\-orks  the  best  information  is  to  be  procured, 
even  though  we  may  not  in  every  instance  be  able  to  purchase  them, 
as  well  as  to  bo  on  our  guard  lest  we  should  be  misled  in  buying 
cheap  books  which  are  of  comparatively  little  utility.  Ample  as 
these  lists  are,  they  might  have  easily  been  enlarged,  particularly 
with  reference  to  the  earlier  works  on  Sacred  Philology,  if  the 
limits  of  the  present  volume  would  have  permitted  it.  The  reader, 
however,  who  is  curious  in  seeing  what  has  been  written  on  this 
subject,  may  (besides  the  authorities  already  referred  to  in  p.  113. 
of  this  Appendix)  consult  the  first  volume  of  the  classed  Catalogue 
of  the  Library  of  the  President  and  Fellows  of  Queen's  College, 
Cambridge  (London,  1827,  royal  8vo.),  pp.  22 — 91. ;  and  also  the 
Bibliotheca  Piersoniana,  or  Catalogue  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Pierson's 
Library  (sold  by  auction  in  May,  1815).  The  Sale  Catalogues  of 
the  principal  theological  Booksellers  of  London,  which  are  fre- 
quently interspersed  with  useful  bibliographical  notices,  are  par- 
ticularly valuable,  for  the  numerous  commentaries  and  other  works 
on  sacred  criticism  which  they  contain,  both  British  and  foreign, 
especially  the  latter. 

On  the  choice  of  commentators,  it  would  be  presumptuous  in  the 
author  of  this  work  to  offer  an  opinion ;  the  student  will  doubtless 
be  regulated  in  his  selection  by  the  judgment  of  judicious  friends 
or  theological  tutors. 


ADDENDA 


TO    THE 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL    APPENDIX. 


ADDENDA    TO    Tnr.    SERIES    OF    EDITIONS    OF    THE    HEimEW 

BIBLE. 

Page  9.  ol.  1.     After  last  line  but  10.  add 
5*.  The  Psolras  in   Hebrew,  metricall)'  arranj^ed  by  the  Rev. 
J.  Koctns.     Oxford  and  London,  1833,  1834.     2  vols.  12mo. 

This  very  useful  edition  of  the  Book  of  Psnlms  is  beautifully 
printed.  Vol.  I.  contains  the  Hebrew  text,  metrically  arranged 
according  to  the  plan  to  which  Bishop  Lowth  led  the  way  in  his  Lcc- 
tarcs  oa  Hebrew  Poetry,  and  which  was  subsequently  adopted  by 
Ltr.  Kennicott  in  his  Critical  Kdition  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  and 
in  some  respects  improved  by  Dr.  Jahn  in  his  edition  of  Ihe  Hebrew 
Bible.  Vol.11,  consists  of  two  essays:  1.  On  the  Character  and 
C^jfiStruction  of  Hebrew  Poetrj-;  and  2.  On  the  Various  Readings 
cf  the  Hebrew  Bible.  These  are  followed  by  Select  Various  Ilead- 
i!.gs  of  the  Book  of  Psalms,  Notes  on  the  Metrical  Arrnngemcnt 
cf  the  Psalms,  and  Notes  (chiefly  critical)  on  the  text  itself.  This 
volume  is  concluded  by  a  short  notice  of  the  Ambrosian  Manuscript 
cf  the  SJyriac  Versiun  of  the  Psalms. 

Page  9.  At  top  of  col.  2.  add 
6*.  The  liVre  of  David;  or,  an  Analysis  of  the  Psalms,  Criti- 
cal and  Practical ;  to  which  is  addcxl  a  Hebrew  and  Chaldec 
Grammar,  by  A'ictorinus  Bylhncr.  'i'raiislated  by  the  Rev. 
Thomas  Dke,  A.  B.  To  which  are  added  by  the  Translator,  a 
Praxis  of  the  first  eight  Psalms,  and  tables  of  the  imperfect  verbs. 
Dubhn  and  London,  1836.  Svo. 

A  translation  of  Bylhner's  Lyra,  with  a  few  omissions,  and  va- 
lious  improvements,  which  much  increase  its  value  to  the  biblical 
student. 


APOEXDA    TO    TUE    SERIES    OF    KDITIOXS     OF     THE    GTtEEK     TES- 
TAMENT. 

Pose  IG.  col.  1.     Line  4.  add 
Dr.  Scholz's  edition  of  Griesbach's  Greek  Testament,  has  been 
discontinued  in   consequence  of  the  death   of  the   learned  editor. 
The  volume  is  very  neatly  printed. 

Page  18.  col.  1.     Last  line  hut  18.  add 

The  second  volume  of  Dr.  Scholz's  edition  of  the  Greek  Testa- 
i:  er.t  appeared  in  1S3C.  It  contains  the  text  of  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,  the  P^pistles,  and  the  Apocalypse,  wi;h  the  various  rcad- 
'\:.%s,  which  are  displa3'ed  in  the  same  order  as  in  the  first  volume. 
The  Prolegomena  comprise  an  account  of  the  manuscripts  of  these 
books,  whether  collated  by  previous  editors  or  by  himself;  includ- 
ing some  addenda  to  the  Prolegomena  of  the  fust  volume.  An  ap- 
pendix is  subjoined  which  treats  on  the  additions  prefixed  and 
ar.ticxed  to  the  manuscripts  of  the  Acts  and  Epistles;  and  2.  On 
tbe  Synnxaria  and  Menologia  found  in  the  manuscripts  of  the  Acts 
at.d  Epistles  which  are  preserved  at  Paris.  This  is  the  completest 
twiicul  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament,  with  various  readings, 
v.hich  has  ever  been  pulilished. 

Page  19.  col.  1.     Las/  line  hut  9.  add 

Dr.  Bloomficld  published  a  sf.cond  edition  of  the  Greek  Testa- 
iTiCLt  in  1S3G,  with  great  improvements  and  important  adtlitiuns. 
Much,  however,  as  had  been  rionc  in  the  two  preceding  impressions, 
t:.t;  Tiiino  edition,  which  is  stereotyped,  is  yet  further  enlarged,  (to 
tiif  extent  of  not  less  than  200  pages,)  and  very  materially  im- 
pi'ived.  In  addition  to  his  own  researches,  Dr.  nioomficld  has 
c vailed  himself  (if  various  suggestions  for  the  improvement  of  his 
V  ork,  which  in  its  present  state  exhibits  the  result  of  the  labours 
cf  all  preceding  ciitical  editors  of  the  Nov  Testament,  as  well  as 
ff  Ins  own  researches  for  more  than  thirty  years.  The  following 
are  the  leading  features  of  this  edition  : — 

1.  The  Text  has  again  been  carefully  examined  and  finally  set- 
tled, 80   as    to    form — in   elTect — a  new   and   accurate   recension  ; 
wlucli  is  so  constincicd  as  to  represent  both  the  common  and  the  i 
Corrected  text,  and  at  the  same  time  adverts  to  the  various  texts  i 
f'.(  lie!  t>y  t!ie  beit  preceding  ciitical  edifors,  especially  (ille^bach,  i 
M  itlhai,  aod  SchoU,    The  reading*  of  Dr.  Scholz's  text,  when  1 


varying  from  that  of  the  present  edition,  are  given  in  the  critical 
notes.  The  punctuation  has  been  again  revised,  and  vaiious  im- 
provements have  been  introduced. 

2.  The  Tabular  Parallels,  representing  the  harmony  of  the  four 
Gospels,  which  had  original!}'  been  derived  from  Dr.  Vater's  edi- 
tion, have  been  re-collated  and  revised,  and  man}*  corrections  and 
improvements  have  been  introduced,  either  by  the  removal  of 
references  which  were  not  strictly  parallel,  or  by  the  introduction 
of  new  and  important  parallel  references,  chiefly  derived  from  the 
Rev.  Edward  Greswell's  valuable  '  Harmonia  Evangelica,'  and 
'  Dissertations.'  And  the  Collection  of  Marginal  References 
throughout  the  New  Testament  has  been  materially  corrected  and 
improved. 

3.  But  the  chief  improvement  will  be  found  in  the  Annotations. 
Among  these,  the  Critical  Notes  are  greatly  increased  in  number 
as  well  as  importance,  especially  by  a  perpetual  reference  to  Dr. 
Scholz's  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament,  the  results  of  whose  la- 
bours, as  far  as  is  practicable,  are  now  laid  before  the  reader.  The 
Esegetical  Notes  have  received  equal  attention,  and  now  form  a 
perpetual  commentaiy  in  epitoine ;  in  which  the  connexion  of  pas- 
sages is  traced,  the  course  of  the  sacred  writer's  arguments  is  de- 
veloped, and  the  doctrinal  harmony  of  sentiment  with  other  parts 
of  Scripture  is  displayed.  In  these  notes  numerous  apposite  pa- 
rallel constructions  are  introduced  from  Classical  Authors,  besides 
some  select  elucidations  from  Rabbinical  Writers.  The  Glossarial 
Notes,  which  establish  or  illustrate  the  sense  of  all  really  difficult 
words  or  phrases,  are  made  so  com])rehensive,  as,  with  the  aid  of 
the  Greek  Index  of  words  and  phrases  explained,  to  render  it  less 
frequently  necessary  for  the  student  to  refer  to  a  Lexicon. 

4.  The  typographical  execution  of  this  edition  of  the  Greek  Tes- 
tament is  as  beautiful  as  it  is  correct:  and  its  value  is  not  a  little 
enhanced  by  the  addition  of  an  entirely  New  Map  of  Palestine  and 
Syria,  which  is  prefixed  to  the  first  volume.  This  map,  which  is 
adapted  to  illustrate  not  only  the  New  Testament,  but  also  the 
works  of  the  Jewish  histoiian,  Josephus,  has  been  drawn  by  Mr. 
.\rrowsmith,  from  the  most  recent  and  important  authorities,  under 
the  special  direction  of  Colonel  Leake. 

Upon  the  whole,  without  depreciating  the  merit  of  the  labours 
of  preceding  editors,  this  third  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament,  by 
Dr.  DIoomfield,  may  justly  be  regarded  as  the  most  valuable  for 
biblical  students,  that  has  yet  been  issued  from  the  press  in  this 
countiy. 

Page  19.  col.  1.     Line  17.  add 

60.  Antiquissimiis  Qnatnor  Evangeliorum  Canonicorum  Co- 
dex 8an-GaIIciisis  Grrcco-Latinus  intcrlincaris,  nunquam  adhue 
collatus.  Ad  siiiiilitudineni  ipsius  libri  manu  scripti  accuratissime 
delineandum,  ct  lapidibus  cxprimcndum  curavit  H.  C.  M.  Ret- 
Tif;.     Turici,  1836.     4to. 

This  is  a  beautifully  lithographed  cop3'  of  a  valuable  manuscript 
of  the  four  Gospels  hitherto  uncollaled.  The  prolegomena  of  the 
editor  detail  the  plan  adopted  in  his  publication,  and  the  external 
appearance  of  the  manuscript;  which,  he  shows,  must  have  been 
written  in  Switzerland,  and  by  several  copyists.  Its  affinity  with 
the  Coilcx  Hoernerianus  of  the  Epistles  is  then  proved.  One  chap- 
ter is  devoted  to  the  consideration  of  the  confusion  of  letters  occur- 
ing  in  the  Codex  San-Gallensis  ;  another,  to  the  marginal  notes 
written  on  the  manuscript;  and  a  third,  to  its  country,  and  to  the 
age  when  it  was  written.  The  last  chapter  of  the  prolegomena 
contains  a  copy  of  the  Poem  of  Hilary,  Bishop  of  Aries,  upon  the 
Gospel,  which  is  prefixed  to  the  Codex  San-Gallensis.  The  fac- 
simile then  follows  ;  and  thirty-four  closely  printed  pages  of  anno- 
tatimis  terminate  this  carefully  edited  volume,  a  copy  of  which  is 
in  the  Libraiy  of  the  British  Museum. 

CI.  "H  KAINH  AIAOHKH.  Ex  cditionc  Stephani  tertia,  1550. 
The  New  Testament  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ:  ac- 
cording to  the  authorized  version.  Tiic  CJroek  and  English  texts 
arrang«'d  in  parnllcl  columns.  A  New  Edition,  with  the  addition 
of  tile  marginal  references.  Cambridge,  at  the  Pitt  Press,  1836. 
12  mo. 

Tor  this  beautifully  and  accurately  printed  edition  of  the  New 

1C6 


ADDENDA  TO  THE  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  APPENDIX. 


167 


Testament,  biblical  students  are  indebted  to  the  Hev.  James 
ScHOLEFiELD,  M.  A.,  Regius  Professor  of  Greek  ;  who  states,  that 
"  The  only  variations,  introduced  into  this  edition  from  that  of 
Robert  Stephens,  1550,  (besides  occasional  changes  in  the  punctua- 
tion, and  the  correction  of  manifest  typographical  errors,)  are  the 
following: — In  Matt.  vi.  24,  and  Luke  xvi.  14,  the  word  iiaiLMvS  is 
uniformly  printed  after  Griesbach  ;  whereas  in  Stephens  it  varies 
between  the  single  and  double  ^.  2.  In  Matt,  xxiii.  13,  14,  the 
order  of  the  verses  is  inverted,  to  make  it  agree  with  the  English 
version.  3.  In  Mark  xiv.  19,  John  vii.  9,  Romans  xii.  5,  Ka^eTs  is 
uniformly  printed  as  one  word,  which,  in  the  first  passage,  Stephens 
divides  into  two.  4.  In  1  Peter  iii.  11,  the  words  dyaiov  t^rirriaaTo} 
are  retained,  though  omitfFd  in  Stephens's  edition  ;  as  this  omission 
appears  to  have  been  purely  accidental,  contrary  to  all  MSS.  ver- 
sions, and  former  editions.  In  the  marginal  references,  which  are 
introduced  into  this  edition,  the  translations,  enclosed  between 
brackets,  are  those,  which  have  been  ad'ded  subsequently  to  1611, 
chiefly  by  Dr.  Blayney,  in  his  revision,  published  at  Oxford,  1769." 

62.  "H  KAlNH  AIAGHKH.  The  New  Testament  in  Greek, 
chiefly  from  the  text  of  Mill,  with  copious  English  notes  ....  To 
which  are  annexed  a  Chronological  Harmony,  and  three  Indexes. 
By  the  Rev.  WilUam  Trollope,  M.  A.     London  1837,  8vo. 

For  an  account  of  this  edition  of  the  Greek  Testament,  see  the 
Christian  Remembrancer  for  February  183S,  (vol.  xx.  pp.  65-70.) 

63.  The  New  Testament  in  Greek  and  EngUsh,  with  the 
usual  Marginal  References  and  Readings,  a  Marginal  Harmony,  or 
Concordance  of  Words,  and  a  graduated  collection  of  various 
Readings  from  Griesbach.  Arranged  and  edited  by  Edward 
Cardweil,  D.  D.     Oxford,  1937.     2  vols.  12mo. 

64.  'H  KAlNH  ATAeHKH.  Griesbach's  Text,  with  the  va- 
rious readings  of  Mill  and  Scholz.     London,  1837,  small  8vo. 

"  This  title-page,  biief  as  it  is,  describes  the  work  very  %vell. 
It  gives  the  reader,  in  a  portable  form,  in  short,  the  readings  of 
three  well-known  texts  of  the  New  Testament.  In  addition  to 
this,  Griesbacli's  probable  readings  are  given  in  foot-notes;  and 
there  is  an  useful  and  compendious  account  of  the  various  editions 
of  the  New  Testament  prefixed,  together  with  a  harmony,"  pre- 
senting some  features  of  difference  from  other  arrangements, 
"chronological  and  other  useful  tables,  together  with  pai-allel  pas- 
sages given  in  the  margin."  Brief  prefaces  are  prefixed  to  each 
book  ;  and,  for  the  convenience  of  those  who  may  use  this  edition 
for  theological  purposes,  a  body  of  parallel  references  is  given  in 
the  margin ;  and  the  facility  of  comparison  is  much  increased  by 
observing  a  distinct  notation  for  parallels  of  single  passages  or 
ideas,  and  for  those  furnishing  a  detailed  narrative  of  the  same 
events.  Great  care  has  been  taken  to  admit  only  such  as  are  reall}-, 
and  not  merelj'  verbally,  parallel  passages.  "  The  work  is  well 
and  clearly  printed,  and  has  two  engravings,  a  coloured  fac-simile 
specimen  of  the  Cotton  manuscript"  of  the  four  Gospels,  "  and  of  a 
manuscript  of  the  thirteenth  century  in  the  cursive"  or  ordinary 
Greek  "  character,"  (British  Magazine,  February,  1S38,  vol.  xiii. 
p.  179.) 

ADDENDA    TO    THE    EDITIOXS    OF    THE     STRO-ESTRASGEXO     TER- 

SIOX. 

Page  26.  col.  1.     Delete  lines  28  to  32.  and  add 

2.  Libri  IV.  Regum  Syro-Hexaplaris  Specimen  e  Manuscripto 
Parisiensi  Syriace  edidit,  textura  Versionis  Alexandrine  Hexa- 
plarem  restituit,  notisque  illustravit  Joannes  Godotfredus  Hasse. 
Jenae,  1782.  8vo. 

3.  Codex  Syriaco-Hexaplaris  .\mbrosiano-Mediolanensis  edi- 
tus,  et  Latine  versus,  a  Matthaeo  Norbehg.  Londini  Gothorum, 
1787.  4to. 

This  work  contains  the  prophecies  of  Jeremiah  and  Ezekiel. 

4.  Daniel,  secundum  editionem  LXX  Interpretum,  ex  Tetra- 
plis  desumptum.  Ex  codice  Syro-Estranghelo  Bibliothecas  Am- 
brosianae  Syriace  edidit,  Latine  vertit,  praefatione  notisque  illus- 
travit, Carolus  Bcgatcs.     Mediolani,  1788.  4to. 

5.  Curs  Hexaplares  in  Jobum,  e  Codice  Syriaco-Hexaplari 
Ambrosio-Mediolanensi.  Scripsit  Henricus  Middeldorpf.  Vra- 
tislaviae,  1817.  4to. 

6.  Psalmi,  secundum  editionem  LXX  Interpretum,  quos  ex 
codice  Syro-Estranghelo  Bibliolhecae  AmbrosianiE  Syriace  impri- 
mendos  curavit,  Latine  vertit,  notisque  criticis  illustravit,  Carolus 
BcGATUs.     Mediolani,  1820.  4to. 

7.  Codex  Syriaco-Hexaplaris  Liber  Quartus  Regum,  e  codice 
Parisiensi :  Isaias,  duodecim  Prophetaj  Minores,  Proverbia,  Jobus, 
Canticum  Canticorum,  Threni,  Ecclesiastes,  e  Codice  Mediolan- 
ensi.  Edidit  et  commentariis  illustravit  Henricus  Middeldorpf. 
Berolini,  1835.  2  tomis,  4to. 

The  first  part  or  volume  of  this  most  valuable  work  contains  the 
Syriac  Text ;  the  second,  the  critical  commentaries  of  the  learned 
editor.  For  a  critical  account  of  Dr.  Middeldorpf's  work,  see  the 
Journal  des  Savans,  Juillet,  1837,  pp.  422-427. 


COPTIC    TERSIOjr. 

Page  26.  cul.  2.     After  last  line  but  26.  add 

5.  Psaltcrium  Coptice,  ad  coJicum  fidem  recensuit ;  Lection:s 
varietatem  et  Psalmos  Apocryphos  Sahidica  Dialecto  conscriptos, 
ac  primum  a  G.  C.  Woidio  editos,  adjecit  J.  L.  Ideler.  Berolini, 
1838.  8vo. 

6.  Duodecim  Prophetarum  Libros,  in  Lingua  -Egyptiaca,  vulgo 
Coptica  seu  Memphitica,  ex  Manuscripto  Parisiensi  descriptos  et 
cum  Manuscripto  Johannis  Lee,  J.  C.  D.  coUatos,  Latine  edidit 
Henricus  Tattax,  A.  M.  Oxonii,  1836.  8vo. 

7.  Testamentum  Novum  Coptico-Memphiticum  ex  MSS.  Re- 
gis8  Bibliothecse  Berolinensis  emendatum  a  M.  Scuwartze. 
Lipsise,  1838.  4to. 


GOTHIC    VERSION. 

Page  28.  col.  2.     After  last  line  hut  35.  add 

5*.  Ulfilas.  Veteris  et  Novi  Testament!  Versionis  Gothicsc 
Fragmenta  qua  supersunt,  cd  fidem  Codd.  castigata,  Latinitate 
donata,  adnotatione  criticii  instructa,  cum  Glossario  et  Gramma- 
tica  Linguae  Golhicse,  conjunctis  curis  cdiderunt  H.  C.  do  Gare- 
lExz  et  Dr.  J.  Loebe.  Vol.  I.  Altenburgi  et  Lipsiae,  1836. 
4to. 

In  this  edition  are  comprised  all  the  fragments  of  the  Gol'iJc 
Version  of  the  Bible  which  are  known  to  be  extant.  They  are 
accurately  printed  from  the  best  MSS.  and  critical  editions,  the  "-.i- 
rious  readings  of  which  are  exhibited  in  the  notes.  The  nrst 
volume  contains  all  the  fragments  of  the  New  Testament,  to  which 
are  prefixed  learned  prolegomena,  discussing  the  history  and  critical 
value  of  the  Gothic  Version,  and  the  various  MSS.  of  it  which  are 
preserved  in  dirterent  libraries.  The  second  volume  was  announced 
as  being  in  a  forward  state  of  preparation,  while  these  supplement- 
ary pages  were  passing  through  the  press. 


ANGLO-SAXON    VERSION. 

Page  29.  col.  1.  After  latt  line  but  16.  add 
5.  Libri  Psalmorum  Versio  antiqua  Latina  cum  Paraphrasi 
Anglo-Saxonica,  partim  soluta  oratione,  partim  metrica.,  composita, 
nunc  primum  e  Cod.  MS.  Bibl.  Regiae  Parisiensis  desumpta. 
Edidit  Benjamin  Thorpe.  Oxonii,  e  Typographeo  Academico, 
1835.  8vo. 


ENGLISH    PROTESTANT   VERSIONS    07    THE  ETBLE. 

Pfjge  34.  col.  1.  line  9.     After  "2.  Ttndale's  Version,"  add 

(1.)  The  Newe  Testamente.  ?t.D.xxvi.  8vo. 

(2.)  The  New  Testament  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus 
Christ:  published  in  1526.  Being  the  first  translation  from  tha 
Greek  into  Enghsh,  by  that  eminent  Scholar  and  Martyr,  Wil- 
liara  Ttndale.  Reprinted  verbatim  :  with  a  Memoir  of  his  hif^ 
and  Writings,  by  George  Offor.  Together  vi-ith  the  Proceedinga 
and  Correspondence  of  Henry  VIIF.,  Sir  T.  More,  and  Lord 
Cromwell.     London,  ?iiicccxxxvi.  8vo. 

(3.)  The  New  Testament  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesua 
Christ.  By  William  Tindale,  the  Martyr.  The  original  Edi- 
!  tion,  1526,  being  the  first  vernacular  Translation  from  the  Greek  ; 
with  a  Memoir  of  bis  Life  and  Vv'ritings.  To  which  are  anaexcd 
the  essential  variations  of  Coverdale's,  Thomas  Matthew^,  tha 
Genevan,  and  the  Bishops'  Bibles,  as  marginal  readings.  By  J 
P.  Dabney.     AnJover  and  New  York,  1837.  8vo. 

The  I.osDCNTeprint  of  the  first  edition  of  Tyndale's  version  of 
the  New  Testament,  published  in  1836,  is  very  neatly  executed,, 
and  is  an  exact  reprint  of  an  unique  and  perfect  copy  in  the  pos« 
session  of  the  Trustees  of  the  Baptist  Academy  or  College  at  Bris- 
tol,  except  that  the  Roman  letter  has  been  employed,  with  a  view 
to  render  it  more  generallj-  useful.  The  woodcuts  and  ornamental 
letters  have  been  carefully  copied  from  the  original  volume.  An 
imperfect  cop}'  of  Tj-ndale's  version  of  the  New  Testament  is  pre- 
served in  the  library  belonging  to  the  Dean  and  Chapter  of  Saint 
Paul's. 

The  Anglo-American  edition  is  edited  with  much  industry  and 
taste  by  the  Rev.  J.  P.  Dabney.  It  contains,  first,  a  reprint  of  the 
London  edition  just  noticed ;  secondly,  the  essential  variations  of 
Coverdale's,  Matthew's,  Cranmer's,  the  Genevan  and  Bishops'  Bi- 
bles, as  marginal  readings,  thus  presenting  a  complete  variorum 
edition  of  the  vernacular  versions  ;  and,  thirdly,  a  preface,  and  an 
interesting  memoir  of  the  martyr  Tyndale,  re-cast  from  the  memoir 
compiled  by  the  London  editor,  a  list  of  Tyndale's  Writings,  an 
account  of  the  early  vernacular  versions,  select  collations  of  the 
first  and  second  edition?  of  Tyndale,  and  a  tabular  list  of  the  more 
common  distinctive  expressions  used  by  him.  (Biblical  Repository 
vol.  X.  p.  496.) 


168 


ADDENDA  TO  THE  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  APPENDIX. 


EDITION  OF  KIXG  JAMEs's,  OR  THE  AUTHOKIZF.D  ENGLISH  TER- 
SIOX,  WITU  MAUlilNAL  nENDERlNGS  AND  PAKALLEL  HEFEK- 
ENCES. 

Pc^e  40.  col.  2.     After  line  26.  odd 

A  similar  explicit  testimony  to  the  accuracy  of  the  modern  edi- 
:ions  of  the  English  Bible  (as  well  as  to  its  fidelity  as  a  version), 
has  been   borne  in  the  United  States  of  America  (whither  Mr.  |  editions  of  the  authohized  E>GEisa   vEiisioy, 


that  has  ever  bren  presented  to  the  studious  and  devout." — (Eclec- 
tic Review,  Third  Seiies,  vol.  xiv.  p.  334.) 

11.  A  Scriptural  Commentary  on  the  first  Epistle  General  of 
Peter :  with  an  Appendix  concerning  the  profitable  reading  of 
Scripture.     By  the  Rev.  J.  E.  Riddle,  M.  A.     London,  1834. 


Curtis  had  emigrated),  by  a  committee  of  the  American  Bible 
fcociely,  specially  appointed  at  New  York,  in  order  to  compare 
those  editions  vvith  the  fac-simile  reprint  of  the  first  edition  exe- 
cuted at  Oxford  in  1S33,  and  with  other  Bibles  issued  during  the 
fast  three  centuries.  The  report  of  that  committee  is  printed  in 
the  London  Christian  Observer  for  November,  1838  (p.  699.), 
from  which  the  following  attestation  is  extracted  : — "  While  it  has 
been  found  ihut  numerous  variations  exist  between  the  early  and 
ihe  present  copies  of  the  English  Bible,  it  is  also  found  that 

THET  PEUTAIX  OXLV  TO  UXIMPOUTAXT  PAKTICCLAIIS  ;  SUCH  AS 
CAPITAL  LETTEJ:ri,  COMMAS,  ITALIC  WOHDS,  ETC.  XOT  AFFECTINO 

THE  SEXSE."  ...."  Little  motive  has  been  presented  to  make 
any  changes.  'I'liose  which  have  been  made  were  of  trivial  im- 
portance, and  usually  for  the  purpose  of  return  and  conformation 
to  the  early  copies.     This  investigatiox  of  the   ho.viid  has 

placed    TII.1T    IXCOMPAllAIILE     TUANSLATION    OF    KiNr,     JaMES 

OX  iiiciiEit  cnouxD  IS  THKin  estimatiox  thax  eveii;  and 
their  hope  is,  llinf  every  friend  of  divine  truth,  using;  the  English 
ion^e,  will  seek  to  guard  that  translation,  in  future,  from  all 
emendations.  No  Bible  among  any  people  has  ever  had  such 
sway  over  its  readers,  as  that  now  referred  to ;  a  fact  to  be  ac- 
counted for,  in  part  at  least,  by  the  wise  principles  on  which  it 
was  made.  It  was  odviouslt  prepared  ix  a  spirit  of 
Christian  compromise,"  [more  correctly,  it  should  have  been 
said,  fairness,]  "as  well  as  with  oueat  auilitv  And 
faithpulness.  It  was  so  made,  (hat  to  this  day  sincere  lovers  of 
the  Bible,  of  every  relijious  creed,  appeal  to  it  as  authority." 

Page  41.  OjI.  1.     After  line  21.  add 
9.  The  Holy  Bible,  containing  the  Old  and  New  Testaments, 

in  the  common  version.     With  Amendments  of  the  lianguagc. 

B;    Noah   Webster,  LL.  D.     Ncwhaven  [Connecticut]  1833. 

8»o. 
This  professes  to  be  a  raic-fully  revised  edition  of  the  Received 

■version   of  tlie  Bitjle.     The  "  Amendment  of  Language,"  may  be 

reduced  to  the  three  followins  classes  : — 

1.  The  editor  has  currecteJ  acknowledged  errors  in  grammar. 
At  the  time  the  translation  waj  made,  the  grammar  of  our  language 
had  not  been  studied  and  reduced  to  rules  and  principles  as  it  h;is 
since  been.  .Such  errors,  he  has  thought,  might  be  rectified  without 
any  imputation  <in  the  translators. 

2.  In  the  place  of  words  now  entirely  obsolete,  or  so  changed  in 
their  signitication  as  to  be  obscure  to  unlearned  readers,  he  has  in- 
serted words  more  clearly  expressive  of  the  sense  of  the  trans- 
lators. 

3.  For  such  words  and  phrases  as  offend  delicacy  the  editor  has 
r>nbstituted  others,  equally  expressive  of  the  sense  of  the  orighial, 
but  more  suited  to  the  existing  state  of  the  language. 

4.  No  alteration  has  been  made  in  passages,  on  which  dilferent 
denominations  of  Christians  rely,  for  the  support  of  their  peculiar 
tcneti. 

6.  An  introduction  is  prefixed,  in  which  "  the  principal  altera- 
tions(^nade  in  this  edition,'.'  are  stated  and  explained.  Dr.  Web- 
ster's edition  is  neatly  printed:  there  is  a  copy  of  it  in  the  Library 
of  the  Itiitish  Museum. — "  Those  who  make  use  of  this  edition  for 
reading  in  the  family,  while  they  will  rarely  be  conscious  of  any 
change  in  the  diction,  will  find  that  thoy  read  with  an  increased 
interest,  and  with  a  livelier  and  more  distinct  perception  of  (l.id's 
Oracles."  (Christian  Spectator  for  December,  1S33,  vol.  v.  p.  656. 
Ncwhaven.  [Coiineclieul.]) 

10.  The  Treasury  Bible.  Flr^t  division  :  containing  the  au- 
thorized p]iiglish  Version  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  as  printed  in 
Bagster's  Polyglott  Bible,  with  the  same  cojiious  and  original  se- 
lection of  refereiices  to  parallel  and  illu'^tralive  ])assages,  and  simi- 
firly  printeil  in  a  centre  column.  S'Cond  divii-iin  containing  the 
Treasury  of  .Scripture  Knowledge,  conKistirig  of  a  rich  and  co])i- 
ous  asneniblnge  of  upwanU  of  five  hundred  tliousaiid  parallel 
texl»,  from  Canne,  Brown,  BInyncy,  Scott,  and  others,  with  nu- 
merous illustrative  notes.  London,  183.'>,  foolscap  8vo. ;  also  in 
one  volume  (piarto. 

Of  the  Polyglott  Bilile  above  referred  to,  a  notice  will  be  found 
In  p.  21.  Muprn.  The  <iuarto  copies  of  this  edition  of  the  Kuglish 
liitjie  ate  printed  on  fine  writing   paper,  with  lines  in  the  fabric  of 

the   paper,  for    receiving   mnnusci  ipt   notes "  The  Treasury 

Bible  pre«pnti  the  most  complete  and  attractive  apparatus   for  the 
attainment  of  a  ihorouKh  teilual  knowledge  of  the  iloly  Scriptures, 


the  text 
of  which  is    divided    into    paragraphs,  according  to 

THE    SVajECT. 

1.  The  Holy  Bible:  containing  the  Old  and  New  Testaments, 
translated  out  of  the  original  tongues,  and  with  the  former  Trans- 
lations diligently  coin;>;ued  and  revised,  by  command  of  King 
James  I.,  arranged  in  parograplis  and  parailehsms,  with  philological 
and  explanatory  annotations.  By  T.  W.  Coit,  i).  D.  Rector  of 
Christ-Church,  Cambridge,  [New  England.]  Cambridge  and 
Boston,  1834.  8vo. 

Upwards  of  lliirty  yen  is  since,  John  Ropves,  Ksq.  one  of  the 
Patentees  for  the  olBce  of  King's  Piinter,  published  several  editions 
of  the  authorized  version,  wjih  scholia  or  shur*  r;otei,  the  text  of 
which  in  the  historical  parts  was  printed  in  paragnphs  and  long 
lines,  and  the  poetical  parts  in  verses,  as  usual.  A  duodecimo  copy 
of  an  Oxford  impression  of  Mr.  Reeves's  text,  piinled  in  1S2S, 
without  notes,  served  Dr.  Coit,  as  the  copy  for  preparing  his  edi- 
tion: but  the  length  of  bis  paragraphs  being  objected  to.  Dr.  C.  has 
divided  the  historical  books  into  parigraphs  of  convenient  length, 
regulated  by  tlic  subject:  and  the  poetical  parts  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, together  witli  the  Hymns  of  the  Virgin  Mary  and  of  Zacha- 
rias  ill  Luke  i.,  aie  printed  in  parallelisms,  according  to  the  laws 
which  regulate  Hebrew  Poetry.  The  editor  has  bestowed  much 
care  on  the  punctuation:  in  some  instances  ho  has  departed  from 
the  received  text,  of  which  deviation  he  has  given  notice  in  the 
very  brief  notes  which  he  has  furnished.  The  volume  is  very 
neatly  execntcd. 

2.  The  Paragraph  Bible.  T!ie  Holy  Bible:  containing  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments,  trnnshued  out  of  the  original  toiijiun, 
and  with  the  former  Translations  diligently  compared  and  re- 
vised, by  his  Majesty's  sjiecial  command.  Arranged  in  Para- 
graphs and  Parallelisms.     Lond.  1838.  8vo. 

The  venerable  Society  for  promoting  Chiislian  Knowledge,  and 
the  Uritish  and  Foreign  IJible  .Society,  being  restricted  to  the  circu- 
lation of  editions  printed  with  the  ordinary  divi:^ions  of  chapters 
and  verses,  the  Religious  Tract  Society  (instituted  in  1799)  have 
conferred  upon  Kible-sliidents  no  small  favour  in  reprinting  Dr. 
Coit's  edition  noticed  in  the  preceding  paragraph,  with  considerable 
improvements  in  the  divisions  of  the  paragraphs,  and  with  addi- 
tional correction  and  revision.  The  marginal  renderings  are  printed 
at  the  foot  of  each  page.  Resides  collation  with  the  best  modern 
editions,  frequent  reference  has  been  made  to  the  first  edition 
piinted  in  IGll  ;  and  various  errors  in  punctuation,  &c.,  which  had 
crept  in  at  dilferent  times,  have  been  discovered  and  removed.  In 
addition  to  these  ci'rrections,  the  editors  have  carefully  attended  to 
uniformity  in  printing,  especially  in  the  use  of  capital  letters,  in 
the  names  of  the  Deity,  and  in  compound  words.  The  typographi- 
cal execution  of  this  edition  is  singularly  neat  and  accurate,  and 
reflects  the  hii;hest  credit  on  her  Majesty's  Printers. 

3.  The  Holy  Bible  :  containing  the  Old  and  New  Testaments, 
translated  out  of  the  original  tongues,  and  with  the  former  Trans- 
lations diligently  compared  and  revised.  The  Text  of  the  com- 
mon Translation  is  arranged  in  paragraphs,  such  as  the  sense  re- 
quires ;  the  division  of  chapters  and  verses  l)eing  noted  in  the 
margin  for  reference.  By  James  Nouuse.  Boston  and  Phila- 
delpliia,  1836.  12mo. 


ANGLO-HOMISU    VERSIONS    OK    THE    BCRIPTCHES 

Page  42.  col.  1 .    Line  28.  add 

7.  A  New  Version  of  the  Four  Gospels,  with  Note»  Critical 
and  Explanatory.     By  a  Catholic.     London.  1S3G.  8vo. 

The  author  of  this  anonymous  version,  whose  bias  in  favour  of 
the  Romish  tenet  of  tradition  is  clearly  announced  in  the  preface, 
has  avaibd  himself  of  various  critical  aids  in  tlie  execution  of  his 
work.  'I'he  notes  are  not  of  n  controversial  character.  "  Their 
object"  (ns  tlif  author  has  truly  stated  in  the  preface)  "  is  the  elu- 
cidation of  obscure  passages,  or  the  explanation  of  national  cus- 
toms, or  a  statement  of  the  reasons  which  have  induced  the  trans- 
lator to  differ  occasionally  from  preceding  interpreters."    (I'ref.  p. 

XX.) 

VERSIONS    IN     TUr.     LANorArtES    HPOKKX    OX    THE    COXTIITBNT    Of 

Et'IloPE. 

Page  44.  enl.  2.     Lust  line  but  17.  add 
An  accurate  revision  of  David  Martin's  recension  of  the  Frencii 
Hible,   executed    at    Pans  by  some   learned  Lutheran  clergymen, 
under   the  diiection  of  the  Right  Rev.   llishop  Lusoombe,  chaplain 


ADDENDA  TO  THE  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  ArPENDIX. 


169 


to  the  British  Ambassador,  was  announced  as  being  in  the  press  while 
this  sheet  was  passing  through  the  press.  This  revision  has  been 
undertaken  under  the  auspices  of  the  Foreign  Translation  Commit- 
tee of  the  Societj'  for  promoting  Christian  Knowledge,  and  at  the 
Society's  expense,  principally  for  the  use  of  the  members  of  the 
Church  of  England  in  the  Channel  (or  Norman)  Isles.  Great  atten- 
tion has  been  given  to  render  this  revision  (which,  from  the  nu.ai- 
ber  and  minuteness  of  its  corrections,  should  rather  be  called  a 
new  translation  than  a  revision),  an  accurate  and  elegant  version 
of  the  sacred  text. 

Page  45.  col.  2.  /me  10.     After  "Meauxi"  add 

The  French  translation  of  M.  Eugene  de  Genoude,  from  the 
sacred  texts,  accompanied  by  the  Latin  Vulgate,  is  in  all  respects 
conformable  to  the  dogmas  of  the  Romish  Church.  It  was  first 
published  at  Paris,  in  1820-24,  in  23  vols.  Svo.,  and  has  been  re- 
peatedly printed.  This  translation  has  been  much  commended  in 
some  French  journals,  and  as  vehemently  criticised  by  others.  It 
is,  however,  allowed  to  be  executed  in  elegant  French. 
Page  46.  col.  1 .  Line  47.  add 

The  Gospel  of  Luke  has  been  translated  and  printed  in  the 
Spanish  Basque  or  Escuara  dialect,  which  is  spoken  in  the  pro- 
vinces of  Riscay,  Giiipuscoa,  and  Alava;  and  also  in  the  Rommany 
or  Gitano,  or  Spanish  Gipsy  dialect.  This  last  mentioned  version 
was  made  by  a  benevolent  individual,  for  the  benefit  of  the  inte- 
resting, singular,  and  degraded  race  of  people  whose  name  it  bears, 
and  who  are  very  numerous  in  some  parts  of  Spain.  Both  these 
versions  have  been  suppressed  through  the  influence  of  the  popish 
clergy  of  Spain  ! 

Page  47.  col.  1.     Line  49.  add 

A  new  translation  of  the  Old  Testament  into  modern  Greek  was 
completed  in  1S37,  by  the  Rev.  H.  D.  Leeves,  M.A.,  with  the  aid 
of  the  learned  professor  Bambas,  director  and  professor  of  the  Greek 
Gymnasium  on  the  island  of  Syra. 

Page  47.  col.  1.     Line  61.  add 

In  1838,  an  edition  of  the  Wallachian  New  Testament  was  pub- 
lished, from  a  copy  furnished  by  the  heads  of  the  Gieek  church  ii^ 
the  province  of  Wallachia;  it  consisted  of  four  thousand  copies. 
This  important  work  was  brought  out  by  permission,  and  at  the 
desire,  of  the  bishops  of  Wallachia,  and  under  the  sanction  of  the 
governor  of  that  principality. 

Page  47.  col.  1.     Lust  line  but  19.  after  "  discontinued,^^  add 
In  1S38,  however,  an  accurate  version  of  the  entire  New  Testa- 
ment was  printed  at  Smyrna,  under  the  superintendence  of  Mr.  B. 
Barker,  the  accredited  agent  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  So- 
ciety for  the  Turkish  Empire. 

TEJISIOITS    IX   THE    lANGUAGES    SPOKEX    ITS    ASIA. 

Page  51.  col.  1.     After  line  58.  add 

iv.  In  the  Arakanese,  nearly  the  same  language  as  the  Burmese, 
various  parts  of  the  New  Testament  have  been  translated  and 
printed  from  time  to  time  by  the  American  missionaries,  and  have 
been  most  thankfully  received  by  the  native  Christians. 

Page  52.  col.  1 .     Last  line  hut  2  of  text,  add 
The  entire  Tahitan  Bible  was  printed  at  London  under  the 
superintendence  of  the  Rev.  Henry  Nott,  who  was  himself  a 
principal   translator  of  it,  and  who  had  spent  forty  years  in  the 
Tahitan  Mission.     The  expense  of  the  translation  was  defrayed 
by  the  London  Missionary  Society.     Two  editions  of  the  Tahitan 
Bible  were  subsequently  printed  at  the  expense  of  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society;  one  in  Bvo. ;  the  other  in  12mo.     (Thirty- 
fourth  Report  of  the  Bible  Society,  p.  Ixxxii.) 
5*.  Rarotonga  Version. 
Te  Korero-Motu  ore  a  to  tatore  a  te  era  a  Jesu  Mesia,  Kirithia 
i  te  Reo  Rarotongo.     Lonedona.  1836,  Svo. 

Raratonga  is  the  largest  and  most  populous  of  the  Hervey  Is- 
lands, a  group  of  seven  islands,  from  tive  to  six  hundred  miles  west 
of  Taliiti ;  concerning  which  very  little  was  known,  until  they 
were  visited  in  1823  by  the  Rev.  Messrs.  Williams  and  Bourne, 
missionaries  of  the  London  Missionary  Society,  by  whom  this  ver- 
sion was  made. 

6*.  New  Zealand  Version. 
The  New  Testament  has  been  translated  into  the  language 
spoken  in  the  islands  of  New  Zealand,  by  the  missionaries  of  the 
Church  Missionary  Society.  It  was  printed  in  1835,  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society.  (Thirty-first 
Report,  p.  Ixxiv.) 


MODERN    TEHSIOXS    IN    THE    EANGUAGES    OF    AFRICA. 

Page  56.  col.  2.     Line  7,  after  "1833,"  add 
In  1836,  the  government  of  Madagascar,  under  the  auspices  of 
ll.e   Queen,   proscribed   Christianity,   and  ordered  all   Christian 


books  and  tracts  to  he  burnt.  The  Christian  converts  have  been 
most  cruelly  persecuted ;  and  all  further  circulation  of  the  Scrip- 
tures has  been  suspended.  (Thirty-second  Report,  pp.  Ixv.  Ixvi. 
Thirty-fourth  Report,  p.  Ixxxviii.) 

Page  56.  col.  2.  Line  12,  after  "Cape  Town,"  add 
The  entire  New  Testament,  besides  great  part  of  the  Old,  has 
been  translated  and  printed  in  the  Caflre  language.  (Thirty- 
fourth  Report,  p.  Ixxxix.)  And  in  1837,  MM.  Pelissier,  Arbous- 
sct,  and  Casalis,  three  missionaries  of  the  French  Protestant 
Evangelical  Missionary  Society,  translated  and  printed  the  Gospel 
of  St.  Matthew  (besides  reading  lessons,  a  catechism,  hymns,  and 
prayers)  in  the  languagt^  of  the  Bassoutos,  a  people  in  the  inte- 
rior of  Southern  Africa  whose  very  name  was  unknown  in  Geo- 
graphy, until  they  were  discovered  by  the  enterprising  efforts  of 
the  MissionaTJes.  who  have  carried  Christianity  and  civilization 
among  them.  (L'Europe  Proteslante,  No.  1.  Octobre  1838,  p. 
128.) 

HARMONIES    OF    THE    FOUR    GOSPELS. 

Page  CI.  col.  2.     After  line  41.  add 

33.  The  Four  Gospels,  exhibited  as  one  continued  Narrative, 
by  an  arrangement  of  their  contents  in  parallel  columns,  accord- 
ing to  the  due  ord(;r  of  events  recorded.  By  the  Rev.  C.  CcR- 
UEY,  B.A.  London.  [1834.]  4to. 

The  advantages  which  this  unassuming  but  neatly  executed 
volume  possesses,  are  stated  to  be  the  following: — 1.  It  exhibits  at 
one  view  the  whole  history  of  Jesus  Christ,  which  must  otherwise 
be  collected  from  four  separate  sources  ;  2.  It  distinguishes  the 
particular  portions  contributed  by  each  evangelist  towards  making 
up  the  whole  history  :  3.  It  brings  under  comparison  the  variety  in 
statement,  which  the  evangelists  adopt,  in  recording  the  same 
transactions,  without  the  trouble  of  turning  continually  from  gospel 
to  gospel,  or  the  delay  of  transcribing  parallel  passages  for  the  con-< 
venience  of  juxta-position. 

34.  A  Harmony  of  the  Gospels  in  Greek,  in  the  general  order 
of  Le  Clerc  and  Newcome,  with  Newcome's  Notes;  printed  from 
the  text  and  with  the  various  readings  of  Knappc.  The  whole 
revised,  and  the  Greek  text  newly  arranged.  By  Edward  Ro- 
binson, D.D.     Andover  [Massachusetts],   1834.  Svo. 

In  this  beautifully  printed  volume,  the  general  order  of  Le  Clerc 
and  Archbishop  Newcome  is  followed  in  the  divisions,  as  beir^ 
upon  the  whole  judicious,  and  also  as  being  familiar  to  the  great 
body  of  theologians.  In  the  special  arrangement  of  the  text  of  the 
evangelists,  the  principle  adopted  is  that  of  Roediger,  in  his  Synop- 
sis of  the  first  three  Gospels.  The  whole  of  Archbishop  Newcome's 
notes  is  retained.  .  , 

35.  Synopsis  Quatuor  Evangeliorum  Graeco-Lalina.  Exhibet 
Textum  Complutensem  cum  variis  ex  collectione  Roberti  8ic- 
phani,  Chr.  Fr.  Matthaei,  Jo.  Jac.  Griesbach,  J.  M.  Aug.  Schilz, 
ac  C  Lachmann,  lectionibus,  et  Vulgatam  Versionem  Latinam, 
subjunctamque  Harraoniam  Latinam.  Edidit  J.  A.  Roter- 
MUNDT.     Passavii,  1835.  Svo. 

36.  A  Harmony ;  or,  Synoptical  Arrangement  of  the  Gospels, 
founded  upon  the  most  ancient  opinion  respecting  the  duration 
of  our  Saviour's  Ministry,  and  exhibiting  the  succession  of  events 
in  close  accordance  with  the  order  of  the  two  Apostolical  Evan- 
gelists; with  Dissertati^ins,  Notes,  and  Tables.  By  Lant  Car- 
penter, LL.D.  Bristol,  1835.  Svo.  Second  Edition,  1838, 
Svo. 

This  English  Harmony  was  printed  solely  for  the  subscribers  to 
its  publication.  The  text  is,  for  the  most  part,  a  new  and  close 
translation  of  the  original  Grieek :  the  concise  notes  are  such  as  the 
narration  or  the  rendering  required.  The  learned  author  adopts  the 
view  entertained  by  the  eminent  critic.  Dr.  Bentley,  viz. :  That 
our  Saviour's  Ministry  continued  something  beyond  two  passovers, 
that  is  one  whole  year  and  part  of  two  others.  From  Bentley  this 
opinion  was  communicated  to  Bishop  Hare,  and  by  him  to  Mr. 
Mann,  master  of  the  Charter-House,  who  not  only  defended  it  in 
his  Essay  on  the  true  years  of  the  Birtii  and  Death  of  Christ  (Lon- 
don, 1733.  Bvo.  and  in  Latin,  in  1742.  8vo.),  but  also  constructed  a 
Chronological  Arrangement  of  the  Gospel-History  upon  this  prin- 
ciple ;  upon  which  Dr.  Priestley  formed  his  Greek  and  English  Har- 
monies. The  same  opinion  appears  to  have  been  adopted  by  the 
late  learned  Regius  Divinity  Professor,  Dr.  Burton,  of  Oxford,  in 
his  Lectures  on  the  Ecclesiastical  History  of  the  First  Century  (p. 
19.) ;  Dr.  Carpenter  has  prefixed  to  his  Harmony  four  elaborate 
Dissertations:  1.  On  the  Duration  of  our  Saviour's  Ministry;  2. 
On  the  structure  of  the  first  three  Gospels  in  relation  to  the  succes- 
sion of  events  in  our  Lord's  ministry;  3.  On  the  Political  and  Geo- 
graphical state  of  Palestine  at  the  period  of  our  Lord's  ministry ; 
giving  a  descriptive  survey  of  the  districts  in  which  he  resided  or 
journeyed  ;  and  4.  On  the  succession  of  events  recorded  in  the 
Gospels,  giving  an  outline  view  of  our  Saviour's  ministry.    These 


170 


ADDENDA  TO  THE  BIBLICGKAPHICAL  APFE^'DIX. 


dissertations,  with  a  selection  of  notes  from  the  Appendix  to  the  ' 
Harmony,  and  a  tabular  view  of  the  Synoptical  arrangement,  were 
subsequently  published  in  a  separate  volume,  intituled  "  Disserta- 
tions on  the  Duration  of  our  Saviour's  Ministry,  and  the  Chronolo- 
gical Arrangement  of  tlie  Gospel- Records."  London,  1S36,  Svo. 
The  thiid  dissertation  is  particularly  valuable  and  instructive.  The 
most  materi^il  alterations,  &c.,  in  the  second  edition,  were  piiutcd 
separately  for  the  possessors  of  the  first  edition. 

37.  A  Greek  Harmony  of  the  Gospels,  with  Notfs  for  the  use 
of  Students  at  the  Universities.  By  the  Rev.  R.  Chapman,  B.A. 
London,  183G.  4to. 

«'  This  is  a  remarkably  handsome  quarto  volume Mr.  Chap- 
roan  takes  Mill's  text;  allots  four  p:issovers  and  therefore  three 
years  to  our  Lord's  ministry  ;  diflers  from  some  of  Mr.  Greswell's 
positions,  and  gives  reasons  from  Newcome  and  Townsend  ;  and,  as 
to  the  resurrection,  follows  West.  He  has  arranged  a  work,  which 
is  very  convenient  for  ascertaining  the  verbal  parallelisms  without 
trouble.  The  notes  show  a  degree  of  attention  and  industry,  highly 
creditable  to  the  author."    (British  Magazine,  July,  1S36.  p.  59.) 

38.  .V  Harmony  of  the  Gospels,  being  a  Comparative  View  of 
the  different  statements  of  the  Four  Evangelists  ;  showing  where 
they  agree,  where  they  vary,  and  where  any  are  silent.  To 
which  are  added  the  marginal  references,  illustrating  the  text, 
^\ith  Indexes  and  Tables.  [By  William  Benning.]  London, 
1836.  12mo. 

39.  The  Four  Gospels,  arranged  in  a  scries  of  Tabular  Paral- 
lels, on  a  new  principle.     [By  the  Rev. Cholmoxdelet, 

M..\.]     London,  1836.  royal  8vo. 

Id  this  arrangement,  when  two  or  more  evangelists  speak  on  the 
same  sutji-ct  matter,  their  inilividual  testimonies  are  always  com- 
pleted in  the  *ame  page.  In  like  manner  where  similar  discourses 
took  place  at  i!iJl'erent  p«iiods,  they  are  placed  in  juxta-position, 
as  well  as  in  context;  but  with  indications,  which  prevent  the 
narrative  being  disturbed.  These  tabular  parallels  are  printed  with 
kingular  neatness. 

40.  The  Gospel  Harmonised,  with  Notes  and  Reflections,  ex- 
planatory, experimental,  and  practical,  chiefly  by  Adam  Clarke, 
LL.D. ;  arranged  from  the  best  authorities.  By  Samuel  Dunx. 
London,  1836.  Svo. 

41.  A  Harmony  of  the  Gospels,  arranged  for  daily  reading 
through  tliC  year,  according  to  Greswell's  Harmonia  Evangelica ; 
with  other  information  calculated  to  render  prolitabic  the  reading 
of  the  New  'J'estanient.  By  the  Rev.  Joshua  Fawcett,  A.B. 
liondon,  1836.  l'2nio. 

42.  Diafessaron ;  or,  the  History  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ, 
compiled  from  the  Four  Gospels,  according  to  the  authorized  ver- 
sion.    Oxford,  1 837.  Svo. 

The  method  adopted  by  Professor  White  in  his  Greek  Diatessa- 
ron,  is  generally  followed  in  this  beautifully  printed  work  ;  which 
is  ascribed  to  the  Rev.  J.  D.  Macbride,  D.C.L.  and  Principal  of 
Magdalen  Hall,  Oxford.  The  text  and  punctuation  are  strictly 
those  of  the  authorized  version:  references  are  given  in  the  mar- 
gin, on  one  side,  to  the  place  from  which  each  passage  is  taken  ; 
and,  on  the  opposite  side,  Dr.  Biayney's  references  to  the  Old  Tes- 
tament, and  to  the  Acts  and  Epistles,  are  collected  from  all  the  four 
Gospels.  Various  readings  arc  given  at  the  foot  of  the  p;igc  from 
the  most  esteemed  paraphrases. 

43.  Lectures  explanatory  of  the  Diatcssaron ;  or,  the  History 
of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ,  collected  from  the  Four 
Gospels  in  the  form  of  a  continuous  Narrative.  [By  the  Rev. 
J.  D.  MACHiunE,  D.C.L.]     Oxford,  1835.  Svo. 

These  Lectures  arc  designed  for  students,  who  have  neither  lei- 
sure nor  opportunity  to  consult  many  commentaries:  "  the  remarks 
are  more  fie()uently  explanatory  than  devotional."  They  are  de- 
rived from  the  best  and  most  approved  commentators,  niul  are  most 
valuable  helps  to  the  student,  who  may  peruse  either  the  Greek 
Diatessaron  of  Professor  White,  or  the  Lnglish  Diatessaron,  noticed 
in  the  preceding  paragraph. 

•,•  In  giving  the  foregoing  account  of  the  princip:il  Harmonics 
which  have  been  published,  the  Author  has  endeavoured  fairly  to 
describe  the  plan  and  objects  of  each.  To  discuss  the  comparative 
merits  of  the  chronological  arrangements  of  dilfeicnt  tiannonies 
would  require  a  volume. 


nuous  context ;  the  object  being  to  sum  up,  and  exhibit  in  one 
view  the  perfect  Christian  character,  in  the  same  words,  in  which 
St.  P:iul  has  from  time  to  time  exhiLited  its  detached  features." 
(Introd.  p.  1.)  In  the  prosecution  of  this  design,  the  author  has 
judiciously  thrown  into  an  Appendix  all  those  parts  cf  the  several 
epistles,  which,  being  addressed  exclusively  to  a  particular  church 
or  individual,  are  not  contained  in  the  Harmony.  He  has  then  con- 
densed together  several  passages  of  St.  Paul's  Kpistles,  which  are 
related  to  each  other,  so  as  to  form  sixteen  continuous  discourses  in 
as  many  chapters  j  which  treat  on  our  Christian  calling;  on  faith  ; 
on  faith  in  God  the  Father;  faith  in  Gud  the  Son, — the  atonement 
of  his  death,  and  our  justification  through  his  merits  only, — his 
resurrection,  ascension,  and  return  to  judgment;  faith  in  God  the 
Holy  Ghost,  and  our  sanctification  by  him  alone ;  on  our  duty  to 
God  ;  the  social  duties  ;  the  personal  duties  of  the  believer  ;  Chris- 
tian love  or  charity  ;  Christian  hope;  the  Church  of  Christ  and  its 
two  Sacraments;  the  corruption  of  its  doctrines  and  discipline, 
and  the  intention  of  the  Jewish  Dispensation.  The  passages  from 
the  Pauline  Epistles  arc  given  in  the  words  of  the  authorized  ver- 
sion ;  and  to  the  whole  the  author  has  prefixed  a  well-written  in- 
troduction explanatory  of  the  plan  of  his  work. 


APOCnTPHAL    BOORS. 

Page  67.  col.  1.     After  line  6.  add 
11*.  Enoch  Restitutus;  or,  an  Attempt  to  separate  from  the 
Books  of  Enoch  the  Book  quoted  by  St.  Jude.     By  the  Rev.  E. 
MuRiiAT.     Dublin  and  London.  1836.  Svo. 

The  object  of  this  work  is  to  prove,  first  "  that  there  is  internal 
evidence  of  a  more  ancient  book  in  combination  with  the  apocry- 
phal Books  of  Enoch.  The  more  ancient  liook,  Mr.  Murray  thinks, 
wis  written  in  Hebrew,  as  he  endeavours  to  show:  and  he  after- 
wards collects  the  inteinal  evidence  to  the  point  of  the  existence 
of  an  ancient  book.  (>f  the  books  which  are  combined  with  it,  Mr. 
Murray  agrees  with  .\rchbishop  Laurence,  in  attiibuting  one  (that 
which  contains  the  Jewish  History)  to  an  early  period  of  the  reign 
of  Herod :  and  he  thinks  that  which  relates  to  astronomy  probably 
to  be  the  more  ancient.  The  VHrietics  of  style  in  various  parts  of 
the  whole  compositii;n  betray  diil'erent  tongues ;  and  the  obscurity 
of  some  of  the  fables  in  the  historical  one  show  that  it  cannot  be 
earlier  than  the  date  assigned.  In  that  which  he  conceives  to  be 
the  ancient  book,  there  is  no  trace  of  r:ibbinical  interpretation, 
such  as  might  be  expected,  at  all  events,  after  the  second  century; 
the  coincidence  of  its  pages  with  those  of  Scripture  is  remaikably 
characterized  by  a  want  of  previous  knowledge  of  those  passages 
which  have  similar  meaning.  The  whole  work  displays  much 
learning,  research,  and  diligent  inquiry."  (Biitish  Magazine,  July, 
1S36.  p.  57.) 

Page  67.  ctjI.  2.    After  the  laat  line,  add 
6.  Acta  Apostolorum  Petri  et  Pauli  Gra^ce  ex  Codd.  Parisien- 
sibus,  et  Latinc  ex  Codd.  Guelpherbytanis.     Nunc  primum  edila, 
et  annotationibus  illustrata,  ;i  Joanne  Carolo  Thilo.     Parliculae 
L  II.     Hala;  Saxonum,  1S38.  Svo. 


IIAnMOXIKS    OF    TIIF.    EPISTLES. 

Page  62.  col  2.     Last  line,  add 

5.  Harmonia  Paulina :  being  an  nrrangi-rnent,  in  the  words  of 
the  Ajioslle,  of  the  comj)letc  Scheme  of  (Jhristiati  Faith  and 
Practice,  contained  in  the  Hcvrral  E|)iHtle«  of  rti.  Paul.  By  the 
Rev.  Henry  Latham,  M..\.     London,  1837.  Svo. 

This  very  valuable  work  (the  title  of  which  fully  expresses  its 
dc«ign)  is  an  attempt  to  compile  a  full  system  of  Christian  Faith 
and  Practice  by  an  arrangement  of  St.  Paul's  Epistles  in  a  cunti- 


IXTnODUCTIOXB    TO    THE    OLD    AXD    :»KW    TESTAMENTS. 

Page  76.  col.  2.     Last  line  but  14.  aflcr  "  booh  of  Psalms,"  add 
14.  Introduction  to  the  Criticism  and  Interpretation  of  the  Bi- 
ble, by  C.  E.  Stowk,  Professor  of  Biblical  Literature  in   Lane 
Seminary,  Cincinnati.  [Ohio],  Vol.  I.    Cincinnati,  1835,  Svo. 

The  object  of  this  work  is  to  give  a  dear  statement  of  the  prin- 
ciples and  facts  most  necessary  to  be  known,  preparatory  to  the 
critical  study  of  the  Scripture.  The  subjects  discus-ie<l  are.  Divine 
Revelation,  the  language  in  which  it  is  given,  and  its  peculiarities 
in  respect  to  interpietatiun  ; — the  genuineness  of  the  Pentateuch, 
with  a  vindication  of  it  from  objections; — the  origin  and  early 
pro;rc>:s  of  alph.ibetic  writing  ;  the  authenticity  and  character  of  the 
Gospels; — the  genuineness  and  interpretation  of  the  .\pocalypsej 
— Helirew  and  I'ugan  Propliets  conirj'led; — the  doctrine.  Scrip- 
tural idea  and  proof  of  inspiration  ; — z\ t]  miricles.  A  second  vo- 
lume was  announced,  which,  if  published  in  America,  has  not  yet 
reached  this  country.  It  was  to  contain  "  a  history  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments,  a  brief  account  of  the  principal  Manuscripts  and 
critical  editions,  and  a  particular  introduction  to  each  of  the  re- 
maining books  of  the  Mible,  similar  to  those  given  in  the  first  vo- 
lume to  the  Pentateuch,  the  Gospels,  and  the  Apocalypse."  In  the 
arrangement  of  topics,  the  author  has  endeavoured  to  adopt  that 
method,  l)y  which  the  discussion  of  cacU  preceding  subject  will 
throw  most  light  on  the  succeeding,  and  the  greatest  clearness  will 
be  secured  with  the  least  repetition.^ 

Pi/gr  71.  cul.  2.     La.^l  line  but  32.  add 
4*.  An  Introduction    to  the  Writings   of  the  Now  To:;tamcnt. 
by  Dr.  J.  L.  Hro.     'Prunslated  from  the  German,  by  D.  Fc-tdick, 
Jun. ;  with  Notes  by  Professor  Stuart.    Andover  [Massachusetlnj, 
1837.  8vo. 

An  exrcllent  translation,  which  io  every  respect  is  preferable  to 
that  of  Dr.  Wait. 


ADDENDA  TO  THE  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  APPENDIX. 


171 


5*.  Introduction  Generale  aux  Livres  du  Nouveau  Testament. 
Par  Guillaume  Steiger,  ci-devant  Professeur  de  I'Ecole  deTheo- 
logie,  a  Geneve  et  Paris,  1837.  8vo. 

This  is  a  posthumous  publication,  printed  from  the  manuscript 
notes  talien  by  M.  Steiger's  pupils,  at  the  time  he  delivered  his 
lectures.  The  present  work  therefore  must  be  regarded  as  a  kind 
of  supplement  to  an  introduction  to  the  study  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment. This  author  gives  a  summary  of  the  most  recent  researclies 
concerning  the  New  Testament,  and  developes  some  new  ideas, 
without  entering  into  certain  details,  which  are  necessary  to  con- 
stitute a  complete  introduction.  Still  the  fragments,  of  which  this 
volumeconsists,  contain  most  valuable  information  concerning  the 
history  of  the  canon  and  the  text  of  the  New  Testament. 


TREATISES    OX    SACKED    CRITICISM. 

Page  72.  col  2.  Last,  line  but  34.  add 
8*.  An  Elementary  Course  of  Lectures  on  the  Criticism,  In- 
terpretation, and  Leading  Doctrines  of  the  Bible,  delivered  at 
Bristol  College,  in  the  years  1832-33.  By  W.  D.  Coxtbeare, 
.M.A.  London,  1834.  18mo.  Second  Edition,  enlarged.  1836. 
12mo. 

Page  7.5.  col.  2.     Last  line  but  16.  add 
57*.    An  Examination   of  the  Ancient   Orthography  of  the 
Jews,  and  the  Original  State  of  the  Text  of  the  Hebrew  Bible. 
Part  I.     An   Inquiry  into   the  Origin   of  Alphabetical  Writing. 
By  the  Rev.  1'.  Wall,  D.D.     London,  1835,  royal  Svo. 

The  desi;rn  of  this  elaborate  treatise  is  to  sho\v  that  Alphabetic 
writing  was  a  divine  revelation,  given  for  a  most  worthy  purpose. 
For  an  outline  of  the  facts  and  arguments  by  which  he  has  esta- 
blished his  point,  see  the  British  Magazine  for  January,  1836,  pp. 
64,  65. 


TREATISES    ON    THE    DISPUTED    CLAUSES    IX    1  JOHX    T.    7.    8. 

Page  82.  col.  2.     After  "  verse,"  line  28.  add 
48.*  Two  Letters  on  some  parts  of  the  Controversy  concern- 
ing 1  John  V.  7. ;  containing  also  an  Enquiry  into  the  Origin  of 
the  first  Latin  Version  of  Scripture,  commonly  called  the  Italic. 
By  Nicholas  Wisemax,  D.D.     Rome,  1835.  Svo. 

These  letters  were  first  published  in  this  country,  in  the  third 
volume  of  the  [Roman — ]  Catholic  Magazine.  On  the  authority 
of  a  manuscript  of  the  Latin  Bible  preserved  in  the  Monastery  of 
Santa  Croce  in  Jerusalem,  which  he  thinks  as  old  as  the  seventh 
century.  Dr.  \V.  argues  in  favour  of  the  genuineness  of  the  dis- 
puted clause  in  1  John  V.  7,  8.  The  reader  will  find  some  acute 
strictures  on  his  theory  in  the  Appendix  to  Dr.  Wright's  translation 
of  Sciler's  Biblical  Ilermeneutics,  pp.  633 — 650. 

49.  Dr.  Wiseman  on  1  John  V.  7,  8.  By  the  Rev.  Francis 
HursHE.  [In  the  British  Magazine,  vol.  v.  pp.  702 — 707.]  Lon- 
don, 1834.  Svo. 

The  Rev.  Author  of  this  communication  is  also  the  writer  of  nu- 
merous papers  bearing  on  the  authenticity  of  1  John  V.  7,  8.> 
which  are  printed  in  the  third,  fourth,  fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh  vo- 
lumes of  the  British  Magazine,  under  the  title  of  "  A  Vindication 
of  the  early  Parisian  Press." 

50.  Martini  Augustini  Scholz.  Diatribe  brevis  in  locum  1 
Joannis  V.  7,  8.  [In  Vol.  11.  pp.  132,  133.  of  his  Critical  Edi- 
tion of  the  New  Testament.]     Lipsife,  1836.  4to. 

51.  Three  Letters  to  the  Rev.  Dr.  Scholz,  Editor  of  a  new  Edi- 
tion of  the  Greek  Testament,  Lips.  1836,  on  the  Contents  of  his 
Note  on  1  John  V.  7.  By  the  Bishop  of  Salisbury  [Thomas 
Burgess,  D.D.]     Southampton,  1837.  8vo. 

These  letters  have  not  been  published  for  sale  ;  thej'  were  printed 
for  private  distribution  only  a  few  weeks  before  the  decease  of 
their  learned  and  venerable  author,  who  advocated  the  genuineness 
of  the  disputed  clause,  in  opposition  to  the  evidence  against  it, 
which  had  been  adduced  by  Dr.  Scholz. 


By 


TREATISES    OX    AXCIEXT    VERSIOXS. 

Page  83.  col.  1.     After  line  16.  add 

13*.  [Letters  on]  Alcuine's  Bible,  in  the  British  Museum 
Sir  Frederick  Maubex,  Knt.     London,  1836.  Svo. 

The  manuscripts  of  the  Latin  Vulgate  Version,  which  are  pre- 
served in  the  royal  and  national  libraries  of  Europe,  are  so  nume- 
rous, that  any  complete  description  of  them  is  scarcely  to  be  ex- 
pected. These  letters  of  Sir  F.  Madden,  who  is  principal  keeper 
of  the  MSS.  in  the  British  Museum,  were  first  printed  in  the  Gen- 
tleman's Magazine  for  October,  November,  and  December,  1836; 
and  they  demand  a  notice  in  this  place  on  account  of  the  erudite 
bibliographical  description  which  they  contain  of  one  of  the  oldest 
manuscripts  of  the  Latin  Vulgate  Version  which  is  extant.  Whe- 
ther the  MS.  in  question  was  actually  the  autograph  of  Alcuine, 
(of  whose  critical  recension  of  the  Vulgate  Version  a  brief  notice 

Vol.  II.  4  P 


is  given  in  Vol.  I.  p.  276.)  is  reasonably  disputed.  Sir  F.  Madden 
is  inclined  to  reg-.ud  it,  together  with  a  MS.  in  the  Royal  Library 
at  Paris  (No.  1.),  and  another  in  the  Library  of  the  Canons  at  Zu- 
rich, as  the  labour  of  the  students  in  the  school  established  by 
Alcuine,  in  the  monastery  at  Tours,  but  superintended  by  Alcuine 
himself.  Consequently,  it  must  have  been  wiitten  towards  the 
close  of  the  eighth  century.  In  a  critical  point  of  view,  it  is  an  im- 
portant evidence  against  the  authenticity  of  the  disputed  clause  in 
1  John  V.  7,8.,  which  is  loanting  in  this  manuscript,  as  it  is  in  all 
the  most  ancient  MSS.  of  the  Vulgate  version,  containing  the  entire 
New  Testament.  Sir  F.  Madden  is  of  opinion  that  the  manusciipt 
in  the  British  Museum  has  superior  claims  to  be  considered  as  the 
copy  presented  by  Alcuine  to  the  Emperor  Charlemagne.  It  was 
purchased  by  the  trustees  of  the  British  Museum  for  the  sum  of 
seven  hundred  and  fifty  pounds. 

Page  83.  col.  2.    Last  line,  add 

30.  Lectiones  Alexandrinae  et  HebraicjE,  sive  de  emendando 
tcxtu  Veteris  Testamenti  Graeci  Septuaginta  Interpretum  et  inde 
Hebraico.  Scripsit  Jo.  Theophilus  Pliischke.  Bonna;,  1837. 
Svo. 

31.  De  Psalterii  Syriaci  Mediolanensis,  a  Cajetano  Bugati 
editi  peculiari  indole,  ejusdemque  usu  critico  in  emendando  textu 
Psalterii  Gra;ci  Septuaginta  Interpretum.  Scripsit  Jo.  Theophilus 
PLiiscHKE.     Bonnae,  1835.  Svo. 


HEBREW    GRAMMARS    WITH    POINTS. 

Page  87.  col.  1.     Last  line  but  12.  add 

25.  An  Elementary  Hebrew  Grammar:  to  which  is  added  a 
Selection  of  Hebrew  Sentences,  with  a  Lexicon  and  References 
to  the  Grammar.  By  the  Rev.  Arthur  Willis,  M.A.  London, 
1834.  Svo. 

26.  A  Grammar  of  the  Hebrew  Language  :  with  a  brief  Chres- 
tomathy  for  tlie  nse  of  beginners.  By  George  Bcsh,  Professor 
of  .Hebrew  and  Oriental  Literature  in  the  New  York  City  Uni- 
versity.    New  York,  1835.  18 mo. 

27.  Hebrew  Grammar,  designed  for  the  Use  of  Schools  and 
Students  in  the  Universities.  By  Christopher  Leo.  Cambridge 
and  London,  1836.  Svo. 

28.  A  Critical  Grammar  of  the  Hebrew  Language.  By  Isaac 
NoRDHEiMER,  Profcssor  of  Arabic,  Syriac,  and  othe'-  Oriental 
Languages,  and  acting  Pirofessor  of  Hebrew  in  the  University  of 
the  City  of  New  York.     New  York,  183S.  2  vols.  Svo. 

The  most  elaborate  and  philosophical  Hebrew  Grammar  in  the 
English  Language.  Vol.  I.  in  two  books,  treats  on  Orthoepy  and 
Orthography,  and  on  Etvmologj'.  Vol.  II.  contains  the  Syntax  and 
a  grammatical  Analysis  of  select  portions  of  the  Scriptures  of  pro- 
gressive difficulty,  including  those  portions  which  are  usually  read 
in  the  Collegiate  Institutions  of  America.  The  t^'pographical  exe- 
cution is  singularly  neat  and  correct. 

Page  88.  col.  1.  Last  line  but  7.  add 
21*.  A  Grammar  of  the  Hebrew  Language  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, by  Geo.  Henry  Aug.  Ewald.  Translated  from  the  last 
Edition,  and  enriched  with  later  additions  and  improvements  of 
the  author,  by  John  Nicholson,  A.B.  [Gottingen :  printed.] 
London,  1836.  Svo. 

"  It  is  a  valuable  stock  of  Hebrew  Criticism  in  our  language." 
(British  Magazine,  March,  1836.  p.  307.) 

Page  88.  cul.  1.    Last  line  hut  5.  add 

23.  Nouvelle  Methode  pour  apprendre  la  Langue  Hebraique 
Par  M.  FuAXK.     Paris,  1834.  Svo. 

24.  Hebraisches  Elementarbuch  von  D.  Wilhelm  Gesenius. 
Halle,  1834.  2  vols.  Svo.  Eleventh  Edition. 

The  numerous  editions  through  which  this  work  has  passed, 
attest  the  high  estimation  in  which  it  is  held  in  Germany.  Vol.  I. 
treats  on  the  principles  of  Hebrew  Grammar;  and  Vol.  II.  contains 
extracts  from  various  parts  of  the  Old  Testament,  with  notes. 

After  the  preceding  notices  of  Gesenius's  and  Ewald's  Grammars 
of  the  Hebrew  Language  had  been  printed  oft',  the  following  Trea- 
tise, was  published,  containing  strictures  on  the  principles  upon 
which  their  works  are  composed,  and  which  are  followed  by  Dr. 
Fuerst  in  his  new  edition  of  Buxtorf's  Hebrew  Concordance,  viz. — 

24*.  ima^  "^B'Zf  [scphcr  jcshurux.]  Isagoge  in  Grammati- 
cam  et  Lexicographiam  Lingure  Hebraics  contra  Guil.  Gesenium 
et  Hen.  Ewaldum  ;  auctore  Francisco  Delitzschio.  Grimmae, 
1833.  Svo. 

This  volume  also  has  a  second  title  : — "  Jesurun  :  sive  Prolego- 
menon in  Concordantias  Veteris  Testamenti  a  Julio  Fueistio  editas 
Libri  tres :  auctore  Francisco  Delitzschio.  Grimmoe,  1S38." 
Svo. 

25.  Grammaire  Hebraique,  precedee  d'un  Precis  Historique. 
sur  la  Langue  Hebraique.  Par  S.  Preiswerk.  Geneve  et 
Paris,  1838.  Svo. 


172 


Mons.  Preiswerk  is  prcfessor  of  Hebrew  at  the  Theological 
School  of  Geneva;  who,  having  been  very  successful  in  imparting 
a  knowledge  of  that  language,  has  published  by  special  request  the 
(jystctn  of  Grammar  adopted  by  him.  He  professes  to  have  derived 
most  aid  from  the  Grammar  of  Rod.  Stier,  which  to  minuteness  of 
detail  adds  the  greatest  precision  and  the  most  logical  order.  His 
work  comprises  within  a  short  compass  the  necessary  elements  of 
Hebrew  Grammar.  Part  I.  treats  on  the  Hebrew  Letters  and  Vowel 
Points ;  Part  II.  on  verbs,  nouns,  pronouns,  and  particles ;  and 
Part  III.  on  Syntax.  Copious  paradigms  are  given  of  the  Verti  and 
Noun.  To  the  whole  is  prefixed  a  concise  historical  sketch  of  the 
Shemitic  Languages  in  general,  and  of  the  lletnew  Languige  in 
particular,  including  a  special  notice  of  the  labours  of  the  Masor- 
ite». 

HKOnCW    onAKMABS    WITHOCT   F0INT8. 

rnge  89.  col.  1.     After  line  24.  add 

13.  Elements  of  Hebrew  Grammar  and  Extracts  from  the  He- 
brew Bible,     liy  David  Scot.     Edinburgh,  1831. 

In  1S2C  the  same  author  published  at  Kdinburgh  in  Sro.  "  A  Key 
to  the  Hebrew  Pentateuch,"  and  in  ISiS  "  A  Key  to  the  Books  of 
Psalms,  Provcrbj,  Kcclcsiastes,  and  Song  of  Solomon  ;"  in  which 
all  the  Hebrew  words  occurring  in  these  books  are  explained,  ana- 
lysed, and  traced  to  their  roots,  chiefly  in  the  flebrew  itself,  but 
occasionally  also  in  its  kindied  dialects  ;  with  preliminary  disserta- 
tions and  cupiuus  indexes. 

14.  A  Key  to  the  Hebrew  Scrijiturcs:  being  an  explanation  of 
every  word  in  the  order  in  which  it  occurs.  To  which  is  prefixed 
a  short  but  compendious  Hebrew  Grammar  without  points.  By 
the  Rev.  James  Puosser,  A.M.     London,  1838.  8vo. 


ADDENDA  TO  THE  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  APPENDIX. 

§3, 


CHALDEE    URAMMAIIS. 

Page  8^.  col.  2.     After  line  il.  add 
7.  Grammaire  Chaldaiquc,  tant  pour  le  Chaldeen  de  la  BIblc> 
que  pour  celui  da  Thargoumim,  par  G.  B.  Winkh,  Traduit  dc 
PAllemand  par  Aug.  Fallct.    Geneve  et  Paris,  1S3C.  4to. 


ENGLISH    AND    HEBREW    tEXICOXS,    VTITH    rOI5'T8. 

Page  9\.  col.  1.     La-.f  line  but  20.  add 

1.  A  Hebrew  and  English  Lexicon.     To  which  is  annexed  a 
List  of  English  and  Hebrew  Words,  the  expressions   and  mean- 
ings of  whicli  appear  to  he  the  same  in  both  languages.    By  Selig  , 
IS'ew.max.     London,  1832.  8vo. 

2.  An  English  and  Hebrew  Lexicon.  To  which  is  added  a 
Selection  of  Proper  Names  occurring  in  Scripture  and  in  the 
Rabbinical  writings.     By  Michael  Josephs.     Loudon,  1832.  8vo. 

"  This  book  is  one  r,[  a  kind,  which  we  t'id  not  possess  in  this 
country  before.  Otlier  Lexicons  contnin  only  the  Hebrew  words, 
and  the  Knglisli  or  Latin.  ...  As  a  help  to  Hebrew  composition,  it 
must  be  highly  valued."  (British  Mag.iziiu',  vol.  vi.  p.  311.)  See 
also  the  Congregational  Magazine,  March,  1835.  p.  182. 


§    G.    GRAMMAR    OF    THE    SAMAllITAX    I-AXfiUAOE. 

1.  Instituliones  Lingua;  Samaritanse,  ex  antiquissimis  monu- 
mentis  crulaj  et  digestJE,  integris  paradigmatum  tabulis  indicihus- 
que  adomalte.  Quibus  accedit  Chrcstoinathia  Samaritana,  mav- 
imara  Gencseoa  partem  et  selecta  reliquorum  Pentatuchi  librorum 
capita  complectcns,  notis  criticis  exegeticis  iilustrala  et  glossario 
locuj)letata,  a  Friderico  Ule.manno.     Lipsiae,  1837.  8vo. 

A  well  digested  introduction,  contains  a  compendious  account  of 
the  Samaritans  and  their  religious  tenet."?.  This  is  followed  by  a 
treatise  on  the  Grammar  of  the  Samaritan  language,  to  which  are 
annexed  the  principal  part  of  the  Book  of  Genesis,  together  with 
select  extracts  from  the  remaining  books  of  the  Pentateuch,  a  co- 
pious glossary,  and  exrgetieal  notes.  It  is  the  most  copious  and 
comprehensive  Grammar  of  the  Samaritan  language  which  is 
extant. 


GRAMMARS    OF    THE    KEW    TESTAMENT. 

Page  91.  col.  2.     Loft  line  hut  18,  add 
4*.  A  Grammar  of  the  New  Testament  Diiilcct.     By  Moses 
Stuaiit,  Professor  of  Sacred  Literature  in  the  Theological  Semi- 
nary, Andover.     Andovcr,  1831.  8vo.     London,  1838.  8vo. 

A  Grammar  of  the  dialect  peculiar  to  the  New  Testament  is  ne- 
cessary to  all  who  would  crilically  study  its  original  language: 
and  tills  work  of  Profe.-:sor  Stuart  will  supply  the  student  witli 
every  information  which  he  can  desire  on  this  subject.  After  a 
short  account  of  the  Greek  dinlects  and  of  the  controversy  respect- 
ing the  character  of  the  New  Testament  Greek,  the  author  treat?, 
in  the  two  first  parts,  on  letters  and  their  forms,  and  on  grammatical 
forms  and  flexions.  The  remainder  of  the  volume  is  occupied  with 
the  syntax:  considerable  space  is  appropriated  to  the  Greek  article. 
This  portion  of  Professor'.s  Stuait's  work  was  reprinted  at  Edin- 
burgh, and  forms  the  tenth  volume  of  the  Biblical  Cabinet.  The 
results  of  the  investigations  of  Winer,  Passow,  Buttmann,  and 
other  distinguished  Greek  grammarians,  are  here  given,  together 
with  those  of  the  author  himself.  This  Grammar  completely  su- 
persedes that  of  Winer,  of  which  an  account  is  given  in  page  91. 
The  London  reprint  is  beautifully  and  accurately  executed ;  the 
quotations  from  the  (^.reek  Testament  and  from  the  classic  authors 
have  all  been  verified ;  and  various  typographical  errors  have  been 
carefully  corrected. 


HEBREW    LEXICONS    WITH    POIWTS. 

Page  89.  col.  2.     Last  line  but  24.  add 

2*.  Davidis  Ki.mchii  Radicum  Liber:  sive  Hebrjeum  Biblio- 
rum  Lexicon.  Texlu  dcnuo  recognito,  interpunctionc  distincto, 
Bibliorum  locis  ad  capitum  el  versuum  numerum,  el  Kabhinorum 
ad  tractatum  et  paginarum  titulum  accurate  citatis,  Elia>  Lcvitte 
additainentiij  uncoruin  signo  separatis,  varii.s  lectioiiilius  addiiis, 
vocibud  ArabicLs  et  Romania  in  gcnuinam  Scripturani  rcstitutis,  dc- 
niquc  glossario  Grammaticorum  Vocabulorum  adjecto,  ediderunt 
F.  S.  LnnREciiT,  et  Jo.  H.  R.  Biesenthal.  Pars  I.  Berolini, 
1837.  4to. 

Page  91.  c',l.  1.     Last  line  but  34.  add 

24.  A  Hebrew  and  Engjlish  Lexicon,  containinff  all  ihe  Words 
of  the  Old  Testament,  with  the  Chaldee  Wonl.i  in  Daniel,  Ezra, 
and  the  TargiiMis,  and  alno  the  Talmudical  and  Rabbiiiiral  Words 
derived  from  them.     By  Sriig  Newman,     Lomlon,  1h:M.  8vo. 

2.5.  A  Complete  Hebrew  and  Engli.^h  Critical  and  Pronounc- 
ing Dictionary  on  a  new  and  improved  plan  ...  By  W.  L.  Rot. 
New  York,  1837,  large  8vo.  or  small  folio. 

This  dictionary  "appears  to  have  been  undertaken  on  no  settled 
prinnplc  whatever;  while  its  entire  exeruiioii  betrays  a  degree  of 
carelcincss  unpardonable  in  a  work  of  the  kind,  and,  what  is  of  still 

f;reatcr  conseiiucnce,  an  almost  total  ignorance,  not  only  of  the  Shem- 
lijh  languages  in  general,  but  even  of  the  first  principles  of  Hebrew 
(jrammar.  In  short,  the  book,  instead  of  being  an  aci|uisilion  to 
Oriental  philology,  will  prove,  if  not  cast  at  once  into  its  merited 
obscurity,  a  reproach  to  the  literary  character  of  the  country  which 
produced  it."  (American  biblical  Repository,  Apiil,  1S3S,  p.  -iW).) 
Sec  aho  a  copious  ana1ysi<:,  with  a  similar  condemnation  of  thii 
Work,  in  the  Noith  Amcric-in  llcvicw  for  April,  IhJS,  pp.  487-632. 


lexicons    TO    THE    NEW    TESTAMENT. 

Page  93.  col.  2,     After  Hue  6.  add 

Dr.  Robinson's  improved  Lexicon,  on  the  basis  of  Wahl's  Clavii 

Philologica  Novi  Testamenti  having  been  out  of  print  for  some 

years,  the    learned  author,  in    1836,  published  the  ucw  and  very 

important  Lexicon  which  is  noticed  in  the  fvillowing  paragraph  :— • 

13*.  A  Greek  and  English  Lexicon  to  the  New  Testament.  I'y 
Edward  RoniNsoN,  D.D.  Bo.ston,  1836,  royal  8vo.  London, 
ld:j?,  8vo,     Edinburgh,  1837.  8vo, 

This  truly  valuable  Lexicon  contains  the  results  of  the  learned 
author's  researches,  as  well  as  those  of  all  preceding  lexicographeis 
of  the  New  Testament:  the  following  is  a  brief  outline  of  the  plan 
which  he  has  adopted  in  the  auangement  of  his  materials.  The 
etymologj'  of  each  word  is  given,  so  far  as  it  appertains  to  the 
Greek  and  Hebrew,  and  occasionally  to  the  Latin.  To  each  word 
is  assigned  its  primary  sigiiihcation,  whether  found  in  the  New 
Testament  or  not;  and  then  the  author  deduces  from  it  all  the  sig- 
nifications which  occur  in  the  .\ew  Testament.  In  this  portion  of 
the  work  he  has  bestowed  nmch  attention,  in  bringing  out  to  view 
the  force  of  the  prepositions  in  composition.  Purther,  the  dillerent 
forms  and  inflections  of  words  are  exhibited,  so  far  as  seemed 
proper  in  a  lexicon  ;  and  the  usage  of  (he  writers  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament is,  in  all  cases,  illustrated  by  references  to  the  Septuaginl, 
and  the  other  Greek  versions,  as  well  as  to  the  writings  of  Philo 
and  Josephus,  and  to  the  writers  in  the  common  or  latei  /diom  of 
the  Greek  language.  So  far  as  the  limits  of  a  lexicon  permit,  at- 
tention has  been  given  to  the  interpretation  of  dillicult  passages  ; 
and  in  each  article  a  reference  is  given  to  every  passage  of  the 
New  Testament  where  every  word  is  found;  thus  rendering  the 
Lexicon,  to  a  very  considerable  extent,  a  concordance  to  the  New 
Testament. 

The  London  edition  was  superintended  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Bloom- 
field  ;  and  the  Kdinburgh  edition  by  the  learned  Hellenist,  Mr. 
Solomon  Negris,  aided  by  the  Uev.  IVIr.  Duncan.  Both  editors  pro- 
fess to  have  corrected  numerous  errata,  which  had  unavoidably 
crept  into  the  original  work:  and  tlic  addilinns  which  they  have 
made  (sometimes  correcting,  at  others  modifying  the  author's  state- 
ments) are  printed  between  brackets.  The  British  reprints  arc  as 
rheap  as  tliry  are  beautifully  executed  :  and  l)r.  Robinson's  work 
may  justly  be  regarded  as  the  most  comprehensive  Lexicon  to  the 
New  Testament  which  has  ever  been  published. 


OIIAMMAIH    AND     DICTIONARIES     OF    THE    BTRIAC,    ARABIC,    AWO 
EOTPTIAN    LAltODAOES, 

Page  9.5.  rill.  2.     Lant  line  but  3.5.  add 
13.  Elements  of  Chaldee,  Syriac,  Samaritan,  and  Rabbinical 


ADDENDA  TO  THE  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  APPENDIX. 


173 


Grammar.     By  John   G.   Paifbet,  D.D.     Boston    [Massachu- 
eetts],  1835.  8vo. 

11.  The  Elements  of  Syriac  Grammar.  By  the  Rev.  G. 
PuiLLiPS,  M.A.     London,   1837.  8vo. 

15.  Joannis  Agrelii  Supplementa  Syntaxeos  Syriaca;.  Prae- 
fatus  est  J.  G.  L.  Koskgahtkn.    Gryphiswaldiae,  1834.  8vo. 

16.  ^gidii  Gulbirii  Lexicon  Syriacura,  omnes  Novi  Testa- 
ment! Syriaci  Dictiones  et  Particulas  complectens.  Denuo  edidit, 
emendavit,  in  ordinem  redegit  E,  Hesderson,  Ph.  D.  Londini, 
1836.  24mo. 

Page  90.  col.  1.     After  line  43.  add 

13.  Geo.  Henrici  Aug.  Ewald  Grammatica  Critica  Lingua) 
Arabics!  com  brevi  metrorum  doctrina.  Lipsiar,  1831-33,  2  vols. 
8vo. 

14.  Grammatica  Arabica,  conscripta  a  T  [acone]  Roorda. 
Adjuncta  est  brevis  Chrestomathia,  edita  et  Lexico  explanata  a 
P.  Cool.     Lugduni  Batavorum,  1835.  8vo. 

15.  Gedrgii  Wilhehni  Freitagh  Lexicon  Arabico-Latinum, 
prjcsertim  ex  Djeuhari  Firuzabadique  et  aliorura  Arabum  operibus, 
adhibitis  Golii  quoque  et  aliorum  libris,  confectum.  Accedit  vo- 
cum  Latinarum  Index  copiosissimus.  HaUsSaxonum,  1830-37. 
4  vols.  4to. 

This  is  an  invaluable  work,  and  has  been  edited  with  the  utmost 
caie.  The  learned  author  published  an  abriiigment  of  it,  inti- 
tuled 

16.  Lexicon  Arabico-Latinum,  ex  opera  suo  majore  excerptum, 
edidit  G.  W.  Freitag.     Kalis  Saxonum,  1837.  4to. 

Page  96.  col.  2.    After  the  last  line,  add 

6.  Lexicon  ^Egyptiaco-Latinum,  ex  veteribus  Lingua  ^-Egypti- 
ac«  monumentis,  ab  Henrico  Tattam.  M.A.  Oxonii,  1835. 
8vo. 

7.  Lexicon  Linguae  Copticoe,  Studio  Amadei  Petrox.  Tau- 
rini,  1835.  4to. 

This  is  the  most  copious  Lexicon  of  the  Coptic  Language,  which 
is  extant.  Besides  availing  himself  of  all  the  printed  Grammars, 
Lexicons,  &c.  in  that  language,  the  learned  author  has  deiived  very 
man}'  words  from  seven  Coptic  papyri,  which  are  preserved  in  the 
magnificent  Egyptian  Museum  of  the  King  of  Sardinia. 


TREATISES    OTf    THE    INTERPRETATION    OF    SCRIPTURE. 

Page  99.  col.  1.     Last  line  but  18.  add 

43.  The  Elements  of  Biblical  Interpretation  :  or  an  Exposition 
of  the  Laws  by  which  the  Scriptures  are  capable  of  being  cor- 
rectly interpreted  ;  together  with  an  Analysis  of  the  Rationalistic 
and  Mystic  Modes  of  interpreting  them.  By  Leicester  A.  Saw- 
yer, A.M.     Nc'vhaven  [Connecticut],  1836.     12mo. 

44.  Biblical  Hermeneutics :  or,  the  Art  of  Scripture  Interpre- 
tation. From  the  German  of  George  Frederick  Seiler,  D.D. 
With  Notes,  Strictures,  and  Supplements,  from  the  Dutch  of  J. 
Heringa,  D.D.  Translated  from  the  Originals  by  the  Rev.  Wil- 
liam Wright,  LL.D.     London,  1835.  8vo. 

Page  99.  col.  2.    After  the  last  line,  add 

17.  A  Key  to  the  Symbolical  Language  of  Scripture,  by  which 
numerous  passages  are  explained  and  illustrated.  By  Thomas 
Wextss.     Edinburgh  and  London,  1835.  8vo. 


TREATISES    OK    THE    INTERPRETATION    OF    SCRIPTURE     PROPHE- 
CIES. 

Page  101.  co^.  1.    After  line  17.  add 

21.  A  Dictionary  of  the  Writers  on  the  Prophecies,  with  the 
Titles  and  occasional  descriptions  of  their  works.  Also  an  Ap- 
pendix containing  Lists  of  Commentators,  Annotators,  &c.  on 
the  Holy  Scriptures.     London,  1835.  8vo. 

22.  Elements  of  Prophetical  Interpretation.  By  J.  W.  Brooks, 
M.A.     London,  1837.  12mo. 

23.  A  Practical  Guide  to  the  Prophecies,  with  reference  to 
their  Interpretation  and  Fulfilment,  and  to  personal  Edification. 
By  the  Rev.  Edward  Bickersteth.     London,  1837.  12mo. 

24.  Principles  of  interpreting  the  Prophecies  briefly  illustrated  : 
with  Notes.  By  Henry  Jones.  Andover  [Massachusetts]  and 
New  York,  1837.  12mo. 

25.  The  Testimony  of  History  to  the  Divine  Inspiration  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures :  or  a  comparison  between  the  Prophecies  and 
their  Fulfilment.  In  twelve  Lectures.  By  the  Rev.  W.  J.  But- 
tEK,  M.A.     London,  1838.  12mo. 

Page  lOl.  col.  2.     After  line  50.  add 
9.  The  Chronological  Prophecies,  as  constituting  a  connected 
System,  in  which  the  principal  events  of  the  Divine  Dispensa- 


tions are  determined  by  the  precise  revelation  of  their  dates.  De- 
monstrated in  a  Series  of  Lectures.  By  Frederick  Noian,  LL.D 
London,  1837.  8vo. 


JEWISH    ■WRITERS    AND    COMMENTATORS. 

Page  102.  col.  1.  After  the  last  line,  add 
8*.  Flavii  Josephi  de  Bello  Judaico  Libri  Septem.  Ad  fidera 
Codicum  emendavit,  Variis  Lectionibus  instruxit,  et  notis  partim 
aliorum  partim  suis  illustravit,  Edvardus  Caudwell,  S.  T.  P. 
Grace  et  Latine.  Oxonii  e  Typographeo  Academico,  1837.  2 
vols.  8vo. 

A  beautifully  and  accurately  printed  edition  of  Josephus's  His- 
tory of  the  Jewish  war,  for  which  Biblical  students  are  much  in- 
debted to  the  learned  principal  of  St.  Alban's  Hall.  The  various 
readings  of  six  hitherto  uncollated  MSS.  are  given,  three  of  which 
are  in  the  Laurentian  Library  at  Florence,  of  the  eleventh,  twelfth, 
and  fourteenth  centuiles  ;  two,  of  the  tenth  and  twelfth  centuries, 
arc  in  the  Rojal  Library  at  Paris  ;  and  one,  of  the  twelfth  century, 
is  in  the  Library  of  Sir  Tho.  Phillips,  Bart.,  which  was  foimerly  in 
tlie  possession  of  the  Earl  of  Guildford.  The  Latin  Version  is  that 
of  Sigismond  Geleiiius,  published  at  Geneva  in  1C35. 

Page  103.  col.  \.     After  line  16.  add 

5*.  Rabbi  David  Kimchi's  Commentary  upon  the  Prophecies 
of  Zachariah,  translated  from  the  Hebrew.  With  Notes  and 
Observations  on  the  passages  relating  to  the  Messiah.  By  the 
Rev.  A.  Mc.  Caul,  A.M.  [Now  D.D.]     London,  1837.  8vo. 

"  Kimchi  loft  a  commentary  on  most  of  the  books  of  Scripture, 
which,  though  written  six  hundred  years  ago,  will  bear  a  compari- 
son with  any  that  has  appeared,  even  in  the  nineteenth  century.  .  . 
To  the  reader  of  the  English  Bible,  Kimchi  is  also  of  value,  as  he 
will  find  the  translation  generally  confirmed,  and  see  how  very 
little  that  Rabbi  wo\ild  have  altered."  (Introd.  p.  viii.)  For  this 
specimen  of  Kimchi's  commentary,  Bible  students  are  greatly  in- 
debted to  the  Rev.  Dr.  Mc.  Caul ;  who  is  well  known  to  be  one  of 
the  most  profoundly  learned  men  in  Talmudical  and  Rabbinical 
literature  that  can  be  found  in  England  or  in  Europe.  The  value 
of  this  volume  is  greatly  enhanced  by  the  important  critical  and 
controversial  observations  with  which  he  has  enriched  it. 


COMMENTATORS    ON    THE    OLD    TESTAMENT. 

Page  109.  col.  2.     After  line  35.  add 

22.  La  Bible.  Traduction  Nouvelle,  avec  I'Hebreu  en  regard, 
accompagne  des  Points  Voyelles  et  des  Accens  Toniques,  avec 
dos  notes  philologiques,  geographiques  et  litteraires,  et  les  princi- 
paks  Variantes  de  la  Version  des  Septante  et  du  Texte  Samari- 
tain.     Par  S.  Cahen.     Vols.  I — X.     Paris,  1831-38.  8vo. 

The  ■juthorof  this  translation  is  a  Jew,  who  of  course  has  given 
Jewish  interpretations  to  those  predictions  which  relate  to  the 
Messiah.  Many  of  the  notes  are  very  useful,  but  many  also  are 
tainted  with  German  neologism.  The  translation  is  very  close  i 
and,  the  Hebrew  text  being  placed  opposite,  it  is  an  excellent  aid 
to  the  grammatical  study  of  the  Old  Testament.  The  ten  volumes, 
which  have  been  published,  comprise  the  Pentateuch  and  historical 
books,  as  far  as  the  second  book  of  Chronicles,  and  the  propheciea 
of  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah.  The  typographical  execution  of  the  work 
is  very  neat. 

23.  La  Sainte  Bible  en  Latin  et  en  Frangais  accompagnee  d« 
Prefaces,  de  Dissertations,  de  Notes  explicatives  ct  de  Reflection^ 
Morales  tirees  en  partie  de  Dom  Calmet,  I'Abbe  de  Vence,  Men(X 
chius,  Cairieres,  de  Sacy,  et  autres  Auteurs,  par  M.  I'Abbe  J.  B, 
Glaihe.     Paris,  1835-1838.  3  tomes  4to.  avec  Atlas. 

Page  109.  col.  2.    Last  line  hut  3.  add 
3*.  Annotations  upon  the  Old  and  New  Testament.     By  Joha 
Trapp.     London,  1654—62.     5  vols,  folio. 

This  work  contains  many  judicious  observations,  collected  from 
various  sources ;  but  they  are  for  the  most  part  expressed  in  un« 
couth  language.  It  is  very  scarce  and  dear,  and  is  seldom  to  be 
found  complete,  the  several  volumes  of  which  it  consists  having 
been  published  at  different  times  :  viz.  the  Annotations  on  the  Mi- 
nor Prophets  in  1654  ;  on  the  New  Testament,  in  1656;  on  Ezra 
Nehemiah,  Job,  and  the  Psalms,  in  1657  ;  on  the  books  of  Proverbs 
to  Daniel  inclusive,  in  1660;  and  on  the  Pentateuch  to  the  second 
book  of  Chronicles  inclusive,  in  1662. 

Page  111.  col.  2.     After  line  18,  to  the  account  of  Dodd's  Com' 
mentary  on  the  Bible,  add 

♦  The  name  of  John  Locke,  in  the  title  page  of  this  commentary, 
is  a  misnomer.  The  greater  part  of  the  notes  were  written  by  the 
friend  and  contemporary  of  Locke,  the  Rev.  and  truly  learned  Dr. 
Cudworth ;  whose  manuscripts  being  sold  by  Lord  Marsham  In 
1762  to  Mr.  R.  Davis,  a  bookseller  in  Piccadilly  (who  cohcluded 
that  they  were  the  MSS.  of  Locke),  "  it  became  an  object  of  con- 
.sideration  with  him,  as  a  tradesman,  how  to  convert  them  to  ih^. 


174 

best  advantage 


ADDENDA  TO  THE  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  ATTENDIX. 


They  contained  among  other  things,  sundry  notes 
on  Scripture.  About  the  same  time  a  number  of  manuscript  scrip- 
tural notes,  by  Dr.  Watcrbnd,  came  into  the  hands  of  tlie  book- 
sellers. The  business  therefore  was,  by  the  aid  of  such  cele- 
brated names,  as  Mr.  Locke  and  Dr.  Waterland,  to  fabricate  a  new 
Bible  with  annotations.  At  a  consultation  it  was  suggested  that, 
though  these  names  were  very  important,  it  would  be  necessary  to 
the  complete  success  of  the  design,  to  join  with  them  some  popular 
living  character.  Dr.  Dodd  was  then  in  the  height  of  his  reputa- 
tion as  a  preacher,  and  accordingly  he  was  fixed  upon  to  carry  on 
the  undertaking.  This  was  the  origin  of  Dr.  Dodd's  Bible."  Bio- 
graphia  Britannica  by  Kippis,  article  Cudworth,  vol.  iv.  p.  649.) 

Page  114.  col.  1.  After  line  47.  aild 
A  new  edition  of  Dr.  Boothroyd's  version  of  the  Bible,  with 
notes,  was  published  in  1S35,  in  royal  8vo.  The  work  has  been 
carefully  corrected  throughout :  the  practical  reflections  which  were 
in  the  first  edition  are  omitted.  In  its  present  greatly  improved 
state,  this  work  cuntains  a  great  mass  of  most  important  and  criti- 
cal results  within  a  comparatively  short  compass:  it  is  both  a  cheap 
and  a  beautifully  printed  volume. 

Page  114.  col.  2.  Last  line  but  14.  add 
38*.  A  Commentary  on  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  in  which 
the  Sacred  Text  is  illustrated  with  copious  Notes,  theological,  hi.^- 
torical  and  critical ;  with  improvements  and  reflections  at  the  end 
of  each  chapter.  By  the  Hev.  Joseph  Sltcliffe,  A.M.  Lon- 
don, 1834-35.  Second  Edition,  carefully  corrected.  1838-39. 
2  vols.  Imperial  8vo. 

The  text  of  our  authorized  translation  is  not  given  in  this  Ci'-n- 
nuntary,  which  is  equally  adapted  for  the  family  and  the  study, 
and  embodies  the  result  of  the  author's  labours  for  about  fort}- 
years.  During  that  period  he  states  that  he  carefully  studied  the 
uriginal  Scriptures  \  ith  versions,  and  the  comments  of  the  fathers, 
Chrysostom,  Theophylact,  and  Jerome,  and  the  more  recent  criti- 
cal works  of  Bcza,  Cappel,  Calvin,  Cameron,  Drusius,  Estius,  Gro- 
tius,  Lighlfoot,  Marlorat,  Menochius,  Tirinus,  Vatablus  and  others, 
who  have  applied  their  profound  learning  to  the  elucidation  of  the 
Sacred  Volume.  To  English  Commentators,  the  author's  references 
are  very  few,  "  lest  he  should  be  a  plagiarist  from  others,  which" 
(he  truly  observes)  "  real  industry  has  no  need  to  be."  Many 
valuable  elucidations  of  dillicult  passages  will  be  found  in  this 
■work,  which  are  passed  over  in  larger  commentaries.  The  reflec- 
tion! at  the  end  of  each  chapter  aie  characterized  by  simplicity  of 
diction  combined  with  earnest  piety.  Four  well  executed  maps 
and  a  good  general  index  add  to  the  value  of  this  unassuming  com- 
mentary. 

39.  The  Comprehensive  Commentary  of  the  Holy  Bible;  con- 
tainini?  the  Text  according  to  the  authorized  Version ;  Scott's 
marginal  references ;  Henry's  Commentary  condensed  but  given 
Bub.stanti.illy ;  the  practical  observations  of  Dr.  Scott,  with  exten- 
sive Critical  and  Philological  Notes  from  Scott,  Doddridge,  Clarke, 
Poole,  Patrick,  Lowth,  Burder,  Harmer,  Calmet,  Stuart,  the 
RosenmiiUcrs,  Kuinoel,  Bloomfield,  and  many  others.  Edited  by 
the  Rev.  William  Jenks,  D.D.  assisted  by  the  Rev.  L.  J.  Hoadley, 
and  J.  W.  Jenks,  M.A.  Brattleboro',  Vermont,  1834-38.  5  vols. 
Imperial  8vo. 

This  compilation  exhibits  a  condensation  of  all  that  is  valuable 
ifl  the  deservedly  esteemed  commentaries  of  Henry  and  Scott  on 
the  entire  Bible,  and  of  Doddridge  on  the  New  Testament.  The 
notes  are  comiiled  from  the  various  critics  enumerated  in  the  title 
j'l.ge ;  and,  in  general,  the  selection  is  made  with  judgment. 

40.  The  Condcnsctl  Commc-ntary  and  Family  Exposition  of 
the  Holy  Bible:  containing  the  best  criticisms  of  the  most  valua- 
ble Biblical  Writers,  with  practical  reflections,  and  marginal  refer- 
ences, chronology,  indexes,  &c.  &c.  By  tlic  Rev.  Ingram  Cob- 
Bi!*,  M.A.     London,  1837.     Imperial  8vo.  and'royal  4to. 

This  work  corrc'ponds  with  its  title  page;  it  is  literally  a  con- 
'eiistd  Commentary,  der.ved  from  the  best  accessible  sources.  The 
notes  are  selected,  with  much  brevity,  but  very  judiciously,  and 
!*te  partly  critical  and  explanatory,  the  others  arc  practical.  The 
icsults  of  the  reseaichcs  of  nearly  two  hundred  writers,  British 
and  Foreign,  arc  here  given  in  a  very  small  compass.  The  typo- 
graphical execution  is  singularly  distinct  and  beautiful. 

41.  The  Pictorial  Bible;  being  the  Old  and  New  Testaments 
according  to  the  authorized  Version  ;  illustrated  with  many  hun- 
dred wood-cuts,  representing  the  Hi«lorical  Events  after  celebrated 
Pictures  ;  the  Landscape  Scenes  from  original  drawings  or  from 
authentic  engravings;  and  the  subjec^ts  of  Natural  History,  Cos- 
tume, and  Aiiti(|uities,  from  the  be«l  sourroH.  To  which  arc 
added.  Original  Notes,  chiefly  explanatory  of  the  Engravitigs  and 
of  such  Passages  connected  with  the  History,  Gooi;rapl)y,  Natural 
History,  and  Antiquities  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  as  require  ol)- 
servation.  London.  ltj3(>-38.  4  vols,  super  royal  8vo. ;  also  in 
4  vols.  4  to. 

The  title  of  this  work  fully  expresses  its  design.    The  Old  Tes- 


tament fills  the  first  three  volumes,  and  the  New  Testament  th« 
fourth.  The  typographical  execution,  especially  of  the  quarto 
copies,  is  very  beautiful. 

Page  115.  col.  1.    After  line  45.  add 
6.  The  Pocket  Commentary,  consisting  of  Critical  Notes  ovS, 
the  Old  Testament,  original  and  selected  from  the  most  celebratctf^ 
Critics  and    Commentators.     By  David  Davidsox,  Edinburgh, 
1836.     2  vok.  18mo. 


COMMEXTATOaS    OX    DETACHEO    books  of  THF.  old  TE8TAMIXT, 
PENTATEUCH,    AND    HISTORICAL    BOOKS. 

Page  115.  col.  1.  L<t«/  line  but  9.  add 
2*.  The  Laws  of  Moses  viewed  in  connexion  with  the  His- 
tory and  Character  of  the  Jews,  with  a  defence  of  the  Book  of 
Joshua  against  Professor  Leo,  of  Berlin  :  being  the  Hulsean  Lec- 
ture for  1833.  To  which  is  added  an  Appendix,  containing  Re- 
marks on  the  Arrangement  of  the  Historical  Scriptures  adoptedj 
by  Gescnius,  De  M''ette,  and  others.  By  Henry  John  Rose,  B.Dd 
London  and  Cambridge,  1834.  8vo. 

For  an  analysis  of  this  most  able  vindication  of  the  Pentateuch 
and  Book  of  Joshua  from  the  attacks  of  German  Neologians,  see  the 
British  Critic,  No.  xxxiv.  for  April  1835,  pp.  310-332. 

Page  116.  col.  2.     After  line  23.  add 

32.  The  Book  of  Genesis  with  Explanatory  and  Practical  Ob- 
scrvHtions.  By  the  Rev.  R.  W.  Sibtuorp,  B.D.  London,  1835. 
Imperial  8vo. 

33.  A  Genealogical,  Chronological,  Historical  and  Topogra- 
phical Exposition  of  the  Tenth  Chapter  of  Genesis:  being  a 
V^ievv  of  the  Posterity  of  Sheni,  Ham,  and  Japheth.  Co:npiW 
from  the  most  authentic  sources.  By  William  Parkix.  Vol.  I. 
Sheffield,  1837.  12mo. 

This  work  is  designed  to  be  completed  in  two  volumes.  The 
first  contains  the  settlements  of  the  Descendants  of  Japheth  and 
Shem,  with  a  supplementary  account  of  Ishmael  and  his  descend- 
ants, the  Arabs.  The  second  volume  is  to  contain  the  settlements 
of  the  Descendants  of  Ham. 

34.  Notes,  Critical  and  Practical,  on  the  Book  of  Genesis.  By 
George  Blsh,  A.M.     New  York.  1838.  8vo. 

Page  116.  col.  2.     La.it  line  but  15.  add 
34*.  Notes,  Critical  and  Practical,  on  the  Books  of  Joshua 
and  Judges.     By  George  Bcsn,  A.M.     New  York,  1838.  8vo. 


JOB. 

Page  1 18.  col.  2.  After  line  5.  add 
80*.  A  New  Version  of  the  Book  of  Job;  with  Expository 
Notes,  and  an  Introduction  on  the  spirit,  composition,  and  author 
of  the  Book,  by  Dr.  Friedrich  Willielm  Carl  U.mbueit,  Prof,  of 
Theology  in  Heidelberg.  Translated  from  the  German  by  the 
Rev,  John  Hamilton  Grey,  M.A.  Edinburgh,  1836-7.  2  vols. 
12mo.  [also  forming  vols.  xvi.  and  xix.  of  the  Edinburgh  Bibli- 
cal Cabinet.] 

81*.  Tlie  Book  of  the  Patriarch  Job,  translated  from  the  Ori- 
ginal Hebrew,  as  nearly  as  possible  in  the  terms  and  style  of  the 
authorized  English  Version.  To  which  is  prefixed  an  Introduc- 
tion on  the  History,  Times,  Country,  Friends,  <&c  of  the  Patri- 
arch ;  with  some  strictures  on  the  Views  of  Bishop  Warburton, 
and  of  the  Rationalists  of  Germany,  on  the  same  subject.  And 
to  which  is  appended  a  Commentary,  critical  and  cxcgctica).  By 
Samuel  Lee,  D.D.     London,  1837.  8vo, 


127* 


PSALMS. 

Page  1 20. 'co/.  2.     Last  line  iu/  21.  add 
.\  Manual  of  the  Book  of  Psalms:  or  the  Subject-Con- 


tents of  all  the  Psalms,  by  Martin  Luthf.h.  Translated  into 
English  [from  tlie  German]  by  Uie  Rev.  Henry  Cole.  London, 
1837.  8vo. 

128*.  The  Book  of  Psalms :  a  New  Translation,  with  NottM 
explanatory  and  critical.  By  William  Walfohu.  London, 
1837.  8vo. 

This  volume  contains  a  version  of  the  entire  book  of  Psalms, 
formed  on  the  basis  of  the  authorized  version  ;  from  which  the 
translator  has  deviated  only  where  it  appeared  to  be  necessary,  in 
order  to  render  the  Hebrew  text  accurately.  To  each  psalm  is  pre- 
fixed a  concise  introduction  ;  and  a  few  explanatory  notes  arc  sub- 
joined ;  the  more  criiical  remarks  being  placed  at  the  end  of  the 
Volume,  together  with  an  Appendix,  containing  brief  dissertations 
on  the  most  diiricult  topics  of  inquiiy  relating  to  the  interpretation 
of  the  Book  of  Psalmt.  Many  ditllcult  or  obscure  passages  arc 
here  happily  clucid.UeJ. 

129*.  A  Commentary  on  the  Book  of  Psalms,  on  a  plan  em 


ADDENDA  TO  THE  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  APPENDIX. 


175 


limcing  the  Hebrew  Text,  with  a  new  literal  -version.  By  George 
Bush,  Professor  of  Hebrew  and  Oriental  Literature  in  the  New 
York  City  University.     New  York,  1838.  8vo. 

This  work  will  be  very  useful  to  Biblical  Students,  who  com- 
mence their  Hebrew  Studies  with  the  Bosk  of  Psalms.  "  In  the 
literal  version  appended  to  the  original  text,  the  words  of  the  es- 
tablished translation  have  been  always  retained,  whereygr  they 
appeared  to  be  the  most  suitable  ;  no  departures  being  mSde  from 
it  with  a  view  to  greater  elegance  or  euphonj'.  The  notes  are  de- 
signed principally  to  elucidate  the  force,  import  and  pertinency,  of 
the  words  and  phrases  of  the  original,  by  the  citation  of  parallel 
instances,  and  to  throw  light  upon  the  images  and  allusions  of  the 
sacred  writers  by  reference  to  the  customs,  manners,  laws,  geogra- 
phv,  &c.  of  the  east."  (Andover  Biblical  Repository,  vol.  v.  p. 
239.) 

130*.  Les  Psaumes  de  David,  traduits  par  M.  Dargauh. 
Paris,  1838.  8vo. 

This  is  a  faithful  and  elegant  version  of  the  Psalms,  the  author  of 
which  (a  member  of  the  Romish  communion)  has  not  confined  him- 
self to  a  mere  translation  of  the  Latin  Vulgate  version,  but  has 
consulted  the  Hebrew  Text,  besides  availing  himself  of  several 
previous  modern  translations.  In  some  of  his  interpretations  of  the 
Messianic  Psalms,  he  coincides  with  Bishop  Horsley. 

131*.  Comuientarius  Historicus  Criticus  in  Psalmos,  in  usum 
maxinie  Academiarum  udornatus.  Scripsit  Franc.  Jos.  Valent. 
Doniinic.  Mauheh.     Lipsise,  1833.  8vo. 


COMSrENTATOnS    ox    THE    PnOPHETICAI.    BOOKS. 

Page.  122.  col.  2.  Last  line  but  21.  add 
Mr.  Noyes's  translation  of  the  Hebrew  Prophets  is  now  com- 
pleted in  3  vols.  Svo.  Boston,  1833-1837.  The  notes  are  very 
iji'ief ;  but  it  is  to  be  regretted  "  that  some  things  are  to  be  found 
in  them,  which  show  that  Mr.  Noj-es  has  a  very  low  opinion  of  the 
inspiration  of  the  Bible,  and  which  will  preclude  a  large  class  of 
readers  from  obtaining  much  instruction  from  what  is  really  valua- 
ble."   (American  Biblical  Repository,  vol.  xi.  (Jan.  1838),  p.  260.) 

165*.  Christologie  des  Alten  Testaments  und  Commentar 
iiber  die  Messianischen  Weissagungen  der  Propheten.  Von  E. 
W.  Hexgstkxberg.     Berlin,  1829-35.  3  vols.  Svo. 

Professor  Hengstenberg  has  long  been  known  in  Germany,  as  one 
of  the  ablest  and  most  learned  deieuriers  of  orthodox  and  pious 
Christianity,  against  the  unhallowed  and  rash  criticisms  of  the  mo- 
dern neologians  of  that  countrj'.  The  first  volume  contains  the 
general  introduction.  Messianic  prophecies  in  the  Pentateuch  and  in 
the  Psalms,  the  Godhead  of  the  Messiah  in  the  Old  Testament,  the 
proofs  of  a  suffering  and  atoning  Messiah,  &c..  and  the  Messianic 
prophecies  in  Isaiah.  The  second  volume  embraces  the  seventy 
weeks  of  Daniel  and  the  book  of  Zechariah ;  and  the  third  com- 
prises the  Messianic  productions  in  Hosea,  Joel,  Amos,  Haggai, 
Malachi,  Jeremiah,  and  Ezekiel. 

166*.  Christology  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  a  Commentary 
on  the  predictions  of  the  Messiah  by  the  Prophets.  By  E.  W. 
Hengstenberg,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Theology  in  the  University  of 
Berlin.  Translated  from  the  German  by  Reuel  Keith.  D.D. 
Alexandria,  D  [istrict  of]  C  [olumbia.]     Vol.  I.  1836. 

This  volume  corresponds  with  the  first  volume  of  Dr.  Hengsten- 
berg's  original  treatise.  "The  translator  has  accomplished  his 
work  in  a  faithful  and  scholarlike  manner."  (Andover  Biblical 
Repository,  Oct.  1836,  p.  504.)  It  is  to  -be  hoped  that  Dr.  Keith 
will  be  encouraged  to  complete  his  arduous  and  valuable  under- 
taking. 

167*.  Commentarius  Grammaticus  Criticus  in  Jesaiam,  in 
usum  Academiarum  adornatus.  Scripsit  Franc.  Jos.  Valent. 
Dominic.  MAcnEn.     Lipsiae,  1836.  Svo. 

Page  124.  coL  1.     After  line  32.  add 

188*.  De  utriusque  Recensionis  Vaticiniorum  Jeremise,  Graeca; 
Alexandrinae  et  Hebraicse  Masoretica;,  indole  et  Origine  Commeu- 
tatio  Critica.  Scripsit  Franciscus  Carolus  Movers.  Hamburgi, 
1837.  4to. 

189*.  Jercmias  Librorum  Sacrorum  Interpres  atque  Vindex. 
Scripsit  Augustus  KcEpr.n.     Berolini,  1837.  Svo. 

190*.  Lamentationes  Jeremite  critice  et  exegetice  illustrate, 
cum  praemissis  disputationibus  historico-criticis  tribus:  auctore 
Chr.  H.  Kalkar.     Hafnice,  1836.  Svo. 

Page  125.  col.  1.    After  line  20.  add 

211*.  Daniel's  Prophecj-  of  the  Seventy  Weeks.  By  a  Lay- 
man.    London,  1836.  12mo. 

The  learned  anonymous  author  of  this  treatise  has  endeavoured 
to  render  the  interpretation  of  this  difficult  prophecy  simple,  upon 
the  two  following  suppositions,  viz.  1.  That  Xerxes  was  the  king 
spoken  of  by  Ezra,  under  the  title  Darius  (a  sovereign),  for 
which  he  thinks  there  is  strong  ground  of  presumption,  on  com- 


By  James  FAnauiiARsox,  LL.D.     Lon- 
Last  line  but  28.  add 


paring  Scripture  with  profane  history.  2.  That  the  Seventy  Weeks 
are  weeks  of  performance  of  the  temporal  Covenant  with  Abraham, 
that  his  seed  should  possess  the  land  of  Canaan.  This  Covenant 
was  peiformed  for  seven  weeks,  and  sixty-two  weeks,  till  the  birth 
of  Messiah,  when  the  sceptre  departed,  and  the  Covenant  was  sus- 
pended by  the  Romans  taking  possession  of  the  land.  The  Cove- 
nant was  "  confirmed  with  many  for  one  week,"  when  the  Jews 
ejected  the  Romans  for  seven  years  previous  to  their  final  destruc- 
tion. 

212*.  A  new  Illustration  of  the   latter  Part  of  Daniel's  last 
Vision  and  Prophecy, 
don,  1838.  Svo. 

Page  126.  col.  1. 

OBADIAH. 

239*.  Friederici  Plux  Observationes  in  Textum  et  Versiones, 
muxime  Grsecas,  Obadioe  et  Habacuci.     Haunis.  1796.  Svo. 

240*.  ObadiiB  prophet33  Oraculum  in  Idumsos,  hujus  populi 
historia  perscripta,  et  versionibus  antiquissimis  commentariisque 
tam  patrum  ecclesiasticorum  quam  interpretum  recentium  adhi- 
bitis,  in  Linguam  Latinam  translatum  et  enucleatum  a  Carolo 
Ludovico  Hexdeweuk.  Regiomonti  Prussorum,  1836,  Svo. 

Page  126.  col.  1.     Last  line  but  11.  add 
242*.  De  vera  libri  Jona;  intcrpretatione  Commentatio  Exege- 
tica.     Quara. ...  scripsit  Godofredus  Laberexz.     Fuldse,  1836. 
Svo. 


commentators  on  the  new  testament  asd  on  betached 
books  thereof. 

Page  131.  col.  1.  After  line  39.  add 
53*.  The  Book  of  the  New  Covenant  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour 
Jesus  Christ :  being  a  Critical  Revision  of  the  Text  and  Transla- 
tion of  the  English  Version  of  the  New  Testament,  with  the  aid 
of  most  ancient  .Manuscripts  unknown  to  the  age  in  which  that 
Version  was  put  forth  by  authority.  [By  Granville  Penn,  Esq.] 
London,  1836.  Svo. 

53*.  Annotations  to  the  Book  of  the  New  Covenant,  with  an 
expository  preface ;  with  which  is  reprinted  I.  L.  Hug  de  Antiqui- 
tate  Codicis  Vatican!  Commentatio.  By  Granville  Penn,  Esq. 
London,  1836.  Svo. 

53**.  Supplemental  Annotations  to  the  Book  of  the  New  Co- 
venant :  with  a  brief  Exposure  of  the  Strictures  of  the  Theolo- 
gical Re\'iewer  for  July,  1837.  By  Granville  Penn,  Esq.  Lon- 
don, l&iS.  Svo. 

"  In  the  first  volume  of  this  work,  Mr.  Penn  has  revised  with 
considerable  diligence  the  authorized  version,  in  the  hope  that  he 
may  put  every  English  reader  in  possession  of  '  the  pure  text  free 
from  all  spurious  accretions,  and  adapted  to  the  level  of  minds  least 
practised  and  disposed  to  attention  and  reflection.'  The  second 
volume  consists  of  a  preface,  concerning  some  of  the  most  fruitful 
sources  of  error  in  ancient  MSS.  and  the  principles  on  which  the 
present  revision  has  been  made ;  a  reprint  of  a  tract  of  I.  L.  Hug 
on  the  Antiquity  of  the  Codex  Vaticanus ;  the  paramount  authoritj- 
of  that  MS.  being  asserted  by  Mr.  Penn ;  and  a  body  of  original 
annotations  confined  chiefly  to  the  elucidation  of  the  text,  and  the 
grounds  of  its  departure  from  the  received  version  ;  the  perusal  of 
which  cannot  fail  to  give  the  reader  a  high  opinion  of  the  diligence, 
candour,  and  piety  of  the  author."  (British  Magazine,  vol.  xi. 
p.  56.) 

Page  132.  col.  1.     After  line  42.  add 

13*.  Notes,  Explanatoiy  and  Practical,  on  the  Gospels.  By 
Albert  Barnes.  New  York,  1833.  2  vols.  12mo.  Reprinted  at 
London,  1834,  ISmo.,  with  a  few  retrenchments. 

14*.  Notes  on  the  more  prominent  Difficulties  of  the  Four 
Gospels,  designed  for  general  use.  By  John  Page,  D.D.  Lon- 
don, 1834.  12mo. 

Page  132.  col.  1.    Last  line  but  3.  add 

23*.  Specimen  Critico-Theologicum,  quo  fides  et  auctoritas 
Matthaji  in  referenda  Jesu  oratione,  Evang.  c.  v.  vi.  vii.,  indicator. 
Auctore  Horatio  NiebuurFERF.     Trajecti  Batavorum,  1799.  Svo. 

24*.  Recentiores  de  Authentia  Evangelii  Matthaei  Quaestiones 
recensentur  et  dijudicantur ;  simulque  exponitur  Ratio  earum 
qusestionum  Apologetica.  Commentatio  Theologica.  Scripsit 
Rudolphus  Ernestus  Klenep..     Gottingte,  1832.  4to. 

25*.  Exposition,  Doctrinal  and  Philological,  of  Christ's  Ser- 
mon on  the  Mount,  according  to  the  Gospel  of  Matthew ;  intended 
likewise  as  a  help  towards  the  formation  of  a  pure  Biblical  Sys- 
tem of  Faith  and  Morals.  Translated  from  the  German  of  Dr. 
F.  A.  G.  Tholcck,  by  the  Rev.  Robert  Menzies.  Edinburgh, 
1834-37.  2  vols.  12mo.:  also  forming  Vols.  VL  and  XXI.  of  the 
Edinburgh  Biblical  Cabinet. 


176  ADDENDA  TO  THE  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  APPENDIX. 

2<5».  The  Prophetic  Discourse  on  the  Mount  of  Olives,  [Matt.  I  109*.  Notes,  Explanatory  and  Practical,  on  tlie  Epistle  to  the 
xxiv.  Mirk  XIII.  and  Luke  xxi.]  hisioricallv  and  critioally  illiis-  ;  Romans.  By  Albert  BmxKS.  Fifth  Edition,  revised  and  cor- 
trated.     With  Considerations  on  the  unfulliU'i'd  portion  of  it.    By    reeled.     New  York,  183G.  12mo. 

Cambridge   and 


a   Memlier   of  the   University   of  Cambridge 
London,  1834.  8vo. 

Page  132.  col.  2.     L(at  line  hul  2."),  add 

32*.  Obser\'ationes  Critics  in  priora  duo  Evangelii  Luce  ca- 
pita. Edidit  H.  Reitekhahl.  Londini  Gothoruni,  1825.  Tliree 
jiaris,  forniing  one  volume  4to. 

Pu<re  133.  Oil.  1.     Last  line  but  10.  add 

48*.  A  Commentary  on  the  Gospel  of  John  by  F.  A.  G.  Tiio- 
trcK,  D.D.  Professor  of  Theology  in  the  University  of  Halle. 
Translated  from  the  German  by  the  Rev.  .\.  Kaufman.  Boston 
[Massachusetts],  183C.  Sfo. 

"  The  tnnsliti'.n  of  Tholuck's  Commentary  on  John  will  help  to 
do  away  the  opinion  still  too  prevalent,  thst  the  writings  of  Ger- 
man thcoloj^ians  are  valuable  for  little  else  than  as  repusitorics  of 
exegetical  learning.  The  commentary  on  John,  thoujjh  professedly 
exegelical  in  its  character,  contains  much  that  appeals  directly  to 
the  spiritual  apprehension  of  Christians;  much  that  is  not  drawn 
from  learned  authorities,  but  from  communion  with  the  writer's 
own  heart,  and  with  the  Spirit  of  God."  Andovcr  Biblical  Reposi- 
tory, vol.  vii.  April  1836,  pp.  440,411.) 

Page  134.  cul.  1.     After  line  12.  add 

62*.  Do  Tcmporum  in  Actis  Apostolorum  Ratione.  Scripsit 
Rudolphus  .\x(;eh.     Lipsia;,  1834.  8vo. 

63*.  A.  G.  HovFMAXX,  Commentatio  in  Orationem  Petri  in 
.\ctis  Apostolorum  c.  11.  v.  44.     Jenre,  1834.  4to. 

64*.  Notes,  Explanatory  and  Practical,  on  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles.     By  .\lbert  Bauses.     New  York,  1836.  12nio. 

65*.    De  Paulo    .\postolo   ej  usque   Adversariis  Commentatio. 
Scripsit  Dr.  E.  C.  ScuAnLixn.     Hauniae,   1836.  8vo. 
Page  135.  cul.  2.     After  line  1 1 .  add 

86*.  Doctrina  Pauli  apostoli  de  Vi  Mortis  Chriiti  satisfactoria. 
Scripsit  L.  F.  C.  TisciiExnonr.     Lipsix,  1837.  8vo. 

8«*.  A  free  and  explanatory'  Version  of  the  Epistles.  By  the 
}le\.  Edward  Baulf.k.     London,  1837.  8vo. 

Page  136.  col.  2.    After  the  last  line,  add 

105*.  Exposition  of  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Roman.s  ;  with 
Extrachi  from  the  Exegetical  Works  of  the  Fathers  and  Reform- 
ers. 'I'ranslated  from  the  original  German  of  Dr.  Fred.  Aug. 
Gottreu  Tholuck,  Profes.sor  of  Theology  in  the  Royal  University 
of  Halle.  By  the  Rev.  Robert  Mexzies.  Edinburgh,  1833-36. 
2  ToU.  12mo. 

This  work  forms  Vols.  V.  and  XII.  of  the  Edinburgh  Biblical 
Cabinet.  The  learned  author,  Professor  Tholuck,  has  had  the  dis- 
tinguished honour  of  standing  foremost  among  the  defenders  of 
■ancient  orthodoxy  against  the  modern  ncologians  of  Germany:  and 
"  the  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  is  the  most  im- 
portant work  which  has  hitherto  proceeded  from  his  pen.  The 
universal  approbation  it  has  received  from  the  friends  of  evangelical 
truth,  and  the  fierce  hostility  with  which  it  has  been  a'ssailed  by 
the  rationalist  party  in  Germany,"  (where,  notwithstanding,  it  has 
passed  through  many  editions,)  "  aflord  the  most  satisfactory  evi- 
dence of  its  distinguished  woith."  (Translator's  preface,  p.  xii.) 
Professor  Stuart,  in  the  preface  to  his  admirable  work  on  the  epistle 
to  the  Romans  (p.  vii.),  has  expressed  the  highest  approbation  of 
Ur.  Tholuck's  labours,  to  which  he  acknowledges  himscl("mo<t 
of  all  indebted."  The  purchaser  of  Professor  Stuart's  work  will 
find  it  desirable  to  study  Dr.  T.'s  Kxposition  in  connection  with  it. 
The  translator  has  ably  performed  his  difflcult  task,  and  has  enrich- 
ed the  volume  with  an  instructive  preface. 

106*.  Exposition  of  ihc  Epistle  to  the  Romans.  With  Re- 
marks on  the  (commentaries  of  Dr.  Macknight,  Professor  Tho- 
luck, and  Profi-ssor  Mosos  iStuart  By  Robert  Haliiank,  Esq. 
London  and  Edinburgh,  1835-37.  2  vols.  12mo. 

As  Mr.  Ilaldanc  had  commented  nither  severely  on  Dr.  Tholuck, 
the  translator  of  the  professor's  Kxposition  in  1838  publishcl  an 
"  Answer  to  Mr.  Robert  Haldanc's  Strictures,"  in  8vo.  Tholuck 
rejects  the  Itorrihile  decretum  of  Calvin,  which  Mr.  Hahlanc  fully 
receives.     Mr.  .Menzits  has  temperately  replied  to  his  strictures. 

107*.  A  Commentary  on  the  Ej)istle  to  the  Romans,  designed 
for  Students  of  the  English  Bible.  By  Churlen  HonnK,  Professor 
of  Biblical  Literature  in  the  [Preshyierian]  Theological  Seminary 
at  Princeton,  [New  Jersey].     Pliiladeljdiia,  18:?.').  8vo. 

An  abrirljtment  of  this  commentary  on  the  Kpistic  to  the  Romans 
WIS  publuhcd  by  the  author  in  1836,  which  was  reprinted  by  the 
Religious  Tract  Society  of  London  in.  1837,  iu  one  vohiinc,  12mo. 

108*.  Pauli  ad  Rumanos  Epistola.  Rcccnsuit,  ct  cum  com- 
mcntariis  perpetuis  didit,  Car,  Frid.  August  Fiuthcui.  Tom 
I.     Lipsis,  lb36.  8vQ. 


Page  137.  col.  1.     Lust  line  but  24.  add 

118*.  A  Commentary  on  Uie  Epistles  of  Paul  to  the  Corinth- 
ians by  Dr.  Gustav.  Bii.luotii,  Professor  of  Philosophy  in  the 
Univcr/ity  of  Halle.  Translated  from  the  German  with  additional 
notes  by  the  Rev.  W.  Lindsay  Alcxamlcr,  M.A.  Edinburgh, 
1837-38.  2  vols.  12mo.  Also  as  vols.  XXI.  and  XX 11.  of  the 
Edinburgh  Biblical   Cabinet. 

119*.  Notes,  explanatory  and  practical,  on  the  first  Epistle  of 
Paul  to  the  Corinthians.  By  Albert  Bakxks.  New  York,  1838. 
12nio. 

120*.  Remarks  on  the  Twelfth  and  Fourteenth  Chapters  of  St. 
Paul's  first  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians:  with  other  Observations 
on  the  Use  and  Abuse  of  the  Gift  of  Tongues.  By  the  Rev.  H. 
HAnniNGE,  B.A.     London,  1836.  8vo. 

This  tract  eliicidites  certain  wonb  and  difUcuU  passages  in  thi 
third  and   thirteei  th  cb:ipteis  of  St.  Paul's  first  epistle  to  tlie  C 
rinthians. 

Page  137.  col.  2.     After  line  21.  add 
123*.  Commentaire  sur  I'Epitre  de  Saint  Paul  aux  Galates. 
Par  Pierre  Saudinoux.     Paris,  1837.  Svo. 

Page  137.  col.  2.  Last  line  but  31.  add 
129*.  Exegese  des  Epltrcs  do  Saint  Paul  aux  Philippiens  et 
aux  Colossiens,  autographiee  d'apres  les  cours  lus  a  PEcole  de 
Theologic  de  Geneve.  Par  F.  W.  Steireii.  Paris,  1837.  8vo. 
129*.  Commentarius  Perpetuus  in  Pauli  Epistolam  ad  Philip- 
penses ;  auctore  Wesselo  Alberto  van  Henoel.  Amstelajdarui, 
1838.  Svo. 

Page  138.  col.  1.     After  lad  line  but  12.  add 
146*.  Pauli  Epi.itola  prima  ad  Timotheum  Grscc,  cum  Com- 
mentorio.     Edidit  G.  E.  Leo.     Lipsia?,   1838.  8vo. 

Page  138.  col.  2.    After  line  2.  add 
151*.  A  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  of  Paul  t.)  Philemon,  by 
John  Calvin  ;  translated  from  the  Latin  by  B.  B.  Edwards.     In 
the  seventh  vuluniu  (pp.  431 — 440.)  of  the  Biblical  Repository. 
Andover,  [.Massachusetts]  1S36.  Svo. 

HEnnEws. 
152*.  The  .\postolical  Authority  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews : 
an  Inijuiry,  in  which  the  received  Title  of  the  Epistle  is  vindicated 
against  the  cavils  of  Objectors,  ancient  and  modern,  from  Origen 
to  Sir  J.  D.  Michaelis,  chiefly  upon  grounds  of  internal  evidence 
hitherto  unnoticed  :  comprising  a  comparative  Analysis  of  tho 
style  and  structure  of  this  epistle,  and  of  the  undisputed  epistles 
of  St.  Paul ;  tending  to  throw  light  upon  their  Inteqiretation.  By 
the  Rev.  Charles  FonsTKn,  B.D.     London,  1838.  Svo. 

In  Vol.  IV.  of  the  Introduction  to  the  Critical  Study  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, pp.  409-42:2.  the  genuineness  and  apostolical  authority  of  St. 
Paul's  Kpistle  to  the  Hebrews  have  been  proved  by  a  selection  of 
the  most  striking  evidences,  both  external  anci  internal:  but  it  has 
been  reserved  for  the  learned  author  of  this  work  to  demonstrate 
that  apostolical  authority  by  a  mass  of  argument  and  evidence,  not 
more  original  than  ingenious  and  delightful  to  the  Jtiblical  Student, 
who  will  attentively  study  his  volume.  Having  refuted  the  cavils 
of  ancient  and  modern  objectors,  from  Origeu  to  Michaelis,  the  au- 
thor proceeds  to  adduce  his  evidence  in  fourteen  sections;  in  which 
he  shows  the  identity  of  manner  between  the  epistle  to  the  He- 
brews and  St.  Paul's  undis|iuted  epistles  in  the  use  of  particular 
words,  and  gives  copious  tables: — 1.  of  the  New  Testament  words 
peculiar  to  the  epi-.lle  to  the  Hebrews,  and  the  undisputed  epistles 
of  St.  Paul,  as  well  as,  2.  of  words  peculiar  to  the  epistle  to  the 
Hebrews,  (uhich  are  not  found  elsewhere,  either  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament, the  Septuagint,  or  the  .\pocryplr.»,)  with  their  parallel  ver- 
bal depen<leiicies  ;  and  3.  of  words  occ:isionally  occurring  elscwhcr* 
in  the  New  Testatncnt,  but  in  the  manner,  the  fre(iuency,  of  their 
occurrence,  peculiar  to  the  epistle  to  the  Hebi'«ws  and  the  undis- 
puted epistles  of  St.  Paul.  The  author  then  institutes  an  examina- 
tion of  some  leading  parallel  passages  from  the  epistle  to  the  He- 
brews and  St.  Paul's  undisputed  epistles  ;  and  shows  the  identity 
of  manner  between  that  epistle  and  the  undisputed  epistles  of  the 
apostle  in  the  use  of  faViHuitc  words,  in  the  habit  of  'going  off  at 
a  word,'  in  the  use  of  the  paronomasia  or  play  upon  words,  in  quo- 
tations and  modes  of  quotation  from  the  Old  Testament,  in  the  use 
of  key-texts.  A  copious  table  of  the  harmony  of  parallel  passages 
I)ctween  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews  and  the  undisputed  epistles  of 
St.  Paul,  is  then  subji)ined.  Having  thus  prosed  the  Pauline  origi- 
nal of  the  F.pistle  to  llic  Hebrews  from  internal  evidence,  the  lenrnc-d 
author  advances  to  a  re-examination  of  the  external  evidences, 
including  the  testimonies  of  theajxistidical  fathers  and  those  of  Pan- 
lienus,  Clemens  Alexandriniis,  and  Origen  j  and  adduces  a  powerful 
argument  in  proof  that  by  the  epistle  of  St.  Paul,  referred  to  in 


119 


ADDENDA  TO  THE  BIBLIOGEAPIIICAL  APPENDIX. 


177 


2  Peter,  iii.  15,  16.,  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews  is  intended,  which 
argument  is  deduced  from  the  internal  marks  of  reference  to  He- 
brews by  St.  Peter  in  both  his  epistles.  In  an  appendix  are  given 
tables  of  words  occurring  only  once  in  tlic  epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
and  in  the  undisputed  epistles  of  St.  Paul,  as  well  as  of  Pauline 
words  occurring  iri  more  than  one  epistle,  and  not  occurring  in  the 
epistle  to  the  Hebrews.  The  irresistible  conclusion  from  the  whole 
oMhe  author's  elaborate  researches  is,  that  that  epistle  is  the  ge- 
nuine production  of  the  great  apostle  of  the  Gentiles. 

153*.  The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews.  A  new  Translation  in 
Sections,  with  Marginal  Notes  and  an  Introductory  Syllabus.  [By 
Josiah  CoNDKH.]     London,  1834.  small  8vo. 

154*.  Horaj  Hebraicse  :  an  Attempt  to  discover  how  the  Argu- 
ment of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  must  have  been  understood 
by  those  therein  addressed,  with  Api)pndices  on  Messiah's  King- 
don^  &c.  By  George,  Viscount  Maxdevillk.  London,  1835. 
large  8vo. 

For  an  account  of  this  work-,  which  includes  onh'  the  first  four 
chapters  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the 
Christian  Guardian  for  !RIarch,  1835,  pp.  105-110. 

Page  139.  col.  2.  After  last  line  but  10.  add 
*  178*.  Integrity  and  Authenticity  of  the  Second  Epistle  of 
Peter.  By  Dr.  Herman  Olshauskn,  Professor  of  Theology  in 
the  University  of  Konigsberg.  Translated  from  the  Latin  by  B.B. 
EnwAUDs.  In  the  eighth  volume  of  the  Biblical  Repository,  pub- 
lislied  at  Andover  [Massachusetts],  183G.  8vo. 

179*.  Exposition  of  the  Epistle  of  Peter,  considered  in  Refer- 
ence to  the  whole  System  of  Divine  Truth.  Translated  from  the 
German  of  Wilhelm  Stetgeii  by  the  Rev.  Patrick  Fairbahix. 
Edinburgh,  183G.  2  vols.  12mo.  Also  as  vols.  XIII.  and  XIV.  of 
the  Edinburgh  Biblical  Cabinet. 

Page  140.  cul.  1.     After  line  12.  add 
183*.  A  Commentary  on  the  Epistles  of  St.  John  by  Dr.  Fred- 
rich  LiJCKE.     Translated  from  the  German,  with  additional  notes, 
by  Thorleif  Gudmundson  Repp.     Edinburgh,  1837.  12mo.    Also 
as  vol.  XV.  of  the  Edinburgh  Biblical  Cabinet. 

Page  140.  col.  1.     After  line  32.  add 
189*.  Apocalypsis  Johanni  Apostolo  vindicata.     Scripsit  Er- 
nestus  Guilielmus  Kolthoff.     Hafnise,  1834.  8vo. 

190*.  The  Prophetical  Character  and  Inspiration  of  the  Apoca- 
lypse considered.  By  George  Pearson,  B.D.  Cambridge  and 
London,  1835.  8vo. 

In  this  work  the  author  "  has  presented  to  the  public  a  view  of 
the  subject-matter  of  the  Apocalypse  founded  chief!}'  on  the  princi- 
ples of  Dean  VVoodhouse  and  Vitringa.  Mr.  Pearson  has  prefixed  a 
chapter  on  the  authenticity'  of  the  Apocalypse ;  and  after  going 
through  the  book,  adds  two  chapters  on  its  prophetical  character 
and  inspiration.  .  .  .  They  who  can  adopt  the  principles  of  Vitringa 
and  VVoodhouse,  will  find  Mr.  Pearson's  a  very  useful  Volume." 
{British  Magazine,  Feb.  1836.  vol.  ix.  p.  184.) 

Page  141.  col.  2.     After  line  37.  add 
210*.  A  Supplement  to  a  Dissertation  on  the  Trumpets  and 
Seals  of  the   Apocalypse.      By  William   Cun^jixbhame,  Esq. 
London,  1838.  8vo. 

For  a  copious  analysis  of  this  soberly  written  and  truly  valuable 
Work  (now  very  materially  improved),  see  the  Christian  Observer, 
vol.  xiii.  pp.  163 — ISO.  Tlie  "  Supplement"  contains  various  addi- 
tional considerations,  confirmatory  of  the  Author's  calculation  of 
the  prophetic  period  of  1260  years. 

Page  142.  col.  2.     La^t  line  but  19.  add 

228.  An  Analytical  Arrangement  of  the  Apocalypse,  or  Reve- 
lation recorded  by  St.  John,  according  to  the  Principles  developed 
under  the  name  of  Parallelism  in  the  writings  of  Bishop  Lowth, 
Bishop  Jebb,  and  the  Rev.  Tliomas  Boys.  By  the  Rev.  Richard 
Roe.     Dubhn,  1834.  4to. 

229.  The  Apocalypse  its  own  Interpreter :  or,  a  Guide  to  the 
Study  of  the  Book  of  Revelation.  By  the  Rev.  A.  Hutchinson. 
London,  1835.  8vo. 

230.  The  Interpreter ;  a  Summary  View  of  the  Revelation  of 
St.  John.     By  the  Rev.  Thomas  Jones.    London,  1836.  12mo. 

This  volume  is  founded  on  the  late  Rev.  Henry  Gauntlett's  ex- 
pository Lectures  on  the  Apocalypse.  It  contains  a  summary 
statement  of  the  contents  of  each  chapter,  so  as  to  give  a  rapid 
view  of  its  contents.  "  This  is  a  useful  little  book  on  a  very  difficult 
subject.  Although  we  could  have  wished  that  it  had  less  reference 
to  modern  events,  and  kept  to  the  admirable  and  sober  views  of 
Bishop  Newton,  yet  it  may  be  safely  recommended  as,  on  the  whole, 
a  cheap  and  valuable  exposition.  (Christian  Remembrancer,  No- 
vember, 1836.  p.  665.) 

231.  L'Apocalypse  expliqiiee  par  I'Ecriture.  Essai  par  Louis 
Vivien.     Paris,  1837.  12mo. 


232.  The  opening  of  the  Scaled  Book  in  the  Apocalypse  shown 
to  be  a  Symbol  of  the  future  Republication  of  the  Old  Testament. 
By  Richard  Newton  AnAars,  D.D.     London,  1838.  8vo. 

For  a  notice  of  this  publication,  see  the  Church  of  England  Quar- 
terly Review,  for  October,  1S3S,  pp.  541-546. 

233.  Studies  of  the  Apocalypse;  or,  an  Attempt  to  elucidate 
the  Revelation  of  Saint  John.     London,  1838.  12mo. 

"  The  prrscnt  volume,  which  is  modestly  teimed  "  Studies,"  is 
piously  and  soberly  written.  . .  .  The  reader,  wo  think,  cannot  arise 
from  the  attentive  perusal  of  this  volume,  without  deriving  an  in- 
teresting addition  to  his  previous  knowledge  of  the  Apocalypse." 
(Christian  Pvcmembrancer,  vol.  xx.  p.  205.) 

234.  The  Revelation  of  Saint  John  explained.  By  Henry 
William  LoytxT.     London,  1838.  8vo. 


addenda  to  the  expositions,  lectures,  and  seumons  on 

THE    scriptures,    ARRANGED    IN    THE    ORDER     OF   THE    SEVE- 
RAI.    BOOKS. 

Page  146.  col.  1.    Last  line  but  15.  add 
100*.  The  Old  Testament,  with  a  Commentary  consisting  of 
Short  Lectures  for   the  Daily  Use   of  Families.     By  the   Rev. 
Charles  Giiidlestone,   M.A.      Parts  I. — III.     London,   1836- 
1838.  8vo. 

101.  The  New  Testament  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus 
Christ :  with  a  Commentary  consisting  of  Short  Lectures  for  the 
Daily  Use  of  Families.  By  the  Rev.  Charles  Girdlestone,  M.  A. 
London,  1832-35.  2  vols.  8vo. 

The  plan  of  these  two  most  valuable  practical  expositions  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments  is  the  same.  The  text  of  the  sacred 
writers  is  ''  divided  into  sections,  foiming  with  the  commentary  a 
lesson  of  a  convenient  length  for  a  single  service.  The  explanatory 
matter  is  so  digested  as  to  complete,  together  with  the  text,  ex- 
actlj'  tvvo  pages  ;  such  topics  beir.g  selected  as  may  best  serve  the 
purpose  of  devotional  edification  at  tlie  hour  of  family  worship. 
All  controversial  doctrines,  all  abstjuse  theories,  and  all  learned 
discussions  are  carefully  avoided ;  while  the  capacities  and  wants 
of  an  ordinary  domestic  circle,  comprising  for  the  most  part  the  re- 
lations of  master  and  servant,  of  parent  and  child,  are  kept  steadily 
in  view."     (Christian  Remembrancer,  May  1S32.  vol.  xiv.  p.  2o0.) 

102.  Expository  Sermons  on  the  Pentateuch.  By  the  Rev.  W. 
Thistlethwaite,  M.A.     London,  1837-8.  4  vols.  12mo. 

103.  Practical  Remarks  on  the  Books  of  Genesis  and  Exodus, 
adapted  to  Family  Worship.  [By  Mrs.  M.  Murray.]  Dublin, 
1830-31.  2  vols.  8vo. 

104.  An  Exposition,  with  Practical  Observations  upon  the  first 
Eleven  Chapters  of  the  Book  of  Genesis.  By  Philip  Henrt. 
Published  for  the  first  time  by  a  descendant  of  the  author.  Lon- 
don, 1838.  18mo. 

1 05.  Homme  banni  d'Eden.  Meditations  sur  la  troisieme  cha- 
pitre  de  la  Genese,  suivies  de  Developpemens  Exegetiques.  Par 
L.  Bonnet.     Paris  et  Geneve.  1834.  8vo. 

106.  Jacob  :  or.  Patriarchal  Piety.  A  Series  of  Discourses 
[on  the  history  of  Jacob].  By  the  Rev.  Edward  Crais,  A.M. 
Third  Edition.     Edinburgh,  1830.  12mo. 

107.  The  Bow  in  strength:  or  a  Practical  Dissertation  on  the 
History  of  Joseph.     By  Charles  Laroji.     Jjondon,  1832.  8vo. 

108.  Sixteen  Lectures  on  the  History  of  Elijah.  By  the  Rev, 
Robert  Simpson,  M.A.     London,  1836.  12mo. 

109.  Elijah  the  Tishbite.  By  F.  W.  Krusoiacher,  D.D. 
Translated  from  the  German  [and  revised  by  the  Rev.  R.  F. 
Walker,  A.M.].     London,  1838.  12mo. 

1 10.  Elislia.  From  the  German  of  Dr.  F.  W.  KRUMsrACHER  : 
revised  by  the  Rev.  R.  F.  Walker,  A.M.  Part  I.  London,  1838. 
12mo. 

111.  Meditations  sur  I'Histoire  d'Ezechias,  adressees  particu- 
lierement  aux  Fidtles.    [Par  A.  Rucuat.]   Neuchatel,  1834.  Bvo. 

112.  Meditations  on  the  History  of  Hezckiah.  By  A.  Rochat, 
translated  from  the  French  liy  the  Rev.  William  Hare,  A.B. 
Dublin  and  London,  1837.  12mo. 

113.  Lectures  on  the  Book  of  Esther.  By  Thomas  M'Crie, 
D.D.     Edinburgh,  1838.  12mo. 

1 14.  Lectures  on  the  Thirty-Second  Psalm.  By  Charles  H. 
B(NGHAM,  B.A.     London,  1836.  12mo. 

115.  Lectures  on  Psalm  LI.  By  the  Rev.  T.  T.  Bidduiph, 
M.A.     Second  Edition.     London,  1838.  12mo. 

116.  An  Explication  of  the  Hundred  and  Tenth  Psalm.  By 
Edward  Reynolds,  D.D.  Bishop  of  Norwich.  London,  16 — . 
1837.  12mo. 

In  the  London  reprint  some  slight  abridgments  have  been  made; 
and  a  few  obsolete  words  have  been  exchanged  for  others  of  the 
same  meaning. 


178 


ADDENDA  TO  THE  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  APPENDIX. 


117.  Jonah's  Portrait:  or  various  A' iews  of  Human  Nature, 
and  of  the  gracious  dealings  of  God  with  Human  Nniure.  By 
Thomas  JoxEs.     London,  1818.     Sixth  Edition,  18:i--:.  12mo. 

118.  Six  Lectures  on  the  Book  of  Jonah.  By  J.  W.  Ccn- 
NijroHAM,  A.M.     London,  1833.  small  8vo. 

119.  Pulpit  Recollections:  being  Notes  of  Lectures  on  the 
Book  of  Jonah.  By  the  Rev.  R.  Waldo  SiHTiionr,  B.D.  Lon- 
don, 1834.  Second  Pldition,  with  a  new  translation  of  the  Book 
of  Jonah.  183.5.     Small  8vo. 

120.  An  Exposition  of  the  Four  Gospels.  By  fhe  Rev.  Thomas 
Adam,  B..\.  Edited,  with  a  Memoir  of  the  Author,  by  the  Rev. 
A.  VVestoby,  M.A.     London,  1837.  2  vols.  8vo. 

Of  this  work,  the  expository  notes  on  the  Gospels  of  Mark,  Luke, 
and  John,  are  now  published  "for  the  fust  time  :  those  on  the  Gos- 
pel of  Matthew  were  published  in  17b5  in  the  collection  of  the  au- 
thor's posthumous  works,  and  were  accompanied  with  suitalile 
Lectures  and  Piayers.  Bicvity  of  remark,  fervent  piety,  and  inti- 
mate acquaintance  with  the  human  heart,  characteiize  this  exposi- 
tion of  the  four  Gospt-is.  The  exposition  of  St.  Matthew's  Gospel 
has  frequently  been  printed  in  one  volume  Svo.  or  two  volumes 
12mo. 

121.  Lectures  on  the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew :  among  which 
are  introduced  eleven  Lectures  on  the  early  parts  of  the  Bible  and 
on  the  Ten  Commandments,  as  necessary  for  the  elucidation  of 
the  Parable  contained  in  the  twentieth  chapter  of  that  Gospel. 
By  tlic  Rev.  William  Marshall  Haute,  Rector  of  St.  Lucy,  in  the 
Island  of  Barbados.     London,  1831-4.  2  vols.  12mo. 

These  very  useful  lectures  were  originally  preached  to  a  congre- 
gation of  Ntgioes :  they  are  eminently  characterised  by  simplicity 
of  language,  yet  without  debasing  the  importance  of  the  subjects 
discussed  by  improper  familiarity  of  expression. 

122.  licctures  on  the  Gospel  according  to  Luke.  By  the  Rev- 
James  FooTE,  A.M.  Vol.  I.  Glasgow  and  Aberdeen,  1838- 
12mo. 

123.  Cornelius  the  Centurion.  [Expository  Lectures  on  Acts 
X.]  By  F.  A.  KniMMACHF.u,  D.D.  Translated  from  the  Ger- 
man, with  Notes,  by  the  R-.-v.  John  W.  Ferguson,  A.M.  Edin- 
burgh, 1838.  12mo,  Also  as  Vol.  XXII.  of  the  Edinburgh  Bibli- 
cal Cabinet. 

124.  Lectures,  Doctrinal  and  Practical,  on  the  Epistle  of  the 
Apostle  Paul  to  the  Romans.  Edinburgh  and  London,  1838. 
Svo. 

125.  Lectures  on  the  Epistle  of  Paul  fhe  Apostle  to  the  Ro- 
mans. By  Thomas  Chal-mehs,  D.D.  Edinburgh  and  London, 
1838.  2  vols.  Svo. 

126.  liCCtures,  Expository  and  Practical,  on  the  Epistle  to  the 
Romans.  By  the  Rev.  A.  J.  Scott,  A.M.  Parts  I.  II.  London, 
1838.  Svo. 

127.  The  Candidate  for  the  Ministry  ;  a  Course  of  Expo.sitory 
Lectures  on  the  first  Epistle  of  Paul  the  Apostle  to  Timothy.  By 
the  Rev.  John  H.  Pixokr,  M.A.     London,  1837.  12mo. 

These  lectures  were  originally  delivered  to  the  students  of  Cod- 
ringfon  College  in  the  island  of  Barbados,  of  which  the  author  was 
Piiiicipal  from  1S30  to  1835.  They  aie  pbiin,  earnest,  and  impres- 
sive. In  1S37  Mr.  Pimier  published  a  similar  useful  volume  of  ex- 
posiiorj"  Discourses  on  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer. 

128.  Pulpit  Lectures  on  the  Epistles  of  Paul  the  Apostle  to 
Timothy.  By  the  Rev.  Henry  Roper  Slaue,  LL.B.  London, 
1837.  12mo. 

«'  Very  simple  and  plain  ;  ably  exposing  Romish  errors,  and  pow- 
erfullv  advocating  I'rottslant  truths."  (Christian  Remembrancer, 
June,'l837,  p.  3U.) 

129.  The  .\j)ostleship  and  Priesthood  of  Christ:  being  a  Prac- 
tical Exposition  of  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  in  a  Scries 
of  Licturea.  By  the  Rev.  Thomas  PAiiiir,  M.A.  Archdeacon  of 
Antigua.     London,  1834.  12mo. 

130.  The  Mediator  of  the  New  Covenant :  a  Scries  of  Sermons 
on  the  Sacrificial  and  Mediatorial  Character  of  the  Saviour,  as  re- 
vealed in  the  Epistle  of  Paul  to  the  Hebrews.  By  the  Rev.  James 
Spencer  Kxox,  M.A.     Dublin  and  London,  183;').  Svo. 

131.  Expository  Jjccturca  on  the  General  Ei)istlc  of  James: 
translated  from  the  German  of  tlic  Rev.  Bernard  Jacohi.  Lon- 
don, 1838.  12mo. 

132.  Discourses  showing  the  slrudurc  and  unity  of  the  Apoca- 
lypse, the  order  and  connexion  of  its  Prophecies.  By  David 
RoBKUTHo:*.     Glasgow,  1833.  3  vols.  12mo. 

133.  Practical  Sermons  on  the  Epistles  to  the  Seven  Churches, 
&c.     By  Jos<!ph  Mn.>r.ii.     liondon,  1830.  Svo. 

134.  A  Practical  Exjwsilion  of  tlie  Epistles  to  the  Seven 
Churches  in  the  Revelation.  By  the  Rev.  Henry  Bllnt,  M.A. 
Loi;lon,  1838.  I2mo. 


I  135.  Lecttires  on  the  Aixx-alyptic  Epistles,  addressed  to  the 
Seven  Churches  of  Asia.  By  J.  WADswonrn.  Idle,  1825. 
12mo. 

136.  An  E.\ position  of  the  Parables  and  of  other  Pans  of  the 
Gospels.  By  Edward  Gheswell,  B.D.  Oxford  and  London, 
1834.  5  vols.  Svo. 

A  copious  Review  of  this  '  groat  and  learned  Work'  is  given  in 
the  British  Critic,  for  October  1835.  (vol.  xviii.  pp.  357-403.) 

137*.  The  Family  of  Bethany:  [a  series  of  Lectures  princi- 
pally on  John  xi.].  By  L.  Bonnet.  Translated  from  tlie 
French.     Dublin  and  London,  1838,  12mo. 

138.  Courses  of  Expository  Lectures  on  Luke  XV.  11-32. 
viz. 

(1.)  Six  Sermons  on  the  Parable  of  the  Prodigal  Son.  By 
John  Bors.  (Sermons  on  Several  Subjects.  Vol.  II.)  Dublin, 
1708.  Svo. 

(2.)  Discourses  on  the  Parable  of  the  Prodigal  Son,  and  on 
the  Woman  countenanced  by  our  Lord  in  the  House  of  Simon 
the  Pharisee.  By  Benjamin  Wallix,  M.A.  London,  1775. 
12  mo. 

(3.)  The  Prodigal's  Pilgrimage  into  a  far  Country  and  back  to 
his  Father's  House,  in  fourteen  stages.  By  the  Rev.  Thomas 
JoxF.s.     London,  1831.  r2mo. 

(4.)  Lectures  on  the  Parable  of  the  Prodigal  Son.  By  the 
Rev.  Henry  Scawen  Plumptke.     London,  1833.  12mo. 

(5.)  The  Prodigal ;  or  Youth  admonished  in  a  brief  view  of 
our  Lord's  Parable  of  the  Prodigal  Son.  By  John  TaoRXTOjr. 
London,  1833.  ISmo. 

(6.)  The  Doctrine  of  Repentance  as  set  forth  in  the  Gospel  in 
six  Lectures,  and  as  illustrated  in  the  Parable  of  the  Prodigal 
Son  in  six  Lectures.  By  Jonathan  Walto.v,  D.D.  London, 
1833.  12rao. 


IDDXNnA    TO    THE     COLLXCTIOSS     OF     miLOLOGICAL     OBSEnVA 
TIOXS    OX    THE    SCniPTOUES. 

rui^e  152.  col.  2.     After  line  41.  add 

139.  Thesaurus  Theologico  Philologicus :  sive  Sylloge  Disser- 
tationum  ad  selectiora  Veteris  et  Novi  Testamenti  ioca,  X  Theo- 
logis  Protestantibus  iu  Germaniii  separatim  diversis  tcraporibus 
conscriptarum,  secundum  ordinem  utriusque  testamenti  librorum 
digesta  :  [opcrii  et  studio  Godcfridi  Menthexii.]  Amstelodami, 
1701-2.  2  tomis,  folio. 

140.  Thesaurus  novus  Theologico-Philologicus :  sive  Sylloge 
Disscrtationum  Excgeticarum  ad  selectiora  atque  insignoria  Ve- 
teris atque  Novi  Testamenti  Ioca,  a  Theologis  Protestantibus 
maximam  partem  in  Gerrnania  diversis  tcmporibus  separatim 
edilarum ;  nunc  vero  secundum  librorum  seriem,  capitum,  et 
commatum  digestarum,  junctiinque  edilarum,  ex  musiEO  Theodori 
Hasjji  et  Conradi  Ikexii.  Lugduni  Balavorum,  1732.  2  tomis, 
folio. 

These  two  collections  of  Dissertations  comprise  several  hundred 
valuable  critical  and  philolosieal  disijuisitions  on  diflicult  texts  of 
Scripture  b)'  the  most  eminent  scholars  and  divines  of  Germany  in 
the  seventeenth  century,  and  in  the  former  p:irt  of  the  eigliteetitli 
centur}-.  They  are  sometimes  to  be  met  \viil»,  bound  uniformly 
with  the  Criiici  Sacri,  to  which  great  work  tlu-y  were  designed  as  a 
completion. 

141.  The  Bmi.iCAL  Camixf.t  :  or  Herrncncutical,  Exegetical, 
and  Philological  Librarv.  Vols.  1. — AXIIl.  Edinburgh  and 
London,  1832-39.  small  Svo. 

This  work,  which  is  still  in  progress,  promises  to  be  of  singular 
utility  to  bil>lical  students  :  it  coiitains  translations  of  the  most 
useful  foreign  works  on  sacred  hermcneutics,  criticism,  and  exege- 
sis, with  such  additions  and  illustiatioiis  by  the  translators  as  may 
be  necessary,  and  with  such  notes  as  may  counteract  any  thing  of  a 
neologian  or  infidel  tendency.  The  followii^g  is  a  synopsis  of  its 
multifarious  contents.  Vols.  I.  and  IV.  comprise  a  translation  of 
I'.incsti'a  Institiitio  Iiiterptctis  Novi  Testamenti,  with  notes  by  the 
Rev.  C.  U.  Tcrrot.  Vols.  II.  and  IX. — Philological  Tracts  illustrative 
of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  viz.  1.  Dr.  Pfannkouche  on  the 
Language  of  Palestine  in  the  age  of  Christ  and  the  Apostles  ;  2. 
Piofi  Planck  on  the  Greek  Diction  of  the  New  Testament  ;  3.  Dr. 
Tholuck  on  the  Importance  «f  the  Study  of  the  Old  Testament;  4. 
Dr.  Beckhaus  on  the  Interpretation  of  the  Tropical  Language  of  the 
New  Testament ;  5.  Prof.  Slorr's  Dissertation  on  the  meaning  of 
the  "  Kingdom  of  Heaven;"  6.  On  the  Parables  of  Christ ;  7.  On 
the  word  lIAIII'iiMA  ;  8.  Prof,  llcngstcnbrrg  on  the  Interpretation 
of  Isaiah,  chap.  lii.  12.  liii.  Vols.  III.  and  XVllI.— Prof  Tittmanu's 
Synonyms  of  the  New  Testnrneiit,  translated  from  the  original  by 
the  Rev.  Kdward  Craig,  M.A.  Vols.  V.  and  XII.— Dr.  Tholuck's 
Kxposilion  of  St.  Paul's  Kpislic  to  the  Romans,  wjlh  Kxtracts  from 
the  exegetical  woild  of  thu  i-'athtis  ;ind  Reformers,  translated  from 


ADDENDA  TO  THE  BIBLIOGKAPHICAL  APPENDIX. 


179 


the  original  by  the  Rev.  R.  Menzics.  Vols.  VI.  and  XX. — Dr.  Tho- 
luck's  Exposition,  Doctrinal  and  rhilolo;;ica],  of  Christ's  Sermon  on 
the  Mount,  translated  by  the  Rev.  R.  Menzies.  Vol.  VII. — Planck's 
Introduction  to  Sacred  Philology  and  Interpretation,  translated  by 
Samuel  H.  Turner,  O.D.  Vols.VIlI.  and  XXIII.— Parcau's  Princi- 
ples of  Interpretation  of  the  Old  Testament,  translated  by  Patrick 
Forbes,  D.D.  Vol.  X. — Prof.  Stuart's  Treatise  on  the  Syntax  of 
the  New  Testament  Dialect,  with  an  Appendix  on  the  Greek  Arti- 
cle. Vols.  XI.  and  XVII. — Rosenmuller's  Biblical  Geography  ef 
Centra!  Asia,  with  a  general  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Sacred 
Geography,  translated  by  the  Rev.  N.  Morren,  A.M.  Vols.  XIII. 
nnd  XIV. — Prof.  Stciger's  Exposition  of  the  1st  Epistle  of  St.  Peter, 
translated  by  the  Rev.  Patrick  Fairbairn.  2  vols.  Vol.  XV. — Dr. 
Liicke's  Commentary  on  the  Epistles  of  St.  John,  translated  by 
Thorieif  tiudmnndson  Repp.  Vols.  XVI.  and  XIX. — Prof.  Um- 
breit's  New  Version  of  the  Book  olWob,  with  Notes,  tianslatcd  by 
the  Rev.  Johu  Hamilton  Gray,  M.A.  Vol.  XXII.— Prof.  Rosen- 
muller's Historical  and  Philosophical  Treatise  of  Biblical  Mineralo- 
gy and  Botany,  trai:slated  by  T.  G.  Repp. 

142.  Dc  Joannefe  Christologise  Indole  Paulinte  comparata  Com- 
mentatio,     Scripsit  0.  L.  W.  GaiNJi.     Lipsice,  183.3.  8vo. 

143.  De  Biblica  Notione  ZiMX  AinNIOr.  Scripsit  J.  E.  R. 
KAKtFKF.n,     Dresd©,  1838.  8vo. 

144.  Fritlerici  MiisTEiii  [Episcopi  Selandise]  Symbolas  Inter- 
pretalionem  Novi  Testamenti  e  Marmoribus,  Numis,  Lapidibusque 
CaeJatis,  maxima  Grmcis.  In  the  first  volume  of  his  "  Miscellanea 
Hafniensia  Thcologici  et  Philologici  Argumenti."  Hafnire,  1816- 
24.  2  tomis  8vo. 

Twenty-lhree  passages  of  the  New  Testament  are  here  illustrated 
from  ancient  marbles,  coins,  &e.  Some  examples  of  the  aid  to  be 
derived  from  these  remains  of  antiquity,  as  collateral  testimonies  to 
the  credibility  of  the  Sacred  Writers  and  also  as  a  source  of  Inter- 
pretation, will  be  found  in  Vol.  I.  pp.  88-92  and  350,  351. 

14,5.  Prophecy,  Types,  and  Miracles,  the  great  Bulwarks  of 
Christianity  :  or,  a  Critical  E.vamination  and  Demonstration  of 
some  of  the  Evidences,  by  which  the  Christian  Faith  is  supported. 
By  the  Kev.  Edward  Thompson,  M.A.     London,  1838.  8vo. 

The  object  of  this  truly  valuable  work  is  to  add  to  the  Evidences  of 
Christianity  demonstrations  of  its  Divine  Origin  from  the  fulfilment 
of  Prophecy,  the  close  adaptation  of  Types  to  their  Antitypes,  and 
the  reality  of  Miracles.  The  work  is  tlierefore  divided  into  three 
distinct  parts — Prophecy,  Types,  and  Miracles  ;  each  of  which  has 
received  a  separate  consideration.  Under  the  first  head  (Propliecj') 
the  author  has  selected  the  most  eminent  of  those  which  relate  to 
the  Messiah  :  these  he  has  placed  in  juxta-position  w^ith  their  ful- 
filment, with  the  requisite  explanations.  The  most  remarkable 
facts  also  in  the  biblical  narratives,  which  ancient  and  modern  di- 
vines have  accounted  to  be  typical  of  the  Messiah,  have  also  been 
brought  out  into  antitypical  detail ;  and,  as  a  summary  to  the  whole, 
the  veracity  of  the  miracles  has  been  established  b)-  external  and 
internal  circumstances. 

146.  Doctrina  Pauli  ApostoU  de  vi  mortis  Christi  satisfactorii. 
Scripsit,  L.  F.  C.  Tiscuenhouf.     Lipsia;,  1837.  8vo. 


GREEK.    AND    LATIN    CONCOBDAITCES. 

Page  153.  col.  1.  After  line  42.  add 
While  this  sheet  was  passing  through  the  press,  the  Rev.  Robert 
WiiiTFORD,  M.-'i.,  issued  a  prospectus  of  a  Concordance  to  the 
Greek  Scriptures,  on  the  basis  of  Tromm's  Concordance  to  the  Sej)- 
tuagint  and  of  Schmidt's  Concordance  to  the  Greek  Testament,  but 
•with  such  improvements  and  corrections  as  to  constitute  it  a  new 
work.  The  work,  thus  announced,  will  form  a  complete  and  com- 
prehensive Concordance,  or  Index,  to  the  Greek  Text  of  the  Sacred 
Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  together  with  the  Apo- 
crypha, embracing  not  onlj^  the  Version  of  the  Seventy,  as  repre- 
sented in  the  Oxford  Text  of  Holmes  and  Parsons,  with  all  notice- 
able variations  of  the  Vatican  and  Alexandrian  editions,  but  the 
Fragments  extant  of  the  Hexapla  of  Origen,  collected,  after  Mont- 
faucon,  by  Bahrdt.  This  concordance,  the  editor  expects,  will  be 
comprised  in  one  volume  imperial  octavo. 

Page  153.  col.  1.     After  the  last  line,  add 
4.  The  Englishman's  Greek  Concordance  to  the  New  Testa- 
ment ;  being  an  Attempt  at  a  verbal  connexion  betweeia  the  Greek 
and  the  English  Texts.     [Edited  by  George  V.  Wigham.]     Lon- 
don, 1839.  royal  8vo. 

This  concordance  is  made  upon  the  basis  of  the  work  of  Erasmus 
Schmidt:  the  preface  of  the  editor  states  that  it  contains  six  hun- 
dred and  nineteen  examples  which  Schmidt  had  omitted,  besides 
Correcting  a  still  greater  number  of  errata.  «  The  Englishman's 
Greek  Concordance'  is  an  alphabetical  arrangement  of  every  word 
in  the  Greek  New  Testament.  Immediately  after  each  Greek  word 
folljws  the  series  of  passages  in  which  it  occurs  :  these  aie  given 
in  quotations  from  the  authorized  English  translation.  Throughout 
each  series,  italic  letters  arc  used  to  mark  the  word  or  words  which 
correspond  to  the  Greek  word  under  consideration.  The  citations 
Vol.  IX,  4  Q 


ar6  sufficiently  full  to  enable  any  one  moderately  acquainted  with 
the  English  Testament  to  recall  the  context.  The  object  of  the 
work  is  to  endeavour  to  lead  the  mind  to  deduce  the  meaning  and 
definition  of  words  from  the  use  made  of  thern  by  the  divinely  in- 
spired writers  of  the  New  Testament. 

Page  153.  col.  2.  After  line  24.  add 
2.  Concordantiai  Bibliorum  Sacvorum  Vulsjafro  Editionis,  ad 
rccognitionem  jussu  Sixti  V.  Pontif.  Max.  Bibliis  adhibitara; 
rccensiia?  atque  cmenda(a),  ac  plusquam  viginti  quinque  milhbus 
vcrsiculis  auclas,  insuper  et  notis  historicis,  geographicis,  chroni- 
cis  locuplctata;,  cura  et  studio  F.  P.  DuTittpoN,  Theologi  et  Pro- 
iessoris.     Parisiis,  1838. 

This  is  the  latest  as  it  is  the  most  complete  edition  of  the  Con- 
cordances hitherto  published  for  the  Latin  Vulgate  Veision  of  tha 
iiible.  It  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  specimens  of '  typography, 
which  ever  issued  from  the  Parisian  preso. 


ADDENDA    TO    THF.    THEATISES    ON  BIBLICAL    ANTiaUITlES. 

Page  161.  col.  2.    After  the  last  line,  add 

1 .  Ceremonies,  Customs,  Rites,  and  Traditions  of  the  Jews,  in- 
terspersed with  Gleanings  from  the  Jerusalem  and  Babylonish 
Talmud,  and  the  Targums,  Mairnonidcs,  Abarbanel,  Zohar,  Aben- 
Ezra,  Oral  Law,  &c.  «&c.  By  Ilyam  Isaacs.  London  [1835.] 
8vo. 

2.  A  Geography  of  the  Bible,  compiled  by  J.  W.  and  J.  A. 
Alexander.     Philadelphia,  1830.  r2nio. 

3.  Sacred  Geography  :  or,  a  Historical  and  Descriptive  Diction- 
ary of  every  Place  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures.  By  William 
Sime.     Edinburgh  1834.  ]2mo. 

4.  Abstract  of  Biblical  Geography.  By  M.  L.  R.  Pehkine, 
D.D.     Auburn  [New  York],  1835.  8vo. 

5.  Description  de  la  Terre  Sainte  par  Andreas  Brjem,  publiee 
a  Belle  en  1834.  Traduction  Frangaise,  revue  ct  augmentce  par 
F.  de  Rougemont.     Neuchatel,  1837.  12ino. 

A  carefuU^-wiitten  manual  of  sacred  geography,  from  which  the 
author  of  the  present  work  has  derived  many  corrections  and  sov>t» 
additions. 

6.  The  Biblical  Geography  of  Central  Asia ;  with  a  general 
Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Sacred  Geography,  including  the  an- 
tediluvian period.  By  E.  F.  C.  Rosknmijlleii,  D.D.  Trans- 
lated from  the  German,  witli  notes,  by  the  Rev.  N.  Mokhen,  A.M. 
Edinburgh,  1836-37.  2  vols.  12mo.  Also  forming  Vols.  XL  and 
XVII.  of  the  Edinburgh  Biblical  Cabinet. 

7.  The  Scripture  Gazetteer:  a  Geographical,  Historical  and 
Statistical  Account  of  the  Empires,  Kingdoms,  Countries,  Pro- 
vinces, Cities,  Towns,  Villages,  &c.  «fcc.  mentioned  in  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments,  their  ancient  History,  native  producti*is, 
and  Present  State.  By  William  Fle.iiing,  D.D.  Edinburgh, 
1838.  2  vols,  royal  8vo. 

8.  The  History  of  tlie  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  with  the  Epistles 
according  to  Greswell's  arrangement,  historically  and  geographi- 
cally delineated  by  R.  Mimphiss;  and  accompanied  with  an  ex- 
planatory volume  iu  8vo.  London,  1837.  The  size  of  the  chart 
is  five  feet  by  four  feet  eight  inches. 

This  map  is  executed  in  the  same  style  of  elegance  and  with  the 
same  accuracy  as  JNIr.  Mimpriss's  map  for  illustrating  the  gospel 
history.  It  deserves,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  it  will  receive,  a 
patronage  not  inferior  to  that,  which  has  been  deservedlj-  bestowed 
upon  his  first  map. 

9.  Bible  Quadrupeds:  or,  the  Natural  History  of  the  Animals 
mentioned  in  Scripture.  By  S.  Williajis.  London,  1837. 
12mo. 

10.  On  the  Spikenard  of  the  Ancients.  By  Charles  Hatciiett, 
Esq.  F.R.S.     London,  [1836.]  4to. 

This  is  an  instructive  Essay  on  the  History  of  the  Spikenard,  on 
the  uses  to  which  that  precious  perfume  was  applied,  and  on  the 
estimation  in  which  it  was  anciently  held.  It  was  never  pub- 
lished. 

11.  Esprit  de  la  Legislation  Mosai'que.  Par  J.  E.  CELLEniEn, 
fils.     Geneve  et  Paris,  1837.  2  tomes  8vo. 

This  work  is  founded  on  the  Commentaries  of  Michaelis ;  to 
whose  accommodating  interpretations  of  the  laws  of  Moses  M.  Cel- 
lerie  has  sometimes  deferred  too  much. 

12.  Kranold  (J.  Th.  K.)  De  Anno  Hebraeorura  Jubilso 
Commentatio  Thcologica.     Gotting.T,  1838.  4to. 

13.  Woldii  (G.)  De  Anno  Hehrffiorum  Jubilse  Commentatio 
Theologica,  prsemio  regio  ornata!     Gottingre,  1838.  4to. 

14.  Notiones  Veterum  Ebrjeorum  de  rebus  po.st  mortem  futuris, 
scriptis  Veteris  Testamenti  coraprobatsE  :  auctore  Friderico  Carcio 
Mkieti.     Jenffi,  1832.  8vo. 

15.  Ueber  dii3  Musik  der  alten  Hebrller :  von  August  Friedrich 


i80 


ADDENDA  TO  THE  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  APPENDIX. 


Pfeiffer.     [On  the  Music  of  the  ancient  Hebrews  by  Augustus 
Friedrich  PfeilTer.]     Erlangen,  1779.  8vo. 

A  tran<l.Uion  of  this  curious  treatise,  with  notes  by  the  trnnsla- 
tor,  Mr.  O.  A.  Taylor,  is  given  in  t!ie  sixth  volume  of  the  Andover 
Biblical  Repository,  pp.  1 10-172.  and  357-411. 

16.  Mcdica  Sacra:  or  Short  Expositions  of  the  more  important 
Diseases  mentioned  in  the  Sacred  Writings.  13y  Thomas  Siiap- 
TEii,  M.D.     London,  1834.  8vo. 


inPEXDA  TO  THE  SIISCE^LA^•KOl•S  ILLCSTH ATIOXS  OF  SCniP- 
Tf  UE,  FROM  TOTAOES  A>D  TIIAVELS  IN  TUE  EAST,  ASD  FIIOM 
OTHER    SOl'HCES. 

Fugc  1 62.  ojI.  2.     After  the  last  line,  add 

1,  Landscape  Illustrations  of  the  Bible,  consisting  of  Views  of 
the  most  remarkable  places  mentioned  in  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 
taments. From  Original  Slcetchcs  taken  on  ihe  Spot  [by  the  most 
eminent  modern  travellers,  British  and  Foreign],  engraved  by  W. 
and  E.  FivDE.N  :  with  descriptions  by  the  Rev.  Thomas  HartwcU 
HonxE,  B.D.  London,  1836.  2  vols.  8vo.,  4to.,  or  large  folio, 
with  proof-engravings  on  India  paper. 

Nearly  one  huntbcd  of  the  principal  scenes  mentioned  in  the 
Scriptures  are  delineated  in  tliese  volumes  with  equul  lidelity  and 
beauty:  the  descriptions  h;ive  been  drawn  up  from  the  manuscript 
communications  of  many  of  the  travellers  by  whom  the  views  were 
sketched,  (all  whose  niunes  are  specified  in  the  work),  and  from 
other  authentic  sources,  which  are  indicated  at  the  close  of  each 
desciiption.  These  Landscape  Illustrations  were  subsequently 
printed  and  arranged  in  the  order  of  books  and  chapters  of  Sci  ipture, 
in  three  volumes  Svo.  inlitled  "  The  Biblical  Keepsake."  London, 
1835-37. 

2.  Syria,  the  Holy  Land,  Asia  Minor,  <fcc.,  illustrated  in  a  Se- 
ries of  Views,  drawn  from  nature,  by  W.  H.  Bartlelt,  William 
Purser,  and  others.  With  descriptions  by  John  Cabnk,  Esq. 
London,  1838.3  vols.  4to. 

The  views  delineated  in  this  work  are  for  the  most  part  difTerent 
from  those  in  the  "  Landscape  Illustrations  of  the  Bible."  They 
are  bcautiiully  cxecuttd,  and  ihc  Jesciiptions  are  well  drawn  up  by 
Mr.  Carne,  whose  resilience  in  the  East  some  years  since  fitted  him 
fur  such  an  undertaking. 

17.  Scripture  Illustrations:  being  a  Series  of  Engravings  on 
Ftcel  and  woixl,  iliu'^trative  of  the  Geography  and  Topography  of 
tlie  Bible.  With  Explanations  and  Remarks  by  the  Rev.  J.  A. 
La  Tkoiie,  M.A.     London,  1838.  4to. 

18.  Eastern  Manners  illustrative  of  the  Old  Testament  History. 
Dy  tiie  Rev.  Robert  Jamiesos.  Edinburgh,  1830-38.  2  vol's. 
18  mo. 

J 9.  The  Oriental  Key  to  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  as  they  are  il- 
lustrated by  the  existing  Rites,  Usages,  and  Domestic  Manners  of 
Eastern  Nations,     By  M.  dc  Coubett.     London,  1837.  IBmo. 

20.  Twelve  Lectures  on  the  connexion  lutwcon  Science  and 
Revealed  Religion,  delivered  in  Rome  by  Nicholas  Wiskm.vn", 
D.D.  London,  1836.  2  vols.  8vo.  Reprinted  at  New  York,  1837, 
in  one  volume  Svo. 

Thii  is  one  of  the  most  entertaining  as  well  as  useful  works 
which  learning  and  ins;enuity  have  produced,  for  confirming  the 
truth  of  the  Holy  Sciiptuies.  The  lectures  were  first  delivered,  as 
a  course  inliuductory  to  the  study  of  theology,  by  Ur.  Wiseman,  to 
the  pupils  in  the  Knglish  college  at  Rome,  an  institution  for  the 
education  cf  ministers  of  the  Romish  Communion  in  England.  In 
1835,  they  were  repealed  to  a  large  and  attentive  auditory,  and 
again  at  London  in  1836.  "  We  welcome  this  book  as  a  valuable 
and  interesting  addition  to  the  cumulative  department  of  the  Chris- 
tian Evidences.  .  .  .  The  book  is  executed  in  a  fair  and  catholic 
spirit.  It  might  have  been  expected  that  the  author  would  be  care- 
ful to  render  this  work  an  instrument  for  advancing  the  reputation 
of  his  own  »ystcin  to  the  disparagement  of  others:  hut  it  is  gratify- 
ing in  this  instance  to  be  able  to  acquit  him  of  stich  a  design." 
(Congregational  M.igazine,  March,  1S.38,  pp.  167.  170.)   . 

21.  Illustrations  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  derived  principally  from 
the  Manners,  Customn,  Antiiiuitits,  Traditions,  and  Forms  of 
Speech,  Riles,  Climate,  Works  of  Art,  and  Literature,  of  the 
Eaxtcrn  Nations ;  cmlxxlying  all  that  is  valuable  in  the  Works  of 
Rol)ert«,  Harmer.  Burder,  Puxton,  Chandler,  and  the  most  celc- 
brat4-d  Oriental  Travellers;  embracing  also  the  Subjex-t  of  the  Ful- 
filment of  Prophecy,  as  exhibited  by  Keith  and  otliers.  With 
Descriptions  of  the  Present  Stat<!  of  Counlries  and  Places  iiion- 
tioncd  in  the  Sacred  Wriliiign,  illuHtraU-ti  by  iiuincrous  Landscape 
Engravings,  from  Sketthes  taken  on  the  spot.  Edited  by  the  liev. 
George  Blhh,  Professor  of  Hebrew  and  (Oriental  Literature  in  the 
New  V'ork  City  University.  Bratllelioro'  [Vermont],  1836.  Im- 
perial 8vo. 

This  volume  is  avowedly  compiled  from  the  works  of  forty-six 


authors,  British  and  foreign  (but  principally  British).  The  earlier 
travellers,  whose  works  were  first  applied  bv  the  Rev.  Thos.  Har- 
mer to  the  elucidation  of  the  .''criptuies,  as  well  as  the  more  recent 
researches  of  Buckingham,  Burckhardt,  Dr.  E.  D.  Clarke,  Chateau- 
briand, Jowelt,  De  Lamartine,  Morier,  Niebuhr,  Porter,  Rich,  Ro- 
berts, Smith,  and  Dwight,  Scetzen,  Volney,  and  others,  have  all 
furnished  miteriils  for  Jlr.  Bush's  volume.  To  Mr.  Roberts's  Ori- 
ental Illustrations  (page  102.  No.  14.  supra),  and  to  the  "  Land- 
scape Illustrations  of  the  Bible"  [supin,  iNo.  1.),  Mr.  Bush  has 
expressed  himself  more  especially  indebted.  By  far  the  greater 
part  of  Mr.  R.'s  admirable  work,  as  well  as  of  the  engravings  and 
descriptions  of  the  "  Landscape  Illustrations,"  are  incorporated  in 
this  volume,  which  is  neatly  executed.  The  texts  illustrated  are 
printed  in  larger  type  than  the  Illustrations,  which  are  disposed  in 
the  order  of  the  books,  chapters,  and  verses  of  Scripture. 

22.  Holy  Scrijiture  vcrifie#:  or,  the  Divine  Authority  of  the 
Bible  confirmed  by  an  Appeal  to  Facts  of  Science,  History,  and 
Human  Consciousness.  By  George  REnronn,  D.D.  LL.D. 
London,  1837.  Svo. 

"  This  woik  is  a  series  of  lectures,  in  which,  if  there  be  things 
that,  under  various  sbiipes,  have  rcpeatedlv  been  discussed.  .  .  . 
there  is  likewise  a  body  of  evidence,  which  has  rarely,  if  ever. 
been  applied  to  the  inqniry.  The  plan  and  design  of  Ihc  lectures 
are  good  ;  and  the  points  of  view,  in  which  the  trulh  of  Holy  Scrii'*- 
ture  is  exhibited,  are  numerous  and  very  complete."  (Church  of 
England  Quarterly  Review,  July,  183S.  p.  350.) 

23.  Rationalism  and  Revelation :  or,  the  Testimony  of  Mora' 
Philo.sophy,  the  Sy.stcm  of  Nature,  and  the  Constitution  of  Man, 
to  the  Truth  of  the  Doctrines  of  Scripture,  in  eight  Discourses 
preached  before  the  University  of  Cani!>ridge,  being  the  Hulsean 
Lecture  for  the  year  1837.  By  tiic  Rev.  Richard  Paukisson, 
B.D.     London,  1838,  Svo. 

This  original  and  import  uit  volume  contains  nn  able  view  of  the 
testimonies  to  the  trulh  of  Scriptuie,  furnished  by  ethical  philoso- 
phy, the  intellectual  powers,  the  ultimate  destiny  of  the  body,"  the 
relation  of  men  to  external  things,  the  relation  of  men  to  each  other, 
and  by  the  relation  of  man  to  himself. 

24.  Illustrations  of  the  Bible  from  tlic  Monuments  of  Egypt. 
By  W.  C.  Taxlou,  LL.D.     London,  1838.  Svo. 

In  the  siitli  edition  of  this  "  Introduction  to  the  Critical  Study  of 
the  Scriptures,"  published  in  1S2S,  Efjyptian  antiquities  were  for 
\.\\c first  time  (at  least  in  this  country)  applied  to  the  collateral  con- 
firmation and  illustration  of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  Since  that  date, 
great  li<lit  has  been  thrown  upon  this  interesting  branch  of  archieo- 
logy  by  the  magnificent  public  it  ions  of  Signor  Rosellini,at  Turin,and 
of  M.  M.  Champollion  and  Cailliaud,  at  I'aris.  By  the  diligent  study 
of  their  labours.  Dr.  Taylor  (whose  work  was  published  while  this 
sheet  was  passing  thruU(.'h  the  press)  has  considerably  extended  this 
mode  of  demonstrating  the  historical  veracity  of  the  sacred  writers, 
by  means  of  the  new  and  undesigned  confiitnations  of  their  narra- 
tives, furnished  by  the  remains  of  Egyptian  art.  Nearly  three  hun- 
dred texts  of  Scripture  are  more  or  less  explained  in  this  elegantly 
executed  volume,  and  in  a  manner  equally  curious  and  interesting. 
A  portion  of  Dr.  T.'s  work  was  putilished  in  the  ably-conducted 
journal,  "  Tiic  Athenanim",  in  which  his  researches  excited  much 
and  deserved  attention.  It  is  now  corrected  and  enlarged,  and  is 
illustrated  with  one  hundred  well-executed  engravings  on  wood  ; 
and  it  oilers  a  valuable  acquisition  to  ilic  library  of  every  Biblical 
Student. 

*,*  In  the  Saturday  Magazine  for  the  years  1837  and  1838  there 
are  several  interesting  illustrations  of  Scripture  from  the  remains 
oT  Egyptian  antiquity  ;  but  the  most  complete  view  of  those  re- 
liques  of  ages  lung  since  past  (in  which  are  numerous  elucidations 
of  .Scripture)  will  be  found  in  the  "Manners  and  Customs  of  the 
Ancient  Egyptians."  13y  J.  G.  Wilkinson,  Esq.,  London,  1837,  in 
3  vols.  Svo. 


ADDEXDA    TO    TIIE    TllE.tTISKS    ON    THE    GEXKALOGIES    JIEX- 
TIONKl)    l.V    THE     .SCUtPTUnKS. 

Pitge  163.  col.  1.     L(Vit  line  bttt  18.  add 

9.  An  arrangement  of  the  Genealogies  in  the  Old  Testament 
and  Apocrypha,  to  which  are  added,  froin  the  same  authorities,  a 
Selection  of  Single  Names  and  ('bronnl.igical  Tables  of  the  Kings 
of  Egypt,  Syria,  and  Assyria  :  with  Notes,  critical,  philological, 
and  explanatory,  and  copious  Indexes.  By  the  Rev.  Gilbert  Urn- 
ui.NGToN,  M.A.     London,  1836.  2  vols.  4to. 

This  very  elaborate  work  is  divided  into  three  parts,  viz.  The 
first  contains  Ihe  genealogies  of  Ihc  Did  Testament  and  Apocrypha  j 
the  second,  a  collection  of  single  names  mentioned  in  the  Old  Tes- 
tament and  Apocrypha,  independently  of  those  inentioned  in  the 
genealogical  tables}  and  Ihe  third,  genealogical  tables  of  the  kings 
of  Egyjit,  Syria,  and  Assyria,  mentioned  in  the  Bible.  The  whole 
is  illiislralcd  by  copious  note^,  critical,  philological,  and  explana- 
tory, which  are  the  result  of  long  and  laboiinus  study;  and  which 
materially  elucidate  many  verbal  and  chronological  ditliculties. 


ADDENDA  TO  THE  BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  APPENDIX. 


181 


10.  The  Genealogies  recorded  in  the  Sacred  Scriptures,  accord- 
nig  to  every  Family  and  Tribe,  with  the  Line  of  our  Saviour  Jesus 
Christ  observed,  from  Adam  to  the  Virgin  Mary,  [containing 
forty-six  engraved  Tables,  with  illustrative  letter-press.]  By  John 
Payne  Moanis.     [Dublin  and  London],  1837.  small  folio. 

This  volume  consists  of  forty  very  neatly  engraved  plates,  wilh 
illustrative  letter-press.  It  is  a  very  considerable  improvement 
upon  the  genealogical  tables  published  bj'  Speed,  and  wliicb  are 
no>v  very  rarely  to  be  met  with.  A  copious  catalogue  of  names 
occurring  in  the  Bible  terminates  the  volume. 

1 1 .  Reflections  on  the  Genealogy  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus 
t'hrist,  as  recorded  by  Saint  Matthew  and  Saint  Luke.  By  David 
Benham.     London,  1836.  4to. 

12.  A  Chart  of  the  Lineal  Descent  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ. 
By  William  Wuitton,  Junr.    Dublin,  1836.  [single  sheet]  folio. 

\  

jinrESDA    TO    THE    XnEATISES    OS    SACKEU    CnRONOIOGT. 

Page  164.  cul.  1.     After  line  41.  add 

16.  A  Concise  System  of  Hebrew  Chronology,  in  accordance 
with  the  Hebrew  Text.  By  James  MACFAnLANE.  Perth,  1835. 
8vo. 

17.  The  Chronology  of  the  Old  Testament  and  its  Connexion 
with  Profane  History.  By  George  Ske.ve.  Edinburgh,  1836. 
8vo. 

18.  Dissertations  on  the  Duration  of  our  Saviour's  Ministry, 
and  the  Chronological  Arrangement  of  the  Gospel  Records  :  with 
a  descriptive  Survey  of  Palestine  in  the  time  of  Christ.  By  Lant 
Carpexter,  LL.D.     Bristol  and  London,  1836.  8vo. 

19.  The  Fulness  of  the  Times :  being  an  Analysis  of  the  Chro- 
nology of  the  Greek  Text  of  the  Seventy ;  showing  that  it  rests 
on  the  Basis  of  exact  Science,  and  comprehending  various  Parallel 
Streams  of  Time,  arranged  in  great  periods  of  Jubilees  and  astro- 
nomical Cycles,  which  connect  the  eras  of  History  and  Prophecy 
with  the  remotest  antediluvian  ages,  and  demonstrate  the  Divine 
Origin  of  the  Christian  Dispensation And  containing  a  Dis 


Creation  to  the  Accession  of  Uzziah,  anno  b.  c.  1810,  showing 
their  Jubitean  differences  at  each  date,  also  on  the  great  periods 
which  terminate  and  mark  the  year  1838  as  the  point  of  time  that 
sums  up  and  concentrates,  as  in  a  focus,  the  Chronology  of  all 
past  ages,  and  appears  likewise  to  show  the  approach  of'^the  end. 
By  William  Cuninghame,  Esq.  Edinburgh  and  London,  1838* 
8vo. 


ADDENDA   TO    THE    CONXECTIONS    OF    SACRED    AXD    PROFANE 
HISTORr,    AND    SCRIPTURE     BIOGRAPHT. 

Pa^e  165.  col.  2.     After  line  30.  add 
27,  Judaica:  sen  Veterum  Scriptorum  Profanorum  de  Rebus 
Judaicis  Fragmenta.     Collegit  Fridericus  Carolus  Meieu.    Jens. 
1832.  8vo. 

This  is  a  very  convenient  compilation  from  nineteen  classic  au- 
thors (Greek  nnd  Roman),  including  the  Jewish  writers,  Philo  and 
Josephus,  reliitivc  to  the  history,  &c.  of  the  Jews.  Tii^text  is 
printed  from  the  best  editions  with  a  few  explanatory  notes,  where 
they  are  necessary,  and  with  nwrtjinal  notes  indicating  the  subjects 
discussed  hy  the  authors  of  the  several  extracts. 
^  28.  Origines  Biblicte  ;  or,  Researches  on  Primeval  History.  By 
Charles  Tilstone  Beke.     Vol.  I.     London,  1834.  8vo. 

This  treatise  is  written  with  much  seriousness  and  ahility.  But 
the  author's  system  is  altogether  subversive  of  the  established  no- 
tions of  early  and  indeed  of  later  scriptural  geogrsphy.  For  an 
analysis  of  this  work  and  a  confutation  of  the  author's  theory,  the 
reader  is  necessarily  referred  to  the  Quarterly  Review,  vol.  Hi  dd. 
498-5  IS.  *^^ 

29.  Historia  Populi  Judaici  Biblica  usque  ad  occupationem  Pa- 
IcEstina;,  ad  Relationes  peregrinas  examinata  et  digesta.  Auctore 
Christ.  Thorning  Engelstoft.     Havnise,  1832.  8vo. 

30.  Specimen  Historico-Theologicum,  quo  continetur  Historia 
conditionis  Juda3orum  religiosa  et  moralis,  inde  ah  exsilio  Babylo- 
nico  usque  ad  tempera  Jesu  Christi  immutata;.  Scripsit  Corne- 
lius Boon.     Groningaj,  1834.  8vo. 


sertation  on  the  year  of  our  Lord's  Nativity,  wherein  the  period  of  I      ^1.  A  new  History  of  the  Holy  Bible,  from  the  Beginning  of 
the  death  of  Herod  is  fixed  by  an  Original  Lunar  Eclipse.     By    '^^^  VVorld  to  the  Establishment  of  -^^^  -  -=     •■ 
William  Cuninghame,  Esq.     London,  1836.  8vo. 


19*.  A  Supplementary  Dissertation  on  the  Sacred  Chronology  : 
comprehending  a  Review  of  the  Controversy  as  to  the  date  of  the 
Nativity  of  Christ;  an  Inquiry  into  the  Chronology  of  Josephus  ; 
and  further  Elucidations  of  the  Scientific  arrangement  of  the  times 
of  the  Church  and  the  World.  Being  Part  II.  of  the  Fulness  of 
the  Times.  By  William  Cuninshame,  Esq.  London,  1836. 
8vo. 

20.  A  Synopsis  of  Chronology  from  the  era  of  Creation,  ac- 
cording to  the  Septuagint,  to  the  year  1837,  with  a  discourse  on 
the  Astronomical  Principles  of  the  Scriptural  Times,  showing  that 
they  comprehend  a  complete  harmony  of  deeply  scientific  order 
and  arrangement,  demonstrating  their  exact  truth,  and  evincing 
that  their  Author  is  the  Omniscient  Creator.  By  William  Cun- 
INGHAME,  Esq.     London,  1837.  8vo. 

In  the  two  last-mentioned  elaborate  works,  which  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  analyse  in  the  space  necessarily  allotted  to  a  bibliograpliical 
notice,  the  learned  author  has  satisfactorily  established  the  supe- 
riority of  the  longer  chronology  of  the  Septuagint  over  that  founded 
on  the  Masoretic  Hebrew  Text.  The  Chronological  Tables  are  the 
resull  of  great  labour  and  minute  calculation. 

21.  The  Septuagint  and  Hebrew  Chronologies  tried  by  the 
Test  of  their  internal  scientific  Evidence ;  with  a  Table  from  the 


Christianity,  with  answers  to 
most  of  the  controverted  questions,  dissertations  upon  the  most 
remarkable  passages,  and  a  Connection  of  Profane  History  all 
along.  By  Thomas  Stackhouse,  A.M.  London,  1752.  2  vols, 
folio.  A  new  Edition  by  the  Rt.  Rev.  George  Gleig,  LL.D.  Lon- 
don, 1817.  3  vols.  4to.  Also  by  Daniel  Dewar,  D.D.  Glasgow 
and  London,  1836.     In  one  large  volume  royal  8vo, 

This  work  has  always  been  highly  esteemed  for  its  utility  and 
the  variety  of  valuable  illustration  which  the  author  brought  toge- 
ther from  every  accessible  source.  It  having  become  extremely 
scarce,  Bp.  Glcig,  in  1817,  published  a  new  edition,  with  important 
corrections,  and  several  valuable  dissertations,  which  greatly  tend- 
ed to  increase  its  utility.  Bp.  G.'s  edition  also  having  long  been 
out  of  print,  the  Rev.  Dr.  Dewar  brought  out  a  new  edition  in  1836, 
closely  but  handsomely  printed  in  double  columns,  in  royal  8vo. ; 
with  an  introduction,  notes,  supplementary  dissertations,  and  an 
index.  In  these  notes  and  dissertatiotis  he  has  embodied  the  re- 
sults of  the  researches  of  the  most  distinguished  modern  biblical 
scholars  and  critics.  The  Glasgow  edition  is  very  neatly  printed, 
and  is  illustrated  with  Maps  and  Plans. 

32.  Scripture  Biography.  By  the  Rev.  Robert  Wilson  Evans, 
M.A,     London,  1834-35.  2  vols.  12mo. 

33.  Scripture  Biography  ;  comprehending  all  the  Names  men- 
tioned in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments.  By  Esther  CopiEr. 
London,  1835.  8vo. 


\ 


No.  V. 


INDEX 

TO  THE 

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL    APPENDIX. 


A.tR'.'NP  'N.  J.)  De  cap.  xvii.  Joannis,  133. 
Aaron  the  Karaite,  Commentaries  of,  102. 
Aaron  Ben  Elihu  (Rabbi),  Commentaries  of,  102. 
Abarbcnel  (Rabbi  Isaac),  Commentaries  of,  102,  103. 
Abbot.  (G.),  Exposition' of  Jonah,  143. 
Abenmelech  (Solomon),  Commentaries  of,  102,  103. 
Aben  Ezra  (.\braham).  Commentaries  of,  102. 
Abichlii  (J.  G.),  Ars  legendi  et  interpretandi  Script.  98. 
Abresch  (F.  L.),  Animadversiones  ad  Nov.  Test.  147. 
Abi/ssinian  Version  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  56. 
Acaster  (J.),  Lect.  on  Ep.  to  Philippians,  145. 
Ackermann  (F.),  Introd.  ad  Vet.  Fned.  71. 

Prophetae  Minores,  126. 

ArchKologia  Biblica,  157. 

Ada  A'postolorum,  Hearrjii,  12. 

Adam  (T.),  Paraphrase  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  136. 

Exposition  of  Matthew,  144. 

Adaini  (Cornelii).  Obs.  Theol.  Philol.  147 

Exerrit.  Excgetieae,  147. 

Addintrlon  (Staph.),  Knowledge  of  Jews  concerning  a  Future  State, 

161. 

Life  of  Paul,  135. 

Adi'.r  (G.;,  De  Morbi.s  Biblicis,  161. 
Adlcr'J.G.  C),  Bibliotheca  Biblica,  5. 

Nov.  Test.  Versiones  Syriacx,  &c.  82. 

Afghan  Version  of  the  Bible,  49. 
African  Versions,  6G. 

Agier  (le  president),  sur  les  Propheties,  122. 
— ^ — Biir  les  Psaumes,  120. 

Prophetes,  avec  Notes,  122. 

Ainsworlh  (H.),  Anno*,  on  Genesis,  &c.  115. 
Airij  (H.),  Lectures  on  the  Philippians,  145. 
Alardi  (Nic),  Bibliotheca  Biblico-Harraonica,  58. 
Albanian  Version  of  the  Bible,  47. 
Alber  (Jo.  Kep.),  Instit.  Ling.  Ilebr.  87.  ♦ 

Hermeneut.  Sacr.  Vet.  Test.  98. 

Hermeneut.  Sacr.  Nov.  Test.  98. 

Interprelatio  Scripturae,  109. 

Annotatio  in  1  Jo.  v.  7.,  81. 

Alberli  (J.),  Observationes  ad  Nov.  Test.  147- 

Glossarium  Gnccum,  92. 

Periculum  Criticum,  147. 

Alcuin,  Commentaries  oi,  106. 

Alexander  (J.),  Paraphrase  on  1  Cor.  xv.,  137 

(.\.)  On  the  Canon,  69. 

Diet,  of  the  Bible,  155. 

Allen  (John),  Modern  Judaism,  156. 
AUix  (Peter),  Book  of  Psalms.  118. 
Alt  (J.  C.  G.),  Grammatica  Nov.  Test.  91. 
Altingii  (J.),  Fundamenta  Punctationis,  85. 
Allwood  (P.),  on  the  Revelation,  142. 

On  Prophecy,  101. 

On  the  Numbers  in  Daniel,  125. 

Am-Ende  (J.  G.),  Versio  Epistolse  ad  Philippenses,  137. 
American  (North),  Versions  of  the  Scriptures,  56,  57. 

(South).  Versions,  57,  58. 

Amerxfoordi  (J.),  De  Var.  Lect.  Holmesianis,  80. 

Amharic  Version  of  the  Bible,  56. 

Amner  (R.),  Essay  on  Daniel,  124. 

Amlhor  (G.  M.),  Comment,  in  Heb.  I. — III.  139. 

Amtjraldi  (M.),  Paraphr.  in  Psalmos,  119. 

Analyses  of  the  Bible,  notice  of,  135. 

Anderson  (R ),  On  Epistle  to  Romans,  145. 

Andrew  (James),  Hebrew  Dictionary  and  Grammar,  89. 

Scripture  Chronology,  163. 

Anglo-Genevese  New  Testament,  36.  and  Bible,  30. 
Anglo-Romish  Versions  of  the  Bible,  41.     Notice  of  unauthorized 

additions  to,  and  omissions  from,  tiie  text   41   42. 
Anglo-Saxon  Versions,  Editions  of  29. 
Auspach  (J.  A.),  De  Oralione  Pauli   134. 


Ante-Hieronymian  Versions  of  the  Bible,  28. 
Apocalypse  explained,  142. 
Apocrypha,  Essay  on,  69. 
Apthorp  (E.),  On  Prophecy,  201. 

Aquilino  (Alex,  a),  Pent.  Hebr.  Samar.  Prsestantia,  72. 
Aquinas  (Thomas),  Catena  of,  106. 
Arabic  Versions  (Ancient)  of  the  Bible,  26. 
(Modern),  48. 


Arigler  (A.),  Hermeneutica  Biblica,  97. 
Aryda  (A.),  Grammatica  Arabica,  %. 
Armenian  (Ancient),  Version  of  the  Bible,  27. 
(Modern),  of  New  Testament,  51. 


Arnold  (R.),  On  the  Apocrypha,  126. 
Ashlon  (J.),  Christian  Expositor,  129. 
Asiatic  (Northern),  Versions  of  the  Bible,  51. 
Assembly's  Annotations,  110. 
Augusti'iJ.  C.  G.),  Libri,  V.  T.  Apocryphi,  63. 
Augustine,  Commentaries  of,  104. 
Aiirivillii  (C),  Dissertationes  Philologicas,  147. 
Austen  (H.  T.),  Lect.  on  Genesis,  143. 


Baber  (Rev.  H.  H),  Edition  of  the  Codex  Alexandrinus,  24. 

Bagot  (Bp.  L.),  on  Prophecy,  101. 

Bahrdt  (C.  F.),  Comm.  in  Malachiam,  126. 

Baieri  (J.  W.),  Dissertatio  De  Var.  Lect.  Nov.  Test.  78. 

Bailey  (R.),  Exposition  of  the  Parables,  146. 

Baker  (Tho.),  Sermons  on  St  Matthew,  144. 

Baptist  Missionaries,  Biblical  Versions  by,  48.  et  aeq.     Specimeni 

thereof,  52—55. 
Barhebrasas  (Greg.),  Scholia  in  Psalmos,  118. 
Barhey  (N.),  Bibliotheca  Hagana,  146. 
Museum  Haganum,  146. 


Barr  (John),  Scripture  Student's  Assistant,  156. 
BarrcU  (Johannis),  Codex  Rescriptus  Matthsei,  16. 
Barrington  (Viscount),  Miscellanea  Sacra,  147. 
Bartholini  (Tho.),  de  Cruce  Christi,  160. 
Bashmouric  Version,  26. 
Basnage  (J.),  Hist,  des  Juifs,  164. 
Basque  Version,  46. 

Bass  (J.  H.),  Greek  and  English  Lexicon  to  the  New  Testament,  ft| 
Basset  (P.),  Explication  de  I'Apocalypse,  142. 
(W.),  Sermons  on  Genesis,  143. 


Bate  (Julius),  Transl.  of  Pentateuch,  115. 
Bauer  (G.  L.),  Hermeneutica  Sacra,  98. 

Scholia  in  Vetus  Testamentum,  106. 

Bauermeister  (J.  P.),  in  Sapientiam,  Salomonis,  126. 
Baxter  (R ),  Paraphrase  on  the  New  Testament,  128. 
Bayley  (Com.),  Hebr.  Grammar,  86. 
Bayly  (Anselm),  Hebrew  Grammar,  89. 
Baynes  (H.  J.),  Church  at  Philippi,  137. 

Beausobre  and  L' Enfant  (MM.),  Introduction  to  the  New  Test* 
ment,  71. 

Le  Nouveau  Testament,  avec  des  Remarquee,  127. 

Becker  (A.  G.),  Conjectanea  in  2  Cor.  xii.,  137 
Beckhans  (J.),  Observationes  Critico-Exegeticae,  138. 
Beckii  (C.  D),  Monogrammata  Hermeneut  Nov.  Foed.  98. 
Bedce  Expositio  Vet  Test  106. 
Bedell  (Bp.  W.),  Irish  Bible,  42. 
Bedford  (A.),  Scripture  Chronology,  163. 

Temple  Music,  161. 

Belgian  Versions  of  the  Bible,  45. 

Bellamy  (J.),  Translation  of  the  Bible,  114. 

Bellermann  (J.  J.),  Palseographia  Hebraica,  77. 

Belsham  (Tho.),  Epistles  of  Paul  translated,  134. 

Bengalee  Version,  49. 

Bengelii  (J.),  Gnomon  Nov.  Test  127. 

Apparatus  Criticus,  79. 

Introd.  to  Apocalypse,  140 


184 

Benjoin  (G.).  Translation  ot  jonan,  x26. 
D/nncr  (J  H  ;,  Hermeneutica  Sacra,  98. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


■  Oiin  Sacra,  147. 


Beimel  (Tho.),  Grarnmutica  Hebrtea,  87. 
Benuett  (J.),  llisl.  ol' Jesus  Clirist,  143. 
Btitfon  (G.),  History  of  Clirist,  165. 

History  ofihe  First  Planting  of  Christianity,  62. 

Diss,  on  1  John  v.  7.,  81. 

Pai-ajihrase,  Arc.  on  the  Epistles,  134. 

Utnsoti  (C),  Chronology  of  our  Savioiir'.s  Life,  163. 
Benson  (Jos.),  Comment,  on  Bible,  154. 

Berbtr  Version,  5ii. 

Bcrens  (K.),  on  Penitential  Psalms,  143. 

Berpman  (J.  T.).  Conimenlatio  in  Psftlnium  CX.,  120' 

Btrlin  (N.  M.).  P*almi  Latinc  Vei-si,  119. 

Reniard  (H.),  Main  Principles  of  the  Jews,  161. 

Jlcruhurdi  (C.  C.  S.),  lie  Rcgnis  Jiida?aB  ct  Israelis,  158. 

Berngtcin  (G.  H.),  de  Versione  Syriaca,  N.  T.,  82. 

Rerrimnn  (John),  Diss,  on  1  Tiin.  iii.  16.,  79. 

Btrry  (William),  Genealogia  Sacra,  1<>3. 

Berlfieau  (C),  De  II.  Libro  Maccabworum,  69. 

Bertholdt  (L.),  ClirisJoiogia  Jiidsoruni,  161. 

Betan  (J.  G.),  Life  of  Paul,  62. 

Bevans  (John),  Vindication  of  Matthew  and  Luke,  76. 

Beza  (Theod.),  Nov.  Test.  Latino,  32. 

Annotationes  ad  IVoviira  Testamentum,  127. 

Bible,  scarcity  of,  in  the  dark  ages,  29. ;  and  attempts  to  communi- 
cate some  idea  of  its  contents  to  tho  poor  and  illiterate,  29,  30. 

Bihle,  Lai.  et  Fr.,  109. 

(Kiiglish),  Bibliographical  Notice  of  the  authorized  Versions 

of,  36—39. 

Kditions  of,  with  Parallel  References,  39 — 41. 

Brief  History  ol  Romish  Versions  of,  41. 


Index  to,  15b. 


Bibles  in  the  Languages  spoken  in  the  British  Isles,  32.  43. 

in  the  Languages  spoken  on  the  Continent,  43 — 48. 

in  the  Languages  of  Asia,  48 — 55. 

in  the  Languages  of  .\frica,  56. 

in  the  Languages  of  America,  56 — 53. 

BiBLIA, 

P.-ialtorium  Hcbraicum,  1477.,  6. 

Biblia  Hebraica  cum  Punctis,  1488.,  6. 

Biblia  Hebraica,  1494.,  6. 

Biblia  Kdit.  Bombergiana,  7. 

Biblia,  1547— 1549.,  7. 

Biblia  Buxtor/ii,  7. 

Biblia  Hcb.  mtigna  Rabbinica,  7. 

BiBLI.V  POLVGLOTT.I, 

Compluti,  19,  20. 

Antverpiffi,  20. 

. Lutetio:  Parisiorum,  20. 

London!  (Bishop  Walton),  20,  21, 

Reineccii,  21. 

Londiui  (Bagster),  21. 

BlBI.IA  TRKiLOTTA,  21. 

BiBi.iA  Dk;i.otta, 

Pagnini  ef  Montani,  22. 

De  Biel,  22. 

Bayley,  22. 


Biblia  Hkbraica, 


BlBI.IA  Gr.ixa, 


Munsteri,  7. 

■  Athiaj,  7. 

■  Jablonski,  7. 

■  Van  der  Hooght,  7. 

■  Michaelis,  7. 
Ilotibiganf,  7. 
Kcnnicott,  7,  8. 
Doederloin  et  Meissner,  8. 
Jahn,  8. 

Boothroyd,  8. 

D'Al|pmand,8,9. 

Hahn,  9. 
'  Montani,  9. 

Reineccii,  9. 

Siinonis,  9. 
'  Leusdcnii,  9. 


Rditionum  Synopsis,  23. 
Compluti,  2'J. 
Aldi,  23. 
Ix>iiicori,  23. 
Hervafrii,  23. 
Bryiingeri,  23. 
Carafe,  23. 
W.rhelii,  23. 
DanioliH,  23. 

•  Cluveri,  23. 
•Craiui,  23,24. 

Boaii,  24. 

-  Broitingori,  24. 

•  Kfineccii,  24. 

•  Main-,  24. 

■  HfilmoKii,  ct  Paraoni,  24. 

■  Buber,  24. 

-  Oxonii  25. 


Biblia  GRitCA,  Valpii,  23. 

Glasguie,  25. 

\'()n  Es!*,  25. 

Nova  \"ersio  Grreca,  25. 

BlBI.IA  yETUioricA,  27. 

Biblia  Akabica,  26. 

BlBLIA  Ak.mk.mca,  27. 

BniMA  CoPTicA,  Sahidica  et  Bash.mourica,  26,  27. 

BlBI.IA  GOTIIICA,  28. 

Biblia  Latixa,  27. 

BiCLIA  SVKIACA,  25. 

Biblia  Anlc-UieTnuyimana,  27 

Flaminio  Nohili,  27. 

Sabatier,  27. 

Bliinchini,  27. 

Miiiileri,  27. 

Ifiernnymi  Versio,  27. 

Biblia  Vnlcata.  27. 

Sixti  v.,  28. 

dementis  VIII.,  28. 

a  Didot,  28. 

Francofurti  edifa,  28. 

Binj.iA  ScLAVOMCA,  29. 

BiRi.iA  .\nglo-Saxoxica,  29. 
Biblia  I'aiippnim,  29,  30. 
Biblical  Cabinet,  72.  178,  179. 

Repertory,  146. 

BiUiotheca  Sussexiana,  6. 

Bremensis,  146. 

Bremensis  Nova,  146. 

Hagana,  146. 

Bicheisleih  (E.),  Scrip'.ure  Help,  70. 

Biel  (J.C.),  Lexicon  in  Septuaginta,  93,  94. 

Bintcrim  (A.  J.),  Propeinticum  ad  Problema  Criticum,  74. 

Biorn  (C.  A.),  Threni  Jeremiie,  124. 

Birri  {A.),  Variaj  Lect.  ad  Nov.  Test.,  13,  14.         , 

Atuinrium  Codicis  Apocryphi,  N.  T.,  67. 

Biscoe  (Dr.),  Hisiory  of  the  Acts  illustrated,  133. 
Black  (John),  Pala^o-romaica,  74,  75. 

BlacJsall  (B;i.  O.),  Sermons  on  xMalt.  \'.— VII.,  145. 
Blachwall  (A.),  Sacred  Cla.ssics  illustrated,  72.  147. 
Blackwood  (C),  Expo.-sition  of  Matthew,  144. 
Blair  (A.),  on  the  Canon,  69. 
Blair  (J.),  on  Christ's  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  145. 
Blanchini,  Evangeliariiini  Quadrui)lex,  27. 
Bland  (M.I,  Annot.  on  New  Test.,  132. 
Blayney  (Bonj.),  Pentaleiichus  Ileb.  Sam.,  9. 
^ Standard  Edition  of  English  Bible,  39,40. 

Translalion  of  Jeremiah  and  Larnentations,  123. 

Diss,  on  Daniel's  Seventy  Weeks,  124. 

Translation  of  Zechariah,  126. 

Bliss  (G.),  Notes  on  the  New  Test.,  130. 
Block  (X.),  (Jlirono;axis  Script.  Paiili,  72. 

Blonijicld  (Bp.),  on  Traditional  Knowledge  of  a  Redeemer,  16L 

Lectures  on  the  Gospel  of  St.  John,  144. 

on  the  Acts,  144. 


Bloomfiehl  (S.  T.),  Gr.  Test,  with  Notes.  19.  166. 
Rocensio  Synoplica  Annot.  Sacrae,  130. 


Bliime  (F.),  Lex.  Dei,  ICO. 
Blunt  (H.),  History  of  Jacoljf  143. 
History  of  Pcler,  144. 


Blunt  (J.  J.),  Veraciiy  of  the  Five  Bf'oks  of  Moses,  68. 

of  the  Historical  Books  of  the  O.  T.,  68. 

of  the  Gospels  and  Ads,  (;8. 

on  nndersianding  the  Mosaic  Writings,  115. 


Bocharti  (S.),  Geographia  Sacra,  157. 
Hierozoicon,  l.'J9. 


Buckii  (E.  (>.  A.;,  Clavis  in  Grajcos  Intcrnretes  Vcteris  Tcstamenti 

&c.,  91. 
■  Epistola  ad  Romanos,  136. 

Bodf  (C.  A.),  Pseuiio-Criiua  Millio-Beneeliano,  79. 
Boehme  (C.  F.),  in  Epist.  ad  Romanos,  136. 
Epist.  ad  lIebra>o»,  138. 


Boehmrrus  (G.),  Isagogo  in  Epist.  tu\  Coloss.  138. 

Symbolic  Biblica;,  138. 

Boetlrhrr  (J.  V.),  Paronomasia  Paulina,  72. 

Bogan  (Z.),  Homerus  'ES  pat  guv,  147. 

Bohvniinn  Bible,  47. 

Bois  (Joli.),  Collatio  VeJeris  Inlerpreiis  cum  Beza,  82. 

Book  of  the  Lnveiling,  142. 

Bootbroi/d  (B.),  Translalion  of  ihc  Bible,  114.  174. 

Biblia  Ilebrnicn,  8. 

BoTgcr  (E.  .A.),  Inlerpiciaiio  Epist.  ad  Galalas,  137. 

Do  Jesii  Cliri.Hii  !)octrina,  &c.,  147. 

Bortwrnann  (F.  A.),  Scholia  in  Lucic  Evangeliiim,  132. 
Borrrnslcin  ( — ),  Easy  Method  of  acriuiring  Hebrew,  86. 
Bos  (L.),  Exorcilationc.t  PhilnlogicTS.  147. 

Observaliones  ad  Nov.  Test.,  147. 

Elli|>^CH  GnBcsR.  147. 

Biillc/irr  (J.  F.),  de  I'arr>n<imasia  Paiili,  V2. 

BoulUrr  (D.  R.).  Oliserv.  in  Job.  117. 

Bowlder  (Mrs.^  Ob.Hrrvalions  on  tho  Revelation,  141. 

Jtriwirs  (\V.  I,,),  PaiiiriH  Parochialis,  144. 

Bowifrr  fW.),  Critical  Conjectures  on  tho  New  To*tamcnt,  147 

Select  UlS(.■o^;r.■:c•^t,  1G3. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 


185 


Boyf  (T.),  Tacrica  Sacra,  7C. 

Key  to  i'salnis,  120. 

Kxposiliou  oirs'cw  Test.,  130. 

Brugge  (Fi-.).  On  Parables,  146. 

'- —  On  Miracles,  146. 

liranflniylleri  (J.),  Analysis  Vet.  Test.,    56. 
Hiaunii  (J.),  Comment,  in  Ejiist.  ad  Hebrajos,  138. 
De  Vestitii  Hebr^oruin,  161. 

Bree  (W.  T.),  Help  to  the  Study  of  Scripture,  113. 
Breiliiigeri  (J.  J.},  de  aniiquo  MS.  P,salmorum,  77. 
Brcrtwood  (E.),  De  Ponderibus  Velerum,  160. 
Brtlagne  (F.  P.  de),  De  Miisica.  Hebroeortim,  161. 
Breischneidcr  (C.  G.),  Lexicon  in  A'ov.  Test.,  93. 

Liber  Jesu  Sirachidaj,  63 

Spicilegium  ad  Lexicon  ad  LXX.,  94. 

"■ •  Probabilia  de  Evang.  Joannis,  132. 

—  Capiia  Theologia;  .ludieorum,  161. 

BreU  (Tho.),  Letter  on  English  Bibles,  84. 
Brewster  (Ja.),  Lectures  on  Matt.  V.  V[.  VII.,  145. 


•  (Jo.),  Contemplations  on  Christ's  last  Discourse,  144 
Lectures  on  Acts,  144. 


Brci/l/ier  (C.  A.),  Diss,  de  Quatuor  Evangeliis,  82. 

Eridtl  (J.  L.),  Le  Livre  de  Job,  118. 

BriJgrs  (C),  Exposition  of  Psal.CXlX.,  144. 

Brij^Bltassa  Version,  50. 

Brbchner  (J.),  Idea  Lexicographioe  N.T.,  92. 

De  2  Ep.  ad  Timotheum,  138. 

Sroiigldoii  (Hugh),  Annot.  &c.  on  Job,  1 17. 

^ Lamentations  ol' Jeremiah,  123. 

Daniel,  124. 

Apocalypse,  140. 

Broiiwer  (G.  A.),  de  Parabolis,  100. 

Brown  (John),  Dictionary  of  Bible,  154,  155. 

Scripture  Metaphors,  99. 

Ci)ncordance,  154. 

Brown  (W.),  Antiquities  of  the  Jews,  156. 
Brugensis  (Liica;).  Commentarius  in  IV.  Evangelia,  127. 
Brunati  (J.),  De  Vulgata  Vcwsione  Disserlatio,  82. 
Brienings  (C),  Antiquit.  Hebrajorum,  156. 

Antiquitates  Grrecse,  156. 

Briinlon  (Dr.),  Hebrew  Extracts  from  the  Old  Testament,  88. 
Bryan!  (J.),  Observations  on  the  Plagues  of  Egypt,  148. 

— ^^ Observations  on  Scripture,  148. 

Bncheri  (S.  F.),  Antiquitates  Biblicas,  131. 
Biickham  (P.  W.),  On  the  Phytolacca,  159. 
Bttddeus  (G.  F.),  Hist.  Eccle.s.  Vet.  Test.,  164. 

Hist.  Philosoph.  Hebr.,  161. 

Ecclesia  Apostolica,  134. 

Btiddicom  (P.),  Christian  Exodus,  143. 
Biigg  (G.),  Scriptural  Geology,  159. 
BMe  (J.  G.),  Calendarium  PalEestinae,  159. 
Bidgarian  Bible,  47. 
Bulkley  (Charles),  Notes  on  the  Bible,  112. 

'—  Disc,  on  Parables,  &c.,  146. 

Bull  (J.),  Sermons  on  51st  P,salm,  143. 
Bullerii  (D.  R.),  Disserlationes  Sacrse,  148. 
Bullet  (M.),  Reponses  Critiques,  148. 
Bnllorn  Version,  56. 

Bidorha  Version  of  the  New  Testament,  49. 
Dnrder  (Samuel),  Oriental  Expositor,  113. 

Oriental  Customs,  162. 

Oriental  Literature,  162. 

Burgcs  (Sir  J.  B.),  on  New  Translation  of  Bible,  84. 

Burgess    (Tho.   Bishop   of   Salisbury),   on   New   Translation 

Bible,  84. 

Annotationes  Millii  et  aliorum  in  1  John  v.  7.,  80. 

Selection  of  Tracts  on  1  John  v.  7.,  82. 

Vindication  of  1  John  v.  7.,  81. 

Letter  to  the  Clergy  of  St.  David's,  82. 

Letter  to  Beynon,  82. 

Introduction  to  the  Controversy  on  1  John  v.  7.,  82. 

Hebrew  Primer,  and  Elements,  88. 

Initia  Paulina,  134.  note. 

Bnrfherhoudt  (J.  J.),  de  Cooius  Christ.  Thessalonicensis  Ortu,  138. 
Burkii  (P.  D.),  Gnomon  Psalmorum,  119. 

in  XII.  Prophetas  Minores,  125. 

BurhiU  (VV.),  Notes  on  New  Test.,  128. 

Barman  New  Testament,  51. 

Bitrroiighes  (Jer.),  On  Hosca,  125. 

Burton  (Dr.  E.),  Chronology  of  the  Acts,  133. 

Busrfiingii,  (A.  P.),  Introd.  in  Epist.  ad  Philippenses,  137. 

Bush  (Gi),  On  the  Millennium,  142. 

Biislav  (J.  T.),  de  Lingua  Evang.  Matth.,  72. 

Butler  (Charles),  Horse  Biblicaj,  72. 

On  1  John  v.  7.,  81. 

Bnlterworth  (J.),  Concordance,  153. 
Biixtorfii  (Joh.),   Patris,   ConcordantiiB 


of 


152. 


Hebraica  et  Chaldaicae, 


Disserlationes,  148. 
Grammatica  Hebraica,  87. 
Lexicon  Hebraicum,  89. 
Lexicon  Chaldaicum,  89. 
■  Tiberias,  85. 
Synagoga  Judaira,  160. 
(Joh.)  Filti,  Anti-Critica,78. 


Bylhneri  (V.),  Lyra  Davidis,  9. 

B'yjicld  (N.),  Exposition  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians,  l37. 

Bynaus,  (A.),  De  Cakeis  Hebraeorum,  161. 


Cajetani  (Cardinalis),  Vet.  Test.  Latine,  31. 
Calamy  (B.),  Vindication  of  1  John  v.  7.,  81. 

Calasio  (M.  D.),  Concordantiro  Bibliorum,  Ilebraicorura  ct  Latino- 
rum,  152. 
Calixli  (G.),  Schola  Phrophelica,  121. 
Callaway  (John),  Oriental  Observations, 
Calniherg  (A.  T.),  Testimonia  pro  Evan. 
Calmet  (Aug.),  Bibliolheca  Sacra,  5. 
n Di.ss.  sur  1  Jean  v.  7.,  81. 

Diclionnaire  de  la  Bible,  1.54. 

Dictionary,  by  C.  Taylor,  154. 

by  J.  Conder,  154. 

r—  by  E.  Robinson,  154- 

Dissertations  snr  la  Bible,  69. 

Commentaire  Litleral,  1()8. 


161. 
Joan. 


avdcvTiia,  133. 


Calvin  (John),  Commentaries  of,  107, 
On  the  I>p.  to  the  Romans,  135. 


Camphdl  (G.),  Translation  of  the  Gospels,  131. 
Capclli  (Lud.),  Pa/rls,  Critica  Sacra,  78. 

— Chronologia  Sacra,  163.  ^ 

(Lud.),  Filii,  Arcan\im  Punctationis,  85. 


Cardwell  (Dr.  E.),  Curtis's  Misrepresentations  exposed,  84. 
Carey  (J.),  L.^.xicon  Gr.  Lat.  in  Nov.  Test.,  92. 
Carijenler  (VV.),  Calendarium  Palestintp,  163,  164. 

Lectures  on  Biblical  Criticism,  72. 

Scripture  Difficulties,  148. 

Scripture  Nat.  Hist.,  159. 


Carpzovii  (J.  B.),  Primaj  Lines;  Ilermeneutirs?,  97. 

Exercitationes   in   Epistolam   ad  IlebnBOs  e.x  Philone 

103.  138. 

Stricturae  in  Epistolam  ad  Romanos,  203. 

Collegium  Rabbino-Bibliciim  in  Ruth,  103. 

Notw,  &c.  in  Septem  Epist.  Cathol.  139. 

Carpzovii  (J.  G.),  Aoparatu.s  Antiq.  Hebr.,  156. 

Critica  Sacra  Vet.  Test.,  72. 

Introductio  ad  Libros  Cnnonicos  Veferis  Testamenti,  70 

Comment.  Crit.  ad  Libros  Novi  Testamenti,  71. 

Cartwrigkt  (C),  Mellificium  Hebraicum,  103. 
Cartwright  (T.),  Comment,  in  Proverbia,  120. 

Confutation  of  Rhenish  Testament,  41. 


Caryl  (J.),  Exposition  of  Job,  117. 
Case  (J.  R.),  Comment,  on  Proverbs,  121. 
Casialionis  (Seb.),  Biblia  Latina,  31. 
CastelU  (Edm\]ndi),  Lexicon  Heptaglotton,  94,  95. 
CastilUonai  (C.  O.),  Ulphiloe  Gothica  Versio,  28. 
CatejicB  of  various  Greek  Writers,  Editions  of,  105. 
Cellarii  (Christ.),  Hone  Samaritans!,  9. 
Epislolaj  Samaritansc,  161. 


CelUrier  (J.  E.),  Gramraaire  Hebrai'que,  87. 

Introduction  a  lecture  des  Livres  Saints,  71. 

Introduction  au  Nouv.  Test.,  71. 

Celsii,  (O.),  Hierobotanicon,  159. 
Ceylonese  Bible,  50. 
C/iais  (Charles),  La  Sainte  Bible,  109. 
Chaldee  Paraphrases,  22. 

Version  of  New  Test.,  48. 


Chambers  (John),  Harmony  of  the  Four  Gospels,  61. 
Chandler  (Dr.  S.),  Critical  History  of  David,  105. 

Paraphrase  on  Joel,  126. 

Paraphrase  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  «fec.,  137. 

Chappclnw  (L.),  Comment,  on  Job,  117. 

Charitt,  Characicrcs  de  la.  146. 

Chem.nitd  (M.),  Harmonia  IV.  Evangeliorum,  59.  127. 

Cheneviere  (J.  J.),  Introduction  au  Nouv.  Test.,  71. 

ChevalUer  (T.),  On  Historical  Types,  99. 

Chinese  Bible,  50,  51. 

Chippeway  Version,  57. 

Chladenii  (M.),  Instituliones  Exegeticse,  97. 

Chompri  (P.),  Diet,  de  la  Bible,  155. 

Chrysostom  (John),  Commentaries  of,  104. 

Cingalese  Bible,  50. 

Clapham{S.),  Pentateuch  illustrated,  115 

Clarisse  (T.  A.),  Psalmi  Quindecim  illustrati,  120. 

Clarisse  (Jo.),  De  xuUtTux  Joan.  Evan.,  132. 

Clarice  (Samuel),  Annot.  on  the  Bible,  110. 

Clarke  (Dr.  S.),  Paraphr.  on  Evangelists,  131. 

Clarke  (Dr.  Adam),  Comment,  on  the  Bible,  113. 

Succession  of  Sacred  Literature,  5. 

On  1  John  v.  7.,  81. 

Collection  of  Various  Readings,  80. 


Clarke  (J.  E.),  Dissertation  on  the  Dragon,  Beast,  &c.  of  the  Revo 

lation,  141. 
Classical  Journal,  147. 
Claudii  (J.  D.),  Commentatio  de  Felice,  148. 
Clausen  (H.  N.),  IV  Evang.  Tab.  Synopticre,  61. 
Clerici  (J.),  Translatio  et  Commentarius  Vet.  et  Nov.  Test.,  108. 

Ars  Critica,  78. 

Harmonia  Evangelica,  59. 

Clemence  (M.),  Caracteres  du  Messie,  101. 


186 

Close  (Fr.),  Gcnfsis  illustrated,  143. 

Cocceii  (.Joaniiis),  Coianicatarii,  108. 

Commeiil.  in  Kp.  ad  Tun.  138. 

Coelbi  (D.),  Obser\til:(j!!es  ad  Zeplinniam,  126 

CogfiUtn  (C.  L.),  Scrijtt.  Comm.  on  Genesis  and  Matthew,  41. 

Cole  (J.  W.),  On  the  Prophpcics.  122. 

Collelt  (S.),  Paraplirase  on  the  Catholic  Epistles,  139. 

Collj/er  (David),  Sacred  Interpreter,  70. 

CoUyer  (VV.  B),  On  Scripture  Prophecy,  100. 

Lect.  on  Miracles  and  Parables,  146. 

Cdomefii  (P.),  Olxservat.  SacrsB,  148. 

Colonia  (D.),  Religion  Chrctienne,aulhorizee  par  Auteurs  Paiens,68. 

Compendium  Ciraiiim.  lleb.,  88. 

Compnhi'iisive  Bible,  114. 

Concordance  de  IV.  Evanpclistes,  61. 

dii  IVoiiveau  Tesiament,  154. 

Conylieare  (J.  J.),  On  Spiritual  Inierp.  of  Scripture,  99. 

Cook  (John),  IiKjuiry  into  New  Test.,  72. 

Cooke  (VV.),  Trun:*.  of  Revelation,  140. 

Cooper  (R.  B.),  Translation  ol'  Mede's  Clavis  Apoc,  140 

On  the  Revelation,  140. 

Cooper  (O.  Su  John),  Four  Hundred  Texts  of  Scripture  explained, 
148. 

Coorc  (R.),  Practical  Expositor,  148. 

Coptic  Version  of  the  Bible,  26. 

(.^oqucrcl  (.\.  L.  C),  Biographic  Sacrce,  165. 

Sur  le  Sysleme  llieroglyphique,  162. 

Cosin  (Bi>.).  Sfholiastifal  Hist,  ol  Canon,  08. 

Custard  (C),  Observations  on  Job.  117. 

Coles  (II.),  Sermons  on  Resurrection  of  Lazarus,  145. 

Cotton  {II.),  List  of  Editions  of  the  Bible,  84. 

■  Five  Books  of  Maccabees,  63. 

On  a  French  Translation  of  llie  New  Test.,  85. 

Coverdale  (Myles),  Bil)le,  31. 

Cw:  (F.  A.),  tcmale  Scripture  Biography,  165. 

Lci.'lures  on  Daniel,  1 13. 

Cor  (J.  H.),  On  Harmony  of  Scripture,  14G. 

Cox  (R.),  Hone  Rxjinana;,  136. 

Cradork  (S.),  Harmony  of  the  Evangelisfe,  59. ;  and  of  the  Aposto- 
lical History,  62 

Old  Testament  methodized,  164. 

Crameri    (J.  J.),  Theologia  Israelis,  161. 

Cranmer  (Abp.  Tho.),  Great  Bible,  34,  35. 

Cran field  (Thomas),  Harmony  of  the  Resurrection,  62 

Crednf.r  (C.  A.),  Do  Versione  Syriaca  Prophet.,  82. 

•  Creolcse  V'ersion,  57. 

•  Crilici  Sacri,  108. 
Croat  Version,  46. 

Crocker  (J.),  flebrcw  Grammar,  86,  87. 

Croly  (G.),  Apocalypse  ol'  St.  John,  142. 

Cromfiie  (John),  On  Types,  99. 

Crossiiigc  (R.)  On  Charit)',  146. 

Crosthvxiite  fJ.  C),  Maps,  158. 

Crudcn  (.\!ex.),  Concordance,,  153. 

Cruden  (Rev.  Mr.),  Commentary  on  tlie  Bible,  111. 

Crusius  (C.  A.),  Theologia  Proplictica,  100. 

Crulwell  (C),  Concordance  of  Parallels,  153. 

Cul/xrlson  (R.),  Lectures  on  the  Revelation,  142. 

Cuviltrlnnd  (Bp.  R.),  Jewish  Weights  and  Measures,  160. 

CummingK  (J.  A.),  New  Test,  with  Notes,  130. 

Cunaus  (P.),  De  Repnblica  Hebnrorum,  156. 

Cuninphnme  (VV.),  On  the  Seals,  &c.  ol  the  Apocalyp.sc,  141.  177. 

Jubiliean  Chronology,  141. 

Curdish  Version,  52. 

CuTtii  (A.),  De  Anihcntia  1  F.p.  ad  Tim.,  138. 

Curtis  (Tho.),  On  alleged  existing  Monopoly  of  the  Scriptures,  81. 


D.MiL  (J.  C),  Observationrs  ad  Minorca  Prophetas,  125. 
DahUr  (J.G.),  De  Parali()oinenoruin  Auctoritulo,  117. 

Jercmie,  avoc  des  Notes,  124. 

Dale  (John),  Analysis  of  the  Epistles,  156. 
Dantri  (L.),  Coinin.  in  Joelom,  &c.,  125. 
Dnnlinncri  (J.  C),  Hermenentica  Sacra,  97. 
Daniel,  secundum  Scptuaginia,  25. 
Dani*h  Bible,  43. 

Danz  (T.  L.),  De  Infanticidio  Herodiano,  132. 
Dathii  {J.  A.),  Libri  Vet.  Tent.,  32.  109. 

Opusciila,  72. 

Jkiabitz  (C.),  Commrnt.  on  Revelation,  140. 
Jkivenunl  (J.),  Exposiiio  Epist.  od  ColosNcnscs,  137. 

Tran.olalion  of,  by  .Mlport,  137. 

Davidxon  (David),  Pocket  (.'omm.  on  New  Test.,  131 

Davidson  (VV.),  Examination  of  Solomon's  Song,  122. 

Daviis  (J.),  LcftiircH  on  History  of  Joseph,  143. 

Duvison  (J.),  On  Prophe<-y,  101. 

Dawney  (H j.  Remarks  on  tho  EpistlcR,  80. 

Dawson  (A.),  (n-ncMiR  traiislHlcd,  116. 

Dawson  (J.),  fJreck-EiiRlish  Lexicon  to  New  Test..  93. 

Dranr  (J.  H.),  On  VVorxliip  of  the  Serpent,  116. 

lie  Coelloeon  {C  V..),  Sermons  on  51hI  Psalm,  143. 

Ilrlany  ;P.),  IliHi.  of  David.  If..''.. 

Drlaufurc  Indian  Version,  56,  57 

Ddrii  (M.>  Adngiulia  V   ol  N.T.,  100. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


De  Rossi  (J.  B.),  Variae  Lcctiones  Veteris  Testameuti,  et  Scholia 

Criiica,  79. 
Specimen   Ilexaplaris  Bibliorum  Versioais  Syro-Estran- 

gelw,  26. 

Inirod.  alia  Scriltura,  70. 

Ermeneulica  Sacra,  97. 

Compcndio  di  Critica  Sacra,  72. 

Dermoid  (J.),  Collect.  Crit.  in  Nov.  Test.,  80. 

De  Veil  (C.  M.),  Explicaiio  Caniici  Canticorum,  12L 

Expositio  XII  Prophelaruiii,  125. 

Explicaiio  Matthmi  et  Marci,  132. 

Acta  .Aposiolornm  Explicata,  133. 

Des  Voeux  (A.  V.),  on  Ecdcsiastes,  121. 
Dfi/lingii  (S.),  Observationes  Saci-aj,  148. 
Diik  {S.),  Lectures  on  ihe  Acts.  144. 
Dickinson  (R.),  New  Testament,  130,  131, 
Dickson  (D.),  Explication  of  iValms,  118. 
Dictionaries  of  llie  Bible,  noliie  of,  154.  155. 
Diet!  (Liidovici  de),  Criiica  Sacra,  107,  108. 

Rudimenta  Linguaj  Pcrsica?,  97. 

Dimock  (H.),  Notes  on  Ciencsis,  Arc,  lit). 

Notes  on  Psalms  i\nil  Proverbs,  119 


Dindorf  {}.),  Novum  Lexicon  Lingiis  llebraico-Chaldaicie,  90. 

Diodali  (J.),  Annotations  on  the  Bible,  106. 

Dobrowsky  (Joscjihi),  De  A'ltiquis  llebrjBorum  Characteribus  D«- 

serlalio,  85. 
Dodd  (V\'.),  Commentary  on  the  Bible.  Ill    173,  174, 

Disc,  on  Miracles,  <fcc.,  146. 

Common-place  Book  to  the  Bible,  155. 


Doddridge  (Dr.),  P'aniily  Expositor,  I'J'J. 
Harmony  of  tii"  Gospels,  CO. 


Doedtrlcin  (J.  C),  Scholia  in  Libros  V.T.  pceticos,  117. 
Esaias  Laliiie,  123. 


Domfiay  (F.  de),  Griiminai'ca  Lingua;  Persicae,  97. 

Dorhoiit  (Ambr.),  Aiiimadversioncs  in  Vet.  Test.,  148. 

Dorn  (J.  A.),  de  Psallerio  JCthiopico,  62. 

Dorschri  (J.  G.),  Biblia  Niiineniia,  97 

Doughtai  (J.),  Analccia  Sacra,  148. 

Dowai/  Bible,  41. 

D'Oi/li/  (G.),  and  ^[ant  (R.),  Commentary  on  the  Bible,  113. 

Drai/i'ibA.),  Bible  de  Vcnce,  108,  109. 

Driesscnii  (.\.),  Divina  Audoritas  N.  T.,  78, 

Dnisii  (J.)  Coinmeniarius  in  Prophetas  Minores,  125. 

Ilistoria  Ruth,  116. 

Adagia,  110. 

Animadversiones,  148. 

Prailerita,  103. 


Parallela  Sacra,  76. 


Diiguct  (J.  J.),  Explication  du  1  Cor.  XIII.,  146. 
Du  Hamel  (J.  B.),  Biblia  cum  Annot.,  108. 
Dumheck  (F.J  ).  Historia;  Universoj  Tabula3,  1C4. 
Duncan  (R.),  Exposition  of  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  138. 
Du  Fin  (L.  E.),  Prolegomoncs  sur  la  Bible,  08. 
Hist,  of  tiie  Canon,  68. 


Durell  (D.),  Translation  of  the  Prophecies  of  Jacob  and  Moics,  115 
Remarks  on  Job,  &c.,  117. 


Dutch  Version  of  the  Bible,  44,  45. 


Eastburn  (M.),  Lect.  on  Ep.  to  Philippians,  145. 
Eckennann  (J.  C.  R.),  in  Lilirnm  Job,  117. 
Kckhardi  (T.~.,  Observationes  Philologicsc,  148. 
Edwards  (John),  ICxercilalions,  148. 
Inquiry  into  IV  Toxis,  1 18. 


Edwards  (Tho.),  Translation  of  Psalms,  119. 
Disserlationes  dua;,  72. 


Edwards  (Tim.),  Paraphrase  on  Romans  and  Galatiaiis,  135. 

Egyptian  Versions  of  the  Bible,  26. 

Eirhhorn  (i.C),  (^onimcnlarius  in  Apocnlypsin,  140. 

lnlrf)diiction  to  Ihe  Old  and  New  Testaments,  and  to  th« 


Apocryphal  Books,  71. 

De  Pronhetica  Poi-'si,  76. 


Eliot  (J.),  Virginian  Bible,  56. 
Ehliy  (J.),  Annotations  on  the  Four  Gospels  and  Acts.  131,  132. 
Elsneri  (J.),  Comm.  ad  Mallh.  et  Marc,  132. 
OI)scrvationes  ad  Nov.  Test.,  14B. 


Elsneri  (H.  F.),  P.tuIus  ol  Jesaias  coniparalus,  1 18. 
Ehtrich  (J.  H.),  Dissortatio  Do  Nov.  Ficd.  Critic©.  78. 
Emlyn  (Tho.),  Inquiry  concerning  1  John  v.  7.,  81. 

Answer  to  Marliii,  81. 

Reply  to  Marlin,  HI. 


Emmerling  (A.G.),  Ep.  ad  Corinth,  cum  Notis,  137. 

Engelbreth  (VV.  F.),  Fragmciila  Basmurico-Coptica   Vet.  et  ^'ov. 

Test.,  26,  27. 
Ens  (J.),  Bibl.  Sacrn,  68. 
Erasmi  (D.),  Nov.  Tost.,  9,  10.  32, 

Paraplirasis  in  Nov.  Test.,  127. 


Erdmann  (V .),  ('ura;  in  Jeremiam,  12-1. 

Ernesti  (J.  A.),  I.,rctionea  in  Ejiist.  iid  liebra-os,  138. 

OpuHCiila  Tlieologica,  146. 

Insiitulio  Inioriireiis  Novi  TcuC&mcnti,  97,  98. 

GloHSJc  .'^ncm',  92. 


Erpenii  (T.),  (Jramiiiaiica  ci  Rudimenta  .ArabicD,  95 
Esifuitnaux  Voryion,  57. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


187 


Essay  on  Apocrypha,  69. 

Essays  on  Biblical  Literature,  147. 

Estii  (G.),  Comment,  in  Epistolas,  134. 

Ethiopic  Version  of  the  Bible,  27. 

EuseSii  Onomasticon  Scripturse,  157. 

Euthymii  Commentarii,  105. 

Ewatd  (G.  H.  A.),  Gramraatik  Hebraischer,  88. 

Com.  in  Apocalypsin,  142. 

Ewarl  (J.),  Lectures  on  the  Psalms,  143. 
Ewing  (Gr.),  Greek  Grammar  and  Lexicon,  94 
Eyre  (George),  and  Strahan's  (Andrew),  Edition  of  the  English 
Bible,  39,  40. 


Faber  (G.  S.),  Horse  Mosaicoe,  115. 

Diss,  on  Seventy  Weeks,  125. 

Dissert,  on  Prophecies,  100. 

Sacred  Calendar  of  Prophecy,  100. 

Fabricii  (J.  A.),  Codex  Apoc.  Vet.  Test.,  66. 

Codex  Apoc.  Nov.  Test.,  67. 

Fabricy  (Pere),  Des  Titres  Primitives  de  Revelation,  72. 
Falsifications  of  the  Scriptures: — in  the  Anglo-Romish  Bibles,  41, 

42. ;  and  the  Romish-French  Version,  at  Bordeaux,  45.  notes. 
Fannin  (J.),  Harmony  of  Christ's  Prophecy,  61. 
Farrer  (J.),  On  the  Parables,  146. 
FauKctt  (Dr.  J.),  Comment,  on  the  Bible,  113. 
Fawcelt  (J.),  Exposit.  of  Rom.  IX.,  136. 
Featherslone  (C),  Haggeus  the  Prophet,  126. 
Fell  (Bp.),  Paraphrase,  &c.  on  Saint  Paul's  Epistles,  134. 
Fenwick  (G.),  Version  of  the  Psalms,  119. 
Ferenczy  (J.),  De  Proditione  Judae,  132. 
Fergus  (H.),  Institutions  of  Moses,  160. 
Finnish  Bible,  44. 

Fischer  (S.),  Synopsis  Quaestionum,  148. 
Fischeri  (J.  F.),  De  Versionihus  Grsecis  Veteris  Testamenti,  82 

dc  Vitiis  Lexicorum,  92. 

Fitzgerald  (Gerald),  Hebrew  Grammar,  86. 

Flacheri  Analysis  V.  et  Nov.  Test,  156. 

Flacius  (M.),  Clavis  Scripturae,  98. 

Fleck  (F.  F.),  De  Regno  Christi,  148. 

Fleming  (R.),  Fulfilling  of  Scriptures,  100. 

Fleury  (C),  Manners  of  Israelites,  156. 

Formosan  Version  of  Gospels,  51 . 

Forskal  (P.),  Opera,  159. 

Forster  (Cha.),  Critical  Essays,  148. 

Fowler  (W.),  Eastern  Mirror,  162. 

Fox  (F.),  The  New  Testament  with  Parallel  Referenees  at  length, 

40. 
Francis  (A.),  Transl.  of  Song  of  Solomon,  122. 
Franckii  (A.  H.),  Prs&lectiones  Hermeneuticas,  98. 

Manuductio  ad  Script.  Sacr.,  68. 

Commentatio  de  Scopo  Vet.  Test.,  98. 

Introductio  ad  Lectionem  Prophetarum,  100. 

Christus  S.  Script.  Nucleus,  98. 

Franks  (J.),  Remarks  on  Genesis,  116. 

Franzii  (W.),  De  Interpretatione  Sacrarum  Literarum,  98. 

French  Versions  of  the  Bible,  44,  45.  168,  169. 

French  ( W.),  and  Skinner  (Geo.),  Version  of  the  Psalms,  120. 

On  the  Proverbs,  121. 

Frey  (J.  S.  C.  F.),  Hebr.  Grammar,  86. 

Hebr.  Lat.  and  Engl.  Diet.,  90. 

Frey  (J.  L.),  Commentarius  de  Var.  Lect.  Nov.  Test.,  78. 
Friedrichii  (C.  G.),  Symbolas  ad  Psalmura  Centesimum,  120. 

Christologia  Samaritanorum,  161. 

Friische  (C.  F.  A.),  Evangelia  Quatuor,  132. 


in  2  Cor.  Dissertatio,  137. 
■  Conject.  in  Nov.  Test,,  148. 


Frost  (J.),  on  Mustard  Tree  of  New  Test.,  159. 
Fry  (J.),  Translation  of  Job,  118. 

Lyra  Davidis,  120. 

Canticles,  122. 

Lectures  on  Epist.  to  Romans,  144. 

Falke  (W.),  On  the  New  Testament,  41 

Fuller  (A.),  Expository  Discourses  on  Genesis,  143. 

On  the  Apocalypse,  145. 

Harmony  of  Scripture,  146. 

Fuller  (T.),  Comment,  on  Ruth,  116. 
FuUeri  (Nich.),  Mis.  Sac.,  72.  148. 


Gaelic  Bible,  43. 

Galloway  (J.),  Commentaries  on  the  Revelation,  141. 
Garden  (Cha.),  Translation  of  Job,  117. 
Garnett  (Bp.  J.),  Dissertation  on  Job,  117. 

Gaston  (Hugh),  Common-place  Book  to  Old  and  New  Test.,  156. 
Gastrell  (Bp.  F.),  Christian  Institutes,  155. 
Gauntlett  (Henry),  Exposition  of  the  Revelation,  145. 
Geddes  (Dr.),  Translation  of  the  Historical  Bookji  of  tho  Old  Testa- 
ment, 115. 

; —  Translation  of  the  Psalms,  119, 120. 

Geier  (M.),  Commentarius  in  Psalmos,  118. 

• Commentarius  in  Proverbia,  120. 

Commentarius  in  Ecclesiasten,  121. 

Vol,  II.  ~  4  R 


Geier  (M.),  Praelectiones  in  Danielem,  124 

Gell  (Philip),  on  Hebrew  Idiom,  86. 

Gelpke  (F.  C.),  Vindiciae  Originis  Paulince  Ep.  ad  Hebraeos,  139 

Genealogies,  Treatises  on,  163. 

Genesis,  Essay  on,  116. 

—  Brief  Observations  upon,  116. 


Georgi  (A.  A.),  Fragmentum  Johannis  Coptico-Thebaicun,  26 

Georgian  Version,  51. 

Georgii  (Ign.),  Paulus  Naufragus,  134. 

Gerard  (Alex.),  Institutes  of  Biblical  Criticism,  72,  73. 

Gerdesii  (D.),  Miscellanea  Duisburgensia,  et  Groningana,  Ml. 

German  Bibles,  43,  44. 

Gershom  (Levi  Ben.),  Commentaries  on  Scripture,  102. 

Gesenii  (G.),  Lexicon  Hebraeo-Latinum,  90. 

-1 Lexicon  Heb.  Lat.  Manuale,  90. 

Lexicon  by  Leo,  90. 

Rudimenta  Orientalia,  94. 

Comment,  de  Samaritanis,  161. 

De  Pentateuchi  Samaritani  origine,  73. 

Aneedota  Oxoniensia,  73. 

Gihbs  (J.  W.),  Hebrew  and  English  Lexicon,  90. 

Manual  Hebrew  and  English  Lexicon,  90,  91. 

Gihert  (E.),  Reflections  sur  I'Apocalypse,  141. 
Gifford  (— ),  Diss,  on  Song  of  Sol.,  122. 

Giggeii  (A.),  Thesaurus  Linguas  Arabieae,  96. 
GUI  (Dr.),  Comment,  on  the  Bible,  111. 

Exposit.  of  Solomon's  Song,  121. 

Gilpin  (W.),  Exposit.  of  New  Test.,  129. 
Girard  (J.),  Moyse  Devoile,  99. 
Girdlestone  (W.),  Obs.  on  Daniel,  124. 

(C),  Comment,  on  New  Testament,  144  177. 


Gisborne  (T.),  Exposition  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Colossians,  145 
Glaire  (J.  B.),  Grammaire  Hebraique,  88. 
Lexicon  Heb.  et  Chald.,  91. 


Glaser  (A.  F.  G.  M.),  Dissert,  de  Johanne  Apostolo,  133. 
Glassii  (Sal.),  Philologia  Sacra,  73.  98. 
Goadby  ( — ),  Illustration  of  the  Bible,  111. 
Godwin  (Tho.),  Moses  and  Aaron,  156. 
Goetzii  (G.),  Observat.  ad  Nov.  Test.,  148. 
Golii  (J.  G.),  Lexicon  Arabico-Latinum,  96. 
Good  (E.),  Ori  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  145. 
Good  (J.  M.),  Translation  of  Job,  118. 
Transl.  of  Solomon's  Song,  122. 


Goode  (W.),  Version  of  Psalms,  120. 
Gorcum  (Jo.  a).  Epitome  Coramentariorum  Estii,  134. 
Gorham  (G.  C),  On  Apocryphal  Books,  69. 
Reply  to  L.  Van  Ess,  69. 


Gothic  Versions  of  the  Scriptures,  Editions  of,  28. 
Gower  (J.  A.),  Explanation  of  the  Psalms,  120. 
Grabe  (J.  E.),  Collatio  Codicis  Cottoniani,  79. 

Epistola  de  LXX  Versione,  82. 

Dissertatio  de  Vitiis  LXX,  83. 


Gramberg  (C.  P.  W.),  Libri  Geneseos  Adumbratio,  116. 

Graves  (R.),  Lect.  on  Pentateuch,  143. 

Grawitz  (C),  sur  la  Langue  Orig.  de  Matthieu,  73. 

Gray  (A.),  Delineation  of  Parables,  146. 

Gray  (Bp.),  Key  to  the  Old  Testament,  71. 

Connection  of  Sacred  and  Heathen  Literature,  &c.,  73. 

Josiah  and  Cyrus,  73. 

Greek  Grammars  and  Lexicons,  91 — 94. 

Versions  of  the  Old  Testament  (anonymous).  Editions  of,  25 

(Modern)  Version  of  the  Bible,  47. 169. 

(Ancient).     See  Biblia  Grceca. 


Green  (W.),  Translation  of  Psalms,  119. 
Parts  of  Old  Testament,  117. 


Greenaway  (S.),  Ecclesiastes,  121. 
Greene  (R.  B.),  Genealogy  of  Christ,  163. 
Greenfield  (W.),  Polymicrian  Lexicon,  17. 

Comprehensive  Bible,  114. 

Greenhill  (G.),  On  Ezekiel,  124. 

Greenlandish  Version,  57. 

Gregory  (G.),  Translation  of  Lowth's  Lectures,  76. 

Greppo  (J.  G.  H.),  Sysieme  Hieroglyphique,  162. 

Greswell  (E.),  Harmonia  Evangelica,  61. 

Dissertations,  61.         • 

Grey  (Rich.),  Last  Words  of  David,  117. 

Libri  Jobi,  117. 

Grier  (R.),  Answer  to  Ward's  Errata,  84. 

Griesbachii  (J.  J.),  Curse  in  Hist.  Textus  Epist.  Pauli,  15. 

Symbolse  Criticas,  79. 

Comment.  Criticus  in  Textura  Nov.  Test.,  15 

Novum  Testamentum,  14, 15. 

Synopsis  Evangeliorum,  60. 

. in  1  Joh.  v.  7.,  77. 

— Opuscula  Academica,  148. 

Grinfield  (E.),  Serm.  on  Parables,  146. 
Gronovii  (J.),  Decreta  Romana,  160. 
Groot  (P.  H.  de),  de  Epist.  ad  Hebraeos,  139. 
Grossmann  (G.  L.  C),  in  Luc.  XVI.  Commentatio,  132. 

Quaestiones  PhilonesB.  102. 

Grotii  (H.),  Annotationes  ad  Vet.  et  Nov.  Test.,  106. 
Gryneus{i.  J.),  Commentary  on  Haggai,  126. 
Guadagnoli  (P.),  Grammatica  Arabica,  95. 
Guarini  (P.),  Lexicon  Hebraicum,  89. 
Gude  (G,  T.),  Ed  Ecclee.  Ephes.  Statu,  137." 


188 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


Gumey  (\V.).  Dictionary  of  Bible,  155. 

Gxtniey  (J.  J),  Biblical  Notes,  148. 

Gulltirii  (A),  Lexicon  Syriacura  Novi  Testamenti,  95. 

Guyse  (Dr.),  Practical  Expositor,  128. 

Oytcs  (J  ¥■),  Elements  ol  Hebrew  Grammar,  86. 


Hack  (Maria),  Oriental  Fragments,  1G2. 

Hackfpanii  (T.),  Notse  ad  Vet.  Test.,  148. 

Haenfein  (H.  C.  A.),  Symbolie  Criticte  in  Habacucum,  126. 

Epistola  JuJte,  140. 

Hales  (Dr.  W.),  Analysis  of  Chronology,  163. 

On  1  John  v.  7..  81. 

Hall  'Bishop).  Contemplations,  and  Paraphrastic  Exposition  of  the 
Bible,  109. 

Hall  (J.),  Discourses  on  the  Gospels,  145. 

Hallet  (J.),  Notes  on  Scripture,  148. 

Index  Libronim  AISS.  Nov.  Feed.,  11 

Hallifax  (Bp.  S.),  On  Prophecy,  101. 

Hamakcr  (H.  A.).  De  Vita  Prophetarum,  122. 

HamiUon  (Geo.),  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Hebrew  Scrip- 
tures, 70. 

Codex  Criticus,  79. 

Observations  on  Rom.  Cath.  English  Bible,  84. 

Letter  to  Dr.  Murray,  84,  85. 

Hammond  'II.),  Annot.  on  the  Psalms,  118. 

Paraptir.  on  New  Test.,  128. 

Haitdscke  (J.  C.  L.).  De  Authentia  Joh.  c.  XXI.,  133. 

Hardy  ( — ),  Nov.  Test,  cum  Schoiiis,  127. 

Harenberg  (J.  C),  Amos  exposiius,  126. 

Otia  Sacra,  148. 

Harle  (Jon.),  Hist,  of  Physic  in  Old  and  New  Test.,  161. 

Hormer  (T.),  Observations  on  Dirers  Passages  of  Scripture,  162. 

Outlines  of  a  new  Commentary  on  Solomon's  Song,  122. 

Harmonia,  IV  Evangeliorum,  59. 

Harris  (T.  M.),  Nat.  Hist,  of  Bible,  158,  159. 

Harris  (W.),  Elements  of  the  Chaldee  Language,  89. 

Harris  i,S.),  Comm.  on  Isa.  LIII.,  12i 

Harlmann  {A.  VV.),  Thesaur.  Ling.  Ilebr.,  91. 

Haruood  (Dr.  E.),  introduction  to  the  New  Testamcnt«i72. 

(T.),  Annot.  on  Genesis,  116. 

Haselaar  (A.  G),  Diss,  de  Act.  Apost.,  134.  * 

Hasii  (J.  M),  Re^num  David icum,  158. 

H'tssler  (C.  D.),  De  Psalmis  Maccabeis,  120. 

H'lVfn  (P.  von),  Coniiii.  in  En.  ad  Titum,  133. 

Hawtis  (Dr.),  Comment  on  Bible,  111. 

Hawkins  (T.),  Comment,  on  1,  2,  3  John,  1 10. 

Heamii  (Tho.),  Acta  Apostolorum,  12. 

H'Olh  (E.),  Version  of  Job,  117. 

HeJjraic<E  Ldngua  Litene,  &c.,  88. 

Hebrcux,  Epilre  aux,  138. 

Jlrhrew  Aids,  87. 

Hebrew  Version  of  New  Test.,  48. 

Htinrichs  (C.  H.).  Acta  Apostolorum  illustrata,  134. 

Apocalyiieis  illustrata,  141. 

Heinsii  (D),  Exercitat.  ad  Nov.  Test.,  148. 

Henderson  (Dr.  E.),  Diss,  on  Danish  New  Test.,  8a 

Diss,  on  1  Tim.  iii.  16.,  80. 

Biblical  Researches,  85. 

Edition  of  Stuart's  Elem.  of  Interpretation,  98. 

Htnke  rll.  P.  C),  Codicis  Ulfenbachiani  Recensus  Criticus,  77. 

Henkii  (G.  J.),  Introd.  ad  Lib.  Apoc.  V.  T.,71. 


De  Lib.  Apocr.,  103. 
Libri  Apocryphi,  63. 


Henley  (.Sam.),  Dissert,  on  Peter,  &c.,  139. 
Henry  (M),  Comment,  on  the  Bible,  110,  111. 
Henshall  (S),  Gothic  (iospel  of  St.  Matthcw,^8. 
Herder  (J.  G.),  Spirit  of  Hebrew  Poetry,  76. 
Hcrwerden  (C.  H.),  De  Libro  Josuk,  116. 
Hesyrhii  Gloswe  Sacne,  ab  Ernesti,  92. 
Hriipelii  (G.),  Comment,  ad  Marcum.,  132. 
Hi'vlrtl  (John),  Commentary  on  the  Bible,  113. 
Jhy  (Dr.  J.),  on  St.  Paul's  Writings,  135. 

on  1  John  v.  7.,  81. 

thydenreich  (A.  L.  C),  Comm.  in  1  ^p.  ad  Corinthios,  137. 

Htylin  (Dr.),  Lectures  on  the  New  Teslainenl,  143. 

Heul  (G.  F.),  Nov.  Foed.  Illu.sir.,  128. 

Hieronymi  Commenlarii,  104. 

HUnni,  r'(immcniari<'s  of,  101. 

HiUlr'uj,  (J),  On  Psttim  II.,  120. 

Hdlcn  (Mat.),  Hierophyticon,  159. 

Hinrks'  fE<lw.)  Hebrew  Grammar,  87. 

HiwliMjstanre  Version  of  Bible,  49. 

Hinds  fS.\  Explanation  of  St.  Mark,  141. 

Hirgelius  (L.),  De  ('haldnisrno  Biblico,  89. 

Hitzfl  (L),  Do  Pontaieudiii  Syriaco,  83. 

Holxiri  (Bp.),  Edition  of  D'Oyly's  and  Mant's  Commentary  on  the 

Bible,  113. 
Hndirr  (C),  Brblicnl  Repertory,  147. 
Hfxliiis  (W.),  Inquiry  into  Joli,  117. 
H(idi;son  (B.),  Translation  of  Proverbs,  121. 

Translation  of  Ecdesiastes,  121. 

Translation  of  Solomon's  Song,  122. 

Uody  (H),  De  Bibliorum  Texiibua  ct  Voniionibus  Graicis  73. 


Hoepfnerus  (E.  F.),  in  Pauli  Epist.  ad  Romonos,  136. 
Hojmanni  (A.  T.),  OhKcrvationes  in  Vet.  Test.,  149. 

Grammatic.i  Syriaca,  95. 

(Immanuelis^  Demonistratio  Evangelica,  77. 

Holdcn  (G.),  Christian  Expositor,  114.  130. 

Transl.  of  Proverbs,  121. 

Transl.  of  Ecclesiasies,  121. 

Dissert,  on  Fall  of  Man,  1 16. 

Script.  Testimony  to  Divinity  of  Christ,  149 

Holden  (L.),  Paraphrase  on  Job,  &c.,  117. 

Hole  (M.),  Discourses  on  1  Cor.  XIII.,  145,  146. 

Hollybushe  (Johan),  Newe  Testament,  34. 

Holmann  (A.  G.),  In  Epist.  ad  Corinthios,  137. 

Hombergk  (J.  F.),  Parerga  Sacra,  149. 

Hone  (W.),  Apocryphal  New  Test.,  67. 

Hong  (J.),  De  Cactus  Christian.  Philippensium  Conditione,  137. 

Hook  (W.  F.),  Last  Days  of  Our  Lord's  Ministry,  144.. 

Hopkins,  (W.),  Translat.  of  ILxodus,  116. 

Home  (Bp.  Geo.),  on  the  Psalms,  119. 

Home  (T.  H.),  Compendious  Introd.  to  Bible,  70. 

Horneck  (A.),  Serm.  on  Malt.  V.,  145. 

Horntmann  (H.),  De  Canone,  69. 

Exercitationes  ex  Philone,  149. 

Hiirrei  (P.),  Animadversiones  in  Nov.  Test.,  149. 


Miscellanea  Critica,  149. 


Horsley  (Bp.),  Translation  of  the  Psalms,  120. 

Disquisitions  on  Isaiah,  123. 

Translation  of  Hosea,  126. 

Biblical  Criticism,  149. 

Holtlngeri  <J.  C),  de  Ritu  dimittendi  Reuro,  160. 
Hottingeri  (J.  J.),  Opuscula,  149. 
HoUingeri  (J.  H.),  Exercit.  Anti-Morin.,  78. 
Gram.  IV.  Ling.,  94. 


Houhiganl  (C.  F.),  Biblia  Laiine,  31. 

Prolegom.  ad  Scripturam,  70. 

Notae  CriticsB,  109. 

Howard  (Luke),  Book  of  the  Chuich,  63. 

Howel  (Laur.),  Hist,  of  Bible,  164. 

Hug  (J.  L),  Introd.  to  the  New  Test,  71. 

do  Antiq.  Vaticani  Codicis,  77. 

Hughes  (George).  Exjiosil.  of  Genesis,  115. 
Hiigonis  (Cardinalis),  Concordantiee,  153. 
Hummelii  (II.),  in  Epist  ad  Philemoncm,  138. 
Hungarian  Bible,  46. 
Hunt  (Geo.),  Transl.  of  Job,  118. 

(John),  Map  of  Palestine,  158. 

(Tho.),  Observations  on  Proverbs,  121. 

De  Usu  Dialectorum,  98. 


Hunter  (David),  History  of  Jesus  Christ,  165. 
Hunter  (IL),  Sacred  Biography,  142. 
Hard  (Bp.  R.),  On  Prophecy,  101. 
Hurwilz  (Hyman),  Hebrew  Grammar,  87. 
Vindicioe  Hebraicae,  84. 


Hutcheson  (Geo.),  Exposit.  of  John,  133. 

Uuydccopcr  (T.  P.  C),  De  J.  C.  introita  in  Hiorosolymam,  13i. 

Huyshe  (Francis),  on  1  John  v.  7.,  82. 

Hwiid  (H.  C),  De  MS.  Vindobonensi,  77. 


Iaspis  (G.  S.),  Versio  Epistolarum,  32.  140. 
Icelandic  Bible,  43. 
Ihre  (Joh.),  Fragm.  Vers.  Goth  ,  28. 
Scripta  ad  Vers.  Goth.,  28. 


Ikcnii  (C.)  Antiquitates  Hebraic®,  156,  157. 

Dissertationes,  149. 

Ilgcn  (C.  D.),  Jobi  Carminis  Natura,  117. 

Iltve  (J.),  Book  of  Jasher,  63 — 66. 

Improved  Version  of  New  Test,  129. 

Index  to  the  Bible,  156. 

Irish  Bible,  42. 

Italian  Versions  of  the  Bible,  45. 


Jablonskii  (P.  E.),  Explicalio  Vocum  iEgypI,  96. 
Opuscula,  149. 


Jackson  (John),  Chronorogical  Antiquities,  163. 

Jaeger  (J.  G.),  Olwcrvaliones  in  Proverbia  Salomonis,  121. 

John  fJ.),  Grammatics  (Icbraica,  87. 

Elcmenta  AramaiciE  Linguae,  95. 

Lexicon  Arabico-Lalinum,  96. 

Inlro<liictio  ad  Veins  Ftedus,  71. 

Translated  by  Tumor,  71. 

HcrmentMitica  Sacra,  98. 

Appendix  nil  Ilerineneulicam  Sacram,  98. 

Hel).  Commonwealth,  164. 

Arj'hn'ologia  Biblica,  157. 

James  I.'s  (King),  or  the  authorized  English  vemion  of  the  Bibla, 
Hislory  of,  36,  37.  Testimonies  of  eminent  authors  to  its  valut, 
37—30.  1C.S.     E.lition.s  of  it,  with  parallel  Ilefgrcnccs,  39 — 41. 

Jnmcs  (Tho.),  Bclinni  I'apale,  H'J. 

Jtimrsnn  ( — ),  Ex|)OHit.  of  Pentalcuf:h,  71. 

Jansrnii  (Cornolii).  Concordia  Eviingelica.  59. 

Junssens  (J.  H.),  Hcrineneuliijuo  Socrce,  70. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


189 


farcld  (Rabbi  Solomon),  Commentaries  on  the  Bible,  102, 103. 

Jarrom  (J.),  Discourses  on  Rom.  ix.  145. 

Jasher,  forged  book  of,  63 — 66. 

Jebb  (Bishop),  Sacred  Literature,  76. 

Jenour  (A.),  Isaiah  translated,  123. 

Jenhjn  (W.),  Exposition  of  Jude,  140. 

Jennings  (Dr.),  Jewish  Antiquities,  156. 

Jerome,  Commentaries  of,  104. 

Latin  Version  of,  27. 

Jessien  (A.),  de  av^evrcta  Epist.  Judffi,  140. 

Jewell  (Bp.),  Exposition  of  1  and  2  Thessalonians,  138. 

Job,  Book  of,  in  English,  118. 

Johnson  (A.),  On  Engl.  Transl.  of  Bible,  84. 

Johnstone  (B.),  Commentary  on  the  Revelations,  141. 

Jonathanis  Targum,  22. 

Jones  (G.),  Hebrew  Grammar,  86. 

Jones  (Jer.),  New  and  Full  Method  of  settling  the  Canon  of  the 

New  Testament,  68. 
Jones  (John),  Isaiah  translated,  123. 
Jones  (Dr.  John),  Epistles  to  Colossians,  &c.,  138. 

On  IJohn  v.  7.,  82. 

tones  (Ric),  Collalio  Textus  Syriaci,  25. 

Jones  (Rev.  W.),  Oa  Figurative  Lang,  of  Scripture,  99. 

Key  to  Prophecy,  100. 

Lect.  on  Epist.  to  Hebrews,  145. 

Jones  (Sir  W.),  Persian  Grammar,  97. 
Jones  (W.),  Biblical  Cyclopaedia,  155. 
Joseph  (Angeli  a  S.),  Gazophylacium  Lmguee  Persarum,  97. 

(Cherubini  a  S.),  Bibliotheca  Criticse,  Sacrse,  73. 

Josephi  (Flavii),  Opera,  102. 173. 
Josephi  (Rabbi),  Targum,  22. 
Jowett  (Dr.  J.),  On  1  John  v.  7.,  81. 
Jubb  (G.),  de  Ling.  Heb.  Studio,  85. 
Junii  et  Tremellii  Biblia  Latina,  31,  32. 
Justiniani  (A.),  Psalterium  Pentaglotton,  19. 
Juynboll  IT.  G.  J.),  De  Amoso,  126. 


Kaiskr  (C),  Comment,  de  Ling.  Aramaica,  73.  95. 

de  Evang.  Joannis  Authentia,  133. 

Comment,  in  Genesin,  116. 

Kolinsky,  (R.  T.  G.),  Vaticinia  Chabacuci  illustrata,  125 

Kals  (G.  J.),  Grammatica  Hebreso-Harmonica,  87. 

Kanta  (H.  P.),  On  1  Pet.  v.  1—4.,  139. 

Kaserer  (M.),  Ainypa(pri  Studii  Scripturistici,  161. 

Keach  (B.),  Key  to  Scripture  Metaphors,  99. 

Keate  (W.),  On  the  109ih  Psalm,  120. 

Keeling  (B.),  On  Saint  Paul's  Wish,  136. 

Keilii  (C.  A.  T.),  Elcmenta  Hermeneutices  Novi  Testamenti,  98. 

Opuscula  Academica,  149. 

Keith  (A.),  Evidence  from  Prophecy,  200. 

Signs  of  the  Times,  200. 

Kennedy  (J.),  On  Mosaic  Records  of  Creation,  143. 
Kennicott  (Dr.),  Remarks  on  the  Old  Testament,  149. 

Biblia  Hebraica,  78. 

On  the  Hebrew  Text  of  the  Old  Testament,  73. 

Diss.  Generalis,  73. 

Diss,  on  Tree  of  Life,  &c.,  116. 

Ker  (J.),  Cant.  Sal.  Paraphrasis,  121. 
Kerhherdere  (G.),  Prodromus  Danielicus,  124. 
Kett  (H.),  On  Prophecy,  100. 

Keuchenii  (P.),  Annotata  in  Nov.  Test,  149. 
Keyworth  (T.),  and  Jojies  (D.),  Principia  Hebraica,  89. 

Analytical  Part  of  Princip.  Hebr.,  89. 

Pocket  Expositor  of  New  Test.,  131. 

Khassee  Version  of  Gospels,  51. 

Kidder  (Bp.  R.),  Comment,  on  Pentateuch,  115. 

Kilhurn  (W.),  Dangerous  Errors  in  Bibles,  84. 

Kimchi  (Rabbi),  Commentaries  of,  102,  103. 

King  (Bp.  J.),  Lectures  on  Jonas,  143. 

King  (E.),  Morsels  of  Criticism,  149. 

King  (Mrs.),  Female  Script.  Characters,  165. 

Kipling  (Tho.),  Codex  Bezse,  14. 

Kircheri  (Conradi),  Concordantiee  Veteris  Testamenti,  153 

Kislemaker  (J.  H.),  Canticum  Canticorum  illustratum,  122. 

IClemm  (J.  C),  Critica  Sacra  Nov.  Test.,  78. 

Klinckhardt  (C  G.),  in  Luc.  XVI.  19—31.,  132. 

Kluit  (A.),  Explicatio  Danielis,  124. 

Knappii  (G.  C\  Scripta  varia,  149. 

Knighl  (J.),  On  the  Parables  and  Miracles,  146. 

Knitlel  (F.  A.),  Ulphite  Fragmenta,  28. 

On  1  John  v.  7.,  82. 

Knollii  (J.),  Vocabularium  Nov.  Test.,  92. 

Koegler  (J.),  De  Bibliis  Judaeorum  Sinensium,  73. 

Koehleri  (J.  B.),  Observationes  in  Nov.  Test.,  149. 

Koester  (F.  B.),  Meletemata  ad  Zechariam,  126. 

Kofod  (B.  P.),  Chabacuci  Vaticinium,  126. 

Koolhaas  (W.),  Observationes  in  Vet.  Test.,  149. 

Koppe  (G.  B.),  Annotationes  ad  Novum  Testamentum,  127,  128. 

Krafftii  (J.  G.),  Observationes  Sacrse,  149. 

Krause  (F.  A.G.),  Notse  in  1  Cor.,  137. 

Krebsii  (3.  T.),  Obs.  in  Nov.  Test.,  lOa 

De  Usu  Rom.  Hist,  in  Nov.  Test.,  149. 

Krumbhols  (C.  T.),  Opera  Subseciva,  149. 


KUchler  (G.  C),  De  Simplicitate  Script.  Sacr.,  149. 
De  Anno  Pauli  Conversionis,  134. 


Kuhnii  (A.  F.),  Spicilegium  Observationum  e  Philone,  103. 
Kuinuel  (C.  F.),  Hoseas  lUustratus,  126. 

Observationes  ad  Nov.  Test,  ex  Libris  Apocryphis,  103. 149 

Pericopse  Evangelicoe,  et  Comment,  in  Libros  Nov.  Test 


Historicos,  131. 

Comm.  in  Ep.  ad  Hebraeos,  139. 

Comment.  Theologicse,  147. 


Kiittner  (C.  G.),  Hypomnemata  in  Novum  Testamentum,  127.  149. 
Kype  (G.  D.),  Observationes  in  Nov.  Test.,  149. 


La  Croze  (M.  V.),  Lexicon  .^Egyptico-Latinum,  96. 

La  f/arpe  (H.  L.),  Essai  sur  I'Epitre  aux  Hcbreux,  139. 

Laing  (H.),  Greek  and  English  Lexicon  to  the  New  Testament,  93 

Lakemacheri  (J.  G.),  Observationes  Philologicse,  149. 

L'Alouette  (F.  P.),  Hierolexicon,  98. 

Lampe  (F.  A.),  Comment,  in  Evang.  Johannis,  133. 

Bibliotheca  Hist.  Theol.,  147. 

Dissertationes,  149. 

Lamy  (B.),  Apparatus  Biblicus,  70. 

De  Tabernaculo,  160. 

Concordia  Evangelistarum,  et  Commentarius,  59. 

Langii  (C.  H.),  Observationes  Sacrse,  149. 

Langii  (J.),  Comment,  de  Vita  et  Epistolis  Pauli,  134. 

Hermeneutica  Sacra,  98. 

Langii  (J.  M.),  Genealogia  Christi,  163. 

Lanigan  (J.),  Institutiones  Biblicte,  73. 

Lardner  (Dr.),  Credibility  of  the  Gospel  History,  68. 

Supplement  to  his  Credibility,  68. 

Works,  149,  150. 

Latin  Versions  of  the  Scriptures,  Editions  of,  27,  28.  31,  32. 
Laurence  (Abp.),  On  Griesbach's  Classification  of  MSS.,  79. 

Book  of  Enoch,  66. 

Ascensio  Isaiae,  67. 

Ezrae  Liber,  67. 

Laurmann  (M.  T.),  Notse  in  Epistolam  Judae,  140. 

Praelectio  de  Apocalypsi  Joannea,  141. 

Lavington  (Bp.  G.),  Nature,  &c.,  of  a  Type,  99. 

Lawson  (G.),  Lectures  on  Hist  of  Joseph,  Ruth,  and  Esther,  143. 

Exposition  of  the  Book  of  Proverbs,  143. 

Lectures  on  Miracles  and  Parables,  146. 
Lee  (Edw.),  Disc,  on  Books  of  Ezra,  69. 
Lee  (Sam.),  Sylloge  Librorum  Orienlalium,  97. 

Hebrew  Grammar,  86. 

Prolegomena  in  Biblia  Polyglotta,  21 

Nov.  Test.  Syriace,  25. 

On  the  Study  of  Scripture,  98. 

Leichner  (E.),  De  Magis,  132. 
Leigh  (Edward),  Critica  Sacra,  92. 
Leighton  (Archbp.),  Comment,  on  1  Peter,  139. 
Le  Long  (J.),  Bibliotheca  Sacra,  5. 

Disc,  sur  les  Polyglottes,  5. 

Lengerke  (C),  Comm.  de  Ephraemo  Syro,  83. 

Leo  (C),  Translation  of  Gesenius's  Hebrew  Lexicon,  90. 

Leonis  Judm,  Biblia  Latina,  31. 

German-Swiss  Bible,  44. 

Leopold  (E.  F.),  Lexicon  Heb.  et  Chald-,  91. 
Lettish  Bible,  44. 

Leun  (J.  G.  F.),  Notse  ad  2  Cor.,  137. 
Leusdenii  (J.),  Clavis  Hebraico  Vet.  Test.,  91. 

Philologus,  Ebrasus,  Ebrajo-Mixlus,  et  Ebraeo-Grsecus,  7J 

De  Dialectis  Novi  Testamenti,  74. 

Joel  et  Obadiah,  cum  Paraphar.  Chald.,  103. 

et  Scaaf  (C),  Nov.  Test,  Syriac,  25. 

Leusdenii  (L.),  Libri  Apocryphi,  63. 

Levavasseur  (B.  M.  F.),  Livre  de  Job,  118. 

Levi  Ben  Gershom  (Rabbi),  Commentaries  of,  102. 

Levyssohn  (D.  H.),  De  Judaeorum  Conditione,  160. 

Lewis  (John),  History  of  Enfglish  Translations  of  the  Bible,  84. 

(Thomas),  Origines  HebrajK,  157. 

Uydekker  (M.),  de  Republ.  Hebr.,  157. 
Lichtenstein  (A.  A.  H.),  Paralipomena  Critica,  74. 
Lighlfoot  (Dr.),  Horse  Hebraicae,  103. 

Observations  on  Genesis,  115. 


.  Chronicle  of  the  Oj^Testament,  58. 
•  Harmony  of  the  New  Testament,  59. 

Works,  103. 

Temple  Service,  161. 


Lilienthal  (T.  C),  Comm.  Crit.  de  MS.  Hebr.,  77. 

Lindberg  (J.  C),  Chrestomathia  Hebraica,  88. 

Linde  (J.  G.),  Sapientia  Jesu  filii  Sirachi,  63. 

Lindsay  (H.),  Lectures  on  Hist.  Books,  142. 

Lipsius  (G.H.  A.),  De  Modorum  Usu,  91. 

Llewellyn  (Thomas),  Account  of  Welsh  Versions  of  the  Bible,  85 

Locke  (John),  Common-place  Book  to  the  Bible,  155. 

Paraphrase,  &c.  on  the  Epistles,  134. 

Loescher  (V.  A.),  Breviarium  Theologise  Exegeticse,  98. 
Locsneri  (C.  J.),  Observationes  in  Nov.  Test,  e  Philone,  103. 
Longchamps  (B.  de),  Fastis  Universels,  164. 
Lovghurst  (S.),  Common-place  Book  to  New  Test,  150. 
Lothian  (W.),  Lect.  on  Ep.  to  Corinthians  145 
Lower  Saxon  Bible,  43. 


190 

Lowman  (M),  Paraphrase  on  the  Revelation,  140. 

Civil  Government  of  Hebrews,  160. 

Ritual  of  Hebrew  Worship,  160. 

J^wlh  (Bishop),  Translation  of  Isaiah,  122,  123. 

De  iSacra  Poesi  Hebraorum,  76. 

On  Hebrew  Poetry,  translated  by  Gregory  and  Stowe,  76. 

Jjuderi  (C),  Dissertatio  de  V'ariis  Lectionibus,  78. 

Ludolphi  (J.),  Gramraatica  et  Le.Yicon  Linguoe  Amharicse  vcl  jElhi- 

opicse,  97. 
Lumsden  (M.),  Persian  Grammar,  97. 
Luther  (.Martin),  Bible,  43. 

Commentaries,  107. 

On  the  Psalms  of  Degrees,  107. 

On  the  Epistle  to  the  Galntians,  137. 

Lydii  (J.),  Syntagma  de  Ro  Militari,  160. 
L,ye  (Ed.),  N'ersio  Gothicn  Evangcliorum,  28. 
J^yons  (Israel),  Hebrew  Grammar,  86. 
L,i/$ons  (S.),  Conjectures  on  Job,  118. 
Lyra  (Nicolai  de),  Commenlarii,  105. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


IMacbean  (A).  Diet,  of  Bible,  155. 

Mac  Corfile  (\V.  and  others).  Collateral  Bible,  40 

Maccidloch  (R.),  Lectures  on  Lsaiah,  143. 

Mac  Ewen  (VV.),  on  the  Types,  99. 

M'Kemie  (M.  J.),  Lectures  on  Parables  and  Miracles,  146. 

Macknighl  (J.),  Harmony  of  the  Gospels,  60.  131. 

Translali<jn  of  the  Epistles,  134. 

Maclean  (A.),  Commentary  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebfcws,  138. 

M'Rae  (D.).  Revised  Translation  of  the  Bible,  112. 

Maestrirhl  (G.  van),  Comm.  de  Canone,  68. 

Magee  (.A.rchbp.  W.),  Discourses  on  Atonement,  149. 

Mahralla  Version  of  the  Bible,  49. 

Mail  (.\ng.),  Ulphilse  Part.  Inedit.,  28. 

Mali  (J.  H.),  Observationes  Sacra;,  150. 

Maimonides  (Rabbi  Moses),  Works,  102. 

More  Nebochim,  ICl. 

Maitland  fC.  D.),  Exposition  of  Romans  Vlll.,  145. 

Major  (J.  R.),  Gospel  of  Luke,  with  Notes,  132. 

Malagasiti  V'ersion,  56.  1G9. 

Maylay  Bible,  50. 

Malnijalim  Bible,  50. 

MaUUvian  Gospels,  50 

Maltlonati  (J.),  Commentarii  in  IV  Evang.,  127. 

Maltese  Version  of  the  Bible,  48. 

MdUendm  (Tho.),  Comm.  in  Script.,  31. 

Man  (Thomas),  Reconciler  of  Bible,  146 

Mangeri  (S.  II.),  Comm.  in  Hoseam,  126. 

Manks  Bible,  42. 

Mann  (N.),  Critical  Notes,  150. 

Manfford  (J.  S.),  Scripture  Gazetteer,  158. 

.\hnl  (R.),  and  D'Oyley  (G.),  Commentary  on  the  Bible,  113. 

Version  of  Psalms,  120. 

Manton  (Tho.),  Comment,  on  James,  139. 

(Tho),  Comment  on  Jude,  140. 

On  Psalm  CXIX.,  143. 

Marbeck  (John),  Concordance,  153. 
\Iarchant  (J.),  Exposit.  of  Old  Test.,  115. 

Exposit.  of  Now  Tost.,  128. 

Marckii  (J.),  Comm.  in  Pentateuch,  115. 

Comm.  in  Cant.  Schelomonis,  121. 

Commcntarius  in  Prophelas  Minores,  125. 

Marpraaf  (G.  S.),  Observationes  Sacnc,  160. 
Mariana  (J.),  Scholia  in  V.  et  N.  Tost.,  106. 
Marini  (M.),  Comm.  in  Psalmos,  118. 

Marks  (R.),  Devotional  Testament,  130. 
Marlorali  (A.),  N.  T.  Expositio,  127. 
Marsh  flip.),  Lectures  in  Divinity,  5. 

Translation  of  Michaelis,  71. 

Hist,  of  Transl.  of  Bible,  84. 

L<!cture8  on  Criticism  and  Interpretation  of  tho  Bible,  5. 

On  1  John  v.  7.,  81. 

I<ctters  to  Travis,  81. 

Marsh  (W.),  On  tho  Pentateuch,  143. 
Mortianay  (J.)  Traite  du  Canon,  68. 

sur  la  Version  Itnliquo  dc  S.  Matthicu,  83. 


Martin  (David),  La  Sainio  Bible,  108.» 

On  1  John  V.  7.,  82. 

Diss,  on  1  John  v.  7.,  81. 

Examination  of  Emlyn,  81. 

Gcnuinc-nc.HO  of  1  John  v.  7.,  81. 

Match  (A.  G.),  Bibliothoca  Sacra,  5. 
MoMclfjf  [V .),  (Jrammatica  Hchnca,  88. 
Maaiut  (A.),  Josthua  illuslratun,  116. 
Massachusetts  Version,  57. 

MatMcr  (S).  On  T^pes.  99. 

MaUh/ri  Evnngolium,  k  Barrett,  16. 

Mallkiri  (C.  F.),  Codf^x  Boemcrianus,  14. 

MaUhrw  (Tho.).  Byblo,  3-1. 

Mallhim  (C),  AntilngJK  BiblicH!,  146. 

Maurer  (J.  F.  D),  Comment,  in  Vet.  Test.,  109. 

Maxwell  (A.),  Ancient  Principles  of  Philosophy,  116. 

Mayer  (J.),  Comment,  on  the  Bible,  109. 

Mrad  (Kic),  Medico  Sacra,  161. 


Mede  (J.),  Clavis  Apocalyptica,  and  translations  thereof,  140. 

Meijier  (A.  C),  De  Lucaj  ditovtaria,  133. 

Meisner  (C.  P.),  De  No;/m  Paulino,  150. 

Meisner  (J.  H.).  Vet.  Test.  Clavis,  91. 

Mendham  (Jos.),  Clavis  Apostolica,  135. 

Merceri  (J.),  Comment,  in  Genesin,  115. 

Comment,  in  Quinque  Vates  Priorcs,  103. 

Commentarii  in  Quinque  Minorca  Prophelas,  125. 


Merrell  (S.),  Harmony  of  the  Kings  and  Prophets,  59. 

Merrick  (J.),  Annot.  on  the  Psalms,  119. 

Meuschettivs  (J.  G.),  Novum  Testamentum  exTalmude  illustratum 

103. 
Mexican  and  Mixtecan  Version,  57. 
Michaelis  (C.  B.),  Tractatio  de  Var.  Lecu  Nov.  Test.,  78. 

Syriasmus,  95. 

Michaelis  (J.  D.),  Curte  in  Vers.  Syriac.  Act.  Apost.,  25.  83. 

Spicilegium  Geotrraphiffi  Hebneorum,  157. 

Harmony  of  the  Resurrection,  62. 

Diss,  on  1  John  v.  7.,  81. 

Introduction  to  the  New  Testament,  71. 

Comment,  on  the  Law  of  Moses,  160. 

Observat.  in  Jeromiaj  Vaticinia,  123,  124. 

Commentationes,  150. 

Epistolas  de  LXX.  Hebdomadibus  Danielis,  124. 

Grammalica  Chaldaica,  89. 

Grammatica  Syriaca,  95. 

(J.  G.),  Observationes  Sacra;,  150. 

Exercilationes,  150. 

(J.  H.  and  C.  B.),  Notae  in  Hagiographa,  116,  117. 


Middled orpf  (li.),  Curte  in  Jobum,  25.  118. 

Codex  Syriaco-Hexaplaris,  26.  167. 

Middleton  (T.  F.),  On  the  Greek  Article,  92. 
On  1  John  v.  7.,  81. 


Mimpriss  (R.),  Harmony  of  Gospels,  61. 
Pictorial  Charts,  158.  179. 


See  Part  I 


Mingarelli  (J.  A.),  .^gyptiorum  Codicum  Reliquiae. 

105. 
Mischna,  102. 
Mohawk  Version,  57. 
Mohigan  Version,  57. 
Moldenhawer  (J.  H.  D.),  Introductio  in  Libros  Canonicos  Vet.  et  Nov 

Foederis,  70. 
Molkenbuhr  (M.  E.),  Problema  Crificum,  74. 
Moncrieff  [3 .),  on  Heb.  Vowel  Points,  85. 

Monspe^gcr  (Jos.  Jul.),  Inslitutiones  Hermencutiese  Vet.  Test.,  98*. 
Moiiialdi  (J.),  Lexicon  Hebraicum,  89. 
Monlani  (B.  A.),  Biblia  Latina,  31. 
MoraJit  (A.),  De  Judajorum  Christologia,  150. 
Mori  (S.  F.  N.),  Praelectionea  in  Lucae  Evangclium,  132. 

In  Evangelium  Joannis,  133. 

Vcrsio,  &c.  Act.  Apostolorum,  133. 

Praelect.  in  Epist.  ad  Ronianos,  136. 

Acroases  in  Epist.  ad  Gal.  et  Ephcs.,  137. 

Praelect.  in  Jacobi  et  Petri  Epist.,  139. 

Pra;lect.  in  tres  Joannis  Epist.,  139 

Acroases,  97. 

DLsserlationes  Theoloeica;,  150. 

Morini  (J.),  Exercitationcs,  Biblica;,  74. 

Exercitationes  Ecclesiastical,  74. 


Morini  (Steph.),  Oratio  Inauguralis,  94. 
Morison  (J.),  Exposition  of  Psalms,  143. 
Moscr  (P.  U.),  Lexicon  Hebraicum,  90. 

Mosheim  (Dr.),  Commentaries  on  tke  Affairs  of  Christians,  16L 
Moulinie  (C.  E.  F.),  Notice  sur  les  Livres  Apocryi)hcs,  71. 
Moyscy  (C.  A.),  Lectures  on  John,  144. 
On  the  Romans,  144. 


Mudge  (T.),  Version  of  the  Psalms,  118. 

Muecke  (S.  T.),  De  Origino  Versionis  LXX.  Interpretum,  83. 

Muir  (VV.),  Disc,  on  Epist.  of  Judo,  145. 

Muis  (S.  de),  Assertio  Veritatis  Hcbr.,  74. 

Muller  (J.).  Hebr.  Ling.  Elcmenla,  88. 

Munsteri  (Sol.),  Biblia  Lalina,  31. 

Miinter  (Frid.),  Dc  Indole  Vers.  N.  T.  SahidicK,  26.  83. 

Frngmenta  Versionis  Ante-HieronymianiE,  27. 

Noiliia  Codicis  Evang.  Johannis,  77. 

SvmlxjltE  ad  Inlorpreiaf.  Joannis,  133. 

Miscall.  Hafniensia,  150. 


Miinlhii  (C.  v.),  Observationes  PhilologicsB,  150. 
Muntinghc  (H.)  Sylloge  Opusculoriim,  150. 
Expositio  Criticcs  Vet.  Fred.,  74. 


Murray  (R.),  Inlrod.  to  Apocalypse,  142. 

Museum  Helveticum,  147. 

Historico-Theologicum,  146. 


NAnF.3  (Robert),  Voracity  of  tho  Evangelists,  74 

On  Prophecy,  101. 

Nary  (('.),  New  Testament,  42. 

Ncnle  (Jamos),  Hosea,  126. 

Negro- F.rtglish  Version,  57. 

Newcomc  (Archlip.),  Vomlon  of  E/.okiol,  124. 

Version  of  Minor  Prophetii,  125. 

Trunslation  of  the  Now  Tostaraont,  129. 

■  History  of  English  Biblical  Traiiflatioiii 


81. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


191 


Newcome  (Archbp.),  Greek  Harmony  oi  the  Gospels,  60. 

— English  Harmony,  60. 

Newman  (S.),  Hebrew  Grammar,  87. 

Newton  (Bp.),  On  Prophecy,  100. 

Newton  (Sir  I.),  Observations  on  Daniel,  &c.,  124. 

Two  Letters  to  Le  Clerc,  80,  81. 

Newton  (J.  W.),  Hebrew  Grammar,  88. 

NicJtolson  (Bp.),  David's  Harp,  117. 

Nicolai  (Jo.),  De  Substratione  Vestium,  161. 

Niemeyeri  (A.  H.),  De  Evangclistarum  Dissensione,  &c.,  150. 

Noble  (J.),  Rudiments  of  Hebrew,  89. 

Nodier  (C.),  Bibliotheque  Sacrde,  6'. 

Noesselti  (J.),  Opuscula,  160. 

Nolan  (F.),  Inquiiy  into  the  Integrity  of  the  Greek  Vulgate,  and 

Supplement,  74. 

On  1  John  v.  7.,  81. 

Hebrew  Grammar,  89. 

Chaldee  Grammar,  89. 

Syriac  Grammar,  95. 

Noldii  (Chr.),  Concordantite    Particularum  Ebroeo-Chaldaicarum, 

153. 

Hist.  Idumeea,  164. 

Nonni,  Metaphrasis  Evang.  Johannei,  104 
Norris  (J.),  Disc,  on  Beatitudes,  145. 
Notirse  (J.),  New  Test,  translated,  130. 
Novum  Testamentum  Gr^cum. 

Editionum  Synopsis,  9. 

Erasmi,  9, 10. 

Cumpluti,  10. 

. Colinaei,  10. 

Stephani,  10. 

Bezoe,  10. 

Elzevirii,  10,  11. 

— . Curcellsei,  11. 

Waltoni,  11. 

Felli,  11. 

Millii,  11. 

Wells,  11. 

Maestrieht,  11.  12. 

Mace,  12. 

Bengelii,  12. 

Wetslenii,  12 

Goldhagen,  12. 

Schoettgenii,  12. 

Bovvyer,  12. 

Matthsei,  13. 

Harwood,  13 

Woidii,  13. 

Alteri,  13. 

Birchii,  13,  14. 

Griesbachii,  14,  15. 

Griesbachii  et  Schulzn,  15. 

ex  Griesbachii  Recensione,  15. 

Knappii,  16. 

Reeves,  16. 

Schotti,  16. 

White,  16. 

Dakins,  16. 

Ailton,  16. 

Upsalse,  16. 

Titmanni,  16. 

Hardy,  127. 

Koppe,  127,  128. 

Manuale,  16. 

Vater,  16,  17. 

Boissonnade,  17 

Gratz,  16. 

Basilese,  17. 

Van  Ess,  17 

Lloydii,  17. 

Leutsch,  17. 

Pickering,  17. 

Greenfield,  17. 

Duncan,  17. 

Scholzii,  18. 

Lachmanni,  18. 

Valpy,  18, 

Burton,  18,  19. 

Bloomfield,  19. 

Jaumann,  19. 

Goeschen,  19. 

Novi  Testamenti  Biblia  Triglotta,  21,  22. 

Evangeliorum  Synopsis,  60. 

Novi  Testamenti  Versiones  Latince. 

Erasmi,  32. 

Bezffi,  32. 

■  laspis,  32. 

Reichardi,  32. 

Sebastiani,  32. 

Thalemanni,  32. 

Noyes  (G.  R.).  Version  of  Job,  118. 

of  the  Psalms,  120. 

of  the  Prophets,  122. 

Nuga  Hebraicas,  86. 


Observationes  Philologicse,  158. 

Ockleii  (Sim.),  Introd.  ad  Ling.  Orientales,  94. 

Oecnmenii  Commentaria,  105. 

Oeder  (G.  L.),  Observationes  Sacras,  150. 

Olearii  (G.),  Observat.  ad  Matlhceum,  132. 

Oliver  (P.),  Scripture  Lexicon,  155. 

Ollivant  (A.),  Analysis  of  the  Hist,  of  Joseph,  86. 

Onkeli  vel  Onkelosi  Paraphrasis  Chaldaiea,  22. 

Oriental  Versio7is,  Specimens  of,  52 — 55. 

Origenis  Hexapla,  a  Moutlaucon,  25. 

a  Bahrdt,  25. 

Daniel  ex  Tetraplis  Origenis,  25. 

Comment,  in  Scripturas,  104. 


Orissa  Version  of  the  Bible,  49. 
Orme  (W.),  Bibliolheca  Biblica,  6. 

On  the  Controversy  respecting  1  John  v.  7.,  82. 


Orton  (Job),  Exposition  of  Old  Test.,  115. 
Osiandri  (Andrese),  Harmonise  Evangelicse,  59. 

(J.  A.),  Oratio  et  Disputatio  de  Variis  Lectionibus  Nov 


Test.,  78. 
Ostervald  (M.),  La  Sainte  Bible,  108, 
Otii  (J.  B.),  Spicilegium,  103. 
Outlines  of  Persian  Grammar,  97. 
Overton  (John),  On  Book  of  Enoch,  69. 
Chronology  of  Apocalypse,  141. 


Owen  (Dr.  Henry),  Modes  -of  Quotation,  77. 

Present  State  of  the  Septuagint  Version,  83. 

Brief  Account  of  the  Septuagint,  83. 

Critica  Sacra,  74. 

Collatio  Codicis  Cottoniani,  79. 

Oioen  (Dr.  John),  Exposition  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  138. 

On  Psalm  CXXX.,  143. 

Oxlee  (J.),  Letters  to  Nolan,  81. 
Letters  to  Bp.  Burgess,  82. 


Pagnini  (S.),  Vet.  et  Nov.  Test.  Lat.,  31. 

PalcEoromaica,  74,  75. 

Palairet  (E.),  Observationes  Philologico-criticiB  in  Nov.  Test.,  150. 

Palestine,  Historical  Map  of  158. 

Paley  (W.),  Horse  Paulinse,  68. 

Palfrey  (J.  G.),  New  Test,  conformed  to  Griesbach's  Gr.  Text,  15 

Palmer  (R.),  Map  o£  Palestine,  158. 

Pappelbaum  (G.  G.),  De  Cod.  Ravian.,  77. 

Pappelbaum  (G.  T,),  De  Cod.  MSS.  Berolin.,  78. 

Pareau  (J.  H.),  Threni  Jeremise,  124 

Antiquitas  Hebraica,  156. 

Inst.  Interp.  Vet.  Test.,  9a 

De  Mythica  Interpr.,  98. 

Comment,  de  Jobi  Libro,  117, 

Comm.  in  1  Cor.  XIII.,  137. 

Parish  (Elijah),  Sacred  Geography,  157,  158. 
Park  (J.  R.),  Exposition  of  the  Apocalypse,  141. 

Controversy  with  a  Jewish  Rabbi,  126. 

Parker  (Abp.  Matthew),  Anglo-Saxon  Gospels,  29. 

Holie  Bible,  36. 

Parkhurst  (Rev.  John),  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  Grammar,  88,  89. 

Hebrew  and  Chaldee  Lexicon,  91. 

Greek  Grammar  to  New  Test.,  91. 

Greek  and  English  Lexicon  to  the  New  Testament,  93 

Parry  (R.),  Harmony  of  Gospels,  61. 

Parry  (T.),  On  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  145. 

Partridge  (S.),  On  the  109th  Psalm,  120. 

Passages  cited  from  the  Old  Testament,  77. 

Pastoret  (Conte  de),  Legislation  des  Hebreux,  160. 

Patrick  (Bishop),  Lowth,  &c.  Commentary  on  the  Bible,  110. 

Patton  (W,),  Village  Testament,  131. 

Paul  (St.),  Ep.  to  Romans,  &c..  Paraphrase  on,  134. 

Pauli,  Epistolffi  XIII  a  Matthaei,  14. 

Paulus  (H.  E.  G.),  Specimina  Vers.  Arab.,  26. 

Paxlon  (G.),  Illustrations  oi  Scripture,  162. 

Pearce  (Bishop),  Commentary  on  the  Four  Evangelists,  &c.,  131. 

Pearson  (E.),  On  Prophecy,  101. 

Pearson  (Bp.  J.),  Opera  Clironologica,  163. 

Annals  of  St.  Paul,  163. 

Lectiones  in  Act.  Apost.,  133. 

Peers  (John),  On  Typical  Instruction,  99. 

Pelt  (L.),  In  Epist.  ad  Thess.,  138.  # 

Penn  (Gr.),  On  Mineral  and  Mosaic  Geologies,  159 

Penrose  (J.),  Lectures  on  Matthew,  144. 

Pentaleuchus  Hebrceo-Samaritanits,  9. 

Percy  (Bp.  Tho.),  Translation  of  Sol.  Song,  122. 

Key  to  the  New  Test.,  72. 

Persian  Grammar,  Outlines  of,  97. 

Version  (Modern),  of  the  Bible,  48,  49. 


Persic  Version  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  26. 

Peters  (C),  Dissertation  on  Job,  117. 

Petit  (Peter),  Hebrew  Guide,  88.  • 

Pettigrew  (T.  J.),  Bibliotheca  Sussexiana,  6. 

Pfajii  (C.  M.),  Disserlatio  de  Lectionibus  Nov.  Test,  78. 

Pfeifferi  (Aug.),  Critica  Sacra,  75. 

Hermeneutica  Sacra,  98. 

Prselectiones  in  Jonam,  126. 


192 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


Ffclfferi  (Aug.;,  Opera  Omnia.  150. 

rfe^eri  (J.  E.),  Institutiones  Hcrmeneuticse  Sacrsp,  98. 

rflachcri  (M.  P.),  Analysis  Vet.  et  Wov.  Test.,  156. 

^hariz  (J.).  On  1  John  v.  7.,  81. 

F/iilaktJicf,  Translation  of  certain  Epistles  by,  120. 

Vhilipps  (\V.  T.),  Hebrew  Grammar,  87. 

Phillips  (J.),  On  the  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians,  138. 

Fhilonis  Jitdai  Opera,  101,  102. 

i'hiloxenian-Si/riac  Version,  26. 

Pick  (A.),  Translation  of  the  Minor  Prophets,  125. 

Piciiuigny  (B.  dc).  Explication  des  Epitres,  134. 

Pierce  (J.),  Paraphr.  on  Colossians,  Arc,  134. 

Pilkington  (Matthew),  Evangelical  History,  60. 

Remarks  on  Scripture,  150. 

Ptlhinfston  (Janaes),  On  Ilaggai,  126. 
Plscalor  (J.).  Swiss  Biblo,  41. 
Pitman  (J.  K.),  Lectures  on  John,  144. 
Planck  (H.),  Vera  Naturn  Nor.  Test..  &.C.,  91. 

Plan  (T.  P.),  Catalogue  of  Ethiopie  Biblical  MSS.,  78. 
Evangelia  --T-lhiopic-o,  27. 

On  Literal  Intorp.  of  Scripture,  98. 

Platis  (John),  Self-interpretins;  Test.,  40. 
Phtmptre  (J.).  Comment,  on  Bible,  142. 

riiisclike  (J.  T.),  De  Jtadicum  Linguae  HebraicE  Natura,  87. 
Pococke  (Dr.),  Comment,  on  Joel,  &c.,  125. 
Poli  (Matlhaii),  Synopsis  Crit.  Sacr.,  108. 
Polish  Bible,  46. 

PdygloUs.    See  Diblia  PohjgloUa. 
Pomeranian  Bible,  43. 

Pnntasii  (Joannis),  Sacra  Soriptura  ubiquc  sibi  constans,  146. 
Poole  (M.),  Annotations  on  Bible,  110. 
Pnpham  (E.),  Illustrations  of  the  Pentateuch,  150. 
Pores  (J.  C),  Comni.  in  Matthfeum,  132. 
Por$cliherpcT  (C),  Theocritus  S<;ripturam  illustrans,  150. 
Portun  (R.),  Letters  to  Travis,  81. 
Porteus  (Bp.),  Lect.  on  Sl  Matthew,  144. 
Portuguese  Versions  of  the  Bible,  47. 
Potkcn  (J.),  Psalmi  .^thiopice,  27. 
Pott  (D.  J),  Sylloge  Commentationum,  147. 

Praili  (H.),  et  Villalpandi,  (J.  B.),  Explanationes  in  Ezecliielom,  124. 
Prndo  (K.  de),  el  nliorum  Oljservafiones  ad  Nov.  Test.,  150. 
Prion  (J.),  Comment,  in  Nov.  Test.,  127. 

Pridcaux  (Dr.),  Connection  of  the  Old  and  Now  Testaments,  164. 
Priestley  (Dr.  Jos),  Greek  and  English  Harmony  of  the  Evanjre- 
lists,  60. 

Notes  on  the  Scriptures,  112,  113. 

Primatt  (\V.),  Dis.s.  on  2  Pel.  i.,  139. 

Pritii  (G.),  Introductio  ad  Lectionem  Novi  Testamenti,  71. 

PruneUe  (M.),  Propheiies  d'Isaie,  123. 

Psalms,  Book  of,  with  Argumcni.s,  118. 

Literal  Tran.slution  of,  120. 

Practical  Ilhistralion  of,  120. 

XCI.,  Sermons  on,  143. 

PsLudo-Jonathanis  Targum,  22. 

Purmann  (J.  J.),  Archseologia  Georcrica,  161. 

PnTver  (A.),  Translation  of  Bible,  111. 

Pushtoo  Version  of  Bible,  49. 

Pule  (T.),  Paraphrase  on  Old  Test.,  115. 

Paraphrase  on  the  Ads.  &c.,  131. 

Paraphrase  on  Revelation,  140. 


Rainoi.di  (J.),  Censura  .Apocr.  Librorum,  69. 
Rambarhii  {J.  J.),  Noia-  in  Il.ngiogrnpha,  116,  117. 

Introductio  in  Epist.  ad  Romnnos,  135. 

—— Jnslitiiiiones  Hermcneutica;  Sacra;,  99 

De  Sensn  Mystico,  99. 


liamhonnet  (J.  J.),  De  2  Johan.  Epist.,  140. 

Randolph  (Thomas),  The  Prophecies  cited  in  the  New  Testament, 

77. 
Raphclii  (G.),  Annotationes  in  Scrinturam  Snrrnm,  150. 
Paeii  (S.  E.),  Exercitationes  in  Hunigantii  Prolcgomcno,  70. 
Frai/  (.S.),  Narratio  dc  Joscpho,  HH. 

Rirhenbergii  (Adami),  De  Varianiibua  Nov.  Test.  Lectionibua  78. 
Kieves  (Joiin),  Editions  of  the  Bible,  107. 
Rr former's  liihk,  109. 

Ri-iihardi  (II. G.),  Novum  Testnmrnfum  Inline,  32. 
lifirhe  (J.  G.),  De  Aulhcniia  Ep.  ad  'I'linss.,  13ft. 
Kcineccii  (Christ.).  Januo  Ilebncfc  Lingua;,  87. 

• 1-cxiron  Ilch.  Chnld.,  91. 

Riinrrke  (C.  F.  C).  De  Clirisli  Indole.  l.V). 
Rcmhnrdi  {V.  V.),  De  Vorsiono  Ab^xandrina,  83. 

• OpiiHcula  Acadrmica,  150. 

Rriski  tJ.J),  Conjecliinr  in  Jobum,  &c.,  117.  121. 
Rflandi  fll.).  Anti<|iiit.  llebreEoruro,  157. 
PnliTHiinn,  157. 


Do  .Snolii.s  Tcmpli  Ilirrosol.,  158. 

■ De  NummiM  Vet.  Ilcbr.,  160. 

RrltUtg  (V.  W),  Do  Scriptis  Johannis,  150. 


Ryjnolds  (Bp.  VA.).  Oh  Ecclcsiasles,  121. 

II flemish  TeslamenI,  41. 

Itirliards  (G).  On  Prot.hecy,  100. 

Ruhardson  (Bp.  J).  OlMicrvniionii  on  the  Old  Testament,  111. 

Kuhardson  (Jolui),  Ambic  Grammar,  95. 


Richardson  (John),  Persian,  Arabic,  and  English  Dictionary,  97. 
Richer  (J.  G.),  De  Critica  Scriptune  Interprete,  78. 
Ridley  (Glouc),  De  Syriacarum  Nov.  Test.  Versionum  Indole,  83. 
Ripgs  (E.),  Manual  of  the  Chaldee  Language,  89. 
RUlcl  (A.),  Sur  le  Texte  Grec  des  Evangelisies.  75. 
Rink  (G.  F.),  Lucubratio  critica,  80. 
Ritchie  (D.),  Lectures  on  Romans,  145. 
Rillershttsii  (C),  As  Fatidicus,  125. 
Roberts  (F.),  Clavis  Bibliorum,  70. 
Roberts  (J.),  Illustr.  of  Scripture,  162. 
Roberts  (P.),  Harmony  of  the  Epistles,  62.  135, 
Manual  of  Prophecy,  100. 


Roberts  (VV.  H.),  Corrections  of  the  English  Version  of  the  Old  Te» 

tament,  70.  150. 
Robertson  (J.),  Clavis  Pentateuchi,  91. 

Grammatica  Hebraea,  87. 

Translation  of  Bengel  on  the  Apocalypse,  140 

Robinson  (H.),  Acta  Apostolorum,  133,  134. 

Robinson  (Dr.),  Theological  and  Biblical  Dictionary,  155. 

Robinson  (Tho.),  Script.  Characters,  165. 

Robinson  (E.),  Greek  and  English  Lexicon  to  New  Testament,  93 

Dictionaries  of  the  Bible,  154. 

Biblical  Repertory,  147. 


Rodd  (Thos.),  Defence  of  Moses,  116. 
Roedigcr  (^Em.),  Synopsis  Evangeliorum,  61. 
De  Versione  Arabica,  83. 


Rolloci  (R),  Comm.  in  Daniel,  124 
Roma'ic  Version  of  the  Bible,  47. 
Romancse  V^ersion  of  the  Bible,  47. 
Rondet  (L.  E.),  Bible,  avec  des  Notes,  108. 
Roorda  (T.),  Comm.  in  Jeremiam,  124. 
Grammatica  Hebraea,  88 


Rosellini  (J.),  Fionda  di  David,  74, 

Rosenmiilleri  (E.  F.  C),  Vocabularium  Vet.  Test.  90. 

Institutiones  Lingute  Arabics,  96. 

Scholia  in  Vetus  Testamentum,  106. 

Scholia  in  Compendium  dacta,  106,  107. 

Commenfationes  TheologiciB,  147. 

De  Versione  Pentateuchi  Persica,  83. 


Rosenmiilleri  (J.  G.),  Scholia  in  Novum  Testamentum,  107. 
Hist.  Interpretationes,  97. 


Rossi.     Vide  De  Rossi. 

Royaards  (H.  J.),  Disputatio  de  altera  Pauli  Epistola  ad  Corinthios 

137. 
Rudelbach  (S.),  de  Typis,  99. 
Fudge  (J.),  lectures  on  Genesis,  143. 
Ruhlii  (C),  Epist.  tres  Joannis,  139. 
Rus  (J.  R.),  Harmonia,  59,  60. 

RiisseU  (Alex.),  Connection  of  Sacred  and  Profane  History,  164. 
Russian  Versions  of  the  Bible,  46. 
Ryan  (R.),  Analysis  of  Ward's  Errata,  84. 


Sabatier  (P.),  Versiones  Antiquee  Latinte,  27. 
Sacy  (S.  de),  Grammaire  Arabe,  95,  %. 

Mem.  sur  les  Samaritains,  161. 

Sahidic  Version  of  the  Biblo,  26. 
Salffucs  (J.  B.),  Littcrature  des  Ilcbreux,  74. 
Sallhenii  (D.),  Hist.  Canonis,  69. 
Salvador  (J.),  Institutiones  de  Moyse,  160. 
Sampson  (G.  V.),  Translation  of  Ep.  lo  the  Hebrews,  139. 
Sanscrit  Version  of  Bible,  49. 
Sanftl  (P.  C),  De  MS.  Evangeliorum,  78. 
Sarchi  (P.),  On  Hebrew  Poetry,  76. 
Grammaire  Hebraiijue,  88. 


Saubcrti  (J.),  Var.  Lect.  Evang.  Matthtei,  79. 
Saurin  (M.),  Discount  Histori(|ucs,  151. 
Discourses  translated,  151. 


Saxon  Version  of  the  Bible,  43. 
ScarUtt  (N.),  New  Test,  translated,  129. 
Schanf  (C-),  Opus  Arama;um,  95. 
Lexicon  Syriacum,  95. 


Srhachtii  (J.  II.),  Animadversioncs  od  Ikenii  .\ntiq.  Hebr.,  157. 
Srhtr/er  (J.  N.),  Institutiones  Scri|ilurislica\  75. 
Schaifr.nberg  (J.  G.),  Animadversioncs  in  Frngmenta  Vers.  GnBC.,25 
Animadversioncs  do  Versioiiibii.s  Gnucis,  83 


Schnriiii  (Joannis),  Symphonia  Prophetarum,  146. 
Srhejfer  (G.),  De  Usu  Philonis,  98. 
Srhi'ibrl  (J.E.),  Codex  Rchditjerianus,  27. 
Schcidii  (E.),  Lexicon  Ilebraicum,  90. 


~  Dissert.  Philol.,  151. 


Srhtidii  (J.),  Glossnriiini  Arab.  Lot.,  96. 
Diss,  ud  EHaiiiin.  123. 


Schclling  (J.  F.),  Salomonis  qua*  supersnnt,  120. 

Animad versiones  in  I'.saiam.  123. 

Descriptio  Codicis  Hebraici,  78. 


Srhruchirr  (J.),  Physico  Sacra,  158. 
Schimmilpcnninck  (M.  A.),  Biblical  Fragments,  151. 
On  the  Psalms,  120, 


Srhindleri  (V.),  Lexicon  Pentaglollon,  95. 
Sihirwer  (A.  G.  F.),  Observat.  in  Esilram,  117. 
Srhlriertnacher  (F.),  Essay  on  Gospel  of  St.  Luke,  132. 
-  Pauli  Epi^Bl.  od  Th.ss..  1.'18. 


Schleutncr  (J.  F.),  Novum  Lexicon  m  N.  T.,  92. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


163 


Schleusner  (J.  F.),  Lexici  Compend.  a  Jo.  Carey,  92. 

Lexici  in  Interp.  Graec.  Spicilegium,  94. 

Lexicon  in  Veins  Testamenlum  GraecuiBf  94. 

Opuseula  Critica,  83. 15L 

Comment,  in  Proverb.  Salomonis,  121. 

Schmeller  (J.  A.),  Versio  Francica  Matthaei,  28. 

Schmidii  (C.  F.),  Historia  et  Vindicatio  Canonis  Novi  Testamenli,  69. 

Annot.  in  Epist.  ad  Komanos,  136. 

Hchmidii  (Erasmi),  Concordaniiaj  Grffica;  Novi  Testamenli,  153. 
Schmidii  (L.  G.),  Pauli  Epistola  ad  Pliilemon,  137. 
Schmidii  (Sebastiani),  Commentarii,  108. 

Biblia  Sacra,  32. 

Schmucker  (G.),  Revelation  explained,  141. 

Schnurrer  (C.  F.),  Dissert.  Pliilol.,  151. 

Schoder  (F.  J.),  Hierozoici  Specimina,  159. 

Schoetgenii  (C),  Horoe  Hebr.  et  Talmud,  in  Nov.  Test,  103. 

Lexicon  Gr.  Lat.  in  Novum  Testamentum,  92. 

Scholefield  (James),  An  improved  Translation  of  the  New  Test.,  84. 

Schollen  (W.)  de  Parabolis,  100. 

Scholtz  (Christ.),  Graramatica  .^Egyptiaca  et  Lexicon  .(Egyptiaco- 

Latinum,  96. 
Scholz  (J.  M.  A.),  Curse  Criticae  in  Historiam  Textus  Evangelio- 

rum,  78. 

' Biblische  Kritische  Reise,  78. 

Novum  Testamentum,  18. 166. 

Scholaiii  (M.  H.),  Comm.  in  Epist.  ad  Philippenses,  137. 
Schoit  (H.  A.),  Libri  Sacri  Vet.  Feed.  Latine  translati,  32.  109. 

Isagoge  ad  Novum  Feed  us,  72. 

Comment,  in  Epislolas,  13.5. , 

De  Authenlia  Evang.  Joannis,  133. 

Observationes  in  1  Cor.  XIII.,  137. 

Opuseula  Exegetica,  151. 

• Novum  Testamentum,  16. 

Schotti  (A.),  Adagialia  Sacra,  100. 
Schreckenburger  (JVI.),  Annot.  ad  Ep.  Jacobi,  139. 
Schroeder  (N.  G.),  Institutiones  Linguae  Hebrsese,  87. 

De  Vestitu  Mul.  Heb.,  123. 

Schulte7is  (A.),  Commentarius  in  Jobum,  117. 

Provcrbia  Salomonis,  120. 

Institutiones  Linguas  Hebrfea;,  87. 

Animadversiones  ad  Vet.  Test.,  151. 

Schullkessii  (J.),  De  Charismalibus  Spiritus  Sancti,  151. 
Schullze  (A.  H.  A.),  De  Parabolis,  100. 

Schidz  (p.),  De  Cod.  IV.  Evangeliorum,  78.  166. 
Schidzii  (E.  A.),  Arehteologia  Hebraica,  157. 
Schulzii  (J.  C.  F.),  Scholia  in  Vet.  Test.,  106. 

Lexicon  Hebraicum,  89. 

Scientia  Biblica,  40. 

Sclaler  (W.),  Comment,  on  Malachi,  126. 

Sclavonic  Version  of  the  Bible,  29. 

Scott  (D.),  Version  of  Matthew's  Gospel,  132. 

Scott  (T.),  Translation  of  Job,  117. 

Scott  (Tho.),  Collation  of  Quotations  from  the  Old  Testament,  77. 

Commentary  on  the  Bible,  111,  112. 

Scripture  Atlas,  158. 

Scripture  Costume,  162. 

Scripture  Genealogy,  163. 

Scripture  Harmony,  154. 

Scripture  illustrated  by  Nat.  Science,  159. 

Scriptures,  on  the  Circulation  of,  29. 

Scutteti  (Abr.),  in  Epist.  ad  Timotheum,  &c.,  138. 

Seager  (C.),  Hebrew  Lexicon,  90. 

Sebastiani  (L.),  Novum  Test.,  32. 

Seelcn  (J.  H.),  Mediiationes  Exegeticae,  151. 

Seemiller  (S.),  De  MS.  IV.  Evang.,  78. 

Hermeneutica  Sacra,  99. 

Scgaar  (C),  Observationes  in  Lucam,  151. 
iSe(7er  (G.  F.),  Sacred  Hermeneutics,  99. 173. 
Seixas  (J.),  Hebrew  Grammar,  87. 

Seldeni  (Jo.),  De  Synedriis  Vet.  Ebr.,  160. 

De  Diis  Syris,  161. 

Semleri  (J.  S.),  Paraphrasis  Evangelii  Joannis,  133. 

Paraphr.  Epist.  ad  Romanos,  135,  136. 

Apparatus  ad  Interpretationem  Veteris  Testament!,  99 

Apparatus  ad  Interpretationem  Novi  Testament!  99. 

Vindicioe  Var.  Lect.  Nov.  Test.,  81. 

Septuagint  Version,  editions  of.     iSee  Biblia  GRiECA. 

Serbian  Bible,  47. 

Scrieijs  (Ant.),  Diet,  de  I'Ecriture,  155. 

Serrarii  (Nic.  et  aliorum),  Syntagma  de  Judasorum  Sectis,  161. 

Seyffarth  (F.  A.),  De  Epistolse  ad  Hebrteos  Indole,  139. 

Sharp  (Granville),  On  Hebrew  Syntax,  89. 

On  the  Greek  Article,  91. 

Shaw  (D.),  Philosophy  of  Judaism,  157. 

Shepherd  (R.),  Notes  on  the  Gospel  of  John,  133. 

Sherife  (Mrs.),  On  the  Psalms,  110. 

Sherlock  (Bp.  Tho.),  Use  of  Prophecy,  100. 

Shuckford  (Dr.),  Connection  of  Sacred  and  Profane  History,  164. 

Shuttleworth  (Dr.  P.  N.),  Transl.  of  Apostolical  Epistles,  135. 

Sigonii  (C),  Republica  Hebrajorum,  157. 

Simcoe  (H.  A.),  Epistle  to  the  Ephesians,  &c.,  41. 

Simeon  (C.),  Horse  Homileticee,  142. 

Simon  (Pere),  Histoire  Critique  du  Vieux  et  Nouvcau  Testament,  75. 

*•'  Histoire  Critique  du  Texte  et  des  Versions  du  Nouveau 

^       Testament,  75. 


Simon  (Pere),  Histoire  Critique  des  Principaux  Commentaires  du 
Nouveau  Testament,  97. 

Critique  de  1  Jean  V.  7.,  80. 

Dissertations  sur  le  Texte  et  Versions  du  Nouveau  Testa- 
ment, 75. 

Sirponis  (J.),  Lexicon  Hebraicum,  90. 

Analysis  Leclionum  Masorethicarum,  75. 

Simpson  (D.),  Key  to  Prophecy,  100. 

Sixti  V.  Biblia  Latina,  28. 

Slade  (J.),  Explanation  of  Psalms,  120. 

Annotations  on  the  Epistles,  135. 

Sloss  (J.),  Doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  81. 

Smedley  (Ed.),  On  Genesis,  115, 116. 

Smith  (Miss  E.),  Translation  of  Job,  118. 

Smith  (Dr.  J.),  View  of  the  Prophets,  122. 

Smith  (Dr.  J.  P.),  Scripture  Testimony  of  the  Messiah,  149. 

Smith  (Tho.),  Diss,  de  1  Jo.  v.  7.,  et  Defensio  ejusdem,  81. 

In  2  Pet.  Commentarius,  139. 

Smyth  (A.),  Explanation  of  Apocalypse,  142. 
Soci7iian  Version  of  the  New  Test.,  129. 
Spanhemii  (Fr.),  Geographia  Sacra,  157. 

Ecclesiastical  Annals,  164. 

^  Historia  Job!,  117.     . 

Spanish  Versions  of  tho  Bible,  45,  46. 169. 
Speed  (John),  Script.  Genealogies,  163. 
Spelman  (Joh.),  Psalterium  Latino-Saxonicum,  29. 
Spenceri  (J.),  de  Legibus  Hebra3orum,  160. 

Spitzner  (A.  B.),  Vindicioe  Punctorum  Vocalium,  75.  85. 

Comment,  de  Parenthesi,  75. 

Spohn  (G.  G.),  Jeremias  Vates  illustratus,  124. 
Spohn  (F.  A.  G.),  De  Lingua  .^gyptiaca,  96. 
Spurslowe  (W.),  On  the  Promises  of  Scripture,  100 
Stack  (Dr.),  Lectures  on  the  Acts,  144. 

On  the  Romans,  144. 

(T.),  Medica  Sacra,  161. 

Stackfiouse  (Thomas),  History  of  the  Bible,  164. 181. 
Stadler  (J.  E.),  Lexicon  Heb.  Lat.,  91. 
Stahelin  (J.  J.),  In  Gen.  XLIX.,  116. 
Stange  (J.  F.),  Anticritica  in  Psalmos,  119. 
Stanhope  (G.),  On  the  Epistles  and  Gospels,  145 
Starckii  (J.  F.),  Comm.  in  Ezechielem,  124. 
Stark  (J.  A.),  Davidis  Carminum  Libri  Quinque,  119. 
Starling  (T.),  Map  of  Palestine,  158. 
Stehelin  (Peter),  Traditions  of  Jews,  161. 
Stein  (C.  G.),  Authentia  Evang.  Joannis,  132. 
Sicphani  (Henrici)  Concordantiae  Novi  Testamenli,  153. 
(Robert!),  Novum  Testamentum,  10. 


Stevens  (Mrs.),  Devotional  Comments,  114. 
Stevenson  (R.),  Scripture  Portraif.s,  165. 
Stickel  (J.  G.,)  Comm.  in  Job.  XIX.,  118. 

Interpretatio  Habacuci,  126. 

Stock  (Bishop),  Translation  of  Job,  117. 
Translation  of  Isaiah,  123. 


Stock  (R.),  Comment  on  Malachi,  126. 
Slockii  (C.),  Clavis  Linguae  Sancts  Veteris  Testament!,  89. 
Stokes  (George),  Commentary  on  the  Bible,  114. 
Stokes  (D.),  On  the  Minor  Prophets,  125. 
Stonard  (J.),  Diss,  on  Seventy  Weelis,  125. 
Comm.  on  Zechariah,  126. 


Storr  (G.  C),  Observationes  ad  Ling.  Ilebr.,  87. 

Interpr.  Epistolarum  Pauli,  135. 

De  Catholicis  Epistolis,  139. 

Dissertationes  ad  Nov.  Test,  151. 

Opuseula  Academica,  151. 

Stosch  (E.  H.  D.),  De  Canone  Novi  Testament!,  69. 
Stosch  (F.),  De  Epistolis  Apostolorum,  69. 

De  Canone  Novi  Testament!,  69. 

Archaeologia  Nov.  Test,  158. 

Dissert,  de  Septem  Asia;  Ecclesiis,  158. 

Stowe  (C.  E.),  Translation  of  Lowlh  on  Hebrew  Poetry,  76. 

Strabo,  or  Strabus  (Walafr.),  Glossa  Ordinaria,  105. 

Streat  (Wm.),  Dividing  of  the  IIooli;  146. 

Street  (S.),  Version  of  Psalms,  119. 

Stresonis  (C),  Comm.  in  Act  Apost,  133. 

Strigclii  (Viclorini),  Arguraenta  et  Scholia  in  XII  Minores  Prophe- 

tas,  125. 

'XiToiJivrinaTa  in  Nov.  Test,  127. 

Stronck  (C.  W.),  De  Doctrina  Johannis,  132. 

Strutt  (Joseph),  Common-place  Book  to  the  Bible,  156. 

Stuart  (Moses),  Hebrew  Grammar,  86. 

Heb.  Chrestomathy  and  Course  of  Hebrew  Study,  86. 

Comment  on  Ep.  to  Romans,  136. 

Comment,  on  Ep.  to  Hebrews,  138,  139. 

Dissertations  on  the  best  Mode  of  studying  the  Original 

Languages  of  the  Bible,  85. 

Elements  of  Interpretation,  98. 


Stuck  (M.  C.  J.),  Hoseas  Propheta,  126. 
Suiceri  (J.  C),  Thesaurus  Ecclesiasticus,  155.  - 
SuidoB  et,  Fhavorini  Glossse  Sacrse,  ab  Ernesti,  92. 
Sumner  (Bp.  J.),  On  Apostolical  Preaching,  135. 

Lectures  on  Matthew,  Mark,  and  Luke,  144 

Surenhusii  (Guil.),  B(/?Xoj  KaraWayris,  76. 

Michna,  102. 

Surigar  (F.  G.  N.),  In  Matt  XXII.  37—40.,  132. 
Susoo  Version,  56. 


194 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


Smn/)org  (A.),  Joel,  Latme  versus,  126. 

Swedish  Bible,  44. 

Stfkes  (Dr.).  Paraphrase.  &c.  on  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  138. 

Symonds  (Dr.),  Observations  on  revising  ilie  English  Version  ol'lhe 

Four  Gospels  and  f^pistles,  84. 
Syn^e  ( — ),  Iiitrod.  to  Hebrew  Lan^ua*ge,  87. 
Synac  Versions  of  the  Bible,  25,  2b. 


Taihta.s-  Version  of  the  Bible.  51.  52.  169. 

Talbot  (iM).  Analysis  of  the  Bible,  155. 

Talmud.  102. 

Tamnl  \'ersion  of  the  Bible,  50. 

Tuppan  (D.),  Lectures  on  Jewish  Antiquities,  157. 

Targiim$,  22. 

Tarnovii  (J),  Coram,  in  Prophctas  Minorca,  125. 

Coram,  in  .Micliam,  126. 

Comm.  ad  Ephesios,  137. 

Tatar  Versions  of  the  Bible,  51. 

Tattain  (H.),  Egyptian  Grammar  and  LeX.  96,  173. 

Taverner  (R.),  Bible,  35. 

Tavoi  (Jac),  Pentateuchus,  Persice,  26.  • 

Taylor  (C),  Edition  of  Calmet's  Diet.,  154. 

Taylor  (Bp.  Jer.).  Life  of  Christ,  165. 

Taylor  (John),  Hebr.  Concordance,  152, 153. 

Paraphr.  on  Epist.  to  Romans,  135. 

Taylor  (Tho.),  On  the  Types,  99. 

Commentary  on  I'itus,  138. 

Taiflor  (VV.  C),  Greek-English  Lexicon  to  N.  T.,  93. 

TtUiiga  Version  of  the  Bible,  50. 

Tempe  Helvetica,  147. 

Terrot  (C.  II.),  On  Epistle  to  Romans,  136. 

Testament  (New),  Improved  Version  of,  129. 

Explanatory  Comments  on,  143. 

Testamentum  Novum.     Vide  Novu.m  Tksta.mentum. 

Te^TAMENTUM  VeTLS.       Vide  BiBLIA  HeBRAICA  Ct  GRi£CA. 

Tfjjtamenti  Veteris  Versio.nes  Latin/E: — 

Paginini,  31. 

Montani,  31. 

Malvendo!,  31. 

Cajrtani,  31. 

Iloiibigantii,  31. 

Munsteri,  31. 

Leonis  Juda",  31. 

Caslalionis,  31. 

Junii  et  Treraellii,  31,  32. 

Sohmidtii.  32. 

Dathii,  32. 

Schotti  et  Winzcri,  32. 

Vulgata)  Vcrsionis,  Editioncs  varia;,  27,  28. 
Teuheii  (C.  A),  De  Utilitate  Ling.  Anglic,  85. 
llinddcri  (J.),  Concilialorium  Biblicum,  146. 
Thalmanni  (C.  G.),  Versio  IV  Evangeliorum  ct  Act.   Apostolo- 

nim,  32. 
T/ieile  (C.  G.G.),  Coramcntarius  in  Epist.  Jacobi,  139. 
Theiner  (G.  A.),  Desrrij)tio  Codicis  Pentalcuchi  Arabici,  78. 
Theodorefi  Commcntarii,  104. 
Theophulacli  Commenlarii,  105. 
Tfnlo  (J.  C),  Acta  S.  Thomo;,  67. 

Codox  Aporryphus  N.  T.,  67. 

Tholuck  (F.  A.  (;.).  Exposition  of  the  Ep.  to  the  Romans,  136. 176. 
Thompson  (J.  S.),  Moiioless:iron,  61. 
Thompson  (H.),  Davidica,  143. 

Lectures  on  Acts,  144. 

Thomson  (Charles),  Translation  of  Ihn  Bible,  113,  114. 

Synojwis  of  the  Four  Evangelists,  61. 

Tliomson  (Ruberl),  Dintcssaron,  61. 

Thomson  (VV.),  New  Tcslainont  translated,  130. 

Thomson  (W.),  and  Ormc  (VV.J,  Hist,  ol  Translation  of  Scriptures,  84. 

Thomson  (Mrs.),  Illrislralion  of  the  Psalms,  120. 

Thniston  (F'.),  England  Safe  and  Triumpliant,  141. 

Thnani  (J.  A.),  As  Fatidicus,  I2.'>. 

Thwailes  (Ed.),  Hoptateuchus,  Ac.  Anglo-Sax.,  29. 

Tigri  Version,  56. 

Tillorh  (A),  Dissertations  on  the  Apocalypse,  141,  142. 

Ttndal  (N.),  Diiwerlations,  69. 

Tindal  (VV.),  Translations  of  tho  Scriptures,  33,  34.  167. 

Titlmanni  [('.),  Molctemata  Sacra  in  Evang.  Joannis,  133. 

— ^— ^^—  Opuscula  Thoologica,  151. 

Novum  TcHinmoiitum,  IR. 

Titlmanni  (J.  A.  H.),  I)<!  Svnonymis  Nov.  Test,  92. 

TranNlaled  by  Craii,',  92. 

Todd  (H.  J.),  \indif ntion  of  .Authorized  English  Version  of  tho 

Bible.  M. 
Tnrplrr  (T.  E.),  De  Versione  Aloxandr.  Pentatouchi,  83. 
Toinardi  (.Nicolai),  Hnrmcinia,  59. 
Tollrt/  (J.  G.),  Puriii.hr.  on  1  Cor.,  137. 
Tors/irll  (Samuel),  Ucsigii  for  a  Hiirrnnny  of  tho  Bible,  58. 
ToiKulcy  (Jiimc'H),  llliiNtrnlioiis  of  Biblical  Literature,  5. 

Litcriiry  HiKinry  of  llio  Biblo,  5. 

Hi'n.soiiN  of  the  LaWH  of  Mdhos,  160. 

Tntnnsend  ((Kiorgi-),  Hiirmonv  of  tho  Old  Testament,  58,  59. 
Harmony  of  the  New  Testament,  59 

Bible  in  chronological  Order,  59. 


Townsend  (J.),  On  the  Chatacter  of  Moses,  115. 

Townson  (Dr.),  Discourse  on  the  Evangelical  History,  61,  62. 

Trapp  (J.),  Comment,  on  New  Test..  129. 

Notes  on  the  Four  Gospels,  131. 

Travell  (T.),  Paraphr.  on  Psalms,  119. 
Travis  (G.),  Letters  to  Gibbon,  81. 
Triglandii  (J.),  Diatribe,  161. 

Trimmer  (Mrs.),  Help  to  the  Study  of  the  Bible,  113. 

Trommii  (Abr.),  Concordantia;  Graecas  Versionis  LXX,  150,  179. 

Troslii  (Martini),  Lexicon  Syriacum.  95. 

'JVuth  oi'  Revelation  demonstrated,  152.  162. 

Turkish  Version  of  the  Bible,  47.  169. 

Turner  (S.  11.),  Notes  on  Ep.  to  Romans,  136 

Turrctini  (J.  A.),  De  Scripturse  Inierpretatione,  99. 

CommentariuB  in  Epist.  ad  Thessalonicenses,  138. 

Epist  ad  liomaiios  Expositio,  144. 

Turton  (Dr),  Review  of  Bp.  Burgess  on  1  John  v.  7.,  81,  88. 

Vindication  of  Prof  Porson,  82. 

Remarks  on  Evanson,  82. 

Text  of  English  Bible  considered,  84. 


Twopenny  (R.),  Dissert,  on  Old  Test..  151. 

Tychsen  (O.  G.),  De  variis  Codicum  Ilebrseorum  Generibus,  77. 


UooLi.vi  (B.),  Thesaurus  Antiquitatutji  Sacrarum,  156. 
Uhlemann  (M.  F.),  Canticum  Caniicoriim,  122.  , 

Unger  (A.  F.),  De  Parabolarum  Natura,  100. 
Unlerkircher  (C),  Hermeneutica  Biblica,  99. 
UphilcB  Versionis  Goihic«e  Editioncs  Varise,  128. 
ifri  (J.),  LXX  Ilebdomadum  Danielis  Computatio,  124,  125. 
Ursini  (J.  II.),  Arboretum  Biblicum,  159. 

Usserii  (J.,  Arraachensis  Archiepiscopi),  De  LXX  Interpretibus,  83 
Annates  Vet.  el  Nov.  Test.,  163. 


Ustcrii  (L),  Comment,  de  Genuin.  Joannis  Evangelio,  133. 


VAX.CKEN-ARII  (L.  C),  Selecta  e  Scholiis  in  Novum  Testamentum 

128. 
Valla  (Laur.),  Annot.  in  Nov.  Test ,  127. 
Valpy  (E.),  Novum  Testamentum,  128. 
Greek  Testament,  18.  128. 


Van-der-Boon-Mcsch  (A.  L.),  Specimen  Ilermeneulicum,  132. 
Van  Hengel  (W.  A.),  Annotata  in  Nov.  Test.,  148,  149. 
Van  Jleyst  (D.),  Diss.  Tlieol.,  151. 

Vanmildert  (Bp.),  Principles  of  Scripture  Interpretation,  99. 
Vansiltart  (Mr.),  Observations  on  the  Old  Testament,  162. 
\'an  Til  (S.),  Malachias  lUuslralus,  126. 

Opus  Analylicum,  156. 

De  Tabernaculo,  160. 


Van  Voorst  (J.),  De  Usu  Vorborum,  92. 
Valabli  {¥■),  Annot.  in  Psalmos,  119. 
Vati"-  (J.  S.),  Oracula  Amosi,  126. 

Novum  Testumentum,  16,  17.  128. 


Vavassoris  (F.),  Comment,  in  Jobum,  117. 
Velthusen  (J.  C),  Et  alion-m  Commentationes  Theologicse,  147 
Vence  (Abbe),  Bible,  108,  109. 
Venema  (H.),  De  Melliodo  PropheticSi,  100 
Dis.sert.  in  Gciicsin,  116 


—  Comment,  ad  Psalmos,  119. 

—  Commontarius  ad  Jeremiam,  123. 

—  Lectiones  ad  Ezechielcm,  124. 

—  Dis.sert.  ad  Vaiicinia  Danielis,  124. 

—  Comment,  nd  Zcphan.,  126. 
Comment,  ad  Maiachiam,  126. 


Verhoevcn  (H.  P.  T.),  132. 

Vernede  (J.  S.),  Sermons  sur  Malt.  V.— VII.,  145. 

Verpoorlenii  (J.),  Dissertationes,  151. 

Verschnirii  (J.  II.),  Opuscula,  151. 

Vialls  (E.),  Scripture  Veighl.s,  160. 

Vignolks  (A.),  Chronologie  do  I'liistoiro  Sainte,  163. 

Virginian  Indian  Version,  56. 

Vitringa  (C),  Commeiitarius  in  Jc.'jaiain,  122. 

Typus  Doctrino;  Prophclica',  IIK). 

Anacrisis  .Ajiocalypseos,  140. 

Observalioiies  Sacnu,  151. 

Dissertationes  Sacra;,  151. 

Do  Synagogn,  160. 


Vogel  (G.  J.  L.),  De  Dialecio  Poctica  Vet.  Test.,  76. 
Comment,  in  Job.,  117. 


Von  Haven  (P.),  Comment,  in  Ep.  ad    Titiim,  138. 
Vorstii  (J.),  Do  Ilcbraismis  Novi  Tcstamenii,  75. 
Do  Adagiis  Nov.  Test.,  100. 


Vorslman  (G.),  Comment,  in  Psal.  XVI.,  120. 
Vossius  (J.  (;.),  C'hnmologia  Sacra,  163. 
Vrimort  (E.  L.),  Obscrvalioncs  Misrcll.,  151. 
\'iiljS'i/i-  Entin  Version,  Editions  of,  27,  28. 
Vullcrs  (J.  A.),  Graminatica  Arabica,  96, 


Waeiimkr  (A.  G.),  Anli(iuit  Ilobr., 
Wahl  (C.  A.),  C;iavi8  Philol.  Nov.  T 


157. 
Test.,  93. 

—  ('lavis  Minor,  93. 

—  Comment  do  Particula  «  et  Pr«ei>ositionc  tif,  98. 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


195 


JS'ail  (D.  G.),  Jewish,  Orionlal,  and  Classical  Antiquities,  162. 

Translation  of  Hug's  Introd.  lo  New  Test.,  71. 

Wake  (W.),  Ver-sion  of"  the  Psalms,  119. 
WakefeM  (G.),  Translation  of  New  Test.,  129. 

Silva  Critica,  151. 

Walai  (B),  NOV.  Test.  Libri  Hist.,  131. 
Walchii  (J.  G.),  Hist.  Eccl.  Nov.  Test.,  1C4. 

Observationes  in  Nov.  Test.,  151. 

Bibliolheca  Theologica,  5. 

Walchii  {V.  G.),  Calendarium  Palestinse,  159. 
Walchii  (J.  E.),  Commentarius  in  Act.  Apost.,  134. 
Walker  (S.  G.),  Introd.  to  Hebrew,  87. 
Wallachian  Bible,  47.  169. 
WaHer  (II.),  Letter  to  Bp.  Marsh,  84. 
Wallher  (D.),  Vindicise  Biblicae,  51. 
Waltheri  (Mich.),  Harmonia  Biblica,  14G. 
Waltheri  (C.  T.),  Ellipses  Hebraic^,  87. 
Waltoni  (Briani),  Prolegomena,  75,  70. 

— Introd.  ad  Linguas  Orientales,  94. 

Dissert,  de  Linguis  Orientalibus,  94. 

Wunruch  (A.  J.),  Disquisitio  Choleras,  161. 

WarbuTtonian  Lectures  on  Prophecy,  101. 

Ward  (Tlio.),  Errata  of  Protestant  Bible,  84. 

Warden  (J.),  System  of  Revealed  Religion,  155. 

Wardlaw  (R.),  Lect.  on  Ecclesiastes,  143. 

Warnekros  (J.  D.),  De  Palestinoe  I'ertilitate,  159. 

Warner  (Robert),  Chronological  History  of  Jesus  Christ,  61. 

Psalter,  120. 

ira«rt  (C),  De  Numis  Ilebraeorum,  160. 
De  Mensuris  Ilebraeorum,  160. 


Watcrland  (Dr.  D.),  Scripture  Vnidicated,  151. 

Watkins  John),  Scripture  Biography,  165. 

Watson  (G.),  Genealogy  of  CJirist,  163. 

Walson  (R.),  Exposition  of  Matthew  and  Mark,  132. 

Watson  (T.),  On  Epislle  to  Colossians,  145. 

Wehcr  (M.),  Authentia  cap.  ult.  Evan.  Johannis,  133. 

Webster  (T.),  Edition  of  Reformer's  Bible,  109. 

Weingart  (J.  F.),  Comment,  in  Epistolas  Pauli,  135 

Welleri  (J.),  Annot.  in  Ep.  ad  Romanes,  135. 

Wells  (Dr.),  Sacred  Geography,  157. 

Help  for  Understanding  the  Scripture,  110. 

Welsh  \'ersion  of  the  Bible,  42. 

Wemyss  (T.),  Biblical  Gleanings,  151,  152. 

Wernsdorf  {(j.),  Comment,  de  Lib.  Mace,  69. 

Wf,slcy  (J.),  Notes  on  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  111. 

Wesley  (S.),  Dissert  in  Lib.  Jobi,  117. 

Wessclingii  (P.),  De  Judaaorum  Archontibus,  160. 

West  (Gilbert),  On  the  Resurrection  of  Jesus  Ciirist,  61. 

Weston  (Stepli.),  Conjectures  on  New  Test.,  128. 

Welham  (R.),  New  Testament,  42. 

Vt'etslc7iii  (J.  J.),  Libelli  ad  Crisin  Novi  Testament!,  78,  79. 

Prolegomena  ad  Novum  Tesiamenlum,  76 

Novum  Testam«ntum,  12.  127- 

Welslenii  (J.  R.),  De  Hist.  Susannse,  69. 

Wette  (G.  M.  L.),  et  Liicke  {¥.),  Synopsis  Evangeliorum,  GO. 

Wha'eli/  (Dr.  R.),  Essays  on  St.  Paul,  135. 

Whisfon  (\V.),  Primitive  New  Test.,  128,  129. 

Whilaker  (E.  W.),  Commentary  on  the  Revelation,  141. 

Whitby  (Dr.),  Paraphrase,  &c.  on  the  New  Testament,  129. 

^  Dissert,  de  Script.  Interpret.,  99. 

Examen  Variarum  Lectionnm,  79,  80. 

White  (Jos.),  Nov.  Test.  Versio  Syriaca  Philoxeniana,  26. 

Synopsis  Criseos  Gricsbacliiante,  79. 

Diatessaron,  60,  61. 

\Vhile  (S.),  Comm.  on  Isaiah,  122. 

Whitley  (J.),  Scheme  of  Prophecy,  100,  101. 

V\'hitiaker  (J.  W.),  Inquiry  into  the  Interpretation  of  the  Hebrew 

Scriptures,  84. 
Wirklife  (John),  New^estament.  32,  33. 
Widm'anstadii  (Alb.),  Nov.  Test.  Syriace,  25. 
Wildii  (A.),  Meditat.  in  Nahum,  126. 
Wilken  (F.),  Institutiones  Linguse  Persarum,  97. 
WHkitis  (Dav.),  Pentaleuchus,  Coptice,  26 

Nov.  Test.  Copticum,  36. 


Wilkins  (G.),  Hist,  of  Destruction  of  Jerusalem,  153. 
Willan  (R.  &  M.),  United  Gospel,  61. 
Willett  (Andrew),  Comm.  on  Genesis,  115. 

On  Exodus,  116. 

On  Daniel,  124. 

Williams  (John),  Concordance  to  the  Greek  Testament,  153. 
Williains  (J.  M.),  Translation  of  Bp.  Pearson's  Anna!.  Paulin.,  163 
Williams  (Tho.),  Cottage  Bible,  114. 

Translation  of  Solomon's  Song,  123. 

Private  Character  of  Christ,  105. 

Willis  (J.),  Translation  of  the  Acts,  133. 

Wilson  (Bp.  Tho.),  Commentary  on  the  Bible,  111. 
Wilson  (C),  Elements  of  Hebrew  Grammar,  88. 
Wilson  (Caroline),  Gospel  of  the  Old  Test.,  99. 
Wilson  (Cha.),  Books  of  the  Ayocrypha,  03. 
Wilson  (John),  On  Scripture  Types,  99. 
Wilson  (Jos.),  Horse  Prophelica?,  124. 
Wilson  (J.  P.),  Hebrew  Grammar,  89. 
Wilson  (W.),  Illustration  of  the  New  Testament,  152. 
Winckleri  (J.  D.),  Disquisitiones  Philologicae,  152. 
Winsr  (G.  B.),  Epist.  ad  Galatas,  cum  nolis,  137. 

De  Onkeloso  ejusquc  Paraphrasi  Chaldaica,  83. 

Oratio  de  Interpr.  N.  T.,  99. 

Grammatik  Neutest.  Idioms,  91. 

Greek  Gram,  of  New  Test.,  91. 

Wintle  (T.),  Version  of  Daniel,  124. 
Wiseman  (N.),  Horaj  Syriaca?,  83. 
Witsii  (H.),  Comm.  in  Epist.  Judte,  140. 

Miscellanea  Sacra,  152.  , 

Meletemata,  152. 

.^gyptiaca,  152. 

Witt  (C.  de),  Dissert,  de  Proverb.  Salomon.,  121. 
Witty  (J.),  On  Hist,  of  Fall,  116. 
Woide  (Dr.),  Codex  .\lexandrinus,  13. 

Appendix  ad  Codicem  Alexandrinum,  25. 

Notitia  Codicis  Alexandrini,  77. 

Lexicon  et  Grammatica  ^Egypt,  96. 

Wolfbxtrgi  (M.  C),  Observationes  SacrEE,  152. 
Woljii  (J.  C),  Bibliotheca  Hebrffia,  5. 
Curaj  Philol.  in  Nov.  Test.,  127. 


Wood  (James),  Diet,  of  Bible,  155. 

"Treatise  on  Types,  99. 

Wood  (Thos.),  Mosaic  Hist,  illustrated,  116. 

Wood  fall's  (G.)  elegant  and  correct  Editions  of  the  English  Bible 

39,  40. 
Woodhouse  (J.  C),  Translation,  &c.  of  the  Apocalypse,  Ml. 

Annot.  on  Apocalypse,  141. 

Wordsworth  (Chr.),  On  Greek' Article,  91. 
Wonlcy  (J.),  New  Test,  translated,  129. 
WoTlhington  (\W.),  On  tlie  Fall,  116. 

On  the  Demoniacks,  152. 

Wollon  (Dr.),  Discourses  on  the  Traditions,  &c.  of  the  Phari.9ce?, 

161. 
Wrangham  (Fr.),  Waltoni  Prolegomena,  cum  Nolis,  &c.,  75,  76. 
Wright  (G.),  Ecclesiastical  Annals,  164. 
Wynne  (R.),  New  Test,  with  Notes,  129. 
W'yssii  (Casp.),  Dialectologia  Sacra;,  76. 


Yardle?  (E.),  Genealogies  of  Christ,  163, 
Yeates  (T.),  Hebrew  Grammar,  86. 

Syriac  Grammar,  95. 

Collation  of  an  Indian  Copy  of  the  Pentateuch,  79. 

Yorige  (J.),  Commentary  on  the  Bible,  111. 


Zahn  (J.  C),  Ulphilas  Gothische  Bibel-Ueberselzung,  23. 
Zanolini  (A.),  Lexicon  Syriacum,  95. 
Zc'pperi  (W.),  Legum  Mosaic.  Explanallo,  100. 
Zornii  (P.),  Opuscula  Sacra,  1-52. 

Hist.  Fisci  Judaici,  160. 

Zubli  (N.  H.  T.),  De  Hymno  Marl®,  132. 


Vol.  II. 


4S 


INDEX    TO    THE   ADDENDA 


TO    THE 


BIBLIOGRAPHICAL    APPENDIX. 


Adam  (T.),  Expos,  of  the  four  Gospels,  178. 
Adams  (R.  N.),  Opening  of  the  Sealed  Book,  177. 
Agrellius  (Jo.),  Suppl.  Syntax.  Syriacae,  173. 
Aleia?ider  (J.  W.  &  J.  A.),  Geography  of  the  Bible,  179. 
Anger  (R.),  De  Temp,  in  Act.  Apost.,  176. 
ArakaneseNew  Testament,  169. 


Barlee  (E.),  Version  of  the  Epistles,  176. 
Barnes  (Alb.),  Notes  on  the  Gospels,  175. 

Notes  on  the  Acts,  176. 

Notes  on  Ep.  to  the  Romans,  176. 

Notes  on  First  Ep.  to  the  Corinthians,  176. 

Bassouto  Version,  169. 

Beke  (J.  T.),  Origines  Biblicoe,  181. 

Benham  (D.),  On  the  Genealogy  of  Christ,  181. 

Benning  (VV.),  Harmony  of  Gospels,  170. 

Bible,  Editions,  the  Text  of  which  is  divided  into  paragraphs, 

168. 
Bickersle'ih  (E.),  Guide  to  the  Prophecies,  173. 
Blddulph  (T.  T.),  Lectures  on  Psalm  LI.,  177. 
Billroth  (G.),  Comment,  on  the  Ep.  to  Corinthians,  176. 
Bingham  (C.  H.),  Lect.  on  Psalm  XXXII.  177. 
Bhmt  (H.),  Ex.  of  Ep.  to  VII.  Churches,  178. 
Bonnet  (L.),  Med.  sur  Gen&se  IIL  177. 

Family  of  Bethanj",  176, 

Boon  (C),  Historia  Judaeorum,  181. 

Boys  (J.),  On  Parable  of  Prodigal  Son,  178. 

Brccm  (A.),  Deser.  de  la  Terre  Sainte,  179. 

Brooks  (J.  W.),  On  Prophet.  Interpretation,  173. 

Bugatus  (C),  Daniel  et  Psalmi  Secundum  LXX.  167. 

Burgess  (Tho.  Bishop  of  Salisbury),  Three  Letters  to  Scholz  on  1 

John  V.  7,  171. 
Burrington  (Gilb.),  Arrangement  of  Scripture  Genealogies,  180. 
Bush  (G.),  Hebrew  Grammar,  171. 

Notes  on  Genesis,  174. 

Notes  on  Joshua  and  Judges,  174. 

Commentary  on  the  Psalms,  174,  175. 

Illustrations  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  ISO. 

Butler  (W.  J.),  Testimony  of  History  to  Scripture,  173. 
Bythneri  (V.),  Lyre  of  David,  by  Dee,  166. 


Caffhe  Version  of  New  Test,  169. 

Cahen  (S.),  Bible  Heb.  et  Fr.  173. 

Calvin  (John),  Comment,  on  Philemon.  176. 

Cardivell {Dr.  E.),  Gr.  and  Engl.  New  Test.,  167. 

Came  (J.),  Syria,  &c.,  illustrated  in  Views,  ISO. 

Carpenter  (Lant),  Harmony  of  Gospels,  169. 

— — — —  Dissertations  on  Christ's  ministry,  &c  ,  181. 

Cellerier  (J.  E.),  Legislation  Mosaique,  179. 

Chalmers  (T.),  Lect.  on  Ep.  to  Romans,  178. 

Chapman  (R.),  Harmony  of  Gospels,  170. 

Cholmondeley  ( — ),  IV.  Gospels  arranged,  170. 

Cobbin  (J.),  Condensed  Commentary,  174. 

Codex  San  Gallensis,  a  Rettig,  166. 

Coit  (T.  W.),  Bible  in  Paragraphs,  168. 

Conder  (J.),Transl.  of  Ep.  to  Hebrews,  177. 

Conybeare  (W.   D.),  Lectures  on  Criticism,  &c.,  of   the  Bible, 

171, 
Copley'{E.),  Scripture  Biography,  181. 
Corbett  (M.  de),  Oriental  Key,  ISO. 
Craig  (E.),  Lectures  on  Jacob,  177. 
Cuninghame  (W.),  On  the  Fulness  of  Time,  181. 

■  Synopsis  of  Chronology,  181. 

Septuagint  and  Hebrew  Chronologies,  181. 

Cunningham  (J.  W.),  Lectures  on  Jonah,  178. 
Currey  (C),  Harmony  of  Gospels,  169. 


Daeney  (J.  P.),  Edition  of  Tyndale's  New  Testament,  167. 

DaniePs  Prophecy  of  Seventy  Week.<,  175. 

Bargaud  (M.),  Les  Psaumes  traduits,  175. 

Davidson  (David),  Pocket  Coram,  on  New  Testament,  174. 

Dee  (Tho.),  Lyre  of  David,  166. 

Delitzschii  (Fr.),  Isagoge  in  Gramraaticam  Ling.  Hebi-.,  171. 

Dunn  (S.),  Gospel  Harmonized,  170. 

Dutripon  (F.  P.),  Concordantis  Bibliorum  Latinorum,  179, 


Engelstoft  (C,  T,),  Hist.  Populi  Judaici,  181. 
English  Protestant  Versions  of  the  Bible,  16S. 

Romish  Versions,  168. 

Enoch  Restitutus,  170. 
Evans  (R.  W.),  Scripture  Biography,  ISl, 
Ewald  (G.  H.  A.),  Heb.  Grammar,  translated,  171. 
Gramm.  Ling.  Arab.,  173. 


Fabquharson  (J.),  New  Illustration  of  Daniel's  last  Vision,  175. 

Fau'cett  (Josh.),  Harmony  of  Gospels,  170. 

Fer/(N.),  De  Fide  Matthsei,  175. 

Fleming  (W.),  Script.  Gazetteer,  179. 

Foote  (J.),  Lectures  on  Luke,  178. 

Forster  (Cha.),  Apost.  Author,  of  Ep.  to  the  Hebrews,  176, 177., 

Frank  (M.),  Sur  la  langue  Hebraique,  171. 

Freytag  (G.  W.),  Lexicon  Arab.  Lat.,  173. 

Fritsche  (C.  F.  A.),  Pauli  ad  Romanes  Epistola,  176. 


Gaeelenz  (H.  C.  de),  et  Locbe  (J.),  Versiones  Gothiese  Fragmenta, 

167. 
Gesenius  (Wilh.),  Hebr.  Elementarbuch,  171. 
Gipsy  (Spanish),  Gospel  of  Luke,  169. 
Girdlestone  (C),  Comment,  on  Old  Test,  177. 
Glaire  (J.  B.),  Bible  Lat.  et  Fr.,  173. 
Gospels,  Anglo-Romish  version  of,  168. 
Greswell  (E.),  Exposition  of  Parables,  178. 
Grimm  (C.  L.  W.),  De  Joannea  Christologia,  179. 


Haldane  (R.),  Expos,  of  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  176. 

Hardinge  {H.),  Remarks  on  1  Cor.  Xlt.  and  XIV.,  176. 

Harte  (W.  M.),  Lect  on  Matthew,  178, 

HascBi  (Theod.),  Thesaurus  novus  Philologicus,  178. 

Hasse  (J.  G.),  Libri  IV.     Reg.  Syriace  Specimen,  167. 

Hatchett  (C),  On  the  Spikenard  of  the  Ancients,  179. 

Henderson  (Dr.  E.),  Lexicon  Syriacum,  173. 

Hendewerk  (C.  L.),  Obadiee  Oraculum,  175. 

Hcngel  (W.  A,  van),  Comm.  in  Epist.  ad  Philippenses,  176. 

Hengstenberg  (E.  W.),  Christologie  des  Alten  Testaments,  175. 

Christology,  transl.  by  R.  Keith,  175. 

Henry  (P.],  Exposition  of  Gen.  I. — XL,  177. 
Hodge  (C),  Commentary  on  Ep.  to  Romans,  176. 
Hoffmann  (A.  G.),  De  Oratione  Petri,  176. 
Home  (T.  H.),  Landscape  Illustrations  of  Bible,  180. 
Hug  (J.  L.),  Introd.  to  the  New  Test,  by  Fosdick,  170. 
Hutchinson  (A.),  Apocalypse  its  own  Interpreter,  177. 
Huysche  (F.),  On  1  John  V.  7.,  171. 


Ideler  (J.  L.),  Psalterium,  Coptice,  167. 
Isaacs  (H.)  Ceremonies,  &c.,  of  the  Jews,  179. 


Jacobi  (B.),  Lect,  on  Ep.  of  James,  178. 

Jamieson  (R.),  Eastern  Manners,  180. 

Jenka  (W.),  Comprehensive  Commentary,  174. 


497 


193 

Jones  (Hen.),  Interp.  of  Prophecies,  173. 
Jones  (Tho.),  Summary  of  Rev.  of  John,  177. 

Jonah's  Portiait,  178. 

Prodigal's  Pilgrimage,  178. 

Josephs  (Mich.),  Eng.  and  Heb.  Lexicon,  172. 


INDEX  TO  THE  ADDENDA. 


KAEt-rrER  (J.  E.  R.),  De  Notione  Ztjrn  Atujviov,  179. 
Kalkar  (C.  H.),  Lament.  Jerem.  illusUatae,  175. 
Kimchi  (David),  Radicum  Liber,  172. 

Commentary  on  Zacharias,  173. 

Klener  (R.  E.),  De  Authentia  Matthaei,  175. 
Knox  (J.  S.),  Sermons  on  Ep.  to  the  Hebrews,  178. 
Kolthoff  {V..  G.),  Apocalypsis  Johanni  vindicata,  177. 
Kranold  (J.  T.  K.),  De  Auno  Jubilaeo,  179. 
Krvmmacher  (F.  A.),  Elijah  and  Elisha,  177. 

Cornehus  the  Centurion,  178. 

Kueper  (A.),  Jeremias  Lib.  Sac.  Interpres,  175. 


L.VBEEENz  (G.),  De  Libri  Jonae  Interp.,  175. 

Larotn  (C),  Dissert,  on  Hist,  of  Joseph,  177. 

Latham  (H.),  Harmonia  Paulina,  170. 

Latrohe  (J.  A.),  Scripture  Illustrations,  180. 

Lee  (Sam.),  Translation  of  Job,  174. 

Leo  (C),  Hebrew  Grammar,  171. 

Leo  (G.  E.),  Pauli  Ep.  L  ad  Timotheum,  176. 

Lovett  (H.  W.),  Revelation  of  John  explained,  177. 

Lucke  (F.),  Comm.  on  Ep.  of  John,  177. 

Luther  (Martin),  Manual  of  the  Psalms,  174. 


M.\CBRiDE  (J.  D.),  Diatcssaron,  170. 

Lectures  on  Diatcssaron,  170. 

MCrie  (T.),  Lectures  on  Esther,  177. 

^Incfarlane  (J.),  Hebrew  Chronology,  181. 

Madden  (Sir  F.),  On  Alcuine's  Bible,  171. 

MandevUle  (G.  Visct.),  Horac  Uebraica;,  177. 

Maurer  (J.  F.  V.  D.),  Commentarius  in  Psalmos,  175. 

— — —  Commentarius  in  Jesaiam,  175. 

Meier  (F.  C),  Notiones  veterum  Ebra;orum,  179. 

— —  Judaica,  181. 

Menthenii  (G.),  Thesaurus  Theol.  Philol.,  178. 

Milner  13.),  Seimons  on  Ep.  to  the  VII.  Churches,  178. 

Morris  (J.  P.),  Genealogies  recorded  in  Scripture,  ISl. 

Movers  (F.  C),  De  Recensione  Jcremiue,  &c.  175. 

Murray  (E.),  Enoch  Restitutus,  170. 

Murray  (Mrs.  M.),  Remarks  on  Gen.  and  Exod.,  177. 


Kewm.'VN  (S.),  Heb.  and  English  Lexicon,  172. 
Kolan  (F.),  Chronological  Prophecies,  173. 
h'orberg  (M.),  Codex  Syiiaco  Hexaplaris,  1G7. 
Kordhcimer  (J.),  Hebrew  Grammar,  171. 
Kourse  (J.),  Bible  in  Paragraphs,  1C3. 

IS'OVIM    TeSTAMENTUM  GR.r.CLM, 

Scholefield,  166,  1G7. 
Trollope,  167. 
Cardwell,  167. 
London,  1S37,  1G7. 


Olshm'scn  (H.),  Authenticity  of  2  Peter,  177. 


Pace  (J.1,  Notes  on  the  Gospels,  175. 

Palfrey  (j.  G.),  Elements  of  Chaldce,  ficc,  Grammar,  172,  173. 

Paragraph  Bible,  168. 

Parkin  (W.),  Exposition  of  Genesis  X.,  171. 

Parkinson  (11.),  Rationalism  and  Rcvelatiun,  ISO. 

Parry  {'J.),  On  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  178. 

Paul  (.St.),  Lectures  on  Ep.  of,  to  the  Romans,  178. 

Pearson  (G.),  On  the  Apocalypse,  177. 

Penn  (Gr. ),  S'cw  Covenant,  with  Annotations,  175. 

Perrine  (M.  L.  R.),  Dibl.  Geography,  179. 

Peijron  (A),  Lexicon  Lingua;  Copticic,.173. 

Pfeifftr  (A.  F.),  On  the  Music  of  the  Hebrews,  179,  ISO. 

Phillips  ((;.),  Syriac  Grammar,  173. 

Pictorial  Bible,  174. 

Pinder  (J.  H.),  Lecf.  on  1  Tim.,  173. 

Plum  {¥.),  Obs.  in  Obad.  el  H;4bacuc„  175. 

Plumplre  (H.  S.),  On  Prodigal  Son,  178. 

Plusrhke  (J.  T.),  Lectiones  Aloxandrinip,  171. 

De  Ptalleria  .Syriaco  Mediolancnsi,  171. 

Preituerk  (S.),  Grammairc  Hebraiquc,  171,  172. 
Prophecy,  Dictionary  of  Writers  on,  173. 


Prophetic  Discourse  on  Mount  of  Olives,  176. 
Prosser  (J.),  Key  to  Hebrew  Scriptures,  172. 


Rabotongan  Version  of  New  Test.,  169. 
Redford  (G.),  Holy  Scripture  Verified,  180. 
Rettig  (H.  C.  M.),  Codex  San  Gallensis,  166. 
Reynolds  (Bp.  Ed.),  Explication  of  Psal.  CX.,  177. 
Riddle  (J.  E.),  Scriptural  Comm.  on  1  Peter,  168. 
Robertson  (D.),  On  the  Apocalypse,  178. 
Robinson  (E.),  Greek  Harmony,  169. 

Gieek  and  English  "Lexicon,  172. 


Rochat  (A.),  Med.  on  Hczekiah,  Fr.  and  Engl.,  177. 
Roe  (R.),  Arrangement  of  Apocalypse,  177. 
Rogers  (J.),  Psalms  in  Hebrew,  166. 
Roorda  (T.),  Grammatica  Arabica,  173. 
Rose  (H.  J. ),  On  Jhe  Laws  of  Moses,  174. 
Rosenmulleri  (E.  F.  C),  Biblical  Geography,  179. 
Rotermundt  (J.  A.),  Synopsis  IV.  Evang.,  169. 
Roy  (\V.  L.),  Heb.  and  Engl.  Dictionary,  172. 


Sakdinaux  (P.),  Comm.  sur  I'Ep.  aux  Galates,  176. 
Sawyer  (L.  A.),  Elements  of  Biblical  Interp.,  173. 
Scharling  (E.  C),  De  Paulo  Apost.,  176. 
Scholefield  (Jas.),  Gr.  and  Engl.  New  Test,  166,  167. 
Scholz  (J.  M.  A.),  Diitiibe  in  1  John  V.  7.,  171. 
Schu-artze  (M.),  Nov.  Test.  Copticum,  167. 
Scot  (David),  Hebrew  Grammar,  172. 
Scott  (A.  J.),  Lect.  on  Ep.  to  Romans,  173. 
Shapter  (T.),  Medica  Sacra,  179. 
Sibthorp  (\V.),  On  Genesis,  174. 

On  Jonah,  178. 

Sime  (VV.),  Sacred  Geography,  179. 

Simpson  (R.),  Lectures  on  the  History  of  Elijah,  177. 

Skene  (G.),  Chronology  of  Old  Testament,  181. 

Slade  (H.  R.),  Lect.  on  Ep.  to  Timothy,  17S. 

Spanish  Gipsy  Version  of  the  Bible,  169. 

Steiger  (F.  W.),  Introd.  au  Nouv.  Test.,  171. 

Exegcse  des  aux  Philippiens  et  Colossiens,  176. 

Exposition  of  Ep.  of  Peter,  177. 

Stowe  (C.  E.),  Introd.  to  Bible,  170. 

Stuart  (Moses),  Grammar  of  New  Test.  J)ialect,  172. 

Studies  of  the  Apocalypse,  177. 

Sulci iffe  (Jos.),  Commentary  on  Old  and  New  Test.,  174. 


T.attam  (H.),  Xn.  Propheta;,  Coptice,  167. 

Taylor  ( W.  C),  Illustrations  of  the  Bible,  ISO. 

Thilo  (J.  C),  Acta  Petri  et  Pauli,  170. 

Thistlcthwait  (W.),  Sermons  on  Pentateuch,  177. 

Tholuck  (F.  A.  G.),  Exposition  of  Sermon  on  the  Mount,  175 

Exr 


ipos.  of  Gospel  of  John,  176. 


Thompson  (E.),  On  Prophecy,  Types,  and  Miracles,  179. 

Thornton  (J.),  The  Prodigal,  178. 

Thorpe  (B.),  Psalmi  Latino-Anglo-Saxonici,  167. 

Tischendorf  {h.  F.  C),  Doctrina  Pauli,  176. 

Trapp  (J.),  Annotations  on  the  Old  Testament,  173. 

Treasury  Bible,  16S. 

Trollope  (\V.),  Gr.  New  Test.,  167. 

Tyndale  (W.),  Transl.  of  New  Test.,  167. 


Uhlemann  (F.),  Instit.  Ling.  Samaritan.,  172. 
Umbreit  (F.  \V.  C),  New  Version  of  Job,  174. 


Vivien  (L.),  Apocalypse  expliquOe,  177. 


■\Vai>swort»  (J.),  Lect.  on  Apocalypt.  Epistles,  178. 
Walford  (W.),  'i'ranslation  of  the  Psalms,  174. 
Wall  (T.),  Orthography  of  the  Jews,  171. 
Wallin  (B.),  On  Prodigal  Son,  178. 
Walton  (J.),  On  Prodigal  Son,  17S. 
Webster  fNoah),  Edition  of  English  Bible,  168. 
rrrm!/s-.<:  (T.),  Symholicnl  Lang,  of  Scripture,  173. 
Whillon  (W.),  On  the  Descent  of  Jesus  Christ,  ISl. 
Wigram  (G.  V'.),  Englishman's  Gr.  Concordance  to  New  Test.,  179 
(r(7//a;nt  (S.),  Bible  (Quadrupeds,  179. 
Willis  (.\rthur),  Hebrew  Giamniar,  171. 
Winer  (G.  It.),  Grammaire  Chaldauiue,  172. 
Il'iseman  (N.),  Letters  on  1  John  V.  7.,  171. 
— — —  Lectures  on  Connexion  of  Science  and  Revealed  Religion 

l.iO. 
Woljii  (G.),  De  Anno  Jubilcco,  179. 


ZEAI.AKD  (New),  Version  of  New  Test.,  IG9. 


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